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English Pages [931] Year 1993
1993
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(
writing from ihe publisher
III!
II
\K
ig
4. in his hook Human Capital, Beckei In well
While
this
way
ol thinking il
.
l
made
the case foi thinking about education as an
economic decision:
this,
in
nun. led to new the-
how capeconomies determine wages and incomes. Foul yens later, in an .uncle entitled "Crime and Punishment.'' Beckei debated whether eithci
ories regarding labour economics, and italist
the lhre.il ol arrest 01
.in
increase
in
the seventy
or certainly ol punishment would deter rational decisions to commit certain types ol crimes
understanding of
affected
>2 Nobel The Memorial Prize in Economic Science was awarded to University ol Chicago his was the third time professor Gary S Beckei as many years that the university had been iii the home tit (he economics prizewinner. Becker, known foi applying traditional economic theoi
the
why people marry, why wealthy couples have lew ci children than poor ones, why criminals commit crimes: answers to these questions have
Prize for Economics
—
Rigoberta Menchu, awarded the Peace Prize for her work on behalf of Indian nghts in Guatemala, greets well-wishers
The academy
a
columnist for Business Week which he advocated legalization of
conservative in
certain drugs, he
nomic bases ol and Cigarettes.
was currently studying the ecoall
addictions, including alcohol
(BONNIE OBERMAN)
Prize for Literature advocate ol multiculturalism
An
long before h
became fashionable, West Indian poet, playwright, journalist, and painter Derek Walcott was awarded the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature for his "historical vision.'' The Swedish Academy of ctters. in announcing the $1.2 million prize, noied. "In Ins literary works Walcott has laid 1
lor his own cultural environment, but through them he speaks to each and every one us. In him, West Indian culture has found its gieat poet.' WalCOtt's leaders had been predicting foi ve.us that the prize would one day belong
a course
ol
to tins professor ol literature and creative writing whose poetic and dramatic themes arc timeless and whose verse derives from the cadences and Ol the tiny Caribbean island ol Ins Walcott was currently teaching at Boston University and divided his time between the U.S.
traditions birth.
and Trinidad. He was born Jan.
23. 193(1, in the
town of Cas-
Lucia, an isolated volcanic island in the Lessei Antilles, which was (hen a British colony
tries in Si
His birthplace, Ins African origin, and his comol the English language combined to give Walcott his complex inspirations. Both his parents who tilled their home with schoolteachers were books Walcott s father died when Derek and his twin brother Roderick, weie a year old. Derek's earliest work, a privately printed collection of poetry, was published when lie was a teenager. Although a poor math student, he managed to win a scholarship to the University of the West Indies, where he majored in three languages
mand
French, Spanish, and Latin. Living on a Rocke-
Foundation giant in New York City when he was 27. he attended directing classes and rehearsals al the Phoenix Theater's repertory comleller
People
IK the time he was (0 he had published two more volumes of poetry, established the rinidad rhearre Workshop, and achieved recognition foi
Marcus was born in Montreal on luiv 21 received a Ph.D in physical chemist rj from
pan)
I
ins plays,
which were being performed through-
He
\k(nii University, Montreal,
1946 kftei grad uation, Marcus worked al the National Research Council oi Canada as postdoctoral reseat soi ue until 1949, Because Canada was not then in
out the Caribbean islands ami in England Walcott's love oi the classics, folklore, and Ins torj are expressed through universal themes. He has written eloquentl) on subjects ranging trom the struggles ol Caribbean natives who confront then colonial past to reactions to his own mixed -
conducting theoietie.il research interest, he moved to the U.S.
race African, Dutch,
at
hitter legacy ol slaver)
and English ancestr) to the and the effect of the natural
landscape oi one's birthplace. In citing the "great luminosity" ol \\ alcott's work and his "melodious and sensitive'' sivlc, the acadeim noted especiall) his
fwu
"majestic" epic
poem "Omeros,"
a
64-
ehapter modern Odyssey composed in terza rima; while it explores several cultures, it is intended to capture the experience of the Caribbean people. Walcoft regularly published plays and poetry from the early '50s. His latest play was The Odysse) (1992); The Last Carnival (1986) was being performed at Stockholm's Royal Dramatic Theatre at the time the prize was awarded. Although he was stunned by his award, what immediately came to Walcott's mind was how "all the races of the world'" live in the Caribbean, which of course provides a terrific illustration of the "tremendous possibility of an example of
(BONNIE oberman)
unity."
Prize for Chemistry
The winner of the 1992 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Rudolph A. Marcus of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). was cited for his contributions to the theory of electron-transfer reactions in chemical systems. The processes that
Marcus studied, the
transfer of electrons
between
molecules in solution, underlie a number of important chemical phenomena in the living and nonliving worlds, and the practical consequences of his theory extend to all areas of chemistry. The Marcus theory, which by the 1990s was standard fare for modern undergraduate science textbooks, helped scientists better understand such widely differing phenomena as photosynthesis in green plants, chemiluminescence ("cold light") in fireflies, metabolism in living cells, the conductivity of electrically conducting polymers, the emission of light by diodes, and simple corrosion. Intrigued by a graduate student's question. Marcus began formulating his theory in 1952. He published his first paper on the subject in 1956 and continued to develop and refine his ideas in a series of papers for the next nine years while at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, N.Y. (later Polytechnic Institute of New York and Polytechnic University), and later at the University of Illinois. Marcus described what is perhaps the simplest of all chemical reactions the transfer of an electron between two molecules. Although no chemical bonds are broken in such a reaction, changes do take place in the molecular structure of the reacting molecules and their nearest neighbours in solution. These molecular changes
—
influence the ability of electrons to the molecules.
jump between
Marcus found simple mathematiway in which the energy of
cal expressions for the
the molecular system
is affected by the structural changes. Using those expressions, he was able to calculate and explain the great differences in the rates that are observed for various electron-trans-
fer reactions.
Because certain of Marcus' predictions were counterintuitive, his theory initially caused con-
siderable controversy.
Most notably, the theory
predicts that, for a sufficiently large driving force, the larger the driving force becomes, the slower the chemical reaction proceeds. Chemists long
found this prediction difficult to accept and confirm, and it was not until 19X5 that they succeeded in
verifying
it
experimentally.
The Marcus theory has since proved many chemical processes.
interpreting
use it to predict whether reaction will proceed and
an
how
useful in Scientists
electron-transfer fast
it
will
go.
According to the Nobel citation, "In the mathematical connection the Marcus theory makes between theoretical and experimental quantities, experimental chemists gained a valuable tool."
i.
Ins
in
area
ol
investigate
to
theories oi electron-transfer reactions in chemical systems He continued his posklottoi.il work the
University ol
Marcus then joined
North Carolina
until
1951.
ol
(NRC-NAS)
Climatic Impact Committee (1975the Chemical Sciences (1977-79) and as chairman of the NRC-NAS Committee on the Kinetics of Chemical Reactions (1975-77). Marcus received many scientific distinctions, including the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation's senior U.S. scientist award (1976). the Langmuir and Pauling awards of the American Chemical Society (1978 and 1991, respectively), the Robinson and Centenary medals of the Royal Society of Chemistry (1982 and 1988, respec78) and
its
Committee on
Wolf Prize for Chemistry and the National Medal of Science (1989). from the University of Chicago (1983), Polytechnic University (1986), the University of Goteborg, Sweden (1987). and McGill University (1988). In 1986 the Journal of Physical Chemistry devoted a special istively), the prestigious (
1985),
He
also received honorary D.Sc.'s
sue to the 30th anniversary of the Marcus theory.
(CAROLYN
D.
NEWTON)
Prize for Physics The 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Georges Charpak of (European Laboratory for Particle Physics), Geneva, for his inven-
CERN
known as the multiwire proportional chamber. Largely as a result of his pioneering work, which was carried out in 1968, particle physicists have been able to study very tion of a particle detector
rare particle interactions
— as rare as one interac-
tion in a billion.
on recording of ionizations (the creation of electrically charged atoms or molecules) left by a high-energy particle as it passes through matter. The photographic methods that traditionally had been used, although adequate to track comparatively common particles, were not precise or fast enough to allow detection of more exotic particles. Such methods could not discern the few relevant interactions from the multitude of irrelevant ones that occurred in particle-beam collision experiments, and their recording speeds were not high enough to match increasingly intense accelerator beams. Charpak's chamber used electronics to increase the speed of data collection by a factor of a thousand and to improve the spatial resolution. According to the Nobel committee, "His fundamental idea has since been developed and for more than two decades Charpak has been at the forefront of this development." single interaction, or collision, between two high-energy particles can create as many as several hundred particles that spray out in all directions. lo interpret such an event, scientists often must record the trajectory of even emerging particle. In the years before Charpak's contribution, the Particle physics has long relied
the
trail
A
Nobel Prto
event was usually recorded photographically in bubble chamber, a tank ol superheated liquid n Ih. it revealed the passage ol parlicles as trails oi gas bubbles [Tie ['holographs were then analyzed with the help ol special measuring ,i
m a slow ami laborious process. Charpak's invention used an earlier develop ment, the proportional counter, in an unconventional way. The classic proportional counter consists ol a thin wire running down the long axis of a gas-filled tube about a centimetre (0.4 in) devices
the faculty ol the Polytechnic
Brooklyn, where he became a lull piotessor in 1958. That same year he became an American citizen. (When he later investigated the idea ol obtaining dual citizenship, he lound that was not possible under the Canadian law of it the time.) In 1964 Marcus became a professor of physical chemistry at Illinois, and in 1978 he accepted the Arthur Amos Noyes chair of chemistry at Caltech. Marcus held numerous professional positions during his career. In 1968-69 he served as chairman of the board of trustees of the Gordon Research Conferences. In 1970 he was elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. He was a member of the chemistry department advisory councils of Princeton University (1972-78), Caltech (1977-78), and the Polytechnic Institute of New York (1977-80). He also served on the Panel on Atmospheric Chemistry of the National Research Council-National Academy of Sciences Institute
of v>'>l.
meter.
When
a high voltage
is
applied
be-
tween the wire and the tube wall and an electric field established between them, a charged particle passing through the tube will ionize the gas. In this process negatively charged electrons are liberated trom the neutral gas atoms, which then become positively charged ions. In the electric field the electrons move toward the central wire, the anode, which is positively charged, while the ions move toward the glass wall, the cathode, which is negatively charged. As the electrons approach the wire, they are accelerated by the increasingly strong electric field. They gain enough energy to ionize gas atoms with which they collide, liberating more electrons and ions, and the process continues. The cumulative result is an avalanche of electrons and positive ions moving in opposite directions in the tube. It is this movement that gives rise to a detectable electric signal in the circuit connecting the elements of the counter. By the use of a classic proportional counter, the position of the charged particle that started the ionization in the gas can be determined with a precision of only about a centimetre the diameter of the tube. To cover larger surfaces with layers of proportional tubes is impractical and does not allow for the spatial precision necessary in particle-collision experiments. Charpak's invention of the multiwire proportional chamber provided the breakthrough. It consists of a large number of thin parallel wires, about a tenth of a millimetre (0.004 in) in diameter, arranged at intervals of a few millimetres in a plane passing between two cathode plates that are a few centimetres apart. Charpak realized, contrary to the general belief of the time, that each wire in the chamber would behave as a proportional counter and result in a spatial precision of about a millimetre or less. In addition, each wire could handle several hundred thousand particle encounters per second, at that time an exceptionally high rate. Each wire is equipped with an electronic amplifier, and the signals are analyzed with computers, speeding the process enormously. Charpak also suggested possible refinements of the multiwire proportional chamber. Most significantly he pointed out that it was possible to make use of the time it takes between the initial ionization of the gas and the arrival of the electron pulse at the anode wire, an interval called the drift time. measurement of the drift time results in an improved spatial precision better than a tenth of a millimetre in some cases. Charpak's invention launched a massive development of different types of wire chambers. By the early 1990s practically every experiment in particle physics used some type of detector derived from Charpak's original concept. Charpak was at the centre of this development, from and which thousands of scientists, both at elsewhere, subsequently profited. When the J/psi particle (and support for the existence of charmed quarks) was found in 1974, resulting in the award of the 1976 Nobel physics prize to Burton Richter and Samuel C.C. Ting, several multiwire proportional chambers were used. The wire chamber was also used in the discoveries of the and Z in 1983; lor intermediate vector bosons at that achievement the 1984 Nobel physics prize was awarded lo Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer. In the 1990s detectors developed by Charpak were being used increasingly in applicafor example, in medicine tions outside physics to detect X-rays and in the autoradiography of
—
A
—
CERN
W
CERN
—
biological samples.
Charpak, a French 1924, in Poland.
1932
parents
in
War
he served
II
citizen,
He moved al
was born on Aug.
the age of seven. in
1.
to Paris with his Polish
During World was jailed
the resistance and
People of 1992: Nobel Prizes
32
The 1992 Nobel laureates (left) and officials attend the awards ceremony Stockholm. Following custom, the Prize was presented separately in Oslo, Norway, on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death. in
Peace
by the Nazis foi a yeai al the infamous Dachau concentration camp. In 1955 Charpak received a Ph.D. from the ( ollege de ranee, Paris. He be gan working al ("I R\ in 1959 and also became Joliot-Curie professoi al the School ol Advanced Studies in Physics and Chemistry, Paris, in 1984. He held an honorarj doctorate from the sit) oi Geneva and in 1985 was made a membei oi the rench Academy ol Sciences In 1484 he 1
I
I
High nergj and Particle Physics Prize from the uropean Physical Societj was i tiarpak membei ol an international received
the
l
I
,i
coalition
scientists
ol
who
offered
1984
in
to
trade places with Yelena Bonner, wife ol physicist
and dissident Vndrey Sakharov, Soviet officials would let hei go abroad foi medical treatment \Kl.|l\ l> SI « HIS (< it
|
l'ri/e for 1
he
i
v '
l,
J
Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prize foi Physiology
was awarded
to
jointly
l
Diversity
oi
a
biochemical mechanism ot
itv
cell
proteins
that
w
ol
ton emeritus professors 1 dmond H. Edwin (' Kiehs foi then discoveries
ischei
I
and
com reversible
phosphorylation \ large rtumbei participate
in
ot proteins in a living cell regulating the cells reactions and
Fheii functions in turn are governed complex, delicately balanced interactions with other proteins Foi example, various proteins maintain the cells metabolic flux, dictate growth and cellular division, release hormones, .awl me dune musculai work. One ot the more important activities
hv
means
oi controlling those proteins
is
reversible
phosphorylation- the attachment oi detachment phosphate groups to the protein a mechanism regulated in enzymes il nzymes are themselves
ot
proteins with the specific
role ot catalyzing bio-
ischei and krehs were the scientists to purify and characterize one ol en/\mes involved m these processes Vccord Their fundamental ing to the Nohel citation, finding initiated a research area that today is one ot the most active and wide-ranging
chemical reactions
i
I
hrst
the
he three-dimensional Structure ot a protein molecule, whkh is made up ol a (bided chain ot I
amino
acid building blocks, determines its time hosphorclation. the attachment ot phos
-
phatc groups to the protein, and dcphosphorxla lion, the reverse proecss.
change the structure and
charge ot the protein and thereb) this
manner
its
function, In
the biological function ot a protein
ited. r and krehs made their bask discoveries the mid-19501 while studying muscle systems. .
m
MuscL*
osed
oi a large
numbei
he went to the U.S to work as a research associate in biology at the California Institute of Technology That same year he joined the faculty of the University ol Washington as an assistant professoi ol biochemistry. He became a full professor at
the university in 1961. In 1992 he
glycogen deposits, converting them to glucose lo accomplish the conversion the body uses a specific protein, an enzyme called phos he discovery ol that enzyme won phorylase
in
research on the
ol cells
.i
I
I
bilize their
i
biochemists
I
(
ail
and Gerti Cori
the
Prize loi I'hvsioio.jv oi Medicine
1947 Nobel
)
ischei and kiebs wanted lo hnd out exactly how phosphorylase worked and how the activol the enzyme could switch on and oil on ity I
demand ["hey discovered that phosphorylase is converted from an inactive to an active lorm by the attachment ol a phosphate group and that the removal oi the phosphate group inactivates the he scientists demonstrated phosphorylase again that it is the phosphoixlation-dcphosphorylalion I
mechanism oil
governs the activ-
process called
a
Medicine
oi capable of contraction and relaxation rest ing muscle to contract, it must get cneigy in the hat gluCOSC form ol the simple sugar glucose is released from glycogen, the form in which the bodj stoics sugar in the liver and in muscle cells When muscles begin to contract, they quickly mo-
that turns
muscle contraction on and first reported in a scien-
hen discovery was
I
in 1956.
journal he enzymes that catalyze the attachment ot phosphate groups to proteins are called protein kinases he enzymes that catalyze phosphate detachment ate known as phosphatases Alter the laureates' initial work, scientists discovered stoics ol additional kinases and phosphatases thai reghe innumerable ulate specific processes in cells ccllul.it processes governed by reversible protein almost all phosphorylation affect processes neeess, iiv loi life Imbalance between kinases and tific I
I
I
phosphatases can cause disease According to Ik Nobel committee, "We therefore expect the development ol diugs that make it possible to influence unbalances in supplying inhibitors .ui^i activators directed against the phosphorylation dephosphoiviat ion components." he laureates' work led to a greater undei standing ot the immune response, in which certain kinases add phosphates to olhei kinases in a biochemical cascade thai amplifies the initial immune reaction Cyclosporine, a drug used to suppress graft rejection, was shown to work by inhibiting a phosphorylation reaction and inactivating a phosphatase Protein phosphorylation also plavs a lole in the development ol cancel In several eases, ehionie myelogenous leukemia, loi example poorly regulated kinase acuviiv is responsible toi the abnormal cellular growth chai I
acteristk ol isihcr was 1
on
\pnl i
(i.
mm
was engaged
transformation involved
in
Fischer served
merous
in
an advisory capacity for nu-
associations, including the U.S. National
Health
(1959-64), the Fricdrich Ciba-Geigy, Basel, Switz. (1976-84), the American Heart Association (1977-80), the Muscular Dystrophy Association (1980 88), and the Biozentrum Of the University ol Basel (1982-86). Among his professional honours were the Warner Medal ol the Swiss Institutes
ol
Miescher
Institute,
Chemical Society (1952), the Guggenheim Foundation Award 1963 64), the Jaubert Prize of the University ol Geneva (1968), and the Laureate 1'assano Foundation Award (1988). He held honorary degrees trom the University ot Montpellier, rana 1985), and the University of Basel (1988). le was a dual citizen of the U.S. and Switzerland. Krebs was horn on June 6, 1918. in Lansing, Iowa. He attended the University ol Illinois, where he earned a B.A. in chemistry in 1940. He received a medical degree from Washington Univeisitv. St. 1 ouis. Mo., in 1943. After a residency in internal medicine, he took up research at the (
1
|
1
I
Diversity
lull
ol
Washington
1948,
in
prolessor ol biochemistry
work
that university in 1968 to
in
becoming
1957.
He
a
left
for several years at
the University ol California at Davis but returned in 1977. In 1992, as a prolessor of pharmacology
and biochemistry and
a
at the
senior investigator
Hughes Medical
University of Washington cmenlus tor the Howard
Institute, he
was locusmg on the
processes oi hormonal regulation and their role in such diseases as diabetes. kiebs served as an adviser for the National Institutes ol Health, the Biochemistry lest Com-
mission ol the National Board ol Medical Examines (1968-71). the American Heart Association (1970-74). the International Board of Review of the Alberta Heritage Foundation lor Medical Research (1986), and the External Advisory Commission ol the Weis < enter lor Research (198791) His numerous professional honours include Canada's Gairdnet Foundation Award (1978), the Award tor scientific excellence George 1 horn 1983), the Research Achievement Award of the American Heart Association 1987). the 3M Life Sciences Awaid, FASEB 1989). the Albert Lasker Bask Medical Research Award (1989), and the < IB \ Gcigy-Drcvv Award in chemistry (1991).
W
I
(
bom
1920.
ol Swiss parents in
He
received a Ph.D.
the University ol Geneva then conducted research there until istry
cell
the development of cancer.
in
Shanghai in
chem-
1947 and
1953,
when
(
((
AKOLYN
U.
NLWTON)
BIOGRAPHIES Mams, Brian
the in
si
in
ins family to survive
outside the mili-
becoming successful songwi itei ;ind rock singer. He was named besl male vocalist at the Canadian Juno Awards for 1982, 1983, and 1986. His albums Reckless 1984) and Waking diamond Up the Neighbours (1991) both earned records in Canada, and Heckles won the Juno Album ol the Year Award for 1985. "(I verything Do Ii for 'Sou." written for the feature Do) film Robin Hood: Prince oj Thieves (1991), won a Grammy award lor Adams and was nominated he song became an International for an Oscar. hit and was the best-selling single ever in the U.S. At the |9')| Australian Music Awards. Adams was tarv
I
[e
did
ii
by
.1
1
I
N asushi Yasushi Akashi arriyed in i'hnom Penh in mid-March to set up the United Nations ["ran situ ui.il Authority ll he in Cambodia said his mission was a historic, complicated, and ambitious challenge and undoubtedly the most expensive such operation in the 47-year history' of the UN. The UN'I'AC mission, at a cost of some $2 billion, was to disarm more than 21 KM Ml soldiers, clean up land mines, repair roads and bridges, repatriate more than 350.000 refugees, and prepare lor nationwide tree elections in May
\kashi.
Ihc sun ol a career military officei and diplomat, Bryan Adams wanted to prove thai he eould be
I
I
When
MAC),
II
I
i)i)3.
ultimate goal was to bring peace and
The
to a country devastated by
stability
two decades
oi relentless war.
UN
dispatched Akashi and some 16,000 The multinational "Blue Berets" to work out solutions with the four warring Cambodian factions, including the Phnom Penh government set up by Vietnam after the ouster of Pol Pot's bloody Khmer Rouge regime, which was responsible for
deaths of more than a million CambodiWhen Akashi. a veteran Japanese diplomat, with met Prince Norodom Sihanouk, head of the the
ans.
reconciliation council,
work together
the two
men pledged
to
implement the peace accord October 1991. During the early phase of the peacekeeping operation, the Khmer Rouge was cooperative, but gradually it stiffened its stance and accused the Vietnam-created government of violating the Paris agreement. The Khmer Rouge claimed that Vietnamese troops disguised as civilians were still in Cambodia. This was denied, but the Khmer Rouge used the issigned
to
in Paris in
sue to sporadically disrupt UNTAC's operations. In November the Japanese government said its peacekeeping team was suspending repair work in four sectors of war-torn Cambodia because of terrorist acts by the Khmer Rouge.
Akashi was born
1931
Akita, northern Japan. After graduating from the University
of
named International Male Singer of the Year. In 1942 he was named Canadian Entertainer of the Year at the Juno Awards. Born Nov. 5, 1959, in Kingston, Ont., Adams attended school on military bases in Europe and the
B.C.
Middle East belore
He
settling
in
Vancouver,
believed that the discipline of the mil-
itary schools taught him to focus on things, and once he decided to become a musician, he pursued his goal with single-minded fervour. At age 16, Adams quit school and joined a rock band as a vocalist. Two years later he met Jim Vallance, with whom he collaborated in songwriting. Their first hit was "Let Me Take You Dancin' "'(1979). Adams' first solo album. Bryan Adams (19X0), was unsuccessful, but his third album. Cms like a Knife (1983). with its companion music video catapulted him to stardom. Adams gained his early reputation as a songwriter for such rock groups as Kiss and Prism. Even after he had attained tame as a singer, he stated that he would rather he a songwriter. His early albums were considered mainstream rock and roll. However, he believed it was necessary to continue learning, and he used music as a means of making people think. He co-wrote and performed "Tears Are Not Enough" for the Ethiopian reliei effort's Live Aid concert. His 19X7 album Into the Fire explored such themes as personal freedom and native rights. He was displeased when the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission declared that his album Waking l p the Neighbours was not Canadian because he wrote the songs in collaboration with British producer Robert Lange. The Canadian public was impressed with the album. and it sold over one million copies in Canada. For his contributions to music in Canada. Adams received the Order of Canada and the Order of British Columbia. (diane lois way)
Tokyo
in
1954,
in
in
he continued his studies
at
Columbia University, New York City, hoping to return as a teacher. Instead, he became the UN's first Japanese official. Akashi spent most of his UN career in New York City. Before his appointment to Cambodia, he served as under secretary for disarmament. His life-style changed so much during his years in the U.S. that Akashi seemed un-Japanese to members of the Japanese Foreign Ministry. Akashi saw himself as very international and felt very comfortable in an international environment. The Khmer Rouge, however, resented his blunt talk and wanted to see him replaced. But Akashi sympathized with Cambodia, which he felt had had so much war that it was sick and tired of fighting. The problem was that, after 20 years of war, mutual distrust was difficult to dispel. Meanwhile, the situation in Cambodia remained shaky. In mid-November UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali reported that UNTAC had found no evidence of foreign units in Cambodia after checking all areas except the \5 c c of the country controlled by the Khmer Rouge. Nevertheless, the Khmer Rouge, with a military force of 15,000 to 25,000, continued to refuse to cooperate, and in late November the UN announced that it would impose trade sanctions on areas under its control. (KAY K. TATElSHl)
Amato, Giuliano Facing the
triple
demons
of budget deficit, gov-
ernment corruption, and organized crime, Giu-
Amato of the Socialist Unity Party (formerly Italian Socialist Party and still popularly called PSI) assumed office as prime minister of Italy on
liano
June
28,
1992.
Socialist leader
ment by
A
comparative outsider, deputy
Amato had
received his appoint-
Oscar Scalfaro on June IS, one day following the withdrawal of PSI front-man Bettino Craxi from consideration. Amato's government, constituting a weakened version of the four-party coalition headed by his predecessor. Christian Democrat Giulio Andreotti, was Italy's 51st government of the post-World War II era. Pres.
Amato was born He received a bachelor 111
I111111
on May
193H.
13.
degree from the University of Pisa in I960 and a masters degree in comparative constitutional law oiumbia Universin. New 'lork City, three years later, ol laws
t
from
r
1 1
j
(VIRGINIA M I
showed
the polls
the lead and independent H. Ross Perot
effort to aid the famine-Stricken country, and New Year's fvc visit to the troops. and He Yeltsin were scheduled to sign a second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty early in January. More controversially, he granted Christmas Eve pardons to six government officials involved in the Iran-conrra scandal; independent counsel Lawrence Walsh hinted that Bush might yet be
Year, 1991
1
in
he paid a
l.ilcni
>
(
was
I
i
tainei ol the Yeai
When
Clinton's.
to
scout. Garth Brooks, his tirst l 'v» and generated foui in
included the
wing commentator Patrick Buchanan. As it became increasingly clear that voters were not as concerned with foreign policy as with reviving the sagging U.S. economy. Bush crisscrossed the nation, promising changes in health care, expressing regret at having agreed to raise taxes in 1990, and inviting comparisons between his "character" and
I
Records album, was released rtumbei one counalmost overnight try smiles, catapulting him i« whose musical idols during the success. Brooks 1970s included Queen, Kiss, and James (ayloi represented a new breed oi country music entei tainer His songs appealed to a mainstream audi ence. with their mix ol rock and country eh and then sometimes pithj messages based on Brooks's homespun philosophy. His mans awards ticed
latet b\ a
a stronger-than-expected challenge by right-
oil
Bush also met with the presidents of Mexico and Canada to initial a North American tee Irade Agreement. \liei the election Bush vowed to "finish this job with style." In December he approved plans
finals his senior
year turned his attention back to country music Hoping foi instant stardom, Brooks headed foi Nashville, lenn. m 1985 but left, daunted, attei less than a k\a\ Two years later, accompanied bj ins bride, Sand} Mahl, he returned to Nashville, this time determined to succeed Brooks was no si\
—
ing the vear
the javelin throw. Brooks's failure to
the Big
campaign, cope with a weak economy, and persuade the U.S. electorate that he was sensitive to their domestic policy concerns. His travails continued even after the election he buried his mother, Dorothy Walker Bush, the Monday before Thanksgiving. In the wake of the U.S. victory in the Gull war in 1991, many believed Bush would be unbeatable in the 1992 presidential race. He secured the nomination at the Republican national convention in Houston on August 20 after fending lustre
(
1988) and
named
after herself.
She com-
Gottlieb as The \.» Yorkei editor Gottlieb had luniseli been a controversial choice for the job in 1987 but he had honoured the status quo at
bined a general concern lor the underprivileged ami suffering members oi the Australian commu-
the admitted!) idiosyncratic magazine, longtime Staffers and writers panicked, but Brown said The
ol
\, a Yorkei needed little change to become icle vant again She seemed set on pulling The \et\ Yorker into the 1990s, but gently and one step at
a time.
(l
ORRAINI Ml kk ax.
)
Kush, George Herbert Walker
On Nov the
i
s
1992, wink- casting his ballot in 3, presidential election in Houston. [*exas, called 1992 "the most un-
George Bush pleasant veai ol mj Pres.
his
life
presidential bid foi
a
Not only did he lose second term in office
but he spent Arkansas Go\ Bill Clinton (q.v. most ol the vear trying to spark lite into a lack-
to
).
nitv
with a
commitment
to
expanding the rights
Buttrose, who possessed an engaging hypnotic smile, ami robust self-confidence, was a pathfinder. She branched out trom her majoi task as chairwoman of the National Advi-
women.
lisp,
Committee on AIDS to launch a vital new government program aimed at raising awareness ot the importance ol training employees tor the work force. Buttrose was appointed to this post by Kim Bea/lev. the minister lor employment, education, and training. She was convinced that sor,
Australia had a responsibility to tram its stall to the highest level "I he main assumption made by
many companies." she
said, "is that
it's
a
waste
time training women because women leave to have babies. his excuse was pulled out whenevei
ol
I
People
companies wanted respontibilit) thi
ii
staff,
u> avoid the
real
issu
' Sharma was a membei ol thi Ma dhya Pradesh legislative assembly tron 1971 and during that period he held a ( abinet state
pOSl loi
some
II
national arena,
as
\eais.
its
He
becoming
a
then
moved
member
into the
ol the
I
k
Sabha (House ot the People; the lower house) in 1471 and serving in that bod) until 1977. From 1972 to 1974 he held the post of president ol the Indian National Congress He was again elected lo the ok Sabha in 1980. Before becoming vice president in 1987, Sharma I
held governorship posts 85), 8 (
Sharma, Shankur Daval On Julv 25, 1992, Shankar Dayal Sharma was administered the oath of office that made him the ninth president of India. Sharma succeeded Ramaswamy Venkataraman in the target] ecu
ommitu
i
Punjab (1985
I
I
he besl
ongress
86),
known
Approach
ol
m Andhia
Pradesh
I
1984-
and Maharashtra (1986his published works was
in International
.
\ffairs.
(MARVIN MARTIN) Sherbo, Vitali
rom
gymnastics competition at the age Sherbo's ambition was to become an Olympic champion. In 1992 he won more gold medals than anybody else at the Olympic Games in Barcelona. Spain, and became the first gymnast to win six gold medals in one Olympics. He won individual golds in the pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel Bars, and all-around competition (which encompasses all six disciplines) and a team medal as a member of the gold-medal winning Unified Team of athletes from the former SoI
Ins first
of both houses of parliament and of the state legislatures. Moving up from the post ol vice president. Sharma began the presidency after five decades in public life, during which he had been a freedom fighter and had held important offices at both the state and national levels. Delivering his emotionally charged inaugural address amid
Sherbo was born Jan. 13, 1972, in Minsk. Belarus The son of two athletes, he moved quickly up the developmental pyramid of Soviet sports and became a member of the Soviet national team at 15. His first significant success in senior competition came two years later, in 1989, when he placed fourth in the all-around at the Chunichi ( up at Nagoya, Japan. In 1990 in Minsk Sherbo won his first national championship with an all-around victory in the last tournament to use the U.S.S.R. national championship name. He also burst into the international spotlight with all-around victories in the Goodwill Games at Seattle, Wash., the Blume Memorial at Barcelona, and the Chunichi Cup, where he also won four individual events. Although he finished second in the World Cup all-around at Brussels and fifth in that competition in the European REUTERS/BETTMANN
a colourful and joyous ceremony, the new president called for equal respect for all religions as a basis lor the achievement of national goals. The
fore
on the
site
of a
bloody Muslim-Hindu
riots
throughout India.
without social and economic justice." He pleaded for a strong and united country capable of linding the strength in ethical and moral values to help overcome the massive problems of terrorism, ethnic frictions, oppression of caste and gender, ami persistent poverty, ignorance, and disease Sharma was born on Aug. 19, 1918, in Bhopal, His later the capital of Madhya Pradesh state higher education began at St. Johns College in
Lucknow
at
University;
actively involved
India's
struggle.
I
independence movement in Bhopal, he was imprisoned for eight months. After India gained independence (1947), Shai ma's political career developed through a long
association with
He was
a
the
member
Indian the
ol
National Congress. .All
India
Congress
I
S S
l
the Wide World, was published in 1959 She won well-deserved recognition followol
I
ing the vcisitv ol KhartOUffl,
I
he Sudan,
in
1958,
mas London .i
terol laws degree from the l Diversit) ol in 1961, and a doctorate in public law trom the ol
sit)
Paris in
l| i
i>
J
He became dean
.
ol
/.. 197(1). See, to lake 1970 Bollingen Prize lor achieveAmerican poetr) and the 1971 National
publication ol
(
receiving the
ment
in
K
'.
--
.
-.
'-i
ol
the Stella
New York
ity,
(
Vdlei
where
performers Marlon Brando Warren Beatty, and Robert De Nuo. in the Method technique ol act\dicr ing developed by Konstantin Stanislavsky was the daughter ot Jacob and S.ir.i \dlcr the leading S classical Yiddish stage tragedians She made hei Stage debut in hei lathei duction ol Broken Hearts at the ace ol tour, but lined hei reputation appearing with the c\ penmental Group lliealie in such productions ol sterling
including
Award. Almendros moved
to
Havana
(
in
l
The
House
o)
Conn
md
fight,
Sing! In
Paradise
1934 she studied
Stanislavsky; her interpretation ol Method -tressed that an aCtOf should Create by
wuh
using imagination and differed Irom the Method ill taught hv lee Sirashcig. who headed the Actors Studio and instructed actors to draw
trom
their experiences Vdlea also believed thai the art. architecture, and clothes ol .ii^ era were
an integral part Ol role development She taught her students that self-awareness coupled with ere ati\e imagination was vital to forming character\dlcr directed several izations Besides teaching New V>rk Stage productions: ap peared ill such tilms
im
,i
rUo
1
o] the Thin
1948); and starred
md Oh Mama and
I
lished Stella
54
\
Hung You
in the
(
losel
Sad (1961). In 1988 she pub-
appearance and
O'Neill's
Strange
Interlude,
Lavinia
in
'4N to
who had
fought with the defeated loyalist forces during the Spanish Civil War In the early 1950s he studied in Cuba and in Rome and then taught in the United States his exiled
join
He returned but
taries,
lather,
to
in
una
(
in
he
1961
1959 to
came
WORLD
AP/WIDE
make documen-
into
with
conflict
ommunist government and moved to I'.uis. Almendros use ol camera angles, visual imagery colour, and luminous lighting effects enhanced some oi the most critically acclaimed rench mo lion pictures ol the 1960s and 7tts He worked with directoi Eric Rohmer on such films as \ia Nuil chez Maud (1968; Wv Wight at Maud's), Le Cenou and Le Dermei Mitro (1980; The last Metro). In addition to Days o) Heaven, Almendros' Englishlanguage films include Kramer n Kramet The lilac Lagoon 1980), Sophie's < hoice 1982), /'//( es m the Heart (1984), and Bilh Bathgate Man with a Camera, (1991) His autobiography,
role that
was published
in
/
tout d'Adele
1
(
i
in
I
garnered her television's Emmy awards and 1961. Alter Rebecca, Anderson's
1954
film roles often exploited her theatrical intensity
i
is
striking
Mourning Becomes Electro, Gertrude in Hamlet, and a chillingly effective Lady Macbeth, a
Paulmc a \dler. Stella,
Her
City.
O'Neill's
I'apres-midi
1991
in
New York
intense dramatic style were perfectly suited to complex villainous characters, notably Nina in
»4(K
I
his
Dame Judith (Frances Margaret Anderson). Australian-born actress (b. Feb. 10,
He performed in a medicine show before forming Ins own string hand, the Tennessee Crackerjacks, who were renamed the Crazy ennesseans and finally the Smoky Mountain Boys when Opry
traditionalist.
many felt that he reached the pinnacle of career with the Raiders. He played on the Raider team that routed the Washington Redskins 38-9 in the 1984 Super Bowl. After retiring in 1986, Alzado embarked on an acting career; he attempted a comeback with the Raiders in 1990 but was unsuccessful. but
Anderson,
two-yea] recuperation.
his nearly
Alzado was also noted for his temper; he once ripped a helmet off an opponent in retaliation for what he thought was a personal foul against him. Alzado was named the NFL's defensive player of the year in 1977, when he was with the Broncos,
\l/ailo.
l\k\
S
I
football
plavei
lb
April
3,
and her
abilitv
to
invoke
sinister
a
mood Irom
1949, New York, N.Y.—d. Mav 14, 1992, Port land. Ore.), as a leroeious delensive lineman fol
the
79), < lev eland Browns os Angeles Raiders (1982 85) professional football teams, was admired by fans lor his bone-jarring, aggressive playing sivle but was feared bv opponents who laced Ills 1.91-m is kg (260 lb) hulking frame Alzado i-in) maintained his formidable physique by taking massive doses oi anabolic steroids, drugs that he claimed (although it could not he proved) served
Laura (1944), and The tunes (1950). She could be equally effective, however, when cast against
Root
as a catalyst foi the rare type ol brain cancel thai
Order
the
Denver Broncos (1971
(1979 82), and
I
i
claimed
Ins life
Alter his disease was diagnosed
I
ntle
a trail
Mi-American
form
\i/ado was
tor Ins playing with
named
Yankton was
He confessed College, Yankton, then thai he began taking Steroids Alzado con luiucd to take body -enhancing drugs throughout his professional career, and he revealed that hewas so addicted to them that he took them even s.l>
alter his retirement
A maverick on
ih.it
Kon
King's
iv
vocal
inflection
or gesture,
as
in
(1941), All Through the Night (1942).
pe. as in her portrayal ol the long-suffering Big
Mama
eiinessee Williams (at on a Hot I in in P>58) and the austere priestess in Stat lick 111 The Search for Spock 1984). In the 1980s she appealed as a domineering matriarch on the popI
(
1
IS
daytime soap opera "Santa Barbara." Anderson was made Dame Commander of the ular
ol the British
Empire
in
I960.
in
April 1991, he became a sell anointed symbol of the dangers ol steroid use as his massive muscles
were reduced to
smallest
it
the gridiron,
Andrews, (Carver) Dana. U.S. actor lb
Jan.
I.
Miss-d. Dec. 17. 1992, l.os Angewas a handsome and durable leading
1909, c oilms. les,
(
alii
).
man who
turned 111 sensitive performances in such l'MIK lihns as Laura, as a cynical detective oh
sessed by a portrait ol a
murder he
is
woman whose (h Hmc
investigating; The
as an innocent victim of a lynch
the Sun.
and
I lie
as a
Best
o)
Our
Incident,
mob: A Hulk
in
platoon; lives, as a heroic World
lough sergeant leading
Yean
apparent
a
People
Wai
veteran returning to an uncertain future a onetime accountant, hitchhiked to
II
to supi
I
us
Angeles
1931
in
He worked
to
trj
to
break into show
.1
1
reportedly
Beyond a Reasonable Doubt, Boomerang, \l\ Foolish Heart, and While the Cifj Sleeps Aftei Ins careei began to wane m the 1960s, he brief!) performed onstage and from 1969 to 1972 appeared in the television so.ip opera "Bright Promise" before reluming to the screen in lirport 1975 (1974) and llu / ast Tycoon (1976). Dunns; the 1950s he was arrested twice for drunken driving, and though he did not believe in making commercials, he appeared on c| "2 as a spokesperson lor sobriety television in oi Ins other notable tilms include
Department
n
-Li'omi Bathiat), French ac1898, Courbevoie, France d. France), was a legendary star of the French cinema in the 1930s and '4IK: she was best known for her stunning portrayal ot the courtesan Garance in director Marcel Carne's classic film Les Enfanti du Paradii 1945; Children of Paradise). Arlett) grew up in a working-class Paris worked suburb of and in a factor) and as a secretary before turning her sensual good looks to her advantage as an artists' model and musichall chorus girl. She made her motion-picture debut in Un Chien qui rapporte (1930) and had minor roles in numerous films, but she achieved star status with Hotel tin Surd (1938), the first of her five collaborations with Came. The others were Le Jour se live 193'*). Les Isiteurs da \oir (1942|. and 1. Air de Paris (19541. Arletty was briefly jailed as a collaborator in 1944 because of a wartime liaison with a German officer. She did not make another movie until 1949 (Portrait dim assassin), the same year she triumphed as Blanche in Jean Cocteau's stage production of Tennessee Vrlett}
(Aki
t
t
tress (b.
May
July 24,
1992.
Babbitt. Arthur, U.S. animator (b. Oct.
Omaha. Neb.
(
I
Williams'
A
Streetcar
work included the
Named
Desire.
Arletty
's
Jean-Paul Sartre's Huis-clos 1954; No t-\n) and The Longest Day (1962). her only English-language film. She also appeared on stage in Brendan Behan's The Hostage (1962) and Cocteau's Les Monstres sacres (1966). She lost most of her eyesight in the mid1960s. Arletty published two volumes of memoirs. La Defense (1971) and Je suis comme je wis 1987). later
film version of
(
(
Asimov, Isaac, U.S. science-fiction writer, science popularizer. and biochemist (b. Jan. 2. 1920, Petrovichi. Russia d. April 6. 1992, New York, N.Y.). explored extraterrestrial horizons and the
—
role of robotics in a futuristic society as the enor-
mously popular and prolific author of more than 400 books, notably Foundation 1951 ). Foundation and Empire 1952). and .Second foundation 1953), a panoramic trilogy detailing the impending collapse of a far-flung galactic empire and the work of an organization of psychologists and social scientists to sow the conditions tor a better empire to follow. Asimov, a self-styled compulsive writer. was renowned for the clarity of his writing and for his superb storytelling He was credited both with popularizing science-fiction writing and with elevating the genre from pulp-adventure stones to a higher intellectual plane, encompassing sociology, history, mathematics, and science. He also published nonfiction hooks on such wide-ranging subjects as the Bible. Shakespeare. Gilbert and Sullivan, humour, limericks, history, and a van ety of scientific topics. A precocious child who immigrated to the U.S. with his family when he was three, Asimov sold his first storx, "Marooned oil Vesta," to the magazine Amazing Storiei in Istounding Science in 1938. Ihice years later lion magazine published '.'Nightfall," which de(
scribes the shattering events that lake place on the planet l.agash. a world with six suns. when,
during an eclipse, the stars make their oncc-in2,000-yeai appearance. Hie story was hailed as a masterpiece and ill years later was voted bv the Science Fiction Writers ol America as the best
science-fiction
IHE
NEW YORK
TIMES
mov
joined the faculty ot Boston University: after 1958 he did net teach or receive a salary, but he remained professionally associated with the university. Asimov published his first book. Pebble the Sky. in 1950 and followed it with the short-story collection /, Robot, which included his famous "Three Laws of Robotics that helped establish the popular conception of robots, both fictional and real, as benign creations rather than monsters bent on destroying humanity. Asimov
m
"
was awarded numerous prizes and awards
for his
works, including five Hugos (given by fans) and three Nebula Awards (given by fellow sciencefiction writers). Among his remarkable output are The Stars, like Dust (1951). The Chemicals of Life 1954).
(
The
(
aves
Steel
ork 'i.nikecs (1954-66) profes-
much-beloved announce]
March
high school Students in making the transition to college and in finding good jobs. Barnett was a
Bartholomew. Freddie (FRED! km k
sional baseball learns, enthralled audiences with
d.
leader of Irgun
(
as the home l.i Oct. J2. 1992, lallahassee spun announcer, notablv on radio, lor the C inein i.
—
Wolfovitch, Polish-born Israeli 16. 1913, Brest-Litovsk, Rus1992, Tel Aviv, Israel), was the Zvai Leumi (an underground
Aug.
New York Cit) 1980-83), before serving as vicechancellor (1983-86) of the City University of New York and chancellor (1986-90) of the University of Missouri at St. Louis. An able administrator, she implemented programs to assist poor
sis'
I
Menachem
was frequently
University (1970-76), Howard University, Washington. DC. (1976-80). and Columbia University,
Barber. Walter Lanier ("Red"), U.S. baseball broadcaster (b Feb. 17, 1908, Columbus, Miss d.
Begin,
politician (b.
it
a suitable Career.
the new
I
When
died ill stunning UHI
his lather
1 ord Bath inherited a li/ahcthan house thai was badly
I
I
official loi
room
the
in
ord Bath, who cultivated his public ullage as eccentric often worked in the garden, while his sons parked c.us and Ins wile served tea to the visiiois lhe estate drew tens ol thousands ol tounsts pel ve.ii, especiallv altei the arrival of the lic.
aii
Arab-Israeli war. in late 1477 he unexpectaccepted Sadat's oiler to open a peaceful hesc negotiations eventually led to the dialogue
1441).
need ol re pair, a superb ail collection, one ol the worlds finest private libraries, and crippling death duties lli.it lopped £600,000. In order to avoid selling lhe lamily valuables, he determined to make the estate support itself, and within three years the renovated house was opened to the paying pubI
1%7
ed!)
inquir)
held Israel indirectly responsible hundreds ol Palestinians at
the massacre Ol
Sabra
Beirut.
He
and Shatfla refugee camps m West resigned from office in August 198.3.
Black. Fugene Robert. U.S. Iinaiieici (b. May 1. 1898, Mlanta, Ga.— d. Feb. :u. L992, Southhampton, NV), as the prudent president (1949-62)
Bank lor Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), expanded the mem-
ol the International
bersiup from 48 nations with a capital ol $8.3 billion lo Ml members with a capital ol S20.5 bil-
and formed Iwo affiliates— the International Development Association, charged with making concessional loans to the poorest countries, and lion
People el I992i OMtnariei
inance ( orp the arm ol the bank promoting the private sectoi Black, the governoi ol the Federal Reserve Bank son ui was ui Ail, mi. graduate ol the University ol ( ieorgia and served in the oavj during World w at before becoming successful investment bankei on w .ill Street, specializing in the bond market He was propelled inlii the world ol inlcrn.ition.il
artist
finance after joining (i l '47) the World Hank as s executive diiectoi undei its president, Fohn
the author ol
the International
I
.c
.1
i,
.i
I
i
J.
McCloy. During
ins
tenure as president
ol
the
bank, he established that institution's credibility with financial markets m the developed world and secured a reputation as a troubleshootei aftei forging an accord (still existing) between India and Pakistan for distributing the waters ol the Indus River. A skilled ami hard-boiled negotiator, Black played a vital role in securing loans for Third World countries, although the hank was 1946) for post-World War original!) formed reconstruction in Europe. While Black was at its helm, the bank shitted its emphasis to provid(
1
ing loans foi
economic development, and
more than So
billion ol
to funds
Upon Pres.
its
own
it
lent
capital in addition
from private sources without
his
resignation
a detault. 1Mb-. Black served as
in
Lyndon Johnson's emissary
to
Southeast
Asia: helped lay the foundation for the creation of the Asian
Development Bank: served
chairman Washington as
of the Brookings Institution, a liberal think tank; and was on the hoard of directors of
numerous companies and
financial institutions.
Blackwell. Ed(ward) Joseph, U.S. jazz drummer Oct. 10, 1924. New Orleans, La.—d. Oct. 7,
(b.
1992. Hartford, Conn.), in
was known
lor his role
the development of free jazz beginning in the
JACK VARTOOGIAN
in
residence
Wesleyan
al
\l»i
niversity
I
maid on
ol the irrepressible
onn, Beginning in 1976 he performed and recorded with othei formei ( oleman associ ales undei the name Old and New Dieains.
dletown,
the
1
c
inaleur actress Irom the
Hazel
(
57
12.
Booth made hei Broadway debut role in Hells Bells.
rig
On
in
radio
she was the voice ol cashier Miss Dully on the
Bloom, Ulan David, lb 7.
Sept 1992,
1930,
14,
nicago,
(
S.
I
philosopher and author
Indianapolis.
111.),
was
best
Ind.
d.
Oct.
remembered
as
the controversial thought-provok-
( losing oj the American Mind: Higher Education Has Failed Demot racy and Impoverished the Sauls oj Today s Students
ing best seller The
How
•
he was also
known
in
academic
circles
lor
his
SCholarl) volumes Ol interpretive essays and translations ol woiks b) Rousseau and Plato. Bloom
earned a B.A. (1949), an MA. (1953). and a Ph.D. (19551 from the University ol Chicago, where, under the tutelage of the German-born political philosopher Leo Strauss, he became a devotee of the Western classics and a proponent of the philosophical tenei ol "transeultural truth." Bloom taught at the University of Chicago 195560) before teaching at Yale University (196263) and Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. (196370). He was also a member of the faculties of the Universities ol Tel Aviv. Israel (1969-70), Paris (1970), and Toronto (1970-79). At Cornell he published such well-received works as Shakespeare's Politics (1964), a collection of essays, and a translation of Plato's Republic in 1968. The following year, when an armed group of students took control of Cornell's administration building (
and demanded that certain mandatory classes be dropped in favour of those deemed more relevant
Bloom tendered (1970)
to them.
his resignation
after the university yielded to their
demands. He
returned to the University of Chicago in 1979 as a professor with the Committee on Social Thought; he became codirector in 19X4 of the university's John M. Olin Center for Inquiry into the Theory and Practice of Democracy. In The Closing of the American Mind, Bloom argued that universities no longer taught students how to think; that students, especially those attending the top schools, were unconcerned about the lessons of the past or about examining ideas in a historical context; and that students seeking a liberal education would not be able to get one. His blistering critique, which offered no solutions to the crisis in education, blamed misguided curriculum, rock music,
and academic elitism for the impoverishment of students.
television,
spiritual
(Thelma Booth Ford). U.S. acAug. 30, 1898. New York, N.Y.— d. Oct.
Booth, Shirlev tress (b. 16,
1992, North
Chatham, Mass.), gave an un-
forgettable dramatic performance as the shabby
housewife Lola Delaney in Come Buck Little Shebu: she won a Tony award for her stage role in 1950 and an Academy Awaid for best actress in 1952. Booth, however, was probably best remembered for her Emmy-winning title-role portrayal AP.WIDE
WORLD
popular program ["avera," which feaDuffy tured Ed Gardner, her lust husband, as Archie. During Booth's Broadway career she often portrayed quick-witted women adept at wisecracking. ippeared in some 40 plays, notably Men m The Philadelphia Stan. \l The Tune oj the ( uckoo, and the musical version of
-I
draws
Tree
Mam
credits include
m
Brooklyn.
Street to
Her
About Mrs. Leslie 1954), The Matchmaker and Hot Spell (1958). (
Boudiaf.
Muhammad,
film
Broadway (1953), (
1958),
Algerian political leader
Alg.—d. June 29. 1992. was a founder of the revolution(FLN) and a hero of the Algerian war of independence (1954—62). He broke with his former comrades-in-arms in the early 1960s, but he was unexpectedly recalled June Annaba, (b.
23, 1919. M'Sila.
Alg.),
ary National Liberation Front
in
1992 after more than 27 years
come
in exile to bethe nation's president. Boudiaf fought in
the French army in World War II. but by 1950 he was a central figure in the nationalist movement against France, and in 1954 he joined Ahmad Ben Bella on the FLN leadership council. In 195b he and Ben Bella were captured and imprisoned by the French. They were released in 1962 and formed a provisional government in newly independent Algeria, with Boudiaf as deputy premier. He opposed President Ben Bella's autocratic rule, however, and after being interned for several months by his old partner, he went into exile (1964). Boudiaf settled in Morocco, where he managed a brick factory and denounced the increasingly corrupt
FLN.
In January 1992. with the
on the verge of winning parliamentary elections, he was invited to return as the head of a military-backed council of state. Although he appeared to have gained public support for his announced reforms. Boudiaf was shot and killed while giving a speech at the opening of Islamic fundamentalists
a
new
cultural centre:
one of
his
bodyguards was
suspected of the shooting. Bovet, Daniel, Swiss-born Italian physiologist (b.
March 1992,
23,
1907, Neuchatel. Switz^-d. April
Rome.
won
Italy),
the
8.
1957 Nobel Prize
for Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries of certain synthetic chemotherapeutic substances, notably curare-like muscle relaxants, which are used in conjunction with anesthetics to facilitate surgery, and the first antihistamines, which are effective in the treatment of allergic reactions. Bovet was educated at the University of Geneva (D.Sc, 1929) and took a research position at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. There he found that the dye Prontosil, which had been shown to cure bacterial infections, actually contained a simpler active compound, sulfanilamide. This discovery led to the development of hundreds of antibacterial
sulfa
"wonder drugs." Bovet was named
Pasteur Institute in 1936. and 1944 he discovered pyrilamine (mepyramine). the first antihistamine. In 1947 he was invited to establish a laboratory ol chemotherapeutics at the government-sponsored Superior Institute of Health in Rome. Although he synthesized some
director of the in
400 compounds
produced curare's paralyzBovet filed no patents and received no income from any of his discoveries. Later he moved away from pure research, becoming professor of pharmacology at the University of Sassan (1964-71), directoi ol the psvchobiology and psychopharmacology laboratory at the Italian National Research Council (1969-75). and professor ol psychobiology at the ing effects
Although the snare drum was prominent playing, he was often praised as one of the most melodic of drummers, Blackwell grew up in New Orleans, where he was influenced by the city's musical tradition and bj such early drummers as Paul Barbann. After playing with rhythm and blues groups, in 1951 he went to Los Angeles and first performed with saxophonist Ornelte Coleman, who was later at the forefront of 19dl)s.
in
his
the free jazz
movement
Blackwell
moved
New
to
where he gained recognition as the regular drummer in Coleman's quartet, fie also performed with a number ol other avant-
York
City
in
I960,
garde musicians, including trumpeter Don (hem ittle and the group headed by trumpeter Bookci and saxophonist Eric Dolphy. In 1975 he became 1
l
in
Diversity ol
that
differing degrees,
Rome
(1971
82)
Boyle, Kay, U.S. author (b. Feb. 19. 1902. St. Paul. Minn.— d. Dec. 27. 1992. Mill \ alley, Calif.
I,
gained
critical
acclaim for her poetry and novels
slum stones, notably "The wink iloises oi Vienna" (1936) and "Defeat' (1941). for which she won O. Henry Aw. ads. Boyle spent much ol her childhood and the earry and especially
foi
net
58
People of 1992: Obituaries
her
years oi
marriage
first
Europe and.
in
al-
her second husband in 1441. she returned to Europe during World War II. After the war she served in France M4d 53) and West Germany as a correspondent ter briefly returning to ihc U.S. with
(
1
lor The New Yorker magazine. Boyle's thematic works, which stressed the moral responsibility of
the individual in desperate situations, showcased
her mastery ol si> le. She employed such literary techniques as grammatical simplification, rhythmic repetition, stream of consciousness, radical imagery, and experiments with Surrealism. Her lirst offerings were romances, but in later works she documented the spirit of the times with fictional works of social realism When she and her third husband. Joseph win Franckenstein. were blacklisted as Communists during the |9s(ls witchhunts conducted by U.S. Sen. Joseph McCarthy, she spoke out against that injustice: she later
openly opposed the Vietnam war and
bombing
Among
ol Libra in the 1980s.
were Plagued
th
4 It
citizenship
l
l
the building ol the Berlin Wall in 1961, that he began to see the policies ot the
especially
West that
as
aftei
unrealistic
and
ineffective
the acceptance Ol the status
Brandt saw
quo and thus
the normalization ol relations between
West was necessary became chancelloi SPD gained powei
1
and Brandt
ast
foi
an) future change
ot
West German) when the
1969. He immediately set about normalizing relations with East German) tin accepting that "two states e\isi in Germany Poland (by acknowledging the Odei Neissc line in
items. Bratby was accepted at the Slade School of Fine Art, but he abruptly switched to the Royal College ot Art 1951-54). He mounted Ins first solo exhibition at the Beaux Arts Gallery in London in 1954 and captured the public's fancy almost overnight. In 1957 he was commissioned to provide paintings tor the motion picture 7Vie Horse's Mouth, and for many years thereafter he was identified in the popular imagination with
day
Bohemian
the
the centre of the film. Al-
artist at
though he fell out of critical favour in the 1960s, Bratby continued to work, producing thousands ol sketches and paintings, including hundreds of portraits. He also wrote several autobiographical novels, notably Breakdown (1960), and served as editor in chief of Art Quarterly trom 1987. Brooks, Richard, U.S. screenwriter and motion-
Hills. Calif),
May 18, 1912. Pa.—d. March 11, 1992, Beverl) yvas known for producing films char-
acterized In
gritty
picture director and producer (b.
Philadelphia.
realism, especially
social
The
Blackboard Jungle (1955), and also specialized in adapting literal) works to the screen, notably the superb Elmer damn 1960), foi which he won an (
Academy Award lor scrcenwriting. Alter attending Temple University in Philadelphia, Brooks began his writing career as a sports journalist. He helped Orson Welles on radio scripts before collaborating on screenplays lor such forgettable tilnis. as White Savage (1943) and Cobra Woman 1943 Il944i During World War II he served 45) in the marines and wrote a novel about the homosexual Ihe liruk in Foxhole persecution Ol a (1945), which was l.itei adapted to the screen as a tilm about anti-Semitism and renamed ( row '4"l His screen adaptation tor Kev Largo fin |94m was critically acclaimed tor ns taut, tension-building structure, and he made his directing bow yyith anothci thriller. Crisis (1950) Follow(19S2). Brooks ing the success ol Deadline I S adapted Evan Hunter's novel The Blackboard Jungle and directed Glenn ford in the compelling 1
l
I
l
i
I
about a teacher grappling to earn the respect Some ol his later ettorts Oi ghetto teenagers at literary adaptation were considered somewhat film
llu
including
Brothers
Karamazm
(1958)
Lord J an (I9ds| and / Intel Gantry, yet the latter, with strong performances by Bun Lancaster and Shirley Jones, became a classic and was perhaps Brooks s best film He evoked strong performances from Elizabeth fayloi and Paul Newman ill lennessee Williams' < at on a Hot Tin Knot and again trom Newman in another Williams adap-
Had o) )fiah Brooks's script tor Iruman Capote S In old Blood 1967) created a (
I
sensation foi its brutality, but he did not score an othei success until 1977, when he adapted Judith Rossnei s Looking lor Mr. Goodbar, which starred
Diane Keaton
A
tough, intractable director
often delivered scripts
al
the
last
who
moment, he
analyzed Hollywood in his unflinching, probing novel the Producer (1951). Brooks, who directed the classic Western The Professionals in 1966, the yen aftei he became an independent producer, returned to the studios lor two lilms in the 1980s.
borda
the
country), and the Soviet in which both sides
that
ol
nion (by signing a treaty
to refrain from the threat o! force oi the use ol toiee in any matters affecting security I
In 1974 Europe and international security Brandt was forced to resign as chancelloi aftei it was discovered that one ol his doses! aides was German spy He continued on as parly chairman until his resignation in 1987 With tears Ol joy he watched the Berlin Wall tall in 1989 in
i
•
Brown, Georgia tluiiys Kiuii. British actress d luly 5 (b Oct 21, 1933, London [ngland 1992. London), was an earthy, husky -voiced singei best
I
1950s ,i> a member ol the Sink School, a group ol British soual-
prominence
trusts
in
the
who
literary Angry a particular!) which he worked
paralleled the i
known
tor the feverish
speed
and
81
tor the extreme!) thick texture ol his vividly coloured, Expressioniftk paintings, into which he bottles and othei everyoften incorp i
known
hei
tor
portrayal
ot
the
ill
fated
Nancy in Lionel Ban's musical Oliver! Blown began singing jazz and bluesy ballads in
prostitute
nightclubs as
,i
lecuaect
.tns\
look her Stage
name
from a popular SOHg She made hei London Stage debut in 1956 as uq in Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the next yeai she repeated (heroic off-Broadway Vfter her triumph as Nancy s toui I >n ondon 1960-62), on 1962), and ^>n Broadway (1963 64), she joined the cast ol \4aggie May, winch Ban had written foi her. she latei sianed in < armelina, Greek, Roza, Man Is Man. 42nd Street Sule In Side h\ Sondhenn. 3 Penny Opera (a 1989 ieyiy.il on Broadway), and a one woman show. Georgia Brown and Friends She also recorded acclaimed solo albums However, she tailed to win the pan ol Nancy in the 1968 movie Ol Oliver! and had limited success on Brown appeared on television, most BO tab!) in a production ol Bertolt Brecht's Mother I
I
Bratby, John Kanilall. British painter |h July 19, iVimbledon, Surrey I ngland- d July 20, Sussey t ngland), rose to 1st
Bryceland, Yvonne, South African actress 1925.
18,
1992,
1
..
1
Cape Town, South Africa—d.
(b.
Nov.
Jan. 13,
London, England), brought passion and
through her inspired interpretations of the antiapartheid works of South African playwright Athol Fugard. Bryceland and her second husband, Brian Astbury, also political conviction to the theatre
defied South Africa's racially segregated system and founded (1972) the country's first nonracial theatre, the Space Theatre, in Cape Town. She
was horn Yvonne Heilbuth and worked as a newspaper librarian and amateur actress until after her divorce from her first husband. She made her professional acting debut in Stage Door in 1947 but had only moderate success until she joined the Cape Performing Arts Board in 1964. In 1969 Bryceland triumphed in Fugard's People Are Living There and Boesman and Lena (in which she made her London debut and then toured Europe). Their inspired collaboration blossomed with several more plays, most notably Orestes. Statements After an Arrest Under the Immorality Aet, Hello and Goodbye, and The Road to Mecca (in which she made her U.S. debut). Bryceland's repertoire also included Dario Fo's One Woman Plays, Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Wight, lennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie. Bertolt Brecht's Mother ( mirage and Her Children.
Henrik Ibsen's The Wild Duck, and Euripides' Medea. In 1978 she moved to London, where she joined the National Theatre.
Buchanan, Junious ("But k Sept
(b
I99J.
194(1.
in.
Kansas
").
U.S. football player
Gainesville,
Ala.—d.
City, Mo.), as a towering
7-in]) defensive tackle lor the
July 16,
(2-m
[6-fl
Kansas City Chiefs
professional football team (1963-75), combined Ins size, strength, and agility to set a new stan-
dard tor defensive lineman during the era of the passing game In consistently knocking down halls thrown by opposing quarterbacks. Buchanan, a basketball and football star at Birmingham (Ala.) Parker High School, attended the small, predomi-
Grambling (La.) State University and 1962 was unanimously named to the National Association ol Intercollegiate Athletes (NAIA) All-American team. Buchanan also played on the 1963 College All-Star team that defeated the world champion Green Bay Packers (NIL) in an exhibition game in Chicago. That same year he was the number one draft pick ol the All. Dallas lexaris (later Kansas ( Hy Chiefs; AFL, 1963-69. nately black in
and AFC ol NIL from 1970). He powered his team during Super Bowl against the Green Bay Packers and in Super Bowl IV, when the Chiefs beat the Minnesota Vikings 23-7. Alter retiring as a player in 1975. Buchanan coached for the New Orleans Saints (1975 and 1977) and Cleveland Biow ns I97.S) ami became a much-admired civic and business leader in Kansas City. He was named to the NAIA Hall ol Lame in 1968 and was inducted into the Professional Football Hall ol ame in 1990, just days alter being diagnosed 1
(
I
wnh
).
I
a mini-
(
1
as
Courage and in "Shoulder to Shoulder," series she produced for the BBC.
cancer.
Cage, John, U.S. composer, writer, and philosophei lb Sept. 5. 1912. I. os Angeles. Calif.— d. Aug. 12. 1992. New York. N.Y.), moved beyond established musical language to create works that expanded the idea ol what music might be; he was thought In many to have been Ihe greatest single influence in music and the arts alter World Wai II His education in the arts began early, and he continued formal instruction into his 20s. including study with such composers as Henry Cowell and Arnold Schocnberg During that time Cage became interested in percussion ensembles. and in 1938 he invented the prepared piano, in which objects ol various kinds (nuts, bolts, paper)
were attached
to the strings so as to
emphasize
the instrument's percussive qualities. In 1943 one Cage's percussion groups gave a concert at the
ol
Museum ol Modern Art in New York City, the beginning ot his public reputation. At about this time he began collaborating with the dancer and choreographer Mcrce Cunningham, an association that lasted until Cage's death. His interest in
People of 1992: OMtoartci
the though) and culture ol the East, including the (hint; ("Booh ol Changes"), led him to intra duct chance as an element in composition \tusu /
pi. mo piece derived from Changes (1951), tosses ol mms. and Imaginary Landscape Wo 1 which 1951 the performers adjusted the volin ume and tuning ol 12 radios, were among such works. Cage later also applied chance operations work varied from one to performance, so that performance to the next. In addition to compositions using electronical!) produced sounds, he number ol works using magnetic tape, created .is in Imaginary Landscape Wo 5 1952), in which he cut tapes into pieces and then recomhined them according to chance operations. Ill'M III)
'"4i
a corrupt,
greed) doctor
TIMES
in
1938,
member
a
Ol the outlawed During the World
Part) oi Slovakia
m
Nazi occupation, he took part
II
NEW YORK
where his lather, one of the lust Czechoslovak Communis) Part} build the new Communist nation
and Dubcek became
War
THE
ot the
was helping I
Kravia
oj l>n, hl\
(
antral
a full
Committee
member
I
Ins life made him an international and the subject ol a profile on the U.S. "60 Minutes." He was killed, along with show his wile and three bodyguards, when a one-ton bomb exploded iindci his car. On July 19, Judge
attempts on figure I
I
ol the partv
1968 he bee. inie lusi secretar)
reform and the reinstatement v
ot
t
action,
human
Paolo Borsclhno. another in a
Ferrer, Jose
increased
though compromises were made, Warsaw
1968 Dubcek was arrested, taken toieed to grant majoi concessions and legitimize the invasion before being returned .ue He remained in office until he was demoted (April and then served as ambas S8)
imkev
lWl prm i
and
as a loiestrv official
With the democratization ot the gov-
ernment in Is'S 1). howevei Dulvck leemeiged and until June 1992 he held the largelv symbolic |V>st ot chairman ot the I edei d \ssembl\ Dupain. MaxMrll Spencer, \ustrahan photograswincv Australia d July pher (b \pnl 22 I'M iptured visual!) the powerful geometus inherent in architectural and industrial subjects, thus developing an influential stvie ol Australian nonpktorial commercial photograph) Dupam exhibited his tnst landscape photographs i
while attending
grammar school
.
He
Studied
and the
at
Jul-
t
member
the
ol
pool,
alcone's successor, died
bombing.
(JOSI
VlNCENTl
I
i
kki K
OTERO
is
I.
I
(
nd
i,.
I
ikon). U.S. actor and director (b. Jan. Sanlurcc. P.R.—d. Jan. 26. 1992, Coral Cables. la movingl) portrayed the lovelorn, long-nosed swordsman with the soul ol a roman 1950). tor tic poet in the film ( \rano tie Bergerat which he won an Academy Award as besi actor; he was nominated again as best actor in 1953 for Ins sterling performance as the diminutive artist loulouse autrcc in the 1952 film Moulin Rouge. lot the latter role he strapped up his legs and performed on his knees to emulate the crippled Lautrec. Ferrer, a 1934 graduate ol Princeton Uni versify, was a gifted pianist and had intended on becoming an architect before being stagestruck. He had various theatrical roles from 1935 until he gained a reputation in the comic title role in the Broadway hit Charley's Aunt (1940). Ferrer demonstrated his versatility as an actor in the dramatic role ol lago to Paul Robeson's Othello (1943) He earned his first lony award in 1947 -i
Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia on the night
s.idoi
similar car
to be
rights
ami relations
pressure
\
who was expected
nations de-
Pact
howevei
Soviet
deteriorated
rapid!)
and,
Warsaw
the other
nounced Dubcek
o!
Ministry's criminal affairs division in Rome. alcone's campaign against the Mafia in Italy, the S and South America and the unsuccessful
I
he next ve.u he be and in .human, He almost immediate!) began to allow greater fieedoin: control ot the news media was relaxed; travel abroad wis allowed; and plans were made toi economic the
came
—
tice
the un-
derground resistance \ftei the war Dubcek began l" use through the part) ranks, and In 1962 Ik had become a lull member oi the Presidium .•I
Falcone. Giovanni, Italian judge (b. May 18. 1939. Palermo, Sicily, Italy d. May 23, 1992. near Palermo), as the most prominent member of a special "pool" ot anti-Matia magistrates, orchestrated Italy's crusade against that secret criminal organization. Falcone grew up in a tough workingclass .ire.i ol Palermo, the centre of Mafia activity He began his legal career as a prosecutor and then became a bankruptcy judge. In 1978 he was assigned to Palermo and prosecuted cases against the Mafia, and in the earl) 1980s he and several othei magistrates were pooled into a legal learn to share the responsibilities and the risk ut assassination. In 1987 Falcone's efforts led to the conviction ami sentencing ol 338 top maliosi. He was appointed Palermo's deputy attorney, and later he was named director-general of the Jus-
emotive fathei in and an aging drunken motion picture. Other successes included Trading Places (1982) and two Indiana lonCS movies. Raiders OJ the lost Uk ll'ish and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1988) His last stage appearance was in David Mamet \ / //,• in the Theatre (1989) in London lliotl w.is made c ommandei ol the Order ol the in I
I
Private Function
Room
with a
I
nn
1
(
1984), the
1986),
actoi in Noises Off, his last
i
I
British
I
mpire
in
1988
eh Ivans. Sir (.eraiM. Welsh opera Singei (b It.. 1992, 19, 1922, Cilfynydd, Wales d. Sept Aberystwyth, Wales), w.is one ol Britain's leading operatic baritones and had an international rep Utation as one ol the finest interpreters oi such I
I
lor his stage performance in Cyrano de Bergemc and won two more in 1952. the first lor directing the plays Stalag 17, The FourpOSter, and The Shrike and the second loi acting in The Shake
Peopli
land islands Islas Malvinai in 198 Fiel attended the Royal Navy Colleg al Dartmouth, seived in the 3Sl Indies Ik !
I
(1945
16), [e
i
ffi
Entertaining Comics and pioneered Alter a L954 Senate the norroi comic genre inquiry on the influence oi violent comic books On south, a standards code "as adopted and dis-
unsuccessfully as a Green Party candidate in regional elections in March u "2. l
Guimaraes, Ulysses, Brazilian politician (b. Oct. ''!(>. Rio Claro, Sao Paulo. Brazil— d. Oct. 6, \2. 1992, near Angra dos Keis, Brazil), as the
'
.1
1
1
"grand old man of Brazilian politics," spent 44 in Congress, many of them opposing the military government that ruled from 1%4 to 1985. Guimaraes, a constitutional lawyer by profession, presided over the 1°87 convention that wrote a
.1
years
I
1
tributors refused to stock Ins publications.
new
He possessed a sterling political reputation and was respected for his vigorous fight against political and economic corruption. When the military was obliged to call for democratic elections in L989, Guimaraes ran tor president as
hat
I
was when Mad was born, and Us 'gang ol idiots lampooned SCOKS ol sacred institutions, including )st> famil) values, television, and hlms. From the demented-lqpking, freckle-faced Neuman was nominated as a write-in candidate in ever) presidential election, and ( iaines once hung a Neuman campaign poster atop the Leaning lower ol Pisa in Italy. His wack) brand ol humour was essential to the bab) boom generation, and at the peak ol us popularity, Mod's yearlj circulation was 2 4 million. Even aftei Mad was acquired in Kinney (latei Warnei Communications), dames
singles
continued to occup)
All
l7()
l
the election, he initially supported the winning candidate, Fernando Collor de Mello, until it became evident in 1992 that- Collor had apparin
ently participated in such practices as influence
peddling ami embezzlement. Guimaraes then led
campaign to impeach Collor. Guimaraes and were killed when the helicopter in which they were flying crashed into the Atlantic Ocean a
his wife
and 107 doubles titles, (iodlree Was also ngland badminton champion lour times in In earl) 1920s and was a member ol the national lacrosse team in 1918, She was made a v lee pies idem i-i the AMI ngland ( lub in 1989
I
Iiimh
s laboui
'),l
NY—
New
No\
leadei
(b 8, 1900, York, i'"' New York), presided foi 24 years (1963 87) as the iron-fisted president oi the Interd.
1
a sugai
Goodson, Murk. U.S. radio and television pro dueer tb Jan 24. 1915, Sacramento alii d. Dee 18, 1992, New York n |, was the creative toiee behind the development ol the lirst television game show 'What's Mv line' -which aued lor 17 veais. and he conceived Such othei shows as popul.u I" "The Price Is Right Password." ell the ruth. "I vc dot a Secret," Concentration, and "The Match Game.' Earliei duced such radio game shows as stop the \lusu (.oodsons name,md Hit the laekpol was identified foi man) ve.us in conjunction with Kill Ibdman, who sold Goodson's game shows to the networks Goodson, a radio announcer, met oik fodman in I'Mi while the) were in New ( itv working on the radio quiz program "Battle
policies
ol the
Association ill At and gu.uanteed annual income (effective in I'lo-l) tor union members (as much as $32,000 a yeai whethei the) worked 01 not) when con tainerized shipping threatened their livelihood. Gleason left school aftei the seventh grade to become a dockworker, and he joined the II \ in 1919, at a time when its members were branded national Longshoremen's
ud
as
a
who worked
(ileason.
rebels
as
checker,
.,
longshoreman, winch driver, truek and timekeeper, developed his political and organizational skills during the bittei union battles ol the 1920s and '30s. He had risen to doek superintendent when he was fired foi hon billing
elerk.
owing
1
picket Ink- hi L932
and sold hot dogs
factor)
He worked in He* Deal
until
and union legalization allowed him to return to thi 11 \ Gleason served as president oi various locals before
came
II
A
Ins
friend William \
president
in
be
Bradle)
1953 (alter the
\
II
was
expelled that yeai from the American Federation ot aboi ovei corruption) and appointed him I
newl) created office ol general organizer. Gleason became executive vice president in 1961 and president ot the II A in 1963 \ powerful and influential leadei. he could be as tough as nails to the
oi
as
smooth
as silk
whichevei the occasion de
raanded. (Ileason led a successful 1965 strike ot longshoremen and served on Pres Lyndon John Maritime Advisor) ( ommittee \t the time union membership had ISOTl s retirement
shrunk to 110,000 members from 250,000. Godfree,
tennis playei (b .i
Iuik
inanl
McKane
Kathleen
Ma) i
figures
in
7,
1896,
kirn
i
ondon
I
ondon), was one
women's
tennis
1
ngland
ol the
dom
the
1920s,
m
ngland ( hampionships al Wimbledon, five doubles titles ind Slam events and five Olympic medals. including a gold in women's doubles in 1920. !ier maiden name kills VUk.inc. she lost the 19 Suzanne englen ol turned the next yeai to become racking up two singles
titles
ii
the
VII
I
I
the onl) Wills ,,t
woman
championship partner
American Helen mixed doubles the same tournament with her ever to beat
Wimbledon She won al
lack Gilbert
the
1926 she repeated hei
In
..nil winning both the suielcs and the mixed doubles (now paired with her new husband eshe s championships in the 1923 and 1927) and in mixed -v nted double ngland in I
I
I
:\
when
she retired with a
veal
until i
I
n.
I
I
'v.
A\ innei lake All' tO a radio station ill 1946 and launched what lieu shows would become a game show empire Ins h.is been always ended with the tag line \laik Goodson Hill fodman production." Aftei fodman died in 1979, Goodson continued to produce some ol the longest running and best known game shows in television history. He was honoured in I'l'KI with an mm) award lor lifetime achievement, and in December 1992 he was Boroughs."
4n
hex sold
I
.,
I
selected tor 1993 induction into the Hall ol ol the
Academ)
Guattari, Vpril
10,
ol
television
(Pierre-) Feilix, 1930,
1992, ileal Blois,
I
Arts
I
ranee
d
ranee), as a leadei in
movement,
ame
I
and Sciences.
French psychiatrist
olombe,
(
Vu the
(b.
antl
public!) challenged estab-
psychoanalysis, philosoph) and who studied philosophy.
lished thought
in
social politics
Guattari,
joined the psychoanalyst Jem Our) at La Borde, an innovative psychiatric clinic where unrestrained patients activel) participated in running the facilit) Beginning in i"i>4, (niati.ui worked with the noted psychoanalyst lacques Lacan in I'ans and. despite his increasing skepticism about acan s Ik divided Ins time between la Hoide. Ins private psychoanalytic practice, and acan s Freudian School ol Paris until lacan dissolved the institution in 1980 Although he was expelled from the Communist Part) for opposing the 1956 Soviet invasion ol Hungary, Guattari Kin. lined a left-wing activist He supported the L968 student I
I
ranee while criticizing the rebels foi their own tailings, and he was close liiends with known terrorists despite ins .uowed rejection ol n In 1969 he became associated vvith with whom (nlles Deleuze, an "antiphilosophei he wrote a series ol influential books, notablv rebellion
in
I
1934
total ot
I
I
psychiatry" British
i,
during a violent thunderstorm.
I
i
Gleason, rbomas William
DemoMovement (PMDB), which he led from to 1990. Though he finished a distant fifth
the candidate of the Party of the Brazilian cratic
l
Ins office.
constitution to replace the one written by
the military.
idle
Qu'est-ce
qu£
la
plateaux
(
1980),
phdosophie? (1991). (man
and
Habib, Philip Charles, U.S. diplomat (b Feb, 25, L920, New York, N.Y.- d. May 25. 1992, PulignyMontrachet, France), had a distinguished .ttlvcar career as a U.S. foreign service officer who seived as a skilled liouhlcshoolci and negotiator. notablv when Israel invaded Lebanon ill 1982; he brokered a tenuous peace agreement (which later collapsed) following the evacuation ol the Palestine liberation Organization (PLO) forces
from Beirut mulct the supervision ol the U.S. Marines. Habib. the son ol a Lebanese grocer, was raised in a Jewish section ol Brooklyn. He graduated (1942) from the Universit) ol Idaho with the intent ol becoming a lores! ranger and was studying foi his Ph.D. in agricultural ceo noinics
the University ot California
at Berkele) take a lest to enter the State Department. His passing grade launched his at
when he decided
to
diplomatic career, and he was posted to Canada; New Zealand. I rinidad. and South Korea before
come
lo Vietnam as chief political adviser to Ambassadoi Hear) Cabot Lodge, It was there. on. that he became a recognized expert
on Asian
allaiis.
his counsel,
and
the situation Pres.
Seveial U.S as
head
presidents sought
ol a task force studying
war-torn Vietnam, he persuaded
in
Lyndon Johnson
to
restrict
bombing
the
North Vietnam. He led the U.S. delegation (968 Pans peace talks but was recalled in 1970 b) Pies Richard Nixon when no agreement was forthcoming. Habib then seived as I.S. ambassadoi lo South koiea (1971 74 and as assistant secietary ol state loi Last Asian and
ot
lo
the
I
)
Pacific affairs
(
1974
747). Siren
and Ihe Tour Horsemen ol the In the 1950s he began a second
director, particularly tor television
.1
In
».s4
autobiography, Ladies Man, he claimed
Ins
.Kime career suffered from Hollywood
blacklisting when he protested against the House Committee on n-American Activities. Henreid died jusl d.ns before asablanca was rereleased 1
(
in
honour
oi
man.
Billv
its
50th anniversary
the yeai Ihe next year he got Ins own program, which was syndicated in the U.S. in 1979. Hill frequently played multiple characters in a comedy skit, but he also surrounded himself with a regular supporting cast and a bevy ol scantily ol
clad
women known
fashions in
1
vivsi.
New
s
1
I
\\
11
1
baseball
\lb.iin. Ind
1
v\i
ll
(
(
la
1
1
I
home
in his
NND4GS Bk> vs Hi r
pl.net
d. Sept. 5.
(b July 7, 1992. Palm
1909,
Beach
was phenomenal second base mail lor the Chicago ( ubs (1931-41), Brooklyn Dodgers 1941 46), and I'litsbuieh Pirates 1946 47) professional baseball teams, lie was Darned to 1(1 All -Star teams dining Ills 15-yeai caieer countv,
against him, however,
and despite an international popularity that approached cult status. Hill's program was abruptly canceled in 1988. His other work included the lilms Those Magnificent Men m I hen Flying Machines 1965) and ( hut\ C hitt\ Bang Bang (1968) and a I'V version ol .1 Midsummer Night's Dream was found dead ol an apparent heart Hill 1964). attack
lb
as "Hill's Angels." Prevailing
comedy tinned
.1
1
lliilison.
Sir Harold. British theatre critic (b. Aug.
Thorpe Hesley, Yorkshire, England -d. 1992, Chichester, West Sussex, England), as drama critic lor The Sunday I lines lor 4.
19(14,
March
12,
nearly three
decades
and influence
playwrights as
(
1947-76), used his position
champion such controversial new Samuel Beckett, Eugene fonesco,
to
People
Harold Pinter, lohn Osborne Margueriu Duras, and loin Stoppard Hobson was partially para lyzed bj polio as a child and studied ai scholarship to Oriel Collegi before winning Oxford He became drama critic foi the Christian Science Vfonitoi in the earl) 1930s and a decade later joined The Sunday Times asassistanl literary, critic. He "as soon made assistant drama critic undei lames Agate, whom he succeeded in 1447. tobson was tireless campaignei foi actors, plaj wrights, and plays he considered deserving ind was often credited with saving Beckett's H foi Godot and Pinter's The Birthday Part) from oblivion. Although Ins strong religious beliefs and occasional!) Idiosyncratic viewpoints drew criticism, Hobson's passion toi the theatre and the sharp contrast he provided to Kenneth Tynan, his counterpart at The Observer, delighted even his critics. HobSOn "as forced into retirement in 1
>.
1
list
Ira |l"s
Joseph, Helen Beatrice May. British-bom \trican political activist (b
April
\
1905,
Mid
d Dec 25. 1992, Johannesburg South Mikal was oik ot the tirst white-, in South Vfrica to struggle fol change: she tought the inhurst,
|
ngland
equities oi the white minority
government lor -in rnmenl harassment, ill health. and advancing ace Educated at the I nrversitj ot Londo eeph settled in South Africa in She married and Ined as a homemakei until World War II. when, as .m information officer I
in
-he gave lecwomen's auxiliary on the conditions in South Africa to British
the
tures
REUTERS/BETTMANN
rank ol brigadier general bv 1950. In 1944
to the
in
People's Revolutionary Party (a post he would hold until his death). In 1958 kaysone unsucSupreme People's Assembly. After the resumption of hostilities in ls>t>4, he moved the Pathet Lao into eaves in the northern mountains, withstanding U.S. carpet bombing of the area. After the disintegration of a short-lived, U.S. -backed postwar government in 1975, Kaysone became prime minister of the newly created Lao People's Democratic Republic. cessfully ran for a seat in the
troopv Alter the wai she returned to college, got .i d social worker in a ime Coloured (mb irea in Cape rown where she discovered the daily realities ot governmentsanctioned injustice, especial!) as racial separation loseph was a founding member ot the ( oiigress ot Democrats, the white wing of the then outlawed \ln. sM In 1957 she was arrested tion.il i
i
i
as to
a a
regulai
ot the picss.
197]
judge until
when he
1987,
retired
seniOl
He
east the lone dissenting vole in
when
I
In
Kaulman ordered
1961
the hist desegregation
a predominant!) black public school in the North, saving thai 'compliance with the Supreme
Kaysone kepi the country closely allied with Vietisolated Irom Western influence. With the end of the cold war, however, he sought new donors, visiting France and Japan in 1989. Alter a new constitution was adopted in 1991, Kaysone
nam and
1992 he relaxed some goveininenl controls and scheduled December elecs Assembly. He also lor the People tions Supreme bee. line president, In
released most political prisoners, including those 111s officers Irom the pro Western regime held
.
1
1
detention camps since 1975, and he also dislanccd aos from \ leln.un hi improving relations with China in
I
ot
1954) edict was not to be less forthright the North than in the South He also wrote a numbei Ol landni.uk decisions involving antitrust
(
OUTt'S
(
in
and race relations kaulman was excluded a seal on the Supreme < OUTl because of his Controversial role in the Rosenberg spv case: hewas taken to task by liberals fol invoking divine guidance in determining the Rosenbergs' sen tencing and foi imposing the harshest sentence on them, and some accused him oi being enccd In Sen loseph McCarthy's antl ( omniusuits
from
i
ii tl li
ms! witch-hunting.
I
.
1
s French colonial government, ami final!) the militai) Kaysone was best remembered, though. i
one oi the levolution.uv leaders responsible tor the 1975 overthrow oi if old monarch) as
for allowing the last king. his wile.
ported])
born
in
Savang Vatthana.
Queen Khamphouis, 1981)
in
southern
in 1
a
detention
aos ot
to perish (re-
camp He was
ao mother and a servant in the French a
I
Vietnamese lather, a civil government kavsone protested against
colonial
Japanese occupation ol hiscountrj during World War II and while Studying law al the I niversiiv ol Hanoi, he became involved with the nascent Indochinese ( ommunist Party, soon kavsone was sent back io aos in his Vietnamese friend Ho i in Minh io join the anti-French revohitionar) I
movement In siv
thai
came
to he
known as the became
Palhel
1955 he cofounded and ol
—
29, 1447. )ci
).
Petra l.chmann. she alter hei
moved
Io the U.S. at age 13
mother married an Irish-American army
kellv became involved in the protest culture that swept the U.S. during the 1960s, taking
officer,
antiwai and civil rights demonstrations graduating from .American University, with a degree in international studies in 1970. hat veal her younger sistel died ot cancer alter years oi radiation therapy; soon thereafter kellv made an "emotional connection" between cancel and nudeai power After returnpart
in
before
Washington,
DC I
Kaysone Phomvthan, Laotian political leadei and ; revolutionary (b Dee 1920 Na Seng Laos d Nov 21, 1992, Vientiane, Laos), was a Communis) leadei from 1955 .mo\ rulei from 1975 ol 1 aos, one ol the poorest anil leas) developed nations in the world: earlier he had tought in tile Struggle fol aos against Japanese occupiers, the a liberated
and and
German political activist (b. Nov. Gun/burg. Wesl German) lound dead as a cofounder oi 19, 1992, Bonn. German) the Green Party, tireless!) advocated and fought loi world peace and nuclear disarmament. Horn Kelly, Petra,
(
what would
later
be called the
ing to Europe, she worked foi the I uropean ( immunities and joined the Social Democratic Party, bin she eventual!) became disillusioned with its defense and energy policies: in 1979 she and a lew others founded the Green Party, In 1983 the
Greens received enough voles to send Kelly and 2(> others to the Bundestag. Over tunc, the parly split into various competing tactions, and kellv found herselt an international!) acclaimed figure within a part) that distrusted individual power he Greens lost repand the cull ol personalis I
resentation
ao
the "unification election
Inn kellv continued to
work
ol
1990
ceaseless!; loi inter-
national causes Since the earlv 1980s, kellv had been involved with Celt Bastian. an army general who had resigned his commission and had he
Come
active
ill
Green
politics:
found about three weeks
their bodies wcii-
alter Bastian. vvillioul
explanation, apparent!) shot kellv and then himsell in the house thai the) shared.
Kendricks, Eddie, U.S. singei (b. Dei 17. 1939, d. Oct 1992, Birmingnion Springs. Ala. 5, ham. Ala.), as lead tenor ol the lemptations. prol
I
in
—
People
to electrifying heights with his spine
them
pelled
which was featured
tingling falsetto,
including
hits,
Girl
in a sti
lii
Way M) Imagination, and the rhings You Do." In Detroit Mich., Kendricks and baritone Paul Willi, mis formed the Primes quintet with baritone Otis Williams high ranklin. tenoi Eldridge Bryant, and bass Melvin Aitci the) were signed b) Motown Records in the earlj 1960s, Bryanl lefl the group and was replaced In David Ruilin. who often shared the Blue)," "Just
he
I
You Do
I
group was then re hen lust Dumbei one named the temptations hli «as "My Girl" (1965), and they became one of the (op black male \oeal groups ol the 1960s with
Kendricks,
I
he I
ihen
wiih
soulful
1910
(Whj You Wanna Mai 1
lead
Dorothy, Montclaii
kirsii'ii, I
five-part
harmonies.
1971
In
Kendricks struck out on a successful solo career; and he scoicd hits with Mich singles as "It's So n You let Hard to Sa) Good-bye, "( an Me," and "Keep on lruckin'." Some ol his finest alliums included Goin' Up in Smoke and Eddie Kendricks at His Best. His career began to falter,
s
i
n
|.
a
Metropolitan Opera
Wanon
as
Nov
foi
t
6
199
years, specialized
in
or rad Kirsten was a populai singi student al luilhaid in New 101k Cilv before becoming the piotcL'c ol soprano Graci Mooi
;/\
Rome Foi studies with Kirsten returned to the S at the outbreak ol World Wat II. Mie made hei professional concert debut in a stage show at the Aslolto Pescia
New
"I
bet trip to
When
oik World's
I
air.
I
Moore helped
her secure
an engagement with the Chicago opera, where in 1940 she made her operatic debut as Poussette in Milium. She later debuted with (he San Carlo THE
NEW YORK
TIMES
late 1970s. He rejoined the L982 lor a reunion tour and again in 1989. In that same year. Kendricks and the other members of the Temptations were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. in
Khoei, Abolqassem al-, Iranian-born cleric (b. Nov. 19, 1899, Khvoy, Iran—d. Aug. 8, 1992, alKufah, Iraq), as the grand ayatollah based in anNajaf, Iraq, was spiritual leader of the millions ol Iraqi Shi'ite Muslims. The scholarly Khoei was revered by most Shi ites. particularly those living Outside of Iran, and he was widely regarded as
spokesman
the chief
for the "quietists,"
of an-Najaf, where he remained.
and
King, Albert (Albert Nelson), U.S. blues musician (b. April 25. 1923. Indianola, Miss. d. Dee. 21, 1992, Memphis, Tenn.), created a unique string-bending guitar style that influenced three generations of musicians and earned him the nickname "godfather of the blues," King, who was left-handed, taught himselt to play a righthanded guitar upside down by pulling the strings down, coaxing distinctive wailing sounds out of his trademark Gibson Flying V, "Lucy," that were widely imitated by such contemporary blues rock performers as Jimi Hendrix, Joe Walsh. Stevie Ray Vaughan. and trie Clapton. King was one ol 13 children horn to an itinerant Mississippi preacher and his wile. When he was eight years old. his widowed mother moved the family to eastern Arkansas, where he worked as a farmhand on a cotton plantation and later as a bulldozer operator, In the earl) 1950s he moved to Gary,
—
Ind., joined the
made
(I9S3) his
Chicago-based music scene, and first record. "Bad Luck Blues,"
lie moved to St. Louis, 1956 and continued performing his blend ol simple, declamatory vocals and soaring guitar licks in clubs and roadhouses. Ills career look
the
for
Parrot
label,
Mo.,
in
oil
alter he joined Stax Records in released such acclaimed albums as Under a Bad Sign (1967) and Live Wire Blues
in
the
(
l
liills
Opera
(1942), the
City
Opera
(1944),
made her bow with the Metropolitan as Mimi in La Boheme on Dec. 1, 1945. At the Metropolitan she prided herself on accepting only roles that showcased her clear voice to its best advantage. Besides Puccini portrayals, Kirsten also per-
formed the leads in Gounod's Romeo el Juliette and Faust, Leoncavallo's Pagliacci. and Verdi's La Traviata. She also appeared on television and in such motion pictures as Mr. Music and The Great Caruso. Though Kirsten formally retired from the Metropolitan in 1975, she continued to return there for special engagements.
Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo, Japanese-born U.S. theologian and educator (b. March 8, 1915, Osaka, Japan d. Oct. 7, 1992, Chicago, 111.), was a scholar in the vanguard of establishing religion as an independent academic discipline on U.S. uni-
—
campuses and was instrumental in introducing the religions of Japan to the West. After graduating (1938) from Rikkyo (St. Paul's) University. Tokyo, Kitagawa went to the U.S. in 1941 to continue his theological studies, but he was interned for four years, like others of Japanese ancestry, in detention camps during World War II. During that time he was ordained an Episcopal priest and, while incarcerated in Idaho, he served as an Episcopal minister. After earning a Ph.D. 1951 from the University of Chicago, Kitagawa joined the faculty there as an assistant professor,
versity
(
)
lie
became professor of the
history of religion in
1964 and. from 1970 to 1980, served as dean of the university's Divinity School. Kitagawa wrote a
number of
highly regarded books, including Reli-
gions "i the East
Bom
Japanese
(
New York
and the San Francisco Opera (1947). Kirsten
Memphis and
Power (1968). King toured extensive!) and made an acclaimed appearance at the Monlreus (Svvil/.) Roek Blues leslival in 1975 He leemerged in the 1980s, capturing a new generation ol fans with the albums Sun Francisco '83 (1983), l.mtih dromai Blues (1984), ami I'm m u Phone Booth, Baby 1984).
black students,
ind his pioneering findings helped influence the S Supreme < our! s landmark 1954 scho
case
ition
Brown
Bo
\
mum.
•
Iligence scores ol students at-
rfunded Southern black schools with those oi Southern whites and Northern blai Klineberg discovered that the Southern I
while--.
black students
scores weie lower hut that
when
Southern blacks moved to integrated schools
in
North, their intelligence scores eventually equaled those ol Northern-horn blacks. His studies showed that segregated schools were inferior and provided unequal education. Klineberg earned a B.A. (1919) from McGill University in Montreal, an M.A. (1920) in philosophy from Harvard University, an M.D. 1925) from McGill, and a Ph.D. (1927) from Columbia University. New York City, where he began studying Native Americans and chaired the social psychology department. From 1961 to 1982 he directed the International Center for Intergroup Relations at the University of Paris. He then returned to New York City, where he taught part-time at City University until he was 90. the
Dec. 20, 1902, Minsk, Russia—d. June 5, 1992, York, N.Y.), was an influential spokesman and economic views. Beginning in 1949. he was for many years a widely read, often controversial syndicated columnist for the New York Post, and many of his books, some of them collections of his columns and articles, had great impact when they appeared. Lerner. originally named Mikhail, immigrated to the U.S. with his parents in 1907. He received a B.A. degree from Yale University in 1923 and then studied law there the following year. He received an M.A. degree from Washington University. St. Louis, Mo., in 1925 and a Ph.D. from the Roberr Brookings Graduate School of Economics and Government, Washington, D.C., in 1927. From 1927 to 1932 he edited the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, and he later edited the magazine The Nation (1936-38) and PM, a New for liberal political
estab-
wrote more than 90 books on Shi'ite theology. Although he openly criticized Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ot Iran, Khoei refused to endorse Khomeini and he staunchly refused to take sides during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-90). After the unsuccessful 1991 Shi'ite uprising in Iraq, he was placed under house arrest. The Iraqi government refused to allow a large public funeral for Khoei, but both Iran and Iraq declared an official threeday mourning period.
I
ol
New
Muslims
He
on intelligence scores
studies
Lerner, Max(well Alan), U.S. educator and author
believe that Shi'ite jurists should avoid polit-
lished an international charitable foundation
!
(b.
ical activism. As such, he was a leading opponent of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran. Khoei studied Persian poetry and religion as a child and at the age of 13 was sent to study traditional law in the Islamic holy
city
rch 6
'
I
(
however, during the
who
69
I
i
I,
Temptations
Klineberg, Otto, Nov ', 1899 Ouebei
a
who sponsored
iv>2: Obituaries
the
ttb
|yri( ;|
Fuly
(b.
18
interpretations ol such Puccini works lf,i
Intholog)
Union (
1
1960; rev. ed., 1968), Religion in
(1965),
The Great Religions:
1969), Spiritual Liberation
An
and Human
1990), and The ontemporary Asia Christian Tradition: Beyond lis European Captivity (1992). He was a founding member and editor
Freedom
ot
in
I
the international journal
(
Union
o) Religions.
Kitagawa was also for main vears a valued adand contributoi to i.iuvi lopinliu Hriiunnuu
\isei
York newspaper with no advertising (1943^48). He contributed to many magazines, including The The New Republic, and Saturday Review. Lerner's long teaching career, largely in government and political science, included appointments
Atlantic,
at Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville, N.Y.; Harvard University; Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.; and Brandeis University. Waltham, Mass. Throughout his life he advocated the right of Soviet and Eastern European Jews to emigrate to Israel. Lerner's last book. Wrestling with the Angel (1990). described his encounters with the doctors who treated him during a long series of illnesses.
Li Xiannian (Li Hsien-nien), Chinese politician (b. June 23, 1909, Hongan [Hung-an] county, Hubei [Hupeh] province. China d. June 21, 1992, Beijing [Peking], China), exerted enormous influence as one of the eight "revolutionary elders" and as a leftist hard-liner who opposed
—
economic reform. He supported Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing) in the military suppression of the student-led 1989 Tiananmen (T'ien-an-men) Square pro-democracy movement. Li. a member of the Communist Party by 1927, was a veteran of the Long March (1934-35), having served as army captain and political commissar. After the 1949 Communist victory and Mao Zedong's Mao became governor in Tse-tung's) rise to power. i
I
i
Later in Beijing he scivcd 1954-78) and became a selftaught economist who favoured the Soviet economic model of central planning. He was instrumental in helping to rebuild the eeonomv alter the 1960-62 famine that resulted from Mao s Greai Leap Forward in collectivization \iier Mao died his
native
province.
as finance minister
in
1976. Li,
tially
1
who sumved numerous
uiged party
purges,
ini-
leaders to "deepen the snugXiaoping.'' but when the latter
Deng emerged as China's premiei leader, l.i recanted and blamed himself lor the deficit-plagued econ gle against
70
People of 1992: Obituaries
omy.
Li served in the largely ceremonial post ot president ot the country from 1983 to 1988. He exercised his political power as one of five members ot the Communist Party Political Bureau
Standing Committee (1982-87); as a member of the party's Central Advisory Commission, an influential bods ol part) veterans; and as chairman oi the People's Political Consultative Conference, a post he held at the time of his death.
estate empire. Ludwig left school after the eighth grade and worked for a marine engine company before going into business for himself at the age of 19. He purchased an old steamer, converted it into a barge, and started hauling molasses in the Great Lakes region. During the 1920s he turned to transporting oil and formed the American Tankers Corp. in 1925. The following year Ludwig was aboard an oil freighter when it exploded.
The
accident fused three vertebrae
and he suffered constant pain
his spine,
in
the resulting
an operation 28 years later helped alleviate some of his discomfort. The foundation of his shipping concern was the New York-based National Bulk Carriers Inc., which he owned outright and turned into a colossal private multinational corporation. Ludwig was also well known for his innovations and creative financing. During the 1940s one of his shipyards pioneered a timcsaving process of welding rather than riveting the hulls of ships, and by the end of World War II, he owned the nation's fifth
Oklahoma Dusl Bowl. The second documentary,
largest tanker fleet, with scores of supertankers.
Lorent/. Pare, U.S. filmmaker
W.Va.—d. March
larksburg,
(
N
")
(b.
Dec.
4.
1992,
1905,
11.
Armonk.
dramatically recorded the images of the
l.
Greal Depression in two classic governmentsponsored documentaries that used lyrical images, the powerful narrative of Thomas Chalmers, and compelling scores by Virgil Thomson to capture the social consciousness he first, The /'/ That chronicled the misuse ol subsequent plight ot the
American
ol the
public.
Broke the Plains (193b).
I
the Great Plains and the
farmers
in
was a history ol the Missis and the effect of the Tennessee Vallej Vuthorif) on the area. As a film critic forjudge magazine (1926 34) and the Nen )ork Evening Journal (1931 -32), Lorentz earned a naRiver
77ie
I
1937),
sippi Riser Basin
tional reputation bj criticizing filmmakers foi not
making more
realistic films
He was
given a bud-
get of •sb.lNK) b\ the Resettlement Administration
Department of Agriculture
(lalci pari ol the
un
I
der Pres Franklin D Roosevelt to direct a tilm about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl, His eflort met resistance bj filmmakers and. until King \ idoi intervened, the) icluscd to lend stock footage to what the) considered a propaganda effort. Following the resounding critical and artistic success of The /'/on That Broke tin- Plains and the River, Roosevelt appointed Lorentz duel ot the U.S ilm Service in 1938 He then directed the Fight for I /'< 1940), a docudrama about the hazards t childbirth among the pool \tter the Film Service was disbanded in 194(1. Lorentz made onl) mic more documentary, The Nuremberg Trials (1946). During World Wai II he served in the Arms An orces, making more than 200 briefing films to be shown to pilots Lorentz formed Ins own film-production compan) in 1948, but Ins plan to produce a document. n\ about atomic bomb testI
1
I
was aevei realized. Brides serving as a film consultant and lecturer, he also published Censored: The Private lift- of the Movies (1930; with ing
Morris Ernst), The Roosevelt Year 1933 and .u\ autobiography, FDR's Moviemaker, which appeared posthumous!)
Ludwig acquired
his fleet
until
\s the
the Radiobiolog)
.'I
nil oi
in
stock investments
udwig earned
I
taskmaster, a visional)
as a crustv
who shunned
a reclusive personalit)
was
his foresight that
a
1930)
(
a
Rhodes scholarship
0k
I
prompted him
ram forest eroded
Mice and
Irradiation o) i
outit
of the British
work
iii
his
[991
Some
was reported that the project had dollars from his fortune, yel worth was estimated al SI. 2 billion.
ol Ins other
ventures included citrus farms
Panama, coal mines in Australia, and hotels in the Caribbean, and in the earl) 1970s he established the udwig Institute lor Cancer Research. in
1
which
commanded much
ins Liter vcars. in Billionaire,
1986
a
of his attention during biography, The Invisible
appeared
MacBeth, Ccorge Mann,
British
poet
i>».
1932, shoits. Lanarkshire, Scotland-
Iti.
1992,
prolific
(b d.
Jan.
Feb.
Iuam. Count) Galway, Ireland), was a and versatile write] whose \ersc enconv-
jsnvBMjeR
in
passed moving personal elegies, high!) contrived structured dream fantasies, Mas Beth published his lirsi collection of poetry. Form "i Words (1954). while still an undergraduate at New College. )v ford. Alter graduating 1955) Ik joined the BBC. poetic tokes. loose!)
and macabre
satires
I
(
(
b\ the end ol the decade he was one ol BB( s top talk-radio producers. On such proclaim .is 'The Poet's Voice (1958 65; renamed
and I
udwrt. Karncl ktilh.
June
ith
.
'"l
who amassed
S
shipping tyCC* d A Haven, Mich I
i
was
.i
savw entrepreneur
v
ikki loan fortune and parlayed a from his father into a global shipping and real a
them that scientists were unable to verify or comprehend the immensity ot her early discovery, which won her the Nobel Prize lor Physiology or Medicine in 1983 Met hillock, the daughter ol a doctor, earned a Ph.D. in botans (1927) from ornell University, Ithaca. N.Y. She taught there and helped show through her laboratory experiments thai trait-determining (genetic) information was transferred between chromosomes -a process called crossing over— during cell division. McClinlock joined the Carnegie Institution of Washington (D.C.I and conducted research on the Indian corn plant (maize) foi Carnegie's Cold Spring Harboi in> Laboratory, which later became a self-governing organization. There, from 1941 until her death, the maverick researcher worked alone by choice and earned the reputation ol a loner; she preferred receiving letters to telephone calls and onl) reluctantly installed a telephone in 1986. She possessed an uncanny ability lo decipher the nature ol genes and was a scrupulous investigator. Using pigmentation changes in the kernels ol corn as her model and microscopically examining their chromosomes, she traced how mobile genetic elements (nicknamed "jumping genes' In a later generation ol geneticists) cause mutations and control growth and development in cells. Her work was not validated until James D. Watson and Francis (nek discovered the molecular structure ol DNA, which led lo a rediscover) ot mobile elements in the chromosomes ol many plains and animals. McChnlock won belated acclaim for her work and was revered as a gianl in the field ol genetics Besides her Nobel Pn/e. she was the recipient of the National Medal ol Science (1970) and the firsl MacArilmr Laureate Award 1981 a lifetime annual prize of $60,000 A biograph) that detailed her pioneering work. A Feeling for the Organism, appeared in 1983 i
the
1963.
lure ol mobile genetic elements; the findings were so revolutionary at the time she presented (1951)
(
His best-known book. Wen, was published in
in
WORLD
It
in
was made Commander of the Order Empire in 1957 and elected a fellow
Royal Soeietv
of the
1988
AP.WIDE
billions oi
MRC
until
and '50s uncovered complex and profound discoveries about the naton, N.Y.), during the 1940s
forced to abandon the costl) project, which had led to the destruction ol large tracts ol tropical
I
1969, but he continued to
16,
the
(
in
June
wood products and to begin 1960s the billion-dollar large scale development ol the Jan River valle) in Brazil to tap its lumber potential. In 19K2. however, he was in
held several clinical appointments (I' as director ol the South ondon Blood t.uislusion Service 1940 4~i before heading the Radiobiolog} Unit, loutit resigned as di
unit laboratory
(b.
1992, Hunting-
predict a shortage ol
He I
2,
It
Oxford, where he eventual!) completed medical education (M s 1938; D.M 1946)
and served
Sept.
to correctly
sersitv oi his
Conn.—d.
and
the press.
the British
to
1902, Hartford,
reputation
investor,
Medical Research Council (MRC), he asst and led inlerdiseiplinarv teams that explored the possibilit) of biological hazards from the peaceful use ot atomk energ) and indicated that radiation could he effective in the treatment ol leukemia Main othet tonus ot cancel He also developed a Storage medium ol acidified curate and dextrose that extended the shell hie oi ted blood began his studies in Australia aik\ cells 1 outit accepted
McClintock, Barbara, U.S. geneticist
and then used the money he borrowed to buv more ships He also made millions
founding directoi l
publication of
as collateral
John Freeman, Australian born hematol and radiobiologisi (b. Feb 19, 1910, Perth. d June II. 1992, Oxfordshire, In Australia gland) was a pioneei in the smdv of the biologi I'M" 69)
in 1976, shortly after the
by borrowing against
I.outit.
i
BBC
the future lease income that they would generate. He secured loans b) using these contracts
ogist
cal effects ot radiation
the
his first two novels. The Transformation and The Samurai (both 1975). Although his second verse collection. The Broken Places, did not appear until 1963, from 1965 MacBeth published at least one volume of poetry almost every year, including The Colour of Blood (1967), Shrapnel (1973), Poems of Love and Death (1980), Anatomy of a Divorce (19KH), Trespassing (1991), and two volumes of collected poems. He also penned children's verse, edited poetry anthologies, and wrote several more novels, notably Anna's Book (1983) and Another Love Story (1991). His last novel, The Testament of Spencer, was published posthumously.
the
New Comment" 1965 '6) and induced a wide \anct\ ot majOI and minor poets to read then own work He quit
"Poetrv
(1959
Now
4>
Ik
(
).
People
MacMlllan, sir Kenneth, British choreogi iphi II. 1929, Dunfermline, Scotland—d. De< ngland), created more Oct 29, 1992, London, than 4ii ballets during his careei and was said
lor the
i
(b
I
have revived the tradition oi Cull-length bal let in Britain. His familj was impoverished, but MacMillan inspired bj films starring the dancei found a ballet teachei who would red Istaire id
I
uiv c
him
free lessons.
He was awarded
scholar-
.i
ship ic the Sadler's Wells Ballet School and hiicr
(
1946)
became one
ol the original
a
yeai
members
Wells theatre Ballet (the second company ol the Sadler's Wells Ballet, which latet became the Royal Ballet), making his debut in (it
the Sadlei
///c
He began choreographing
foi workshop performances in the earl) 1950s and created Ins first professional work. Dansi s
Ins insi
Romeo ami ballet, made an
1955.
in
full-length
Juliet
(1965), international
impact and became a mainstay oi both (he Royal Ballet and American Ballet Theatre (ABT). It was
danced at us premiere by Margot Fbnteyn and Kndnll Nureyev and later bj Christopher Gable and Lynn Seymour, one ol MacMillan's favourite muses, on whom it had been choreographed. Also in 1965 he created another of his most acclaimed works, Song of the Earth, for the Stuttgart (Ger-
many) Ballet. The next year he became director of the Deutsche Oper Ballet in West Berlin, but in 1970 he returned to London to succeed Sir Frederick Ashton as a eodirector, with John Field, of the Royal Ballet. Three months later he became sole director, and he remained in that post until 1977. when he resigned so he could concentrate on choreography. For the rest of his life, he was the Royal Ballet's principal choreographer. He also became an artistic associate Oi ABT (I9N4) and the Houston (Texas) Ballet 1988). Among MacMillan's other successes were Anastasia 1971 ). Manon 1974), Mayerling 1M7S). and Isadora (19X1). At the time of his death he had nearly completed the choreography for a new production of the musical Carousel. He died backstage at the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden during a revival of Mayerling. MacMillan was knighted in 1983. (
(
(
(
McWilliam, F(rederick) E(dward), Irish sculptor April 30, 1909, Banbridge. County Down. Northern Ireland d. May 13, 1992. London, England), worked in wood, stone, and bronze to create surreal, abstract, and semiabstract sculptures that defied easy categorization. In his best-known (b.
—
pieces he "reinvented anatomy,'' placing distorted
human
figures or
body parts
in
juxtaposition to
achieve a dramatic or whimsical effect. McWilliam studied at the Belfast College oi Art and the Slade School of Fine Art in London (1928-31) before moving to Paris. The 1932-33 collapse of sterling forced him to return to England, where he began carving in the local Buckinghamshire cherrywood. After serving in the Royal Air Force in India during World War II. McWilliam taught drawing and sculpture in Bengal (1944-46). at the Chelsea School ot An 1946 47), and at the Slade (1947-66). Although his work was seldom overtly political, in 1972-73 he made a series ol powerful bronzes, "Women of Belfast.'' in response to the bombing of the Abercorn Tea Rooms in Belfast. McWilliam was made Commander of the Order of the British Lmpire (1966) and was elected to (
the Royal
Academy
Gallery
London
He was
the subject (1989). of a major retrospective at the prestigious Tate in
i
leveland Indians ti
idg
1956
in
i
team
I
lis
to a
won
I
in
1989.
I
I
i
earned-run average, and 25 shutouts Martin, Paul Joseph James, Canadian politician (b. June 23. 1903. Ottawa. Ont.— 14. d. Sept. 1992, Windsor. Ont.), served with distinction in the Cabinets oi lour Liberal Party prime ministers (from Mackenzie King to Pierre
and diplomat
Trudeau) and. as minister ol national health and welfare from 1946 to 1957, was instrumental in writing most of the country's social legislation. Martin, who was stricken with polio at the age ol experienced a miraculous recovery, but his affliction left a lasting impression on his life-style and the legislation he supported. He studied at the University of Toronto, Harvard Law School, Trinity College, Cambridge, and the School of International Studies in Geneva. Martin was elected to the House of Commons in 1935 and represented the Windsor riding of Essex East (now WindsorWalkerville) until 1968. He was appointed parliamentary assistant to the minister of labour in 1943. and in 1945 he joined the Cabinet as secretary of state. As minister ot national health and welfare, he guided important legislation through Parliament, including the National Health Profour,
(1948). the federal
Old Age Security Act
(1951). and the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act (1957). He was also responsible for ordering the manufacture of vast quantities of the polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk so
when it was approved safe for distribution, Canadians could be quickly vaccinated. A skilled diplomat, Martin was a delegate to the League of Nations in the 1930s, the principal architect of an expanded UN membership plan (1955). minister of external affairs (1963-68), and high commissioner to Britain (1974-79). His memoirs, A Very Public Life, were published in two volumes 1983 and 1985). that,
(
Messiaen, Olivier-Eugene-Prosper-Charles, French composer and musician (b. Dec. 10, 1908, Avignon, France—d. April 28, 1992, Paris. France), was the last in a long line of distinguished French organist-composers; he was also one of the 20th century's most influential teachers, and his students included Iannis Xenakis, Pierre Boulez,
and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Messiaen began composing as a child, and at age 1 he entered the Paris Conservatory, where his teachers included organist Marcel Dupre and composer Paul Dukas. In 1931 he became resident organist at the church ot the Trinity in Paris. He began teaching in 1936 but left to enter the French Army in World War II. It was while he was interned by the Germans that Messiaen wrote Qualuor pour la fin du temps (1940; Quartet for the End oj Time) to be performed by fellow prisoners. In 1942, after he was released. Messiaen began teaching at the J78. Paris Conservatory, where he remained until and in 1942 he resumed his position at Trinity Church, which he held until his death. Among his principal compositions were the orchestral works L'Ascension ( 1933; arranged for organ. 1934) and 1
l
l
TurangatHa-Symphonie 1946-48). the organ cycle Nam ite du Seigneur (1935), and the piano works Vingt Regards \ur I'Enfant Jesus 1944) and 1956 58). His only opera Catalogue d'oiseaia was Saint Frangois d'Assise (1975 83). Echini tui iau-dela. commissioned by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in celebration ol its 150th anniversary, received its premiere posthumously. Messiaen developed a highly personal sty k- noted toi its rhythmic complexity, rich tonal colour, and unique harmonic language. He was particularly fascinated with birdsong, which he transcribed in mam ol Ins compositions. The principal cxtramusical influence on his work, besides his interest in nature, was his deep religious devotion, Messiaen was elected a member ot the icnch Institute in (
Maglie, Sal(vatore) Anthony ("The Barber"), U.S. baseball player (b. April 2(>. 1917, Niagara Falls. N.Y.— d. Dec. 28. 1992. Niagara Falls), sported a five-o'clock shadow and adopted a fierce scowling grimace when he pitched his specialty fastball, which was so high and close to (shaving) the lace ol batters that he earned the nickname "Sal (he Barber. " During Ins heyday m the 1950s, Maglie played foi all three New York professional baseball teams: the New York Giants, the
Brooklyn Dodgers, and the
New York
Yankees. His phenomenal pitching also included helped the Giants capture a National League pennant in 1951. In 1950 he led the league with 18 wins and 4 losses, and the follow a curveball thai
received main othei honours, including
ml
loss of the
(
Meyendorff John,
in
I
gram
71
nour.
i
I
I
National the 1956 Wot Id Si against the Yankees, he lost the fifth n A when Ion arsen pitched a pi ended his pitching e.iieel with the Yankees in 1957 and became a coach the following yeai His career record included 19 -a ins. 62 losses that
rid
1955 befo to the s record helped propel *
in
s
Sleeping Beauty.
Concertantes,
(
1992: Obitnariee
of
La
(
(
I
.in
i
s
theoli
b.
I
Seine. Trance
d
lul) 22.
17.
1992.
prominent U.S. leader in Monti is a iteni Orthodox Church, helped forge unity members of the ethnically diverse Ortho'
dox churches and promoted ecumenism among other Christian denominations. Meyendorff was the son of Russian emigres who fled their homeland during the Russian Revolution of 1917. After graduating 1949) from the Orthodox Theological Seminar) ol St. Serge m Paris, he earned a doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1958. The following year he joined the faculty ol St. Vladimii thodox Theological Seminary in Crestwood. NY. and from 1984 he served as its dean. Meyendorff played a vital role in modernizing the church s (
from Old
liturgy
SI;
came an esteemed
I
nglish,
and he be-
figure within the church. In the
Orthodox Church in the U.S.. he served as adviser to the Holy Synod and was editor of its monthly newsletter. In a wider capacity, he was cofounder and the first general secretary of Syndesmos, an international coalition of Orthodox youth organizations. Meyendorff 's scholarship was evidenced
many writings; he wrote in English. Rusand French. His religious and historical books were published in eight languages, and for many years he was a valued contributor to Encyclopaedia Bntanmca. He was also a lecturer at Harvard University; Fordham University. Bronx. N.Y.; and Columbia University, New York City. Meyendorff represented the Orthodox Church in America on the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches and was a past president of the Orthodox Theological Society of America and of the American Patristics Association. An expert on Byzantine history, he was a member of the executive committee of the U.S. Committee of Byzantine Studies and was senior fellow and acting director of Harvard's Byzantine Research Centre in Washington. As the Soviet Union disintegrated, Meyendorff made numerous trips to Russia, where he visited Patriarch Aleksy II of the Russian Orthodox Church during the time of the attempted coup against Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev in 1991. Meyendorff died of pancreatic cancer while on vacation in Canada. in his
sian,
and songwriter (b. Jan. Worth. Texas—d. Oct. 25, 1992, Los Angeles, Calif.), composed witty and lyrical songs that relied on his clever use of puns, wordplay, wisecracking, and wry country humour, including such all-time favourites as "Dang Me." " England Swings," and "King of the Road," which became an anthem for hobos. A versatile and selftaught musician. Miller played the drums, fiddle, banjo, piano, and guitar and composed his first song at the age of five. He left school after the eighth grade and served in the U.S. Army in Korea before moving to Nashville. Tenn.. where he launched his songwriting career, turning out hits for Jimmy Dean, George Jones. Ray Price, and Ernest Tubb. After signing with RCA Records Miller, Roger, U.S. singer 2,
in
1936, Fort
1960,
he scored his
the following year with lide."
Soon
after,
he
top- 10 country
first
"When Two Worlds
made
a successful
hit
Col-
crossover
pop music, and he enjoyed a string of hits with such novelty and folksy songs as "Chug-aLug." "Do Wacka Do," "Can't Roller Skate in a Buffalo Herd." "Walkin' in the Sunshine." and to
Green Apples" Between
"Little
191,4
and 1966
Grammy
awards. His popularity began to wane in the '70s before he climaxed his career in 1985 as the songwriter for the smash Broadway, hit Big River, which ran for two and a hall years, captured seven Tony awards, and earned Miller his own Tony for best score Miller garnered a record
1
1
lor a musical
Mills, (b.
Wilbur Daigh. US, lawyer and
May
24.
1909, Kcnsett.
politician
Ark.— d. May
2,
1992.
Kensett), exerted extraordinary influence in the political arena as the longtime Democratic representative from Arkansas s Second District 1939(
77) and as the chairman of the powerful
Ways and Means Committee
l (
House
>5"-^4i before he
People of 1992: Obituaries
72
was toppled from
On
1^74.
his
position
loft)
on Oct. 7, was
that da) the driver oi Ins limousine
pulled over, and Mills was discovered to be intox-
and
icated
.nun
the
in
compan)
ol
a
known
stripper
who
then bolted from the vehicle and dived into the Tidal Basin formal pond. Mills graduated 1933) from Harvard Universit) with a law degree but entered local politics because the Great Depression limited his legal opportunities. At the age of 24 he was elected to the House ol Representatives, and in Ins tirst 15 years in office he voted against civil rights, the construction oi the St Lawrence Seawas. statehood for Hawaii. and the admission ol refugees from Communist countries; Mills also \oted lor making membership in the Communist Part) a crime. During the 1960s he shifted Ins uJtraconservative stance and supported the national health insurance program known as Medicare, an upgrading ol welfare laws, a majoi tax revision, and several foreign-trade as
1
oxe,
I
1
\s
tanil laws.
chairman
Means Committee,
ol the
House Ways and most
Mills wrote
returned to the U.S., she settled in New York and became one of the few women members ol the influential Eighth Street Club he Club), which included such luminaries as Willem de Kooning. Lranz Kline, and other exponents of he New York school ol Abstract Expressionists. In 1451 her works were exhibited in the seminal Ninth Street Show, and she had her first solo exhibit the following year. Critical acclaim and a move lo Cans followed in 1955. From that date until 1474. she was companion to the FrenchCanadian painter Jean-Paul Riopelle. In 1%.
'
giealesl
I
2s vcais as the engaging master ol cciemonies
Miss America Pageant" who serenaded crowned beauty queen as she took her traditional walk down the lunway with his signaluie song. " here She Is." Patks. the gap-looihed emcee oi such radio quiz shows as "Break the Bank" and "Stop ihe Music, also starred as the
ol
the
the newlv
1
programs when they moved lo telethe popular game show "Double He had worked as an announcer BS from 1933 lo 1939. Parks was besl ic
host ol those vision oi
lor
and
ot
NoiliuiLV (
meiiibered. however, lor his annual stint
1955 79) on the "Miss America Pageant" When ol licials diopped him as host in 1980 because ol his age.
lolinnv
(arson launched
a
(
major though
People
unsuccessful nationwide lettei writing campaign Parks m.nk' one las) special appearance as hosl
who stabbed
and in the Barae cameo appearance in a comii year he made send up oi ins own in. mis pageant perform In crooning a satirical version oi ["here sin. Is" lizard in the film The Freshman. Parks was to Ins si, on mini; .ilso lauded tot role Broadwa) in The Wusit Man ii >t>u 61), and he continued to maintain presence on television, appearing as ringmastei oi the "Circus" series and in guest aw," "Eilerj Queen," appearances on "Burke's and "The Bionic Woman."
hampagne Maulers, and Ten The Trial, The Days Wonder, before playing an assortment oi
oi
the beauty pagean) in
1990,
.1
.1
l
,,
I
Parnis, Mollis, U.S. fashion designei is.
1900,
(
New
New York,
N."i
,—d,
March
(b.
lulj
is.
1992,
York), created a tasteful and fashionable
line oi comfortable dresses made oi fine fabrics conservative clientele, notably and attracted Such first ladies as Mamie Eisenhower, Betty Ford, and Lady Bird Johnson. Parnis. who could neither sketch nor sew. briefly served as an assistant salesclerk with a blouse manufacture! before marrying textile salesman Leon Livingston and forming Parnis-Livingston in 1433. Their enterprise was an instant success, and she earned a reputation for eschewing faddish designs in favour of smart ones. Parnis was a fixture in New York Citv with her Seventh Avenue dress showroom and her Park Avenue duplex apartment, which she turned into a salon for journalists, actors, and Democratic politicians. One of her greatest disappointments, however, was her lack of a formal college education, so she became an avid reader
lanel Leigh in the shower. uropc in several iiims in
then appeared
Perkins
in)
roles
motion pictures He was a
s in 1
Some lie
oi
screen
oilier
liis
and lanes
O)
Judge Ro)
Bean 1972), Murderon the Orient Etaxess and Edge "I Sanity 1989). Perkins also api |
1
L974),
(
in such plays as i.unk Homeward, Angel, Harold, Steambath, and Romantic Comedy. In one of his
roles Perkins starred as a police detective in
movie In the Deep Woods, which appeared posthumously. His death was attributed to complications from AIDS. the television
Seventh Avenue store in 1984 only to return to for her nephew, designing Mollie Parnis AtHome fashions. Parnis never disclosed the year
work
of her birth, but it was believed that she was her 90s when she died.
in
Piazzolla, Astor, Argentine musician (b.
Mar
del Plata." Arg.— d. July
Aires. Arg.),
was a bandoneon
5,
March 11. Buenos
1992.
(a square-built
button accordion virtuoso who performed until 1955 with traditional Latin-American tango bands but then dramatically departed from the stylized music associated with traditional tango and composed some 750 compositions that blended elements of jazz and classical music into what he christened the "new" tango. Piazzolla's innovations, including counterpoint and new rhythms and harmonies, were not well received in his country. His music was greatly admired in the U.S. and Europe, however, and from 1974 to 1985 he lived in Paris. Earlier, during the 1950s, Piazzolla had studied in that city under Nadia Boulanger. who had urged him to experiment with the tango. After returning to Argentina, he formed (1960) the influential Quinteto Nuevo Tango, featuring vioI
lin,
and bandoneon. Though compositions were written for that
guitar, piano, bass,
most of
his
quintet, he also
composed pieces
for orchestra,
bandoneon. and cello. In Argentina new tango gradually gained acceptance, and his music influenced a new generation of tango composers and was featured during the 1970s big band, his
Perkins, Anthony, U.S. actor
(b.
April
4.
1932,
New
York, N.Y.—d. Sept. 12. 1992. Hollywood, was forever identified with his portrayal of the murderous motel owner Norman Bates in the chilling Alfred Hitchcock thriller Psycho (1960), and he reprised this role in three sequels (1983, 1986, and 1990). Perkins made his film debut in The Actress (1953) while still studying at Calif.),
Columbia University, New York City. The following year he starred on Broadway as the sensitive adolescent, Tom Lee, in Tea and Sympathy. In the film Friendly Persuasion (1956), he portrayed
young Quaker worried about protecting his homestead while being true to his religious beliefs. That performance earned him an a
family's
Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor. He then specialized in playing awkward, anxious, and
gawkv voung men, notablv
in
Fear
Out (19571. 'The Tin Star (1957), and Desire Under the Elms (1958), before achieving international stardom in Psycho as the maniac Strikes
ARCHIVE PHOTOS
and
'80s in film scores, television
programs, and
commercials. Picon, Molly, U.S. actress and singer (b. June 1, 1898, New York, N.Y.—d. April 5, 1992, Lancaster, Pa.), reigned as the Yiddish theatre's
"Sweetheart of Second Avenue" during the 1920s
and
'30s
and captivated
New York
City
audi-
ences with her impish charm and comedic talents, which were showcased by her gift for mimicry and superb sense of timing, notably in such unforgettable productions as Yankele. Ratzele, Oy, iz dos a meydl! ("Oy, what a girl!"), and Hello Molly. A child star, she first appeared (1904) in vaudeville before being peisuaded (1919) by playwright Jacob Kalich to join the Yiddish theatre he managed. Picon and Kalich married the same year, and they toured Europe in 1921 so that Picon could perfect her Yiddish. After returning to the U.S., she beguiled audiences as the diminutive and effervescent star of more than 200 Yiddish productions, evoking laughter with her comical renditions of "The Woiking Goil" and "The Story of Grandma's Shawl." In 1940 Picon made her Broadway bow in Morning Star, her lirst English-speaking starring role. During World War II she toured worldwide, and after the war she turned the tears of concentration camp survivors to laughter as she serenaded them with Jewish songs. Her starring role in London opposite Robert Morley in the comedy A Majority oj (Me (1960) earned her critical acclaim. As Yiddish theatre receded from the limelight. Picon turned to stage and film. She was a huge success playing an American widow searching for a husband m Israel in the Broadway musical Milk and Honey (1961), and she was memorable in such as
films
Yiddle with His Fiddle (1937).
Mamele
Mother"; 1938), Come Rlow Your Horn L963), and Fiddler on the Root (1972). Picon had a Jewish theatre named lor her in 1931, and she continued to perform well into her 80s. ("Little |
Piper,
Dec.
John Egerton Christmas, British 1903. Epsom, Surrey, England
13,
Hies
Pipci
artist
—
d.
(b.
June
raphic paint
Richmond
attended Eps '6-27),
(
1921,
II
ps;
Pretty Poison
the original Psycho. credits include I he I
75
iiiiriis
widely varied career, was best
(1968), the chaplain in Catch-22 1970), and a political assassin in WUSA the success "I never recaptured but he 1970), arsonist
1992: OI.it
architectui
(
.1
with a dictionary close at hand. After her husband's death in 1962, she retired for three months but soon returned to retailing. She closed her
near
1992,
I
tng
last
2K,
\ and Sons, an Intimate Relationship and Famifyhood, Nurturing the Values That Matter, which was published posthumously At the time of his death. Salk was a profeSSOI ot psycholog) in pediatrics and psychiatr) at Cornell Universit) Medical Center, Ithaca. N.Y., attending psychologist at two New York City medical
to
Parenthood
I
1
I
and adjunct professor
Brown
at
His oldei brothei lonas, developed vaccine tor poliomyelitis, and his other brother,
Herman, was
a
renowned
and adniinisiiatoi
Vi
—
d.
Feb.
15,
Sergtyev, Konstantin Mikhailovich, Russian ballet dancer and director (b. March 5 [Feb. 20, old style], 1910, St. Petersburg, Russia— d. April 1992, St Petersburg), was a premier danseur I. with the renowned Kirov Ballet for three decades (1930-61) and twice served as the company's artistic director and chief choreographer (1951-
he covered Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the war effort, but he became restless and was assigned to the China-Burma-India theatre in 1943. While flying into China, the aircraft he was aboard experienced engine failure, and the crew and passengers were forced to parachute out into Japanese-controlled jungles. With help from a supply plane, which dropped provisions, he was instrumental in leading the group out of the jungle on foot. He recounted many of his adventures in his books, notably Not So Wild a Dream ( 1946), which was reprinted twice. Sevareid's postwar assignments were in France, Germany, Britain, and W ashington, where he became a formidable and vocal foe of Sen. Joseph McCarthy's Communist
As
55; L960-70).
admired
a
performer Sergeyev was much
for his lyrical interpretations of romantic
leading roles and for his partnering skills; as a director he introduced the world to the Kirov's exquisite artistry in a series ol international tours.
1930 he completed his siudics with the State
In
Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet (renamed the Kirov in 1435) and joined the company. He
Aug 4. 1992, New
Sevareid, (Arnold) Eric, U.S. broadcast journalist d. Jul) 9, 1992, (b. Nov, 26, 1912 Velva, N.D.Washington, D.< .), was an eloquent commentator and scholarl) writei whose fuel) crafted cssavs
journalism and as a composer and pianist. In 1933 he began working for The New Yorker, at as a free-lancer, and in 1939 he became lirst a managing editor. In 1452, after the death of founding editor Harold Ross, Shawn became editor. Under him the magazine gave up much of its lightheaded irreverence but never its sense of humour or its famous cartoons and became known lor serious reporting of major social and political issues. Among others. Shawn published writing b) Hannah Arendt. on the trial of Adolf Eichmann; James Baldwin, on race; and Rachel ( arson, on the environment. Truman Capote's
19,
hiro
however, alter attending
I
(
AP WIDE WORLD
1910 New York), was
Hams
also studied with
H«
the luilliard
,ii
1907,
kit college alter two years and briefly
worked
in
Cold Blood was
tirst
serialized
—
in
the
maga-
I
—
the
Graduate
School In 1935 Schuman began leaching at Sarah awrence ( oUege, Bronxvilk n and in 1945 ai m\ association wuh the music publishei linner, Inc. Later in thai same (real lie was
the position.
v.
I
31,
he New Yorker's distinguished writers ol included John Cheever and John Updike, and Pauline Kael, on him, and Roger Angell, on baseball, were among its longtime critics and reporters. Shawn was esteemed as an editor who knew when to leave prose alone but who also demanded accuracy ami sought perfection the magazine's tact-checking department being legendary—and as a person who nurtured writers and other editors. When new owners forced him lo retire in 1487. more than 150 of his colleagues protested by asking his replacement to decline
loscaniui. he turned to the study ot music.
(1937) degrees
Aug.
fiction
New York
\
(b.
Chicago, III.—d. Dec. 8, 1992, New York. N.Y.), headed The Ne» Yorker for 35 years, from 1952 to 1987. during which time it was one of the most avidl) read and influential of U.S. publications.
zine
vator)
M
Shawn. William, U.S. editor
In
New York Philharmonic conducted
compose] Ro\
Sevareid 11964).
—
( it) he enrolled at Malkm Conserand then a! teachers College, Columbia University, where he received B.S (1935) and
In
1977, Sevareid wrote a weekly syndicated column and published such books as In One Ear (1952), Small Sounds m the Night (1956), and 77iis Is Eric
He
performance b) Ai
a
sion editorials, which aired until his retirement in
(
known toi musi^ that combined traditional forms with American themes and toi Ins contributions to teaching and the development ot arts institulions Although he had music lessons in his \outh. Schuman entered college to study business \t the In the
became a celebrity in the U.S. during the 1960s, when his commentaries were featured on the "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite." Besides his two-minute televiwitch-hunts. Sevareid
composer, cd-
S
I
(b,
late 1940,
standard Fountain of Bakhchisaray, lost Illusions, and The Bronze Horseman. Alter his acclaimed partner Galina I Linos a transferred to the Bolshoi Ballet in 1944. he danced with Natalya Dudmskaya (whom he married). As a choreographer and as artistic director, Sergeyev focused mainl) n classical ballet techniques in the standards and in such new pro ductions as Hamlet 1970). He was dismissed Irom the compan) in 1970 alter Natalya Makarova defected while on tour in the U.K., but he was reinstated as director ol the choreographic school in 1973 Sergeyev was awarded numerous state honours, including the cnin Prize 1970). quickly rose to leading roles in the repertory and in new ballets, notably
veterinarian.
Schuman. William Howard. UCatOI lork.
newborn twin sons, Sevareid joined Murrow in London for broadcasts during the Battle of Britain bombing raids. When he returned to the U.S. in
Diversity, Pro\
I
idence. R.I a
his achievements both as a composer and as an educator and administrator.
,
.
appointed president ol Juilliard, where his man) innovations included changes in the curriculum, establishment ot divisions toi opera and clause. and development ol the Juilliard Smug Quartet, which became a model loi chambei groups in \tter participating ill the planning tor residence the Lincoln (enter lor the Performing Ails ot which Juilliard became a part, he served as its in from 1962 to 1969 arl) in nit .is a Qomposer, Schuman wrote songs and short influenced b) populai music Hi turned, however, to longer, more formal works. and his output included symphonies, concern. ballets, and choral .wd slumber woiks Sv his best-known compositions [merican Festival In, Third Symphony 1941 B cantata based on |*octrv ot Walt Whitman, and Symphony !•" S/mio (1943) received their premieres under Serge Koussevitzky, a champion ol new musK Olhei works include I
1;
1
—
the op.
latei
llu
U
th,
Hal
i
revised
i
Pulitzer Pn.
s
Vi M
1976);
and an orchestration
i
Among Schuman
became
many honours were led in music, in
nd
Pulitzer, in
196
the
1
tirst
1943 lor I9f
hallmark ol
a
liis
careei
wuh
(
us News
and who pioneered a new journalism In introducing opinion and analysis in news reports. Sevareid, a Statel) Norwegian, tell thai he was
1
;i)
19
,
77)
uis kl
wuh
i
somewhat forbidding Scandinavian
a
manner, with
a restraint that spells stuffiness to
Ills newscasts were delivered not grave tones, but Ins forthright manner projected a sense ol mist to his peers and audiences Alter graduating (1935) from the
a
in
ot
lot
people
sonorous
it
Universit) ot Minnesota. Sevareid worked as a reporter (1936 $7) foi the Minneapolis Journal, winch had hired him as a cub reporter in 1930. He then secured a job with the \et\ York Herald tribune in Paris. In 1939 Edward R. Munow. who was based in ondon, recruited Sevareid to I
BS
news correspondent to COVei the World War II in Europe. As one liovs he was the last American to broadcast from Pans, and in 1940 ai Bordeaux he join
(
outbreak ot
stored
a
announce the
as a
ot
"MUITOM
i
s
scoop b) being the lust to ranee was poised to suiiendci to aiici Seeing Paris with Ins wife .md
journalistic
that
remans
I
John Joseph, U.S. lawyer and judge
(b.
Waterbury, Conn.—d. Aug. 14. 1492, Washington. DC), presided over the historiC Watergate scandal proceedings, doggedly searching lor the truth ami the identity ol those responsible foi the burglary (June 17, 1972) ol the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate liotcl-ollicc-apartmenl complex he became an American in Washington, D.( tolk hero alter unraveling the COVer-up, which prompted the resignation (Aug. 9, 1974) ol Pres Richard Nixon and the convictions ol many ol Nixon's top While House aides. Alter graduating (1926) from Georgetown University in Washington. DC, Sirica boxed in several bouts in Miami, la before opening a law practice in the nation's capital, lie served as U.S. attorney (193034) before returning to private practice. During World War II. he enlisted in the navy but was
March
I
.
as
Sirica.
I''.
1904
,;
I
.
deterred altei tailing the physical. Instead, he and hover Jack Dempsev toured the U.S. selling war bonds. In 1957 Sirica was appointed to the lederal bench. As chief judge of the U.S. Districl (ourt for the District ol Columbia, Sirica assigned hunsell the case (January 1973) ol the seven men charged with the Watergate burglary. During their sentencing (live pleaded guilty and iwo were convicted by a jury). Sirica lead a letter
People
from one
ol the defendants,
lames
v»
Mc
27) and Poland's Access to the Sea (1934). Smogorzewski was associated with Encyclopaedia Britannica from l
1942 until shortly before Ins death.
plate,
and by introducing
Stotz,
who
The first national tournament was held in 1949 in Williamsport, which became the permanent home of the Little League World Series. As commissioner of Little League baseball, Stotz became embroiled in a controversy with the in 12 leagues.
Their commissions included low-rise housing units
—
1910'.
(b.
to get into their big brothers' games. They sported regulation uniforms and had adult managers and coaches. By 1942 a permanent field had been completed, and in 1947 there were 48 teams
first
Smogorzewski, Kazimierz Maciej, Polish journalist (b. Feb. 24, 189h. Sosnowiec. Poland d. Nov. 4, 1992. Shepperton, Middlesex. England), chronicled European events as a newspaper correspondent in Paris (1919-25), Berlin (1933-39). and London (1957-81) and as editor ot the Parisbased monthly La Pologne (1929-33) and the London-based bimonthly Free Europe (1939-45). Smogorzewski was educated at the School of Political Science in Paris. He fought with the French Foreign Legion during World War I. but he was serious!) wounded in 1915, received the Croix de Guerre, and was invalided out (I'M 7). In I'll'' he became the Pans correspondent lor the conservative Gazeta Warszawska, and he remained in Paris throughout the 1920s. As Berlin correspondent for the semiofficial Polish daily Gazeta Polska from 1933, Smogorzewski interviewed Hitler ami recorded the events leading up to the German invasion of Poland. In August 1939 he lied to London, where he became a central figure in the expatriate Polish community. It was lata discovered that his name appeared on the Na/i an est list
figure
1992. Williamsport).
young
did research on tungsten then served as founding
ety (1981).
4.
lighter bats and balls. together with George and Bert Bebfirst ble managed the three Little League teams, organized the game for boys too small or too
Yannoecio Biringuccio's Pirotechnia, which apin 1540 in Italian and was the tirst printed work on metallurgy. Smith, who was recognized as an expert on metals through his various writings, was recruited to join the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, N.M., where he directed ( 1943-46)
i
sports
for little leaguers by spacing their bases 60 apart (compared with 90 ft for major leaguers). by making the pitcher's mound 40 ft from home
peared
1
U.S.
Pa.—d. June
ft
translate
1980), and A History of Metallography: The Development ol Ideas on the Structure of Metals to 1890 1988). Smith was awarded the Presidential Medal for Merit (1946), the Platinum Medal of the Institute of Metals. London (1970), and the Dexter Award of the American Chemical Soci-
E..
ilhamsport.
mond
he earned a Ph.D. in 1926. He then spent 15 years with the American Brass Co. at Waterbury, Conn., conducting research on copper alloys. From 193b
(
11,
The birth of Little League was written into history when Lundy Lumber beat Lycoming Dairy 23-8 on June 6, 1939. Stotz modified the playing dia-
sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where
carbide and boron. He 1946-56) of the Institute for the Study director of Metals at the University ot Chicago before
in
brainstorming the idea while nursing a leg injury caused when he stumbled over a lilac bush while playing a backyard game of catch with his two nephews. Stotz. a lumberyard clerk, gained sponsorship for the league from local businesses and devised his own field with youth-size dimensions.
1
bombs and
I
the
in
was the enthusiastic founder, in 1939. of Little League baseball, which he established after
—
three atomic
the
)' )(
physical-mathematical treatment ot the entrainiurrounding ur into the ascending current cumulus cloud. Stommel. who earned honorary Ph.D. s from Goteborg (Sweden) University in 1964 and Yale University and the University ol ( hicago in 1970. was elected to the National Academ) ol Sciences m 1962 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1989.
V\
scientific
the preparation of the active metals for the
I
GLOBE PHOTOS
(
Martha Teach Gnudi
1954,
Ml -iud> ot deep-water Mediterranean (1969-72,. Hewas credited with having helped to formulate a
named
during his longtime career; he was tirst noted lor determining 1943 44) the properties and technology ol plutonium and uranium needed foi the construction ol the atomic bombs that were tirst exploded in 1945 and he later advanced the use of metallography in the examiof artifacts. archaeological After graduatnation ing 424) from the University of Birmingham. Smith pursued his studies in the U.S. at the Mas-
to 1942 he helped
ocean current,
IRI S (begun
lic
stuluig
disciplines
(
CAM
including the
d. 1903, Birmingham, bngland Cambridge, Mass.). made impor-
tant contributions
stations in monitor
11011. il
criticized 01
Slot/.
US.
Smith, Cyril Stanley, British-born
79
theorized that Ms northward How must be balanced b) a deep, southward How beneath it. Many ot Ins theories were later proved. Stommel set up
mulliunit
and
I9W: Obituariei
-I
more avant-garde High Tech Postmodernism. One building, the University of Cambridge hisunpopular that
British anti-Modernists used
it
as
housing project at Runcorn New Town (1967- 7 6) was later demolished. The Neue Staatsgalerie (1977-84) in Stuttgart. Germany, a combination of classicism and colourful geometric abstraction designed by Stirling and his partner (from 1971) Michael Wilford. was heralded as an icon of Postmodernism. Stirling won the Royal Institute of British Architects' Gold Medal in 1980 and the Pritzker Prize in 1981. In 1991, after a long and bitter fight, planning permission was granted for his controversial No. 1 Poultry, to be built in the heart of London"s conservation area. He was knighted only 12 days before his death from complications a rallying point, while a concrete
alter surgery.
Stommel, Henry Melson, U.S. oceanographer and meteorologist
(b.
Sept.
27.
1920.
Wilmington.
Del.—d.
Jan. 17. 1992, Boston. Mass.). conducted important field studies on the dynamics of ocean
currents and became a respected theoretician in that field of research. In 1977 Stommel and Friedrich Schott developed a method of determining, in principle, the absolute velocity of mean ocean currents from observations ot the density alone. After earning a B.S. from Yale University. in 1942, he taught mathematics and astronom) (1942-44) there before moving to the Woods Hole (Mass.) Oceanographic Institution, where he was research associate (1944-59) and. from 1978, oceanographer. Stommel was professor ol oceanography at the Massachusetts Institute ol Technology (1959 mi and 1963-78) and at Har-
vard University (1960-63). In 1947 he published The dull Stream, one of the first books to explore that ocean current and other currents in general. le set forth the idea that the Earth's rotation was responsible lor pushing the Cull Stream westward along the coast of North America, and he also I
organization in 1955 when he filed suit because he felt that the league had grown too large and that increasing team rosters to 15 players from 12 was detrimental to less talented players, who would have their playing time reduced. The suit was settled out of court, but in early 1956 Stotz was barred by a federal court from forming a rival group. It was never clear whether Stotz was fired or quit as Little League commissioner. He later served as a tax collector in his hometown.
Gunnar Georg Emanuel, Swedish
Strang,
politi-
cian (b. Dec. 23. 1906. Jarfalla, near Stockholm.
Sweden
—
d. March 6. 1992, Stockholm), as finance minister (1955-76) in a succession of Social Democratic Cabinets, was the chief architect of the renowned Swedish social welfare system. Strang was a self-educated agricultural labourer and trade union organizer who rose to become president of the Swedish Agricultural Workers' Union in 1938. After World War II he was elected to the Riksdag (parliament), joined the government as a consulting minister (1945^47), and later was head of the Ministries of Supplv (1947-48). Agriculture (1948-51), and Social Affairs (195155). As minister of finance. Strang sought the redistribution ot wealth through a highly progressive system of taxes on personal income, capital, and private employers. He supported the extensive welfare system that included generous health care benefits, pensions, and unemployment coverage. He also put considerable emphasis on job creation and the need lor a balanced budget. In 1969 Strang introduced Sweden's tirst value-added tax. which took on even greatei significance in the late 1980s when the government introduced a senes ot cuts m othci tonus of taxation. Strang
office aftei the Social Democrats lost the 1976 elections, but he remained in the Riksdaa
left
until 1985.
Summerson, tectural
England
Sir
John Newenham,
historian (b. Nov. 25.
—
d.
Nov.
10.
l I
)'>2.
C 1
British archi-
M>4.
Darlington.
London.
I
ngland).
80
People of 1992: Obituaries
JVC in 1946. Some of were director (1976-80) video products division, managing duectoi
He
whs
in
his other executive posts
elist
country's
ol the
children, the elderly, and the Holocaust.
an important influence on architectural preservation in Britain and helped record that architectural history. Several ol his books became popular classics and set a proles sional standard lor works on that subject. Sum-
merson was educated at Harrow and at University College, London. Alter he received his architect's license, he worked in a number of architects' ofthen decided that he preferred teaching and He was assistant editor of The Architect and Building News (1934-41) and deputy director ol the National Building Record (194145) before becoming (1945) curator of Sir John Soane's Museum, where he remained until 1984. During these years with the museum. Summerson also held professorships and lectureships at a number of colleges and universities -among fices but
writing.
the navy before joining
1980 83), senior managing director 1983-86) ol video research and development laboratories, vice president 1986-90), and auditor L990-92). (
(
(
Tal, Mikhail Nekhemyevich, Latvian chess grand
master
—
1936, Riga. Latvia d. June Russia), became at 23 the
9,
Moscow.
1992,
28,
Nov.
|b.
foi
Honoui
S.S.R. titles (1958, 1967, 1972, "74. and 1978) and numerous othei international competitions,
i
(
i
Vrchitecture ol the Royal Institute ol British Architects m 1976, and appointed Companion ol
1987
in
man
youngest
to
1
I
I
notably the high-speed world blitz championship
Rosemary. British children's w liter lb, neland Dec. 14. 1920, West Clandon. Surre) d Julv 23, 1992), produced souk so volumes ol SulelitT,
in
(
anada
1988
in
I
nchlv
detailed historical fiction thai entertained
them about British his torv from the pie-Roman era to the Clh centurv nglish ( ivii Wars and beyond Sutcliff, who was
children while teaching
I
never overlj sentimental oi condescending to hei readers, introduced a vast amount ol careful!) researched detail into hei novels and did not shv awav from such complex, emotion-charged issues as war, loneliness, and death Stricken bv a crip pling form of arthritis as a child, she had little formal education until she entered the l> School ol Art at age 14 She became an ac COmplished miniature painter and did not publish hei tust hook. The ( hronicles oj Rohm Haul. until 1950 The Eagle oj the \mth (1954) whicl brought her nationwide lame, was the lust ol scv eral artful!) linked novels sei mainlv in Roman Britain, including The ShteU Ring (195»>). Ihc Silvei Branch (1957), The Lantern Bearers (1959) Dawn Wind (1961), and Frontier Halt (1980)
Among
novels
were Warrioi Scarlet (1958) /', Hark of the Horsi Lord (1965), Blood Feud (1976), Flame-Coloured Taffeta (1986), and an \ithurian tnlogv She also wiolc several books based on ancient legends and tales, as well as historical fiction foi adults and an autobiography, hei
othei
Bate ft
suulitt
i
mandei
won
the
Medal in P'mi and was made Com Oidei ol the British mpue shortlv
Carnegie
ol the
1
her death
Mii/uu.
lakaini. ib
1923,
fapanese
engineei Jan 19, 1992, as duel ol the video products electronics
Yokohama, Japan
lokvo. Japan),
(o
.1
Japan (JVC) from 1970 l( i>r h spearheaded the successful market IIS development oi the \ (video home system) issettc recorder, which debuted in 1976 His company became engaged in a fierce compe tuion with tin Son) < oip. winch had introduced the Betamax video system in 1974, lak.mo insisted that engineers design the \ll v system so that two houn ol normal recording (versus one hour foi Betamax) were possible, and he licensed the secret \ MS technologv to other manutactui video rental tapes had \ HS format,
i
I
ita!
S
stores ceased stock
was genthe) had greater clarity), and
max videotapes (even though that
d
orders
Hamamatsvi
1
it
to begin
akano
a
nanu-
graduate ol ed tWO veils
also
on White House commissions
was
a pan-
that discussed
(
have won the world chess championship when he defeated the defending champion. Mikhail M. Botvinnik. in a stunning upset (i:'j N :) in I960. Tal, who learned to play chess at the age of six. was known for his unbelievably complex and audacious moves. He became a national master and Latvian champion in 1953, at age Ib. In 1957, the year he graduated from Riga University, Tal became an international grand mastci and won the first ol his si\ titles as champion of the U.S.S.R. He established Ins nght to challenge Botvinnik with impressive victories in the 1958 interzonal and 1959 candidates' tournaments, both held m Yugoslavia. Tal was taken seriously ill with kidney disease shortlv before he lost to Botvinnik in a 1961 rematch. and he never again challenged lor the world championship Despite continuing bouts with hvci and kidncv ailments, however, he won five more
I'iss 59), Cambridge (196 them (Moid and Columbia. New York ( ilv 1968) -and wrote main books, some ol them based on his lectures. Architecture inBritain 1530-1830 L953) surveyed almost all oT his most important work and became a classic, and I he Classical Language l
Pope John Paul II encouraged a more active role rights movement. In 198° Tomasek openly endorsed the peaceful overthrow until
1978 to take
his old friend in in the dissident
1
human
(
Trace, Christopher, British television personality (b. March 21. 1933, Cranleigh, Surrey. England d. Sept. 5. 1992, London, England), was the original male host of the BBC television program
"Blue Peter," a show developed for five- to eightyear-olds to fill a gap in children's programming. For nearly nine years (1958-67) and more than 500 shows, he was a reliable and adventurous surrogate older brother to a generation of youngsters. Trace was especially effective when he demonstrated do-it-yourself projects, and he originated the much-parodied phrase "Here's
one
I made earlier." After service in the army. Trace decided to become an actor; until "Blue Peter," however, being Charlton Heston's double in Ben Hur was the closest he came to fame. After leaving "Blue Peter,' he joined the Spectator feature film company. It failed after two years, though,
1
(
Communist regime.
of the
Obituark
:
—
I
'
I
government
iv 1995-96. New direct income supports of ECU 45 (about $42) per ton of grain were to substitute for part of the support lost through the reduction of intervention prices. Larger, so-called professional farms had to set aside (idle) part of their land to be eligible for payments. Such farms those that produced more than 92 tons of grain annually and were ordinarily 20 ha (about 50 ac) or larger represented some 35% of all farms and 65% of the total
—
area planted to the crops covered.
The 1992-93 world wheat crop was
the second largest
on
record although well below the 1990-91 record. Crops in
both the U.S. and the former Soviet republics were more than 20% larger than a year earlier. Eastern Europe's wheat production, however, was 30% smaller. Wheat imports by eastern European countries were expected to be heavily dependent on the availability of credit and donation programs bj exporters. Stocks of EC wheat from the 1991-92 harvest were sufficient to increase exports in 1992-93, despite the
drought-reduced
A
EC
wheat crop.
of government planting restrictions and favourable weather conditions resulted in the largest U.S. relaxation
coarse grain crop since 1985-86
—
up one-fourth from 199192 to 274 million tons. That, together with a substantial recovery in production in the former Soviet republics, more than offset the
much
smaller crops in eastern Europe and
the EC.
A
Oilseeds. modest increase in 1992-93 global oilseed production was expected (in December), largely the result of a U.S. soybean crop favoured by unusually good weather. The strong expansion of 1991-92 oilseed output led by cottonseed, rapeseed, and soybeans together with
—
the availability of substantial carryover soybean stocks, fueled strong increases in production of both high-protein
meals and edible vegetable oils. The ample oilseed supplies were reflected in soybean prices (c.i.f., Rotterdam, U.S. No. 2 yellow), which were trending slowly downward, averaging $237 per ton from October 1991 through September 1992, compared with $241 in 1990-91 and $247 in 1989-90. The demand for protein meal strengthened a little in 1991-92, stimulated by the expansion of the hog and poultry sectors of the U.S., EC, and those Latin-American and Asian countries that were experiencing rapid economic growth. The price of soybean meal increased from an average of $198 per ton (c.i.f., Rotterdam) in 1990-91 to $203 in 199192. Although soybean oil prices (f.o.b., Rotterdam) fell from an average of $454 per ton in 1990-91 to $437 in 1991-92, about the same as in 1989-90, strong price increases were recorded for coconut and palm oil in 1991-92. In response to an earlier GATT finding that the EC's oilseed policy denied the U.S. and other oilseed exporters the benefits of a 30-year-old tariff concession that reduced EC tariffs on oilseeds and oilseed meals, the EC adopted a
new
set
was not in
Table
IV.
Livestock in
In
Numbers and Meat Production
Major Producing Countries
1991'
1992'
and buffalo 055 9 1.047 9
Cattle
World
total
t
Canada United States
tt 4
100
1
302 565
Mexico Argentina
130
Brazil
1
99
Uruguay Western Europe
116 1023 307
237
43 247
39 244
India
271 2
271 3
China
1057 1046 Hogs 7626 761 1 104 106
FSU* Baltic states
Australia
World
total
Canada
57 7
United States
Mexico Western Europe
EC
99 1150 1062
552 646
Eastern Europe
FSU«
97
11
3697
1065
1
58
1
781 041
697 036
1
72 2 03 1 54
1
1
1488
108
24 52 Poultry
1
69
1
1
42
1
37
159 10
US
634
649
Nonfat dry milk
meat
EC
160 70
year s end Consists of 51 countries
US '
Includes united Germany Former Soviet Union comprising 12 nations, excluding its Baltic states Ready to eat equivalent Coverage includes China Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service August and October
1992
1
347
31 5
149
15.8
145
12 8
1020
95.4
822
58 42
51
142 10.7
442
6.307
EC
11
145 147 283
Butter
Cheese
27 8
114
10.7
In
450
25.2
14.5
Production 1992' 1991
US
688
11
Product/Region
EC
87.3
113 150 153
27 5
Total
'Forecast
•
255
Japan/South Alrica
beel and veal 38 lor pork 51 lor poultry meat 30 lor sheep and goat meat, and roughly the same coverage lor animal numbers Includes nearly all European producers, the most significant in the Western Hemisphere, and scattered coverage elsewhere
•
257 289
31 2 11.5
Australia/New Zealand 3
lor
«
264 (united)
India
Sheep goat meat All
1
1115
Poland Former Soviet republics
10
3 95
at
113 9
62
012
numbers
118.0
Netherlands. The United Kingdom Other western Europe Eastern Europe
meat5
6 85
Preliminary livestock
126 2
Germany
38 1 44 26 00
Eastern Europe
Total
128.7
France
FSU*
'
148
1334
China
EC
total"
142
480
296 696
World
14.5
531
39 33 11 75
SheepJ 845 1 8185
24 2
Baltic states
269
Japan Oiina
85 4 67 4
245
EC
783 083 13 78
states
67 3
South America
Western Europe
18
1
37 78 11 20
Banc
1991
846
Brazil
67 06
14 86
total
1990
Italy
13 75
371 7
000.000 metric tons
North America United States
76
109 2 52 9
United States
In
204
6591
549 564 045 148
World Production of Dairy Products'
V.
Region and country
74
Brazil
World
billion
Production of cow's milk
83
1180
Poultry
Table
Pork
082
37
ruling,
32
1
2
569
EC
66
894 829
589 11
to restrict
260 380
032 934 868 208
1.13 7 26
4 4
Baltic states
Japan China
47 98 93
1053
3 70
78 7
The
Beel and veal
1294 104
24 6 106
EC Eastern Europe
— mainly of soybeans— the benefits of the rejected the and the U.S. threatimports worth $1 from the EC—the
oilseed exporters
ened
48 92 89
265
859
The U.S.
1991.
1992'
1991
567
877 804
December
in
and requested another panel, which ruled March 1992 that the new policies continued to deny U.S.
concession.
000.000 head and 000.000 metric Ions (carcass weight)
Region and country
of oilseed policies
satisfied
46
49 52
282 147
294 154
107 4294
4150
10.8
Year-end stocks 1992' 1991
000 metric tons
1.801
6,056 1.619
606
615
10.169 4.892 2.763 3.474 1.499
11,127 4.982 2,920 3.177 1.208
398
390
538 249
924 458 225
1.629 1.088
1.627 1.120
189 769
175 354 130 45
1,006
482 98
Based on 37 maior producing countries Those not shown individually include (North America) Canada and Mexico, (South America) Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Venezuela; (EC) Belgium-Luxembourg, Denmark. Greece, Ireland. Portugal, and Spam, (other western Europe) Austria. Finland. Norway. Sweden, and Switzerland, and (eastern Europe) Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia Coverage of production and stocks ol other dairy products is not as comprehensive or uniform for the countries not shown above individually
'
Preliminary
3
Year ended June 30 tor Australia and May 31 lor New Zealand Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service, November 1992
Agriculture and
U.S. estimate of the
damage
to U.S. export sales. Following
unsuccessful EC attempts to renegotiate its tanll bindings on oilseeds and oilseed meal, the U.S. in September asked
GATT
lor binding
sation the
arbitration to rule
EC owed
damage eaused them by ensued
EC
after the
how mueh compen-
the U.S. and oilseed exporters lor the
the
EC
policies.
More
negotiations
unilaterally blocked the proposal for
arbitration.
On November of
its
2 the U.S. announced the
retaliation should the dispute not
December
first
installment
be resolved to
its
withdrew U.S. tariff reductions negotiated in earlier years on $300 million worth of EC exports to the U.S. Prohibitive duties were announced on a list of EC exports that included white wine, rapeseed oil, and wheat gluten. U.S. imports of agricultural products from the EC (excluding distilled spirits) amounted to $4.4 satisfaction by
5.
It
billion in 1991.
The
EC
and the U.S. announced on November 20 that
they had resolved the oilseed dispute and several other ferences between
them
that
were delaying the
GATT
dif-
mul-
The agreement on oilseeds was commitment to limit its oilseed production
tilateral trade negotiations.
prices iioii.
North
strengthened
a little in
October
si. 4DI)
at
for butter
I
nod Suppllef
HI
uropean and selected world pons)
1992 from spring onward, peaking $1,750 per ton lor butter, $1 750 I
in
$2,050-$2,450 lor cheese, and $1,650 $2,060
oil.
(NFDM). The
for nonfat dry milk
NFDM
and
for cheese
I
increases were greater
than for butter, partly reflecting a
long-term trend in many countries toward lower per capita consumption of butter because of dietary concerns and competition from vegetable margarine. Butterfats were also
tending to receive lower levels of support, particularly
in
and U.S. dairy programs, relative to NFDM. The EC in May 1992 adopted important changes in its dairy policy, which cost it some $7 billion annually, as part of overall CAP agricultural reforms. The reforms were less drastic than were those for the grains and oilseed sectors; a 2% cut in milk quotas for 1991-92 resulted in a reduction in EC dairy surpluses and reduced pressures for further
EC
production cuts. The reforms provided for only small reductions in support prices, leaving most adjustments to future
A 5%
years.
cut in the support (intervention) price for
butter was approved.
based on an EC by setting aside in the first year of the agreement 15% of the area now planted to oilseeds and 10% in subsequent years. The outcome of the issue, however, remained in doubt because of a bitter French claim that the agreement
unexpectedly large increases in output in Asia, especially by China and India, disproved early forecasts of a smaller harvest. Global sugar output was expected to exceed con-
was invalid. Meat and
continuing growth
Another decline in the world cattle herd, by about 1%, was expected in 1992 (in October) because increases in the U.S. and China were overwhelmed by large reductions in the former Soviet republics and eastern Europe and smaller declines in the EC. The formerly Communist countries were also the source of the largest reductions
Livestock.
in
beef production
in 1992, resulting in
mated 2% reduction globally. World pork production continued
to
expand
at
an
esti-
almost
annually, led by strong growth in Chinese output that
World sugar production in 1992-93 was expected November) to about match output in 1991-92, when
Sugar. (in
sumption for the fourth straight year. The prospects of in world sugar stocks helped keep the average monthly spot prices of freely traded raw sugar mostly in the 8-10-cent-per-pound range. World prices of refined
The crisis
in
the 12-13-cent range.
Union and the economic
dissolution of the Soviet
faced by
its
successor states resulted in a breakdown of
the barterlike arrangements under which
Cuba had traded
2%
more
Table
than offset substantially smaller production in the former Soviet republics. World poultry output continued to grow briskly, but not quite as rapidly as the 5% rate achieved in 1991. The growth in Chinese poultry production also slowed a little from the 7.5% expansion recorded in 1991. CAP meat-industry reforms created a new support mech-
anism that made direct payments to beef and sheep farmers based on the number of animals owned up to a designated maximum, with premiums for a certain number of animals per hectare of land used. The intervention price (government purchase guarantee) for beef was cut 15% to maintain the competitiveness of beef with other meats, but this was offset to some extent by reductions in feed costs resulting from CAP reforms that lowered intervention prices for grains. Much less EC pork and poultry than beef was purchased under EC support programs, but they would also benefit from the lower grain prices. Dairy Products. The production of cow's milk by 37 major producing countries in 1992 was expected (in November) to decline for the second straight year, again falling about 3%. Economic upheaval in the former Soviet republics was primarily responsible, but drought also compounded the problems of reorganizing the dairy industries of eastern Europe. EC milk production again fell as the buyout of production quotas held by EC milk producers continued. Many small producers were leaving the industry, contributing to an increased slaughter of dairy cows and smaller dairy surpluses. Cheese production increased in most areas outside the former Soviet republics and eastern Europe in 1992 as a greater proportion of fluid milk was converted into cheese in
moved mostly
sugar
response to strong consumer demand. International dairy
VI.
World Production of Centrifugal (Freed from Liquid) Sugar In
Region and country North America United States
Mexico Caribbean
Cuba Central America
Guatemala South America
000,000 metric tons raw value 1990-91
1991-92
1992-93'
10.3
10.2
107
6.3 3.9
6.6
8.8
81
68 38 72
76 22
7.0
10
1.1
1.2
14.9
35
6.0 2.5
24
13.2
14.7
Argentina
1.3
1.6
1.4
Brazil
79
89
92
16
1.8
1.8
23.0 18.2 17.0 4.7
21 3
22.1
4.7
42 45
Colombia Europe Western Europe
EC France
Germany
(united)
Eastern Europe Poland
Former Soviet republics
48 22 92
and Middle East South Africa Turkey
Asia
China
18.1
15 8
17.0 4.7 4.5 4.0
4.4
1.6
1.6
69
7.5
0.1
0.1
10.6
10.9
9.6
22
2.4
2.0
2.1
1.8
327
37.4
68
383 85
Baltic states
Africa
169
1
1.6
8.6 14.6
13.7
15.5
Indonesia Pakistan
2
1.7
23 25 20
2,1
Philippines
Thailand
40
5.1
5.5
4.1
43
36
34 30
19.5
220
246
17.7%
19 5% 116 3
India
Oceania Australia Totals
Beginning stocks
As
%
of
consumption
Production Imports 2
114
Consumption Exports 2
1
21
273
24 19
3.4
21
5%
116 2
1103
27.2 112 9
114 6
286
280
283
27.1
1
Preliminary
2
Exports do not equal imports because "Totals" are a composite of slightly differing marketing years, not all beginning in the same months Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. November 1992
Agriculture and Food Supplies
its sugar on very favourable terms for petroleum and other raw materials produced by the U.S.S.R. and the European countries under its influence. These new states of the former
Soviet Union at first sought to eliminate the subsidies to Cuba by exporting for hard currency to the highest bidder. However, many eventually found it convenient to establish their own barter arrangements with Cuba because of severe
foreign exchange shortages and a continuing need for large quantities of imported sugar. Cuba's exports declined
from
about seven million tons to a forecast five million tons in 1992-93. A shortage of fuel and spare parts and antiquated machinery were contributing to further declines in Cuban sugar output. In China large stocks of sugar and a desire to earn foreign exchange continued to support growth in both consumption and exports which now exceeded imports despite a smaller sug'ar crop in 1992-93. In October Brazil ordered an increase in the required alcohol content of gasoline from 14 to 22% as part of a plan to cut carbon emissions in half by 2000. About 4 million of Brazil's estimated 12 million motor vehicles used fuel alcohol derived from domestic sugar or
—
—
imported methanol exclusively. Coffee. The 1992-93 world coffee harvest was expected (in December) to be the smallest since 1988-89, primarily because of a sharp drop in Brazilian output. Weak market prices, the high cost of credit, and the Brazilian government's suspension of guarantees to buy surplus coffee
Table
VII.
World Green Coffee Production 000 60kg bags
In
Region and country
1991-92'
1990-91
North America Costa Rica El Salvador
Guatemala Honduras Mexico South America
Colombia Ecuador
4 620 51 197 28,500 17,980
1.830
1.800 18.971 1.485
18516
Africa
Cameroon Cote d
1.450 3.300
Ivoire
Ethiopia
3500
Kenya
Uganda
1.455 2.700
Zaire
1
Asia and Oceania
3.967 3,000 1.572 3.000
695
1
7480
Indonesia Total production Exportable3 Beginning stocks" Exports
3000
500
1.300 14.370 2.500 7 350
14.604 3.200 7.100 102.893
14.589 2.970
India
16.990 2.375 2,500 3.150 2.000 4.200 45.955 24.000 17,000 1.900 18.565 1,470 4,000 3.000 1.550
2.530 2.357 3.444 2.200
31.000 14.500
Brazil
1992-93 2
18.121
17,350 2.565 2.603 3.282 1.685 4,550 50.010
100 465 76.564 39.218 76,903
95.880 73.786 39.489 76.412
81.103 39.301
81.128
Preliminary
1
-
J 4
Forecast Production minus domestic use In exporting countries Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. December 1992
production influenced the replacement of some 650 million lower-yielding coffee trees with other crops and the adoption of less intensive cultivation there. International prices for raw coffee had
downward
—
duction, resulting in a small
Region and country North and Central America
—
IX.
176
16.3
0.8
02
Argentina
14
11
0.9
Brazil
32
34
12
07
30 09
1.4
1.5
9
113
5.7
55 13 04
104
1.236
1,319
Ghana
100 804 293
Nigeria3
160
95 750 242 110 448 180 210
95 780 270 135 459 200 200
2,259 2.236 2,330 94
2,351 2.327
Turkey
2,350
Australia
Cameroon Cole d
Ivoire2
Asia and Oceania Indonesia Malaysia Total production Net production
Cocoa grmdings Change in stocks
1
221
15.5 0.8
1,398
Ecuador Africa
Forecast Includes
568 375
458 165
235 2 526
2.500
2355 145
some cocoa marketed trom Ghana incudes cocoa marketed through Benin Source USOA. Foreign Agricultural Service October 1992
Paraguay Europe Former Soviet republics Africa
Egypt Sudan. The Asia and Oceania 2 China
-23
2
1990-91
1
1
14
04 44 4 20 7
17 94
60
52.5
15 04 467
26
21.0
1
India
91
94
100
Pakistan
75
100
90
3.0
26 23
Total '
480-lb bales
1992-93'
Mexico
107
000000
252
466 290 85
Brazil
2
107 469
Cocoa
the former
1991-92
295 83
South America
'
1991 92
in
235
Western Hemisphere
1992 93'
United States
102
stocks.
World Cotton Production n
Region and country
000 metric tons 1990 91
in
Union once the world's second largest consumer because of depressed economic conditions and a shortage of foreign exchange. Nigeria's capacity to produce cocoa products such as cocoa butter, cocoa cake, and chocolate liquor for export exceeded domestic cocoa bean production in 1992 and could lead to a ban on bean exports. Soviet
World Cocoa Bean Production In
drawdown
grindings and consumption declined sharply
i
VIII.
steadily
under the International Coffee Agreement (ICA). The ICA composite indicator price (15-day moving average, New York), which had averaged better than $1.16 per pound in the year prior to suspension, declined steadily to an average of about 67 cents per pound in 1991, falling to a 10-year low of about 46 cents in August 1992 before strengthening a little on prospects of a much smaller 1992-93 coffee harvest. The low prices reflected the large stocks held in both exporting and importing countries. Negotiators extended the deadline for completing a new ICA to March 31, 1993, after failing to meet their year-end goal. They agreed to the principle of a "universal quota" to govern exports to both ICA members and nonmembers and were close to agreeing on how to achieve "selectivity," which seemed to imply separate export quotas and indicator prices for different classes of coffee both questions of critical concern to importing countries. Among the many issues remaining to be resolved were the allocation of quotas among exporting countries and how the arrangement would respond to market forces. Cocoa. African cocoa bean production, along with global cocoa production, was expected (in October) to recover in 1992-93. Producers in many countries cut back on new plantings because low world cocoa bean prices caused them to produce at a loss or barely recover production costs. Prices for cocoa beans (nearest three-month average, New York futures) fell steadily from an average of $1.06 per pound in 1984 before holding at about 55 cents per pound in 1989 and 1990, slipping to 52 cents in 1991, and drifting even lower through October 1992. In Indonesia, however, low production costs made cocoa profitable, and output continued to expand rapidly. Cocoa bean grindings declined in 1991-92 largely because grindings and cocoa imports in the former Soviet republics were sharply reduced; however, they still exceeded pro-
Table Table
moved
since the July 1989 suspension of export quotas
20 869
96
2.8
16 859
Estimate Includes Middle East. Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. June and December
1992
Agricnlturc ;n»i
A new corn
The
plant
sprouts in the previous year's stubble No-till farming,
among
soil
became
it
MFA
89
Agreemeni (MIA), which was extended one yeai in
clear that the
GAT]
multilat-
time
in
rules governing the importation ol
textile-
The agreement, which sanctions restrictions on ess such imports by its members, falls outside the GATI developed countries that were members of the sought liberalization of such restrictions by the developed countries products.
.
and
I
MFA
moisture. TIME MAGAZINE
STEVE USS
1992,
31,
negotiations would not be completed
to replace
of the
conserve
expire Dec.
trade
eral
the
previous crop, was being adopted by farmers to
international Multi-Fibei
to
December when
which seeds
in
are planted
remains
was
ood supplies
I
and were said
demand increased market MFA's extension.
to
condition of the
access as a
EC CAP Reforms. After debate, the EC's agricultural ministers on
Agricultural and Trade Policies.
long and
May
difficult
21 adopted a package of measures aimed at reducing
the large budgetary expenditures and agricultural surpluses
A
negotiating conference convened
UN
auspices of the
ment
in April under the Conference on Trade and Develop-
(UNCTAD) made
International
little progress in developing a new Cocoa Agreement (ICCA). The conference
demonstrated that producing countries wanted an exportquota system to control supply, while consuming countries wanted producing countries individually to withhold cocoa in
conjunction with the existing
meeting issues,
such as
ICCA
saw the negotiators
in July
how
buffer stock. still
Another
divided over key
to deal with the structural oversupply
of raw cocoa, the nature and financing of a withholding
scheme, and what price level to defend. A November conference brought some narrowing of positions, and negotiators planned to meet again in February 1993. Cotton. The sharp downturn in world cotton production in 1992-93 (estimated in December) was expected to result in output approximately matching cotton use and would end a two-year buildup in global cotton stocks. The largest reduction was in China, which was affected by drought and insect damage. Depressed cotton prices resulting from the record crop of 1991-92 also led to smaller cotton plantings elsewhere, especially in the U.S. Output was also reduced by unseasonably cool, wet weather in the former Soviet republics and by flooding in Pakistan. The Chinese harvest, nevertheless, remained large enough to permit a substantial increase in cotton use without drawing down stocks, which represented about 35% of world cotton stocks at the beginning of the 1992-93 season. Low
generated by its CAP. About one-half of EC agricultural output, in terms of value, was affected. These major reforms were to be carried out over three years beginning in 199394. They focused on the grains, livestock, and dairy sectors and extended the reform process initiated with the oilseedsector reforms of 1991. Previously, the EC had provided both price and income support to EC farmers primarily through government guarantees to intervene in markets in a manner similar to the U.S. loan-rate system; the EC purchased products at a minimum "intervention price" that was usually set well above world prices. The CAP reforms relied more on supply controls, in the form of land "set-asides" for crops, to support prices and to reduce government acquisition of stocks. Intervention prices were retained but at substantially reduced levels. Income support was provided largely by direct compensation payments similar to U.S. deficiency payments. The reforms created some practical obstacles to how far the EC could go in reducing its trade restrictions in a GATT agreement. The need for import barriers and export subsidies, the focus of the concerns of the EC's negotiating partners, depended on the level of support provided by the EC countries. When domestic supports are reduced, as in the CAP reforms, individual countries have less need to enact trade-distorting measures to protect their domestic markets. country may reduce such barriers even further, but the cost could be prohibitive without costly expenditures or further reductions in domestic support, both of which are likely to be controversial. This explains the mandate given by the EC countries to its negotiators on the EC Commission that any agreement it reached with the U.S. or in the had to be compatible with CAP reform. The and the Oilseeds Agreement. The EC-U.S. oilseeds agreement also dealt with the much broader agricul-
A
MTN MTN
Table X. Shipment of Food Aid In
world prices prevented China from moving much surplus cotton onto world markets without large subsidies that would greatly increase its already dangerously high budget deficit and make it more difficult to gain admission into the
Cotton use continued to grow worldwide about 2% antended to be largest in countries that were such as China, India, and Paklarge exporters of cotton istan but that also were producing more textiles to meet increased domestic demand caused by rapidly growing populations. International prices of cotton (Northern European Cotlook Index "A"), which averaged a little under 83 cents per pound in 1990-91 (August-July), fell to an average of 63 cents in 1991-92, and slid to about 52-53 cents in
—
late 1992.
in
Cereals
grain equivalent
Average Region and country
1987-68, 1989-90
Canada
EC By members By organization Japan Norway
—
To
less
300
1,064 2,687 1,018 1,669
1,149 2,609
1.005 3.487 991 2,496
1,000 3.500
477 38 110 56
512 47 96 103
6,417
7,260 231 12,356
472
270
.689
13,522
12,800
11.160
11.012
1 1
.895
11,300
502
2
1 1
944 1,665
363
N/A N/A 350
75 128 44
40 90 50
7,533
7,200
developed
countries '
1992-93'
415
Others 2 Total
1991-92
349
Sweden Switzerland United States
1990-91
338
Australia
GATT. nually. Increases
000 metric ton
Estimated. Includes Argentina, Austria. China. Finland. India, OPEC Special Fund. Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and World Food Program, but not necessarily lor all years. Source; FAO, Food Outlook. December 1992
Agriculture and Food Supplies
90
them
had blocked conclusion of the agreement was the so-called "Dunkel Proposal," which GATT's director general, Arthur Dunkel, put forward to revive the MTN after it collapsed in December 1991 because of EC-U.S. differences over agriculture. Initially rejected by both the EC and Japan, the Dunkel paper eventually was accepted by all GATT members as a basis for negotiations. Various attempts were made to move the agricultural negotiations forward during the year, but all failed because of the EC-U.S. deadlock. If an overall MTN agreement was reached in 1993, it would likely substantially incorporate the EC-U.S. oilseeds accord. These were among its major features: 1. The average level of internal farm supports across commodities would have to be reduced 20% from a 1986-88 base. Reducing average support as opposed to Dunkd's proposal to' cut support of each commodity and allowing credit for reductions already made would mean that neither party would have to reduce domestic support for any specific commodity from current levels. The reason was that prices that depressed the market pushed supports to unusually high levels in the 1986-88 base period, while changes in policies and stronger market prices thereafter brought reductions in support greater than 20% for many commodities. The reductions of more than 2(1' for some commodities would allow retention of support on others such as dairy products and sugar for which support had tural issues dividing
MTN
in 1991.
The
that
starting point for the
—
—
2
processing techniques to increase yield. Deepwater
trials
had already proved successful in several countries, including New Zealand and Australia, where the discovery and commercial exploitation of such species as hoki and orange roughy proved to be an outstanding success. Newly discovered stocks of deepwater redfish and grenadier also seemed
commanding
poised for success, with the latter already
high
FOOD PROCESSING While economic pressure forced many families to restrict spending on food, the trend away from traditional meals continued as more consumers combined healthy eating with convenience products. Consumption of dietary foods and fresh produce increased. In the U.K. sales of vegetarian
on the market in Spain, France, Italy, and Germany. Similarly, the fish meal and fish oil industries were forced to seek new or underutilized stocks and to improve production efficiency. For decades, fish meal had been sold on the world market as a commodity for the animal feed
products rose 49% over the previous year, a phenomenon not matched anywhere else in the world. The U.S. govern-
competition with such products as soybeans and with prices based on protein content as the major quality criterion. It was only about 10 years since serious development, of specialized fish meal products had started in Norway with the mink feed and expanding fish feed industries in mind. The high costs of fresh raw material and of the energy-intensive production process, coupled with a more discerning demand by fish farmers, paved the way for
the U.S. Fear of additives declined, and processed foods
prices
industry,
in
more specific product types and production methods. For the past five
the introduction of newer, less energy-intensive
years world
meal production had been steady at about fish oil at about 1.5 million tons.
fish
ment announced new food-labeling
regulations.
However,
ingredient and nutritional information on product labels was largely ignored by the majority of purchasers in
Europe and
gained wider acceptance. Food-poisoning incidents contin-
showing that many caterers,
ued
to rise,
still
not giving proper attention to hygiene.
in particular,
were
Business Trends. The effect of recession on the food
in-
dustry was hard to assess, and opinions ranged from "none"
and mergers worldwide were down by nearly half during the year. Many companies tried to save money by cutting their marketing budgets but were left with a reduced share of the market as a result. to "severe." Acquisitions
German
reunification
and
liberalization in eastern
Europe
This represented some 32 million tons of fish, or approximately one-third of the worlds catch. The major producing
provided growth opportunities that were seized by many major food companies. Salesmen were pleasantly surprised by the high brand awareness of east Germans, who for
countries were Chile, Peru. Japan, the U.S., the U.S.S.R.,
years had watched West
6.5
million tons, with
(yivianne
Norway. Denmark, and Iceland. This article updates the Vtacropaedia
L.
aers)
Commercial Fish-
article
l\c,
103 large food
companies
German TV in eastern
advertising.
Of
the
Germany, 52 had been
March 1992. The food industry in the former Union was in a horrendous condition, with obsolete equipment and a distribution system in which half the food was wasted or stolen between producer and consumer. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) accepted an ofprivatized by
Soviet
Table
XI.
World Fisheries, 1990'
fer Catch in
Country
Total
China
12,095 4
USSR
10.3890 10.353 6
Japan Peru
Inland
Imports
5,237 4 974 9
183 9
1629
933 4
2081
10.6683 4
8075 5068
5.8732
3.0199
US Chile
5,1954
India
37906
1.484 8
Indonesia
3,080 4
795
South Korea
2 750
Thailand
2.650
Philippines
2.2088
330 2000 5858
North Korea
1.750 1 1,747 1 1,624 3
Norway Canada Denmark Iceland
Spam Mexico France Vietnam Bangladesh
1,363 3
794 4
2.2649
848
3960
—
07
237 4
20598 2.2698 2,1655
116
1
17
1
2.809
847 8
5944 159 2097 1146
New Zealand
565 4
Argentina South Atnca
5556
Malaysia
536 4 525 2 479
Italy
Pakistan
Ghana
4730 4383 3918
Ecuador
391
Germany Turkey Tanzania Venezuela
390 7 382 2 337 332 3
Portugal
321 9
Poland The Netherlands
1
3163 3130 2996
garii
289 8 7 498 6 97 245 7
mammals
—
1458
25
23 572
1152 2.458
45
54 580
1
03
835 1922
303
9 1
3188 1075 2385
48.3 843 6
7168 278
1
332 8
226 488 6 673 2
695
66
3300 188
03 3
65 6
26 987
6060 1558 690
2799 146
37 4
339 2
2377 170 01 1.370 1 14.444 4
1
5.827
36 410 8
crocodiles and alligators, pearls,
sponges and aquatic plants Source United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Vearooo* of fa/wry Statistics, vols 70 and 71
corals,
228 5 522 2 439 2
62
1132
41 7
9619 1530 130
883
362
543
229 2 174 8
1.811 2
4
,240 3
743 4 361 4 931 2
—
01 106
1
1
422
14 7 1
52
6203
2.3608
Morocco
504 9 978 6
—
1
1
428 3647
480 2400
Myanmar (Burma)
1.622
8664
291 1946
8035 8000 7438 6025 5655
Excludes aquatic
1100 4830 503 356
Campden Food Research
Exports
1
4
2
8968 8500
Brazil
'.
1
1
1,458 1 1,401.0
United Kingdom
Egypt Senegal Namibia Other World
31 3
255 8
1.5172 1.507 6
U.S.S.R. with technical assistance.
$000 000
in
6.875 5.865
1
from U.S. food manufacturers to provide the former
Trade
000 metnc tons
11 4
6.374 7 36 428 2
Association
in
the U.K. set
up
tion
Consumer Complaint Database to pool informaprovided by companies' own computer-based systems
for
handling customers' complaints. This could produce
a National
detailed analyses of complaints and help to identify their
nature and cause.
The U.K. food workplace became
dispro-
portionately perilous, with an accident rate second only to
The Health and Safety Executive launched a campaign to cut the number of serious accidents.
the construction industry.
Major
retailers, especially
in
the U.S.,
moved
closer to a
"no-stock" policy by imposing "just-in-time" deliveries on manufacturers to eliminate warehousing, a trend seen also
Europe. The additives market in the European Commu(EC) continued to grow, with flavours, phosphates, and intense sweeteners increasing the fastest in line with the use of convenience products. Germany was the largest in
nities
national market.
Technology. groups, a
Despite fierce opposition
new company. Vindicator
from consumer up the first
Inc., started
U.S. irradiation plant for treating fresh foods; the $7 million was irradiating citrus fruit, strawber-
plant at Mulberry, Fla.,
ries, tomatoes, and other local produce. British Technology (iroup USA of Philadelphia developed a process for removing from cocoa powder the protein allergens that cause rashes and migraine in some people. The proteins are denatured rather than extracted, so the taste of the finished chocolate is unaltered. ABC Research of Gainesville, Fla., perfected a method of defatting and restructuring beef to
SKW
Chemicals the fat content of turkey meat. it of Trostberg, Germany, developed a process for extracting concentrated citrus oils with supercritical carbon dioxide give
instead
til
solvents; the process could be
extended to the
decaffeination of coffee and tea and to other food extraction
tgricoltlirc
which organic solvents, now thought to carry risk, had hitherto been used. Freshtainer GmbH of Austria teamed up with the BOC Group ol the U.K. to launch a system tor preserving fruits and vegetables during transportation over long distances. The system controls the composition and humidity of an artificial atmosphere in the container comprising oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene. It would be used by a joint venture company set up to distribute food in the former U.S.S.R. and eastern Europe. New Products and Ingredients. While the number of new food products fell as a result of the recession, new beverages did not. Worldwide, dairy product launches plunged by half compared with the year before. Lymeswold, introduced in the U.K. in 1982 as the first new English cheese in 200 years, was withdrawn in the face of falling sales. In the U.S. new products featured less fat, cholesterol, salt, calories, and sugar, with the greatest increase in products claiming low or no fat. Another noteworthy trend was the growth of "green" marketing; the number of new products making environmental claims rose to a record level. The U.K. snackfood market was growing faster than the overall food market, and this was reflected in the number of new product launches in that sector, with savory snacks accounting for about half. Scientists at the University of Melbourne, Australia, discovered a protein that combats tooth decay and can be used in chocolate and other high-sugar products. It was patented in the U.S. and was expected to be cleared for commercial production within seven years. Ault Foods Ltd. of Ontario developed Dairylite, a milkbased fat replacer containing no chemicals or additives. The result of a $5 million research investment, the product could be used in low-fat and fat-free products; the technology was to be licensed around the world. Hercules in the processes
in
a possible cancer
made from natural new product launches about 99%, failure rate
U.S. introduced Slendid, a fat replacer
Japan led the world with around 4,000 and also led in fruit pectin.
compared with 80-85%
in
—
New
Japanese products included a breakfast cereal made from green peas, an alcoholic milk drink, a cosmetic drink said to beautify the skin, a mineral water claimed to prevent hangovers when taken at bedtime after heavy drinking, and "healthy" fruit drinks formulated to match consumers' blood groups. Packaging. In the U.S., where renewed interest was being
shown
in edible films
in
other countries.
and coatings, some eight universities
APW1D6 WORLD
A
protester demonstrates against the sale of
Although consumer groups opposed the practice on the grounds irradiated strawberries.
of safety, a
company
irradiating several
in
Florida
began
types of produce
in
1992.
ind
I
"i.d
Supplies: foix) PrOCCMtn|
and the USDA were researching the technology. A major focus was on preserving and packing fruits and vegetables; edible wax for apples and pears was already being used. In Australia gelatin-based edible films were in use. as was an edible wrap made from rice paper in Japan. The Potato Cup Co. of Queensland, Australia, produced an edible food container for potato chips and french fries. Japanese companies were taking the lead in the emerging technology of "intelligent" packaging. Examples included a bar code printed in special ink so a bar code reader could tell instantly whether a product was past its "use by" date, and "microwave doneness" indicators. The Coca-Cola Co. introduced the first plastic soft drink bottles made with recycled plastic, with U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. The bottles, currently under trial, contained 25% recycled material.
Company Developments. The Swedish food machinery and packaging companies Tetra Pak and Alfa-Laval, which merged in 1991, announced that the merged group would become Tetra Laval on Jan. 1, 1993. With 35,000 employees worldwide and a turnover in 1992 of $8.5 billion, the group was one of the biggest privately owned companies in the world. Tetra Pak signed a joint venture agreement with the Kuban cooperative in Russia to manufacture, pack, and distribute a wide range of fresh and frozen food and drink products and also to make aseptic packaging materials and equipment. Nestle of Switzerland and BSN of France formed a joint venture to purchase Cokoldovny, a large Czech food manufacturer, for $96 million. Nestle acquired the French Perrier business for $2,760,000,000, but it was warned that the deal might contravene EC laws on competition. Nestle also bought control of the Hong Kong and southern China business of Dairy Farm International. Taking advantage of the expiration of NutraSweet's U.S. patents on the intense sweetener aspartame. Holland Sweetener Co. invested over $30 million to quadruple its aspartame-manufacturing capacity and challenge NutraSweet's market dominance. NutraSweet responded by beginning construction of its first factory in Europe, a $45 million plant at Dunkirk, France. In the U.S. Philip Morris Companies announced plans to buy RJR Nabisco's cold cereal business. Government Action. On December 2 the U.S. government announced new labeling rules for processed foods that would standardize such terms as low fat, less and reduced (which would now be synonymous), and healthy and
Anthropology
94
would allow consumers to determine the nutritional content of food products. The rules did not apply to fresh meat, poultry, fish, and produce. Manufacturers had until May 1994 to comply. The number of U.S. states with labeling laws regulating "green" claims reached 14. An EC directive on nutrition labeling 1,
1992.
A
for foods
came
on April
into force
regulation controlling the production of organ-
grown foods and the labeling of products containing them also appeared in the EC, as did the final draft of a packaging waste directive setting recycling and recovery targets. The U.K. government introduced regulations setting a ically
maximum
limit
of 125
mg
litre of beverage requirement in soft
of caffeine per
and abolishing the minimum sugar
level
(anthony woollen)
drinks.
See also Environment; Health and Disease; Industrial Review: Beverages; Textiles, Tobacco. This articlfupdates the Macropiedia article Food Processing.
Anthropology The
modern prosimians
ancestors of the
(lemurs, lorises,
and tarsiers). the "prosimian primates of modern aspect," were well established by the mid-Eocene, about 45 million years ago. They must have originated in the previous epoch, the Paleocene, but all that has been found so far are the "archaic primates" or Plesiadapiformes, which probably were not really primates at all. Two new fossils from that group, Ignatius and Phe/iacolemur. from the earliest Eocene of Wyoming, do have some anatomic similarities to the primates, but what they most resemble are the Dermoptera, represented todaj by the "flying lemur" an animal that does not flj (it glides) and certain!) is not a lemur. Thus the "archaic primates" from the Paleocene of North America and Europe are not the ancestral primates they were once thought to be. Where, then, did the primates originate'.' A new find from the Paleocene of Morocco, Altiatlasius, may
—
be
a
primate.
11
so,
it
provides additional support for an
African origin of the Primate order. Another new fossil, Algeripithecus, from the Late Eocene and Earl) Oligocene
of Africa,
is
an earl) anthropoid.
I
his
is
part of the
growing
evidence that the ancestors of the monkeys diverged from those of the prosimians far earlier than had previously been believed. In
noid
l l
>92
Mcavc Leake) reported
fossil
from the Oligocene
million years ago. Since
is
it
o!
the discovers of a homi-
Kenya, 27 million to 24
estimated that the ape/human
from the monkev line somewhere between 32 miland 22 million years ago. this is not onlv the oldest bominoid found to date but one ven near that important divergence. In the Miocene there was an extensive radiation ol these bominoids in Africa, Asia, and Europe. These were diverse groups, but alter the Middle Miocene, during the period 14 million to 4 million years ago. there is a great gap in the tossil record A new find in that gap was a relatively millioncomplete lossil skull from Greece. It was dated at Ill million years ago and assigned to the genus Ouranopithea member of the cus Some considered it to be a hominid line split
lion
l
>
—
Hommidae.
An
interesting
new Australopithecus
lossil
was found
in
an area that is geographical]) between eastern and southern Africa, the areas where all previous finds have been made. It
—
was described as being morphological]) gracile somewhat intermediate between the less rugged auslralopithecincs and Homo luibilts With Ethiopia once again open to paleontologists, a number of new finds were reported. At Hadar. ularcnsts bones were discovered that date 500,(100 years hev had prior to the well-known afarensis fossil Lucv I
I
I
not yet been fully described, but it appeared that there was a great diversity of shapes and sizes and that in general these
hominids were more powerful in their arms and shoulders than Lucy. At a different site in the area called Fejej, hominid teeth
were found that date between
3.7 million
and
4.4
million years ago.
"taxonomic space" between the australopithecines during a period of about 2.4 million-l.6 million years, is H. habilis. In 1991 Andrew Hill was able to use an argon-dating technique on a Homo temporal bone originally found in Kenya in 1965. The date of 2.4 million years ago made this the earliest date for the genus. This In the
and H.
erectus,
coincides with a time
dryer climate, and
it
when is
that part of Africa shifted to a
close in time to the date of the
first
Olduvai Gorge in 1959, was now represented by a number of specimens from the Rift Valley and even one from South Africa. But are they all one species? Bernard Wood believed not. He saw evidence for a substantial radiation of these early members of the genus Homo. At the Kenyan site of Koobi Fora he could identify three species, all representing adaptive shifts away from the australopithecine ancestral forms. The year 1990 marked the hundredth anniversary of the discovery of Java Man, and two monographs on H. erectus were published, one by G.P. Rightmire, the other by Jia Laupo and Huang Weiwen. A number of African fossils were getting a second look, as it were, to determine whether they indeed warranted designation as H. erectus. Among them were the fossils at Ternifine in North Africa and Swartkrans in South Africa and a number of specimens from Olduvai Gorge, Lake Turkana, and Koobi Fora. The early European hominids, on the other hand, were still not considered //. erectus by most investigators. One recent find, a mandible with 16 teeth from Georgia in Transcaucasia, was of great interest since it was dated at between 900,000 and 1.6 million years ago. That was older than any western European hominid, although million-year-old stone tools had been found in France. Neanderthal research included the redating of the St. Cesairc fossil by thermoluminescence at 36,000 (±3,000) years ago. The previous dates were 31,000 to 34,000 years ago. This was still the last of the known Neanderthals who used an Upper Paleolithic stone industry, and it may have coexisted with anatomically modern humans. It is a problem that this interesting period of 50.000 to 30,000 years ago is beyond the reach of radiocarbon dating, but the thermoluminescence, uranium series, and electron-spin resonance techniques should yield some interesting information for the time period when Neanderthals and moderns may have lived side by side in parts of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The Israeli Neanderthal cave sites of Tabun and Kebara are dated at 120,000 and 60.000 years ago, respectively, while the caves occupied by modern humans are dated at 100.000 years ago. Recent lossil finds in China also indicate the possible coexistence, about 350,000 years ago, of modern stone tools. H.
humans
habilis,
first
identified at
with anatomically less
modern forms,
in
this case
presumably //. erectus. The "Eve hypothesis" of a common African ancestor of anatomically modern humans, as first published in 1987, was criticized for methodological shortcomings: the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis could have been better done, African-Americans should not have been used to represent Africans, and the computer program used to build the tree of relationship had its shortcomings. In 1991 Allan Wilson
and colleagues corrected these flaws and, if anything, their were reinforced. Then it was found that the conclusions of the study were a product of how the data
original findings
(continued on page 96)
Special Report: Anthropology
Muhammad at Mecca and Medina in ad 607-632, and sunna, his practice. Hadith documents the sunna and is the
The Changing
transmitted. Qur'an, sunna. and Hadith are considered the
form
Women
of
Status
which the sayings and actions
the Prophet are
of conduct for Muslims. Shari'ah
The
these sources.
ume
is
Islamic
lavs
based on
authenticity of the oven* helming vol-
of Hadith literature, collected and compiled from oral
transmissions traced to the Prophet's time, has been the
Societies
The
authenticity of each Hadith
is
integrity of the chain of transmitters.
A
subject of controversy.
determined by the
BY KHAWAR
ol
keys to understanding Islam as a doctrine and as a code
Muslim
in
in
MUMTAZ
substantial
faulted
on
number of Hadith this count,
relating to
women
but they have remained
have been
in circulation.
Their status (authenticity) has blurred over time, but their emotive aspect is ingrained in the Muslim psyche.
Muslims are divided the turn of the century, the condition of
Since
women
in
—
Muslim societies has been undergoing change slow in some instances, cataclysmic in others, but complex everywhere. To comprehend this one must bear the following factors in mind:
While Islam remains a major reference point, a strong determinant of the role and status of women has been the social, political, and economic development of each society. The Muslim world is not a single homogeneous entity; it comprises diverse societies and peoples with diverse histories of state
women
and
The
situation of Muslim and also, within each or urban location, and level
class formation.
differentiated by country
is
society, by class, ethnicity, rural
of development.
Though
among Muslim
significant variations exist
societies,
there are also persistent similarities, specifically in the condition of
women. These emanate
in large part
from Islam.
Culture, class, kinship, and political system interact with
women's position or the extent of their subordination. Thus the desire to control women seems to pervade all Muslim societies. The ferment of change accompanying the collapse of coloIslamic tenets to determine
and the concomitant global rearrangements left between the economic compulsion to integrate with world capitalism and the psychological need to assert their identity. In the absence of appropriate social structures to cope with transition, Muslim states have looked toward Islam to provide legitimizing ideologies. In the process women have been used as both instruments of change inducted into nationalist struggles (Algeria, Iran) and subsequently into the industrial sector and repositories of identity, pushed behind the veil and denied autonomy. nialism
Muslim
societies caught
—
—
Islam as a religion operates at
many
levels
—as
personal
symbol of identity, political motivator/mobilizer, instrument to be used in the pursuit of legitimacy and power. Sometimes one aspect dominates, sometimes another. With the rise of the "fundamentalists," drawn largely from the alienated, newly urbanized, and upwardly mobile classes, the struggle for power between various forces secularists, has sharpened. reformists, and obscurantists/traditionalists
faith,
—
From a
this perspective, recent "Islamic"
political
phenomenon than
this
background, the
tral
in
woman
—
movements
are
more
Against
a religious revival.
question has emerged as cen-
defining the nature of the
Muslim
society.
Proper
modest behaviour, visibility in public spaces, women's all have become major issues of debate. Religious Sources. The two main sources of Islam are the Qur'an, embodying the texts revealed to the Prophet
dress,
roles
—
is
coordinator of the Shirkatgah
centre in Lahore, Pak.
Two
Steps Forward,
She
One
is
the coauthor of
women
Women
Step Back? (London,
's
resource
of Pakistan:
Zed Books,
1987).
Shi'ites,
those
who
accept only the
occurred in ad 658 over the selection of the fourth caliph. Each group follows its specific texts of fiqh (religious knowledge) as sources of the Shari'ah. Sunni Islam has four major schools of law, developed on the basis of interpretation of theology and law during the first century of the introduction of Islam: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. The Hanafis are spread across Turkey, The Sudan, Egypt, Syria, and Central and South Asia; the Maliki school is dominant in North and West Africa; the Shafi'i school in Indonesia, Malaysia, Lower Egypt, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, and East Africa; and the Hanbali in Saudi Arabia. On the question of women's rights, status, and role, the four schools agree in principle. The differences between them traditions of the Prophet's family.
The
split
relate to details of legal procedures.
Women in Muslim Societies. Given the complexity of the Muslim world diverse on the one hand, unified through Islam on the other women's situation has improved not in a linear fashion but with a forward-and-backward movement. Two processes of change were discernible as Muslim countries came into their own. One, initiated by reformist leadership (sometimes within the Islamic framework, sometimes not), was committed to modernization and women's emancipation (e.g., Tunisia, Pakistan, Egypt, Turkey). Educational institutions for women were opened; women got the vote and representation in legislatures; new employment opportunities became available. Initially, privileged women benefited, but the overall impact was greater than their numbers warranted. At the same time, pressures of economic development and sheer survival drew women into the modern industrial and services sectors. The other process of change arose from resistance to this modernizing trend by
—
—
indigenous emerging elites galvanized by traditional Islam. these forces grew, their ability to manipulate gains for themselves within existing systems also increased. Women,
As
weak and unorganized
in
most countries, found their
rights
falling victim to political bargaining.
In Algeria following the liberation struggle, the constitu-
women the same rights and duties men. These, however, were contravened in 1984 by passage of the Family Code. Women's status was thus frozen tion of 1963 guaranteed as
A
woman line with the existing patriarchal traditions. given in marriage by the (male) guardian; she does not have the right of divorce; polygamy is not curtailed; and her subordination continues. The rise of the Islamic Salvation in is
Front (FIS)
in
Algeria, the forced and unforced spread of
the veil, the debates over what
women
can or cannot do
runner who won a gold medal in the Barcelona Olympics was bitterly opposed by the FIS for her participation) exemplify the tensions in society. new politiIn Iran, a predominantly Shi'ite state, (e.g.,
Khawar Mumtaz
into Sunnites, the followers of the
Prophet's tradition, and
the
woman
95
cal
— merchant —succeeded
forces
geoisie
clerics, urbanized petit bouroverthrowing a monarchical system. under the shah had gotten the vote, the right
class,
in
Women, who
and
to enter paramilitary forces
universities,
and some mea-
sure of protection under progressive family laws, mobilized
the thousands against
in
his oppressive
system,
political
donning the black chador (veil) as a dual symbol of resistance and identity. However, the subsequent introduction of orthodox religious laws was a step back for women. The minimum age of marriage was reduced to 13; polygamy was permitted and inula (temporary marriage) was restored; a woman's right to travel abroad and hold a passport was made conditional on the husband's permission; a dress code requiring the use of the veil was introduced; women were excluded from certain services like the judiciary. Women's education itusegregated schools continues, however, as does women's entry into universities. They have the vote, have been elected to assemblies, and in recent years have vocally advocated their rights as "prescribed by Islam." In Pakistan women experienced a setback after the 1977 military coup of Gen. Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq, who opted to use Islam as propagated by the obscurantists to legitimize his hold on power (unlike Pakistan's previous military dictator. Gen. Mohammad Ayub Khan, who had used progresm\c interpretations of Islam to provide relief to women).
Women
became the worst
victims of Zia's discriminatory
so-called Islamic legislation. Paradoxically, the leader of the
main opposition party is a woman. Benazir Bhutto, who triumphed in the general elections of 1988 and was the first woman to head the government in a Muslim state in contemporary times. In Saudi Arabia, a monarch) where conservative Islam prevails and no codified system of law exists, women's mobility is
strongly curtailed.
Women
are not allowed to
move
out of the house without a mehram male (father, brother, husband, son), and their spheres of activity are determined by the state. Female education
women may
and
institutions),
is
encouraged
(in
segregated
un-Islamic.
women's development of the Muslim world (49 f 7
In Indonesia indicators of
than in other parts female labour force participation, suffrage
53.79!
are betliteracy. in
1941).
There, as in parts of Malaysia, a number of Islamic legal concepts have been absorbed into customar) laws that favour women. Women's mobilit) and entry into professions are
(women can be judges and can
not curtailed
Islamic religious courts), nor
lamic marriage code
is
is
veiling compulsory.
applicable, however:
sit
The
polygamy
is
on Is-
not
banned, but monogamv may be ensured through a clause in the marriage contract, and the woman also has the right of divorce. Frenetic religious conflict
donesia, certain!) as
is
not characteristic of In-
compared with other Muslim
societies.
Women who
benefited from past reforms have resisted the upsurge of "fundamentalist" Islam in their countries.
Algerian strong)
women
in
l l
first
demonstrated
As2 against the Family
Women's Action Ponim was
major wa> (211.000 Code. In Pakistan the
in a
a direct
response to Zia's so-
The women's demonstration in Riyadh reflects the debate regarding expansion of women's space. At the same time, new groups of women have emerged, called Islamization.
vocal
and
likelv
asserting
•Islamic"
rights
—
in
Pakistan.
Iran he ferment and tension, debate and conover definition and redefinition of women's roles is to continue in Muslim societies and to shape women's
ysia, flict,
veiled,
condition
I
many other
into the
computer program and
that
many,
conclusions could be equally valid. Nevertheless,
what remained was
modern humans
a consensus that African populations of
are in fact
more
variable in their
mtDNA
than peoples elsewhere and are therefore older. Beyond that, the proponents of the "out of Africa," single-point origin continued to challenge those who interpreted the data as evidence of regional continuity in all areas of the Old World. Their competing analyses remained one of the most interesting areas of research in anthropology. Human population geneticists joined linguists and archaeologists in research on the origins of the Indo-Europeans. Are they descendants of horse-riding Kurgan invaders from the Pontic steppes or of early farmers migrating from Turkey and Asia Minor? Did agriculture spread as an idea or with the migrants? The hope was that the genetics of current populations might shed some light on these questions. In most cases, gene frequency and linguistic boundaries coincide, although there is considerable local genetic diffusion because people mate with their geographic neighbours, regardless of linguistic differences. Mass movements of populations over generations are thus difficult to measure. Also, languages, like anything that is learned, including farming, can spread horizontally. Robert Sokal found that in Europe genetic differences do associate closely with linguistic differences, even when geography is controlled for. He suggested
may indicate that there were numerous invasions and movements of Indo-Europeans at different times, an interpretation that does not support either the Kurgan or the eastern farmer hypothesis. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, on the other hand, believed Sokal's analysis might really indicate that the Kurgans were themselves somewhat later descendants of the Indo-European-speaking farmers. Their (Hermann k. bleibtreu) research continued. that this
.See ciImi
Archaeology.
This article updates the
Macropwdia
article
Human Evolution.
run small, all-female busi-
nesses, such as boutiques. But in 1991, when women staged an unprecedented demonstration to demand the right to dri\e automobiles, the) were categorically told that this was
ter
(continued from page 94)
were entered
Archaeology Eastern Hemisphere. There were two remarkable discoveries in 1992, one in France and the other in Oman on the Persian Gulf. Also, much more was learned from the frozen body of a man that melted out of an Alpine glacier in 19911 The find in France, in a cave with a deep underwater entrance on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille, was of late Pleistocene engravings and paintings. In Oman the "lost city of Ubar," on the frankincense road, was discovered with the aid of satellite photos, and preliminary excavations were begun. The previous year's remarkable find (about 5.000 years old), the body of a fully clothed man and his possessions, gave valuable information on what life was like in the late Neolithic in central Europe. The use of special cameras carried on satellites was becoming more widespread and useful. The traces of very old sites and of roads, fields, and other remains of ancient use not easily visible on the ground -could be located in this way. There was also increasing use of computers for
—
—
handling great quantities of descriptive data in the records of finds from large excavations. At Pompeii, for example, a new data base was set up to help untangle records reaching
back almost 200 years. There were many archaeologically important regions of the Old World where, because of political turmoil, no fieldwork could be done. Field excavations in Iraq, for example, were terminated by the Gulf war, and few foreign archaeologists had even been allowed to visit the country. It was
Archaeoiog)
In April
I
archaeologists announced
the discovery of remains of the
ancient fortified city known as Saffara Metropolis, in what is now southern
Oman, The
city,
of satellite
known from
a centre
in
was located
frankincense,
the trade
in
with the aid
photography.
that art markets in the
Iraqi
West were
selling artifacts
museums.
Pleistocene Prehistory.
000 years old)
The
importance.
The European cave
art
(about 20,-
was of great was 37 m (121
the cave near Marseille
in
late Pleistocene sea level
below the present surface of the Mediterranean. From a rocky bluff, now underwater, a cave gallery sloped up from the beach to a large chamber. This chamber itself is mostly above the present water-fill of the gallery. A French deepft)
sea diver, searching for evidence of Paleolithic
entered the gallery and made his way up to the open chamber. Many engravings of human hands, usually with incomplete fingers, were present, as well as engravings and paintings of bison, ibex, stag, chamois, horse, felines, seals, and penguins. art,
problem was whether the public could ever gallery. Two other end-Pleistocene sites were of real
In southern
Abu Simbel
visit
millet
the
that early
interest.
on Cyprus were the cause of the
hippo's extinction.
Middle East. In Egypt considerable activity took place around Giza, as well as in the Luxor region. At the yearly meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a sharp debate focused on the date for the Sphinx; a geologist claimed that it was several thousand years older than the 2500 bc date supported by archaeologists. Mark Lehner of the University of Chicago urged the later date on archaeological grounds. He had also undertaken a computer "re-creation" of the Sphinx's original appearance. At Abydos, 12 3rd-millennium boats, encased in mud bricks (as burials), were exposed. The restoration of the magnificent tomb of Queen Nefertari was completed. In Israel a geologist, after carefully examining Jerusalem's ancient subterranean waterworks, showed that they were adapted from a natural karst system and not dug out by hand. A Harvard University excavation at Ashkelon, on the coast in southern Israel, suggested that the Philistines were linked to the early Greeks.
The
family
tomb of Caiaphas,
who
presided at the trial of Jesus, was discovered in a desert cave near Jerusalem. Israeli archaeologists continued their work at the port town of Caesarea, the Jewish high priest
near Haifa, and of Bet She'an.
at
There was a Turkey, covered
fair in
amount of archaeological
activity
Machteld Mellinck's yearly survey
in
the
in
American Journal of Archaeology. Increased attention was being paid to the regions of Anatolia south of the Tauros,
some 95 km (about 60 mi) west of desert, the remains of seeds of sorghum
settlers
from a pre-Halafian early
where the beginnings of the region's settled village life developed, with linkages toward Mesopotamia. New evidence of a somewhat different early village development, more to the north and west, was also being recovered. Nevali Cori and the even earlier Hallan Cemi were important very early village sites in the south and east; Asikli was a promising example of further developments toward the northwest. In west coastal Thrace, Hoca Cesme was a site with important
were recovered.
human
transition
the
Egypt, in
showed the settlement's
village to a fully developed, large Halafian town.
A
It was not clear that actual domestication of these food plants was involved, but they were apparently being harvested. On Cyprus a collapsed and eroded rock shelter yielded many animal bones, mostly of the now extinct pygmy hippopotamus. It was suggested
and
In Jordan the work of German excavators at the early preceramic village of Basta was of particular interest. In the port area clearances at Aqaba, an Oriental Institute (Chicago) exposure encountered a horde of gold coins; probably they had belonged to a pilgrim coming from southern Morocco en route to Mecca around ad 1000. A report on the work at Tell Sabi Abyad, a large Halafian site in northern Syria, appeared in the American Journal of Archaeology. The yield
the Roman-Byzantine portion of the site
linkages to eastern Europe.
The Greco-Roman World. Satellite remote-sensing techniques used in Greece near Preveza, at the site of Nikopo-
showed changing relationships in the area, from earlier At the site of Midea, in the Argolid, an important yield of Mycenaean material was recovered. Elizabeth Gebhard of the University of Illinois at lis,
prehistoric to medieval times.
Chicago made new clearances in the temple of Poseidon at Isthmia. In the central Mediterranean, Sardinia and Sicily received attention, especially for their occupations during
On Sardinia some paleolithic remains had been recovered, as well as evidence of a long sequence of developments from 5000 bc onward. A report on the expre-Classical times.
amination of the gardens of Hadrian's Villa in Rome yielded interesting evidence of how Roman gardens were managed. On the Adriatic coast, near Brindisi, a diver discovered over 1,000 pieces of Roman bronze statue fragments and tools at a depth of about 15 m (50 ft). On the extreme eastern end of the Greco-Roman world, and perhaps reaching much further back in time, was the site taken to be the so-called lost city of Ubar, located in
the desert of
Oman
by
satellite
instigated by a pair of amateurs,
photos.
whose
The
effort
interest
was
focused
on the location of the ancient frankincense route and the possibility that satellite
Once
photos might be used to locate
it.
the surface indications had been found. Juris Zarins
Archaeology
98
of Southwest Missouri State University, an expert on the
the proper documentation of
Arabian area, was appointed field director, and preliminary investigations were begun. Pre-Classical Europe. Further investigations of the Alpine "mummy" confirmed that the man had been high in the mountains, probably hunting, when a freezing fog caused his death. Details of his clothing and the tools and weapons he carried give a very personal picture of what life must have been like for a late prehistoric European of about 5,000 years ago. The fact that he had a copper ax was of added interest. New radiocarbon dates placed Great Orme Head in Wales, long taken to be the remains of a Roman copper mine, at between 1800 and 600 bc. In England, Flag Fen, adjacent to Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, had an alignment of wooden posts and a wooden platform about 1.4 ha (3.5 acy*in area. The late Bronze Age site was being recovered from a region where the wetlands were drying out. At Svenloji, Lithuania, the remains of huts around an
to the
extinct lake yielded evidence of the lives of hunter-gatherers
and
fishers of
Africa, Asia,
about 3500-2000 bc near the Baltic Sea.
and
much
the Pacific
Political turmoil
in
Africa
do with the lack of archaeological news from that region. New work on the impressive remains of stone buildings in Kenya indicated that they were probably had
to
probably built by the indigenous inhabitants. In the Deccan, in India, excavation on two early 2nd-millennium bc sites yielded evidence of craft specialization. Liangzhu (Liangchu), China, showed evidence of late Neolithic development, with much attention to the working of jade ornaments. In-
problem of when Pacific voyagers first reached New Zealand was being stimulated by an impressive series of radiocarbon age assays. The samples began their cluster around ad 1200. (robbrt j. braidwood) Western Hemisphere. Archaeological research and a series of new discoveries in North and Latin America focused attention in 1992 on the insights that can be derived from terest in the
unn. BROOCASI GMMAUNSON
human
remains. In addition
announcement of extensive new discoveries of both precontact and historic-period burials of the Maya and Aztecs in Mexico, there was confirmation of the earliest dated human remains in North America. At Jamestown, Va., archaeologists exposed the remains of the village destroyed by the
first Indian English colonists. While archae-
been noted for their use of modern techniques to study the past, the year saw the vivid application of traditional archaeological procedures toward
ologists have often scientific
the documentation of recent mass burials, in this instance the mass graves of villagers in El Salvador
who
fell
victim
to right-wing death squads.
October the New York Times featured a front-page coupled with a large photograph of forensic archaeologists exposing the mass grave of 38 children, reported to have been among 792 victims massacred by U.S.-trained Salvadoran soldiers over a decade earlier. Local Indian farmers had claimed that counterinsurgency units "rampaged" through El Mozote province in eastern El Salvador, and the stark archaeological evidence verified their claims. The team of forensic archaeologists from Argentina was exposing the remains to provide evidence to present to the Truth Commission, set up under the El Salvador peace agreements to investigate human rights abuses. Once documented and exhumed, the remains would be sent to the University of California at Berkeley for genetic analysis aimed at matchIn
article
ing the archaeological traces of
Improvements
in
DNA with
that of survivors.
the techniques of radiocarbon dating
permitted the evaluation of increasingly smaller samples. In 1992, 0.5 g of ancient skull material provided fresh evidence that the skeletal remains of a woman, found by amateur archaeologists in 1953 near Midland, Texas, date back to at least 11,600 years before the present, with a standard deviation of plus or minus 800 years. Announced by Curtis McKinney of Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas,
new chronometric results established the earliest known human remains in North America and the only known
the
example of an individual of the Clovis culture, which was distinguished by the manufacture of distinctive chippedstone spear points.
Archaeologists conducting a salvage excavation at a construction site eight kilometres (five miles) west of Akron,
Ohio, under the direction of David Brose, chief curator of archaeology at the Cleveland (Ohio) Museum of Natural History, announced the discovery of traces of the oldest known structural remains in North America, dating to 10200 bc. The find, consisting of three postholes and two pits covering a 14-sq m (150-sq ft) area, was described by John Blank of Cleveland State University as among the most important in the eastern U.S. in 20 years. The antiquity of the ancient structural remains was supported by the discovery of associated Clovis fluted points, which have been dated elsewhere to 12,000 years before the present. Salvage excavations at a site being developed into a golf course near Jamestown yielded Native American human and structural remains from the village of Paspahegh, the Indian village closest to Jamestown, the first English colony to survive in North America.
hands are among prehistoric drawings, said to rival those Lascaux, found in a cave on the coast of France near Marseille. Because ot a rise in sea level, the entrance to the cave was submerged although the chamber itself remained mostly dry. Stencils ol at
The
project field supervisor,
Mary Ellen Hodges, working under the direction of Nick Luccketti, director of the James River Institute of Archaeology, reported to the Associated Press that the work to date had exposed seven whole skeletons and partial remains of five other individuals. The village site included at least 40 structures, apparently dating to between 1500 and 1610. The village was attacked by the British settlers under Lord Thomas De La Warr; 60 people were murdered, and the village was burned to the ground. According to Hel-
\n haeolog Archaeologists digging at the Mayan city of Copan, in western Honduras, found what they believed was the tomb of a 6th-century king who had died before age 30 Of the contents, ceramic vessels were especially well preserved vVthM* MURRAY ZOflA
en Rountree, professor of anthropology at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va„ the event marked the first attempt by the English to take over native territory and the first recorded instance in which Native American women and children were killed. The issue of national rights and responsibilities with regard to marine archaeological resources was brought to the fore by the discovery and salvage of a Spanish cargo ship found untouched in the estuary of the Rio de la Plata offshore from Montevideo, Uruguay. A team headed by a private investment and salvor group under the direction of Rubin Collado, an Argentine treasure hunter and investor, announced the recovery to date of 1,600 gold coins, 3.3 kg (7.3 lb) of gold bullion bars, and three additional "masses" of consolidated gold coin hoards weighing 2.3 kg (5 lb) apiece.
While estimates varied
wildly,
some government
functionaries projected that the government's
would be
sufficient to cover the national debt.
50%
At
share
least
one
marine archaeologist James Parrent, cautioned to York Times, however, that by the 18th century few Spanish ships were carrying large stocks of gold since the sources in Peru had been largely exhausted by that time. Caribbean archaeology was advanced by the discovery by Robert Carr, while working for the Spanish Wells Museum, of the remains of the first British settlers in the Bahamas. In scientist,
the
New
May
archaeologists and government officials announced the
discovery in Preacher's Cave on North Eleuthera,
km
(200 mi) east of Miami,
Fla.,
some 320
of the domestic remains of
a small sect, remembered as the "Eleutherian Adventurers." Their ship was breached on a reef in 1648, and they used the cave until the 1660s. In addition to the bodies of three children found in a small cemetery within the cave, the archaeological team documented the recovery of a range
of datable 17th-century historic artifacts.
The
findings rep-
resented the earliest evidence of British settlement on the island.
Working just ahead of the bulldozers constructing Mexico new subway system, teams of Mexican archaeologists
City's
under the direction of Salvador Pulido discovered the colonial-era graves of hundreds of Aztecs, possibly the first victims of
European diseases taken
conquistadors. After the
initial
to the capital by the
discovery of 50 graves in
March, extensive interments were found adjacent to one of New World's first hospitals, which operated until the
the
20th century. In a press account, Pulido indicated that the majority of the dead, many of them children, were found
clasping rosaries and crucifixes. Imported diseases reduced
the Aztec population of
Mexico City from 60,000
to 18,000
within two years of the arrival of Cortes.
Honduras the year was marked by the discovery of to be an almost undisturbed royal tomb at the ancient Mayan capital of Copan. The tomb dated to the 6th century ad, the peak of the Classic period, nearly three centuries before the city collapsed. In April, Jose Maria Casco of the Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History announced the discovery of a 3.7 x 1.5-m (12 x 5-ft) stone-lined tomb with a 1.5-m-high roof of stone arches. The find was made by a joint Honduran-U.S. team under In
what appeared
the overall direction of William L. Fash of Northern Illinois University. The actual discovery was made by an anthropology graduate student from the University of Pennsylvania, excavating under the direction of Robert J. Sharer of the
Museum. The moment of discovery matched the romantic images of an Indiana Jones movie. The student came upon the tomb while excavating to clear a stone stairway. Under the University
staircase she recognized a line of eight stone
beams, one
of which had partially collapsed. In the gap between the
beams, the archaeologist saw the chipped interior of a red plaster-lined stone
on a stone
chamber containing a
royal body, raised
slab covered with jade beads, carved shells,
and
other jewelry. Around it on the floor were over two dozen decorated ceramic pots filled with shells, beads, and animal bones. Initial photographs taken by remote cameras showed the teeth to be in good condition, possibly implying a relatively young man. The stylistic details of the well-preserved pottery offerings suggested the 6th-century date for the find.
The tomb, with its apparently unlooted burial offerings, provided for the first time an undisturbed, scientifically documented sample from this least known period of Copan Mayan history. Sharer speculated that, on the basis of the age and wealth of the tomb's contents, the chamber could be that of one of the four rulers who dominated Mayan politics from Copan during the 6th through 9th centuries. Archaeologists had identified the first of these rulers as Water Lily Jaguar, who was followed by two successors known only as Rulers 8 and 9 and finally by Moon Jaguar, who ruled until the apparently sudden collapse of Copan as (joel w. Grossman) a key Mayan urban centre. Sec also Anthropology. This article updates the Macropaedia article The Study of History: Archaeology.
100
Architecture
The Chiat/Day/Mojo
Building, designed by Frank Gehry, includes a section in the form of giant binoculars by sculptor Claes Oldenburg. Built as headquarters for an advertising agency in Venice, Calif., the structure won a design award
1992.
in
GRANT MUDFORD
by Rafael Moneo.
Architecture
Among
the national pavilions were a
Grimshaw and a more wood-framed Japanese effort by Tadao Ando (see Biographies). Awards. Ando was also the winner of the first Carlsberg Prize, a $225,000 honour sponsored by the well-known brewery and intended to be the architectural equivalent of the Nobel Prize. Ando was chosen by a multicultural jury that included filmmaker Wim Wenders and composer Andrew Lloyd Webber. Known for severe sculptural buildings, built usually of plain concrete, Ando was praised for "his fear of impending chaos, his will to create a haven of calm, high-tech British design by Nicholas traditional
France and Spain were architecture in 1992.
complex
among
the busiest sites for
Euro Disney,
new
the vast entertainment
the Paris suburb of Marne-la-Vallee, opened Also opening during that month was Expo 92, a world's fair in Seville. Spain. And the Olympic Games were held in Barcelona. Spain, in July and August. Euro Disneyland comprised six hotels, an entertainment centre, a campground, and the usual theme park, at a cost of $4.4 billion on 2,000 ha (4,800 ac). The architecture— much of it designed by famous architects received mixed reviews. Hie Disney Corp. was known for "theming" its architecture, which means echoing familiar buildings from history or literature. A hotel b) Robert A.M. Stern, the Newport Bay Club, was modeled alter American Victorian seaside resorts, and another Stern design. Hotel Cheyenne, was intended to resemble the movie set lor a western. Hotel New York, b) Michael Graves, embodied a jazzy Manhattan theme, and Hotel Santa e, b) Anionic Predock. used motifs from the American Southwest. The only French architect asked to design for Euro Disneyland, Antoine Grumbach, produced an imitation Montana hunting lodge. Most observers found the themes banal. The most-praised architecture at Euro Disneyland proved to be the nonthematic entertainment complex. Festival Disney, designed by U.S. architect Frank () (iehrv. a street ol shops and restaurants and shows in
in April.
—
1
1
lectric
Avenue"—lined
with 20-m (66-ft)-high ruby-and-
In Barcelona the architecture tared better. Barcelona in
recent years had been regarded architectural])
Oriel Bohigas. deliberate!)
as
one of
the world. Designers, led by used the Olympics to reshape
in
where the) prominent individual buildings were the Olympic stadium by Arata Isozaki ol l.ipan. a sports palace b) Bonell & Gil, and archery the
city,
placing Olympic facilities
could stimulate urban renewal.
pavilions b\
Miralles
&
Pinos.
artistic
late
moment
modernity."
European
The
amidst the overstimulation of the senses
hysterical search for the
Ando donated
()(),()()()
that
is
prize to
the
mark of
help young
Japan for study. promoted as a No-
architects travel to
rival Si
new his
Pritzker Prize, also
bel equivalent, went to Alvaro Siza of Portugal. The $1 15,000 Japanese Praemium Imperiale award was given to Gehry for lifetime achievement in the arts. Gehry also shared the 1992 Wolf Prize in the Arts with architects Jorn Utzon of Denmark and Sir Denys Lasdun of Britain, all sharing $100,000. In September, at ceremonies in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, the triennial Aga Khan Awards for architecture were presented to nine projects from the Islamic world, including not only buildings but also programs for restoration or construction. This was the fifth round of the Aga Khan Awards since 1980, their purpose being to nurture architecture that sustains Muslim culture while still responding to a changing
world.
silscr-striped stainless-steel towers.
the most progressive cities
an
and the
in
locations
Among
The
cit)
of Atlanta.
Ga.,
meanwhile, began work on its 1996 Games, embarking on a master plan for 26 sports facilities. In Seville, Expo 92 similarl) stimulated $10 billion in civic improvements, including the stunning new Alamillo Bridge b) architect engineer Santiago Calatrava and a nevs airport
Massachusetts architect Benjamin Thompson received the 1992 Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the highest U.S. honour. Thompson was best known for his ""festival marketplaces" such as Faneuil Hall Marketplace in Boston, South Street Seaport in New York City, and Harborplace in Baltimore, Md. In December it was announced that in 1993. for the first time, there would be two Gold Medals: one posthumously to Thomas Jefferson, architect of Monticello and the University of Virginia; and the other to Kevin Roche, Irish-born, Connecticut-based architect of the Oakland Museum in California and of corporate headquarters such as the Ford Foundation in New York City and General Foods in Rye, N.Y.
The AIA
also
picked
10
new
buildings
for
its
an-
Architecture
Honor Awards. Among the better known were the Paramount Hotel renovation in New York City by Philippe Starek; Team Disney Building in Lake Buena Vista, Fla., nual
by Isozaki; the Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery in London by Venturi, Scott Brown; and the Canadian Centre for Architecture in
Year Award
Montreal by Peter Rose. The AIA's 25-
was presented designed by Louis I. Kahn. The Salk was the subject of intense controversy during 1992 over a proposed addition, which by the end of the year seemed certain to be built. The New York City firm of James Stewart Polshek & Partners won the AIA's Firm Award. The Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects went to a structural engineer, Peter Rice, who collaborated with architects on such notable buildings for a building of lasting merit
to the Salk Institute in
La
Jolla, Calif.,
Sydney (Australia) Opera House and the Pompidou
as the
Centre
in Paris.
Cultural Buildings. Perhaps the biggest event architecture
in
1992 was the reopening
Guggenheim Museum
in
New York
City, a
in
in
U.S.
June of the
1960 masterpiece
was completely refurbished by the firm of Gwathmey Siegel, which also added a new 10-story wing of galleries and offices. Long controverdesigned by Frank Lloyd Wright.
sial,
the
Gwathmey
It
Siegel redesign restored the great spiral
rotunda interior to a condition that was closer than ever before to Wright's intentions. But the new wing was widely criticized for crowding and taming the spiral as seen from outside. The Guggenheim also opened a branch in a loft building in lower Manhattan, with interiors by Isozaki, and announced an ambitious plan for other satellites in Bilbao, Spain (by Gehry), and Salzburg, Austria (by Hans Hollein). new Seattle (Wash.) Art Museum by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown was a big curved box of grooved
A
limestone, exhibiting a mix of
pop and
of that firm. Jaipur, India, was the
seum by the noted Indian
esoteric motifs typical
site
of a
new
crafts
architect Charles Correa.
mu-
Among
attention was paid to a museum for a Los Angeles by Franklin Israel. Perhaps the most eagerly anticipated U. S. building, the Disney Concert Hall for Los Angeles by Gehry, went into construction and was scheduled to open in 1996. Commercial Buildings. Probably the most noteworthy office tower of the year was Century Tower in Tokyo by British architect Norman Foster. Overlooking the Imperial
smaller works
much
private collector in
FREDERICK CHARLES
Although
many people expressed outrage
the addition
(at left of
at
photo) to Frank Lloyd
Guggenheim Museum was pointed out that the
New
York
Wright's
in
City,
architect himself
it
had proposed a similar structure. The addition, designed by Charles Gwathmey and Robert Siegel and opened in 1992, provided much-needed space for exhibitions and office functions and also allowed the interior of the original building to be restored.
Palace
the hcarl
at
tWO toweis ol atrium between.
ol
threat
in
19
i>l
the
and
21
city,
lower consisted
Century
stones with
101
a
full-height glass
he building responded to the earthquake
I
Tokyo with an
exterior ol bold, bridgelike trusses.
Chiat/Day/Mojo, an advertising agency, moved into a new three-story headquarters in Venice. Calif., designed by Gehry in collaboration with sculptors Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, who created an entrance lobby in the shape of a 9-m (30-ft)-higb pair of binoculars. Visitors entered between the lenses. Gehry surely the architect of the year for 1992-
remarkable
line
—won
—
further notice for his design of a
of laminated bentwood chairs and tables,
unveiled in January at the
York
Museum
of
Modern Art
in
New
City.
Bloomington, Minn., appeared the vast Mall of Amer"megamaH" designed by the Jerde Partnership of Los Angeles, with 13,000 parking spaces, 281 retail stores, 48 food stores, 21 restaurants, and 9 nightclubs, all wrapped around an amusement park. In Orlando, Fla., the ever busy Disney Corp. opened an elegant small convention centre and a golf club by Gwathmey Siegel. Civic Buildings. A popular and critical home run was hit by the new Oriole Park at Camden Yards, a ballpark in Baltimore designed by Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum of St. Louis, Mo. Fans and architects alike praised its heart-ofthe-city downtown location; its asymmetrical playing field, which was thought to make for a more interesting game than a more standardized layout; the intimacy with which spectator seats were placed close to the action; and the decision to integrate an 1898 freight warehouse and 1857 rail terminal into the new complex. Cities continued to build aquariums at a record pace, including a new Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga by Cambridge Seven Associates and a New Jersey State Aquarium in Camden by Hillier Group. Genoa, Italy, acquired a new soccer stadium by Vittorio Gregotti, in which a piece of a demolished older stadium was preserved and applied to the facade of the new one to reduce its apparent size. The stadium's roofs were hung by cables from towers, as in a suspension bridge, for column-free viewing. Competitions, New Commissions, and Exhibitions. Canadian/Israeli architect Moshe Safdie won a competition for a new central library in Vancouver, B.C., with a design that echoed the ancient Roman Colosseum with a curved In
ica,
a $625 million
L02
Architecture
The departure concourse
of the
new
airport terminal in Seville, Spain,
features arches that
span the width Designed by Rafael Moneo, the complex opened in time for the city's Expo 92. of the
four-Story wall of reading rooms. Isozaki
was winner of an
home
of Frank Lloyd Wright
broad
in
hall.
Wisconsin, work began on
international design competition for a convention centre in
a massive renovation effort expected eventually to cost tens
Nara. Japan. (An exhibition of the 10 finalist designs for Nara opened at the Museum of Modern Art in New York
of millions of dollars. Wright's
Citj in
November,
Venturi, Scott
Brown bested
Manhattan
Island Ferrj
five
other
finalists
with a
lermmal on the Battery
at
Island, intended to replace a Staten
terminal destroyed b)
fire.
The Venturi de-
featured a 12-m (40-ft)-tall illuminated clock lacing harbour and a vaulted waiting room for passengers. Robert A.M. Stern was commissioned to revitalize existing theatres and other buildings along 42nd Street in New York City's limes Square after a long-controversial proposal for a group ol lour giant lowers. In John Burgee and Philip Johnson, was quietlv scrapped "Czech Cubism: Architecture and Design." an exhibit organized bj the \ lira Design Museum ol Germany and the Museum of Decorative Arts of. Prague, traveled in Europe, Canada, and the U.S., displaying the work of avant-garde architects who worked in Prague in the years 1411-18. he Canadian Centre fol Architecture produced an exhibit. OOCUrated bv the centre's founder, Phyllis Lambert, entitled "Opening the Gates ol Eighteenth-Centurj Montreal." Some 400 objects -letters, maps, portraits, drawings, deeds. and computer simulations were deployed to explore the sources ol the architecture and urban form of the city. sign
the
I
Preservation Issues.
first
Juliet" windmill
time,
the public were permitted to tour the house
i
design for the Whitehall Ferrj the tip of
"Romeo and
of 1897 was restored and, for the
The
Piazza d'ltalia
in
New
Orleans,
la. designed bv Charles Moore and regarded as an early 1975) icon of the Postmodern movement, was falling apart, and its site was threatened bv redevelopment. At Ellis Island in New n ork Harbor, the U.S. National Park Service withdrew, under fire from preservationists, a proposal to demolish 12 historic buildings lor a new hotel and conference centre. Bostons most historic structure, the Old State House, was restored bv architects Goodv. Clancv in a manner that preserved remnants ol each period of its history. he Art-Dcco I nion lermmal in Cincinnati, Ohio, perhaps the most architectural!) distinguished ol surviving U.S. railroad structures, reopened as home to a group of museums. ,is well as—for the first time in 20 years an active rail station, used bv Amtrak. At Taliesin last, the onetime (
1
—
members of
itself in small,
advance-reservation groups. Controversies. Perhaps the most controversial building design
in
the world in
1992 was the proposed
liotheque de France in Paris by
Dominique
new
Bib-
Perrault, an
arrangement of four glass book towers around a podium. The towers were reduced in height by 7 m (23 ft), but that still left them at 79 m (259 ft). It was also announced that
books in the towers would be protected from the sun by movable wood panels, raising the question of why the towers were glass in the first place. Construction on a modified design began in March. The always-controversial Prince Charles of Great Britain launched a new school, the Prince of Wales Institute of Architecture, in London, with an illustrious faculty of architects of conservative tastes, including Leon Krier, Demetri Porphyrios, and Christopher Alexander, as well as the U.S. team of Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, creators of the model community of Seaside in Florida. In his inaugural speech the prince, a noted anti-Modernist, said he hoped to restore "an architecture of the heart." He was also involved in sponsoring three urban redevelopments: Paternoster Square in London, a project to erase modern buildings and restore portions of the medieval street plan near St. Paul's Cathedral; the South Bank Arts Centre, where raw concrete buildings of the late 1960s in the socalled Brutalist style of architecture were to be partially demolished and replaced with new shops, cafes, and galleries; and, largest of all, a new town called Poundbury near the city
of Dorchester, to be designed by Krier.
Urban Design and Planning. Two huge waterfront developments continued in 1992. Phase one of Canary Wharf, part of the vast Docklands redevelopment on the River Thames in London, reached completion, comprising a total of 600,000 sq
m
(6,450,000 sq
ft)
of floor area, including
245-m (800-ft) office tower by U.S. architect Cesar Pelli. By the year's end, however, the developer, the Canadian firm of Olympia & York, was the tallest building in Europe, a
Art
in
financial collapse,
leaving the future o\
(
l.xhil.iliiiris .Hid
\rl S.il.s
HM
anary Wharf
uncertain. In Genoa, the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, a complete renovation of the harbour was undertaken under the leadership of architect Renzo Piano. Piano had been known for such new buildings as the Pompidou Centre in Paris (with Richard Rogers) and the De Menil Collection in Houston, Texas, but in Genoa he meticulously restored historic structures, as well as collaborating on such new works as an aquarium with Cambridge Seven Associates. Business and Practice. Times continued to be difficult for the architectural profession, mired in a worldwide recession. Seminars and conferences on finding new ways to practice were common. The so-called Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June stimulated many to think about the relation between architecture and the environment, and the term sustainable architecture gained currency. Flooding in Chicago and rioting in Los Angeles were seen as symptoms of both physical and social decline in U.S. cities, and many architects, including the AIA, called for a new urban political agenda. Architects in Miami, Fla., established an Architecture Recovery Center to assist the rebuilding effort after Hurricane Andrew. Nine thousand people attended the annual convention of the AIA, held in Boston in June, where L. William Chapin II of Rochester, N.Y., was elected first
vice president/president-elect.
James
Stirling,
one of the world's leading
architects, died
June, at the age of 66, 12 days after being knighted by Queen Elizabeth. Stirling was noted for having changed his in
style radically several times during his career. His best-known work, regarded as a masterpiece of 20th-century design,
was the
Staatsgallerie
Germany
museum
of art (1983) in Stuttgart,
Obituaries). Other deaths included those of historian Spiro Kostof, 55, who was posthumously awarded the AIA Topaz Medallion for Excellence in Architectural Education; Craig Ellwood, 70, noted architect of modern houses in California; and Paul Gapp, 64, Pulitzer Prizewinning architecture critic of the Chicago Tribune. (see
(ROBERT CAMPBELL) See also Engineering Projects; Industrial Review: Building and Construction.
This article updates the Macropxdia article The History of
Western Architecture.
COUcCTION OF THE
J
PAUL GETTY MUSEUM MAUBU. CALIFORNIA
"Adoration of the Magi" was included in a 1992 exhibition devoted to the Italian Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna. Organized by the Royal Academy of Arts in London and the Metropolitan
Museum
of Art in
New
exhibition included
York
the large works.
City,
some 130
Art Exhibitions and Art Sales The 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage to America in 1492 was the occasion for a number of exhibitions in 1992.
Genoa, birthplace of the explorer, was a natural venue, and one of the largest shows was mounted at the Palazzo Ducale in that city. Entitled "Due Mondi a Confronto," it comprised a multimedia presentation covering the period 14921728 and focusing on exploration of Europe and America. Two Columbus-year exhibitions were shown at the New York Public Library, "Mapping the New World," devoted to American mapmaking from the 16th to the 19th century, and "Native Americans in Prints and Photography." At the American Museum in Bath, England, "Columbus and His World 1451-1506" consisted of engraved maps, mostly by the cartographer Theodor de Bry, that illustrated the explorer's voyages. Two important exhibitions formed part of Expo 92, the world's fair held in Seville, Spain, in the summer. "Art and Culture in the World of 1492" drew together late 15thcentury objects from many different cultures, while "Treasures of Spanish Art" included important works by major Spanish painters, among them Goya, Picasso, and Dali. The year 1492 was also the year of the death of Lorenzo
A number of commemorating the an-
de' Medici, the great Florentine patron of art.
exhibitions were
mounted
in Italy
one devoted to the drawing of his time Others concentrated on manuscripts, books, and documents relating to Lorenzo and aspects of his many and varied intellectual interests. Exploration was also the theme of a fascinating exhibition held in London at the Accademia Italiana and entitled "Rediscovering Pompeii." Unlike the last major exhibition on Pompeii in London, at the Royal Academy in 1976— 77, this show concentrated not on the more famous findings and well-known aspects of Pompeiian life but rather on unknown finds, many recently discovered. It comprised only 193 exhibits, making it quite selective. Included were sculptures, frescoes, and decorative objects such as jewelry. Highlights were a fine statue of Bacchus and a complete niversary, including
at the Uffizi.
104
Art Exhibitions and Art Sales
painted
room with frescoes. Computer terminals offered among them re-creations of the eruption
varied experiences,
of Vesuvius and the experience of a Roman bath. One of the programs enabled visitors to "walk around" a Pompeiian house, examining the decorations by wall.
room by room and
wall
The art year was notable for the number of fine shows about sculpture and sculptors. A large exhibition at the Museo Correr in Venice devoted to the work of the neoclassical sculptor Antonio Canova was on view throughout the summer months. Paintings and drawings as well as sculpture were included. This provided the first opportunity in about 20 years for visitors to enjoy a significant number of works by this sometimes underrated artist. The show comprised 152 works, including 35 of the marbles for which he is probably best remembered. The centrepiece of the show was the collection of 11 marbles lent by the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, but works were also lent by collections in Florence, Munich, Paris, Vienna, and elsewhere, and these were added to the important holdings of the Museo Correr and other Venetian collections. There were also a number of portraits of Canova himself, together with a selection of drawings and models illustrating major sculptures and
showing his expertise as a draftsman. The most important marbles were those dedicated to mythological subjects and dating from the final two decades of the 18th century. The complexity of composition was clear, as was the exquisite surface of his works. The French sculptor Clodion, a contemporary of Canova, was represented by a major summer exhibition at the Louvre in Paris, allowing a reassessment of the works of one of the greatest French sculptors of the 18th-century rococo. His subjects ranged from mythology to portraiture. Terracotta was his preferred medium. Modern sculptors were not neglected. An important retrospective of the work of the 20th-century Italian sculptor MUSEUM Of
FINE ARTS
HOUSTON. THE JOHN A AND AUDREY JONES BECK COOECTION
Alberto Giacometti was shown at the Musee d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris in the spring, one of a series of shows at that museum focusing on important artists who influenced Parisian modern art. On view were well over 100 sculptures, more than 60 paintings, and about 150 works on paper, as well as books, catalogs, special editions illustrated by the artist, and even sections of a grafittoed studio wall. In the 1920s Giacometti worked with Antoine Bourdelle, and his working life was closely connected with major French artists of the time. A major retrospective of the work of the English sculptor Henry Moore was on view at the Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. It comprised nearly 200 sculptures, prints, and drawings and was the first largescale showing of the artist's work in Australia in nearly half a century.
The Australian National Gallery in Canberra held an important exhibition entitled "Rubens and the Italian Renaissance" illustrating the influence of Italian Renaissance art and scholarship on the Flemish artist and demonstrating Rubens' vital role in disseminating Italian influence in northern Europe. A major Renaissance show devoted to the works of the Italian painter Andrea Mantegna was seen at the Royal Academy in London in the spring and from May to July at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. It was the first such exhibition in 30 years and gave a good overview of the artist's personal style and varied talent. Paintings, drawings, and prints were shown together at the Royal Academy, and the selection of prints and drawings was very large indeed, with loans from most of the major European and Italian collections. Western art remained highly regarded in Japan, and Japanese art enthusiasts enjoyed a number of exhibitions comprising loans from European collections. Notable among them was a show at the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo in the summer that included exquisite items of jewelry and glass by the French artist Rene Lalique. Opera sets and costumes designed by David Hockney were shown in Tokyo at the Bunkamura Museum of Art, and the National Museum of Modern Art at Kyoto held a large retrospective of sculpture by Isamu Noguchi, an artist as well known in the West as in Japan. In Yokohama the Sogo Museum exhibited a selection of 69 German works from 19th century lent by the Wallraf-Richartz Cologne. The Isetan Museum of Art in Tokyo showed "British Landscape Paintings," a survey of work by the major British artists of the 18th to 20th century, including Gainsborough, Constable, and Turner. As usual, Paris was home to an important selection of in-
the 17th to the
Museum
in
ternationally praised art exhibitions.
A
retrospective of the
work of Toulouse-Lautrec, which had been at the Hayward Gallery, London, in the winter, moved to the Grand Palais in Paris in the spring. The selection of works on show covered 20 years of the artist's working life and included posters and lithographs as well as paintings. The integration of printed images with painterly effects was best seen in the famous posters. The show was arranged by theme, making it easy to appreciate Lautrec's variety and continuity. Almost all of Lautrec's most famous paintings were on view, but two important works, "Au Cirque Fernando" and "Bal au Moulin de la Galeae from the Art Institute of Chicago, '
were seen only in Paris. "The Loves of the Gods," also
at the
Grand
Palais in
Museum of Art in Museum in Fort Worth,
the winter, traveled to the Philadelphia the spring and to the Kimbell Art
summer. This was a traveling exhibition of works drawn from international sources the type of exhibition that was becoming more and more difficult to mount. Sixty-eight important works were Texas,
The painting "Woman
in
a Purple
Robe was on view
in
the Henri
Matisse retrospective that opened in September 1992 at the Museum Modern Art in New York City Part of the popular exhibition was to appear in 1993 at the Pompidou Centre in Paris of
in
the
Old Master
—
paintings, with
Art Exhibition* and
brought
together,
subjects.
The
to David,"
\rt
Silts
105
concentrating on French mythological "Mythological fainting from Wattcau
subtitle,
demonstrated the intelligence and seriousness
of the subject matter, often wrongly assessed on its purely decorative qualities. Works were lent by such diverse collections as the Philadelphia Versailles, France,
An on
exhibition at
Picasso's
of Art, the Trianon
at
Geneva and Stockholm. the Grand Palais in the autumn focused
still-lite
Entitled "Picasso
Museum
and museums
&
in
paintings over a period of 50 years. les
Choses,"
it
illustrated the artist's
amazing inventiveness and variety, which could infuse even the most ordinary items with artistic quality. The earliest painting, dating from 1901, was executed when Picasso was only 20. A thrilling image of the skull of a bull, painted in 1958 when the artist was nearly 80, completed the time span. The German Expressionist painter Otto Dix was another 20th-century artist honoured with a retrospective, this time at the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin on the occasion of the centenary of the
artist's birth.
was also shown known works from more familiar works
London
A
slightly revised ver-
the Tate Gallery. Little1946-69 were shown with dating from the prewar years. Many of the canvases were extremely fragile and unlikely ever to be brought together again in such a large retrospective. Part of the fragility was due to the artist's unusual technique, developed in about 1925, of painting in oil over tempera, as well as his method of using pigments, intended to re-create effects achieved by German Old Masters. sion
in
at
the period
Modernism" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in the spring was a major international show devoted to drawings, an unusual subject for such an important event. The overwhelming majority of artists represented were from the U.S. or Germany, and the "Allegories of
exhibition illustrated the varied purposes of drawing, with
"The Treachery of Images," a painting of a pipe above the text "This is was part of the Rene Magritte retrospective organized in 1992 by the Hayward Gallery in London. From there the exhibition was
not a pipe,"
to travel to three U.S. cities— New York;
in 1969.
The
work in
Guggenheim Museum in New York City celebrating museum's reopening after two years of renovation. "The Guggenheim Museum and the Art of this Century" was a two-part show comprising "Masterpieces" and "From Brancusi to Bourgeois." The first included works selected from the
collection,
The museum's
first
and the second emphasized recent art. major loan exhibition was a show of
Russian avant-garde art seen earlier
at the Stedelijk
Mu-
seum in Amsterdam. A major retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York was devoted to the works of Henri Matisse and included some 300 paintings and more than 100 works in other mediums. The works lent included some from important Russian collections in Moscow and St. Petersburg and from the Musee National d'Art Moderne in Paris. As with many popular shows, timed admission and prebooking were employed to prevent overcrowding. A major exhibition of the work of the Belgian Surrealist Rene Magritte was held at the Hayward Gallery and traveled to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The last major exhibition devoted to Magritte had been
at
the Tate Gallery
was work The show, on
Verona,
Italy,
at its best.
The
exhibition
moved from
his early
works
the style of Corot to his splendid, fully Impressionist
landscapes of the 1870s.
The American artist Stuart Davis was the subject of a mamounted by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and also shown at the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco. The exhibition catalog included 175 works, providing
traveled
the
in
Foundation. At the Royal Academy a retrospective devoted to the work of Alfred Sisley, one of the less famous French Impressionists, included 72 canvases illustrating the artist's
potent images.
that
Moderna
of the Swiss artist Paul Klee ever seen in Italy. view during the summer, included more than 350 paintings, watercolours, and drawings, many selected from the Klee
jor exhibition
at
Galleria d'Arte
the venue for the largest retrospective devoted to the
examples ranging from traditional studio drawings to those intended as "stand alone" works of art. Many thoughtprovoking examples of Postmodernism were included, providing evidence of how far drawing as an art in itself had moved in the 20th century. "Helter Skelter: LA. Art in the 1990s," organized by the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, wanted to be provocative and succeeded. Violence, tawdriness, and cult religion were common images in the works by 16 artists, including Chris Burden, Manuel Ocampo, and Llyn Foulkes. Burden's "Medusa's Head," an enormous meteorite covered by miniature railroad tracks, was a vision of ecological disaster and one of the show's Twentieth-century art was also the focus of the exhibition
Houston, Texas; and Chicago.
LOS ANGELES COUNTY MUSEUM OF ART. THE MR ANO MRS WILLIAM PRESTON HARRISON COLLECTION
a representative overview of the artist's output during his 50
The show included portraits and landscapes along with his well-known still-lifes. Though influenced by such movements as Cubism, Davis remained quintessential^ American. An important traveling exhibition, "Master European Paintings from the National Gallery of Ireland," was shown at the Art Institute of Chicago. It comprised 44 of that museum's most important paintings, including works by Hogarth, Reynolds, Chardin, and Velazquez. The show years of activity.
on to San Francisco, Boston, and New York. At Dulwich College Picture Gallery in London, "Treasures of a Polish King" comprised a selection of works collected by Stanislaus Augustus, the last king of Poland. The show included works by Rembrandt, Fragonard, and Boucher lent
by various public collections.
An
exchange exhibition
in
Warsaw, entitled "Collection for a King," included works by Rembrandt, Tiepolo, and Poussin, purchased for Stanislaus Augustus but undelivered at the time of his abdication and eventually given to Dulwich. "The Making of England" was the title of an exhibition at the British Museum in the late winter that concentrated on Anglo-Saxon art of ad 600-900. Included were the sole surviving copy of the epic poem Beowulf, the
A
Rome
Gospel, and the Stockholm Codex Aureus.
section devoted to the Northumbrian church included
relics of St. Cuthbert, such as a leather-bound copy of St. John's Gospel closely connected with the saint's cult and his own altar and cross. Artifacts, manuscripts, carving, and
jewelry were featured prominently. The exhibition provided a unique chance for visitors to reconsider many of the finest surviving art works from early medieval England.
(SANDRA MILLIKJN)
106
Art Exhibitions and Art Sales
ART SALES The 1991-92 auction season recorded
the worst results in
14% at Sotheby's This compounded the adverse effects of the previous season, when the turnover of both houses fell by around 50% from the all-time high in 1989-90, the peak of the '80s speculative boom. The decline was a direct reflection of world recession. The year also saw a steady succession of gallery closings in London, Paris, and New York, including Ackerman's, the London dealers in sportTurnover for the year
five years.
and 10%
fell
by
at Christie's.
That left the two highest auction prices of the year as the £10,120,000 paid by the composer Andrew Lloyd Webber for Lord Malmesbury's large Canaletto view of "The Old Horse Guards, London, from St. James's Park" and the surprise £7,480,000 for Lord Normanton's "Venus and Adonis" by Titian. The latter came up at Christie's in December cataloged as by "Titian and workshop" and estimated at £1 million. However, everyone decided it was a real Titian, especially the J. Paul Getty Museum of Malibu, Calif. The Getty paintings curator, George Goldner, did not have time to convince his trustees before the sale; Hazlitt,
Gooden
David Hockney's dealer and one of the stars of the 1960s contemporary art scene. The question of central importance to the future of the art market, however, was whether A. Alfred Taubman, the U.S. tycoon, would manage to hold on to Sotheby's. Forbes magazine estimated that his personal fortune had fallen from $2 billion to $600 million. He sold 8 million Sotheby's shares in July for $100 million, retaining 14 million special "B" shares that carried 10 votes each and left him control of the company. Much less material came up at auction than in previous years. The most expensive paintings came from British aris-
and Fox in London and Hermann Schickman in New York bought it together, in the hope that the Getty might take it later. It was duly bought by Malibu. Goldner remained the dominant buyer in the market. He rescued Agnew's, the Bond Street dealers, from severe financial difficulties in late 1991 by paying around £7 million for Sebastiano del Piombo's portrait of "Pope Clement VII," and he rescued a consortium of dealers by taking a large Canaletto "View of the Grand Canal" off their hands for roughly the same price. Old Master sales remained the strongest sector of the picture market, but with few buyers around, prices were erratic.
of the threat that
In April Christie's could not find a buyer prepared to pay the
ing pictures established in the 18th century,
tocratic collections
— largely
as a
result
and Kasmin,
they might be banned from export by a heritage
a
"list,"
scheme subsequently rejected by the government. It appeared that Holbein's "Portrait of a Lady with a Squirrel" would make the year's top auction price when Christie's announced its forthcoming sale on behalf of the Marquess of C'holmondeley
managed
February, but the National Gallery to negotiate its purchase before the auction at in
tax-exempt figure of £10 million. This might have been equivalent to anything from £15 million to £25 million at auction, depending on how the Treasury decided to calcua
late
Cholmondeley's
tax
£6 million they were asking for a ravishing tiny Rembrandt, "Daniel and Cyrus Before the Idol of Bel," but Sotheby's persuaded Milwaukee (Wis.) collector Alfred Bader to give Rembrandt's portrait of Johannes Uyttenbogaert a home at £4,180,000
in July.
In the Impressionist
markets, where prices collapsed
"bottom fishing"
became
in
and contemporary
1990, something called
—seeing how low one could buy a picture-
fashionable. Christie's had the two best sales of the
year, the
Tremaine and McCarty-Cooper
collections,
Dejeuner," and Cooper's Braque, "Atelier VIII." In the
bill.
Reattribution, or
Where Have
"A thing of beauty is a joy forever." Or so observed John Keats on the immortality of great works of art. To a growing number of collectors and curators, however, the poet's words offer scant consolation. What is one
All the his
Rembrandts Gone?
style.
The most talented students often collabo-
rated with the mentor himself, and several went on to achieve their
own measure
of fame. Rembrandt's
Rembrandt that sudden!) isn't? Rembrandt Research Project (RRP). an
enormous popularity encouraged anyone who owned a "Rembrandtesque" painting to consider it the real thing. It should also be noted that some painters,
international committee of art historians and connois-
such as Rembrandt's Flemish contemporary Peter Paul
make
to
ot a
In 1968 the
seurs based
in
Amsterdam, began
a systematic, high-
tech reassessment of the entire bodj ot
conventional!)
attributed
master. This corpus at
to its
the
oil
paintings
17th-century
Dutch
most generous reach
—
—
in
the Hush of a 19th-century Rembrandt "revival" exceeded 1,000 works Subsequent inventories based on examination ot technique and subject matter trimmed
the
number
by
nearly
hall
I
he esoteric pursuit
of
drama in 1992 when the RRP committee "deattributed" a number of paintings including "The Polish Rider" (1 rick Museum) and " he Curl at the Door" (Art Institute of Chicago) authentication
art
became
public
—
1
former!) esteemed as unassailable masterworks. I
his uncertainty in the
Dutch socioeconomic deception. The medieval to
and
scored $7.7 million for both Tremaine's Leger, "Le Petit
Rembrandt canon owes more history craft
than
to
any grand
guild system, in which
all trades, including painting, served formal apprenticeships with exacting masters, still nourished in 17th-century Amsterdam. Rembrandt supervised a
learners oi
large studio ot paying novices
who
diligent!)
imitated
Rubens, were more fastidious
in
distinguishing their
own work from that of their disciples. In its monumental effort to clarify
this muddle, the employing an unprecedented combination of informed judgment and scientific objectivity. Traditional scholarly appraisal, newly focused, has accounted for most of the "demotions" thus far. But, interestingly, it is the cooler eye of technology the X-ray and so-called dendrochronological analysis (dating of the paintings' wooden panels) that has shown even the deattributed works to date from Rembrandt's time. The first three volumes of a projected five-volume Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings have received a largely favourable response. A major exhibition reflecting the committee s findings thus far attracted large crowds in Amsterdam, Berlin, and London. While some owners of "former" masterpieces remained predictably unconvinced, others looked for a silver lining, such as a new interest in the often brilliantly gifted figures who (jim carnes) laboured in Rembrandt's shadow.
RRP
is
—
—
\stroiiomv
field, 1980s art was selling much better than Charles Saatchi, the British advertising mogul, and the bankrupt estate ol Swedish collector I-redrik Roos put a lot of good 1980s material on the market. There were many new price records for Latin-American artists. Diego Rivera's "The Flower Seller" set an all-time high at 52.970.000 matching the new record for a Victorian painting. Richard Dadd's "Contradiction," paid, again, by Andrew
contemporary '60s or '70s;
—
107
Other notable sales included the autograph manuscript ol Charles Dickens' he Haunted Man and the Ghosl S Bargain." 5308,000 at Sotheby's on October 11; a magnificent I
high Renaissance binding
Mansfeld
German
first
made
in
Paris lor Peter Ernst von
on December 5; the Nuremberg Chronicle. 5264,000
1556. £308,000 at Sotheby's
in
edition of the
the sales of important French and Continental furnishings.
Sotheby's on June 18; and a 1455 manuscript of Basinio da Parma's astrological poem "Astronomicon," £115,000 at Sotheby's on June 16. The most unexpected high of the year was the £253,770 realized at Phillips, London, on June for the papers of the 18th-century bluestocking Catharine Macaulay (1731-91) against a presale estimate of £20,000
Some
to £30.000.
Lloyd Webber. In virtually every field, auctions
were dominated by
pri-
vate buyers rather than dealers. This was notably true of
F 23 million for an exquisite jewel cabinet made for Queen MarieAntoinette, 51,980,000 for a Louis XVI commode painted of the extraordinary prices included
at
1
—
IM.RALDINE NOKMANJ
This article updates the Macropcedia articles The History of Western PAINTING; The History of Western Sr rULPTURE.
with roses from the Ortiz-Patino collection, SI. 8 million for a pair of silver ice buckets
made
in Paris for
Horace
Walpole, £770,000 for a rococo bureau by Pietro Piffetti of Turin, and 51,210,000 for a Savonnerie carpet, the highest auction price for a carpet on record. Prices for English
Astronomy For astronomy, 1992 was the year of Galileo, Hubble, and a half centuries ago the great astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei was sentenced to house arrest by the Roman Catholic Church and forced to recant his view that the Earth moves around the Sun. After deliberating for 13 years, a commission appointed by the church finally announced intentions to find Galileo "not
furniture were
more hit or miss. Christie's had two hits the sale of the Samuel Messer collection in December and Chippendale furnishings from Harewood House in July. Messer's Chippendale commode made £935,000, while a pair of Harewood silvered mirrors made £319,000. It was generally a quiet year for the Oriental market.
Compton. More than three and
Chinese sales were not doing well, and Japanese buyers were suffering from recession and art market scandals back home. Korea proved to be the new wild card in the pack;
guilty."
a 14th-century
Korean painting made 10 times estimate
at
51,760,000 in October, and an 18th-century blue and white vase made seven times estimate at £418,000 in December.
Though operating with
defective optics, the orbit-
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) achieved many firsts in providing exciting new images of the universe. And the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GROj. the first true gamma-ray telescope launched into orbit, made a host of ing
findings about sources of these very
high-energy photons
The impact of the recession on the book market was much less marked. Heavily publicized auctions no longer made prices out of line with the market, but
coming from the Milky Way Galaxy and beyond.
competition for real rarities was as strong as ever. Average prices had probably dropped some 10-15% from their peak. It was notable that a high proportion of the year's star turns were handled by Christies, which traditionally had
comets, and other debris. New discoveries were made about each of these during the year. Earth's nearest cosmic neighbour, the Moon, always keeps one side facing Earth. Despite
Book
Sales.
book business than Sotheby's. On Oct. 30, 1991. Christie's sold a pair of terrestrial and celestial globes dated 1579 and attributed to the workshop of Gerard Mercator for £1,023,000. They followed up with a 36-line Bible at £1.1 million on November 27; dating from before 1460, it was set from matrices struck in the Mainz workshop of Gutenberg. Only 14 copies were known to have survived. and this one was sold, via New York dealer H.P. Kraus, done much
less
to the Scheide Library
new
price record for an
December
5 with
Princeton. Christie's also set a
in
American
Abraham
letter in
New York
on
Lincoln's 2'/4-page defense of
Emancipation Proclamation written to Major General McClernand; it sold for 5748,000 to Profiles in History of Los Angeles. Sotheby's scored the other big price of the autumn. £1.1 million for one of the last complete autograph manuscripts of a major work by Beethoven in private hands. his Piano Sonata in E Minor. Opus 90. written in 1814. It was the highest price ever recorded for a music manuscript. handled the top-priced books of 1992. Christie's Audubon's The Birds of America, with its sensational elephant folio illustrations, is always among the most expensive books in the world. A new high of S4.070,000 was set on April 24 for a copy conserved since its publication by the University of Edinburgh. Back in London on May 20. one his
of the
first
pictorial records of
garden flowers, a manuscript
containing 473 drawings of ornamental plants from the garden of the Niirnberg botanist and physician Joachim Camerarius (1534-98). was sold at Christie's for £638.000 to the University Library of Erlangen.
Solar System. Within the solar system
lie
the Sun, the
nine major planets and their moons, and the asteroids,
manned
landings on the near side of the Moon, the far side held deep mysteries. In 1992 the spacecraft Galileo,
still
launched
in
1989, returned to the
part of the complicated trajectory
ultimate destination
its
spectacular
in
new images of
it
Earth-Moon region as was following to reach
1995, Jupiter. Galileo obtained
the far side of the
Moon
at
many
wavelengths, allowing scientists to assess the composition of various lunar craters. Analysis revealed that ejecta from the Orientale Basin, an impact-created feature
some
1.000
km
were excavated from the Moon's crust and not from its mantle, as had been previously thought. (One kilometre is about 0.62 mi.) On the other hand, another crater in the South Pole-Aitken Basin, which is some 2,000 km in diameacross,
ter,
indicated the presence of iron-rich materials, suggesting
that the impact
making
that crater
may
well have penetrated
into the lunar mantle.
As reported
widely
made
in
1991. Galileo
was the
first
space-
encounter with an asteroid. Although early images of the asteroid Gaspra were released that year, because of a defect in the telemetry system of the spacecraft, scientists had to wait until 1992 to get a fullcolour look at the object. The newer view, which was three times sharper than before, revealed more than 600 meteorite impact craters on the 20-km-long rock. Because of the calculated high impact rate, however, scientists concluded that the asteroid must be very young, perhaps less than 200 million years old. compared with the 4.2 billion-year age of the solar system. Gaspra probably formed as a splinter craft
to have
a close
of a larger asteroid following a cataclysmic interplanetary collision with another solar system body.
108
Astronomy
Image of the nucleus of the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) taken with the Hubble Space Telescope reveals what astronomers believed was the first view of the dust ring surrounding a massive black hole at the galaxy's core. Forming the thicker bar of the X, the light-absorbing,
doughnut-shaped
ring lies almost perpendicular to the disk of the galaxy, which is oriented nearly face-on to the Earth. Hidden within the intersection of the X may be a black hole with as much mass as a million Suns.
David Jewitt of the University of Hawaii and Jane Luu of the University of California at Berkeley discovered what
may be
the
first
of a
new
class of objects at the
edge of
the solar system, beyond the orbits of Pluto and Neptune. is about 200 km in diameter. It lies 1.6 Neptune, or about 42 astronomical units from the Sun. (An astronomical unit, or AU, is the EarthSun distance.) The object, currently dubbed 1992 QB1, may well belong to a belt of icv objects whose existence the astronomer Gerard Kuiper predicted in the early 1950s. He had suggested such a belt as the source of short-period comets, such as Halley's Comet, which orbit the inner solar system with periods of less than about 200 years. Observations of the Sun revealed for the first time the presence of fast neutrons produced in solar Hares. In June 1991 recorded high-energy gamma-ray emission from the Sun at the time oJ some very large flares. Following the optical emission from the Bares, GRO found an "afterglow" oi gamma rays and neutrons lasting several hours. Analysis Ol the data, reported in 1992, supported the notion that energetic protons are accelerated in a Hare and then get trapped in loops of solar magnetic fields, subsequent]) striking the gas present and producing neutrons and gamma rays. Neutron images of the Sun derived from GRO data were the first-ever such images ol any extraterrestrial object.
The "planetesimal" billion
km beyond
GRO
Stars.
he solar system is not the only place to look for seeking possible places for life beyond Earth,
I
planets.
In
scientists
have usual!) searched for signs of planets around
stars like the Sun.
In
1991 scientists
announced what
they
believed to be the discover) ol a planet circling a pulsar, a highly
magnetized rotating neutron
represents the usually
formed
last in
stage
in
star.
Since a pulsai
the evolution ol a star and
a supernova explosion,
it
seemed
a
is
most
an orbiting planet. "Detection" of the planet was based on reported slight variations in the clockunlikely
place
for
radio pulses coming from the pulsar PSR 1N29-10. In 1W2, however, the discover) was withdrawn, owing to an
like
error
in
the analysis of the arrival time of the pulses.
Mean-
two planets around a different pulsar was reported by Alexander Wolszczan of Cornell University, Ithaca. N.Y. This object, named PSR 1257 + 12. appeared to have planets roughly three times the mass of the Earth that circle the pulsar in orbits similar h> that ol the planet Mercury about the Sun. If confirmed bv lurthcr observations, tin.- discovery would raise many questions about the late stages ol stellar evolution, not to mention the origin of planets around old pulsars. Before dRo began systematical!) mapping the sky in gamma rays, there had been limited satellite studies ol the
while, another detection of at
least
gamma-ray
Perhaps the most perplexing discovery in gamma-ray astronomy was the object dubbed by its discoverers Geminga, which is derived from an Italian expression meaning "It's not there." Although it is the second brightest source of gamma rays in the sky, it was initially undetectable at any other wavelength. Later, weak optical and X-ray emission was detected from Geminga, but its true nature remained a mystery. Finally in 1992, observations by as well as by the X-ray-desky.
the preceding two decades of
GRO
tecting Rontgensatellit
(ROSAT)
settled part of the puzzle.
detected pulsations from the object with a period of 237 milliseconds (thousandths of a second), from
Both
satellites
which astronomers concluded that the object is a pulsar. Why its radiation properties are so different from all other pulsars, however, was still unclear. Extragalactic Astronomy. Black holes remain an elusive quarry for detection. Though a black hole cannot be seen directly, every year astronomers report new indirect means of demonstrating the presence of these invisible, alleged denizens of the universe. In particular, black-hole mania swept over HST users in 1992. The active galaxy M87 (Virgo A), well known for the luminous jet emanating from its nucleus, was studied by Tod R. Lauer of the National Optical Astronomy Observatories in Arizona and collaborators using the HST. The galaxy lies some 50 million light-years from Earth in a comparatively nearby cluster of galaxies in the constellation Virgo. They found that the light coming from its centre is some 300 times brighter than would be expected if there were only stars at the centre. The observation,
combined with the existence of a
4,000 light-years from
its
jet
core, suggests that
tain a black hole having a
mass two
extending some
M87 may
con-
billion to three billion
times that of the Sun.
Holland Ford of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., and co-workers used the HST to make a dramatic image of what was interpreted to be a massive black hole at the centre of the spiral galaxy M51, the Whirlpool Galaxy, lying some 20 million light-years from Earth. The object's presence is marked by a dark X across the centre of the nucleus of the galaxy. The thicker of the two bars of the X was suggested to be a doughnut, or torus, of cold gas and dust about 100 light-years across that is rotating around the otherwise unseen million-solar-mass central black hole. And closer to home in the elliptical galaxy M32, which lies only about two million light-years from Earth, Lauer and collaborator Sandra M. Faber of the University of California at Santa Cruz, using the HST, found that the density of stars increases to form a sharp "cusp" as one gets closer to the centre of the galaxy. They concluded that at its very
\Mruriiiriiv
Tiny temperature fluctuations
in
109
the
cosmic background radiation lurk among pink and blue patches of signal noise in this computer-enhanced map of the sky
made
from data collected by the Cosmic
Background Explorer (COBE)
satellite
The
long-awaited discovery of the fluctuations,
announced
in April,
offered critical input to
theories attempting to account for the present
lumpmess of matter in the universe in the form of galaxies and larger-scale structures. NASA
core
lies
a black hole of perhaps three million solar masses.
To some
astronomers, however, the lack of jets or other sign of activity at the centre of this galaxy made the claim for a black hole less viable.
Cosmology. Hubble's name appeared in another guise throughout 1992. Edwin Hubble, for whom the HST is named, is credited with having discovered the expansion of the universe by producing the first detailed correlation between the distances to galaxies and the rate at which they appear to recede from the Milky Way and from one another (now called the Hubble law). During the past half century, astronomers have sought to establish an accurate distance to nearby galaxies, thus allowing an accurate calibration of the current expansion rate of the universe, a number called Hubble's constant. From this, one can deduce the approximate age of the universe, the time since the original big HST, Allan Sandage of the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and co-workers bang. Using the
measured the luminosity of 27 Cepheid variable stars (a class of stars whose periods of variation are proportional
Earth Perihelion and Aphelion, 1993
km (91,402,000 mi) Irom the Sun km (94,505,000 mi) from the Sun
Jan. 4
Perihelion. 147,097,000
July 5
Aphelion, 152,091,000
March 20
Vernal equinox, 14.41'
Equinoxes and Solstices, 1993 June 21
Summer
Sept. 23
Autumnal equinox. 00 22'
Dec
21
Winter solstice, 20:26'
May
21
Sun,
solstice, 09:00'
Eclipses, 1993 (begins 12:18'). visible in the central and western coterminous United States, most ol Canada and Alaska, the entire Arctic region (including Greenland, northern Russia, Scandinavia, and the Baltics), and eastern Europe (including Belarus and Ukraine) partial
to their true brightness) in the small galaxy
IC 4182. This
galaxy contains even brighter yardsticks called type la supernovas, which can also be used to calibrate Hubble's constant
peak at the same brightness. Combining these observations with the best estimates for the average mass density of the universe. Sandage found that the universe is at least 15 billion years old, in good since these stellar explosions
agreement with independent estimates of the ages of the Way. Nonetheless, at year's end many observational cosmologists perhaps the majority remained skeptical, arguing that the universe is younger, perhaps only half this age. Though 1992 was an active year in astronomy, the dis-
oldest stars in the Milky
—
covery that received the greatest attention, at least
in
the
popular press, was the detection by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite of small fluctuations in the microwave background radiation. The big bang model rests
on four crucial observational pillars: the already mentioned Hubble law; the age of the oldest known stars; the measured abundance of the various chemical elements; and the existence of background radiation pervading the sky with a temperature of about 2.7° above absolute zero (2.7 K; - 455° F, or -270° C). The big bang model predicts that if the universe began with an initial hot, high-density explosion, some of the lightest elements would be synthesized and radiation would be produced, initially as gamma rays, that would subsequently cool as the universe expanded. COBE had already confirmed that the cooled radiation has the predicted temperature and spectrum. And it had already found that the radiation comes from all over the sky. But the model also requires that, at some level of strength, fluctuations be seen in the radiation corresponding to places
where there
is
structure in the universe, such as in the
directions of superclusters of galaxies.
June 4
Moon, total (begins 10:10'). the beginning visible along the east coast ol Asia, Australia, Antarctica, southern Alaska, extreme western Canada, western United States, most ot Mexico, the coastal regions ot Peru and Ecuador, southwestern South America, the Pacific Ocean, and the southeastern Indian Ocean, the end visible in most of eastern and south central Asia. Madagascar, Australia, Antarctica, the Hawaiian and the Aleutian islands, the Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific Ocean
In a dramatic announcement in April, George Smoot of the University of California at Berkeley, speaking for the COBE instrument team that made the measurements, said that COBE had seen what one scientist called "the
Nov 13
Sun, partial (begins 19 46'), visible in Antarctica, the southern tip of South America (including the Falkland Islands). New Zealand. Tasmania, and the south central and southwestern regions of Australia
tuations, only a
Nov. 29
Moon, total (begins 03:27'), the beginning visible in extreme eastern and northern Asia, the Hawaiian Islands, North America, Central America, South America, the Arctic, Greenland, Europe, western Africa, extreme western Russia, the eastern Pacific Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean, the end visible in northeastern Asia, most of New Zealand, the Hawaiian Islands. North America. Central America, South America except the extreme east, the Arctic regions, Greenland, the Pacific Ocean, and most of the North Atlantic Ocean.
'Universal time
Source: The Astronomical Almanac
lor the
Year 1993 (1992)
What COBE found were small flucfew parts in a million, in the temperature of the radiation observed coming from different directions in the sky. Though the significance of the discovery was still being assessed at year's end, 1992 was definitely a year for astronomy that, to rephrase T.S. Eliot, ended with a bang, (kenneth brecher) not a whimper. (See Physics.) handwriting of God."
See also Space Exploration. This article updates the Macropcedia articles The Cosmos; Galaxies; The Physical Sc iences: Astronomy; The Solar Sys-
tem; Stars and Star Clusters.
1
Botanical Gardens and Zoos
10
summer two major tropical botanigardens renowned for conservation work, the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Florida and the Waimea Botanical Garden in Hawaii, were devastated by hurricanes. native species. In late
Botanical Gardens and Zoos The contemporary
Botanical Gardens.
many urgent
botanical garden has
tasks, the conservation of plant resources
being
paramount. A number of botanical gardens were showing great Hair and imagination in taking their conservation messages to the public. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, built a Bornean longhouse within a tropical greenhouse,
New York
Garden built a traditional South American healers' house. The Botanic Garden of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, used the celebrations for the Day of the Dead to promote
while the
Botanical
the role of the festival's plant components.
The
topics of major international meetings reflected the
and contemporary challenges of botanithe botanical gardens of the Southwest Pacific region were discussed at the Wellington (N.Z.) Botanic Garden. The Etnobotanica-92, meeting in Cordoba, Spain, examined the effects of plant transfer between the Old and New Worlds. The third International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress, held in October 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, examined the theme "Botanic Gardens in a (hanging World." The last few years had seen a spectacular and welcome surge in botanical garden activity in the Spanish-speaking world. The botanical gardens of Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela were expanding in influence and importance. In some respects the new botanical gardens and plant germ-plasm centres of South America were showing the waj in the evolution of the contemporary tropical botanical garden. Botanic Gardens Conhistorical Jegacies
cal gardens.
In
cal
March 1992
(MICHAEL MAUNDER) The most important international conference of the sixth World Conference on Breeding Endangered
Zoos. 1992,
Species, held in
May
in Jersey,
delegates from 40 countries.
was attended by over 250
The main emphasis of
servation International started issuing a special bulletin for
London, further cliff-hanging developments were
Latin America. Boletin de tea Jandines Botanicos de America
war-torn Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina, the
Latina. In January 1991 the Brazilian botanical gardens had
viving animal in the city's zoo, a bear, died in
network. Rede Brasileira de Jardins Botanicos, and the Venezuelan botanic gardens met to form
On
formed
a collaborative
a national
Main of
network
in
Botanic Garden
political
and
financial neglect.
Cameroon, established by
in
m
colonial authorities ot plantation crops, 198.S.
1992.
The Limhe
the
German
1892 as a centre tor the development in decline since the 1960s. In
had been
however, a renovation program for the garden and
associated ram foresl reserves was initiated as a collab-
( amcroonian government, the Overseas Development Agencv of the British government, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. As a result, the garden was able to celebrate its ccntcnarv in 1992 as a centre for plant conservation and environmental education. Botanical gardens were increasing!) having to adopt new
orative project between the
skills lor
the
management
cultivation ot a single
ol rare plants
specimen
m
cultivation.
ot a rare species
1
he
does not
constitute conservation ol that species. Genetic variability
must be retained to ensure long-term survival. One of the most eagerl) awaited publications for botanical garden conservationists was Genetics ami Conservation of Rare Plants, he book reedited In Donald alk and Kent Holsinger. views the available literature on the genetic management ot rare plant species, both in cultivation and in the wild. A growing number ot botanical gardens were undertaking he univercollaborative pro)ccts with endangered species. sity botanical garden ot Bonn. Germany, was working with the GOteborg (Sweden) Botanic Garden on the conservaI
1
I
tion ot Sophora toromiro, a tree extinct in
Island to in
All
known
plants
in
cultivation
in
its
native Easter
Europe appeared
be descended from a single seed collection. In 1992, common with main other gardens, the Berlin-Dahlem
Botanic Garden started a remtroduction program lor rare
a
likely.
last
In
sur-
November.
happier note, the Miami (Fla.) Metrozoo reopened
in
damage
in
December, four months Hurricane Andrew.
after suffering extensive
The taxonomically unique aye-aye (Daubentonia mada-
the old colonial botanical gardens ot the tropics
had suffered from
its
August
the
papers and discussions was on the increasing importance of the conservation role of zoos, especially the interlinking of work on animals in captivity and in the wild. This theme was also stressed at the annual meetings in Vancouver, B.C., of the Captive Breeding Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), September 4-6, and the International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens, September 7-10. That zoos are an integral part of the conservation movement was accepted and endorsed by the major international conservation organizations in their Global Biodiversity Strategy, published in 1992. The document stated that the conservation role of zoos should be strengthened, especially in conservation/education, research, and cooperative animalmanagement programs and by support of the global, regional, and national network of zoos. The loss of London Zoo, one component in this coordinated network of over 1,000 zoos, would be tragic. The soap-opera drama of London Zoo and its proposed closure continued throughout the year, and though a reprieve was announced in September by the parent-body council of the Zoological Society of
gascariensis),
endemic
to
Madagascar and
listed as critically
endangered, had high conservation priority. The population in the wild had certainly declined, and there were only 16 in captivity, in three institutions. Encouragingly, the first captive births outside Madagascar were recorded in 1992: one, conceived in the wild, at Duke University Primate Center, Durham, N.C.. and one. conceived in captivity, at Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust.
Other
births
and hatchings of particular
interest
in-
cluded: Poor Knight's Island giant weta (Deinacrida fallai) at
Wellington (N.Z.) Zoo;
frilled lizard
(Chlamydosaurus
kingii)
Melbourne (Australia) Zoo; Attwater's prairie chicken Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) at Fossil Rim Wildlife Cen-
at (
ter,
Texas; a
number of
rare parrots including Spix's
macaw
Loro Parque, Tenerife; San Clemente Island loggerhead shrike (Lamus ludovicianus mearnsi) at San Diego (Calif.) Zoo; streak-bellied woodpecker (Picoides macei) at Carl Hagenbeck Tierpark, Hamburg, Germany; purple-crowned fairy wren (Malunis coronatus) and C'alabv's mouse (Pseudomys laborifex calabyi) at Territory ((
yanopsitta ?pixii) at
Wildlife Park, Australia: Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus ver-
Los Angeles Zoo; and Malagasy giant jumping (Hypogeomys antimena) at Jersey Wildlife Preservation
rcaiai) at rat
Trust.
There were a number of important advances o!
artificial
in
the use
insemination techniques. Collaborative work of
the National Zoo, Washington, D.C., and Salisbury (Md.) Zoo, using semen preserved at low temperatures, resulted in
(Cenus eldi) in December and January 1992; collaborative work between New
the birth of seven Eld's deer
1991
(
bemittrj
HI
The Lied Jungle, opened in 1992 at the Henry Doorly Zoo in Omaha, Neb includes 0.6 ha (1 5 ac) of rain forest along with several hundred rare animals Much of what appeared to be natural vegetation was actually man-made, but the simulated material would eventually disappear from sight as the living plants grew ,
NEBRASKALAND MAGAZINE NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION
York Zoological Park and thawed semen, resulted (Felis bengalensis) in
Defiance
in
the National Zoo, using frozen/
ing other versions of the 20-atom cage in which titanium
the birth of two leopard cats
is replaced by vanadium, zirconium, or hafnium. They also presented evidence for their synthesis of larger clusters comprising two or more of the small cages linked together by shared faces. Intense interest in the fullerenes continued as researchers learned more about fullerene properties while isolating
February; collaborative work of Point
Zoo and Aquarium, Tacoma, Wash., and
the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, using fresh semen, resulted in the birth of three red
The
wolves (Canis rufus)
in
May.
California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) captive-
breeding and reintroduction program continued. In January two eight-month-old birds, together with two captive-
bred Andean condors, were released in the Sespe Condor Sanctuary in California, but the male died in October after drinking from a puddle of antifreeze. It was just under five years since the last bird in the wild had been taken into captivity. A census of the only population of Bali starling {Leucopsar rothschildi) left in the wild showed an increase from fewer than 20 in 1990 to an estimated 52-56 birds in 1992, due mainly to the introduction of captive-bred birds, a decrease in poaching, and a series of relatively good breeding seasons. Ling-ling, the 23-year-old female giant panda (p.j.s. olney) at the National Zoo, died in December. See also Environment; Gardening.
and characterizing new
varieties of the molecules. Typiby the 60-carbon-atom, soccer-ball-shaped buckminsterfullerene (C„„), fullerenes are all-carbon molecules with an even number of atoms arranged in a framework resembling a cage. Each fullerene cage comprises 12 pentagons and 2 or more hexagons. American and Swiss chemists demonstrated conclusively that fullerene coalescence reactions occur, with smaller fullerene molecules fusing to produce giant fullerenes. Robert L. Whetten and his associates of the University of California at Los Angeles and Francois Diederich of the Federal Technical Institute, Zurich, Switz., used a laser to vaporize C M C^ or mixtures of both under conditions that yielded multiples and near multiples of the original molecules for example, C MS and C i:o from C m starting material. By controlling the density and temperature of the vapour, Whetten and Diederich were able to obtain different distributions of giant fullerenes. They suggested that controlled coalescence could be used selectively to produce fied
,
—
Chemistry Molecular Cluster Chemistry. The scope of molecular clusexpanded beyond the fullerenes in 1992 with the synthesis of several members of what appeared to be a new class of molecules composed of atoms arrayed in a highly symmetrical and stable cagelike structure. Although structurally similar to the ball-shaped carbon molecules that make up the fullerene family, the new molecules have difter chemistry
large quantities of specific giant fullerenes including large
and physical properties. Chemists at Pennsylvania State University led by A. Welford Castleman, Jr., initially made the cluster Ti s C i: which contains 8 titanium atoms and 12 carbon atoms. T\ H C I2 has a dodecahedral structure, with its 12 faces made up of pentagonal rings. A ring contains two titanium atoms, each bonded to three carbon atoms. The chemists synthesized Ti s C 12 through laser vaporization of titanium, with the metal reacting with carbon atoms supplied by hydrocarbons like methane, ethylene, and benzene. Castleman named the molecule a metallo-carbohedrene, or met-car, and predicted that it may be the first of a broad class of molecular clusters with unique properties and practical applications, including catalysts. Soon thereafter, Castleman's team reported mak-
endohedral complexes, in which one or more atoms are trapped inside the fullerene cage. Richard E. Smalley of Rice University, Houston, Texas, reported making a family of small fullerene-uranium endohedral complexes. Previous efforts at encapsulating metal atoms inside fullerenes had resulted only in large complexes having 60 or more carbon atoms in the cage structure. Smalley 's group laser-vaporized graphite impregnated with uranium dioxide to obtain a series of fullerene-uranium complexes ranging from C 2S to C m or 2S to (Proposed nomenclature for endohedral fullerenes uses the symbol to indicate an atom encapsulated by a fullerene.) Smalley believed that C :s like C w „ may have an extraordinarily stable geometric structure. C :s is extremely small yet is able to encapsulate uranium, one of the largest atoms, without bursting, whereas larger fullerenes proved unable to encapsulate smaller atoms. Smalley's group also prepared complexes of C'. s encapsulating single atoms of hafnium, titanium, and zirconium.
ferent chemical
,
,
@
,
U@C
U@C
Chemistry
112
The symmetrical, cagelike molecule Ti 8
C 12
(far left),
made
of 8 titanium
atoms (purple spheres) and 1 2 carbon atoms (green spheres), is the first
member of
of a newly discovered class metal-carbon cluster molecules,
dubbed
met-cars, to be synthesized. Chemists also reported making larger met-cars comprising two or more of the small cages, including the double-cage structure at
At San'dfa National Laboratories in New Mexico, Douglas Loy and Roger Assink reported making a fullerene polymeric material, a copolymer containing C W1 as one of the monomers. Their process used simple free-radical chemistry in which paracyclophane was sublimed at 650° C (1,200° F) to obtain xylylene, which then was reacted with a solution of pure Cn, dissolved in toluene (see 1). The result was an insoluble brown precipitate consisting of the copolymer C„,-/?-xylylene. The results indicated that fullerene polymers can be produced with straightforward free-radical reactions. Fullerene-based plastics with practical industrial and com-
(Ns) after Niels Bohr, the Danish scientist who pioneered the modern theory of atomic structure; element 108 hassium
(Hs) after the German state of Hesse, site of Darmstadt; and 109 meitnerium (Mt) after Lise Meitner, the Austrian physicist and pioneer in nuclear fission. All three elements are radioactive and extremely short-lived. Once accepted by the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC), the new names would replace interim names viously suggested by
Next to oxygen, called silicates that
Inorganic Chemistry. Researchers at the Carnegie InstiWashington (D.C.) and the University of Amsterdam reported producing the first solid compound of
resenting fully
the noble gas helium.
The
material,
He(N
;)
u
,
formed when
helium and nitrogen were mixed together and subjected to a pressure of 7.7 gigapascals, about 77,000 times normal atmospheric pressure Carnegie's Willem L. Yos conjectured that it may be the first of u new family of chemical compounds that are formed at high pressure and held together by weak interactions known as van der Waals forces. He that studies of such compounds may be important in understanding the structure and properties of matter in the interiors ol the gas-giant planets of the outer solar system. Names for the three heaviest known chemical elements were tormalK proposed in September by researchers at GSI felt
(Laboratory for Heavj Ion Research). Darmstadt, Germany. The elements, which bear the atomic numbers 107, 108. and KW, were synthesized at GSI between 1981 and 1984 by a
group headed by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg. Discoverers of new elements traditional!) select the names. The GSI group named element 107 nielsbohrium
\— r^~^ == /
/
>v\
\
'
\
^La
xylylene diradical
paracyclophane
-UD \
1
C M -p-xylylene
toluene,
-78°
'm
copolymer
X
is
the most abundant element in
form sand,
clays,
compounds
and other minerals rep-
of the crust. Silicates exist in a particular
the silicon is bonded to five or six oxygen atoms (see 2). Such bonding states provide enough reactivity for conversion to silicate polymers, glasses, and other materials. Organic Chemistry. Dutch chemists took an important step toward developing metal-like organic compounds that could complement or replace the inorganic semiconductors now used in transistors and other electronic devices. Such organic compounds would have a number of advantages,
xylylene
//
silicon
molecular structure, with each silicon atom bonded to four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedron. The exceptional stability of that structure poses difficulties for chemists who want to exploit silicon's properties in new forms of glass, electrically conducting polymers, and other materials. In order to exploit silicon at present, they must strip the oxygen atoms out of the tetrahedron in a tedious, costly process. During the year a group led by Richard Laine of the University of Michigan reported a simpler technique for making silicates possessing greater chemical reactivity. The process involves dissolving silica gel or fused silica in ethylene glycol, under the influence of a strong alkali, to produce silicates in which
- •—F~\—
W" /
650 C
75%
pre-
IUPAC.
the Earth's crust. Silicon occurs with oxygen in
mercial applications could result. tution of
left.
C^
C
(
OIIMMIM
I
\II.IIIS
I
I
/
200
160.000 Jan
y
/Sv
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec.
100 1970
1972
1974
1976
and Financial Weekly. SoufCes:
The Financial Times.
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
Economic Ufairs: Stock Exchange! except mortgage and asset-backed markets.
Goldman, Sachs
&
Co. remained second, and the Lehman Brothers division ofShearson Lehman Brothers Inc. was third. Merrill Lynch earned more than 2195 ol the $6.7 billion in Wall Street underwriting revenues, or approximately $1.4 billion. $72.4 billion in
new common
A
total of
stock was sold in 1992.
More
than $301 billion was raised in the debt markets, excluding the mortgage and asset-based sectors. This was equal to the cumulative rates
made
amount
raised in the
attractive for
it
bond
two prior years. Lower
issuers to refinance long-
term debt. Junk bonds (high-risk, high-yield debt) made a remarkable comeback, with an all-time record $38 billion in new issues in 1992, up almost 300% from the $10 billion in 1991. The previous record was $31 billion in 1986, during the heyday of the junk-bond market. Interest rates were down across the board in 1992. The bank prime rate ended the year at 6%, compared with the prior year's 6.5%. The yield on the U.S. Treasury's main 30-year bond closed at 7.37%, down from 7.46% in 1991;
was
3%
compared with 3.5%; and the Fed funds rate was 2.5%, contrasted with 4.6% the prior year. Three-month Treasury bills ended the year yielding 3.05' b, contrasted with 3.86% the previous year, while six-month bills closed at 3.23%, down from 3.87%. Municipal bond average yields fell from 6.7% in 1991 to 6.39% in 1992. Turnover of shares on the New York Stock Exchange the discount rate
(NYSE)
rose 13.1% in 1992 to 51,375,671,500 shares, as
compared with the
A
of 1,81 1 issues advanced, 831 declined, and 53 were unchanged. The total number of issues traded was 2,695, up from 2,464 in 1991. Most of the best gainers for the year were small, little-known stocks, while the best industries were semiconprior year's 45,424,500,000.
total
On
OTC
a more was reflected on the majoi excha he Nasdaq composite index ol 4.(11)11 mostly small stocks achieved a high of 676.95 at years end. a rise ol 15.5%,
the
I
compared with 56.895 in 1991. The number on the Nasdaq exchange, 48,396,600,000, from
1992.
the
volume on the
volume of 569,397,600 shares traded;
RJR
237,800; General Motors, 537,620,700; Philip Morris, 472,418,900; Telefonos
512,988,300;
de Mexico, 464,883,-
Table
VII.
Australia.
Sydney
Belgium. Brussels BEL20 Canada. Toronto Composite Denmark, Copenhagen Stock Exchange Finland. HEX General France. Paris CAC General
Hong Kong. Hang Seng Milan Banca Comm. Ital. Japan, Nikkei Average Netherlands, The. CBS All Share Italy,
SES
South
Africa,
Johannesburg
Taiwan. Weighted Thailand,
Bangkok SET
United Kingdom, FT-SE 100 United States. Dow Jones Industrials
T
Based on
Month
356.62
34207 334.44 321.77 323.19
Bond
sales
were down by 9%, from
$11,629,012,000 in 1992. The number of traded issues declined from 2,087 in 1991 to
$12,693,690,000
in
1991
to
+1
-6 + 28
-12 -26 +4 2
-5 -13 -1
-16 -27 -26 -14 +4
Pu olic
May
000 shares sold short.
3301
+6
Table VIM. U.S. Stock Market Prices Transportation (20 stocks) 1992 1991
July
by buying the shares back later at a lower price to replace the borrowed stock, passed the billion-share mark for the first time in mid-December 1992, with 1,010,000,-
3137
3936 179 639 596 3352 668
-5
daily closing price.
June
profit
2281
667 395 4363 214 913 688 3377 893 2847
351
+3
-26
Source: Financial Times.
borrowed stock in the fall and that they can
expectation that the stock's price will
16.925 198
532
-6 -17
*lndex numbers are rounded
427,798,300; Merck, 406,015,700; and Ford Motor, 395,743,sell
Industrials
Spain, Madrid Stock Exchange Sweden, Affarsvarlden General Switzerland, SBC General
12/31/91
14,309 190
216 773 417 4689 267 1015 682 5392 963 2792 3413
All-Singapore
change from
close
442 566 4302 355
541
23.801
Norway. Oslo Stock Exchange
Year-end
1550 313 1127 3350 262 829 484 603 5512 446
291
1046 3195 250
3666 365 936 556 725 6447 552
Germany. Frankfurt FAZ Aktien
Singapore.
1357
1685 578 1235
Ordinaries
All
Austria. Credit Aktlen
April
which traders
which
active issues,
Percent
346 73 344 98
500. Short sales, in
252 trading days. Of
1992 range' High Low
Country and index
340.35
428,898.700; Chrysler,
348.31
August September October
327 46
November December
1992
1991
241 .37 279.36 267.91
149.70 143.06 139.45
273 89
141.61
284.72 296.23 294.32 295.57 295.12 314.42
14725 14679
31586
138 38 143 19 142 84 143.13 138.66 135 73 137.75 140.88 142.84 144 54 146.66
312.73
148.81
153.70 149.97 155.36 154.28
Composite
Industrials
utilities
(40 stocks) 1
(400 stocks) 1991 992
(500 stocks) 1991
1992
493.37 490.89 484.86 484.53 470 72 481 96 487 16 490 88
382.78 427.94 441 87
416.08
450 17
493 56 483 33
459.11
450.05
450 87
32549
41256
362.26
407.36
37228
407.41 414.81
379 68 377 99 378 29
408.27 415.05 417,93 418.48 412.50
453.38 463.26
457 39 454.97
380.23 389.40 387.20 386.88 385-92
38851
458 00
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Survey of Current Business. Prices are Standard & Poor's monthly averages of daily closing prices, with 1941-43 = 10. except Transportation. 1982 = 100
1,382 in 1992.
On
the
American Stock Exchange (Amex), annual
clines,
and 24
issues
down from
unchanged
for a total of 948 issues
Held back by the poor performance of many small energy and mineral stocks that traded on the Amex, the market-value index rose by just 1.1% for the year. Bond sales declined 6.8%, from traded,
$952,360,000
in
1,049 the prior year.
1991 to $891,913,000 in 1992.
Table
sales
of shares increased 6.75%, from 3,368,380,000 in 1991 to 3,595,779,000 in 1992. There were 579 advances, 345 de-
The number
fell from 262 to 158. The "Emerging Issues Market" on the Amex, designed to facilitate the entry of smaller companies into the market, continued to expand with the addition of many new entrants. Trading volume on the Pacific Stock Exchange (PSE) was 1,990,389,794 shares, virtually unchanged from the prior year. The value of shares traded on the PSE was up 5.7% from 1991— $54.9 billion, compared with $51.9 billion. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange set a record for volume in its stock and currency markets in 1992. Equity volume was 1.1 billion shares, up 24' from 1991:
IX.
U.S.
Government Long-Term Bond Yields
Yield (%)
Month
Yield (%)
1992
1991
Month
1992
1991
January February
748
833
July
740
850
78
8.12
August
793
September
April
May
7.88 7.80
838 829
7.19 7.08 7.26
8.17
March
8.33
June
772
November December
7
854
October
796 788 7.83 7.58
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business Yields are for Treasury bonds that are taxable and due or callable in 10 years or more.
US
of issues traded
,
in
and surpassed
Selected Major World Stock Market Indexes*
March
AT&T,
ol the
and 85 were unchanged. Nasdaq's most
January February
400; Citicorp, 453,483,600;
on S3
traded
17.2'-
rose
a total 4,667 issues traded, 3,119 advanced. 1,463 declined,
Nabisco, 543,-
IBM,
NYSE
of shares
1991.
a level of 41.310,043.0011 in
ductors (up 65.7%) and communications (56.5%). The most active issues on the Big Board were: Glaxo Holding, with a
market, average prices reflected
bullish attitude than
Table
X. U.S.
Yield
Corporate Bond Yields Yield
(• •)
Month
1992
1991
Month
January February
8.20
9.04
July
8 07
9.00
829 8 35
April
August September October
795 792 799
May
8.33 8.28
883 893 886 886
875
March
June
822
9.01
1992
November December
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Survey of Current Business. Yields are based on Moody's Aaa domestic corporate bond index
1991
861
855 848 8.31
150
Economic
Affairs:
Stock Exchanges
had turnovers comparable to or better than those of the NYSE, were primarily computer-related stocks, including Corp., with 553,729,200 shares traded; Novell Inc.,
Intel
434,325,000; and Microsoft Corp., 402,467,700.
Mutual fund managers had a mediocre 1992 in terms of investment performance. The average equity mutual fund recorded just an 8.88% gain for the year. The results were far below the 35.61% gain in 1991 or the 11.1% average gain over the previous 30 years. Small-company stock funds were the performance leaders, surging 9.77%. Mutual funds bought $68.6 billion in 1992. In 1991 net stock purchases were 44.6
up from 14.4 billion in 1990 and just 1.2 billion in 1989. Mutual funds had become the second largest institutional holders of equities, owning 9% of all U.S. stocks. The bulk of mutual fund assets still were held in government and corporate bonds. In the 1950s and 1960s nearly 90% of all mutual funds' assets were invested in billion,
stocks.
The S&P 500 composite index (Table VIII) averaged 416.08 in January, 27.8% above the corresponding 325.49 figure of the previous year. The index declined to 407.36 in
March, rose modestly to 414.81
May, and moved within
in
a narrow range until year's end.
The high
for the index
was 441.28, the low was 394.50, and the closing 435.71.
The S&P
figure
was
industrials index registered a 1992 high of
and 507.46 at the close. After it dipped to 470.72 in May June and breaking through the
515.75, with 470.91 as the low
the January average of 493.37,
before beginning a climb
500 mark leled the
in
in
December. Public
movements of
utilities
stock prices paral-
the broader indexes with a high of
and a close of 158.46. Transportawere above the previous year's levels throughout 1992, but the year-to-year comparative differences narrowed from 99 points in January to 13 points in October. The high for the year was 369.97, the low was 307.94, and the close was 363.75. U.S. government long-term bond yields were lower in 161.98, a low of 135.59,
tion stocks
1992 than in the previous year. The January average (Table IX) was 7.48%, compared with 8.33% in 1991. After a modest gain to 7.93% in March, the average yield slid slowly through September at a level of 7.08% and then climbed to close the year at 7.39%. Corporate bond yields (Table X) declined during 1992 from an average level of 8.2% in January to 7.92% in September before a modest year-end gain. The junk-bond market was strengthened, as the default rate fell to 3.9%, down sharply from 9.7% in 1991 and below the average of
4.65%
for the previous 21 years.
Traders
in
the futures pits had a discouraging year, as
economy lessened demand for basic industrial commodities such as copper and silver. The Commodity Rethe lagging
search Bureau's widely watched index of 21 futures contracts
ended the year at 202.76, down 2.6%. The CRB Futures Index (1967= 100) began the year at 208, traded irregularly to reach a high of 211 in June, declined to
and climbed back slowly to
The
200 by August,
year's end.
NYSE
firms of the
that
dealt with
1992.
the public
achieved record pretax profits, with estimates ranging to as much as a total of $7 billion. Underwritings rose sharply in 1992. Total U.S. corporate financing was $846 billion, up 45% from 1991. Initial public offerings of stock raised a record $39.4 billion from investors in 1992, up 57% from 1991. fueled by a bull
new
market
in
OTC
stocks.
Once
issued,
1992 but not as spectacularly as I991's new issues. Secondary offerings raised $33 billion, up 7% over 1991. compared with preferred stock ($29 billion, up 47%), mortgage debt ($377 billion, up 51%), investment stocks did well
in
billion,
billion, up 42%), asset-backed debt ($51 up 2%), junk bonds ($38 billion, up 280%), and
convertible debt ($7 billion, down 7%), according to the Securities Data Co. The five largest common-stock offerings
1992 were: General Motors, 1.5 billion shares; Blackrock 2001 Term Trust, 1.3 billion; Chemical Banking, 1,226,000,in
000;
Wellcome Group (ADRs),
1,068,000,000;
and GTE,
789 million. The largest debt issuers were Federal Home Loan Mortgage and Federal National Mortgage. More than a third of corporate debt issued was refinancing at lower interest rates.
The
Securities
and Exchange Commission took a number
of important initiatives during the year, including a program to facilitate capital raising by small businesses by reducing
them by federal secuimplementation of new disclosure requirements for broker dealers in penny-stock transactions; increased net capital requirements for broker dealers who served as market makers; and increased investment adviser oversight. Canada. Canadian stock prices lost ground in 1992 as investors worried about a depressed economy, a weak dollar, concerns about constitutional reform, and the financial health of several of Canada's largest corporate empires, including Olympia & York Developments, Ltd., and Bramalea, Ltd. The unemployment rate rose to a cyclical high of 11.8% in November, up from 11.3% in October. The Canadian dollar traded at new lows in November amid slim evidence of a recovery. Domestic demand was weak, and employment growth and income gains remained sluggish. Interest rates were subject to major fluctuations during the year. The prime rate, which hit a low in September at 6.25%, the lowest level since 1971, was raised, in response to wild gyrations in the currency market, to shore up the dollar's sagging fortunes. During July the dollar tumbled against major currencies, brushing close to all-time lows. The rate rose to 9.95% in late November, the highest level in two years. After the market's initial sigh of relief over the failure of the October 26 referendum on constitutional reform, the Canadian market sold off sharply in November. Downward pressure on the currency was met with higher short-term interest rates, with the prime rate rising from 7.75 to 9.75% over the month. During December the banks dropped the rate six times in seven days to 7.25%. Canadian fixedincome markets experienced attractive gains during the last quarter. Investors earned an average 7.69% on Canadian bonds in the 11 months to November 30, measured by the Scotia-McLeod Universe Index, well below the 19.47% in the corresponding period of 1991. The Toronto Stock Exchange composite index, which was above 3600 in January 1992, dipped to 3325 by April, fell to 3200 in October, jumped to 3350 in November, and closed the compliance burdens placed on rities laws;
the year at 3350.44. The index, including dividends, was down 1.4% for the year. The 90- and 200-day averages both trended downward throughout the year. Advancing groups
included industrial products, transportation, and gold stocks. and metal prices were down. The Vancouver Stock
Oil
securities industry enjoyed record profits in
Member
grade debt ($271
Exchange's share of volume on all Canadian exchanges was 29%, while its share of total value remained at 3%. At the end of November there were 1,903 issues listed on the VSE. Mining companies continued to account for the largest
VSE companies, at 43% of money High-tech companies maintained a 14% share. Investors turned bullish toward the end of the year in anticipation of a U.S. recovery spurring demand for Canada's mining and forestry products. U.S. -Canadian trade reached another record in 1992. For the first 10 months of the year, U.S. imports from Canada totaled U.S. $78,060,000,000, an share of capital raised by raised.
11.2% increase from 1991. U.S. exports
to
Canada showed
Economic Mfairs: Stock Exchange!
a
9.3%
increase.
The
exports and supplied
U.S. took more than 77% of Canada's more than 70% of Canada's imports.
(IRVING PFEFFER) Western Europe. With few exceptions, stock markets in Europe underperformed their North American counterparts; they declined more than Wall Street early in the year and failed to recover in the autumn. An overall gain of 3%, as measured by the Financial Times European index, disguised losses investors suffered in many European bourses in 1992. The star performers in Europe were Switzerland and the U.K., with around 16% and 14% rises, respectively, from the beginning of the year. By contrast, the worst performers in 1992 were Denmark, Austria, and Spain. Investors in Germany, France, Italy, and Sweden also saw their investments valued on Dec. 31, 1992, at a lower level than at the beginning of the year. The London Stock Exchange (LSE) took off only after the government's spectacular U-turn in September following the European currency crisis that forced the pound to withdraw from the ERM. No longer constrained with maintaining the value of the pound against the Deutsche Mark,
economic strategy shifted from low inflation to high growth, and interest rates were cut by three points in successive stages between mid-September and mid-November. Growth-stimulating and job-generating capital-investment projects were given greater priority at the expense of curBritish
rent spending.
This was the second powerful rally in London. The year had opened with moderate gains correcting the previous autumn's weakness. As the general election campaign got under way and the opposition Labour Party, despite a commitment to raise income taxes, remained ahead in the opinion polls, the market took fright. The Financial Times Stock Exchange (FT-SE 100) Index dropped by around 100 points to 2400. It soared to 2740 when Prime Minister John Major was unexpectedly returned with a working majority. However, the postelection euphoria did not last long, as it became evident that the recession was worsening instead of ending. During the summer, as corporate results disap-
some large corporations cut their dividends, unemployment climbed, and company failures reached record levels, the FT-SE 100 Index dropped to 2300. Then came the U-turn, with lower interest rates, and the LSE established a new all-time high. At year's end the market was firmly above 2800, as it was encouraged by expectations of recovery at home and in the U.S. Given the speed with which the German economy approached a recession, it was not surprising that the Frankfurt Stock Exchange reacted adversely. Encouraged by betterthan-expected economic growth, the FAZ Aktien Index rose steadily during the spring to 720 a gain of 13%. The market consolidated during the summer and occasionally tested higher levels on hopes of lower interest rates as the inflationary pressures eased somewhat. The bubble burst in July when the Bundesbank raised its discount rate at a time when the rapid appreciation of the Deutsche Mark was hurting exporters, domestic demand was weakening, and it was painfully clear that unification was costing much more pointed,
—
than previously expected.
As
international investors bailed
market fell, dragging the FAZ Aktien Index close to 580 by the beginning of September. As the economic downturn deepened in the autumn, with forecasts of minimum growth in western Germany in 1993, the markets remained depressed. In September Germany came under pressure from other European countries to cut its interest
out, the
rates to relieve the currency tensions within the
ERM.
In
0.25% cut was less than expected. Afterward the Bundesbank reaffirmed its concern with the strong growth
the event, a
1^1
in money supply rather than the looming recession. As the year drew to a close, investors remained cautious and the
market drifted sideways, nursing capital losses close to W Given the French economy's close ties with Germany and the fact that it was hampered by sluggish global economic activity and political uncertainty, it was not surprising that the Paris Bourse underperformed in 1992. As with other major stock markets, it rose strongly in the opening months of the year, taking the CAC 40 Index to 2078 in May, up from the January 2 level of 1750. However, as the prospects of lower interest rates receded and economic growth lost momentum, the Paris Bourse looked expensive and declined steadily in the summer. Following the Danish rejection of the Maastricht Treaty, uncertainty surrounded the outcome of the French referendum and was heightened by the news that Pres. Francois Mitterrand was suffering from cancer. The narrow "yes" vote was initially well received, but soon the Paris Bourse went into a steep decline as the crisis in
the
ERM
hit
the franc, forcing
it
to
its
ERM
floor.
A
hike in interest rates to protect the franc and considerable
support from the Bundesbank forestalled a devaluation that could have wrecked the whole system. The stock market
remained unimpressed by two small cuts in prime interest rates in November, as the real interest rates, at around 7%, were inimical to corporate profits, and economic outlook remained uncertain. Switzerland benefited from the rest of Europe's uncertainties. It was a market dominated by big banks and multinational drug and industrial companies. This provided better defensive qualities, and the market was up some 16% overall during 1992. Having moved up swiftly in the spring, it was nearly 17% higher in May, but it gave up some of the gains as the corporate earnings for 1993 were revised downward in the summer. However, an autumn rally developed as the investors shrugged off a "no" vote on a referendum on closer economic integration with the European Communities. The Benelux countries, which were heavily dependent on international trade, were caught up in the higher Deutsche Mark valuation and suffered depressed exports. The stock markets broadly reflected the trends in Germany and France and gave up their earlier gains to end the year with very small gains.
The Scandinavian stock exchanges were also disappointDenmark's rejection of the Maastricht Treaty in June marked a turning point, and the Copening for the investors.
hagen Stock Exchange
lost
over 100 points, or
25%
of
its
value, in the second half of the year. Sweden's fundamental
economic weakness and high interest rates drove the Affarsvarlden General Index nearly 15% below its level at the beginning of the year, but
it
staged a strong recovery in late
November, following the devaluation of the krona, and recouped most of the earlier losses. Finland, a comparatively smaller market, picked up in 1992, ending a long period of sustained underperformance in the wake of the collapse of the former Soviet Union.
The southern European bourses were among the worst performers in 1992. The Milan Bourse fell steadily until October and was more than 12% down year to year, despite a sustained rally in the closing months. Investors reacted adversely to Italy's growing economic crisis, which was accentuated by financial and political scandals. While Prime Minister Giuliano Amato's tough austerity measures were welcomed as long overdue to address the country's structural economic problems, investors were jolted when the September
ERM
crisis initially led to
21%
short-term
was followed by a small devaluation and the withdrawal of the lira from the system. Once a favourite interest rates. This
152
Economic
Affairs:
Stock Exchanges
Japan, the world's second largest stock market, defied fell by another 26% during 1992. From the December 1989 peak, the Nikkei Price Index had fallen 56.5%. The fundamental problem with
expectations of a recovery and
Japan remained one of economic weakness. Consumption and capital spending, which between them accounted for nearly 80% of GDP, fell during 1992. Corporate earnings suffered, too, as the imbalance between revenues and fixed costs sharply eroded profits. The Nikkei Price Index staged a halfhearted rally in the spring as short-term interest rates
were cut, but it continued to lose ground. Another rally in September fizzled out. The year ended as it started, with the Nikkei Price Index back in sick bay. In sharp contrast
many
to Japan,
of the smaller stock exchanges in the region
good increases. Indonesia and Malaysia outperformed South Korea and the Philippines, where the gains were smaller. Singapore went against the trend and fell registered
slightly.
Commodity Markets. The continuing global recession down the prices of many commodities. The Economist Commodity Price Index, which measured spot prices in U.S. held
and sterling for 28 internationally traded foodstuffs, nonfood agricultural products, and metals, was largely unchanged in dollar terms from the beginning of the year. As dollars
the dollar depreciated against other currencies, especially in the Dealers on the Tokyo exchange watch on March 16 as the Nikkei Price Index drops 3% to below 20,000, the lowest level in five years. The Japanese stock market later fell another 6,000 points, to a six-year low, increasing concern for the stability of the country's financial institutions. APWIDE WORLD
of international investors and a star performer, the Madrid Stock Exchange found it heavy going in 1992 and fell by
around 13%. While many European stock exchanges rose in the spring, Madrid was shunned as the economic prospects and the inflationary outlook in Spain seemed relatively less attractive. The steady decline through the summer, however, turned into a slump in September as Spain, like Italy, was caught up in the currency crisis and had to raise interest rates and devalue. What discouraged investors most was an unexpected temporary reintroduction of capital controls. Other Countries. With the exception of Hong Kong and the Southeast Asian "tiger countries," stock exchanges
in
Southern Hemisphere countries fell in 1992. A delayed economic recover) in Australia, coupled with poor corporate profitability, meant that the stock exchange could not hold on to earlier gains and ended the year down 6%. Likewise, political deadlock, tribal clashes, and declining gold and diamond prices meant that South Africa experienced a volatile year with a small gain on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. Hong Kong, with an overall gain of more than 28%, was the best performing stock exchange in 1992, despite a severe setback in the autumn. Encouraged by rapid economic growth in the colony, international investors looking for an alternative to Japan in East Asia and for exposure to China's rapid economic growth piled into Hong Kong, doubling the Hang Seng Index in less than two years. The growing economic link between Hong Kong's industrialists, who employed more than two million workers in China's southern region, and Beijing (Peking) was perceived to outweigh the political tension between Gov. Chris Patten and Chinas rulers over attempts by the former to introduce certain democratic changes into the colony before the 1997 handover. In late November, however, investors took fright from renewed Chinese sabre rattling, and the market went into a headlong dive. In a week it fell 17% before stabilizing. At year's end the Hang Seng Index was nearly 15% off its
early
November
high.
summer, there was a 13% gain
in sterling
terms (despite
the September devaluation of sterling).
The
which was not included in the 7% in 1992. North Sea (Brent) crude oil fluctuated between $17 and $21 per barrel during the year, and in mid-December it was selling at $17.70 per barrel for January delivery. This price weakness was largely a result of sluggish demand from the recessionprice of crude
Economist Index,
hit industrial
ment
in
fell
oil,
by around
countries, as well as a mild winter.
November by
OPEC
An
agree-
countries to cut production
did not stabilize prices, as the level of production was
still
thought to be above the likely global demand. Furthermore, the revised ceiling did not include Ecuador, which had left
OPEC. The two major
sectors of the Economist Index performed
The food index declined 2%, while the was up by a similar magnitude. Nonfood products such as wool, cotton, and rubber were
slightly differently.
industrials index
agricultural
held back either by slack
demand
or by overproduction.
An exception was New Zealand wool prices, which climbed 30% thanks to Chinese and Russian buying. The Economist metal index, which was largely unchanged in dollar terms, was the weakest of the subindexes. Although investment buying boosted metal prices in the summer, this was shortlived. With the economic recovery proving elusive, industrial demand was weak, and prices drifted. There were large surpluses, particularly in aluminum and nickel, owing to large
Russian exports. Gold, while cheap by historical standards, traded in a narrow price range and ended 1992 with a 9% fall. As an ultimate safe haven, it had lost its appeal in the post-cold war, low-inflation era. While rock-bottom interest rates in the U.S. also reduced the demand from gold fund man-
demand
for the metal was stronger, as the and jewelers purchased more. Supply, however, was also higher as sales by central banks in Japan, Brazil, and Canada supplemented newly mined gold. The price, having started the year at around $360 per troy ounce, drifted to $330 in December, raising hopes that at this lower level it would begin to attract buyers. However, as the year drew to a close, there was still no life in gold prices.
agers, industrial
electronics industry
(ieis)
This article updates the Macropcedia article Markets.
Education
bottom
the
Education
two
Noteworthy topics in 1992 included academic-achievement testing, ways to expand educational opportunities, the rebuilding of war-damaged educational systems, and students' political activism.
Comparisons of academic performance across nations were highlighted in two reports of educational achievement that compared the success of pupils from a number of countries in reading, mathematics, and science. The study of reading literacy, sponsored by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), tested 210,000 students, ages 9 and 14, from 9,000 schools in 52 countries. The tests measured skill in reading expository and narrative matter and in comprehending documents containing graphs, maps, and charts. Pupils in Finland earned the highest scores. Relatively strong scores were also achieved by participants in Sweden, France, the U.S., and New Zealand. Factors that consistently distinguished high-scoring from low-scoring countries were large school libraries, large classroom libraries, regular book borrowing, frequent silent reading in class, frequent story reading aloud by teachers, and more class hours spent in language instruction. Although in most school systems urban children achieved at higher levels than their nonurban age-mates, in a few highly developed nations rural pupils scored as high as, or higher than, those in city schools.
The Educational Testing Service (ETS) measured the mathematics and science achievement of 9-year-olds in 10 countries and of 13-year-olds in 15 countries. Among the nine-year-olds, South Korea placed first in mathematics, followed by Hungary, Taiwan, the former Soviet Union, and Israel. The U.S. ranked ninth. In science, South Korean nine-year-olds were again first, followed by Taiwan, the U.S., Canada, and Hungary. Among 13-year-olds, South Korea and Taiwan tied for first place in mathematics, followed by Switzerland, the former Soviet Union, and Hungary. In the science test for 13-year-olds, South Korea was first, followed by Taiwan, Switzerland, Hungary, and the former Soviet Union. U.S. 13-year-olds were 14th in math and 13th in science.
A
the schooling ladder
ol
stable than at the top; over 809?
total of 174,000 pupils participated in the survey.
ETS results concluded that success on the could not be accounted for by such variables as class size, length of the school year, or the amount of money spent on education. Factors that appeared more significant were curriculum, parental expectations, and the amount of time pupils spent on homework or on reading as opposed
to five
were regularly
ol
was considerably more French children aged
nursery schools, while half the
in
students attending universities dropped out during the
two
153
first
years. Alter lour years as France's minister of educa-
Lionel Jospin was replaced by Jack Lang, who added education to his existing responsibilities as minister of culture. Jospin's record in office included increased salaries tion,
more
for educators,
flexible
teaching methods
in
primary
schools, a unified teacher-education system, a major expan-
and a new training partnership between industry and the schools. In eastern Europe there was increasing change in the schools of former socialist countries. In Czechoslovakia, for example, world history books over four decades had focused chiefly on the Soviet Union and the triumph of communism, but newly revised textbooks emphasized Czechoslovakia's place in European history and the influence of the nation sion of higher education,
among world powers. The annual conference of the U.S.based Comparative and International Education Society in March was attended by the ministers of education from 14 of the 15 countries that formerly made up the Soviet Union. The occasion provided the ministers with their first opportunity to meet each other and discuss education issues. The visit to the U.S. was financed by donations solicited from U.S. industries. Civil in
war
in
Yugoslavia forced the closing of most schools
the regions under siege. In Croatia, 65,000 pupils and
6,000 teachers had to leave their homes.
A
total
of 81
preschools, 204 primary schools, 61 secondary schools, and 17 colleges
were damaged or totally destroyed. During the town of Karlovac, educators attempted to
shelling of the
teach textbook-based lessons over the local radio stations but were constrained by limitations on air time that permitted only five minutes per subject per class each week. Another area where schooling fell victim to unrest was Iraqi Kurdistan. In the town of Said Sadiq, volunteer Kurdish teachers set up school in seven tents and operated three shifts
of classes each day
in
an
effort to serve nearly 15,000
children.
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union,
officials in
control of China's schools reemphasized the teaching of
Analysts of the
Marxist-Leninist-Mao Thought, often accompanying study
test
sessions with military drills intended to maintain political
watching television. Educational opportunity in the European Communities (EC) took a step forward with the implementation of a policy permitting children from the Community to attend school in any EC country, with the host nation paying the cost. In Britain, where the enrollment of boarding students to
had declined, 43 state boarding schools enthusiastically welcomed the program as a way to fill empty beds. The Council of Europe, formed by 10 countries in 1949 as a forum for political discussion, had 27 member nations by 1992 and an agenda featuring cultural and educational cooperation. Major projects
in 1992 included establishing language learning in member countries and a secondary-school curriculum focusing heavi-
a
common framework
for
on European affairs. Primary and Secondary. School attendance continued to be a topic of general concern. According to the French Ministry of Education, 62% of young people aged 2-29 in France were in education programs, higher than the 5057% reported for other developed countries. Enrollment at ly
among the young. As a further means of preventing students from straying off the communist path, the discipline
government endeavoured to suppress news of events in the former U.S.S.R. With the unification of Germany, schools in the eastern sector, which had followed state atheism for 40 years, were
now
obliged to reintroduce religion as a regular part of the
curriculum.
Under
the
German
constitution, students are to
be taught "in accordance with the tenets of the religious communities," which in most west German schools meant Catholic or Protestant instruction. Four new federal states in the east adopted this pattern, but Brandenberg intended to integrate religion into a life orientation and ethics course being introduced in 44 schools on a trial basis. Church leaders objected to the Brandenberg plan on the grounds that teachers trained under the former regime were unqualified to teach religion and that religion was in danger of receiving short shrift in a course that also focused on such topics as unemployment, tolerance of minorities, ethics, and sexuality.
In the latest chapter of the effort to define the constitu-
ban on the establishment of religion in the U.S., the Supreme Court barred public prayer at high school graduation ceremonies. The ruling was more specific than the
tional
154
Education
Japanese students attend a science class at ajuku, or cram school. As a supplement to regular schools, jukus have become increasingly
common
in
Japan.
KAKU KURITA— THE NEW YORK TIMES
court's 20-year-old, three-part test for maintaining the wall
of separation between church and state. Since graduation
an
official
ceremony, prayer during
sanctioned religious
activity.
Some
it
was viewed
is
as a state-
experts conjectured that
moment
of silence might be permissible. Sex education in the era of AIDS continued to be a contentious subject. Britain's Basil Cardinal Hume urged participants at a Catholic education conference to include sexuality and AIDS as topics in religious education classes so pupils might achieve a moral awareness extending beyond the physiological knowledge taught in science classes. In the U.S. the distribution of condoms in schools as a means of stemming the spread of AIDS was a source of conflict in a number of districts, although 68% of respondents in a Gallup Poll favoured it. One-fourth supported distribution only if parents consented. Spending on education at all levels in the U.S. during the 1992-93 school year was estimated at some $445 billion, an increase of 5% over the preceding year. Education spending had risen by 40% in 10 years (adjusted for inflation), accorda
Department of Education. More than seven Americans were employed in education at all levels,
ing to the U.S.
million
and some 70 million persons, one-fourth of the population, were involved as students, administrators, or support staff. Reform of the nation's schools was a major topic in the U.S. presidential election campaign, despite the fact that control of the schools rested largely with state and local governments. The major candidates all claimed to support education as a national priority. Pres. George Bush pointed to his America 2000 initiatives to reform education, Bill Clinton to improvements made in Arkansas schools during his governorship, H. Ross Perot to his leadership role in citizen-led reforms in Texas education. All pictured education as essential to improvement of the nation's lagging economy. Both national teachers' unions, the National Education Association (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), endorsed Clinton. The NEA was the single largest group represented at the Democratic convention. In July U.K. Education Secretary John Patten published a White Paper, Choice and Diversity, setting out proposals for a rapid increase in the opting-out process, whereby schools in England and Wales could switch from the control of local education authorities to grant-maintained status control by the central government.
A
new
—
in effect,
centralized fund-
would take over many of the local authorities' where more than 10% of pupils had opted out. The White Paper also outlined strong measures for schools deemed to be badly run, encouragement for schools that had opted out to specialize, a crackdown on truancy, a review of religious education, and an emphasis on the teaching of moral standards. So far fewer than 300 schools had chosen to opt out, but it was expected that the process would speed up significantly when the proposals outlined in the White Paper became law. It was reported that half a million pupils in Japan were staying away from their classrooms more than 50 days a year because they found school life oppressive. Analysts charged ing agency
responsibilities in areas
that the
rapidly rising
number of absentees
(tokokiyohi)
was caused by the schools' rigid regimentation and strict discipline, the breakdown of family control over the young, and a demanding national curriculum that discouraged slow learners.
Attempts
in
Australia to provide suitable education for
the country's 340,000 Aboriginal people featured curricula
adjusted to the students' backgrounds, teacher training for Aborigines via radio and correspondence, bilingual programs, and newsletters produced in remote communities by means of desktop publishing. The Israeli Ministry of Education instituted a special program to train Ethiopian immigrants to teach in schools enrolling Ethiopian Jews, who had been airlifted to Israel in 1991. More than half the newcomers were under age 18. The training program included such subjects as the study of Israeli society, democ-
and civics. Unequal educational opportunities for women in the U.S. were highlighted in a report titled How Schools Shortchange Women, published by the American Association of University Women. A summary study of hundreds of research reports, the report traced how girls end their high school careers trailing boys. Girls start school on an equal footing and fall behind as a result of discrimination by teachers, stereotypes in textbooks, biased tests, and male peer harassment. A study of 40,000 schools by Gary Orfield of Harvard University revealed a dramatic increase in the segregation of Hispanic students in the U.S. The rate had doubled during the past two decades, and dropout rates for Hispanics were nearly triple the national average. Among racy,
AAUW
other findings
in
the report, school desegregation progress
Mutation
had been greatest in the Deep South, while central cities had been largely vacated by whites and were increasingly
government,
being abandoned by middle-class African-Americans. study published by the NEA found that 13.3% of teachers belonged to minority groups, a small drop from previous years. Of the approximately 2.4 million teachers in 1' i had earned advanced degrees. The average the U.S., 53.
scientists,
workweek
in theoretical physics
A
for a teacher
was 46.5 hours. Teacher
salaries
averaged $34,213 during the 1991-92 school year, according to the AFT. This represented a 3.6% increase from the preceding year, but the union noted that the outlook was clouded by economic difficulties. More than 20 strikes were reported as the 1992-93 school year started. Detroit, Mich., the nation's seventh largest school district, experienced a 27day strike over a demand for an 8% pay raise. Some 168,000 students were affected. In another large district, Philadelphia, a strike was averted by a last-minute settlement. A stalemate in salary negotiations between the Italian government and the teachers' unions motivated teachers to adopt a novel mode of industrial action. To display their dissatisfaction, while still honouring a no-strike agreement, the teachers refused to order textbooks for the coming year. that they were among the lowest Europe. However, the government noted that Italian teachers enjoyed the lowest teacher-pupil ratio on the continent (1 to 9) and that salaries accounted for 98% of the nation's education budget. Over 98% of New Zealand's secondary school teachers staged a one-day walkout, followed by a series of regional strikes, to protest the government's move to eliminate traditional collective pay agreements and require each teacher to negotiate an individual contract. Opinion polls showed that 80% of the public supported the
The teachers contended paid
in
teachers.
In the U.S.
beamed
Channel
1,
a private, for-profit
to high schools, entered
news program
second year with an
its
audience estimated at 8.1 million students. The program continued to be controversial because it included commercials. Meanwhile, Whittle Communications, the developers of Channel 1, began plans for a network of private schools. Benno Schmidt resigned as president of Yale University to head the program. Higher Education. In an effort to improve instruction in German universities, students launched a nationwide "test the teacher" (Priif-den-Prof) project that involved collecting student assessments of instructors by means of questionnaires, with the results leading to awards for faculty
The program was intended to encourage instructors to place at least as much emphasis on teaching as on research. The German university members
identified as the best teachers.
institutions
nation's
higher education.
ol
155
The Australian
move, established a loan lurid to help finance the immigration ol highly qualified scientists from the former Soviet republics to take research positions in Australian universities. Meanwhile, institutions in the U.S. were appointing substantial numbers of former Soviet in
a similar
particularly those with international reputations
2,000 academics
Union were
Soviet
posts ers'
and fundamental mathematics. Over to Israel from the
who had immigrated still
unable to find teaching or research because of the newcomHebrew. During the previous two
in Israeli institutions, partly
lack of fluency in
years, an estimated one-third of such
placed
new
arrivals
had been
in suitable positions.
In the aftermath of social upheaval, higher-education in-
many
stitutions in
operations.
Two
countries struggled to reestablish normal
years after the end of Sandinista rule in
Nicaragua, the country's four universities faced the prospect 22% cut in government funding as a result of the
of a
nation's dire
economic
state.
barely covering modest
With government
allocations
few funds were available for research, equipment, or supplies. Kuwait University was gradually recovering from the destruction of its seven campuses during the 1990-91 Iraqi occupation. Officials were seeking to replace books and valuable equipment taken to Iraq, and damaged buildings were being repaired. Enrollment totaled around 9,000 students, 15% below the
number
faculty
salaries,
prior to the invasion.
Following the October 1991 peace agreement that ended 13 years of civil war in Cambodia, universities and institutes in the capital of Phnom Penh were endeavouring to rebuild campuses abandoned during the hostilities. Students who had been refugees in Thailand were returning to attend classes alongside members of the Khmer Rouge, whom they still viewed as enemies. Thus university officials faced problems not only of providing learning resources and qualified instructors but also of subduing the conflicting political philosophies that many students and faculty members were seeking to propagate. In Finland the loss of the nation's profitable trade arrangement with the former Soviet Union seriously weakened the economy, causing the government to cut funds for the country's 20 higher-education institutions by 4%. The revenue reduction forced a deferment of building and maintenance programs and the elimination of 150 faculty positions.
Student demonstrations were launched to effect political change.
in several nations
The pro-democracy
uprising in
Bangkok, Thailand, led by students from Ramkhamhaeng
system, designed for 900,000 students, currently struggled to
University, led to the resignation of the military-controlled
accommodate twice
government. Nigerian students periodically clashed with police on campuses across the nation during protests against
that
From 1963 through
many.
1992, the
rolled in higher education rose
number of from
British
7.2 to
group, with the greatest increase occurring particularly those attending part-time.
21%
youth en-
of the age
among women,
Although the
British
population was 40% working class and 60% middle class, only 20% of degrees in higher education were earned by working-class students, a proportion that had not changed over the past two decades. During that 20-year period, the percentage of university applicants entering with high test scores had risen.
To enhance
the quality of faculty
members
at
Brazil's
leading university, officials of the University of Sao Paulo successfully challenged the clause in the nation's constitution
permanent appointment of professors from abroad. At the same time, Brazil's Ministry of Education planned to expand its program of bringing researchers from the former Soviet Union and eastern Europe to the
that prohibited the
ineffective
university
administration,
human
rights
viola-
and economic austerity programs that resulted in the deterioration of campus facilities. During July more than 15,000 Yugoslav students seized 12 university buildings in Belgrade in a demonstration against the government of Serbian Pres. Slobodan Milosevic. The takeover followed antiwar protests in which Milosevic's regime was blamed for the nation's civil war and deteriorating economic condition. In retaliation, the government passed legislation drastically limiting the university's traditional autonomy. Shortly after Peru's Government of Emergency and National Reconstruction took control of the country in April, tions,
Pres. Alberto Fujimori moved to cleanse the universities of left-wing activists. Hundreds of students were detained by police for several days to prevent them from organiz-
ing protests against the government's action.
As
in
other
Education
L56
when
representatives
of the African
National
Congress
and the Union of Democratic University Staff Associations counseled against it on grounds that it would be counterproductive, hastening the exodus of talented academics from the country without advancing political negotiations. The boycott had officially ended in October 1991 when the
Commonwealth
nations agreed to
sanctions against South Africa.
When
lift
person-to-person
was
in force, it had prevented many South African academics from attending international conferences or publishing their works abroad. The possibility that it would be renewed in 1992 was occasioned by the breakdown in political negotiations between the ANC and the South African government. Colleges and universities in the U.S. began the 1992-93 academic year prepared to receive 14.3 million students; more than 60% of U.S. high school graduates attended college. Institutions of higher education planned to spend more than $172 billion in the 1992-93 school year, a 36%
The
increase since 1982-83.
it
total dollar outlay per college
25% increase over the past 10 years. Degree completions for 1992-93 were projected
student was at
more than
$16,000, a
470,000 associate degrees, 345,000 master's degrees, and
41,000 doctorates.
The expected increase in job recruiters on campus did not occur. Job opportunities for the current crop of gradu-
works with his class at a juvenile detention centre in Ann Arbor, Mich. Sponsored by Encyclopaadia Britannica, Inc., and the Council of Chief State School Officers, the award is given in recognition of excellence in teaching.
were curtailed by competition with the previous year's who were still job hunting. Engineers were still in demand, and their salaries were in the mid- to high $30,000s about $10,000 higher than the offers being received by accounting and business majors. Many employers were adopting a wait-and-see attitude about the possibility of economic recovery, and this was reflected in conservative
MICHELLE ANDONIAN
hiring.
Latin-American countries, student governments in Peru's state universities over recent decades had favoured such leftist doctrines as those advocated by the Maoist guerrilla movement Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path). Right-wing military forces that opposed Shining Path had also been using the universities as an ideological battleground. In the midst of this struggle, the politically moderate rector of San Cristobal de Huamanga National University, Pedro Villena Hidalgo, was the target of frequent death threats. Youths in several countries demonstrated against proposed increases in tuition. The University of Zambia expelled all III. Olid of its students alter weeks of mass protests against a 25'/ lee increase ordered by the government. In Chile students boycotted classes and took over university buildings in response to financial-aid procedures they claimed were slow and required an unreasonable rate of repayment, particularly for graduates who entered teaching posts that, in Chile, were notoriously underpaid. The National Autonomous University of Mexico (I NAM), with an enrollment of 270,0(10. laced the threat
from minorities and transfer students. Of 627 colleges responding to a survey, 70% reported increases in applications. Financial aid to students rose 7.5%, to $30.8 billion, according to the College Board. This included grants ($15.1 billion), loans ($14.9 billion), and work-study
ates
graduates,
—
Thomas
A. Fleming,
1992 Teacher
of the Year,
Many
ol
a
student
strike
if
authorities raised the
tuition
rate,
which had not changed in 44 years. The established fee of 250 pesos, the equivalent of' about U.S. $170 in 1948, barelj equaled ilt-s
i.il
new world order" aspect
he
industry was emphasized by
]
Js
the
ol
Gen
would pull out ol th< European Fightei Ail A) project on the basis that such a
nouncemenl
thai
ii
multinational (I
I
could not be justified with the \ disappearance ol the Soviet threat. supporters countered that top-class Russian fighters would be operated by increasingly volatile Third World nations and perhaps by former Soviet republics. In the U.S.. companies were preparing to bid for a new U.S. An Force U.S. Navy AX multimission costl) aircraft
I
I
strike fightei.
But some things do not change. At Famborough two companies were offering
Douglas DC-3s, with turbine engines and airframes, and were recording brisk sales. The DC-3 first flew in 1936, and salesmen predicted that several hundred would be flying well into the next century. (MICHAEL WILSON) "as new"
With engines sealed, planes from various airlines are lined up in rows on a giant desert "parking lot" in the southwestern U.S. As hard times for airlines continued in 1992, many carriers found themselves with too much capacity and resorted to temporary storage for excess craft. DOUGLAS BURROWS— GAMMA LIAISON
AUTOMOBILES bled state of the airline industry.
It
was
a
sign that the time of speculative acquisition
by middlemen of expensive aircraft in the expectation of selling them at a premium had ended. Some observers were predicting that the airline industry would continue to shrink as weaker operators collapsed. The uncertainty of the situation was highlighted by the announcement in September that Britain's Hatfield factory, famous since 1930 as the home of de Havilland, was to close. Half of its BAe 146 regional airliner production was to be transferred to Scotlaiul, and the rest was to be shared with Taiwan on a 50-50 joint-venture basis. As a
measure to retain
partial
of airlines asked that the
number deliveries of new
capital, a
be postponed. In total, delivery extensions covering some $20 billion of new aircraft were agreed on for the U.S. airline industry. Thus the airlines themselves prepared to meet their third successive unprofaircraft
The problem was not
itable year.
so
much
a
the effect of overcompetition and fare wars. Many operators ac-
decline
in
traffic as
tually recorded substantial traffic increases during the summer, but heavily discounted fares,
which had become commonplace,
deeply into their revenues.
bit
The challenge
was
to increase fares to a viable level without causing the fragile market to collapse
again. Despite falling revenues, overcapac-
and rollbacks in deliveries, however, still expected to increase their capacity by about 4-5% during 1993. ity,
U.S. airlines
In the airframe business, after
its
worst-
ever recession and despite the stretch-out in deliveries, some recovery appeared to be under way, though it was likely to be four or five years before, as one observer put it. "the bunting comes out in the streets
Long Beach, Toulouse, Hatfield, ami .Amsterdam." In March came the first indications of an improvement when during successive days three airlines ordered 30 Boeing 737s, 4 747-4()()s. and 2 Boeing 777s. Then, during July, United Airlines announced that it would lease 50 Airbus A320s from the manufacturer and then option 5(1 more leased A320s. Airbus flew its first A340 four-engined transport in October 1991 and was planning
ot Seattle.
to certify virtually
made while.
it
for service in early
identical
but
1993.
I
he
twin-engined A330
fust llight on November 2. MeanDouglas froze the design ol its 511-
its
MD-12
The program was
The production of automobiles throughout the world fell 5% in 1991 compared with 1990. The total of 33,518,000 cars produced
have been launched during the year but was postponed owing to the predicted poor financial returns for 1992. Farther into the future perhaps was Airbus's proposed 600-
was the lowest since 1987. Production of trucks and buses (commercial vehicles) was 4.7% lower in 1991, at 10,998,000 vehicles. This was nearly 15% below the record pro-
long-range transport, a direct challenger to the Boeing 747 as the world's seat
number one
large airliner.
to
seat
UHCA
(ultra-high capacity aircraft),
for possible launch in 1997.
The
military sector suffered at least as
badly as the airlines and commercial aircraft industry. The collapse of the Soviet
Union and its new reliance on the West had two effects. First, the disappearance of the perceived threat from the former Soviet Union resulted in pressure to cut Western defense budgets in favour of increased soexpenditure, and second, competition in export markets from relatively cheap aircraft from Russia, now equally eager to become part of the capitalist system, was expected to increase. Russia's desire and ability to enter world markets, and to show itself a technological equal of the West, was evidenced at the Famborough Air Show in September when it brought along a large number of notable new types of aircraft. Advanced versions of the MiG-29 Fulcrum and Su-27 Flanker fighters flew impressive flight schedules, and visitors could inspect the Tupolev Tu22M3 Backfire swing-wing bomber, equivalent to the U.S. Rockwell B-1B, and the unique Yakovlev Yak-141 supersonic V/ cial
STOL
(vertical/short takeoff
experimental
and landing)
fighter.
The fear among U.S., U.K., and French observers at Famborough was that the unregulated selling of advanced Russian aircraft and missiles to North Korea, China, and volatile countries in the Middle East would change the balance of power in strategic areas of the world. Military budgets in the former Soviet republics had virtually collapsed, and so top-class companies such as Mikoyan and Sukhoi had no alternative but to sell abroad if they were to survive.
Added
to the potential competition from companies was the steady rise to prominence of competitive Third World
those
duction of 12,903,000 units in 1988. Among major car-manufacturing nations the only gains in 1991 over 1990 were by South Korea, up from 987,000 to 1,158,000 cars, and Spain, up from 1.679,000 to 1,774,000. Smaller manufacturing countries with increased output in 1991 included
Argentina to 120,755, Brazil to 705,633, and Turkey to 195,574. Small gains in the production of commercial vehicles were recorded in 1991 by Argentina, Austria. Belgium, Brazil. Germany, Korea, Turkey, and the Soviet Union.
New
car sales in 1991 in the countries of
European Communities (EC), at 11,805,000, were 3% lower than in 1990; the the
greatest
where
decline
took place
the
U.K..
—
products such as Taiwan's IDF defensive lighter; this plane could be politically attractive to countries that did not wish to be associated with the U.S. or Europe, and it
be small for several years.
was also
had begun manufacturing
less expensive.
in
slumped from 1,930.000 to 1,530,000. EC commercial vehicle sales fell 8% to 1,512,000, the biggest drop again being recorded in the U.K. In the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) nations Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden. and Switzerland car sales declined 4% to 957.000, but commercial vehicle sales were 19% lower at 112,000. For all of Asia car sales fell 3.4% to 6,850,000, and commercial vehicles were down 7.8% to 3.580,000. Declines in Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines more than offset gains in South Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand. Commercial vehicle sales were also lower in Hong Kong and Thailand in 1991. The initial enthusiasm for rapid growth in demand for new cars and production facilities in the former communist nations of eastern Europe was tempered by a growing realization of the scale of the economic malaise in most of those countries. While Western automakers, including Opel-GM. Volkswagen, and Mercedes-Benz of Germany and Italy's Fiat group, entered manufacturing agreements in man) ol those countries, their rewards were expected to sales
W2 Honda and Toyota joined In late Nissan as Japanese carmakers starting production at new factories in Britain. Nissan c
l
in
volume
in
the
182
Industrial Review: Automobiles
U.K.
in 1986. In
1991 British production of
the Nissan Primera rose 64% to 124,666, and for 1992 it was scheduled to increase
again to
The
GM's
loss of
and had been
270,000 units
layoffs.
Honda began manufacturing automobiles the U.K. at Swindon. Wiltshire, in October 1992. Toyota's more ambitious plant at in
Burnaston, near Derby, began production in December. For established British and mainland European manufacturers, those new factories represented important competition and provided a preview of the free access of Japanese cars from Japan due at the end of the century. Britain was not Japan's only springboard into Europe, and Japanese vehicle produc-
also
in
35%
posted stag-
a $4.5 billion
The same board members had been in control when Stempel an-
deficit in
in 1993.
GM
in office as
gering losses, culminating
introduction of a second car, the smaller Micra, in late 1992 was expected to boost Nissan production to 175,000.
market share from 45 to
1991.
nounced major plant closings and employee Smale was named chairman to succeed Stempel, and John Smith was named chief executive officer to run the company's day-to-day operations. The only other time a been driven from office was
chairman had
when company
founder William Durant was forced to
re-
sign in the 1920s.
Europe was expected to top by the year 2000. (In 1991 EC car production totaled 12.7 million; Volkswagen Group led the
also quit.
1.2 million
field
for the sev-
At the same time that
enth year with 2.440,000.) Suzuki produced
models in Hungary in 1992, and Daihatsu began making small vans and its
lirst
Swift
pickup trucks in a joint venture with Piaggio in northern Italy. Volkswagen was expected to link with Suzuki to produce small cars in Spain beginning in 1995. Nissan was investing heavily in new models at its Spanish commercial vehicle maker, Nissan Motor Iberica. Ford Motor Co. planned to take some Spanish-built Nissan four-wheel-drive models and rebadge them for sale as Fords (john r. weinthal) in Europe. United States. Robert Stempel in 1992 became only the second chairman in the history of the General Motors Corp. to be ousted from ofiice when a group of outside directors led by former Procter & Gamble chairman John Smale forced him to resign from office 27 months after he had succeeded Roger Smith in the job. Stempel's departure was expected since the directors earlier had demoted president Lloyd Reuss and made him an executive vice
GM
president while promoting John F. ("Jack") Smith to the office of president. The purge was viewed by many with bitter irony since most of the directors who were responsible for Stempel's ouster had been on the hoard for at least 10 years, Thus thej had been on the board during
GM was embroiled
executive turmoil, the Chrysler Corp. quietly elected Robert Eaton, the former head of GM's overseas operations, to take over in
from Lee Iacocca, who was automaker. At Ford Motor Co. Harold ("Red") Poling was also planning to step down. Alex Trotman, head of Ford's North American Automotive Operations, and Allan Gilmour, president of the North American Automotive Group, were in line to succeed him. Neither Trotman nor Gilmour waged a as chairman
retiring after 14 years with that
power
struggle for the post. U.S. automakers ended the 1992 model year by selling 8,160,000 new cars, down
from
8.3 million in 1991.
Truck
sales,
how-
rose to 4.7 million units from 4.2 million the prior year. It was the second year in a row that the industry had failed ever,
to reach the 13 million sales level.
General Motors sold 2.9 million cats. even with a year earlier; Ford sold 1.7 million cars, up from 1.6 million in 1991.
Both Honda, with sales ot 771,321 cars. and Toyota, with sales of 764.480 cars. topped Chrysler, whose sales reached 671,936. However, when car and truck sales were combined. Chrysler was still able to retain the rank of third in the industry with
combined
Honda
Ford
sales of 1.5 million units versus
ROGEfl MASTROUNNI
sold
topped
no trucks
Chevrolet
in in
the U.S. sales
with
1,158,591 cars and 1,399,639 trucks to Chevrolet's 1,039,522 cars and 1,120,148 trucks. The full-size Ford F-Series pickup truck was the industry's top-selling vehicle size
at
488,146
C-K
ond with
GM
On the same day the board of directors forced Stempel to resign (November 2), a trio of his allies and men who had been loyal to former chairman Roger Smith resigned as well. Reuss, vice-chairman Robert Schultz. who headed the automaker's nonautomotive units, and F. Alan Smith, who was in charge of overseeing marketing operations,
tion capacity in
million at Toyota, which sold 263,171
1.1
trucks.
units.
The Chevrolet
full-
series pickup truck finished sec-
sales of 424,933 units.
The
best-
was the Honda Accord at 387,883 units, followed by the Ford Taurus at 347,534 units, which made those two cars the third and fourth best-selling vehicles in selling car
the industry, respectively.
Rounding out the top 10 sales leaders were the Ford Explorer utility vehicle (292,069), the Toyota Camry (277,789), the Ford Ranger compact truck (244,661), the Ford Escort (244,231), the Dqdge Caravan (234,792), and the Chevrolet Lumina (219,120). The top 10 cars were the Accord, Taurus, Camry, Escort, Lumina, Ford Tempo (213,352), Chevrolet Cavalier (212,675), Toyota Corolla (206,560), Honda Civic (204,839), and Pontiac Grand (198,596). Four of the top 10 cars were Japanese nameplates Accord, Camry, Corolla, and Civic, all of which were built in the U.S. Japanese nameplates accounted for a 30.1% share of the U.S. market, up from 29.7% a year
Am
—
earlier.
In an attempt to soothe consumer unrest over high new-car prices, the domestic automakers surprised observers by holding the line on price increases on the 1993 models when they appeared in the fall. Ford increased prices by 0.3%, General Motors by 1.6%, and Chrysler by 1.9%. That translated into an average $63 increase at Ford, $290 at GM, and $400 at Chrysler. The pricing action by U.S. automakers magnified the increases imposed by the Japanese, who were forced to boost prices to account for the lower value of the U.S. dollar against the Japanese yen and a weak economy in the home country. Toyota, for example, raised the price on its compact Corolla by $1,046-$ 1,521, making it $2,000$3,700 more expensive than the compact Saturn from GM. The Europeans in some cases also lowered prices. Jaguar, for example, dropped sticker prices by $10,750 on its XJ-S coupe line because it replaced the car's V-12 engine with a six-cylinder model. MercedesBenz raised prices, but modifications to its engines to increase mileage and therefore reduce federal gas-guzzler taxes canceled out much of the increase. On a 300SE, for example, the sticker price went up by $500, but the gas-guzzler tax was trimmed by $400 down to $1,700. The net price increase, therefore, was only $100. A host of new domestic and imported vehicles were introduced in the fall for the 1993 model year. At GM, Chevrolet brought out a new version of the Prizm. a version of the Toyota Corolla that was built in conjunction with the Japanese automaker at Fremont, Calif. Chevrolet dropped the hatchback version of the Storm only one year after it was introduced. The Corvette ZR-1 gained engine modifications to boost horsepower to 405 from 375, but at the same time, Chevrolet said that, starting with the 1993 model year and extending through 1995, it would build and sell only 380 ZR-ls annually, a hint that the car would then be discontinued.
GEO
GEO
A worker operates machinery at the General Motors assembly plant in Lordstown, factory instituted a number of changes— including round-the-clock production and workers to handle a greater number of tasks designed to make operations more
—
Ohio.
The
retraining of efficient.
Industrial Review: Beverage*
183
At Cadillac the full-size, reai wheel-drive Brougham, Cadillac's biggesl car, was re designed and renamed Fleetwood, a name thai previously had been used to denote the top-of-the-line Deville sedan,
die Deville
was renamed the Sixty Special. Cadillac also added a new 4.6-litre, 32-valve, 295-hp V-8 engine, dubbed Norfhstar, to its Allanic. Idoradc Touring ( cupe Seville SIS and In November it announced plans to drop I
the Allante luxury roadster. Saturn added a pair of station
as
well as a
its
wagons new low-priced base model in
coupe lineup. Saturn also made driver-side air bags standard in all of its cars and for the first time offered traction control as a $50 option for buyers who also purchased automatic transmission and antilock brakes. Ford introduced a restyled version of the compact Probe and a front-wheel-drive
minivan, called Villager, in the Mercury
SHO
The Taurus
offered automatic transmission for the time, while the
line.
high-performance sedan first
subcompact Mustang un-
The Ford Explorer, an off-road utility vehicle, was among the top 10 in sales in the U.S. in 1992. The Explorer was one of 10 current models produced as a joint venture between Ford and Mazda, which had been working together for 13 years in development, production, and marketing.
veiled a limited-edition, high-performance model called Cobra, as well as a high-
FORD MOTOR COMPANY
pickup truck Ford's Lincoln-Mercury division brought out the next generation of the Mark, called the Lincoln Mark VIII, with a 4.6-litre, 32-valve, 280-hp engine. Chrysler's long-awaited LH sedans were introduced, the first all new car platform from the automaker since the K-car in 1981. The LH cars were the Chrysler Concorde, Eagle Vision, and Dodge Intrepid. There was no Plymouth version, which fueled even more the speculation that Chrysler was eventually going to drop that nameplate.
pact by announcing that plans to unveil in 1995 a
performance called
The
full-size F-Series
Lightning.
LH
were billed as family-size on 287-cm (113-in) wheelbases
cars
models built and 508-514
cm (200-202 in) long. Early 1993 Chrysler prepared to bring out two additions to the LH lineup, the Chrysler New Yorker and Chrysler LHS, built on the same wheelbase but longer at 526 cm (207 in). All LH cars offered a choice of two engines, a 3.3-litre V-6, the same as that offered in the Chrysler minivans, and a new 3.5-litre, 24-valve V-6. All LH cars also boasted as standard features fourwheel antilock brakes and air bags on both the driver and passenger sides. In the Jeep utility vehicle line, Chrysler added a Grand in
Wagoneer companion
to
its
Grand Chero-
kee version. It had a 5.2-litre V-8 engine as a standard feature; that engine was made optional in the Grand Cherokee. There was also a flurry of activity among the imports. Toyota redesigned the subcompact Corolla and in doing so stretched it in size to a compact. Nissan replaced the compact Stanza with a new car called Altima. In a move to preserve the low insurancepremium ratings won by the Stanza, Nissan put Stanza decals on the Altima even though formally refusing to use that name. Nissan also brought out a new front-wheeldrive minivan called Quest, a companion version of the Villager at Mercury. Honda took the wraps off a new convertible hardtop, the Civic del Sol. The metal roof of the two-seater del Sol was removable for open-air driving. The del Sol replaced the CRX line. The Civic series also added a new coupe, while Accord added a luxury SE sedan version with both driverand passenger-side air bags. Mazda rolled out restyled 929, MX-6, and RX-7 models but made the most im-
called
Amati
that
it
and Nissan
luxury line
was designed to compete
against the Toyota Lexus, Infiniti.
Mazda
Honda Acura, said
that
certainty in the luxury-car market
un-
was the
primary reason, though admitting that a decline in profits
was also responsible for the
decision. Mitsubishi redesigned the Mirage,
Subaru brought out an all-wheelturbocharged Legacy station wagon and a new Impreza sedan and wagon that
while
drive,
would eventually replace the Loyale. rethe European imports placed the 735 series with a new 740i and 740iL sedan powered by a 32-valve, 4-litre, V-8 engine. In addition to replacing the V-12 with a six-cylinder engine in its XJ-S coupes, Jaguar added an XJR-S coupe powered by a 6-litre V-12 engine and for the first time in two decades made a fivespeed manual transmission available in the XJ-S coupe. Mercedes-Benz added a 300CE Cabriolet, it
said
BMW
Among
four-passenger convertible since the 1971 model 280SE 3.5, while preparing to
its first
add a V-12-powered 600SL, a V-8-powered 500SEC, and a V-12-powered 600SEC later in the model year. The 400SE sedan was dropped in favour of a longer 400SEL version. Porsche expanded the 911 lineup with both America Roadster and RS America models, while Rolls-Royce brought out a new Bentley Brooklands model with a $138,500 price tag and such options as a
picnic table
BMW
was dropping
new
and cocktail cabinet.
Saab introduced a four-door 9000CS hatchback and Volvo an 850GLT frontwheel-drive sedan. Volkswagen dropped the Vanagon and replaced it with a new model called the Eurovan with front-wheel drive. The two most significant new models, however, were the Dodge Viper, a twoseater roadster that listed at $55,000, including a $5,000 gas-guzzler tax, and a Toyota pickup truck. Only 200 1992 Vipers were built, and they came only in red. The pickup truck, a new full-size model, was seen as the first import that threatened to wrest the title of top-selling truck from Ford's F-Series. Ford and Chevrolet had always dominated the full-size truck market, and no full-size import trucks had ever before been offered in the U.S.
would
first
its
announced during the year that it up assembly in South Carolina, U.S. production plant and only
set
the second attempt at U.S. assembly by a European car company. (Volkswagen built at a plant in Westmoreland, Pa., before closing that operation and focusing on European assembly only.) Three other European automakers decided to give up on the U.S. market. Yugo, the Yugoslav-built mini that captured attention at $3,990 before attracting criticism for quality problems, left the U.S. market, as did Peugeot of France and Sterling of Great Britain. (james l. mateja) Japan. Sales of new cars in Japan for 1992 were expected to fall below those of the previous year for the second year in a row. For the three quarters of the year ended in September, sales totaled 5,332,191 units, 6.4% lower than during the same period of 1991. Because of the sales decline, automak-
subcompact Rabbit cars
ers
were becoming increasingly reluctant to
launch new models into the market, and Isuzu announced that it would stop making passenger cars entirely. This hurt related industries, especially manufacturers of metal molds. Car production was sluggish, totaling 6,334,774 units in the first half of 1992, 3.5% below the same period of the previous year. The bright side was the number of exports, 2,896,552 units, up 1.7% and the
first
upward turn
since 1986.
contrast, was booming. Used-car sales in the first half of 1992 rose 17% to about 2.8 million units,
The used-car market, by
slightly
over that of the new cars. The price
luxury cars, were and used-car dealers even claimed (rinzo sakauchi) shortages of supply. tags, particularly of the
soaring,
BEVERAGES Beer. In contrast to the onslaught of new labels and varieties released in the past few years by major U.S. brewers, the only debut
product of note from one of these firms in 1992 hardly qualified as a beer. Zima, a clear, alcoholic malt beverage from Coors, was intended to appeal to drinkers seeking a "lighter" taste. Crazy Horse malt liquor, marketed by the small Hornell Brewing, was immersed in controversy because of its name, taken from a famous Sioux tribal
Industrial Review: Beverages
184
Table V. Estimated Consumption of
Beer
In litres'
West Germany
Belguim
143.0 143.0 131.7 119.9 115.8 117,8 118.6
Ireland
109
Germany
Czechoslovakia
Denmark Luxembourg Austria
New
1152
Zealand
United
Kingdom
110.9
Australia2
113.1
Hungary
101.5
142.9 145.7 131.8 123.4 119.3 119.3 114.9 115.6 116.8 110 4 111.6 103.0
143.1
East
141.3 135.0 126.2 121.4 121.3 120.7 117.0 110.6 110.2 108.2 107.0
Hungary
886
908
Japan
90.0 83.5
Iceland Soviet Union
Romania
c 2.0
3.3 2,9
34
30
Finland
3,1
3.0 3.2
Spain France
28
71 .7
71.8
Netherlands, The
693
69 8
Cuba
67.4
70.3
668
Switzerland
53.1
638
65.1
Sweden
823
635
United
59.5
61 8 57.7
60 7
Sweden
548
576
Cyprus South Africa
50.5
54.1
509
52.0
One litre = 1 .0567 U.S. quart = Years ending June 30 Years ending March 31 in
8799
Austria
2.1
2.3 2.0
2.2
2.5
2.1
22
West Germany Romania
c 2.4
22
2.1
Belgium
Chile
26.0 35.0
25 9
263
26.1
26.0 23.2 20.5 23.2 21.6
26.0 24.9 24.0 23.4 21.3 20.0
186
Denmark
1.8
East Germany Yugoslavia
121
19
21.1
21
1.9
1.8
1.7
Australia 2
19.1
1.8
17
'1.7
New
14.8
18.3 14.3
Ireland
17
1
59.8
Yugoslavia
1,5
57.1
Uruguay New Zealand
1.6 1.3
52 5
imperial quart
'One
1
Kingdom
litre
=
1
0567
US
quart
c.
==
Netherlands, The
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
Czechoslovakia Cyprus
14.8 13.0 13.7
1.4
1.6
Sweden
12.1
in
its
that wafrom the Rockies. Such negative advertising was unusual lor beer, but it was titling in a way. U.S. beer volume growth was negative in 1991, falling from 90.8 litres per capita in
1.057 quarts).
C.
8799 imperial
quart.
Consumers
increasingly
the 20th century.
==
1
17.6 14.7
14.9 13.8
14.5
13.6 12.5
13.5 12.2
139
8799 nperial i
quart.
The Netherlands
wanted
more
Flavoured spirits, such as a Puerto Rican coconut-based rum introduced in 1992, were designed to meet this new demand. Sales of white spirits (gin, vodka, rum, and tequila) in the U.S. remained stronger than those of brown spirits (whiskeys). Sales of tequila products in particular continued to grow. A singleserve premium tequila margarita product introduced in April 1992 was thought to be promising. A margarita-flavoured schnapps was the fastest growing line of a major U.S. producer of cordials. A new premium rum from Trinidad and Tobago was said to be based on a recipe unchanged since the 17th century, and new ultrapremium, smallbatch bourbons from Jim Beam Brands Co. were said to be based on recipes predating choices.
litre = 1.0567 US quart Years ending June 30.
'One 2
Years ending March 31
taste
Zealand
1.7
7
47.5 37.4 35.0 32.6 30.4 30.0
35.2 29.9 27.5 35.0
1.9
1.8
C.
494
369
299
Greece Uruguay
2.5 2.4
2.4
association with Produktschap voor Gedistilleerde Dranken, Schiedam,
=
Spain
61.4 58.2 54.2
61.4 54.7 49.5 53.0
9
2
litre
Argentina Switzerland Portugal
3.2 3.0 2.7
73.1
697
20
as pure as that
(I
Luxembourg
Hungary
commercials featuring
litres
Italy
3.8 3.3 3.2
Bulgaria
Shenandoah Valley declaring
1990 to 87.8
4.3
1990
74 .1
2.0
president, Peter Coors. wandering through |ust
c.
1989 74.3 70.0 58.3 56,5 49.9 54.0 40.6 34.2
2.0
—
is
France
c.2.0
U.S. In August the top brewer began a series of ads disparaging Coors. the third-leading U.S. brewer, for touting Coors Light for its "Rocky Mountain water" because some Coors Light contains water from Virginia. Alter losing a court suit to stop the negative assault, Coors re-
the
5.2
1.9
rarity in the
ter there
C.
per capita
2.0 2.0
major campaign for Micheloh
TV
Selected Countries
2.1
four years, running a series of ads wooing women as well as men something of a
sponded with
in
16,9 23,0 20.0 21.8 19.2 12.0
leader: Native Amerieans sutler from alcoholism at highly disproportionate rates. In February, Anheuser-Busch undertook first
Country
28 26
2.4
806
1990
3.2
2.5 2.4
United States
Canada2 West Germany
74,1
c.
c.
5.2 4.8 4.5
Cyprus
687 687
•
c.
Bulgaria
81.8
•
Estimated Consumption of
In litres'
1989
5.2 c 4.6 4.6
Canada 3
Source: World Drink Trends,
its
1988
87.5 79 4
Venezuela Colombia
'
Country
Poland Czechoslovakia
VII.
Wine
pure alcohol per capita
1990
Germany
Table
Selected Countries
1989
893 833
Switzerland Bulgaria Portugal
'
In litres' of
United States Netherlands, The Finland
Spam
2
Estimated Consumption of
VI.
Distilled Spirits in
per capita
Country
East
Table
Selected Countries
in
In a major deal between distilled spircompanies in late 1991, Seagram Co. Ltd. sold trademark rights to seven of its its
mid-priced brown and white brands to Jim Beam. Paddington Corp. of Ireland attempted to increase U.S. sales of cordials by introducing Baileys Light, a low-fat, lowcalorie version of Baileys Original Irish Cream. The Louisville, Ky.-based distiller Brown-Forman Corp. recorded a 0.8% increase in sales over fiscal year 1990-91, attributed to the strong performance of Jack Daniels overseas. (Stephen neher) Wine. After an exceptionally poor harvest in 1991 (251.6 million hi worldwide, including 175.6 million hi in the European Communities [EC]; 1 hi = 26.4 U.S. gallons), the first estimates for 1992 were encouraging. World production was set at close to 300 million hi and EC production at about
•'•'~TT"V
Poor weather, continued antialcohol pressure, and increased tariffs on Canadian imports contributed to lagging sales
in
L992,
and brew cis resorted to discounting. Coors began distributing its Extra Gold in
parts of the U.K.. with the help of ScotNewcastle Breweries. Miller High
tish I
&
lie
made
became in
the
first
foreign beer to be
Beijing (Peking) after Miller Brew-
agreement with Shuang He Sheng Five Star Brewery. Pittsburgh Brewing took its aptly named American Beer to Russia, while rleineken finally began selling its Dutch beer in Germany.
TlA
ing signed an
Spirits. a
The
ability
mature industry remained
the spirits industry
discovered that,
and smgle-sen e
in
L992.
problem for Marketers had a
tf?
;
A
laboratory worker examines cultures of
grapevine rootstock
low alcohol content portions had been kc\s
just as
to increasing sales in the
resistant to phylloxera.
As
1980s, so conve-
nience had now become an important consumer preference. Drinking habits of many consumers in the IS. changed because of the recession of the carls 1990s. They not only drank less but paid less for what they did dunk.
0gp
(GR] t. W. I'RINC K) to increase share in
infestations of the
microscopic insects continued to destroy vineyards in California, cloning techniques for producing large quantities
.'¥
of ,
mt-'
new
being
plants quickly
tried.
were
Industrial Review: Ceramics
hi. Italy, winch had |iisi passed mandating the labeling of wine by region of origin, was the world's leading wine (
l
)(l
million
1992, attributable tO
ail
unseasonably cool
a law
summer. Volume was also sluggish through mosl of Western Europe, with slight gains
producer, with 68 million hi. France, with hi, had an excellent harvest. Other major producers included Spain (36,
France (up to 23.4 litres per capita in and Italy (20.1 litres) offset by losses to 15.7 litres) and the in Spain (down U.K. (8.8 litres). Germany got a boost from Coke's activity in the eastern half of the country. Both Coke and Pepsi took steps to expand their product lines in the Far East. Coke brought Sprite to Korea, and to Pepsi signed an agreement with distribute that company's root beers across (greg w. prince) the region.
63.5 million
million hi), the U.S. (16.5 million),
(
17 million),
Germany
Argentina
(13.4 million), the
former U.S.S.R. (13 million), Portugal (10 million), and South Africa (9.7 million). The worldwide decline in wine consumption continued. Sharp falls in the great wineproducing countries (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Argentina) were not compensated by the increases in countries that were currently self-sufficient (Australia, South Africa), net importers (Belgium, Luxembourg, the U.S., Canada, Japan), or nonproducers (the U.K., The Netherlands, the Scandinavian countries). The downward trend in demand aggravated the instability of the market. Trade was stagnant overall, and the Western Hemisphere nations were expanding their exports at the expense of the major EC producers. It seemed likely that chronically excessive supply at the in-
would continue until the year 2000, since the European regulatory mechanisms had proved to be largely ineffective. Offering some hope of improvement was the spectacular effect on U.S. consumption of red wines generated by a television broadcast announcing that vascular diseases were less frequent among consumers of French wines than among nonconsuming Americans. It was reported that the grape phylloxera, which devastated European vineyards in the last century, had infested 20% of ternational level
California grapevines.
The Wine
Institute
estimated that 75% of the infested vines would have to be uprooted within 10 years.
(marie-jose deshayes) Both Coca-Cola and PepsiCola moved into categories they had preSoft Drinks.
viously ignored, after seeing their potential cultivated by others. Bottled
and canned
tea experienced a renaissance. Coca-Cola and Nestle consummated their previously
announced relationship by releasing a line of packaged Nestea products in the U.S., while Pepsi-Cola and Lipton formed the Pepsi Lipton Tea Partnership. Also getting together were and Tetley and Cadbury and All Seasons. This activity was, in part, a reaction to the success of Snapple, a New York-based firm whose real-brewed bottled teas had given it a leadership position in this burgeoning category. U.S. sales of canned and bottled tea were reportedly
A&W
growing by 20% in 1992. The other segment catching Coke and Pepsi's attention clear beverages.
was
that of
"New Age"
The motivating
factor
was
the advent of Clearly Canadian, an amalgamation of sparkling Canadian water, natural flavourings, and high fructose corn
syrup
in
stylish
glass
bottles.
Coke
re-
sponded with a new "sparkling water beverage" called Nordic Mist, and Pepsi unveiled Crystal Pepsi, a differently flavoured
A
number of version of its flagship cola. smaller North American companies were also taking their shots at Clearly Canadian with like products. The reason for the "innovations" was the basic flatness of the primary soft drink category. U.S. volume was up a scant 1.7% to 46 billion litres in 1991 (183 litres per capita).
Even
slighter
growth was noted through
in
L991
)
A&W
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION The U.S. Department of Commerce
re-
September that expenditures for building and construction in the U.S. during the first eight months of 1992, on a seasonally adjusted annual-rate basis, were ported
higher
1992 to stimulate investment,
II
the
Production figures for the first hall ol 1992 indicated that growth for the year would beslow. Housing investment was expected to rise very little, and business investment was forecast to decline. In Japan the substantial decline on the stock market that began in 1990 and contin-
ued into 1992 had extensive repercussions throughout the economy. The decline in equity prices influenced investment in business and housing. Business investment rose only 6.2%
in
1989 and 12.4% in 1990. It appeared that there would be little gain in 1992. Housing investment was down 7.7% in 1991 and appeared headed for a further decline in
each month of 1992 than
in the
this basis, in
August
compared with $405 billion a year The Commerce Department also reported that the number of employees in construction was higher in the third quarter of 1992 than in the same quarter of 1991. In September 4.8 million employees were reported to be on construction payrolls. While the increases over 1991 were good news, the bad news was that both total expenditures and employment in construction were lower than they had been in 1988, 1992,
earlier.
1989, or 1990.
The number of housing
units started in
the U.S. in the first nine months of 1992 was also reported to be higher than in the
comparable months of 1991 but still lower than in the comparable months of 1986 through 1989. The monthly average prices of new homes sold were down in 1992 compared with prices in the three preceding years. The average price in August 1992 was $140,200. The Composite Cost Index of the U.S. Bureau of the Census showed increase in the cost of construction materials in 1992; in August it stood at 112.4 (1987=100). Mortgage interest rates
little
in
in
government weni forv ird with its spending plans the added stimulus should increase investments in housing and business in 1993. In France the economy mew at about 1.2% in 1991, compared with 2.29t in 1990.
in
comparable month of 1991. On total outlays were $424 billion
1992 were
at
the lowest levels in 20
months of the year the rate fell below 8% on a 30-year fixed-rate mortgage. The lower prices and mortgage
years.
tures
185
In several
rates contributed to
the sales of
monthly increases in the second
new houses during
and third quarters. In Canada investment in housing and business had declined greatly in 1990 and 1991. In 1992 there was recovery over those two very depressed years, but the increase in construction was slow even though interest rates on mortgages were very low. The National Economics Review provided information on economic developments in
Great Britain, selected European countries, and Japan. The August 1992 issue showed that in Great Britain depressed economic conditions had brought investment in housing and business to very low levels in 1990, in 1991, and into the first half of 1992. It was projected that investment in housing and business would be conditioned by the level of consumer confidence. Germany's economy was reportedly still experiencing problems resulting from the reunification of the eastern and western parts of the country. This had proved very expensive for the government and delayed plans for additional governmental expendi-
in 1991,
1992.
compared with 16.5%
(carter
c.
in
osterbind)
CERAMICS Worldwide sales of ceramic materials and components in 1991 totaled approximately $82 billion, according to a survey by Ceramic Industry. Captive production that for a specific consumer and not intended for the open market was not included in this number since those data were not reported to the U.S. Department of Commerce or similar government agencies in other countries. Captive manufacture of advanced ceramic materials and components for use in high-tech industries was estimated as approximately equal to the total for the open market. This would increase production to more than $150 billion. The captive production of ceramic materials and components continued to grow as advanced ceramics were being used at an increasing rate to develop market advantages in the electronics, machine-tool, automobile, aerospace, and other industries. The advanced ceramics market was much more international than were the markets for traditional ceramics, because of the higher value per kilogram of the advanced materials. According to a Ceramic Industry survey, the worldwide market for advanced ceramics in 1990 was approximately $15.3 billion, and the U.S. market was approximately $5 billion. If the value of captive production was included, the value for worldwide advanced ceramics production could be as high as $30 billion. Electronic ceramics continued to dominate the market for advanced ceramics with about twothirds of total sales. This market included electronic substrates, electronic packages,
—
—
and senSales of engineering ceramics grew significantly to approximately $1.7 million. capacitors, ferrites, piezoelectrics, sors.
Optical fibre production in the U.S. was growing at a rate of approximately 20% per year, and the worldwide thrust to install local area networks of optical fibre was projected to cause this market to continue to grow at a 20% rate through at least 1996. Sales in 1991 were approximately $1 billion, and a $2.5 billion market was projected for 1992. Ceramic ferrules for use as fibre-optic connectors accounted for $71 million in sales in 1991, and sales of $172 million were projected for L996. The introduction by General Electric Co. of ceramic scintillators for advanced medical
X-ray detectors clearly illustrated the
186
Industrial Review: Chemicals
value-added potential of advanced ceramics at the systems level. These scintillators were being used in X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanners, where they provided greater sensitivity and higher resolution than previous scanners. This performance enhancement allowed cancer to be detected at an earlier stage than was possible with previous scanners. As a result, the presence of this advanced ceramic scintillator in a $1 million CT scanner gave that machine a significant edge in the multibillion-dollar market for scanners. That market potential created the major incentive needed for GE to develop the special advanced ceramic. Worldwide whiteware sales totaled $8 billion-$8.5 billion in 1991. This included tile, sanitaryware, dinnerware, and electrical porcelain. Tile sales continued at 1989 levels because of a weak housing market;
troubled cities as the winter of 1992-93 began. Because the U.S. used 10 times the motor fuel burned in any other nation in the world, it had a singularly serious problem that oxygenates could help solve. Within decades, though, a large market for oxygenates would probably develop in most of the industrial countries. The recession made U.S. companies skittish about building huge additional units, however. Plants in the planning stages now were being nursed along slowly, in hopes that they would be ready about the time that the U.S. demand maximized estimated to be
was the leading producer. Sanitaryware sales were approximately $2.5 billion on a worldwide basis.
making and thus had exgrowth prospects. Oxygen and nitrogen, derived from the air, carried no burden of hazardous waste products or worrisome by-products. Their only obvious negative was that separating them consumed con-
Italy
U.S. shipments of refractory materials decreased 5.6% to $1.9 billion in 1991 owing to decreased steel production caused by weakness in construction and the production of automobiles and appliances. Worldwide sales were approximately $6 billion. The market for refractories continued to demand materials with improved higher performance and longer life in order to reduce downtime and increase productivity. The shift in steel-production technology to continuous casting was also affecting the mix of refractories sold. The outlook for 1992 was for slowly improving sales due to an increase in steel consumption. Porcelain enamel sales dropped approximately 9 r ; in 1991 owing to the weak market for appliances. Worldwide sales totaled more than $7.5 million. (dale e. NIESz)
CHEMICALS "They're hanging crepe
all
over the world,"
remarked Robert Kennedy, chief executive Union Carbide Corp. in October 1991, and his words well characterized
officer of
the chemical industry in 1992. Following a dismal 1991, there were gusts of hope that 1992 was going to be a recovery year. Instead, virtually everywhere in the world,
continued, and the hints in 1991 that recession would affect the important chemical industries of Germany, France, and Italy turned into grim reality. Japan's chemical industry also began to sag. Suffering worst of all was the chemical industry of the former communist countries of eastern Europe. Nowhere did there seem to be difficulties
clear indications that the industry, so closely
and automobile inhad a way out of its troubles. Compared with many of their customer industries, however, chemical makers were fortunate. While the 2-3% growth for the chemical industries of the industrialized countries was disappointing, it was general!) better than the growth experienced by other manufacturing industries. There were some bright spots, but they were few and decidedly small. For the U.S. petrochemical companies there were "oxygenates" lor motor fuel. These compounds, of which methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) had become most prominent, were important mainly because of recent U.S. laws designed to reduce the smog problems attributed to automobile exhaust gases. The laws were put into effect in many smogtied to the construction
dustries,
MTBE
—
about 1995.
The use of
industrial
substantially in 1992.
gases also grew
Oxygen and nitrogen
continued to
sell in the highest volumes, but a variety of other expensive, ultrahigh-
purity gaseous
compounds were important
for electronic chip
cellent
siderable
amounts of energy. Even
recession,
their
in
the
growth exceeded that of
most chemicals. Worldwide, and
in virtually all
branches
of the chemical industry (organics/petrochemicals and inorganics), 1992 held little prospect of being much better than 1991. Although the 1991 statistics showed East Asia to have the most encouraging record, the fact that it rose from a comparatively small base had to be considered. In 1991 half of the world's 21 leading industrial nations reported production down, and only one could boast of an output volume increase of more than 3% Ireland, up 21.8%. Ireland's $5,140,000,000 1991 chemical industry, however, was only 1.4% of the European Communities' (EC's) total of $373 billion. Combined, western Europe's 15 nations
—
achieved a 1% production growth in 1991. The 12 nations in the EC hiked production 1.6%. The U.K. managed a 3% production gain (value up to $50.9 billion despite its third successive year of recession). France,
which
had
been
making a government-
its chemical poworldwide and had become Europe's second largest chemical producer (with a
aided effort to strengthen sition
1991 sales volume of $66.1 billion), also increased production 3%. Germany (excluding contributions by the former East Germany) remained the leader in Europe with a sales volume of $99,780,000,000 and a 2.295 production gain in 1991. Italy's $50.3 billion chemical industry slumped 1.4'r in output. Spain, which had an excellent 1991). dipped in volume in 1991 roughly 1.2' and dropped about the same in sales volume. Detailed data from the former Soviet Union were almost entirely lacking, as were believable statistics on the chemical industry of the eastern European nations. Chemical and Engineering News magazine, using a combination of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency reports, data from the private concern PlanEcon Inc. (London), and sparse national data along with its own projections, estimated that the former Soviet Union chemical output dropped 10%, Poland 14'V. Bulgaria 34%, Czechoslovakia 20%, Hungary 16%, and Yugoslavia 16%. Nowhere were there any indications that the downslide in eastern Europe would
.
(
1992.
in it
i'
INSURANCE The insurance world would remember 1992 the >car of disasters. Even before midyear, there had been two earthquakes
as
and the
billion-dollar
Los Angeles
riot
in
flood in Chicago, and two freak hailstorms in central Florida. Then. in .August. Hurricane Andrew swept across
California,
Wildcat miners search for diamonds in Angola. It was estimated that in 1992 as many as 50.000 prospectors were digging in Angola, and the resulting flood of diamonds threatened the stability of world markets,
which were normally
tightly controlled.
REUTERS BETTMANN
net from the same source was reportedly back on the market. Fine and varied colours
of diamond continued to come from the Western Australian mines, where a significant proportion of total production was of gem quality. Some gem minerals were once more appearing from Nigeria (emerald of reasonable quality); supplies from Madagascar were still uneven. The main question still occupying the attention of gemstone dealers was alteration/ improvement of colour. Some merchants suggested that at least 90% of sapphire was routinely heat-treated, and the question of whether treatment should be disclosed to
customers continued to be a vexed and unresolved issue. There was no likelihood that earlier conditions, where stones were not interfered with,
would
return, so the
disclosure problem passed to the gem and jewelry regulatory bodies. Most treatment was carried out in Bangkok, Thailand.
(MICHAEL O'DONOGHUE)
GLASS Competitive pressures and a sluggish world
economy bined to
in
comand long-term
industrialized countries
make
profitability
viability in the glass industry
much more of
expanding markets, such as Southeast Asia and South and Central America, investment in capacity and production technology was occurring to meet demands that were expected to double or even triple in the next decade. In eastern Europe, however, there was considerable economic distortion since production and labour costs were cheaper than in the West and the ecological constraints that were becoming increasingly stringent in the West were virtually nonexistent. Exports to the West rose to compensate for the collapse in the domestic market and the dramatic drop in trade volume in east-
a challenge than ever before. In
A
markets. number of large enterwere considering the possibilities of investing in eastern European companies.
ern
prises
a
southern Florida and Louisiana causing an estimated $15 billion-S16.5 billion of insured losses, the highest in history. Almost three weeks later Hurricane Iniki battered Hawaii for some $2 billion more in losses. Outside the U.S.. the worst windstorm in three decades in France resulted in 50 deaths, an earthquake in Cairo killed 400. and a jumbo jet crashed into an Amsterdam apartment complex, with expected claims of $100 million-$300 million. British insurers faced these disasters following a year in which net losses, after considering £3.5 billion investment earnings, were 12% of nearly £30 billion premium income. Household insurance crime losses rose 75%, while subsidence damage claims were four times as severe as in an average year. Life insurance was a bright spot, with premiums growing by 17% to £47 billion.
In Czechoslovakia two recent partnerships
Many employees
developed, and a major
gained freedom to opt out of employers' pension plans in favour of personal insurance pensions. Lloyd's of London had a traumatic year. The latest year (1989) under its three-year accounting system showed a record loss of £2 billion. Particularly hard hit were about 4,500 of some 30,000 members of syndicates writing catastrophe reinsurance. Although few calls for claims were made on Lloyd's Central Fund, a levy was increasing the fund by £500 million. The number of syndicates fell from 384 to 279 as legal actions against them rose sharply. Lloyd's weathered the short-term capacity crisis with £6.5 billion of net resources, nearly the same as
flat
glass
producer
invested in Poland and intended to build
the country's
first
full-size
float
line
for
making plate glass. Shipments of glass containers in the U.S. declined by 2.6% in 1991 to 277,760,000 gross units. However, in the first quarter of 1992 market demand strengthened appreciably as shipments rose 6.4% above those for the first three months of 1991. Production of glass containers in the European Communities (EC) grew by slightly less than 5% in 1991, with production at 95% of capacity. Market penetration by imports, although still relatively low (6.5%), was growing. The trend was expected to
exercised
their
recently
continue for some time as imports originating from the EC's main competitors, the countries of eastern Europe, were encouraged by the liberal import policy and tariff concessions that the EC had granted them. Weakness in the construction and automotive industries caused flat glass shipments in the U.S. to dwindle by 3.3% in 1991 to 297,280,000 sq m (3.2 billion sq ft). This was the third consecutive annual decline in shipment volume, although the downward trend was expected to reverse in
two years earlier. The European Communities adopted directives to ensure a common market in both general and life insurance by 1994, but a few countries, such as Greece and Portugal, might postpone the changes. In eastern Europe new insurers were replacing state insurance monopolies that existed under communism. European brokers were opening offices there, with the most progress reported in Hungary and Poland. Banks were
the EC moved from a position of very strong growth in 1987 and 1988 to a drop in sales of 1%
particularly
dropped from 1987-88 to a situation of increasing surplus capacity in 1992 and 1993. This was exacerbated by increasing imports from outside Europe, notably the U.S. The value
billion for the
1992. Flat glass
in
in
1991. Capacity utilization
91%
of
demand
in
flat
glass also declined. Glass prices in
25% lower than two years before Europe and the U.S. and 38% lower
1991 were in
than they had been
in Australia.
Demand for glass fibre, which grew 810% per annum in the latter half of the 1980s, continued to slow down following a downturn
in activity for its
more
traditional
applications in the construction, automotive, and defense industries. Sales fell by
increasing their involvement life insurance. With policyholder surplus
in
insurance,
of
approxi-
mately $160 billion and premiums of $223 liability
first
insurers
half year, U.S. property-
were challenged by the
disasters but not seriously threatened. Indi-
vidual
company
results varied considerably,
however. Additional capital was
pumped
into several large insurers, notably the ITT Hartford Insurance Group ($681) million)
and Prudential ($900
million).
Mergers and
reorganizations proliferated with the large losses. Aetna and Continental Corp. decided to sell their reinsurance units, and Sears put 2D'' ol Allstate up for sale. Other insurers stopped or reduced business in
troubled states, particularly California.
Florida. Texas,
and New Jersey.
Industrial Review: Iron and Steel
190
I
:
~C-~r_" _
.
-
-
Buildings and vegetation
in south Florida lie devastated by Hurricane Andrew, which struck the August. For insurance companies the storm was the single most costly disaster in history, and as a result, several had their credit ratings lowered later in the year.
area ALLAN
in
TANNENBAUM—SYGMA
Pressure grew on insurers to raise prices. In liability insurance, for example, tort costs
had grown four times
economy during
faster than the U.S.
the past half century.
Of
annual tort costs of $132 billion in 1991 (including $9 billion for rising malpractice total
costs),
43% went
for legal costs. Pollution
liability costs were notoriously uncertain, with four recent court decisions denying coverage for gradual pollution and four granting such protection. Continued work-
jump
in five years,
the $1.3 billion paid was
A federal
court ruling permitted employers to reduce health coverage for victims of AIDS and other costly illnesses. Health insurance was likely to be the numsignificant.
ber one issue for insurers for some time to come. With annual health care costs skyrocketing to more than $800 billion, major
changes seemed
likely.
(DAVID
er's
IRON AND STEEL
cutting
As
compensation losses prompted costreform bills in Maine and other states, and 24-hour health insurance as an alternative to reduce claim abuses was advocated. Assets of U.S. life-health insurers reached a record $1.5 trillion, but declining interest rates and depressed real estate values were major problems. Corporate readjustments included demutualization of several insurers, the largest by far being that of the Equitable Life Assurance, which included a $450 million stock sale. The number ol mutual life insurance companies had fallen 32% during the past 50 years. One of the largest of numerous mergers combined Phoenix Mutual and Home Life. Mutual Benefit of New Jersey went into conservatorship. The capital and surplus of many life insurers was lowered at the end of 1992 by new interest maintenance reserve regulations of the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. (See Consumer
Affairs.)
The
rebounded months of 1992, up 75%
sale of variable annuities
during the
first six
compared with the previous
year. Variable
insurance policies were also popular, but overall their one-fourth share of new premiums dropped as interest earnings diminished. Sales of "first-to-die" life contracts, insuring two or more persons but paying off only at the first death, were growing because they could reduce costs for dual-income married couples and for business partners. Although AIDS-related life and health claims rose only 11% in 1991, the smallest universal
life
a
of the
result
economies
in
BICKELHAUPT)
L.
increasingly
sluggish
the major countries, the mar-
ket for steel products in 1992 was very weak. In most of the industrialized nations, estimates of the year's apparent steel consumption were for a decrease, with a very strong decline from 1991 (13%) expected for Japan and a slighter reduction (1.7%) in
the countries of the
nities
European Commu-
(EC). Altogether, steel
demand
in
the industrialized countries was expected to reach only 309 million metric tons of finished steel products, the lowest level since 1988. Steel
demand
in
countries, although
marginally lier
some of
1992, lost
in
vigour;
the less developed anticipated to rise
still
it
its
ear-
was expected, however, to
amount
before the drastic changes in the political and economic system occurred. Taking account of some further expansion of steel needs in China, the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) estimated that world finished-steel consumption in 1992 would remain at about the previous year's level of 623 million metric tons. Given the slack in steel demand, steel production in 1992 was also at a low level; during the first nine months of the year, crude steel output in the 65 countries covered by the IISI monthly statistical reports was down by 2.8%, to 523 million metric tons, 15 million metric tons less than in the corresponding period of 1991. The bulk of this decline occurred in the industrialized countries, which, taken together, produced 7 million fewer tons; crude steel output in Japan was nearly 11, million tons below that of the first nine months of 1991. The countries of eastern Europe and the CIS reduced crude steel production by as much as 20 million metric tons (15.6%). For all of 1992 world crude steel production was estimated to amount to 715 million metric tons, compared with 734 million metric tons in 1991. The geographic breakdown was expected to be as follows: industrialized countries, 370 million metric tons ( — 2.6%); less developed countries, 115 million ( + 4.5%); total Western world, 485 million (-1%); eastern Europe and CIS, 144 million (-13.3%); and China and other eastern Asian countries, 86 million ( + 12.2%). As a consequence of weakening demand, steel prices were under pressure worldwide. The f.o.b. Antwerp export prices relatively reliable general indicators of over-
—
world price developments in October 1992 were, for certain products, at levels below those in 1981, when the authorities of the EC had declared the industry in a state of "manifest crisis." Apart from the general economic slowdown, the price fall was ascribed to increased low-priced imall
European countries and to excess capacity in a number of western European economies. The rather bleak market situation gave rise to a number of trade conflicts and defensive measures, including the filing of 84 lawsuits by many major steelmakers in the ports from the eastern
in Japan, western Europe, Brazil, and South Korea. Steelmakers in the EC reintroduced import quotas for certain products originating from eastern Europe. The so-called Multilateral
U.S. against producers
Steel
Agreement
negotiations, held parallel
General Agreement on Tarand Trade Uruguay round proceedings,
to the stalled
to 124 million metric tons of finished steel products, with most of the 4.8% increase coming from the newly industrializing countries in Asia. Steel consumption in the West would remain at the 1991 level
had come to a virtual standstill. It was not likely that the next year would bring any substantial improvement in the
of 432 million metric tons.
the
Estimates of steel consumption in the former planned economies of eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS; republics of the former Soviet Union) were fraught with considerable uncertainty; the economic turmoil and
was expected
the virtual collapse of investment activity and of international trade in the region were expected to result in a substantial fall
in steel
requirements
finished steel
in
1992; at best,
consumption could reach 120
million metric tons,
compared with about
170 million metric tons
in
the peak years
iffs
demand
for
steel
weak and
products.
hesitant
In
the
U.S.
economic recovery
to generate only a marginal
consumption, and similarly slow growth was expected for the countries of the EC and for Japan. The principal investment driving force for steel demand spending remained hesitant; apart from the uncertain economic outlook, the main reasons for this were the disturbances that had occurred in the international financial markets and the rather violent and erratic fluctuations of exchange rates. For the West as a whole, steel consumption was expected to attain at best about rise
in
steel
—
—
Industrial Review: Microelectronics
Table
VIII.
World Production In
Crude Steel
of
Table
1992
World Soviet Union/CIS
Japan
1988
1989
1990
1991
736,414 161.874 98,513 80.877 56.280 36,248 22.859 22,228 17.693 17.147 15,416 17,414 16.782 14,962 14.737
780.062 163.037
786.182 160.096 107,908 88.834 61,590 41.073 25,213 25.055 19,335 15.094 15.465 18,740 21.873 14,415 15.458 14.608 12,765 10,948 9,337
769.991 154.414 1 10.339 89,723 66,349 38.434 25,510 20,567 19,015 13,625 14,775
733.734 132.666 109.649 79,203 70,436 42,169 25,007 22.617
US China
Germany' Italy
Brazil
France Poland Czechoslovakia U.K.
South Korea
Romania Canada
105.681
90.650 59.430 41.023 23.760 24,657 19,122 16,873 15,379 18,950 19.118 14.314 14.866 14.309
13.121
India
Spain Belgium South Africa Mexico
1 1
.886 11,217 8.837 7.779 6.387 6,830 7,982 8,288 5,518 4.485 4,560 4.779 3,582
.691
1 1
9.783 8,991
Australia
North Korea
Turkey Taiwan Netherlands. The Yugoslavia Austria
Sweden Hungary Luxembourg Venezuela Argentina Bulgaria Finland Indonesia
Egypt
7,642 6.100 6,730 7,044 5,771 5,082 4.367 4.301 4,595 3,622 3,302 3,699 3,633 3,044 2.669 2,059 1,433
World Production In
1987
Country
IX.
000 metric tons
7,851
6,735 6.930 7,799 9.047 5,681
4.500 4.717 4,692 3,315
3.661
3.721
3.646 3.652 2.880 2.798 2.054 2,025
3.196 3,908 2.899 2.921
2.383 2.114
change 1992/91
86.400 72.832 62,457 58.810 31.225
15 6
18.434 10,439 12,071 16.474 26.001 7,092
17.841
23.125 9.754
12,987 16.394 12,867 11.331 9,358 7,883
12,281
14,963 12.935 11,414 8.619 8.726 6.676 7,000 9,322 9.747 5,412 3,608
6,141 7.0003
9.336 10,957 5.171
2.497 4.186 r4,248 t 1.862 3,379 3.119 2.992 1,703 2.890 3,0003 2,541
4,291
4,454 2.866 3,560 2,998 3,657 2,180 2,860 2,892 2,235
World Soviet Union/CIS Japan China
i
129 +
US. Germany
62
+ 14.2
Brazil
-2.2 + 29
18.931 17,829 13,921
+
France Italy
61
India
Poland
+ 0.6
-9,4 -11.8
7,508 8,424 12,338 20,195 4,135 10.318 12.841 9.547 7.929 6.808 6,253 5.122
U.K.
Czechoslovakia
Romania Canada
+ 0.3 + 5.0
-27
73.418 55.030 43,917 28.517 20.944 13.449 11.335 10.923 10.023 12.017 9,788 9,500 9.719
+ 5.6
Australia
5,581
South Africa North Korea Spain
6,317 5,900 4,804 4.575 3.732 3.712 4.068 3.451 2.867 2,743 2,305 2,314 2,109 2,063 1,752
8,184 4,067
+ 2.7 + 7.3
1.129
37,1
Yugoslavia East Germany
3,073
-5.0
Luxembourg
+
Sweden
Austria
3.1
-25.0 -11.6 + 18.1 -14.6
2.287
+ 7,2
1,854
42
Hungary Finland Argentina
— —
23454
,057
8,239
Taiwan Mexico Turkey
+ 6.3
1,133 2,250 2.713 1.977
1 1
Netherlands, The
7,411
— —
1989 544,826 113 928 80,197 58,200 50,677 32,777 24,363
-0.6 -6.6 -4.9 + 5.1
—
3,161
1988 538.164 114,559 79,295 57.040 50,572 32,453
South Korea Belgium
+ 12.8
—
1987
+ 7.3
2
of Pig Iron
000 metric tons
508,81 113,900
Country
Percent
First
9 months
I9|
14,786 11,375 11,714 9,929 13,056 9,706
15,071 1 1 ,795
8,941
9.051
9,498 12,578 9,184 5,723
10,139 14,846 8,923 6,084 6.543 5.900 5.535 5.163 5.780 3.230 3.508 3.823 2,898
6.171
5,900 4,691
4,994 5.487 3.639 4.462 3.665 2.916 2,786 2,519 2.492 2.093 2,173 1,596
12.074 9.167 12.638 9.911
i
MO
531.835 110.167
80229 62.606 49.666 30.097 21,141 14.415 1 1 .882 12.645 8.423 12.319 9,667
1991
507.876 90.953 79.985 67,164 43,999 30,969 22,695 13,646 10,862 14.176 6.355 1 1
2 732
2,684 2,638 1,954 2.284 2.248
.883
8.479 4.700' 8.268 18.510 9.353 5.633 6.968 6.000? 5.588 4.696
6,355 7,346 15,339 9,416 6,127 6,257 5,900 5.482 4.960 5.491
5.561
3.645 4.827 3,452 2,313 2.159 2.645 2,736 1,708 2,283 2.003
3.039 4,594 3.439 1,266
—
2,463 2,812 1.311
2,331 1.437
'Includes the former East Germany from 1991 'Estimate Source: International Iron and Steel Institute.
'1992 figures not yet available, 'Includes the former East Germany from 1991 Source: International Iron and Steel Institute
445 million metric tons; for the CIS ami eastern Europe, there was expected to be a further decrease in steel demand, to 115 million metric tons. With some expansion of steel use in China, world steel demand in 1993 could reach a maximum ot 633 million metric tons, which would require crude steel production of roughly 725 million metric tons.
(D.F.ANDERSON)
Data collected
for the year
1991 revealed
United States, exports of machine tools reached a record total of $1,070,000,000. Total U.S. export sales had climbed each year since 1983. As a percentage of total production, exports continued their rise and approximated 27% in L991. The principal foreign markets for U.S. -built machine tools included Canada, Mexico, Germany. Japan, and South Korea, in that order. Sales to Mexico, Germany, Japan, South Korea, and China all posted signififor
the
cant gains over the levels registered in the
preceding year. Imports of machine tools to the U.S. fell for the third straight year in 1991 to a total of $2.1 billion, the lowest level since L988. The drop in imports plus the previously noted rise in exports combined to improve the U.S. machine tool trade deficit by 1595 in 1991 compared with 1990.
Machine tool consumption (the measure of new machine tools installed) fell in the U.S. by 7% from 1990 to 1991. This was a result of the economic slowdown that affected most sectors of the U.S. economy and the economies of other countries as well. In 1991 U.S. machine tool consumption totaled
$4.3 billion, the lowest level since 1988. Imports as a share of total U.S consumption fell to 45.4' < in 1991. down
from 46.2%
in
1990.
fell in
1991 to $2.6 billion,
down 12%
levels in 1990. However, the export portion of those orders jumped 26%
from order to their
second highest
Figures for
1991
level ever.
indicated
that
Japan
continued to lead the world in machine tool production with machines worth $11.6 billion. Following in order were Germany, $8.8 billion; Italy, $3.5 billion; the U.S., $3.3 billion; the Soviet Union and its successor, the Commonwealth of Independent States
MACHINERY AND MACHINE TOOLS that,
Net new orders for U.S. -built machine tools
(CIS), $2.5 billion; Switzerland, $2 billion; China, $1.4 billion; and the U.K., $1.3 billion. The corresponding order of countries lor 1990 was Japan, Germany, the U.S.S.R., Italy, the U.S., Switzerland, the U.K., and China. Regarding consumption, figures for 1991
indicated that Japan installed $8.3 billion worth of new machine tools, more than any
other country. The countries that followed were, in order, Germany, $6 billion; the U.S., $4.3 billion; the Soviet
Union and the
CIS, $3.4 billion; Italy, $2.7 billion; France, $1.8 billion; China, $1.8 billion; South Korea, $1.6 billion; and the U.K., $1.4 billion. The order in 1990 was: Japan, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy, France, the U.K., South Korea, China, and Spain.
(JOHN
b.
deam)
MICROELECTRONICS Projected worldwide sales of semiconductors rose again in 1992 by 7.8% to $58.9 billion, according to the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA). Although falling 7% from a year earlier, Japan retained its lead with $19.5 billion, with the U.S. a close second at an estimated $17.9 billion. The largest gain in consumption, 25.3%, was achieved by the Asia Pacific market, which in 1992 claimed 17.4% of the worldwide market to Western Europe's 19.1%.
The
Intel
Corp., the largest chip pro-
ducer in the U.S. and supplier ot the 386 and 486 microprocessors used in IBM and
IBM-compatible personal computers that run the DOS Operating System and Windows, announced that its new chip, codenamed P5, would break from tradition and be called Pentium instead of the 586 processor. During the year Intel introduced its second-generation 486 chip, the 486DX2 processor, operating at 50 MHz. This was later improved to operate at 66 MHz. In addition, Intel introduced its low-voltage 386SL and 486SL microprocessors for use in portable and notebook computers. It also announced a $50 million joint venture with VLSI Technology, Inc., to design the chip sets that would be used in the next generation of portable computers the hand-held or personal digital assistant. In the race to make portable comput-
—
ers smaller, lighter,
more
power hungry, new
plug-in devices the size
efficient,
and
less
of credit cards were introduced; they were being used to attach modems, networking interfaces, and solid-state mass-storage devices to small, notebook-size computers. Conforming to the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) standard and Intel's new Exchangeable Card Architecture (ExCA) specification, these cards could be exchanged between different vendors' products that
conformed
The
to the standards.
PCMCIA
cards
were
using
the
newest development in nonvolatile memory (memory that retains its information even without power). Called resident Hash
memory, it was already replacing some oi the components in portable computers. Using the PCMCIA and ExCA specifications, the floppy disk drive on portable computers would be replaced by flash cards that ranged
in size
from
2.5 to 20
megabytes.
( 1
)2
Industrial Review: Nuclear Industry
All the major U.S. chip manufacturers entered into strategic partnerships to develop "fuzzy logic" applications for their microcontroller chips. Fuzzy logic and neural networks were being used to solve complex problems by approximating the human thought process and "learning" from past experiences. Applications included object, speech, and handwriting recognition; engine diagnostics; medical diagnostics; and imaging and vision systems. Neural microchips. such as those manufactured by Inc., could perform up to 1,280,000,000 "connections" per second. Digital Equipment Corp. announced its new Alpha microchip, a reduced instruction set computing (RISC) chip. The 64-bit chip was designed to process up to 400 million instructions per second (MIPS).
HNC
(THOMAS
E.
KROLL)
NUCLEAR INDUSTRY Data
for
released by the
1991,
Interna-
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in ^2. showed that construction began on two units. Wolsong 2 in South Korea and
tional l
l
Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 6 in Japan. One unit each in Bulgaria. China. France, and Japan was connected to the grid for the first line, and one project in Bulgaria and three 1
in
Operators work
one
a Russian nuclear power plant west of St. Petersburg, where a problem with caused radioactive gases to be released into the atmosphere on March 24. no reported danger either to workers or to people outside the facility.
There was ALEXEl
at
ot the reactors
flOGOV—SYGMA
German) were suspended or canceled.
Nine units were closed permanently. For the first time since 1967, no new unit was brought on-line in the U.S. At the end of |W| there were 420 units in operation throughout the world, with a total capacity ot 326,61
1
MW (a net
fall
of three units but compared with
a slight rise in total capacity
produced 2,009.1 TW hr (terawatt hours; one terawatt equals one 1990). Nuclear plants
trillion
watts) of electricity
in
1991.
Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. concluded a deal with the Korean Electric Power Co. for two pressurized heavy water reactors (PWRs), units 3 and 4 at Wolsong. The YA olsong site was expected to produce more than 2.5(1(1 when completed. South Korea planned to add IS new nuclear power units before 2006; seven units were under W2. and were planned. construction in he new nuclear station site at Higashidori would allow Japan to reach its target oi 359! nuclear electricity production by 2000. The site, where four boilingwatei reactor (BVVR) units were planned, was the first to become available in Japan in mine than six years. The Japanese lokai 2 unit became the lirst BWR in the world
MW
1
1
1
1
1
MW
hr. generate loo million U.K. Bradwell 2. one of the two 123-MW Magnox-type nuclear units at the
to
In the
station,
won
a
new
lease
on
lite
from
industry agglomerate, also pledged $50 milWestinghouse was proposing a 600-
lion.
MW
"passive" design; General Electric was working on designs for both 600 and 1.300 MW; and the ABB/Combustion group was
preparing a 1,300-MW design. A study of advanced reactor designs by the U.S. Council for Energy Awareness showed that the 30-year average costs of electricity generated by both the mediumsized and large units would be competitive with the output from fossil-fired stations of similar sizes. Costs for various types of plants operating at the end of the decade were (in 1992 U.S. dollars) 3.8 cents per kilowatt hour for one 1.200-MW nuclear unit and 4.5 cents per kilowatt hour for one reactor, compared with 4.8 cents 600per kilowatt hour tor a low-emission coalfired plant or 4.3 cents per kilowatt hour
MW
tor a
combined
cycle gas-fired station.
included
estimates
The
decommissioning and
fuel-cycle costs.
The nuclear power legacy of the Soviet Union to its successor republics resulted in a good deal of "tire-lighting" operations. The Ukraine government, for example, decided to rebuild the sarcophagus enclosing the destroyed reactor at Chernobyl so that K
would
last
for at least
100 years.
Cash
the U.K. Nuclear Installations Inspectorate,
prizes were offered tor the best solution to
which allowed it to continue operation beyond its ahead) extended 30-year lifetime. «i2 with a he unit began operation in design life ot 2(1 vears. It might now con-
the problem. Principal requirements were
l
l
I
>s. operation until The U.S. Nuclear Power Oversight Committee, the nuclear powei industry's policymaking body, issued formal requests lor "advanced nucleai power plant designs" from three groups led by Westinghouse
tinue
in
l
(.up. General Electric Combustion Engineering.
l »(
Co.,
ant!
ABB
he winning proposals were expected to obtain U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funding. The l)()l committed more than $100 million ovei five vears loi support ot the development. The Advanced Reactor Corp., an I
the new enclosure be completed in years at the most, normal personnel exposure satety regulations be met, and the processing and disposal of radioactive waste from the site also be included in the that five
proposals.
Early in the year the leaders of Russia affirmed their continuing support for the IAEA in all important nuclear-related areas, including safety and the exchange of information. At a March meeting in Vienna, national regulators and utility managers from Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Russia discussed measures taken or contemplated to improve the safety of the VVER-type
pressurized water reactors.
Another joint agreement between the Czechoslovak manufacturer Skoda and a Western company was announced as part of the process of privatization from a single state enterprise into two companies, Skoda Energo and Skoda Transport. Both companies were to have Siemens as a foreign partner to provide a positive link with
Western technology. Siemens was to contribute finance, technology, and work orders to the joint-venture companies, while Skoda would provide assets, production capacity, and skilled workers. Skoda Energo would be active in all forms of energy production, with emphasis on ecologically benign sources, encompassing the four original power engineering plants in Plzen and Prague for turbines, nuclear machinery, electrotechnology, and automation engineering. The French nuclear program, which had been the most intensive in the world (France produced 72.7% of its total output of electricity by nuclear power in 1991), continued the slowdown that had begun in recent years. At the start of 1992 there were 56 units in operation, 5 units being built, and only 6 in the planning stages. The state-owned utility, Electricite de France, approached the government for approval for at least
two new units of 1,455
MW.
A
report from the French safety authority on the problems with the commercialscale fast-breeder reactor at Creys-Malville (called Superphenix) pointed to "inherent weaknesses" in the technology, particularly the liquid-sodium cooling system, which had
bedeviled the early operating experience with the plant. Even if the government decided to allow the project to continue, the report indicated that it should be for only a limited time to gain as much information as possible from this prototype project. The report called for studies to be made on using the reactor to "burn" actinides in a nonbreeding mode in order to reduce the large stockpile of plutonium accumulating at the La Hague reprocessing plant.
IikIiisim.iI
A report by the U.S. National Research Council endorsed advanced versions ol the liquid-metal reactor together with the "passive" advanced lighl watei reactors. The council said that they offered the best prospects for long- and near-term develop-
ment
in
plications tor paint makers and industrial uscis during 1992, but the upgrading dead-
between old rivals France and Siemens in Ger-
manufacture was postponed
line for paint
to April
the U.S. The new collaboration in
Framatome
In the U.K. the stepwise compliance schedule ol the 1990 Environmental Pro tection Act began with authorization ap-
1999.
In
European
the
Commu-
amendment
nities at
large, the seventh
the IW>7
Dangerous Substance Directive
new "dangerous
to
lor the environ-
many. joining in a search for contracts in a lean market for new and replacement nuclear steam generators, was rewarded with contracts for 12 units in Spain and 3 in Sweden. Mitsubishi, in its lirst successful
with
foray for nuclear business outside Japan, won an order for three steam-generator re-
si ill under development. Meanwhile, France produced its own national Eco-Label for paints. In the U.S., air emissions and waste controls continued to dominate the regulatory landscape, but lead abatement in old paintwork was emerging as a major problem. Much of the industry's research and development agenda was now dictated by environmental considerations with the replacement of conventional solvent-based paint the prime
placements at Tihange in Belgium. Work on the second unit at Angra in Brazil had come to a stop in 1988 after 1
1
years following the transfer of the nu-
clear project to Furnas, a concessionary of
company ElecThe World Bank, which does not
the state-owned electricity trobras.
finance nuclear projects, promptly ceased Brazil's
energy financing.
A
new agreement
between the Brazilian government and the German financing agency KFW, together with the Dresdner Bank, was designed to allow the project to be completed by 1947. The negotiations between the governments succeeded after a $130 million reduction was achieved in the projected costs. The new heavy water plant at Arroyito in Argentina was due to have completed its commissioning by the end of 1992. when it would begin production of heavy water for Atucha 2, the German-built PWR. Argentina might have to sell its two other nuclear plants (Embalse and Atucha 1) to private investors to finance the completion of Atucha
2.
(richard
a.
knox)
PAINTS AND VARNISHES The economy and the environment continued to weigh heavily on paint makers in the West; expansion was a more typical experience for their counterparts
in
its
—
ment'' symbol was adopted. Also adopted during the year was the voluntary EC-wide Eco-Label Regulation. Although its admin-
provisions were in place, the in-
istrative
dividual criteria for paints were
goal.
Waterborne coatings currently ap-
peared as a viable alternative.
(helma jotischky)
When
— —environmental
com-
the fall ol 1992 involving reconfiguration of the scheme so in
lees could go directly to improvami streamlining the FDA approval process, and limitation of the notion to prescription drugs. The result was passage of the Prescription Drug User Fee Act of 1992. During its five years of life, the measure was expected to bring in about $330 million, allowing the FDA to hire 600 new that usei
ing
examiners.
NDAs
The
would
cost
to
firms
submitting
from $100,000 to $233,000 per application over five years, and other fees would also increase. In the fall a U.S. General Accounting Office study of prescription drug prices over a six-year period found that the price rise
increase of 29 widely used drugs "generally exceeded 100 percent," with some prices rising by 200 to
Consumer
300%. During
this period, the
Price Index (CPI) rose 26.2%,
while the CPI for prescription drugs rose by 67* Findings like these prompted criticism of drug manufacturers during the election .
ers Association asserted that price increases
had "moderated" since 1989, but this did not reassure Wall Street analysts, who saw pressure building for government controls on prices and profits. There were further repercussions of the generic drug scandal, with heavy sentences and fines handed down to generic company officers found guilty of fabricating phony
leg-
opportunities for joint ventures, technology licensing, and trade. Specialties, such as coil and powder coatings, enjoyed good growth prospects. The Chinese mainland,
when
promise was reached
in
Administration (FDA)-regulated industries encountered considerable opposition. The primary objection hinged on the fact that the fees to be paid by manufacturers applying for new drug application (NDA) approvals, certification of food or cosmetic colours or additives, or agency approval of new medical devices were earmarked for general revenues, meaning they could be used for any purpose, not just for improving FDA efficiency or staffing. Small generic drug companies saw the scheme as
Europe and North America was making additional demands on the industry. At the same time. Southeast Asia's buoyant paint markets were offering attractive
A
lab technician helping
the search for new drugs works with in
equipment traditional
methods
that
combines
screening
with
modern
biotechnology. Rather than testing entire protein
molecules
for their activity
against disease-causing
organisms, the
new
approach tested
millions
of different, synthesized
protein fragments, or peptides, for their
molecular interactions with the organisms; once such masses of information
were processed by computer, researchers
the announced merger between the powder coatings interests of the Ferro
hoped
Corp. and ICI failed to take place.
therapeutic proteins.
ever,
food and cosmetii
campaign. The Pharmaceutical Manufactur-
islation in
Western expansion into the area was proceeding. Restoration work in eastern Germany brought a brisk demand for building paint, as shown in the expansion of paint production from only 17,500 tons in the first half of 199] to 42,000 tons during the same period in 1992. In general, the globalization of marketing strategies was finding expression in worldwide takeovers and joint ventures. The consolidation of the powder coatings market took a step backward, how-
hi
I
the mid-1980s,
proposed
East
with its vast, as-yet-untapped market, was beginning to exert an increasing pull. Its paint output rose by 9.3% in 1991 to 928,III 10 metric tons. Another market with an as-yet-unrealized potential was eastern Europe. In the wake of the privatization wave, paint production there had fallen drastically. Nonetheless.
time and effort.
dustries had similar objections. After several years of stalemate, a
Food and Drug
originally
in
so-called user fees for U.S.
Asia. While recession was biting deeply into paint output and profits in the U.K. and the U.S. in particular
an unlaii burden, since the drugs they were were essentially copies ol tuily innoiell vative drugs ami thus needed less reviewer
Caribbean
LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS
1992, which marked the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas, turned out to be a particularly turbulent one in large areas of Latin America. Perhaps the most dramatic events were registered in Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Political Developments. In Venezuela there were two failed, attempts by the military (on February 4 and November 27) to seize power from the government of Pres. Carlos Andres Perez. Both were led by members of the RevoluLieut. Col.
Movement, whose inspirational leader was Hugo Chavez (imprisoned after the February
coup attempt). Peru's president, Alberto Fujimori, acted to suspend the country's constitution on April
5, in effect
UN
Clinton.
imposing a "self
Little
progress was
made
in
1992 toward securing the
coup," following challenges by the legislature to his freemarket reforms. When it became clear that the country
return of Haiti's democratically elected Pres. Jean-Bertrand Aristide in exile since September 1991 although the mil-
democratic procedures were not reinstated, Fujimori announced that polls to elect an 80-member constituent assembly would be held later in the year. During the period from May to September, the terrorist organization Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) stepped up its bombing campaign in the capital, Lima, adding to the government's difficulties. On September 13 the authorities captured the Sendero leader, Abimael Guzman. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on October 27, but this did not deter the movement from taking fresh action. Meanwhile, disquiet within the country's military resulted in an assassination attempt on Fujimori on November 13 barely a week before the assembly elections (which went ahead as planned and produced a majority of pro-government
itary-backed government was prepared to allow partial elec-
risked international isolation
if
—
members). In
allegations
Brazil
racket devised by Pres.
in
May
of an
influence-peddling
Fernando Collor de Mello's former
campaign treasurer, Paulo Cesar
Farias, led to a congres-
produced evidence members, and associates were also involved. This did not prevent Collor from scoring an im-
sional inquiry during July-August that that Collor, close family
portant personal success
when
serving as host to the
UN
"Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro during June. However, on September 29 more than a two-thirds majority of Congress voted for an impeachment trial of the president. This was conducted by the Senate during October-December. In the interim, from October 2 Vice Pres. Itamar Franco became acting president, with a new government team, and he was expected to be sworn in as president after the Senate verdict on Collor. On December 29, just as the Senate was beginning the decisive session of the impeachment hearings, Collor resigned. Hours later Franco was sworn in as president.
The year
got off to a promising start in regard to bringing
sustained peace to El Salvador, which had been riven by civil
war
for
some 12
years.
An
Central American summit held
in
accord was reached at a Mexico City on January
and chaired by Mexican Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari. However, an October 31 deadline, by which time the leftwing Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front was to demobilize, was missed, and the deadline was extended to midDecember. On September 11 a World Court ruling ended a long-running dispute between El Salvador and Honduras. 15
—
—
December. In the deposed leader were working within the Organization of American States and the UN, and in discussions with advisers of the incoming tions for 9 of 27 Senate seats in late latter part of the year, associates of the
U.S. Clinton administration, to find a solution that might
overcome the obstacles difficulties
to Aristide's return and to resolve posed by large numbers of Haitian asylum-seek-
ers in the U.S.
Ecuador Duran Ballen
In presidential elections held in
(May
17 and July 5), Sixto
in
two rounds
{see
Biogra-
phies) of the new Republican Unity Party defeated Jaime Nebot of the Social Christian Party as well as eclipsing the former ruling party, the Democratic Left. Duran began his four-year term on August 10, but the swift introduction of a series of free-market reforms (including extensive privatization) and economic-adjustment measures was not well received, and a one-day general strike was held on
September 23. Guyana's twice-postponed general election was held on October 5. It resulted in victory for Cheddi Jagan's People's Progressive Party, but not before there had been rioting and violence, largely perpetrated by supporters of the former ruling People's National Congress. In Jamaica Prime Minister Michael Manley retired at the end of March owing to health problems and was replaced by former finance minister Percival Patterson (who had been removed from office in
a Cabinet reshuffle
The year began
in
January).
Colombia's president, Cesar Gaviria, with the ruling Liberal Party winning an overall majority in local elections in early March. But the situation deteriorated from April, when the government declared a state of economic emergency on account of electric power shortages. During subsequent months peace talks with guerrilla groups lapsed, imprisoned Medellfn drug baron Pablo Escobar escaped (July 22), and the general fairly positively for
political situation deteriorated.
This was
compounded
after
Gaviria again declared a state of emergency on November 8, in a bid to fight so-called Marxist rebels. In late November members of the ex-guerrilla M-19 movement which,
—
having demobilized to become a political party in 1989, had previously supported the government withdrew from the government.
—
latin America and
On
thi-
(
arihlu-aii:
475
Argentina
front, important progress was made in North American Free Trade Agreement between Mexico, the U.S., and Canada. The accord was agreed to in principle by July 13. and initial signings were made on December 17 prior to ratification by the legislature of each country. In early November the 13 members of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom) agreed to cut external tariffs from 1993. The Andean Pact was beset by division earlier in the year but appeared closer to consensus in the final quarter. Differences between Argentina and Brazil (and the political difficulties in Brazil in the second half of the year) hindered further progress on the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) arrangements, although there was time to rectify this by the end of 1994, when full integration was scheduled to begin.
the
regard
to
trade the
(SUSAN CUNNINGHAM)
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA Representatives of the governments of Argentina and Brazil shake hands at the signing of the Tlatelolco Treaty in Mexico City on August
The
26.
treaty,
which would
prohibit nuclear
and the Caribbean, was signed by AP/WIOE
weapons
in
Latin
America
countries.
1 1
WORLD
Uruguay the fortunes of the government of Luis Lacalle and the ruling National (Blanco) Party were mixed, with Cabinet resignations in January and increasing oppoIn
block key planks of the party's economicreform program. Not least, on December 13 a national referendum on privatization resulted in heavy defeat for
A
constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Antigua and Barbuda comprises the islands of Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 442 sq km (171 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 64,000. Cap.: Saint John's. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992)
ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir Wilfred E. Jacobs; prime minister, Vere Cornwall Bird. a par value of
sterling).
sition activity to
the government,
which had favoured privatizing some
state-
The Antigua and Barbuda government was under continuing political pressure in 1992, as
opponents of the 82-year-
old prime minister, Vere Bird, sought to drive him from
on the
basis of an alleged "check scandal."
The
controlled firms.
office
Economic Affairs. Concerning economic developments, 1992 was expected to produce average growth of the region's gross domestic product (GDP) of 3-4%, with inflation declining to well under the roughly 300% of 1991. Among the major economies, by the final quarter of the year, increases in the GDP were more than 10% in Chile, over 9% in Venezuela, 6-7%- in Argentina, and close to 3% in Mexico. Brazil was the main exception, with a deep
closure that Bird had deposited an EC$67,000 government
recession continuing in the nation's industries throughout the year
and zero
to negative
growth expected
overall.
On
was running a strong trade surplus ($12,890,000,000 by the end of October), while Mexico was expected to end the year with a deficit of more than $18 the other hand, Brazil
billion.
Argentina's trade position also
moved toward
a $1
annual deficit, and Chile's surplus was cut to about $850 million, both results largely influenced by a high level billion
of imports.
The region's foreign debt remained high (more than $420 billion in nominal terms), although further progress was made toward converting the commercial debt of Argentina and Brazil into bonds.
Agreement
in principle
on
an arrangement covering $31 billion (including $8 billion of
was reached between Argentina and its bankers on April 6, and there was a similar accord (covering $44 billion) for Brazil on July 9. Neither deal had been completed by the end of 1992, but initial signings had begun for Argentina (and progress made on assembling up to $3.2 billion of collateral), with a view to the new bonds being issued in April and May 1993. Completion of the Brazil deal was arrears)
check to his own bank account sparked several opposition protest demonstrations during the year, starting in February. Bird explained that he was being repaid legitimately by the government for money he had lent to a woman entitled to government-assisted medical attention overseas. This did not satisfy the three main opposition parties, which banded together as the United Progressive Party (UPP). A UPPinspired general strike in April closed most businesses. Bird was sufficiently moved by the protests to announce he would step down as Antigua Labour Party leader before the 1994 general election, but the party failed to elect a successor.
The Barbudans, meanwhile, indicated in August that they might "secede" from the union if their needs did not receive more attention. On the economic front, the country's debt burden remained high, at $328.6 million, equivalent to 74% of gross domestic product. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropazdia article The Antigua and Barbuda.
federal republic of Argentina occupies the eastern section of the Southern Cone of South America, along the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,518 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 33,070,000. Cap.: Buenos Aires. Monetary unit: peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official rate of 0.99 peso to U.S. $1 (1.68 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Saul Menem.
Domestic Affairs. By the standards of recent years, Argenwere characterized by a high degree of stability during most of 1992. This was due in large measure to the underlying calm on the economic front that resulted from
Monetary Fund standby accord (which was agreed to in late January but which lapsed from May). Banks also appeared to have made progress in debt talks late in the year with officials from Peru and Ecuador.
Minister
billion
International
Indies:
The
tine affairs
$2.1
West
ARGENTINA
back by political circumstances, although a Senate panel had approved the bank terms at the beginning of December prior to a vote by the full Senate in 1993. More hurdles also had to be overcome in regard to renegotiating the country's
set
dis-
the convertibility plan established in April 1991 by
Domingo
Cavallo.
The continuation of
Economy this plan,
which was incorporated into law and obliged the government to back the issue of currency with dollar reserves, provided the platform for further reform and deregulation
476
World
of the
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
economy and reduced the
potential for significant
movement or the main Union (UCR). The country also
disruption by the organized labour
opposition Radical Civic benefited from steps taken to minimize the scope for military interference in the country's political process since Carlos Menem became president in July 1989.
Menem
managed
also
to avert
bad publicity from the
continuing saga of corruption scandals affecting close aides
and family members;
his sister-in-law
Amira Yoma, was given
and former
secretary,
a prison sentence in August for
in the laundering of funds derived from drug Only one major Cabinet change had taken place
involvement trafficking.
by late October, the replacement of Justice Minister Leon Carlos Arslanian on September 8 by Menem's legal secre-
Jorge Maioriano. In December, however, Menem dismissed Home Minister Jose Luis Manzano, Labour Minister Rodolfo Diaz, and Education Minister Antonio Salonia. Signals from Menem early in the year suggested that he might move toward revision of the constitution during 1992, at least partly in order to secure passage of an amendment that would permit him to run for president again in 1995. However, this idea was dropped, particularly after Avelino Porto, the pro-Menem candidate in the Senate election in Buenos Aires, was beaten by a substantial margin in June by his UCR rival, Fernando de la Rua. Porto won only some 30% of the vote, against almost 50% for de la Rua. While Porto had not been expected to win, the magnitude of the defeat was taken to indicate a high degree of dissatisfaction with government policies and corruption among voters in the country's most economically advanced area. Soon after the Buenos Aires vote, it was made clear that constitutional changes would not be sought in the short term; instead the aim would be to deepen the reform process. This would include enacting proposals to reform pension provisions, making changes in labour law, further streamlining public-sector employment, and making adjustments to the judicial system. There remained a strong contingent tary,
within the ruling Peronist (Partido Justicialista, PJ) move-
ment, however, that wished to see Menem reelected, and this could revive constitutional reform moves during 1993. By the final quarter of 1992 both the UCR and dissident members of the General Workers Confederation (CGT) appeared to be stepping up their opposition to certain aspects of government plans. In late September the
UCR
announced that it would no longer attend periodic discussions convened by Menem with the aim of winning consensus for reform measures, while during October the CGT threatened a work stoppage to protest against government policies (an earlier planned strike in July was averted when the authorities successfully negotiated with
On November
CGT called
CGT
leaders).
one-day general strike. The Economy. Having succeeded in bringing about sustained stability to the economy from the start of the second 9 the
quarter of 1991, along with a
a
fairly
robust recovery that pro-
vided growth of some 5% in gross domestic product (GDP) and relatively low annual inflation (84%, down from 1,344% in 1990) in the same year, Cavallo proceeded to extend his
program of reforms during
1992.
A
6.5% growth
rate
was
envisioned for the year, with the consumer boom that had been based on imported goods during 1991 giving waj to more solidly based domestic investment and output growth by 1993. In dollar terms GDP was initially projected officially
at
$153
billion for 1992, but
an alternative method of
cal-
culation by the country's central bank published in early
October indicated that the true figure could be closer to billion. Inflation, meanwhile, was kept under control, with monthly rates for consumer price rises registering 3% or less during the first nine months of 1992 and with an S228
accumulated increase to the end of September of 15.2% and an annual rate of 18%. Wholesale prices, however, had increased only 5.6% as of the end of September. Efforts to boost tax revenues and reduce tax evasion were evident throughout the year. The key moves were the increase in the value-added tax (VAT) from 16 to 18% on March 1, 1992, along with a new tax on assets held abroad, and, in June, the extension of VAT to bank loans. The measures proved effective in improving tax revenues and diminishing the Treasury's reliance on income from the privatization program, which also continued. Among the main projects of the latter were the sale of a 30% government stake in the telecommunications concern, Telecom de Argentina, in March 1992 and the disposal of parts of the Buenos Aires electricity concern, Segba, at various times during the year. Congressional approval was given in late September for the sale of the state oil concern, YPF, which could begin in early 1993. Further changes designed to simplify the tax regime (and in some cases reduce or phase out taxes) were announced in early October. They included: the phasing out of the stamp duty on capital goods; the reduction of federal taxes on fuels used by both rural and industrial producers; a call for provincial governments to eliminate business taxes on gross revenues and replace energy and financial taxes with new provincial sales taxes; and simpler tax and customs procedures for exporters. In July 1992, when the government published its draft budget for 1993 (projecting growth of 4.5% and annual inflation down to 5.3%), the authorities expected a budget surplus for 1992 equivalent to $3 billion (rising to $3.4 billion in 1993). It was unclear by mid-October whether this surplus would be achieved, although there had been no contraindications from, for example, the regular monitoring of the economy by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), with which Argentina had a $3 billion extended financing facility (approved at the end of March). Success in obtaining the IMF facility helped underpin the
conclusion of a debt-rescheduling deal with foreign commercial banks. It covered some $23 billion that would be restructured under two
bond maturing
bond options (par and
discount),
30 years, and arrangements for dealing with $8 billion of arrears (apart from a cash payment of $400 million, the remainder was to be covered by 12-year past-due-interest bonds). After bank options were lodged in early August, it became clear that there was an unequal distribution between the par and discount bonds in the proportion 80-20 (reflecting the better returns that banks expected from par bonds). It had been hoped that, in order to have a workable deal and ensure that pledged collateral needed to back the bond issues would be disbursed, the mix would have been closer to 50-50. Subsequently, banks were approached to review their options and, at the annual IMF- World Bank meetings in Washington, D.C., in late September, there was agreement that an acceptable mix would be 65% for the par bonds and 35% for the discounts. By the third week of October some progress had been made toward this goal, and on December 7 the banks agreed to accept the 65-35% mix. Having rescheduled part of its debt with Paris Club creditors in September 1991, Argentina reached an additional accord in late July to rewith each
in
some $8,730,000,000. Argentina's foreign trade position was less favourable
structure
during 1992 than in 1991 (when there was a $4.3 billion surplus) or 1990 (when the surplus was almost $8.3 billion).
For the period from January to May there was a surplus of $700 million, compared with $2.4 billion for the same period of 1991. The authorities were projecting an annual 1992 surplus of $1,320,000,000 based on exports of $12,-
i
320,000,000 and imports ol SI envisioned for L993.
I
billion,
with
little
change
large
measure
to the falling trade surplus.
As of
the end
of July, Argentina had incurred a $600 million deficit
in its
Menem
remained committed to the Mercosur common market, which was scheduled to become fully operative in January 1995, but during a state visit to Mexico in mid-October, he was understood to be exploring ways in which links might be enhanced with the North American free-trade area. trade with Brazil. President
(SUSAN M. CUNNINGHAM)
A
constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, The Bahamas comprises an archipelago of about 700 islands in the North Atlantic Ocean just southeast of the United States.
Area: 13,939 sq km (5,382 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 264,000. Cap.: Nassau. Monetary unit: Bahamian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of B$l to U.S. $1 (free rate of B$1.70 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Clifford Darling; prime ministers. Sir Lynden O. Pindling and. from August 21,
in Caribbean politics took place August 1992 when Prime Minister Sir Lynden Pindling's Progressive Liberal Party was swept from power after 25 years, to be replaced by the Free National Movement, led by Hubert Ingraham (see Biographies). Ingraham's policies were not markedly different from Pindling's, but there was a slightly stronger emphasis on free markets and privatization. He said he would maintain a non-
of the biggest upsets
The Bahamas
in
resident diplomatic relationship with
hamas' interests In
November
up
set
to coor-
Two major development projects were announced: a German-financed ship-repair yard at Freeport and a $30 million Japanese-backed citrus-processing plant at Abaco. In April the Bahamas Appeal Court ruled that a prominent Nassau lawyer, Nigel Bowe, could be extradited to the U.S. to face drug charges. The 10,000th international business company formed under liberalized legislation that took ef(david RENWK fect in 1990 was registered in July. This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies:
m
The Bahamas.
BARBADOS
ern Caribbean Sea. Area: 430 sq km (166 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 259,000. Cap.: Bridgetown. Monetary unit: Barbados dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of BDS$2.01 to U.S. $1 (free rate of BDS$3.42 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governorgeneral in 1992, Dame Nita Barrow; prime minister, Erskine Sandiford.
Barbados entered 1992 under an International Monetary Fund adjustment program, which included reductions in the
Hubert Ingraham.
in
sponsored Hurricane Relief Committee was
477
The constitutional monarchy of Barbados, a member of the Commonwealth, occupies the most easterly island in the south-
BAHAMAS, THE
One
America and the Caribbean: Belize
dinate rehabilitation efforts.
Argentina's less competitive exchange rate, especially with neighbouring Brazil, with which it was linked in the Mercosur pact (along with Uruguay and Paraguay), contributed in
.ii 111
lay with
Cuba but
that
The Ba-
North America and the Caribbean.
civil
service salary
employment
and divestment of state enterprises. Devaluation of the Barbados dollar was avoided at the insistence of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) government, which obtained $64.9 million in credits from the Fund to stabilize foreign reserves.
The economy remained depressed. Sugar production, ter
hitting
APWIDE WORLD
60-year record low in
a
1991,
af-
plunged even
further, to about 55,000 metric tons in 1992.
The
British
multinational consultancy firm Booker Tate, called in to
manage the
Pindling resigned as leader of his party.
Only four days after the election, Hurricane Andrew slammed into The Bahamas, doing $250 million worth of damage and leaving 1,700 people homeless. A government-
higher interest rates, cuts in un-
bill,
benefits,
industry,
recommended
the closing of one of
the three remaining sugar factories and restructuring of the industry's debt.
A
U.S. State Department advisory in April,
warning U.S. tourists about increased crime in Barbados, affected visitor arrivals. The British government took a similar
step a
month
later.
Harold Blackman resigned as minister of state in the Finance Ministry in April and proceeded to launch a scathing attack on the DLP leadership. In September the Barbados Mutual Life Assurance company was given the green light to take over local
Credit and
assets of the
Commerce
scandal-ridden
Bank of
(david renwick.) Macropaedia article The West Indies:
International.
This article updates the Barbados.
BELIZE
A constitutional Belize
is
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, on the Caribbean coast of Central America. Area:
22,965 sq
km
(8,867 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 196,000. Cap.: Belunit: Belize dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of BZ$2 to U.S. $1 (free rate of BZS3.40 = £1 sterling).
mopan. Monetary
Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Gordon; prime minister, George Cadle Price.
Dame
Minita
In his 1992 budget Prime Minister George Price forecast continued growth and budgeted a total of BZ$335.1 million, a 14.6% increase over the previous year. Expenditures rural electrification and a hydroelectric power Leading growth sectors in 1992 were construction, transport and communications, utilities, and tourism. Belize also became a member of the Inter-American Development Bank. Belize opened its doors to 100 Haitian refugees during
included
project. Hubert Ingraham, head of the Free National Movement and new prime minister of The Bahamas, speaks to supporters after elections
on August 19. His party defeated the Progressive Liberal Party of Lynden Pindling, which had ruled the country for 25 years.
Sir
World
478
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
the year. Because the population of Belize was predominantly Hispanic, 100 Belizeans were included
in
resettlement area to encourage ethnic mix. In
November
the Haitian the
Congress of Guatemala voted to approve the decision by Guatemala's president to recognize Belizean independence. In February members who had been expelled or had resigned from the opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) announced the formation of a new political party, the National Alliance for Belizean Rights (NABR), which was coordinated by Philip Goldson. Both the UDP and the NABR protested the publication by Guatemala of a map that advertised oil concession bids in an area that included part of Belize's exclusive economic zone and part of its territorial waters. (ines t. baptist) This article updates the Macropcedia article
Central Amer-
ica: Belize.
is
a landlocked republic in central South America. Area:
km (424,164 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 7,739,000. Administrative cap.. La Paz; judicial cap., Sucre. Monetary unit: boliviano, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 4 bolivianos to U.S. $1 (6.80 bolivianos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Jaime Paz 1.098.581 sq
Zamora.
Municipal elections held
in
December 1991 were described
by Pres. Jaime Paz Zamora as the "cleanest on record," and the poll passed off peacefully. The government coalition won only 31.5% of the vote, but this was higher than any other political grouping. The two populist parties did well, with the Civic Solidarity Union gaining 26.9% of the overall
vote.
The government
coalition
nominated Gen. Hugo
Banzer as its presidential candidate in the general election due in May 1993. The year began shakily with a national strike on Jan. 2, 1992, led by the Confederation of Bolivian Workers, protesting the government's privatization program. Internal transport was paralyzed as workers blocked roads and held demonstrations throughout the country. The government, nevertheless, continued its program, with the most interest being shown in the energy sector. Seven groups of private operators were exploring for oil in all nine of Bolivia's departments, and nine companies were negotiating new
The
Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, the national carrier, was also encouraged by the government. The economy was boosted by gas exports to Argentina and a new gas pipeline to Brazil, to open by the end of the year. Inflation was expected to drop to 12%. Growth of gross domestic product was announced at 3.8%, down from the 4.1% registered in 1991 but higher than the 1990 index contracts.
sale of
of 2.6%.
On
January 24 an agreement was signed by President Paz Peru allowing Bolivia access to the Pacific. Bolivia has been landlocked since it lost its coastline to Chile in the 1879 War of the Pacific. Bolivian companies would now be able to use the Peruvian port of Ilo, and movement of individuals between the two countries would be freer. In return, Bolivia promised to help Peru gain access to the Atlantic through Brazil via the Bolivian border town of Puerto Suarez. The Bolivians saw Ilo as the springboard for exports to the Pacific Rim countries. In the campaign against cocaine, Bolivia fell 1,000 ha (2.47(1 ac) short of its target of eradicating 7,000 ha (17,290 ac) in 1991. A U.S. embassy official in La Paz announced that S6.2 million of the $66 million allocated for drugrelated campaigns would be withheld because of the shortfall. Joint operations between Bolivian and U.S. officials to destroy the drug-trafficking network had been hampered
and
Enforcement Agency in the Beni district. The Bolivian government responded to criticism by claiming that seven prominent drug traffickers had surrendered between July and November 1991, under protection from its guarantee of nonextradiction to the U.S. By May 1992, however, only 1,000 ha of coca fields had been destroyed; at that rate only half of the 1991 goal would be achieved by the end of the
(huw clough)
year.
BRAZIL Brazil is a federal republic in eastern South America on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 8,511,996 sq km (3,286,500 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 151,381,000. Cap.: Brasilia. Monetary unit: cruzeiro, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 6,558 cruzeiros to U.S. $1
(11,149 cruzeiros = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Fernando Collor de Mello and, from October 2, Itamar Franco.
» *
BOLIVIA Bolivia
by mutual accusations. Relations were soured by rumours were building a secret base for the Drug
that U.S. soldiers
Pres. Alberto Fujimori of
Domestic Affairs. The year 1992 proved to be a turbulent one for Pres. Fernando Collor de Mello, who began his third year of office in March. As had been evident for some time, Collor was increasingly on a collision course with the legislature, which added to his difficulties in pushing ahead with reform. Then, during late May, allegations made by his younger brother, Pedro, triggered what became known as "Collorgate." In a nutshell, the allegations were that the president was involved in (or knew of ) a multimillion-dollar influence-peddling and corruption scheme orchestrated by Paulo Cesar Farias, who had been Collor's campaign treasurer in 1989. Further revelations regarding the affair con-
tinued
in
the following months, and a congressional inquiry
was begun. The findings of the inquiry, whose report was completed in late August, were sufficient to merit impeachment proceedings of Collor by Congress. The lower house of Congress on September 29 voted 441— 38 to impeach the president. Also, on November 12 the atinto Farias' dealings
moved separately to launch criminal proceedings against Collor. The impeachment trial of the president by the Senate began on December 29. Only minutes after it started, Collor resigned, and Vice Pres. Itamar Franco was sworn in as president. The Senate then banned torney general's office
Collor from public office for eight years. Franco had taken the reins of the presidency on October
A
seasoned politician who had been at odds with Collor time, he moved to appoint a new, multiparty Cabinet, whose composition was intended to help guarantee congressional support for urgent economic measures. Among them was a revised package of fiscal reforms that needed approval before the end of 1992 to avert a budget collapse in 1993. Collor had submitted a detailed package of fiscal reforms in July, but these required several constitutional amendments. Given the poor state of his relations with Congress and the unfolding ramifications of "Collorgate," it proved impossible to pass these measures. Franco 2.
for
some
acted to decentralize the power of the Economy "superministry," which had been established by Collor, by returning to the pre- 1990 format of separate Finance, Planning,
and Industry/Commerce that allowed for
ministries.
He
also
adopted a
style
more consultation with Congress than had
been evident under Collor. He signaled, for example, that Congress would be asked to review proposals to privatize certain large state-owned concerns, and in December he suspended the privatization program for three months. Subsequently, his finance minister, Gustavo Krause, resigned. Municipal elections took place throughout the country in October and November. Left-of-center parties made the greatest gains.
Latin America and the Caribbean: Chile
up to $16 billion Othei measures, involving changes that aimed to improve the fiscal base over the long term, were also expected following the submission o| revised proposals loi the $224 billion 1993 budget to Congress. It was tar from clear whether Congress would fully approve the var-
ious measures, but
On December
some compromise plan seemed likely. Franco introduced his new eco-
31 President
nomic program. Among its major provisions were increased wages for government workers, at least a doubling ol the minimum wage, and the creation of four million new jobs during the next two years. Concerning the external sector, the trade position continued to improve significantly, with an accumulated surplus of $11.6 billion in the nine months to the end of September (up from $9 billion in the same period of 1991) based on exports of $26.1 billion and imports of $14,560,000,000. The country's international reserves also increased $8.5 billion at the
end of 1991
August and were estimated
at
rom about
to $18.9 billion by the
about $22 billion
in late
end of Octo-
The upturn in capital inflows was encouraged earlier in the year when Brazil in January reached an accord with the International Monetary Fund for a $2.1 billion standby loan
ber.
and in February achieved a rescheduling deal with the Paris Club of official creditors. In July there was an agreement in principle on a rescheduling of $44 billion of bank debt; a Senate panel approved the agreement on December 10.
(SUSAN M. CUNNINGHAM) Fernando Collor de Mello and his wife. Rosane Collor, leave the presidential palace in Brasilia on October 2 after his powers were suspended for 180 days. On December 29, minutes after his impeachment trial began. Collor resigned. Brazil's Pres.
ALEXANDRE SASSAKI -GAMMA LIAISON
The nation was shocked
in
December when Daniela
was found murdered near Rio de Janeiro. Guilherme de Padua, the actor who played her jealous boyfriend on the soap opera, Perez, the star of a popular television soap opera,
CHILE The
republic of Chile extends along the Pacific coast of the Southern Cone of South America. Area: 756,626 sq km (292,135 sq mi), not including Chile's Antarctic claim. Pop. (1992 est.): 13,599,000. Cap.: Santiago (national); Valparaiso (legislative). Monetary unit: Chilean peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 384.90 pesos to U.S. $1 (654.33 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Patricio Aylwin Azocar.
was charged with the crime.
The Economy. Throughout 1992 Brazil's economy remained largely in recession, with manufacturing (which had registered declines in both 1990 and 1991) being particularly hard hit. Until October the economy was managed along orthodox lines under the control of Economy Minister Marcflio Marques Moreira (who had been appointed in May 1991 after the departure of Zelia Cardoso de Mello). Moreira, however, was constrained by the effect of measures specified under previous plans (including the need to return, until September 1992, some $1.5 billion-$2 billion per month of new cruzado assets frozen in 1990). It thus proved difficult to moderate the high interest rates and to reduce inflation, which was well above 20% per month from January through October (26.07% in the latter month). The growth of gross domestic product for 1992 was officially expected to be negative (about -0.2%) following a rise of 0i93% in 1991 (the 1991 rate was revised downward in November from the 1.1% previously indicated). A strong performance from agriculture helped offset what would otherwise have been a much worse result for 1992. A new economic team under Finance Minister Gustavo Krause and Planning Minister Paulo Haddad, which took over
in
early October, initially provided policy continuity,
with no radical
new plans envisioned. As noted above, the immediate priority was to prepare revised proposals for Steal reform, although there were strong indications that social welfare measures would also be introduced. Fiscal reforms were submitted to Congress in early November. They involved the introduction of some new taxes (including a and excise taxes) and the eliminaof others, with the aim of boosting revenue for 1993 by
financial transactions tax tion
Former president Augusto Pinochet underwent heart surgery in May 1992, but by the end of the month he had fully recovered and reassumed command of the army, the post under the constitution he could hold until 1997. One of the reforms to the constitution proposed by Pres. Patricio that
Aylwin consisted of measures to reduce the autonomy of the armed services, which they had conferred on themselves before handing over the government to civilians in 1990. Currently, the president was not allowed to interfere in military
discipline.
Though he formally held
supreme commander,
the
title
of
powers were limited to approving promotions. Pinochet's defense for this state of affairs was that since the armed services have an overriding duty to defend the constitution, they must be beyond the control of politicians who might threaten it. President Aylwin stated that if the Senate, where the ruling coalition lacked a majority, passed the reform, he would not use his new power to interfere in military affairs. Aylwin also promised that senators appointed for eight years by the previous regime would be allowed to complete their terms. In municipal elections on June 28, the ruling Coalition of Parties for Democracy polled 53.3% of the vote, against 29.8% for the right-wing National Renovation Party and the Independent Democratic Union combined. The populist Centre-Centre Union received 8% of the poll, and the Communist Party 7%. President Aylwin claimed the result gave him a clear mandate to proceed with constitutional reform. However, the right wing warned that it would not allow his
the president to steamroller the country into constitutional
change while it retained control of the Senate. On January 23 the official exchange rate was reduced
480
World
America and the Caribbean
Affairs: Latin
from 395.4 pesos to 374.99 pesos to the U.S. dollar. This produced a 4% drop in the parallel rate to 375.64 pesos = U.S. $1. The move was aimed at stemming foreign exchange losses of $150 million over two years, caused by the inflow of hot money seeking Chile's high interest rates. At the same time, the government raised its savings targets by 50% to $930 million to help lower inflation and sustain the exchange rate. The stock exchange was a main beneficiary of the government's decision to revalue the peso and introduce looser exchange controls, and trading volume doubled. The consensus forecast was for a rise of 50% in real share values, compared with 124% in 1991. However, the peso move was hurting the prospects of large exporting conglomerates such as those operating in the timber products, fish meal, steel,
Bank profits were also expected to suffer and corporate profits fell. Many of Chile's exporting companies were perceived to have reached the limits of expansion within Chile and would have to become multinational in order to expand further. Chile had invested more than $800 million over the past two years in Argentine assets, which were cheap compared with their Chilean equivalents. Chilean pension fund managers also hoped to expand into Argentina, despite a critical International Labour Organization review of their domestic performance. Chile had privatized its pension system 11 years earlier and was considered to be in the vanguard in this regard, but Chilean fund managers could invest only and sugar
sectors.
as interest rates
10%
of their assets overseas.
money, amounting
to
As
a result, the high inflow of
$200 million monthly, was depressing
domestic returns. with the return to
had not probed alleged
irregularities in the sales, despite
many Chileans over
the way the firms had been traded under the military regime. Many employees had been encouraged to trade their shares for ownership rights in investment societies. The shares, in turn, were used as collateral for loans that allowed managers to buy controlling stakes in companies. Employees' shares in profits were then
used to repay the collateralized loans. The Chilean experience pointed to the need for effective legislation to protect the rights of employees compelled to take shares instead of pay.
Since 1976 Codelco, the state-owned copper corporation, had provided a fifth of state revenues, but the government had reinvested only 0.2% of profits back into the firm. Largely as a result of this policy, Codelco could contribute only $870 million to revenues in 1991, compared with almost $2 billion in 1989. To reverse the trend, Codelco obtained
Treasury approval to invest $2.8 billion over the next five new mines and to modernize. Codelco
years to develop officials
conceded
for control over
On November military regime,
Orlando
that full
had to be a goal
autonomy
in
for the
the longer term
to gain the trust of foreign partners.
company was
A
if
Codelco was
step in the right
was a recent law allowing Codelco to form joint was to majority control." This did not go down well with
ventures, though by presidential decree the firm
prospective multinational partners,
who
preferred to have
majority control over their major investments. Codelco's
managers saw the reform long-term development.
It
as a key to the
would allow the
copper sector's
state
company
to
when it did not have the resources to develop own. Codelco owned one-third of the mining prospects in Chile, but investment restrictions had limited exploration and expansion. Part of the problem was that the firm was so important to the economy that its managers, the mines on
its
struggling
Manuel Contreras and
were charged with the murder in 1976 of government minister during the 1970-
Letelier, a
(michael wooller)
COLOMBIA
A
republic in northwestern South America, Colombia has on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area:
coastlines
1,141,748 sq km (440,831 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 33,392,000. Cap.: Bogota. Monetary unit: Colombian peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 625 pesos to U.S. $1 (1,062 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Cesar Gaviria Trujillo.
On
July 22, 1992, Pablo Escobar, leader of the Medellfn drug
escaped from prison in an operation that exposed the government's weakness against the powerful crime network. Escobar reportedly sauntered out of Envigado prison, 220 km (135 mi) northwest of Bogota, amid orchestrated confusion during his transfer to a high-security military prison. Six people were killed in the escape. In the subsequent investigation, 7 government officials and 26 prison guards were dismissed. Escobar remained at large, and the government turned down his offer to surrender again under "certain cartel,
Peace talks in Tlaxcala, Mexico, between the government and guerrilla organizations collapsed in March following news of the death in captivity of a former minister, Argelino Duran Quintero, who had been kidnapped by guerrillas in January. Subsequently, Pres. Cesar Gaviria Trujillo announced that peace talks would not be resumed; hope of reaching a political agreement with the guerrilla groups had been abandoned, and army action was now aimed at "wiping them out." Some of the fiercest fighting in months broke out at the end of May in Antioquia province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 40 guerrillas and 20 soldiers. On November 8 Gaviria declared a state of emergency to combat increased violence by guerrillas and drug traffickers. A state of emergency was declared on April 23 because of a serious energy shortage. Hydroelectric power, on which the country is heavily dependent, was strictly rationed as a result of the worst drought on record. El Nino, the warmwater current that surges through the Pacific every few years causing severe local climatic effects, was cited as the official cause of the drought. Critics, however, blamed corruption and incompetence in the energy sector and the failure to invest in coal-generated power as a safeguard against such hazards.
seek partners
10 retired general
73 presidency of Salvador Allende.
forest
"aim for
all
10% of copper sales, More than 70% of this
received
Col. Pedro Espinoza, heads of the secret police during the
of the Aylwin administration. However, they believed that
direction
The army
or $300 million indexed to 1989. was spent on salaries. The army had 22,000 officers and noncommissioned officers to only 30,000 soldiers.
too explosive an issue to be raised in the final two years this
it.
conditions."
program had been halted in 1990 democracy. The Aylwin administration
Chile's privatization
the resentment of
government, the unions, and the army were
A
was
sharp increase also
blamed
in
the destruction of tropical rain
for the dramatic
drop
in rainfall.
announced major Cabinet reshuffle of the year, prompted by mass resignations of ministers. The new Cabinet maintained
At the beginning of
the
July, President Gaviria
first
a coalition balance, including representatives of the April 19
Movement Democratic
Alliance (M-19), the party of the
left-wing guerrilla group disbanded in 1991.
Gaviria declared the state of emergency
in
However, after November, the
M-19 representatives resigned. The tax-reform bill, in much-watered-down form, was finally approved by Congress at the end of June. The valuewas raised from 12 to 14%, and income tax was The government continued its economic liberalization program. Lower tariffs had stimulated a boom in imports, with 20% growth in 1992.
added
tax
increased from 30 to 37.5%.
Latin America and the Caribbean:
(
uba
481
was contrary to the rules ol the General Agreement on l;u ills and Trade. Production ol bananas. Costa Rica's main foreign exchange earner, had been expanded in expectation of greater access to EC markets alter liberalization ol Com munity trade rules at the end ol 1992. Initial negotiations to find a compromise under GATT in September failed. Costa Rica's second largest export crop, coffee, also faced problems as the International Coffee Organization was unable during the year to achieve consensus between producers and purchasers. In June the Legislative Assembly approved a plan for construction of a rail link between Parismina on the Caribbean coast and Cuajiniquil on the Pacific that would complement (ben box) the Panama Canal. This article updates the Macropcedia article
Central Amer-
ica: Costa Rica.
CUBA the island of Cuba and in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 110,861 sq km (42,804 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 10,848,000. Cap.: Havana. Monetary unit: Cuban peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official rate of 0.76 pesos to U.S. $1 (1.29 pesos = £1 sterling). President of the Councils of State and Ministers in 1992,
The
socialist republic of
Cuba comprises
several thousand smaller islands
and cays
Fidel Castro Ruz.
Pablo Escobar appears with his wife and children in this photograph taken in prison by a fellow inmate. Head of the Medellin drug cartel, Escobar escaped from prison on July 22 but later offered to surrender to the
GAMMA
Colombian government under
certain conditions.
LIAISON
In April,
Americas Watch, a U.S. human
rights group,
described the situation in Colombia as ""appalling."
egorized 3,760 murders, out of a total of 24,033 as "politically motivated," an increase,
over the previous four years. killed in conflicts
and
in
between the
It
cat-
1991,
in
on average, of 3,500
The victims included those armed forces and guerrillas
"social cleansing" campaigns, as well as
murders
union leaders, and members of the judiciary. Americas Watch credited efforts made toward peace but emphasized the obstacles of military and police of left-wing
activists,
intransigence.
seem
likely.
Nevertheless, military intervention did not
There was a
civilian minister of defense,
Rafael
Pardo, and the consistent growth of the Colombian econ-
omy would work
to the disadvantage of potential plotters.
(huw clough)
COSTA RICA The Central American republic of Costa Rica has on the Caribbean Sea and the
coastlines
Ocean. Area: 51,100 sq km (19,730 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,161,000. Cap.: San Jose. Monetary unit: Costa Rican colon, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official Pacific
rate of 135.17 colones to U.S. $1 (230.54 colones
President
in 1992,
=
£1 sterling).
Rafael Angel Calderon Fournier.
The Cuban economy experienced another
difficult year in 1992 as the government strove to increase foreign trade and investment to generate much-needed foreign exchange. Since the breakup of the Eastern European bloc and especially the Soviet Union, Cuba had had to secure new trading partners, and its exports and imports had fallen dramatically. Compared with about $8 billion in 1989, exports were expected to be only $4 billion in 1992, while crucial oil purchases were reported as falling from 13 million metric tons in 1989, when subsidized by the Soviet Union, to 6 million metric tons in 1992, when bought at market prices. Though Cuba maintained links with several republics of the former Soviet Union for the sale of sugar, contracts were also signed with several Arab countries: Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Libya, and Yemen. A trade protocol was signed with China for the export of nickel, sugar, citrus, and medical products in return for food and medicine and spare parts for the sugar industry. By 1992 tourism had become the major foreign exchange earner. About 500,000 visitors were expected during the year, up from 400,000 in 1991, and with the help of foreign investment, an additional 3,000-4,000 hotel rooms per year were scheduled to be built by 1995. The industry was given a boost when the board of directors of the Caribbean Tourism Organization approved Cuba's application for membership
in July.
The domestic economy was Power
loss of Soviet support.
still
severely affected by the
cuts of 3-4 hours a day re-
mained the norm, while shortages of Costa Rican exporters hoped to benefit from the easing of foreign exchange restrictions in February 1992. This move, which also floated the colon against the dollar and legalized the black market in dollars, combined with other measures to continue the process of opening up trade under the International Monetary Fund Structural Adjustment. In July, Japan withdrew its $100 million commitment to the $300 million third phase of the Fund. It was unhappy with the progress of the program, especially as regards tax reform and social development. Costa Rica was in the forefront of those claiming that the European Communities' proposal to protect exports from former colonies, at the expense of Latin-American growers.
fuel
led to further cuts in railway services.
and spare parts
Supplies of basic
goods such as cooking fat and soap were poor, and there was increased use of wood and charcoal for cooking. The sugar harvest started six weeks late and was expected to be less than 7.5 million metric tons, down from 7.6 million in 1991. Although the sugar mills use the sugarcane product bagasse as fuel, there were fuel shortages for the vehicles that were used to cut and transport the cane. A massive effort to cut down on food imports pushed supplies of farm produce up by 11% compared with the first quarter of 1991. Thousands of workers were displaced from their office or factory jobs and went to work in the fields to grow food crops. Tourism receipts were up by 23%. Nickel production
482
World
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
Cuban men work on
the engine of a 1956 Chevrolet in order to keep the automobile in running condition. The
country continued to suffer economic difficulties in 1992, many of them related to loss of aid from former Soviet-bloc countries. ROB CRANDALL-PICTURE GROUP
was expected to be 35,000 metric tons in 1992, up from 34,000 metric tons in 1991, and was forecast to rise to 100,000 metric tons by the end of the decade with the modernization and upgrading of three plants and a fourth being brought into operation.
The
decline
in living
standards led to resentment against
the Castro regime; dissidence
increased,
but
it
was not
government. In January three exiles were put on trial following their capture in Cardenas when they landed with weapons and explosives, intent on sabotage and local recruitment. The three were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, and enemy propaganda and were sentenced to death. Two of them later had their sentences commuted to 30 years' imprisonment, but one, Eduardo Diaz Betancourt, was executed. In February two men were executed for murdering three policemen while trying to steal a boat in which to escape from the country; four men and three women involved in the episode were jailed for between 4 and 30 years. In March the UN Commission on Human Rights adopted a U.S.-sponsored resolution criticizing Cuba's human rights record. Twenty-three countries voted for the resolution, including such former allies as Russia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. However, Grenada subsequently announced that Cuba had satisfied all conditions for a normalization of diplomatic relations, which had been in abeyance since the 1983 Grenadian crisis. The U.S. intensified its economic pressure on Cuba to sufficient to destabilize the
achieve political reforms. U.S. Pres. George Bush authorized the U.S. telephone
comany
AT&T
new which Cuba
to install a
telephone cable between the U.S. and Cuba, for received a lee ot $620,000, but this rare exception to the blockade was made because of claimed benefits from an increased How of information to Cuba. The link was severed in August, however, when Hurricane Andrew destroyed AT&T equipment. A Cuba democracy bill debated in the U.S. Congress would prohibit U.S. subsidiaries in other nations from trading with Cuba. The bill would also authorize the president to cut oil aid. trade, or debt relief to any country that provided assistance to Cuba. Several countries reported unwanted U.S. pressure on them to cease trading with Cuba. In November the UN General Assembly voted
59-3 with 79 abstentions in favour of a resolution calling on the U.S. to end its embargo of Cuba. Constitutional reforms were approved by the National Assembly in July as a result of the recommendations made at the fourth party Congress in October 1991. Direct secret voting for members of the National Assembly would replace the previous method of election by municipal and regional councils; the first direct election was likely to take place in 1993. A major change allowed private investment in certain state companies; also, the state monopoly on trade was ended, and foreign ownership of property in joint venture enterprises was recognized. (sarah Cameron) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies: Cuba.
DOMINICA An
island republic within the Commonwealth, Dominica is in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 750 sq km (290 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est): 71.500. Cap.: Roseau. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Clarence Augustus Seignoret; prime minister, Eugenia Charles.
The major
public issue in
Dominica
in
1992 was whether
the government should "sell" citizenship to businessmen
from Taiwan and Hong Kong
as a means of encouraging much-needed foreign investment. A Taiwanese jewelry manufacturer was the first to be granted a Dominica passport in
return for $35,000 worth of investment, but opposition
parties
gain
were
little
hostile to the concept, arguing that
it
would
for the country in the long term.
Demonstrations led by the
official
opposition
United
Workers Party, which began in May, finally forced the Dominica Freedom Party government to announce adjustments to the policy in September. The $35,000 requirement remained, but the investment would have to be maintained for at least 10 years, and an extra $25,000 would have to be deposited in a special fund. In April ground was broken for a new 250-room hotel, which the government hoped would be financed by funds from "economic citizens." The goal was 800 such citizens within the next few years. Michael Douglas, leader of the Dominica Labour Party,
Latin America and the Caribbean: hi Salvador
died of cancer
in April.
He had
led the
DIP
lor seven years.
June tailed lor EC$229.8 million publie spending, hut no new taxes were imposed.
The 1992-93 budget
in
in
483
ECUADOR he republic Ol Ecuador is in western South America, on the Ocean. Area: 270.667 sq km 104,505 sq mi), including the Galapagos Islands. Pop. (1992 est): 10,607,000. Cap.: Quito. Monetary unit: sucre, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 2, sucres to U.S. $1 (free rate ol 3.40(1 sucres = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Rodrigo Borja Cevallos and, from August 10. I
This article updates the Dominica.
(DAVID RENWH K) Mucropcedia article The Wi si iNDn s:
Pacific
(
mm
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Sixto
Duran
Ballen.
The Dominican Republic covers
the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti. Area: 48,443 sq km (18,704 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 7,471,000. Cap.:
Santo Domingo. Monetary unit: Dominican peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 12.71 pesos to U.S. $1 (21.60 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Joaqufn Balaguer.
Celebrations for the 500th anniversary of Columbus' landing on Hispaniola on Oct. 12, 1992, culminated in the inauguration of the massive Faro a Colon (Columbus Lighthouse). (See Race Relations: Sidebar.) Violent demonstrations against the celebrations took place in September and October. Plainclothes secret police killed the head of the Dominican Committee for Human Rights during a march on September 30, and 10 of them were later arrested. ^ Divisions in the opposition Dominican Liberation Party
(PLD) exploded when 47 of
its
high-ranking
members
re-
signed following the expulsion of a leading trade unionist
and deputy for Santo Domingo. Nelsida Marmolejos had criticized the PLD's stance on the proposed new Labour Code. Several other members of the PLD were later suspended or expelled. They subsequently formed a new party, the Alliance for Democracy, and expressed their willingness to form a broad front to vote Pres. Joaquin Balaguer out of office in 1994. The Labour Code was approved by both houses of Congress and ratified by the president in May.
One
of
its
organize
controversial points gave unions the right to
in free-trade
Allegations were
Agency
zones.
made by
the U.S.
Dominican
Drug Enforcement
were engaged drug trafficking. The president denied any knowledge of involvement by members of his staff. (sarah cameron) that high-ranking
officials
in
This article updates the Macropcedia article The
West
Indies:
Dominican Republic. SOREN RASMUSSEN—SIPA
On
Aug. 10, 1992, Sixto Duran Ballen (see Biographies), former mayor of Quito, took office as president after winning 58% of the vote in a July 5 runoff election. In the first round of voting on May 17, Duran, the candidate of a newly formed conservative coalition, Republican Unity Party (PUD), captured just 36% of the vote. Second place went to Jaime Nebot, president of the Social Christian Party (PSC), with 26%, followed by Abdala Bucaram Ortiz, director of the Roldosist Party (PRE), with 21%. After his a
elimination in the
first
round, Bucaram advised his support-
Duran, who claimed victory in 19 of the 21 provinces in the second round. The May 17 elections for the 77-seat Congress resulted in the PSC's gaining 21 seats, the PRE 13, and the PUD 12. The Conservative Party, allies of the PUD, won six seats. Mirroring the poor performance in simultaneous local elections, centre and leftwing parties fared badly. (For tabulated results, see Political ers to vote for
Parties, above.)
Though the president lacked a working majority in Congress, he sought to build a national consensus by relying on two right-wing parties
from business, Three weeks after his inauguration, Duran sanctioned a 26.2% devaluation of the sucre and eliminated energy price subsidies, forcing gasoline price increases of 300%. In late September the United Workers Front called a national strike in protest. Cities throughout Ecuador experienced unrest, with demonstrations and looting in Guayaquil and a riot in Quito. Public sector workers also staged strikes protesting government reforms in health care and the judiciary. At the November OPEC meeting, Ecuador withdrew from the 13-member oil cartel, citing a need to economize on annual dues of $1.5 million and expressing disappointment as well as support
indicating his espousal of free-market policies.
over
OPEC's
failure to benefit smaller producers.
(MICHAEL WOOLLER)
EL SALVADOR The
republic of El Salvador is situated on the Pacific coast of Central America. Area: 21,041 sq km (8,124 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 5,460,000. Cap.: San Salvador. Monetary unit: Salvadoran colon, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an offical rate of 8.58 colones to U.S. $1 (14.62 colones = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Alfredo Cristiani.
The year began
auspiciously with the Jan. 16, 1992, signing of the peace accord between the government and the rebel
Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), ending 12 years of a civil war that had cost about 80,000 lives, displaced one million people, and caused material losses estimated at $1 billion. A detailed timetable was drawn up for the gradual demobilization of the guerrilla forces, the
Guard and the Treasury Police, armed forces, and political and ecowould enable the FMLN members to
elimination of the National the reduction of the
nomic reforms that be incorporated into The Columbus Lighthouse,
built to commemorate the 500th anniversary Christopher Columbus, looms over Santo Domingo. A project of Dominican Pres. Joaquin Balaguer, it was criticized for both
of the landing of
its
expense and
its
symbolism.
civilian life.
There were delays in complying with the deadlines. On June 30, two months behind schedule, the LIN mission in El Salvador confirmed the demobilization of the
first
20%
484
World
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
improve the mood of public-sector forced the government to settle a 1990-92 wage claim, at a cost of EC$10.8 million. layoffs did nothing to
employees,
who
In February, Parliament passed the highly controversial Traders and Professional Licenses Act, requiring profes-
from EC$100,000. The act was strongly attacked by professional associations. Winifred Strachan, sole remaining opposition Grenada United Labour Party member in Parliament, was expelled from the party in March for "blatant disloyalty" and "substandard performance." The government announced during the year that Cuba had "satisfied all conditions" for a resumption of diplomatic relations with Grenada. In August, Reginald Palmer, a former senior public servant, was appointed governor-general to succeed Sir Paul Scoon. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies: sional people, including journalists, to pay fees ranging
EC$100
to
Grenada.
GUATEMALA A
republic of Central America, Guatemala has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 108,889 sq km (42,042 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 9,442,000. Cap.: Guatemala City. Monetary unit: quetzal, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 5.32
quetzales to U.S. $1 (9.04 quetzales 1992, Jorge Serrano Elias. in San Salvador celebrate the signing on January 16 of a peace treaty between the government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front. It was hoped that the accord would end the country's brutal 12-year civil war.
The new year began with
CINDY KARP— BLACK STAR
Court
=
£1 sterling). President in
Citizens
extensive political maneuvering
for the election of the president of justices.
Edmond Mulet
Congress and Supreme
Lessieur of the National
Union was elected to the presidency of Congress amid allegations of vote selling, although the last-minute Centrist
of the
FMLN
Under pressure from
forces.
the U.S., the government and the
timetable for the demobilization. criticized the
government
disarm while
failing to
the
UN
and
FMLN agreed to a new The FMLN leadership
wanting the rebel forces to the reforms or fulfill its obligations to guarantee security for the ex-combatants and grant them land, financing, technical assistance, and farm equipment. By August 20, however, the FMLN had concentrated all its forces in the 15 agreed-upon sites. The demobilization was finally completed on December 14. and a ceremony in San Salvador the next day marked the formal
end of the
civil
for
institute
support of Pres. Jorge Serrano Elfas also influenced the outcome. Nine justices were elected to the Supreme Court for six-year terms. Later in the year, following many scandals and allegations of criminal activities, a congressional commission recommended an end to secret hearings for all legal proceedings against congressmen. AP/WIDE
WORLD
war.
The founder and
leader of the ruling right-wing National-
Republican Alliance (Arena), Roberto d'Aubuisson (see Obituaries), died on February 20. He was a hard-line anti-Communist and had been linked with many political murders. His death was expected to lead to a battle for ist
power within
(sarah Cameron) Central Amer-
his party.
This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: El Salvador.
GRENADA A
constitutional
monarchy within the Commonwealth, Grenada
dependency, the Southern Grenadines) is in the eastern Caribbean Sea Area: 345 sq km (133 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 90,900. Cap.: Saint George's. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean (with
its
ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 Queen, Elizabeth II; Paul Scoon and, from August
dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of
(tree rate of
ECS4.59 =
tl sterling).
governors-general in 1992, Sir Reginald Palmer: prime minister, Nicholas Brathwaite.
6,
The governing National Democratic Congress party spent most of the year fending
off criticism of
its
justment'" program, designed to stabilize the
"structural ad-
economy
with-
out direct International Monetary Fund intervention. The program included a reduction in the size of the civil service and the sell-off of government enterprises. The prospect of
newly exhumed bodies of residents 1981, reportedly after having been killed by
Villagers from Pujujil carry the
who had disappeared
in
the Guatemalan military.
throughout the world
in
The government continued to be criticized for its record on human rights.
1992
Latin America and the
Human when
came to the tore at the beginning of 1992 human rights groups released their figures lor 1991. The government launched a campaign in convince the world that human rights were un-
rights
several
abuses
in
Europe
to
UN
der control, prior to the convening in February of the Commission on Human Rights meeting that would lead to reduced levels of aid if Guatemala's record was condemned. U.S. State Department Human Rights Report, released February, blamed the Guatemalan security forces for the majority of human rights violations, although it noted that
The in
UN
A report by the however, that there had not
the overall situation had improved.
human
rights adviser stated,
been any substantial decrease in criminal violence and that many of the crimes were clearly politically motivated. The UN Commission on Human Rights decided not to appoint a permanent observer in Guatemala but to maintain a special adviser to visit several times a year. A second UN report in August again condemned Guatemala for consistently violating
human
continued military operations.
(sarah Cameron) Central Amer-
This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: Guatemala.
GUYANA A
republic and
member
of the
Commonwealth, Guyana is on the Atlantic Ocean.
situated in northeastern South America,
km
Area: 215,083 sq
(83,044 sq mi). Pop. (1992
748,000. Cap.: Georgetown. Monetary unit: Guyana dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of G$ 125.27 to U.S. $1 (G$2 12.96 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Desmond Hoyte and, from October 9, Cheddi Jagan; prime ministers, Hamilton Green and, from October 9, Sam Hinds.
Cheddi Jagan, office after
est.):
and longtime maon the Guyana scene, was returned to
74, a U.S.-trained dentist
jor political figure
28 years
in
opposition
in
the Oct. 5, 1992, gen-
eral election. Jagan's People's Progressive Party
(PPP) won
52.3% of the vote under Guyana's system of proportional representation, compared with 43.6% for then president
Desmond
Hoyte's People's National Congress (PNC). Jagan
became president and his running mate, Sam Hinds, prime minister. The PPP had 28 of the 53 directly elected seats
AP/WIOE
WORLD
A refugee being returned
to Haiti
is
onshore from a U.S. Coast Guard cutter. The U.S. government began repatriating Haitian refugees in 1992 on the grounds that they were economic refugees and thus not
carried
eligible for political
artbbean
Haiti
485
had 23. he Working People's and the United Force obtained one seat each. Jagan had quietly abandoned the Marxism-leninism with which he had long been associated, and the new government would encourage private initiative, though it would also slow the state enterprise divestment program. Jagan said he would review all privatization deals made after March 1992, including that for the sugar industry. The PNC had sold off 14 state companies by mid-1992, earning GS1 billion. The market-oriented policies pursued by the PNC in its last years in office had helped boost production. Some 32,000 troy ounces of gold were mined in the first six months of 1992, and annual sugar output reached 225,000 metric tons, compared with 162,753 in 1991. A GS500 note was in
Parliament, and the PN(
I
/\lh, nice
put into circulation in July for the high inflation.
Guyana signed
agreement with the U.S.
first
time, reflecting the
a tax information exchange
in July.
(david renwick)
HAITI
rights.
Discussions were held during the year between the government and the rebel alliance Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity. A few accords were reached, but the guerrillas
'
asylum.
The
republic of Haiti occupies the western one-third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Area: 27.700 sq km (10,695 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 6,764,000. Cap.: Port-au-Prince. Monetary unit: gourde, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 9.98 gourdes to U.S. $1 (16.97 gourdes = £1 sterling). President in 1992. Joseph Nerette (interim) until June 19; prime ministers, Jean-Jacques Honorat (interim) and, from June 19. Marc Bazin.
Marc tial
Bazin, a former
candidate
in
the
World Bank economist and presidenDecember 1990 elections, was sworn
prime minister of Haiti on June 19 under a tripartite agreement made by the army, administration, and parliamentary leaders. Officially his mandate was to negotiate a settlement with the deposed president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who had won 67% of the vote, compared with Bazin's 14%. The figurehead president, Joseph Nerette, resigned in as
after Bazin's inauguration, leaving the post vacant for the
The ceremony was boycotted by all diplomats except for the papal nuncio, the Vatican being the only state to recognize the army-backed regime. Representatives of the army-backed regime and of Aristide met in September and agreed that 18 representatives of the Organization of American States (OAS) should go to Haiti and monitor human rights violations. Michael Manley, the former prime minister of Jamaica, was named as "facilreturn of Aristide.
World
486
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
itator" for the OAS mission, in which two monitors would be stationed in each province. Prime Minister Bazin appeared before parliament in August to hear reports of repression and abuse, which he called shocking but failed to condemn. Tens of thousands of people applied to the U.S. for political asylum, and people flooded into Florida by boat. Amnesty International accused the U.S. of flouting international law because it repatriated Haitian refugees without examining their cases and determining whether they were at risk of human rights abuses in their own country. The U.S. held that they were economic refugees and therefore not entitled to asylum.
(SARAH CAMERON) West Indies:
This article updates the Macropcedia article The Haiti.
HONDURAS A
republic of Central America, Honduras has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 112,088 sq km (43,277 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,996,000. Cap.: Tegucigalpa. Monetary unit: lempira, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 6
lempiras to U.S. $1 (10.20 lempiras 1992, Rafael Leonardo Callejas.
In
=
March 1992 Congress passed
£1 sterling). President
the Agriculture
in
Modern-
Law, designed to encourage foreign investment and promote crop development. Its provision allowing farmers to sell cooperative land received through agrarian reform was criticized for eliminating the remaining benefits of the reform designed to give land to poor peasants. In May officials from the armed forces and the National Agrarian Institute (INA) began to evict campesino groups who had invaded 25,000 ha (61,750 ac) of fallow land in 10 departments two weeks earlier. The campesinos complained that the suspension of agrarian reform and the freezing of credits by the National Agriculture Bank had made their lives onerous. After negotiations, it was agreed that new occupations of land would be suspended and the INA would ization
discuss resolving disputes
The emergence of unions caused tions
splits
"parallel" leadership boards of trade
parallel
weaken the unions so
ing could take place with
little
boards were a government that privatization
and
fir-
opposition. Political violence
continued with a series of assassinations of leaders from both the right and left in July. On March 30 the Nicaraguan National Assembly repealed law 99, thereby dropping the country's lawsuit in the International Court of Justice against the government of Honduras for supporting, housing, and training contras during the Nicaraguan civil war. The Honduran Ecological Association accused the transnational fruit companies of using harmful pesticides on their plantations. Labourers who handled the pesticides had developed skin disorders or cancer or had become sterile. Preliminary investigations indicated that there had been misuse of toxins and inadequate protection for workers. This
article
updates the Macropcedia
J.
minister of Jamaica.
the Jamaican government for several years. NAJLAH FEANNY-SABA
The lengthy Manley political dynasty came to an end in March 1992 when 67-year-old Michael Manley, who had followed his father, Norman, as head of the People's National Party (PNP), bowed out of politics, citing ill health.
He had been
leader of the
PNP
for 23 years
minister for several five-year terms.
basis.
within the labour movement. Allega-
were made that the
strategy to
on a case-by-case
Patterson speaks at his inauguration on March 30 as prime He replaced Michael Manley, also of the People's National Party, who resigned for reasons of health after having headed Percival
(SARAH CAMERON) article Central Amer-
ica: Honduras.
The
and prime
succession passed
who said he would maintain the economic deregulation, divestment of state enterprises, and encouragement of private initiative. Gun battles between supporters of the two main political parties, the PNP and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), led to Percival
current
J.
PNP
Patterson,
policy of
by Edward Seaga, continued
in
the early part of the year,
following the death in prison of a well-known
known
JLP
activist,
Brown, and the murder of his son. At least eight people died. Sugar workers went on strike for two weeks in March; civil servants threatened to stop work in protest against the proposed loss of 8,000 jobs; and demonstrators blocked roads and burned tires when bus fares and school fees went up in September. In June the central bank set up a currency stabilization fund to support the weak Jamaican dollar. Patterson met Venezuelan Pres. Carlos Andres Perez in September and Lester Coke, also
as Jim
obtained an increase, to 13,000 bbl per day, in the oil Jamaica could buy at subsidized prices. He later negotiated an oil-supply agreement with Nigeria. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropcedia article The Jamaica.
West
Indies:
JAMAICA
MEXICO A
constitutional
monarchy within the Commonwealth, Jamaica
occupies an island in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 10,991 sq km (4,244 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 2.445,000. Cap.: Kingston. Monetary unit: Jamaica dollar, with (Oct. 5. 1992) a free rate of JS21.89 to U.S. $1 (JS37.21 = tl sterling). Queen, Elizabeth 11: governor-general in 1992, Howard Cooke; prime ministers, Michael Manley and, from March 30, Percival J. Patterson.
A
federal republic of
North America, Mexico has coastlines on
the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Area: 1,958,201 sq km (756,066 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 84,439,-
Mexico City. Monetary unit: Mexican peso, with (Oct. 1992) a free rate of 3,013 pesos to U.S. $1 (5,122 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Salinas de Gortari.
000. Cap.: 5,
I.alin
Gubernatorial elections were held during July and August 1992 in 8 of Mexico's 31 states. The ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party PRI retained control of all except (
Chihuahua, the
largest
)
and
richest state
in
the country.
Francisco Barrio Terrazas of the right-wing National Action Party
(PAN) won
there.
It
over 60 years that PRI had
was only the second time in However,
lost a state election.
the ruling party defeated the candidate of the left-wing
Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) in Michoacan, the PRD leader Cuauhtemoc Cardenas Solorzano. In Durango the PRI candidate, Maximiliano Silerio, won by a slim majority. PAN and PRD had tried to force PRI out by combining their votes, and their defeat drove enraged opposition supporters onto the streets, claiming fraud. Order was restored when PRI conceded several towns to PAN in return for its candidate's dropping his claim to the state governorship. On August 29 some 40,000 people led by Cardenas gathered in the main square of Mexico City, demanding changes in the electoral system and protesting the controversial elections. Absenteeism was as high as 70% in some states, and mutual accusations of cheating were rife among all participating parties. Continued demonstrations in Michoacan caused the newly elected PRI governor to step down on October 6. On November 8 elections for governor took place in Puebla, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas. PRI candidates were declared the winners in all three, but the opposition parties charged fraud, challenged the results, and held protest demonstrations. An electoral commission office in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, was looted and burned on November 10. In elections in the states of Oaxaca and Tlaxcala on November 8, PRI candidates were victorious, with few stronghold of
Economic growth was healthy during rise
of
3%
in
forecast. Inflation
down from 18.8%
the year.
the gross domestic product
was predicted
to average
An
over-
(GDP) was
14.5% for 1992,
Proceeds from the privatization campaign totaled $14.5 billion over the first three years, most of which had gone toward paying off the national debt. In June the Finance Ministry released figures showing that the debt amounted to 28.4% of the country's total GDP, a significant drop from 35.6% at the end of 1991. In November the government submitted an austerity budget for 1993 in which total spending would decline 0.2%. At the end of August the government announced the privatization of 60 companies, including mining, gas suppliers, fertilizer manufacturers, and gasoline (petrol) service sta-
PETER MORGAN
Workers
-
in
in 1991.
MATRIX
sew clothes for Many economists believed
Juarez, Mexico,
a U.S. company.
proposed North American Free Trade Agreement would encourage additional U.S. companies to move some of their manufacturing operations to low-wage Mexico. that the
Amid growing
tin-
Caribbean: Mexico
4X7
labour unrest, trade unions criticized
the program, claiming that over 100,000 workers had lost their jobs since 1982 either directly or indirectly as a result
of privatization. Several industries were
hit
by damaging
strikes during the year, including textiles, farming, fishing,
and the state oil industry. On August 12, after 14 months of negotiation, agreement was reached on a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. However, the details of NAFTA would not be officially confirmed until it was signed and ratified by the three governments. Mexico was thought to have won important concessions for its oil industry and agriculture, considered vulnerable sectors. Many Mexicans remained concerned, nevertheless, about being exploited for cheap unskilled labour. Jan. 1, 1994, was set as the target date for enactment of the treaty. Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari made several Cabinet changes, prompting speculation over likely candidates to be his successor in the 1994 presidential election. Under the Mexican constitution no president could be reelected. Pedro Aspe Armella, previously the finance minister, took over the newly merged Ministries of Finance and Planning and Budget, the two most important economic departments, making him the front-runner. Another likely successor was the
PRI
put him
Donaldo Colosio, made minister of Urban Development and Ecology. This
president, Luis
the Secretariat of in
charge of the important Solidaridad program.
Genaro Borrego Estrade, governor of Zacatecas, was the new PRI president, and Beatriz Paredes, Tlaxcala state governor, was appointed PRI secretary-general.
On
April 22 a series of sewer-line explosions destroyed
more than 20 blocks of
a working-class district in the city
of Guadalajara, leaving an estimated 200 people dead and
charges of fraud. all
tions.
America and
1,500 injured. The government moved emergency rescue teams and bulldozers
A
swiftly,
sending
in
to clear the rubble.
preliminary report ordered by President Salinas showed
that gasoline had leaked out of a pipeline into a parallel
sewage pipeline, ultimately causing the explosions. It also confirmed that local authorities had not taken adequate precautions when residents had complained of strong gasoline odours several days earlier. The attorney general's report laid the blame for the incident on local government, the water board, and Pemex, the state oil company; 1 1 officials were charged with criminal negligence, and most were imprisoned. The Jalisco state governor, Guillermo Cosio, was forced to resign.
For several weeks during March and April,
air pollution
488
World
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
Mexico City rose to dangerously high levels. Schools were some 200 plants cut output by 75%, and 300,000 cars were forced to stay off the roads. Long-term measures announced by the government included the conversion of 144,000 freight and public transport vehicles to natural gas or liquid petroleum gas by 1994. Industries in the capital also agreed to cut toxic emissions by the end of 1993. According in
struction
and that without
closed,
meet
international reserve target agreed
to a local environmental protection agency (Asociacion
de
Lucha Metropolitana para el Mejoramiento Ambiental), as many as two million inhabitants of Mexico City suffered from serious respiratory problems. (huw clough)
republic of Central America, Nicaragua has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 130,682 sq km (50,457 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,131,000. Cap.: Managua. Monetary -unit: cordoba oro, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 5 cordobas oro to U.S. $1 (free rate of 8.50 cordobas oro sterling). President in 1992,
=
£1
Violeta Barrios de Chamorro.
1992 the Cerro Negro volcano erupted, spewarea in the west; 10,000 persons were evacuated, and there was considerable damage in In April
ash over a large
province of Leon, where the roofs of houses collapsed under the weight of black sand. At the beginning the
of September a powerful earthquake offshore spawned a series of tidal
waves up to 13.75
m
(45
ft)
which 105 people
high,
swept over Nicaragua's Pacific coast. At least were drowned and several hundred more were injured or reported missing, while more than 4,200 were left homeless. Towns all along the coast suffered damage, though the extent of the destruction would take some time to evaluate. Pres. Violeta Chamorro launched an international appeal for aid, and the U.S. pledged $5 million in disaster relief. The U.K. sent 5100,000. instigation
of Sen. Jesse
the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations
$116 million
Nicaragua would be unable to
upon with the
Under obvious U.S. announced measures
pressure, the president subsequently
speed up the settlement of expropriated property claims. All 5,000 claims were to be settled to
in favour of the former owners; they would receive land if unoccupied or compensation, largely in the form of shares in state companies to be privatized; no property would be returned to the Somoza family, which formerly ruled
Nicaragua, or
its
close associates.
30 President Chamorro reacted to an
in-
creasing conflict between the executive and the legislature
A
At the
it
Monetary Fund.
International
On December
NICARAGUA
ing
its
in
aid in June.
A
Helms (Rep., N.C.), Committee suspended
report by Republican staff
members of the committee, released in recommended continuing the freeze on
early September,
U.S. aid on the grounds that the country was still controlled by Sandinistas. The report called for the removal of the army commander, Gen. Humberto Ortega, and other Sandinista army officers, the appointment of new judges, and the return of property expropriated by the Sandinistas when they were in office. The Nicaraguan government rejected the report as full of lies, stating that the aid freeze threatened economic recon-
by ordering the police to occupy the National Assembly building and seize ing.
An
its
assets
and documents
assembly's affairs until the election of
on Jan.
fot safekeep-
manage the new assembly leaders
interim commission was appointed to
9,
(s-arah
1993.
This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: Nicaragua.
Cameron)
Central Amer-
PANAMA A
republic of Central America, Panama lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean on the Isthmus of Panama. Area: 75,517 sq km (29,157 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 2,515,000.
Cap.:
Panama
City.
Monetary
unit: balboa, at
par with the U.S.
dollar, with a free rate (Oct. 5, 1992) of 1.70 balboas to £1 sterling. President in 1992,
In January 1992 the
Guillermo Endara Galimany.
human
rights
released a report on Panama's
group Americas Watch
human
rights record in 1991,
which concluded that there had been little improvement in the country's penal and judicial systems since the 1989 invasion by the United States. The report drew attention to the length of time prisoners were detained before trial, often up to five years, and noted that at least 80% of those in jail had not been convicted and in many cases had not even been formally charged. Pres. Guillermo Endara Galimany announced a new antiterrorist force, to be called the Elite Tactical Weapons Unit, to combat Panama's rising crime and terrorism. The unit would be specially trained to deal with attempts to overthrow the government. On February 7 the president held a press conference to announce the success of the unit in foiling a conspiracy to stage such a coup. Critics regarded the unit as a smoke screen to distract attention from the economic and social problems affecting the country and also
REUTERS/BETTMANN
Surrounded by security agents, U.S. Pres. George Bush (lower left) and Panamanian Pres. Guillermo Endara (lower right) rub their eyes after tear gas fired at demonstrators in Panama City on June 1 drifted back to where they were to address a rally. Bush was in Panama to commemorate the 1989 U.S. invasion that toppled Gen. Manuel Noriega, but the demonstration prevented the two leaders from making their speeches.
Latin America and
as an excuse to enlarge the
armed
forces
and
to increase
repression of the civilian population. In February U.S. Seeretary of Defense Richard
paid an
official
where about
1
visit
(),()()()
to
Panama
to inspect
Cheney
military bases
U.S. troops were stationed. According
on the Panama Canal, all U.S. troops were removed from Panama by the end of 1999, when the canal was to be officially handed over to the Panamanian government. Many groups within Panama, however, feared that the loss of U.S. troops would mean unemployment to the treaty to be
for thousands of workers.
erendum on
A
movement
to press for a ref-
on by the
the issue gathered force, spurred
increasing instability in the country and the perceived inability
The
of the administration to
manage or defend
treaty could be renegotiated only by
tin-
(
aiibbean: Peru
W)
Wasmosy. Charging vote fraud, Wasmosy announced that he would challenge the results. The candidate l the opposition, led by the Authentic Radical Liberals, was Domingo
(michael wooller)
Laino.
PERU The
is located in western South America, on the Ocean. Area: 1,285,216 sq km (496,225 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 22,454,000. Cap.: Lima. Monetary unit: nuevo sol, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1.52 nuevos soles to U.S. $1 (2.58 nuevos soles = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Alberto Fujimori; prime ministers, Alfonso de los Heros and, from April 6, Oscar de la Puente Raygada.
republic of Peru
Pacific
the canal.
mutual consent
based on a popular referendum in Panama or in the event that Panama was determined by the U.S. to be incapable of effectively defending the Canal Zone. However, despite surveys showing that a large percentage of the population supported the U.S. military presence, thousands protested against the June visit of U.S. Pres. George Bush, and there
On
April
1992, Pres. Alberto Fujimori carried out an
5,
when he
autogolpe (self-coup)
closed Congress, sacked ju-
and set up a new government of "national emergency and reconstruction." The president blamed Congress for blocking his efforts to strengthen the economy and quash guerrilla activities. Congress condemned the move and raised fears that Fujimori was being used as a puppet of the armed forces prior to a military takeover. However, no blood was shed in the initial confusion, and the army showed support for the president by its restraint. On November 13, however, a small group of army officers tried to seize the national palace and kill Fujimori. Loyalist soldiers routed the rebels, and some 25 army officers were diciary authorities,
were several violent attacks against the U.S. military. Angry demonstrators protested that the U.S. promise of reparation and reconstruction after the invasion had never been fulfilled, and hundreds of Panamanians were still homeless as a result of the war. President Bush was unable to deliver his public address, and police had to disperse the protesting crowd with tear gas. On November 15 Panamanians voted in a national referendum on a package of 58 reform measures proposed by the government. Only 40% of the eligible voters went to the polls, and 64% of them rejected the package. The most controversial of the measures was one that would have abolished the armed forces. Citing the "no" vote and the mass abstentions as a rejection of the government, opposi-
Fujimori attempted to appease international concern by promising constitutional reforms and new elections. In elections for the new Democratic Constituent Congress on November 22, parties supporting Fujimori won some 38% of the vote but nonetheless gained an absolute majority. Most of the major opposition parties boycotted the election, charging that the Congress would be only a rubber stamp
tion leaders called for the election of a national constituent
for Fujimori.
assembly to draw up a new constitution, (sarah This article updates the Macropcedia article ica:
later arrested.
Cameron)
Central Amer-
Panama.
Several friendly nations that had previously promised
on
PARAGUAY Paraguay is a landlocked republic of central South America. Area: 406,752 sq km (157,048 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,519,000. Cap.: Asuncion. Monetary unit: guarani, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1,543 guaranies to U.S. $1 (2,624 guaranies = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Gen. Andres Rodriguez.
—Germany,
—
France, and Japan held back and Spain withdrew from the agreement altogether. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), however, removed its block on new loans to Peru, which had been suspended after the events of April 5. The economy appeared to be set for a modest recovery loans to Peru
their pledges,
at the
beginning of the year, with the government's severe
austerity
measures bringing
inflation
December
gust, the lowest since
down
to
industrial output declined, with a particular
Pressure from the army forced the ruling Colorado Party to paper over its internal strife and helped it gain an emphatic victory in the
December 1991
elections for a constituent
assembly; this guaranteed the government a major role in
new constitution. On June 15 the assemapproved a measure whereby Pres. Andres Rodriguez was included in the constitutional ban on reelection bids by serving presidents. The inclusion of Rodriguez in the prohibition was taken by him as an attack on his family, his honour, and his word as a soldier that he would not run for the drafting of a
2.8%
in
Au-
1985. But during the year
slump
in July.
Agricultural production rose in 1991 but was nipped in the
1992 by disastrous effects of El Nino (a warm current sweeps through the Pacific every few years, provoking severe climatic reactions on land). Unseasonably heavy rains
bud
in
that
bly
flooded the north of the country, while the south suffered severe drought.
reelection in 1993.
that one of its highest prioriwas to wipe out Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru, whose activities had spread throughout Peru. Reports emerged that prisons were being used as indoctrination centres for the guerrilla
The
president refused to attend the final
session of the constituent assembly
on June
18.
A
series of
protests by his supporters fueled fears of a military coup,
were
fears that
laid to
rest only
when Rodriguez
finally
swore allegiance to the new constitution in a ceremony on June 22. On December 27 the Colorado Party chose Luis Maria
Argana uled for
as
its
May
candidate for president 9,
1993. Argana,
schedserved as president
in the elections
who had
of the
Supreme Court under Gen. Alfredo
ceived
48%
of the vote to
41%
Stroessner, re-
for second-place Juan Carlos
The government declared
ties
May
groups. In early
the police tried to restore order in
the Miguel Castro prison
on the
outskirts of Lima.
When
move female detainees to another prison, some 35 members of the Shining Path and 2 policemen they attempted to
were
the ensuing conflict.
In July a series of Lima, causing many casualties and marking the worst spate of violence in the capital in many
car
killed
in
bombs exploded
years.
On September
in
12 police arrested
Abimael Guzman,
leader of the Shining Path, in a raid on a house in Lima.
The capture of Guzman
after 12 years in hiding
was
at-
490
World
Affairs: Latin
America and the Caribbean
There was some cheerful news on the economic front the sugar crop closed in midyear at 20,159 metric tons, well above the 19,000-ton target. The British government helped boost economic development by providing £900,000
when
new road
for three
This article updates the Macropcedia Saint Kitts
and
new bypass to the (david renwick) article The West Indies:
projects, including a
east of Basseterre. Nevis.
SAINT LUCIA
A constitutional
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,
Lucia is the second largest of the Windward Islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 617 sq km (238 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 135,000. Cap.: Castries. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of EC$4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Stanislaus A. James; prime minister, St.
John Compton.
The United Workers
Abimael Guzman, leader of the Shining Path, remains defiant in a jail cell in Lima. The head of the terrorist group that had threatened the Peruvian government for more than a decade, he was arrested on September 12 and in early October was sentenced to life
was returned
majority in the
The
imprisonment.
Party
(UWP),
House of Assembly and 56.3% of
Saint Lucia
an 11-6
the vote.
Labour Party (SLP) remained the
Compton had been prime
opposition.
John Compton,
led by
to office yet again in April 1992, with
official
minister since 1982.
was head of successive governments during the period 1964 to 1979. In June, Compton presented the first budget of his new administration. It envisaged expenditure of EC$490.7 million, with EC$219.2 million earmarked for capital development. Prior to independence, he
tributed to Dincote, Peru's counterterrorist police force.
Guzman was taken before a top-secret military tribunal and charged with terrorist offenses related to an unofficial total of about 22,500 deaths since the inception of the guerrilla war in 1980. In early October he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to life imprisonment. The loss of Guzman and the later arrests of other leaders were the worst setbacks in the Shining Path's history. However, the guerrillas were thought to be well organized into self-contained cells and capable of quickly finding new leadership. The police, meanwhile, stepped up security in the capital,
Despite
Hunte
An
and around Lima, leaving dead and several injured. out, mainly in
at least
one person
(huw clough)
the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 269 sq km (104 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 43,100. Cap.: Basseterre. Monetary unit: Eastern dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of EC$4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir Clement Arrindell; prime
Caribbean
Kennedy A. Simmonds.
dismissal of
inquiry into reports of malpractice and irregularities in
in
midyear. In August,
Compton promised an
Deputy Prime Minister Michael Powell
"all-out of-
fensive" against drug traffickers, following revelations that
schoolchildren were being suborned into the drug trade.
The Royal Caribbean Cruise
Line, one of the main cruise dropped Saint Lucia from its the cruise visitor tax was raised from $2 to
ship operators in the region, itinerary after
$10.
Compton accused
the line of "singling-out" Saint Lucia
(david renick)
West
Indies:
Saint Lucia.
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, and Nevis comprises the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis
in
The
reelected Julian
This article updates the Macropcedia article The
A constitutional
minister,
SLP
leader in July, ignoring calls for his removal.
for "discriminatory action."
SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS
St. Kitts
its
the operations of the Castries City Council was launched
bracing themselves for a backlash reaction to Guzman's sentence. Nevertheless, a spate of terrorist attacks did break
defeat at the polls, the
its
as
in
SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES
A constitutional
monarchy within the Commonwealth,
St.
Vincent and the Grenadines comprises the islands of St. Vincent and the northern Grenadines in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 389 sq km (150 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 109,000. Cap.: Kingstown. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, David Jack; prime minister, James Fitz-Allen Mitchell.
April 1992 brought crowds into the streets of Basseterre in
was a popular politician, but his relationship Kennedy Simmonds, the prime minister and leader of the governing People's Action Movement (PAM), had been strained for some time. The results of the Nevis local protest. Powell
with
election in June did
partner, the
little
to
lift
PAM's
spirits. Its coalition
Nevis Reformation Party, was defeated 3-2
by the Concerned Citizens
Movement (CCM), which had
established itself at the national level in the 1989 election
CCM
by winning one seat in the federal parliament. The victory removed, for the moment, the threat of Nevis' secession from the federation.
Shortly after the election, Nevis was jolted by the discovery of the body of the deputy governor-general, Weston Parris. He was found floating in the sea near his home in
Charlestown.
The ECS274.4
million budget presented in January 1992 included a capital spending component of ECS104.8 million, to be financed principally from external sources. The largest
was completed May, when the new EC$55 million airport opened for business in Bequia. The airport was named after the prime minister, James F. Mitchell, who represented the island in
capital project in the country's recent history in
Parliament.
Plans for an even bigger project, a $75 million boatyard and marina near Kingstown, were approved by Parliament at midyear. It would be a joint venture between the government (49%) and an Italian company (51%). The West Deutsche Landesbank pledged funding to the extent of $50.3 million to the operating company, Caribbean Charter
Latin America and
and Yacht Yard Holdings
Ltd.
The company would
receive
duty-free concessions during the construction stage, a 15year tax break, and lice repatriation of profits. Forty Vin-
centians were to receive training in Italy. Ivy Joshua, the first elected female member of the
St.
Vincent and the Grenadines legislature, died in August at the age of 67. She was the wife of the late Ebenezer Joshua, the country's
first
(david renwick)
chief minister.
This article updates the Macropcedia article The Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
West
Indies:
SURINAME The
republic of Suriname is in northeastern South America, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 163,820 sq km (63,251 sq mi), not including a 17,635-sq km area disputed with Guyana. Pop. (1992 est.): 404,000. Cap.: Paramaribo. Monetary unit: Suriname guilder, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 1.79 guilders to U.S.
$1 (free rate of 3.03 guilders = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Ronald Venetiaan; prime minister, Jules Adjodhia.
May
1992 the two main guerrilla groups, Ronnie BrunsSurinamese Liberation Army or Jungle Commando and Thomas Sabajo's Tucayana Amazonas, announced a cessation of hostilities against the government, and in early August a draft peace treaty was signed by the government, these groups, and some smaller guerrilla factions. The agreement included a general amnesty and integration of the guerrillas into the civilian police. A disarmament meeting took place on August 24 at Moengo, where Brunswijk, who had led a seven-year insurgency, was the first to hand over his weapons to an observer from the Organization of In
wijk's
American
On March
remove
bly to
army
21 the government asked the National
allowed the
articles in the constitution that
to act in a
way
Assem-
"that did not stand with the func-
tioning of a democratic Constitutional State."
On
February
Ronald Venetiaan visited U.S. Pres. George Bush, who reportedly promised assistance in case of another military coup in Suriname. In The Netherlands on June 18, Venetiaan and Dutch Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers signed an agreement providing for the resumption of Dutch aid, suspended during the period of military rule. The Dutch government promised some 1 billion guilders over the next five years. (klaas j. hoeksema) 3 Pres.
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
A
republic and
Tobago
member
consists of
of the Commonwealth, Trinidad and
two islands
in the
Caribbean Sea
off the
coast of Venezuela. Area: 5,128 sq km (1,980 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 1,261,000. Cap.: Port of Spain. Monetary unit: Trinidad
and Tobago
dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of TT$4.25 to U.S. $1 (free rate of TT$7.23 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Noor Mohammad Hassanali; prime minister, Patrick Manning.
The People's National Movement (PNM) government presented the first budget of its new administration in January 1992, setting expenditures for the year at
TT$7.9
billion.
Income tax rates were increased, and the corporation tax was restored to 45%. Prime Minister Patrick Manning met U.S. Pres. George Bush and other U.S. government officials in Washington, D.C., in May. Cooperation between the two countries in combating the drug trade was discussed. Following
its
decisive defeat in the
December
1991 elec-
Reconstruction (NAR) elected a new leader, Carson Charles. The previous leader, A.N.R. Robinson, who had been prime minister during 1986-91, resigned shortly after the election. tions,
the
National Alliance
for
(
aribbean: Venezuela
491
114 members ol the Jamaat al Muslimccn group stormed Parliament and held the prime minister and several other government ministers hostage foi live days m July-August 1990 were released from jail in July. A High Court judge upheld the validity of the amnesty they had been granted by the acting president in an effort to avoid bloodshed. The government appealed part of the judgment. Local government elections in September confirmed the
he
I
that
PNM's
popularity.
The
party regained total control of four
boroughs and was victorious in six of the nine regional councils. However, the NAR retained control of the Tobago House of Assembly in elections on December 7. Efforts were under way at the year's end to merge the two government-owned oil companies, Trintoc and Trintopec, at
the
instigation of international
company was expected
integrated
and
assets of
TT$3.2
to
The
lending agencies.
have 6,000 employees
(david renwick)
billion.
This article updates the Macropcedia article The Trinidad and Tobago.
West
Indies:
URUGUAY
A republic
of eastern South America, Uruguay lies on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 176,215 sq km (68,037 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,130,000. Cap.: Montevideo. Monetary unit: Uruguayan new peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 3,271 new pesos to U.S. $1 (5,561 new pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Luis
Alberto Lacalle.
The in
Union Assembly and the National ConfederaWorkers (PIT-CNT) called another general strike
Inter
tion of
January 1992 as part of
economic
States.
tin-
its
ongoing protest against the
policies of Pres. Luis Lacalle; the
PIT-CNT
con-
federation had previously organized a 36-hour general strike in
December 1991
following the award of a
12% pay
raise
to public sector workers that the confederation described as
wholly insufficient. On February 27 Finance Minister Lie Ignacio de Posadas
announced the third most severe stage in the fiscal readjustment program designed to bring Uruguay back into line with its agreement with the International Monetary Fund and international banks. Partly as a result of a Cabinet reshuffle in
which Posadas became finance minister, the Battlismo
Radical faction pulled out of the governing coalition. By mid-February the opposition left-wing Frente Amplio
and the PIT-CNT had gathered the necessary 12,000 signatures required for a special poll to be held in their campaign to slow the government's privatization program and preserve PIT-CNT jobs. The poll was duly held on July 5, but only 458,818 actually voted, as compared with the 581,069 in favour (25% of the electorate) required for a referendum on the issue to be forced. Another referendum on the issue took place in December, and the government again lost.
(MICHAEL WOOLLER)
VENEZUELA
A
republic of northern South America, Venezuela lies on the Caribbean Sea. Area: 912,050 sq km (352,144 sq mi). Pop. (1992 20,184,000. Cap.: Caracas. Monetary unit: bolivar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 69.49 bolfvares to U.S. $1 (118.14 bolivares = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Andres Perez. est.):
At 2 am on Feb. 4, 1992, Pres. Carlos Andres Perez appeared on national television and announced that an attempted military coup had been thwarted. The uprising had begun a few hours earlier at the Jose Leonardo Chirinos paratroops regiment base in the city of Maracay. Even as the president spoke, sporadic gunfire continued to erupt capital.
in
the
Later another rebel unit took control of the city of
492
World
Affairs:
Oceania
Alleged troublemakers are rounded up in early February during an attempted coup against the Venezuelan government. In spite of grievances among military officers and discontent among the populace over economic and other problems, the government put down the February uprising and a second coup attempt in November. BILL
Maracaibo. By daybreak, however, loyal government troops had regained the upper hand, and at midday the leader of the rebels, Lieut. Col. Hugo Chavez Frias, surrendered and made an appeal on television for any remaining forces to follow In
ment
fell
from 8.7%
the aftermath
133
officers
were arrested for
their
The rebels belonged to the radical Bolivarist Revolutionary Movement (MRB). Their activities began during the 1989 riots, when they circulated pamphlets part in the uprising.
around army barracks, accusing the military leadership of corruption and calling for a coup. Military unrest had been growing for some months, since the emergence of scandals linking high-ranking officers to drug traffickers and financial profiteering. But despite warnings from the ministry of defense, no one really believed that the military would
at the
end of 1991
to
8.4% by mid-1992
and, following 1991 growth, per capita income increased to $2,600.
On
the
down
compared with the time since 1976,
suit.
GENTILE -SIPA
private oil
side, oil exports fell
first
when
six
the
months of oil
by $14 million
1991. For the
first
industry was nationalized,
companies were offered 20-year contracts for fields. Any oil produced, however, processed by Petroleos de Venezuela
exploration of marginal
would have
to be
(PDVSA),
the state oil company. government reform package, announced in August, included a freeze on public-sector pay at 1992 levels, a $369 million cut in spending on PDVSA, a cut in internal government spending, a ban on new weapons systems for the armed forces, and the privatization of Alcasa, a state aluminum producer. (huw clough)
A
challenge the 34-year period of civilian rule. Public condemnation of the rebels was muted. However,
there was increased support for opposition leaders, particu-
former president Rafael Caldera of the Social Christian (COPEI). The government announced a series of reforms in the wake of the uprising, including an inquiry into corruption within the armed forces, an increase in the minimum wage, an increase in low-cost housing expenditures, and lower interest rates to stimulate the private sector of the economy. On February 25 a Cabinet reshuffle was announced, and dominant figures within the leading Democratic Action party were appointed. The defense minister. Gen. Fernando Ochoa Antich, was appointed foreign minister during Cabinet changes in June. He was the first military figure to hold the post in the civilian government, and his appointment was viewed as a concession to disgruntled army factions. After the government defeated a move to cut short its term by a year, the next presidential elections were scheduled for larly
Party
December 1993. On November 27
rebellious units of the air force along groups staged the year's second coup attempt. Air attacks were made on the office of President Perez, and two air bases were captured. After 12 hours of heavy fighting in Caracas, the rebels were defeated. In December a court-martial ordered the arrest of 240 soldiers and civilians for their part in the attack, in which at least 170 died. Regional elections took place in December. Preliminary returns indicated that the governing Democratic Action Party won only 6-8 of the 22 governor's seats; in 1989 it had won of the 20. Despite continuing political unrest, the economy was reasonably healthy. In June the gross domestic product was 8.5% higher than in the same period of 1991. Unemploy-
with
leftist
I
1
Oceania
3*-
OCEANIAN AFFAIRS Regional organizations played a prominent role in Oceanian with environmental concerns an underlying theme. The South Pacific Forum, now with 15 members that were independent or self-governing states, met in Honiara, Solomon Islands, in July. The meeting was chaired by Solomon Mamaloni, prime minister of Solomon Islands. This was the last Forum meeting to be attended by Sir Robert Rex, premier of Niue, who had attended his first Forum meeting as an observer in 1973 and had the longest unbroken record of attendance at the Forum of any Pacific leader. Absent from the meeting for the first time was Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, former prime minister of Fiji, who had been a founding member of the Forum in 1971 and had served since that time, except for a break after the Fiji coups of 1987. Mara was a strong advocate of informal discussion rather than formal business in the Forum and had urged recognition of the "Pacific Way" of discussion, compromise, and consensus in decision making. During the year, the region marked the death of Sir Robert Muldoon {see Obituaries), former New Zealand prime minister. As a member of the Forum, Muldoon was a strong advocate of regional trade and the Forum Shipping Line, though he sometimes drew criticism because of perceived racism in the immigration policies of his government. affairs in 1992,
— Oceania: tastralla
493
The Forum welcomed an Australian-funded program to monitor climate change in the region and to evaluate the impact of global warming on sea levels, freshwater supplies, and the frequency of cyclonic storms. Several of the independent nations were represented at the "Larth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro in June and were among the first to sign the Conventions on Climate Change and Biodiversity. Any significant rise in sea levels would raise questions about the viability of maintaining populations on many low-lying Pacific Islands. The Forum expressed continuing concern over the destruction of chemical weapons by the U.S. at Johnston Atoll and was critical of proposals to dispose of toxic waste in the Pacific Islands. The concern was by no means allayed by the visit to Johnston Atoll of a team of
development activities of the colonial powers, the SPC had remained an important point of contact lor island nations, especially those not eligible for membership in the South Pacific Forum. However, the organization had been troubled by financial and management difficulties. The facilities in Noumea, New Caledonia, needed replacement, but there was difficulty in reaching agreement between the French and New Caledonian governments, which wanted to rebuild on a new (and less desirable) site in Noumea, and many of the region's governments, which wanted to rebuild on the current site or remove to another Pacific capital. Fiji offered to meet the $13.6 million cost of moving the organization to Suva. A compromise was reached to rebuild in Noumea, with costs to be met by France and Australia
Forum countries. The Forum joined in criticism of Japan's proposal to ship plutonium from Europe by a route that would pass close to a number of member countries. France's announcement that it would suspend its nuclear testing program for 1992 was
but not without acrimony. The new secretary-general-elect, Jacques Iekawe of New Caledonia, died before taking over the position from Atanraoi Baiteke of Kiribati. Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu combined to participate in Expo 92 in Seville, Spain. They planned a Pacific Village with buildings representing various regional building styles, but the spectacular exhibit was destroyed by fire just days before Expo opened. This left little time to make alternative arrangements, though New Zealand and other adjoining pavilions made space and facilities available. It was hoped that the publicity from Expo participation would promote tourism development. The Tourism Council of the South Pacific won the award for the Most Effective Corporate Image among 3,000 exhibits from 140 countries at the World Travel mart in London. Within the region, there was widespread participation in, and publicity for, the Pacific Arts Festival in Rarotonga in October. (barrie macdonald)
scientists representing
welcomed, and the Forum called for the U.S., the U.K., and France to sign the protocols of the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (the Rarotonga Treaty) of 1985. Despite protests from China, the Forum recognized Taiwan as a dialogue partner one of those nations from outside the region that are invited to hold talks with Forum members. The invitation recognized the growing role of Taiwan in
—
New Caledonia's Kanak Liberation Front was denied observer status on the grounds that it did not meet the normal requirement of representing a nation that had achieved self-government or was on the verge of independence. The Forum also expressed disappointment over delays
the region's economies.
in
establishing the Joint
Commercial Commission proposed
during talks between U.S. Pres. George Bush and leaders in Hawaii in 1991.
The
Forum
leaders were concerned that
no funds had been forthcoming from the U.S. and expressed doubt as to whether the venture could survive on private funding alone. By the end of the year, a director (Jioji Kotobalavu of Fiji) had been appointed, and there were plans to draw up detailed terms of reference and to establish a headquarters organization in Hawaii in association with the East-West Center. It was intended that the commission would promote economic development through the private
AUSTRALIA
A
federal parliamentary state (formally a constitutional monarchy) and member of the Commonwealth, Australia occupies the smallest continent and includes the island state of Tasmania. Area: 7,682,300 sq km (2,966,200 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 17,562,000. Cap.: Canberra. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Bill Hayden; prime minister, Paul Keating.
Affairs. The prospect of a snap general elechung over Australian politics in 1992. The two party leaders, Prime Minister Paul Keating (see Biographies) and the leader of the opposition, John Hewson, jockeyed for supremacy in the public opinion polls. Hewson ex-
Domestic
sector.
Earlier in the year, the inaugural
summit of smaller Pa-
Island states was held in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and was attended by the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, and Tuvalu. Kiribati, with some 74,700 inhabitants, had more than twice the population of the other states put together. The summit explored possible sources of development capital for very small states, expressed concern over the reduction of the Forum Line's feeder service, looked
cific
at
—
the possibilities of sharing technologies for black pearl
production, and considered the amalgamation of their respective exclusive
economic zones
to facilitate negotiations
over the licensing of commercial fishing. Plans for a regional approach to environmental issues a step closer when the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program produced a draft plan that would provide for the coordination of efforts to deal with shortterm problems like disaster relief and to plan for longer-
came
—
—
—
term developments related to global warming including the management of freshwater resources, reef protection, and the development of building standards to meet hurricane conditions. The program was also concerned with broader issues such as the protection of rain forest. The South Pacific Commission (SPC) had a troubled year. Originally designed to coordinate the social and economic
tion
pected Keating to
call
an early election because Australia's
economic position was continually worsening, but Keating continued to work for an improvement in living standards and a lowering of the high unemployment rate as essential
The yearlong both leaders. Hewson's major problem was that he had decided to approach the next election promising a new tax instead of following tradition and letting the government fail through its own
prerequisites before going to the electorate. political uncertainty frayed the nerves of
ineptitude.
Throughout the year, Keating's personal popularity remained low. He recorded the lowest-ever popularity rating for an incoming prime minister in his first Morgan Gallup Poll, 25% a figure that matched the lowest rating ever
—
recorded by a prime minister in office, Sir William McMahon in 1972. Nor was the Australian Labor Party (ALP) helped by former prime minister Bob Hawke's behaviour on leaving Parliament. Hawke's decision to resign his seat of Wills in February 1992 left the ALP facing the prospect of a swing to the conservatives in the by-election as voters in
494
World
Affairs:
Oceania
the formerly safe Labor seat deserted the leader
who had
deserted them. The voters of Wills, however, were fed up with both major parties and returned an independent, Phil Cleary,
whose
member
was based on his ability as was only the seventh independent
local popularity
a football coach. Cleary
of Parliament since federation in 1901.
During the by-election campaign, there was considerable negative public comment on deals organized by the International Management Group on the ex-prime minister's behalf when Hawke retired from Parliament. These included tele-
accommodation, and free clothing and tailoring advice. Hawke also reneged on his promise not to undermine his successor. He attacked Keating for raising impossible public expectations in his economic predictions as well as for dressing personal staff at the official Canberra residence of the prime minister, the Lodge, in morning suits. Hawke commented that for nearly nine years while he was prime minister the standard garb had been an ordinary Aussie suit. "You," he said, addressing Keating, "have put them into morning suits, the uniform of the British butlering vision appearances, free
class
—just a mite hypocritical mate."
The prime damage done
minister was far
more concerned about the
GraRichardson, one of the key figures behind Keating's career. Richardson was forced to resign as a minister over his relationship with a relative by marriage, who was arrested in the Marshall Islands on a forgery charge while involved in a business migration program designed to attract Asian investors to the Marshall Islands. Senator Richardson denied any wrongdoing but decided to step down to avoid long-term damage to the ALP. "I owe the party too much to contribute in any way to inhibiting its chances of electoral success," he said. Keating reluctantly accepted Richardson's resignation but refused to condemn him, saying only that his relationship with his relative had been unfortunate rather than improper. The ALP's troubles were compounded by the resignation of Premier John Bannon of South Australia, who took political responsibility for the losses of a stateowned bank, and the landslide victory of the conservative opposition in state elections in Victoria in October. The battle between Hewson and Keating was marked by personal bitterness. In April, Hewson accused the speaker to his party by a scandal involving Sen.
ham
McLeay
as a national disgrace
House of Representatives
to
become
opportunity of the royal tour to
who had
call for the establishment of an Australian republic and accused Britain of abandoning Australia and Southeast Asia to the Japanese in World War II. The British prime minister, John Major, was forced to caution the British press about a reciprocal attack on Keating and Australia. Keating touched a particularly raw nerve when he put his arm round the queen while guiding her
a
through a crowded reception, inspiring such British tabloid
of the Parliament, Leo McLeay, of subverting the political process by denying the opposition a fair go. Hewson described
members of the New South Wales right-wing faction, which both Keating and McLeay belonged, were "the nearest thing this country's had to the Mafia in decades." Keating replied that Hewson's remarks were a deliberate, unjustified slur that would do nothing but lower the esteem in which the Parliament was held by the public, and he asked Hewson to repeat his remarks outside Parliament so that action could be taken against him in the courts. Hewson declined to take up Keating's challenge, instead responding that Keating could dish it out but not take it. He described Keating as a nasty, mean school-yard bully "squealling and whingeing and whining and sniffling," but he admitted that the threats of legal action had confined his debate on the alleged Mafia links to the parliamentary arena, where he was protected from litigation by parliamentary privilege. So low was public esteem for its political leaders that a man who planned to kill Hewson by shooting him with a shotgun received only a suspended jail sentence and a fine. Clifton Moss told a Canberra court that he had thought, "If I done Hewson in, Keating might have to go out of Government, so I'd get two birds in one stone." Foreign Affairs. As the new Labor prime minister, Keating determined to distance himself from his predecessor by a high-profile interest in the Pacific and Australia's northern neighbours. Keating gave high priority to making overseas trips to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.), and Japan. Australia's support for the P.N.G. against secessionist guerrillas was a sensitive issue, particularly when a range of witnesses claimed that Australian-supplied helicopters were being used to attack targets in Bougainville. Australia asked the P.N.G. to provide a detailed response to the allegations, but Keating himself used the Australia-P.N.G. link to cement his domestic popularity at home. Australia also criticized P.N.G. incursions into the Solomon Islands. Australian foreign policy toward the U.K. hardened also, cynics said, for domestic political reasons. Relations with Britain were soured by Keating's behaviour during a visit by Queen Elizabeth II in February. Keating took the that
to
allowed the shambles and said
OIRCK HALSTEAD-
GAMMA UAISON
in Sydney protest policies of George Bush on the occasion of his
Demonstrators U.S. Pres. visit
to Australia at the
beginning of the year.
As part of his trip to several Pacific Bush spent four days in Australia.
countries,
Oceania: Australia
headlines as "Hands 27,000 heroes." In
a
our Queen" and "An
oil
insult
to
lengthy reassessment of Australia's constitutional the U.K., Keating told the queen that
relationship with
changed during her 40-year reign. "The men Parliament on your first visit and they were practically all men in those days had memories of Empire," Keating said. This was an altogether different generation, reflecting the profound changes in the two countries and the relationship between them. Just as Great Britain some time ago sought to make its future secure in the European Communities, so Australia now attitudes had
who
—
sat in the Australian
—
sought partnerships with the countries in its own regions. editor of The Times observed that Keating had been accused of lese-majesty for so rudely bringing up the issue of republicanism to the queen's face. The prime minister's wife, Annita Keating, declined to curtsey to the queen, and neither the queen nor the Duke of Edinburgh
The diplomatic
was
duke going so far might catch a ghastly
willing to hold or pat a koala, the
as to
comment, "Oh
no,
I
couldn't,
I
Exchange in Sydney look over a economic news. The Australian government announced several initiatives, including a program to create jobs, to cope with the country's continuing recession. Dealers
at
the Australian Futures
paper giving the
latest
disease."
Keating, unrepentant, said
in
Parliament that he learned
A
tragic disaster that could have severely
school about self-respect and self-regard for Australia, not about cultural cringing to a country that had decided
July
not to defend the Malay Peninsula, not to worry about Sin-
tas
gapore, and not to give Australia back
the plane as being
at
its
troops to keep the
it was announced that, by agreement with the queen, Australian citizens would no longer be nominated for knighthoods or
country free from Japanese domination. In October
other British honours. In
December
the Cabinet decided to
remove any reference to the queen from the country's oath of allegiance, and legislation amending the Citizenship Act was to be introduced in Parliament. Keating inflamed a new brand of aggressive nationalism by calling for a new Australian flag. He told Parliament that he regarded the Australian flag as an ambiguous representation of his nation and that he believed the flag should be changed. During the debate, he stirred up public opinion by continuing to put forth arguments about such historical matters as the fall of Singapore. Hewson accused Keating
of using the flag as a diversion from unemployment.
He
amplified this by saying that Keating had a particularly limited
formal education and was an illegitimate prime minister
not been properly elected. He accused Keating making a mockery of himself and Australia by speaking about the flag in Indonesia and of distorting history to defend his position. Keating responded vigorously by calling the opposition "snivellers, crawlers and lick-spittles to forces
who had of
tralia's relationship
when
a U.S. warship threatened to shoot
passenger
jet,
dent involved the
down
a
in
Qan-
its pilot had clearly identified on a routine commercial flight. The inci-
even though
USS
Cowpens, a Ticonderoga-class guided
and a
cruiser
missile
damaged Aus-
with the U.S. was narrowly averted
sister
ship to
the
USS
Vincennes,
which shot down an Iranian A-300 Airbus over the Persian Gulf in 1988, killing all 290 passengers and crew. When the pilot of the Qantas Boeing 747-400, two and a half hours into its journey from Los Angeles to Sydney, heard a U.S. naval warship instruct him to leave the area or be fired upon, he immediately diverted his course and radioed the U.S. Federal Aviation Authority in Los Angeles before being given clearance by Cowpens to resume the flight to Australia. Both the U.S. Navy and the Australian Bureau of Air Safety investigated the incident. The U.S. apologized, and diplomats from both countries tried to minimize the incident's importance. Relations with Malaysia improved in 1992. The contro-
ABC
versial
television series
"Embassy" toned down
its
ceived anti-Muslim bias and then ceased production.
per-
More
important, two days of talks were held in July 1992 between the Australia-Malaysia and Malaysia-Australia Business Councils.
To
signal better relations, Malaysia's minister
abroad."
and industry, Dato'Seri Rafidah Aziz, joined Australia's minister for trade and overseas development, John Kerin, at the seminar. The meeting's concluding
Relationships with the U.S. were harmed when Pres. George Bush used the U.S. Export Enhancement Program
statement referred to the resolution of recent difficulties in bilateral relations, clearing the way for increased trade and
to
subsidize grain exports into markets that Australian farmers traditionally considered theirs. Stephen Censky, the
investment.
acting administrator of the U.S. Foreign Agricultural Ser-
tralia did
vice, rejected
Australian assertions that Bush had gone back promise that the U.S. would try to minimize damage caused by its wheat subsidies. The Adelaide Advertiser, in an editorial called "U.S. becomes our grim reaper," commented that although the U.S. action was infuriating, there was no merit in trying to flex Australia's undersized muscles by tying other bilateral agreements, such as joint bases or airline access, to trade issues. Australia welcomed the decision by President Bush to discontinue production of plutonium and highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons. Foreign Minister Gareth Evans praised Bush for taking a historic step
war
on
the use of ethnic
in
his
preventing the further proliferation of nuclear weapons
and applauded Bush's increased contribution to the International Atomic Energy Agency's safeguards budget.
for international trade
Despite high levels of migration from Yugoslavia, Ausnot experience local repercussions from the civil in
the migrants' homeland.
names
The government banned and community
for sporting teams,
leaders from both the Serbian and Croatian groups played
down
the ethnic rivalry.
Club
in
"We
tell
The president of the Serbian Youth Sydney's western suburbs, Stephen Damjanovic, explained that the Serbs were trying to keep things calm. goslavia;
the kids to just forget what
we
live in
Australia now."
happened back
As
in
Yu-
part of his strategy
of focusing attention on Australia's immediate region, Paul
Keating attended the 23rd South Pacific Forum Meeting in Honiara, Solomon Islands, on July 8-9. The Forum, which
meets annually
at
head-of-govemment
level,
discussed envi-
ronmental, trade and investment, and law-enforcement and nuclear issues. (See Oceanian Affairs, above.)
4%
World
Affairs:
Oceania
The Economy. While
ALP was successful in reducing unemployment continued to rise,
the
Australia's inflation rate,
reaching the worst levels since the Great Depression of the 1930s. By July 1992 the unemployment rate stood at 11.1%, or 963,500 people. All states had jobless rates above 10%, with South Australia continuing to have the highest, 12.5%.
The youth unemployment rate (15- to 19-year-olds) jumped from 34.1% to 35.8%. The government's policy of reducing interest rates to stimulate the economy appeared to have little effect.
Both Keating and Hewson proposed new solutions to economic woes. Keating's One Nation package, presented in February, cut sales tax on new cars, relaxed foreign investment guidelines, and increased family allowances. At the centre of Hewson's Fightback plan was the imposition of a new goods and services tax (GST). Both leaders Australia's
projected a rosy future, Keating promising to "kick start" the economy, provide an extra 800,000 jobs, upgrade roads
and railways, and compel increased pension contributions by employers. Treasurer John Dawkins (see Biographies) made unemployment relief the major target of government policy in the August budget. With a general election due in 1993, the government saw reducing unemployment as crucial to its hope of retaining office. Accordingly, the budget pledged $A 742 million in 1992 and $A 467 million in 1993 to attack the unemployment crisis. The target was to return 800,000 Australians to work with a grass-roots-level job-creation program. The major initiative was a $A 345 million local capital works program involving 411 local government councils, situated in areas that were home to 70% of Australia's unemployed. Priority would be given to getting long-term unemployed adults back to work, and Dawkins promised sensible projects, not painting rocks or putting up pinelog fencing. The budget also attempted to fund a $A 1.6 billion overhaul of the public health system by increasing the Medicare levy from 1.25% of taxable income to 1.4%. The government decided to raise revenue by selling off uranium stockpile and privatizing the merged by the amalgamation of QANTAS and Australian Airlines. The pension for single persons was slightly increased to $A 312 a fortnight by January 1993. In another popular move, the environment minister, Ros Kelly, said that the government would spend $A 1.5 million to attack Australia's
Tricontinental.
trial
animals hunting native species. Shortly after the budget was introduced, the Australian dollar fell to a five-year low against the U.S. dollar and lost even more ground against other major currencies. Hewson blamed the budget and commented that the dollar's plunge would lead to higher inflation and a cut in living standards. Dawkins, on the other hand, argued that the dollar's fluctuation was caused by Germany's high interest rates and concern about the U.S. economy. The Reserve Bank of Australia spent over $A 1 billion on August 25 trying to prop up the dollar, which reached a 12-year low against the German Deutsche Mark, and intervened to defend the dollar again in early December. Dawkins, meanwhile, was being investigated for possible irregularities in connection with loans to the former Labour government of Victoria. The fallout from the boom-and-bust phenomenon of the 1980s continued. In June, John Elliott, the man behind the Foster's Brewing Group and a person once touted as a future prime minister, had his investment group forced into receivership by Australia's biggest company, BHP. Alan Bond of America's Cup fame was imprisoned in May 1992. He had been declared bankrupt on April 14 after months of haggling over the responsibility for a $A 255 million debt to the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and
ended
convicted of dishonest financial
(a.r.g. Griffiths)
in acquittal.
See also Dependent
States,
below.
FUl The
occupies an island group in the South Pacific km (7,056 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 748,000. Cap.: Suva. Monetary unit: Fiji dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of F$1.51 to U.S. $1 (F$2.57 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau; prime ministers, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara and, from June 2, Sitiveni Rabuka. republic of
Fiji
Ocean. Area: 18,274 sq
The
interim government of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, in-
coups of 1987, remained in power until were held in May 1992. In its budget for 1992, the government introduced a 10% value-added tax, adjusted income and company taxes, and made further adjustments to protect lower-income earners. The government expected stalled after the
elections
1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Because of a decline in tourism and sugar production and a prolonged strike at the Vatukoula gold mine, GDP fell by 0.4% in 1991. In elections in May, Maj. Gen. Sitiveni Rabuka, leader of the two coups in 1987, became prime minister as leader of the Fijian Political Party, which supported affirmative action to protect the interests of indigenous Fijians. The new constitution guaranteed ethnic Fijians a preponderance of seats in the legislature and reserved the presidency, prime ministership, and other key positions for ethnic Fijians. In the election most Indian votes went to the National Federation Party and to the Fiji Labour Party, which enjoyed a degree of multiracial support. The election brought the retirement from politics of Mara, who, except for brief periods in 1977 and 1987, had a net deficit of $15.3 million, or
independence in 1970. He had also been a founder and leading member of the South Pacific Forum. (barrie macdonald) led Fiji since
This article updates the Macropcedia
airline created
feral
Bond was
dealings and sentenced to two and a half years in prison, but the conviction was quashed on appeal, and a second
article
Pacific Islands:
Fiji.
KIRIBATI
A
republic in the western Pacific Ocean and member of the Commonwealth, Kiribati comprises the former Gilbert Islands, Banaba (Ocean Island), the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands. Area: 811 sq km (313 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 74,700. Cap.: Bairiki, on Tarawa. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). President (beretitenti) in 1992, Teatao Teannaki.
A number of new economic
initiatives
were taken
in Kiribati
during 1992. The Asian Development Bank funded a development plan for the Northern Line Islands, which contain
most of the country's land but are some 3,200 km (2,000 mi) to the east of the Gilbert Islands, where most of the people live. Continuing resettlement from the Gilberts was envisioned, together with developments in fisheries, agriculture, and tourism. Further steps were taken to establish a garment industry in the Gilbert group, with some 40,000 garments produced under a training program. Exported garments were to have preferential access to Australian and New Zealand markets under the South Pacific Regional Free Trade Agreement. Using aid and technical assistance from China, Kiribati began upgrading its main airport at Bonriki, Tarawa, with improved navigational aids and facilities for night landing; it would be able to accommodate Boeing 737s.
Oceania: New Zealand
In political developments, the minister of public works and energy. Nei Koriri Teaiwa Tenieu, the only woman member of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu (legislature), was forced to resign alter she was found guilty of improper (barrie macdonald) electoral practice. Islands: Tins article updates the Macropcedia article Pach l(
Kiribati.
MARSHALL ISLANDS A
republic in the central Pacific Ocean, the Marshall Islands comprises two 1,300-km (800-mi)-lohg parallel chains of coral atolls. Area: 181 sq km (70 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 50,000. Cap.: Majuro. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of U.S. $1.70 to £1 sterling. President in 1992, Amata Kabua.
In general elections in
ministers were defeated,
president
November 1991, several Cabinet but Amata Kabua was reelected
by the Nitijela (legislature)
in
January
1992.
Kabua's new government announced that it would expand and shift the emphasis of development from urban centres to rural areas and outer islands. Priorjty would be given to agriculture, fisheries, and tourism projects that would generate revenue. The government also announced that it would seek an additional $74 million from the U.S. as compensation for nuclear testing that had been conducted by the U.S. and for development projects that were left incomplete at the time of the Marshall Islands' independence. Under the Compact of Free Association, the Marshall Islands received 75% of its revenue from the U.S. in the form of aid and defense payments. The Marshall social services
Islands also received
—
its first
loan
—$6,950,000 for
fisheries
development from the Asian Development Bank. In January the first personal compensation payments were made for illness caused by U.S. nuclear testing. Some 300 individuals received $10.9 million. A study was scheduled for measuring radiation on Rongelap Island, which was damaged by fallout from a 1954 test. The islanders disputed U.S. government claims that the southern islets of their atoll were safe for resettlement. Under the Historic Preservation Act of 1991, the government established a research code, imposed controls on access and modifications to historic sites, established procedures for the handling of human remains discovered by archaeologists, and banned the export of artifacts. (barrie macdonald) This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Marshall Islands.
MICRONESIA, FEDERATED STATES OF
A
republic in the western Pacific Ocean, the Federated States of Micronesia comprises more than 600 islands and islets in the Caroline Islands archipelago. Area: 701 sq km (271 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 114,000. Cap.: Palikir, on Pohnpei. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of U.S. $1.70 to £1 sterling. President in 1992, Bailey Olter.
The Federated
States of Micronesia was admitted to the United Nations in 1991. In his first address to the General Assembly, Pres. Bailey Olter praised the role of the United States in helping his country move toward self-determination. He raised environmental issues important to Pacific Islands nations and was critical of continuing nuclear testing. After talks in Washington, D.C., between Olter and U.S. Pres. George Bush, a planned tuna-fishing industry for the Federated States of Micronesia was granted concessionary tariffs for the U.S. market and exempted from import-quota
requirements.
197
Sustained drougttl in the island state- ol ( huuk (formerly Truk) caused severe problems with the supply l domestic watei and brought an increase in watcrbomc diseases. As a result. President Olter sought additional assistance from the U.S. In keeping with the close relationship that existed between the two countries under the Compact ol Free Association, President Bush declared a state of emergency in Chuuk to facilitate the granting of emergency aid. The unusual climatic conditions were blamed on the El Nino weather pattern over the Pacific Ocean. (barrie macdonald) This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Micronesia.
NAURU An
island republic within the
Ocean about
Pacific
Area: 21 sq
Monetary of
$A
km
1,900
Commonwealth, Nauru
km
(8 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.):
lies in
the
New
Guinea. 9,600. Cap.: Yaren.
(1,200 mi) east of
unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate
1.38 to U.S. $1
($A
2.35
=
£1 sterling). President
in 1992,
Bernard Dowiyogo.
In
its
dispute with Australia before the International Court
The Hague, Nauru made some progress in Nauru claimed that Australia, acting as the adminis-
of Justice in 1992.
trator of
way
Nauru, allowed phosphate mining to occur
in
a
that breached the basic obligation of trusteeship. In
number of
response, Australia raised a
objections to the
On
June 26 the court ruled that the Australian objections were unsound and decided to proceed to hear the merits of Nauru's claim for compensation for the phosphate lands. Commenting on the judgment, Nauru Pres. Bernard Dowiyogo said that, in a year when so much emphasis had been placed on the world environment, it was a joy to see that Nauru's environmental problems were being given proper recognition. On a sadder note, an era in Nauruan history ended in July when former president Hammer DeRoburt, Nauru's elder statesman, who had led the nation to independence, died in Melbourne, Australia (see Obituaries). (a.r.g. Griffiths) court's dealing with the case.
This Nauru.
article
updates the Macropcedia
article
Pacific Islands:
NEW ZEALAND New
Zealand, a constitutional monarchy and member of the in the South Pacific Ocean, consists of North and South islands and Stewart, Chatham, and other minor islands. Area: 270,534 sq km (104,454 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,481,000. Cap.: Wellington. Monetary unit: New Zealand dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $NZ 1.84 to U.S. $1 ($NZ 3.13 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Dame Catherine Tizard; prime minister, Jim Bolger.
Commonwealth
On
Sept. 19, 1992, in the
a turnout of about
50%
first
of
part of a two-part referendum,
New
Zealand voters declared
an 84.5% preference for change from their first-past-thepost method of electing members of Parliament. Offered the opportunity to indicate which of five options they would prefer, 70.3% voted for mixed member proportional (MMP) representation. In this system each voter would have two votes:
one
to
choose an individual electorate
MP
and the
other to be expressed for a political party, which would have the opportunity to nominate additional MPs on the basis of the proportion of votes received nationwide. Voters had been warned that coalitions between parties might be
needed
to
form a government under
The government announced referendum would be held
in
this system.
second part of the conjunction with regular genthat the
498
World
Affairs:
Oceania
due toward the end of 1993. At that time a binding choice between MMP and the traditional system. Details of the alternative system would be added, such as the size of electorates and of Parliament and whether MMP would continue the traditional guarantee of four Maori electorates. By late 1993 MMP proponents would have an opportunity to lobby for specific details, and the incumbents would have more opportunity to work together to improve Parliament's image. Many observers saw the size of the rejection of the status quo as a condemnation of Cabinet conniving, caucus impotency, and parliamentary bickering in a single-chamber system where two parties dominated and the winners usually had an ample cushion of seats, although they might represent less, than half the total vote. A Royal Commission on Electoral Reform had recommended some form of MMP. If a new system was confirmed, it could be in place for general elections in 1996. At the 1993 elections the government was also expected to inquire whether the electorate wanted the restoration of an upper house, abolished as ineffectual
Papua New Guinea faced an election year in 1992 against a background of disturbances in Bougainville and the Solomons. In April the Bougainville leader Tony Anugu, who had negotiated establishment of the South Bougainville Interim Authority with Papua New Guinea authorities Sir Michael Somare and Father John Momis, was murdered. Government troops launched a major offensive on Bougainville in October, and at the end of the month it was announced that the rebel stronghold of Arawa had fallen. Prime Minister Rabbie Namaliu was defeated in the June general election, and Paias Wingti, elected prime minister on the casting vote of the speaker of Parliament on July 17, was given responsibility for preventing the spread of the relatively small revolutionary secessionist movement. The new prime minister announced his 27-member Cabinet after taking office. It included the leaders of the two parties in his coalition government, Sir Julius Chan and John Nilkare,
in 1950.
propriating government funds.
eral elections,
voters would
As
make
a backdrop to the voting,
New
Zealanders faced un15%, which owed something to a continuing
employment at economic restructuring process, the health services in a
and
new
bite of
some user-paid
era of privatization of state ser-
which edged out of its straitjacket to 1.1%. The Bank of New Zealand was acquired by National Australia Bank, while a "no-frills" federal budget moved some business leaders to comment that they were "bored to cheers." Meanwhile, the winter was so bleak that power resources were stretched beyond capacity and more than a million sheep disappeared under the snow. Cabinet strategist Minister of Labour Bill Birch guided various follow-ups to the previous Labour administration's policy of deregulation and to its corporatism of state services. These included user-paid health services and the breakdown of industrywide unionism in favour of a singleplant focus. Industrial reforms in New Zealand even became an election issue in an Australian state (Victoria) and a bone of contention in Canberra. In September the New Zealand Reserve Bank said the economy appeared to be becoming "increasingly well-grounded and broad-based," and the country's Institute of Economic Research forecast gross domestic product growth of 2.7% during the five years vices,
to
March
inflation,
1997.
In the contentious field of equal race opportunities, the
government and representatives of most Maori tribes signed a compensation agreement aimed at ending a 150-yearold dispute over commercial fishing rights. The government caucus expelled its most recalcitrant member, former Maori affairs minister Winston Peters. Members of Parliament of all persuasions closed ranks to pay tribute to Sir Robert Muldoon, who died in his sleep on August 5 (see Obituaries). (JOHN A. KELLEHER) See also Dependent
States,
below.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
A
as well as leading
opposition. In
him
MPs who
played a major
to office.
(a.r.g. Griffiths)
This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Papua New Guinea.
SOLOMON ISLANDS A constitutional the
Solomon
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,
Islands comprises a 1,450-km (900-mi) chain of
and atolls in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 28,370 (10,954 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 339,000. Cap.: Honiara. Monetary unit: Solomon Islands dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of SI$2.97 to U.S. $1 (SIS5.04 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir George Lepping; islands
sq
km
prime minister, Solomon Mamaloni.
During 1992 Solomon Islands became embroiled
in border Guinea. The island of Bougainville, geographically and culturally part of the Solomons chain but constitutionally part of Papua New Guinea, tried to secede because of the closure, by terrorist activity since 1989, of a major copper mine. A blockade of the island by Papua New Guinea was breeched from Solomon Islands, leading to incursions across the border by Papua New Guinean troops, who attacked civilians and destroyed fuel stores. In October the UN secretary-general announced an inquiry into these incidents. After a substantial improvement in export earnings in 1991, especially for fish products and copra, the government issued a 1992 budget with appropriations of $91 million. Priority was given to expenditure on fisheries and forestry, industrial development, and a rural health program. Public service expenditure increased to cover a salary rise of 16%, and new payroll and wholesale taxes were introduced. The central bank warned of rising government debt levels and imposed controls on the use of overseas funds. In July Solomon Islands was host to the South Pacific Forum, which primarily discussed environmental issues.
disputes with neighbouring Papua
New
(barrie
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Papua New Guinea is situated in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and comprises the eastern part of the island of New Guinea, the islands of the Bismarck. Kiriwina (Trobriand), Louisiade, and D'Entrecasteaux groups, Muyua (Woodlark) Island and other nearby islands, and parts of the Solomon Islands, including
km
(178,704 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,834,000. Cap.: Port Moresby. Monetary unit: kina, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 0.97 kina to U.S. $1 (1.65 kinas = 11 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Wiwa Korowi; prime ministers, Rabbie Namaliu to June 13 and, from July 17, Paias Wingti.
macdonald)
This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands:
constitutional
Bougainville. Area: 462,840 sq
independent
Somare became leader of the December Namaliu was charged with misap-
role in electing
Solomon
Islands.
TONGA A
constitutional
monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,
an island group in the Pacific Ocean east of Fiji. Area: 780 sq km (301 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 97.300. Cap.: Nuku'alofa. Monetary unit: pa'anga, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1.38 pa'anga to U.S. $1 (2.35 pa'anga = £1 sterling). King. Taufa'ahau Tupou IV; prime minister in 1992, Baron Vaea.
Tonga
is
Oceania: Western Samoa
not all o! main's islands could that were predicted, many become uninhabitable. The Tuvalu Trust Fund, intended to assist m meeting the recurrent costs of government, showed an annual return ol 11% over its first four years. In a new development Tuvalu it
I
received significant French aid to rebuild classrooms that
had been destroyed by storms on the main island of FunaThe new school was opened by the French ambassador. Tuvalu joined Unesco and received its first grant, for the development of a national archives and library. After a Taiwanese fishing vessel was detained for encroaching on Tuvalu's exclusive economic zone, a fine of $75,000 was imposed. Under a bilateral agreement Taiwanese vessels had been licensed to fish in the zone until 1989, but the agreement was not renewed at that time. (barrie macdonald) futi.
This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Tuvalu.
Agriculture remained the principal
most land was held by the
economic
activity of
nobility but allotted to
Tonga, where
commoners
proposals for developing new sources of revenue win the support of segments of Tongan society.
cultivation. Several
had
failed to
PHIUP QUIRK
WILDUGHT
In association with foreign investors,
Tonga took another
becoming a major provider of satellite services for the Pacific region with the announcement that its first satellite would be launched early in 1993. The economy continued to improve, with inflation down from 17% in 1990 to 7.4% in 1991. Foreign reserves at the end of 1991 were 5% higher than in 1990, largely owing to remittances from Tongans overseas, tourism receipts, and revenue from squash exports to Japan, which in 1991 acstep toward
objective of
its
counted for almost two-thirds of
all
export earnings.
Business interests unsuccessfully opposed legislation to impose a 0.7% currency tax on all foreign exchange transactions; the measure was also seen as an attempt to tax personal remittance income. In anticipation of general elections in 1993, there were preliminary moves toward the
formation of a political party that would represent the interests of commoners; Tonga's parliament was dominated by hereditary nobles and Cabinet ministers appointed by the king. In an attempt to protect rare native species, a
16-km
(10-mi) strip of coastline on the island of 'Eua was declared a national park,
and
limits
were imposed on public access. (barrie macdonald)
This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Tonga.
TUVALU A
constitutional
in
the western Pacific
monarchy within the Commonwealth, Tuvalu comprises nine main islands and their associated islets and reefs (
1992
est.):
VANUATU
for
Ocean. Area: 24 sq km (9 sq mi). Pop. 9,500. Cap.: Fongafale, on Funafuti Atoll. Monetary
Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Toaripi Lauti; prime minister, Bikenibeu Paeniu. unit:
republic of Vanuatu, a member of the Commonwealth, comprises 12 main islands and some 60 smaller ones in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area: 12,190 sq km (4,707 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 154,000. Cap.: Vila. Monetary unit: vatu, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 112.94 vatu to U.S. $1 (192 vatu = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Fred Timakata; prime minister,
The
Maxime
Carlot
Korman.
A general
election in December 1991 launched a new era in Vanuatu's politics in 1992. In August 1991 the ruling Vanuaaku Party, led by Father Walter Lini since Vanuatu's inde-
pendence
When
in 1980,
dismissed him as president of the party.
no confidence, he was replaced as prime minister by Donald Kalpokas. In the election 19 seats were won by the francophone Union of Moderate Parties (UMP), which then formed a coalition with Lini and his newly formed National United Party (10 seats), leaving the Vanuaaku Party (12 seats) in opposition. (For tabulated results, see Political Parties, above.) The new government was formed by Maxime Carlot of UMP in alliance with Lini. Soon after the election, the new prime minister was given Lini lost a vote of
the honorific title of Korman by his home village. With the change of government, there were allegations of politically motivated dismissals from the public service, countered by an insistence that the officials in question had refused to follow directions from incoming ministers. The new government moved quickly to normalize relations with France after years of friction over diplomatic representation, aid,
and alleged interference
in
Vanuatu's politics. (barrie macdonald)
This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Vanuatu.
WESTERN SAMOA A
constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Western Samoa occupies an island group in the South Pacific Ocean. Area: 2,831 sq km (1,093 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 160,000. Cap.: Apia. Monetary unit: Western Samoa tala, with
(Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 2.44 tala to U.S. $1 (4.15 tala = £1 Head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) in 1992, Malietoa Tanumafili II: prime minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana. sterling).
Tuvalu, which
one of the
is
first
composed of
was Change and the "Earth Summit" in Rio de low-lying coral islands,
nations to sign the Climate
Biodiversity conventions at
June 1992. Prime Minister Bikenibeu Paeniu made an impassioned plea on behalf of small island states like his own, which faced serious environmental problems
Janeiro
in
because of the actions of industrialized powers. If global warming were to cause some of the extreme consequences
Addressing the UN General Assembly in October 1991, Prime Minister Tofilau Eti Alesana had delivered a regional perspective on a
number of
international issues.
He
raised
concern over the effect of climate change on small island countries, attacked attempts to dump toxic waste in the Pacific Islands, and called on the major world powers to
World
500
Affairs:
Dependent States
join the
comprehensive nuclear
met with
Pres.
test ban treaty. Later, he George Bush. In December 1991, less than two years after the devastation of Typhoon Ofa, Typhoon Val struck Western Samoa, killing 12 people and causing extensive damage. As a result, gross domestic product was expected to fall by 4-6% in 1992. The government shifted development emphasis from agriculture to tourism, with plans for growth of 9.4% a year
drug profits to be registered and enforced in the Caymans. Agreement was also reached with the U.S. for the building of a radar station with a range of 240 nautical miles, bringing most of Cuba within its range. A $20 million recapitalization plan was announced during the year for the
numbers. Western Samoa's national team competed in the rugby World Cup in Europe as an outsider, but its success in reaching the quarterfinals and its flamboyant play won media attention and greatly enhanced awareness of Samoa and its people. The games were broadcast to crowds in a football
Michaux-Cherry, was elected council president, with support from two socialist parties. The opposite situation occurred in Martinique, where the presidency fell to a Communist, Emile Capgras, despite the fact that the right-wing party obtained the largest single block of seats. Coastal Oil of Texas started moving its marketing headquarters to Aruba from Bermuda during the year and began preparations for doubling the size of its refinery, formerly owned by Exxon Corp. By contrast, the. future of the Isla refinery in Curagao, in the Netherlands Antilles, became uncertain. The Venezuelan state oil company, PDVSA, which
in visitor
stadium link
in
Apia, the capital, through a
and were followed by
satellite television
a decision to establish a limited
television service for the country.
(barrie
This article updates the Macropcedia Western Samoa.
article
macdonald)
Pacific Islands:
technically insolvent
Caymans Airways.
In regional council elections in
Guadeloupe
in
March, the
leader of the right-wing group Objectif Guadeloupe, Lucette
had a lease on the refinery into 1994, indicated its reluctance to renew it unless Curasao and Amsterdam agreed to share part of the $279 million cost of upgrading the plant. It
Dependent
try,
in
States
was a bad year
for
Bermuda's bread-and-butter indus-
tourism, with visitor arrivals falling by 2.3%, to 222,827, the
first
six
months. In the summer a strike by the
main labour union further aggravated the situation. Meanwhile, the government announced it was spending $78 million on capital projects to boost employment. Lord Waddington (formerly British Home Secretary David Waddington) was named to succeed Sir Desmond Langley island's
Europe and the Atlantic. In 1992 the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas commemorated the 10th anniversary of the Falklands War between Argentina and the U.K. with a fourday program attended by Baroness Thatcher, who, as Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, had authorized the deployment of British forces. In the intervening decade the economy of the Falklands had improved dramatically, largely because of revenues from licenses issued to foreign trawlers fishing for squid in surrounding waters. The islands suffered a serious financial loss in 1992, however, after Argentina began issuing cheaper, less restrictive licenses. British officials filed a protest with the Argentine government. In December the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corp. took control of the Falklands' only trading operation.
Gibraltar continued to seek an end to in
its
as governor.
Following a
visit
to British
dependencies
in
the Caribbean,
Mark Lennox-Boyd, parliamentary under secretary of state in the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, said a board of management would be installed by the U.K. to speed up spending on development and welfare projects for the Caribbean. The British Virgin Islands was paid $1.8 million by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration during the year, as an installment on assets taken from convicted drug dealers. Pacific. Although still a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand, the Cook Islands continued to extend its international relationships. It accepted $1 million
colonial status
1992. Jose Bossano, Gibraltar's chief minister
and the
HEUTEHS/BETTMANN
leader of the crown colony's fight for self-determination within the European Communities (EC), was overwhelm-
He met with British Foreign November. The Isle of Man,
ingly reelected early in the year.
Secretary Douglas
compelled
to bring
Hurd its
in
laws into line with
decriminalized homosexual acts
EC
directives,
Local tradition got language was taught
in 1992.
September when the Manx two of the island's schools for the first time since it fell out of use early in the century. Manx was to be introduced in the remaining schools in 1993. In September a 500-page report on the 1982 collapse of the Isle of Man Savings and Investment Bank was finally released. The report blamed the collapse on a lack of regulation by Manx authorities. After the report's release, two bank officials were given suspended sentences for conspiracy to defraud. a boost in in
Caribbean. Construction of the largest hotel project ever undertaken in the Caribbean commenced in Puerto Rico during the year. The 926-room El Conquistador Hotel and Country Club was located at Las Croabas, 48 km (30 mi) cast of San Juan. It was expected to be ready for occupancy by September L993. In the Cayman Islands the government signed an agree-
ment allowing U.S. court orders
for confiscation of illegal
Apra Harbor, Guam's main port, shows extensive damage caused by Typhoon Omar, which struck the island in August with winds up to 385 km/h (240 mph). Of the several storms that reached Guam in 1992, Omar hit most directly and was by far the most destructive.
— World
Affairs:
Dependent Slalis
501
French aid to upgrade utilities and received an Asian Development Bank loan of $1.5 million lor private-sector developments in tourism, agriculture, fisheries, and light in
meeting of the hank's hoard of governors, however. Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Henry was critical of lending policies for small states, maintaining that the bank took too narrow a view of a country's assets and prospects. In May most of the government centre at Avarua, Rarotonga, was destroyed by arson. Niue continued to feel the effects of New Zealand's deindustry. At a
economic assistance. It faced a deficit of $1.5 and there were layoffs in the public sector, which
cision to cut million,
had 500 members for a resident population of 2,500 (threeall Niueans lived in New Zealand). Following a referendum, Niue was to have its own Court of Appeal, and its High Court and Land Court would be combined. The residential qualification for voting was increased from 3 to 12 months. On December 12, 83-year-old Prime Minister Sir Robert Rex died. Rex had been leader of the Niuean government from 1966 (prime minister from 1974) and was the longest serving premier in the South Pacific. When France announced the suspension of nuclear tests in French Polynesia, Pres. Gaston Flosse expressed concern because nearly one-fifth of employment and economic activity in the territory was directly related to the testing program. French spending and assistance was $1,030,000,000 a year, giving a per capita income of $1,840, among the highest in Oceania. In New Caledonia there were signs of a split within the pro-independence Kanak Liberation Front over whether to explore an accommodation with "moderate" (pro-French) elements. A new nickel mine, which was expected to handle a million tons of ore a year for 15 years, opened at Kopeto on the central west coast. In the Republic of Palau (Belau) a Supreme Court procedural ruling caused the cancellation of a proposed seventh constitutional referendum to remove antinuclear provisions and thus approve a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. In the November 4 election the voters approved a referendum proposal to allow passage of constitutional amendments by a simple majority, rather than the 75% majority required in the past. At the same time, Vice Pres. quarters of
Kuniwo Nakamura was elected president. In August Typhoon Omar caused serious damage on Guam; one person was killed, more than 130 were injured, and 5,000 were made homeless. Another typhoon, Brian, Dependent States
1
Portugal
Australia
Macau Kingdom
Christmas Island
Cocos
(Keeling) Islands Norfolk Island
United
Anguilla
Denmark
Bermuda
Faeroe Islands Greenland France French Guiana French Polynesia
British Virgin Islands
Cayman
Islands Falkland Islands
Gibraltar
Guernsey
Hong Kong Man
Guadeloupe Martinique
Isle ol
Mayotte New Caledonia Reunion
Jersey Montserrat
Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna Netherlands, The
Aruba
Pitcairn Island
Saint Helena Turks and Caicos Islands United States American Samoa
Netherlands Antilles
New Zealand Cook
Islands
Niue Tokelau
Guam Northern Marianas Palau Puerto Rico Virgin Islands (ot the U.S.)
Svalbard
which Antarctic Treaty is applicable in whole or in part, (2) without permanent civilian population. (3) without internationally recognized civilian government (Western Sahara, Gaza Strip), or (4) repreterritories (1) to
senling unadjudicated unilateral or multilateral
(right),
recently appointed governor of
Hong Kong,
October. Angered by his policies, including proposals to broaden the franchise and to build an expensive new
visits Beijing
(Peking)
airport, high-level
in
Chinese
officials
snubbed Patten on
his
trip.
in October, but on November 3 Typhoon postponement of the U.S. general election on the island. In American Samoa, Star-Kist Foods announced plans for a $20 million investment in the expansion and upgrading of its Pago Pago tuna cannery. Star-Kist, which was the largest private-sector employer in American Samoa, was responding to the local government's promise of tax advantages. The deal was jeopardized, however, by proposed U.S. legislation that would increase the minimum wage. East Asia. In British-run Hong Kong the most important event of 1992 was the change of governor. Late in 1991 London had announced that Sir David Wilson (later Lord Wilson) would be replaced. Subsequent press leaks made it clear that Prime Minister John Major had been unhappy with the way Wilson conducted negotiations with China over construction of a new airport in Hong Kong.
did
damage
little
Elsie forced a
In April 1992, after the Conservatives
won
reelection in
Major announced that his close friend party chairman Chris Patten (see Biographies) would be the new Britain,
governor.
When
was
Patten arrived
in
Hong Kong
in July,
the
between his glad-handing style as a professional politician and the aloof reserve of the long line of diplomats who had preceded him. The contrast became substantive when Patten delivered his maiden policy speech on October 7. Along with an expansive social program, he announced a series of "proposals" for a more democratic Hong Kong. These immediately drew scathing denunciations from Beijing (Peking)-controlled local newspapers. China had already made clear that it would brook no change to arrangements for direct election in 1995 of 20 of the 60 legislative councillors, whose terms would span the 1997 return contrast
striking
of sovereignty over the territory to China. Patten, however, proposed to broaden the number of people who could vote in the council's 30 so-called functional constituencies
mainly professional, business, and other sectoral groupings and to define nine in such a way that they would
—
all working people. He also moved democratize an "election committee" that would choose
effectively enfranchise
to
the last 10 councils.
Norway Jan Mayen 'Excludes
Chris Patten
territorial
claims.
When Patten visited Beijing later in October, he was snubbed at the highest level. The head of the Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office, Lu Ping (Lu Ping), insisted that Patten's reforms contravened the post- 1997 Basic Law. Tensions increased in late November, when the Hong Kong
World
5(12
Affairs: Polar
Regions
government announced plans
to
proceed with the new
air-
port without Chinese approval. Despite the political turmoil,
Hong Kong
the
November. Meanwhile,
in
stock market reached an all-time high in
neighbouring Macau, a £465 million interopen on schedule in 1995.
national airport was expected to elections held
In
on September
20,
a
west than previously thought, a fundamental topographical difference that would change understanding of ocean circulation. The scientists obtained clues that might explain the mystery of why the western Weddell is covered by ice all
where
year, unlike areas to the east
and remains
new and complex
The
melts
ice
summer
in
thin even in winter.
floe generally followed the path that Ernest Shackel-
voting system helped pro-China candidates to expand their
ton's ship
representation to half of the eight directly elected seats in the 23-member Legislative Assembly, at the expense of lib-
trying to land a party for an expedition across Antarctica,
The Portuguese-run enclave was due to be returned China in 1999. (barrie MacDONALD; david renwick; Ml LINDA c. shepherd; berton woodward)
erals.
to
This article updates the Macropcedia articles ic
ii
(
Islands; The
West
Hong Kong;
Pa-
Indies.
Endurance took involuntarily
in ice and, over nine months, had been (570 mi) north, where the ice crushed and sank it. Shackleton and his crew escaped by dragging boats over the ice to open water and rowing to Elephant Island.
The
km
was rescued after Shackleton and a small crew on South Georgia Island.
party
sailed to a settlement
Antarctica today holds
km
90%
(8.4 million cu mi) of
of the world's ice
Regions
ANTARCTICA of Earth's least known areas— even by Antarctic standards is the ice-covered southern portion of the Weddell Sea. Yet the Weddell Sea is the major producer of the cold, nutrient-rich bottom water that moves as far as the Northern Hemisphere before upwelling to influence climate and nurture fisheries. On June 4. 1992, U.S. and Russian scientists completed a 17-day occupation of a camp on Weddell Sea ice the first
—
—
1
on sea
stalled research station ever established
ice
of the
southern ocean and the first human presence in the area since 1915. The expedition provided a unique opportunity to study the region's biological and physical development. The resultant data suggest that scientists will have to alter their views of how the region fits into the global climate system. v\as set
up on an
ice floe 2
m
(6
1
/: ft)
thick
square kilometres (two square miles)
and
less
than
On
February 6 the Russian icebreaker Academic Federov
in area.
Among
over various time scales, geologists in 1991 reported finding rocks in the Transantarctic Mountains containing three million-year-old fossil leaves.
has not changed
much
in
showed
that, within in
the
last
equal to a
/:
million years, intensified in a
sea level of about 40
reduction
its
volume,
m
(130 ft). Turning from millions to thousands of years ago, radiorise in
the Antarctic
(62 mi) farther
1
of the Antarctic ice sheet by about a third of
kilometres to either side of the floe's track. The new U.S. research icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer, performing its first
km
2
the Northern Hemisphere resulted
formerly occupied areas that
Antarctic Peninsula was found to be 100
ice sheet
years, but
is not typical of ice sheets over the 38 million years. Other investigators found that the Sirius Group, a geologic formation widely distributed in the Transantarctic Mountains, contains diatom floras, suggesting open marine conditions in interior East Antarctica as recently as about three million years ago. Other work
(400 mi) from south to north while the scientists worked from it. Adding value to data collected at the camp itself. two helicopters made numerous research sorties tens of
other discoveries, the continental slope off the
means the
two million
last
km
Among
find
last
the present ice sheet
off East Antarctica
completion in March by a shipbuilding firm in Louisiana, rotated crews in April at about the midpoint of the floe's drift. The June recovery of the expeditioners and their camp was made by the U.S. and Russian icebreakers, working together. The researchers studied formation and movement of sea ice. ocean currents beneath it, atmospheric conditions above it. and the rich marine plant and animal life under and in it. The entire western rim of the Weddell Basin was mapped in great detail, a remarkable achievement considering the region was essentially unexplored before the 1992 expedi-
The
the
carbon dating of
its
with confidence.
the examples of recent research indicating change
camp buildings, and supplies, sticking to U.S. and Soviet plans made years before despite difficulties posed by the concurrent breakup of the former Soviet Union. The floe, driven by winds and ocean currents, drifted some 640
sonnel,
to
made
predictions could not yet be
delivered the scientists and their instruments, support per-
tion.
existed about 40 million
first
when Antarctica moved
However, recent discoveries indicate that the ice sheet has been dynamic these last 40 million years and perhaps even disappeared for a while. The time scales for the changes range from millions of years to mere decades. The influence of the changes on both global climate and sea level could be significant within the next decades or century, although
cooling
mission after
—35 million
scientists agree that a
its polar position and separated from Australia and South America. Antarctica has been isolated ever since, so there was no particular reason to suspect that the size of the ice sheet had changed greatly.
Polar
five
Most
it.
continental Antarctic ice sheet
years ago,
The camp
1915. Endurance,
had been trapped
carried 915
cu
One
in
tiny fossils in
marine sediment cores drilled
showed that, at and around glacial maximum 18,000 years ago, grounded ice sheets extended to the
Antarctic continental shelf edge
north of present-day
— hundreds
ice sheets. Ice
of kilometres
shelves and ice tongues
in the last 4,000 years have been open ocean. The record was now complete enough for
scientists to state with
confidence that climatic warming in ice sheets bigger, not smaller. That a cold climate it appears that higher
makes the
may seem odd, but in temperatures put more moisture into the more
air
and thus cause
snowfall.
Dropping from thousands to tens of years ago, a survey along a 700-km (435-mi) segment of East Antarctica documented changes in the net rate of snow accumulation since
1806.
The
rate increased significantly after a mini-
mum
around 1960, leading to recent rates about 20% above the long-term mean. Shorter-term accumulation data from across a large part of Antarctica suggest the increase since
1960 has been widespread. This increase
in
accumulation
rate should contribute to a lowering of sea level of
mm
1
to 1.2
(0.039 to 0.047 in) per year, although a tripled rate of iceberg calving in 1986 and 1987 from the annual average
—
Pillar Regions:
Antic Regions
503
A
balloon carrying an ozonesonde. which measures concentrations of atmospheric
is sent aloft from the South Pole on November 19 The measurements were part of a research project being conducted by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to study
ozone,
the behaviour of the thinning
ozone
layer
over the Antarctic
more than 7,000 cu km (348 to more than 1,680 continued could change that prediction. The involvement of Antarctic ice in man-induced climate change was the subject of much study and, as yet, uncertainty. Nevertheless, the oxygen-isotope record in ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica indicates that changes in the amounts of greenhouse gases have amplified the effects of glacial-to-interglacial climate changes. A National of 1,450 to
cu mi)
—
if
Academy
of Sciences report on the role of land ice in seachange stated that the Antarctic ice sheet may be growing at a rate equivalent to about 0.6 mm (0.024 in) per level
year of sea-level
fall.
On
rate of iceberg discharge
the other hand,
says that the
it
may have been underestimated,
may be close to balance. The report notes warmer climate may cause warmer ocean water to
so the ice sheet that a
ARCTIC REGIONS The dominant theme
for
1992 was the growing interna-
The focus was on empowerment of indigenous peoples and sustainable development activities. With the opening up of the former Soviet tionalization of the circumpolar north.
Union, the Russian Inuit participated in the sixth general assembly of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), held in July in Inuvik, N.W.T. For the first time since its inception in 1977, the ICC could claim to represent all of the Inuit, estimated at about 117,000 people living in Russia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Twenty representatives from the newly formed Republic of Chukotka on the easternmost peninsula of Siberia reported on their experiences living in a largely unregulated industrialized economy, their concerns
and
intrude under Antarctica's floating ice shelves, causing the
for the Arctic environment,
streams that enter the shelves to accelerate. This process could deplete the ice sheet enough to raise sea level by 0.3 m (c. 1 ft) by the year 2100. Complete disintegration of the
with the concept of sustainable development.
ice
West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which would raise sea (c. 20 ft), was seen as unlikely for centuries or Increased accumulation, sea level
hundred
fall
m
happens, could contribute to
if it
by 0.1 to 0.5
level 6
millennia.
m
(0.3 to
1.6 ft)
in
the next
years. In short, the Antarctic ice sheet presents an
enormous
scientific challenge,
but the consequences of
its
future actions are of such significance that a considerable
amount of
scientific
In other news,
(the
study continued to be given to
ozone
in
it.
the stratosphere over Antarctica
ozone hole) reached new record low
October and aerosols
levels in
1992, probably because of the discharge of dust
from the Mt. Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines after its June 1991 eruption. On October 7 the U.S. Senate approved the Antarctic Treaty protocol that prohibits mining on the continent and strengthens environmental protection measures. The Senate sent the measure to the president, who would have to deposit the treaty papers to complete the ratification process. The U.S. finished removing waste that had accumulated at McMurdo Station over many years and opened a new $23 million research centre at the station, Antarctica's largest. Plans were under way to send a robot named Dante, developed by Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pa., into the crater of the Mt. Erebus volcano early in 1993.
(guy
g.
guthridge)
This article updates the Macropivdia article Antarctica.
their strong desire to
work
Over 40 resolutions were passed by the assembly. Included were resolutions concerning recognition of the inherent right of native self-government, which was being considered in the constitutional discussions taking place in Canada; the desire of some Alaskan Inuit to secede from the state of Alaska; opposition to the establishment of quotas on bowhead and other whales by the International Whaling Commission; recognition of traditional Inuit environmental knowledge; and economic development suggestions such as the establishment of an Inuit free-trade zone across the Arctic. After serving a six-year term as president of the ICC, Mary Simon, a Canadian, was succeeded by Eileen MacLean, an Inuk from Alaska who was also a member of the Alaskan House of Representatives. There was increasing evidence that the Inuit already had themselves as important contributors to the environmental decision-making process in the Arctic. In October the Toronto Globe and Mail reported on voluntary agreements being drafted by the Exploration and Production Forum, an umbrella organization representing the world's major oil companies, that would establish drilling standards for the Arctic. Land-use maps for the western Arctic were being developed as a joint effort by Canadian federal and Canada, territorial governments. All eight Arctic nations established
—
Russia, the U.S., Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and
Greenland
— had
sides seeking
signed the Finnish Initiative, which, be-
means
to safeguard the Arctic ecosystem,
was
World
504
Affairs: Polar
Regions
North Slope crude oil. Alaska's attorney genclaimed that Congress had exceeded its constitutional powers by limiting sales to domestic markets and that the wellhead price of the oil had been devalued as a result. Alaska was seeking $2.5 billion in damages for the state revenues it claimed to have lost because of the export ban. The North Slope produced 1.8 million bbl of oil a day, and it was reported that 85% of Alaska's operating budget came to export eral
from the
oil
industry in the form of royalties, taxes, and
The New York Times also reported that Norway, and Sweden were considering financial assistance
other fees. Finland,
Moscow
order to ensure the environmental security nearby Russian nickel smelter, one of the largest in the world, was identified as the source of the high levels of sulfur dioxide affecting the whole Scandinavian region. In May the residents of Arctic Canada voted in favour of redrawing the map of the Northwest Territories to mark off the western boundary of a new territory called Nunavut, meaning "our land" in the Inuit language. The vote appeared to clear the way for final settlement of a massive land claim that would eventually create a new territory of 2.2 million sq km (850,000 sq mi), roughly one-fifth of Canada's total landmass. In November the Inuit voted in favour of ratification of the claim, which would provide the 17,500 Inuit with $1.5 billion over 14 years, outright ownership of over 350,000 sq km (135,100 sq mi) of land, and the right to
in
of the Russian-Norwegian border area.
Scientists, working on the Greenland Ice Sheet 645 km (400 ml) above the Arctic Circle, cut through an ice core believed to reveal many thousands of years of past life. They were part of the five-year Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2, designed to study volcanic, solar, and
to hunt, fish,
climatic activity. AP/WIDE
also building for the establishment of an international
Arctic council that would act as a sort of
mini-UN where
governments and indigenous peoples could meet
to con-
These complemented the declaration of friendship and
sider key environmental questions facing the Arctic. initiatives
cooperation with regard to Arctic environmental protection that was signed in February by Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. The fall issue of Cultural Survival reported that after years of plummeting oil, diamond, and gold production, Russia hoped to renew the exploitation of Siberia's natural resources and encourage foreign investment. Many major
companies from the U.S., Canada, and Japan were showing interest in joint-venture petrochemical, forestry, and natural-gas projects. The new economic and political climate in Siberia also was stimulating interest in tourism investments, ranging from remote salmon-fishing lodges to the creation of opportunities for big-game hunting. Questions were being raised about the environmental consequences of resource development under the former Soviet Union; in some areas three-fourths of the land had been rendered useless for hunting, fishing, or reindeer herding. Thirty indigenous Siberian groups, totaling an estimated
4%
in the territory.
The new
scheduled to be created by 1999, would effectively be run by Canada's first aboriginal government, since the Inuit represented 85% of the population. Canada launched its first northern television network in January. "Television Northern Canada" broadcast to a possible audience of 100,000 people distributed in 94 communities from the Yukon to Baffin Island and Labrador. The station broadcast for 12 hours daily in 10 native languages, as well as in English, on topics of interest to its northern audience. Programs included, for example, information shows discussing native self-government and hunting skills and sports shows featuring dogsled racing. Tourism in the form of adventure tours, wildlife viewing, and cultural activities continued to gain considerable territory,
WORLD
institutionalizing ways in which governments, the Inuit, and other indigenous peoples could develop forums for the exchange of information and for discussion. Momentum
was
and trap anywhere
A
of the population, were claiming to be the rightful own-
and were demanding a voice in any Some groups were proposing to establish designated "zones of life," which would be set aside for traditional activities, fully protected from industrial exploitation. Siberia's indigenous peoples were receiving advice in connection with royalty negotiations and other practical business matters from native groups in North America who had gained relevant experience during the settlement of land claims in Canada and Alaska. In May the New York Times reported that the state of Alaska was suing the federal government to allow it ers of Siberia's wealth
future development activities.
attention in the Arctic. In August the Canadian minister
new national park from the Inuvialuit word meaning "where people travel" would be established on Banks Is-
of the environment announced that a to be called Aulavik
land
in
—
the western Arctic.
more than 12,000
sq
km
The area of
the park, covering
(4,600 sq mi),
is
characterized
by deep canyons, desertlike badlands, and archaeological sites with evidences of human occupation dating back 3,400 years. In August the Kapitan Khlebnikov became the first tourist-carrying Russian icebreaker to travel legally through
Canada's Northwest Passage. The 52 passengers made it through the virtually impassable Northwest Passage thanks to the incredible power of the 150-m (492-ft)-long, 26,000hp icebreaker. The Globe and Mail reported that while the North Pole was enjoying a tourism boom, controversy was arising as to whether adventure-seeking tourists should make deposits to help cover the costs in case rescue operations were needed. The year marked the 50th anniversary of the Alaska Highway. Formerly known as the "Alaska Military Highway" or the "Alcan Highway," it was built in 1942 in response to the Japanese threat in the Pacific following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The highway begins in Dawson Creek, B.C., and spans 2,446 km (1,520 mi) to Fairbanks, Alaska.
(KENNETH DE LA BARRE) This article updates the Macropxdia article The Arctic.
—
BRITANNICA UPDATE
Major Revisions from the 1 993 Macropasdia This section of the Britannica Book of the Year consists of articles or parts of articles reprinted from the Macropaedia. The articles appearing here have been selected from among those recently revised or rewritten and have been chosen for their general interest or their timeliness.
Four of the articles that have been chosen from the 1993 printing are wholly new: the sections on the recent history of South Africa from Southern Africa and of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; the section (in part)
on Organized Labour from
and Employment; and
the biography of
Work
Frederick
on the recent history of has been extensively revised.
the Great; the section
tral Asia
Cen-
Subscribers desiring update sheets to put in their encyclopaedia to indicate that an article has been revised or added, and owners of older sets wishing information about the exact article being replaced by the reprints, should address their requests to Editorial Yearbooks, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604. There is no charge for the article update sheets, but you must tell us the copyright year of your set of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Central Asia The Mongol epoch.
The
creation of the
by Genghis Khan was a great
Mongol empire
of political and military skill that left a lasting imprint on the destinies of both Asia and Europe. The geographic basis of Genghis' power, the northwestern parts of which later became known as Mongolia, had been the centre of such Turkic empires as those of the Turks and Uighurs. There are no indications of the time and the manner in which the Mongols took over this region. Creation of the Mongol empire. It is probable that Turks were incorporated in the nascent Mongol empire. In a series of tribal wars that led to the defeat of the Merkits
Mongol thrust into
eastern
Europe
and the Naimans,
his
feat
most dangerous
rivals,
Genghis
gained sufficient strength to assume, in 1206, the title of khan. Acting in the tradition of previous nomad empires of the region, Genghis' aggressive policies were directed primarily against China, then ruled in the north by the Chin (Juchen) dynasty. His western campaigns were set in motion quite accidentally by a senseless attack on Mongol forces by the fugitive Naiman prince Kiichliig, and they maintained their momentum through the pursuit of 'Ala' ad-Din Muhammad of Khwarezm, who in 1218 ordered the execution of Mongol envoys seeking to establish trade relations. As a result, many of the flourishing cities of Khwarezm, Khorasan, and Afghanistan were destroyed, and by 1223 Mongol armies had crossed the Caucasus. Although an important Russo-Kipchak force was defeated on May 31, 1223, at the battle of the Kalka, the Mongols did not make a definite thrust into eastern Europe until the winter of 1236-37. The fall of Kiev in December 1240 with incalculable consequences for Russian history was followed by a Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241-42. Although victorious against the forces of King Bela IV, the Mongols evacuated Hungary and withdrew to southern and central Russia. Ruled by Batu (d. 1255 or 1256), the Mongols of eastern Europe (the so-called Golden Horde)
—
became
a major factor in that region and exerted a decion the development of the Russian states.
sive influence
Simultaneously with these western campaigns, Genghis' successor Ogodei (reigned 1229-41) intensified Mongol pressure in China. Korea was occupied in 1231, and in
1234 the Chin dynasty succumbed to Mongol attacks. the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China (1260-1368) was accomplished by the great khan Kublai (ruled 1260-94), a grandson of Genghis. Mongol rule. The great khan Mongke (ruled 125159), who had sent his brother Kublai to conquer China, entrusted another of his brothers, Hulegii, with the task of consolidating the Mongol hold on Iran. In 1258 Hulegii occupied Baghdad and put an end to the 'Abbasid Caliphate. He laid the foundations of a Mongol state in Iran, known as the Il-Khanate (because the il-khan was subordinate to the great khan in faraway Mongolia or China), which embraced, in addition to the Iranian plateau, much of Iraq, northern Syria, and eastern and central Anatolia and which, under Abaqha (ruled 126582), Arghun (ruled 1284-91), Ghazan (ruled 1295-1304), and Oljeitu (ruled 1304-17), became both powerful and highly civilized. Although practically independent, the ilkhans of Iran (Persia) remained loyal to Mongke and Kublai, but with the passing of Kublai, the drift toward full independence grew stronger. With Ghazan's decision to make Islam the state religion a gesture intended to gain the confidence of the majority of his subjects a big step toward integration in the purely Iranian (as opposed
The establishment of
—
—
Mongol) tradition was taken. A lengthy conflict that opposed the il-khans to the Mamluks of Egypt was not resolved until 1323, when a peace was concluded between the sultan al-Malik an-Nasir and Abu Sa'id (ruled 1316to
35), the last effective il-khan. After
Abu
Il-Khanate, no longer held together by
Sa'id's death the
Mongol
efficiency,
disintegrated.
505
Al
506
Central Asia In Iran and China the Mongol rulers, who increasingly linked their destinies with those of their sedentary subjects, inevitably began to lose their Mongol identity. But in the Central Asian heartland the descendants of Chaghatai and Ogodei, sons of Genghis, maintained traditional steppe polities geared to the interests of their nomad followers and increasingly opposed to the policies of the great khan in China and his ally, the il-khan, in Iran. After Mongke's death in 1259 there was a struggle between his two younger brothers, Kublai and Arigboge. The steppe candidate, Arigboge, lost in his bid for supreme power to the older Kublai, and further attempts to reestablish the centre of Mongol power in the Central Asian heartland also failed. The most active and successful proponent of this policy
was Kaidu, a grandson of Ogodei, who made several attempts to carve out an empire for himself in the heartland from lands ruled by other Mongol princes. In the course of time, he extended his control over most of the Semirechye, Kashgaria, and Transoxania, and in 1269 he even assumed title of great khan. Chaghatai's descendants, enfeoffed with the territories stretching from Bishbaliq in the Dzungarian Basin westward to Samarkand, were to some extent victims of Kaidu's ambitions but for lack of better alternatives lent him their support. After Kaidu's death in 1301, however, the Chaghataid khan Duwa hastened to make peace with his Mongol kin in both Iran and China. Thereafter the Chaghataid khanate, coterminous with the Central Asian heartland, enjoyed a checkered fortune. For the next 30 years it remained united, but during the 330s and '40s it split into a western and an eastern khanate, the former consisting of the area between the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya, together with much of what is today Afghanistan, while the latter comprised the Semirechye and Kashgaria. The Chaghataid khans who ruled in the western khanate, where they usually resided in Bukhara, openly espoused Islam and a Muslim life-style, as did perhaps the majority of their followers. Northeast of the Syr Darya, the Chaghataid rulers of the eastern khanate endeavoured to maintain the nomadic traditions of their Genghiskhanid ancestors with a considerable degree of success. They continued to locate their headquarters in the Hi or Chu valley, while amirs of the important Mongol Dughlat clan, with whom the Chaghataids were closely linked through marriage alliances, ruled the Tarim Basin on their behalf from Kashgar. To the inhabitants of Transoxania and Iran, the eastern Chaghataid khanate was known as Mughulistan (literally, "Land of the Mon-
the
Mongol khanates of the steppes
1
gols"),
and
its
inhabitants, unflatteringly, as Jats (literally,
"Robbers").
During the last third of the 14th century, the western Chaghataid khanate passed under the control of the Barlas Turk Timur (d. 1405: known in the west as Tamerlane), while the eastern khanate went through a protracted period of political instability but also gradual Islamization. Under a succession of vigorous rulers Esen Buga (d.
—
1462),
The Golden Horde
Yunus
(d.
1487),
and Ahmad
(d.
1503)— the
east-
ern khanate held its own, ringed as it was by Oyrat foes in Dzungaria. the Kyrgyz in the Tien Shan, and the Kazakhs in the Semirechye. But decline did set in, temporarily postponed during the reign of Ahmad's able son Sultan Said Khan (reigned 1514-33), who ruled from Kashgar. By the beginning of the 17th century, however, the Chaghataid khans in the east had become mere figureheads, with the towns under the quasi-theocratic rule of a family of Khwajahs originating from Bukhara, while the countryside was dominated by rival Kyrgyz confederacies. The line seems to have died out obscurely before the end of the century. Developments within the most enduring Mongol successor state, that of the Golden Horde, with its headquarters at Sarai on the lower Volga, followed a rather different course. Its Islamization, begun under Batu's brother Berke (reigned 1257-67), led to tensions with the il-khans but resulted in the forging of strong links with the Mamluks of Egypt. The Mamluks were themselves Kipchak Turks from the Kipchak steppes of southern Russia over which the khans of the Golden Horde ruled. The prosperity of the Golden Horde under Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad Ozbeg (Uzbeck or Oz Beg) between about 1312 and
about 1341 stands
in
sharp contrast to the disintegrating
Il-Khanate and Chaghataid khanate, yet it had its own problems, both internal and external. From within, the growing and unavoidable antagonism between the TurkoMongol ruling class, Turkish-speaking and now Muslim, and their Christian Russian subjects was exacerbated by the ceaseless dissensions among the members of the ruling house and the military elite, increasingly referred to by their Slav neighbours as Tatars. In foreign policy, the peace concluded in 1323 between the il-khans and the Mamluks weakened the Golden Horde's influence in Egypt, while the establishment of the Ottomans on the Dardanelles (1354) put a virtual end to commercial relations between the Volga and Nile valleys. Perhaps the gravest political mistake of the rulers of the Golden Horde was their failure to recognize that the West with which, through the Russians, they had excellent links offered a more fertile ground for further expansion than the sunbaked deserts of Turkestan. The khans of the Golden Horde, instead of controlling the Russian and Lithuanian princes, increasingly relied upon their help in internal and dynastic struggles that were rending the khanate. While their attention was drawn southward and eastward, they overlooked the rise of dangerous enemies Russian and Lithuanian in their rear. The policies of the khan Tokhtamysh (reigned 1376-95) differed from those of his predecessors. Hereditary ruler of the White Horde, its pastures located in western Siberia and extending to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, he was able to enlarge his power base by uniting its resources with those of the Golden Horde, of which he eventually made himself master. He thus introduced fresh "steppe power" into the Golden Horde at a time when it was no longer the force it had once been (in 1380 the Muscovites had inflicted a crushing, if temporary, defeat on the horde at Kulikovo Pole). Furthermore, instead of seeking the assistance of petty eastern European princes, he hitched his wagon to the rising star of Timur, with whose support he reasserted Mongol supremacy in Russia. After Tokhtamysh's death the Golden Horde survived under the aegis of an able usurper, Edigu, but after Edigii's death in 1419 a process of disintegration set in. The core territories of the former Golden Horde, centred on the Volga-Don steppes, became known as the "Great Horde," while outlying regions seceded to form independent khanates based on Kazan and Astrakhan on the Volga, the Crimea, western Siberia, and the Nogai steppe east of the lower Volga. All eventually fell victim to dynastic feuds, internecine rivalry, and Muscovite expansionism. Thus, in the case of the Kazan khanate, its founder Ulugh Muhammad (reigned c. 1437-45) bequeathed the throne to his able son Mahmud (or Mahmutek), who reigned with conspicuous success between 1445 and 1462. Mahmud's brothers, however, fled for sanctuary to Vasily II of Moscow, who set up a puppet khanate for one of them (Kasim) at Gorodets-on-the-Oka (thereafter renamed Kasimov). The khanate of Kasimov was to be a thorn in Kazan's flesh until the latter's extinction in 1552. Kasimov itself survived as a political fiction until about 1681, by which time the last khans had abandoned Islam
—
—
—
—
for Christianity. In 1502 the Great Horde was extinguished and its lands annexed by the khan of the Crimea, Mengli Girai, who had already placed himself under Ottoman suzerainty in 1475. Kazan fell to the troops of Ivan IV of Moscow in 1552, and Astrakhan was annexed two years later. The
khanate of Sibir (western Siberia), after a stubborn
resis-
Godunov, the regent for Ivan's son Fyodor (reigned 1584-98). Only the khanate of the Crimea was left, separated from Muscovy by the stillunconquered Ukrainian steppe and enjoying some protection because of its status as an Ottoman vassal. It survived for two more centuries, until Catherine the Great's contance, submitted to Boris
Its capital, Bakhchisaray, long a centre of Tatar culture, was to take on a new life in the late 19th century as the home of the Tatar national revival associated with the name of Ismail Bey Gasprinski. Timur. While the Golden Horde was beginning to enter its long decline in the late 14th century, the demise of Chaghataid rule in the area between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya was taking place as a result of the rise of
quest in 1783.
Demise of Golden Horde
the
— (
Timur and his descen-
dants
I
imur
I
imur
lirst
united under his leadership the in the basins of the two
Mongol tribes located With the assistanee of
these tribes he
I
urkorivers.
expanded into
the
neighbouring regions of Khorasan, Sistan, Khwarezm, and Mughulistan before embarking upon extensive campaigning in what are
now
Iran
and
Iraq, eastern
lurkey. and
Caucasus region. In addition, he launched two sucon his erstwhile protege. okhtamysh, ruler of the Golden Horde. In 1398-99 Timur invaded northern India and sacked Delhi, and between 1399 and 1402 he turned westward again to harry the Egyptian Mamluks in Syria and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I. whom he captured in battle near Ankara. At the time of his death at Otrar on the Syr Darya in 1405, Timur was leading his forces on an invasion of China. He never assumed openly the
cessful attacks
I
the full attributes of sovereignty, contenting himself with the title of amir while upholding the fictional authority of a series of puppet khans of the line of Chaghatai, to whom he claimed kinship by marriage; in consequence he styled himself guregen, meaning son-in-law (i.e., of the
Chaghataid khan). Timur seems to have lacked the innate administrative capacity or the foresight of Genghis Khan. and after Timur's death his conquests were disputed among his numerous progeny. In the ensuing struggles his fourth son. Shah Rukh (reigned 1407-47), emerged victorious. He abandoned his father's capital of Samarkand for Herat in Khorasan (now in western Afghanistan), where he ruled in great splendour, leaving his son, Ulugh Beg. as his deputy in the former capital. Ulugh Beg's rule in Samarkand between 1409 and 1447 probably brought a considerable measure of tranquility to the long-troubled region. Himself an enthusiastic astronomer and the builder of a celebrated observatory, he ensured that during his lifetime Samarkand would be a major centre of scientific learning, especially in astronomy and mathematics. He
Shaybani's lend with the Iranian Safavids, and with the Mughal dynastv in India, whose founder, the limurid Babur. had been driven out ol (entral Asia b) Shaybani In contrast,
friendly,
it
sporadic, ties with the
Ottomans
were maintained b\ wav ol the Volga-Don steppes Unlike the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. however the Uzbeks had only limited access to firearms, which placed
them
at a
considerable disadvantage with their
rivals.
During Shaybanid rule, and even more under the Ashtarkhanids (also known as the Tuquy-Timurids or the Janids) who succeeded them during the 1600s. Centra! Asia experienced a decline in prosperity compared to the preceding Timurid period, due in part to a marked fallingoff in the transcontinental caravan trade following the opening of new oceanic trade routes. In the 1700s the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya passed under the control of three Uzbek khanates claiming legitimacy in their descent from the Genghiskhanids. These were, from west to east, the Qungrats based on Khiva in Khwarezm (1717-1920), the Mangits in Bukhara (1753-1920). and the Mings in Kokand (c. 1710-1876). in the upper valley of the Syr Darya. During this same period, east of the Pamirs. Kashgaria was torn apart by the rivalries of Khwajahs and Kyrgyz; in the Semirechye the Kazakhs were locked in conflict with the Mongol Oyrats and Dzungars: while between the Aral and Caspian seas the Turkmens roamed the northern borders of Iran, enslaving the sedentary population and transporting it to Bukhara to labour in the oases. The time was ripe for Russian intervention, made easier by the intruders' possession of cannon
and
firearms.
THE MODERN PERIOD: THE AGE OF DECADENCE
From
the beginnings of recorded history,
pastoral
no-
The
tively challenged.
and
architecture,
with Chaghatai Turkish, a dialect derived partly from Khakani, the language spoken at the Karakhanid court (and a precursor of modern Uzbek), emerging as a flex-
Uzbeks
Muhammad
was the economic basis of the great Central Asian empires. Once the domestication of the horse was sufficiently advanced to allow for
courts of these rulers witnessed an extraordinary cul-
ible vehicle for sophisticated literary expression. These Timurid epigones, however, were locked in unceasing rivalry with each other and were unable to combine against intruders from beyond their frontiers. By the close of the century, therefore, all the Timurid possessions in Central Asia had passed into the hands of the Uzbeks. The Uzbeks. The early history of the Uzbek people (whose rulers were descendants of a younger brother of Batu, khan of the Golden Horde) is wrapped in obscurity, but by the middle of the 15th century they had migrated from their original homeland, east of the Ural Mountains, southeast toward the lower Syr Darya, whence, under their leader, Abu'l-Khayr Khan, they began to threaten the Timurids across the river. However, before Abu'l-Khayr Khan could undertake a full-scale invasion, he was killed in battle in 1468 by two rebellious kinsmen who, refusing to recognize his assertion of paramountcy, had defected, together with their tribal followers, and placed themselves under the nominal suzerainty of the Chaghataid khan of Mughulistan. Their descendants were to become the Kazakh hordes of later centuries. With the death of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, the fortunes of the Uzbeks temporarily declined, only to be revived under the
leadership of his grandson,
Muhammad
Shaybani.
who by
1500 had made himself master of Samarkand as well as of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya basins and was advancing into Khorasan (Herat fell to him in 1507) when he was defeated and killed in 1510 by Shah Isma'il Safavi. He had, however, changed the course of Central Asian history. By the time of his death, all the lands between the Syr Darya Darya were in Uzbek hands, and so they were and
Amu
to remain.
Throughout the 16th century,
Muhammad
Shaybani's kinsmen ruled over a powerful and aggressive khanate from their capital at Bukhara. They continued
507
articulated along Shi ite-versus-Sunnite lines
was killed in 1449. Throughout the second half of the 15th century, the western part of Central Asia was divided into a number of rival principalities ruled by descendants of Timur, among which Bukhara and Samarkand were the most important. tural florescence in literature, the arts,
Rise of the
entral Asia
madism, practiced on a grandiose
scale,
its use in warfare, the superiority of the mounted archer over the foot soldier or the war chariot was never effec-
The waning of nomadic military power. When headed by capable leaders, well-trained and disciplined mounted troops were almost invincible. The sedentary civilizations could not, by their very nature, put aside for breeding purposes pastures sufficiently large to sustain a cavalry force that could equal that of the pastoral nomads; hence the latter's military superiority remained a constant for about 2,000 years of Eurasian history. \t its highest degree of development. Central Asian no-
mad
and highly specialized social and economic structure, advanced but also highly vulnerable because of its specialization and the lack of diversification of its economy. Geared almost entirely to the production of war materiel i.e., the horsewhen not engaged in warfare, it was unable to provide society constituted a very sophisticated
the people with anything but the barest necessities of life. To ensure their very existence. Central Asian empires
had to wage war and obtain through raids or tribute the commodities they could not produce. When, owing to circumstances such as severe weather decimating the horse herds or inept leadership, raids against other peoples the typical Central Asian nomad state had to disintegrate to allow its population to fend for itself and secure the necessities for a subsistence. Hunting and pastoral nomadism both need vast expanses to support a thinly scattered population that does not naturally lend
became impossible,
itself to strong, centralized political control. The skill of a Central Asian leader consisted precisely in the gathering of such dispersed populations and in providing for them on a level higher than they had been accustomed to. There was but one way to achieve this: successful raids on other, preferably richer, peoples. The military machinery was dependent on numbers, which then precluded selfsufficiency. In case of prolonged military reverses, the nomadic aggregation of warriors had to disband because it was only in dispersion that, without recourse to war. they
were economically autonomous. In the course of the
15th century, the steppe territory
Social and economic
structure of
nomad society
508
Central Asia suitable for great horse herds began to shrink. In the east
emperor of the Ming led five major campaigns against the Mongols (1410-24), all successful but none decisive. Yet when, under the leadership of Esen Taiji (1439-55), the Mongol Oyrats pushed as far as Peking, they found the city defended by cannon, and they withdrew. In the Middle East, as noted above, the Ottoman and Safavid gunpowder empires barred the road to the nothe Yung-lo
nomad cavalry, and, along the western borders of Central Asia, the Russians were soon to start on their decisive and irresistible march across Central Asia to the borders of China, India, and Iran. The Russian conquests. Their most spectacular advance into Central Asia carried the Russians eastward through the forest belt, where the hunting and fishing populations longer-invincible
offered
little
resistance
and where the much-coveted
furs
of Siberia" could be found in abundance. Acting on behalf of the Stroganov family of entrepreneurs, in 1578 or 1581 the Cossack Yermak crossed the Urals and defeated the Shaybanid prince Kuchum, who alone represented organized political power in Siberia. The Russian advance from west to east across Siberia, motivated by commercial rather than political considerations, remains unparalleled in history for its rapidity. The Samoyed or Tungus hunters acnative Finno-Ugrians
—
customed
Russian
advance into Siberia
— were
concerned with the nationality of the tax collectors and found dealing with the Russians no more unpleasant than with Turks or Mongols. Russian penetration was marked by the building of small forts, such as Tobolsk (1587) near the former capital of Kuchum, Tara (1594) on the Irtysh River, and Narym (1596) on the upper Ob River. The Yenisey was reached in 1619, and the town of Yakutsk on the Lena was founded in 1632. About 1639 the first small group of Russians reached the Pacific in the neighbourhood of present-day Okhotsk. About 10 years later, Anadyrsk was founded on the shores of the Bering Sea, and, by the end of the century, Kamchatka was annexed. When advanced Russian parties reached the Amur River about the middle of the 17th century, they entered the Chinese sphere of interest. Although some clashes occurred, restraint on both sides led to the signing of the treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kiakhta (1727), which remained in force until 1858. To this day, the border delineated at Kiakhta has not been altered substantially. The thorniest question to be dealt with in the early RussoChinese negotiations concerned the Mongols wedged between the two Great Powers who, in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, reasserted their control over most to paying their fur tribute
little
—
—
1
1
of the steppe belt. In the 15th century the western Mongols, or Oyrats, had become quite powerful under Esen Taiji but. under the strong leadership of Dayan Khan (ruled 1470-1543) and his grandson Altan Khan (1543-
Mongols — and more precisely the Khalkha —gained ascendancy. In 1552 Altan took possession
83). the eastern
tribe
of what was
left
of Karakorum, the old Mongol capital.
Altan's reign saw the conversion of a great
many Mongols
Tibetan Buddhism, a religion that, until the 1920s, played a major role in Mongol life. The attempts of Ligdan Khan (reigned 160434) to unite the various Mongol tribes failed not only because of internal dissensions but also on account of the rising power of the Manchus, to whom he was forced to surrender. The active Central Asian policy of China's Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty brought a lasting transformation in the political structure of the region. More distant from China, the Oyrats could pursue a more independent course. One of their tribes, the Dzungars, under the leadership of Galdan (Dga'-ldan: ruled 1676-97), created a powerful state that remained a serious menace to China until 1757, when the Ch'ien-lung emperor defeated their last ruler, Amursana, and thus put an end to the last independent Mongol state prior to the creation, in 1921, of Outer Mongolia (the Khalkha princes had submitted to to the tenets of the
Yellow Hat
sect of
Manchus in 1691). The treaties of Nerchinsk and Kiakhta
and Dzungaria. China's western boundary remained undefined, but it ran farther west than it does today and included Lake Balkhash and parts of the Kazakh steppe. Wedged between the Russian and Chinese empires, unable to break through the stagnant but solid Ottoman and Safavid barriers, the Turkish nomads of the steppe
and the Caspian Sea and south of Russian-occupied Siberia found themselves caught in a trap from which there was no escape. If there is cause for surprise, it lies in the lateness rather than in the fact of the ultimate Russian conquest. (DENIS SINOR; GAVIN R.G. HAMBLY) West of the Uzbek khanates, between the Aral and Caspian Sea, were the nomad Turkmens, notorious robbers who roamed the inhospitable land. The Kazakhs, who since the 17th century divided into three "hordes," lying east of the Volga
nomadized between the Volga and the Irtysh. During the 16th and 17th centuries, they fought Oyrats and Dzungars but succeeded in holding their own, and in 1771 Ablai, ruler of the "Middle Horde," located west of Lake Balkhash, was confirmed as ruler both by China and RusYet Russian expansion, motivated by the urge to get Ocean, forced the Kazakhs to yield. Although some Kazakh leaders, such as the sultan Kine-
sia.
closer to the Indian
up spirited resistance (1837-47), the line of the Syr Darya was reached by the Russians toward the middle of the 19th century. The Uzbek khanate of Kokand was annexed in 1876; those of Khiva and Bukhara became Russian protectorates in 1873 and 1868, respectively. The conquest of the Turkmens in the last quarter of the 19th century defined Russia's (now Turkmenistan's) southern frontier with Iran and Afghanistan. Under Russian rule. The Russian conquests in Central Asia had given the tsars control of a vast area of striking geographic and human diversity, acquired at relatively little effort in terms of men and money. The motives for the conquest had not been primarily economic; peasant colonization of the virgin steppes and the systematic cultivation of cotton were later developments. The factors that determined the Russian advance into the area were complex and interrelated. They included the historic pull of the frontier, the thirst for military glory on the part of the officer corps, and the fear of further British penetration into Central Asia from across the Indus, as well as the infectious rhetoric of imperialism common to the age. From the outset, Russia's objectives as a colonial power were strictly limited: to maintain "law and order" at minimum sary. put
cost
and
to disturb as
little
as possible the traditional
way
of life of its new subjects. Such an approach was favoured by the remoteness of the area and its isolation even from the rest of the Muslim world. It was improbable that an almost wholly illiterate population, its prejudices formed by a venal and obscurantist 'ulama' (class of Muslim theologians and scholars), could offer any concerted resistance to the Russian presence; and such, indeed, proved to be the case. The Russians, like other colonial powers, did experience an occasional uprising, generally of a very localized character, but the overwhelming military superiority displayed by the Russians at the time of the initial conquest, the inability of the inhabitants of the khanates to offer effective resistance, and the heavy-handedness with which subsequent insurrection or insubordination was dealt with ensured minimal opposition. Finally, by preserving the titular sovereignty of the amir of Bukhara and the khan of Khiva, they left a substantial part of the population, especially the urban classes, most deeply devoted to the Islamic way of life, under traditionally minded Muslim rulers.
Tsarist rule.
Yet the Russians, whether intentionally
became agents of change throughout the area in much the same way as any other colonial power. The economy was gradually realigned to meet the Russian need for raw materials and new markets. This required or not,
the construction of railroads: by 1888 the Trans-Caspian
the
established the
northern border of the Chinese zone of influence, which included Mongolia. In the wars against the Dzungars, the (hi ruse established their rule over East Turkestan
Railroad had reached Samarkand; between 1899 and 1905 the Orenburg-Tashkent Railroad was completed; the Turkestan-Siberian Railroad came later, begun just before World War I and not completed until 1930. In Tashkent
Motives for conquest
— Central Asia
and Samarkand new European suburbs were laid out at a distance from the walled native cities, but, as in the
bazaar. Nonetheless, the Russians favoured, for reasons of expediency, the preservation of the traditional social
case of the newly established garrison towns, such islands of European life required local services and supplies. Nor did the Russians wholly ignore the welfare of their new
framework and endeavoured, with only
An
subjects.
down
put
were
effort
was made, halfheartedly
at
first,
to
the indigenous slave trade; irrigation projects
initiated;
and
bilingual elementary education was As elsewhere in colonial Asia, the
cautiously introduced.
work of Russian scholars studying the literature, history, and antiquities of the Central Asian peoples aroused upon the part of a numerically small but influential Russianeducated elite, especially among the Kazakhs, nostalgic awareness of a colourful past and a sense of national, or cultural, identity.
—
Kazakh response to Russian rule
—
Of the major racial groups in Central Asia Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Tajiks, and Kyrgyz the Kazakhs were the first to respond to the impact of Russian culture. Their early contacts with their new masters had in Kazan the main been carried out through intermediaries Tatars, who, paradoxically, had contributed to strengthening the Kazakhs' awareness of being part of a greater Muslim world community and their sense of being a "nation" rather than a welter of tribes and clans. Moreover, through the Tatars they were exposed to current Pan-Turkish and Pan-Islamic propaganda. In the 1870s the Russians countered Tatar influence by establishing bilingual RussianKazakh schools, from which emerged a westernized elite of considerable distinction. Kazakh unrest. This Russo-Kazakh "dialogue" was, however, doomed to founder on the rock of the government's policy of settling peasants from European Russia and Ukraine on the Kazakh steppe, where agricultural settlement on an extensive scale could be undertaken only by curtailing the area available for grazing by the nomads' livestock and by restricting their seasonal migrations. As 867-68 the northwestern fringes of the Kazakh early as steppe had been the scene of violent protests at the presence of colonists, but it was not until the last decade of the century that the movement got fully under way with the arrival of upward of one million peasants, resulting in the inevitable expropriation of Kazakh grazing grounds and in savage conflict between the Kazakhs and the intruders. Finally in 1916, during World War I, the Kazakhs, driven to desperation by the loss of their lands and by the ruthlessness of the wartime administration, rose up in protest against a decree conscripting the non-Russian subjects of the empire for forced labour. The rebellion assumed the character of a popular uprising, in which many colonists and many more Kazakhs and Kyrgyz were massacred. The revolt was put down with the utmost savagery, and more than 300,000 Kazakhs are said to have sought refuge across the Chinese frontier. With the collapse of tsarist rule, the westernized Kazakh elite formed a party, the Alash Orda, as a vehicle through which to express their aspirations for regional autonomy. Having found during the Russian Civil War that the anticommunist "Whites" were implacably opposed to their aspirations, the Kazakhs cast in their lot with the "Reds." After the war the Kazakhs were granted their own republie, in which, for the first few years, the leaders of the Alash Orda maintained a fairly dominant position and were active in protecting Kazakh interests. After 1924, however, direct confrontation with the Communist Party became more intense, and in 1927-28 the Alash Orda leaders were liquidated as "bourgeois nationalists." The history of the Kazakhs in the first half of the 20th century was bleak indeed expropriation of their grazing lands under the tsars, the bloody uprising and reprisals of 1916, the losses in the civil war and in the famine in 1921, the purges of the intelligentsia in 1927-28, collectivization during the 1930s, and further peasant colonization after
—
1
The Kazakh republic
—
World War
II.
between the administration of Russian governor-general of Turkestan, based on Tashkent, and that of the amir of Bukhara and the khan of Khiva, opposition to colonial domination was centred in the most conservative elements of a profoundly the 'ulamd' and the inhabitants of the Islamic society In Transoxania, divided
the
—
509
partial success, to
insulate the inhabitants of the region
from contact with the more "advanced" Muslims of the empire the Volga and Crimean Tatars. In this they were aided by the fact that the virtual absence of European colonization provided no fuel for popular resentment comparable to that felt by the Kazakhs; and, in consequence, the westernized products of the bilingual Russian-Uzbek educational system, concerned primarily with reform of the Islamic
way of
life,
—
regarded the Muslim "ultras" as their most
dangerous opponents. If the main influence in shaping the outlook of the Kazakh intelligentsia was the educational system imported from European Russia, the catalyst in the case of the Uzbeks was knowledge of the educational reforms and the Pan-Turkish ideology of the Crimean Tatar renaissance of the late 19th century. The Uzbek reformers, known as Jadidists, advocated the introduction of a mod-
ern educational system as a prerequisite for social change and cultural revitalization; and, despite intense opposition from the clerical classes, they opened their first school in Tashkent in 1901 and by 1914 had established more than 100. After 1908, influenced by the Young Turks of the
Ottoman Empire, the Young Bukharans and the Young Khivans worked for a program of radical institutional in the ramshackle governments of the khanates. be doubted, however, whether by 1917 the Uzbek intelligentsia had made any substantial impact outside a fairly narrow circle of like-minded persons. Soviet rule. Neither before nor after the Russian Revolution of 1917 were the nationalist aspirations of the Muslims of Central Asia compatible with the interests of the Russian state or those of the European population of the region. This was demonstrated once and for all when the troops of the Tashkent Soviet crushed a short-lived Muslim government established in Kokand in January 1918. Indeed, the Soviet authorities in Central Asia regarded the native intelligentsia, even the most "progressive" of them, with lively and (from their point of view) justifiable apprehension. At the same time, there was the problem of an active resistance on the part of conservative elements, which was anti-Russian as much as anticommunist. Having extinguished the khanate of Khiva in 1919 and that of Bukhara in 1920, local Red Army units found themselves engaged in a protracted struggle with the Basmachis guerrillas operating in the mountains in the eastern part of the former khanate of Bukhara. Not until 1925 did the Red Army gain the upper hand. Thereafter, Central Asia was increasingly integrated into the Soviet system through a planned economy and improved communications, through the communist institutional and ideological framework of control, and, for young males, through compulsory service in the Red Army. The economy of the region became further distorted to meet the needs of the central planners. Traditional religion, values, and culture were suppressed, but in such areas as education, health care, and welfare Central Asians benefited to a degree from their forced participation in the system. Eventually the Soviets developed an ingenious strategy for neutralizing the two common denominators most likely to unite Central Asians against continuing control from Moscow: Islamic culture and Turkish ethnicity. After a protracted period of trial and error, their ultimate solution was the creation of five Soviet socialist republics: the Kazakh S.S.R. (now Kazakhstan) in 1936, the Kirgiz S.S.R. (now Kyrgyzstan) in 1936, the Tadzhik S.S.R. (now Tajikistan) in 1929, the Turk-
change It
may
men
S.S.R.
(now Turkmenistan)
S.S.R. (now Uzbekistan) in into being five new nations
1924,
in
1924.
and the Uzbek
The plan was
to will
whose separate development under close surveillance and firm tutelage from Moscow would preempt the emergence of a "Turkestani" national identity and such comcomitant ideologies as Pan-Turkism or Pan-Islamism. To some extent, this ethno-engineering reflected colonial conceptions of the peoples of Central
Asia dating back to
whose absorption
tsarist
times.
into the Russian
Thus the Kazakhs, Empire had been a
Creation of Soviet republics
510
Frederick gradual process extending from the early 8th to the early 19th century, were perceived as wholly separate from the Uzbeks south of the Syr Darya, whose territories had been annexed during the middle decades of the 19th century. As speakers of an Iranian language, the Tajiks could be clearly distinguished from their Turkish-speaking neighbours, while the Russian perception of the nomadic Turkmens, whom they had conquered during the closing years of the 19th century, set them apart from the sedentary Uzbeks. Similarly, the Kyrgyz of the Issyk-Kul region (whom the Russians of tsarist times had confusingly designated "Kara-Kirgiz," while applying the name "Kirgiz" to the Kazakhs) were declared to be distinct from their Kazakh neighbours. Thus, the colonial experience and 19th-century Russian ethnological and anthropological fieldwork were, when appropriate, enlisted by the Soviets to serve very different ideological ends. Inevitably, the boundarie^.of these artificial creations willed into being by Soviet fiat did not reflect the ethnic and cultural patterns of Central Asia, and all five republics contained substantial minority populations (among them, immigrants from European Russia), a situation which, with the coming of independence in 1991, was fraught with the likelihood of future conflicts. To ensure the success of this design for stabilizing Central Asia under Soviet rule, school 1
textbooks, scholarly research and publishing, and cultural policies in general were devised to stress, on the one hand, the particular and unique experience of each republic and, on the other, the enduring benefits of the Russian
Frederick II
to 1786, ranks
played to striking effect. From early in his reign Frederick achieved a high reputation as a military commander, and the Prussian army rapidly became a model admired and imitated in many other states. He also emerged quickly as a leading exponent of the ideas of enlightened government, which were then becoming influential throughout much of Europe; indeed, his example did much to spread and strengthen those ideas. Notably, his insistence on the primacy of state over personal or dynastic interests and his religious toleration widely affected the dominant intellectual currents of the age. Even more than his younger contemporaries, Catherine II the Great of Russia and By courtesy
Frederick
1757)
In
II.
portrait
ot the Staalliche
Museen zu
Berlin
by Antome Pesne (1683-
the Gemaldegalene, Berlin
made to emphasize the linguistic differences among the various Turkish languages spoken in the republics, clear evidence of intent to divide and rule. During the last two decades of Soviet history, the remoteness and economic backwardness of Central Asia meant that this region felt less intensely the winds of change beginning to blow through metropolitan Russia, Ukraine, or the Baltic republics, although from 1979 Soviet intervention in neighbouring Afghanistan produced ripple effects across the frontier. Historians, however, may conclude that the most significant aspects of the history of Central Asia under the Soviets were the extent to which its
peoples
managed
to retain their traditional cultural
most debilitating circumstances. Now are independent sovereign states, their future
heritage under the that
all five
more than regional significance: They some of them) may continue to maintain significant
destinies will be of (or
economic
and various other former Soor they may form some kind of economic common market or seek to give substance to old dreams of a united Turkestan. What is certain is that Central Asia will no longer be the backwater that it became when the age of European maritime discovery brought to an end the centuries-old transcontinental caravan trade. links with Russia
viet republics,
(GAVIN R.G. HAMBLY)
the Great
the Great, third king of Prussia from 1740 among the two or three dominant figures in the history of modern Germany. Under his leadership Prussia became one of the great states of Europe. Its territories were greatly increased and its military strength dis-
Frederick
connection, which paradoxically required that the tsarist conquests and their consequences be represented as an overwhelming boon to Central Asians. Great significance was given to language policy, with strenuous efforts being
Joseph II in the Habsburg territories, it was Frederick who, during the mid- 18th century, established in the minds of educated Europeans a notion of what "enlightened despotism" should be. His actual achievements, however, were sometimes less than they appeared on the surface; indeed, his inevitable reliance on the landowning officer (Junker) class set severe limits in several respects to what he could even attempt. Nevertheless, his reign saw a revolutionary change in the importance and prestige of Prussia, which was to have profound implications for much of the subsequent history of Europe. Frederick was born on Jan. 24, 1712, in Early life. Potsdam, near Berlin. He was the eldest surviving son of Frederick William I, king of Prussia, and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, daughter of George I of Britain. Frederick's upbringing and education were strictly controlled by his father, who was a martinet as well as a paranoiac. Encouraged and supported by his mother and his sister Wilhelmina, Frederick soon came into bitter conflict with his father. Frederick William 1 deeply despised the artistic and intellectual tastes of his son and was infuriated by Frederick's lack of sympathy with his own rigidly puritanical and militaristic outlook. His disappointment and contempt took the form of bitter public criticism and even outright physical violence, and Frederick, beaten and humiliated by his father, often over trifling details of behaviour, took refuge in evasion and deceit. This personal and family feud culminated spectacularly in 1730, when Frederick was imprisoned in the fortress of Kiistrin after planning unsuccessfully to flee initially to France or Holland. Lieutenant Hans Hermann von Katte, the young officer who had been his accomplice in the plan, was executed in Frederick's presence, and there was for a short time a real possibility that the prince might share his fate. During the next year or more Frederick, as a punishment,
was employed as a junior official in local administration and deprived of his military rank. The effects of this terrible early life are impossible to measure with accuracy, but there is little doubt that the violent and capricious bullying of his father influenced him deeply. In
1733, after a partial reconciliation with his father.
Tension between father and son
1
I
rederick was married to a member or a tumor German princely family, Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern, for whom he never eared and whom he systematically I
neglected.
In
the following year he saw active military first time under the great Austrian com-
service for the
against the French army in the Rhineland. In the later 1730s, in semiretirement in the castle of Rheinsberg near Berlin and able for the first time to give free rein to his own tastes, he read voraciously, absorbing the ideas on government and international relations that were to guide him throughout his life. These years were perhaps the happiest that Frederick ever experienced. However, his relations with his father, though somewhat improved, remained strained. Frederick Accession to the throne and foreign policy. William I died on May 31, 1740, and Frederick, on his accession, immediately made it clear to his ministers that he alone would decide policy. Within a few months he was given a chance to do so in a way that revolution-
mander Eugene of Savoy
ized Prussia's international position. The Holy Roman emperor Charles VI. of the Austrian house of Habsburg, died on October 20. leaving as his heir a daughter, the archduchess Maria Theresa, whose claims to several of the heterogeneous Habsburg territories were certain to be disputed. Moreover, her army was in a poor state, the financial position of the Habsburg government very difficult, and her ministers mediocre and in many cases old. Frederick, however, thanks to his father, had a fine army and ample funds at his disposal. He therefore decided shortly after the emperor's death to attack the Habsburg province of Silesia, a wealthy and strategically important area to which the Hohenzollerns, the ruling family of Prussia, had dynastic claims, though weak ones. The most important threat to his plans was Russian support for Maria Theresa, which he hoped to avert by judicious bribery in St. Petersburg and by exploiting the confusion that was likely to follow the imminent death of the empress Anna. He also hoped that Maria Theresa would cede most of Silesia in
return for a promise of Prussian support against her other enemies, but her refusal to do so made war inevitable. Invasion of The first military victory of Frederick's reign was the Silesia battle of Mollwitz (April 1741), though it owed nothing to his own leadership; in October Maria Theresa, now threatened by a hostile coalition of France, Spain, and Bavaria, had to agree to the Convention of Klein-Schnellendorf, by which Frederick was allowed to occupy the whole of
Lower
However, the Habsburg successes against and Bavarians that followed so alarmed Fred-
Silesia.
the French
1742 he invaded Moravia, the region south of Silesia, which was under Austrian rule. His rather incomplete victory at Chotusitz in May nonetheless forced Maria Theresa to cede almost all of Silesia by the Treaty of Berlin of 1742 in July. This once more allowed Habsburg forces to be concentrated against France and Bavaria, and 1743 and the early months of 1744 saw Maria Theresa's
erick that early in
position in
Germany become markedly
stronger. Freder-
again alarmed by this, invaded Bohemia in August 1744 and rapidly overran it. However, by the end of the year lack of French support and threats to his lines of communication had forced him to retreat. Moreover, the ick,
Augustus III (king of Poland and the elector of Saxony) now joined Maria Theresa in attacking him in Silesia. He was rescued from this threatening situation by the prowess of his army: victories at Hohenfriedberg in June 1745 and at Soor in September were followed by a Prussian invasion of Saxony. The Treaty of Dresden, signed on Dec. 25, 1745. finally established Prussian rule in Silesia and ended for the time being the complex series of struggles that had begun five years earlier. Silesia was a valuable acquisition, being more developed economically than any other major part of the Hohenzollern dominions. Moreover, military victory had now made Prussia at least a semigreat power and marked Frederick as the most successful ruler in Europe. He was well aware, however, that his situation was far from secure. Maria Theresa was determined to recover Silesia, and the peace she signed with France and Spain at Aix-
elector
la-Chapelle in
improvements
1748 allowed her to accelerate significant of her territories and
in the administration
rederick
51
the organization of her army.
Frederick's alliance with France, which dated from an agreement of June 1741. was based merely on mutual hostility toward the Habsburgs and had never been efTective. More serious, anti-Prussian feeling was now running high in Russia, where both the
who had ascended the throne in 1741, and her chancellor. Aleksey Bestuzhev-Ryumin. bitterly disliked Frederick. Moreover, Great Britain, under George empress Elizabeth,
seeking an efTective continental ally against France, to be moving closer to Maria Theresa and Elizabeth. In September 1755 Britain signed an agreement with Russia by which Russia, in return for British subsidies, was to provide a large military force in its Baltic provinces to protect, if necessary, the electorate of Hanover, ruled by George II, against possible French or Prussian attack. Frederick was deeply alarmed by this: a hostile Austro-Russian alliance backed by British money seemed to threaten the destruction of Prussia. In January 1756 he attempted to escape from this menacing situation by an agreement with Britain for the neutralization of Germany in the AngloFrench colonial and naval war that had just begun. This, however, deeply antagonized Louis and the French government, who saw the agreement as an insulting desertion of France, Frederick's ostensible ally. The result was the signature in May of a Franco-Austrian defensive alliance. This did not in itself threaten Frederick, but he soon became convinced that a Russo-Austrian attack on him, with French support, was imminent. He determined to forestall his enemies and, in a daring move, invaded II,
seemed
XV
Saxony in August 1756 and marched on into Bohemia. This action has been more actively debated by historians than any other event of Frederick's reign because it raised in an acute form the general issue regarding the morality of preventive military action. Though Frederick took the offensive and thus unleashed a great military struggle, there is no doubt that he was by 756 seriously threatened, indeed, even more seriously than he himself realized, and that his enemies, most of all the empress Elizabeth, meant to destroy Prussia's newly won international status. The Seven Years' War, on which he embarked thus soon became a life-and-death struggle. In 1757 France. Sweden, Russia, and many of the smaller German states joined the ranks of his opponents, while the Prussian invasion of Bohemia collapsed after a serious defeat at Kolin in June. Brilliant victories over the French and Austrian armies, respectively, at Rossbach and Leuthen in 1
November and December ick's position,
but
it
still
partially reestablished Freder-
remained extremely precarious.
Ruthless exploitation of every available resource (notably of much of Saxony, which was under Prussian military occupation during most of the war), debasement of the currency, and a British subsidy that he received in 758— 62 allowed Frederick with increasing difficulty to keep up the unequal struggle. More than anything, however, he was helped by the complete failure of his enemies to cooperate effectively, while a partly British and Britishfinanced army in western Germany from 1758 onward neutralized the French military effort. Nevertheless, the strain was immense; in October 1757 a cabinet order suspended all payment of salaries and pensions to Prussian civil servants and judges apart from diplomats serving abroad. Frederick could still win victories in the field, as, for example, at Zorndorf (August 1758) against the Russians at heavy cost or at Liegnitz and Torgau (August and November 1760) against the Austrians. But he also suffered serious defeats at Hochkirch in October 1758 and above all at the hands of a Russian army at Kunersdorf in August 1759. This disaster temporarily reduced him to despair and thoughts of suicide; if it had been effectively followed up by his adversaries, he could not have continued the struggle. As the forces he could put in the field 1
dwindled and resistance grew among his subjects to the unprecedented burdens imposed by the war (in 1760 the landowners of Brandenburg refused to contribute further), the Prussian position became increasingly difficult; by 76 it was desperate. However, the death in January 762 of the empress Elizabeth, the most bitter of all Frederick's enemies, completely changed the situation. Her successor, Peter III, a fanatical admirer of Prussia and Frederick. 1
1
1
Invasion of Saxony
and Bohemia
512
Frederick
The Treaty of Hubertusburg
signed an armistice in May. followed by a Russo-Prussian peace treaty. This turn of events ended Maria Theresa's hopes of recovering Silesia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (Feb. 15. 1763), which ended the war in Germany, left the province in Frederick's hands. Prussia had survived, and its military reputation was now greater than ever. The cost had been enormous, however. The Prussian army had lost 180,000 men during the struggle, and some Prussian provinces had been completely devastated. Henceforth Frederick was determined to avoid another such conflict: the alliance with Russia that he signed in 1764 and which lasted until 1780 was directed largely to this end. Nevertheless, he still firmly opposed any growth
of Habsburg power in Germany, and in July 1778 a new A ustro- Prussian struggle broke out over the efforts of the emperor Joseph II, the son of Maria Theresa, to gain a large part of Bavaria. This War of the Bavarian Succession was half-hearted and short-lived, and the Treaty of Teschen ending it in May 1779 was a severe check to Joseph's ambitions and a diplomatic victory for Frederick. But this new conflict showed unmistakably that AustroPrussian rivalry stemming from the events of 1740-41 was now a deeply ingrained fact of German political life. Fear of Habsburg ambitions continued to haunt Frederick to the end of his reign. His last significant achievement was to inspire the formation, in July 1785, of the League of Princes (Furstenbund), which united a number of German states the most important being Hanover, Saxony, and in successful opposition to the archbishopric of Mainz Joseph II and his renewed efforts to acquire the whole of Bavaria in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands. The most important foreign policy development in the The first partition of second half of Frederick's reign was the first partition of Poland Poland, in 772. By this Prussia gained the Polish province of West Prussia (though without the great commercial city of Danzig), and thus Brandenburg and Pomerania, the core of the monarchy, became linked with the theretofore isolated East Prussia. This gave the state a much greater territorial coherence and more defensible frontiers. It also moved its geographic centre decisively to the east and sharpened the social and political differences that tended to separate it from the states of western Europe. Frederick had always hoped for territorial gains of this kind, and, as the weakness and confusion of the internally divided Polish republic increased during the 1760s, the possibilities of realizing them grew. In 1769 he tried indirectly to interest Catherine II of Russia in a partition but in vain. By January 1771, however, faced by strong Austrian opposition to her expansionist ambitions in southeastern Europe, the empress had changed her mind. The visit to St. Petersburg in that month of Frederick's younger brother Prince Henry played a decisive role in making a
—
—
1
Habsburg government, which had hoped to recover Silesia or gain territory in the Balkans, was persuaded to join in the process. Frederick bears partition possible: the
much of the responsibility for the partition, for he alone of the monarchs who took part had consciously desired it. Since both Russia and Austria were persuaded to follow a policy that was largely Prussian in inspiration, it ranks as perhaps his greatest diplomatic success. economic, and were essentially conservative. Much of what he did in these areas was little more than a development of policies pursued by his father. He justified these policies in terms of the rationalizing rhetoric of "enlightened despotism," whereas the devoutly Protestant Frederick William I had done so in terms of
Domestic
In
policies.
administrative,
social policy Frederick's attitudes
many of the objectives, and the them, were the same. Frederick, in
religious obligation, but
means used
to attain
spite of his appalling personal relationship with his father,
admired him as a ruler and freely acknowledged the debt he owed him. "Only his care," he wrote during the Seven Years' War, "his untiring work, his scrupulously just policies, his great and admirable thriftiness and the strict discipline he introduced into the army which he himself had created, made possible the achievements have so far I
accomplished." Like Frederick William as a duty.
To him
it
I,
Frederick thought of kingship met only by
entailed obligations to be
untiring and conscientious work.
It was his duty to protect from foreign attack, to make them prosperous, to give them efficient and honest administration, and to provide them with laws that were simple and adapted to their wants and their particular temperament. In order to achieve these objectives, the ruler must sacrifice his own interests and any purely personal or family feeling. Raison d'etat, the needs of the state, took precedence over these and also over the immediate comfort and happiness
his subjects
of his subjects. The ruler could carry out his duties effectively only if he kept the reins of government firmly in his own hands. His rule must be personal. He must not rely on ministers who were likely to be influenced by selfish ambitions or factional feeling and who might well keep important information from their master if they were allowed to. Personal rule alone could produce the unity and consistency essential to any successful policy. In his Anti-Machiavel, a somewhat conventional discussion of the principles of good government published in 1740 just before his accession, Frederick wrote that there were two sorts of princes those who ruled in person and those who merely relied on subordinates. The former were "like the soul of a state" and "the weight of their government falls on themselves alone, like the world on the back of Atlas," whereas the second group were mere phantoms. Yet he would have rejected outright, and on the whole with justification, any suggestion that he ruled as a despot. On the contrary, he would have claimed that his power, however great, was exercised only within limits set by law and that the obligations inherent in his position made it impossible for him to govern in an arbitrary way. The insistence that any effective monarchical rule must be intensely personal had obvious potential dangers. As Frederick grew older, these showed themselves with increasing clarity. His whole psychology was hostile to the development in the Prussian administration or army of any real originality, new ideas, or willingness to take initiatives or accept individual responsibilities. He fostered among those who served him a tendency to play safe and to perform their duties conscientiously but to do no more than that. Under him the Prussian administration was the most honest and hardworking in Europe. Its achievements, however, stemmed from the impetus supplied from above by the king rather than from any creative force inherent in the system itself. The provincial War and Domains Chambers established by Frederick William in 1722 remained very important, and their number grew from 9 to 12. The General Directory, again created by Frederick William, as the main organ of central government with wide-ranging powers, acquired under Frederick several new departments (for commerce and manufactures in 1740, for mines and metallurgy in 1768, for forestry a few years later) but tended, as the reign went on, to become ossified and to lose a good deal of its former importance. The administration of Silesia after its acquisition in the 1740s was notably efficient, and its resources helped greatly in carrying Frederick through the dark days of the Seven Years' War. But tradition and continuity rather than innovation were the hallmarks of the Prussian administration under him; many of what new departures there were (for example, an effort in 1770 to introduce a system of state examinations for entry into the civil service) were not very effective. Many of the truly successful innovations were in the judicial system, where the reforming efforts of Samuel von Cocceji resulted in all judges in higher and appellate courts being appointed only after they had passed a rigorous examination. Cocceji also inspired the establishment in 1750 of a new Superior Consistory to supervise church and educational affairs and began the process of legal codification that culminated after Frederick's death in the issue of the Prussian Common Law (Das Allgemeine Preussische Landrecht) of 1794, one of the most important 18th-century efforts of this kind. Yet Frederick's unwillingness ever to admit a mistake or change his mind tended, as he grew older, to make the processes of government increasingly rigid and inflexible. The government's refusal to adapt and adjust, which was already visible during the monarch's later years, culmi-
—
I
Concept of rulership
ricl
nated in the Prussian collapse l NS AND ZOOS
(.
I
David M.
Stall
(111
p.lll
I
Writer, Reader's Digest;
Free-lance Writer.
SOCIAL SfcCURIIY AND VW LFARE
SI
K\
1(
1
s
(in
entury Painten
O'Dwjer, Post;
University. Philadelphia.
dle East affairs.
CONSUMbR AFFAIRS (III parti; INDUSTRIAL REVIEW: Advertising Mermel, T.W. Consultant; formerly Chairman, Committee on World Register of Dams, International Commission on Large Dams. engineering PROJECTS: Dams; Dams tabic Millikin, Sandra. Architectural Historian. art exhibitions and art sales: Art Exhibi-
world
Modiano, Mario. Athens Correspondent (1952The Times, London.
world
affairs: Greece
Moragne, Edward Paul. Index Supervisor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
biographies
(in
pain
Morris, Jacqui M. Editor, Oryx magazine.
environment
(in part)
Morrison, Donald. Assistant Managing Editor, Entertainment Weekly magazine. publishing: Newspapers (in part); world affairs: United States; United States: Special
.2' ( ). Expenditures: B$563,377,000 (education 19.5%, health 14 6%, interest on public debt 12.2%, general administration 11.1%, public order 10.1%, tourism 8.0%, defense 3.3%). Public debt (September 1991): U.S.$829,500,000. Production (value of production in BS'OOO except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): marine products landed at Nassau (mostly crayfish, groupers, conchs) 56,400 6 fruits and vegetables 22,800, poultry products 18,400, beef and mutton 300; roundwood i 15,000 cu m. Mining and quarrying (1991): salt 9,400; aragonite 3,600. Manufacturing (1991): pharmaceuticals 94,200; rum 35,700. Construction (gross value of buildings started in B$'000,000; 1991): residential 111; nonresidential 20. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 950,000,000 (950,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric
Education and health Education (1990-91) schools Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 1117) Higher 14
teachers
100 '2 37 12
1.409 '3 1.555'3
1
300
students
27,26412 23,616'2 2,200
student/ teacher ratio
20.9'3 19.1 13
7.3
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 139,000 (95.0%). Health (1988): physicians 303 (1 per 809 persons); hospital beds 1,009 (1 per 243 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 26.3. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,791 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 115% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
1
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 850 1S Military expenditure as percentage of G/Vf-16 (1989): 0.2% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S23. .
,
tons; 1990) negligible (435,000); natural gas, none (none). receipts from visitors (1491) U.S.$1,222,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.S 196,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$2,9 13,000,000 (U.S.$11,510 per capita).
Tounsm
!Land area only of individual islands or island groups. 2 Family (Out) Islands (all islands other than New Providence) are administered by commissioners assigned by the central government. Extent of commissioner districts varies from part of an island to island groups. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4 Includes seven people not accounted for by island. 'Population cited is for New Providence Island. M991. includes 1,990 not adequately defined and 14,910 unemployed. ^April. ''New Providence Island only. '"Domestic purchases by resident households only; data
and hotels are not available. "Imports c.i.f.; exports i2Data exclude 86 combined primary/secondary schools with 10,739 students. 1986-87; includes combined primary/secondary schools. ^College of The Bahamas only. ''Naval defense force (excludes 1,700 police). ">Includes police. for expenditures in restaurants f.o.b. i
n. Retail
and service enterprises (1990) annual
,
:
I
no of
no
Retail trade
Grocery stores Department stores Other food shops Agricultural supplies stores Electrical appliances stores Household supplies stores Grain and oil shops Textile stores Drugstores
Bookstores Coal stores Service trade Repair shops
prises
employees
8,709,000 162,000 159.000 109,000 88,000 72,000 66.000 63,000 36,000 27,000 26.000 14,000 1 .639,000
20.914,000 1,162,000 1,793.000 733.000 436,000 715,000 344.000 647,000 247.000 210,000 127,000 167,000 4,027,000 1,004,000 670,000 1.308,000 205,000
669.000 422.000 171.000 89,000
Barbershops
(11.6%).
of
enter-
Hotels
Photo studios
wage as a all
annual gross output
% of wages
(Y
value 000,000)
Vital statistics
population 1991 ): 6.7 (world avg. 9.2). \atural increase rale per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. Total tertilit\ rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 2.3. Marriage rate per [,000 population (1990): 8.4. rate per I.IHHl population 1990): 0.7.
Death
rale per 1.000
I
(
(metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): grains— rice 187,450,000, wheat 95,003,000, corn (maize) 93,350,000, sorghum 5,615,000, millet 4,501,000, barley 3,000,000; oilseeds— rapeseed 7,436,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 6,060,000, sunflower seed 1,250,000; watermelons 6,280,000, oranges 5,385,000, apples 4,816,fruits and nuts 000, cantaloupes 3,135,000, walnuts 153,000; other— sweet potatoes 107,-
Production
liinh rate per 1,000 population (1991): 19.7 (world avg. 26.4). 17.2).
—
Nations
190,000, sugarcane 73,103,000, potatoes 35,533,000, seed cotton 16,989,000, beets 16,237,000, soybeans 9,807,000, cabbage 8,103,000, tomatoes 5,690,000, cucumbers 4,148,000, tobacco leaves 3,121,000, eggplant 2,383,
person. il effects
srni.ii
tea 566,000; livestock (number oi live animals) $63,975,000 pigs, 112,820,000 sheep. 97,378,000 goats, 81,407,000 cattle, 21,635,000 water buffalo, 11,198,000 asses, 10,174,000 horses, 2,077,000,000 chickens, 369,000,000 ducks; roundwood (1990) 277,015,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 12,095,363. Mining anil quarrying 1991 ): metals (metal content of ores) coppei 560,-
000,
,
cultural activities 8.8%, fuel
.
U%,
5K5
medicines
I
mm,-
Population economically population 54 "• (participati
employed
2.093
'')
\
198
Urban work
i
fore*
total 584,569,200; activity rate ol total
/er age 15, 76.8%; female 49. in sector oi employment, 1978
state-run enterprises 74,500,000 103 160,000) collectives 20,000,000 000); self-employment or privately run enterprises 150,000 (8,343
o. coconuts 515,000, corn (maize) 510,000, coffee 240.000: livestock number of live animals) 1,150.000 sheep, 1,064,000 cattle. 905.000 goats; roundwood (1990) 12,654,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 108,935 Mining and quarrying (1991): diamonds 280,000 carats. Manufacturing (1986): cement 770,000; beer 1,300,000 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 495.000 hectolitres; synthetic fibres 5,000,000 metres. Construction
yams
(
2,559,000, sugarcane
l
I,
(
(in^(
1
\l
1984): 62,000,000,000.
Energj production (consumption): elec-
From 1986, Cote d'lvoire has requested that the French version of the country's name he utilized as the official protocol version in all languages. -Fifteen additional 1
departments were created in 1985, for which separate data are not available. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. J 1990. M986. '•December. 'January 1; index refers to the S.M.I.G. (salaire minimum interprofessionel garanti), a form of minimum professional wage. Weights of consumer price index components. 'M987; traffic includes Burkina Faso. i»Air Ivoire only. "1979-80. 121981. '-M982.
Nations
World
of tin-
National economy
Croatia
Production (metric tonsexi com (maize) 2,540,000, wheat
nculture, forestry, fishing (19 i 431,000,
,
name. Republika Hrvatska (Kcpublic hi < Iroatia) Form oj government multipart} republic with a two-chambered Official
plums
13,000;
1,495,000, potatoes 65l (number ol live animals) |,i
livestock
cattle, 753,000 sheep.
16
rounds
!,000 poultry;
I
u
legislature
catch (1990) 45,333, l which freshwatei 10,432. Mining and quan bauxite 109,000; gypsum 100,000; refined silver 2 (1990): lime 437,
[n.a.];
Manufacturing (1990): nitrogenous
(Chamber ol Districts Chambei of Deputies [138]).
Head o] slate. President. Head of government: Prime
:
fertilizers 1,172,000;
crude
steel 424. 0(H):
hot rolled iron slabs 184,000; detergents 110,000; polyvinyl chloride powder 105.000. Construction (residential units constructed; TWO): 18.565. Incrgy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990)9,1 H m 15,442,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 173,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 14.719.000 (n.a.): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 8,471,000 in K natural gas (cu m; 1990) 1,989,000,000 (n.a.). Gross national product (1990): U.S.$20,900,000,000 (U.S.54,399 per capita).
Ministei
apitah Zagreb. Official language: Croatian.
1
(
mine. unit: Croatian dinar valuation (Oct. 12. 1992) U.S.$ = HrD 365.67;
Official religion:
Monetary
m;
fish
(HrD)
..
1
I
I
l=HrD
Structure of gross material product and labour force
622.95.
1989
area sq km 2
Districts Beli
Manastir
1,147
Benkovac
640 232 732 395 368 319 280 724 455 513 440 833 610 713 249 606
Biograd na moru Bjelovar
Brae Buje Buzet
Cabar Cakovec
Cazma Cres-Losinj Crikvenica
Dakovo Daruvar Delnice Donja Stubica Donji Lapac Donji Miholjac
471
840 979
Drnis
Dubrovnik
Duga Resa Dugo Selo
561
223 680 505 419 543
Ourdevac Dvor Garesnica Glina
Gospic Gracac Grubisno Polje Hvar
1,674 1,016
435 312 606 345 380 632 637 250
Imotski
Ivanec Ivanic-Grad Jastrebarsko Karlovac Kastela
119
Klaniec Knin
1.079
Kopnvnica
715 336 365 182 548 428 596 386 53 223 226 279 675
Korcula Kostajnica Krapina Knzevci Krk
Kutma Labin Lastovo
Ludbreg Makarska Metkovic Nasice
population
Districts
54,265 33.378
Nova Gradiska
17,661
Novska Obrovac
Ogulm Omis
13,824
23,877 7,439 5.169 119.866
1,077
379 310 436 659
Opatija
Orahovica Osijek
15263
Otocac
1,117
278 285 567 532 390 169
Ozalj
,796
Pag
19,154 52.954 30.092 17,848
Pakrac Pazin Petnnja Ploce
30.760 8,054 20.365 24,169 71,419 30,485 19.693
Podravska Slatina Porec Pregrada
781
350 150 574 115
Pula
Rab
40,901 14.555 18.442
Rijeka Rovinj
523
Sen) Sibenik
658
291
Sinj
23,040 29,049 10,434 14,206
Sisak
Slavonska Pozega Slavonski Brod
,459
Slunj
39,052 41,680 25,592 32,422 81.319 32.286 10,917 42,954 61,052
Solin
1 1
969 283 585 509
Novi Marof
66.039
1 1
area sq km 2
1,020 1,077 1,052 1,249 1.065
802 472 149 216
Split
Sveti Ivan Zelina
Titova Korenica Trogir
1,150
Varazdm
250 360 375
Vinkovci
1.024
Valpovo
642
Virovitica
19,651 14.851
Vis
101
vojnic
26,382 39,248 16,402 39,520 25,983
Vrbovec Vrbovsko Vrginmost
237 514 280 447 284 606
Vrgorac Vukovar
Zabok
1,228
Zadar Zagreb
21,848 21.041
221 1.121
1,705
343 815
Zlatar-Bistnca
22,818 40,829
Zupanja TOTAL
56,538
Mining Manufacturing Construction
60,749 29,254 24,696 1 1
km
of labour
forces
69,156
4.6
27,299
48.7
595,489
39.4
3.896
6.9
118,656 36,601 124,943 238.075 60,980
7.9
J
Trade Finance
588
1.0
5.256 10.848
9.4
19.4
f
Pub. admin., defense Services
Other
1
34}
1,894
J
2.4 8.3
15.8 4.0
265.591
17.6
1.509.491
100.0
J
100.0
56,057
TOTAL
Population economically active (1991): total 1,327,000: activity rate of total population 27.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female [1990] 44.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1984
Consumer
57 100
price index
Annual earnings index 7
Land
1985
1986
100 100
193 109
430 100
16,500 114
1,270
93
114,000 93
use (1990): forest 36.5%; pasture 36.0%; agricultural 23.5%; other 4.0%.
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.9; income per household (1990) Din 165,813 (U.S.$14,650); sources (1990): selfemployment 40.8%, wages 40.2%, transfers 12.1%, other 6.9%; expenditure (1988): food 34.2%, transportation 9.3%, clothing 8.6%, housing 8.3%, energy 7.6%, drink and tobacco 5.1%, durable goods 4.5%, health care 4.3%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)
,393
22,168 33.108 94,373 98,445 46,661 4,354 8,236 28.074 7,528 16,599 7,497 84.189 36,309 136,572 933,914
Din 000.000
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
-10
-32
-31
-155
-3.774
-16,692
7.1
16.0
7.9
10.2
18.1
20.2
% of total
Imports (1990): Din 49,728,000,000 (raw materials and semifinished goods 29.9%, consumer goods 24.2%, mineral fuels 19.2%, basic manufactures 13.4%, machinery 9.1%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (1990): Din 33,036,000,000 (machinery 29.7%, chemicals 11.3%, food 9.2%, clothing 8.5%). Major export destinations: n.a.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): passengers transported 35,762,000; cargo transported 27,867,000 tons. Roads (1991): total length 19,932 mi, 32,071 km (paved 73%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 865,516; trucks and buses 72,043. Merchant marine (1990): fishing vessels 369. Airports (1992) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): 9; total circulation 715,000; circulation per 1,000 population 150. Radio (1989): 1.226,000 receivers (1 per 3.9
31,291
49,026 4,784.265
Demography Population (1992): 4.808,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 220.2, persons per sq Urban-rural (1981): urban 50.8%; rural 49.2%. Sex distribution (1981): male 48.411', female 5 I. MIS:.
%
11.2
Public utilities Transp. and commun.
,557
29,095 25.784 29,799 >5,631 165,253 24.992 14,787 7.612 27,589 19,006 35.565 13,008 31,227 22,988 16,939 85,326 9.562 206,229 19,727 9,205 85,002 60.210 84.348 71.745 114,249 18,962 27,402 207,147 17,152 1 1
1
labour forces
of total
value
6,276
Agriculture
population
1990
%
in value Din 000.000
Area and population (1991 census)
persons). Television (1989): 1,063,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Telephones (1990): 1,101,451 (1 per 4.3 persons).
85.0.
Education and health
;
Age breakdown (1981): under 15, 20.9%; 15-29, 23.3%; 30-44, 20.2%; 45-59, 19.9%; h()-74, 11.0%; 75 and over, 3.9%. (2(H(i) 5,157,000. Population projection: (2000) 4,960. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition 1981): Croat 75.1%; Serb 11.6%; Magyar 0.6%; Slovene 0.5%; Bosnian 0.5%; other 11.7',. Religious affiliation 1991): Roman Catholic 76.5%; Eastern Orthodox 11.1%; Muslim 1.2%; other 11.2%3. Major cities (1991)*: Zagreb 930.753; Split 206,559; Rijeka 205,842; Osijek
Education (1990-91)
student/
schools
teachers
students
teacher
2.588
27,197
229 60
13.121
497.790 215.425
6.633
70.781
18.3 16.4 10.7
ratio
;
(
(
164,589;
Zadar
134.669.
Vital statistics Hirth rule per 1.000
population (1990):
I
1.9
(world avg. 27.1); legitimate,
Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher
Educational attainment (1 981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 45.4%; primary 19.2%; secondary 28.3%; post-secondary and higher 6.4%. Literacy (1981): total population age 10 and over literate 3.734,000 (94.4%); males'97.5%: females 91.6%. Heulth (1990): physicians (1989) 10,160 (1 per 466 persons); hospital beds 35,603 (1 per 133 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 10.0.
n.a.;
illegitimate, n.a.
Military
Death rule per 1,000 population (1990): 1.4 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rule per 1,000 population (1990): 0.5 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rule (avg. births per childbeanng woman): n.a. Marriage rule per 1,000 population (1989): 6.1. Divorcerate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth 1980 82): male 67.0 years; female 74.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 581.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 222.2; accidents, violence, and poisoning 86.5; diseases of the digestive svstem 54.7. I
(
Total active duty personnel 1991 ): n.a.; however, the Croatian National Guard was formed in April 1991. Military expenditure as percentage of GXP: n.a. (
'The Croatian dinar was introduced on Dec. 23, 1991, at parity with the Yugoslav dinar (Din), which it replaced .is Croatia's official currency. -One su km is equal Includes a significant minority ol adherents of the to approximatelj 0.3861 sq mi. i roatian Old Catholic Church, as well as small communities of Protestant Christians and Jews. 'Populations refer to municipal areas, not cities proper ^Excludes 58,000 workers in the private sector. "On Jan. I. 1990, the new dinar, equal to 10,000 old dinars (Din), was introduced. 7 Based on worker real net personal income
Britannica World Data
592
Cuba
60.8%, transportation services 5.4%, energy 2.5%, value of self-produced and consumed food 1.5%, household repairs 1.2%, other 1.9%. Population economically active (1988): total 4,570,236; activity rate of total population 43.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 56.9%; female 36.1';: unemployed 6.0%).
name: Reptiblica de Cuba (Republic dI Cuba). orm oj government: unitary socialist
Official
/
republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People's
Power
Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Implicit
consumer
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
94 9
980 990
100.0
101.4 100.1
102.8
103
1989
[510]).
Head of
State
and government:
price
deflator index
President.
Monthly earnings ndexs
95.9
100
1
996
98.1
1000
Capital: Havana. Official language: Spanish. unit:
Cuban peso (CUP) —
1
bentavos; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = 0.76CUP:
Hit) 1
I
Public debt (hard currency to the West; 1989): U.S.$6,8OO,0O().OOO. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$246,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$48,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$20.900,000,000 (U.S.$2,000 per capita).
none.
Official religion:
Monetary
5,
1992)
£=1.29 CUP.
Structure of global social product and labour force 1989
Area and population population
area
in
CUP
1989'
Provinces
sq mi
Capitals
Camaguey
Camaguey
Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos Ciudad de la Habanaz
Ciego de Avila Cientuegos
Granma Guantanamo Holguin La Habana 3 Las Tunas
sq
km
10,925 6.744 6,170 8,662
732,056 358.059 358.589 2,077,938 781.331 491 .422 982.722 636,889 485,136 602,996 684,725 424,243 980,002 801 ,456
2,398 110.861
71.097 10.468.661
6,174 2,668 1,613
15.990 6,910 4.178
281
727
Bayamo Guantanamo
3,232 2,388
8,372 6.186
Holguin
3,591
Pinar del Rio Sanctl Spintus
Pinar del Rio Sancti Spintus
Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Santa Clara
2,213 2.544 4,625 4,218 2,604 2,382 3,345
9.301 5,731
Matanzas
Havana Las Tunas Matanzas
Villa
—
Clara
Special municipality Isla de la Juventud
Cuba
Nueva Gerona
TOTAL
estimate
6.589 1 1
926 42,804
,978
%
value
000,000
Mining^ Manufacturing
3 9
1
394
>
2,510
2.7 9.3
2.151
8.0
— 5.401 — —
— 201 — —
Other
191
07
TOTAL
26.915
100.0
Trade Public administration Services
%
of labour
force
•
721,100
20.4
767,500
21.8
344.300 235.900 21,700 395,300 151,700 835,700 53,400 3,526.600
9.8 6.7 0.6
15.9
733
Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun Finance, insurance
labour forced
value
4,273 1.039 10,617
Agriculture
of total
J
11 2
4.3
23.7 1.5
100.0
use (1990): forested 25.1%; meadows and pastures 27.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.3%; other 17.5%.
Land
Foreign trade 7 Balance of trade (current prices) 1984
Demography Population
CUP
% Of total
1992): 10,848,000. >2): persons per sq
(
mi 253.4, persons per sq km 47.9. urban 72.8%; rural 27.29! Sex distribution 1990): male 50.35%; female 49.65%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 23.3%; 15-29, 31.7%; 30-44, 19.5%; 45-59, 13.7%; do and over, 11.8%. Density
l
(
l
»
l
Urban-rural
(
L990): (
Population protection: (2000) 11.502.000; (2010) 12,181,000. Doubling time: 63 years. Ethnic composition (1981): white 66.0%; mixed 21.9%; black 12.0%. Religious affiliation 19K(l): nonreligious 48.7%; Roman Catholic 39.6%; atheist 6.4%; Protestant 3.3' Afro-Cuban syncretist 1.695 other 0.4%. Major cities 19891): Havana 2.077,938; Santiago de Cuba 397,024; Camaguey (
lln ial religion:
Monetary unit: Egyptian pound (LE) = 100 piastres = 1,000 milliemes; I
valuation (Oct.
U.S.$
1
= LE
1992) 3.34; 1 £ =
Public
LE
10.923
21 8
I
2,514 1,9225 4.992
utilities
5.0
3.85
5.68.
area
population
force
42.7
595.900
4,9
1
Services TOTAL
of labour
5,160,500 37,000 1,872,400 571,200 92,400
100
5,719 2,225 50.177
>
0.3 15.5 4 7 0.8
85
.027.300
121,900
1.0
44
2,616,000
21.6
1000
12,094,600
100.0
11.4
1990
Regions Governorales
km
sq mi
sq
78,643 81,897 12,796 10,646 145,369
203.685 212,112 33,140 27,574 376,505
108,000 182,000 33,000 196.000 126.000
3,911 1.340
10,130 3,471
3,602,000 3,828,000
227 750 557
589
808.000
1,942 1,442
3,113,000
ash-Shaykh ShibTn al-Kawm Ban ha
1.327
3437
592 387
1.532 1,001
.968.000 2,449,000 2,868,000
az-ZaqazTq
1.614
4,180
3766.000
262 600 510 705
679
883.000
1553
2,456,000 1 ,586,000 1.720.000 4.265,000 2.916,000 2.493.000 2,689,000
Capitals
estimate
Desert
al-Ghurdaqah Marsa Matruh
al-Bahr al-Ahmar
Ma(ruh
Janub STna Shamal STna
aj-Tur
al-Arish al-Khari|ah
al-Wadi al-Jao7d
Population economically active (1990-91): total 14,760,000; activity rate of total population 27.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] 45.1%; female [1986] 14.6%; unemployed 8.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1985
Lower Egypt
Consumer
Damanhur
al-Buhayrah ad-DaqahlTyah
al-Mansurah
Dumya!
Dumyal
Tanta
al-Gharblyah
—
al-lsmaTTiyah (Ismaitia) Kafr ash-Shaykh
Kafr
al-Mmufiyah al-QalyubTyah ash-Sharqlyah
623,000 1
Upper Egypt
Aswan
Aswan
AsyOt Ban! Suwayf al-Fayyum
AsyuJ
al-JTzah
al-JIzah
al-Minya
al-Minya
Bani Suwayl al-Fayyum
32,878
873 715 597
Qma
Quia Sawhaj Urban Bur Said
Sawhaj
(Port Said) al-lskandariyah (Alexandria) al-Qahirah (Cairo)
as-Suways (Suez)
1,322
1,827 85,153 2,262 1,851
1,547
— — — —
28
72
1,034
2,679
83
214
6,888
17,840
385,229
997.739
461,000 3,170,000 6.452.000
392.000 53.153,000
Demography Population (1992): 55,979,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 145.3. persons per so, km 56.1. I rban-rural 1986): urban 43.9%; rural 56 1' s, distribution (1990): male 51.14%; female 48.86%. \ge breakdown (1986): under 15, 41.8%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 60-74, 4. 7 ', 75 and over, 0.8$ 10.49! Population projection: (20(H)) 65.556,000; (2010) 77.251.000. (
(
i
100)
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100.0 100.0
123.9 108.8
1483
174.4
211.5
2470
2959
114.7
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986): 4.9; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure 1974-75) 6 food 49.7'i clothing 14. 2', (
:
Doubling tune: 24 years. Ethnic composition 1983): Egyptian 99.8%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation 1990): Sunnl Muslim c. 90%; Christian c. Mr, Major cities (1990): Cairo 6,452.000; Alexandria 3,170,000; al-JTzah 2.156.000; Shubra al-Khaymah 811,000; al-Mahallah al-Kubra 385,3003.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) LE 000,000
%
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
-5,193.0
-7,117.0
54.1%
-10,6848 57.2%
-9.228.1
55.8%
-15.389 3 52.5%
-10.932.2 31 .7%
of total
45.6%
LE 21.849,200.000 (machinery and transport equipment 20.4%; foodstuffs 14.2; chemical products 10.2%; base metals 7.1%). Major import sources 1988): I I.S. 1.9%.; West Ciermany 1.0%; France 8.4%; Italy 7.0%; Japan 5.0%, Lxporis (1990-91): LE 8,606,100,000 (petroleum and petroleum products 50.7%; cotton yarn, textiles, and fabrics 13.6%; raw cotton 2.1 r/,). Major export destinations (1988): U.S.S.R. 12.2%; Italy 11.1%; The Netherlands 6.9%; U.S. 6.3%; France 5.8',; West Germany 4.2%'; Saudi Arabia 3.2%. Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990-91): length 5,489 mi, 8,831 km; passenger-km 43,185.000.000; metric ton-km cargo 3.162.000,000. Roads (1989): total length 28,300 mi, 45,500 km (paved 6895 ). Vehicles (1989); passenger cars 826,915;
(
Vital statistics
1
1
(
(
trucks and buses 550,649. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross ions and over) 444; total deadweight tonnage 1.852.457. Inland water (1990): Sue/ (anal, number ol transits 17.664; metric ton cargo 271,881,000. Air transport (1991)7; passenger-km 5,230.1)09,1)01); metric ton-km cargo 131,572.000; airports 1992) 10. ommunications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 17; total circulation 3,307,1008; circulation per 1.000 population 628. Radio (1991): 14,000,000 receivers (I per 3.9 persons). feLevision (1991): 3,750,000 receivers (1 per per 34 persons). 1987): 1,455,000 15 persons). Telephones (
(
(
1990): 32.2 (world avg. 27.1 |. Death rate pel 1,000 population 1990): 7.5 (world avg. 9.8). Vatural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990): 24.7 (world avg. 17.3).
Birth rale per 1.000 population
woman;
Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing 1987): 5.4. Marriage rate pei 1,000 population 1990): 8.4. population (1940): 1.5. Divorce rate pet l. Life expectancy .it birth (1989): male 59.0 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes oj death per 100,000 population (1987): diseases ol the circulator] system $14.4; diseases ol the respirator) system 140.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 98.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 22.0.
I
1
Fducation and health Education (1989-90)
(
I
(
(
yi. 'Includes valueadded taxes, customs duties, and imputed bank service charges. ^Unemployed. 7 Metal content of ores. *AII energy statistics include Monaco. ^September, unless otherwise marked. '"August. "Air France and UTA only. 2 89 newspapers only. "Does not '
include public telephones. i"1988-89.
Villous
Gabon
»l
the
World
Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): Ui>.$3,654,000,000 (U.S.$3,220 per capita).
name: Republican: Gabonaise iabonese Republic). Form of government: multiparty' republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Chief of •.tun: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
((
1990 in
1983
%
value
CFAF 000.000 123.200 518,400 54.500 67,800 23,400
Agriculture, forestry, fishing
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Capital: Libreville.
Public utilities Transportation and
Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 franc
communications
CFA
Kid centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 238.75; £ = CFAF 405.88.
,
47.8 5.0 6.2 2.2 8.1
78,2008
Other, including taxes on imports TOTAL
1,084,6003
7
7
7
27
7
7
31.0
7
7
56.143' 137,867
100.0
29 30 95
42,678 7.28
J
idbour
102
7
3.732
12.1
defense >
•
force'-
14,118 3.919 4,123 13,154
\
Pub. admin Services
1
11.4
88,100 131,100
Trade Finance
(CFAF)=
labour force 8
of total
value
40.77 100.0
Area and population population
aree
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,889,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1983): private sector 73.4%, public sector 26.6%; expenditure (1983) 9 food and tobacco 54.7%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, housing 13.0%, transportation and communications 6.3%.
1978 Provinces
Capitals
Estuaire
Libreville
Haut-Ogooue
Franceville
Moyen-Ogooue
Lambarene
Ngounie
Mouila
Nyanga
Tchibanga
Ogooue-lvindo Ogooue-Lolo
Makokou Koulamoutou
Ogooue-Mantime Woleu-Ntem
Port-Gentil
Oyem
sq mi
sq
8,008 14,111 7,156
14.575 8,218 17,790 9,799 8,838 14.851
103.3473
TOTAL
km
20.740 36.547 18,535 37,750 21.285 46,075 25,380 22,890 38,465 267.667
estimate?
359.000 213.000 49,000 118,000 98.000 53,000 49,000 194,000 166,000 1,300,000*
:
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF 000,000
% of total
Demography Population (1942)-: 1,253,000. Density ( 1992)-: persons per sq mi 12.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 45.7%; rural 54.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.23%; female 50.77%.
km
4.7.
Age breakdown
(1990): under 15, 32.5%; 15-29, 30.4%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45-59, 12.9%; 60-74, 7.3%; 75 and over, 1.6%. Population projection-: (2000) 1,612,000; (2010) 2,052,000. Doubling lime: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fang 35.5%; Mpongwe 15.1%; Mbete 14.2%; Punu 11.5%; other 23.7%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 96.2%, of which Roman Catholic 65.2%, Protestant 18.8%, African indigenous 12.1%; traditional religion 2.9%; Muslim 0.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1988): Libreville 352,000; Port-Gentil 164,000; Franceville 75,000.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 43.4 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 16.0 (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 27.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 5.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 51.9 years; female 55.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however,' major diseases include malaria, measles, shigellosis (infection with dysentery), trypanosomiasis,
and
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
+500,000 39,2%
+140,000 18.9%
+ 170,000
+ 120,400 20.3%
+ 274,400 36.3%
+ 267,800 35.6%
28.2%
Imports (1989): CFAF 241,800,000,000 (machinery and mechanical equipment 29.2%, food and agricultural products 14.6%, transport equipment 12.5%, manufactured products 12.1%, metal and metal products 11.2%, chemical products 5.4%, mining products 1.6%). Major import sources: France 46.3%; Cameroon 9.7%; The Netherlands 5.5%; United States 5.4%; Japan 4.1%; West Germany 3.7%; United Kingdom 2.9%; Italy 2.4%; BelgiumLuxembourg 1.9%. Exports (1989): CFAF 509,600,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 70.8%, manganese ore and concentrate 11.6%, wood 9.4%, uranium ore and concentrate 4.1%). Major export destinations: France 36.2%; United States 26.1%; The Netherlands 6.2%; Japan 3.3%; Cote d'lvoire 2.9%: Italy 2.3%.
Transport and communications Railroads (1992): length 414 mi, 668 km; passenger-mi 21,000,000 in, passenger-km 34,000,000 ">; short ton-mi cargo 126,000,000 ">, metric ton-km cargo 184,000,00010. Roads (1987): total length 4,286 mi, 6,898 km (paved 11%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 19,000; trucks and buses 15,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 28; total deadweight tonnage 29,956. Air transport (1990)U: passenger-mi 276,679,000, passenger-km 445,273,000; short ton-mi cargo 17,863,000, metric tonkm cargo 26,079,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 18. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation 15,000; circulation per 1,000 population 14. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 250,000 (1 per 4.8 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 40,000 (1 per 30 persons). Telephones (1991): 19,000 (1 per 64 Transport.
persons).
tuberculosis.
National economy
Education and health
Budget (1992). Revenue: CFAF 398,000,000,000 (oil revenues 50.0%; customs duties 18.6%; other revenues 31.4%). Expenditures: CFAF 375,000,000,000 (current expenditure 80.3%, of which running costs 58.4%, public debt 21.9%; capital expenditure 19.7%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $4,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$ 143,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): roots and tubers 430,000, cassava 250,000, plantains 240,000, sugarcane 210,000, corn (maize) 20,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 16,000, bananas 9,000, palm oil 4,900, cacao beans 2,000, coffee 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 165,000 sheep, 162,000 pigs. 81,000 goats, 28,000 cattle, 2,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 3,789,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 22,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): manganese 1,600,000; uranium 710 4 Manufacturing (1989): cement 117,000; flour 25,976; refined sugar 20,905; beer 460,200 hec.
drinks 297,200 hectolitres; cigarettes 17,800,000 packs'; textiles 2,420,000,000 s Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1940) 915,000,000 (915,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 103,328,000 (13,602,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 620,000 (426,000): natural gas (cu m; 1990) 304,526,000 (304,526,000); fuelwood (cu m; 1990) 2.567.000 (2,567,000). Land use (1990): forested 77.6%; meadows and pastures 18.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.8%; other 2.4%. Population economically active (1990): total 518,000; activity rate of total population 44.2% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 68.2%; female 38.4%;
Education (1987) schools Primary
Secondary Voc teacher ,
Higher^,
14
tr.
992 5112 2912 1
'
teachers
students
teacher
4.229 1.512
195,049 32,922 15,352 2,896
46.1
759 363
ratio
21.8 20.2 8.0
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 60.7%; males literate 73.5%; females literate 48.5%. Health (1984): physicians 565 (1 per 2,000 persons); hospital beds 10,980 (1 per 103 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 94.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,700 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); (1984) 104% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
tolitres; soft
CFAF
.
unemployed, Price
n.a.).
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1984
Consumer
price index
Earnings index
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
105.3
95
101.6
110.4
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 4,750 (army 68.4%, navy 10.5%, air force 21.1%), not including 500 French troops. Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 4.5% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S132.
Transitional constitution approved May 22. 1990; first multiparty elections held September 1990 through March 1991. -Population distribution is based on country estimate, which is substantially higher than estimates from external sources (such as the United Nations and the World Bank), which form the basis ol the 1992 estimate. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. -M990. M984. ''Official government figures for salaried workers only, not including traditional agricultural workers; agricultural workers (FAO estimate, 1986) totaled 370,000 (71.09! of the labour force). 'Public utilities. Transportation and communications, Finance, and Service employees included with Other. s Less imputed bank service charges. 'Libreville only. 1D1987. "Air Gabon only. 121984-85. ^Universities only. W1988.
610
Britannica World Data
food and beverages 58.0%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, energy and water 5.4%, housing 5.1%, education, health, transportation and communications. recreation, and other 14.0%.
Gambia, The name: Republic of The Gambia.
Official
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$352,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$229,00O,O00
Form
of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house
(U.S.S260 per capita).
(House of Representatives [50 1] ). Head of state and government:
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990-919
President. Capital: Banjul. Official language: English.
in
Agriculture
Official religion: none.
Monetary
unit:
dalasi
1
valuation (Oct. 1
U.S.$
=D
1992) 8.42; 1 £ = 5,
D
236
32.1
69
30.1
3
—
Public
14.31.
utilities
%
labour force
value
109,7
Mining Manufacturing Construction
(D) = 100 butut;
1983
% of total
value
D'000.000
of labour
force
73.7
6.5
239,940 66 8,144 4,373
07
1,233
04 25
—
1
00 2.5 1.3
Transportation and
850
183
8.014
171.7 33.0
37.0
16,551
Public administration
565
122
4,577 8,295
Services Other TOTAL
15.0
3.2
9,381
communications
Area and population Divisions
Kombo
St.
sq mi
Capitals Mary3,
*
Mansakonko Kuntaur/Georgetown
km 76
799 681
—
1983 census 101,504 55,263 126,004 112,225
1,618 2,894 2,256 2,069 1,764
1,117 871
Kerewan Basse Brikama
City Ban|ul< TOTAL
sq
29 625
Kanifing
Lower River MacCarthy Island North Bank Upper River Western
population
area
1 1 1
44.188 687.817
12 10,689
5 4.127
,388
137.245
Trade Finance
Land
7.1
-71.910
-15.5>°
464.3
1
25.049' 325,623,
100.0
use (1989): forested 16.2%;
5.1
4
2.5 2.9 7.711
100.0
meadows and
pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.8%; built-on area, wasteland, and other
57.0%.
Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) 1986
1987
1988
1989
-4970
-6159
-530 7
-1,023,0
51.3%
52.3%
40.6%
72.1%
Demography Population (1992): 921,000. Density 5 (1992): persons per sq mi 277.0, persons per sq km 106.9. Urban-rural (1988): urban 21.5%; rural 78.5%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.36%; female 50.64%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.1%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-^14, 16.1%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60 and over, 4.9%. Population projection: (2000) 1,132,000; (2010) 1,446,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Malinke 40.4%; Fulani 18.7%; Wolof 14.6%; Dyola 10.3%; Soninke 8.2%; other 7.8%. Religious affiliation (1983): Muslim 95.4%; Christian 3.7%; traditional beliefs and other 0.9%. Major cities/urban areas (1986): Serekunda 102,6003; Banjul 44,188*. 6 (Greater Banjul 145,6924.6); Brikama 24,300; Bakau 23,6003; Farafenni 10,1686.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.9 (world avg. 26.4); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,(1(1(1 population (1990-95): 19.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1990-95): 25.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.2.
Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1.000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 43.4 years; female 46.6 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.; however, major infectious diseases include malaria, gastroenteritis and dysentery, pneumonia and bronchitis, measles, schistosomiasis, and whooping cough.
National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: D 827,000,000 (tax revenue 71.5%, of which import duties and excises 62.4%, income taxes 9.0%; nontax revenue and grants 28.5%). Expenditures: D 704,400.000 (administrative expenses 31.1%; goods and services 23.4%; interest payments 21.2%; transportation and communications 11.2%; agriculture 5.8%; public services 4.6%; education and culture 3.5' ). i
Production (metric ions except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): peanuts (groundnuts) 75.000, millet 50,000, paddy rice 20,000, corn (maize) 15.000. cassava 6.000, pulses (mostly beans) 4,000, palm oil 2,50(1, palm kernels 2.000, seed cotton 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 400.0(10 cattle, 200,000 goats, 170,000 sheep; roundwood 928,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 17,619, of which inland water 2,700, Atlantic Ocean 14,919. Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel are excavated for local use. Manufacturing (value ol production in D '000; 1982): processed food, including peanut and palm kernel oil 62,878; beverages 10,546; textiles 3.253; chemicals and related products 1,031; nonmetals 922; printing and publishing 358; leather 150. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 67,000,000 (67,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (61,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1983); total 325,623; activity rate of total population 47.39! (participation rates: ages 15-64 78.2%; female 46.3%;
unemployed,
%
of total
1990 -
1
1991
,252 4
-1,292.0
66.1%
63.9%
D
1,759,374,000 (food 30.4%; basic manufactures 18.1%; machinery and transport equipment 14.7%; mineral fuels and lubricants 10.7%; chemicals and related products 6.8%). Major import sources (1990): United Kingdom 17.2%, China 13.9%; France 10.9%, Germany 8.5%; Hong Kong 8.5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.7%. Exports (1990-91): D 332,189,000 (reexports 59.1% 13; domestic exports 40.9%, of which peanuts 12.4%, fish and fish preparations 9.1%, peanut meal 1.9%). Major export destinations (1990): Belgium-Luxembourg 44.8%; New Zealand 35.4%; Guinea 4.0%; United Kingdom 3.0%; France 3.0%;
Imports (1990-91):
Switzerland 2.4%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):
total length
1,483 mi, 2,386
km
(paved 32%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 5,500; trucks and buses 1,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 9; total deadweight tonnage ,65 Air transport ( 1989): passenger arrivals and departures 203,353; cargo 2,128 metric tons; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation 1,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.2. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 175,000 (1 per 5.2 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1991): 1
1
11.000
(I
.
per 80 persons).
Education and health Education (1989) Primary (age 8-14)
Secondary (age 15-21) Secondary vocational Postsecondary 1 ''
schools
teachers
students
student/ teacher ratio
232
2.451
73,620 3,624 12,982
12.9 24.0
1,489
84
281
540 177
300
Educational attainment (1973). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling 90.8%; primary education 6.2%; secondary 2.6%; higher 0.4 r Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 27.2%; males literate 39.0%; females literate 16.0%. Health (1989): physicians 48 (I per 17,604 persons); hospital beds (1981) 756 (1 per 865 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 132. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,351 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;
.
Military Total active duly personnel (1991): 900. Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 0.7% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.Sl.
GNP
n.a.).
Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer
D 000,000
price index
Daily earnings index 7
= 100)
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100
156 6 104 6
193 4
2160
2339
262 5
285.0
1000
'Includes 5 indirectly elected chiefs and 9 nonelective seats. -Preliminary. 'Kombo Mary includes the fast-growing urban areas of Serekunda and Bakau. 4 Kombo Mary and Banjul city make up Greater Banjul. '"Based on land area, which is 8,613 sq km (3,325 sq mi). M983. 'December; nonagricultural employees only. "Lowincome population in Banjul and Kombo St. Mary only; weights of consumer price index components. 9 At factor cost in constant prices of 1976-77. '"Indirect taxes less subsidies. iiNot adequately defined. ^Imports c.i.f; exports f.o.b. ''Mostly unofficial trade with Senegal, h 1984-85. St.
902
St.
Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$26,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.Sx.ooo.imh
Household income and expenditure. Average household
come per household:
n.a.:
sources of income:
n.a.;
size (1983) 8.3; inexpenditure** (1986):
Nations
Gross national product (at current market prices (2,000 rubles per capita)
Georgia Official i
name
Republic
Sakartvelos Respublikis
ol
(
m
republic with a single legislative body Agriculture
ol State
Council (president Head of government: Prime Minister, ).
Official language: Georgian.
Official religion: none. ruble unit: I
valuation (Oct. tree rale, I
£
5,
=
10(1
]
Public
J
utilities
\
communications Trade Finance
kopecks;
Area and population area
Adzhar South Osselias Regions under
Sukhumi
sq mi
% of labour
force
force
640.300
260
3.8003
35.0
738,800 147.800
300
1.194.1
11.0
531 6
49
— —
5 6
197,000 172,400
8.0
6127
681.2 10,865.7
6.3 100.0
population
sq
1991' estimate
km
Batumi
3,300 1.200
8.600 3.000
Tskhinvali
1.500
3.900
533.800 381 ,500
6.0
70
73,900 492,500
200
2,462.700
100.0
3.0
_
Population economically active (1990): total 2,834,000; activity rate of total population 51.9% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 90.1%; female 45.9%; unemployed 3.5%). Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
-1
—
—
Services
Other TOTAL
Capitals
I
1988 labour
value
37.2
defense
rubles;
rubles.
Regions Abkhaz
M
% of total
4,0458
Public administration,
1992)
U.S.$=316.82
= 538.59
Mining Manufacturing
Construction Transportation and
'apital: Tbilisi.
Monetary
value
000.000 rubles
(Parliament [234]).
c
World
10,865,700,000 rubles
1990
multipart)
Head of state: Chairman
Iht
Structure of net domestic product and labour force
rcorgia).
Form of government:
1990):
l
price index
Monthly earnings index
1985
1986
1987
100.0 100.0
101.8
105.7
4,548.900
republican
—
jurisdiction TOTAL
20.900 26.900
54.200 69.700
J
5.464.200
Demography Population (1992): 5,482,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 203.7, persons per sq km 78.7. I rban-rural 1991): urban 56.2%; rural 43.8%. Sex distribution 1989): male 47.2%; female 52.8%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 19.2%; 45-59, 17.50 60-74, 10.8%; 75 and over, 3.6%. Population projection: (2000) 5,777,000; (2010) 6,101,000. Doubling time: 77 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Georgian 70.1%; Armenian 8.1%; Russian 6.3%; Azerbaijani 5.7%; Ossetes 3.0%; Greek 1.9%; Abkhazian 1.8%; other 3.1%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Georgian Orthodox (65%); minorities include Muslims (11%), Russian Orthodox (10%), and Armenian (
(
Land
use (1990): forested 0.4%; meadows and pastures 28.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.2%; other 69.8%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1988): wages and. salaries 71.4%, pensions and stipends 10.8%, income from personal plots 7.3%, other 10.5%; expenditure (1988): food and beverages 38.3%, clothing and footwear 14.8%, social and cultural 9.2%, furniture and household utensils
5.9%, building materials 2.0%,
utilities
0.3%.
(
Foreign trade
;
Orthodox (8%). Major cities (1991): 137.500; Sukhumi
Tbilisi 1.283,000; Kutaisi 238,200;
Rustavi 161.900; Batumi
120,000.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population (1990): 17.0 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 82.3%; illegitimate 17.7%.
Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.4 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990): 8.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 69.0 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 553.2; diseases of the respiratory system 513.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 98.6; accidents, poisoning, and violence 58.2; diseases of the digestive system 32.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 13.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 12.0; diseases of the nervous system 4.1.
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 5,741,000,000 rubles (turnover tax 36.2%, profit tax 25.3%, individual income tax 11.5%). Expenditures: 6,879,000,000 rubles (national economy 48.5%, social and cultural affairs 43.5%, government administration 3.6%, other 4.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): grain 693,1011.110(1, grapes 691,100, fruit (other than grapes) 592,200, crude tea 501,700. vegetables (other than potatoes) 443,200, potatoes 293,800, citrus fruit 283,100, sugar beets 30,600, sunflower seeds 7,700; livestock (number of live animals; 1990) 1.834,000 sheep and goats, 1,427,000 cattle, 1,028,000 24.002,100 poultry; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch 104,000. Mining and quarrying (1990): manganese ore 1,316,000. Manufacturing (1990): crude steel 1,316,000; rolled ferrous metals 1,109,000; rolled steel 1.105,000; milk 702,500; canned food 677,000; steel tubes 499,000; mineral fertilizers 130,000; meat and sausage 96,200; synthetic resins and plasties 40.000; synthetic fibres 32,300; paper 28,200; soap 12,100; bricks 328,000,000 pieces; cement tiles 26,4(10,000 pieces; footwear 13,300,000 pairs; knitwear 49,600,000 units; magnetic stations 137,000 units; colour television sets 50,000 units; machine tools 1,565 units; prefabricated concrete structures 1,761,000 eu m; ceramic tiles 830,000 cu m; silk fabrics 45,000,000 sq m; cotton fabrics 34,100.00(1 sq m; wool fabrics 9,800,000 sq m; carpets 800,000 sq m: grape wine 1,628,300 hectolitres; beer 947,700 hectolitres; cognac 216,500 hectolitres; vodka and liqueurs 82,200 hectolitres. Construction (1990): 1,313,000,000,000 rubles. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 14,200,000,000 (n.a.); coal (metric tons; 1991) 700,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 1,327,000 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 3,308,400 (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 44,900,000 (n.a.). pigs,
Balance of trade (current prices) 1988
1989
1990
000,000 rubles
-592
-385
-855
1.154
%
4.8%
3.1%
6.7%
8.6%
of total
Imports (1991): 7,266,000,000 rubles (machinery and equipment 18.4%, lightindustry products 16.5%, food 14.6%, oil and gas 9.6%, chemicals 9.6%, ferrous metals 4.1%, nonferrous metallurgical products 3.3%). Major import sources: former Soviet republics 89.6%; other countries 10.4%. Exports (1991): 6,112,000,000 rubles (food 34.5%, light-industry products 19.3%, machinery and metalworking equipment 13.7%, ferrous metallurgy 5.8%, chemicals 3.5%, building materials 1.1%). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics 98.0%; other countries 2.0%.
Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 976 mi, 1,570 km; (1989) passenger-mi passenger-km 17,000,000; cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1989): length 21,000 mi, 33,900 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 427,400; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (1,000 gross tons and over) 54; total deadweight tonnage 1,108,068. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 3,290,500,000, passenger-km 5,295,600,000; short ton-mi cargo, n.a., metric ton-km cargo, n.a.; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 147; total circulation 3,677,000; circulation per 1,000 population 671. Radio and television (1990): total number of receivers 3,760,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Telephones: n.a. Transport.
10,600,000,
Education and health Education (1989-90)
student/
teachers Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr Higher
students
teacher
ratio
1
924,700 J
,
93,100
Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 12.3%; some secondary 15.2%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.4' higher 15.1%. Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate, n.a.; males literate, n.a.; females literate, n.a. Health (1990): physicians 32,100 (1 per 170 persons); hospital beds 60,000 (1 per 90 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.9. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.
i
618
Britannica World Data
Gross national "produc
Guatemala
I
(
1990): U.S.$8,309,000,000 (U.S.S900 per capita).
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
name: Republica de Guatemala (Republic of Guatemala). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Congress ot the Republic [116]). Head of state and government: Official
1991 in
Q
President. Capital: Guatemala City. Official language: Spanish.
Monetary
unit:
(Ol=
100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 U.S.$ = 5.32; 1 £= 9.04.
5,
Area and population
1992 sq mi
Departments
Capitals
Verapaz Baja Verapaz Chimaltenango Chiquimula El Progreso
Chimaltenango Chiquimula Guastatoya (Progreso)
Coban Salama
Alta
3.354 1,206
Escuintla
Escuintla
Guatemala Huehuetenango
Guatemala City Huehuetenango
Izabal
Puerto Barrios Jalapa Jutiapa
Jalapa Jutiapa
Peten Quelzaltenango
797 1,243 13,843
753
1,951
8378
717 180
1,856
San Marcos
1,464
Cuilapa Solola
1,141
3,791 2.955 1,061
Retalhuleu Antigua Guatemala
Sacatepequez San Marcos Santa Rosa Solola
estimate 1
3.235
Quetzaltenango Santa Cruz del Quiche
Retalhuleu
km
8,686 3,124 1,979 2,376 1,922 4,384 2.126 7,400 9.038 2,063 3,219 35,854
764 917 742 1.693 821 2,857 3,490
Flores
Quiche
sq
410 969 410
Mazatenango
Suchitepequez Totonicapan
Totonicapan
Zacapa
Zacapa
465
1,039
42,0422
TOTAL
2,510 1,061
2,690 108.889
610,714 189.510 353.877 257.355 110,687 558.497
8.4
02
5,241
02
14.9
388,301 114,246
134
Public utilities Transp. and commun
880
25
284.2
8.1
8403 3258 2493
24.0 7.1
1
212.2
61
J
3,501.3
100.0
20
—
Consumer
price index
-
(
km
39 04 25
.784
72.493 374.690 38,115
12.9
417,065
144
59,8825 2,898,316
2.15 100.0
1.3
Annual earnings index'
2,074.462 740,371 336,971 195,849 362.215
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100
136.9
170.5
357.1
1170
1899 2290
268 .1
100.0
153.8 144.2
263.5
333 6
193.1
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.4; income per household (1989): Q 4,306 (U.S.$1,529); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981): food 64.4%, housing and energy 16.0%, transportation and communications 7.0%, household furnishings 5.0%., clothing 3.1%.
266,793 573,651 593,158 246,067 185.488 723.075
Foreign trade 8 Balance of trade (current prices)
273.519 249,761 371 .726 306.144 164,737 9,744,627
US$000,000
% of total
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
+185.2 9.6%
-345.8 14.9%
-391.5 16.1%
-389.2 14.9%
-207.4 8.0%
-197.3 7.5%
Imports (1990): U.S.$ 1,648,798,600 (primary and intermediate materials for industry 40.3%; capital goods 19.4%; nondurable consumer goods 12.8%; petroleum 10.0%). Major import sources: United States 39.5%; Venezuela
7.2%; Mexico 6.7%; Japan 6.0%; West
(
1 1
9.3
—
48 9
1.416,499
Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Demography Population (1992): 9,442.0001. Density IW2): persons per sq mi 224.6. persons per sq ( rban-rural (1992): urban 38.3%; rural 61.7'; Sex distribution 1989); male 49.00' female 51.00%.
force
522.0 68.7
25.8
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2, 100,000,000. Population economically active (1989): total 2,898,316; activity rate of total population 33.5% (participation rates: age 15-64, 59.1%; female 25.5%; unemployed 2.9%6).
population
area
ot labour
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Other TOTAL
Q
Q
%
labour force
of total
value
902 4
Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services
Guatemalan quetzal
1
000,0003
Agriculture
Trade
Official religion: none.
1989
%
value
Germany 5.6%.
Exports (1990): U.S.Sl, 162,970,100 (coffee 27.8%; sugar 10.4%; bananas 6.0%; vegetables 3.6%; fish, crustaceans, and mollusks 2.8%). Major export destinations: United States 38.7%; El Salvador 12.4%; Costa Rica 6.3%; West Germany 5.5%; Honduras 3.3%.
86.7.
:
breakdown (1989); under 15, 46.2%; 15-29, 24.7%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 8.4%; Mi- "4. 4.4',; 75 and over. 1.2%.
[ge
Population projection: (2000) 11,809,000; (2010) 15,242,000. Doubling tune: 22 years. / thnic composition adino (Hispanic/Amerindian) (1987): Amerindian 45%; 45',; white 5%; black 2' other mixed race and Chinese 3%. Religious affiliation (1986): Roman Catholic c. 75 f ;. of which Catholic, ttuli tional svneretist e. 25',; Protestant (mostly fundamentalist) C. 25%. 1
,
Major
cities
(1942):
;
Guatemala
City
1,114,432; 134,372; Chinautla 55,492; Amatitlan 35.714.
Mixco 368,9403;
Nueva
Villa
Vital statistics Birth ran- per l. population 1989): 39.4 (world avg. 27.1). Death rate per l.ooo population 1989): 7.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 32.1 (world avg. 17.3).
Transport and communications transport.
Railroads (1990) 9
:
route length 570 mi, 917 km; passenger-km
10,099,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,700,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,297 mi, 13.352 km (paved 26%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 130,000; trucks and buses 100,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 447. Air transport (1990) 10 passenger:
km 21 5,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,1)00,000; airports (1992) 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 8; total circulation 186,50011; circulation per 1,000 population 22U. Radio (1991): 400,000 receivers (I per 23 persons). Television (1991): 475,000 receivers (1 per 19 persons). Telephones (1990): 250,000 (1 per 36 persons).
(
Education and health
(
fertility run- (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1.000 population 1988): s .4. Divorce rate pei 1.000 population (19.S8): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1985-90): male 59.7 years; female (>4.4 years. Major causes of death per ioo.ooo population (i l W4): infectious and parasitic diseases 21 1.5; diseases of the respirator] system 145.7. ol which pneumonia 112.4; diseases ot the circulator} s\stem 57.2; malnutrition 45.3; homicide and other violence 35.1; til-defined conditions 72.6.
Total
Education (1989)
(
National economy
Q 4,296,100,000 (tax revenue 81.2%, of which tax services 34.8%, income taxes 24.6%, customs duties 16.5%; nontax revenue 18.1%) Expenditures: O 4,312,000,000 (1990; education 14.3%; defense 12.7%; transportation 8.2%; health 8.1%; agriculture 3.7%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$185,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad I S.si $9,000, Land use (1990): forested 34.6%; meadows and pastures 12. 9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.4',; other 35.1%. Production (metric toiis except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): sugarcane 9,797,000, corn (maize) 1,150,000, bananas 470,001). coffee 195,000, tomatoes 128,000, dtv he. ins 110,000, seed cotton 110,000, SOrghum 80,000, cottonseed 60,000, plantains 55,000; livestock (number of live animals) Budget (1991). Revenue:
on goods and
(
roundwood (1990) 7,822,000 catch (1990) 6,894. Mining and quarrying (1990): iron ore 6,370; '000,000; 1989 3 ): antimonj ore 1,400 Manufacturing (value added in lood products 138.0; beverages 66.2; clothing and footwear 47.6; textiles 43.2: metal products 10 onstruction (value of buildings authorized in 1,000; 1991) 4 residential 170.2; nonresidential 127.5. Energv production 1,695,000 cattle. 1,110,000 pigs, 675,000 sheep;
cu m;
lish
Q
Q
(
:
(consumption): electricitj (kW-hr; 1990) 2,325,000,000 (2,325,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 1,975,000); petroleum products (metric '
I
tons; 1990) 598,000 (962,000)
Primary (age 7-12)
Secondary (age 13
Voc teacher .
Higher
18)
student/
teacher
schools
teachers
8,840
33,666
1,235,509
367
1,541
17,313
297,437
172
5
4,346
69.532
160
students
ratio
tr.
Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 50.0%; incomplete primary education 21.6%; complete primary 16.2%; secondary 9.2%; higher 3.0%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 2,809,000 (60.3%); males literate 1,544,000 (69.79! ); females literate 1,265,000 (51.7%). Health (1987): physicians 3,579 (1 per 2,356 persons); hospital beds 13,667 (1 per 602 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 43.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,254 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 103% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 44,600 (army 94.2%, navy 2.7%, air force 3.1% ). Military expenditure as percentage of C,N1> ( 989): 1 .6% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S15. 1
population of departments and cities taken from official projections based on 1973growth rates and subsequent vital (birth and death) rates; 1942 national population estimate based on demographic surveys taken in October 1986-August 14X7 and April-July 1989. -Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3 At prices of 1958. -'Private construction in Guatemala City metro area only. -^Includes persons in activities not adequately defined and 57,958 officially unemployed. I. '124 '•Officially unemployed; 63% of economically active population is estimated to be underemployed. 7 Based on employees entitled to social security. "Import figures are lob m balance ol trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. ''Guatemala Railways only. i"Aviateca Airlines only. "Five newspapers only. 81 inlercensal
N. ill. his ol
Guinea
cement 69,934; matches 375.154;
'///(
ol
>>i
i,\
production in CI 000; tobacco products
plastics 162,242;
$26,138; printed mattei 116.5J1; Iruit juice 22,449. Construction n.a. Energy production
tion): electricity
I
.1
(341.000); natural gas.
15-meraber transitional Committee Recover) Head of •.law and government: President (and Head ol rransitional Committee for National Recovery) 1 foi National
(value
and sheet iron 571,081;
World
hi-
(consump(kW-hr; 1990) 518,000,000 If 000,000); coal, noni crude petroleum, none (n.a.K petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)
(
government (composed
Manufa
kg
00
1985): corrugated
ial name. Republique de ( iuinee Republic ol < ruinea). Form of government: transitional' t
gold
caral
l
Gross national product (U.S.$480 per capita).
|
none (at
(n.a.).
current market prices;
1990):
'
S.$2,756,000,000
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
.
(
'apital:
1990
tonakrj
(
in
Official language
French. Official religion: none,
Monetary (Cil
;
=
)
1092) 1
GF
Guinean franc Hid emus; valuation (Oct.
I
unit:
Agriculture
551
Mining Manufacturing Construction
474
I
5,
U.S.$ = GF 811;
£ = G1-
Public
1,378.
Area and population population
area
Regions
Capitals
Beyla
Beyla
sq mi
Boffa
6.738 1.932
Soke-'
Boke
3,881
Conakry
Conakry
Coyah (Dubreka)
Coyah
Dabola Dalaba Dmguiraye Faranah 2 Forecanah
Dabola Dalaba
119 2,153 2.317
Boffa
Forecariah Fria
Gaoual
4,440
Gueckedou
Gueckedou Kankan
1,605 7.104 3,070 3.409 3,425 571 2,124 4,647
Kerouane
Kindia
Kindia
Kissidougou Koubia
Kissidougou Koubia
Koundara Kouroussa Labe Lelouma
Koundara Kouroussa Labe Lelouma
Lola
Lola
Macenta
Macenta
Mali
Mali
Mamou
Mamou
Mandiana
Mandiana
Nzerekore
Pita
Siguiri
1 1
Telimele
Telimele
Tougue
Tougue
Yomou
Yomou
1 1
.500
4,157 18,400 7.950 8,828 8,872 1,480 5.500 12,035 2,520 2.150 4.219 8,710 8,800 6,160 12.950
973 830
3,781
4.000 19.750 8.080 6.200 2.183
843 94.9263
TOTAL
,000
12.400 4.265 2,175
1,629 3.363 3,398 2,378 5,000 1,460 1,544 7,626 3,119 2.394
Nzerekore
Pita
5.576 6.000 3.400
840
Fria
Gaoual
Siguin
308
4,247 4,788 1,647
Faranah
km
17.452 5,003 10.053
1.313
Dinguiraye
Kankan Kerouane
sq
245.857
1983 census
km
29.4.
(
Age breakdown (1990): under 8.0%; 60 and over, 4.4%.
15,
commun.
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense
1
Services
J
46.7%; 15-29, 25.9%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59,
Population projection: (2000) 8,879,000; (2010) 1,451,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fulani 38.6%; Malinke 23.2%; Susu 11.0%; Kissi r 6.(l Kpelle 4.6%; other 16.6%. Religious affiliation I9S8): Muslim 85.0%: traditional beliefs 5.0%; Christian 1.5%; other 8.5%. Major cities (1983): Conakry 705.280; Kankan 88,760; Labe 65,439; Kindia 1
;
(
55,904.
force
27.8 23.9
16 71
3.6 5.6 0.8 3.6
434
21.9
222
112
32 1
%
ol labour
force
2,246,000
76.3
327.000
11.1
371 .000
126
2,944.000
100.0
'
.
1
I
\
TOTAL
Demography Population (1992): 7,232,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 76.2, persons per sq Urban-rttral (1990): urban 25.6%; rural 74.4%. Sex distribution 1990): male 50.17%; female 49.83%.
labour
value
1 1
Other
161,347 141,719 225,207 705.280 134.190 97,986 132,802 133.502 142,923 116.464 70,413 135,657 204,757 229,861 106,872 216,052 183,236 98,053 94,216 136,926 253,214 138,467 106,654 193,109 210.889 190.525 136.317 216.355 227.912 209.164 243,256 113,272 74.417 5.781.014
1987
% of tota
71
utilities
Transp. and
;
value
000.000.000
1.6
100
,982
Population economically active (1990): total 2,476,000: activity rate of total population 43.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 76.2%; female
40.8%; unemployed, Price index (1988 Consumer
n.a.).
= 100)
price index
19885
19895
1990S
100
126.0
160.1
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 6.7; average annual income per capita (1984) OS 7,660 (U.S.S305); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1985): food 61.5%, health care 11.2%, clothing and footwear 7.9%, housing and energy 7.3%, transportation 5.1%. Land use (1990): forested 59.3%; meadows and pastures 25.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.0%; other 12.7%.
Foreign trade" Balance of trade (current prices) 1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
U.S.$'000,000
+111
+147
+120
%
11.0%
12.6%
9.6%
+ 10 0.7%
+ 146 10.6%
+ 177 1 1 .8%
+ 33.2 2.7%
of total
Imports (1990): U.S.$693,000,000 (1988; intermediate goods 33.7%, capital goods 13.1%, petroleum products 10.5%, food products 9.8%, consumer goods 9.7%). Major import sources: France 36.0%; U.S. 9.0%; BelgiumLuxembourg 9.0%; Germany 6.0%.; Italy 5.0%. Exports (1990): U.S.$788,000,000 (bauxite 56.9%, alumina 20.7%. diamonds 8.9%, gold 5.8%, coffee 4.5%, fish 1.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 23.0%; France 14.0%; Germany 14.0%; Spain 13.0%; Ireland 9.0%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 411 mi, 662 km. Roads (1988): total length 17,600 mi, 28,400 km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 13,000: trucks and buses 13,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross
tons and over) 26; total deadweight tonnage 2,827. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 17,873,000, passenger-km 28,764,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,684,ton-km cargo 2,458,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): 1; total circulation 13,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.0. Radio (1991): 200,000 receivers (1 per 35 persons). Television (1991): 65,000 receivers (1 per 108 persons). Telephones (1990): 19,602 (1 per 355 persons). 000, metric
Education and health Education (1989)
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 47.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991 ): 21.0 (world avg. 9.2). (
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 26.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rule (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1990): 6.5. Life expectancy at birth 1990-95): male 44.0 years; female 45.0 years. Major causes of death per 1(10,000 population: n.a.: however, major diseases include malaria, venereal disease, tuberculosis, and measles.
Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc teacher tr. Higher ,
schools
teachers
2,442
8,113 3,868
225' 35?
635?
student/ teacher ratio
310,064 71,346 7,313
38.2 18.4 5.2?
(
National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: OF 415,200.000,000 (mineral sector 46.3%; other 53.7%). Expenditures: GF 593.100,000.000 (capital spending 52.3%; current expenditure 47.7%, of which personnel 22.4%, services 14.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,249,000,000. Tourism: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): roots and tubers 732.(10(1 (ol which cassava 450,000, yams' 106,000), rice 628,000. vegetables and melons 42(1,(10(1, plantains 408,000, sugarcane 225,(10(1, citrus fruit 163,000, bananas 110,0(10. corn (maize) 79,000, pulses 62,00(1. peanuts (groundnuts) 52,000, palm kernels 40,000, pineapples 38,000, coconuts 18,000, eggs 13,860, coffee 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,800,000 cattle. 518,000 sheep, 464,00(1 goals, 33,000 pigs, 13,000,000 chickens; roundwood 4.034.000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 32.(IO(f. Mining and quarrying (1991): bauxite 17,500,000 4 alumina 640,000; diamonds 200.000 ;
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 24.0%; males 34.9%; females 13.4%. Health (1988): physicians 672 (1 per 9,732 persons); hospital beds 3,382 (1 per 1.934 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 134 Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,242 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active dun' personnel (1992): 9,700 (army 87.6%, naw .2' 1988): 8.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.$4.
GNP
1
(
4 ,
I
'
.
.
air force
(world 5.1%);
'Transitional government established January I9, of which frozen cod fillets 17.6%, uncured salted fish 11.7%, fresh whole fish chilled or on ice 9.6%, frozen shrimp 6.8%; aluminum 8.8%; ferrosilicon 1.9%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 23.4'v United States 12.6%; Germany 12.1%: France 10.1%; Japan 7.9%; Spain 4.8%. :
;
Transport and communications transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990);
total length 7,070 mi,
,
(
1991
):
Marriage rale per 1.000 population 1990): 4.5. Divorce rate per I.OOO population (1990): 1.9. Life expectancy at birth 1984-90): male 75.7 years; female 80.3 years. Major causes of death per lOO.OOO population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 292.9, of which ischemic heart diseases 171.4, cerebrovascular disease 70. J; malignant neoplasms (cancels) 178.0; diseases of the respiratory system 79.6. (
(
(
Education and health Education (1990-91)
Budget (1991). Revenue: ISK 99,953,000,000 (sales tax 39.0%, income tax 19.3%, import duties 10.6%, taxes on alcohol and tobacco i>.5'< Expenditures: ISK 112,487,000,000 (health and welfare 44.9',. education 15.7%, general services 10.4',. interest on public debt 8.8%). Production (metric ions except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): milk (1990) 110,000, potatoes 15,100, silage 962,900 cu m; livestock (num).
(
animals) 510,800 sheep. 77,700 cattle. 74.10(1 horses; fish catch of which cod 294,700, capelin 250,600, redfish 100.500. lobster and 991, shrimp 44,800). Mining and quarrying (1991): diatomite 25.000. Manufacturing (value added in ISK '000,0110: 1989): lood products 20,068; graphic ails 4.201: fabricated metal products and machinery 4,167; wood furniture 1,964; nonmetallic mineral products 1,646. Construction (number of buildings completed: 1988) residential 1,728; nonresidential 649. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 4,610,000,000 (4,610,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (70.000): crude petroleum, none (none): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (637,000); natural gas. none (none). Land use (1989): forested 1.2%; meadows and pastures 22.7%; agricultural live
cultivation
or,
.
1
Price and earnings indexes (1985
==
Primary (age 7-12)i6 Secondary (age 13-20) Voc teacher tr Higher .
student/
schools
teachers
265"
3,200"
students
teacher
ratio
l
>
58,642"
183"
5,450
14.0'e
J
5
369 '8
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians 1989) 675 (1 per 373 persons); hospital beds (1988) 2,490 (I per 10(1 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1991) 5.5. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,518 (vegetable products 62%, recommended minimum requirement. animal products 38% ); 132% of (
FAO
Military loud active duty personnel (1991): 130 coast guard personnel; NATOsponsored U.S. -manned Iceland Defense Force (1991): 3,000 (navy 60.0%, air force 40.0% ). Milium expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): none (world average 4.9',
).
oilier "'6.0%.
Population economically active (1989): total 128.055; activity rate of total population 50."', (participation rates: 15-64. 78.6%; female |1984] 39.5%; unemployed [June 1991-Juh 1992] 2.13
Consumer price index Hourly wages index
km
i
National economy
and under permanent
11,378
(paved 20',). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 120,862; trucks and buses 16.012. Merchant marine 1991 ): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 392; total deadweight tonnage 118,478. Air transport (1991)' 4 passenger-mi 1,147,,000, passenger-km 1,846,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 23,713,000, metric ton-km cargo 34,620,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 21. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 6; total circulation 147,500; circulation per 1,000 population 572. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 155,000 (I per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 76,250 (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (1990): 130,0001? (1 per 2.0 persons). :
:
1.086,673 739.961 1 .454,678
population Rajkot
556.137 598.498
Ranchi Sholapur
519,530 648.621
Jalandhar (Jullundur)
Jodhpur
1,014.062
536,444 1,012,062
1
(Solapur)
Srinagar Surat Thane (Thana)
Trivandrum
603,870 586,038"> 1
,496.943
796,620 523,733
Vadodara
951,696 752.078 646.896 916,980 515,962
(Baroda) Varanasi (Benares) Vi|ayawada
.559.558
Vishakhapatnam
1,021,084
925,962 701 .351
750,024
;
0.7%.
Social indicators Educational attainment (1981) 11 Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 64.8%; no formal schooling (literate) 1.0%; some primary education 7.1%; completed primary 10.9%; some secondary 6.2%; completed secondary 7.1%; higher vocational 0.4%; completed undergraduate degree 2.5%. .
income (1983)
percentage of household income by 2
3
12.3%
16.3%
quintile
5 (highest)
41.3%
Quality of working life. Average workweek (1989): 42 hours. Rate of fatal (nonfatal) injuries per 100,000 workers: industrial workers (1987) 14 (4,140): miners (1987) 31 (169); railway workers (1987-88) 17 (1,188). Employees covered under Employee's State Insurance Scheme (1989) 6,807,000; number of beneficiaries 26,411,000. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workdays (1989): 20. Access to services. Proportion of villages having access to electricity (1990) 83.4%; proportion of urban (rural) population having access to (1990): safe water supply 84.0% (74.0%), safe sewage disposal 46.0% (2.0%). Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (May/June 1991) national election: 53%. Verified trade union membership in total work force (1986): less than 5% (about 10,000,000 workers). Social deviance (1984). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 3.4; dacoity (gang robbery) 1.4; theft and housebreaking 43.7; rape 0.8. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population (1990): 6.9. Leisure (1987). Favourite leisure activities in urban areas: listening to the radio, watching television, reading periodicals, and attending the cinema. Material well-being (1983). Households possessing: automobile 0.8%: telephone 2.3%; television receiver 1.6%; radio receiver 17.2%.
National economy Gross national product (1990): U.S.$294,816,000,000 (U.S.S350 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1981'
1989-90' in
Agriculture
Public
utilities
Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin defense Services ,
Pune
•
1
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Other principal cities (1991) population
hnstian 2
in
I
Distribution of Port Blair
Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu
I
Zoroastrian
same district but at different residence as district, same state 22,557.000; different state
Population living
population
area
States
Muslii
627
persons H.0%, 4 persons 14.1 person 5.6%, 2 persons 8.3%, 5 persons 15.9%, 6 or more persons 44.6%. Average number ol rooms per household 2.0; no exclusive room 0.6%, 1 room 44.7%, 2 rooms 28.6%, 3 rooms 12.2%, 4 rooms 6.3%, 5 rooms 2.7%, 6 or more rooms 3.1%, unspecified number of rooms 1.8%. Average number ot persons per room 2.8. Shelterless (homeless) population estimated (1987) at more than 100.000,000. Emigration (1987 estimation): persons living abroad 12.697.0(10 (accepting foreign citizenship 8.200,000), of which in Nepal (1980) 3,800,000 (2,388,000); Malaysia 1,170,000 (1,029,000); Middle Eastern countries 1.064,000 (102,000); Sri Lanka 1.028.000 (457,000); South Africa 850,000 (850,1 United Kingdom 789,000 (395.000); Mauritius 701.000 (7lii mted States 500,000 (287,000); Trinidad and Tobago 430,000 (430,000); Fiji 339,000 (339,000); Myanmar 330,000 (50,000); Canada 229,000 (129.000). S.6;
Rs)=
1992)
i
17,604,000; different moved outside the country Households (1981)". Iotal households
Delhi.
unit:
(Re, plural
1981
10,860,000;
Official languages: Hindi; English. Official religion: none.
Monetary
i
World
ol llu-
Other TOTAL
value
% ot total
Rs 000.000,000
value
1,232.6
312
865
2 2
740.6
188
2202 866 2779
5.6 2.2 7.0
506.2 341
128
1
2374 2223
—
3,951.4
8.6
labour force
172,713.291 1.301.632 26.554.517 3.864,104
989,490 6,206,697 12,638.204 1.822.229
5
>
of labour
force
66.4 0.5
10.2 1 5 0.3 2.4 4.9 0.7
18 514 810
7.1
15.670.1 44 '6 260,275.118
6.0'6 100.0
'
'
5.6 }
—
100.0
Budget (1991-92). Revenue: Rs 1,002,493,000,000 (tax revenue 63.6% of which excise taxes 26.8% customs duties 25.8%, corporation taxes 6.7%; nontax revenue 36.4%, of which economic sen ices 20.1'/. interest receipts 11.0%). Expenditures: Rs 1,141,032,000.(100 (interest payments and debl transportation 12.6',; servicing 24.1%; grants to state governments 13. defense 10.2%; agriculture 5.5%; social services 3.3%).
2%
Britannica World Data
628
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$62,585,000,000. Production (in '000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 240,290, rice 110,945, wheat 54,522, potatoes 15,254,
Service enterprises (1980)
annual no, of
sorghum
10,800, mangoes 9,700, millet 9,000, corn (maize) 8,200, peanuts (groundnuts) 7,000, coconuts 6,550, bananas 6,400, cassava 5,600, chick-peas rapeseed 5,152, seed cotton 5,106, dry beans 4,052, cottonseed 3,404, tomatoes 3,100, palm oil 2,800, soybeans 2,100, oranges 1,890, cotton lint 1.700, barley 1,642, jute 1,620, apples 1,020, sunflower seed 850, lentils 835, sesame seed 800, tea 730, chilies 609 7 tobacco 560, turmeric 340 l7 ginger 154 17 black pepper 43 17 livestock (number of live animals) 198,400,000 cattle, 112,000,000 goats, 77,000.000 water buffalo, 55,740,000 sheep; roundwood (1990) 274,460,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 3,619, of which freshwater fish 1.371. Mining and quarrying (1990): limestone 64,1 16 18 iron ore (metal content) 29,469; bauxite 4,618; dolomite 2,520 18 manganese 1,404; chromite 1,084; magnesite 476 18 zinc concentrate 79; copper (metal content) 65; gold 59.700 troy oz.; diamonds 16,500 carats 18 Manufacturing (1990-91): cement 46,609; steel ingots 14,194; refined sugar 11,808; finished steel 11,118; nitrogenous fertilizers 7,068; paper and paperboard 2,062; jute manufactures 1,388; soda ash 1,384; aluminum 443; nylon and polyester yarns 261; electric motors 5,850,000 horsepower; bicycles 6,768,000 units: motorcycles and scooters 1,865,000 units; diesel engines 1,795,000 units; passenger cars and jeeps 221,000 units; passenger buses and trucks 146,000 units; cotton cloth 12,738,000,000 metres' 8 computers, Rs 8,200,000,00019; gold jewelry, Rs 7,200,000,00020; silk goods, Rs 6,760,000,00020. Construction (value in Rs;
5,196,
,
,
,
value no. of
enter-
em-
added
ployees
prises
(Rs 000,000)"
Wholesale and retail trade Community and personal
6,046,200
10.228,700
412,450
services Transportation, storage Construction Real estate and business services
3.177,700 429,800 152,000
13,128.800
205,880 202,750 198,560
273,500 33.700 98,900 807.000
1,570,800
1
.551 ,200
451,200
150,670 132,270 64.260 37.690 24,690
;
;
Finance and insurance Electricity,
gas, and steam
Communications Restaurants and hotels
363.500 530,900 2.080,500
;
;
.
Land
use (1990): forested 22.4%; meadows and pastures 4.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 56.9%; other 16.6%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990-91) U.S.S 1.362,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.$425,000,000.
Foreign traded
Balance of trade (current prices)
;
Manufacturing enterprises (1986-87) 21 annual value
avg. no. of factories
Chemicals and chemical products, ol which industrial chemicals drugs and medicine fertilizers and pesticides^
546
17,299 3.120 1.567
Transport equipment,
which motor vehicles Nonelectrical machinery/apparatus of
Electrical
of
7254
machinery/apparatus,
3,888
which radios and televisions
992
Refined petroleum Bricks,
tiles,
17 7,184 5,978 1,720
cement
Metal products
Paper and paper products Printing and publishing
3.201
Tobacco products
6,716
Beverages Plastic
1
447
products
1.953
Professional and scientific goods Petroleum, coal derivatives
737 470
added
of
wages
all
(Rs 000,000)15
148 9
524,000 86,000 120,000 80,000
11.761 5,251
and steel Food products Iron
% of avg.
engaged
6,335 1.017 1,374
Textiles (excl. clothing)
wages as a
no of persons
30.455 7.207 7,117 5,920
166.4
1672 180 2
.429,000
906
571,000 956,000 487,000 183,000 412,000 339,000 93,000 16,000 345,000 178,000 130,000 147,000 346.000 46,000 59.000 47,000 33,000
130,7
29.451 20,561
54 3
19,531
147.3
18,959
1692
1
130.7
17,551
1476
16,446 3.664 9.573 8,478 5,257 3,982 3,959 3,795 2.094 1,975 1,738 1,625
124.7
3123 678 965 983 106 6
296 898 762 1152 1366
1
,033
electricity (kW-hr; 1941-92) 286,700,000,000 ([1990] 286,940,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991-92) 229,000,000 9.7%, interest 8.6%, profits and dividends 6.0%, rent J.5%; expenditure (1988 89): food and beverages 52.1%, clothing and footweai 12.2%, transportation and communications 8.4%. housing 6.6%, household furnishings 4.4% energy 4.3%. .
-
Nations
emenl
i
10
(
name: Republik Indonesia
Republic
oi Indonesia),
Form of government,
unitarj multipart} republic with two legislative houses (House of People's Representatives
World
44,260,000,000 (44 !60,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 7,327,000 99 000(273,1 000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) roleum products (metric tons. 1990) 12 150,000 (24,641,000) natural gas (cu m; I) 1990) 40,453,000,000 (1 1,155,000, Gross national product 1990): U.S.$101 151,000,000 (U.S.S560 per capita).
Indonesia Official
ill"
1989
% ot total
labour
value
force
force
43,062 28,748 38,602 10.828 1,258
21.7 14.5 19.5
41,097.381
54.0
6,496,655
85
,041
5.6 16.2
10.777,639
14.2
11,725.261
15.4
value
Rp 000.000.000
%
ot labour
apital: Jakarta. Agriculture
Bahasa Indonesia. monotheism. Indonesian rupiah
Official language: Official religion:
Monetary
(Rp)=
unit:
1
100 sen; valuation (Oct.
1992) 1 U.S.$ = £ = Rp 3,520.
Rp
Mining Manufacturing Construction Public
5,
utilities
commun.
Transp. and
2.071;
1 1
Trade
1
Area and population Metropolitan district
Capitals
Jakarta Raya
Jakarta
sq mi
228
km
1990 census^
590
8,254,000
5,561
2.7W.000
sq
Finance, real estate
32,154 13,073
Pub admin
12,801
65
6,434
3.3
.
defense
Services Other TOTAL
population
area
_
55 06 66
1 \
J
100.0
198.001
7.96
5.991,8206 76.088.756
100
.
.
Population economically active: total (1989) 76,088,756; activity rate 43.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 68.6%; female 39.9%; unemployed 2.9%).
Provinces
Denpasar Bengkulu Jayapura Jambi
Bali
Bengkulu Jaya Jambi Irian
Jawa Barat Jawa Tengah Jawa Timur
Bandung Semarang
Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan
Pontianak Banjarmasin Palangkaraya
Surabaya
Barat Selatan
Tengah
14,541
Kendari
58,919 78,162 12,860 28.767 7,790 18,485 36,510 28,101 26,921 10,690
Menado
7345
Samannda
Timur
Lampung
Tanjung Karang
Maluku Nusa Tenggara Barat Nusa Tenggara Timur
Ambon
Riau
Pakanbaru Ujung Pandang
Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi
2,147 8,173 162,928 17,297 17,877 13,207 18,502 56,664
Mataram Kupang
Selatan
Tengah Tenggara
Palu
Utara Sumatera Barat Sumatera Selatan Sumatera Utara
Medan
Timor Timur
Dili
19.219 40,034 27,331 5.743
Aceh
Banda Aceh
21.387
Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta
Special
autonomous
Padang Palembang
21,168 421,981 44.800 46.300 34.206 47.921 146.760 37,660 152,600 202,440 33.307 74,505 20,177 47,876 94,561 72.781 69.726 27,686 19,023 49,778 103,688 70,787 14,874
1,179,000 1.641,000 2,016.000 35,381.000 28,522.000 32.504.000 3.239.000 2,598,000 1 .396.000 1 .877.000 6.006,000 1,856,000 3,370,000 3,269,000 3,306,000 6,982,000 1,711,000 1,350,000 2,479.000 3,999,000 6,277.000 10,256,000 748,000
55,392 3,169 1.919,317
3,416,000 2.913,000 179,323,000
districts
1,224
741,052
TOTAL
Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index 7
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100 100.0
105.8
115.6
124.9
133.0
142.9
156.1
1084
114 7
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1976): wages 42.1%, self-employment 41.5%, transfer payments 2.5%; expenditure (1987): food 61.3%, housing and utilities 17.1%, clothing 5.1%, durable goods 3.0%. Land use (1989): forested 62.6%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 11.7%; other 19.2%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.SOOO.OOO
% of total
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
+5.249 21.5%
+5,625 19.6%
+7,419 23.5%
+ 7,229 19.6%
+ 6,240 13.8%
+ 6.075 1 1
.6%
Imports (1991): U.S.$25,868,800,000 (machinery and transport equipment 45.0%, chemicals 13.3%, mineral fuels 9.0%, crude materials 8.3%). Major import sources: Japan 24.5%; U.S. 13.1%; Germany 8.0%. Exports (1991): U.S.$29, 142,000,000 (crude petroleum 19.5%, natural gas 14.3%, plywood 9.9%, garments 7.9%, preparation rubber 3.3%). Major export destinations: Japan 36.9%; U.S. 12.0%; Singapore 8.3%.
Demography Population (I 992): 184,796,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 249.4, persons per sq km 96.3. Urban-rural (1991): urban 31.4%; rural 68.6%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.88%; female 50.12%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 37.0%; 15-29, 28.1%; 30-44, 17.8%; 45-59, 10.9%; 60-74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2000) 211,288,000; (2010) 238,174,000. Doubling time: 34 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1980): Javanese 40.1%; Sundanese 15.3%; Bahasa Indonesian 12.0%; Madurese 4.8%; other 27.8%. Religious affiliation (1985): Muslim 86.9%; Christian 9.6%, of which Roman Catholic 3.1%; Hindu 1.9%; Buddhist 1.0%; other 0.6%. Major cities (1985): Jakarta 7.829,000; Surabaya 2,345,000; Medan 2,110,000;
Bandung
1.633.000;
Semarang
1,269,000.
Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 6,583 km; passenger-km 9,288,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,192,000,000. Roads (1988): length 250,314 km (paved 43%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 1,372,673; trucks and buses 1,533,152. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,991; deadweight tonnage 3,130,834. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 12,707,924,000; metric ton-km cargo 423,900,000; airports (1992) 116. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 60; total circulation 3,716,000; circulation per 1,000 population 22. Radio (1991): 22,000,000 receivers (1 per 8.2 persons). Television (1991): 11,000,000 receivers (1 per 16 persons). Telephones (1989): 1.015,275 (1 per 172 persons). Transport.
Education and health Education (1989-90)8
Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1991): 32.2 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991); 1 1.7 (world avg. 9.2). (
Natural increase rale per 1,000 population 1991 ): 20,5 (world avg, 17.2). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 3.7. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1988-89): 7.4. Divorce rale per 1,000 population (1988-89): 0.8. / ife expectancy at birth (19'M): male 55.6 years; female 58.9 years. Major causes of death: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery, cholera, and plague. (
National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue; Rp 50,555,000,000,000 (royalties from energy production 2 C).7%, aid for development 20.5%, value-added tax 16.3%, income tax 15.9%, nontax revenues 5.6%, import duties 5.1%). Expenditures: Rp 50.555.000,000,000 (development 39.6%, debt service 28.4%, civil service 15.3% subsidies for autonomous regions 9.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding: 1990); U.S.$44,3 14,000,000. Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.S 1,879,000,000; expenditures U.S.$886,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): rice 44,490,000, sugarcane 25,503,000, cassava 17,064,000,' corn 6,741,000, palm oil 1,937,000, rubber 1,300,000, copra 1,250,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,800,000 goats. 10,300.0(111 cattle, 5,700,000 sheep, 3.4(10.110(1 buffalo; roundwood 171.532.000 cu m; lish catch 3,131,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): nickel ore 2,300.000; bauxite 1.240,000; copper oil-' 656,520; iron ore" 173,242; tin ore 4 30,061; silver 89,690 kg. Manufacturing (1990):
Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) teacher tr Highers
Voc
schools
teachers
students
146,558 28,745 3.880
1,140,886 703,099
792
115,359
26,528,590 8.473.299 1,410,073 1,179.489
1 1 1
,448
student/ teacher ratio
23.3 12.1
12.7 10.2
Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 30.3%: less than complete primary 32.2%; primary 22.8%; some secondary 6.4%; secondary 7.1%; higher 1.2%. Literacy ( 1987): total population age 15 and over literate 80,233,132 (77.6%); males literate 43,062,304 (85.6%); females literate 37.170,828 (70.0%). Health: physicians (1988-89) 23,367 (1 per 7,427 persons); hospital beds (1989-90) 118,585 (1 per 1,490 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1991) 90.
Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,708 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum. Military Total active duty personnel ( 1991): 27S.OOO (army 76.3%, navy 15.1%, air force 8.6%). Military expenditure as percentage o/GA/P (1989): 1.795 (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $9. Kill nonelective seats reserved for the military. -Includes the 5(1(1 members ot People's Representatives plus 501) other delegates. Preliminary 'Concentrates. 51988. ''Includes unemployed. 'Based on daily average wages ol agricultural estate workers. ^Refers to schools under the Department of Education and Culture only. "1487-88.
Includes
of the
results.
House
630
Britannica World Data
Public debt (external, outstanding; December 1990): U.S.$9,021,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$ 139, 120,000,000 (U.S.$2,450 per capita).
Iran Official
name: Jomhuri-ye EslamT-ye
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran). Form of government: unitary Islamic republic with one legislative house (Islamic Consultative Assembly [270]). Supreme leader: Rahbar (religious
1990-91 Rls 000,000,000
Petroleum, natural gas Other mining Manufacturing Construction
President. Capital: Tehran. oflnitil language: Pars! (Persian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: rial (Rls); valuation
Public
RK
2,479.
Area and population
population
area
Provinces
Capitals
Azarbayjan-e GharbT Azarbayjan-e SharqT Bakhtaran
OrumTyeh Tabriz
BGshehr Chahar Mahall va BakhtTarT
Bushehr Shahr Kord
Esfahan
Esfahan
Fare Gilan
ShTraz
Hamadan Hormozgan Ham
Hamadan
sq mi
sq
14.517 25.421
37,599 65,842 23.622 25,360 14,820 105.805 125,627 14,820 19,445 65,379 19,086 185.675 315,687 66,532 13,699 27.858 28,560 29,530 46,645 91,544
1.971.677 4,114,084 1.462.965 612,183 631.179 3,294.916 3,193.769
181,471 28,221
1,197,059 8,712.087 574.028 1 .588.600
Bakhtaran
9.121
9.792 5,722 40,852 48.505 5.722 7.508 25,243 7,369 71,690 121.887 25.688 5,289 10,756
Rasht
Bandar Abbas
Ham Kerman Mashhad
Kerman Khorasan Khuzestan Kohktluyeh va Buyer AhmadT Kordestan Lorestan MarkazT
Ahvaz
Mazandaran
Sari
Semnan
Semnan
STstan va Baluchestan
Zahedan
Tehran Yazd Zanjan
Tehran Yazd Zanjan
Yasuj
Sanandaj
Khorramabad
1 1
Arak
1 1
,027 ,402
18,010 35,345 70,066 10,896 24,704 14,047 630,578' 1 .8802 632,457'
TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER
TOTAL
km
1986 census
63,984 36.382 1,633,189' 4,8682 1,638.057
2081,037 1
,505,826
762,206 382,091 1.622,958
5280,605 2.681,978
18.2 3.9 1 7 1
250 3.220
91
1,853
5.3
2.639 10.185 4,537 3,656
28.9 12.9
838
2.4
Other
—
TOTAL
35.285
force
249
3.190.761
32.370
03
1,451,330 ,206.264 91,044
11.3 9.4
1
08 75
299
utilities
Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services
I
value
,385
1
% of labour
labour force
of total
6.423
Agriculture
guide ). Head of state and government:
(free rate; Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = Rls 1,458; 1£ =
1986
%
value
in
07
630.546 875.458 114,288
10.4
1
J
—
100.0'
4.9
68 09
3,049.753
23 8
2,178.4776 12.820.291
17.06 100.0'
Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$62,000,000; expenditures U.S.$396,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 12,820,291; activity rate 25.9% (particip. rates: ages 15-64, 51.3%; female 10.2%; unemp. [1992] 25-30%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index
= 100)
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992?
118.4 96.6
152.3 104.6
195.9
2397
2580
3022
368.4
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.1; income per urban household (1988) Rls 1,339,970 (U.S.$19,536); sources of urban income (1988): wages 37.4%, self-employment 30.5%, other 32.1%; expenditure (1988-89): food and hotels 47.5%, housing and energy 23.9%. Land use (1990): forested 11.0%; meadows and pastures 26.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 9.2%; other 52.9%.
411.828 1,078.415 1 ,367.029 1.082,109 3,419.346
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)
417,035
49.445,010
US$000,000
%
Of total
Population (1992); 59,570,000. Density 1942): persons per sq mi 94.2, persons per sq km 36.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban 56.7%; rural 43.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 51.15%; female 48.85%. \ge breakdown (1990): under 15. 43.8%; 15-29, 26.9%; 30-44, 15.2%; 45-59, 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2000) 71,894,000; (2010) 91,537,000. (
.
Doubling time: 2ll years. Ethnic composition 1983): Persian 45.6%; Azerbaijani 16.8%; Kurdish 9.1%; GTlakT 5.3%; Luri 4.3%; Mazandaran! 3.6%; Baluchi 2.3%; Arab 2.2%; Bakhtiari i.7%; Turkmen 1.5%; Armenian 0.5%; other 7.1%. Religious affiliation (1986): Muslim 98.39! (Shu 90.5%. Sunn! 7.8%); Bahal 0.8%; Christian 0.7%; Zoroastrian 0.1%; Jewish 0.193 Major cities (1986): Tehran 6,042,584; Mashhad 1.463,508; Esfahan 986.753: Tabriz 971.482; ShTraz 848,289.
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
-719
+2,330 11.8%
-409
+ 2,148 10.0%
+ 807 2.7%
4.2%
2.5%
imports (1990): U.S.$14,354,000,000 (^nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 20.9%; iron and steel 9.7%; grains and derivatives 6.9%; transportation equipment 6.8%). Major import sources: Germany 20.0%; Japan 12.4%; Italy s.5'
Demography
1985
+2.745 11.1%
r
:
U.K. 5.3%; France 4.6%; Turkey 4.3%.
Exports (1990): U.S.$15,161,000,000 (^crude petroleum, petroleum products, and natural gas 91.3%; carpets 3.0%; pistachios 1.6%; copper bars 0.5%; caviar 0.3%). Major export destinations: Japan 20.8%; Italy 9.5%; France
8.2%; The Netherlands 6.1%; Brazil 6.1%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.8%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 2,779 mi, 4,473 km; (1989-90) passenger-km 4,752.000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7.963,000.000. Roads (1989): length 95,273 mi, 153,327 km (paved 34%). Vehicles: passenger cars (198990) 2.008,000; trucks and buses 472,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels
(
(100 gross tons and over) 401: total deadweight tonnage 8,382,930. Air transport (1990) 10 passenger-km 5,561,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 113,653,000; airports ( 1992) with scheduled flights 18. Communications Daily newspapers (1990): 13; circulation 728,000"; circulation per 1,000 population 13". Radio (1991): 11,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons) Television (1991): 2,250.000 receivers (1 per 26 persons). Telephones L989): 2.104,000 per 26 persons). :
(
(
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population
1991): 44.li (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population 1991): 9.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural im reuse rale per 1,000 population 1991 ): 35.0 (world avg. 17.2). lotul fertility rale (a\g. births per childbearing woman; 1991 ): 6.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1988): 6.9. / He expectancy at birth 1991 ): male 64.(1 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population 1987-88)3; diseases of the circulator system 298.8; accidents 175.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 77.5; diseases of the respiratory system 67.4; diseases of early infancy 58.1.
Death
Education and health
(
rate
(
Education (1989-90)
(
(
(
(
National economy Budget (1990 91). Revenue: RK 4,009,700,000,000 (taxes 40.5%, oil and gas 27.2%) Expenditures: RK 5,595,800,000,000 (current expenditure 70.8%, development expenditure 29 2', Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): wheat 8,900,000, sugai beets 3,950,000, barlev 3,600,000, rice 2,100,000, sugarcane 2,000,000, grapes 1,650,000, apples 1,350,000, oranges 1,270,000, dates pistachios \^». livestock (head) 45,000,000 sheep. 23,500,000 570, 10 goats, 'ittle; roundwood 6,727,000 cu m 4 fish catch 250,000*. Mining and quarrying (value of production in RK '000,000; 1987): gravel and sand 12,653; marble, granite, and travertine 11.225: copper 9,427. Manufacturing (value added, in RK 1,000; 1987-88); textiles (excluding wearing apparel 232,000; bricks, tiles, and cement 225,60(1; tobacco products 161,products nonelectrical food machinery 95,600; iron and steel 148,300; 900; no Construction 1988 89); 21,375,000 sq m\ Energy production (consumption): electricitN (kW-hr; 1990- 91 59,102,000,000 (45.107.000.00(1); coal (metric tons; 1990) 12300, (1,700,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 07,000,000 (261,500,000*); petroleum products (metric tons; 199(1) 34,560,.000 (23.500.000,000). 000 (40,114,000); natural i;as (cu m; 1990 91 25,600,1 |.
(
I,
1
Primary (age 7-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational Higher
student/
schools
teachers
students
56.537 1 5.834
'2
361,878 240.102
8,817.145 4,456.342
1,088
'2
85 '2
23297 20,515'3
teacher
ratio
244 18.6
212,100 315,65713
9.1
15.4'3
Educational attainment (19X6). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 12.8%; primary education 40.4%; secondary 38.0%; higher 7.8%; not specified and not reported 1.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 18,200,000 (54.0%); males literate 11,600,000 (64.5%); females literate 6,600,000 (43.395 Health (1988-89): physicians 18,350 (1 per 2,882 persons); hospital beds 81,000 (I per 653 persons); infant mortality rate (1991) 66.0. Food 1986-88): daily per capita caloric intake 3,317 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10% ); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ).
(
;
Military
;
'
Total active duty personnel (1992): 528,000 (revolutionary guard corps 32.2%, army 57.8%, navy 3.4%, air force 6.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of'GNP (1989): 2.2%> 14 (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$158 14 .
l
i
)
i
I
'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. -Area of Lake Urmia. '21 ^Completed private construction, urban areas only, 'includes 1,818,756 unemployed. 7 May. "Based on 1988-89 data totaling U.S.S8, 177,000.000. "Based on 1990-91 estimate totaling U.S.$15,80O,0O0,000. "'Iran Air. ''Circulation based on seven dailies only. '21987-88. 131988-89. 4 Defense costs are highly tentative; barter cities only. -U99().
'
and counter-trade agreements are excluded.
Nation!
al
World
(he
Ml
000 ([1990] 137,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 17,430,000 (10,191,000); natural gas (cu m. 19 1,000). Gross luiiK'iuil product 1990) LJ.S.$73,000 000 (1 S.$4,110 per capita).
Iraq Official /nunc
l
I
al-Jumhflrfyah
-'lraulvah (Republic of Iraq).
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Form
o) government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly
1990
1987
'
ID 000.000
250]).
Haul
of state
Agriculture
and government:
Mining Manufacturing Construction
President
aptiah Baghdad. Offu iiil language: Arabic-. (
Public
Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Iraqi dinar
(ID)
I
dirhams = 1,000 1992)
fils;
ID=U.S.$2.86-';
1
1
commun
5,119 2,981
20.3 11.8
2,578 2,012
102
Area and population
al-Anbar
ar-RamadT
Babil
al-Hillah
Baghdad
Baghdad
al-Basrah
Basra
DhT Qar Oiyala
an-Nasiriyah
Baqubah
6,828
17.685 5.034 16.072 51.740 28.824 37,323 8,153 24.363 9,679 17.153
al-Muthanna
as-Samawah
an-Najaf
an-Najaf
NTnawa
Mosul ad-DTwanTyah Tikrit
Kirkuk al-KDt
1,944
6.205 19,977 11,129 14,410 3,148 9.407 3,737 6,623
865.500 1,221.100 3.910.900 1.168.800 1 ,030.900 1
,037.600.
567,600 524,200 350,000 666,400 1,618,700 595.600 772.200
605,900 605.700
Kurdish Autonomous
Region Dahuk
16.1
10.6
14
67 8.6 0.9 5.6
54
07
3.472
—
13.7
100.0
494
1.954,816 352.112 3.956.345
—
8.9
100.0
Population economically active (1987): total 3,956,345; activity rate of total population 24.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 43.1%; female 11.6%; unemployed 4.6%).
1991 estimate
km
4.071 19.070 12,900
Karbala'
124
population
sq
137.808 5.603
al-'Amarah
at-Ta'mlm Wasi)
sq mi
1,572 7,363 4.981
Maysan
al-Qadisiyah Salah ad-DTn
area 4
53,208 2,163
Karbala
8.0 0.9 8.4
25.241
Other TOTAL
Capitals
force
493,006 45,137 266.961 341,186 36,236 224,271 215,605 27,015
,
ID =£1.69.
Governorates
% of labour
labour force
value
2,119 4,071 2.669
Finance, real estate Pub admin defense, and services
5,
'0
220
utilities
Transp and Trade
= 20
valuation (Oct.
% of total
value
in
Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
89.0
95,9
1000
101.3
115.5
140.2
Earnings index
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1988): self-employment 33.9%, wages and salaries 23.9%, transfers 23.0%, rent 18.6%; expenditure r clothing and (1988): food and beverages 50.2%, housing and energv 14. *~)
,
,
footwear 10.6%. (1990): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 9.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.5%; built-on, wasteland, and other 74.1%.
Land use
5
Dahuk
Irbit
Irbil
as-Sulaymanlyah LAND AREA INLAND WATER
as-Sulaymanlyah
TOTAL
2.530 5.820 6.573 167,618
357 167,975
309.300 928,400
6,553 15.074 1 7.023
1,124.200
434.128 924 435,052
17,903,000
Foreign trade 11 Balance of trade (current prices) ID 000,000
% of total
Demography Population (1992): 18,838,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 112.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 70.4%; rural 29.6%. Sex distribution (1991): male 50.28%; female 49.72%.
km
43.3.
Age breakdown
(1991): under 15, 44.5%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 14.1%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 1.3%.
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
+282
+966
+ 2.006
-198
3%
4.4%
-1,124 6.9%
12.5%
11%
+ 1 .782 8.0%
1
Imports (1990): U.S.$4,834,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 30.3%, food and live animals 27.9%, chemical and pharmaceutical products 8.8%). Major import sources: United States 13.6%; Germany 8.5%; Japan 8.2%; United Kingdom 6.7%; France 5.8%. Exports (1990): U.S.$ 10,353,000,000 (1989; fuels and other energy 99.5%, food and agricultural raw materials 0.5%). Major export destinations: U.S. 28.5%; Brazil 9.9%; Turkey 9.8%; Japan 7.8%; The Netherlands 7.4%.
Population projection: (2000) 23,947,000; (2010) 30,834,000.
Doubling time: 18 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 77.1%; Kurd 19.0%; Turkmen 1.4%; Persian 0.8%; Assyrian 0.8%; other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (1990): Shu Muslim 61.5%; Sunn! Muslim 34.0%: Christian 3.7%, of which Eastern-rite Roman Catholic 2.5%, Nestorian 0.8%, Orthodox 0.4%; YazTdT syncretist 0.8%. Major cities (1985): Baghdad (1987) 3,844,608; Basra 616,700; Mosul 570,926; Irbil 333,903; as-Sulaymanlyah 279,424. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 46.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 7.0& (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 39.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.1. Life expectancy at birth (1991)7; male 46.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death. During the 1980s there were high war casualties and high incidences of trachoma, influenza, and measles. The 1991 war resulted in 70.000-90,000 postwar civilian deaths from gastroenteritis, typhoid, deprivation of medical care, and malnutrition.
National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: ID 13,935,000,000. Expenditures: ID 13,935,000,000. Details of the 1992 and 1993 proposed budgets were not released by the National Assembly. Special emphasis was to be placed on the reconstruction of the infrastructure.
Tourism (1989): receipts U.S.$59,000,000; expenditures, n.a. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1988): U.S.$75,000,OOO.tiOO. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): wheat, 1,476,000, barlev 768,000, tomatoes 438.000, watermelons 394,000, dates 375.000. grapes 470,0008, cucumbers 298,000, corn (maize) 297,000, rice 189,000, oranges 180,0008; livestock (number of live animals; 1990) 9,600,000 sheep. 1,675,000 cattle. 80,000,000 chickens: roundwood ( 1990) 155.000 cu m: fish catch 16,100. Mining and quarrying (1989): sulfur 1,270,000; phosphate rock 1. 3(lll.l«il); gypsum 450,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$'000,000; 1987): petroleum products 1,359; industrial chemicals 852; nonmetal mineral products 701; food 384; textiles 293; machinery and transport equipment 289, of which transport equipment 79; tobacco 175; beverages 142; printing and publishing 112; metal products 101. Construction (buildings authorized; 1991): residential 4,558,000 sq m; nonresidential 410,000 sq m.
Energy production (consumption):
(kW-hr; 194(1) 29,478,000,000 (26,132,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991 99,800,electricity
)
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 1,484 mi, 2,389 km; passenger-mi 271,000,000, passenger-km 436,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 223,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 326,000,000. Roads (1989): total length 28,305 mi, 45,554
km
(paved 84%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 744,252; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 138; total deadweight tonnage 1,589,925. Air transport (1992): no scheduled service -. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5: total circulation 572,000; circulation per 1,000 population 32. Radio (1991): 3,500.000 receivers (1 per 5.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1990): 712,109 (1 per 25 persons). 295,744.
1
Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11)
Secondary (age 12-17) Voc teacher tr. ,
Higher
schools
teachers
students
8.875 2,746
127.578 43,937 9,957 10,520
3,316.036 1.084,715 152,903 197,786
296 20
student/ teacher ratio
26.0 24.7
154 18.8
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 6,030,000 (59.7%); males literate 3,570,000 (69.8%); females literate 2,460,000 (49.3%). Health (1991): physicians 9.366 (1 per 1.922 persons); hospital beds (1990) 31,227 (1 per 568 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 80.0 7 Food (1991)7; daily per capita caloric intake 2,300-2,400; 93-97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. .
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 382,500 (army 91.9%, navy 0.3%, air force (1990): 18.2% (world, n.a.); 7.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $749.
GNP
'Multipartyism authorized by a September 1991
lav..
-Kurdish
is
official in
the Kurdish
only. 'Official pegged rate: black market rate was about 18 Iraqi facto dinars per U.S.S in May 1992. 4 Excluding Iraqi-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone self-government as of May 1992 elections. ''Excludes war-related deaths. 7 Postwar estimate. 819QO, 9Bj mid-1992 the embargo was estimated to have reduced the by at least 50%. '"At factor cost. "Import figures are lob. in balance ot trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. >2IJN sanctions stopped international service from March 1991; lack of spare parts ended domestic service from June 1992.
Autonomous Region
MV
UN
GNP
632
Britannica World Data
(kW-hr; 1990) 14,515,000,000 (14.515,000,000); coal (metric tons: 1990) 35,000 (3,034,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (13,308,000); petroleum products (metric tons: 1990) 1,456,000 (3,716,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 3,763,000,000 ([1990] 3,671,000,000). Gross national product (1991); U.S.$41.354,000,000 (U.S.$11,740 per capita). electricity
Ireland name: Eire
Official
(Irish); Ireland
1
(English).
Form of government:
unitary multi-
party republic with two legislative houses (Senate [60-]; House of Representatives [166]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. ( 'apitak Dublin. Official languages: Irish; English. Official religion: 3
Monetary
unit:
1
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 value
in
Mining
I
Construction Public utilities J Transp. and commun.
8,530
370
4,426
19.2
|
Irish
pound
(£Ir)
100 new pence: valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 £Ir = U.S.$1.85 = £1.10.
=
5.
Area and population
Trade Pub. admin Services 1 Finance f J Other TOTAL
population
area
.
defense
sq mi 6.611
2 293 581 2,084 951
Leitrim
Mayo
Roscommon
693
Sligo
7.580
Lemster Carlow Dublin^
346 356 654 796 664 403 318 902
Kildare
Kilkenny Laoighis
Longford Louth
Meath
771 681
Otfaly
Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster
908 782 9.315
Clare
1.231
Cork 5
2.880 1.815 1,037 771
Kerry Limerick 5 Tipperary North Riding Tipperary South Riding
872 710
WaterfordS Ulster
Cavan Donegal
498 26.600
537 27.137
1.0
5.2
17.39
49 21 6
9
1
9
13.7'0
100
,305.000
51 .876
Price
and earnings indexes (1985
40,946 1
.024,429
4,830 1.291
51 .262
823 2.336 1.998 1.763 2.351
2,025 24,127 3.188 7.460 4,701 2,686 1.996
100)
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
Consumer pnee ndex
1000
107.1
109 4
113.8
Weekly earnings index
100.0
103 8 107.5
113.0
1183
1231
117.6 127.3
121.4 133.4
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 58.6%, self-employment 13.3%, interest and dividends 8.2%; expenditure (1988): food 39.1%, rent and household goods 18.6%, transportation 12.6%.
Land
use
(
1989): forest
5.0%; pasture 68.1%; agricultural 13.8%; other 13.1%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) £lr
000.000
% of total
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1.164
2.004 10 3%
2.574
2.880
2.458
2,784
11.7%
11.0%
9.4%
10.2%
6.6%
1991
Imports (1990): £Ir 12,455,800,000 (machinery and transport equipment 35.9%, chemicals 12.4%, food 9.0%. petroleum and petroleum products 6.4%, beverages and tobacco 1.2%). Major import sources: U.K. 42.2%; U.S. 14.5%; Germany 8.3%; Japan 5.6%; France 4.6' Exports (1990): £Ir 14,336,200.000 (machinery and transport equipment 31.3%, food 19.9%, chemical products 15.9%, beverages and tobacco 2.3%). Major export destinations: U.K. 33.7%; Germany 11.7%: France 10.5%; U.S. 8.2%.
08,8956 1,390 70,285
==
1985
.860.037
122.516 73.613 52,325 30,293 90.707 105,540 58.448 61.882 102,045 97,293 1.008.443 90,826 409.814 121.719 161.856 57.829 74.791 91.608 232.012 52,756 127,994
1,891
58
:
54.736 1
1.694 2.062 1,719 1,044
730
100,0
0.6
Population economically active (1990): total 1,305.000; activity rate of total population 37.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.2% >': female 30.5% n unemployed 13.7%).
422.909 180,304 25,297 110,696
896 922
3,093
23,052
128 17.1
census 4
17,122 5.940 1.525 5,398 2.463 1,796 19.633
2.258 1.838 8,012
1.865
Monaghan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL
km
sq
59
278
force
179,000'°
1991
Provinces Counties Connacht Galways
1,363
6,396
% of labour
167,000 8,000 223.000 76.000 13,000 68.000 225.0009 64.000 282,000
10.1
"]
Manufactunng
.
value
2,337
Agriculture
labour force
°o of total
000,000
£lr
3523,401
Demography
Transport and communications
Population (1992): 3,519,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 129.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 57.1%; rural 42 9' (
km
Sex distribution (1941):
male 44.74',; female 50.26%.
Age breakdown
(1986): under 15, 28.9%; 15 29, 24.7%; 30-44, 18.8%; 45-59. 12.8%; 60-74, 10.7%; 75 and over. 4.1%. Population projection. (2000) 3,492,000; (2010) 3,458,000.
Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Irish nationality. Ethnic composition 14S1 |: more than 44' Religious affiliation |I4M): Roman Catholic 93.1%; Church of Ireland (An2.8' glican I'rcsbvterian 0.4%; other Major cities' (1441): Dublin 477,675; Cork 127,024; Limerick 52.040; Galway ,
(
Railroads (1940): length 2,814 km; passenger-km 1,224,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 589,000,000. Roads (1991): length 57,354 mi, 92,303 km (paved 94%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 796,408; trucks and buses 147,213. Merchant marine (1441): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 187; total deadweight tonnage 203,038. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3.804.000,000; metric ton-km cargo 431,618.000; airports (1992) 11. Communications (1941). Dailv newspapers: 7; total circulation 632,300; circulation per 1,000 population 179. Radios: 2,000,000 (1 per 1.8 persons). Televisions: 441.0(H) (1 per 3.6 persons). Telephones (1990): 916,207 (1 per 3.8 persons). Transport.
50.1.
!
;
i
.
Waterford 40,345.
50,842;
Education and health Education (1989-90)
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1441):
mate 85.5$
.
15.7
(world avg. 26.4); (1490)
legiti-
illegitimate 14
Death rate per 1,000 population 1991): 9.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1441): 6.7 (world avg.
17.2).
Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1440-45): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth 1985-87): male 71.0 years; female 76.7 years, Major causes oj death per 100.000 population (1990); heart and circulator) 1
diseases 413.7, of which ischemic heart disease 231.6: malignant neoplasms (cancers) 203.9; respiratory disease 79.1, of which pneumonia
^
1
Budget
(
Revenue:
tlr 9,311,000,000
9'
!
3.428
493 352 43
20.321 12 11.630 7.118 3.93413
students
560.833 213.788 129 702 61.323
teacher
ratio
18 4 18.2 16.013
Educational attainment ( 1981 ). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education 52.3%; secondary 23.3%; some postsecondary 16.5%; universitj or like institution 7.9%. Literacy (1987): virtually 100% literate. Health (1990): physicians (1984) 5,180 (1 per 681 persons); hospital beds 13,709 M (1 per 257 persons); infant mortality rate 8.0. Food 1487-84): daily per capita caloric intake 3,779 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%): 151% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
(income taxes 36.8%, value-added
excise taxes 19.6%). 1 xpenditures: £Ir 9.076,000.000 (debt service ocial welfare 19.9%, health 14.8%, education 13.3%, defense 4.1%). Public debt (1441): U.S.$46,184,000 Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$1,447,000,000; expenditures U.S.Sl, 159,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990) tax 2:
teachers
(
National economy ).
Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teacher tr Higher .
(
1441
student/
schools
.
Military
dun personnel (1991): 12,900 (army Military expenditure as percentage of
Total active
6.2%
).
86.8%, navy 7.0%, air force 1.6% (world 4.9%);
GNP (1989):
per capita expenditure U.S.S128.
(
sugar beets 1,480,000, bariej 1,380,000, potatoes 633,000, wheat 625,000, oats 104,000, milk 52,400,000 hectolitres; livestock (number of live animals) 8,691,000 sheep, 6,99M>(K) cattle. 1,046,000 pins: roundwood 1,527,000 cu m: tish catch 1989) 245,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): gypsum 342. son; zinc ore 186,8008; lead ore 40,2008. Manufacturing (value added in £Ir; 1988): metals and engineering goods 2.i>31.MX).(HKi;*food products 1,609,100,000; chemical products 1,101,600,000; nonmctalhc mineral products 388,200,000: paper, printing, and publishing 578,600,000; textiles 173,600,000. Construction (1440) residential 5,887,000 sq m. Energx production (consumption): 1
'As provided by the constitution; the 1948 Republic of Ireland Act provides precedent for this longer formulation of the official name but. per official sources, "has not changed the usage Ireland as the name of the state in the English language." includes" 11 nonelective seats. ^Though a 1973 amendment to the Irish constitution deleted sections that had given "special position" to the Roman Catholic Church, much doctrinal language remains. 4 Preliminary. ^Includes county borough(s). 6 Detail 7 does not add to total given because of rounding. County boroughs. 8 Metal content of ores. Trade includes Finance. "'Unemployed. '11988. '-National schools only. "1988-89. "Acute-care public hospitals only.
Nations
'
~^>-v K-X^-^"
,
Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
'•% Official name: Medina! Yisra'el (Hebrew); [wall (Arabic) (State
World
-,
'
Israel
of the
Consumer
Z.T*
price index
Monthly earnings index
rCf
1985
1986
1987
100 100
148
178 212
161
206 258
248 312
368 442
291
366
Of Israel).
Tourism (1940): receipts from visitors U.S.S 1,382,000.000: expenditures bv nationals abroad U.S.S 1,485,000.000. Gross national product (1990); U.S.$50,866,000,000 (U.S.$10,970 per capita).
Form of government multiparty republic with one legislative house
(Knesset [120]). (
hief of State: President.
Head of government: Prime (
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Minister. 1
in
1991
% of total
value
NIS 000.000
but recognition of its status as capital by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of territorial and other issues through peace talks between Israel and the Arab parties concerned. Official languages: Hebrew; Arabic. Official religion: none. Monetan una: New (Israeli) sheqel (NIS)= 100 agorot; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = NIS 2.49;
Agriculture
Transp and commun. Trade Finance
23.1
and community services
2,545
4.1
Public
utilities
% of labour
labour force
value
1,922 1 1 ,937 3.319 1,649 5,582 7.174 14,344
Manufacturing, mining Construction
force
55.500 339,700 96.200 16,800 96,600 224,000 160,800
3.1
19.2
53 27 9.0
116
3.1
19.2
54 0.9 5.5
127 9.1
Public
Services
1
Other
J
TOTAL
1
1
1989
1
£ = NIS4.24.
13,625
21.9
62,097
100.0
264
468.300 114,900 197.7006 1
6.6
11.26 100.07
.770.500
Household income and expenditure (1989). Average household size 3.6; monthly income per household (1988)» NIS 2,937 (U.S.S1.496); sources of income (1988) 8 salaries and wages 87.9%, allowances and assistance 9.7' self-employment 2.3%; expenditure (1991): food, beverages, and tobacco 25.4%, housing 20.0%, household durable goods 6.8%, clothing 5.8%, en:
Area and population
area
population
1
19902 Districts
Capitals
Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Hefa)
Ramla
Jerusalem (Yerushalayim) Northern (Ha Zafon) Southern (Ha Darom)
Jerusalem
Tel Aviv
Tel Aviv-Yafo
sq mi
Haifa Tiberias
Beersheba
sq
1.242
1.347 5.555
3.490 14,387 170 20,700
854 557
7.992
969,800 612.600 556.000 762,700 541,900 1.043.600 4,486.600
Demography Population (1992): 5,239,000. Densirv (1992) ': persons per sq mi 655.5, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 89.9%; rural 10.1%. Sex distribution (1989): male 49.87%; female 50.13%.
ergy 3.8%, transportation 3.6%.
estimate
479 330 215
66
total
km
,
km
253.1.
Age breakdown
(1989): under 15, 31.7%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-44, 20.0%; 45-59, 11.2%; 60-74, 8.5%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2000) 6,275,000; (2010) 6,581,000. Doubling time: 47 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Jewish 82.0%; Arab and other 18.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Jewish 81.5%: Muslim (mostly Sunn!) 14.4%; Christian 2.3%; Druze and other 1.8%. Major cities (1990): Jerusalem 504,100; Tel Aviv-Yafo 321,700; Haifa 223,600; Holon 148,400; Bat Yam 133,200.
Vital statistics
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.SOOO.OOO
%
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
-2.352.1
-3.253.8 16.6%
-2.841.8
-2.358.1
13.1%
10.0%
-3,504.0 13.1%
-5.473.3 19.6%
14.5%
of total
Imports (1991): U.S.$16,688,400,000 (investment goods 18.3%; diamonds 16.2%; consumer goods 11.2%; fuel and lubricants 8.8%). Major import sources: U.S. 19.3%; Germany 11.9%; Belgium 11.1%; Switzerland 8.5'.; U.K. 8.3%; Italy 6.5%; Japan 4.3%; France 4.2%. Exports (1991): U.S.$11,215,100,000 (machinery 28.9%; worked diamonds 27.4%; chemicals 13.0%; textiles 7.6%; food, beverages, and tobacco 4.8%; rubber and plastic 3.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 30.2%; Japan 7.4%; U.K. 7.1%; Germany 6.0%; Belgium 5.8%; France 4.9%; The Netherlands 4.6%; Hong Kong 4.5%; Italy 4.2%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 323 mi, 520 km; (1989-90) passengermi 94,858,000, passenger-km 152,660,000; short ton-mi cargo 710,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,037,600,000. Roads (1989): total length 8.075 mi. 12,996 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 786,266; trucks and buses 157,886. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over)
deadweight tonnage 654,170. Air transport (1990) g passenger-mi 4,363,000,000, passenger-km 7,021,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 568,856.000, metric ton-km cargo 830,516,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 28; total circulation 1,611,000; circulation per 1,000 population 350. Radio (1991): 2,250,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,200,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Telephones (1990): 2,425,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). 58; total
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 21.4 (world avg. 26.4); (1988)3 legitimate 98.8%; illegitimate 1.2%.
Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 15.1 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1990): 6.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1988): male 73.9 years; female 77.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the circulatory system 275.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 123.7; accidents 44.0; diseases of the respiratory system 43.5.
National economy Budget (1990-91). Revenue: NIS 63,517,000,000 (income tax and property tax 22.9%, internal loans 22.0%, value-added tax 14.6%, external loans 14.1%). Expenditures: NIS 63,517,000,000 (debt 20.4%, defense 19.7%, interest on loans 15.3%, labour and social welfare 8.2%, education and culture 7.4%). Public debt (1989): U.S.$74,215,700,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): oranges 567,000, grapefruit 384,000, tomatoes 245,000, potatoes 220.000, wheat 160,000, watermelons 100.000, seed cotton 58,000; livestock (number of live animals) 375,000 sheep. 331.01111 cattle. 15,000 goats, 100,000 pigs, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 113,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 26,114. Mining and quarrying (1990): phosphate rock 2.400.000; potash 2,200,000; phosphoric acid 200,000; bromine compounds 130,000; bromine 127,000. Manufacturing (1990): cement 2,868,000; sulfuric acid 153,800; polyethylene lll(i,599; cardboard 92,864; paper 41,159; chlorine 36,342; ammonium sulfate 35,441; wine 12,795,000 litres. Construction (1940): residential 2,900,000 sq m; nonresidential 1.070,000 sq m. Energv production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 20,730.000 (20,340,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (3,708,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1940) 94,300 (59,412,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 7,633.000 (7,590,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 30.317,000 (30.317,000). Land use (1990): forested 5.5%; meadows and pastures 7.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%, other 65.8%. Population economically active (1991) 4 total 1,770,500; activity rate of total 1
:
population 35.3% (participation rates: over age unemployed 10.6%).
15,
51.7%; female 41.1%;
:
Education and health Education (1989-90) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Vocational Higher
schools
teachers
students
1,989
37,768") 43.548
611,671 393,508 110,967 67,750
710 383 7
6.479"
student/ teacher ratio
90
Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 6.5%; primary education 21.7%; secondary 48.3%; postsecondary, vocational, and higher 23.5%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate 2,542,403 (91.8%); males literate 1,312,258 (95.0%); females literate 1,230,145 (88.7%). Health (1989): physicians^ 11,895 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 28,399 (1 per 162 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 9.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,220 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum.
Military Total active dutv personnel (1992): 176,000 (army 76.1%, navv 5.7%, air force r (world 18.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 12.,s 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $1,323.
GNP
,
'Excluding West Bank. Gaza Strip. Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem. -Jaiiuar) 'Jewish population only. -"Excludes jure; includes population i>t East Jerusalem forces; includes Isiaelis in occupied territories. 'November. 'Mostly unem7 ployed. Detail does not add to total given because oi rounding Hib.ni population only. 'El Al only. '"Teaching posts financed by Ministrj ol Education and Culture I
De
armed
onlj
U1987
88.
-1987.
Britannica World Data
634
Italy
Area and population Toscana
Official name: Repubblica Italiana (Italian Republic).
Form of government: two
Livorno
Lucca Massa-Carrara
Lucca Massa-Carrara
Pisa
Pisa
Arezzo Firenze
Grosseto
republic with
houses (Senate [325 '] Chamber of Deputies [630]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. legislative
Capital:
Rome.
Pistoia
Pistoia
Siena
Perugia
Siena Bolzano Bolzano Trento Perugia Perugia
Terni
Terni
Trentino-Alto Adige
Official language: Italian. Official religion:
Monetary
unit:
lire) = 100 5, 1
1992)
£
= Lit
1
Trento
lira (Lit,
Umbria
plural
centesimi; valuation (Oct.
U.S.$
1
Bolzano-Bozen
none.
= Lit
1,315;
Abruzzi
sq mi
Capitals
4.168
L'Aquila
999
Chieti
Chieti
L Aquila
L'Aquila
1.944
Pescara
Pescara
Teramo
Teramo
473 752
Catanzaro
Potenza Matera Potenza Catanzaro Catanzaro
Cosenza
Cosenza
Basilicata
Malera Potenza Calabria
3,858 1,331
Campania
Reggio Naples
Avellino
Avellino
Benevento
Benevento
Caserta
Caserta Naples Salerno
Reggio
di
Calabria
Napoli Salerno
Emilia-Romagna Bologna
di
Bologna Bologna
Ferrara
Ferrara
Fori!
Forli
Modena Parma
Modena
Piacenza
Piacenza
Ravenna Reggio neH'Emilia Friuli-Venezia Giulia Gorizia
Calabria
Parma Ravenna Reggio neH'Emilia Trieste
Gorizia
Pordenone
Pordenone
Trieste
Trieste
Udine
2.527 5.823 2.026 2,568 1,229 5,249 1,078
sq
km
10.794 2,587 5.034 1,225 1.948 9,992 3,447 6.545 15,080 5,247 6.650 3.183 13,595 2.792
800
2.071
1.019
2.639
452
1,171
1,900 8.542 1,429 1,016 1.123 1.039 1,332 1,000
4.922 22,123 3.702 2.632 2,910 2.690 3,449 2,589 1,859 2,292 7,845
718 885 3,029 180
467
827 691
population
Treviso
Treviso
1991
Venezia Verona Vicenza
Venice Verona Vicenza
956 950
census 1.249,388
379,689 301,296 291,115 277,288 591 ,897 200.519 391,378 2,010,195 711,526 730,081 568,588 5,625.575
430,210 291,036 825,294 3,023.366 1 .055,669 3,984,055
943,269 363.451 618,670 61
1
,883
401 .952
271.167 351,296 422.367 1,216.398 139,315 279.784
212
267.118
1.889
530.181 5,145.763
Frosinone
Frosinone
1,251
Latina
Latina
Rieti
Rieti
1.061
Roma
Rome
Viterbo
Viterbo
2,066 1,395 2.092
4.893 17,203 3,239 2,251 2.749 5,352 3.612 5,418 1,836 1.155
882
Impena
Impena
709 446
La Spezia
La Spezia
341
Savona
Savona
Lombardia
Bergamo
Milan
Bergamo
Brescia
Brescia
Como
Como
Cremona
Cremona
Mantova
Mantova
Milano Pavia
Milan Pavia
Sondno Varese
Sondrio Varese
Marche Ancona
Ancona Ancona
Ascoli Piceno
Ascoli Piceno
Macerata Pesaro e Urbino
Macerata Pesaro
Molise
Campo basso Isernia
Piemonte
Campobasso Campobasso Isernia
Turin
Alessandria
Alessandria
Asti
Asti
Cuneo
Cuneo
Novara
Novara
Torino
Turin
Vercelli
Vercelli
596
1.545
9.211 1.066 1.846
23.857 2.760 4 782 2,067
798 684 903 1.066 1,145 1,240
463
9,807 1,375
583
1.511
2.665 1.388 2,637 1,159
6,903 3.594 6.830
749 806 1.071
1,117 1.713 1,123
590
7470
Ban Ban
Brindisi
Brindisi
710
Foggia
Foggia Lecce Taranto
2,774 1,065 941 9,301 2,662 2,720 1,016 2.903
Lecce Taranto
Sardegna Caglian
Nuoro Onstano Sassari
Caglian Caglian
Nuoro Oristano Sassari
Agngento
Palermo Agngento
Caltanissetta
Caltanissetta
Catania
Catania
Enna
Enna
Messina Palermo
Messina Palermo
Ragusa
Ragusa
Siracusa Trapani
Siracusa Trapani
Sicilia (Sicily)
1.980
9 926 1,175
822 1.371
989 1.254 1.927
623 814 951
478,393 475,633 145.848 3,764,298 281,591 1
3.001 19.348 5.129 1,838 7,185 2.759 2.437 24.090 6,895 7,044 2,631 7,520 25,709 3,042 2.128 3,552 2.562 3.248 4,992 1,614 2,109 2,462
.701 ,788
961.276 218.616 230.835 291,061 8.940.594
943,584 1.062,416
799,050 328,279 371,472 3,957.547 496,924
3212 1,199 9.693 1,940 2.087 2.774 2,892 4.438 2.909 1.529 25,399 3.560
3,743
Ban
Puglia
1,771
2,339 2.762 2,965
819
Rovigo
6.642
Genova
2.401
Padova
Rome
Genoa Genoa
3,821 13,618 7.400 6,218 8,456 6,334 2,122 3,262 18,364 3,678 2,142 1.789 2.477 2,460 3,096 2.722 301 ,277
Belluno
Udine
Liguria
1,475 5.258 2.857
Belluno
2 273
869
1.213 1.773 1,157 2.448
Rovigo
878 82
Lazio
468 684 447 945 373
Padova
Veneto
Area and population
Provinces
22,992 3.232 3.879 4,504
1,259 7,090 1.420
2,236.
Regions
8,877 1.248 1,498 1,739
3.265 2,446
Aosta Venice
Valle d'Aosta
area
(continued)
Florence Arezzo Florence Grosseto Livorno
174,781 806,541
1,195 1,051
TOTAL
116.324
3,599,085 315,874 1,217,454 216,535 342,130
378,350 199,057 394,277 270,054 265,354 934,731 478,617 456,114 822,972
965
598.181 224,791 117,208 4,452,667
211,140 846,71
246,784 745.991 839.847
810,079 752,115 57.103,833
Demography Population (1992): 57,103,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 491.4, persons per sq km 189.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 67.1%; rural 32.9%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.61%; female 51.39%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 17.8%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 20.1%; 45-59, 18.6%; 60-74, 13.5%; 75 and over, 5.9%. Population projection: (2000) 57,274,000; (2010) 56,270,000. Doubling time: n.a.; population stable. Ethnolinguistic composition (1983): Italian 94.1%; Sardinian 2.7%; Rhaetian 1.3%; other 1.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 83.2%; nonreligious 13.6%; atheist 2.6%; other 0.6%. Major cities (1991): Rome 2,791,354; Milan 1,432,184; Naples 1,206,013; Turin 991,870; Palermo 734,238; Genoa 701,032; Bologna 411,803; Florence 408,403; Catania 364,176; Bari 353,032; Venice 317,837. National origin (1980): Italian 98.8%; foreign-born 1.2%, of which Austrian 0.4%, French 0.2%, Slovene 0.2%, Albanian 0.1%, other 0.3%. Mobility (I4,sl ). Population living in the same residence as in 1976: 92.4%. Households. Average household size (1986) 2.8; composition of households: 1 person 21.1%, 2 persons 24.4%, 3 persons 22.5%, 4 persons 22.0%, 5 or more persons 10.0%. Family households (1983): 15,205,000 (85.3%); nonfamily 2.617,000 (14.7%), of which 1-person 13.0%. Immigration (1989): immigrants admitted 81,201, from Europe 48.2%, of which West Germany 16.2%, Switzerland 7.8%; Africa 14.0%; Argentina 9.3%; Asia 9.2%; U.S. 5.4%.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 9.8 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate illegitimate 6.395
93.7%;
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1990): 9.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population ( 1990): 0.5 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1985-90): 1.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1.000 population: (1990): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1988): male 73.2 years; female 79.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the circulaiory system 411.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 248.3; diseases of the respiratory system 60.1; diseases of the digestive system 51.8.
1,446.751
445.877 364,220
Social indicators
298.371
Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 19.3% 2 primary education 47.4%; lower secondary 18.0%; upper secondary 11.2%; higher 4.1%.
338,283 320,916 230,380 90,536 4,338,262 441,225 209,348 552.722 505,399 2,254,622 374.946 3.970.525 1
,507.059
402,639 685,804 783,714 591 ,309 1,645,192 770.113 267,281 155.474 452,324 4,989,871
472,800 273.978 1,036,480 185,008
690,882 1,233,359 281 ,779
;
Distribution of
income (1986)
percent ot household income by qumtile 1
2
3
4
5
68
12.0
16.7
235
41.0
Quality of working life. Average workweek (1985): 36.6 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (1988) for: injury or accident 3,697; industrial illness 405> death 5.7. Percentage of labour force insured for damages or income loss (1982) resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Number of working days lost to labour stoppages (1989): 4,436,143. Average duration of journey to work: n.a. Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work; 1982): 0.9. Material well-being. Rate per 1,000 of population possessing (1990): telephone 555; automobile 4394; television 258 4 (colour 188 4 ). Households possessing (1979): television 72%; refrigerator 91%; washing machine XX' Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (1987): 88.5%. Population participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce (1984): c. 70%. Practicing religious popula
); per capita expenditure U.S. $360.
13.6';.
air
orld
).
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985
1986
1987
Consumer pnee index
91.6
900
105.9 104.8
1109
Earnings index
111.6
1165 1184
123 8 125 6
131.8
1401
1347
1479
Household income and expenditure (1988). Average household size 2.9; average annual income per household (1984) Lit 19.692.000 (U.S. SI 1.208):
Includes 10 nonelective seats. 2 More than two-thirds are age 55 and over. '1978. 'Imputed bank charges less duties on imports. ''Includes 2.621.000 unemployed. "Enterprises with 20 or more persons engaged. "Total number of persons Alitalia engaged. '1981. i"All enterprises (1982). U1987. KJuhr. -'Jut. engaged onTy~iM988-89. 4 1988.
Britannica World Data
636
Jamaica
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991
name: Jamaica. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative Official
houses (Senate
[21
J;
%
value JS'000,000 in
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Representatives [60]). Chief of slate: British Monarch represented by governor-general. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingston. Official language: English. Official religion: none.
Public
utilities
Transp. and
commun.
Trade Pub, admin., defense Finance, real estate Services Other TOTAL
Monetary unit: 1 Jamaica dollar (J$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = J$21.89; 1 £ = J$37.21.
value
2,412 4,816 7,704 5,565 1,079 3,650 8,766 2,879 5,472 2,010
Agriculture
House of
%
labour
of total
of labour
force
5.7
114 18.2 13.1
26 86 207
force
247.700 5.300 95.600 54.900 6,200 35,800 173,500
23
283,000
26.3
0.5 8-9 5.1
06 33 16.1
6 81
129
\
4.7 J
-1,9866
-4.7«
42.367
100,0
174,600' 1
16.2? 100,0
,076,600
Population economically active (1991): total 1,076,600; activity rate of total population 44.4% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 71.6% 8 female 47.4%; unemployed 15.7%). ;
Area and population area
'.*
population
Price and earnings indexes (1985
1991 Capitals
Parishes Clarendon Hanover Kingston
Lucea
174 8 321
450 22 830 814
Saint Ann's
314 166 468 460 468 230 236 287 338 312
Bay
Spanish Town Black River
Montego Bay
Saint
Mary
Port Maria
Saint
Thomas
Morant Bay Falmouth Savanna-la-Mar
Trelawny
Westmoreland
212,324 65,958
price index
= 100)
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100.0
115
122,8
132.9
152.0
1853
280.0
1
Monthly earnings index
2
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 4.3; average annual income per household (1988) J$8.356 (U.S. $1,525); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 66.1%, self-employment 19.3%; transfers 14.6%; expenditure (1988) g food and beverages 55.6%, housing 7.9%, fuel and other household supplies 7.4%, health care 7.0%, transportation 6.4%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, household furnishings 2.8%, other 7.8%.
164.979 76.067 643,8012 149,015 361 ,535 144,118 156,152 107,993 84.266
431 1.213 1.192 1.212
595 611
743 875 807
4.244
TOTAL
census
Consumer 1.196
i
James
km
462
Mandeville Port Antonio
Portland Saint Andrew Saint Ann Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth
sq
May Pen I
Manchester
Saint
sq mi
:
Foreign trade
71 ,646
128,213 2,366.067
10.991
111
Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000
Demography
%
Population (1992): 2. 445,000. Densin 1-992): persons per sq mi 576.1, persons per sq km 222.5. Urban-rural L990): urban 52.3%; rural 47.7%. Sex distribution 1991): male 50.00%; female 50.00%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 33.0%; 15-29, 31.1%; 30-44, 16.7%; 45-59. 9.2%; 60 and over. 10.0%. Population projection: (2000) 2,602,000; (2010) 2,813,000. Doubling time: My years. Ethnic composition (1982): black 74.7';; mixed black 12.8%; East Indian 1.3%; other 11.2%, of which not stated 9.5%. Religious affiliation 1982): Protestant 55.9%, of which Church ol Ciod 18.4%, Baptist 10.0%, Anglican 7. IS. Seventh-day Adventist 6.9%, Pentecostal 5.2%; Roman Catholic 5.0%; nonreligious or atheist 17.7%; not stated 11.2%; other 10.2%, of which Rastalarian c. 5.0%. Major cities (1991): Kingston 103,7713 (metropolitan area 643,801); Spanish Town 92,383; Montego Bay 83,446; Portmore 73,400 4 May Pen 46.785. (
I
(
1
;
Of total
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
-437
-248
-357
-606
-468
27.7%
17.4%
-357 20.1%
16.8%
23.3%
16.8%
1990
Imports (1991): J$20,83O,OO0,OO0 (raw materials 63.5%, of which fuels 18.1%; capital goods 21.6%, of which machinery and apparatus 12.5%; consumer goods 14.8%). Major import sources (1990): United States 45.0%; Canada 6.4%; United Kingdom 5.7%; Venezuela 5.5%; Mexico 5.4%. Exports (1991): J$ 13,079,000,000 (alumina 47.4%; bauxite 9.9%; raw sugar 7.6%; bananas 3.9%; rum 1.3%; coffee 1.1%). Major export destinations (1990): United States 30.4%; United Kingdom 17.3%; Canada 13.5%; The Netherlands 10.0%; U.S.S.R. 3.6%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989): route length 211 mi, 339 km; passenger-mi 22.460,000. passenger-km 36,146,000; short ton-mi cargo 71,505,000, metric ton-km cargo 104,395,000. Roads (1991): total length 10,212 mi, 16,435 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 93,000; trucks and buses 16,000 Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population 1991 ): 1 '. 2 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbeanng woman; 1990); 2.4.
deadweight tonnage 21,317. Air transport (1991) 11 passenger-mi 805,758,ooo. passenger-km 1,296,745,000; short ton-mi cargo 14,893,000, metric tonkm cargo 21,743,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 130.400; circulation per 1,000 population 53. Radio (1991): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1991): 484,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1991): 192,100 (1 per 13 persons).
Marriage rate per 1,00(1 population 1440): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population 1990): 0.3.
Education and health
:
Vital statistics Birth ran- per
1.000 population (1991); 24.7 (world avg. 26.4); (1987) legiti-
mate 14.9%, illegitimate 85.1' Ihuih rate per 1,000 population
-
1991): 5.5 (world avg. 9.2).
(
I
(
(
(
1940-45): male 71.4 years; female 75.8 years. death per 100,000 population (1484): diseases of the circulator system 217.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.9; diseases of the respirator) system 35.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 33.6.
Life expectancy at birth
Major causes
(
oj
National economy Budget (1991-92), Revenue J$ 14,496,400,000 (tax revenue 74.1',, of which income taxes 52.7%, consumption (axes 19.8%, stamp duties 7.1%; nontax revenue 7.4', ). Expenditures: J$17,422,800,000 (current expenditure 60.6%, which debt interest 24.2%; development expenditure 34.4', ).
.I
Public debt (external, outstanding; L990): U.S.$3,673,000,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990) U.S.$764,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad 1989) U.S.$54,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 I: sugarcane 2,732,000, yams 186,100, vegetables 101,200, bananas 75,300, citrus fruits 43,000, plantains 26,700, coffee 9,200, legumes 8,400, cacao beans 4,374, pimientos 1,752; livestock (number ol live animals; 1990) 440,000 goats, 290,000 cattle. 240,000 pies, roundwood 215,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 10.605. Mining and quarrying (1991) crude bauxite 4,249,000; alumina 3.004,000; gypsum 136,800. Manufacturing (1991 1: sugar 232,200: flour 149,300; poultry meat 57,000; beer and stout 595,300 hectolitres; rum 187.200 hectolitres; i
(
Construction (1990): residential units comcompleted 6,989 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricit) (kW hr; 1990) 2. 30 ,000 (2,730,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1440) none (6,643,000); petroleum products (metric tons; |440) 850,000 (1,405,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use 1989): forested 17.2', meadows and pastures 17.5%; agricultural Lindei permanent cultivation 24.8%; oilier 40.5%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1440): U.S.$3,606,000,000 cigarettes 215,000,000 units. pleted 3,292 s factor) space
Education (1990-91) Primary (age 6-11)'3 Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacher tr Higher
'2
student/
schools
teachers
790 127
9.693
17'
1984. 4 1986. 'The Democratic People's Republic of Korea categorizes economically active as including students in higher education, retirees, and heads of households, as well as (hose in the civilian labour force. ''Workers and clerical workers only. 7 Four dailies only. "Number of telephone lines. '1982.
Vitions of
Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990)
Korea, South
1 1
Offii (
ml name
Republic
I
oi
aehan Min'guk KoreB
1}
unitarj multipart)
republic with a National Assembly (299 members) (
President.
niej o) state
Head
o)
^
?
government: Prime Minister.
Seoul. Official language: Korean. (
'apital:
Official religion: none. won Monetary unit: I
valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 745; U.S.$ = £=
W
1
W
1
Agriculture
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense
100 chon;
7
1,352.
y\/v7
sq mi
Cholla-pukto
Cheju Kwangiu Chonju
Ch'ungchong-namdo
Taejon
Ch'ungch ong-pukto
Chongju
Kangwon-do
Ch'unch'on'
Kyonggi-do
Suwon
Kyongsang-namdo
Masan Taegu
Kyongsang-pukto
sq
km
705
1.825
4.561 3,109 3,211 2.872 6,524 4,158 4,545 7,507
11.812 8.053 8.317 7,437 16,898 10,769 11,771 19,443
1990 census
514.000 2,523,000 2,070,000 2,028.000 1,414.000 1 .592.000 6.154.000 3,679,000 2.866,000
Inch'on
Kwangju Pusan
Soul-t'ukpyolsi
Seoul
Taegusi
Taegu
Taejon-si TOTAL
Taejon
121
313
193 203 234 176 207 38,326
501
526 605 456 537 99,263
1,818,000 1,145,000 3,798,000 10,628.000 2,229,000 1 .062,000 43,520,000
km
439.9.
1
(1940): under 15, 25.4%; 15-29, 29.9%; 30-44, 23.2%; 45-59. and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 46,789,000; (2010) 49,683,000. 6(1-74, 6.2 r 7; 75
Doubling time: 70 years. Ethnic composition 1990): Korean 99.9%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation ( 1991 ): religious? 54.0%, of which Buddhist 27.6%, Protestant 18.6%, Roman Catholic 5.7%, Confucian 1.0%, Wonbulgyo 0.3%, Ch'ondogyo 0.2%, other 0.6%; nonreligious 46.0%. Major cities (1990): Seoul 10,628,000; Pusan 3,798,000; Taegu 2,229,000; In(
chon
1,818.00(1;
Kwangju
2,2 7.1
}
-0,44 100.06
1,145.000.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population (1991); 15.5 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 5.8 (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1991): 9.7 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1990): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1989): 7.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.1. / dc expectancy at birth (1990): male 67.4 years; female 75.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 133.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 89.6; accidents, poisonings, and violence 68.8; diseases of the digestive system 36.1; diseases of the respiratory system 13.8.
5.1
2,630,000
14,2
451 .0005 18.487.0006
100.06
Revenue:
W 26,818,000,000,000 (income taxes 33.3%, taxes on c
'r. nontax revenue 11.1%, customs duties 10.4%). 26,278,000,000,000 (defense 25.8%, education 19.6%, ecosocial security and welfare 9.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$18,152,()00,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Auriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): rice 7,786,000, cabbages 3,214,000, apples 629,000, oranges 493,000, garlic 417.000, barley 416,000, dry onions 407,000, soybeans 233,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,801,000 pigs, 2,051,000 cattle, 62,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1989) 6,803,000 cu m; fish catch 3,274,506. Mining and quarrying (1991): iron ore 563.000; graphite 85.953; zinc ore 44,985; lead ore 17,197; tungsten ore 1.867. Manufacturing (1991): cement 39.167.000; crude steel 26,879,620; pig iron 18,546,017; animal feed 10,864,517; chemical fertilizers 2,753,090; synthetic fabrics 3. 28 1, 499.000 sq m; television receivers 15,514.793 units; passenger cars 1,131,792 units. Construction (1991): residential 59,060,000 sq m; nonresidential 46,124,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 118.738.000.000 (118,738,000.000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 17,217,000 (43,405,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (306,321,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 36,325,000 (40.597.000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) none (3,243,000,000). Household income and expenditure (1992)3. Average household size (1990) 15,516,000 (U.S.$19,800); sources of income3.8; income per household wages 84.2%, other 15.8%; expenditure: lood and beverages 28.4%, education and recreation 14.7%, clothing and footwear 8.2'*. transportation and communications 8.2%, health care 5.5%, household durable goods 5.1%,
goods and services 32.8
Expenditures:
W
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
102.8 108.2
105.9 119.2
113.9 137.7
119.9 166.7
130,2
142.8
energy
rr '
5.tt
,
housing 3.6';, other 21.3%.
1923
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
+4,237 7,4%
+6,940 9.8%
+8,510 10.6%
+ 2,875 3.6%
-701 0.8%
-3.968 3.6%
Imports (1991): U.S.$81,524,900,000 (machinery and transport equipment 33.3%, manufactured goods 16.3%, mineral fuels and lubricants 15.6%, inedible crude materials 10.9%, chemicals 10.0%). Major import sources: Japan 25.9%; United States 23.2%; Germany 4.5%: Saudi Arabia 4.0%; Australia 3.7%; Canada 2.3%; Malaysia 2.3%; United Kingdom 1.9%. Exports (1991): U.S.$71,870,100,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.6%, manufactured goods 22.0%, chemicals 4.4%, food and live animals 2.9%, mineral fuels 2.1%). Major export destinations: United States 25.8%; Japan 17.2%; Hong Kong 6.6%; Germany 4.4%; Singapore 3.8%; United Kingdom 2.5%; Canada 2.3%; Taiwan 2.2%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 4,012 mi, 6,456 km; passenger-km 29,868,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 13,476,000,000. Roads (1988): total length 34,659 mi, 55,778 km (paved 61%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 2,074,922; trucks and buses 1,308,385. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons
and over) 2,136; total deadweight tonnage 12,227,135. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 18,708,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,494,000,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990):
total number 81; total circulation 13,000,0007; circulation per 1.000 population 3097. Radio (1991): 42,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.0 persons). Television (1991): 8,700,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1990): 12,814,000 (1 per 3.3 persons).
Education and health
Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Vocational Higher
nomic development 17.0%,
W
2.45
1985
Education (1991) Budget
5.0
21.2
935,000
100.0 100.0
student/
National economy (I9i)0).
04 262 72 04
Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $3,559,000,000: expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,166,000,000. Land use (1989): forested 65.7%; meadows and pastureland 0.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%; other 11.9%.
% of total
Age breakdown ;
81,000 4.847,000 1 .339,000 71,000 922,000 3.920.000
17 8
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
price index Monthly earnings index
1990): urban 74.4%; rural 25.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.34%; female 49.66%. 13.7';
0.5 29.2 12 9
-750,4"
U.S.S'OOO.OOO
Population (1992): 43,663,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 1,139.3. persons per sq 'rban-rural
7837
13.419.8 11.172.5
Consumer
Demography
I
3292,000
11,3 13.8 7.9 6.6
labour
force
9.1
169,701.46
Price
$
Kwang|u-si Pusan-si
% of
labour force
15,444,5
Population economically active (1990): total 18,487,000: activity rate 43.1% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 60.0%; female 40.4%; unemployed 2.4%).
1
Special cities lnch'6n-si
32.000.000
population
area
Capitals
value
23.3584
Services TOTAL
Area and population
% ol total
49.499.1 21.835.0 3.682 1 12,100.5 19.156.3
Other
Provinces Cheju-do Cholla-namdo
1
1990 value
000,000,000
in
W
Public utilities Transp. and commun.
(W)=
1.
I
S.$5,400 pel capita).
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
|
Form of government:
World
lln
teacher
teachers
students
6,245
138.200
4.758.505
4,198
187,620
4.443.242
23.7
560
43.821
1,518,512
34,7
ratio
34.4
Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: primary education or less 33.7%, of which no formal schooling (1985) 14.3%; some secondary and secondary 52.1%; postsecondary 14.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 96.3%; males literate 99.1%; females literate 93.5%. Health (1990): physicians 42,554 (1 per 1,007 persons); hospital beds 99,843 (1 per 429 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 12.8, Food 1987-89); daily per capita caloric intake 2,853 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (
Military Total active duty personnel ( 1991): 750.000 (army 86.7%, navy 8.0%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 4.3% (world 4.9', ); per capita expenditure: U.S. $214.
GNP
'Census data arc preliminary. -Rclcrs to persons who have received commandments, religious function accepted baptism, or entered a faith and who participate m regularly or put the religious idea into practice. 'Excludes (arm households. •Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 'Unemployed. ("Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7 Cireulation for 1988. ,i
646
Britannica World Data
145,200; bread 84,100; hydrated lime 51,802; metal pipes 41,800; bran 41,600: soda 17,879; chlorine gas 15,850; asbestos pipes
Kuwait
salt 37,859; liquefied caustic
12,969; fats
name: Dawlat al-Kuwayt (State
Official
Kuwait
Capital:
City.
unit:
(KD)=
1,000
1992)
KD = U.S.$3.45=£2.00.
1
1
Kuwaiti dinar
fils;
valuation (Oct.
oil
10,912; plastic pipes 4,903; detergents 2,800; biscuits 1,173,000 gallons; hydrogen gas 5,011,000 cu m;
sodium hydrochloride 11,987 cu m. Construction (floor area approved for construction; 1989): residential 2,563,000 sq m; nonresidential 416.00(1 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 20.610,000,000 (20,610,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 432,393,000 (202,800,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 27,325,000 (3,156,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 5,227,139,000 (7,277,299,000). Population economically active (1990): total 722,495; activity rate of total population 37.2% (participation rates [1988]: ages 15-64, 56.1%; female 18.8%; unemployed 1.9%).
Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.
Monetary
and
1,195; hydrochloric acid
of Kuwait). Form of government: Constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (National Assembly [50]). Head of state and government: Emir, assisted by Prime Minister.
5,
Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
19906
9
100.0
101
101.6
103.1
106 6
17
Earnings index
Area and population area
population
1
sq mi
Governorates
Capitals
al-AhmadT
al-AhmadT
al-FarwanTyah
al-Farwanlyah
al-Jahra
al-Jahra
Capital
Kuwait City
Hawaii!
Hawaii!
Islands^
_
sq
4,372
1 1
38 138
.324
98
358
347
900
6.880"
TOTAL
)
301,513 416.644 241,285 241.356 496,503
5,138
1.984
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.4; annual income per household (1973 7 KD 4,246 (U.S.$ 12,907); sources of income: wages and salaries 53.8%, self-employment 20.8%, other 25.4%; expenditure (1988): food, beverages, and tobacco 28.1%, housing and energy 15.5%, transportation 13.7%, household appliances 11.2%, clothing and footwear 8.1%, education and recreation 5.2%, health 0.7%. Land use (1990): forested 0.1%; meadows and pastures 7.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.2%; other, built-up, and wasteland 92.2%.
1985 census
km
17,818
1
,697,301
Foreign trade
Demography Population (1992): 1,190,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 173.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 95.6%; rural 4.4%. Sex distribution (1990): male 56.50%; female 43.50%.
Balance of trade (current prices)
km
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
+1,861,9
+1,618,1
33.7%
+ 996.8 26.9%
+ 679.5
34.5%
+ 664,2 18.7%
+ 1 ,774 35.6%
66.8.
KD 000,000
% Of total
Age breakdown
(1990): under 15, 35.5%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 27.2%; 45-59, 10.3%; 60-74, 2.1%; 75 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2000) n.a.; (2010) n.a. Doubling time: n.a.
Ethnic composition (1991): Kuwaiti Arab 51.6%; non-Kuwaiti Arab 45.3%; Asian 3.1%. Religious affiliation (1986): Muslim 90.0%, of which SunnI 63.0%, Shfah 27.0%; Christian 8.0%; Hindu 2.0%. Major cities (1985): as-SalimTyah 153,220; Hawaii! 145,215; al-Jahra' 111,165; al-FarwanTyah 68,665; Kuwait City 44,224.
Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1989): 25.9 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1989): 2.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 23.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 3.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth ( 19X9): male 72.(1 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): circulatory diseases 73.6 accidents, poisoning, and violence 31.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 25.5 respiratory diseases 16.5; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 6.9 infectious and parasitic diseases 6.7; diseases of the digestive system 4.9 diseases of the nervous system 1.3.
KD
1,849,410,000 (machinery and transport
;
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):
total length 2,655 mi, 4,273
of receivers 1.100.000 of receivers 800,00(1 per 6.9 persons)
(1 (1
per 1.9 persons). Television (1989): total number per 2.6 persons). Telephones (1988): 281,771 (1
Education and health student/
schools
KD
870,000,000 (oil revenue 80.5%). Expenditures: 6,087,000,000 (defense 43.4%; electricity, water, and public utilities 7.6%; education 7.5%; administrative services 3.9%; health 3.1%; transportation and communications 1.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$610,0()0.0005. Tourism (1990): receipts from usitors U.S.$80,000.000; expenditures by na-
KD
abroad U.S.$2,315,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1989): U.S.$33,089,O0O,OOO tionals
(U.S.$16,15(I per capita)
km
(paved 100%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 499,388; trucks and buses 110,663. Merchant marine (1991); vessels (100 gross tons and over) 197; total deadweight tonnage 2,293,230. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 1,185,994,000, passenger-km 1,908,264,000; short ton-mi cargo 197,624,000, metric ton-km cargo 288,526,000; airports (1992) with scheduled nights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 9; total circulation 655,000; circulation per 1,000 population 550. Radio (1989): total number
Education (1991-92)
National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue:
18.6%
equipment 29.5%, manufactured goods 22.1%, food and live animals 17.3%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 17.2%, chemical products 7.7%, fuels 1.0%). Major import sources: United States 14.6%; Japan 11.4%; West Germany 7.8%; United Kingdom 6.4 f r Italv 5.7%; South Korea 3.9%; France 3.6%. Exports (1989): KD 3,378,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 92.2%). Major export destinations: Japan 18.8%; The Netherlands 9.2%; United States 8.4%; Pakistan 5.9%; Singapore 4.6%; India 4.2%; Italy 4.1%; Denmark 3.5%; Taiwan 3.3%. Imports (1989):
Primary (age 6-9) Secondary (age 10-17) Voc, teacher tr,
Higher
2038 315* 34 1
teachers
students
10,310 21,585
189,560 270,580 2.872 17,988
617 1.181
teacher
ratio
18,4 12.5 4 7
152
Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 33.2%; primary education 18.4%; some secondary 22.7%; complete secondary 14.6%; higher 11.1%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 73.0%; males literate 77.1%; females literate 66.7%. Health (1989): physicians 2,949 (1 per 695 persons); hospital beds 6,104k (j per 336 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 14.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,146 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. 1
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988
989 in
value
KD 000.000
460
Agriculture
Mining (oil sector) Manufacturing Construction
2.773,0
Public utilities Transportation and
-43
974 155
communications Trade Finance
TOTAL
labour force
of total
value
07 409 14.4
23 -0
6
272
4,0
5550
82
,
defense
2.0470 6.779.0
30.2
100.0*
\
8.756 6.028 50,160 107,404 6,908
36,938 79.882 22,132
]
Pub admin Services Other
%
}
of labour
force 1.3
Military
0.9
72
Total active duty personnel 1992): 11,700 (army 68.4%-, navy 10.2%, air force 21.4%). Milium expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 6.2% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $692. (
15.4
10 5.3 1
14 3.2
370,238
530
10.472 698.918
100,0"
1.5
Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): tomatoes 34,0(1(1. cucumbers and gherkins 2(1,(1(10, onions 20,000, eggplants 2.000. pumpkins and squash l.ooo. uarlte 1,000: livestock (number of live animals) 200,000 sheep. 25,000 goats.' 18,000 cattle. 6.000 camels. 21,000,000 chickens; fish catch 4.500. Mining and quarrying 1988): sulfur 360,000; lime (
(
65,000.
Manufacturing (1989): cement
1.107,700;
ammonia
808,400; flour
(Area of governorates reflects conditions prior to Amiri Decree No. 156 of 1988, which established al-Farwanlyah governorate. 2 Governorates have no administrative function. 'Bubian Island 333 sq mi (863 sq km) and Warba Island 14 sq mi (37 sq km). 4 Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, includes external long-term debt not guaranteed by the government. ]vlay. 'Kuwaiti households only. S1990-91. "1488-89. '"Public hospitals only.
Nations
Kyrgyzstan
of tin-
Structure of net material product and labour force 1991
name Kyrgyzstan Respublikasj Republic ol Kyrgyzstan). Form of government: unitary multipart} republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [350]). Head of state: President. Head of government. Prime Minister. Capital: Bishkek (Frunze). Official language: kyrgyz. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: ruble = 100 kopecks; Official
Public
1
U.S.$=316.82
I
1 = 538.59
36 4
474.000
332
5.0540
453
400.000
280
78.600 92.900 40.000
5.5 6.5 2.8
Area and population
1 1
Construction Transportation and
864.0
7.7
communications Trade
307.0
28
— —
—
population
Other
—
TOTAL
11.152.0
100.0
8690
Capitals
Chu
Kara-Balta
Dzhalal-Abad
Dzhalal-Abad
Issyk-Kul
Issyk-Kul
Naryn
Naryn
Osh
Osh
Talas
Talas
km
sq mi
sq
7,200 15,200 16,800 18.300 14,700 4,400
18,700 39,500 43,500 47,300 38,100
76,600
198,500
1991 estimate
Price
1 1
,400
288,100 55.300 1
,428.900
20.2 3.9 100.0'
Population economically active (1990): total 1,894,000; activity rate of total population 42.8% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [feunemployed 2.6%). male], 81.3%; female 4N.n'
529,000
28.0
.5
3.4
4J
,A
)
100.0
expenditure: n.a. use (1990): forested 53.6%;
US$000,000
km
18.6.
(1990): 74. 4.2' i 75 ;
male 50.25%; female 49.75%. under 15, -43.7',; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, and over, 0.7%.
Population projection: (2000) 5,435,000; (2010) 6,710,000. Doubling tunc 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Lao-Lu (Lao) 67.0%; Lao-Theng (Mon-Khmer) 16.5%; Lao-Tai (Tai) 7.8%; Lao-Soung (Miao |Hmong] and Man [YaoJ) 5.2',; other 3.5%. Religious affiliation (1980): Buddhist 57.8%; tribal religionist 33.6%; Christian 1.8%, oi which Roman Catholic 0.8%, Protestant 0.2%; Muslim 1.0%; atheist 1.0%; Chinese folk-religionist 0.9%; none 3.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities 1985): Vientiane 178,203; Savannakhet 96,652; ouangphrabang I
(
Pakxe 47,323.
68, J99;
72.0
100
1,888.000
meadows and
pastures 3.4%; agricultural
cultivation 3.8%; other 39.2%.
Foreign trade 4
(
i>n-
force
,359.000
,
10 3
333.6753
and under permanent
Demography
.
1
of labour
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 6.0; average annual income per household KN 3,710 (U.S. $371); sources of income:
377.409 3,584,803
236.800
Population (1992): 4,409,000. l W2): persons per sq mi 48.2, persons per sq Density Chan-rural 1990): urban 19.0%; rural 81.0%.
I
""''
/
% of total
9.2'
57.4 9.9 0.3 3.7 2
%
force
Balance of trade (current prices)
Municipalities Vientiane TOTAL
(
191.667 32.940
14,683 34,344 4,986 11.250
Trade Finance
69,631 54,925 122,300 403,041 209,921 213,462 97.028 295,475 187,115 122.984 187,515 543,61 264,277 223,61 50,909 161,589
Phongsali Saravan
Phongsali
U.S.$848,000,000
labour
of tota
value
12.499 6.517
and communications
1985 census
km
Thakhek Louang Namtha Louangphrabang Xay
Oudomxay
1990):
1989
%
value
KN 000,000
1,048
Public utilities Transportation
population
Xam Nua
Khammouan
current market prices;
(at
at;
Area and population
Bolikhamxay
(74,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).
1989
(KN)=
kip
I
none
Gross national product (U.S.S200 per capita).
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Official language: Lao. Official religion: none.
Monetary
Energy production (consumption): electric(kW-hr; 1990) 870,000,000 (363,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1981) 1,000 (1.000); crude petroleum, n.a. (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) hectolitres. Construction: n.a.
Vital statistics
1984
1985
1986
-118.0 39.8%
-139.0 56.3%
-131.0
544%
-
154
55.4%
-125
-162.0 58.7%
49.8%
Imports (1989): U.S.$219,000,000 (important imports include cereals, other food products, petroleum products, agricultural and general machinery, and transport equipment). Major import sources: Thailand 55.1%; Japan 22.0%; China 4.0',; Hong Kong 0.5%. Exports 1989): U.S.$57.()00,000 (1988; wood 47.6%, electricity 17.5%, coffee 12.7%, tin 3.2%). Major export destinations: Thailand 37.4%; China 11.6%; Japan 7.3%; Hong Kong 0.6%. (
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):
total length 8,681
mi, 13,971
km
(paved 21%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 17,000; trucks and buses 3,500. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 1,469. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 11,000,000, passenger-km 18,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,370,000, metric ton-km cargo 2.000.000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 3; total circulation 30,500; circulation per 1,000 population 7.7. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 425.000 (1 per 10 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 32,000 (1 per 134 persons). Telephones (1985): 8,136 (1 per 450 persons).
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 37.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991); 15.0 (world avg. 9.2). (
Natural increase raw per 1,000 population (1991): 22.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman: 1991): 5.0. Marriage rale per l.OOO population; n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. / ife expei nun .it birth 1990): male 48.3 years; female 51.3 years. Major causes "I death per 100.000 population: n.a; however, during the 1980s bronchitis, influenza, pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhea were among the country's major health problems. )
(
National economy
Education (1988-89)
student/
schools Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) voc. teacher tr Higher
8,330
750 1175 9
teachers
students
19,438 9,752 2,0496
571 ,630
503
124169 16,2936 5,253
teacher
ratio
294 127 80S 104
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 83.9%; males literate 92.095 females literate 75.8%. Health (1985): physicians 558 (1 per 6,495 persons); hospital beds 9,815 (1 per 369 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 124. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2.190 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10'; ); 101', of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;
Budget (1990). Revenue: KN 58,245,000,000 (taxes 76.0',. nontax revenue Expenditures: KN 131,957,000,000 (current expenditure 49.9%, capital expenditure 50.1' Publu debt external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.S 1,052,000,000. Tourism 1989) total number of tourist arrivals 2,631. Population economically active (1989): total 1,888,000; activity rate of total population 49.095 (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 84.2%; female '
Education and health
1
1
I
1
45.3'
,
:
unemployed,
n.a.).
Price and earnings indexes (1985 1982
Consumer
price index
30
= 100) 1984
1983
1
1985
1986?
100.0
136.2
Military
dun personnel (1992): 37,000 (army 89.2%, navy 1.4%, air force 9.4%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP (1984): 10.5% (world 5.7%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 16.
Total active
Earnings index
Production (metric tons except .is noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishinu 1991 ): cassava 66,000, corn rice 1.400.0011. sweet potatoes 120,000, sugarcane 97, (maize) 60,000, onions 42.01m, potatoes 33,000, pineapples 32.000, melons 32,000, oranges 22.0O0. bananas 18,000; livestock (number ol live animals) pigs, 1. 100.0011 water buffalo, 865,000 cattle, 143,000 goats. 45,000 horses. 8,000, chickens; roundwood (1989) 3,972,000 cu m; fish catch IW)) uvpsum 104,000: rock salt 7,950; 0. Mining and quarrying (
(
:
'Formerly known as the Supreme People's Assembly. -January-June. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4 lmport figures are c.i.f. in balance of trade and commodities. 51984-85. 61987 88.
Nations
ol the
World
roundwood
1,526,000 CU m; fish catch 129.7(H). Mining and quarryim lass and construction materials and gypsum 105,000 clay l"i ceramics are also produced. Manulacturing (1990): processed milk
Latvia
1,000;
name: atvijas Republika (Republic ol Latvia). Form of government: unitary multipart] republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Council |2oi |). Official
l
hie) oj state: Chairman of Supreme Council. Head of government: Prime (
cement 744,300; steel 550,100; processed meats 308,500 107,200; synthetic fibres 18,330; telephones 2,546,000 units; diesel engines 1,893,200;
and generators
177. lino units: minivans 17,100 units; rail passenger cars 539 beer 873,800 hectolitres; vodka 212,100 hectolitres; textile sq m. Construction (1990): new residential ni rgj production 19,000 sq m (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 10 >al none petroleum, none gas. (n.a.); crude (n.a.j: natural none (n.a.). I lydroelectrical power (67.69! and peat provide most of Latvia's energy. Gross national product (1990): 20,612,000,000 rabies (7.676 rubles per capita)-1
units;
I
the Minister.
)
Capital: Riga.
.
Official language: Latvian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: (until May 7. 1992)
Structure of net material product and labour force
(Soviet) ruble = 100 kopecks; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ 316.82 rubles; l£=538.59 rubles. Latvian ruble (LR) introduced May 7, 1992, at par with Soviet ruble and circulated parallel with it; on July 20, became sole legal tender, floating against all currencies; valuation not available.
1990
1
in
=
Agriculture
1
LR
Manulacturing and mining Construction Transportation and
communications Trade
Area and population
population
area
1991 Cities of republic jurisdiction
Daugavpils Jelgava Jurmala Liepaja
Rezekne Riga Venlspils
Capitals
— — — — — — —
7
72 60 100 60 17
114
295
18
46
43.200 910,200 50.400
988 867 920 727
2.558 2,246 2,384 1.884 3.062 2,526 1,680 1,876 2,998 1,613 2,288 2,503 3,589 2,602 2,566 3.348 1.816 2.042 2,654 3,094 2.134 2,748 2,457 2,444 2,377 2.471 64.610
44,900 28.700 33,500 55,800 64.400 46.000 45.200 30,200 62.300 39,100 41.200 40,800 54,700 41,200 41.600 49,600 66,100 45.300 43,200 153,300 39,700 49,900 59,200 37,300 63.200 15.400 2,680,500
28 23 39 23
129.000 74.500
66500 1H.900
Pub. admin., defense, and finance Services Other TOTAL
Aizkraukle
Aluksne
Aluksne
Balvi
Balvi
Bauska
Bauska
Cesis Daugavpils
Cesis Daugavpils
Dobele Gulbene
Dobele Gulbene
Jekabpils
Jekabpils Jelgava Kraslava KuldTga
1.158
Uepaja
Liepaja
Limbazi
Limbazi
Jelgava Kraslava Kuldiga
1.182
975 649 724 623 883 966
Ludza
Ludza
Madona
Madona
Ogre
Ogre
1,386 1.005 991 1.293 701
Prei|i
Prei|i
788
Rezekne
Rezekne
Riga Saldus
Riga Saldus
Talsi
Talsi
Tukums
Tukums
Valka Valmiera Vents pils TOTAL
Valka Valmiera Ventspils
1.025 1.194
824 1,061
949 944 918 954 24.9462
value
1,980 4,213
227
697
8.0
48.3
650
7.4
1.191
13.6
— —
% of labour
labour force
force
218,700 426,200 144,500
15.5 30.3 10.3
103,200 128.300
73 9.1
)
-\
387,800
27.5
,408,700
100.0
-J 100.0
8,731
Population economically active (1990): total 1,408,700; activity rate of total population 52.5%; (participation rates: ages 16-59/55 4 93.4%; female, n.a.: ,
unemployed, Price
Rural districts Aizkraukle
% of total
value
000,000 rubles
n.a.).
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index
1985
1986
1987
100.0
105.4
110.0
100
1028
1066
1991
114.6 115.9
120.6 127.6
133.7 148 5
350.3
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1990): wages and salaries 75.7%, pensions and transfers 8.5%, self-employment 3.8%. other 12.0%; expenditure:
n.a.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 000.000 rubles
% of total
1988
1989
1990
-700
-617
-784
6.7%
5.4%
6.5%
Imports (1990): 6,358,000,000 rubles (industrial goods 88.1%, of which machinery and metalworking equipment 28.2%). Major import sources (1989): Commonwealth of Independent States- (CIS-) member countries and Georgia (former U.S.S.R.) 75.0%, non-CIS countries 25.0%. Exports (1990): 5,574,000,000 rubles (industrial goods 87.9%, of which machinery and metalworking equipment 27.2%, consumer goods 21.5%). Major export destinations (1989): CIS countries and Georgia 93.2%, non-CIS countries 6.8%.
Demography Population (1992): 2,685,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 107.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 71.1%; rural 28.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 46.60%; female 53.40%.
Transport and communications
km
41.6.
Age breakdown
(144(1): under 15, 21.5%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30-44, 20.6%; 45-59, 18.9%; 60-74, 12.2%; 75 and over, 5.3%. Population projection: (2000) 2,768,000; (2010) 2,853,000. Ethnic composition (1989): Latvian 52.0%; Russian 34.0%; Belorussian 4.5%; Ukrainian 3.5%; Polish 2.3%; Lithuanian 1.3%; Jewish 0.9%; other 1.5%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, or Roman Catholic. Major cities (1991): Riga 910,200; Daugavpils 129,000; Liepaja 114,900; Jelgava 74,500; Jurmala 66,500.
Vital statistics
Transport. Railroads (1990): length 1,489 mi, 2,397 km; passenger-km 5,366,000,000; metric-km cargo 18,538,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 79,100 km (paved 49%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 271,500; trucks and buses 14,1 16. Merchant marine (1991): cargo vessels 87; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3,357,000,000; metric 22,000,000; airports (1992) 1.
Education and health Education (1990-91)
per 1,000 population (1990): 14.1 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate 83.1%; illegitimate 16.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 13.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rale per 1.000 population (1990): 1.1 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989-90): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 4.0. Life expectancy at birth 1990): male 64.2 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 1(10,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 756.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 207.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 138.9; diseases of the respiratory system 44.0.
student/
teacher
Birth rate
(
National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: 4,575,100,000 rubles (turnover tax 46.4%; slate participation in economic enterprises 25.6%). Expenditures: 4,376,500,000 rubles (economic affairs 54.8%; social affairs 31.6%, of which education and science 13.8%, social security 10.4%, health 7.3', ), Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): grains 1,622,000, potatoes 1,016,000, sugar beets 439,100, vegetables 169,400, fruits and berries 31,900, flax librc 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,401,000 pigs, 535,000 dairy cattle. 165.000 sheep, 10.321,000 poultry; (
ton-km cargo
Communications. Total newspapers (1990): total number 172; total circulation 4,396.000; circulation per 1,000 population 1,637. Radio (1990): 1.4 receivers per household. Television (1990): 1.2 receivers per household. Telephones (1990): 732,000 (1 per 3.7 persons).
Primary
Secondary f Voc, teacher Higher
ratio
1
32,200 tr.
36,100 46,000
Educational attainment ( 1989). Percentage of persons age 15 and over having: primary or less 18.7%; incomplete secondary 23.4%; complete secondary 46.4%; some higher 11.5%. Literacy: approximately 98%. Health (1990): physicians 13,240 (1 per 202.7 persons); hospital beds 39,500 ).7 (1 per 67.9 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births I
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 2,550. Military expenditure: n.a. Until 1991, the U.S.S.R. was responsible for Latvia's external security: about 40,00(1 of its troops remained in Latvia at year-end 1992.
'Interim currency unit until its eventual replacement b) a new national currency, the lats, when the LR exchange rate has stabilized. -Detail dues not add in total given because of rounding. -'No equivalent U.S.S value is offered, as Soviet GNP very speculative. 4 Males relue at age 59, females at 55.
Britannica World Data
650
Lebanon
Consumer
name: al-Jumhuriyah
Official
Consumer
al-Lubnanlyah (Republic of Lebanon). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [128])'. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.
price index
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
40.6
48.7
51.9
61.0
1000
204 6
1.030.6
Gross national product (at current market prices; 1985): U.S.S 1,800,000,000 (U.S.S690 per capita); though estimates are very uncertain, the GNP may have grown during 1985-88, perhaps regaining 83% of its prewar value. Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1987
Capital: Beirut.
none.
1
£
5,
= LL
1992)
1
U.S.$ =
LL
2.473;
Public
Area and population
area
Pub admin
population
1970
Governorates
Capitals
BayrOt
Beirut (Bayrut)
al-Biqa'
Jabal Lubnan al-Jandb
Zahlah B'abda Sidon (Sayda)
ash-Shamal
Tripoli (Tarabulus)
TOTAL
191
694
14.7 4.8
01 178
6
6
1.127
34.2
123.647 43,357 6.668 48,242 114.706 24,224
commun
sq mi
sq
7 1,653
km
defense
474,870 203,520 833,055 249,945 364,935 2.126.325
2.001 1.981
10,230
08 87
171
5.2
1
22 96/ 100
7566 3.296
estimate
18 4,280 1,950
753 772 765 3,950
—
286 ,
force
483 158 28
—
Services TOTAL
of labour
132,211
utilities
Transp and Trade Finance
%
87
Mining Manufacturing Construction
4,204.
labour force
of total
value
287
Agriculture
Monetary unit: 1 Lebanese pound (LL) = 100 piastres; valuation (Oct.
%
in value U.S.$'000,0005
Official language: Arabic. Official religion:
= 100)
price index (1985
,
62 1
7.0 16.5 3.5
200,063
28.8
693.812
1000
Land
use (1990): forested 7.7%; meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 28.9%; wasteland and other areas 62.4%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)
Demography
LL 000.000
%
Population (1992): 2,803,000. Density 1992); persons per sq mi 709.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 83.7%; rural 16.3%. Sex distribution (1990); male 48.57%; female 51.43%.
km
(
(1990): under 15, 36.1%; 15-29, 30.5%; 30-44, 15.8%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60-74, 6.1%; 75 and over. 1.8%.
Population projection: (2000) 3,327,000; (2010) 3,898,000.
Doubling time: during the 1970-75 prewar period the average growth rate was 2.6%; however, the dislocation of the population by the civil war between 1976 and 1991 rendered both the absolute size and principal components of population change (births, deaths, migration) highly problematic. Ethnic composition (1983): Lebanese 82.6%; Palestinian 9.6%; Armenian 4.9%; Syrian, Kurd, and other 2.9%. Religious affiliation: no official data exist subsequent to the 1932 census, when Christians (predominantly Maronite Roman Catholic) were a slight majority; it is thought that Muslims today constitute the majority but by what margin is highly uncertain. Unofficial and CIA estimates (1984/1986) indicated that the main religious groups were distributed as follows: Shfi Muslim 32/41%; Maronite Christian 24.5/16%; SunnT Muslim 21/27?? Druze 7 7'r; Greek Orthodox 6.5/5%; Greek Catholic 4/3%; Armenian Christian ;
V
other 1/1%. Beirut 1,500,000; Tripoli 160.000; Zahlah 45,000; Sidon (Sayda) 38,000; tyre 14,000 ,
n.a.:
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
-12,461
-13,987 64.9%
- 25,581 61.8%
- 59,090 60.6%
-269,311 50.4%
69.0%
Imports (1987): LL 402,027,000,000 (1982; consumer goods 40.0%, machinery and transport equipment 35.0%, petroleum products 20.0%). Major import sources: Italy 10.7%; Turkey 8.5%; France 8.1%; West Germany 5.9%. Exports (1987): LL 132,716,000,000 (1985; jewelry 10.2%, clothing 5.2%, pharmaceutical products 4.9%, metal products 4.8%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 8.7%; Switz. 7.6%; Jordan 6.0%; Kuwait 5.4%; U.S. 5.2%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1982) 7 length (1986) 417 km; passenger-km 8,570,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,010,000. Roads (1987): total length 7,370 km (paved 85%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 300,000; trucks and buses 49,560. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 164; total dead:
weight tonnage 424,646. Air transport (1990)**: passenger-km 1,503,227,000; metric ton-km cargo 24,037,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1986): total number 39; total circulation 572,7349; circulation per 1,000 population 211.69. Radio (1991): 2,150,000 receivers (I per 1.3 persons). Television (1991): 838,037 receivers (1 per 3.3 persons). Telephones (1987): 150,400 (1 per 18.4 persons).
cities (1990):
Education and health Education (1984-85)
Vital statistics Birth rule per l.ooo population (1990-95): 29.6 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1990-95): 7.7 (world avg. 9.2).
Primary (age 5-9)
Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990-95): 21.9 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 3.4. Life expectancy at birth ( 1940-95): male 61.5 years; female 69.0 years. Maim causes of death: normally, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, including typhoid fever and dysentery; but violence and acts of war were aKo among the principal causes of mortality between 1975 and 1991.
National economy Budget
1982
-9,890 48.5%
274.0.
Age breakdown
Major
of total
|
1992).
Revenue: LL 1,470,000,000.000
Higher
1
0- 1 6)
teachers
students'^
student/ teacher ratio
2.130 1 ,405
22,810" 21,344"
399,029 279.849 30.407 70.510
10.6 9.5
'
181" 18"
3,506 7,460
Educational attainment (1 970). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 45.6%, of which, ability to read and write 35.6%; incomplete primary education 28.5%; complete primary 10.8%; incomplete secondary 7.1%; complete secondary 4.9%; higher 3.1%. Literacy 1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 1,538,800 (80.1%); males literate, c. 798,100 (87.8%); females literate, c. 739,100 (73.1%). Health 1986): physicians 3,509 (1 per 771 persons); hospital beds (1982) 11,400 (1 per 263 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 44.0. Food (1979-81): daily per capita caloric intake 2.995 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (
(
1986;
income taxes 49.6%, cus-
toms J1.59J Expenditures: LL 1,470,000,000,000 L990; debt service 22.9%, public works and transportation 7.0 C education 5.0 c i ). defense 16.0' Publu debt (external, outstanding; 1990V U.S.$248,000,00p. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): oranges 270,000, potatoes 200,000, grapes 200,000, tomatoes 200,000, apples 195,000, sugar beets 90,000, cucumbers 75,000, lemons and limes 65,000, onions 50,000, tangerines, mandarins, and Clementines 50,000; opium poppics were an increasingly important cash crop in the late 1980s; livestock (number of live animals) 400,000 goats, 205,000 sheep, 57,000 cattle, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood 467,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 1.500. Mining and quarrying (1989): lime 10,000; salt 3,000; gypsum 2,000. Manufacturing (1988): cement 907,000; wheat flour 190.000 2 paper and paperboard 37,000; petroleum refining is also significant. Construction 1^87): 4.938,000 sq m Energ} production (consumption): electricity (kW'-hr: 1990) 4.735,000,1,777, ,000); coal. n.a. (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) n.a. (9,265,000); petroleum products (metric tons. 1990) 1.192.000 (2. 781.000); ).
|
'
.-'
•
population
km
sq mi
sq
21,000 18.000 45,000 19,000 47,700 43 000 30.000 32,000 55,000 32.000 29,000 39,000 64,000 24,000 16,000 32,000 31.000 27,000
55,000 46.000 116,000 49,000 123.500
100
200 800
1 1 1
,000
78,000 82,000 142,000 82.000 76,000 101,000 165,000 63.000 42,000 82,000 81,000 69,000
1,722 9 2.919.8
Agriculture
1989 census 84,700 90.900 74.600 51.900 80,800 57,000 49,300 88.500 62,f00 73.800 76.500 101.800 42,400 96,500 86,900 50,900 100,000 83.900
Mining and manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun Trade Services 5 Other
16.1
27.2
6172 9038
84
47,000''
2,3274
21.7
57,100" 133,400 48,400 633,200
5.8
120
1,285.4
954 46
8.96 100.0'
10,730.9
TOTAL
18 9 6.6 7.4« 9.0« 21.1
7.6
100
Population economically active (1990): total 648,700; activity rate of total population 30.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1985] 82.2%; female [1987] 52.4%; unemployed [1991) 10.0%). Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = = 100)
Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
99.4 99.0
100.0 100.0
99
990
99.0 101.3
102 9
100.4
101.0
99.0
Household income and expenditure. Average family size (1989) 4.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 75. 1% 7 transfer payments 15.1%. self-employment 3.4%, other 6.4%; expenditure ,
(1989): products 82.0%, services 18.0%. Land use (1989): forested 8.9%; meadows and pastures 79.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.9%; other 10.9%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)
— — —
Ulaanbaatar TOTAL
300 800 604,800'
2.000 1.566,500
85,800 56,100 548,400 2,043.400
Demography Population (1992): 2,182,000. Density 1492): persons per sq mi 3.6, persons per sq i rhan rural (1990): urban 58.0%; rural 42.0%. (
km
1.4.
male 49.90%; female 50.10%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 41.9%; 15-29, 29.2%; 30-44, 14.6%; 45-59. 8.5%; 60 and over. 5.8%. (
(n.a
Cross national product (1990):
in
area
Provinces Afhangay
Sex distribution
tuns;
673
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
(F=
Area and population
Autonomous
(metric
World
petroleum products (metric tons: 1990) none (706,000); natural
name Mongol
tugriks;
\
(
Hit
l
1989):
000.000 rubles
% of total
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
- 272 22.7%
- 283 22.8%
- 259 21.2%
-251 20.2%
-162
-176
14.4%
16.6%
1990
Imports (1990): 139,400,000 tugriks (1989; machinery and transport equipment 29.6%; fuels, minerals, and metals 27.3%; consumer goods 21.9%; food products 12.5%; chemical products and rubber 8.7%). Major import sources (1989): U.S.S.R. and socialist countries 95.6%; capitalist countries 4.1%. Exports (1990): 99,700,000 tugriks (1989; minerals and metals 42.8%; raw materials and food products 35.7%; consumer goods 17.5%; construction materials 4.0%). Major export destinations (1989): U.S.S.R. and socialist countries 93.1%; capitalist countries 6.7%.
Population projection: (2000) 2,552,000; (2010) 3,104,000.
Transport and communications
Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1979): Khalkha Mongol 77.5%; Kazakh 5.3%; Dorbed Mongol 2.8%; Bayad 2.0%; Buryat Mongol 1.9%; Dariganga Mongol 1.5%; other 9.0%. Religious affiliation: although formal freedom of worship exists, all traditional religious practice (lamaistic Buddhism, shamanism, Islam, and others) has been greatly reduced during the 20th century: reliable data on the current
Transport. Railroads (1991): length 1,445 mi, 2,325 km; passenger-km 578,000,000-1 metric ton-km cargo 5,960,000,0001 Roads (1988): total length 30,600 mi, 49,200 km (paved 2%). Vehicles: n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1988): passenger-km 532,400,000; metric ton-km cargo 10,600,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation
situation do not exist. Major eities (1991): Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator) 575,000; Darhan 90,000: Erdenet 56.200-.
Vital statistics
;
222,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1991): total number (1 per 7.8 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 120,000 (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1990): 66,400 (1 per 32 persons).
of receivers 275,000
Education and health
Birth rate per 1.000 population (I9S9): 36.0 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.
Death rate per 1,000 population (1989): 8.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1989): 28.0 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.8. Divorce rate per 1.000 population (1989): 0.5. 1990): male 61.2 years; female 63.8 years. Life expectancy at hirth Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, in the 1980s, major causes of mortality included diseases of the respiratory system, diseases of the cardiovascular system, malignant neoplasms (cancers), diseases of the digestive system, and injuries, accidents, and poisonings.
Education (1990-91)
student/
schools Primary and secondary (age 8-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher
665 44
teacher
teachers
21,900 1.2008 1,465
459.400 29.100 13.829
ratio
21.0 17.76 9.4
(
National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: 7,375,000.000 tugriks (turnover tax 59.7%, deductions from profits 33.8%, social insurance contributions 3.5%, income tax 0.7%). Expenditures: 7,375.000,000 tugriks (economy 47.2%, social and cultural services 40.5%, defense 8.0%, administration and other 4.3%). Public debt (external; 1991): U.S.$ 16,800,000,000. Tourism (1990): number of international arrivals 147.200. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): cereals 718,300. potatoes 131.100. vegetables 41,700; livestock (number of live animals) 14,831,900 sheep. 5.028,200 goats, 2,773,900 cattle, 2,200,100 horses, 557,900 camels, 171,000 pigs'; rounuwood 2,390,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 254. Mining and quarrving (1989): copper 165,000: molybdenum 1.200. Manufacturing (1990): cement 440.800; Hour 187,000; bread 63,000; meat 53,900; plywood 3.400 cu m; woolen cloth 1,065,800 sq m; leather shoes 4,800,000 pairs; soft drinks 200.000 hectolitres; vodka 69,000 hectolitres; bricks 205.300,00(1 units; sheepskin coals 136,900 units. Construction (1988): residential 46 1, 000 sq m; nonresidential 176.000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 3.600,000,000 (3,760,000,000); coal
Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: primary education 33.7%; some secondary 31.9%; complete secondary 16.9%; vocational secondary 9.4%; some higher and complete higher 8.1%. Literacy (1989): total population age 10 and over literate 97.9%. Health (1990): physicians 6,233 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 27,080 (1 per 79 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 64.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,449 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 14,500 (army 96.6%; navy, none; air force 3.4%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP: n.a.: per capita expenditure (1989) U.S.$122. The last elements of the U.S.S.R. 's 67,000-person garrison (1988) were withdrawn in September 1992.
'Detail dues not add to total given because of rounding. -1990. '1989. 'Trade includes communications. 'Services includes finance, public administration, and defense. h Other includes depreciation of fixed capital. 'Includes income from agricultural cooperatives. » 1988-89.
Britannica World Data
674
roundwood
Morocco Official
2,136,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 520.354. Mining and quarrying (1990): phosphate rock 21,189,000; barite 370,0002; iron ore 120,000; fluorite 105,0002; salt 89,0752; lead 74,400; zinc 17,500; copper 14,500. Manulacturing (1989): cement 4,641,000; refined sugar 751.979; carpets 1,642.914 sq m. Construction (value added in DH; 1989): 9,217,000. Energy produc-
name: al-Mamlakah
al-MaghribTyah (Kingdom of
Morocco). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house
tion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 9,628,000,000 (9,628,000,01)0); coal (metric tons; 1990) 526,000 (1,762,000); crude petroleum (barrels: 1990) 114,000 (41,544,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4,752,000 (4,9(,5,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 50,741,000 (50,741,000).
(Chamber of Representatives [306]). Head of state and government: King.
Gross national product (1990): U.S.$23,788,000,000 (U.S.S950 per capita).
Capital: Rabat. Official language: Arabic.
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Official religion: Islam.
Moroccan dirham (DH)= 100 Moroccan francs;
Monetary
unit:
1
valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = 7.94; 1 £ =
DH
DH
in
DH Agriculture
13.50.
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Area and population
area
population
1992
Provinces
Capitals
Agadir
Agadir
Azilal
Azilal
Ben Mellal Ben Slimane Boulemane Chaouen (Chefchaouen)
Bern Mellal
Ben Slimane Boulemane Chaouen (Chefchaouen)
Essaouira
Essaouira
Fes
Fes
Figuig
Figuig
Guelmtm
Guelmim
al-Hoceima
al-Hoceima
Ifrane
Ifrane
el-Jadida el-Kelaa des Srarhna Kenitra
el-Jadida el-Kelaa des Srarhna Kenitra
Khemisset Khemfra Khouribga Marrakech
Khemisset
Marrakech
Meknes
Meknes
Nador
Nador Ouarzazate
Oujda
Oujda
er-Rachidia
er-Rachidia
Safi
Safi
Kacem
Kacem
Sidi
Tangier
Tangier
Tan-Tan Taounate Taroudannt
Tan-Tan Taounate Taroudannt
Tata
Tata
Taza Tetouan
Taza Tetouan
Tiznit
Tiznit
5.910 10,050 7,075 2,760 14,395 4.350 6,335 5,400 55.990 28.750 3.550 3.310 6.000 10.070 4.745 8.305 12,320 4.250 14,755 3,995 6,130 41,550 20,700 59.585 7,285 9.750 4,060 1,195 17.295 5,585 16,460 25.925 15.020 6,025 6,960
23,006 2.813 3,764
Settat
Settat
sq
2,282 3,880 2,732 1.066 5,558 1,680 2.446 2,085 21.618 11.100 1,278 2.317 3.888 1,832 3,207 4.757 1,641 5.697 1,542 2,367 16,043 7,992
Khounbga
km
sq mi
1.371
Khenifra
Ouarzazate
Sidi
1,568 461 6,678 2.156 6,355 10,010 5.799 2,326 2,687
estimate
807,000 419.000 936.000 204,000 156,000 363,000 428,000 1,029,000 108,000 168,000
371.000 116,000 928,000 684,000 920.000 473,000 442,000 547.000 1
,525,000
753,000 796,000 649,000 974,000 503.000 848,000 790,000 602.000 566,000 55.000 603,000 658,000 107,000 715,000 864,000 381.000
Prefectures
-
Chok-Hay Hassani Sebaa-Hay Mohammad Ben Msik-Sidi Othmane
Ain Ain
Casablanca Anfa
Mohammadia-Znata Rabat Sale Skhirate-Temara
452,000 587.000 984,000
}
623
1,615 1
I ]
492
1,275
177.117
458,730
J
TOTAL
,069.000
219,000 690,000 656,000 199,000 25,344,000
Demography Population (
1982
Public
utilities
Transp. and
commun.
Trade Finance Pub. admin,, defense Services Other TOTAL
\
%
value
000,000
labour force
% of labour
2,351 .629
39 2
63,360 930,615 437,464 22,465
15.5 7.3
of total
value
32.414 5,607 39.089 11,418 15,074 13.794 41,590
15.5 2.7 18.7 5.5
25.643
12,3
24,084
11,5
7.2
1
04 23
498,130
83
89
532,803 474,109 547,7043 5,999,260
1
100.0
. "Includes Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. i" 988 89. 111985-86. ^Economically active population (4.612,000) only. '-^Includes 1
3.900 military police.
Britannica World Data
680
Netherlands Antilles
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988
name: Nederlandse Antillen
Official
in
NA
(Netherlands Antilles). Political status: nonmetropolitan territory of The Netherlands with one legislative house (States of the Netherlands Antilles [22])>. Chief of state: Dutch Monarch represented by governor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Willemstad. Official language: Dutch. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Netherlands Antillean guilder (NA f.)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = NA f. 1.79:
l£ = NAf.
3.04.
Agriculture
1
Mining J Manufacturing Construction
sq mi
sq
km
estimate
4,690 15,890 4,596
64 21.8
21 ,259
292
54
335.8
14.0
Trade Finance
6323
Pub. admin., defense Services Other
482 5
26.4 13.6 20 2
325.2
2566
74 1
100
8
63
1
107 J -6.6"
-156.91" 2.3922
14,729'5 72.906
202'5 1000
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index"
288 444
111 171
Kralendijk
11.139 143.816
The Bottom
5
13
1,116
Oranjestad
8
21
1.781
13
34 800
191.311
Philipsburg
308
TOTAL
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
99.6 95.5
100.0 100.0
101.3 89 3
105.1
107.8
112.0
116.2
84.6
Public debt (1991): U.S.$375,400,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1991) U.S. $450,400,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1983)3 U.S.$ 107,000,000.
Maarten
(Dutch part only)
62
127.8
Price
population
Sint Eustatius, Sint
07
4,524 5,404 1,274
force
Population economically active (1988): total 72,906; activity rate of total population 38.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 43.1% 16 female 43.1%; unemployed 20.4%). area
Willemstad
or Stalia
540
9.5
TOTAL
Leeward Islands
Saba
09
;
Capitals
Curacao Windward Islands
225
59
19922
Bonaire
labour force
139.6
and communications
% of labour
value
000,000
of total
226 8
Public utilities Transportation
..
Area and population Island councils
f
%
value
Foreign trade 33.459
Balance of trade (current prices)
Demography Population (1992): 191,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 620.1, persons per sq km 238.8. Urban-rural (1985)3; urban 92.4%; rural 7.6%. Sex distribution (19922): male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Age breakdown (19902): under 15, 26.2%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 24.0%; 45-59, 13.8%; 60-74, 7.1%; 75 and over, 2.8%. Population projection: (2000) 194,000; (2010) 198,000. Doubling tunc: 56 years. Ethnic composition (1980)3: Netherlands Antillean (Dutch/Spanish/black/ Amerindian) Creole 84.0';; white 6.1%; other West Indian 4.9';; Suriname Creole 2.9%; other 2.1%. Religious affiliation (1981): Roman Catholic 83.8%; Protestant 10.2%, of
which Lutheran/Reformed tradition 33 c/< Methodist 3.2%, Seventh-day Adventist 1.5%; Jewish 0.3%; nonreligious 2.6%; other 3.1%. Major cities (1985): Willemstad (urban area) 125,000; Philipsburg 6.000 4 ,
.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 18.3 (world avg. 26.4); (19885) legitimate 51.6%; illegitimate 48.4%.
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1991): 12.5 (world avg. 17.2). total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1984)3; 3.4. Marriage rate per 1,110(1 population 1991 ): 6.4. Ihvme rate per 1.00(1 population (1991): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1981) 6 male 71.1 years; female 75.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987) 7 diseases of the circulatory system 205.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 150.6; respiratory diseases 41.0; endocrine and metabolic diseases 31.9; accidents 29.0; conditions originating in the perinatal period 17.5. (
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
NAf. 000.000
-603
-124
-59
-214
-227
%
9.1%
3.6%
1.2%
5.0%
+ 19 0.4%
of total
34%
Imports (1990)13; NA f. 3,842,857,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 70.4%, machinery and transport equipment 9.7%, food and live animals 5.2%, chemicals 3.0%). Major import sources: Venezuela 59.2%; United States 12.3%; The Netherlands 5.7%; Ecuador 5.5%; Mexico 2.5%. Exports (1990)13; NA f. 3,217,861,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 96.5%, chemicals 1.4%, machinery and transport equipment 0.6%). Major export destinations: United States 30.6%; Dominican Republic 7.4%; Venezuela 4.6%; Colombia 3.2%; Cuba 3.2%; Brazil 3.2%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads
(1989): total length 525 mi, 845 km Vehicles (19922): passenger cars 55,136; trucks and buses 12,511. Merchant marine (1990): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 103 3 total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1982)"*: passenger-mi 234,000,000, passenger-km 377,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,243,000, metric tonkin cargo 1,815,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 10; total circulation 95,000; circulation per 1.000 population 499. Radio (1991): 125,000 receivers (1 per 1.5 persons). Television (1991): 32,000 receivers (1 per 5.5 persons). Telephones (1991 ): 58,076 (1 per 3.3 persons).
(paved,
n.a.).
;
Education and health
:
Education (1990-91)
:
Primary (age 6-12)
Secondary (age 12-17) Voc, teacher tr. Higher'9
schools
teachers
students
86 23 38
1,077
2
80
22.410 8,075 6,354 700
552 431
student/ teacher ratio
20 8 14.6
147
88
National economy Budget (1491). Revenue:
NA
f. 338,100,000 (taxes 71.8%, of which taxes on import duties 26.1%, property taxes 2.7%; nontax revenue 28.2%). Expenditures: f. 351.400.000 (current expenditures 94.3%, of which goods and sen ices 19.1%, debt service 10.4%, transfer payments 9.295 capital expenditures 5.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in NA f. '000; 1982): eggs 3,863, fruits and vegetables 2,850 s pork 1,250, goat meat 555; li\estock (number of live animals; 1941) 14,000 goals. (,.(ili(i cattle, 4,000 sheep, 3,000 pigs; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1990) 8,500. Mining and quarrying (1990): unrefined salt 354,000''; limestone 3fi0,000. Manufacturing (1985): residual fuel oil 6,900,00010; ship repair NA f. 48,000.000 " Curasao liqueur 780 hectolitres; other manufactures include electronic parts, cigarettes, textiles, and rum. Construction (number of buildings completed; 1491 h residential 547; nonresidential 173. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 735,000,000 (735,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (82,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 10,365,000 (1,276,000);
goods and services
32.4'
,
.
NA
;
,
;
)
:
natural gas, none (none). use (1990): forested, negligible: meadows and pastures, negligible; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.0 r;: other (dry savanna) 90.0%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 3.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1986) - 13; transportation and communications 23.6%, tood 19.0%, housing 16.8%, household furnishings 10.2%, clothing and footwear 8.4%, recreation and education 6.6%, health 2.3%, beverages and tobacco 2.2%, other 10.9%. G/OSS national product (at current market prices; 1991). U.S.$1,490.000.000 (U.S.S7.800 per capita).
Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or some primary education 29.7%; completed primary 31.59! completed vocational or secondary 37.6%; completed higher 1.2%. Literacy (1981): total population age 15 and over literate 154,860 (93.8%); males literate 73,400 (94.2%); females literate 81,460 (93.4%). Health (1992): physicians 273 (1 per 701 persons); hospital beds 1.436 (1 per 133 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 6.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2.681 (vegetable products 68%, animal products 32%); 111% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): none; external security is maintained by The Netherlands via a Dutch naval contingent stationed in the Netherlands Antilles.
Land
1
'Aruba withdrew from the Netherlands Antilles on Jan. 1, 1986. becoming an autonomous member of the Kingdom of The Netherlands, the same status as the whole of the Netherlands Antilles. ^January 1. 'includes Aruba. 4 1981 census. 'Excludes Sint Eustatius. 6 Curacao only. 'Excludes Sint Maarten. "Mostly tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, gherkins, melons, and lettuce grown on hydroponic farms; aloes grown g 1988. lor export, divi-divi pods, and sour orange fruit are nonhydroponic crops. ("1989. I'Foreign income in 1986. '^Weights of consumer price index components. ('Curasao and Bonaire only. 14 Less imputed bank service charges. ''Unemployed. 161986. ''Average nonagricultural wage. '"ALM Airlines only. '''1986-87.
World
Nati. »ns of the
Land
us,1989): forested 38.7%; meadows and pastures 15.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.1%; other 44 GrOSS national product fal current market prices; 1987): U.S.S 1,606,000,000
New Caledonia Official
name:
rerritoire
«.lc
>1.
la
(U.S.SI0.14II per capita).
(
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
overseas territory
(u->
(France) with one legislative house
Congress
(Territorial
Chief of
|54|).
President of France.
state:
AUEfc,*' Agriculture
Mining Manufacturing Construction
oj government: High Commissioner (for France); President
of the Territorial Congress (for Caledonia).
New
Public utilities Transportation
Official language: French. Official religion: none.
Services J Pub. admin., defense
franc of the Comptoirs frangais du Pacifique (CFPF) = fOO centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFPF 84.71; 1
£=
unit:
CFPF
1
population
area
Regions
Capitals
value
3,575 11.667 51,351 10.712 5.723
16
7,763
5.2
910
229
48
4.668 4,476
2.5
576
8,806 46,794
39 208
32,009
14.3
53.861
240
3.087 9,454 2,475 12,587 9.429 10.520 65,945
100
224.498
26.3%. Tourism (1990): receipts from
1989 census
km
% of labour force 11.8 1
4
7
1
68 09 47 14.3
38 19.1
14.3 15.9 100.05
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.0; average annual income per household (1980-81) CFPF 1,627,000 (U.S.$18,598)6; sources of income (1986): wages and salaries 59.0%, self-employment 19.6%, transfer payments 21.4%; expenditure (1981): food 27.5%, transportation 15.1%, housing 13.3%, household furnishings 11.4%, recreation 6.4%, other
Area and population
sq
labour force
Other TOTAL
144.00.
sq mi
1989
% of total
value
and
communications Trade Finance 1
Noumea.
Monetary
1988 in
CFPF 000.000
Head
Capital:
1
-
Nouvelle-Calidonie el D6pendances rerritory of New Caledonia and Dependencies). Political statu*,
681
visitors U.S. $150,000,000;
expenditures by na-
tionals abroad, n.a.
Loyaute Nord
Sud TOTAL
765
1,981
3,700 2.707 7,172
9.583 7,012 18,576
17,912 34,526 1 1 1
Foreign trade
.735
164,173
Balance of trade (current prices) 7
Demography
CFPF 000,000
Population (1992): 174,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 24.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1989): urban 59.4%; rural 40.6%. Sex distribution (1989): male 51.08%; female 48.92%.
% of total
km
(1989): under 15, 32.6%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 19.8%; 45-59, 12.1%; 60-74, 5.4%; 75 and over, 1.6%.
Population projection: (2000) 199,000; (2010) 230,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Melanesian 44.8%; European 33.6%; Wallisian 8.6%; Indonesian 3.2%; Tahitian 2.9%; Vietnamese 1.5%; Ni- Vanuatu 1.0%; other 4.4%. Religious affiliation (1989): Roman Catholic 59.2%; SunnT Muslim 3.0%; other (mostly Protestant) 37.8%. cities
(1989)1:
Noumea
65,110;
Mont-Dore
16,370:
Dumbea
10,052;
Paita 6,049.
Vital statistics
Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 3.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989); 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1989): male 66.5 years; female 71.8. Major causes of death per 100,000 population ( 1981)-: diseases of the circulatory system 45.0; traumas 31.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 23.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 10.9; ill-defined conditions 94.2.
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:
1989
1990
1991
-10,708 6.4%
-42.998 32.9%
-42,881 31.8%
Imports (1991): CFPF 88,798,000,000 (machinery and electrical goods 21.0%, food 17.0%, transportation equipment 14.5%, mineral products 9.7%, metal and metal products 7.0%, chemicals and chemical products 6.8%). Major import sources: France 45.7%; Australia 9.7%; United States 7.0%; Japan 5.8%; New Zealand 3.7%. Exports (1991): CFPF 45,917,000,000 (ferronickel and nickel matte 68.8%, nickel ore 21.2%, nonmineral products 10.0%). Major export destinations (1987): France 44.0%; Japan 19.1%; West Germany 8.6%; United States 7.5%; India 4.5%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1989):
total length 3,580 mi, 5,762
km
(paved 22%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 50,000; trucks and buses 18,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 17; deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990) 8 passenger-mi 79,655,000, passenger-km 128,193,000; short ton-mi cargo 332,000 9 metric ton-km cargo 485,000^; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 10. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1; total circulation 18,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 90,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 35,500 (1 per 4.8 persons). Telephones (1990): 28.776 10 (1 per 5.8 persons). ,
Education and health Education (1990) schools
teachers
students
279 44 29 6
1,696
1,685
34,242 14,237 6,765 1.207
Primary (age 6-10)
CFPF 56.704,000,000 (current revenue 98.5%, of which indirect taxes 49.9%, direct taxes 27.2%, French government grants 9.4%; development revenue 1.5%). Expenditures: CFPF 55,781,000,000 (current expenditure 84.9%, of which social and cultural services 67.7%, administrative 10.3%, public debt 3.8%; development expenditure 15.1%).
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$313,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): fruits (excluding melons) 7,000, sweet potatoes melons) 4,000, cassava 4,000, sweet potatoes bananas and plantains 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 124,000 cattle, 39,000 pigs, 18,000 goats, 1,000,000 chickens; roundwood 12,000 cu m; fish catch 6,996. Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 1991): nickel ore 5,640,000 (ferronickel [metal content] 34,411, nickel matte [metal content) 9,041); chromite ore (1990) 11,031 (concentrate 6,207). Manufacturing (metric tons; 1988): cement (1991) 90,490; soap 381; crude vegetable oil 164; copra cake 108; beer 65,141 hectolitres. Construction (dwellings completed; 1991): 772 units. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 1,144,000,000 (1,144,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (164,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (357,000); natural gas, none (none).
coconuts 8,000,
12,000,
1988
+ 496 0.4%
:
per 1,000 population (1989): 23.9 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate 48.1%; illegitimate 51.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1989): 6.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 17.9 (world avg. 17.3). Birth rate
yams
1987 -34,691 37.7%
9.4.
Age breakdown
Major
1986
-36,164 40 3%
4,000. vegetables (including 4.000, potatoes 2,000,
Secondary (age 11-17) Vocational
Higher
141"
student/ teacher ratio
20.2
125
86
Educational attainment ( 1989). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 5.2%; primary education 52.5%; secondary 37.8%; higher 4.5%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 33,288 (57.9%); males literate 16,807 (57.4%); females literate 16,421 (58.3%). Health (1990): physicians 216 (1 per 776 persons); hospital beds 1,118 (1 per 150 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 11.2. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,863 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 126% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 3,800 French troops. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.
Population economically active (1989): total 65,945; activity rate of total population 40.2% (participation rates: over age 20, 65.7%; female 37.5%; unemployed 7.9%). Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985
Consumer
price index
Earnings index
"
1
100 100.0
'Populations cited are for
1986
1987
1988
99 5
100.9 101.5
104 5 104.6
100.6
113.9 113.5
communes
that
make up Grand Noumea.
-Public health
on minimum hourly wage. 'Detail because of rounding. ^Average European household CFPF 2.243.(100 (U.S.$25,640); Melanesian CFPF 777,000 (U.S.58.882). "Import figures are c.i.f. *Air Caledonie only. "1988. "'Subscribers. 111989. facilities only.
110.3 109.9
'All figures are end-of-year. -"Based
does not add to
total given
Britannica World Data
682
New Zealand
Gross national product (1990): U.S.$4: (,185,000,000 (U.S.$12,680 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
New Zealand (English); Aotearoa (Maori). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (House of Representatives [97]). Chief of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official' name:
1988 -89
Mining Manufacturing Construction Public
New
100 cents; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = $NZ 1.84;
1
Services Other TOTAL
Zealand dollar
($NZ)= 1992)
commun.
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense
none.
Official religion: unit: 1
5,
1£=$NZ3.13.
9.0
%
of labour
force
94 02
1.301
2.0
4,534 10.879 14,637
7.1
22.9
8,346
13 .1
415,600
257
163,6008 1,620,200
10 1 8 100.09
}
1
2,215
18.5 3.5
17.1
3,721? 63,805
5.8?
100.0
14.8 4,8
08 5.4
193
96
population
area
Price and earnings indexes (1985
1991
Islands
sq mi
Regional Councils
sq
km
115,777
44,702
North Island
census
1
Consumer
2,549,707
Manawatu-Wanganui Northland Taranaki
Waikato 151.215
58,384
877.235 441,091 113,073 185.225 102.269 35,577
Otago Southland West Coast Remainder? .3 1,746
963 270.534
104,454
SNZ 000.000
% of total
3.427,796
131.0 125.7
139.4 141.6
1986
1987
1988
+578.6 2.6%
+927.9 4.0%
+3.215.0 13.6%
Imports (1991-92):
Demography Population (1992): 3,481,000. Damn L992); persons per sq mi 33.3, persons per sq km 12.4. Urban-rural (1991): urban 75.9%; rural 24.1%. Sex distribution 1991 |: male 49.299! female 50.71%. Age breakdown 1991): under 15, 23.2%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 22.4 f 14.4%; 611-74, 10.9%; 75 and over, 4.5%. Population projection: (2000) 3,802.(1(111; (2010) 4,128, (
;
{
1988
113.2 116.4
147.3
156 3
1473
153.7
160.4 157.6
161.8 158.7
Balance of trade (current prices)
854
322 674 372
1987
Foreign trade
854
Oflshore islands 4 Stewart Islands Chatham Islands^ TOTAL
= 100)
1986
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.9; annual income per household (1989-90) SNZ 39,800 (U.S.$23,760); sources of income (1987-88): wages and salaries 68.7%, transfer payments 14.1%, selfemployment 8.1%; expenditure (1989-90): housing 22.7%, transportation 18.3%, food 16.6%, household durable goods 13.6%., clothing 4.6%. Land use (1440): forested 27.4%; meadows and pastures 50.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.5%; other 20.8%.
401.851
Wellington
South Island Canterbury Nelson-Marlborough
price index
Weekly earnings index
953,058 208.030 44,302 139.104 226,298 131,547 107.112 338,405
Auckland Bay of Plenty Gisborne Hawkes Bay
1
,
;
45-59,
I.
7(1
force
Population economically active (1991'): total 1,623,900; activity rate 47.3% (participation rates: over age 15, 64.0%; female 43.5%; unemployed 9.8%).
Area and population
Doubling time:
labour
value
152,900 3.500 239.400 78,200 12.200 87,800 312,200 154,800
utilities
Transp. and
ml languages: English; Maori.
Monetary
1992
% of total
5,771 611 1 1 ,790
Agriculture
Capital: Wellington. Offit
value
in
SNZ 000,000
SNZ
1989 +
.380 6
1
4.8%
1990
+
1.351.2
4.4%
1991
+ 3.310.6 1 1 .0%
14,215,800,000 (minerals, chemicals, and plastics
25.5%; machinery 24.4%; transport equipment 14.8%; basic manufactures 8.6%; food and live animals 7.4%; metals and metal products 6.8%; textiles. clothing, and footwear 6.5%). Major import sources: Australia 22.2%; U.S. 18.3%; Japan 15.2%; U.K. 6.2%. Exports (1991 -92): SNZ 17,875,700,000 (food and live animals 49.5%; basicmanufactures 22.7%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 9.3%; metals and metal products 7.1%). Major export destinations: Australia 19.0%; Japan 15.3%; U.S. 12.8%; U.K. 6.5%; South Korea 4.3%; Malaysia 2.6%; Germany 2.3%.
years.
Ethnic composition (1991): New Zealand European 73.8%; New Zealand Maori 9.6%; Pacific Island Polynesian 3.6%; multiethnic 4.5%; other and not specified 8.5%. Religious affiliation (1991): Anglican 21.4'^; Presbyterian 16.0%; Roman Catholic 14.8%; Methodist 4.1%; nonreligious 19.7'',: other 24.0%. Major cities (1991): Auckland 315,425; Christchurch 292,537; Manukau 225,928; North Shore 151.330; Wellington 144.598.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population 64.3',; illegitimate 35.7%.
(1991):
17.8
(world avg. 26.4); legitimate
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1991): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Vatural increase rate per 1,000 population (1441); 4.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rule (avg. births per childbeanng woman; 1991): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1990): 6.9. Divorce rale per 1,000 population 1989): 0.3. Life expectancy at birth (1941 ): male 72.0 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (14N7): diseases of the circulator) system 380.7, of which ischemic heart disease 230.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 193.7; diseases oi the respiratory system 87.1; accidents 60.3; diseases of the digestive system 22.1; metabolic diseases 15.0. (
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 2,627 mi, 4,227 km; passenger-km (1984) 458.l60.ooii; short ton-mi cargo (1988-89) 1,837,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,682,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 57,771 mi, 92,974 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (1940): passenger cars 1,557,074; trucks and buses 310,671. Merchant marine ( 1441 ): vessels Kill gross tons and over) 142; total deadweight tonnage 314,038. Air transport (1440): passenger-mi 6,541.000,000, passenger-km 10,608,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 227.000,000, metric ton-km cargo 332,000,000; airports (1442) 36. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 34; total circulation 1.031,000; circulation per 1,000 population 306. Radio (1991): 3,100,000 re1441): 1,100,000 receivers (1 per 3.1 ceivers (1 per 1.1 persons). Television persons). Telephones (1988): 2.403,000 (1 per 1.4 persons). (
(
Education and health
(
Education (1990) Primary (age 5 12)" Secondary (age 13-17) Voc. teacher tr.
Higher
'2
schools
teachers
students
student/ teacher ratio
2.455
22140 14683
421.259 229,273
15.6
4.498
56.771 78.919
12.6 21.0
336 32 7
3,761
190
National economy 1989-90). Revenue: $NZ 28,234,000,000 1988 89; income tax 59.9%, goods and services tax 16.5%, interest and profits 4.8%, sales tax 7.0%). Expenditures; $NZ 25,686,200,000 (social services 40.1%, debt service and
Budget
(
(
investment 18.4%, education 15.7%, health 14.7%, administration 11.9%). National debt (fiscal year 1991): U.S. $25,822,000,000. Tourism L990): receipts U.S.$900,( ,000; expenditures U.S.$996,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): barks 367,100, corn (maize) 176.000. wheat 173.700. peas 63,900, oats 60,$00; livestock (number of live animals) 55,941,000 sheep. 8,085,000 cattle, 00 goats, $85,000 pigs; roundwood (1989) 10,557,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 565,440. Mining and quarrying (1990): limestone 3,082,000; iron ore and sand concentrate 2,367,000; serpentine 21,000; gold 4.4(,.'! kg; silver 4,837 kg. Manufacturing 1990 91 ): wood pulp 1.348,700; chemical fertilizers 994,000; cement 581,000; beer 362,656,000 litres; carbonated soft dunks 162,748,000 litres; footwear 4.022.000 pairs. ( .instruction (SNZ '000; 1440-41): residential 2.430,000; nonresidential 544,700. Energ) production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; L990) 30,158,000,000 (30,158,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 2,415,000 (2,015,000); crude petroleum (barrels; L990) 13,963,000 (32,743,000) petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4,347,000 (4,260,000); m: 1990)4,605,900,000(4,605,900,000) natui i
Educational attainment (I4K7). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary and some secondary education 51.9%; secondary 35.8%; higher 6.9%; not specified 5.4%. Literacy: virtually 100.0%. Health (1989): physicians 9,453 (1 per 359 persons); hospital beds 29,352 (1 per 114 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1941): 8.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,461 (vegetable products 59%, animal products 41%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum.
Military Total active duty personnel (1442): 10.400 (army 44.0%, navy 22.0%, air force (1989): 2.2% (world 4.9%); J4.0' , ). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.S258.
CNP
(
March 5. -Includes the population of Kermadec Islands and persons 'Includes the population of Chatham Islands county and Campbell Island. "Excludes islands in Regional Councils. 'Part of Southland Regional Council. 'Chatham Islands county remains outside any Regional Council. 'Includes import duties less imputed bank service charges. ^Includes 161,600 unemployed. ''Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "'Second quarter, o Includes 74 composite schools that provide both primary and secondary education. ^Universities only. 'Provisional;
cm
nil
rigs.
Nations
Gross national product (U.S $460 per capita).
Nicaragua name: Republica de Nicaragua Republic ol Nicaragua), Form of government: unitary multipart) republic with one legislative house (National Assemblj [921]). Head of Hate and government: Official
(at
current market prices;
of ilu
1988);
World
683
U.S.S 1,66 1,000,000
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
(
1990
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Managua.
apital.
Public utilities Transportation
Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none.
Monetary
unit:
I
and communications Trade
c6rdoba oro C$ 2 = 100
centavos; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) £=TC$8.50~. 1 U.S.$ = C$5.00;
Finance, real estate
Pub admin
,
defense
I
Services^ Other
sq mi
Capitals
Boaco
Juigalpa
Esteli
Esteli
km
839 383
Granada
Granada Jinotega
Leon
Leon
Madnz Managua Masaya
Somoto Managua Masaya
1,300
9.640 5,243 1.612 3,368
267
690
Matagalpa
2,675
Ocotal San Carlos Rivas
1,388
6,929 3,594 7.402 2,190 60.035 120,349 10,333 130.682
Rivas Zelaya TOTAL LAND AREA
992
3.722 2.024
Bluetields
INLANO WATER 3
TOTAL
622
2,857
846 23,180 46,467 3.990 50,457
US$000,000
%
74,946;
1985):
1
Managua
Chinandega
682,111;
Leon
km
34.3.
100,982;
Granada
88,636;
Masaya
67,792.
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 37.0 (world avg. 26.4).
Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rule per 1,000 population (1991): 30.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 2.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988); 0.4. Life expectancy at birth 1991): male 60.0 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population (registered only; 1987): diseases of the circulatory system 69.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 64.9; deaths from war operations and homicide 51.0; diseases of the respiratory system (
48.7; accidents 33.3.
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: U.S. $440,000. 000 (current and development revenue 79.3%, foreign loans 20.7', ). Expenditures: U.S.$499,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 3,018,000, corn (maize) 245.000. rice 140,000, bananas 114,000. seed cotton 75.000. cassava 71,000. sorghum 70,000, oranges 68,000, plantains 63,000, dry beans 56,000. coffee 28.000, sesame seed 13,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,680,000 cattle, 709,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 4.077.000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 2,766, of which crustaceans 1,803. Mining and quarrying (1989): gold 39,000 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of production in CTOOO.OOO; L988 5 ): processed foods 1,556; beverages 1.204; metal products 694; textiles 640; chemicals and chemical products 572; nonmetal mineral products 361; clothing 285; tobacco products 247. Construction (buildings completed; 1988): 41,600 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 1,038,000,000 (1,238,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 199(1) none (3,592,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4(1(1,000 (628,000); natural gas. none (none). Population economically active (1991); total 1,386,300; activity rate of total population 34.795 (participation rates: over age 15, (i2.0'r; female 33.2%;
unemployed [1992] Price
60.09!
)
and earnings indexes (1988 = 100)
Consumer
price index
Monthly earnings index?
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
100.0
4.146 6,141
326.086
27.174.000
27.174.0006
100
48,141
4.2
256,976 69,406 133,730 51.559
223
1.151.686
8.0 1.5
0.7
18
20.900 94.600
8.4
4.5
18,700 77.400 148.500
132
100.0
1,126.300
6.0 1 1
.6
282,900
1.7
6.9
25.1")
3
1000
size (1980) 6.9: in-
1986
1987
1988
1989
-609 6
-622.7 50.9%
-270.4 33.1%
- 234 9
55.2%
of total
1990
-343
29.0%
1991 5
34.8%
- 395.8 35.3%
(1990): U.S.$664.700,000 (nondurable consumer goods 23.2%, petroleum products 16.4%, capital goods for transport 14.6%, capital goods for industry 11.9%). Major import sources (1991): United States 21.3%; former U.S.S.R. 10.2%; Cuba 8.0%; Costa Rica 7.8%; Guatemala 7.3%; Venezuela 7.1%-. Exports (1990): U.S.$321,200,000" (coffee 21.0%, meat 20.0%, cotton 11.4%, sugar 10.8%. bananas 7.2%). Major export destinations (1991): United States 16.4%; Germany 14.4%; Japan 11.0%; Canada 11.0%; Italy 7.8%.
(1990): under 15, 45.8%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 5,261,000; (2010) 6,824,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1985): mestizo (Spanish/Indian) 77.0%; white 10.0%; black 9.0%; Amerindian 4.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 90.7%; other (mostly Baptist, Moravian, and Pentecostal) 9.3%. (
.2
Balance of trade (current prices)
Age breakdown
cities
1
03
Imports
(
Major
35
32,4
Foreign trade
Demography 1
0.6
15 9
come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $12,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2.000,000. Land use (1990): forested 28.5%; meadows and pastures 45.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.7%; other 15.3%.
3,870,700
Population ( 992 ): 4. 3 ,000. Density 1992)-*: persons per sq mi 89.9, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 59.8%; rural 40.2%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.12%; female 49.88%. 1
365,200 3,000 90,500 16.800 7,800
Household income and expenditure. Average household
117.900 150.000 330.500 129,600 169.100 162.600 175,600 344.500 88.700 1,026,100 230,800 322.300 122.100 52.200 149.800 298,900
4,789 6.324 2.173
1.849 2.442
Jinotega
Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Rio San Juan
force
30.2
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$7,920,000,000.
estimate
4,271 1,097
424
Chinandega
Chontales
sq
1.649
Jinotepe
% of labour
force
population
area
1990
Departments J Boaco Cara20 Chinandega
labour
value
—
TOTAL
Area and population
1987
% of total
348.342 6,713 182.990 40,170 13,659
Agriculture
President. (
value
in
C$000,000.0008
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 186 mi, 300 km; (1988) passengermi 15.800,000, passenger-km 25,400,000; short ton-mi cargo 46,600,000, metric ton-km cargo 68,000,000. Roads (1988): total length 9.319 mi. 14,997 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 31,111; trucks and buses
Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 25; total deadweight tonnage 3,013. Air transport (1990) 12 passenger-mi 68,800,000, passenger-km 110,700,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,451,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,579.000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1". Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 113,000; circulation per 1,000 population 28. Radio (1991): 880,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Television (1991): 210,000 receivers (l per 19 persons). Telephones 1990): 47,000 (1 per 82 persons). 42,974.
:
(
Education and health Education (1989) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher 's, '6
student/
teachers
students
18,746
595,612 143.954 17.258 34.166
4,768" 1,170 1,591
teacher
ratio
31.8 24.0'"
148 21.5
Educational attainment (1971). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 53.9%; some primary and complete primary education 41.7%; some secondary and complete secondary education 4.4%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 74.0%. Health (1988): physicians 1,789 (1 per 2,024 persons); hospital beds 4,762 (1 per 761 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 60.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,472 (''vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 14.700 (army 88.4%, navy 3.4%, air force 8.2%). Milium expenditure as percentage of central government expenditure (1991): 16.0%.
'Includes two unsuccessful 1990 presidential candidates meeting special conditions. -The Cordoba oro. introduced in August 199(1, circulated simultaneously with the new cordoba until April 30, 1991, when the new cordoba ceased to be legal tender; on April 30, 1 cordoba oro equaled 5,000,000 new cordobas. The new cordoba had been introduced in February 1988 at the rate of 1 new cordoba to 1.900 (old) cdrdobas -'Lakes and lagoons are excluded from the areas of departments. 'Based on land area 5AI prices of 1983 in old cordobas. 6 June. 'Registrants ol Nicaragua!] Institute ol So eial Security and Welfare. s At current prices in new cdrdobas 'Includes restaurants, hotels, and business services. '"Mostly underemployed informal workers. "Estimated exports (1991) U.S.$266,000,000 (cotton !198().
only.
nUniversite de Niamey and Ecole Nationale d'Administration du Niger
Nations
World
of tin
i>«5
9,945,000,000 (9,845,000,000) coal (metric tons; 1990) 90,000(55,000); crude petroleum (b.urcK: 1990) 647,940,000 73,140,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)8,993,000(10,276,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) >,668,000,000 5,688,000,000) Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$21,000,000; expenditures U.S.$51,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.S3 1,285.000,000 (U.S.S270 pet capita)
Nigeria
1
Official
name: Federal Republic of
(
Nigeria.
Form of government:
federal republic;
temporarily governed (pending restoration Ol civilian governmental
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
apparatus by L993) by Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC). Head ol state and government
1991
N
President. ( 'apital:
Agriculture
Abuja (Federal
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Capital Territory) Official language: English. 1
.
Public
Official religion: none.
Nigerian naira Monetary unit: (#) = 100 kobo; valuation (Oct. 5, = 1992) 1 U.S.$ N18.42; 1 £ = #31.31.
commun
I
Area and population
% of total
000,000
value
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL
population
area
37,000 12.000 7.800 1.800
39.2
500
0.5
3.200 12.400 8.500 8.400 2.800
34
utilities
Transp. and
1986
value
in
12.7 8.3
19
13.1
9.0
94.400
89
1
3
J
labour force
% of labour
13.259,000 6.800 1 .263.700 545.600 130.400 1.111.900 7,417.400 120,100
43
force
4.1
1.8
04 3.6 24.1
04
4,902,100
15.9
2,008.500 '2 30.765,500
100.0
1
0.1
6.5
'2
100.0
1991
States
Capitals
Abia
Umuahia
Adamawa
Yola
Akwa Ibom Anambra
Uyo Awka
Bauchi
Bauchi Makurdi
sq mi
sq
10.5162 35.2863
km
27.2372 91.3903
Rivers
Ibadan Jos Port Harcourt
Sokoto Taraba
Sokoto
9
9
Jalingo
3
3
2,297,978 2,124.049 2,359.736 2.767,903 4.294.413 2,780,398 2,596,589 1.865,604 2,570.181 2,159,848 3,161,295 2.485,499 2,829,929 3.969,252 5.632,040 3.878,344 2,062.226 2.099,046 ,566,469 5,685,781 2,482.367 2.338,570 3.884.485 2,203,016 3,488.789 3,283,704 3.983,857 4,392,391 1.480.590
Yobe
Damaturu
5
5
1.411,481
7,315
378,671 88.514.501
Benue
Maidugun
Borno Cross River
Calabar
Delta
Asaba
Edo Enugu
Benin City
Imo Jigawa Kaduna
Owerri
Katsina
Katsina
Kebbi Kogi
Lokoja
2
35,5006 6
Birnin Kebbi
7
39.5899
Ikeja
Niger
Minna Abeokuta Akure
1.292 25.111 6,472 8.092 14.558'°
102,5359 4
66.869 3,345 65.037 16,762 20,959 37,705")
10
10
22.405 8,436
58,030 21,850
2,824
356.669"
TOTAL
43,285? 70,2458 8
'
Federal Capital Territory Abuja Abuja
,850
8
25.818
Oshogbo
2 1 1
7
llorin
Plateau
116,4005
2
4,575 16,712? 27.1228
Kwara Lagos
Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo
45,174''
6
Dutse
Kaduna Kano
17.675 64.605
2
13.7076
Enugu
Kano
2
2
6.824 24.944 17.442" 44.9425
Public debt (external, outstanding; Dec. 31, 1991): U.S.$32,849,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 30,765,500; activity rate 31.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 58.8%; female 33.3%; unemployed 4.1%).
census
923,768
Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer
(1992): Lagos 1,347,000; Ibadan 1,295,000; 660,600; Oshogbo 441,600; llorin 430,600.
1990
1991
117.7
2735
293 7
331 9
7.5%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) M
Kano
000,000
% of total
1985
1986
+ 4.049
+ 3.043
22.0%
21.8%
699,900;
1987
1988
+ 8,283 14.2%
+15,401 35.2%
1989
N 89,488,200,000
Transport and communications Railroads (1987): length 3,505 km; passenger-km 3,808,277,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,743,000,000. Roads (1984): total length 124,000 km (paved 48%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 785,000; trucks and buses 625,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 259; total deadweight tonnage 718,616. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 774.844,000; metric ton-km cargo 21,675,000; airports (1992) 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 24; total circulation 1,553,000">; circulation per 1,000 population 181+. Radio (1991): 10,000,000 receivers (1 per 12 persons). Television (1991): 4,100,000 receivers (1 per 30 persons). Telephones (1988): 722,070 (1 per 117 persons). Transport.
Education and health Education (1989-90)
H
+ 68.587 45.4%
Ogbo-
student/
schools
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 46.5 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.0 (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.5 (world avg. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 50.8 years; female 54.3 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.
1990
+ 29.730 34.5%
(machinery and transport equipment 41.1%; manufactured goods [mostly iron and steel products, textiles, and paper products] 23.5%; chemicals 17.1%; food 8.7%; mineral fuels 0.5%). Major import sources: Germany 13.8%; U.K. 13.6%; U.S. 11.8%; France 8.9%. Exports (1991): N 121,533,700,000 (crude petroleum 96.2%; cocoa beans 1.4%; rubber 0.8%; chemicals 0.1%; other significant exports include cocoa products, textiles, and cashew nuts). Major export destinations: U.S. 40.7%; Spain 12.6%; Germany 8.6%; Netherlands 5.0%, France 5.0%; Italy 4.0%. Imports (1991):
Vital statistics
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:
1989
105 7
1
;
cities
1987
100.0
Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1983) 5.0; annual income per household (1981) $i 2,300 (U.S.$3,745)13; sources of income (1979): self-employment 49.4%, wages 36.2%, interest 5.4%, rent 4.7%, transfer payments 4.3%; expenditures (1979): food 53.0%, fuel and light 11.4%, clothing 6.0%, transportation 4.7%, household goods 3.8%, other 21.1%. Land use (1990): forested 13.1%; pastures 43.9%; agricultural 35.5%; other
Demography
mosho
1986
Earnings index
Population (1992): 89,666,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 251.4, persons per sq km 97.1. Urban-rural (1990): urban 35.2%; rural 64.8%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.53%; female 50.47%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 8.0?? 60-74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 105,885,000; (2010) 130,344,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Hausa 21.3%; Yoruba 21.3%; Igbo (Ibo) 18.0%; Fulani 11.2%; Ibibio 5.6%; Kanuri 4.2%; Edo 3.4%; Tiv 2.2%; Ijaw 1.8%; Bura 1.7%; Nupe 1.2%; other 8.1%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 49.0%, of which Protestant 26.3%, Roman Catholic 12.1%, African indigenous 10.6%; Muslim 45.0%; other 6.0%.
Major
price index
= 100)
1985
17.2).
35,200,000,000 (petroleum profit tax 39.2%; import duties 12.7%; company income tax 5.0%). Expenditures: $422,100,000,000 (recurrent expenditure 56.6%, of which debt service 39.1%, defense 3.9%, police 2.8%, education 2.3%; capital expenditure 43.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): cassava 20,000,000, yams 16,000,000, sorghum 4,800,000, millet 4,200,000, rice 3,185,000, corn (maize) 1,900,000, plantains 1,314,000, sugarcane 1,250,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,219,000; livestock (number of live animals) 36,000,(KHI goats, 24,000,000 sheep. 14,500,000 cattle; roundwood (1990) 107,732,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 316,328. Mining and quarrying (1991): limestone 1,435,405; marble 52,379. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$'000,000; 1990): food and beverages 703; textiles 373; chemical products 165; metal products 16(1; machinery and transport equipment 159; paper products 62; rubber and plastic products 61. Construction (dwellings completed; 1982): 31,038. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990)
Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-17) Voo, teacher tr. Higher'5, 17
34.904 5.594 '5 376'5 48
teachers
344,221 136.677 15,738'6 3,235
teacher
students
ratio
369
12.712,087 2.723,791 391.583'6 55,068
19.9 24.9 '6 17.0
Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 29,538,200 (50.7%); males literate 17,792,300 (62.3%); females literate 11,745,000 (39.5%). Health (1986): physicians 16,003 (1 per 6,573 persons); hospital beds 90,668 (1 per 1,160 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 96.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,200 (vegetable products 97%,
animal products 3%);
93%
of
FAO
recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 76,000 (army 81.6%, navy 5.9%, air force (1989): 0.5% (world 4.9%). 12.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of
GNP
•The transfer of the capital from Lagos to Abuja in the Federal Capital Territory was completed in 1992. -Abia includes Akwa Ibom, Cross River, and Enugu. -'Adamawa includes Taraba. 4 Benue includes Kogi. s Borno includes Yobe. ''Delta includes Edo. 7 Jigawa includes Kano. «Kaduna includes Katsina. g Kebbi includes Sokoto. '"Osun includes Oyo. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding '-Includes 1,263,600 unemployed persons. 'JUrban households only. 4 For 15 newspapers onl\. (51987-88. 1M988-89. "For colleges of education only. >
686
Britannica World Data
Norway
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990
name: Kongeriket Norge (Kingdom of Norway).
Official
Form of government: monarchy with one
in
constitutional legislative
house
Mining
Crude petroleum and natural gas Manufacturing Construction Public
U.S.$
Services Other
= NKr5.75;
TOTAL
l£ = NKr9.78. Area and population
area
—
1,898
Arendal
3,557 5.763 18.779 10,575 6,036 5,832 14,798 8.673 9,753 175 1,615 3,529 7,195
Drammen Vadso
Hedmark
Hamar
Hordaland
Bergen Molde
More og Romsda! Nordland Nord-Trondelag
Bodo
Oppland
Lillehammer Oslo
Oslo
Steinkjer
Ostfold
Moss
Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane
Stavanger Leikanger
Sor-Trondelag Telemark
Trondheim
Troms
Tromso
Vest-Agder
Kristiansand
Vestlold
Tansberg
7.271
Skien
5.913
km
4,917 9.212 14.927 48.637 27.388 15,634 15,104 38.327 22.463 25,260
454 4.183 9,141 18.634 18.831 15,315
10.021 2,811
25,954
856
2,216 323,878
125.050
TOTAL
sq
7,281
95,170 90.589 27,568 25.445 57,555 73,3018 61,294 104,149 64,113 39,905 661,669")
%
labour
of total
of labour
value
force
force
2 9
116.000
55
0,5
21 ,000
10
294,000 130.000 21,000 162,000 354,000 153.000
13.8
14,4
13,7 4,2
3 8 8,7
1118 9.3 15,7 9.7 6.0
6
1
1.0
76 16.7 7.2
1
869,0009
40.99
2,126.000")
100.0")
\ J
100.0
Population economically active (1991): total 2,126,000; activity rate of total population 49.6% (participation rates [1990]: ages 16-64, 77.1%; female 43.6%; unemployed [1991] 5.5%).
population
19922 sq mi
Capitals
Counties Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark
utilities
Transp and commun. Trade Finance Pub admin,, defense
Monetary unit: 1 Norwegian krone (NKr) = 100 ore; valuation (Oct. 5, 1
19,306 3,275
Agriculture
(Parliament [165]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Oslo. Official language: Norwegian. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran.
1992)
1991
%
value
NKr 000,000
estimate
Price
421,510 97.828 225.712
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985
1986
1987
price index
100,0
Hourly earnings index
1000
107.2 110.0
116.5 128.0
Consumer
75,251
187,542 414,038 238,810 239.856 127.491 182.479 467.090 238,373 341,838 106.834 252.872 163,020 147.979 145,954 199.553 4,274,0303
124.3 135.0
1300
1354
141.0
149 6
140.0 157,2
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 2.4; consumption expenditure per household (1989) NKr 158,900 (U.S.$23,000); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 59.9%, social security 21.6%, self-employment and property income 17.0%; expenditure (1990): housing 18.9%, food 18.4%, transportation 12.6%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, household furniture and equipment 6.8%, beverages and tobacco 6.7%. Land use (1989): forested 27.1%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; built-up and other 69.6%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986
NKr 000,000
Demography
%
Population (1 992): 4,283,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 34.3, persons per sq km 13.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 75.0%; rural 25.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.44%; female 50.56%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 19.0%; 15-29, 22.9%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59, 15.1%; 60-74, 13.8%; 75 and over, 7.1%. Population projection: (2000) 4,426,000; (2010) 4,550,00(1. Doubling nine: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (by country of citizenship; 1991): Norway 96.6%; Denmark 0.4%; Sweden 0.3%; United Kingdom 0.3%; Pakistan 0.3%; United States 0.2%; Vietnam 0,2%; other 1.7',. Religious affiliation (1980): Lutheran 87.9%; nonreligious 3.2%; other 8.9%. cities (1992)*: Oslo 467,090; Bergen 215,967; Trondheim 139.660; Stavanger 99,764; Baerum 91,851.
of total
-12.403 4.4%
1987
-3.645
12%
1988
-2.976 1.0%
1989
1990
+ 27.248
+ 48.231
7.9%
12,9%
1991
+ 59,565 15.9%
Imports (1991): NKr 165,181,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 38.3%, of which ships 6.6%, road vehicles 4.9%; metals and metal products 7.0%, of which iron and steel 3.8%; food products 5.2%, of which fruits and vegetables 1.5%; petroleum products 3.1%, of which crude petroleum 0.9%). Major import sources: Sweden 15.4%; Germany 14.1%; U.K. 8.7%; Denmark 7.3%. Exports (1991): NKr 220,316,000,000 (fuels and fuel products 48.5%, of which crude petroleum 36.5%, natural gas 7.4%; metals and metal products 11.4%, of which aluminum 4.9%; machinery and transport equipment 7.7%; food products 7.3%, of which fish 6.5'; ). Major export destinations: U.K. 26.5%; Germany 11.1%; Sweden 10.3%; The Netherlands 7.9%.
Major
Transport and communications km; passenger-km 2,116,000,ton-km cargo 2,617,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 88,800 (paved Vehicles passenger cars 1,614,623; trucks and km 70%). (1991): buses 383,128. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2,577; total deadweight tonnage 40,950,168. Air transport (1990): passengerkm 7,664,588,000; metric ton-km cargo 831,113,000; airports (1992) 47. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 61; total circulation 2,163,000; circulation per 1,000 population 508. Radio (1991): 3,300,000 receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1991): 1,465,858 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1990)H: 2.132,290 (1 per 2.0 persons). Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 4,182
Vital statistics
000; metric
Bin/, ruic per 1,000 population (1991):
14.3
(world avg. 26.4); (1990)
mate 61.4%; illegitimate 38.6%. Death rate per 1.000 population L991): 10.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.8 (world avg.
legiti-
|
17.2).
Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1490): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth 1990): male 73.4 years; female 79.8 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population (1990): ischemic heart disease 265.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 232.5; cerebrovascular disease 132.5. (
(
Education and health
National economy
Education (1990-91)
Budget (1992). Revenue: NKr 304.389,000,000 (social-security taxes 26.5V value-added taxes 21.4%, taxes on interest and dividends 12.0%, ordinary income tax 4.4%, taxes on petroleum income and activitv 3.4 r:J ). Expenditures: NKr 316.046,000,000 (social security and welfare 25.3%, health 8.4%, debt service 5.5%). Public debt
(
1990): U.S.$23,430,000,
Toun»n
(1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$ 1,506,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,413,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): barley 740,000. oats 601.000, potatoes 484,000, wheat 224.000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,029,600 sheep*, 967,700 cattle, 721,700 pigs; roundwood (1990) 11,794,000 cu m; fish catch 1.957,550. of which capelin 564,000, herring 379,398. cod 166.2:5. mackerel 150,000. Mining and quarrying (1991)f>: iron ore 2,028,000, zinc 17.520 7 copper 17.400. lead 3,0007. Manufacturing (value added in NKr '000,000; 1990): machinery and equipment 26,605, of which transport equipment 6,433. electrical equipment 4,698: food products
Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)
and vocational Higher
student/ teacher ratio
schools
teachers
students
3,406
33.961
475,344
140
843 227
20,647 7,556
237,053 137,982
115 183
Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 16 and over having: lower secondary education 32.2%; higher secondary 49.0%; higher 18.8%. Literacy (1990): virtually 100'; literate. Health (1990): physicians (1991) 13,826 (1 per 309 persons); hospital beds 25,201 (1 per 168 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,338 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
,
15,308; paper and paper products 13.572; chemical products 11,253; wood and wood products 5,353. Construction (1991): residential 2,696,000 sq m; nonresidential 2,228,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity
(kW-hr;
1990) 121,601,000,000 (105,651,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 311,000 (779,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 622,051,000 (99,218,000); petroleum products (metric tons. 1990) 13,069,000 (",761.000); natural gas (cum: 1940) 19383,000,000(1,746,000,000) Gross minimal product (1990): U.S.$98,079,000,000 (U.S.S23.120 per capita).
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 32,700 (army 48.6%, navy 22.3%, air force (1989): 3.3% (world avg. 29.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$691.
GNP
Excludes Svalbard and Jan Mayen (24,360 sq mi [63,080 sq km]). -January 1. includes the Norwegian population of Svalbard and Jan Mayen registered as residents in municipalities on the mainland. 4 Population of municipalities. 5 One year and cner "Metal content of ore. 7 1990. ^Includes hotels. ''Includes 1 16,000 unemployed. '"Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "Main lines only. •
Nations
Oman
petroleum products, cement blocks and Moors, furniture, alumintm UCtS, electric wire and cable, spark pities, household utensils, (ertilizers. and fibreglass products, Construction (1989): number of residential permits 3,408; nonresidential permits J53 nerg) production (consumption): electricitj (kW-hr; 1990)5,345,000,000(5,345,000 coal none (none). crude petroleum (barrels; 199 petroleum prod-
name: Saltanat Umfin (Sultanate of ( )man) Form of government, monarchy Head o) Hale and government. Sultan. ( apitaL Muscat. Official language: Arabic. Official
I
1
.
Monetary
(RO)= 1992)
I
unit:
i
(metric tons; 1990) 3,22( 2.722.356,000 (2,722,356,000) Population economical^ active (1990) 9 ucts
Islam.
Official religion.
population 39.9';
Omani
rial
I
1,000 baizas; valuation (Oct.
RO= is V
i,;
i
[1986] 7.5';;
Price
km
estimate
13,770 77,110 117.510 3,670
416,200 197,400 146,900 410,000
sq mi
Centres
al-Batinah al-DakhifTyah
ar-Rustaq; Suhar
5,320 29,770 45.370
Nizwa; Samail Salalah
Muscat Khasab Ibra, Sur
Musandam
1.420
al-Burayml;
price
index"
'Ibri
sq
590
1.530
21 .400
16.190 19.490 118,150
41.920 50.490 306.000
206,500 131.600
Land
use (1990):
manent
680,850; activitj rate of total ages 15-64 [1986] 60.9%; female
total
talcs:
n.a.).
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
100.0
107.1
109.8
111.6
113.2
114.7
1991
'0
118.4
pastures 4.7%; agricultural and under perand developed area) 95.0%.
Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) RO
1.530,000
000.000
Demography
*
(
;
I
10,000".
Vital statistics
1985
1986
+555.0 19.3%
+113.0 5.5%
RO
1987
+707 31.9%
1988
1989
1990
+ 385.0 17.6%
+ 646.0 26.2%
+ 1 .034 34.3%
equipment 36.1%; manufactured goods 18.4%; food and live animals 16.0%; miscellaneous manufactured articles 10.4%; chemicals 5.8%; minerals, fuels, lubricants, and related materials 4.0%). Major import sources (1989): United Arab Emirates 24.2%; Japan 15.7%; United Kingdom 11.7%; United States 8.4%; West
Imports (1990):
Population (1992): 1.640,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 13.9, persons per sq km 5.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban LO.6%; rural 89.4%. Sex distribution 1990): male 52.40', female 47.60%. WO): under 15, 43.1%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 21.7%; 45-59, Age breakdown 7.7%; 60-74. 2.6%; 75 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2000) 2.176.000; (2010) 3,106,000. Doubling tune: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Omani Arab. 73.5%; Pakistani (mostly Baluchi) 21.0%; other 5.5%. Religious affiliation (1984): Muslim 86%; Hindu 13%; other 1%. Major cities (1990): Muscat 85,0006; Nizwa 62,880; Sama'il 44.721; Salalah (
meadows and
cultivation 0.3%; other (mostly desert
% of total
(
m
Earnings index
Regions-*
a?-Zahirah TOTAL
gas (cu
populations
1990
ash-SharqTyah
natural
and earnings indexes (1985=100)
Consumer area?
Masqat
(participation
unemployed,
186,000);
5,
1.54.
Area and population
al-Janublyah
f>87
tin- VNcirld
..I
1,031,000,000 (machinery and transport
Germany 5.5%.
RO 2,110,000,000 (petroleum 91.7%; reexports 5.1%; other commodities 3.2%). Major export destinations (1989): Japan 37.2%: South Korea 26.7%; Taiwan 8.6%; Singapore 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.4%; China 3.2%; United States 3.1%.
Exports (1990):
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):
total length 17,053 mi. 27,438
km
(paved 18%). Vehicles (1990): private vehicles 96,559, commercial vehicles 70,231. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 27; total deadweight tonnage 11,941. Air transport (1991) 13 passenger-mi 1,042,000.000, passenger-km 1,676,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 35,100,000, metric tonkm cargo 51,245,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 4; total circulation 61,500; circulation per 1,000 population 39. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 900,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 1,000,033 (1 per 1.6 persons). Telephones (1990): 107.409'-1 (1 per 14 persons). :
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 41.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 35.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 7.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. / ife expectancy at birth 1991): male 65.0 years; female 68.0 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1989): influenza 6,823; malaria 1,235; chicken pox 1,156; mumps 1,048: dysentery 376; measles 294; bacillary dysentery 206; infectious hepatitis 96; tuberculosis (
Education and health Education (1989-90)
33; brucellosis 15.
National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: RO 1,627,700,000 (oil revenue 78.4%; gas revenue Expenditures: RO 1.932,700,000 (civil ministries 48.3%, 4.2%; other 17.4', of which 1990] education 8.8%, general public services 7.0%, fuel and energy 5.7%, health 3.9%; defense 34.4%; interest paid on loans 5.1%). ).
Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-17) Voc, teacher tr. Higher
student/
schools
teachers
students
671
12,344 2,219
304,207 36.617 5.596 3.925
128 25 5
728 482
teacher
ratio
24.6 16.5 7.7
1
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,783,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$9,503,00O.0OO
(U.S.$6,327 per capita).
Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 6 and over literate 41%; males literate 58%; females literate 24%. Health (1990): physicians 1,393 (1 per 1,078 persons); hospital beds 3,952 (1 per 380 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 40. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Military
1990 in
RO Agriculture
Mining Manufacturing Construction Public
utilities
value
000.000
% of total
labour
value
force
% of
labour force
126 9
3.1
146400
27.7
2,0680
50.6 3 7
2,800 32.800 104,800 4,100
6.2 19.8
151 1 124.7 51.2
3.1
1.3
Total active duty personnel (1992): 35,700 (army 81.8%, navy 8.4%, air force 9.8%); foreign troops 3,700, Militan' expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 20.3% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$ 1,085.
05
08
Transportation and
communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services
Other TOTAL
132.2
467
1
293.3 656.7 83.7 -70 9'
4.0840
3.2
114 7.2 16.1
2.0
14.500 87.500 9.400 81,000 45,800
2.7 16.5
529,100
100.0
-1.7? 100.0
1.8
15.3 8.7
—
Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $69,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S. $47,000,000. Household income ami expenditure. Average household size (1986) 3.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; food expenditure 1978): meal anil eggs 20.6',, cereals 15. 2%, fruits and nuts 12.4 r V vegetables II.')';, dairy products 10.3',, other foods 29.6%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): vegetables and melons 159,000 (of which watermelons 27,000), dates 125.000, mangoes 33,000, bananas 24,000, onions 9,000, potatoes 5,000, papayas 3,000, tobacco leal 2.000. wheat 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 725,000 goats, 280,000 sheep. 138,000 cattle, 90,000 camels, 3.000.000 chickens: fish catch (1990) 120,2398. Mining and quarrying (1990): copper 15,200; silver 2,500 kg; gold 20 kg. Manufacturing: major products include refined (
.
The sultan is assisted by an appointed 60-member advisory council consisting of 59 governorate representatives and the sultan's representative, who leads the body. : No survey of surface area has ever been carried out in the Sultanate of Oman. 'The firs! census ol Oman has been scheduled for 1993: figures given represent official 1990 estimates of the Omani government. 4 Kcgions arc divided into 59 wilayat (provinces). SCentreS ol the regions are not administrative capitals. "19X2. ?Net imputed hank service charges. s lish landed. ''Non-Omani workers constitute approximately 55 mi of the labour force. '"Average of first two quarters. "Applies to food and beverages 'One-fourth apportionment ot in the capital area only. '-Import figures are c.i.f. international flights of Gulf Air. '-"Number of subscribers. ,
i
688
Britannica World Data
Pakistan
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990-91
name: Islam-T Jamhuriya-e Pakistan (Islamic Republic of
Official
in
Pakistan).
Agriculture
multiparty, federal Islamic republic with two legislative
Mining Manufacturing Construction
houses (Senate
Public utilities Transportation and
Form of government:
Assembly
[87];
%
value
PRs 000,0005
National
[217]).
'hief of state: President. Chief of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Islamabad. Official language: Urdu.
communications Trade Finance Pub admin defense
Official religion: Islam.
Other
Pakistan Rupee Monetary unit: (PRs) = 100 paisa; valuation
TOTAL
(
230,388 6.262
22.7 0.6
1
154.091
152
I
36,790 28.898
3.6
74 66
67,223 128,921 1.016,728
force
496 12,4
2,030.000 190.000
62 06
1 ,550,000 3.790,000
11.5
4,910,000"
15.0"
7.2
75 459
.
of labour
4,080,000
15.0
62
%
16.260,000
28
72,822 152,416 63.458
Services
labour force
of total
value
47
1 1
[
12.7 J 100.0
32.810,000
100.0
1
U.S.$ (Oct. 5, 1992) £ = PRs 42.60. 1
= PRs
Population economically active (1940-41): total 32,810,000; activity rate of total population 26.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 50.3%; female 11.4%; unemployed 3.1%).
25.06;
1
Area and population
Price
population
area
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985
1986
1987
1988
'l989
1990
1991
100.0
103 5 105 3
108.4
117.9
127.2
138.7
147.8
1983
Provinces
Capitals
sq mi
Balochistan
Quetta
North-West Frontier Punjab
Lahore
134,051 28,773 79.284
Smdh
Karachi
Peshawar
sq
km
estimate^
347,190
54,407
205,344 140,914
4,611,000 1 1 ,658.000 50.460.000 20.312,000
10,509
27.220
2,329,000
350
906
307,374
796,095
359,000 89,729.000
74,521
Consumer
Areas
100
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$ 15,338,000,000. Land use (1990): forested 4.6%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 26.9%; built-on. wasteland, and other 62.0%.
Federally Administered Tribal
price index
Monthly earnings index
Foreign trade h
Federal Capital Area Islamabad TOTAL
Balance of trade (current prices) PRs 000.000
Demography
%
Population (1992): 13(1.124,000. Density 1992): persons per si| mi 383.1, persons per sq Urban-rural L987): urban 32.0%; rural 68.0%. Sex distribution 1991): male 52.50%; female 47.50%.
km
(
147.9.
of total
1986
1987
1988
-25,214 18.3%
-19,938 12.1%
-27,036 14.2%
Imports (1990-91):
PRs
ized machinery 8.4%,
(
(
breakdown (1987): under 15, 46.0%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 14.0%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 4.895 75 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2000) 162,409,000; (2010) 205,496,000. Doubling tune: : years. Linguistic composition (1981): Punjabi 48.2%; Pashto 13.1%; Sindhl 11.8%; Saraiki 9.893 Urdu 7.6%; other 9.5%. Religious affiliation 1981): Muslim 96.7%; Christian l.h r ,; Hindu 1.5%; other 0.2%. Major cities (1981): Karachi 5,208.132; Lahore 2,952,689; Faisalabad 1,104,209; Rawalpindi 794,843; Islamabad 204,364. Ige
;
i
;
1
1989 37,093
1990 -
16.1%
1991
24.896
9.3%
- 28.537 8.4%
171,052,400.000 (petroleum products 22.1%, specialroad vehicles 5.8%, vegetable oil and fats 5.4%,
organic chemicals 3.8%, manufactured fertilizers 3.5%, iron and steel manufactures 3.3%, power-generating machinery 3.2%). Major import sources: Japan 13.0%; U.S. 1.8', Germany 7.3%; Saudi Arabia 6.3%; China 5.1%; U.K. 4.9%; Malaysia 4.0%; Italy 3.5%; Singapore 3.2%. Exports (1990-91): PRs 138,341,700,000 (ready-made garments 17.7%. cotton 7.89, rue 5.795 leather and leather goods 4.6%, fresh fish 1.9%, petroleum products 1.6%, professional instruments 1.4%, fruits and vegetables 0.9%). Major export destinations: U.S. 10.8%; Germany 8.5%; Japan 8.3%; U.K. 7.3%; Hong Kong 6.0%; France 3.8%; Italy 3.8%; Saudi Arabia 3.6%. ;
1
.
,
Transport and communications Railroads (1440-41): route length 5,453 mi, 8,775 km; passengerpassenger-km 20,052,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 4,529,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 6,612,000,000. Roads (1990-91): total length 87.040 mi. 140.077 km (paved 46%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 738,059; trucks and buses 171,519. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 74; total deadweight tonnage 513,061. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 9,384,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 428,484,000; airports (1442) with scheduled flights 35. Communications. Daily newspapers 1989): total number 271; total circulation 1,106.035; circulation per 1.000 population 9. Radio (1991): total number ol receivers 10,000,000 (1 per 13 persons). Television (1991): total number ol receivers 2,080,000 (1 per 61 persons). Telephones (1989-90): 922,500 (1 per 131 persons). Transport.
Vital statistics
mi
Birth rule per 1,000 population
L991): 40.5 (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population (1991): 10.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate pel 1,000 population 1991 ): 29.7 (world avg. Total fertility rate (avg, births pet childbearing woman; 1991): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1975-80): 10.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1975 80): 0.3.
Death
(
rale
(
17.2).
1991 1: male 59.3 years; female 60.7 sears. ife expectancy al birth Majoi causes llu ial
96,000,000(1
1990 in
of
and government:
Official religion.
S.$4
I
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
0.1
120 67
03 29 8.3
17
174,228
16.8
J
86.444 1.039.258"
J
8.3
100.0
Population economically active (1982): total 1,039,258; activity rate 51.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.5%; female 19.7%; unemployed [1989) 9.2%). Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100
131.7
160.5
124
2487
3437
427.1
1
Earnings index
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 5.2; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 39.4%, transfer payments 2.5%, other 58.1%; expenditure (1980): food 48.7%, housing 16.4%, clothing 9.7%, household durable goods 6.2%, transportation and communications 4.5%. Land use (1989): forested 34.7%; meadows and pastures 53.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 5.6%; other 6.6%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) ©000.000
%
Of total
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
-75,892 28.2%
-150.210
-115.975 21.8%
+ 28,520 4.5%
+ 376.875 22.5%
-234,684 10.9%
44
9%
Imports (1991): U.S.$ 1.275,387,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.1%, of which transport equipment 7.6%; fuels and lubricants 10.1%; tobacco and beverages 8.7%; chemicals and pharmaceuticals 6.2%; iron products 3.8%). Major import sources: Brazil 18.4%; United States 14.5%; Japan 12.9%; Argentina 11.9%; United Kingdom 4.4%; Germany 4.3%; Algeria 3.0%. Exports (1991): U.S.$737,096,000 (cotton fibres 43.3%; soybeans 21.3%; processed meat 7.5%; timber 6.1%; vegetable oil 3.3%, of which tung oil 1.1%; perfume oils 2.6%; tobacco 1.0%). Major export destinations: Brazil 27.6%; The Netherlands 14.9%; Argentina 6.1%; Italy 5.3%; Germany 4.9%; Switzerland 4.8%; United States 4.6%.
Transport and communications Railroads (1988): route length 274 mi, 441 km; passenger-mi passenger-km 21,843.000; short ton-mi cargo 13,580,000, metric ton-km cargo 19,826,000. Roads (1988): total length 15,957 mi, 25,681 km (paved 9%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 117,067: buses 3.375. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 38; total deadweight tonnage 38,514. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 355,019,000, passenger-km 571,349,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,427,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,543,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 6; total circulation 123,0005; circulation per 1.000 population 28. Radio (1991): 775,000 receivers (1 per 5.7 persons). Television (1991): 350,000 receivers (1 per 13 persons). Telephones (1990): 128,394 (1 per 33 persons). transport.
13,573,000,
(
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 0901,740,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 34.8%, customs duties 16.4%, income on fixed assets 13.8%, income tax 10.4%, sales tax 8.1%, pension funds 5.2%, alcohol tax 3.7%, real estate taxes 1.8%). Expenditures: 61,247,251,300,000 (education 11.8%, defense 11.4%. interior 8.2%, agriculture 6.7%, public works 5.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S. $1,832,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): cassava 3,900,000, sugarcane 2,300,000, soybeans 1,304,000, corn (maize) 980,000, seed cotton 750.000. oranges 367,000, bananas 311,000. lint cotton 259,11011, sweet potatoes 85,000; livestock (number of live animals) 8,260,000 (
cattle. 2.450.000 pigs.
17.000.000 chickens;
roundwood (1990)
Education (1989-90) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)6 Higher
student/
schools
teachers
4,411
812
31,590 9.4443
2
2,694'
teacher
656.877 165.373 28.677
ratio
20.8 17.43
Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 13.6%; primary education 64.7%; secondary 15.5%; higher 3.4%; not stated 2.8%. Literacy ('1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 90.1%; males literate 92.1%; females literate 88.1%. Health (1989): physicians 4.128 (I per 1,008 persons); hospital beds 4,596 (1 per 931 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1990-951 39.0. Food ( 1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2.684 (vegetable products 82' animal products 18', ); 116% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. >
8.430.IIOO eu
m; fish catch (1990) 12,500. Mining and quarrying (1989): limestone 500,000 kaolin 74.000; gypsum 4,500. Manufacturing (value of production in Ci'000,000; 1988): woven cotton fabric l4.32 ): processed meat 129,222; soft drinks 47,621- beer )8,580; gasoline 23,308; sugar 22,986; wheat flour 21,043; soybean Hour 20,626; naphtha 17.287; cement 14.275. Construction (1985): residential 60.800 sq m; nonresidential [63,200 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 2.434.000.000 (1,837,000,000); coal. none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (2,555.000); petroleum products (metric tons; L990) 342,000 (537.000); natural gas. none (none). 5
Education and health
Military
;
1
Total active duly personnel (1992): 16,500 (army 75.7%, navy 18.2%, ail force 6.1% ). Military expenditure as percentage oj 1989): 1.4% (world 4.993 |; per capita expenditure U.S. $13.
GNP
1
H985. -CimI Registry records only. '1988. 'Detail does nol add to total newspapers only. "Includes vocational education and teacher training.
Foi foui
692
Britannica World Data
petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 7,395,000 (5,766,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 499,808,000 (499,808,000). Gross national product (1990): U.S.S25, 149,000,000 (U.S.$1,160 per capita).
Peru Official name: Reptiblica del Peril (Spanish) (Republic of Peru). l-orm of government*: unitary multiparty republic with one
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 in
house (Congress [80] 2). Head of state and government: legislative
President. (
Lima.
apital:
Official languages: Spanish; Quechua. Official religion: Roman Catholicism.
Monetary unit 3
1
:
nuevo
100 centimos; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) U.S.$ = 1.52 nuevo sol; 1 £=2.58
Area and population
population
area
sq mi
Departments
Capitals
Chachapoyas
Ancash Apurimac
Abancay
Arequipa
Arequipa
Ayacucho Cajamarca Cusco
Huancavelica
Huancavelica
Huanuco
Huanuco
lea
lea
Junin
Huancayo
La Libertad
Trujillo
Lambayeque
Chiclayo
Lima
Lima
Loreto
Iquitos
sq
15.154 13.529 8.068 24,458 16.917
Huaraz
Ayacucho Caiamarca Cusco
8,453 2,284
29.9
191
1,055 4.333
0,7 3.7 15.3
8,848' 28.270
31.3? 100.0
Puerto Maldonado
Moquegua
Moquegua
Pasco
Cerro de Pasco
Piura
Piura
Puno San Martin Tacna
Puno Tacna
Tumbes
Tumbes
Ucayali Constitutional Province Callao TOTAL
Pucallpa
27,758 8.545 14,565 8,235 17.147 9,573 5.495 13,437 142.414 32.889 6,105 9.776 13,858 27,804 19,789
Moyobamba
6,171 1.803 39,541
1991 estimate
376,400 939,900 586,800
380.500 629,200 527,400 1.106.500 1,211.800
902,900
34,802 368,852 85,183 15,813 25,320 35,892 72.012 51.253 15,983 4,669
6.431 .800
147 1.285,2164
667.500 50,800 132,400 298,900
Consumer
572300 21 ,998,300
8.1
2.4 10.5 3.7 0.3 4.4 15.6
1
2.4
26.78 100.0
7,661,800
price index
Monthly earnings index
">
1985
1986
1987
100
177 9
100,0
199.8
330.7 379.2
1988
1989 88,733 39,141
2.536 1
,405,9
1990
1991
6.7279
34,274-)
Household income and expenditure ( 1986). Average household size 5.2; income per household I/. 39.392 (U.S. $2,824); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: food 55.4%, rent and utilities 10.4%, transportation 8.6%, clothing 7.5%, education 6.9%, household durables 4.6%, health 4.6%, other 2.0%. •
.2' income taxes 10.0%, nontax revenues xpenditures: 2.6%). 74,826,000,000,0003 (general public services 50.2%, education l(>.2''. public ordei and salctv 12.3%, defense tl.2%, health 5.1%, agriculture 2.1%, transportation and communications 2.09i
.\' Health (19X7): physicians 40 (l per 2,819 persons); hospital beds (1983) 640 (I per 158 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live binhs (1989) 72. hood 1988-90): daily pel capita caloric intake 2,153 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 92% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (
,
|.
(
Military
acme duty personnel (1992); a gendarmerie i about 900 men was to be established in the eailv 1990s. Military expenditure as percentage / GNP (19X0): 1.6', (world 5.4%); pel capita expenditure U.S. $6.
lotiil
turing (19X7): bread 2,459; soap 604; coconut oil 330; ice 191'; palm oil 177; limes 22 corn (maize) Hour IX'; sawn wood 3,272 cu m; beer 28,540 hectolitres; bottled water 13,750 hectolitres; soil drinks 10,460 hectolitres; other products include clothing, bricks, and clay products, ((instruction (1972): buildings authorized 44 (5,561 sq m. of which residential 3,698, 1
;
mixed residential-commercial 1,361, commercial 502). Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 15,000,000 (15,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (22.000); natural gas, none (n.a). Household income and expenditure. Average household si/e: n.a.; income per household: n.a.; sources ol income: n.a expenditure; n.a. ;
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$142,000,000. Population economically active (19X7): total 20,912; activity rale ol total population ix. 5', (participation rates [1981]: ages 15 64, 61J%; female 32.4%;
unemployed
30.7',
l
).
'1987 11983 1988 (Multiparty system effective as ol January 1991 elections 6 Detail doei ""i add nemployi 'Manufacturing includes [*radi and Financi '1984 85 ^Vocational because ol rounding, 9 Impoxt figures air 'Students ilno.nl. 1982 83 1
to total given teai hers only.
'
i
'
.
i
i
Britannica World Data
708
Population economically active (1986): total 3,032,000; activity rate of total population 29.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 51.5%; female 3.2%).
Saudi Arabia Official
name: al-Mamlakah
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Price
al-'ArabTyah as-Sa'udlyah (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Form of government: monarchy. Head of state and government: King. Capital: Riyadh. Official language: Arabic.
1986
Consumer
price index
1987
1988
96.8
Area and population
Mining
population
1
1985 sq
Capitals
km
Manufacturing Construction
estimate
—
Public
Transp, and
al-Bahah
Medina (al-Madinah)
—
Pub, admin., defense Services and other TOTAL
Abha JTzan Najran
—
ash-ShamafTyah (Northern) al-Hudud ash-Shamaffyah
Tabuk
—
ash-Sharqlyah (Eastern) ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern) al-Wusta (Central)
3.030.765
6.2 8.1
6.6 16 1
0.8 6,5
164 2.2
45 15.6 1.7
10.8
31.6 100.0"
,822,000 5,771,800
2.8
1
100.0"
n.a.;
:
Balance of trade (current prices)
Hail
Hail
Buraydah
ar-Riyad
Riyadh (ar-Riyad)
865.000
2.240,000
11,010,539
Demography Population (1992): 15,267,000. Density 1492): persons per sq mi 17.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 77.3%; rural 22.7%. Sex distribution (1990): male 54.35%; female 45.65%. (
Age breakdown
km
6.8.
(1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 18.0%; 8.2< (.0-74. 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 20,697,000; (2010) 29,557,00(1. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Saudi 82.0%; Yemeni 9.6%; other Arab other 5.09i Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim (mostly Sunnl) 98.8%; Christian other 0.4%. Major cities (1980): Riyadh (ar-Riyad) 1,308,6001; Jiddah 1,500,0002;
45-59,
:
(Makkah)
21,700 28.200 23,000 56,200 9,900 349,300
01
3,632,092
al-QasTm
-
9.1
9,9
Foreign trade 6
ad-Dammam
—
9.5
-0,2
force
size (1986) 6.6; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1980)-5 food 52.2%, housing 17.2%, clothing 6.6%, furniture and utensils 5.9%, transportation and communications 4.5%, health care 2.1%.
come per household:
Sakakah an-Nabk Tabuk
al-Jawt al-Qurayyat
35,0
-800
% of labour
force
Household income and expenditure. Average household
679.476
Arar
(Northern Borders)
commun.
Trade Finance
Mecca (Makkah)
Jlzan Najran
utilities
labour
569.200 3,500 46.800 374,900 944,100 126,900 262,300 898,300 99.000 624,800
6.4 0.5
1,700 122.300 33.100 31,800
Oil sector
Regions
of total
value
22200
Agriculture
Asir
102,9
1990
%
in value SRls 000,000
1
al-JanObTyah (Southern)
19923
104.0
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
(SR!s)= 100 halalah; valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 U.S.$ = SRls 3.79; £ = SRls 6.44.
Makkah
1991
991
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$1, 187,000,000. Gross national product (1989): U.S.$89,986,000,000 (U.S.$6,230 per capita).
5,
al-GharbTyah (Western) al-Bahah al-MadTnah
1990
97.1
Monthly earnings index
Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Saudi rival
Administrative Districts
1989
3.4%; o,v
,
.
Mecca
550.000: at-Ta'if 300,001).
Vital statistics Birth rate per l.ooo population (199] ): 36.6 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population ( L991): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per l.ooo population (1991): 30.3 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 6.7.
Marriage rate per 1.000 population: n.a. Divorce rale per 1.000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth 1991 1: male 65-0 years; female 68.0 years. Ma/or causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include cholera, cerebrospinal meningitis, yellow fever, typhoid, tuberculosis, lung infections, and asphyxia
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
SRls 000.000,000
+20.2
+ 15.1 9.0%
+ 82.1
113%
+16.5 10.5%
+ 32.3
% of total
+8.6 6.1%
17.9%
32.8%
Imports (1990): SRls 90,139,000,000 (transport equipment 20.5%, machinery and appliances 16.4%, textiles and clothing 8.8%, metals and metal articles 8.7%. chemicals 8.0%, precious stones and jewelry 6.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 16.7%; Japan 15.3%; U.K. 11.3%; W.Ger. 7.4%; Switzerland 6.6%; Italy 4.6%; France 4.0%; South Korea 3.3%; The Netherlands 2.3%; Taiwan 2.2%; Belgium 1.7%; Turkey 1.2%. Exports (1990): SRls 166,339,000,000 (crude petroleum 74.1%, other 25.9%). Major export destinations: U.S. 24.0%; Japan 19.0%; Singapore 5.4%; France 4.8%; The Netherlands 4.7%; Bahrain 3.9%; South Korea 3.8%; Italy 3.6%; Taiwan 3.4%; Brazil 3.3%; India 2.5%; United Arab Emirates 1.8%.
Transport and communications Railroads (1989): route length 555 mi, 893 km; passenger-mi 75,passenger-km 121,000.000; short ton-mi cargo 548,639,000, metric
Transport, 186,000,
ton-km cargo so I, (100.000. Roads (1990): total length 75,506 mi, 121,516 km (paved 43%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 2,350,000; trucks and buses 2,150,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) $09; total deadweight tonnage 1.999.497. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 9,984,000,000, passenger-km 16,068,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 417,554,000, metric ton-km cargo 609,619,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 10: total circulation 664,300; circulation per 1,000 population 49. Radio (1991): 5,000,000 receivers persons). (
I
per 2.9 persons). Iclevision (1991): 4,500,000 receivers (I per 12.7 persons).
(1
per 3.3
Telephones (1988): 1,069,325
(
Education and health Education (1988-89)
National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: SRls I51.000.ooo.ooo (1990; oil revenues 72.8%). Expenditures: SRls 181,000,000,000 (defense and security 30.0%, education 17.2%, health and social development 6.7%, transportation and communications 4.6%, economic resource development 4.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991 ): wheat 4,000,000, dates 505,000, tomatoes 435.000. watermelons 426,000, barle) S75.000. urapes 103.000. cucumbers and gherkins 101.000. eggplants 74,000, pumpkin's, squash, and gourds 64,000, potatoes 59,000, carrots 21,000, onions 17,000; livestock (number ol live animals) 5,692,000 sheep. 3,350,000 camels. 176,000 cattle. 103.000 asses, 80,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1990) 46,427. Mining and quarrying (1989): gypsum 375,000; lime 12,000. Manufacturing (1985): cement 10,633,500; methanol 1.287,000; steel rods and bars 948,000; ethylene 927,900; urea 825,000; ethylene glycol 310,000; industrial ethanol ethylene dichloride 190,000; styrene 125,000; caustic soda 125,000; nitrogen 82,000; citric acid 75,000; oxygen 55,000; melamine 14,000 onstruction (value added in SRls; 1990): 31,800,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 47.400.000,000 goats. 390,
i
I
I
(47,400,001
n.a.
>al
(n.a.);
,
teachers
8,631
105.937 52,818 3.295
4,153
32 82
9,631
students 1
teacher
ratio
.694,394
16.0
739,088 31,354 1 1 5,006
11.9
140
95
Educational attainment (I986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 31.8%; primary, secondary, or higher education 68.2%. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 62.4%; males literate 73.1%; females literate 48.1%. Health (1990): physicians 22,688 (1 per 623 persons); hospital beds 39,500 (1 per 358 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 69.0. Pood (1488-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,929 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 169? ); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 102,000 (army 71.6%, navy 10.8%, air force (1989): 16.0% (world 17,6%). Military expenditure as percentage of 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$897.
GNP
crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 2,350,-
912,000 (557,270,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 84,916,000 natural gas (cu m; 1990) 28,223,000,000 (28,223,000,000). 56,39< Tourism receipts from visitors (1989) U.S.$2,050,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad 988 I £.$2,000,000,000 Pilgrims to Mecca from abroad 1989): 774.560. Land use (1990): forested 0.6%; meadows and pastures 39.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.1%; other, built-on. and waste 58.8%. 1
Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc leacher tr i Higher
student/
schools
i
(
I
i
1
'1981 estimate. -1983 estimate. 'September. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5 Urban middle-income households only. ''Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. '1987-88.
Nation-, of the
World
709
Household income and expenditure*. Average household size n erage annual income pel household (1975) Sources of income (1975); wages and salaru luittanccs and gifts pensions, social security, and related benefits 12.5%, other 18.4%; expenditure (1979); food and tobacco 57.59! housing, maintenani utilities 18.4%, clothing 11.9%, transport 5.4%, othei 6 Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$5,260,000,000
Senegal
I
(
name: Republique du Senegal (Republic of Senegal). Form of government: multipart) republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Head / state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. ( apital: Dakar. Official language: French. C Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 238.75; 1 £ = CFAF 405.88. Official
I
(U.S.S7I0 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990
1982
n value
% of total
labour
% of labour
CFAF 000,000,000
value
force 4
force
326.5
205
248.0
156
10.654 1,918 30,736
264
1
Agriculture
Mining Manufacturing Public
Area and population Regions
population
area
sq mi
Capitals
sq
km
1988 census
46.2 150.5
2.9
3886
24.5
428.7
27.0
Services Pub admin., defense
Dakar
212
550
1,571,614
Other
Diourbel
1.683
TOTAL
Fatick
3.064
Kaolack Kolda
Kaolack Kolda
6,181
4,359 7.935 16,010 21,011 29.188 44,117 59,602
620,197
Fatick
Louga Saint-Louis
Tambacounda
Tambacounda
Thies
Thies Ziguinchor
Zigumchor
8.112 11.270 1 7,034 23,012 2,549 2,834 75.951
TOTAL
6,601
7,339 196,712
9.1
1.6
3.221
utilities J
Trade Finance
Diourbel
Louga
>
Construction Transp. and commun
Dakar
Saint-Louis
1
\
2.8 7.2 21 2 12.6
8.402 24,789 14,648
95
1
7,921
68
14.339
12.3
1
100.0
1,588.5
100
116.628
507.651
805.859 593.199 507,572 656.941 383,572 937.412 398.067 6,982.084
Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $152,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$105,000.000. Land use (1990): forested 54.8%; meadows and pastures 16.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.2%; other 16.9%.
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)
Demography Population (1992): 7,691,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 101.3, persons per sq km 39.1. Urban-rural (1988): urban 38.6%; rural 61.4%. Sex distribution 1988): male 48.65%; female 51.35%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 47.5%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 13.6%; 45-59, 7.8%; 60 and over, 5.0%. Population projection: (2000) 9,519,000; (2010) 12,424,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Wolof 43.5%; Fulani- (Peul-) Tukulor 24.1%; Serer 14.9%; Diola 5.3%; Malinke 4.3%; other 7.9%. Religious affiliation (1988): Sunn! Muslim 94.0%; Christian, predominantly Roman Catholic 4.9%; traditional beliefs and other 1.1%. Major cities (1992): Dakar 1,729,823; Thies 201,350; Kaolack 179.894; Ziguinchor 148,831; Saint-Louis 125,717.
CFAF
'000.000,000
% of total
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
-203.1
-100.1
30.3%
21.4%
-93.0 18.7%
-130.3 28.8%
-169.6 35.5%
-168.4 27.6%
(
(
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 44.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2).
National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: CFAF 660,900,000,000 (1990; current revenue 86.0%, of which import duties 28.0%, personal and corporate income taxes 17.0%, value-added taxes 16.9%, personal property taxes 3.1%; aid, grants, and subsidies 13.9%). Expenditures: CFAF 660,900,000,000 (1990; debt service 22.4%; public services 16.0%; agriculture 13.9%; education 11.0%; defense 6.1%; transportation and communications 4.9%; public order and security 4.5%; industry 3.2%; health 2.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$3,891,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 820,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 700,000, millet 560,000, paddy rice 160.000, corn (maize) 106,000, sorghum 85.000, cotton 41,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1991) 4,000,000 sheep. 2,813,000 cattle, 1,200,000 goats. 547,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 4,480,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 268.781. Mining and quarrving (1991): calcium phosphate 1,740,500; cement 503,300; aluminum phosphate 119,3001. Manufacturing (1988): peanut oil 202.200; wheat Hour 103,600; nitrogenous fertilizers 68,000; soap 32,900; fresh fish 26,800; sugar 22,200; cotton fibres 19,200; canned fish 14,006; carbonated beverages 238,000 hectolitres; beer 170,000 hectolitres; footwear 561,400 pairs. Construction (authorized; 1988): residential 253,300 sq m: nonresidential 24,900 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 684,000,000 (fi84.000.000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (5,882,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 694,000 (704.000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1990); total 3.146,000; activity rate of total population 42.9', (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 46.2%; female
Price
12.0'
Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. s 199(1. ''Imputed rates calculated from registered deaths. 7 August; economically active persons 13 years and over. ^Import figures are lob. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. "Traffic data refer to fiscal year ending September 30. 101980. "1985.
ol
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100.0
101.8
104 4
108 4
114 2
121
127 9
Nation* of the World
Togo
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988
Official (
name: Rdpublique Togolaise
Republic oi
Agriculture
transitional
Mining Manufacturing Construction
regime with one interim legislative bod) High Council ol the Republic [79|)i. Chiej of slate: President. Head o] government: Prime Minister. (
Public
unit:
(CFAF) = (Oct.
=
£
I
5,
101)
I
= CFAF
Price
Area and population
De
la
1981
sq mi
Sokode Sotouboua Tchamba Sokode
Kara
2.892
sq
km
269,174 128.617 44.912 95.645 432,626 32.444 118.345 50,077 66.120 44,762 120,878
7.490
2
2.1982
Bafilo
Bassar Binah Doufelgou Keran
Bassar
2
5,6922
362
938
2.444
6,330
Pagouda Niamtougou Kande
180 432
465
653 419
1,120 1,692 1.085
.6923 1,412 1,077 2,372
4,3823 3,658 2,790 6,145
Kara
Atakpame
Amou
Amtame
Haho
Notse Kpalime
Kioto
Ogou
1
Atakpame Badou Dapaong Sansanne-Mango Dapaong
Wawa Des Savanes Oti
Tone
Lome Lome
Maritime Golfe
Vo Yoto
Tabligbo Tsevie
Zio TOTAL
3
3.762 4.840
133 275 290 483
345 712 750
561 ,656 72.951
109,995 106.429 163.906 108,375 326,826 77,747 249,079 1
Aneho Vogan
Lacs
3
1.453 1.869
1,289
21,925
Consumer
census
Kara
Assoli
Kozah Des Plateaux
,039.700
438.110 140,006 150,313 100,387 210.884 2,700.982"
1,250 3,339 56,785
Demography Population (1992): 3,701,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 168.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 25.7%; rural 74.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. (
km
65.2.
Age breakdown
(1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60 and over, 5.0%. Population projection: (2000) 4,668,000; (2010) 6,238,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1981): Ewe-Adja 43.1%; Tem-Kabre 26.7%; Gurma 16.1%; Kebu-Akposo 3.8%; Ana-Ife (Yoruba) 3.2%; non-African 0.3%; other 6.8%. Religious affiliation (1991): traditional beliefs 50.0%; Roman Catholic 26.0%; Muslim 15.0%; Protestant 9.0%.
Major
cities
,600
2 9
27,300 90.800
22 5
64
33,100 29.400 402.8009
706
142000
10.8
244,000
18.6
1,312,000
1000
I
35 6.8
926.000
J )
}
8.2
73
J
100.0
(1983):
Lome
366,476;
Sokode
and earnings indexes (1985 = = 100)
population
area
Regions
Tchaoudjo
force
344
Population economically active: total (1990) 1,430.000; activity rate of total population 40.5% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 69.5%; female 37.5%; unemployed [1980] 2.3%).
238.75;
CFAF
Tchamba
% of labour
force
CFA
1992) 1 U.S.$ 405.88.
Sotouboua
labour
value
...
Services TOTAL
franc centimes; valuation
Centrale
commun.
% of total
138,400 25,800 32,300 14,000 1 1
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense
Official language: French. Official religion: none.
Monetary
utilities
Transp. and
Lome.
apital:
1987
m value CFAF 000,000
t*ogo).
Form of government:
(
729
48,098';
Kpalime
27,6695.
price index
Hourly earning index'"
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
101.8 100.0
100.0 100.0
104.1
104.2 105.5
104.0 105.5
103.2 105.5
104 2
100.0
105.5
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.6; average annual income per household CFAF 102,000 (U.S. $452); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1970): food and beverages 60.9%, housing 9.9%, transportation 8.2%, clothing 7.7%, household durable goods 3.9%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$ 1,052,000,000. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $23,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$46,000,000. Land use (1990): forested 29.4%; meadows and pastures 32.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.3%; other 25.4%.
Foreign trade 11 Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF 000.000.000
% of total
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
-46.2 27.2%
-34.9 17.3%
-8.7 3.8%
-29.7 13.2%
-36.2 19.8%
-52.5 26.7%
Imports (1990): CFAF 160,500.000,000 (1987; machinery and transport equipment 27.2%, food products 14.6%, cotton yarn and fabrics 11.3%, chemicals 10.5%, refined petroleum products 7.3%). Major import sources (1987): France 32.7%; The Netherlands 9.3%; W.Ger. 8.8%; U.K. 7.1%; Cote d'lvoire 5.5%; Japan 5.0%; U.S. 3.6%. Exports (1988): CFAF 72,209,000,000 (1987; calcium phosphates 45.8%, coffee 12.6%, cotton [ginned] 11.8%, cocoa beans 11.4%, machinery and transport equipment 6.2%). Major export destinations (1987): The Netherlands 14.8%; France 7.7%; Spain 7.4%; U.S. 7.3%; Italy 7.0%; U.S.S.R. 6.6%; Canada 5.7%; U.K. 5.5%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 326 mi, 525 km; passenger-km 109,000,0007; metric ton-km cargo 11,000,000 7 Roads (1990): total length 7,545 km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 4,920; trucks and buses 389. Merchant marine ( 1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 8; total deadweight tonnage 34,126. Air transport (1989)'-: passenger-km 32.344,000; metric ton-km cargo 5,753,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation .
10,00013; circulation per 1,000 population 2.913. Radio (1991): 700,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1991): 23,000 receivers (1 per 156 persons). Telephones (1990): 21,032 (1 per 169 persons).
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population
1991); 49.0 (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 36.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 7.1. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1979): 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 54.0 years; female 58.0 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1978): infectious and parasitic diseases 26,926; diseases of the respiratory system 9,296; diseases of the digestive system 8,007; accidents, poisoning, and trauma 7,172.
Death
(
Education and health
rate
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:
CFAF 92,500,000,000 (1990; tax revenue 92.9%, nontax revenue 7.1%). Expenditures: CFAF 92,500,000,000 (1990; general public services 25.4%, education 23.1%, defense 14.9%, debt service 14.1%, economic services 7.4%, health 5.2%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing ( 1991 ): cassava 500,000, yams 433,000, corn (maize) 236,000, sorghum 106,000, millet 70,000, cottonseed 55,000, riee 34,1)0(1, peanuts (groundnuts) 33.00(1, pulses bananas 16,000, coconuts 14,000, palm oil 14,000, oranges 12,000, 12,000, tomatoes 9,000, cacao beans 8,000; livestock (number of animals) 1.741,000 goats. 1.200.000 sheep, 500,000 pigs, 250,000 cattle, 6,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 910,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 16,458. Mining and quarrying (1988): phosphate rock 3,464,000; salt 600,0006;
Education (1988)
student/
schools Primary (age 6-11)" Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational
Higher"
2,429 35815 18 '6 116
teachers
10,426 4,003'6
357 276
teacher
students
569,388 103.835
ratio
54.6 27.116 16.7 28.0
5,956 7.732
Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 76.5%; primary education 13.5%; secondary 8.7%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 631,700 (39.1%); males literate 401,800 (51.7%); females literate 229,900 (27.5%). Health: physicians (1985) 230 (1 per 12,992 persons); hospital beds (19N2) 3,655 (1 per 752 persons); infant mortality rate (1991) 110.0. Food ( 1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,141 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 92% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
20,000,
coffee live
marble 5,0007. Manufacturing (1987): cement 370,000; wheat Hour 58,000; beer 452.000 hectolitres; soft drinks 149,000 hectolitres; footwear 29,000 pairs*. Construction (value added in CFAF; 1987): 14.200,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 41,000,000 (350,000,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)
none
(125,000).
Gross national product (1990): U.S. $1,474,000,000 (U.S.S410 per capita).
Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 5,250 (army 91.4%, navy 3.8%, air force (1989): 3.3% (world 4.9%); 4.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.$12.
GNP
iMultiparty system introduced in April 1991, but single-party transitional government run the country until multiparty elections (which remain unscheduled) are held in 1993. 2TchaoudjO includes Tchamba. -'Amou includes Wawa. 4 Total includes 71,000 persons not counted separately. 51981. 61982. '1986. SExcludes rubber. ''Detail does figures. ''Import figures are not add to total given because ot rounding. "'January t.o.b. in balance ot trade and c.i.l. tor commodities and trading partners. '-Air Afrique only. ''I. >i one daily onlyi '41989. L51984. "'1987. ^Universities only.
will
i
730
Britannica World Data
Tonga name: Pule'anga Fakatu'i
Official
(value in T$; 1984): residential 9,552,300; nonresidential 11,377,100. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 22,000,000 (22,000,000): petroleum (barrels; 1989) none (154.000); petroleum products (metric tons;
'o
1990) n.a. (24,000).
Tonga (Tongan); Kingdom of Tonga
Gross national product (1990): U.S.$10(),000,000 (U.S.$1,010 per capita).
(English).
Form of government: monarchy with one
constitutional
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
legislative house Assembly [31] ). Head of state and government: King
(Legislative
1988-89
1
assisted by Privy Council. Agriculture
Nuku'alofa.
l 'apital:
Official languages: Official religion:
Monetary unit:
1
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Tongan; English.
none. pa'anga 2 (T$)= 100
Public
valuation (Oct 5. 1992) U.S.$ = T$1.38; 1 £ = T$2.35.
seniti; 1
area
population
1986 census
Divisions
sq mi
Capitals
Districts
sq
km
Ohonua
33.7
874
Pangai
42.5
1100
4.393 1.995 2.398 8.979 1.409
'Eua Fo'ou Eua Motu'a
Haapai Foa
value
force
force
24,200 600 6,500 4,000
33 7
10,429
42,9
0,8
0.1
9.1
27 622
5.6
1.741
7.2
800
1.1
326
1.3
4,400 6.900 2.900
6.1
1.176 1.612
4.0
465
48 66 19
12.500
17.4
5,492
22.6
2.434 2^.324
100.0
commun.
Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL
9 6
%
of labour
26
} 9.000 7 71,800
12.57 100.08
10,0
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$47,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 24,324; activity rate 25.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 44.7%; female 21.5%; unemployed 9.1%).
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Price
892
Ha'ano Lulunga
1985
1987
1986
1988
1989
1990
1991
140.0
145.8
159 9
176 8
1,588
897
Mu'omu'a Pangai Uiha Niuas Niua Fo'ou Niua Toputapu
Hihifb
Tongatapu
Nuku'alofa
277
2,840 1.353 2.379
71.7
763 100.6
2605
46.0
1192
1.616 63,614 15.782 13.117 4.023 6.992 5.790 6.778 11.132 15.170 2,292 2,095 2,875 1.387 5,273 1.248
Kolofo'ou
Kolomotua Kolovai
Lapaha Nukunuku Tatakamotonga Vain.
Neiafu
Vava'u
Hahake Hihifo
Leimatu'a
Motu Neiafu
Pangaimotu
289 53
TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER
749.93 29 6 779.5
11.4
3009
TOTAL
94.535
Demography Population (1992): 97.300. Densit) 1992) 4 persons per sq mi 336.1. persons per sq Urban-rural (1986): urban 30.7%; rural 69.3%. Sex distribution (1986): male 50.30%; female 49.70%. :
1
km
;
1
12.1%; Free Church of
Tonga
11.0',;
Consumer
price index
Earnings index
Household income and expenditure. Average household
size (1986) 6.3; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure ( 1984) y food 49.3%, household operations 13.3%, housing 10.5%, tobacco and beverages 7.0%, transportation 5.8%, clothing and footwear 5.6%. Land use (1990): forested 11.1%; meadows and pastures 5.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 66.7%; other 16.6%.
come per household:
n.a.;
:
Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) TS 000.000
% Of total
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
-47.7 72.7%
-58.0 74.4%
-50.3 70.9%
-54
-49
8
-42.1
73.5%
62.1%
47.4%
Imports (1991): T$76,800,000 (food and live animals 21.5%, machinery and transport equipment 19.0%, mineral fuels 15.8%, basic manufactures 15.5%, chemicals 8.1%). Major import sources: New Zealand 29.6%; Australia 25.5%; Fiji 15.5%; U.S. 9.1%; Japan 9.0%. Exports (1991): T$20,600,000 (squash 60.2%, vanilla beans 14.1%, coconut products 1.9%). Major export destinations: Japan 60.2%; U.S. 13.1%; Australia 8.7%; New Zealand 7.8%.
129.8.
15 29. 29.0%; 30-44. 13.8%; 4s 59, (1986): under 15, 40.6', 10.2%; 60-74. 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.4',. Population projection (2000) 101,000; (201(1) 106,000. Doubling tunc 30 years Ethnii composition 1986): Tongan 95.5%; part Tongan 2.8%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (1986): Free VVesleyan 43.0%; Roman Catholic 16.0%;
Age breakdown
Mormon
T$0006
Trade Finance
Area and population
Eua
labour
value
utilities
Transp. and
1986
% of total
in
Church of Tonga 7.3%;
othei 10.6
Major cities (1984): Nuku'alofa (1986) 21,383; Mu'a 4.047: Neiafu Haveluloto 3,136; Pangai-Hihifo 2,179.
3,948;
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):
total length 433 km (paved 65%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 1,433, commercial vehicles 2,784. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 17; total deadweight tonnage 51.018. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 5.897,000; metric ton-km cargo 12.000; airports 1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation "ooo: circulation per 1,000 population 73. Radio (1988): total number of receivers 79.716 (I per 1.2 persons). Television: total number of receivers, n.a. 10 Telephones L990): 5,212 (1 per 18 persons). (
(
.
Education and health Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population
L990): 30.4 (world avg. 27.1). population 1990): 7.1 (world avg. 9.8). increase per population Natural rate 1990) 23.3 (world avg. 17.3). 1,000 Total fertility rate (avg. births per chtldbearing woman: 1988): 4.0. Marriage rate per l.ooo population (1985): 6.6. Divorce rate per l.ooo population (1985): 0.6. Life expectancy al birth 1980 85): male 61.0 years; female 64.8 years. \fajor causes of death per loo.ooo population (1988) 5 diseases of the circulatory system 112.2; malignant neoplasms 59.8; diseases of the respirator* system 37.7; infectious diseases 30.4; injuries and poisoning 18.9.
Death
(
:
National economy (
schools
teachers
students
115
689 767 65
16.522 13.877
student/ teacher ratio
1
(
Budget
Education (1990)
(
rate per 1,000
1992-93). Revenue: T$50,600,000 (foreign-trade taxes 49.4%, govern-
ment services revenue IN. 2', indirect taxes 12.4',. direct taxes 8.6%, interest and rent M9i Expenditures: T$50,570,000 (education 17.6%, general administration 17.5%, law .ind order 11.6%, public works and communica.
|.
tions 11.5%, health 11.4',. public debt 7.5%, agriculture 4.9', Tourism: receipts from visitors [99] U.S.$7,699,000; expenditures bv nationals abroad (1990) U.S.Sl.OOO Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991 ): yams $3,000, taro 27,000, coconuts 25,000, cassava 15,000, sweet potatoes 14,000, vegetables (including melons) 14,000, fruits (excluding melons) 13,000, copra 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 60,000 pigs, 10,000 cattle. 9,000 goatS, 6.O0II horses; roundwood (1990) 5,000 cu m; fish catch Mining and quarrying 1982): coral 150.000; sand 25.000. Manufacturing (output in T$; 19 >ii): food products and beverages 6,279,000; wearing apparel and lootvvcar 3,351,000; metal products 1.672.000; paper and paper products 1,586,000; chemical products 1.347.000. Construction
Primary (age 6-11)
Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teacher tr. .
57" 9
1713
112
Higher
872 705 '3
24.0 18.1
13.4 41 5'3
Educational attainment (1976). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; incomplete primary education 37.3%; complete primary 12.4%: lower secondary 45.6%; secondary 0.1%; postsecondary 0.1%; higher 0.6%; special education 2.4%; other 1.1%. Literacy (1976): total population age 15 and over literate 46,456 (92.8%); males 23.372 (92.9', ); females 23.084 (92.8%). Health 19X9): physicians 45 (1 per 2.130 persons); hospital beds 307 (1 per 312 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1988) 49.0. Food 1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,967 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19', ); 1309? of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (
(
|.
i
(
c
Military
)
ioial active duty personnel (1991): Tonga has a national police (defense) (1989): 4.9% force of about 300. Military expenditure as percentage of
GNP
(world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $21. 'Includes 13 nonelective seats. - he pa'anga is now linked to an international basket ot currencies rather than to the Australian dollar. 'Total includes 39.0 sq mi (101.1 uninhabited islands. ^Density is based on land area. 5 Excludes deaths so, km) ot from non-intestinal infectious diseases. 'v\t constant 1981-82 prices. 'Includes indirect laves less subsidies. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Current weight ot consumer price index components. '"Tonga has no authorized television service, but a "pirate" station began transmitting in mid-1984. 'U987. 1-1986. 131985. 1
'
Nations
Trinidad and Tobago
nl the
Form
oi
Trinidad
TTS'OOO.OOO
'hiej oj state
(
Petroleum
Minister.
dollar
(Oct. 5. 1992) 1 £ = TT$7.23.
1
1
U.S.$
Capitals
Caroni
Chaguanas
Nanva/Mayaro
Rio Claro
St Andrew/St. David
Sangre Grande
George
St. Patrick
Siparia
Victoria
Princes
Town
1990 census
Km
sq mi
sq
214,0 352.0 361.7 350.4 251.0 314.1
554.3 911.7
8135
177.109 36.781 62.944 445,620 120,129 210,833
116.2
301.0
50,282
3.7
9.6 6.5
50,878 30.092
122 254
29.695 20.025 1,234.388
9368 9075 650.1
Price
1
Tobago?
Scarborough
Cities
—
Boroughs Arima Point Fortin
21,200 47,000 64,800 8,500 31,000 81,000 28,300
10.8
98 9.2 1 7
96 14.2
97
360 '2
12.0
1
66
I
13.9 1.8
66 17.3
61
286
133,500
1.712
1.600
0.3
467,7003
100
20,978
4.5 10.1
100.0
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)
Consumer
price index
'
1985
1986
1987
100.0
107.7 101 8
119.3
128,5
1432
1062
1080
108.8
1000
Weekly earnings index
Unitary State
San Fernando
229
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2.508.000,000. Population economically active (1990): total 467,700; activity rate of total population 38.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.5%; female 34.0%; unemployed [1991] 18.8%).
population
area
Counties
Port of Spain
4,810 2,059 1.936
= TT$4.25;
Area and population
St
50.700
355
Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL
unit: Trinidad and Tobago (TT$) = UK) cents; valuation
force
26
2,002 2,982 2,033 2,517 1,387
Trade
Spam.
value
natural gas, '
Official language: English. Offii ial religion: none.
Monetan
,
quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.
President.
apital: Port of
10
% of labour
labour force
537
Agriculture 9
government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [311; House ol Representatives |36|).
(
1990
% of total
value
in
oj
Head of government Prime
731
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991
name: Republic and Tobago.
Official
World
159.0 115.2
164 7 119.3
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.1; income per household (1988): TT$17,083 (U.S. $4,444); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981-82): food and beverages 27.7%, housing 22.7%, clothing and footwear 15.5%, transportation 13.2%, household furnishings 8.8%, other 12.1%.
—
2.5
Foreign trade 14
— —
TOTAL
4.7
98 1
5.128.43
,980.1
Balance of trade (current prices) TT$ 000.000
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
+129
+877
1.3%
9.1%
+1,114 11.4%
+ 1,517 12.7%
+ 3.480 24.5%
% Of total
1991
+
1
.359
8.8%
Demography Population (1992): 1,261,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 636.8, persons per sq km 245.9. Urban-rural (1990): urban 69.1%; rural 30.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.07%; female 49.93%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15. 31.3%; 15-29, 26.9%; 30-14, 21.5%; 45-59, 12.2%; 60 and over, 8.1%. Population projection: (2000) 1,362,000; (2010) 1,500,000. Doubling time: 50 years. Ethnic composition (1986): black 43.0%; East Indian 36.0%; mixed 16.0%; white 2.0%: Chinese 1.0%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 32.2%; Protestant 27.6%, of which Anglican 14.4%, Presbyterian 3.7%, Pentecostal 3.4%; Hindu 24.3%; Muslim 5.9%; nonreligious 1.0%; unknown 6.0%; other 3.0%. Major cities (1990): Port of Spain 50.878; San Fernando 30,092; Arima 29.695; Point Fortin 20,025; Scarborough 6,089-».
Imports (1990): TT$5,362,000,000 (nondurable consumer goods 22.8%. of which food 14.3%; capital goods 20.2%, of which industrial machinery 11.6%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 9.8%). Major import sources (1991): United States 38.9%; EEC 14.7%, of which United Kingdom 7.4%; Venezuela 14.0%: Japan 5.6%; Canada 4.9%. Exports (1990): TT$8,842,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 66.7%; ammonia 8.2%; iron and steel bar rods 5.1%; urea 2.9%; methanol 1.9%; sugar 1.5%). Major export destinations (1991): United States 49.3%; Caricom 12.3%, of which Barbados 3.2%; EEC 9.2%, of which United Kingdom 2.3%.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1987):
total length 4,906 mi, 7,895
km
(paved 46%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 269,238; trucks and buses 68,759. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 48; total deadweight tonnage 12,549. Air transport (1990) 15 passenger-mi 1,694,000,000, passenger-km 2,726,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 9,850,000 6 metric tonkm cargo 14,381,000&; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 4: total circulation 172,801; circulation per 1,000 population 140. Radio (1991): 700,000 receivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1991): 250,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1990): 216,039 (1 per 5.7 persons). :
Vital statistics
,
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1989): 20.7 (world avg. 27.1); (1979) legitimate 56.9%; illegitimate 43.1%.
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1989): 6.8 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 13.9 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 69.7 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 263.9. of which ischemic heart diseases 116.5, cerebrovascular disease 81.8; diabetes mellitus 85.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 83.0.
National economy Budget (1991): Revenue: TT$6,704,200,000 (petroleum-sector corporate taxes 27.6%, value-added taxes 15.7%, individual income taxes 13.6%, import duties 8.1%, royalties from petroleum sector 7.6%). Expenditures: TT$6,809, (,(Kl,lK)(l (current expenditures 88.8%, development expenditures 11.2%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $95,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$ 122,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishint; (1990): sugarcane l,301,0uu 5 coconuts 4(1,(10(1. rice 13,500, oranges 7,000, bananas (,.000, grapefruit 4,000, corn (maize) 3,000, cocoa 2,111, coffee 1,944; livestock (number of live animals) 80.00(1 cattle. 70,000 pigs, 50,000 goats; roundwood 72.001) cu m; fish catch 3,200 6 Mining and quarrying (1991): natural asphalt 21,000. Manufacturing (1991): anhydrous ammonia and urea (nitrogenous fertilizers) 2,465,600; cement 485,600; methanol 452,800; steel billets 439,700; steel wire rods 364,100; raw sugar 110,400 7 beer 303,600 hectolitres; rum 142.700 proof hectolitres. Construction (buildings authorized; 1990): residential 210,600 sq m; nonresidential 27,200 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 3,466,000,000 (3,105,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1941 52,404,000 (33,989,00Q8); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991 5.359,000 (976,0008); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 5,381,600,000 (5,065,000,000). Land use (1989): forested 43.1%; meadows and pastures 2.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.4%; other 31.4%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$4,458,000,000 (U.S.$3,470 per capita). ,
.
;
Education and health Education (1989-90) Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacher tr
1
schools
teachers
students
student/ teacher ratio
472
6,839
189,623
277
10016
4,878
99,133
20,3
346
4,090
11.8
I
Higher"
1
Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 7.1%; primary education 66.5%; secondary 21.7%; higher 2.7%; other 2.0%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 751,600 (96.1%). Health (1990): physicians 802 (1 per 1,543 persons); hospital beds'" 3,894 (1 per 318 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 10.2. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,913 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 2,650 (army 100.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 1.6% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$48.
GNP
)
)
I
'Preliminary data. -Attained full internal sell government in 1987 'Detail Joes not Includes to total given because of rounding. 41980. 51991. '1989. '1992 51990 sugar industry. '"Includes refined petroleum. ^Excludes refined petroleum and sug.u 'Average industries. i-'Ncl ol value-added taxes less imputed hank service charges. through September. !-2 '. 28.6%; 30-44, 16.4%: 45-59, (
-
(
1
:
Population projection: (2000) 9,779,000; (2010) ll,28f
>
years.
Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 98.23 0.1%; other 0.3 Religious affiliation O.lV othei 0.2
Majoi 403;
Berbei
.
221.77U:
Aryanah
131.-
Vital statistics 1.000 population (1990): 25.4 (world avg. 2"
mate w.s f , illegitimate Death rale per 1,000 population
540.0
6
16
422,300 295.200
17 9 12.5
1
2,552.4
232
1.831.0
167
\
1
349,000
148
465,400
197
J 1
11.46 100.0
,256.06
10.9870'
249.000 7 2.360,600
10.5? 100.0
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.S6,716,000,000. Population economically active (1989): total 2.360,000,' activity rate of total population 28.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64. 42.2%; female 20.9%;
unemployed Price
13.4'
'
426
2.699
1
19.6
168,000
10.6
3.126
1
227
151,300
95
42
63.500 90.000
4.0
5784
Services
Capitals
Balkan
Nebit-Dag
Chardzhou Mary Tashauz
Chardzhou Mary Tashauz
City
—
sq mi
population
sq
1991 estimate
km
90.300 36.200 33.500 28.400
233.900 93.800 86.800 73,600
925,500 774,700 859.500 738.000
188.5002
488.100
3 714.100
100.0
Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer pnee index Monthly earnings index
1
25.9 1.7
100
,585,400
=
100)
=
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
100.0 100.0
101.0 101.0
102 103 8
107
112.4 115.7
125.0 127.5
195 2 196 1
1090
Foreign trade
416.400
TOTAL
410.400 27,400
7,1
13.771
57
Population economically active (1991): total: 1,585,400; activity rate of total population 42.7% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 84.2%; female [1990] 52.2%; unemployed [1991] 20-25%).
Area and population
Provinces
9777
Other
area
— — — —
—
— — —
TOTAL
force
674.800
defense
1
value
46.4
Public administration.
ruble = 100 kopecks; unit: valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) free rate, 1 U.S.$ = 316.82 rubles; 1 £ = 538.59 rubles.
% of labour
labour
of total
6.389 7
Finance
Official religion: none.
Ashkhabad (Ashgabat)
1
and communications Trade
Ashkhabad (Ashgabat). language: Turkmen.
Monetary
Mining Manufacturing
Construction Transportation and
President. Capital:
%
value 000,000 rubles in
Balance of trade (current prices)
Demography Population (1992): $.859,000. Density 1592): persons per sq mi 20.5. persons per sq km 7.9. Urban-rural (1991): urban 45.4%; rural 54.6%. distribution Set (1989): male 49.30%; female 50.70%. Age breakdown (1989); under 15. 40.5%; 15-29. 28.8%; 30-44. 15.5%; 45-59. 9.1%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.4',. Population projection: (2000) 4.585,000: (2010) 5,491,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1989); Turkmen 72.0%; Russian 9.5%: I'/bek 9.0%; Kazakh 2.5',; Tatar 1.1', other 5.9%.
1987
1988
1990
1991
000.000 rubles
-477
-284
-676
-971
*898
% of total
8.9%
5.1%
11.3%
1989
15.5%
6.1%
l
;
Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly SunnI Muslim (Sufi). Majoi cities 1991 i: Ashkhabad 416,400; Chardzhou 166.400; Tashauz 117,000 Mary 94,900; Nebit-Dag 89,100. {
Imports (1991); 5,938,000,000 rubles (detail, n.a.). Major import sources: former Soviet republics 91.8%; foreign countries 8.2%. Exports (1991): 7.836.00(1. (Kill rubles (detail, n.a.). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 1,317 mi, 2,120 km; passengers 9,000,0(H); short ton cargo 37,600,000, metric ton-km cargo 34,100,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,300 mi, 13.400 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 170.600; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels
(100 gross tons and over)
deadweight tonnage,
n.a.; total
n.a.
Air transport
(1989): passenger-mi 2,021.000,000, passenger-km 3,253,000,000; short tonmi cargo 222.000.000. metric ton-km cargo 324.200.000; airports (1992) with
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 34.2 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 96.5ft illegitimate 3.595 Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 7.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate pei 1,000 population (1990): 27.2 (world avg. 17.3). :
Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 4.3. Marriage rate per 1.000 population L989): 9.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.4. / ift expectancy at birth (1990): male 62.9 years; female 64. 7 years. Major causes ol death per 10(1.000 population (l ).Ss>): diseases of the circulatory system 275.3; diseases ot the respiratory system 160.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 79.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 65.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 62.4; diseases of the digestive system 32.2; diseases of the nervous system 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.0.
scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily neyyspapers (1989): total number 66; total circulation 1,141,000; circulation'per 1.000 population 307. Radio and television (1990): per 1.9 persons). Telephones (1989): total number of receivers 1.967.000 251,800(1 per 15 persons). (
1
(
l
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 6,489,000,000 rubles (nontax revenue 69.6%, of which corporation profit transfer 23.995 union transfers 21.7', tax revenue $0,491 ol yylneh turnover tax 10.3%, company, profit tax 8.0%, individual income tax 5.4',. sales tax 4.895 Expenditures: 5,597,000,000 rubles (social and cultural affairs 56.9%, of yyhieh social security 26.7%, education and 7 ',, 9.4',; science health national economy 34.(1',: government admin;
.
).
1
I
).
istration 2.795
Education and health Education (1989-90)
student/
students
schools Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr Higher .
398
1
1,324
I
92 9
teacher
ratio
710,600 115,000 35.000 42.000
Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over haying: primary education or no formal schooling 13.6%; some secondary 21.3%: completed secondary and some postsecondary 56.8%: higher 8.3%. Literacy: n.a.
Health 1990); physicians 13.200 (1 per 274 persons): hospital beds 42,000 per 86 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 45.2. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a. (
(1
)
Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a.
Military
Tourism: n.a. Production ('000,000 rubles except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): seed cotton 2,223. vegetables 139, tirain 91, fruit 52; livestock (number ol live animals; 1989) 5,083,000 sheep and goats. 807,000 cattle, 268,000 piiis; roundwood 4,000,000 cu m; tish catch, n.a. Mining and quarrying J9): sulfur 5,547,000; sodium sulphate 261,000. Manufacturing (1990): light industrj 2,028, ol which textiles 1.^45; fuel 989; food 700; building materials 285; electricity 250; machinery and metalvvorking equipment 246; chemicals and petroleum products 192; paper products 64; pharmaceuticals 12; printing 8. Construction 1991 5,949,200,000 rubles. Energj production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991 17,171,400,000 (8,337,000,000); coal: n.a. (n.a.): crude petroleum (barrels: 1989) 42,601,960 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 7,131,800,000 (2,024,300,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 84,300, ,000 (9,500,000,
Total active duly personnel: CIS-joint control 34.000 expenditure as a percentage of GNP: n.a.
(100% army).
Military
1
(
1:
1
Land
use: n.a.
Household income and expenditure. Average household si/e (1989) 5.6; income per household: i\.a.\ sources of income (1991): salaries and wages 61.4',. pensions and grants 26.0%, income from agriculture sales 9.4%, nonwage income ol workers 2.7%; expenditure (1991): food and clothing 79.4',. services 10.1%, taxes and othei payments 10.5' national product (at current market prices. 1991 13,771.000.000 rubles ):
I
$.700 rubles per capita)
Constitution ol Ma> IS. L992, provided for transitional status of former Supreme Soviet as Majlis (from May 19) until a permanent representative body, the People's Council (Khalk Maslakhaty) could be constituted. -Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'No equivalent U.S.S value is offered, as Soviet GNP data are very speculative.
.
Nations
World
715
(metric tons except as noted) Agriculture ", forestry, fishing coconuts 4,000, fruits 1,000, hens' eggs Kill, other agricultural products include breadfruit, pulaka (taro), bananas, pandanus fruit, sweet potatoes, and pawpaws; livestock (numbei "i live animals) 12,000 pigs -; forestry, n.a.; fish catch 1,460, oi winch tuna l\.Z'i. Mining and quarrying: n.a. '. Manufacturing (I4N4): copra 840 metric tons; handicrafts and baked goods are also important. Construction: n.a.; however, the main areas of construction activity are road works, coastal protection, government facilities, and water-related infrastructure projects. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1987) 3,000,00(1 (3,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products, none (n.a.);
Production
Tuvalu
1
(1991):
name.
Official
llu-
ill
I
uvalu. coiistinniun.il
1
Form of government:
monarch) with one
legislative
house
1
(Parliament
[
12]).
Chie] of Hate: British Monarch, represented bj Governoi General. Head of government: Prime Minister.
on Funafuti
Capital: Fongafale,
atoll.
Official language: none. Official religion:
natural gas. none (none). Public debt: n.a. Tourism (1990): number of visitors 567; receipts from visitors $A 169,700; hotel occupancy 95%. Population economically active (1979) 7 total 4,010; activity rate of total population 55.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 81.1%; female 51.3%; unemployed 4.0%).
none.
Tuvalu Dollat = Australian Dollar ($T = $A) = 1 100 Tuvalu and Australian cents;
Monetary unit 1
:
I
valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.38; 1 £ =
:
$A
2.35.
Price
Area and population
sq mi
Islands 2
sq
091
Funafuti
Nanumaga Nanumea
1
1
00 38
016 082
Nlulakita
Niutao Nui
km
2,810
0.41
74
904 604 694 315
1.18
2.12 3.29 3.06
0.64
1
89
4.90
TOTAL
925
2396
1
1985 census
236 259 357
Nukutetau Nukulaelae Vaitupu
1.27
Consumer
1985
...
...
...
...
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
100.0 100.0
111.0
113.3 105.0
116.3 110.0
1232
1025
112.5
Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 6.4; average annual income per household $A 2,575; sources of income: agriculture and other 61.2%, cash economy only 17.9%, agriculture only 14.9%, other 6.0%; expenditure (1987) 15 food 45.5%, housing and household operations 11.5%, transportation 10.5%, alcohol and tobacco 10.5%, clothing 7.5%,
672 879
66
1984 price index
Earnings index 14
:
other 14.5%.
1.231
8,2293
Land
•»
use (1983): agricultural and under
permanent
cultivation
75%
I6 ;
other
25%.
Foreign trade
Demography Population (1992): 9,500. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 1,027.0. persons per sq km 396.5. Urban-rural (1985): urban 34.2%; rural 65.8%. Sex distribution (1441): male 46.00%; female 54.00%. Age breakdown (1474): under 15, 33.8%; 15-29, 31.0%; 30-44, 14.3%; 45-59, 13.2%; 60-74, 6.1%; 75 and over. 1.6', Population projection: (2000) 11,000; (2010) 14,000.
Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (1474): Tuvaluan (Polynesian) 91.2%; mixed (Polynesian/ Micronesian/other) 7.2%; European 1.0%; other 0.6%. Religious affiliation (1979): Church of Tuvalu (Congregational) 96.9%; Seventh-day Adventist 1.4%; Baha "I 1.0%; Roman Catholic 0.2%; other 0.5%.
Major
and earnings indexes (1986 = 100)
population
area
locality (1940):
Fongafale, on Funafuti
Balance of trade (current prices) $A 000
%
of total
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
-3,637 85.4%
-3.969 92.7%
-4.076 99.9%
-4,946 99.9%
-6,780 99.7%
-5,158 99.5%
Imports (1989): $A 5,170.000 (1986; food and live animals 29.5%, manufactured goods 25.2%, machinery and transport equipment 15.1%, petroleum and petroleum products 13.8%, beverages and tobacco 7.0%, chemicals 6.6%). Major import sources (1986): Australia 40.6%; New Zealand 10.9%; United Kingdom 5.1%; Japan 3.0%; United States 1.0%. Exports (1990): $A 30,400 (1986; copra 86.4%). Major export destinations: n.a.
atoll, 3,432.
Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1985):
Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 30.0 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 82.2%; illegitimate 17.8%.
Death
rate per 1,000 population (1990): 10.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990): 20.0 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 3.1.
Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 60.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the digestive system 170.0: diseases of the circulatory system 150.0; diseases of the respiratory system 120.0; diseases of the nervous system 120.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 70.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 40.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 20.0; ill-defined conditions 430.0; in 1992 the leading causes of death included liver diseases, meningitis, tuberculosis, and still and perinatal deaths; other health problems included acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, (ilariasis, conjunctivitis, fish poisoning, diabetes, rheumatism, and hypertension.
National economy Budget (1940). Recurrent revenue: $A 5,301,000 (local sources [including fisheries licenses, import duties, sales tax, and income and company taxes] 77.4%; Tuvalu Trust Funds 22.6%). Expenditures: $A 10,826.0006 (1987; capital [development] expenditures 68.9%, of which marine transport 20.7%, education 13.0%, fisheries 5.6%, health 3.1%; current expenditures 31.1%). Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S. $8, 750,000 (U.S.S967 per capita).
none). Vehicles 17
:
passenger cars,
n.a.;
total length 5 mi, 8 km (paved, trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant
marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over)
2; total
deadweight tonnage
798. Air transport (1977): passenger arrivals (Funafuti) airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1.
1,443; cargo, n.a.;
Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 3,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1987): 160 ( 1
per 54 persons).
Education and health Education (1987)
student/
schools Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational !8 Higher
teacher
teachers
64
ratio
1.364
1518
243 354
16
Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; primary education 93.0%; secondary 6.1%; higher 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population literate in Tuvaluan 8,593 (95.0%); literacy in English estimated at 45.0%. Health (1990): physicians 4 (1 per 2,261 persons); hospital beds 30 (1 per 302 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births 78.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.
Military Total active duty personnel (1987): there
is
a police force of 32 men.
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 value
value
2,699,000 302,000 358,000 1 ,635.000 235,000
24.1
38
403.000
$A Agriculture, fishing, forestry
Mining Manufacturings Construction Public
utilities
1979
%
labour force 7
in
of total
% of labour force 7 1.0
—
2.7
1
32 14.6
62 224
2.1
14
3.6 14.9 8.9
107 98
27
11
0.3
1.6
56 03
Transportation and
communications Trade, hotels, and restaurants
Finance
Pub admin
,669.000
997.000 ,
defense
Services
Unemployed Noncash economy TOTAL
1
1 I
2.901,000
25.9
— —
— —
11.199,000
100.0
177 170 162 2,9469 4.010
2.4 4.4
42 4.0
73.59 100.0
'The value of the Tuvalu Dollar is pegged to the value of the Australian Dollar, which is also legal currency in Tuvalu. -Local government councils have been established on all islands except Niulakita. 'Total includes 46 persons unaccounted for in island populations. 4 De facto population; about 1.50(1 Tuvaluans live abroad, mainly in Nauru or on foreign fishing vessels. 5 The Tuvalu Trust Fund was capitalized in 1987 with $A 27.7 million to replace recurrent grant aid from the United Kingdom; the Fund was valued at $A 36 million in late 1991. "Figure includes $A 5,200,000 of capital expenditures, paid for, primarily, by foreign-aid contributions that are not part of recurrent revenue. 'Based on indigenous de facto population only, "-including cottage industry. "Mostly subsistence fishermen and handicraft workers. '"Because of poor soil quality, only limited subsistence agriculture is possible on the islands. ll 1989. '-Other livestock include goats. ^'Research into the mineral potential of Tuvalu's maritime exclusive economic zone (289,500 sq mi [750.000 sq km] of the Pacific Ocean) is currently being conducted by the South Pacific Geo-Science Commission 14 Average minimum wage. |S Y\ eights oi consumer price index components. '"Capable "There are several cars, ol supporting coconut palms, pandanus, and breadfruit. tractors, trailers, and light trucks on Funafuti; a few motorcycles are in use on most islands. i»1482-83.
Britannica World Data
736
Uganda Official
Price index (1985
name: Republic of Uganda.
Form of government:
legislative body (National Council [278l])2.
President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital Kampala. Official language: English; Swahili. Official religion: unit:
Monetary shilling
none.
Uganda (U Sh)= 1(1(1 cents: 1
valuation (Oct.
U.S.$ =
I
U
1
£ = U Sh
1992)
5.
Sh
1985
1986
1987
100.0
261
783
1988
1989
2,519.0
1990
3.743
1991
4,9830
6.382
Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing ( 1991 ): bananas and plantains 8,310,000, cassava 3,350,000, sweet potatoes 1,800,000, sugarcane 880.000. millet 60(1,000, corn (maize) 600,000, dry beans 400,000, sorghum 380,000, coffee 180,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 173.000, cacao beans 8,000, tea 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5.000.00(1 cattle, 3,300,000 goats, 1,950,000 sheep; roundwood (1990) 15.142,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 245,200. Mining and quarrying (1990): tungsten (wolfram) 37.1; tin ore 24.6; gold 2,322 troy oz. Manufacturing (1990): soap 30,600; sugar 28,900; cement 14,960; animal feed 15,000; metal products 1,300; footwear 319,000 pairs; fabrics 8,200,000 sq m; 1,289,700,000 cigarettes; beer 194,000 hectolitres. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricitv (kW-hr; 1990) 603,000,000 (493,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons;
Resistance
and government:
oj state
price index
transitional
regime with one interim
military
Head
Consumer
= 100)
1,192;
2,026.
1990)
none
(267.0(10).
Gross national product (1990): U.S.$3,814,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita).
Area and population
population
ares
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
1991
Regions Capitals
Districts
sq
sq mi
km
1990
census^
— Kampala —
Kalangala
Kampala Kiboga Luwero
70
Luwero
Kawuga Mukono
3,550 6,310 2.400 3,980 5.500
Byakabanda
1,920
Masaka
Kasawa Bukoto
Mpigi
Mpigi
Mubende Mukono
Bageza
Rakai Eastern
Iganga
Bulamogi
Jinja
Jinja
Hamuli
Namwendwa
Kapchorwa Kumi Mbale
Kaptanya
670
Kumi Bunkoko
1,100
Pallisa
—
Soroti
Soroti
Sukulu
Tororo Northern
Apac
Apac
Arua Gulu Kitgum
Olaki
730
980
4.350 1,740 2,860 2,550
3,880 1,780
10,060 4,550
2,510 3,020 4.530 8.230 5.100 2,800
Lira
Lira
Moroto
Katikekile
Moyo
Moyo
5 450 1.930
Nebbi
1,120
Hoima
Hoima
2.080 3.820
Kabale Kabarole
Rubale
960
Kasese
— —
Karambe
3.230 1.240
Rukoki
Kibaale Kisoro Masindi
Nyangeya
Mbarara Rukungin
3.720 4.190 1,060 76.080 16,990 93.0705
Kakika
Kagunga
TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER 4 TOTAL
2.340 5.400 9.900 2.490 8,360 3,200
116,000 734,800 197.800 412.800 741.400 343.000 219.300 184,900
9.640 10,840 2,750 197.040 44.000
253,500 929.600 388.000
241.0405
Manufacturing and mining Construction
69.891 73,860 9,538 102,342
68 72 0.9 10.0 21.5 5.2
220,557 53,520 100,737 33,364
Services TOTAL
1
force
6.240,000
826
385.000
5.1
929.000
12.3
7.554,000
1000
1
J "I
98 3.2 J
100
,027,082
size. Average household size (1983) 4.8; income per household: expenditure (1989-90) food 57.1%, rent, education, and health 15.7%, lighting 7.3%, transportation 5.9%, clothing 5.5%. Land use (199(1): forested 27.9%; meadows and pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.6%; other 29.5%. Public debt (external, outstanding: 1990): U.S.$2,301, 000,000.
Household
' Ma/or import sources: Kenya 23.3%; U.K. 15.0%; Japan 9.3%; Germany 6.9%. / tports (1991); (J Sh 146,661,000,000 (1990; unroasted coffee 79.6%, cotton 5.3%, tea 1.295 ). Major export destinations: The Netherlands 21.5%; France L6.2%; U.S. 11.9%; Spam 11.1%; Germany 10.9%; Italy 7.9%. l
,
,
Transport and communications Railroads (1990): route length 1,240 km; passenger-km 109,000,metric ton-km cargo 1(13.000,000. Roads (1986): total length 28,332 km (paved 22' ). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 35,492; trucks and buses 14.902. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 3; total deadweight tonnage 8.600 10 Air transport (1990) n passenger-km 67,000,airports L992) I. I; 000; metric ton-km cargo 3,000, Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 6; total circulation 1.000 circulation population 3.7. Radio (1991): 3,500.000 reper 63,800; ceivers (1 per 5.1 persons) television (1991): 90.000 receivers (1 per 197 per 286 persons). persons). Telephones 19911): 57,185 transport.
16,582,7005
000;
.N42.000. 1
>. 22.5%; 50-44. 21.0%; 45-5». 16.6%; 60-74. 13 7' 75 and over, 7.0%. distribution
;
;
Mining Manufacturing Construction
Demography
1
(
1,485.100 1,365.100 860.500 573.900 1 .376.800 736.400
698.700 572.900 300,600 980.600 553.800 401.600 459.100
legiti-
l
I
1.981
1,344 5,452 30.418
Belfast
1 .495.600 520.600 6.377.900 2.454,800
3,927
1.441
Preston
Merseyside 4
2,631 6.711 2.654 2.436 1.795 3.672 2,643 1.579 1,287 3.777
2,591 1,025
Chelmsford
& Worcester
583 3,564 6,810
1,376 2,629 1,016
Durham Lewes
East Sussex Essex
919.800 514,200 716,500 619.500 640,700 937,300 541.100 469.300 486,900 914.600 998.200 645.200 589.800 670,600
(world avg. 26.4); (1990)
13.8
1.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.6 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman: 1990): 1.8. Marriage rale per 1.000 population 1989): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1.000 population 1989): 2.9. / ife expectancy at birth (i is"-S"i: male 72.4 years; female 78.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 515.3. of which ischemic heart disease 295.3. cerebrovascular disease 153.1: malignant neoplasms (cancers) 280.4; diseases of the respiratory system 123.9, ol which pneumonia 56.8; accidents and violence 37.1; diseases of the digestive system 36.4; diseases of the endocrine system 17.7. of which diabetes mellitus 14. S: diseases of the genitourinary system 14.6. (
Bristol
Bedfordshire Berkshire
.S'.-t
,
.
population
1991'
Countries
Hereford
Indian
I
i
(
othei and nol stated Religious affiliation (1980) Christia i
monarch) with two legislative houses (House ol ords 1,191); House ol I
World
Population projection (2000) 59,021,000; (2010) 59 '»..'. 000. Doubling tune not applicable; doubli weeds iihi vc.irs. Ethnii composition (1986): white •>'-' Vsian Indian West Pakistani 0.8 Vfri< in 2%\ Bangladeshi
Official name: United Kingdom ol (in.-. n Britain and Northern Ireland.
Form of government,
the
«\
.
Trade Finance
Pub admin., defense Services Other TOTAL
8.772 28,27315 104,283 33.686 is
34,755 73.024 88.179 84 429 33,915 7.685 '6 497,001
%
18 5 .7 '5 21,0 6,8
% of labour
labour force
of total
value
force
272,000 437.000' 4.758.000 960.000
1.0 1
5'5
168
34
IS
15
15
7.0
1.313.000 4.596.000 2.595.000
162
14.7 17.7 17.0 6.8 1.5 '6
100.0
1
.891 .000
4,845,000 6.743.000' 7 28.410,000
46 9.1
6.7 17.0
237" 1000
Britannica World Data
740
Budget (1991-92). Revenue: £201,463,000,000 (income tax 39.4%, taxes on expenditures 30.7%, social-security contributions 17.1%). Expenditures: £213,204,000,000 (1990-91; social-security benefits 35.0%, national health service 13.5%, defense 13.5%. debt interest 10.8%, education and science 4.1%).
(March
Total national debt
Population economically active (1991): total 28,410,000; activity rate of total population 51.2% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.1% 13; female 47. X' , unemployed 7.9%). Price and earnings indexes (1985
1990): £185,870,000,000.
Financial aggregates
Consumer 1986
Exchange
1988
1987
1989
1990
1992 '8
1991
U.S. dollar per C SDRs per £
000000,000)
Total (excl gold;
(000,000,000)
Reserve pos
64 22
1,78
36
1,31
34.77
35 85 1 25
41.89
43.25
14
1.31
1,34
64
1.68
85
1.84
31.99 18.99
32 93
38 73
4008
19 00
18.97
1889
18 68
2.0
2.0
2,0
2,0
2.0
9.48
9.36
9.58
11,08
992
9.16'9
163.8
147.6
176.5
1733
190.2
213.32°
1.47 1.20
1.64
32
1,78 1.34
18.42 1.55
41,72
44.10
1.38
1
32
1
1.98
1.78
1-67
1
14.89
38.56
41 12
1901
19.01
2.0
20
987 124,1
1
1
1
1
1
77
1 1
92 33
IMF
in
103 4
107.7 116.7
107.9
= 100) 1988 13.0 126.4 1
133 4 150 9
121.8 137.9
141.2 164
144.1
170 7
Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size 2.3 12 average annual income per household (1989) £15,800 (U.S.$25,900); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 62.3%, social-security benefits 10. 8%, income from self-employment 10.7%, rent, dividends, and interest 10.0%; expenditure (1990): food and beverages 18.2%, transport and vehicles 17.7' housing 14.3%, household goods 6.5%, clothing 5.9%, energy 3.5%. Land use (1990): forested 9.9%; meadows and pastures 46.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 27.6%; other 16.2%.
;
,
('000,000,000)
Foreign exchange (000,000.000) Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) world reserves
%
and prices bank discount ^%) Govt bond yield (%) long term
1
Interest
.
Foreign trade
Central
industrial
Monthly earnings index
1987
rate
International reserves (U.S.S)
SDRs
price index
1986
Balance of trade (current prices)
share prices
(1985=100)
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
-12,801
-17,926 6.4%
-37.446
-39,157 11.4%
-31.131 7.8%
-17,990
Balance of payments £'000.000
(U.S.S'000.000)
Balance of
-12.801 -17.962 119,272 148.247 106,472 130,285 16,104 17,354
visible trade,
Imports,
fob.
Exports,
fob
Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account
- 7.373 - 26.956 -31,289
158
%
36,994 -39,157 -32,400 -17,990 180,527 190.898 214,693 201,081 143,534 151,741 182,293 183.091 17,417 15,323 13,468 10,944 -
27,676
- 9,447
Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$12,873,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$17,648,000,000. Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1989) annual
Manufacturing Food, beverages, and tobacco Transport equipment
no. of enter-
no.
prises^
employees
annual
wages as a
%
of
value
of avg, of
added
wages 14
(£000,000)
all
8,916 4,233
598.000 529.000
103.0
13,268 13.103
9,644 23.322
590,000 590.000
96 8 108 4
12.650 12.622 1 1
Clothing and footwear
1 1
469.000 296.000 237.000 141,000 215,000 320,000 216.000
133.8
Metal manufacturing Timber and wood products
21.495 3,137 4,785 1,186 13,794
and dataprocessing equipment Mechanical engineering Paper and paper products; printing and publishing Chemical engineering Rubber and plastic Electrical
,207
4,466 123
Mineral-oil processing
15,000
118.1
.469 11.394 4.704 4,236 3,478 3,288 2.962 1.960
121,000
118.1
9.330
103.1
742.313 20.426
118.1 118.1
102 8 98.1
856
natural
.5%
4.7%
79.2
Transport and communications Railroads (1991) 27 length 23,518 mi 7 37,849 km 7 passenger-mi 20,620.000,000, passenger-km 33,184,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 10,947,000,noo. mcttic ton-km cargo 15,982,000,000. Roads (1990)*: total length 222,472
Transport.
Mining
and
1 1
r
Textiles
Extraction of coal, mineral
5.7%
of total
Imports (1991): £118,871,400,000 (machinery and transport equipment 36.3%, of which road vehicles 8.6%, data-processing equipment 6.4%; petroleum and petroleum products 9.9%; chemicals and chemical products 9.2%, of which organic chemicals 2.2%; food and live animals 8.7%, of which vegetables and fruits 2.5%, meat and meat preparations 1.6%; paper and paperboard 3.2%; textile yarn and fabrics 3.1%; iron and steel products 2.2%; nonferrous metals 2.1%). Major import sources: Germany 14.9%; U.S. 11.5%; France 9.3%; The Netherlands 8.4%; Japan 5.7%; Italy 5.4%; Belgium-Luxembourg 4.6%; Ireland 3.7%-; Norway 3.6%; Switzerland 3.2%. Exports (1991): £104,818,400,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.6%, of which road vehicles 8.2%, data-processing equipment 6.3%, power-generating machinery and equipment 4.8%, machinery specialized for particular industries 3.7%; chemicals and chemical products 13.2%, of which organic chemicals 3.3%; petroleum and petroleum products 6.5%; nonmetallic mineral manufactures 3.0%; iron and steel products 2.9%; professional, scientific, and controlling instruments 2.4' ). Major export destinations: Germany 14.0%; France 11.1%; United States 10.8%; The Netherlands 7.9%; Italy 5.9%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.6%; Ireland 5.0%; Spain 4.1%; Sweden 2.4%; Japan 2.2',: Switzerland 2.0%.
oil,
gas
Extraction of minerals other
19,100"
793
than fuels Construction
185,854
1.160,000
Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): wheat 14,300,000, barley 7,700,000, sugar beets 7.340.000. potatoes 6,700,000, turnips and rutabagas 3,451,00021. 22 corn (maize) 3.151,000, rapeseed 1,330.000. cabbage 765,000, oats 527,000; livestock (number of live animals) cattle. 7,379,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 6,455,29,954,000 sheep. 11,846,1 000 cu m; lish catch 1990) 803,536. Mining: iron ore 13,20023; zmc 5,60022; (
]
(
lead 2,200. Manufacturing (total sales in £'000,000; 1990): motor vehicles and parts 13,061; aerospace equipment 7,753- 4 electronic dataprocessing and telecommunications equipment 6,403; basic electrical equipment 3,504; mechanical lifting and handling equipment 2,626; constructional steelwork 2,617; boilers 2,078, Construction (value in i: 1440 s ): residential
(
,
;
;
mi, 358,034 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1991)«: passenger cars 19,737,000; trucks and buses 2,773,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1.444; total deadweight tonnage 8,249,700. Air transport (1940): passenger-mi 49,448,000,000, passenger-km 79,579,600,000; short tonmi cargo 1,636400,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,388,700,000; airports (1442) with scheduled flights 56. ommunications. Dailv newspapers (1440): total number 44; total circulation 22,253,500; circulation per 1,000 population 388. Radio (1440): 57,456,832 receivers (1 per 1.0 person). Television 1441 ): 14,546.000 licenses (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1484): 29,517.441 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). (
Education and health
tin 2.300;
;
6,884,000,000;
nonresidential 21,470,000,000, of which commercial
10,390,-
Education (1989-90)28 schools Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11 19) Voc. teacher tr. », 30
Higher 32.
ooo.ooi). industrial 5,243,000,000.
Retail trade enterprises (1989)
wage as
annual
%
turnover
prises
no of employees
67.775
809,000
38,341
69
504 000 106,000 68,000 319,000
27,935 4,128 2.586 19.827
11.945 10.956 48.893
94,000 72,000 259,000
6.791 4.691
42,785 30.170
219.000 296.000
15,811
113.000 82.000 37,000 80,000 31,000
a
of
wages
all
33
student/
teachers
216.160 234,290 93,0003! 49,377
teacher
students
ratio
21 4 14.5
4.617,737 3,395.700 539,718 352,574
Literacy (1440): total population literate, virtually 100% 34 Health (1981): physicians 92,172 (1 per 611 persons); hospital beds (1487) pci 146 persons); infant mortality rale 1441 7.4. 388,700 Food 1988-40): daily per capita caloric intake 3,270 (vegetable products 66%, .
weekly no. of enter-
24,268 4,876 724 50
(£000,000)25
(
)
(
I
(
Food and grocery. of
FAO
recommended minimum requirement.
which
large grocery other grocery
24,921 14,295
meats Household goods, of
animal products 34%); 130% of
45.678
which
electrical
and musical goods
furniture
Drink, confectionery,
and tobacco.
which tobacco and confectionery
11,180
of
infants'
wear
footwear
3,934 3,938 8,590 15
men's and boys' wear Pharmaceuticals Mail order
Energ> production (consumption
8.664 1 1
.068
4,040 2,337 1.933 3.781
3:444
(kW-hr 990) 318,474,000.000 1990) 89,303,000 (100,249,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 656,722,000 (568,604,000); petroleum products (metric ions; 1990) 81,919,000 (79,470,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 53,895,i.
000,000 (6)
•
Total acme duty personnel (1942): 293,500 (army lorce 29.3%). Military expenditure in percentage [ 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$605.
:
electricity
coa] (metric tons;
;
1
49.5% navy
GNP
(
1484):
2.1.2%, air
4.2% (world
'1442 estimate includes, and 1441 preliminary census excludes, adjustment for underenuraeration of about 5' -Detail dues not add to total given because of rounding. 'Includes separately administered Isles of Scilly (area 6 sq mi |16 sq km]; pop. 2,4(1(1), 4 Geographic entity only; since April 1, 1986, the administrative functions of the former metropolitan county councils have been dispersed among other local authorities. ^Comprises 26 local government districts not shown separately. ''Includes three separately administered island groups (Orkney 377 sq mi [476 sq km], pop. 14.300: Shetland 553 sq mi ( 1 .432 sq km], pop. 22,400; Western Isles 1,114 sq mi |2,,I6I,I2(> (95.7%); females literate 87,336,439 (95.3%); other studies indicate adult "functional" literacy may not exceed 85%. Health (1989): physicians 629,000 (1 per 391 persons), specialties in internal medicine 16.0%, general practice 11.5%, pediatrics 6.6%, general surgery 6.2' psychiatry 5.7%, obstetrics and gynecology 5.5%, anesthesiology 4.2%, '
1
.
orthopedics .V %, pathology 2.6%, ophthalmology 2.6%, radiology 1.4%, other 34.6',; muses 1,666,000 (I per 148 persons); dentists 168,000 (1 per 1,472 persons); hospital beds 1.224.000 (1 per 202 persons), of which nonfederal M..s', (community hospitals 83.0%, psychiatric 14.2%, long-term general and special 2.4%), federal 8.2%; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 10.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita calotte intake 3,642 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 138% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Per capita consumption of major food groups (pounds annually; 1990): dairy products 570.6; grains 185.4: sweeteners 137.5; potatoes 127.2; red meat 112.3; fresh vegetables 111.0; fresh fruits 92.3; poultry products 1
(
63.6; fats
and
oils 62.7; fish
and
shellfish 15.5.
Total active duty personnel (1992): 1.913,750 (army 35.2',. navy 28.6%, air force 26.1%, marines 10.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of 1989): 5.89S (world 4. >', ); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,222. Military aid (1990): total $4,893,000,000 (Middle Fast and South Asia 86.7%, of which Israel 36.6%, Egypt 24.5%, Turkey 10.2%. Greece 7.1%, Pakistan 4.7%, Jordan 1.4%; Latin America 4.8',. ol which El Salvador 1.7%, Colombia 1.5';, Honduras 0.4%, Dominican Republic 0.4%,; East Asia 3.1%, of which Philippines 2.9%, Thailand 0.1%; Africa 2.3%, of which Morocco 0.9%, Tunisia 0.6%; Europe 1.8%, of which Portugal 1.8%; international orga-
GNP
1
(
nizations 1.3%).
nat'l
13
0.6
1,683
81.9
2.054
100.03
— 17.4 —
'Excludes 5 nonvoting delegates. -Total area excluding U.S. share of Great Lakes 3,618,770 sc| mi (4.372,571 sq km). 'Detail does not add to total given because ol rounding, includes military personnel residing overseas. 'Fiscal year ending September 30. 'Year ending May 1992. 'October 1991; excludes construction and mining. "1989. ''1988. 101990. "l9K7. l2Excludes armed forces overseas. "Statistical discrepancy. 4 Includes unemployed persons not previously employed. '^Number of establishments is for 1987. "'Annual sales is lor WO. 'Personal-consumption expenditure. i 8 Persons of Spanish origin may be of any race. '''August. -"Annual average. -'End of year. "Second quarter -includes Central and South America. ^Includes statistical discrepancy. 251986; is
i
I
ommunications. Dail) newspapers (1992): total number tion (1990) 62,300,000; circulation pet 1.000 population (1990) 249. Radio per 0.5 persons). Television 1991): total number ol receivers 520, 1,000 1,755; total circula-
(
166,875.000.000 166,077,000,000 798,000,000
teachers
i
(
,000
of transportation (1990)
— 358 —
162
577 2.8553
1 1
69,559
passenger
cargo
Rail
International
Military
Transport and communications Transport.
53.000 42.000
Telex
Higher, including teachertraining colleges
%
25 187
Telegrams Domestic
Education (1990-91)
89
6.097 2,086
000)
(units,
Electronic 25
100.03
2.9 0.4
489 traffic
Education and health
exports
14,130 1,733 12.397 152.474 91,141
Africa
136 138 149 94
Cinema''
151
(age 14-17)
US.S'000,000
151
science
Psychology Sociology and anthropology Zoology
History
Primary (age 6-13)
%
Political
General interest
Secondary and vocational imports
182 130
Physical education and recreation
170 78
Education Engineering
118 158
Feature films
Agriculture
Children's periodicals
Direction of trade (1991)
US$000,000
sciences and language Mathematics and science Medicine Philosophy and religion
which
of
and information
Literature
375
Philosophy, psychology
8.4
Library
586
Medicine Music
70 273
Law
1,096 2,298 3,447
Literature
90
relations
5,413
Language Law
Fine and applied arts
24.168.7
communications Labour and industrial
949
Juvenile
%
Journalism and
1,569 2,193 1,569 1,054 5,941 2,332 2.563
Art
exports
90 106
Industrial arts
562
Agriculture
Trade by commodity group (1991)
Home economics
53,446
which
of
Imports (1991): U.S.$487,129,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 43.3%, of which motor vehicles and parts 13.8%; basic and miscellaneous manufactures 28.9%, mineral fuels and lubricants 11.2%; chemicals and related products 5.0%; food and live animals 4.5%). Major import sources: Japan 18.8%; Canada 18.7%; Mexico 6.4%; Germany 5.4%; Taiwan 4.7%; China 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.8%; South Korea 3.5%; France 2.7%; Italy 2.4%; Saudi Arabia 2.3%; Singapore 2.0%; Hong Kong 1.9%. Exports (1991): U.S.$421,730,000,000 (machinery and transport 44.4%, of which motor vehicles and parts 7.0%; basic and miscellaneous manufactures 18.6%; chemicals and related products 10.2%; food and live animals 7.0%; mineral fuels and lubricants 2.9%). Major export destinations: Canada 20.2%; Japan 11.4%; Mexico 7.9%; United Kingdom 5.2%; Germany 5.1%; South Korea 3.7%; France 3.6%; The Netherlands 3.2%; Taiwan 3.1%; BelgiumLuxembourg 2.6%; Australia 2.0%; Singapore 2.1%.
imports
titles
Print
(
I
.
Nations
Uruguay
1990
name: Reptiblica Oriental del Uruguaj (Oriental Republic of Uruguay limn ni government: republic with
in
Mining Manufacturing Construction
[99]).
Public utilities Transp. and commun
Montevideo. Spanish Official religion: none unit: Monetary Uruguayan new peso 'apital:
Pub. admin., defense Services
Official language.
1
centesimos; valuation (Oct. 5. 1992) U.S.$ = NUr$3,27l; £ = NUr$5,5r,l.
0.2
1.771
214.945 64,385
3.5 2 9
11.9
13 2
Other
-601,8773
TOTAL
9,623,666
2 g^ -6 23 100.0
145 01 183 5.4
17,377 59,289 139,242 42,688
59
1.140.808 1,274,416 886.721 1.991,353
force
170,183
278
275,583 571,805
Trade Finance
President.
109
1
% of labour
labour force
of total
value
,046,277 19,308 2,677,705 341 567
Agriculture
houses (Senate (31]';
legislative
Chambei ol Representatives Haul of state iiiul government:
(NUr$)=
745
1985
%
value
NUr$ 000.000
I.
(
World
Structure of gross domestic product and labour force
Official
two
of tin
1.5
50 11.9
3.6
369.260
31.4
97,668" 1.176.808
8.3" 100.0
}
10(1
Population economically active (1985): total 1.176.808; activity rate 39 (participation rates: ages 20-64, 65.5%; female 33.2%: unemploved [1988] x.y,
1
I
).
Area and population sq mi
Departments
Capitals
Artigas
Artigas
Canelones
Canelones Melo
sq
4,605
Colonia del Sacramento
Durazno
Durazno
Flores Florida
Trinidad
Lavalleia
Mmas
5,270 2.358 4.495 1.986 4,022 3,867
Maldonado
Maldonado
1.851
Montevideo
Montevideo
Paysandu Rio Negro
Paysandu
Florida
Fray Bentos Rivera
Rocha
Rocha
Salto
Salto
San Jose
San Jose de Mayo Mercedes Tacuarembo
Soriano
Tacuarembo Treinta y Tres TOTAL LAND AflEA
.928 4,536 13,648 6.106 11.643 5.144 10,417 10.016 4.793
205
530
5,375 3,584 3,618 4.074 5,468 1,927 3.478
13.922 9.282 9,370 10,551 14,163 4,992 9.008 15,438 9.529 175,016 1,199 176,215
5,961
Treinta y Tres
3,679 67,574
463
INLAND WATER TOTAL
km
1 1
1,751
Cerro Largo Colonia
Rivera
population
area
68,037
Price
1985 census 69,145 364.248 78,416 112.717 55,077 24.739 66,474
Consumer
km
'
61 .466
94.314 1.311,976 103,763 48,644 89,475
1987
1988
288.5 319.8
467.9 524.8
100.0
844,4
946
1
1990
1991
1.794 1.844
3.624
Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1985) 3.3; avg. annual income per household (1985) NUr$266,261 (U.S.$2,625); sources of income: wages 53.5%, self-employment 17.0%, transfer payments and other 29.5% 6 expenditure (1982-83)7; fOG d 39.9%, housing 17.6%. transportation and communications 10.4%, health care 9.3%, clothing 7.0%, durable goods 6.3%, recreation 3.1%, education 1.3%, personal effects and other 5.1%. Land use (1989): forested 3.8%; meadows and pastures 77.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.5%; other 11.4%. ;
Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000
%
of total
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
+305.2 16.3%
+99.6 4.4%
+300.3 12.0%
+ 478.8
+ 435.4
+ 44.9
17.6%
14.8%
1.4%
2,955.241
17.9.
Population projection: (2000) 3,274,000; (2010) 3,453,000. Doubling tune: 83 years. Ethnic composition 1980): mixed Spanish-Italian 85.9%; mestizo 3.0%; Italian 2.6'; Jewish 1.7%; mulatto 1.2%; other 5.6' Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 62.9%, of which Roman Catholic 59.5%; Jewish 1.7%; nonreligious and atheist 35.1%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1985): Montevideo 1,311,976; Salto 80,823: Pavsandu 76,191; Las Piedras 58,288; Rivera 57,316. (
i
Vital statistics 18.3
1986 176.4 186.7
Foreign trade 8
(
Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): mate 73.8%; illegitimate 2r>.2',.
1985 100
66,601
108,487 89,893 79.439 83,498 46,869
Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 25.8%; 15-29, 23.0%; 30-44, 18.9%; 45-59, 15.8%; 60-74, 11.9%; 75 and over, 4.6%.
:
price index
Monthly earnings indexs
Demography Population (1992): 3,130,000. Density? (1992): persons per sq mi 46.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 85.5%; rural 14.5%. Sex distribution 1990): male 48.74%: female 51.26%.
and earnings indexes (1985= 100)
(world avg. 27.1); (1983)
legiti-
Death
rate per 1.000 population (1990): 9.9 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.4 (world avg. 17.3). intal fertility rale (avg. hirths per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population I9S7): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth 1985-90): male 68.9 years; female 75.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 371.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 220.9; respiratory diseases 70.8; accidents 48.3; diseases of the digestive system 41.1.
Imports (1991): U.S.$1,621.988,000 (machinery and appliances 21.3%; mineral products 15.5%; chemical products 14.3%; transport equipment 11.3%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 7.4%; textile products 5.4%; base metals and products 5.2%). Major import sources: Brazil 22.8%; Argentina 17.4%; United States 12.1%; Germany 4.9%; France 3.2%. Exports (1991): U.S.Sl, 540,926,000 (textiles and textile products 26.6%; live animals and live-animal products 24.0%; hides and skins 13.7%; vegetable products 13.0%; food, beverages, and tobacco 4.3%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 2.7%). Major export destinations: Brazil 24.0%; Argentina 11.2%; United States 10.2%; Germany 8.6%; Italy 3.9%.
Transport and communications Railroads (1988): route length 3,006 km; passenger-km (1987) ton-km cargo 212.500,000. Roads (1985): length 52,000 km (paved 23%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 252,329; trucks and buses 144,728. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 91; deadweight tonnage 156,618. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 471,000.000; metric ton-km cargo 2,600,000; airports (1992) 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 33; total circulation 694,0009; circulation per 1,000 population 227". Radio (1991): total receivers 1,800,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total receivers 700.000 (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1989): 528,674 (1 per 5.8 persons). Transport.
140,600,000; metric
Education and health
(
Education (1989)
(
National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: NUr$3,7 14.34 1.000.000
(direct taxes 75.9%, receipts from foreign trade Ll.7%). Expenditures: NUr$3,636,941,000,0()0 (social security and welfare 56.7%, general public services 15.7%, interest on public
debt 9.5' capital investments 9.4%, subsidies 5.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,949,000,000. Tourism t990): receipts U.S.S26 1,000,000; expenditures U.S.Sl 1,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): sugarcane 682,800, wheat 542.400, rice 347,300, sugar beets 208,500, barley 202,600, corn (maize) 112,300; livestock (number of live animals) 25,220,000 sheep. 8,723,000 cattle, 480,000 horses; roundwood 3.295,000 cu m; fish catch 88,936. Mining and quarrying (1989): hydraulic cement 513,000; gypsum 110,000. Manufacturing (value added in NUr$'000,000; 19.N7): food products (excluding beverages) 73,085; textiles 47,375; petroleum products 47,053; chemicals and chemical products 40,322; beverages 33,906; transport equipment 32,641; tobacco products 19,829; leather products 17,540; paper and paper products 15.729. Construction (approvals; 1988): residential 277,425 sq m; nonresidential 31,380 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 7,372,000,000 (6,042,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (8,796,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 1,084,000 (1,164,000); natural gas. none (n.a.). dross national product (1990): U.S.$7,929,( ,000 (U.S.$2,560 per capita). ,
(
,
1
Primary (age 6-11)
Secondary (age 12-17) Vocational Higher
student/
schools
teachers
students
2,735
19,391 13,571
359,455
293 95 2
1
10,
teacher
ratio
196,851 56,084
63.777
Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 7.5%; less than primary education 26.6%; primary 31.2%; secondary 19.9%; higher 14.8%. Literacy (1985): population age 15 and over literate 95.0%; males 975,200 (94.5%); females 1,074,300 (95.4%). Health (1990): physicians 9,061 (1 per 341 persons); hospital beds (1983) 23,400 per 127 persons); infant mortality rate 20.4. Food ( 1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,697 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement (
1
Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 22,900 (arm) 69.9%, navy 15.3%, ait force 14.8%). Military expenditure us percentage ofCNP (1988): 2.2% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S. $55.
'Includes the vice president who serves as ex ollicio presiding officer. Based on land area. 'Includes indirect laves less subsidies. ^Includes unemployed nut previousl)
employed. ^Salaried employees only. "Urban only. "Weights of consumer pun index components in Montevideo. 'Import figures are l.o.b. in balance ol Hade and c'.i.f. 1988 for commodities and trading partners. ''Partial circulation only. '"Public only. '
'
746
Britannica World Data
6,200,000 (10,400,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 20,663,1100 petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 41,600,000,000 (37,800,000,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 19X9): 21.200.000,000 rubles (1,100 rubles per capita)-1 1992)
Uzbekistan
(61,865,00(1);
name: Ozbekistan Jumhuriyati (Republic of Uzbekistan). Form of government: multiparty Official
.
republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Soviet [550]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tashkent (Toshkent). Official language: Uzbek.
Structure of net material product and labour force 1991
Agriculture
Mining Manufacturing
none.
Official religion:
% of total
value
in
000,000 rubles
unit: 1 ruble = 100 kopecks; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) free rate, U.S.$ = 316.82 rubles; 1 £ = 538.59
Monetary
Public
utilities
1.977.000
29,1
15,246,2
33.2
1
,200.000
17.6
4,905,7 1,930.5 4,001.7
10.7 4.2 8.7
714,000 251 .000 462,000
105
45,963.1
100.0
2.067.000 129.000 6.800,000
]
> J
— — — —
Services Other
Area and population area
population
force 4
43.2
Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense
rubles.
of labour
19,879.0
Construction Transp. and commun.
1
%
labour force 4
value
TOTAL
— — — —
37 6.8
30,4
19 100.0
1991' sq mi
Autonomous Republic
centres
Karakalpakstan
Nukus
Provinces Andizhan (Andijan) Bukhara
Andizhan Bukhara
Dzhizak (Djizak)
Dzhizak
Fergana Kashka Darya
Fergana
Khorezm
Urgench
Namangan
Namangan
Samarkand
Samarkand Termez
1,600
4.200 142.100 20.500 7,100 28,400 6,300 7.900 24,500 20.800 5,100 15,600 447.400
1
1
,000
2,400 3.100 9.500 8,000 2.000 6,000 172,7002
Gulistan
Tashkent
TOTAL
km
164.900
54,900 7.900 2,700
Karshi
Surkhan Darya Syr Darya Tashkent (Toshkent)
sq
63,700
estimate 1
.273,800
1,795,100 1.708.000
780,000 2,226,400 1 ,697,700 1 ,068,500 1 ,557,800 2,386,200 1 ,335,900 580,300 4.298,500 20,708,200
Population economii -ally active (1991) total 8,976,800; activity rate of total population 43.0% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 78.2%; female 43.X%; unemployed [1990] 3.9%). Price
and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985
Consumer
price index
1987
1986
1988
1989
100.0
1990
1991
126.6
117.2
Earnings index
use (1989): forested 4.2%; meadows and pastures 52.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.1%; other 33.2%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.5; income per household (1991) 12,900 rubles; sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 48.2%, subsidies, grants, and nonwage income 40.1%, other 11.7%; expenditure (1991): food and consumer goods 82.3%, other 17.7%.
Land
Demography Population (1992): 21,363,000. Density 1992); persons per sq mi 123.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 40.3%; rural 59 Sex distribution 1989): male 49.4(1', female 50.60%. (
(
km
Foreign trade 47.7.
Balance of trade (current prices)
(
15-29, 28.4%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59,
;
I
(
I
Religious
affiliation
believers
(1990):
000.000000 rubles
%
;
Population projection: (2000) 26,044,000'; (2010) 32,453,000. Doubling time: 25 years! 'is')): Uzbek 71.4%; Russian 8.3%; Tajik 4.7%; Kazakh Ethnic composition at. ii 2.4%; Kara-Kalpak 2.1%; Crimean Tatar 1.0%; Korean 0.9%; 4.1%; Kyrgyz 0.9%; Ukrainian 0.8%; Turkmen 0.6%; other 2.8%. are
predominantly
Sunn!
Muslim
(HanafTyah). (1991): Tashkent 2,119,900; Samarkand 394,600; Namangan 200; Andizhan 298,300; Bukhara 249,600.
Major
1987
1988
1989
1990
-3.9 20.8%
-1.2 8.5%
-3.5 17.0%
-3.7 i.4%
;
Age breakdown 1989): under L5, 40.8%; 9.3% 60 74. 4.7', 75 and over, 1.8%.
cities
519,
of total
Imports (1991): 20.200.1)00,1)00 rubles (foodstuffs and agricultural commodities 47.2%; consumer goods 43.5%; raw materials and processed industrial goods 4.9%; machinery and transport equipment 4.3%). Major import sources: mostly former Soviet republics. 19.600,000,000 rubles (raw materials and processed industrial / (ports (1991): goods 64.0%, of which cotton 33,6%; chemical products, fertilizers, and rubber 14.0%; fuel, mineral raw materials, and metals 4.5%; foodstuffs and agricultural commodities 4.4%; machinery and transport equipment 2.5%). Majoi export destinations: mostly former Soviet republics.
Vital statistics 1,000 population (1990):
Birth niic pei
mate Death
95.8?j illegitimate 4.2' rule per 1.11(10 population
337 (world
avg. 27.1); (1989) legiti-
Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 4,225 mi, 6.X00 km; passenger-mi 2,485,passenger-km 4,000,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 40,137,800,000, metric ton-km c~argo 58,600,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 55,431 mi, Vehicles I9XX): passenger cars 790,800; trucks and 89,207 km (paved 83 r buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990): passcnyer-mi 6,835,100,000, passenger-km 1,000,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 47,672,000,000, metric tonkm cargo 69.h00.i loo.lli id; airports 1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers 1990): total number 279; total circulation 5,158,400; circulation per 1,000 population 249.1. Radio (1990): total number Transport.
:
1990): 6.1 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population 1990): 27.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman: 1989): 4.0. Marriage rate pei 1,000 population 1989) 10.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.5. / //
utilities
J
Services Other TOTAL
Yemeni
dinar valuation (Oct. 1
= YRls 16.50 = £ = YRls 28.00 = YD 0.79.
1992) 1
I
tils;
5,
force
1,151,348 11,771
Public
a
% of labour
labour force
value 14.8
Mining Manufacturing
Official language: Arabic. Official religion Islam.
1986
% of total
value
YD 000,000 525
7.8 1,6
107.611
5.3
12.2
10.3
29
248.979 8.757
106 7
30.0
226,054
11.1
2.043.237
100.0
04
\
35.2
9.9
3553
100.0
0.46;
Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$4,919,000,000.
Household income and expenditure. Average household
come per household:
The Republic of Yemen was formed on May 22, 1990, by the union of the former Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) and People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen).
Price index Consumer
(1
n.a.;
sources of income:
n.a.;
size (1986) 5.6; expenditure: n.a.
985 = 1 00) '0
price index
1985
1986
1967
1988
1990
1000
121.1
140.3
155.2
240.0
Area and population population
area
use (1990): forested 7.7%; meadows and pastures 30.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.0%; other 58.9%.
Land
1986
Governorates North
Capitals
km
sq mi
sq
4,310 3,430 3,700 5,240 2,480
11,170 8,870 9,590 13.580 6.430
estimate 2
Yemen
Foreign trade
al-Bayda
al-Bayda'
Dhamar
Dhamar
Hajjah
Hajjah
al-Hudaydah
al-Hudaydah
Ibb al-Jawl
Ibb al-Jawf
al-Mahwit
al-Mahwit
Ma'rib
Ma*nb
830
Sadah
Sa'dah
Sana'
Sana'
Ta'izz
Ta'izz
2,160 39,890 12.810 20,310 10,420
15.400 4,950 7,840 4,020
381.000 813,000 898,000
87,000 322.000 121,000 344.000 ,857,000 1,644,000 1
Yemen
South
Abyan Adan Hadramawt
8.297 2.695 59,991 4,928
Zinjibar
Aden al-Mukalla
Lahij
Lahij
al-Mahrah
al-Ghaydah Ataq
Shabwah TOTAL
25,618 28.536 182.2783
434.000 407,000 686,000 382,000 85,000 226.000
21 ,489
'
6,980 155,376 12,766 66.350 73.908 472,0993
Balance of trade (current prices) 7
,294,000 1,512,000
1
YRIs 000,000
% of total
1985
1986
1987
- 7,782 77.2%
-8.466 78.4%
-13,460 90.4%
Imports (1987)7: U.S.$1,370,700,000 (food and live animals 31.6%, basic manufactured goods 28.6%, machinery and transport equipment 21.9%, chemical products 9.3%, raw materials 5.8%, beverages and tobacco 2.4%). Major import sources: Japan 12.0%; United States 10.8%; The Netherlands 10.0%; West Germany 7.1%; France 6.3%; Italy 5.3%; Saudi Arabia 5.3%. Exports (1987)7: U.S.$69,000,000 (coffee 16.6%, cigarettes 15.6%, biscuits 13.6%, leather 12.5%, grapes 8.6%, sesame seeds 4.2%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 53.6%; South Yemen 24.0%; Italy 8.2%; Japan 4.0%.
(1986): total length 39,152 km (paved Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 145,390; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 39; deadweight tonnage 13,653. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 1,032,248,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,661,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988) 7 total number 2; total circulation 120,000; circulation per 1,000 population 16. Radio (1991): 325,000 receivers (1 per 36 persons). Television (1991): 300,000 receivers (1 per 39 persons). Telephones (1988): 70,000 (1 per 157 persons).
9% 7
:
[1991] 219,105.
km
22.8.
Age breakdown
(1990): under 15, 49.6%; 15-29, 27.8%; 30-44, 11.4%; 45-59, 7.2%; 60-74, 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 14,878,000; (2010) 19,173,000.
Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1986): predominantly Arab. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 99.9%, of which SunnI 53.0%, Shfl 46.9 r r; other 0.1%. Major cities (1986): Sana 4:7.150; Aden 318,000"; Ta'izz 178,043; al-Hudaydah 155,110; al-Mukalla 59,1006.
Birth rule per 1,000 population (1991): 51.3 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 16.2 (world avg. 9.2).
Natural increase rate per 1.000 population 1991): 35.1 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1991): 7.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 49.0 years; female 51.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, and intestinal infections. (
National economy Budget (1991-92 est.). Revenue: YRIs 45.778.000.000 (1990?; tax revenue 59.8' property income 30.4' Expenditures: YRIs 58,1 14,000,000 (defense 21.9%, education 14.3%, general public services 6.3%. health 3.5%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990) U.S. $20,000,000; expenditures by na
' and footweai 9 ">. transportation furniture and utensil ical care 2.6%, recreation and education 2.0'. Gross national product 1990); U.N s.s (U.S.S230 per capita). n.a.;
Zaire
' « 1
>
200 200 200 200
169 12
200 200 200 200 200
13
12
200 12
200 200 200
Comparative National
subordination oi it may have none have several kinds ol subdivisions.
at
Each
all.
level oi
subordination
may
'iii I
ADB
mil Cooperatioi Inter-American Dew
i
1
memberships each
IAEA
Internationa] Atomic Energy
countrj maintains in the principal international intergovernmental organizations ol the world. Tins pari ol the table may also be utilized to provide a complete membership list tor each ol these organizations as of Dec. 1, 1992.
IBRD
International
Finally, in the
second
hall
ol
the table arc listed the
Agency struction
Notes tor
column headings
Hit
si. lies
i
aid
The
date ma) also he eithei thai "i the organization oi the present form "i gen eminent or the inception of the present administrative structure (federation, confederation, union, et( Constitutions whose dates are in italii type had been wholl) or substantially suspended or abolished as ol lair 1992 oi abbreviations used in tins column see
a.
contributing tunds to oi
from
INK EF in
receiving
1991
Palestine (Liberation Organization) also
g,
KO
[
International organizations, conventions
ITU
I
b.
i
1
the d.
e.
lis!
oil Ilk
fat
III:'
p
Igl
When a legislative hodv has been adjourned or otherwise suspended, figures in parentheses indicate the number of members in the legislative bodj is provided foi in constitution or law. If the provision for the legislative body in the constitution has been abrogated then the space has been marked with an '"X". Vatican City also a member.
membership United Nations
in
UN
ACT
African, Caribbean, and
ADB \S1
\N
Pacific (Lome IV) convention Asian Development Bank Association of South East
Asian Nations C'ARIC'OM Caribbean Community and
Common EC
ECOWAS FAO GATT
European Economic Community Food and Agriculture Org. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
OAU OPEC
UNCTAD UNESCO UNICEF
UNIDO
organs* and
affiliated
intergovernmental organizations
UPU
Universal Postal
WIPO
World H. alth Org. World Intellectual Prop. World Meteorologi
WHO
WMO
759
1
Abbreviations used in the executive-
International Civil Aviation Org. International Court of Justice Internationa] Development Assn. Islamic Development Bank International Finance Corporation International l-abour Org. International Monetary Fund International Maritime Org. International Telecommunication
branch column
Union League of Arab States Organization of American States
GPC
Organization of African Unity Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries South Pacific Commission United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Org. United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Industrial Development Org.
MC
C
-54 (female) 20Excludes armed forces '9|ncli ides self-employed and une mployed not previously employed. 291988 30Qver age 15, 2 Mostly employees of international companies and unemployec only 251990 26Ages 15-6 4 (male) and 15 59 (fema le). 27Agnculture mc udes mining, quarrying. 361984 real 3' 1 979 estate. 36|ncludes unemplo) red. 37Ser vices includes finance, "Over age 12. 35Republic of Cyprus only 32Mostly unemployf d. not previo usly employ ;d 33Ages 15-69. '
.
Comparative National
Statistics
803
-
country construction
other
services
transportation.
trade, hotels.
finance,
public
communications
restaurants
real estate
administration.
defense
number
%
(000)
econ.
number
ot
('000)
active
%
of
econ.
number
% of
number
%
(000)
econ
('000)
econ.
active
of
number
%
(000)
econ
of
06
15
06
208
88
2
0.1
546
1 8 21 7
1,112
3.6 5.3
7.417 53
24.1
120
6.7
78
369
17.4
80
166 26
4.0
23
3 6
4 3 8 7 3 0.2
2,036
62
1,615
12.4
277
0.8
142
04
49 66
4,072
09
1.1
187
02
32 22 70
39
43
5.3
118
14.4
31
5
5
29
1.7
3.4 8.3
5
5
31
25 86
4
6.7
2.4 2.9
29 38 06
18
1.7
5
5
284 974
3.7
337
4.4 4.6
1,195 3.145 1,493
156
184
2.4
5
5
12.8
18 17
5
5
5
5
42
s
197
444 322 208 27
2.5
109
3.2
142 52
1
4
,465
7.9
385
7,8
81
74
40 5
11" 653 7,018 2 5
38
20
1.4
1.137 1,235
6.7 4.3 3.6
212 40 7.4
1
6'"
6.5'"
6.0 8.925
7
1.2
22.0 14'"
3.7 3.4'"
7.325
8 1 14.7
726 216
69
752 5,77825
19 8
63
679 5.54525
80
0.2
8.3'"
7 125 2.5
1
156 1
16'"
44 40125 3
5 5
5
1.4
53
number
% of
econ
(000)
econ.
1305 4,9025
5
5
5
36.15 17.15
5432
5
7685 1105
5
5
4,0815
12.45
2.07922
08
13 7
26 75
5
2.0465 4,2205 3,5585 1,0985
5
5
4805 96.55
1.6
5
5
5
5
0.4 0.525
5
5
88225
1.125
5
5
0.3
1.6
1.3
7.3
0.8
4.7
1,0
57
63
1.5
3.5 5.4
28 26
6.5
0.5
1.1
2.4
5.6
74
4
1.0
5
5
1.7
2.2 2.0
16.7
03
15.7
2.1
6.5
0.2
2.2 0.5
2.1
3.4
24
7.8
3.5
6.0
964
18
151
2.8
5
5
12.8". 63
0.8". 63
3.4". 63
5
5
10.2 7.9 5.9
1.9
1,181
22.0
321
1.14,63
2 1
4.44,63
2.3" 63
9.4". 63
3.1
"63
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
99
64
153
9.8
345
222
163
10.5
5
5
5
6.5
46
5.9
98
12.5
37
4.7
56
2.0
5.1
33
84
0.6
14
5
5
9
9
10
10
'0
'0
10
10
10
10
6 4"
48"
339"
39"
446"
2.9 7,9 7.65
3.6".
1355 9.45
49310
66
7
2.2
.2
0.4
5
5
525
4.1
5
3.8
14
100
1.2
9
5
5
2.7
4
11
2.1
1.1
0.2
5
5
7.1
10.7
26
06 38
335 495
5.4
8
1.3
1.9
5
5
17.45
1,519
10.1
2.908
5.2 0.7
3,3425
510
790 49
5
35
19.3 7.3
5
2 6
776 247
5.2
183
5
5
139
2 2
3.4
294
4.6
5
5
47
3 6
11.4
14.1
21 2.0
0.3
3.8
215 2 9
10.8"
68
1
1
5.1"
1,520"
107
5
5
8055
.7
185
6.0
374
41
1.3
5
5
44
442
43
1,575 1452"
313
3.1
1.381
8265 652 4372"
392"
9
9
10
10
10
'0
1.018
35
715
24
3.102
10.5
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
1.7
7 2 13 9 10.5 4.2
1.1
4.7
1.5
6 4
65 248 876
31
66
81
17.3
96
4
781
37
151 0.2
9.5 5.6
64 0.1
9
9
10
10
1,88225
7.825
1.73225
1
6.4
6.978
6.7 10.52" 2.231
72 251
2"
1,331
10 1
10 '
5
5
5.15
60
5
5
1345 4445 2,6755
5
5
20
5
5
40
90
5.7
2.7
01
2.4
7.225
5.5 5.8 3.72" 2.631
10 1
,75325
96 5.445 25.900 72
1
1
1
0.2
4 4
0.2
10
10
10
10
933
7.225
12825
0525
28725
133 19.1
220 4622"
20.472 17 7 6.82"
2.23'
4,331
26
3.6
5
3215
3,143
11.1
2,190
77
13,941
11.0
5
5
5,981 43,0025, 72
57
4.6
5
5
4565
1
1
1
1
0.33'
0.63'
5
5
428 576
59
421
5.8
5
9
1.497 1 .880
20.7
1.9
6.2
90
0.3
305
10
9.7
28
7.4
9.0
238
26
67
4.1
477
25.2
9.5
5.0
25.9
13 7
37
37
21.8
10.8 11.5
2.3
5.5
14
3 3
1.8
1.3
3.1
18
4.4
4 95
0.1
5
5
3,6
5
5
10
10
10
10
1
'0
4,13425
1.225
5
3.7
89
410'
1
03
10
581
647
21.45 28.55 18.85 12.75
1.9
28
0.7
5
1.922
_ —
08
Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles
25.9' 4.2 12.4'0 17.125 44.25
21.0 33.95.72
22
38 23 19.6
98232
—
397
— —
5.0
27 3.1 36. 70
—
51625
1,556?
2.0075 1,374
27.75
6.4
15.4 12.95 18.95 17.710 19.110 12.25
—
Sweden Switzerland
3.82
Syria
1.722
Taiwan
— —
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Togo Tonga
0.331
5.137.39
Lanka
Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland
9822
10.75,31
4,5
Sri
2.322
30.4' .24
24.2
Venda Spain
Thailand
2,067'. 2" 5.55.31
9.2 9.737.39
Ciskei
Transkei
6.022
2 41222 1.5537
Islands
Somalia South Africa Bophuthatswana
12.4422
,76622
88032 292 1292"
36.75
Solomon
—
1,077" 17
1
Leone
Singapore Slovenia
0.3
2395
18.6'0
0.4
15
17.5" 15.75
245'0
10
414
17.15 23.95 18.7'0
1,49710 3,022'
10
San Marino Sao Tome and Principe
Sierra
3022
and Nevis
Lucia Vincent
St.
18.9'0
20.75
6.4 22.52" 13.010 10.3'
10
9.2
5.4
6 3
83 7142" 1131
1
103
,546
1,805 8,100
10
217
6.5
18.0
1
2.173
1
47
130
10
13.5 2.02"
Russia
-
1172 17122
61
60 10
Romania
8.6". 36. 63 35.8". 36. 63
15.0". 5.63
26.95
1.6925
3324
St.
2.722 1.17
5
652"
21.9 3.77 4.67
4.2
10
5
8.32"
7.6 0.57 1.47
3.4
10
1612*
17.0 18.8
St Kitts
12722
10
8.7
12.2 15.4 7.52"
Rwanda
12.822 24.022
37.25 22.45
5
10
397 383
Reunion
2.222 10.122
44.75 18.0'o
5
10
13.7
Qatar
9
36.25
24
10
624 730
Portugal Puerto Rico
0.3
12.332
10
Poland
—
77732
7.0
Philippines
23
—
8.75
10
Peru
248
5505
318 219
Paraguay
12.55 34.525 3.85
1,10422
9
Papua New Guinea
0.732 31.9'"-22
9805
69 92 1 1
22
8.95 26.05 22.25 14.15
9
358 447
.432
27.5 4.2 29.3 6.532 15.822
312 332
203
63
Panama
0.8 2
55'"
3665 5.
266 '0 3225
6 15
418"
4.722
16.0 11.3
942" 23
556" 22
231 22 92 1
Pakistan Palau
0.2 8.3'7
— 8.222 —
i"
Norway
Oman
787 9032
— 2,00822 —
21.85
1,9655
5
51
22
25.85.
1,3525 27.10625 1205
2.5
1.8
'"
Northern Mariana Islands
6.322
7332 2 86'7
47.95
455.
Nigeria
—
0.57
17.25 19.35 22.25 43.85
Niger
2.532
—
1
27.15 10.55 16.85
2.6 1.1
26
1.6
2225 775 1745
5.636 6.522 2.37
067
16.9
04 35
active
13236 2,00922
5.55 15.95
4.5
9.4'"
0.1
%of
C000)
active
5
14 5.8
number
active
active
active
03
Trinidad and Tunisia
17.522
747
Tobago
Turkey
Turkmenistan Tuvalu
1.7 77.536. 70
—
Uganda
2 125
Ukraine United Arab Emirates
—
United Kingdom United States
5.5? 0.732
232
Uruguay
1.92"
Uzbekistan
0.63'
Vanuatu
10632
1.532
1,85422 2.3? 8.37
6.122
Venezuela Vietnam
6.2?
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
447
West Bank Western Sahara
a -:
178
5 9
206
78
90 175
3.0 6.6
347
4 4 2.8 13.2
9
9
10
10
10
10
84
9
9
10
to
10
10
10
10
10
10
51
1.6
76
2.3
128
3 9
24
0,7
5
5
3915 5005 2.216'0 461 '0
3975
0.3
—
— — — 27722
Western Samoa
06
— — —
Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire
—
Zambia
Zimbabwe
8.522
43 Excludes Alderney a nd Sark "'Ages 15-65. "21986. ^Former West Germany only "SWorkers covered by ^Services includes public utilities ""Data are for per sons aged 15-64 only. "81977 "61978 "'Excludes Assam, «Ages 20-64. 5 >Ages 14-64. 511973 53|ncludes unemployed, compulsory social insurance only, 52Excludes about 20,000 oreign border workers. s agricultural workers. previously employed. ^Manufacturing, mining, quarrying; public utilities includes transportatio n, communications. seasonal 6|ncludes unemployed >5lsland of Mauritius only 581987. 59Mostly underemploy 3d informal workers. "Includes underemployed seasonal nonagricultural workers. 6'Citizens over age 10 involved in money-raising 6°Excludes nomadic populat ion. 621985-86 unemployed. activities only, "Excludes self-employed and domestic workers. "Wage earne s only 67f= xc des wortin Africa. u 650ver age 1 4. 66Excludes migrant ers South 7 'Services includes hotels ?0Mostly workers in the noncash economy ?30ver age 20. ^February survey. 69 De tacto indigenous population only. 7' Exclude armed forces overseas |
>
.
804
Britannica World Data
Agriculture and land use
FAO guidelines (economic planners need different information about a commercial, high-technology, multicrop agricultural sector than they do for a family-subsistence, low-technology, one-crop sector). When a complete census of agriculture is impossible, a sample survey may be taken. This is a limited census of a predetermined number of carefully screened holdings. From these results, nationwide projections may be prepared. from the
This table provides data on the structure of national agricultural sectors from the perspective of farms and farmland use. The data are taken mainly from national agricultural censuses and surveys, supplemented by reports of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO's) World C 'ensus of Agriculture. Many of these national censuses, of course, are taken under guidelines established by the FAO for the World Census of Agriculture programs (the 1990 census is the fifth and will include national censuses taken during the decade 1986-95). It represents a cooperative effort by FAO member countries to collect agricultural data within a general framework that permits international harmonization of concepts and definitions; transfer of technical expertise; and increased effectiveness in the collection, analysis, publication, and policy-related use of such statistics. More than 100 countries were expected to participate in the 1990 census. All agricultural statistics are subject to quality-control problems, including errors or biases arising from such factors as incomplete or inaccurate lists of holdings, ambiguous questions, respondents who inadvertently or willfully give inaccurate information, failure to record data for all parts of fragmented holdings, respondents' misunderstandings of the definitions of land use and cropping methods, or a failure to report livestock temporarily absent from the holding on public or common pasture land or in transit. Frequently, subjects studied, classificational schemes, and definitions vary
With respect
to the first section of the table, number and size of farms, countries impose a minimum size limit for holdings that may be in their census reports, and this cutoff, if not sufficiently low, can result in a substantial undercount of smaller holdings; conversely Sovietbloc nations often publish statistics only on state collective or cooperative farms and exclude privately held plots of land, even though in some instances these provide a significant fraction of agricultural output. The land tenure statistics classify farms according to the rights under which the farmer holds the land. Owner-operated includes two types of ownership: outright ownership in which the holder has title and has the right to determine use and transfer of the land; and ownerlike possession in which the holder lacks the legal title but uses It under perpetual lease, hereditary tenure, or leases of 30 years or more with nominal, or no, rent. Farms classed as owner-operated are divided into individual and family, corporate or state, and socialized or collective proprietorships. Rented
many
covered
Agriculture and land use country
farms
(latest
year
census
of agriculture) a
number
size of holding
farms (000)
average
tenure (% of farms)
of
owner-operated
size class (%)
(ha)
under 1 ha
Afghanistan Albania Algeria
American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina
Armenia Aruba Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas. The Bahrain
Bangladesh Barbados Belarus
Belgium Belize
Benin
1981
126'
1989 1987 1990
8995
0.5 1.1
1970-71 1984 1974 1990
1991 1980'6
1990 1978 1980
1983-84 1969 1990 1988 1974
1.067
85
5526
4.4
19.4
529
10,045
0.9
02
958
81.0 5.835
1964 1991 1984
63
00826
2.2" 33 1.860
1983 19623" 1973 1986 1979
840 926 293
283 366 306
China
1984 1974 1973 1975-76 1987
1,650'"
Colombia
1971
1,177
Comoros Congo Cook Islands
1982 1986
Costa Rica
1973
82
Cote dlvoire
1975
550 569
Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde
Cayman
Islands Central African Republic
Chad Chile
19.4
1585
2565
21.75
1981
Cyprus Czechoslovakia
1988 1985 1980
Denmark
1991
Djibouti
1987-88 1986-88
over
individual/
corporate/
socialized/
200 ha
family
state
collective
1.833
1974
Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea
1985 1970-71
Estonia
1990 1976-77
corn-
munal
18.05
93 29 82
113
13.7
0.6 9.5
06
04
16.7
25.1
173
21.0
19 2
9.6'3 5.2
1238 17 4
1.1" 8.2
2.0
3.9
29.7
805
21.1
32.1" 73.8"
— 40.5" 11.7"
182
— —
0.2
4.5" 14.5"
75.3'
06
0.4'8 0.1-
387 74 9
0.6
4.0
379
01
620
205
2.52'
19.92"
16.7
2092"
15.22"
267
8.6
—
5 42"
4.4
27.7". 0.9
436
25
— 564
3.126
08 72.1
3.2
645 26
5.827 28-
51.36.27
42.9727-
253 334
42.1
12.1
489
13.7
32.1
499 286
126
11.1
44.16
40.47
13 2
6.8
6.1
4.9
-0.6-
20
70.3
100
—
994 14.0
179
632
15.6 15.528
—
52 3
10 84 6" "
2,467" 33
22.0
— —
24.7
595
32.9
18-43'
154"
48 36
307
16
42.7
231
1.66
1.7
32.2
26
197 160
94
1
549 538 3.47
10.4
34
32
03
52
12 135
29 736
36.3"
50 652
0.1"
-840
325
98.6"
1.2'
7.2
— 88 —
58
4
69.5
100"2
687 91 7'
8 3'
383
979
1.7
1
21.4
100 1.04733
-790-
38
30.8'
1,391
1981
tribal/
(including
sharecroppers)
23
480 "e
rented
-1.69-
13.88-
'2
0.2
1975«
Cuba
Ethiopia
50-200 ha
1.45
Croatia 29
Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador
13.5
08
1985 1985
Burundi
33 8
4.2
Botswana
Burkina Faso
33 617
30 1?
1981
Bulgana
39
3,604 24.2
Bosnia and Hercegovma 29
Brunei
40 0'
126 303
160 315 540
Brazil
4476
21
Bolivia
Bhutan
29
399
89 2"
20-50 ha
10-20 ha
19 8' 12.75
23
89
5-10 ha
3.5'
1,1822 6.25
510
1983 1990 1984 1984
Bermuda
1-5 ha
77
359
12 19
04
385 517 3.546 271
9.4
—
— 0.6
1 1
.6""
—
...
532
18.5
1.6
—
52
6.3
154
70 3
03
7 7
7 4
17.4 14.3
33
07
95.55'
54
489
2.452
379
-0.15"-
12
15
Comparative National
includes sharecropping; communal tribal includes types ol customary or traditional arrangements in which title oi goods do not change hands. "Other" usually includes farms held under multiple tonus of tenure. Statistics on types ot farms by commodities produced refer to FAO categories. The terms "mainly crops" and "mainly livestock" indicate that more than half of the for-sale production was that indicated. The section on technology provides some incisures of the role modern technology plays in the farm activities of each country (although, of course, irrigation may employ technology developed in ancient times). Ratios referred to area mean area of "arable" (cultivated and cultivable) land, roughly "cropland," less area of permanent crops (see below). The classification of farmland by economic use is also subject to differing treatment internationally. For purposes of this table, "cropland" comprises: (1) land under temporary crops (those requiring replanting after each harvest), (2) land under permanent crops (those not requiring replanting, including tree, bush and shrub, and vine crops), and (3) land temporarily
than
years) fallow (unused, but capable of being returned to no special preparation). "Meadows and pastures" includes land (both permanent and temporary use) whose principal purpose is the raising of animal fodder or forage. "Woodland and forest" includes both natural and planted tracts of timber, whether harvested or not. "Other" (less
five
cultivation with
mainly crops
(%
technology
of farms)
1
A
—
country land use (%)
farms
mainly
mixed/
tractors
electri-
irriga-
artificial
total
%of
other
(per
city
tion
fertilizer
(000 ha)
total
1.000 ha)
(%of
(°oOf
(kg/ha)
farms
land
having)
irrig.)
0.1
55.73
in
live-
stock
61.53
land
(latest)
32.03
6.53
20.8 13.9
70
44.33
34 73
158
5
23
7
385
land area
61.0 40.0" 16.7 16.4
39,810 1,111i 39.701 3.2
mead-
wood-
ows
land
total
and
and
cropland
pastures
forest
75.4 35.7"
48
cropland
perma-
tempo-
nent crops
crops
fallow
rary
1.8
46.3
17.6 7.6
51.0
519 41.4
88.7
19.9
64.3"
82.4 11.3
19.2 71.4
783
82.0 36.0 78.9 53.8
other
Afghanistan Albania
—
2.5
5.3
44
10.6
78.9
1
23.0
34 298
105
8.1
89 io
4
4.180 2.5
90
7
5
203,345
73.1
1,300
433
272 24
1
56.0
19 9
4
6.8
236
29 208
24.2 1010
96
8.723
—
06
30
18.6
20.8 151 7 24.5
2.5
—
0.1
83 94
5
519 80
_
4
229 30 5
1.4
13.6
27.9
80.032
16.232
58.5 3.832
_
3.6
104
4.132
54.43
45.63
4
33 33
24.3 13.8
6 3
0.1
24
44.4
7
1
34 90 5
0.5 0.2 16.8 0.4
—
18 5
858
90.0 0.1
—
0.05
86
623
-
93.83
—
47 100 194
2 1
62"
46
—
44
186
3.4
11.7
American Samoa Andorra
16.2
Angola
78.0
6,159 8,919
55.6 32.6
6 3
2,388 2.984 1,490 67.826 2539
85.8 16.5 3.3
491 23,877 "0 28,759 166.902
22.0
_ 14.930 —
93 7
94.9
26.2 3.5
1.6
79 6
7.4
0.8
20 4
20.839
79.139
118 50.0"0
88.2 50.0"0
38.0
244
366
174
4.1
27.0 44.3
30.6 56.4
27.6
0.7
14.8
852
—
21.9 57.8
22.2
34
3.122
60.0
11
86
65.9
179 137
57.0 78.3
8.8
34 34 6
2.753 3.220 8.679
210
356
34.7
312
6.924
54.1
2.6
17
237
2.770 6
653 03
176
20
41
5.1
23 33
2,412 7.955
26.3 49.8 29.6
22.8
112
60 08
21
400 133
2,731 55 1.452
69.0
1
4
185
1,400 6,971
—
45.8«o
191
32
3.055
31
389 95.9
418 43.6
—
1
818
9.4
110
54 3 97.4-
98.9
68 38.0 32.8 3.555
40 2
21
51.5
15 7
.8
7.7
900'5
415
6.9
25.7
—
9.5
33.3
52.8 36.5
472 15.9
36
91
Azerbaijan
Bahamas, The Bahrain
— 1.1
—
11.6
1
Austria
54.1
11.323
— —
Armenia Aruba
44.0
36 3
656
Antigua and Barbuda Argentina
Australia
11.2
—
Bangladesh Barbados Belarus
Belgium Belize
Benin 1
6.9
442 83.530 15.830 54.8 75.4
8.9
—
—
Bermuda
47.7 55.4
— 39.0 —
47.830
24.230
12.230
Brazil
164
287
Brunei Bulgaria
6.4 0.4
Bhutan Bolivia
Bosnia and Hercegovina29
Botswana 0.1
24.6
56 7
37.7
96.1
— 5.2 —
100.0 61.5 100.039
96.555
100.0 23.7"0 11.5 100.0 24.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 15.7
100.0 50.4 33.9 74.9 75.3
Burundi
—
5.6 3.9
— — 33.3 —
Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde
—
—
—
Cayman Islands Central African Republic
207
25.5
Chad
76.3"0
42.3
-
-
— 189
56.4
—
—
49 9
22.9
— 1 1
4
Colombia
Comoros Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica
Cote
d'lvoire
—
11
Croatia29
319
2.1
Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia
25.1
247
Denmark
19.8
—
—
—
34
51.6 32.2
13.0 29.0
0.9
6.0
5 3
32.8
China
32.1
80.2 100.0 1
Chile
485
100.055
1
586
164
449
382
116
786
21.4
—
7.4
76 8
15 8
86.9
9
25
.1
5.7
—
26.0 52.4
88.723 13.7
1
2 2 74
5.7
Burkina Faso
3
03
100.030 66.930
73.8
41
60.0
23.3 45.9
100 45.0 20.2
70.9
18.230
2.8
1.4
23
85 88.3
—
55.9 42.2
12.9
1,523
0.6 5.8
729
89
134 22.5
65.1
—
55.0
164
83 226
100.0
10.015 21.3
1.4
4.8
100
20.6
6.239
16.8
96.323
81.1
24
44.5
6.0
59.9 49.3
97.8
156 22,670 2,525
5.930
99.715
6
1
29.3
34330 376.287
626
13.1
3,300
494
1.7
16.9
87 4
2.123
10.0
30,993
28.5
—
1
446
—
57.1
38.1
233
4
224
4.7
45.9 44.9
87
49
953
19.8
2
9.300 1.362
3
282
198
635
13
—
12.4
9,117
4.9
41 3
678
23.3 50 7
9.1
24.4
—
3.5
26 52
260
27 3
56.0
6.6
30 49
72 7 34 3
44
0.315
1
632
10.6 38.5
87.4 48.3
9.3
29.5 131
1
1
4
0.04
522
1
36.8 26.0
60.8'2
466,800 7^326 4,200 36.2
21.3 91.323
3.4
Algeria
23.3
20 329
805
comprises: (1) mixed and multiple use lands, (2) residue ol farmland holdings not classifiable according to categories listed above (including areas ul farm buildings, roads, ornamental gardens, flooded land, wasteland, etc.), (3) land not classified by respondents in census, or (4) detail not distinguishable as one of categories above by reason of its summarization in a published source. When "cropland" is indicated to compose 100 percent of farmland, it should usually be understood to mean only that woodland. pasture, etc., were not part of the published data, rather than that those classes of land use do not exist. Measurements of area are given in hectares (ha: hectare is equal to 2.471 acres). A kilogram (kg) is equal to 2.205 pounds (1 kg/ha = 0.89 lb ac). The following notes further define the column headings: a. All properties used wholly or partly for agricultural production. property need not have agricultural land to be considered a farm; piggeries, hatcheries, and poultry batteries are farms because they engage in agricultural production, i.e., raise livestock and produce livestock products. b. All forms of tenure not included in the preceding categories. Includes land operated by schools, religious bodies, squatters, seasonally by nomads, and built-on, waste, and similar types of alienation. ... Not available, or no agricultural census or survey ever taken. None, less than half the smallest unit shown, or not applicable.
farmland use activity
Statistics
1
— 40
Djibouti
Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatonal Guinea Estonia Ethiopia
Britannica World Data
806
Agriculture
and land use
country
farms
(continued)
(latest
year
census
of agriculture) a
number of
tenure (% of farms)
size of holding
farms
(000)
average
owner-operated
size class (%)
(ha)
1-5 ha
under 1 ha
5-10 ha
20-50 ha
10-20 ha
50-200
over
individual/
corporate/
socialized/
ha
200 ha
family
state
collective
rented
tribal/
(including
corn-
sharecroppers)
munal
Faeroe Islands Fiji
Finland
France French Guiana
1978-79 199056 1988 1988
Georgia
1987 1975 1989-90 1968 1990
Germany 57 Ghana
19902 1970
French Polynesia
Gabon Gambia, The
Gaza
Strip
66 199 1.017
45
4.2
12.8 26.630 4.6
5.6 71
630 805
18.7 3.2
88 16.5
206
8.1
3.7
2.1
34.6 18.6 73.6
21.5
23.9
11.0
16.4
17.6 28.3
6.0
1.5
1.22.4-
3.5
21.4 33.512
16.92.4
37.7
365
680
81.8
12.
5«
17.758
20.6 3.9
16.8
366
487
9.0
6.959 58.3 33.97
3.360
0.7
7.0
1.6
6.3 0.3
57.1 5.3
12.5
— — — 5.869 —
12.7 34,362 31.3 13.969
24.8 1.8
Gibraltar
Greece Greenland 1.7
88.3 4 9
17
28
1987 1979
04
15.1
321 4226
600
39.764 6.770
8266
0102
6.8 16.2
49865
1991
24.070
23.1 70
37.5 46.6
Grenada Guadeloupe
Guam Guatemala Guernsey
1984-852
Guinea-Bissau
1961
Guyana
1964
Haiti
1971
617
1.4
587
Honduras
1974
195
13.5
17.3
Hong Kong Hungary
1986 1990
Iceland
1981
India
1976-77 1987
Iran
Iraq
Ireland Isle of
Man
1982 1979 1986 1987
Israel
1981
Italy
1982 1978-79 1990 1990 1983
Jamaica Japan Jersey
Jordan Kazakhstan
Kenya
19.162
4 3
-0268
2.067
-
14.1
46.662 64.4
-4.69
6.369 67.6ii.2i
_ 46.1 70-
24 30
Guinea
Indonesia
0.361-
-0.9
19.48-
—
0.3
90.0
11
1,412 7.0 81 .569 19.50155
470 27932 0.8
52
97.5 90.072
23
15.7
9.3
2.0 C.15S
54.6 70.755
13.3 25.0 ' 59.7 11.3
25.975 2.732
7.2
26.5
3,269 184 3,835
29
18063 32.5«
1.4
685
0.6
11.1
57
6.3
66.6 14.5
997
7.8
25.0
—
11.7 6.6
358
23.7
35.8
2.4
0.5
-3.7-0.1-
927 7485
-29 35527.676 23.277 37.832 25.88' 57.6 8.3
30283
37 783
60.785 29.4
4.860
94
11.578 52.432
—
14082
18.2'7
1.979 7.132
0.580
14.0
3.25
—
22.15
40.910
z
234'8
185'9
40
2.0
3.183
9.283
1.883
0.417
0.3
09
1.2
—
1.8-
_ Q.4'9
18
276
72.4 84.0
81 532 99.586
—
-19.090-
6^1
6.610
14.6 11.832 0.366 20.632
6.732
79432
2.1
16488
45.087
-
77.0
0.1
9.972
8.4 0.2
0.1
31.427
68.627
253
446
156
8 6
4,5
1.3
80.5
13.1
82532
0.132
10.232
8.732
4.Q32
3.132
95.3
4.7
19.789
0.3
6.1
1990 1976-79
Kinbati
Korea, North Korea, South
Kuwait Kyrgyzstan
Laos Latvia
Lebanon Lesotho Liberia
Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania
Luxembourg Macau Macedonia^ Madagascar
19902
1.2
1985-86 1990 1983 1990 1970
2.4
48.632
25432
2.032
27.032
67.532
3.0
52.8
31
40
12.7
34
8.7
30.8
1986 1971*" 1974 1985 1990
1984-85
1980-81*
Malaysia Maldives
1980*
Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania
144 0.45
3.7 17.4
279
134
13 2
44 7
43.0
6.7
1.2
1.3
548
442
1.0
02
1.2
54 9
40 196
20
54
176 1.453 1.136
12.0 13.6
-05-
40.0"
43.311
16.7"
-3 2-1.1-
85.5
11.7
—
2.8
49.9"
49.6"
—
—
4.9"
...
7.4"
...
9.032.99
—
100.0
01 5.097
2.299. 100
1985 1982-83 1983
562
1988
16.0
100
4
Mayotte
Mexico
1970'720to40ha. 1840 to 81 ha. '981 ha or more. 2010 '•100 ha or more. 151987-88. ^Excluding holdings without land. '21989-90. '350 to 100 ha. area, not number, of holdings. 30igso 284 214.0 to 10.1 ha 261985. 271932 ha or more. 29Holdings and tenure refer to private holdings only; land use 1990. 2210.1 ha or more 231977 241939 251979 39|mgated land only "01968 354.0 to 28 ha 3628 to 100 ha 37100 to 160 ha. 38160 ha or more. 34p re collectivization. 321970 3'Almost all squatlers 33State farms and cooperatives only 502.0 to 20 ha. 512.1 ha or less. "750 to 1000 ha "eArable area only. "60.5 to 50 ha. "9Less than 2.0 ha. •"1984 421971 43Rarotonga only ""Owned and rented holdings "5Less than 0.5. 6140 ha 592.0 to 4.0 ha. 604.0 to 10 ha 582 5421 ha or more. 57F rmer West Germany only. to 5.0 ha. 522.1 to 4.2 ha. 534.2 to 21 ha 551983 ha. 56Excludes holdings of less than 1 701974. 6745 to 452 ha. 68452 ha or more. 69Excludes holdings of 04 ha (500 sq m) or less. 667 1 to 45 ha. 621972. 650.7 to 7.1 ha. or more 63Commercial farms only 64|_ess than 0.7 ha 823.0 to 7775 t0 12.5 ha. 7812.5 to 20 ha. 7950 to 250 ha. 80250 ha or more, si Less than 8.0 ha 721991 731981. 762.5 to 7.5 ha. 7M990 74Excludes state of Punjab 7st_ess than 2.5 ha.
'1967
"Based on
to 4
ha
— Comparative National
1 (%
mainly crops
o( farms)
technology
mixed
tractors
electri
irriga-
artificial
total
%0f
live-
other
(per
city
tion
fertilizer
(000 ha)
total
(%
(%of
(kg/ha)
.000
1
ha)
of
tarms
land
having)
irng.)
005 04 64.33
35 73
2433
7063
22 176
3.93
9.0
14 2
9
1
3
10
0.5«
67 93
61
33 4
50.43
49.63
25 0?o
324
12.5
62
122 4
03
68.6
39.7
603 395'" 33.9"'
173'" 35530
54586
64.530
30.3
41 9
4 7
1
51.2
—
'
—
63.7'* 11 5
36.3'2«
38.5
1.4
Paraguay
58 63 398 138
14.893 9.034 18.720 5,183
11.6
24
27
1
475
19 8
56
Peru
30.1
575
59.9
1.9
86.3 78.3
21.7
56.1
26.1
52 6
3.2
345
280
46.4
19.1
37 36
349 120 243 138 1
2
9
63
1
44
14.759 213,700 1,350
61 9 12.5
4
96.0
12
453 380
31.5 68.570
34.8 76.5
643 609
2,732 5.6"'
85,447
3839
4.8
770 622 500 44.312
86.0
2 5
6
11.7
14
50
38
400W
1.203
6,065 2.827 4,300 7.54562 14,178
7 2
9
7453
25.53
483
408
'42
923 158 1.8"
141
91
29
1
32.8 78.5
81.1
10.5 32.0 16.9
91 .0 66.2
27
53
67
9.0
77.3
275
72.5
301 8562
19.162
276
135
72.562 86.5
710
35.800
73.4
2.262 41.400 17 59'
11.3
29.8
702
64.89'
18 29'
68.8
2 10 9
358 93 52
29
63.4
14.8
10.9
48
8 32
18.498
390,316 15.882 26.600 183
178 90
31 ,278
9.060
72
15.4
18530 5.002
5
1.8
7083
23 2
7 147
1.351
6.238 5.897
17.323
8.462
82723
62 7
37 3 44.1
20.6 11.5
0.291
75.8 41.0 90.7 59.4 15
343 274 20.9 31.430
361 91.7 31.7 18.6 49.862 93.8 71.023 81.2 62.3 78.2 85.4
07
983
1.0
90 5
1.0
8 5
96 9
3.1
625
17.191
30
19.0135
59.0'35
137
62230
37.830
35.8 46.0 8.8
34.5
7 4 18.3
100.0 80.7 97.69'
22.0'35
92 6 68.0
_
61
1
0.1
—
1.1
6
16
938
13
71.5""
75
8
59
29.620
76 6
26
82
16.4
59.7
20
—
28.883
67
697
8.8 7 7
89 3
45 25
_ 236 19
92 3
955 975
Russia
Rwanda
St.
—
and Nevis
Lucia Vincent
San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra
Leone
Singapore
—
0.1
79.7 97.6
1.3
7.1
—
—
21.7 2.7
249
23.1
19.1
60.6
12.0 50.3 10.5
17.4 7.7
Sudan. The Suriname Swaziland
10.9
Sweden
—
—
1.0
—
88
76.2
4.0
53.4
10262
09
—
24.762
8.3 2.4 4.7 15.362
961
— 16.9
Sn Lanka
Syria
Taiwan Tajikistan
Tanzania
10.1
1.9
Togo Tonga
6.1
27.2
1.7
5.4
Turkey
0.5
Turkmenistan Tuvalu
— —
—
Trinidad Tunisia
and Tobago
Uganda
1.191
Ukraine United Arab Emirates
83
3.2
United Kingdom Uniled States
4.2
1.7
2.4
1.39'
60.4 42.5 85.3
Spain
Thailand
21.8 7.3
Ciskei
Transkei
3.2
2.1
29.023 6.7 4.4
Somalia South Africa Bophuthatswana
Switzerland
65.7 76.7
Sloveniazs Solomon Islands
Venda
38
—
Uruguay
812
132'35
57.0 '3S
22 8 '35
7.0 '35
Venezuela Vietnam
75.3
103
3.7
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
100.0 10.7 100.030
93.883
1.9
z
West Bank Western Sahara
1.2
Samoa Yemen '«
06
Yugoslavia
7.3
Zaire
Western
6.283
988
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
15.1
100.0
71.283
Romania
16.9 84.9
18.8
24883 01
Reunion
_
11.9
23.8 40.4 19 7 34.8
Qatar
St.
33.3
64.7
40.9 86.0
5.570
80.7
35.2 100.0
3.4
685
74 5
1
1
22.7
48 3
138
—
Portugal Puerto Rico
St. Krtts
26.470
115 77.6
88.7
175
17
15 7 6
8
15 2
31.1
—
10.270
92
11.0 20.4
558
61.1
58
41
43.6
399
21
20.5
63 6
55.9
9
5.2
238 564
44.5 25.8
8.5
10.6
25 4
33 132 9.449 30.732
271
0.8
90.8 12.5
2 18
30 9
40.7
637
— —
375
90.0
7.1
9.7 91
1.0
61.7
10.0 100.0
406
151
26.7"
30.6
779
88.5 22.4 100.0 19.3 66.7
Philippines
9.7 6.6
— —
803
8
_fJ7 386. 142_
9 7
878
— 41.3
843 692 383
Papua New Guinea
Poland
_
87.1
05
28 2
'41
97
1
6.9
6.8
2.4
0.3 6.8
773 249
"
953
94
8
38
76
5 9
39
63
569"
70.2 94.8
1.0
148
4
0.6 141
12786
10.4 79.3
22
14.127
35 5-'
89 6 20 7
80.0 45.2
14.9 64.9
77.2 99.9
79
,
27 6
187
4.5
4.230 0.6
6
19 40.0
13.3
4
32.6
6.5
428 34
44.6 21 7
39
196
Oman
39.9
4.8 22.1
100.0 53.9
58.1 57.970
31.570
161
25.0
165 766.775 8.253
281
685
75.0
31 .500
40.4
92 2
27.8 38.1 9.041
4
12.8
55.4 58.730
0.1
15 100
09
37.130
41
1.8
40.1
407
1.0
59.1
130 110
64.1
14.4
99 4
100
22 60
2009
53.3
1
856
51 3
46.4 31.9
29 46 137 454
74.8
26
2.135 11,338
29.3 29.6
70.4
393 25.2
7.5
11
446
0.5
2 2.800
2.1
98.1
844
96
5
75.9 42.5
1
5.7
23
428
837
212 6
17.9
14,8
35.4
Panama
19.2
386
44.1
44
Pakistan Palau
24
76.6
2 100
27.8
5.6
100.0 4.2
39 3
22.3 20.5
0.6
156
21.941
49.2
Is.
Norway
57.4 26.4 47.5
3
12586
Northern Mariana
609
24.6 33.7 12.6
1
330*
Nigeria
34.2 -50 8
938
1.7
03
06
36.9
16.3
93
20
60
4.3
41.1
35.0
866
200
302
43.3
56.6
43.4
1.0
27.5
329
21 6
-
03
98.5 31.4
31 4
293 08 539
6
29.5
80
24.0
620
39.0
20.0
2.259
20 25
81.3
Niger
37.1
58
19,109
195
65.8
forest
67 22 4
100 13 35
49 7
pastures
29
3.407 34.290
47
18 503
cropland
83
18.4 47.9 15.3 10.4
0.1
rary
7
5.6
75.0*>
crops
other
80
22 57
27.0 17.4
and
20.570 83
0.7
0.1
land
111
800 262 555
65
wood-
and
269
3
15 4623
53.83
1
nent crops
fallow
11
49 20
2
tempo-
87
3
5.1
perma-
63.5
348 330
mead-
ows total
cropland
land area
45
86
982
land use (%)
farms
mainly stock
49
m
land
(latest)
809
country
farmland use activity
Statistics
65.4 70.6
34.0
—
20.1
20
142
381
34.5
65.7
47.7
Zambia
Zimbabwe
94Excludes 861969. 938.0 ha or more. 850.4 to 4.0 ha. 87i_ess than 4.5 ha. 864.5 to 9.0 ha. 9018 ha or more. 925.0 to 8.0 ha 831975. 4 ha 899.0 to 18 ha. 911978. 84|_ess than 99Smallholder 95f£x C u des large commercial farms. 96 1 973 temporary rangeland available for agricultural use to subsistence farms ha or more 98West Malaysia except as noted. to 30 ha. 'OOAverage size of estate farm is 400 ha ""Based on number of households on estates. '02AII Malaysia. i03|ncludes rented farms, ^includes 1.828,000 holdings in 22.700 farms only ioso.8 to 4.0 ha. io9ioto25ha. "°25 '05| n area, state lands constitute 80.6% of Mongolia s agricultural cooperatives 19 4%. 'oepamily farms only. communes (e|idos) '07|_ess thar. 0.8 ha. "21.0 to 3.9 ha. "339to79ha "«7.9 to 19.7 ha. "519.7 ha to 40 ha. "61.0 to 2.0 ha. '"2.0 ha or more. "80 4 to 2.0 ha. "91.2to12ha '2012to toSOha '"Large holdings only '301988. '231 '2*6 only. '2'50 '2522 operations 122300 more. 6.4 ha. 4 to 4 4 '261963 '271 '267.5 '29Full-time 20 ha ha or .0 to 22 ha ha or more to 300 ha. ha or more. to 7 5 ha. '^Former Yemen '3220 to 72 ha. '3372 to 202 ha. '34202 ha or more. '351971. '39260 ha or more. '373 '38100 to 260 ha. '3' Excludes Northern Ireland ha. '36|_ess than 3 to 10 ha. '411976 ">38 i42Data refer Yugoslavia as constituted prior 1991. '"16 Arab Republic only to to to 16 ha. to 100 ha
20 ha
|
Britannica World Data
810
Crops and livestock Czechoslovakia, long published statistics only for collective or cooperative production and excluded the production of privately held plots of land that in some instances represented a significant part of total agricultural production. Some countries report only crops that are sold commercially and ignore crops produced for family or communal subsistence. Methodological problems attach to much smaller parts of the agricultural whole, however. The FAO's cereals statistics relate, ideally, to weight or volume of crops harvested for dry grain (excluding cereal crops used for grazing; harvested for hay; or harvested green for food, feed, or silage). Some countries, however, collect the basic data they report to the FAO on sown or cultivated areas instead and calculate production statistics from estimates of yield. Millet and sorghum, which in many European and North American countries are used primarily as livestock or poultry feed, may be reportable by such countries as animal fodder only, while elsewhere many nations use the same grains for human consumption and report them as cereals. Statistics for tropical fruits are frequently not compiled vjy piwuuvmg iwniiiini, .uii.1 i,uvi.iugv, i.t uui w av/iil^ u reporting only commercial fruits and others including those consumed for
This table provides comparative data for selected categories of agricultural production for the countries of the world. The data are taken mainly from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) annual Production Yearbook. The FAO depends largely on questionnaires supplied to each country for its statistics, but, where no official or semiofficial responses are returned, the FAO makes estimates, using incomplete, unofficial, or other similarly limited data. And, although the FAO provides standardized guidelines upon which many nations have organized their data collection systems and methods, persistent, often traditional, variations in standards of coverage, methodology, and reporting periods reduce the comparability of statistics that can be supplied on such forms. FAO data are based on calendar-year periods; that is, data for any particular crop refer to the calendar year in which the harvest (or the bulk of the harvest) occurred. In spite of the_ often tragic food shortages in a number of countries in recent years, worldwide agricultural production is probably more often UIIIIVIIV.|'MI
UU
111(111
IfVLIIl.LA'llVU.
IV|,111\
1.
V
>L]
1
1
1 1
IV.
^
1.11
'
IH'I
1
I* |
Ul
I
VV7111-
1
plete domestic production; the former Soviet bloc, for example, excepting
1
1
1
1
1 v
>
i
i
1
.
1
1
1
1
i. i
i
i
1
1
1
1
11.
Crops and livestock country
crops fruitsc
vegetables"
production
yield
production
production
(kg/hectare)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
('000 metric tons)
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
yield
(000 metric tons) 1979-81 average Afghanistan Albania
4,060
916
559
1,337 2.500
Algeria
1,958
3,623
656
2,724
1991
Antigua and Barbuda Argentina
Armenia Aruba Australia Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas, The
379
381
—
—
24,457 2003
20,351
21.164
17,212 4,921 1 ,400"
4,391 1,2003
200"
1
1
Belarus
Belgium®
20,983
29,655
2 5,4003 2,069
2 7,000" 2.467
223 65
112
540 3
1.000 4
533
386
1,820
1.833 2.632 1.840"
—
2.060
1.809 2,183 1 ,8403
2,328
3,150
1.322 4,130 2,3903 1,142
1,347 5.378 2,340" 1,262
2913
1,938 2,538 1 ,8603 4.861 1.924
2,546 2,500 2,660" 6,776 1,440
—
213" .5
5
844 1903 2
5
—
185" 2
,5593 5 1,468 3
2,120
11 1 1
Belize
27
24
Benin
366
534
698
821
1.363
Bhutan
159
1,072
40
53
663
105 1.010
1,439
Bolivia
1,183
1,581
1,061
1.467
Bermuda
Bosnia and Hercegovma
Botswana Brazil
Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde
338"
35
45
203
30.805
35.991
3
1
1,496 1,640 3.853
8,130 1,166
8.918 2,234
575
251 1,755 1.625 3.973 841
376
503
131
111 1,411
219
342
1,081
1,056
1.563 1,332
1.052
2,450 1,003 55.969
178
112
849
1.211
2,174
4
365
2,600 175
1.663 2.626
1,946 2,781 18
866 42.728 4
15
_ 529 587
1,191
1,106
891 2,866 392.919
680
424
760 665
2,124 3.029
4.054 4.286
901 144,326
851 147,291
3,339 19 15
3,948 19
2.452 1,082
2.451 1,290
4,144
4,494
26
780
813
57 678
64 845
11
Costa Rica
337
256
2.498
2.875
45
Cote
856
1,292
858
910
3.414
4.292
551
2,381 1,065
997 182
770 188
4,893
3.388
5,985 2,750 1,364 3.211
Chad Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros Congo Cook Islands
d'lvoire
103 508 1,742 286,591
165
Cyprus Czechoslovakia
87 9,762
11.853
2.458 1,793 3.798
Denmark
7.346
9.115
4.040
—
—
447 686
363 1,583
8,131
13670
719
729
Djibouti
Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El
Salvador
Equatorial Guinea Estonia Ethiopia
—
8003 5.804
1
.000"
6,420
833 1,427 3,004 1,633
4.052 1.702 2,0803 1.186
1.981
5.516 1,635
2,410" 1,237
317
135 1,197 2
3,562 4.673 14.087 14,6003
3,927 5.077 20,388 9.500"
5
6,627 1 1 ,653 8,247 15.4003.5 13,500" 39,246 44,318 20,000 21,875 10,062
9.264 20,636 10,250 7.184 5.870"
1 1
2.279
142 23
1.345
695
992
120
2,876
3,458
—
1
—
1
1,238
1,309
917
875
637
507
646
706
1,304
913
1,511
26,904
37,762
26 214 552
26 235 492
.093
9.479 6.976 5,623
1,330
1,096
21 .971
18,336 12,350 2,926 14,5003 3,703
5
14.805 2,613 13,600" 3,641
2
2,490
1,052
985
666
12
12
28
35
21
15
11
1,251
1,224
1,592
2,182 951
1,596 471
856" 27
1
1.209
1,254
3
3
3,080
4,233
382
363
956
1
526
686
72
148
3
5
34
54
445
539
142
163
—
121 2
2
2 30
592
800 1,097
67 875
11
1,014
29 532
221 3 9
317
370
16 4,089 8
16 5,738
20
7 749"
185". 9
5
19 2,206
2,788
622 464
467 495
68 176
78 183
984 376
1,052
9 18,607 5 1,975
1.305
2,021
389
56
71
76
324
200 45 76 884 9
5,534 7,738
2.713
227 2.831
19 2
,899
5,783 9.595
1
1,066 10
15.141 1 1
488 248 1,948
390"
171
5,780 7,880" 4,858 22.059 16,155
2.078
224
8 5,507
3.945 3.536 5.599 14,105
5,154
1,631
425
9 6,258
4,345 3,270 4,505 10,262 13.592
6,092 23.108 16,730
617"
432
1,186
7.746 5,333 5,148 24,100 3,302
8,321
5
303
918
1
.838
28,919
40
385
1
5.826
5.764
81
40 274
14
2.813
11
27 53 9293
42
7
5,385
1991
1
239
6.956 6,569 3,994 23,818 3,146
1 1
516 338 824
5
12,551
5
647 97 1,073
7,800". 5
9,242 9,706
11
1991
5
30.326 24,868
80035
93
608",
526 65
807
401
431
043 3,660 6.683 30,158
Croatia
Cuba
989 376
967
14
45
5,513 11.570 1,470 10,175 8,783
1
1.438
Cayman
Islands Central African Republic
1
35
23 52
5
7 27,761
7
27.265
41
7222 8,333 5.810
7,449 9,041 6,767 5.151
1
1
16,767
6,967 6,878 4,829
8,998 19,048
1.100 7 8.591" 5 1.950 4
1991
14,881
5
—
1,705
1991
23.445 25,387
1,166 791
1.356
Bahrain
Bangladesh Barbados
1991
265
1,161 2.281 1.161
American Samoa Andorra Angola
pulseso yield
roots
production
1991
and tubers 3
production ('000 metric tons)
grains
17
105 194 4
11
31,348 5
941
943
151
1,000
249
514
1,164 121 1,715
1,668
635 542
323 370
1,544
1,665
697
750
286
450
12
11
1,549
1,747 5
8 1.666 118
220 470 453 2.061
6
1
7
435
163 97
1.230 1.566
1.657 8.864
194 114 2.676 22.992
3,905
5,202
572
693 839 812
36 218
55 282
498
477
14 1,362
12 1.948
556 434 843
6,648
15 60 159 6,915
1,223
128
160
604
5
7 10
1,237
5 12
33
59
1,000
44 59
64
80,016
74 1.688 118.604
1,362 3
1,696 4
33 2 58
43 2 116
1,760
8
8
667
667
1,549
1,499
317
452
12
26
306
466
586
2
316
1.054 1.692
810 359 644
1,539
6 137
351 1.015 2,378
435 929
101 1,017
1,199
3,420
4,183
124
53
263
305
450
46
92
13 7
22
467 958 547
951
1,333
729
3,767
1,629 4.338
209 243
299 367
2.000
2,414
2,310
4,720
7,312
6,530
850
869
257
290
96
161
501
594
574"
5
14
410
—
—
73
96
39
61
283
381 67
41
11
17
201
231
9
133
7
105"
5
962
763
1.061
778
->
(
omparattve National Statistics
I
units as follows:
metric tons x 1.1023 = short tons kilograms x 2.2046 = pounds kilograms per hectare x 0.8922 = pounds per acre. The notes that follow, keyed by references in the table headings, provide further definitional information. a. Includes such crops as potatoes and cassava. b. Includes beans and peas harvested for dry grain only. Does not include green beans and green peas. C. Excludes melons. d. Includes melons, green beans, and green peas. e. From milk cows only. From chickens only. f.
FAO
country
livestock
cattle
sheep
hogs
chickens
milke
stock
stock
stock
stock
production
yield
('000 head)
(000 head)
(000 head)
(000 head)
(000 metric tons)
(kg/animal)
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1991
1,650
13.500 1,600 13.350
606
650
18.667 1,232
1.356
1.443
13.111
3.723
3,117 14 55.620
3,100 16 50,080
8006
600
26,161 2,553 1 ,8006 4 6
23,430 2,584
25,053 23 6,8006 3,104 50
23,500
810 1
1,800 5 15
21
7,000 3,000 51
955
225 12 31,473 2,2006
1
134,871
193 5.4006
35
40
7
8
52
6006 110
7
413 5,600
900 56 400? 166
3
4
972
970
10 9.050
853 2.500 152,000
147 18,414
614
435
831 3.521 13.328 12
2,150 4,700 12,369 19
5
2
1,662
4,360 3,650 52,567
2,677 4,400 3,300 81,407
24,110
24,875
60 64
47 68
11
49
2006
2,416 3.906
2006 18
44 4,6006 5,083 16
455
2.530 3,688
200 20
45 5.100 6,421
730
2
2
55 1,553
73 2 340
320
5
20,300
34,102
7,938 3,339
3,803 198
520
—
.000
25,000
56 125 7,000
1,000
426.000 1,000
39.000 ,000
365
44
729
780
1,139 9,709
103 1.610 1.414 10.516
3,000 3.000 8.000 96.000
6
40
86
59
84
135 1,983 6,650 112,820
2,399 8
2.745
69
108
>
7
197,870 96,804 40,9003
187,000 93,000 46,200"
Australia
420
3.238
2.750
206
39.745
40,000
1.489 154.3003 200,655 1,034
1.600 171.700" 185.000 1,430
1,405
350 712
350 793
765.117
2.638 175
3,059 177
1.787 131.679 7.448
1
363.975
860.000
2.013
2.700
30,000
43,000
28
52
1,000
17
17
63
3622 2,000
18,000
7,860
435
495 330
159 22.500
33.500 27.558"
921"
1 1
,378
105 15.300
1,843
1,756
81
83
37
26
14
17
88
117
350 170 500
500
7,354
7,340
4,137
500
1
350 170
20 118 1,111
1,143
2,187 3 3
5,000
4.000
318 12
5.166
4.920
1,620 1.900
52
753 385 325
1,417
22
162
289
4,935
4,923
1,030
7,694
7.090
24,000 2,000 46.000
27.000 16.612 28.000 3.000 47.000
2,970 52 7
2,220 170 9 2,250 4,200
111
9,699
9.489
15.000
16,000
8
8
5
98
298
435
1.148
120 1.250
3.417
2.125
12.000 33.000
1172 28.000 56.000
3,500
1.791
1,243 5
4,900 5
20 455
320
33
36 100? 23.000
4 1,1006
28,000 5,000 120 6,800 52.000
35,000 5,000 1952 6.500 58.000
36 113
170 270
627
792 1
.400.000 3.000
111.219 15.400
5,400
2.356 5,400 8.400 330.863
3,116 13.500 12.000 319.600
500
65
400
170
84 966
212
1,068
30
356
1,396
17.000
270
5
1.332 3.690
1.910 1.670
2,850 66.046 2.325.749
6,845.000
1,490 4,816
1,561
3,600 4
965 500
1.043
176.972
267,000
500
3
1.500
1.500
564 825 77
1.200
430 20 922"
1.854
91 .000
640 60
1,067
1.341
16.760
17,500
110
119
10,253
16,600 47,887" 110.000 8,500 266.230
1,045
1.070
1,579
1.911
33
106
3.601
5,830
5,826
3.140
4.885 3,552
98,936 5.309 243.327
5,126
4.620
4,920
6,228
77,130
84,000
3
5
427 924
420
1,000 1,742 1,446
1.000 1,714 1,750
177 19,267 43,056
158 33,000 56,900
674 958
1.130
420
4 2006.
4,066 3,565 1,746" 1,000 2,620
29 118
369
23,250
Angola
26
224
800
3,900 120 323,700 24,300"
502 1,058 2,214 1,765"
130 2,917 257
315
30,000
3,650 138 253,731 25,0003
800
120 2,836 257
223
8006
14.200 8,100 175.000
16
3,877
1991
14,000 9,957 20,217 34
1,252 1,045
12 2
3
26,000
430
1979-81 average
1,021
1.150
4
1991
7
2
1,906 1.234
13 7.457" 3.900
production (metric tons
1,303 3,220" 4,382 1,032
6,3063 4,042 4
1.020
2,987
2,989 3.509
970"
221 1,294
1,064
1,918
6.578 3,355
750
1,741
55 452 6 65
432*
833
664
356 290 883
500 977 1,746
6
2,183
757
975 800
1,000 2,703
90
4,000 8,000 18,000 114,000 1.000
491 1.326
3 19
2.000 570.000 2,000 28,000 22,000
313.660
243
3
71
3,000 4,000 29,000 2,077.000
14
8973
502
15 1,300
426
5393
19.000 10.607
16 2.000 3,000 18.000
243 9
148 6 6,200
60.000 2.000 50.600 35.000 1.000
—
3,550
2.620 6,059 101.864
146 6
1.000
>
1.000
— 1
z
5.590 3.434
301
205
I
62,000 13.000 29,100 2,000
2,167
—
802
46.000 15.000 20,700
1 1
340 283 596
5,311
59,000 1.000 39,200 29,000
1991
552 296 514
45.000 9,400
617 16 35,000 14 4.187
6,000
62
1 1
eggs'
502
5.000
38.000 11.100
26
59
11
10,358 1,855
300
12.300 1.317
1
1,475 2,900
6.000 3,000 18,000
495
309
750
5
4 4,464
5,400'
7,000 5.000 24,000
170
400
,200?
1991
4 10
4 3,751
1
1979-81 average
174
280
162.774 1
1991
13 27,552
1
299 4.570
2,906 116,645 3 1.782 2,760
1979-81 average
7
Afghanistan Albania Algeria
American Samoa Andorra
Antigua and Barbuda Argentina
Armenia Aruba
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas, The Bahrain
Bangladesh Barbados Belarus
Belgium® Belize
Benin
Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia
Bosnia and Hercegovma
Botswana Brazil
Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde
Cayman
Islands Central African Republic
Chad Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica
Cote dlvoire Croatia
Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia
Denmark Djibouti
18
110 5 1.000
20
I
and reported or assumed egg laving rates. Othei countries report egg production by number, and this must be converted to weight, using conversion factors specific to the makeup by species of national poultry flocks. Metric system units used in the table may be converted to English system
subsistence as well Figures on wild fruits and berries are seldom included \o vegetable statistics include vegetables and in national reports al .ill melons grown for human consumption only. Some countries do not make this distinction in their repot is. and some exclude the production of kitchen gardens and small family plots, although in certain countries, such smallscale production may account foi 2(1 to 40 percent of total ouput. Livestock statistics may he distorted by the timing of country reports. Ireland, lor example, takes a livestock enumeration in December that is reported the following year and that appears low against data for otherwise comparable countries because ol the slaughter and export of animals at the close of the grazing season. It balances this, however, with a June enumeration, when numbers tend to be high. Milk production as defined includes whole fresh milk, excluding milk sucked by young by the animals but including amounts fed In farmers or ranchers to livestock, but national practices vary. Certain countries do not distinguish between milk cows and other cattle, so that yield per dairy cow must be estimated. Some countries do not report egg production statistics (here given in metric tons), and external estimates must be based on the numbers of chickens
1979-81 average
HI
648 268
1.505 1.140
327
1,1933
1,208"
615
752
814
4.056" 197
206
78,100 36.822 116 25.8003 73.140
128,000 39,000 180 26,700" 79,120
Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Estonia Ethiopia
Britannica World Data
812
Crops and livestock country
(continued)
crops roots
grains
Finland
France French Guiana
production
yield
production
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
(000 metric tons)
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1991
1991
35
2,004
3,399 60,442
2.511
1
29
11
21
78
108
Germany Ghana
1991
2
1
19 2.993 46,091
Gambia, The Strip
vegetables"
:
1
yield
Gabon
Georgia
fruits
production
4.700 1.159
2,265 3.318 6.543 5.370
24 629
62 672
6.735 13
6.300 18
French Polynesia
Gaza
pulses"
tubers'"
yield
Faeroe Islands Fiji
and
production
4
1
6003
700''
1
718
1.189 2.793 2.0103
1.458 1.089 471 2.470"
19
13
372 6
430 6
20 294" .5
5
3933
5
1991
13.684 7.945 15.578 28.465 10.842
13,977 12.818 18.566 37.059 10,112
12.245 6 289 3.000 18.333
10,720 6.815 3.000 20.000 10.600" -5
1 1
.7003 5
—
1991
—
1991
540
600
2.182 3.304
2,527 4.690
528 267
650 267
13
28
340
3.294
— 4 —
— —
3.071
4.618
4
—
production
1991
1991
14
6
7
107
89
14,255 2
10.313 7
130 6.864 3
7.945 16
11
210
4
8
6
7
181
260 4 150
22 7
31
4
61
85 443"
200
8
32,043 726
39.270 1.436
8.061
10.225 5.897
49.631 6.721
116
175
14
21
101
966
3.103 1.320
3,205
6.111
5.710 102
4.447
1.221
19.465 3,183
56.186
807
299
452
4.951
5.167
3.090
3.411
1.041
1.102
16.378
20.000
94
49
1.262
1.465
3.437
3.795
3,636
3.946
— —
— —
949
1.000 1.200 1,392 1.897
5,249
1
—
1
—
1,607
1.078
1 1
514
600
22 112
2 17 2
22
2
810
277
366
756 50 69 959
410
420 20
1.568
95
1 1
.702
3.511
Gibraltar
Greece Greenland
Grenada Guadeloupe
1.117
1,301
1.200 3,000 1.604
Guinea
678
Guinea-Bissau
102 267 419 492
888 165 253 335 734
711 2.907 1.009 1.170
13.001
15.505
4.519
Guam Guatemala Guernsey
Guyana Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India
Indonesia Iran
Iraq
Ireland Isle of
958
1.712
2.000 5.593
823
6.318 6.250 7.273
42
62
646
2
2
971
885 920
639 44
1
1
487
591
4.151
90 38
99 110
471
558
518
711
41 1.007 1.675 3
4
189
114
127
333
1.547
2.173
2.389
2.262
1,841
2.078
4.582 8.459 13.756
60
3535
732 50 32 829 32
7,116 5,986 6.626 3.778 4.896
25.407 15.894 11,858 12,926 9.054
23.097 27.190 12.000 15.964 11,818
16
689 21
1
11
1,229 12
1.897 3.843
16.777 16.153
22.049 19.026
1.507
.024
14,070 5.042
6.848
14.007
461
582
352
508
882
1.383
16,666 17.600 29.954
247 36
309
—
10 7
799 802
627 583
3.444
4.667
36.551
37,506
8
9
955
18.614 12.786 24,584
321 8
208 6 155
1.335
882
899
332
108
1.254
1.570
6.330
8
6
588
636
90
2,835
8.930 1,803 2.009
14,626 1,248 2.084
1.478
1.269
2,500
832
254
4.733
6.260
96 822
176 650
14.436 18.464 20.799
239
167
1.840
1
874
201
229
18.025 7
19,043 3 13.165
3.548 1.667 5,252
4.336 1.548 5.443
2.962
2.258
68
571
21
9 281
1
10.509
195,109 50.732
1.132
844
2
138.182 33,611
1.324
121
3
23
2 52
644 47
981 1.484 3.226 1.015 1.358
77
29 115 2 734
3
22
2 4
12
273 169
2
20.409 4.943
28,388 6.542
41.379 2.434
54.358 4.112
3.215 1.161 21
6,744 1.169 22
5.009 1.880
7.625 2,295
283
216
1.137
1,913
2.000
762
1.104
1.381
20.661
17,632
13.401
375 5,281
104 15.230
14,676 102 15.022
234
437
Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
14 318 91
20,1003
7903
Kuwait Kyrgyzstan
Laos Latvia
Lebanon
245 5.804
18.274 11.666 22 838
45
16,866
406
2,281
28,500" 2.747
1.364
1.220" 1,397
9,001 8.073
10.080 7,905
5.964 4.764
6.315 5,777
_
_
5,667 2.800" 2.157 2,360" 1.829
9
1.909
2,324" .5 1.560 8 2.490
1655
794
_
_
.9523 1.257
1
5
9
Kinbati
Korea, North Korea, South
230 5,342
1.3003 1,056 1,3003 41
1.500" 1.460 71
3.087 2.4003 1.402 1 .7703 1.307
198
1
600"
3093.
365" .5 319
5
184 1.4683 .5
130
1.016" 201
Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania
254 225
125 110 298
977 1251 430
622 786 674
2.5003
3.300"
2,0703
3.010"
1.9213 .5
Luxembourg^ Macau Macedonia Madagascar
4
7
2178
1,664 1,161
1.873 1.147
2,267
3.149
562
508
2.422 1.000
468
530
7
993
123
3.431
21
8 145 18
22
25
Lesotho Libena
1.341
Malaysia Maldives
2.061
1.586
2.827
Mali
1.064 8
2.232
806 790
9
3.252
Mayotte Mexico
148 12" 1
.573"
s
20,000 5
—
—
11.300"
5
12 486 17,765
8.211 7.879 12.769 20.620
16.934 12,8003 10,114 14.5003 16.923
15.000 13,600" 5 8,507 12.700".* 15.388
8.011
5
5
15.526 15.000 6.894 6.641 6.671 8.132 18.742 17.974" 13,9003 .5 14.000" .5
11.174
944
490
642
5 1.330 1,893
4 2.636 9.070
5 4.459 10.205
89
137
184
487" 230
704
989
347
533
185
240
430
343
650 5
280
330
930
851
56
41
849 940
1,111
997
17
35
1,728
2.333
10
16
968
1.182
8 3 9
7 3 13
36
1
1
536 500 079
1
305 500
121
19 130
119
203
16
298
21
27
64 527
752
4
8,895 5,176 8.349 8.948
9.232 5.084 8,485 10.938
9.960 1.787 19,502
29
15.089
1,311
3
353"
5
53 204
47 271
—
—
47
57
1
1
852 609
815 583
719 375
781
925
452
2
1
283 212
330 255
310
322
15
19
173 47
258 52
24
9
600 338
625 200
8 13
2.333
2.333
11
1.109 10 15 12
178
285
27
...
117 2
384
908
1
2.536
2.889
7 12
6 19
6.997 2,888 17.368
20.692
23.056
2.152
2.330
1.120
1.127
12.906
48
1
21
407
15 6
16 8
8
491
365 750
7
2
26
42
1.661
719
743
7.316
9605
3860
4,840 ...
295"
1,177"
2.4003
2.500"
3,2303
3.400"
3993
Mongolia
320 3.583
591 8.648
573
Morocco
1.040 1.575
503
96 928
7.878 14.169
10.787 17.405
229
Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands The Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua
71
295"
13.273 5.650" 6.413 3,181
5
5
8.9003
5
7.200"
Monaco
Mozambique Myanmar (Burma)
_ 170"
Micronesia
Moldova
647 1.136"
5.704 4,458
75" -5
Malawi
Martinique Mauritania Mauritius
8
348
11
2.352 1.679
Malta Marshall Islands
6
346 97
5
9.9003 7.993
811
50
^
—
4 439
292 571
1.000 741
3 1.600
—
26
22
2.304
1.320
3.204
184
195 2.182
649
546
603
342
3712
3.821
2.583
1.077
31
356 966 36
1.872
7
588 944
327 838
275
59 365 6
263 695
488
167 203
484
468
3.869 8,627 9,167
381
13.667 114
2.521
90
4.194 8.087 9.242
78
12.984
28
33
3.640
5.919
1,615
957
349
863
5.455
7,816
140
279
536
605
404
504
517
1,075
1.280
1.205
5.696 653' 2,134 4.077 1.475
6.827
6329
6.735
37.752
38.398
24
83
3.145
4.368
535
356
2.527
3.591
21
22
—
772
667
9
9
3
5
311
58 56
3.045 611
363 313
825 306
382 47
493
9.107
63 39
2.965
96
5.703 29,948 12,114
—
220 28
5.691 26.301
tji
22
3
1
785 392
906 455
1
221
7142 1.244 5.052 1.665
...
576
f4^
(
omparative National Statistics
country
livestock
cattle
sheep
hogs
chickens
milke
stock
stock
stock
stock
yield
(000 head)
(000 head)
(000 head)
(000 head)
production (000 metric tons)
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average 2 153 1,747
23.825
6
2
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1991
,490
14 1.430 11.472
15 1,290 12,239
1,000 9,000 177.000
4
6
11
121
3,000 6,000 213,000 1002
24 126
32 162
_
_
2.000
10
11
2801
900
1.000 18,8006
2.000 1.000 3.000 21.800
1991
67
67
107 12,133 3
57
158 1,315 21,446 19
1 1
8
7
2
_
5
28 410
105 136
165 175
15 2.0006
10 1,6007
293 1
1979-81 average
1991
5 .6006
20.672
4 1,300
'
eggs'
1991
production (metric tons
(kg/animal)
1991
1979-81 average
1991
Faeroe Islands
9006
19.488 1,300
3.147 1,942
3,240 2,500
34.768
30,819
804
379
620
929
634
8,040
9,759
944
1.143
20
22
14 3
11
8 44 13
7
'
137,000 1 1
.000
62
1.701
2.477 26.000
—
4,572 2,634 2,080
1,699 5,618 2,956 2,143
2
2
2,771
5
7
250 175
11
6
4,185
54 3.236 26,720
— —
1
660"
6563
1,976 77,967 849,667
2.050 66.900 942.000
292
250
2,215
923
259 175
1.050
1.300 1.500
402
813
4,000 1.619"
2,265 35.0703
4.800 36.100"
Fiji
Finland
France French Guiana
French Polynesia
Gabon Gambia, The
Gaza
Strip
Georgia
Germany Ghana
106.000
31,724
29,300
25
130
1.123.574 12,203
912.000
16
7,882 130
9.993
.000
27.000
666
690
1,867
2,248
122,540
138.000
769 507
800 500
948 778 1,071
920 900 679
39.947
63.500
Guatemala Guernsey
7,420
13,860
Guinea
1 1
12.720
Gibraltar
6 91 1
4 65
—
1,886
1.695
4
3
1.753
1,800
290 189
410 230
1.000 1.980
1,400 2,388
7 1.936
2
5
615
675
737
130 92
1,533
5
8
418
33 293 80 930 740
520
304 8,000 19 10,450 6,800
39 256 115
1,865
8,232
838
700
11
186.500 6,502
44.987 4,124
55,700 5,750
9.433 3,234
5,450 1.630 6.043
6.800 1,400 6,029
31,672 10.842 2,374
45,000 7.800
17
6,001
1,122
299
331
243
375
96
8.697
8.647
9,120 4 13
11.575 2
8,885
32
9,851
950
1,400
7
29 8,7006 10.418
945 1,728
17 1
,0006
437 1,4006
300 4,863 6"
29 9,800 13.700 1.350 2,126
— 1,200 1,400
57
582 39
540 38
164 6 2.2006
14710
150 6 2,300
1,069 810
7.000
2602 3902 21
1
2
263
10.000
13.000 1.000 15,000 13.000 8.000
6.000 62,000
6.000 45.000
2471 160,000 168.000
3072 380.000 590.000
97.000 26.000 8.000
1
j-'
13.000 5.000 5.000
—
1
165.000 50,000 9.000 71'0
8
150 9
41
42
749
732
3.514
4,389
12
185 170
271
56 20 310
832 229 652
4
2
2,559 13.420
2,625 117 27,000
3.022 3,727 3,635
79
329
1,125
1,428
9 13
20
121
185
170 933 233
300
576
881
3.900 2,943 18.947
4,200 3,600 24,700
2,737 250.000 3.000 682,000 177,767
1.900
530 762
2,179 5.000 3,656 871 1,037
700 750
290
225
700 750
4,729
5,527
3,178
3,984
155,333 48.362 35.000
230,000 3,800 1.357.000
Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India
Iraq
Israel
Iran
Ireland Isle of
702
965
6,817
8,874
91.675
106,000
9.520
138,000 5,000 284.000
138.000 8.000 335.000
10,546
10,000
48
49 8,180
3,478 1.000 4.526
3.448 1,000 6,127
659,163 15,500
6,526
1,998.041
707.000 16,500 2,466.000
28.000
47,000
18
35
1.000
1,912
19.000
22.200
48,1006 17,000 1541 18,000 41.000
59.900 25.000
2,367"
169.7003 19,968 105 103.833 255.786
196.500" 42.000 126 148.000 489.000
250
Guyana
Indonesia
24.000
.335
Guinea-Bissau
278,000 35,000 30,000
25,000
1 1
Guam
400,000
100
210
Grenada Guadeloupe
Man
Italy
Jamaica Japan Jersey
35,2006 5.100
7
35,700? 6,550
292
390
7
5
250 10,0006.7
2006.7 137 1.183
200 5.046 2 1006.7
3,1006
89 10 2,100 2,115
3,200 105 9
3,300 4.528
— 10.000 7
3006
400
200? 205
1,117 1.8006 18
1,390 1,400
865
64
1271 14.000
518 245
2,960
279
15 1,110
115 89
73 198,400 10,350
4.261
36
2521 4201
436 177
32 io
Greece Greenland
1,571
60
30.000
1.470
220 5.500 3
100'
75 103 3 2.6006
45 75 120 3 2,400
9.000 10.3006 5.000 11,2006 19,000 1.000 2,000 6,000 431 13,9006
4,6293
958
5,642" 2,189
460
470
2.244 4.864
2.368 6,059
2.653
3.300 3,034"
2202 21 .000
74,000
_ 13,900 8.000 10,300 24,000
55 449
1.848
24 7173
1,185i
90
6 1,7663 85
1.000 4,000
20
55,000
63 9
16.800
2,731
10 1.893"
3
200 3,379" 2,857
60
2.290
24
290 130
290 130
1,499 3,310
1,556 4,702
1
1
200
140 13 3.157«
3,538"
8,573 22,1003 22,167 38,0003 41 ,275
60 33,500" 34,000 38,500" 53.000
789
828
2,336 16,233
4,032 34,650
49,5003
59.800"
—
—
Jordan Kazakhstan
Kenya Kiribati
Korea. North Korea, South
Kuwait Kyrgyzstan
Laos Latvia
Lebanon Lesotho Liberia
Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania
LuxembourgS 3
287
1
3531
179
2.297
4502
10,265 1,150
695 84
753 230
1,090
1,461
817
192
280
18,000 8,000
532
658
65
200
1.869
2,400
51,000
148.000
25
30
549
641
96.767
5.670 13
5,000
6.247 5
5.850 6
48
61
139 29
122 24
245
102
22.000 1,000
245
12
12.000 1.000
4.111
3,810
6.720 6.256
5
10.147
22
645
575 185 4
5.729 22.000 9.000
443 35
472 49
259 458
461
12,327 10.503
270
27,559" 17,420 1 1
,270
211.500 1 1
,880
6,800
57
35
76
63
37
49
1.262
1,360
4,200 7
7
10
3.000 2.000
4,000 2.000
85 25
3 98 25
694 350
34
5.098 10
350
27
2,500
2,500
1.500 2.720 2.800
4,420 4,200
27.706
29,847
6.484
6,003
16,895
15,902
177,000
246,000
6,949
6.925
1,284
1,237
636.256
1,141.381
1.2006.7
1,300'
1,2453
1.512"
754
450
Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali
Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius
Mayotte Mexico Micronesia
1
,2006
1,100
2,0006
1,800
17,8006
24,600
3,972"
46,0003
53.000"
Moldova
Monaco
--
—
2,452 3.362
2.849 3.500
14,261
15.083 14,000
32
15,228
1.400 8.565 2.403
1.370 9.310 2.131
106
118
120
235
280
2,263
165 2,250
4,117
6,700
37
51
2
3
6.893
6,350
730
925
375
575
5,071
4,830
856
2 113 8,063 2.373
1,702 4
10,058 7 16
13,788 3
122 8,200
1
1,680
8
4 67,393 3
3 57,000 4
7
433 625
185 9
38 433 709
1651 24,000 17.000 23,000
3002 41.000
210 753
203 990
355 640
262 535
22,000 24,000 1.000
63 283 68
68
170
170
456 71
245 412
220 410
7.000
190
260
325
377
.220
31
6,000
81.000 100'
101.000 1352
7.000 3,000
1.000 10,000 7,000
,832 4
2
5,025 1,250
6,148 1,000
3
4
600
600
6.586
7,973
3,306
3,366
225
161
767
634
1 1
1 1
983
1,265
Mongolia
72,900
93,000
Morocco
9,400 31.435 113 8 14,300
12,800 34,780 130
Mozambique Myanmar (Burma)
540,409
645.600 400
517 887 56.855 28,833
20 18,000
1,650
46,020 25.500
Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The Netherlands Antilles
New New
Caledonia Zealand Nicaragua
I
Britannica World Data
814
Crops and livestock
(continued)
crops
country
roots
grains
truits'
vegetables'*
yield
production
yield
production
yield
production
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
(kg/hecta e)
('000 metric tons)
(kg/hectare)
(000 metric tons)
production (000 metric tons)
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
292 647
387
269 444
1991
440
372
212
1,206
18,926
251 37,602
7,210 8,823
7,153 10,827
3,634
4,491 2,143
524
484
1
5
25,884 13,663
25,866
982
21,198
1,608
1,783
423
755
10,495
10,407
595
806
397
299
1,469 2.087 1.538
1.759 1,695 1,837
76
78
6
1.267 3,968
6,695 6,530 15,862
5
1,125 2.080
8.496 6,952 13,100
2
2
69
55
412 500 803
1.933 1,633 2.345 1.102 8,925
2,357 2.043 3,196 1,535 5.000
2,477 3.100 39,508
7,574 6,632 16,808 8,947 6.470
8,095 6.858 16,785 7,937 6,268
111
216 76 6
99 37 668 63
39
2,350 2.788 29,038 972 25
2,623 5,064 2,854 1.3003 1,134
3,733 6,500 3.186
_
_
13.367 13,133 14,728 10.4003 8.809
6,000 12.857 8,089 9,900" 6,952
2.415 14,200
Norway
1,129 2
1,467 5
Pakistan Palau
17,200
Panama
252 4
3 1,508
»
•
659
Paraguay
1.422 .088
Peru Philippines
1 1
Poland
18.466 1.210 6
Portugal Puerto Rico
Qatar
1
Romania Russia
Rwanda St. Kitts
1,757 14,325 27,861 1,403
— 3
12 13 18,109 19.270 92,0003 116,700« 271 330
Reunion
and Nevis
Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino St. St.
Sao Tome and
Principe
— 1
1
.850" 1,187 1
703
696
3,294
3,535
1
1,538
2,000 5,026
813
43
1,011
126 2
4.476
914
820 690
Leone
542
442
1,249
Singapore
Solomon
3,513
—
474
552
—
1,896
2.003
19,195 2.440
1,986 2.464
5,407
3.393 190 159 5.092
843
12.701
14,222
39 85
9.930 4,344 5.000 3.727 11.330
15,000 3,712 5,000 4,201 16,800
15.048 10,863
13,670" 16,979 10.406 14,640
—
129
—
413" 109
5
5.382
717
577
15.986 9.685
655
634
296
3,329
3,451
3 13 1.191
1.233
1.281
3.972 1.345 3.595 4.883
158 3 10
924
725
28.914 37,834
3,069 3,565'
3,279 3,3032
1,156 4.264
300 J
300"
1.438 5.2722 1.310" 1,226 2,047
2.962
Sweden
51
.435
2
37
44
2,062
2,662
142 2,906
3,965
117 109
109 189
189 105
170 159
527
2,570
3.980
2,083
3.725
381
1.208 1,327
1.302 1.688
827
950
44 286 218
60 363 226
,483
6,816 1,584 2.055
1,406 6,848 1,874 2,145
296
177 777
500 868
856 652
921
1.232
1,954
228 916
283 690
720
856 4.253
267
1,443 1,533
6 26 2.952
8 49 2.022
18 14 4,168
2,162
3.089
169
1
2,626
163
258
221
250
727
839
_ — —
_ —
1,000
913
1,000 2.500 1.007
6
1,813
1,825
21
7 12
398
31
39
579
1
5
—
2,187
141
3,477 4,553 1.529 28
786
115
1
1991
1
90 35
5,521
1.975
42 24 29 2.607 10,328" 132
1
1
1
186
1
1
87
1
2
4
5
3
3
641
684
1,630
346
480 75
82
655
2 128
130 2 188 8
9
106 2
153 39
1
241"
5
1
156
9
2 10
2 12
840 494
1,200
11
15
300
304
5 27
6 60
110
119
1.051
1,152
182 3,139
3.813
1.662
1,950
19.466 9.203
365
215 72
704 845
713 727
12.603 1.718
12,542
8.547
10,377
47
832
535
1,081
2,990
99
110
1.260
1.060
903
750
3
5 103
1,061
121
2,248 3.354
2,475 4.140
207 724
844 74 129 167 499
795
849 576
763 52
'
'
Lanka
Switzerland Syria
Taiwan Tajikistan
Tanzania Thailand
Togo Tonga Trinidad Tunisia
19
3
37
1991
'
Spam Sri
14
5.670
Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland
Venda
8.071
2.459 2.969
14,709 2,132
Bophuthatswana
11
21
1 1
14,036
5
3,322 4,192 4,970
—
1,559
1991
24,091
3.649 4.246
1
1,303
305
251 10,945
Ciskei" Transkei
5
87 39 793
13
Islands
Somalia South Africa"
11 19 4,317 1,900 38,4393 .5 30.848" 1,743 1,725
1
—
303 850
Slovenia
1,141
2 10 24
Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra
1991
'
1,264
1,702 7,480
Papua New Guinea
pulses"
production
Niger Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands
Oman
and tubers
258 92
1.4403 1.063 1.910
1.930 4,480 6.200
3,010 20,314
3,826 24.279
301
447
729
836
13 1,146 25,232
17 2.554 31.051
3.167
2 821
828
279
295
2,341' 1653.5
5.4302
6,158 15,512
6.766 20.518
922
953 90
91
and Tobago
Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu
Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States
Uruguay Uzbekistan
Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam
207"
20 127
1.869
400"
2,1703
2.360"
1,171
1.652 51.000-'
1,555 2,3403 5,606
1.537 3.490" 4.667
3.548 20.0133
4.791 4.150 1.644 2,0203
6,467 4,511 2,351 1 ,880"
6.601
513
538
32
51
1,904 2,049
2,465 2,949
602
644
6.284
5.386
18,840 301 .405 1,012 2,400 1
1,550 12.225
22.649 279,923 1.098 1,900" 1
2,324 20,084
2.957 183.5
—
5
2
15.487 197 3053.5
35"
—
5,395 16,732" 6
5
7.0003
5
5.823 12.3003 14,558
5
28.933 5,497 9.7003 19.630 7.906 6,592
—
,633
2.289 26.869 37.958
5
32 1
— 9
28
228 306
298 307
12
127 402
799
686
944'
1,8872
1.639'
1.475 2.1652
2,973 2,387'
315 342
424 474
454 685
484 752
1,953 6.304
2,057 5,750
2,711
1.111 2,521
8.013 5.685 9.973
23
20
238
211
41
48
65
168
14
13
7
4
3
1.638
1,365
60
30
12.941
89 817
93
560
623
1,044
1,866
1,140
614 885
57 518 7.682
9,391
13,340
14 16 1.512 19.058
252
533
697
775
6.300
8,358
290
62
121
130 3.762 25.471 172
7,800"
5
6.461 11,700"
973
411"
5
—
1
3,297 1.966
524
502
1.746
3.168 1,633
26.531
24,668
6
909
997
273
424
240
722
1,457 5 5
37 117
8,060 8,311
415 6,666"
5
41,358 33,137
1.885 3,5312
528"
14,146
7,474 8,000" 10,200
733
5
22.439 5
5
6 12
180 32'
15,526 13,8892 14,300" 7,796 13,491
32.891
6,700 19.496
256 336"
15,302 15,146' 16,8003 9,491 14,226
1 1
8.722 5.934 12,206 12.905 16.679
220 4 600
300
7
5
9
1,546 2,256
37,900 3
5,301 1,993
67 203
509 558
615 674
1.08712
1,197 '2
10
19
6
2.048 2.578
2.594 4.012
401 2,578
204 3.532 32,227 182 2.843" 9
472 4.012
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
West Bank Western Sahara
1'
22
708'
7412
Western Samoa
Yemen
913
298
1,041
477
39 133
Yugoslavia Zaire
Zambia
Zimbabwe
900 990 2,273
1.359 1,603 2.054
42 168 138" 19,038
807
755
13,595
1.676
2,308 1,327
205
302
76
124
1359
6.952
6.530
.992
11.831
1 1
5
6,901 3,465 3,823
34.510" 7.542 3,864 4,805
80'2
53'2
53 173
5
155 7
193 26
23
51
604 340 566
613 488 695
2.624 76 108
_
51
317 888"
335 9
,
574 ...
3,070 107
479 209
560 280
151
136
153
.
'
'
5
'
Comparative National
Statistics
8
"
country
livestock
eggs'
cattle
sheep
hogs
chickens
milk e
stock
stock
stock
stock
(000 head)
(000 head)
(000 head)
production (000 metric tons)
yield
(000 head)
1979-81 average
1991
1979-81 average
125 360
200 288 713
380 300 717
6,800 180,000
8.670 225.000
20
20 52.577 6.050
production (metric tons
(kg/animal)
!
a
1979 81 average
1991
3,343 12,267
2.200 14,500
1979-81 average
1979-81 average
1991
2.979 9,000
2.970 24.000
1
953
141
2.211
138
2,033 114
31
38 4,000 2
280
15,268
17,785
22.580
30.160
1.425
1,399
130 5.966
105 8,260
3.958 1.885 12,494 1.332
3,630 1,677 8,844 1,375
497
599
9 20
10 19
6.351
5,381
58,1006
57,000
675
256
2
4
387
460
1.090
1,000 2,450
.250
2.083 7.712 20,343 3.367
2.250 8,007 21,868 2,664
225
209
61
81 12,003 38,300
1 1
30
30
4.105 4.440 6
3,234 5,673 7
48 2 15.766 65,0006
'
10.926 36.0006 124
19,000 170.000
202
15'
420
54,000
192,000
2,189
3,449
864
1,183
96,367
238.300
Pakistan Palau
5,000 2,000 12,000
9.000 3.000 17.000
94
126
—
988 228
1,126
230
1,903
1,901
12,050 3,000 36,000
Panama
163
14,553 1,815 26,025
37.000 53.000 77.000 17.000 7.000
60.000 65.000 52.000 18.000 12.000
796
786 15
1.298
15,050 1,550
388
2.778 2.123 2,324
1,257 1,034 3,202 3,846 4.396
59,700 201 ,285 488.642 62,008 21,902
1.000
2.000 4.000 121.000 659,800
3
1,561
1.500
3,000 92,000 563,7006
8
14 13 13
15 16 15
2 10 6
2 12 9
74' 128' 139'
852 2502 1782
3
4
2
2
2
3
70'
1002
374 2,424 3
176 2,813 2
2.888 1.966
5.692 4,000
176 10
547
349
330
268
36
52 380
533
...
23 4,437 13,647
20
13 4.900 13.512
10.467 31,625
13,800 32.580
45 9 1,339
139
1,000
1,000
80,000 14,000
19,000 8.000 109' 4,000 14.000
588 53 10 1,490
Norway
420
5 12
1,017
Niue
-
44.665 710
5
330
Nigeria
5.621
394
—
Niger
5,125
303
1
—
1991
1,928 18
630
18
—
1979-81 average
1.926 18
625
10 8
97 354
1991
4.000 3.000
4,000
132 2 14.062 58,200?
1991
10.000 92,000
715
205 870
14.565
1979 81 average
1.000 1
989
1991
2902 6,000 4,000
— 13
16.250
750 420 4 5 3.987 48,7313 61
1432 3.000 40,000
526
6
1,914
3.150 55,715"
510
88
612 1.544 2.781"
281 2,413
323,833 2,021,3003
1 1
596
860
2.600
350 534 590
1
1,390 1,362
1,435 1,348
-
—
170
170
148
172
64 87
225
443 357 519 350
2,601
41,967 6,353 811 4,669 26,870
164,000 12,000 1,968 6.900 16,200
18
17
360 523 350
596" 1
477 2,553
Philippines
Poland Portugal Puerto Rico
Qatar
3,400 2,200
2
—
Peru
Reunion
Romania
370,000 2,228,600"
1
101
Paraguay
267,000 380.000 95,600 14,723
1
1
Papua New Guinea
7,000
297 497 530
12,766 133'
3,000 30.000
994
106
Oman
Russia
Rwanda
St. St.
San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra
2,515
600 414
900 390
2,809
2,734
284
288
2.320 159,952
2,680 191,100
Leone
Singapore
19,296"
1
497
and Nevis Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines
St, Kitts
Slovenia
Solomon
Islands
Somalia South Africa
'
Bophuthatswana" Ciskei"
...
Transkei
...
Venda 4,608 1,662
5.126 1,814
14,721
24,500
10,392
27
31
71
18,376
21 ,028
17,628 3
20.700 10 35
46 658
98 750
1.928 2.008
1,675 1.829
778 130' 1,2006 12,616 4,228
786 1052
250
10
10
60 631 11,377
5,467
6,0006
800
5,063 25,4006
5,000 24,600
26 13.321 112,152 10,965 3,5006 91
10.527 1,646 8
>
2,113 1
6.6742
200 282
3,344
5.000
231
10
14
4,651
6,290 40.553
105 59 4
500 60 50 6
13
12
'
1.152
9,0006 132 21,643 12,670 19,219 9,0006
.846
1006 160
1
1.220
4,5006
98,896 8.889 4,600 123
3,300? 3.556 178
30 24 2,175 1.723
592
46,199
53 1 1
15.321
19 17 2,711
3,267'
2.9006 3.754 25
13.138 6.052
77 583
406 409
9,311
1,400
229
1
32 392 350
16,100 102
?
5.500?
2006 6
12
1.950
242
850
8,400?
19,8006
300
19,400
270 29,954 1 1
?
,200
25.986 9.200?
525
13.368 3.282
333
8
4
3
17'
252
7,856 64.045
327 5006 68 2.156 9.396 5
7,379 54.427
215 700 60 1.971
12,583 3
51.000 6.000
51,000 10,000
5.984
27,000 5.000 1,000 13.000 6.000
33,000 7,000 1,000
1,352
,000
3,452 3.653
1 1
6,000
182
7 36
5,000 24,760' 6,3006 18,000 60,000
15,000 76,979 8,200 20,000 114,000
504
2,000 121' 7.000 24.000 55.000
6,000
7
1
1302 9,000 41.000 65.000
5.3006 10' 13.000
7.400
3,255
448
219
2.299 18
500
480
1,209
1,935 271 6,382 4,923
42
252
3.242 3,850
5,257 4,194
775 203 575" 463 178
1.353 3.426'
4,133
2,279 4.398 2.579"
160
122,000 1.520.000 9.000 36,000
41,000 55,000 57'
1802 55,000 82,000
492
665,560 28.857
657,000 48.400
31,745 2.638
34.333 3,100
'
'
Spain Sri
Lanka
Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland
272
320
113,633 43,186
106,000 36,100
68,759 59,462' 19,1003 35.302 104,667
65,000 178,5002 27,800" 40,040 127,600
Sweden Switzerland Syria
Taiwan Tajikistan
Tanzania
160 1.950
2.297
—
7
—
225
225
1,677
280
12
1.500 1,500 1,087
229
6
7,433 36,383
Trinidad and Tunisia
585
217,164
8,000 53.900 375.000 15,400" 15 15.200 764,600" 8,750
Turkmenistan Tuvalu
10.587 750.8003 2.533
834,000 4.123,566 16,903 83,2003
646.270 4,005,400 22,100 115.200"
19
216
396
2,106 1,169 1.064
3 449
2.865
579
3323
436"
354
437
2,555"
212 19.000 246,100 7,000
233,6006 2,000 116,000 1.068.000 6,000 25.6006 131'
46'
5273 374
6.200 147
13.0003 11
21,8623
4 15,917 58.139 811 2,4483 2
350
24,508" 6
350 2,940"
446 4,755 5.377 1,442
15,022 67,373
900 3,034" 3
201
305 5,200 6,744 1,500 2,578"
245
237
320
1.383
128,745 55,250 196
107,250 100.000
1,353
1,591
26 3
40
800
800
2
3,477
2.746
1,161
130
Thailand
Togo Tonga
5,520
Tobago
Turkey
Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States
Uruguay Uzbekistan
Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.)
West Bank :::
26 973 ...
i
1
it
1
- _.
—# |
1.159 2.238 5,378
57
56
31
3,002
1,180 2.097 1,600 3,045 5,950
726 29 481
3.800 3,044
910 65 550
_ 6,000
4.354
685 217 155
spc- atoes only '1975-77 21986 '1990 31 981-85 '2Former Bophuthatswana. Ciske Transkei, and Venda ,
Western Sahara
1.0002
830 230 340
15,000 18,000 9,000
61981 Includes goats Arat Republic only
Yemen
1,000 24,000 30,213 21,000 16,000 10,000
1
79
1
1,000
1.000
152
98
234
250
7,220
827 300
896 300
1,435
2,000
7.247 27,893 11,100
2,015
6 60 152
SBelgiur n includes
7
82 250
Luxembou
g.
9Tree
fruits
and grapes only
196 1 7,500 92.018 8.100 34.800 13,050 '01987.
Western Samoa
Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire
Zambia Zimbabwe
" South
Africa includes
1
Britannica World Data
816
Extractive industries Extractive industries are generally defined as those exploiting in situ natural resources and include such activities as mining, forestry, fisheries, and agriculture; the definition is often confined, however, to nonrenewable resources only. For the purposes of this table, agriculture is excluded; it is covered in the two tables immediately preceding. Extractive industries are divided here into three parts: mining, forestry, and fisheries. These major headings are each divided into two main subheadings, one that treats production and one that treats foreign trade. The production sections are presented in terms of volume except for mining, and the trade sections are presented in terms of U.S. dollars. Volume of production data usually imply output of primary (unprocessed) raw materials only, but, because of the way national statistical information is reported, the data may occasionally include some processed and manufactured materials as well, since these are often indistinguishably associated with the extractive process (sulfur from petroleum extraction, cured or treated lumber, or "processed" fish). This is also the case in the trade sections, where individual national trade nomenclatures may not distinguish some processed and manufactured goods from unprocessed raw materials. Mining. In the absence of a single international source publication or standard of practice for reporting volume or value of mineral production, single-country sources predominantly have been used to compile mining production figures, supplemented by U.S. Bureau of Mines data, by the United Nations' Industrial Statistics Yearbook (2 vol.), and by industry sources, especially Mining Journal's Mining Annual Review. Each country
has its own methods of classifying mining data, which do not always accord with the principal mineral production categories adopted in this table namely, "metals," "nonmetals," and "energy." The available data have therefore been adjusted to accord better with the definition of each group. Included in the "metal" category are all ferrous and nonferrous metallic ores, concentrates, and scrap; the "nonmetal" group includes all nonmetallic minerals (stone, clay, precious gems, etc.) except the mineral fuels; the last group, "energy," is composed predominantly of the natural hydrocarbon fuels, though it may also include manufactured gas. The contribution (value) of each national mineral sector to its country's gross domestic product is given, as is the distribution by group of that contribution (to gross domestic product and to foreign trade), although statistics regarding the value of mineral production are less readily available in country sources than those regarding trade or volume of minerals produced. Figures for value added by mineral output, though not always available, were sought first, as they provide the most consistent standard to compare the importance of minerals both within a particular national economy and among national mineral sectors worldwide. Where value added to the gross domestic product was not available, gross value of production or sales was substituted and the exception footnoted. Figures for value of production are reported here in millions of U.S. dollars to permit comparisons to be made from country to country. Comparisons can also be made as to the relative importance of each mineral group within a given country.
—
Extractive industries country
%of
mineral production (value added)
trade (value)
GDP. 1990
by kind (%)
total
exports
imports
(000.000 metals*
U.S.$)
energy-
nonmetals "
by kind (%)
total
(000,000 U.S.S)
16.2
823
9,569.7
97.6
Afghanistan Albania
1987 1987
Algeria
American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina
339" 2.35
26
Armenia Aruba
1989 1988 1989
—
6.2
1000
3,813.2
49
95
4.9
nonenergy^ metals"
metals'
U.S.S)
—
100.02
04
1989 1990
0.1
100.0
1989 1984 1988
2.249.'
— —
1
92.4
52 .
lncludes 51.5% for ships' bunkers. 33Excluding petroleum products. 3i£xcluding exports to Israel ($143.2 million in 1987) million in 1987) 32january-September only. Kingdom include Guernsey. Isle of Man. and Jersey (the latter is also shown separately). 361980. 371936; commercial imports only (excluding oil companies' imports). 38Excluding imported military
metals.
*
"
(
Comparative National Statistics
85!
-t-
exports
country
Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) categories (%)
total
.
direction of trade (%)
value
(000.000
food and
US$)
agricultural
raw matenals 2 (0 + 1
-27-28 +
96 52 3.7
130.555 33,984 2 5.215.0
fuels
concen-
other
total"
trates
energy
(5
and
28 +667)
(27 +
(3)
4)
209.0
7,3834
manufactured goods
mineral ores and
which chemicals
of
-667
and
+7+8
products
and transport equipment
+
(5)
(7)
of
+6
9)
related
3.43
—
3
which
of
others (6 - 667
+8+
to
to
to
to
to
European Economic
United States
Eastern
Japan
all
Europe c
(EEC)»
9)
1.83
729
0.1
0.7
41 4
470
93
1.2
488
40 7
6 3
147
1000 196
1.9
2
91 4
66
03
3.6
26
18.8
03
—
—
662
4.7 5.64
3.54
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
09
—
41.2
23.9 37.8
2.5
108
Peru
0.2
19.8
29.4 24.5
2.8
30,6
1.4
283
Poland
48 880
06
1.0
19.6 8.5
Portugal Puerto Rico
46
59.2
02
2
2.4
3.0
3 2
01
93 66
32 .1
958 7
31.7
43
2,5065
294
28.4
35.5
20.5 14.9
4.6
726
23 32
1.5
8,186.0 13.466 1 16.406
67 22
12.5
33.4 17.7
25
9.7
73.0
7,7
336
134
3.1
80.1
19.6
16.9
1.0
53 398
369 740
13,952.8
35 22
197
31.6 57.0 31 7 55 3 20.4
8.5 29.2 35.3
20.716 22.13
1
2.6868
_
1856
82.9
10,487.3 174,100.0
8.4
820 0.3
0.2
32.1
10.32
22.8
1177
94.8
2.7
274
420 756
— —
76 9
0.12
82.9 51.7
17
7826 386
09 01
— —
145.0
52.5264
748 804 23.6280
0.9
0.4
55.8 31.8 31.444
9.3
66.444
7.8
06
93.9 93.3 8.6'9
06
—
0.1
01
—
11.519
124
18.0 16.7
59 5 '8
26 9 5
66.83
94
90.3 12.4
8.919
342
0.3
4.7
3
5.2
1
—
— 5.7 14.9
4.4 0.744
1.544
18.2
0.1
8.4
22.5
638
735
19.61
1
4.44 85.7 30.6
5.4
89.84
2.64
1.94
—
223
623
69.2 39.6
12.1
85.25
10.44
19.742
26.342
2.4
5.2
53.3 31.842
1
_4
—
0.1
—
2.542
Paraguay
Philippines
41.74
Qatar
11.1
Reunion
1.6
28.9 31.5 6.64
Romania
15.4
St. Kitts
18.7 45.3
St.
— — 17.842
36.242
42
2.0 0.442
44.6 65.342 60.2 54.6
24.4 14.4
15.1
03
—
21 3
1,0
87 33.2
Russia 27
Rwanda and Nevis Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino39 Sao Tome and Principe St.
4.44
42
Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra
Leone
Singapore Slovenia
—
5.5
28.0
0.1
—
6
58
17.1
01
0,1
2.5'9
65.8'9
24.94
7.54
0,14
61
Papua New Guinea
3.1
52.04
1.04
— —
15.0
—
0.744
0.1
33.5 68.557
1.6
17
03
—
—
50.1
2.819
22.8 19.3 16.43
1
1.1
— 44
_44
63
5.5 6.5 71
56 2.5
57.0 24.4 23.03
80
3.3
5.6
2.5
100
11.6
44,416.3
79.9
Oman
332
10.8
25.7
—
Norway
56.84
27.5 22.8 63.7
310
14.8
1,453.4
Northern Mariana Islands
34.24
47.1
779 309
0.1
—
Nigeria
260
1.9
03
—
5.1
—
Niger
21 11.5
100
8.2 58.8
1.0
19.9 11.9 9.9
—
—
1
—
—
04
0.1
69
01
29
79.2 30.9
1.6
05 2972
60
— — 1.2 — 0.4
1.7
78.3 28.7 90.0
6.2359
otherr Italy include San Marino goods valued at $1,195.8 million in 1990 40United Kingdom only. 4319 74. 4'lncluding coins. 421989. 441984. 451981. ^Includes 97.1% from rest A7 Excluding for mer East Germany 49 Domestic exf )Orts only. of Customs Union of Southern Africa. 48France only. soExcluding border trade 511986 52Based on trade with Australia and New Zealand o nly. 53Year ending June 30 54Curag ao and Bonaire only 5&AII reexports 56Excluding Dulk imports of fuels. 58Figures for South 57Qther reput lies of the former US S F only. Africa refer tn C n I
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