Britannica Book of the Year 1993

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1993

Britannica Book of the Year

0J'/>s

Encyclopaedia Britannica,

Inc.

Chicago Auckland/Geneva/London/Madrid/Manila/Paris

Rome/Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto

OR Daphne Daume

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1)11

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MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

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MANAGEMENT

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Charles Cegielski

l

DIRECTOR,

(

writing from ihe publisher

III!

II

\K

ig
4. in his hook Human Capital, Beckei In well

While

this

way

ol thinking il

.

l

made

the case foi thinking about education as an

economic decision:

this,

in

nun. led to new the-

how capeconomies determine wages and incomes. Foul yens later, in an .uncle entitled "Crime and Punishment.'' Beckei debated whether eithci

ories regarding labour economics, and italist

the lhre.il ol arrest 01

.in

increase

in

the seventy

or certainly ol punishment would deter rational decisions to commit certain types ol crimes

understanding of

affected

>2 Nobel The Memorial Prize in Economic Science was awarded to University ol Chicago his was the third time professor Gary S Beckei as many years that the university had been iii the home tit (he economics prizewinner. Becker, known foi applying traditional economic theoi

the

why people marry, why wealthy couples have lew ci children than poor ones, why criminals commit crimes: answers to these questions have

Prize for Economics

—

Rigoberta Menchu, awarded the Peace Prize for her work on behalf of Indian nghts in Guatemala, greets well-wishers

The academy

a

columnist for Business Week which he advocated legalization of

conservative in

certain drugs, he

nomic bases ol and Cigarettes.

was currently studying the ecoall

addictions, including alcohol

(BONNIE OBERMAN)

Prize for Literature advocate ol multiculturalism

An

long before h

became fashionable, West Indian poet, playwright, journalist, and painter Derek Walcott was awarded the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature for his "historical vision.'' The Swedish Academy of ctters. in announcing the $1.2 million prize, noied. "In Ins literary works Walcott has laid 1

lor his own cultural environment, but through them he speaks to each and every one us. In him, West Indian culture has found its gieat poet.' WalCOtt's leaders had been predicting foi ve.us that the prize would one day belong

a course

ol

to tins professor ol literature and creative writing whose poetic and dramatic themes arc timeless and whose verse derives from the cadences and Ol the tiny Caribbean island ol Ins Walcott was currently teaching at Boston University and divided his time between the U.S.

traditions birth.

and Trinidad. He was born Jan.

23. 193(1, in the

town of Cas-

Lucia, an isolated volcanic island in the Lessei Antilles, which was (hen a British colony

tries in Si

His birthplace, Ins African origin, and his comol the English language combined to give Walcott his complex inspirations. Both his parents who tilled their home with schoolteachers were books Walcott s father died when Derek and his twin brother Roderick, weie a year old. Derek's earliest work, a privately printed collection of poetry, was published when lie was a teenager. Although a poor math student, he managed to win a scholarship to the University of the West Indies, where he majored in three languages

mand

French, Spanish, and Latin. Living on a Rocke-

Foundation giant in New York City when he was 27. he attended directing classes and rehearsals al the Phoenix Theater's repertory comleller

People

IK the time he was (0 he had published two more volumes of poetry, established the rinidad rhearre Workshop, and achieved recognition foi

Marcus was born in Montreal on luiv 21 received a Ph.D in physical chemist rj from

pan)

I

ins plays,

which were being performed through-

He

\k(nii University, Montreal,

1946 kftei grad uation, Marcus worked al the National Research Council oi Canada as postdoctoral reseat soi ue until 1949, Because Canada was not then in

out the Caribbean islands ami in England Walcott's love oi the classics, folklore, and Ins torj are expressed through universal themes. He has written eloquentl) on subjects ranging trom the struggles ol Caribbean natives who confront then colonial past to reactions to his own mixed -

conducting theoietie.il research interest, he moved to the U.S.

race African, Dutch,

at

hitter legacy ol slaver)

and English ancestr) to the and the effect of the natural

landscape oi one's birthplace. In citing the "great luminosity" ol \\ alcott's work and his "melodious and sensitive'' sivlc, the acadeim noted especiall) his

fwu

"majestic" epic

poem "Omeros,"

a

64-

ehapter modern Odyssey composed in terza rima; while it explores several cultures, it is intended to capture the experience of the Caribbean people. Walcoft regularly published plays and poetry from the early '50s. His latest play was The Odysse) (1992); The Last Carnival (1986) was being performed at Stockholm's Royal Dramatic Theatre at the time the prize was awarded. Although he was stunned by his award, what immediately came to Walcott's mind was how "all the races of the world'" live in the Caribbean, which of course provides a terrific illustration of the "tremendous possibility of an example of

(BONNIE oberman)

unity."

Prize for Chemistry

The winner of the 1992 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Rudolph A. Marcus of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). was cited for his contributions to the theory of electron-transfer reactions in chemical systems. The processes that

Marcus studied, the

transfer of electrons

between

molecules in solution, underlie a number of important chemical phenomena in the living and nonliving worlds, and the practical consequences of his theory extend to all areas of chemistry. The Marcus theory, which by the 1990s was standard fare for modern undergraduate science textbooks, helped scientists better understand such widely differing phenomena as photosynthesis in green plants, chemiluminescence ("cold light") in fireflies, metabolism in living cells, the conductivity of electrically conducting polymers, the emission of light by diodes, and simple corrosion. Intrigued by a graduate student's question. Marcus began formulating his theory in 1952. He published his first paper on the subject in 1956 and continued to develop and refine his ideas in a series of papers for the next nine years while at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, N.Y. (later Polytechnic Institute of New York and Polytechnic University), and later at the University of Illinois. Marcus described what is perhaps the simplest of all chemical reactions the transfer of an electron between two molecules. Although no chemical bonds are broken in such a reaction, changes do take place in the molecular structure of the reacting molecules and their nearest neighbours in solution. These molecular changes

—

influence the ability of electrons to the molecules.

jump between

Marcus found simple mathematiway in which the energy of

cal expressions for the

the molecular system

is affected by the structural changes. Using those expressions, he was able to calculate and explain the great differences in the rates that are observed for various electron-trans-

fer reactions.

Because certain of Marcus' predictions were counterintuitive, his theory initially caused con-

siderable controversy.

Most notably, the theory

predicts that, for a sufficiently large driving force, the larger the driving force becomes, the slower the chemical reaction proceeds. Chemists long

found this prediction difficult to accept and confirm, and it was not until 19X5 that they succeeded in

verifying

it

experimentally.

The Marcus theory has since proved many chemical processes.

interpreting

use it to predict whether reaction will proceed and

an

how

useful in Scientists

electron-transfer fast

it

will

go.

According to the Nobel citation, "In the mathematical connection the Marcus theory makes between theoretical and experimental quantities, experimental chemists gained a valuable tool."

i.

Ins

in

area

ol

investigate

to

theories oi electron-transfer reactions in chemical systems He continued his posklottoi.il work the

University ol

Marcus then joined

North Carolina

until

1951.

ol

(NRC-NAS)

Climatic Impact Committee (1975the Chemical Sciences (1977-79) and as chairman of the NRC-NAS Committee on the Kinetics of Chemical Reactions (1975-77). Marcus received many scientific distinctions, including the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation's senior U.S. scientist award (1976). the Langmuir and Pauling awards of the American Chemical Society (1978 and 1991, respectively), the Robinson and Centenary medals of the Royal Society of Chemistry (1982 and 1988, respec78) and

its

Committee on

Wolf Prize for Chemistry and the National Medal of Science (1989). from the University of Chicago (1983), Polytechnic University (1986), the University of Goteborg, Sweden (1987). and McGill University (1988). In 1986 the Journal of Physical Chemistry devoted a special istively), the prestigious (

1985),

He

also received honorary D.Sc.'s

sue to the 30th anniversary of the Marcus theory.

(CAROLYN

D.

NEWTON)

Prize for Physics The 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Georges Charpak of (European Laboratory for Particle Physics), Geneva, for his inven-

CERN

known as the multiwire proportional chamber. Largely as a result of his pioneering work, which was carried out in 1968, particle physicists have been able to study very tion of a particle detector

rare particle interactions

— as rare as one interac-

tion in a billion.

on recording of ionizations (the creation of electrically charged atoms or molecules) left by a high-energy particle as it passes through matter. The photographic methods that traditionally had been used, although adequate to track comparatively common particles, were not precise or fast enough to allow detection of more exotic particles. Such methods could not discern the few relevant interactions from the multitude of irrelevant ones that occurred in particle-beam collision experiments, and their recording speeds were not high enough to match increasingly intense accelerator beams. Charpak's chamber used electronics to increase the speed of data collection by a factor of a thousand and to improve the spatial resolution. According to the Nobel committee, "His fundamental idea has since been developed and for more than two decades Charpak has been at the forefront of this development." single interaction, or collision, between two high-energy particles can create as many as several hundred particles that spray out in all directions. lo interpret such an event, scientists often must record the trajectory of even emerging particle. In the years before Charpak's contribution, the Particle physics has long relied

the

trail

A

Nobel Prto

event was usually recorded photographically in bubble chamber, a tank ol superheated liquid n Ih. it revealed the passage ol parlicles as trails oi gas bubbles [Tie ['holographs were then analyzed with the help ol special measuring ,i

m a slow ami laborious process. Charpak's invention used an earlier develop ment, the proportional counter, in an unconventional way. The classic proportional counter consists ol a thin wire running down the long axis of a gas-filled tube about a centimetre (0.4 in) devices

the faculty ol the Polytechnic

Brooklyn, where he became a lull piotessor in 1958. That same year he became an American citizen. (When he later investigated the idea ol obtaining dual citizenship, he lound that was not possible under the Canadian law of it the time.) In 1964 Marcus became a professor of physical chemistry at Illinois, and in 1978 he accepted the Arthur Amos Noyes chair of chemistry at Caltech. Marcus held numerous professional positions during his career. In 1968-69 he served as chairman of the board of trustees of the Gordon Research Conferences. In 1970 he was elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. He was a member of the chemistry department advisory councils of Princeton University (1972-78), Caltech (1977-78), and the Polytechnic Institute of New York (1977-80). He also served on the Panel on Atmospheric Chemistry of the National Research Council-National Academy of Sciences Institute

of v>'>l.

meter.

When

a high voltage

is

applied

be-

tween the wire and the tube wall and an electric field established between them, a charged particle passing through the tube will ionize the gas. In this process negatively charged electrons are liberated trom the neutral gas atoms, which then become positively charged ions. In the electric field the electrons move toward the central wire, the anode, which is positively charged, while the ions move toward the glass wall, the cathode, which is negatively charged. As the electrons approach the wire, they are accelerated by the increasingly strong electric field. They gain enough energy to ionize gas atoms with which they collide, liberating more electrons and ions, and the process continues. The cumulative result is an avalanche of electrons and positive ions moving in opposite directions in the tube. It is this movement that gives rise to a detectable electric signal in the circuit connecting the elements of the counter. By the use of a classic proportional counter, the position of the charged particle that started the ionization in the gas can be determined with a precision of only about a centimetre the diameter of the tube. To cover larger surfaces with layers of proportional tubes is impractical and does not allow for the spatial precision necessary in particle-collision experiments. Charpak's invention of the multiwire proportional chamber provided the breakthrough. It consists of a large number of thin parallel wires, about a tenth of a millimetre (0.004 in) in diameter, arranged at intervals of a few millimetres in a plane passing between two cathode plates that are a few centimetres apart. Charpak realized, contrary to the general belief of the time, that each wire in the chamber would behave as a proportional counter and result in a spatial precision of about a millimetre or less. In addition, each wire could handle several hundred thousand particle encounters per second, at that time an exceptionally high rate. Each wire is equipped with an electronic amplifier, and the signals are analyzed with computers, speeding the process enormously. Charpak also suggested possible refinements of the multiwire proportional chamber. Most significantly he pointed out that it was possible to make use of the time it takes between the initial ionization of the gas and the arrival of the electron pulse at the anode wire, an interval called the drift time. measurement of the drift time results in an improved spatial precision better than a tenth of a millimetre in some cases. Charpak's invention launched a massive development of different types of wire chambers. By the early 1990s practically every experiment in particle physics used some type of detector derived from Charpak's original concept. Charpak was at the centre of this development, from and which thousands of scientists, both at elsewhere, subsequently profited. When the J/psi particle (and support for the existence of charmed quarks) was found in 1974, resulting in the award of the 1976 Nobel physics prize to Burton Richter and Samuel C.C. Ting, several multiwire proportional chambers were used. The wire chamber was also used in the discoveries of the and Z in 1983; lor intermediate vector bosons at that achievement the 1984 Nobel physics prize was awarded lo Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer. In the 1990s detectors developed by Charpak were being used increasingly in applicafor example, in medicine tions outside physics to detect X-rays and in the autoradiography of

—

A

—

CERN

W

CERN

—

biological samples.

Charpak, a French 1924, in Poland.

1932

parents

in

War

he served

II

citizen,

He moved al

was born on Aug.

the age of seven. in

1.

to Paris with his Polish

During World was jailed

the resistance and

People of 1992: Nobel Prizes

32

The 1992 Nobel laureates (left) and officials attend the awards ceremony Stockholm. Following custom, the Prize was presented separately in Oslo, Norway, on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death. in

Peace

by the Nazis foi a yeai al the infamous Dachau concentration camp. In 1955 Charpak received a Ph.D. from the ( ollege de ranee, Paris. He be gan working al ("I R\ in 1959 and also became Joliot-Curie professoi al the School ol Advanced Studies in Physics and Chemistry, Paris, in 1984. He held an honorarj doctorate from the sit) oi Geneva and in 1985 was made a membei oi the rench Academy ol Sciences In 1484 he 1

I

I

High nergj and Particle Physics Prize from the uropean Physical Societj was i tiarpak membei ol an international received

the

l

I

,i

coalition

scientists

ol

who

offered

1984

in

to

trade places with Yelena Bonner, wife ol physicist

and dissident Vndrey Sakharov, Soviet officials would let hei go abroad foi medical treatment \Kl.|l\ l> SI « HIS (< it

|

l'ri/e for 1

he

i

v '

l,

J

Physiology or Medicine Nobel Prize foi Physiology

was awarded

to

jointly

l

Diversity

oi

a

biochemical mechanism ot

itv

cell

proteins

that

w

ol

ton emeritus professors 1 dmond H. Edwin (' Kiehs foi then discoveries

ischei

I

and

com reversible

phosphorylation \ large rtumbei participate

in

ot proteins in a living cell regulating the cells reactions and

Fheii functions in turn are governed complex, delicately balanced interactions with other proteins Foi example, various proteins maintain the cells metabolic flux, dictate growth and cellular division, release hormones, .awl me dune musculai work. One ot the more important activities

hv

means

oi controlling those proteins

is

reversible

phosphorylation- the attachment oi detachment phosphate groups to the protein a mechanism regulated in enzymes il nzymes are themselves

ot

proteins with the specific

role ot catalyzing bio-

ischei and krehs were the scientists to purify and characterize one ol en/\mes involved m these processes Vccord Their fundamental ing to the Nohel citation, finding initiated a research area that today is one ot the most active and wide-ranging

chemical reactions

i

I

hrst

the

he three-dimensional Structure ot a protein molecule, whkh is made up ol a (bided chain ot I

amino

acid building blocks, determines its time hosphorclation. the attachment ot phos

-

phatc groups to the protein, and dcphosphorxla lion, the reverse proecss.

change the structure and

charge ot the protein and thereb) this

manner

its

function, In

the biological function ot a protein

ited. r and krehs made their bask discoveries the mid-19501 while studying muscle systems. .

m

MuscL*

osed

oi a large

numbei

he went to the U.S to work as a research associate in biology at the California Institute of Technology That same year he joined the faculty of the University ol Washington as an assistant professoi ol biochemistry. He became a full professor at

the university in 1961. In 1992 he

glycogen deposits, converting them to glucose lo accomplish the conversion the body uses a specific protein, an enzyme called phos he discovery ol that enzyme won phorylase

in

research on the

ol cells

.i

I

I

bilize their

i

biochemists

I

(

ail

and Gerti Cori

the

Prize loi I'hvsioio.jv oi Medicine

1947 Nobel

)

ischei and kiebs wanted lo hnd out exactly how phosphorylase worked and how the activol the enzyme could switch on and oil on ity I

demand ["hey discovered that phosphorylase is converted from an inactive to an active lorm by the attachment ol a phosphate group and that the removal oi the phosphate group inactivates the he scientists demonstrated phosphorylase again that it is the phosphoixlation-dcphosphorylalion I

mechanism oil

governs the activ-

process called

a

Medicine

oi capable of contraction and relaxation rest ing muscle to contract, it must get cneigy in the hat gluCOSC form ol the simple sugar glucose is released from glycogen, the form in which the bodj stoics sugar in the liver and in muscle cells When muscles begin to contract, they quickly mo-

that turns

muscle contraction on and first reported in a scien-

hen discovery was

I

in 1956.

journal he enzymes that catalyze the attachment ot phosphate groups to proteins are called protein kinases he enzymes that catalyze phosphate detachment ate known as phosphatases Alter the laureates' initial work, scientists discovered stoics ol additional kinases and phosphatases thai reghe innumerable ulate specific processes in cells ccllul.it processes governed by reversible protein almost all phosphorylation affect processes neeess, iiv loi life Imbalance between kinases and tific I

I

I

phosphatases can cause disease According to Ik Nobel committee, "We therefore expect the development ol diugs that make it possible to influence unbalances in supplying inhibitors .ui^i activators directed against the phosphorylation dephosphoiviat ion components." he laureates' work led to a greater undei standing ot the immune response, in which certain kinases add phosphates to olhei kinases in a biochemical cascade thai amplifies the initial immune reaction Cyclosporine, a drug used to suppress graft rejection, was shown to work by inhibiting a phosphorylation reaction and inactivating a phosphatase Protein phosphorylation also plavs a lole in the development ol cancel In several eases, ehionie myelogenous leukemia, loi example poorly regulated kinase acuviiv is responsible toi the abnormal cellular growth chai I

acteristk ol isihcr was 1

on

\pnl i

(i.

mm

was engaged

transformation involved

in

Fischer served

merous

in

an advisory capacity for nu-

associations, including the U.S. National

Health

(1959-64), the Fricdrich Ciba-Geigy, Basel, Switz. (1976-84), the American Heart Association (1977-80), the Muscular Dystrophy Association (1980 88), and the Biozentrum Of the University ol Basel (1982-86). Among his professional honours were the Warner Medal ol the Swiss Institutes

ol

Miescher

Institute,

Chemical Society (1952), the Guggenheim Foundation Award 1963 64), the Jaubert Prize of the University ol Geneva (1968), and the Laureate 1'assano Foundation Award (1988). He held honorary degrees trom the University ot Montpellier, rana 1985), and the University of Basel (1988). le was a dual citizen of the U.S. and Switzerland. Krebs was horn on June 6, 1918. in Lansing, Iowa. He attended the University ol Illinois, where he earned a B.A. in chemistry in 1940. He received a medical degree from Washington Univeisitv. St. 1 ouis. Mo., in 1943. After a residency in internal medicine, he took up research at the (

1

|

1

I

Diversity

lull

ol

Washington

1948,

in

prolessor ol biochemistry

work

that university in 1968 to

in

becoming

1957.

He

a

left

for several years at

the University ol California at Davis but returned in 1977. In 1992, as a prolessor of pharmacology

and biochemistry and

a

at the

senior investigator

Hughes Medical

University of Washington cmenlus tor the Howard

Institute, he

was locusmg on the

processes oi hormonal regulation and their role in such diseases as diabetes. kiebs served as an adviser for the National Institutes ol Health, the Biochemistry lest Com-

mission ol the National Board ol Medical Examines (1968-71). the American Heart Association (1970-74). the International Board of Review of the Alberta Heritage Foundation lor Medical Research (1986), and the External Advisory Commission ol the Weis < enter lor Research (198791) His numerous professional honours include Canada's Gairdnet Foundation Award (1978), the Award tor scientific excellence George 1 horn 1983), the Research Achievement Award of the American Heart Association 1987). the 3M Life Sciences Awaid, FASEB 1989). the Albert Lasker Bask Medical Research Award (1989), and the < IB \ Gcigy-Drcvv Award in chemistry (1991).

W

I

(

bom

1920.

ol Swiss parents in

He

received a Ph.D.

the University ol Geneva then conducted research there until istry

cell

the development of cancer.

in

Shanghai in

chem-

1947 and

1953,

when

(

((

AKOLYN

U.

NLWTON)

BIOGRAPHIES Mams, Brian

the in

si

in

ins family to survive

outside the mili-

becoming successful songwi itei ;ind rock singer. He was named besl male vocalist at the Canadian Juno Awards for 1982, 1983, and 1986. His albums Reckless 1984) and Waking diamond Up the Neighbours (1991) both earned records in Canada, and Heckles won the Juno Album ol the Year Award for 1985. "(I verything Do Ii for 'Sou." written for the feature Do) film Robin Hood: Prince oj Thieves (1991), won a Grammy award lor Adams and was nominated he song became an International for an Oscar. hit and was the best-selling single ever in the U.S. At the |9')| Australian Music Awards. Adams was tarv

I

[e

did

ii

by

.1

1

I

N asushi Yasushi Akashi arriyed in i'hnom Penh in mid-March to set up the United Nations ["ran situ ui.il Authority ll he in Cambodia said his mission was a historic, complicated, and ambitious challenge and undoubtedly the most expensive such operation in the 47-year history' of the UN. The UN'I'AC mission, at a cost of some $2 billion, was to disarm more than 21 KM Ml soldiers, clean up land mines, repair roads and bridges, repatriate more than 350.000 refugees, and prepare lor nationwide tree elections in May

\kashi.

Ihc sun ol a career military officei and diplomat, Bryan Adams wanted to prove thai he eould be

I

I

When

MAC),

II

I

i)i)3.

ultimate goal was to bring peace and

The

to a country devastated by

stability

two decades

oi relentless war.

UN

dispatched Akashi and some 16,000 The multinational "Blue Berets" to work out solutions with the four warring Cambodian factions, including the Phnom Penh government set up by Vietnam after the ouster of Pol Pot's bloody Khmer Rouge regime, which was responsible for

deaths of more than a million CambodiWhen Akashi. a veteran Japanese diplomat, with met Prince Norodom Sihanouk, head of the the

ans.

reconciliation council,

work together

the two

men pledged

to

implement the peace accord October 1991. During the early phase of the peacekeeping operation, the Khmer Rouge was cooperative, but gradually it stiffened its stance and accused the Vietnam-created government of violating the Paris agreement. The Khmer Rouge claimed that Vietnamese troops disguised as civilians were still in Cambodia. This was denied, but the Khmer Rouge used the issigned

to

in Paris in

sue to sporadically disrupt UNTAC's operations. In November the Japanese government said its peacekeeping team was suspending repair work in four sectors of war-torn Cambodia because of terrorist acts by the Khmer Rouge.

Akashi was born

1931

Akita, northern Japan. After graduating from the University

of

named International Male Singer of the Year. In 1942 he was named Canadian Entertainer of the Year at the Juno Awards. Born Nov. 5, 1959, in Kingston, Ont., Adams attended school on military bases in Europe and the

B.C.

Middle East belore

He

settling

in

Vancouver,

believed that the discipline of the mil-

itary schools taught him to focus on things, and once he decided to become a musician, he pursued his goal with single-minded fervour. At age 16, Adams quit school and joined a rock band as a vocalist. Two years later he met Jim Vallance, with whom he collaborated in songwriting. Their first hit was "Let Me Take You Dancin' "'(1979). Adams' first solo album. Bryan Adams (19X0), was unsuccessful, but his third album. Cms like a Knife (1983). with its companion music video catapulted him to stardom. Adams gained his early reputation as a songwriter for such rock groups as Kiss and Prism. Even after he had attained tame as a singer, he stated that he would rather he a songwriter. His early albums were considered mainstream rock and roll. However, he believed it was necessary to continue learning, and he used music as a means of making people think. He co-wrote and performed "Tears Are Not Enough" for the Ethiopian reliei effort's Live Aid concert. His 19X7 album Into the Fire explored such themes as personal freedom and native rights. He was displeased when the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission declared that his album Waking l p the Neighbours was not Canadian because he wrote the songs in collaboration with British producer Robert Lange. The Canadian public was impressed with the album. and it sold over one million copies in Canada. For his contributions to music in Canada. Adams received the Order of Canada and the Order of British Columbia. (diane lois way)

Tokyo

in

1954,

in

in

he continued his studies

at

Columbia University, New York City, hoping to return as a teacher. Instead, he became the UN's first Japanese official. Akashi spent most of his UN career in New York City. Before his appointment to Cambodia, he served as under secretary for disarmament. His life-style changed so much during his years in the U.S. that Akashi seemed un-Japanese to members of the Japanese Foreign Ministry. Akashi saw himself as very international and felt very comfortable in an international environment. The Khmer Rouge, however, resented his blunt talk and wanted to see him replaced. But Akashi sympathized with Cambodia, which he felt had had so much war that it was sick and tired of fighting. The problem was that, after 20 years of war, mutual distrust was difficult to dispel. Meanwhile, the situation in Cambodia remained shaky. In mid-November UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali reported that UNTAC had found no evidence of foreign units in Cambodia after checking all areas except the \5 c c of the country controlled by the Khmer Rouge. Nevertheless, the Khmer Rouge, with a military force of 15,000 to 25,000, continued to refuse to cooperate, and in late November the UN announced that it would impose trade sanctions on areas under its control. (KAY K. TATElSHl)

Amato, Giuliano Facing the

triple

demons

of budget deficit, gov-

ernment corruption, and organized crime, Giu-

Amato of the Socialist Unity Party (formerly Italian Socialist Party and still popularly called PSI) assumed office as prime minister of Italy on

liano

June

28,

1992.

Socialist leader

ment by

A

comparative outsider, deputy

Amato had

received his appoint-

Oscar Scalfaro on June IS, one day following the withdrawal of PSI front-man Bettino Craxi from consideration. Amato's government, constituting a weakened version of the four-party coalition headed by his predecessor. Christian Democrat Giulio Andreotti, was Italy's 51st government of the post-World War II era. Pres.

Amato was born He received a bachelor 111

I111111

on May

193H.

13.

degree from the University of Pisa in I960 and a masters degree in comparative constitutional law oiumbia Universin. New 'lork City, three years later, ol laws

t

from

r

1 1

j


(VIRGINIA M I

showed

the polls

the lead and independent H. Ross Perot

effort to aid the famine-Stricken country, and New Year's fvc visit to the troops. and He Yeltsin were scheduled to sign a second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty early in January. More controversially, he granted Christmas Eve pardons to six government officials involved in the Iran-conrra scandal; independent counsel Lawrence Walsh hinted that Bush might yet be

Year, 1991

1

in

he paid a

l.ilcni

>

(

was

I

i

tainei ol the Yeai

When

Clinton's.

to

scout. Garth Brooks, his tirst l 'v» and generated foui in

included the

wing commentator Patrick Buchanan. As it became increasingly clear that voters were not as concerned with foreign policy as with reviving the sagging U.S. economy. Bush crisscrossed the nation, promising changes in health care, expressing regret at having agreed to raise taxes in 1990, and inviting comparisons between his "character" and

I

Records album, was released rtumbei one counalmost overnight try smiles, catapulting him i« whose musical idols during the success. Brooks 1970s included Queen, Kiss, and James (ayloi represented a new breed oi country music entei tainer His songs appealed to a mainstream audi ence. with their mix ol rock and country eh and then sometimes pithj messages based on Brooks's homespun philosophy. His mans awards ticed

latet b\ a

a stronger-than-expected challenge by right-

oil

Bush also met with the presidents of Mexico and Canada to initial a North American tee Irade Agreement. \liei the election Bush vowed to "finish this job with style." In December he approved plans

finals his senior

year turned his attention back to country music Hoping foi instant stardom, Brooks headed foi Nashville, lenn. m 1985 but left, daunted, attei less than a k\a\ Two years later, accompanied bj ins bride, Sand} Mahl, he returned to Nashville, this time determined to succeed Brooks was no si\

—

ing the vear

the javelin throw. Brooks's failure to

the Big

campaign, cope with a weak economy, and persuade the U.S. electorate that he was sensitive to their domestic policy concerns. His travails continued even after the election he buried his mother, Dorothy Walker Bush, the Monday before Thanksgiving. In the wake of the U.S. victory in the Gull war in 1991, many believed Bush would be unbeatable in the 1992 presidential race. He secured the nomination at the Republican national convention in Houston on August 20 after fending lustre

(

1988) and

named

after herself.

She com-

Gottlieb as The \.» Yorkei editor Gottlieb had luniseli been a controversial choice for the job in 1987 but he had honoured the status quo at

bined a general concern lor the underprivileged ami suffering members oi the Australian commu-

the admitted!) idiosyncratic magazine, longtime Staffers and writers panicked, but Brown said The

ol

\, a Yorkei needed little change to become icle vant again She seemed set on pulling The \et\ Yorker into the 1990s, but gently and one step at

a time.

(l

ORRAINI Ml kk ax.

)

Kush, George Herbert Walker

On Nov the

i

s

1992, wink- casting his ballot in 3, presidential election in Houston. [*exas, called 1992 "the most un-

George Bush pleasant veai ol mj Pres.

his

life

presidential bid foi

a

Not only did he lose second term in office

but he spent Arkansas Go\ Bill Clinton (q.v. most ol the vear trying to spark lite into a lack-

to

).

nitv

with a

commitment

to

expanding the rights

Buttrose, who possessed an engaging hypnotic smile, ami robust self-confidence, was a pathfinder. She branched out trom her majoi task as chairwoman of the National Advi-

women.

lisp,

Committee on AIDS to launch a vital new government program aimed at raising awareness ot the importance ol training employees tor the work force. Buttrose was appointed to this post by Kim Bea/lev. the minister lor employment, education, and training. She was convinced that sor,

Australia had a responsibility to tram its stall to the highest level "I he main assumption made by

many companies." she

said, "is that

it's

a

waste

time training women because women leave to have babies. his excuse was pulled out whenevei

ol

I

People

companies wanted respontibilit) thi

ii

staff,

u> avoid the

real

issu
' Sharma was a membei ol thi Ma dhya Pradesh legislative assembly tron 1971 and during that period he held a ( abinet state

pOSl loi

some

II

national arena,

as

\eais.

its

He

becoming

a

then

moved

member

into the

ol the

I

k

Sabha (House ot the People; the lower house) in 1471 and serving in that bod) until 1977. From 1972 to 1974 he held the post of president ol the Indian National Congress He was again elected lo the ok Sabha in 1980. Before becoming vice president in 1987, Sharma I

held governorship posts 85), 8 (

Sharma, Shankur Daval On Julv 25, 1992, Shankar Dayal Sharma was administered the oath of office that made him the ninth president of India. Sharma succeeded Ramaswamy Venkataraman in the target] ecu

ommitu

i

Punjab (1985

I

I

he besl

ongress

86),

known

Approach

ol

m Andhia

Pradesh

I

1984-

and Maharashtra (1986his published works was

in International

.

\ffairs.

(MARVIN MARTIN) Sherbo, Vitali

rom

gymnastics competition at the age Sherbo's ambition was to become an Olympic champion. In 1992 he won more gold medals than anybody else at the Olympic Games in Barcelona. Spain, and became the first gymnast to win six gold medals in one Olympics. He won individual golds in the pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel Bars, and all-around competition (which encompasses all six disciplines) and a team medal as a member of the gold-medal winning Unified Team of athletes from the former SoI

Ins first

of both houses of parliament and of the state legislatures. Moving up from the post ol vice president. Sharma began the presidency after five decades in public life, during which he had been a freedom fighter and had held important offices at both the state and national levels. Delivering his emotionally charged inaugural address amid

Sherbo was born Jan. 13, 1972, in Minsk. Belarus The son of two athletes, he moved quickly up the developmental pyramid of Soviet sports and became a member of the Soviet national team at 15. His first significant success in senior competition came two years later, in 1989, when he placed fourth in the all-around at the Chunichi ( up at Nagoya, Japan. In 1990 in Minsk Sherbo won his first national championship with an all-around victory in the last tournament to use the U.S.S.R. national championship name. He also burst into the international spotlight with all-around victories in the Goodwill Games at Seattle, Wash., the Blume Memorial at Barcelona, and the Chunichi Cup, where he also won four individual events. Although he finished second in the World Cup all-around at Brussels and fifth in that competition in the European REUTERS/BETTMANN

a colourful and joyous ceremony, the new president called for equal respect for all religions as a basis lor the achievement of national goals. The

fore

on the

site

of a

bloody Muslim-Hindu

riots

throughout India.

without social and economic justice." He pleaded for a strong and united country capable of linding the strength in ethical and moral values to help overcome the massive problems of terrorism, ethnic frictions, oppression of caste and gender, ami persistent poverty, ignorance, and disease Sharma was born on Aug. 19, 1918, in Bhopal, His later the capital of Madhya Pradesh state higher education began at St. Johns College in

Lucknow

at

University;

actively involved

India's

struggle.

I

independence movement in Bhopal, he was imprisoned for eight months. After India gained independence (1947), Shai ma's political career developed through a long

association with

He was

a

the

member

Indian the

ol

National Congress. .All

India

Congress

I

S S

l
the Wide World, was published in 1959 She won well-deserved recognition followol

I

ing the vcisitv ol KhartOUffl,

I

he Sudan,

in

1958,

mas London .i

terol laws degree from the l Diversit) ol in 1961, and a doctorate in public law trom the ol

sit)

Paris in

l| i

i>

J

He became dean

.

ol

/.. 197(1). See, to lake 1970 Bollingen Prize lor achieveAmerican poetr) and the 1971 National

publication ol

(

receiving the

ment

in

K

'.

--

.

-.

'-i

ol

the Stella

New York

ity,

(

Vdlei

where

performers Marlon Brando Warren Beatty, and Robert De Nuo. in the Method technique ol act\dicr ing developed by Konstantin Stanislavsky was the daughter ot Jacob and S.ir.i \dlcr the leading S classical Yiddish stage tragedians She made hei Stage debut in hei lathei duction ol Broken Hearts at the ace ol tour, but lined hei reputation appearing with the c\ penmental Group lliealie in such productions ol sterling

including

Award. Almendros moved

to

Havana

(

in

l

The

House

o)

Conn

md

fight,

Sing! In

Paradise

1934 she studied

Stanislavsky; her interpretation ol Method -tressed that an aCtOf should Create by

wuh

using imagination and differed Irom the Method ill taught hv lee Sirashcig. who headed the Actors Studio and instructed actors to draw

trom

their experiences Vdlea also believed thai the art. architecture, and clothes ol .ii^ era were

an integral part Ol role development She taught her students that self-awareness coupled with ere ati\e imagination was vital to forming character\dlcr directed several izations Besides teaching New V>rk Stage productions: ap peared ill such tilms

im

,i

rUo

1

o] the Thin

1948); and starred

md Oh Mama and

I

lished Stella

54

\

Hung You

in the

(

losel

Sad (1961). In 1988 she pub-

appearance and

O'Neill's

Strange

Interlude,

Lavinia

in

'4N to

who had

fought with the defeated loyalist forces during the Spanish Civil War In the early 1950s he studied in Cuba and in Rome and then taught in the United States his exiled

join

He returned but

taries,

lather,

to

in

una

(

in

he

1961

1959 to

came

WORLD

AP/WIDE

make documen-

into

with

conflict

ommunist government and moved to I'.uis. Almendros use ol camera angles, visual imagery colour, and luminous lighting effects enhanced some oi the most critically acclaimed rench mo lion pictures ol the 1960s and 7tts He worked with directoi Eric Rohmer on such films as \ia Nuil chez Maud (1968; Wv Wight at Maud's), Le Cenou and Le Dermei Mitro (1980; The last Metro). In addition to Days o) Heaven, Almendros' Englishlanguage films include Kramer n Kramet The lilac Lagoon 1980), Sophie's < hoice 1982), /'//( es m the Heart (1984), and Bilh Bathgate Man with a Camera, (1991) His autobiography,

role that

was published

in

/

tout d'Adele

1

(

i

in

I

garnered her television's Emmy awards and 1961. Alter Rebecca, Anderson's

1954

film roles often exploited her theatrical intensity

i

is

striking

Mourning Becomes Electro, Gertrude in Hamlet, and a chillingly effective Lady Macbeth, a

Paulmc a \dler. Stella,

Her

City.

O'Neill's

I'apres-midi

1991

in

New York

intense dramatic style were perfectly suited to complex villainous characters, notably Nina in

»4(K

I

his

Dame Judith (Frances Margaret Anderson). Australian-born actress (b. Feb. 10,

He performed in a medicine show before forming Ins own string hand, the Tennessee Crackerjacks, who were renamed the Crazy ennesseans and finally the Smoky Mountain Boys when Opry

traditionalist.

many felt that he reached the pinnacle of career with the Raiders. He played on the Raider team that routed the Washington Redskins 38-9 in the 1984 Super Bowl. After retiring in 1986, Alzado embarked on an acting career; he attempted a comeback with the Raiders in 1990 but was unsuccessful. but

Anderson,

two-yea] recuperation.

his nearly

Alzado was also noted for his temper; he once ripped a helmet off an opponent in retaliation for what he thought was a personal foul against him. Alzado was named the NFL's defensive player of the year in 1977, when he was with the Broncos,

\l/ailo.

l\k\

S

I

football

plavei

lb

April

3,

and her

abilitv

to

invoke

sinister

a

mood Irom

1949, New York, N.Y.—d. Mav 14, 1992, Port land. Ore.), as a leroeious delensive lineman fol

the

79), < lev eland Browns os Angeles Raiders (1982 85) professional football teams, was admired by fans lor his bone-jarring, aggressive playing sivle but was feared bv opponents who laced Ills 1.91-m is kg (260 lb) hulking frame Alzado i-in) maintained his formidable physique by taking massive doses oi anabolic steroids, drugs that he claimed (although it could not he proved) served

Laura (1944), and The tunes (1950). She could be equally effective, however, when cast against

Root

as a catalyst foi the rare type ol brain cancel thai

Order

the

Denver Broncos (1971

(1979 82), and

I

i

claimed

Ins life

Alter his disease was diagnosed

I

ntle

a trail

Mi-American

form

\i/ado was

tor Ins playing with

named

Yankton was

He confessed College, Yankton, then thai he began taking Steroids Alzado con luiucd to take body -enhancing drugs throughout his professional career, and he revealed that hewas so addicted to them that he took them even s.l>

alter his retirement

A maverick on

ih.it

Kon

King's

iv

vocal

inflection

or gesture,

as

in

(1941), All Through the Night (1942).

pe. as in her portrayal ol the long-suffering Big

Mama

eiinessee Williams (at on a Hot I in in P>58) and the austere priestess in Stat lick 111 The Search for Spock 1984). In the 1980s she appealed as a domineering matriarch on the popI

(

1

IS

daytime soap opera "Santa Barbara." Anderson was made Dame Commander of the ular

ol the British

Empire

in

I960.

in

April 1991, he became a sell anointed symbol of the dangers ol steroid use as his massive muscles

were reduced to

smallest

it

the gridiron,

Andrews, (Carver) Dana. U.S. actor lb

Jan.

I.

Miss-d. Dec. 17. 1992, l.os Angewas a handsome and durable leading

1909, c oilms. les,

(

alii

).

man who

turned 111 sensitive performances in such l'MIK lihns as Laura, as a cynical detective oh

sessed by a portrait ol a

murder he

is

woman whose (h Hmc

investigating; The

as an innocent victim of a lynch

the Sun.

and

I lie

as a

Best

o)

Our

Incident,

mob: A Hulk

in

platoon; lives, as a heroic World

lough sergeant leading

Yean

apparent

a

People

Wai

veteran returning to an uncertain future a onetime accountant, hitchhiked to

II

to supi

I

us

Angeles

1931

in

He worked

to

trj

to

break into show

.1

1

reportedly

Beyond a Reasonable Doubt, Boomerang, \l\ Foolish Heart, and While the Cifj Sleeps Aftei Ins careei began to wane m the 1960s, he brief!) performed onstage and from 1969 to 1972 appeared in the television so.ip opera "Bright Promise" before reluming to the screen in lirport 1975 (1974) and llu / ast Tycoon (1976). Dunns; the 1950s he was arrested twice for drunken driving, and though he did not believe in making commercials, he appeared on c| "2 as a spokesperson lor sobriety television in oi Ins other notable tilms include

Department

n

-Li'omi Bathiat), French ac1898, Courbevoie, France d. France), was a legendary star of the French cinema in the 1930s and '4IK: she was best known for her stunning portrayal ot the courtesan Garance in director Marcel Carne's classic film Les Enfanti du Paradii 1945; Children of Paradise). Arlett) grew up in a working-class Paris worked suburb of and in a factor) and as a secretary before turning her sensual good looks to her advantage as an artists' model and musichall chorus girl. She made her motion-picture debut in Un Chien qui rapporte (1930) and had minor roles in numerous films, but she achieved star status with Hotel tin Surd (1938), the first of her five collaborations with Came. The others were Le Jour se live 193'*). Les Isiteurs da \oir (1942|. and 1. Air de Paris (19541. Arletty was briefly jailed as a collaborator in 1944 because of a wartime liaison with a German officer. She did not make another movie until 1949 (Portrait dim assassin), the same year she triumphed as Blanche in Jean Cocteau's stage production of Tennessee Vrlett}

(Aki

t

t

tress (b.

May

July 24,

1992.

Babbitt. Arthur, U.S. animator (b. Oct.

Omaha. Neb.

(

I

Williams'

A

Streetcar

work included the

Named

Desire.

Arletty

's

Jean-Paul Sartre's Huis-clos 1954; No t-\n) and The Longest Day (1962). her only English-language film. She also appeared on stage in Brendan Behan's The Hostage (1962) and Cocteau's Les Monstres sacres (1966). She lost most of her eyesight in the mid1960s. Arletty published two volumes of memoirs. La Defense (1971) and Je suis comme je wis 1987). later

film version of

(

(

Asimov, Isaac, U.S. science-fiction writer, science popularizer. and biochemist (b. Jan. 2. 1920, Petrovichi. Russia d. April 6. 1992, New York, N.Y.). explored extraterrestrial horizons and the

—

role of robotics in a futuristic society as the enor-

mously popular and prolific author of more than 400 books, notably Foundation 1951 ). Foundation and Empire 1952). and .Second foundation 1953), a panoramic trilogy detailing the impending collapse of a far-flung galactic empire and the work of an organization of psychologists and social scientists to sow the conditions tor a better empire to follow. Asimov, a self-styled compulsive writer. was renowned for the clarity of his writing and for his superb storytelling He was credited both with popularizing science-fiction writing and with elevating the genre from pulp-adventure stones to a higher intellectual plane, encompassing sociology, history, mathematics, and science. He also published nonfiction hooks on such wide-ranging subjects as the Bible. Shakespeare. Gilbert and Sullivan, humour, limericks, history, and a van ety of scientific topics. A precocious child who immigrated to the U.S. with his family when he was three, Asimov sold his first storx, "Marooned oil Vesta," to the magazine Amazing Storiei in Istounding Science in 1938. Ihice years later lion magazine published '.'Nightfall," which de(

scribes the shattering events that lake place on the planet l.agash. a world with six suns. when,

during an eclipse, the stars make their oncc-in2,000-yeai appearance. Hie story was hailed as a masterpiece and ill years later was voted bv the Science Fiction Writers ol America as the best

science-fiction

IHE

NEW YORK

TIMES

mov

joined the faculty ot Boston University: after 1958 he did net teach or receive a salary, but he remained professionally associated with the university. Asimov published his first book. Pebble the Sky. in 1950 and followed it with the short-story collection /, Robot, which included his famous "Three Laws of Robotics that helped establish the popular conception of robots, both fictional and real, as benign creations rather than monsters bent on destroying humanity. Asimov

m

"

was awarded numerous prizes and awards

for his

works, including five Hugos (given by fans) and three Nebula Awards (given by fellow sciencefiction writers). Among his remarkable output are The Stars, like Dust (1951). The Chemicals of Life 1954).

(

The

(

aves

Steel

ork 'i.nikecs (1954-66) profes-

much-beloved announce]

March

high school Students in making the transition to college and in finding good jobs. Barnett was a

Bartholomew. Freddie (FRED! km k

sional baseball learns, enthralled audiences with

d.

leader of Irgun

(

as the home l.i Oct. J2. 1992, lallahassee spun announcer, notablv on radio, lor the C inein i.

—

Wolfovitch, Polish-born Israeli 16. 1913, Brest-Litovsk, Rus1992, Tel Aviv, Israel), was the Zvai Leumi (an underground

Aug.

New York Cit) 1980-83), before serving as vicechancellor (1983-86) of the City University of New York and chancellor (1986-90) of the University of Missouri at St. Louis. An able administrator, she implemented programs to assist poor

sis'

I

Menachem

was frequently

University (1970-76), Howard University, Washington. DC. (1976-80). and Columbia University,

Barber. Walter Lanier ("Red"), U.S. baseball broadcaster (b Feb. 17, 1908, Columbus, Miss d.

Begin,

politician (b.

it

a suitable Career.

the new

I

When

died ill stunning UHI

his lather

1 ord Bath inherited a li/ahcthan house thai was badly

I

I

official loi

room

the

in

ord Bath, who cultivated his public ullage as eccentric often worked in the garden, while his sons parked c.us and Ins wile served tea to the visiiois lhe estate drew tens ol thousands ol tounsts pel ve.ii, especiallv altei the arrival of the lic.

aii

Arab-Israeli war. in late 1477 he unexpectaccepted Sadat's oiler to open a peaceful hesc negotiations eventually led to the dialogue

1441).

need ol re pair, a superb ail collection, one ol the worlds finest private libraries, and crippling death duties lli.it lopped £600,000. In order to avoid selling lhe lamily valuables, he determined to make the estate support itself, and within three years the renovated house was opened to the paying pubI

1%7

ed!)

inquir)

held Israel indirectly responsible hundreds ol Palestinians at

the massacre Ol

Sabra

Beirut.

He

and Shatfla refugee camps m West resigned from office in August 198.3.

Black. Fugene Robert. U.S. Iinaiieici (b. May 1. 1898, Mlanta, Ga.— d. Feb. :u. L992, Southhampton, NV), as the prudent president (1949-62)

Bank lor Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), expanded the mem-

ol the International

bersiup from 48 nations with a capital ol $8.3 billion lo Ml members with a capital ol S20.5 bil-

and formed Iwo affiliates— the International Development Association, charged with making concessional loans to the poorest countries, and lion

People el I992i OMtnariei

inance ( orp the arm ol the bank promoting the private sectoi Black, the governoi ol the Federal Reserve Bank son ui was ui Ail, mi. graduate ol the University ol ( ieorgia and served in the oavj during World w at before becoming successful investment bankei on w .ill Street, specializing in the bond market He was propelled inlii the world ol inlcrn.ition.il

artist

finance after joining (i l '47) the World Hank as s executive diiectoi undei its president, Fohn

the author ol

the International

I

.c

.1

i,

.i

I

i

J.

McCloy. During

ins

tenure as president

ol

the

bank, he established that institution's credibility with financial markets m the developed world and secured a reputation as a troubleshootei aftei forging an accord (still existing) between India and Pakistan for distributing the waters ol the Indus River. A skilled ami hard-boiled negotiator, Black played a vital role in securing loans for Third World countries, although the hank was 1946) for post-World War original!) formed reconstruction in Europe. While Black was at its helm, the bank shitted its emphasis to provid(

1

ing loans foi

economic development, and

more than So

billion ol

to funds

Upon Pres.

its

own

it

lent

capital in addition

from private sources without

his

resignation

a detault. 1Mb-. Black served as

in

Lyndon Johnson's emissary

to

Southeast

Asia: helped lay the foundation for the creation of the Asian

Development Bank: served

chairman Washington as

of the Brookings Institution, a liberal think tank; and was on the hoard of directors of

numerous companies and

financial institutions.

Blackwell. Ed(ward) Joseph, U.S. jazz drummer Oct. 10, 1924. New Orleans, La.—d. Oct. 7,

(b.

1992. Hartford, Conn.), in

was known

lor his role

the development of free jazz beginning in the

JACK VARTOOGIAN

in

residence

Wesleyan

al

\l»i

niversity

I

maid on

ol the irrepressible

onn, Beginning in 1976 he performed and recorded with othei formei ( oleman associ ales undei the name Old and New Dieains.

dletown,

the

1

c

inaleur actress Irom the

Hazel

(

57

12.

Booth made hei Broadway debut role in Hells Bells.

rig

On

in

radio

she was the voice ol cashier Miss Dully on the

Bloom, Ulan David, lb 7.

Sept 1992,

1930,

14,

nicago,

(

S.

I

philosopher and author

Indianapolis.

111.),

was

best

Ind.

d.

Oct.

remembered

as

the controversial thought-provok-

( losing oj the American Mind: Higher Education Has Failed Demot racy and Impoverished the Sauls oj Today s Students

ing best seller The

How

•

he was also

known

in

academic

circles

lor

his

SCholarl) volumes Ol interpretive essays and translations ol woiks b) Rousseau and Plato. Bloom

earned a B.A. (1949), an MA. (1953). and a Ph.D. (19551 from the University ol Chicago, where, under the tutelage of the German-born political philosopher Leo Strauss, he became a devotee of the Western classics and a proponent of the philosophical tenei ol "transeultural truth." Bloom taught at the University of Chicago 195560) before teaching at Yale University (196263) and Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. (196370). He was also a member of the faculties of the Universities ol Tel Aviv. Israel (1969-70), Paris (1970), and Toronto (1970-79). At Cornell he published such well-received works as Shakespeare's Politics (1964), a collection of essays, and a translation of Plato's Republic in 1968. The following year, when an armed group of students took control of Cornell's administration building (

and demanded that certain mandatory classes be dropped in favour of those deemed more relevant

Bloom tendered (1970)

to them.

his resignation

after the university yielded to their

demands. He

returned to the University of Chicago in 1979 as a professor with the Committee on Social Thought; he became codirector in 19X4 of the university's John M. Olin Center for Inquiry into the Theory and Practice of Democracy. In The Closing of the American Mind, Bloom argued that universities no longer taught students how to think; that students, especially those attending the top schools, were unconcerned about the lessons of the past or about examining ideas in a historical context; and that students seeking a liberal education would not be able to get one. His blistering critique, which offered no solutions to the crisis in education, blamed misguided curriculum, rock music,

and academic elitism for the impoverishment of students.

television,

spiritual

(Thelma Booth Ford). U.S. acAug. 30, 1898. New York, N.Y.— d. Oct.

Booth, Shirlev tress (b. 16,

1992, North

Chatham, Mass.), gave an un-

forgettable dramatic performance as the shabby

housewife Lola Delaney in Come Buck Little Shebu: she won a Tony award for her stage role in 1950 and an Academy Awaid for best actress in 1952. Booth, however, was probably best remembered for her Emmy-winning title-role portrayal AP.WIDE

WORLD

popular program ["avera," which feaDuffy tured Ed Gardner, her lust husband, as Archie. During Booth's Broadway career she often portrayed quick-witted women adept at wisecracking. ippeared in some 40 plays, notably Men m The Philadelphia Stan. \l The Tune oj the ( uckoo, and the musical version of

-I

draws

Tree

Mam

credits include

m

Brooklyn.

Street to

Her

About Mrs. Leslie 1954), The Matchmaker and Hot Spell (1958). (

Boudiaf.

Muhammad,

film

Broadway (1953), (

1958),

Algerian political leader

Alg.—d. June 29. 1992. was a founder of the revolution(FLN) and a hero of the Algerian war of independence (1954—62). He broke with his former comrades-in-arms in the early 1960s, but he was unexpectedly recalled June Annaba, (b.

23, 1919. M'Sila.

Alg.),

ary National Liberation Front

in

1992 after more than 27 years

come

in exile to bethe nation's president. Boudiaf fought in

the French army in World War II. but by 1950 he was a central figure in the nationalist movement against France, and in 1954 he joined Ahmad Ben Bella on the FLN leadership council. In 195b he and Ben Bella were captured and imprisoned by the French. They were released in 1962 and formed a provisional government in newly independent Algeria, with Boudiaf as deputy premier. He opposed President Ben Bella's autocratic rule, however, and after being interned for several months by his old partner, he went into exile (1964). Boudiaf settled in Morocco, where he managed a brick factory and denounced the increasingly corrupt

FLN.

In January 1992. with the

on the verge of winning parliamentary elections, he was invited to return as the head of a military-backed council of state. Although he appeared to have gained public support for his announced reforms. Boudiaf was shot and killed while giving a speech at the opening of Islamic fundamentalists

a

new

cultural centre:

one of

his

bodyguards was

suspected of the shooting. Bovet, Daniel, Swiss-born Italian physiologist (b.

March 1992,

23,

1907, Neuchatel. Switz^-d. April

Rome.

won

Italy),

the

8.

1957 Nobel Prize

for Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries of certain synthetic chemotherapeutic substances, notably curare-like muscle relaxants, which are used in conjunction with anesthetics to facilitate surgery, and the first antihistamines, which are effective in the treatment of allergic reactions. Bovet was educated at the University of Geneva (D.Sc, 1929) and took a research position at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. There he found that the dye Prontosil, which had been shown to cure bacterial infections, actually contained a simpler active compound, sulfanilamide. This discovery led to the development of hundreds of antibacterial

sulfa

"wonder drugs." Bovet was named

Pasteur Institute in 1936. and 1944 he discovered pyrilamine (mepyramine). the first antihistamine. In 1947 he was invited to establish a laboratory ol chemotherapeutics at the government-sponsored Superior Institute of Health in Rome. Although he synthesized some

director of the in

400 compounds

produced curare's paralyzBovet filed no patents and received no income from any of his discoveries. Later he moved away from pure research, becoming professor of pharmacology at the University of Sassan (1964-71), directoi ol the psvchobiology and psychopharmacology laboratory at the Italian National Research Council (1969-75). and professor ol psychobiology at the ing effects

Although the snare drum was prominent playing, he was often praised as one of the most melodic of drummers, Blackwell grew up in New Orleans, where he was influenced by the city's musical tradition and bj such early drummers as Paul Barbann. After playing with rhythm and blues groups, in 1951 he went to Los Angeles and first performed with saxophonist Ornelte Coleman, who was later at the forefront of 19dl)s.

in

his

the free jazz

movement

Blackwell

moved

New

to

where he gained recognition as the regular drummer in Coleman's quartet, fie also performed with a number ol other avant-

York

City

in

I960,

garde musicians, including trumpeter Don (hem ittle and the group headed by trumpeter Bookci and saxophonist Eric Dolphy. In 1975 he became 1

l

in

Diversity ol

that

differing degrees,

Rome

(1971

82)

Boyle, Kay, U.S. author (b. Feb. 19. 1902. St. Paul. Minn.— d. Dec. 27. 1992. Mill \ alley, Calif.

I,

gained

critical

acclaim for her poetry and novels

slum stones, notably "The wink iloises oi Vienna" (1936) and "Defeat' (1941). for which she won O. Henry Aw. ads. Boyle spent much ol her childhood and the earry and especially

foi

net

58

People of 1992: Obituaries

her

years oi

marriage

first

Europe and.

in

al-

her second husband in 1441. she returned to Europe during World War II. After the war she served in France M4d 53) and West Germany as a correspondent ter briefly returning to ihc U.S. with

(

1

lor The New Yorker magazine. Boyle's thematic works, which stressed the moral responsibility of

the individual in desperate situations, showcased

her mastery ol si> le. She employed such literary techniques as grammatical simplification, rhythmic repetition, stream of consciousness, radical imagery, and experiments with Surrealism. Her lirst offerings were romances, but in later works she documented the spirit of the times with fictional works of social realism When she and her third husband. Joseph win Franckenstein. were blacklisted as Communists during the |9s(ls witchhunts conducted by U.S. Sen. Joseph McCarthy, she spoke out against that injustice: she later

openly opposed the Vietnam war and

bombing

Among

ol Libra in the 1980s.

were Plagued

th
4 It

citizenship

l

l

the building ol the Berlin Wall in 1961, that he began to see the policies ot the

especially

West that

as

aftei

unrealistic

and

ineffective

the acceptance Ol the status

Brandt saw

quo and thus

the normalization ol relations between

West was necessary became chancelloi SPD gained powei

1

and Brandt

ast

foi

an) future change

ot

West German) when the

1969. He immediately set about normalizing relations with East German) tin accepting that "two states e\isi in Germany Poland (by acknowledging the Odei Neissc line in

items. Bratby was accepted at the Slade School of Fine Art, but he abruptly switched to the Royal College ot Art 1951-54). He mounted Ins first solo exhibition at the Beaux Arts Gallery in London in 1954 and captured the public's fancy almost overnight. In 1957 he was commissioned to provide paintings tor the motion picture 7Vie Horse's Mouth, and for many years thereafter he was identified in the popular imagination with

day

Bohemian

the

the centre of the film. Al-

artist at

though he fell out of critical favour in the 1960s, Bratby continued to work, producing thousands ol sketches and paintings, including hundreds of portraits. He also wrote several autobiographical novels, notably Breakdown (1960), and served as editor in chief of Art Quarterly trom 1987. Brooks, Richard, U.S. screenwriter and motion-

Hills. Calif),

May 18, 1912. Pa.—d. March 11, 1992, Beverl) yvas known for producing films char-

acterized In

gritty

picture director and producer (b.

Philadelphia.

realism, especially

social

The

Blackboard Jungle (1955), and also specialized in adapting literal) works to the screen, notably the superb Elmer damn 1960), foi which he won an (

Academy Award lor scrcenwriting. Alter attending Temple University in Philadelphia, Brooks began his writing career as a sports journalist. He helped Orson Welles on radio scripts before collaborating on screenplays lor such forgettable tilnis. as White Savage (1943) and Cobra Woman 1943 Il944i During World War II he served 45) in the marines and wrote a novel about the homosexual Ihe liruk in Foxhole persecution Ol a (1945), which was l.itei adapted to the screen as a tilm about anti-Semitism and renamed ( row '4"l His screen adaptation tor Kev Largo fin |94m was critically acclaimed tor ns taut, tension-building structure, and he made his directing bow yyith anothci thriller. Crisis (1950) Follow(19S2). Brooks ing the success ol Deadline I S adapted Evan Hunter's novel The Blackboard Jungle and directed Glenn ford in the compelling 1

l

I

l

i

I

about a teacher grappling to earn the respect Some ol his later ettorts Oi ghetto teenagers at literary adaptation were considered somewhat film

llu

including

Brothers

Karamazm

(1958)

Lord J an (I9ds| and / Intel Gantry, yet the latter, with strong performances by Bun Lancaster and Shirley Jones, became a classic and was perhaps Brooks s best film He evoked strong performances from Elizabeth fayloi and Paul Newman ill lennessee Williams' < at on a Hot Tin Knot and again trom Newman in another Williams adap-

Had o) )fiah Brooks's script tor Iruman Capote S In old Blood 1967) created a (

I

sensation foi its brutality, but he did not score an othei success until 1977, when he adapted Judith Rossnei s Looking lor Mr. Goodbar, which starred

Diane Keaton

A

tough, intractable director

often delivered scripts

al

the

last

who

moment, he

analyzed Hollywood in his unflinching, probing novel the Producer (1951). Brooks, who directed the classic Western The Professionals in 1966, the yen aftei he became an independent producer, returned to the studios lor two lilms in the 1980s.

borda

the

country), and the Soviet in which both sides

that

ol

nion (by signing a treaty

to refrain from the threat o! force oi the use ol toiee in any matters affecting security I

In 1974 Europe and international security Brandt was forced to resign as chancelloi aftei it was discovered that one ol his doses! aides was German spy He continued on as parly chairman until his resignation in 1987 With tears Ol joy he watched the Berlin Wall tall in 1989 in

i

•

Brown, Georgia tluiiys Kiuii. British actress d luly 5 (b Oct 21, 1933, London [ngland 1992. London), was an earthy, husky -voiced singei best

I

1950s ,i> a member ol the Sink School, a group ol British soual-

prominence

trusts

in

the

who

literary Angry a particular!) which he worked

paralleled the i

known

tor the feverish

speed

and

81

tor the extreme!) thick texture ol his vividly coloured, Expressioniftk paintings, into which he bottles and othei everyoften incorp i

known

hei

tor

portrayal

ot

the

ill

fated

Nancy in Lionel Ban's musical Oliver! Blown began singing jazz and bluesy ballads in

prostitute

nightclubs as

,i

lecuaect

.tns\

look her Stage

name

from a popular SOHg She made hei London Stage debut in 1956 as uq in Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the next yeai she repeated (heroic off-Broadway Vfter her triumph as Nancy s toui I >n ondon 1960-62), on 1962), and ^>n Broadway (1963 64), she joined the cast ol \4aggie May, winch Ban had written foi her. she latei sianed in < armelina, Greek, Roza, Man Is Man. 42nd Street Sule In Side h\ Sondhenn. 3 Penny Opera (a 1989 ieyiy.il on Broadway), and a one woman show. Georgia Brown and Friends She also recorded acclaimed solo albums However, she tailed to win the pan ol Nancy in the 1968 movie Ol Oliver! and had limited success on Brown appeared on television, most BO tab!) in a production ol Bertolt Brecht's Mother I

I

Bratby, John Kanilall. British painter |h July 19, iVimbledon, Surrey I ngland- d July 20, Sussey t ngland), rose to 1st

Bryceland, Yvonne, South African actress 1925.

18,

1992,

1

..

1

Cape Town, South Africa—d.

(b.

Nov.

Jan. 13,

London, England), brought passion and

through her inspired interpretations of the antiapartheid works of South African playwright Athol Fugard. Bryceland and her second husband, Brian Astbury, also political conviction to the theatre

defied South Africa's racially segregated system and founded (1972) the country's first nonracial theatre, the Space Theatre, in Cape Town. She

was horn Yvonne Heilbuth and worked as a newspaper librarian and amateur actress until after her divorce from her first husband. She made her professional acting debut in Stage Door in 1947 but had only moderate success until she joined the Cape Performing Arts Board in 1964. In 1969 Bryceland triumphed in Fugard's People Are Living There and Boesman and Lena (in which she made her London debut and then toured Europe). Their inspired collaboration blossomed with several more plays, most notably Orestes. Statements After an Arrest Under the Immorality Aet, Hello and Goodbye, and The Road to Mecca (in which she made her U.S. debut). Bryceland's repertoire also included Dario Fo's One Woman Plays, Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Wight, lennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie. Bertolt Brecht's Mother ( mirage and Her Children.

Henrik Ibsen's The Wild Duck, and Euripides' Medea. In 1978 she moved to London, where she joined the National Theatre.

Buchanan, Junious ("But k Sept

(b

I99J.

194(1.

in.

Kansas

").

U.S. football player

Gainesville,

Ala.—d.

City, Mo.), as a towering

7-in]) defensive tackle lor the

July 16,

(2-m

[6-fl

Kansas City Chiefs

professional football team (1963-75), combined Ins size, strength, and agility to set a new stan-

dard tor defensive lineman during the era of the passing game In consistently knocking down halls thrown by opposing quarterbacks. Buchanan, a basketball and football star at Birmingham (Ala.) Parker High School, attended the small, predomi-

Grambling (La.) State University and 1962 was unanimously named to the National Association ol Intercollegiate Athletes (NAIA) All-American team. Buchanan also played on the 1963 College All-Star team that defeated the world champion Green Bay Packers (NIL) in an exhibition game in Chicago. That same year he was the number one draft pick ol the All. Dallas lexaris (later Kansas ( Hy Chiefs; AFL, 1963-69. nately black in

and AFC ol NIL from 1970). He powered his team during Super Bowl against the Green Bay Packers and in Super Bowl IV, when the Chiefs beat the Minnesota Vikings 23-7. Alter retiring as a player in 1975. Buchanan coached for the New Orleans Saints (1975 and 1977) and Cleveland Biow ns I97.S) ami became a much-admired civic and business leader in Kansas City. He was named to the NAIA Hall ol Lame in 1968 and was inducted into the Professional Football Hall ol ame in 1990, just days alter being diagnosed 1

(

I

wnh

).

I

a mini-

(

1

as

Courage and in "Shoulder to Shoulder," series she produced for the BBC.

cancer.

Cage, John, U.S. composer, writer, and philosophei lb Sept. 5. 1912. I. os Angeles. Calif.— d. Aug. 12. 1992. New York. N.Y.), moved beyond established musical language to create works that expanded the idea ol what music might be; he was thought In many to have been Ihe greatest single influence in music and the arts alter World Wai II His education in the arts began early, and he continued formal instruction into his 20s. including study with such composers as Henry Cowell and Arnold Schocnberg During that time Cage became interested in percussion ensembles. and in 1938 he invented the prepared piano, in which objects ol various kinds (nuts, bolts, paper)

were attached

to the strings so as to

emphasize

the instrument's percussive qualities. In 1943 one Cage's percussion groups gave a concert at the

ol

Museum ol Modern Art in New York City, the beginning ot his public reputation. At about this time he began collaborating with the dancer and choreographer Mcrce Cunningham, an association that lasted until Cage's death. His interest in

People of 1992: OMtoartci

the though) and culture ol the East, including the (hint; ("Booh ol Changes"), led him to intra duct chance as an element in composition \tusu /

pi. mo piece derived from Changes (1951), tosses ol mms. and Imaginary Landscape Wo 1 which 1951 the performers adjusted the volin ume and tuning ol 12 radios, were among such works. Cage later also applied chance operations work varied from one to performance, so that performance to the next. In addition to compositions using electronical!) produced sounds, he number ol works using magnetic tape, created .is in Imaginary Landscape Wo 5 1952), in which he cut tapes into pieces and then recomhined them according to chance operations. Ill'M III)

'"4i

a corrupt,

greed) doctor

TIMES

in

1938,

member

a

Ol the outlawed During the World

Part) oi Slovakia

m

Nazi occupation, he took part

II

NEW YORK

where his lather, one of the lust Czechoslovak Communis) Part} build the new Communist nation

and Dubcek became

War

THE

ot the

was helping I

Kravia

oj l>n, hl\

(

antral

a full

Committee

member

I

Ins life made him an international and the subject ol a profile on the U.S. "60 Minutes." He was killed, along with show his wile and three bodyguards, when a one-ton bomb exploded iindci his car. On July 19, Judge

attempts on figure I

I

ol the partv

1968 he bee. inie lusi secretar)

reform and the reinstatement v

ot

t

action,

human

Paolo Borsclhno. another in a

Ferrer, Jose

increased

though compromises were made, Warsaw

1968 Dubcek was arrested, taken toieed to grant majoi concessions and legitimize the invasion before being returned .ue He remained in office until he was demoted (April and then served as ambas S8)

imkev

lWl prm i

and

as a loiestrv official

With the democratization ot the gov-

ernment in Is'S 1). howevei Dulvck leemeiged and until June 1992 he held the largelv symbolic |V>st ot chairman ot the I edei d \ssembl\ Dupain. MaxMrll Spencer, \ustrahan photograswincv Australia d July pher (b \pnl 22 I'M iptured visual!) the powerful geometus inherent in architectural and industrial subjects, thus developing an influential stvie ol Australian nonpktorial commercial photograph) Dupam exhibited his tnst landscape photographs i

while attending

grammar school

.

He

Studied

and the

at

Jul-

t

member

the

ol

pool,

alcone's successor, died

bombing.

(JOSI

VlNCENTl

I

i

kki K

OTERO

is

I.

I

(

nd

i,.

I

ikon). U.S. actor and director (b. Jan. Sanlurcc. P.R.—d. Jan. 26. 1992, Coral Cables. la movingl) portrayed the lovelorn, long-nosed swordsman with the soul ol a roman 1950). tor tic poet in the film ( \rano tie Bergerat which he won an Academy Award as besi actor; he was nominated again as best actor in 1953 for Ins sterling performance as the diminutive artist loulouse autrcc in the 1952 film Moulin Rouge. lot the latter role he strapped up his legs and performed on his knees to emulate the crippled Lautrec. Ferrer, a 1934 graduate ol Princeton Uni versify, was a gifted pianist and had intended on becoming an architect before being stagestruck. He had various theatrical roles from 1935 until he gained a reputation in the comic title role in the Broadway hit Charley's Aunt (1940). Ferrer demonstrated his versatility as an actor in the dramatic role ol lago to Paul Robeson's Othello (1943) He earned his first lony award in 1947 -i

Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia on the night

s.idoi

similar car

to be

rights

ami relations

pressure

\

who was expected

nations de-

Pact

howevei

Soviet

deteriorated

rapid!)

and,

Warsaw

the other

nounced Dubcek

o!

Ministry's criminal affairs division in Rome. alcone's campaign against the Mafia in Italy, the S and South America and the unsuccessful

I

he next ve.u he be and in .human, He almost immediate!) began to allow greater fieedoin: control ot the news media was relaxed; travel abroad wis allowed; and plans were made toi economic the

came

—

tice

the un-

derground resistance \ftei the war Dubcek began l" use through the part) ranks, and In 1962 Ik had become a lull member oi the Presidium .•I

Falcone. Giovanni, Italian judge (b. May 18. 1939. Palermo, Sicily, Italy d. May 23, 1992. near Palermo), as the most prominent member of a special "pool" ot anti-Matia magistrates, orchestrated Italy's crusade against that secret criminal organization. Falcone grew up in a tough workingclass .ire.i ol Palermo, the centre of Mafia activity He began his legal career as a prosecutor and then became a bankruptcy judge. In 1978 he was assigned to Palermo and prosecuted cases against the Mafia, and in the earl) 1980s he and several othei magistrates were pooled into a legal learn to share the responsibilities and the risk ut assassination. In 1987 Falcone's efforts led to the conviction ami sentencing ol 338 top maliosi. He was appointed Palermo's deputy attorney, and later he was named director-general of the Jus-

emotive fathei in and an aging drunken motion picture. Other successes included Trading Places (1982) and two Indiana lonCS movies. Raiders OJ the lost Uk ll'ish and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1988) His last stage appearance was in David Mamet \ / //,• in the Theatre (1989) in London lliotl w.is made c ommandei ol the Order ol the in I

I

Private Function

Room

with a

I

nn

1

(

1984), the

1986),

actoi in Noises Off, his last

i

I

British

I

mpire

in

1988

eh Ivans. Sir (.eraiM. Welsh opera Singei (b It.. 1992, 19, 1922, Cilfynydd, Wales d. Sept Aberystwyth, Wales), w.is one ol Britain's leading operatic baritones and had an international rep Utation as one ol the finest interpreters oi such I

I

lor his stage performance in Cyrano de Bergemc and won two more in 1952. the first lor directing the plays Stalag 17, The FourpOSter, and The Shrike and the second loi acting in The Shake

Peopli

land islands Islas Malvinai in 198 Fiel attended the Royal Navy Colleg al Dartmouth, seived in the 3Sl Indies Ik !

I

(1945

16), [e

i


ffi
Entertaining Comics and pioneered Alter a L954 Senate the norroi comic genre inquiry on the influence oi violent comic books On south, a standards code "as adopted and dis-

unsuccessfully as a Green Party candidate in regional elections in March u "2. l

Guimaraes, Ulysses, Brazilian politician (b. Oct. ''!(>. Rio Claro, Sao Paulo. Brazil— d. Oct. 6, \2. 1992, near Angra dos Keis, Brazil), as the

'

.1

1

1

"grand old man of Brazilian politics," spent 44 in Congress, many of them opposing the military government that ruled from 1%4 to 1985. Guimaraes, a constitutional lawyer by profession, presided over the 1°87 convention that wrote a

.1

years

I

1

tributors refused to stock Ins publications.

new

He possessed a sterling political reputation and was respected for his vigorous fight against political and economic corruption. When the military was obliged to call for democratic elections in L989, Guimaraes ran tor president as

hat

I

was when Mad was born, and Us 'gang ol idiots lampooned SCOKS ol sacred institutions, including )st> famil) values, television, and hlms. From the demented-lqpking, freckle-faced Neuman was nominated as a write-in candidate in ever) presidential election, and ( iaines once hung a Neuman campaign poster atop the Leaning lower ol Pisa in Italy. His wack) brand ol humour was essential to the bab) boom generation, and at the peak ol us popularity, Mod's yearlj circulation was 2 4 million. Even aftei Mad was acquired in Kinney (latei Warnei Communications), dames

singles

continued to occup)

All

l7()

l

the election, he initially supported the winning candidate, Fernando Collor de Mello, until it became evident in 1992 that- Collor had apparin

ently participated in such practices as influence

peddling ami embezzlement. Guimaraes then led

campaign to impeach Collor. Guimaraes and were killed when the helicopter in which they were flying crashed into the Atlantic Ocean a

his wife

and 107 doubles titles, (iodlree Was also ngland badminton champion lour times in In earl) 1920s and was a member ol the national lacrosse team in 1918, She was made a v lee pies idem i-i the AMI ngland ( lub in 1989

I

Iiimh

s laboui

'),l

NY—

New

No\

leadei

(b 8, 1900, York, i'"' New York), presided foi 24 years (1963 87) as the iron-fisted president oi the Interd.

1

a sugai

Goodson, Murk. U.S. radio and television pro dueer tb Jan 24. 1915, Sacramento alii d. Dee 18, 1992, New York n |, was the creative toiee behind the development ol the lirst television game show 'What's Mv line' -which aued lor 17 veais. and he conceived Such othei shows as popul.u I" "The Price Is Right Password." ell the ruth. "I vc dot a Secret," Concentration, and "The Match Game.' Earliei duced such radio game shows as stop the \lusu (.oodsons name,md Hit the laekpol was identified foi man) ve.us in conjunction with Kill Ibdman, who sold Goodson's game shows to the networks Goodson, a radio announcer, met oik fodman in I'Mi while the) were in New ( itv working on the radio quiz program "Battle

policies

ol the

Association ill At and gu.uanteed annual income (effective in I'lo-l) tor union members (as much as $32,000 a yeai whethei the) worked 01 not) when con tainerized shipping threatened their livelihood. Gleason left school aftei the seventh grade to become a dockworker, and he joined the II \ in 1919, at a time when its members were branded national Longshoremen's

ud

as

a

who worked

(ileason.

rebels

as

checker,

.,

longshoreman, winch driver, truek and timekeeper, developed his political and organizational skills during the bittei union battles ol the 1920s and '30s. He had risen to doek superintendent when he was fired foi hon billing

elerk.

owing

1

picket Ink- hi L932

and sold hot dogs

factor)

He worked in He* Deal

until

and union legalization allowed him to return to thi 11 \ Gleason served as president oi various locals before

came

II

A

Ins

friend William \

president

in

be

Bradle)

1953 (alter the

\

II

was

expelled that yeai from the American Federation ot aboi ovei corruption) and appointed him I

newl) created office ol general organizer. Gleason became executive vice president in 1961 and president ot the II A in 1963 \ powerful and influential leadei. he could be as tough as nails to the

oi

as

smooth

as silk

whichevei the occasion de

raanded. (Ileason led a successful 1965 strike ot longshoremen and served on Pres Lyndon John Maritime Advisor) ( ommittee \t the time union membership had ISOTl s retirement

shrunk to 110,000 members from 250,000. Godfree,

tennis playei (b .i

Iuik

inanl

McKane

Kathleen

Ma) i

figures

in

7,

1896,

kirn

i

ondon

I

ondon), was one

women's

tennis

1

ngland

ol the

dom

the

1920s,

m

ngland ( hampionships al Wimbledon, five doubles titles ind Slam events and five Olympic medals. including a gold in women's doubles in 1920. !ier maiden name kills VUk.inc. she lost the 19 Suzanne englen ol turned the next yeai to become racking up two singles

titles

ii

the

VII

I

I

the onl) Wills ,,t

woman

championship partner

American Helen mixed doubles the same tournament with her ever to beat

Wimbledon She won al

lack Gilbert

the

1926 she repeated hei

In

..nil winning both the suielcs and the mixed doubles (now paired with her new husband eshe s championships in the 1923 and 1927) and in mixed -v nted double ngland in I

I

I

:\

when

she retired with a

veal

until i

I

n.

I

I

'v.

A\ innei lake All' tO a radio station ill 1946 and launched what lieu shows would become a game show empire Ins h.is been always ended with the tag line \laik Goodson Hill fodman production." Aftei fodman died in 1979, Goodson continued to produce some ol the longest running and best known game shows in television history. He was honoured in I'l'KI with an mm) award lor lifetime achievement, and in December 1992 he was Boroughs."

4n

hex sold

I

.,

I

selected tor 1993 induction into the Hall ol ol the

Academ)

Guattari, Vpril

10,

ol

television

(Pierre-) Feilix, 1930,

1992, ileal Blois,

I

Arts

I

ranee

d

ranee), as a leadei in

movement,

ame

I

and Sciences.

French psychiatrist

olombe,

(

Vu the

(b.

antl

public!) challenged estab-

psychoanalysis, philosoph) and who studied philosophy.

lished thought

in

social politics

Guattari,

joined the psychoanalyst Jem Our) at La Borde, an innovative psychiatric clinic where unrestrained patients activel) participated in running the facilit) Beginning in i"i>4, (niati.ui worked with the noted psychoanalyst lacques Lacan in I'ans and. despite his increasing skepticism about acan s Ik divided Ins time between la Hoide. Ins private psychoanalytic practice, and acan s Freudian School ol Paris until lacan dissolved the institution in 1980 Although he was expelled from the Communist Part) for opposing the 1956 Soviet invasion ol Hungary, Guattari Kin. lined a left-wing activist He supported the L968 student I

I

ranee while criticizing the rebels foi their own tailings, and he was close liiends with known terrorists despite ins .uowed rejection ol n In 1969 he became associated vvith with whom (nlles Deleuze, an "antiphilosophei he wrote a series ol influential books, notablv rebellion

in

I

1934

total ot

I

I

psychiatry" British

i,

during a violent thunderstorm.

I

i

Gleason, rbomas William

DemoMovement (PMDB), which he led from to 1990. Though he finished a distant fifth

the candidate of the Party of the Brazilian cratic

l

Ins office.

constitution to replace the one written by

the military.

idle

Qu'est-ce

qu£

la

plateaux

(

1980),

phdosophie? (1991). (man

and

Habib, Philip Charles, U.S. diplomat (b Feb, 25, L920, New York, N.Y.- d. May 25. 1992, PulignyMontrachet, France), had a distinguished .ttlvcar career as a U.S. foreign service officer who seived as a skilled liouhlcshoolci and negotiator. notablv when Israel invaded Lebanon ill 1982; he brokered a tenuous peace agreement (which later collapsed) following the evacuation ol the Palestine liberation Organization (PLO) forces

from Beirut mulct the supervision ol the U.S. Marines. Habib. the son ol a Lebanese grocer, was raised in a Jewish section ol Brooklyn. He graduated (1942) from the Universit) ol Idaho with the intent ol becoming a lores! ranger and was studying foi his Ph.D. in agricultural ceo noinics

the University ot California

at Berkele) take a lest to enter the State Department. His passing grade launched his at

when he decided

to

diplomatic career, and he was posted to Canada; New Zealand. I rinidad. and South Korea before

come

lo Vietnam as chief political adviser to Ambassadoi Hear) Cabot Lodge, It was there. on. that he became a recognized expert

on Asian

allaiis.

his counsel,

and

the situation Pres.

Seveial U.S as

head

presidents sought

ol a task force studying

war-torn Vietnam, he persuaded

in

Lyndon Johnson

to

restrict

bombing

the

North Vietnam. He led the U.S. delegation (968 Pans peace talks but was recalled in 1970 b) Pies Richard Nixon when no agreement was forthcoming. Habib then seived as I.S. ambassadoi lo South koiea (1971 74 and as assistant secietary ol state loi Last Asian and

ot

lo

the

I

)

Pacific affairs

(

1974

747). Siren

and Ihe Tour Horsemen ol the In the 1950s he began a second

director, particularly tor television

.1

In

».s4

autobiography, Ladies Man, he claimed

Ins

.Kime career suffered from Hollywood

blacklisting when he protested against the House Committee on n-American Activities. Henreid died jusl d.ns before asablanca was rereleased 1

(

in

honour

oi

man.

Billv

its

50th anniversary

the yeai Ihe next year he got Ins own program, which was syndicated in the U.S. in 1979. Hill frequently played multiple characters in a comedy skit, but he also surrounded himself with a regular supporting cast and a bevy ol scantily ol

clad

women known

fashions in

1

vivsi.

New

s

1

I

\\

11

1

baseball

\lb.iin. Ind

1

v\i

ll

(

(

la

1

1

I

home

in his

NND4GS Bk> vs Hi r

pl.net

d. Sept. 5.

(b July 7, 1992. Palm

1909,

Beach

was phenomenal second base mail lor the Chicago ( ubs (1931-41), Brooklyn Dodgers 1941 46), and I'litsbuieh Pirates 1946 47) professional baseball teams, lie was Darned to 1(1 All -Star teams dining Ills 15-yeai caieer countv,

against him, however,

and despite an international popularity that approached cult status. Hill's program was abruptly canceled in 1988. His other work included the lilms Those Magnificent Men m I hen Flying Machines 1965) and ( hut\ C hitt\ Bang Bang (1968) and a I'V version ol .1 Midsummer Night's Dream was found dead ol an apparent heart Hill 1964). attack

lb

as "Hill's Angels." Prevailing

comedy tinned

.1

1

lliilison.

Sir Harold. British theatre critic (b. Aug.

Thorpe Hesley, Yorkshire, England -d. 1992, Chichester, West Sussex, England), as drama critic lor The Sunday I lines lor 4.

19(14,

March

12,

nearly three

decades

and influence

playwrights as

(

1947-76), used his position

champion such controversial new Samuel Beckett, Eugene fonesco,

to

People

Harold Pinter, lohn Osborne Margueriu Duras, and loin Stoppard Hobson was partially para lyzed bj polio as a child and studied ai scholarship to Oriel Collegi before winning Oxford He became drama critic foi the Christian Science Vfonitoi in the earl) 1930s and a decade later joined The Sunday Times asassistanl literary, critic. He "as soon made assistant drama critic undei lames Agate, whom he succeeded in 1447. tobson was tireless campaignei foi actors, plaj wrights, and plays he considered deserving ind was often credited with saving Beckett's H foi Godot and Pinter's The Birthday Part) from oblivion. Although Ins strong religious beliefs and occasional!) Idiosyncratic viewpoints drew criticism, Hobson's passion toi the theatre and the sharp contrast he provided to Kenneth Tynan, his counterpart at The Observer, delighted even his critics. HobSOn "as forced into retirement in 1

>.

1

list

Ira |l"s

Joseph, Helen Beatrice May. British-bom \trican political activist (b

April

\

1905,

Mid

d Dec 25. 1992, Johannesburg South Mikal was oik ot the tirst white-, in South Vfrica to struggle fol change: she tought the inhurst,

|

ngland

equities oi the white minority

government lor -in rnmenl harassment, ill health. and advancing ace Educated at the I nrversitj ot Londo eeph settled in South Africa in She married and Ined as a homemakei until World War II. when, as .m information officer I

in

-he gave lecwomen's auxiliary on the conditions in South Africa to British

the

tures

REUTERS/BETTMANN

rank ol brigadier general bv 1950. In 1944

to the

in

People's Revolutionary Party (a post he would hold until his death). In 1958 kaysone unsucSupreme People's Assembly. After the resumption of hostilities in ls>t>4, he moved the Pathet Lao into eaves in the northern mountains, withstanding U.S. carpet bombing of the area. After the disintegration of a short-lived, U.S. -backed postwar government in 1975, Kaysone became prime minister of the newly created Lao People's Democratic Republic. cessfully ran for a seat in the

troopv Alter the wai she returned to college, got .i d social worker in a ime Coloured (mb irea in Cape rown where she discovered the daily realities ot governmentsanctioned injustice, especial!) as racial separation loseph was a founding member ot the ( oiigress ot Democrats, the white wing of the then outlawed \ln. sM In 1957 she was arrested tion.il i

i

i

as to

a a

regulai

ot the picss.

197]

judge until

when he

1987,

retired

seniOl

He

east the lone dissenting vole in

when

I

In

Kaulman ordered

1961

the hist desegregation

a predominant!) black public school in the North, saving thai 'compliance with the Supreme

Kaysone kepi the country closely allied with Vietisolated Irom Western influence. With the end of the cold war, however, he sought new donors, visiting France and Japan in 1989. Alter a new constitution was adopted in 1991, Kaysone

nam and

1992 he relaxed some goveininenl controls and scheduled December elecs Assembly. He also lor the People tions Supreme bee. line president, In

released most political prisoners, including those 111s officers Irom the pro Western regime held

.

1

1

detention camps since 1975, and he also dislanccd aos from \ leln.un hi improving relations with China in

I

ot

1954) edict was not to be less forthright the North than in the South He also wrote a numbei Ol landni.uk decisions involving antitrust

(

OUTt'S

(

in

and race relations kaulman was excluded a seal on the Supreme < OUTl because of his Controversial role in the Rosenberg spv case: hewas taken to task by liberals fol invoking divine guidance in determining the Rosenbergs' sen tencing and foi imposing the harshest sentence on them, and some accused him oi being enccd In Sen loseph McCarthy's antl ( omniusuits

from

i

ii tl li

ms! witch-hunting.

I

.

1

s French colonial government, ami final!) the militai) Kaysone was best remembered, though. i

one oi the levolution.uv leaders responsible tor the 1975 overthrow oi if old monarch) as

for allowing the last king. his wile.

ported])

born

in

Savang Vatthana.

Queen Khamphouis, 1981)

in

southern

in 1

a

detention

aos ot

to perish (re-

camp He was

ao mother and a servant in the French a

I

Vietnamese lather, a civil government kavsone protested against

colonial

Japanese occupation ol hiscountrj during World War II and while Studying law al the I niversiiv ol Hanoi, he became involved with the nascent Indochinese ( ommunist Party, soon kavsone was sent back io aos in his Vietnamese friend Ho i in Minh io join the anti-French revohitionar) I

movement In siv

thai

came

to he

known as the became

Palhel

1955 he cofounded and ol

—

29, 1447. )ci

).

Petra l.chmann. she alter hei

moved

Io the U.S. at age 13

mother married an Irish-American army

kellv became involved in the protest culture that swept the U.S. during the 1960s, taking

officer,

antiwai and civil rights demonstrations graduating from .American University, with a degree in international studies in 1970. hat veal her younger sistel died ot cancer alter years oi radiation therapy; soon thereafter kellv made an "emotional connection" between cancel and nudeai power After returnpart

in

before

Washington,

DC I

Kaysone Phomvthan, Laotian political leadei and ; revolutionary (b Dee 1920 Na Seng Laos d Nov 21, 1992, Vientiane, Laos), was a Communis) leadei from 1955 .mo\ rulei from 1975 ol 1 aos, one ol the poorest anil leas) developed nations in the world: earlier he had tought in tile Struggle fol aos against Japanese occupiers, the a liberated

and and

German political activist (b. Nov. Gun/burg. Wesl German) lound dead as a cofounder oi 19, 1992, Bonn. German) the Green Party, tireless!) advocated and fought loi world peace and nuclear disarmament. Horn Kelly, Petra,

(

what would

later

be called the

ing to Europe, she worked foi the I uropean ( immunities and joined the Social Democratic Party, bin she eventual!) became disillusioned with its defense and energy policies: in 1979 she and a lew others founded the Green Party, In 1983 the

Greens received enough voles to send Kelly and 2(> others to the Bundestag. Over tunc, the parly split into various competing tactions, and kellv found herselt an international!) acclaimed figure within a part) that distrusted individual power he Greens lost repand the cull ol personalis I

resentation

ao

the "unification election

Inn kellv continued to

work

ol

1990

ceaseless!; loi inter-

national causes Since the earlv 1980s, kellv had been involved with Celt Bastian. an army general who had resigned his commission and had he

Come

active

ill

Green

politics:

found about three weeks

their bodies wcii-

alter Bastian. vvillioul

explanation, apparent!) shot kellv and then himsell in the house thai the) shared.

Kendricks, Eddie, U.S. singei (b. Dei 17. 1939, d. Oct 1992, Birmingnion Springs. Ala. 5, ham. Ala.), as lead tenor ol the lemptations. prol

I

in

—

People

to electrifying heights with his spine

them

pelled

which was featured

tingling falsetto,

including

hits,

Girl

in a sti

lii

Way M) Imagination, and the rhings You Do." In Detroit Mich., Kendricks and baritone Paul Willi, mis formed the Primes quintet with baritone Otis Williams high ranklin. tenoi Eldridge Bryant, and bass Melvin Aitci the) were signed b) Motown Records in the earlj 1960s, Bryanl lefl the group and was replaced In David Ruilin. who often shared the Blue)," "Just

he

I

You Do

I

group was then re hen lust Dumbei one named the temptations hli «as "My Girl" (1965), and they became one of the (op black male \oeal groups ol the 1960s with

Kendricks,

I

he I

ihen

wiih

soulful

1910

(Whj You Wanna Mai 1

lead

Dorothy, Montclaii

kirsii'ii, I

five-part

harmonies.

1971

In

Kendricks struck out on a successful solo career; and he scoicd hits with Mich singles as "It's So n You let Hard to Sa) Good-bye, "( an Me," and "Keep on lruckin'." Some ol his finest alliums included Goin' Up in Smoke and Eddie Kendricks at His Best. His career began to falter,

s

i

n

|.

a

Metropolitan Opera

Wanon

as

Nov

foi

t

6

199

years, specialized

in

or rad Kirsten was a populai singi student al luilhaid in New 101k Cilv before becoming the piotcL'c ol soprano Graci Mooi

;/\

Rome Foi studies with Kirsten returned to the S at the outbreak ol World Wat II. Mie made hei professional concert debut in a stage show at the Aslolto Pescia

New

"I

bet trip to

When

oik World's

I

air.

I

Moore helped

her secure

an engagement with the Chicago opera, where in 1940 she made her operatic debut as Poussette in Milium. She later debuted with (he San Carlo THE

NEW YORK

TIMES

late 1970s. He rejoined the L982 lor a reunion tour and again in 1989. In that same year. Kendricks and the other members of the Temptations were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. in

Khoei, Abolqassem al-, Iranian-born cleric (b. Nov. 19, 1899, Khvoy, Iran—d. Aug. 8, 1992, alKufah, Iraq), as the grand ayatollah based in anNajaf, Iraq, was spiritual leader of the millions ol Iraqi Shi'ite Muslims. The scholarly Khoei was revered by most Shi ites. particularly those living Outside of Iran, and he was widely regarded as

spokesman

the chief

for the "quietists,"

of an-Najaf, where he remained.

and

King, Albert (Albert Nelson), U.S. blues musician (b. April 25. 1923. Indianola, Miss. d. Dee. 21, 1992, Memphis, Tenn.), created a unique string-bending guitar style that influenced three generations of musicians and earned him the nickname "godfather of the blues," King, who was left-handed, taught himselt to play a righthanded guitar upside down by pulling the strings down, coaxing distinctive wailing sounds out of his trademark Gibson Flying V, "Lucy," that were widely imitated by such contemporary blues rock performers as Jimi Hendrix, Joe Walsh. Stevie Ray Vaughan. and trie Clapton. King was one ol 13 children horn to an itinerant Mississippi preacher and his wile. When he was eight years old. his widowed mother moved the family to eastern Arkansas, where he worked as a farmhand on a cotton plantation and later as a bulldozer operator, In the earl) 1950s he moved to Gary,

—

Ind., joined the

made

(I9S3) his

Chicago-based music scene, and first record. "Bad Luck Blues,"

lie moved to St. Louis, 1956 and continued performing his blend ol simple, declamatory vocals and soaring guitar licks in clubs and roadhouses. Ills career look

the

for

Parrot

label,

Mo.,

in

oil

alter he joined Stax Records in released such acclaimed albums as Under a Bad Sign (1967) and Live Wire Blues

in

the

(

l

liills

Opera

(1942), the

City

Opera

(1944),

made her bow with the Metropolitan as Mimi in La Boheme on Dec. 1, 1945. At the Metropolitan she prided herself on accepting only roles that showcased her clear voice to its best advantage. Besides Puccini portrayals, Kirsten also per-

formed the leads in Gounod's Romeo el Juliette and Faust, Leoncavallo's Pagliacci. and Verdi's La Traviata. She also appeared on television and in such motion pictures as Mr. Music and The Great Caruso. Though Kirsten formally retired from the Metropolitan in 1975, she continued to return there for special engagements.

Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo, Japanese-born U.S. theologian and educator (b. March 8, 1915, Osaka, Japan d. Oct. 7, 1992, Chicago, 111.), was a scholar in the vanguard of establishing religion as an independent academic discipline on U.S. uni-

—

campuses and was instrumental in introducing the religions of Japan to the West. After graduating (1938) from Rikkyo (St. Paul's) University. Tokyo, Kitagawa went to the U.S. in 1941 to continue his theological studies, but he was interned for four years, like others of Japanese ancestry, in detention camps during World War II. During that time he was ordained an Episcopal priest and, while incarcerated in Idaho, he served as an Episcopal minister. After earning a Ph.D. 1951 from the University of Chicago, Kitagawa joined the faculty there as an assistant professor,

versity

(

)

lie

became professor of the

history of religion in

1964 and. from 1970 to 1980, served as dean of the university's Divinity School. Kitagawa wrote a

number of

highly regarded books, including Reli-

gions "i the East

Bom

Japanese

(

New York

and the San Francisco Opera (1947). Kirsten

Memphis and

Power (1968). King toured extensive!) and made an acclaimed appearance at the Monlreus (Svvil/.) Roek Blues leslival in 1975 He leemerged in the 1980s, capturing a new generation ol fans with the albums Sun Francisco '83 (1983), l.mtih dromai Blues (1984), ami I'm m u Phone Booth, Baby 1984).

black students,

ind his pioneering findings helped influence the S Supreme < our! s landmark 1954 scho

case

ition

Brown

Bo

\

mum.

•

Iligence scores ol students at-

rfunded Southern black schools with those oi Southern whites and Northern blai Klineberg discovered that the Southern I

while--.

black students

scores weie lower hut that

when

Southern blacks moved to integrated schools

in

North, their intelligence scores eventually equaled those ol Northern-horn blacks. His studies showed that segregated schools were inferior and provided unequal education. Klineberg earned a B.A. (1919) from McGill University in Montreal, an M.A. (1920) in philosophy from Harvard University, an M.D. 1925) from McGill, and a Ph.D. (1927) from Columbia University. New York City, where he began studying Native Americans and chaired the social psychology department. From 1961 to 1982 he directed the International Center for Intergroup Relations at the University of Paris. He then returned to New York City, where he taught part-time at City University until he was 90. the

Dec. 20, 1902, Minsk, Russia—d. June 5, 1992, York, N.Y.), was an influential spokesman and economic views. Beginning in 1949. he was for many years a widely read, often controversial syndicated columnist for the New York Post, and many of his books, some of them collections of his columns and articles, had great impact when they appeared. Lerner. originally named Mikhail, immigrated to the U.S. with his parents in 1907. He received a B.A. degree from Yale University in 1923 and then studied law there the following year. He received an M.A. degree from Washington University. St. Louis, Mo., in 1925 and a Ph.D. from the Roberr Brookings Graduate School of Economics and Government, Washington, D.C., in 1927. From 1927 to 1932 he edited the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, and he later edited the magazine The Nation (1936-38) and PM, a New for liberal political

estab-

wrote more than 90 books on Shi'ite theology. Although he openly criticized Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ot Iran, Khoei refused to endorse Khomeini and he staunchly refused to take sides during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-90). After the unsuccessful 1991 Shi'ite uprising in Iraq, he was placed under house arrest. The Iraqi government refused to allow a large public funeral for Khoei, but both Iran and Iraq declared an official threeday mourning period.

I

ol

New

Muslims

He

on intelligence scores

studies

Lerner, Max(well Alan), U.S. educator and author

believe that Shi'ite jurists should avoid polit-

lished an international charitable foundation

!

(b.

ical activism. As such, he was a leading opponent of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran. Khoei studied Persian poetry and religion as a child and at the age of 13 was sent to study traditional law in the Islamic holy

city

rch 6

'

I

(

however, during the

who

69

I

i

I,

Temptations

Klineberg, Otto, Nov ', 1899 Ouebei

a

who sponsored

iv>2: Obituaries

the

ttb

|yri( ;|

Fuly

(b.

18

interpretations ol such Puccini works lf,i

Intholog)

Union (

1

1960; rev. ed., 1968), Religion in

(1965),

The Great Religions:

1969), Spiritual Liberation

An

and Human

1990), and The ontemporary Asia Christian Tradition: Beyond lis European Captivity (1992). He was a founding member and editor

Freedom

ot

in

I

the international journal

(

Union

o) Religions.

Kitagawa was also for main vears a valued adand contributoi to i.iuvi lopinliu Hriiunnuu

\isei

York newspaper with no advertising (1943^48). He contributed to many magazines, including The The New Republic, and Saturday Review. Lerner's long teaching career, largely in government and political science, included appointments

Atlantic,

at Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville, N.Y.; Harvard University; Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.; and Brandeis University. Waltham, Mass. Throughout his life he advocated the right of Soviet and Eastern European Jews to emigrate to Israel. Lerner's last book. Wrestling with the Angel (1990). described his encounters with the doctors who treated him during a long series of illnesses.

Li Xiannian (Li Hsien-nien), Chinese politician (b. June 23, 1909, Hongan [Hung-an] county, Hubei [Hupeh] province. China d. June 21, 1992, Beijing [Peking], China), exerted enormous influence as one of the eight "revolutionary elders" and as a leftist hard-liner who opposed

—

economic reform. He supported Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p'ing) in the military suppression of the student-led 1989 Tiananmen (T'ien-an-men) Square pro-democracy movement. Li. a member of the Communist Party by 1927, was a veteran of the Long March (1934-35), having served as army captain and political commissar. After the 1949 Communist victory and Mao Zedong's Mao became governor in Tse-tung's) rise to power. i

I

i

Later in Beijing he scivcd 1954-78) and became a selftaught economist who favoured the Soviet economic model of central planning. He was instrumental in helping to rebuild the eeonomv alter the 1960-62 famine that resulted from Mao s Greai Leap Forward in collectivization \iier Mao died his

native

province.

as finance minister

in

1976. Li,

tially

1

who sumved numerous

uiged party

purges,

ini-

leaders to "deepen the snugXiaoping.'' but when the latter

Deng emerged as China's premiei leader, l.i recanted and blamed himself lor the deficit-plagued econ gle against

70

People of 1992: Obituaries

omy.

Li served in the largely ceremonial post ot president ot the country from 1983 to 1988. He exercised his political power as one of five members ot the Communist Party Political Bureau

Standing Committee (1982-87); as a member of the party's Central Advisory Commission, an influential bods ol part) veterans; and as chairman oi the People's Political Consultative Conference, a post he held at the time of his death.

estate empire. Ludwig left school after the eighth grade and worked for a marine engine company before going into business for himself at the age of 19. He purchased an old steamer, converted it into a barge, and started hauling molasses in the Great Lakes region. During the 1920s he turned to transporting oil and formed the American Tankers Corp. in 1925. The following year Ludwig was aboard an oil freighter when it exploded.

The

accident fused three vertebrae

and he suffered constant pain

his spine,

in

the resulting

an operation 28 years later helped alleviate some of his discomfort. The foundation of his shipping concern was the New York-based National Bulk Carriers Inc., which he owned outright and turned into a colossal private multinational corporation. Ludwig was also well known for his innovations and creative financing. During the 1940s one of his shipyards pioneered a timcsaving process of welding rather than riveting the hulls of ships, and by the end of World War II, he owned the nation's fifth

Oklahoma Dusl Bowl. The second documentary,

largest tanker fleet, with scores of supertankers.

Lorent/. Pare, U.S. filmmaker

W.Va.—d. March

larksburg,

(

N

")

(b.

Dec.

4.

1992,

1905,

11.

Armonk.

dramatically recorded the images of the

l.

Greal Depression in two classic governmentsponsored documentaries that used lyrical images, the powerful narrative of Thomas Chalmers, and compelling scores by Virgil Thomson to capture the social consciousness he first, The /'/ That chronicled the misuse ol subsequent plight ot the

American

ol the

public.

Broke the Plains (193b).

I

the Great Plains and the

farmers

in

was a history ol the Missis and the effect of the Tennessee Vallej Vuthorif) on the area. As a film critic forjudge magazine (1926 34) and the Nen )ork Evening Journal (1931 -32), Lorentz earned a naRiver

77ie

I

1937),

sippi Riser Basin

tional reputation bj criticizing filmmakers foi not

making more

realistic films

He was

given a bud-

get of •sb.lNK) b\ the Resettlement Administration

Department of Agriculture

(lalci pari ol the

un

I

der Pres Franklin D Roosevelt to direct a tilm about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl, His eflort met resistance bj filmmakers and. until King \ idoi intervened, the) icluscd to lend stock footage to what the) considered a propaganda effort. Following the resounding critical and artistic success of The /'/on That Broke tin- Plains and the River, Roosevelt appointed Lorentz duel ot the U.S ilm Service in 1938 He then directed the Fight for I /'< 1940), a docudrama about the hazards t childbirth among the pool \tter the Film Service was disbanded in 194(1. Lorentz made onl) mic more documentary, The Nuremberg Trials (1946). During World Wai II he served in the Arms An orces, making more than 200 briefing films to be shown to pilots Lorentz formed Ins own film-production compan) in 1948, but Ins plan to produce a document. n\ about atomic bomb testI

1

I

was aevei realized. Brides serving as a film consultant and lecturer, he also published Censored: The Private lift- of the Movies (1930; with ing

Morris Ernst), The Roosevelt Year 1933 and .u\ autobiography, FDR's Moviemaker, which appeared posthumous!)

Ludwig acquired

his fleet

until

\s the

the Radiobiolog)

.'I

nil oi

in

stock investments

udwig earned

I

taskmaster, a visional)

as a crustv

who shunned

a reclusive personalit)

was

his foresight that

a

1930)

(

a

Rhodes scholarship

0k

I

prompted him

ram forest eroded

Mice and

Irradiation o) i

outit

of the British

work

iii

his

[991

Some

was reported that the project had dollars from his fortune, yel worth was estimated al SI. 2 billion.

ol Ins other

ventures included citrus farms

Panama, coal mines in Australia, and hotels in the Caribbean, and in the earl) 1970s he established the udwig Institute lor Cancer Research. in

1

which

commanded much

ins Liter vcars. in Billionaire,

1986

a

of his attention during biography, The Invisible

appeared

MacBeth, Ccorge Mann,

British

poet

i>».

1932, shoits. Lanarkshire, Scotland-

Iti.

1992,

prolific

(b d.

Jan.

Feb.

Iuam. Count) Galway, Ireland), was a and versatile write] whose \ersc enconv-

jsnvBMjeR

in

passed moving personal elegies, high!) contrived structured dream fantasies, Mas Beth published his lirsi collection of poetry. Form "i Words (1954). while still an undergraduate at New College. )v ford. Alter graduating 1955) Ik joined the BBC. poetic tokes. loose!)

and macabre

satires

I

(

(

b\ the end ol the decade he was one ol BB( s top talk-radio producers. On such proclaim .is 'The Poet's Voice (1958 65; renamed

and I

udwrt. Karncl ktilh.

June

ith

.

'"l

who amassed

S

shipping tyCC* d A Haven, Mich I

i

was

.i

savw entrepreneur

v

ikki loan fortune and parlayed a from his father into a global shipping and real a

them that scientists were unable to verify or comprehend the immensity ot her early discovery, which won her the Nobel Prize lor Physiology or Medicine in 1983 Met hillock, the daughter ol a doctor, earned a Ph.D. in botans (1927) from ornell University, Ithaca. N.Y. She taught there and helped show through her laboratory experiments thai trait-determining (genetic) information was transferred between chromosomes -a process called crossing over— during cell division. McClinlock joined the Carnegie Institution of Washington (D.C.I and conducted research on the Indian corn plant (maize) foi Carnegie's Cold Spring Harboi in> Laboratory, which later became a self-governing organization. There, from 1941 until her death, the maverick researcher worked alone by choice and earned the reputation ol a loner; she preferred receiving letters to telephone calls and onl) reluctantly installed a telephone in 1986. She possessed an uncanny ability lo decipher the nature ol genes and was a scrupulous investigator. Using pigmentation changes in the kernels ol corn as her model and microscopically examining their chromosomes, she traced how mobile genetic elements (nicknamed "jumping genes' In a later generation ol geneticists) cause mutations and control growth and development in cells. Her work was not validated until James D. Watson and Francis (nek discovered the molecular structure ol DNA, which led lo a rediscover) ot mobile elements in the chromosomes ol many plains and animals. McChnlock won belated acclaim for her work and was revered as a gianl in the field ol genetics Besides her Nobel Pn/e. she was the recipient of the National Medal ol Science (1970) and the firsl MacArilmr Laureate Award 1981 a lifetime annual prize of $60,000 A biograph) that detailed her pioneering work. A Feeling for the Organism, appeared in 1983 i

the

1963.

lure ol mobile genetic elements; the findings were so revolutionary at the time she presented (1951)

(

His best-known book. Wen, was published in

in

WORLD

It

in

was made Commander of the Order Empire in 1957 and elected a fellow

Royal Soeietv

of the

1988

AP.WIDE

billions oi

MRC

until

and '50s uncovered complex and profound discoveries about the naton, N.Y.), during the 1940s

forced to abandon the costl) project, which had led to the destruction ol large tracts ol tropical

I

1969, but he continued to

16,

the

(

in

June

wood products and to begin 1960s the billion-dollar large scale development ol the Jan River valle) in Brazil to tap its lumber potential. In 19K2. however, he was in

held several clinical appointments (I' as director ol the South ondon Blood t.uislusion Service 1940 4~i before heading the Radiobiolog} Unit, loutit resigned as di

unit laboratory

(b.

1992, Hunting-

predict a shortage ol

He I

2,

It

Oxford, where he eventual!) completed medical education (M s 1938; D.M 1946)

and served

Sept.

to correctly

sersitv oi his

Conn.—d.

and

the press.

the British

to

1902, Hartford,

reputation

investor,

Medical Research Council (MRC), he asst and led inlerdiseiplinarv teams that explored the possibilit) of biological hazards from the peaceful use ot atomk energ) and indicated that radiation could he effective in the treatment ol leukemia Main othet tonus ot cancel He also developed a Storage medium ol acidified curate and dextrose that extended the shell hie oi ted blood began his studies in Australia aik\ cells 1 outit accepted

McClintock, Barbara, U.S. geneticist

and then used the money he borrowed to buv more ships He also made millions

founding directoi l

publication of

as collateral

John Freeman, Australian born hematol and radiobiologisi (b. Feb 19, 1910, Perth. d June II. 1992, Oxfordshire, In Australia gland) was a pioneei in the smdv of the biologi I'M" 69)

in 1976, shortly after the

by borrowing against

I.outit.

i

BBC

the future lease income that they would generate. He secured loans b) using these contracts

ogist

cal effects ot radiation

the

his first two novels. The Transformation and The Samurai (both 1975). Although his second verse collection. The Broken Places, did not appear until 1963, from 1965 MacBeth published at least one volume of poetry almost every year, including The Colour of Blood (1967), Shrapnel (1973), Poems of Love and Death (1980), Anatomy of a Divorce (19KH), Trespassing (1991), and two volumes of collected poems. He also penned children's verse, edited poetry anthologies, and wrote several more novels, notably Anna's Book (1983) and Another Love Story (1991). His last novel, The Testament of Spencer, was published posthumously.

the

New Comment" 1965 '6) and induced a wide \anct\ ot majOI and minor poets to read then own work He quit

"Poetrv

(1959

Now

4>

Ik

(

).

People

MacMlllan, sir Kenneth, British choreogi iphi II. 1929, Dunfermline, Scotland—d. De< ngland), created more Oct 29, 1992, London, than 4ii ballets during his careei and was said

lor the

i

(b

I

have revived the tradition oi Cull-length bal let in Britain. His familj was impoverished, but MacMillan inspired bj films starring the dancei found a ballet teachei who would red Istaire id

I

uiv c

him

free lessons.

He was awarded

scholar-

.i

ship ic the Sadler's Wells Ballet School and hiicr

(

1946)

became one

ol the original

a

yeai

members

Wells theatre Ballet (the second company ol the Sadler's Wells Ballet, which latet became the Royal Ballet), making his debut in (it

the Sadlei

///c

He began choreographing

foi workshop performances in the earl) 1950s and created Ins first professional work. Dansi s

Ins insi

Romeo ami ballet, made an

1955.

in

full-length

Juliet

(1965), international

impact and became a mainstay oi both (he Royal Ballet and American Ballet Theatre (ABT). It was

danced at us premiere by Margot Fbnteyn and Kndnll Nureyev and later bj Christopher Gable and Lynn Seymour, one ol MacMillan's favourite muses, on whom it had been choreographed. Also in 1965 he created another of his most acclaimed works, Song of the Earth, for the Stuttgart (Ger-

many) Ballet. The next year he became director of the Deutsche Oper Ballet in West Berlin, but in 1970 he returned to London to succeed Sir Frederick Ashton as a eodirector, with John Field, of the Royal Ballet. Three months later he became sole director, and he remained in that post until 1977. when he resigned so he could concentrate on choreography. For the rest of his life, he was the Royal Ballet's principal choreographer. He also became an artistic associate Oi ABT (I9N4) and the Houston (Texas) Ballet 1988). Among MacMillan's other successes were Anastasia 1971 ). Manon 1974), Mayerling 1M7S). and Isadora (19X1). At the time of his death he had nearly completed the choreography for a new production of the musical Carousel. He died backstage at the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden during a revival of Mayerling. MacMillan was knighted in 1983. (

(

(

(

McWilliam, F(rederick) E(dward), Irish sculptor April 30, 1909, Banbridge. County Down. Northern Ireland d. May 13, 1992. London, England), worked in wood, stone, and bronze to create surreal, abstract, and semiabstract sculptures that defied easy categorization. In his best-known (b.

—

pieces he "reinvented anatomy,'' placing distorted

human

figures or

body parts

in

juxtaposition to

achieve a dramatic or whimsical effect. McWilliam studied at the Belfast College oi Art and the Slade School of Fine Art in London (1928-31) before moving to Paris. The 1932-33 collapse of sterling forced him to return to England, where he began carving in the local Buckinghamshire cherrywood. After serving in the Royal Air Force in India during World War II. McWilliam taught drawing and sculpture in Bengal (1944-46). at the Chelsea School ot An 1946 47), and at the Slade (1947-66). Although his work was seldom overtly political, in 1972-73 he made a series ol powerful bronzes, "Women of Belfast.'' in response to the bombing of the Abercorn Tea Rooms in Belfast. McWilliam was made Commander of the Order of the British Lmpire (1966) and was elected to (

the Royal

Academy

Gallery

London

He was

the subject (1989). of a major retrospective at the prestigious Tate in

i

leveland Indians ti

idg

1956

in

i

team

I

lis

to a

won

I

in

1989.

I

I

i

earned-run average, and 25 shutouts Martin, Paul Joseph James, Canadian politician (b. June 23. 1903. Ottawa. Ont.— 14. d. Sept. 1992, Windsor. Ont.), served with distinction in the Cabinets oi lour Liberal Party prime ministers (from Mackenzie King to Pierre

and diplomat

Trudeau) and. as minister ol national health and welfare from 1946 to 1957, was instrumental in writing most of the country's social legislation. Martin, who was stricken with polio at the age ol experienced a miraculous recovery, but his affliction left a lasting impression on his life-style and the legislation he supported. He studied at the University of Toronto, Harvard Law School, Trinity College, Cambridge, and the School of International Studies in Geneva. Martin was elected to the House of Commons in 1935 and represented the Windsor riding of Essex East (now WindsorWalkerville) until 1968. He was appointed parliamentary assistant to the minister of labour in 1943. and in 1945 he joined the Cabinet as secretary of state. As minister ot national health and welfare, he guided important legislation through Parliament, including the National Health Profour,

(1948). the federal

Old Age Security Act

(1951). and the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act (1957). He was also responsible for ordering the manufacture of vast quantities of the polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk so

when it was approved safe for distribution, Canadians could be quickly vaccinated. A skilled diplomat, Martin was a delegate to the League of Nations in the 1930s, the principal architect of an expanded UN membership plan (1955). minister of external affairs (1963-68), and high commissioner to Britain (1974-79). His memoirs, A Very Public Life, were published in two volumes 1983 and 1985). that,

(

Messiaen, Olivier-Eugene-Prosper-Charles, French composer and musician (b. Dec. 10, 1908, Avignon, France—d. April 28, 1992, Paris. France), was the last in a long line of distinguished French organist-composers; he was also one of the 20th century's most influential teachers, and his students included Iannis Xenakis, Pierre Boulez,

and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Messiaen began composing as a child, and at age 1 he entered the Paris Conservatory, where his teachers included organist Marcel Dupre and composer Paul Dukas. In 1931 he became resident organist at the church ot the Trinity in Paris. He began teaching in 1936 but left to enter the French Army in World War II. It was while he was interned by the Germans that Messiaen wrote Qualuor pour la fin du temps (1940; Quartet for the End oj Time) to be performed by fellow prisoners. In 1942, after he was released. Messiaen began teaching at the J78. Paris Conservatory, where he remained until and in 1942 he resumed his position at Trinity Church, which he held until his death. Among his principal compositions were the orchestral works L'Ascension ( 1933; arranged for organ. 1934) and 1

l

l

TurangatHa-Symphonie 1946-48). the organ cycle Nam ite du Seigneur (1935), and the piano works Vingt Regards \ur I'Enfant Jesus 1944) and 1956 58). His only opera Catalogue d'oiseaia was Saint Frangois d'Assise (1975 83). Echini tui iau-dela. commissioned by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in celebration ol its 150th anniversary, received its premiere posthumously. Messiaen developed a highly personal sty k- noted toi its rhythmic complexity, rich tonal colour, and unique harmonic language. He was particularly fascinated with birdsong, which he transcribed in mam ol Ins compositions. The principal cxtramusical influence on his work, besides his interest in nature, was his deep religious devotion, Messiaen was elected a member ot the icnch Institute in (

Maglie, Sal(vatore) Anthony ("The Barber"), U.S. baseball player (b. April 2(>. 1917, Niagara Falls. N.Y.— d. Dec. 28. 1992. Niagara Falls), sported a five-o'clock shadow and adopted a fierce scowling grimace when he pitched his specialty fastball, which was so high and close to (shaving) the lace ol batters that he earned the nickname "Sal (he Barber. " During Ins heyday m the 1950s, Maglie played foi all three New York professional baseball teams: the New York Giants, the

Brooklyn Dodgers, and the

New York

Yankees. His phenomenal pitching also included helped the Giants capture a National League pennant in 1951. In 1950 he led the league with 18 wins and 4 losses, and the follow a curveball thai

received main othei honours, including

ml

loss of the

(

Meyendorff John,

in

I

gram

71

nour.

i

I

I

National the 1956 Wot Id Si against the Yankees, he lost the fifth n A when Ion arsen pitched a pi ended his pitching e.iieel with the Yankees in 1957 and became a coach the following yeai His career record included 19 -a ins. 62 losses that

rid

1955 befo to the s record helped propel *

in

s

Sleeping Beauty.

Concertantes,

(

1992: Obitnariee

of

La

(

(

I

.in

i

s

theoli

b.

I

Seine. Trance

d

lul) 22.

17.

1992.

prominent U.S. leader in Monti is a iteni Orthodox Church, helped forge unity members of the ethnically diverse Ortho'

dox churches and promoted ecumenism among other Christian denominations. Meyendorff was the son of Russian emigres who fled their homeland during the Russian Revolution of 1917. After graduating 1949) from the Orthodox Theological Seminar) ol St. Serge m Paris, he earned a doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1958. The following year he joined the faculty ol St. Vladimii thodox Theological Seminary in Crestwood. NY. and from 1984 he served as its dean. Meyendorff played a vital role in modernizing the church s (

from Old

liturgy

SI;

came an esteemed

I

nglish,

and he be-

figure within the church. In the

Orthodox Church in the U.S.. he served as adviser to the Holy Synod and was editor of its monthly newsletter. In a wider capacity, he was cofounder and the first general secretary of Syndesmos, an international coalition of Orthodox youth organizations. Meyendorff 's scholarship was evidenced

many writings; he wrote in English. Rusand French. His religious and historical books were published in eight languages, and for many years he was a valued contributor to Encyclopaedia Bntanmca. He was also a lecturer at Harvard University; Fordham University. Bronx. N.Y.; and Columbia University, New York City. Meyendorff represented the Orthodox Church in America on the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches and was a past president of the Orthodox Theological Society of America and of the American Patristics Association. An expert on Byzantine history, he was a member of the executive committee of the U.S. Committee of Byzantine Studies and was senior fellow and acting director of Harvard's Byzantine Research Centre in Washington. As the Soviet Union disintegrated, Meyendorff made numerous trips to Russia, where he visited Patriarch Aleksy II of the Russian Orthodox Church during the time of the attempted coup against Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev in 1991. Meyendorff died of pancreatic cancer while on vacation in Canada. in his

sian,

and songwriter (b. Jan. Worth. Texas—d. Oct. 25, 1992, Los Angeles, Calif.), composed witty and lyrical songs that relied on his clever use of puns, wordplay, wisecracking, and wry country humour, including such all-time favourites as "Dang Me." " England Swings," and "King of the Road," which became an anthem for hobos. A versatile and selftaught musician. Miller played the drums, fiddle, banjo, piano, and guitar and composed his first song at the age of five. He left school after the eighth grade and served in the U.S. Army in Korea before moving to Nashville. Tenn.. where he launched his songwriting career, turning out hits for Jimmy Dean, George Jones. Ray Price, and Ernest Tubb. After signing with RCA Records Miller, Roger, U.S. singer 2,

in

1936, Fort

1960,

he scored his

the following year with lide."

Soon

after,

he

top- 10 country

first

"When Two Worlds

made

a successful

hit

Col-

crossover

pop music, and he enjoyed a string of hits with such novelty and folksy songs as "Chug-aLug." "Do Wacka Do," "Can't Roller Skate in a Buffalo Herd." "Walkin' in the Sunshine." and to

Green Apples" Between

"Little

191,4

and 1966

Grammy

awards. His popularity began to wane in the '70s before he climaxed his career in 1985 as the songwriter for the smash Broadway, hit Big River, which ran for two and a hall years, captured seven Tony awards, and earned Miller his own Tony for best score Miller garnered a record

1

1

lor a musical

Mills, (b.

Wilbur Daigh. US, lawyer and

May

24.

1909, Kcnsett.

politician

Ark.— d. May

2,

1992.

Kensett), exerted extraordinary influence in the political arena as the longtime Democratic representative from Arkansas s Second District 1939(

77) and as the chairman of the powerful

Ways and Means Committee

l (

House

>5"-^4i before he

People of 1992: Obituaries

72

was toppled from

On

1^74.

his

position

loft)

on Oct. 7, was

that da) the driver oi Ins limousine

pulled over, and Mills was discovered to be intox-

and

icated

.nun

the

in

compan)

ol

a

known

stripper

who

then bolted from the vehicle and dived into the Tidal Basin formal pond. Mills graduated 1933) from Harvard Universit) with a law degree but entered local politics because the Great Depression limited his legal opportunities. At the age of 24 he was elected to the House ol Representatives, and in Ins tirst 15 years in office he voted against civil rights, the construction oi the St Lawrence Seawas. statehood for Hawaii. and the admission ol refugees from Communist countries; Mills also \oted lor making membership in the Communist Part) a crime. During the 1960s he shifted Ins uJtraconservative stance and supported the national health insurance program known as Medicare, an upgrading ol welfare laws, a majoi tax revision, and several foreign-trade as

1

oxe,

I

1

\s

tanil laws.

chairman

Means Committee,

ol the

House Ways and most

Mills wrote

returned to the U.S., she settled in New York and became one of the few women members ol the influential Eighth Street Club he Club), which included such luminaries as Willem de Kooning. Lranz Kline, and other exponents of he New York school ol Abstract Expressionists. In 1451 her works were exhibited in the seminal Ninth Street Show, and she had her first solo exhibit the following year. Critical acclaim and a move lo Cans followed in 1955. From that date until 1474. she was companion to the FrenchCanadian painter Jean-Paul Riopelle. In 1%.

'

giealesl

I

2s vcais as the engaging master ol cciemonies

Miss America Pageant" who serenaded crowned beauty queen as she took her traditional walk down the lunway with his signaluie song. " here She Is." Patks. the gap-looihed emcee oi such radio quiz shows as "Break the Bank" and "Stop ihe Music, also starred as the

ol

the

the newlv

1

programs when they moved lo telethe popular game show "Double He had worked as an announcer BS from 1933 lo 1939. Parks was besl ic

host ol those vision oi

lor

and

ot

NoiliuiLV (

meiiibered. however, lor his annual stint

1955 79) on the "Miss America Pageant" When ol licials diopped him as host in 1980 because ol his age.

lolinnv

(arson launched

a

(

major though

People

unsuccessful nationwide lettei writing campaign Parks m.nk' one las) special appearance as hosl

who stabbed

and in the Barae cameo appearance in a comii year he made send up oi ins own in. mis pageant perform In crooning a satirical version oi ["here sin. Is" lizard in the film The Freshman. Parks was to Ins si, on mini; .ilso lauded tot role Broadwa) in The Wusit Man ii >t>u 61), and he continued to maintain presence on television, appearing as ringmastei oi the "Circus" series and in guest aw," "Eilerj Queen," appearances on "Burke's and "The Bionic Woman."

hampagne Maulers, and Ten The Trial, The Days Wonder, before playing an assortment oi

oi

the beauty pagean) in

1990,

.1

.1

l

,,

I

Parnis, Mollis, U.S. fashion designei is.

1900,

(

New

New York,

N."i

,—d,

March

(b.

lulj

is.

1992,

York), created a tasteful and fashionable

line oi comfortable dresses made oi fine fabrics conservative clientele, notably and attracted Such first ladies as Mamie Eisenhower, Betty Ford, and Lady Bird Johnson. Parnis. who could neither sketch nor sew. briefly served as an assistant salesclerk with a blouse manufacture! before marrying textile salesman Leon Livingston and forming Parnis-Livingston in 1433. Their enterprise was an instant success, and she earned a reputation for eschewing faddish designs in favour of smart ones. Parnis was a fixture in New York Citv with her Seventh Avenue dress showroom and her Park Avenue duplex apartment, which she turned into a salon for journalists, actors, and Democratic politicians. One of her greatest disappointments, however, was her lack of a formal college education, so she became an avid reader

lanel Leigh in the shower. uropc in several iiims in

then appeared

Perkins

in)

roles

motion pictures He was a

s in 1

Some lie

oi

screen

oilier

liis

and lanes

O)

Judge Ro)

Bean 1972), Murderon the Orient Etaxess and Edge "I Sanity 1989). Perkins also api |

1

L974),

(

in such plays as i.unk Homeward, Angel, Harold, Steambath, and Romantic Comedy. In one of his

roles Perkins starred as a police detective in

movie In the Deep Woods, which appeared posthumously. His death was attributed to complications from AIDS. the television

Seventh Avenue store in 1984 only to return to for her nephew, designing Mollie Parnis AtHome fashions. Parnis never disclosed the year

work

of her birth, but it was believed that she was her 90s when she died.

in

Piazzolla, Astor, Argentine musician (b.

Mar

del Plata." Arg.— d. July

Aires. Arg.),

was a bandoneon

5,

March 11. Buenos

1992.

(a square-built

button accordion virtuoso who performed until 1955 with traditional Latin-American tango bands but then dramatically departed from the stylized music associated with traditional tango and composed some 750 compositions that blended elements of jazz and classical music into what he christened the "new" tango. Piazzolla's innovations, including counterpoint and new rhythms and harmonies, were not well received in his country. His music was greatly admired in the U.S. and Europe, however, and from 1974 to 1985 he lived in Paris. Earlier, during the 1950s, Piazzolla had studied in that city under Nadia Boulanger. who had urged him to experiment with the tango. After returning to Argentina, he formed (1960) the influential Quinteto Nuevo Tango, featuring vioI

lin,

and bandoneon. Though compositions were written for that

guitar, piano, bass,

most of

his

quintet, he also

composed pieces

for orchestra,

bandoneon. and cello. In Argentina new tango gradually gained acceptance, and his music influenced a new generation of tango composers and was featured during the 1970s big band, his

Perkins, Anthony, U.S. actor

(b.

April

4.

1932,

New

York, N.Y.—d. Sept. 12. 1992. Hollywood, was forever identified with his portrayal of the murderous motel owner Norman Bates in the chilling Alfred Hitchcock thriller Psycho (1960), and he reprised this role in three sequels (1983, 1986, and 1990). Perkins made his film debut in The Actress (1953) while still studying at Calif.),

Columbia University, New York City. The following year he starred on Broadway as the sensitive adolescent, Tom Lee, in Tea and Sympathy. In the film Friendly Persuasion (1956), he portrayed

young Quaker worried about protecting his homestead while being true to his religious beliefs. That performance earned him an a

family's

Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor. He then specialized in playing awkward, anxious, and

gawkv voung men, notablv

in

Fear

Out (19571. 'The Tin Star (1957), and Desire Under the Elms (1958), before achieving international stardom in Psycho as the maniac Strikes

ARCHIVE PHOTOS

and

'80s in film scores, television

programs, and

commercials. Picon, Molly, U.S. actress and singer (b. June 1, 1898, New York, N.Y.—d. April 5, 1992, Lancaster, Pa.), reigned as the Yiddish theatre's

"Sweetheart of Second Avenue" during the 1920s

and

'30s

and captivated

New York

City

audi-

ences with her impish charm and comedic talents, which were showcased by her gift for mimicry and superb sense of timing, notably in such unforgettable productions as Yankele. Ratzele, Oy, iz dos a meydl! ("Oy, what a girl!"), and Hello Molly. A child star, she first appeared (1904) in vaudeville before being peisuaded (1919) by playwright Jacob Kalich to join the Yiddish theatre he managed. Picon and Kalich married the same year, and they toured Europe in 1921 so that Picon could perfect her Yiddish. After returning to the U.S., she beguiled audiences as the diminutive and effervescent star of more than 200 Yiddish productions, evoking laughter with her comical renditions of "The Woiking Goil" and "The Story of Grandma's Shawl." In 1940 Picon made her Broadway bow in Morning Star, her lirst English-speaking starring role. During World War II she toured worldwide, and after the war she turned the tears of concentration camp survivors to laughter as she serenaded them with Jewish songs. Her starring role in London opposite Robert Morley in the comedy A Majority oj (Me (1960) earned her critical acclaim. As Yiddish theatre receded from the limelight. Picon turned to stage and film. She was a huge success playing an American widow searching for a husband m Israel in the Broadway musical Milk and Honey (1961), and she was memorable in such as

films

Yiddle with His Fiddle (1937).

Mamele

Mother"; 1938), Come Rlow Your Horn L963), and Fiddler on the Root (1972). Picon had a Jewish theatre named lor her in 1931, and she continued to perform well into her 80s. ("Little |

Piper,

Dec.

John Egerton Christmas, British 1903. Epsom, Surrey, England

13,

Hies

Pipci

artist

—

d.

(b.

June

raphic paint

Richmond

attended Eps '6-27),

(

1921,

II

ps;

Pretty Poison

the original Psycho. credits include I he I

75

iiiiriis

widely varied career, was best

(1968), the chaplain in Catch-22 1970), and a political assassin in WUSA the success "I never recaptured but he 1970), arsonist

1992: OI.it

architectui

(

.1

with a dictionary close at hand. After her husband's death in 1962, she retired for three months but soon returned to retailing. She closed her

near

1992,

I

tng

last

2K,

\ and Sons, an Intimate Relationship and Famifyhood, Nurturing the Values That Matter, which was published posthumously At the time of his death. Salk was a profeSSOI ot psycholog) in pediatrics and psychiatr) at Cornell Universit) Medical Center, Ithaca. N.Y., attending psychologist at two New York City medical

to

Parenthood

I

1

I

and adjunct professor

Brown

at

His oldei brothei lonas, developed vaccine tor poliomyelitis, and his other brother,

Herman, was

a

renowned

and adniinisiiatoi

Vi

—

d.

Feb.

15,

Sergtyev, Konstantin Mikhailovich, Russian ballet dancer and director (b. March 5 [Feb. 20, old style], 1910, St. Petersburg, Russia— d. April 1992, St Petersburg), was a premier danseur I. with the renowned Kirov Ballet for three decades (1930-61) and twice served as the company's artistic director and chief choreographer (1951-

he covered Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the war effort, but he became restless and was assigned to the China-Burma-India theatre in 1943. While flying into China, the aircraft he was aboard experienced engine failure, and the crew and passengers were forced to parachute out into Japanese-controlled jungles. With help from a supply plane, which dropped provisions, he was instrumental in leading the group out of the jungle on foot. He recounted many of his adventures in his books, notably Not So Wild a Dream ( 1946), which was reprinted twice. Sevareid's postwar assignments were in France, Germany, Britain, and W ashington, where he became a formidable and vocal foe of Sen. Joseph McCarthy's Communist

As

55; L960-70).

admired

a

performer Sergeyev was much

for his lyrical interpretations of romantic

leading roles and for his partnering skills; as a director he introduced the world to the Kirov's exquisite artistry in a series ol international tours.

1930 he completed his siudics with the State

In

Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet (renamed the Kirov in 1435) and joined the company. He

Aug 4. 1992, New

Sevareid, (Arnold) Eric, U.S. broadcast journalist d. Jul) 9, 1992, (b. Nov, 26, 1912 Velva, N.D.Washington, D.< .), was an eloquent commentator and scholarl) writei whose fuel) crafted cssavs

journalism and as a composer and pianist. In 1933 he began working for The New Yorker, at as a free-lancer, and in 1939 he became lirst a managing editor. In 1452, after the death of founding editor Harold Ross, Shawn became editor. Under him the magazine gave up much of its lightheaded irreverence but never its sense of humour or its famous cartoons and became known lor serious reporting of major social and political issues. Among others. Shawn published writing b) Hannah Arendt. on the trial of Adolf Eichmann; James Baldwin, on race; and Rachel ( arson, on the environment. Truman Capote's

19,

hiro

however, alter attending

I

(

AP WIDE WORLD

1910 New York), was

Hams

also studied with

H«

the luilliard

,ii

1907,

kit college alter two years and briefly

worked

in

Cold Blood was

tirst

serialized

—

in

the

maga-

I

—

the

Graduate

School In 1935 Schuman began leaching at Sarah awrence ( oUege, Bronxvilk n and in 1945 ai m\ association wuh the music publishei linner, Inc. Later in thai same (real lie was

the position.

v.

I

31,

he New Yorker's distinguished writers ol included John Cheever and John Updike, and Pauline Kael, on him, and Roger Angell, on baseball, were among its longtime critics and reporters. Shawn was esteemed as an editor who knew when to leave prose alone but who also demanded accuracy ami sought perfection the magazine's tact-checking department being legendary—and as a person who nurtured writers and other editors. When new owners forced him lo retire in 1487. more than 150 of his colleagues protested by asking his replacement to decline

loscaniui. he turned to the study ot music.

(1937) degrees

Aug.

fiction

New York

\

(b.

Chicago, III.—d. Dec. 8, 1992, New York. N.Y.), headed The Ne» Yorker for 35 years, from 1952 to 1987. during which time it was one of the most avidl) read and influential of U.S. publications.

zine

vator)

M

Shawn. William, U.S. editor

In

New York Philharmonic conducted

compose] Ro\

Sevareid 11964).

—

( it) he enrolled at Malkm Conserand then a! teachers College, Columbia University, where he received B.S (1935) and

In

1977, Sevareid wrote a weekly syndicated column and published such books as In One Ear (1952), Small Sounds m the Night (1956), and 77iis Is Eric

He

performance b) Ai

a

sion editorials, which aired until his retirement in

(

known toi musi^ that combined traditional forms with American themes and toi Ins contributions to teaching and the development ot arts institulions Although he had music lessons in his \outh. Schuman entered college to study business \t the In the

became a celebrity in the U.S. during the 1960s, when his commentaries were featured on the "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite." Besides his two-minute televiwitch-hunts. Sevareid

composer, cd-

S

I

(b,

late 1940,

standard Fountain of Bakhchisaray, lost Illusions, and The Bronze Horseman. Alter his acclaimed partner Galina I Linos a transferred to the Bolshoi Ballet in 1944. he danced with Natalya Dudmskaya (whom he married). As a choreographer and as artistic director, Sergeyev focused mainl) n classical ballet techniques in the standards and in such new pro ductions as Hamlet 1970). He was dismissed Irom the compan) in 1970 alter Natalya Makarova defected while on tour in the U.K., but he was reinstated as director ol the choreographic school in 1973 Sergeyev was awarded numerous state honours, including the cnin Prize 1970). quickly rose to leading roles in the repertory and in new ballets, notably

veterinarian.

Schuman. William Howard. UCatOI lork.

newborn twin sons, Sevareid joined Murrow in London for broadcasts during the Battle of Britain bombing raids. When he returned to the U.S. in

Diversity, Pro\

I

idence. R.I a

his achievements both as a composer and as an educator and administrator.

,

.

appointed president ol Juilliard, where his man) innovations included changes in the curriculum, establishment ot divisions toi opera and clause. and development ol the Juilliard Smug Quartet, which became a model loi chambei groups in \tter participating ill the planning tor residence the Lincoln (enter lor the Performing Ails ot which Juilliard became a part, he served as its in from 1962 to 1969 arl) in nit .is a Qomposer, Schuman wrote songs and short influenced b) populai music Hi turned, however, to longer, more formal works. and his output included symphonies, concern. ballets, and choral .wd slumber woiks Sv his best-known compositions [merican Festival In, Third Symphony 1941 B cantata based on |*octrv ot Walt Whitman, and Symphony !•" S/mio (1943) received their premieres under Serge Koussevitzky, a champion ol new musK Olhei works include I

1;

1

—

the op.

latei

llu

U

th,

Hal

i

revised

i

Pulitzer Pn.

s

Vi M

1976);

and an orchestration

i

Among Schuman

became

many honours were led in music, in

nd

Pulitzer, in

196

the

1

tirst

1943 lor I9f

hallmark ol

a

liis

careei

wuh

(

us News

and who pioneered a new journalism In introducing opinion and analysis in news reports. Sevareid, a Statel) Norwegian, tell thai he was

1

;i)

19

,

77)

uis kl

wuh

i

somewhat forbidding Scandinavian

a

manner, with

a restraint that spells stuffiness to

Ills newscasts were delivered not grave tones, but Ins forthright manner projected a sense ol mist to his peers and audiences Alter graduating (1935) from the

a

in

ot

lot

people

sonorous

it

Universit) ot Minnesota. Sevareid worked as a reporter (1936 $7) foi the Minneapolis Journal, winch had hired him as a cub reporter in 1930. He then secured a job with the \et\ York Herald tribune in Paris. In 1939 Edward R. Munow. who was based in ondon, recruited Sevareid to I

BS

news correspondent to COVei the World War II in Europe. As one liovs he was the last American to broadcast from Pans, and in 1940 ai Bordeaux he join

(

outbreak ot

stored

a

announce the

as a

ot

"MUITOM

i

s

scoop b) being the lust to ranee was poised to suiiendci to aiici Seeing Paris with Ins wife .md

journalistic

that

remans

I

John Joseph, U.S. lawyer and judge

(b.

Waterbury, Conn.—d. Aug. 14. 1492, Washington. DC), presided over the historiC Watergate scandal proceedings, doggedly searching lor the truth ami the identity ol those responsible foi the burglary (June 17, 1972) ol the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate liotcl-ollicc-apartmenl complex he became an American in Washington, D.( tolk hero alter unraveling the COVer-up, which prompted the resignation (Aug. 9, 1974) ol Pres Richard Nixon and the convictions ol many ol Nixon's top While House aides. Alter graduating (1926) from Georgetown University in Washington. DC, Sirica boxed in several bouts in Miami, la before opening a law practice in the nation's capital, lie served as U.S. attorney (193034) before returning to private practice. During World War II. he enlisted in the navy but was

March

I

.

as

Sirica.

I''.

1904

,;

I

.

deterred altei tailing the physical. Instead, he and hover Jack Dempsev toured the U.S. selling war bonds. In 1957 Sirica was appointed to the lederal bench. As chief judge of the U.S. Districl (ourt for the District ol Columbia, Sirica assigned hunsell the case (January 1973) ol the seven men charged with the Watergate burglary. During their sentencing (live pleaded guilty and iwo were convicted by a jury). Sirica lead a letter

People

from one

ol the defendants,

lames

v»

Mc
27) and Poland's Access to the Sea (1934). Smogorzewski was associated with Encyclopaedia Britannica from l

1942 until shortly before Ins death.

plate,

and by introducing

Stotz,

who

The first national tournament was held in 1949 in Williamsport, which became the permanent home of the Little League World Series. As commissioner of Little League baseball, Stotz became embroiled in a controversy with the in 12 leagues.

Their commissions included low-rise housing units

—

1910'.

(b.

to get into their big brothers' games. They sported regulation uniforms and had adult managers and coaches. By 1942 a permanent field had been completed, and in 1947 there were 48 teams

first

Smogorzewski, Kazimierz Maciej, Polish journalist (b. Feb. 24, 189h. Sosnowiec. Poland d. Nov. 4, 1992. Shepperton, Middlesex. England), chronicled European events as a newspaper correspondent in Paris (1919-25), Berlin (1933-39). and London (1957-81) and as editor ot the Parisbased monthly La Pologne (1929-33) and the London-based bimonthly Free Europe (1939-45). Smogorzewski was educated at the School of Political Science in Paris. He fought with the French Foreign Legion during World War I. but he was serious!) wounded in 1915, received the Croix de Guerre, and was invalided out (I'M 7). In I'll'' he became the Pans correspondent lor the conservative Gazeta Warszawska, and he remained in Paris throughout the 1920s. As Berlin correspondent for the semiofficial Polish daily Gazeta Polska from 1933, Smogorzewski interviewed Hitler ami recorded the events leading up to the German invasion of Poland. In August 1939 he lied to London, where he became a central figure in the expatriate Polish community. It was lata discovered that his name appeared on the Na/i an est list

figure

1992. Williamsport).

young

did research on tungsten then served as founding

ety (1981).

4.

lighter bats and balls. together with George and Bert Bebfirst ble managed the three Little League teams, organized the game for boys too small or too

Yannoecio Biringuccio's Pirotechnia, which apin 1540 in Italian and was the tirst printed work on metallurgy. Smith, who was recognized as an expert on metals through his various writings, was recruited to join the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, N.M., where he directed ( 1943-46)

i

sports

for little leaguers by spacing their bases 60 apart (compared with 90 ft for major leaguers). by making the pitcher's mound 40 ft from home

peared

1

U.S.

Pa.—d. June

ft

translate

1980), and A History of Metallography: The Development ol Ideas on the Structure of Metals to 1890 1988). Smith was awarded the Presidential Medal for Merit (1946), the Platinum Medal of the Institute of Metals. London (1970), and the Dexter Award of the American Chemical Soci-

E..

ilhamsport.

mond

he earned a Ph.D. in 1926. He then spent 15 years with the American Brass Co. at Waterbury, Conn., conducting research on copper alloys. From 193b

(

11,

The birth of Little League was written into history when Lundy Lumber beat Lycoming Dairy 23-8 on June 6, 1939. Stotz modified the playing dia-

sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where

carbide and boron. He 1946-56) of the Institute for the Study director of Metals at the University ot Chicago before

in

brainstorming the idea while nursing a leg injury caused when he stumbled over a lilac bush while playing a backyard game of catch with his two nephews. Stotz. a lumberyard clerk, gained sponsorship for the league from local businesses and devised his own field with youth-size dimensions.

1

bombs and

I

the

in

was the enthusiastic founder, in 1939. of Little League baseball, which he established after

—

three atomic

the

)' )(

physical-mathematical treatment ot the entrainiurrounding ur into the ascending current cumulus cloud. Stommel. who earned honorary Ph.D. s from Goteborg (Sweden) University in 1964 and Yale University and the University ol ( hicago in 1970. was elected to the National Academ) ol Sciences m 1962 and was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1989.

V\

scientific

the preparation of the active metals for the

I

GLOBE PHOTOS

(

Martha Teach Gnudi

1954,

Ml -iud> ot deep-water Mediterranean (1969-72,. Hewas credited with having helped to formulate a

named

during his longtime career; he was tirst noted lor determining 1943 44) the properties and technology ol plutonium and uranium needed foi the construction ol the atomic bombs that were tirst exploded in 1945 and he later advanced the use of metallography in the examiof artifacts. archaeological After graduatnation ing 424) from the University of Birmingham. Smith pursued his studies in the U.S. at the Mas-

to 1942 he helped

ocean current,

IRI S (begun

lic

stuluig

disciplines

(

CAM

including the

d. 1903, Birmingham, bngland Cambridge, Mass.). made impor-

tant contributions

stations in monitor

11011. il

criticized 01

Slot/.

US.

Smith, Cyril Stanley, British-born

79

theorized that Ms northward How must be balanced b) a deep, southward How beneath it. Many ot Ins theories were later proved. Stommel set up

mulliunit

and

I9W: Obituariei

-I

more avant-garde High Tech Postmodernism. One building, the University of Cambridge hisunpopular that

British anti-Modernists used

it

as

housing project at Runcorn New Town (1967- 7 6) was later demolished. The Neue Staatsgalerie (1977-84) in Stuttgart. Germany, a combination of classicism and colourful geometric abstraction designed by Stirling and his partner (from 1971) Michael Wilford. was heralded as an icon of Postmodernism. Stirling won the Royal Institute of British Architects' Gold Medal in 1980 and the Pritzker Prize in 1981. In 1991, after a long and bitter fight, planning permission was granted for his controversial No. 1 Poultry, to be built in the heart of London"s conservation area. He was knighted only 12 days before his death from complications a rallying point, while a concrete

alter surgery.

Stommel, Henry Melson, U.S. oceanographer and meteorologist

(b.

Sept.

27.

1920.

Wilmington.

Del.—d.

Jan. 17. 1992, Boston. Mass.). conducted important field studies on the dynamics of ocean

currents and became a respected theoretician in that field of research. In 1977 Stommel and Friedrich Schott developed a method of determining, in principle, the absolute velocity of mean ocean currents from observations ot the density alone. After earning a B.S. from Yale University. in 1942, he taught mathematics and astronom) (1942-44) there before moving to the Woods Hole (Mass.) Oceanographic Institution, where he was research associate (1944-59) and. from 1978, oceanographer. Stommel was professor ol oceanography at the Massachusetts Institute ol Technology (1959 mi and 1963-78) and at Har-

vard University (1960-63). In 1947 he published The dull Stream, one of the first books to explore that ocean current and other currents in general. le set forth the idea that the Earth's rotation was responsible lor pushing the Cull Stream westward along the coast of North America, and he also I

organization in 1955 when he filed suit because he felt that the league had grown too large and that increasing team rosters to 15 players from 12 was detrimental to less talented players, who would have their playing time reduced. The suit was settled out of court, but in early 1956 Stotz was barred by a federal court from forming a rival group. It was never clear whether Stotz was fired or quit as Little League commissioner. He later served as a tax collector in his hometown.

Gunnar Georg Emanuel, Swedish

Strang,

politi-

cian (b. Dec. 23. 1906. Jarfalla, near Stockholm.

Sweden

—

d. March 6. 1992, Stockholm), as finance minister (1955-76) in a succession of Social Democratic Cabinets, was the chief architect of the renowned Swedish social welfare system. Strang was a self-educated agricultural labourer and trade union organizer who rose to become president of the Swedish Agricultural Workers' Union in 1938. After World War II he was elected to the Riksdag (parliament), joined the government as a consulting minister (1945^47), and later was head of the Ministries of Supplv (1947-48). Agriculture (1948-51), and Social Affairs (195155). As minister of finance. Strang sought the redistribution ot wealth through a highly progressive system of taxes on personal income, capital, and private employers. He supported the extensive welfare system that included generous health care benefits, pensions, and unemployment coverage. He also put considerable emphasis on job creation and the need lor a balanced budget. In 1969 Strang introduced Sweden's tirst value-added tax. which took on even greatei significance in the late 1980s when the government introduced a senes ot cuts m othci tonus of taxation. Strang

office aftei the Social Democrats lost the 1976 elections, but he remained in the Riksdaa

left

until 1985.

Summerson, tectural

England

Sir

John Newenham,

historian (b. Nov. 25.

—

d.

Nov.

10.

l I

)'>2.

C 1

British archi-

M>4.

Darlington.

London.

I

ngland).

80

People of 1992: Obituaries

JVC in 1946. Some of were director (1976-80) video products division, managing duectoi

He

whs

in

his other executive posts

elist

country's

ol the

children, the elderly, and the Holocaust.

an important influence on architectural preservation in Britain and helped record that architectural history. Several ol his books became popular classics and set a proles sional standard lor works on that subject. Sum-

merson was educated at Harrow and at University College, London. Alter he received his architect's license, he worked in a number of architects' ofthen decided that he preferred teaching and He was assistant editor of The Architect and Building News (1934-41) and deputy director ol the National Building Record (194145) before becoming (1945) curator of Sir John Soane's Museum, where he remained until 1984. During these years with the museum. Summerson also held professorships and lectureships at a number of colleges and universities -among fices but

writing.

the navy before joining

1980 83), senior managing director 1983-86) ol video research and development laboratories, vice president 1986-90), and auditor L990-92). (

(

(

Tal, Mikhail Nekhemyevich, Latvian chess grand

master

—

1936, Riga. Latvia d. June Russia), became at 23 the

9,

Moscow.

1992,

28,

Nov.

|b.

foi

Honoui

S.S.R. titles (1958, 1967, 1972, "74. and 1978) and numerous othei international competitions,

i

(

i

Vrchitecture ol the Royal Institute ol British Architects m 1976, and appointed Companion ol

1987

in

man

youngest

to

1

I

I

notably the high-speed world blitz championship

Rosemary. British children's w liter lb, neland Dec. 14. 1920, West Clandon. Surre) d Julv 23, 1992), produced souk so volumes ol SulelitT,

in

(

anada

1988

in

I

nchlv

detailed historical fiction thai entertained

them about British his torv from the pie-Roman era to the Clh centurv nglish ( ivii Wars and beyond Sutcliff, who was

children while teaching

I

never overlj sentimental oi condescending to hei readers, introduced a vast amount ol careful!) researched detail into hei novels and did not shv awav from such complex, emotion-charged issues as war, loneliness, and death Stricken bv a crip pling form of arthritis as a child, she had little formal education until she entered the l> School ol Art at age 14 She became an ac COmplished miniature painter and did not publish hei tust hook. The ( hronicles oj Rohm Haul. until 1950 The Eagle oj the \mth (1954) whicl brought her nationwide lame, was the lust ol scv eral artful!) linked novels sei mainlv in Roman Britain, including The ShteU Ring (195»>). Ihc Silvei Branch (1957), The Lantern Bearers (1959) Dawn Wind (1961), and Frontier Halt (1980)

Among

novels

were Warrioi Scarlet (1958) /', Hark of the Horsi Lord (1965), Blood Feud (1976), Flame-Coloured Taffeta (1986), and an \ithurian tnlogv She also wiolc several books based on ancient legends and tales, as well as historical fiction foi adults and an autobiography, hei

othei

Bate ft

suulitt

i

mandei

won

the

Medal in P'mi and was made Com Oidei ol the British mpue shortlv

Carnegie

ol the

1

her death

Mii/uu.

lakaini. ib

1923,

fapanese

engineei Jan 19, 1992, as duel ol the video products electronics

Yokohama, Japan

lokvo. Japan),

(o

.1

Japan (JVC) from 1970 l( i>r h spearheaded the successful market IIS development oi the \ (video home system) issettc recorder, which debuted in 1976 His company became engaged in a fierce compe tuion with tin Son) < oip. winch had introduced the Betamax video system in 1974, lak.mo insisted that engineers design the \ll v system so that two houn ol normal recording (versus one hour foi Betamax) were possible, and he licensed the secret \ MS technologv to other manutactui video rental tapes had \ HS format,

i

I

ita!

S

stores ceased stock

was genthe) had greater clarity), and

max videotapes (even though that

d

orders

Hamamatsvi

1

it

to begin

akano

a

nanu-

graduate ol ed tWO veils

also

on White House commissions

was

a pan-

that discussed

(

have won the world chess championship when he defeated the defending champion. Mikhail M. Botvinnik. in a stunning upset (i:'j N :) in I960. Tal, who learned to play chess at the age of six. was known for his unbelievably complex and audacious moves. He became a national master and Latvian champion in 1953, at age Ib. In 1957, the year he graduated from Riga University, Tal became an international grand mastci and won the first ol his si\ titles as champion of the U.S.S.R. He established Ins nght to challenge Botvinnik with impressive victories in the 1958 interzonal and 1959 candidates' tournaments, both held m Yugoslavia. Tal was taken seriously ill with kidney disease shortlv before he lost to Botvinnik in a 1961 rematch. and he never again challenged lor the world championship Despite continuing bouts with hvci and kidncv ailments, however, he won five more

I'iss 59), Cambridge (196 them (Moid and Columbia. New York ( ilv 1968) -and wrote main books, some ol them based on his lectures. Architecture inBritain 1530-1830 L953) surveyed almost all oT his most important work and became a classic, and I he Classical Language l

Pope John Paul II encouraged a more active role rights movement. In 198° Tomasek openly endorsed the peaceful overthrow until

1978 to take

his old friend in in the dissident

1

human

(

Trace, Christopher, British television personality (b. March 21. 1933, Cranleigh, Surrey. England d. Sept. 5. 1992, London, England), was the original male host of the BBC television program

"Blue Peter," a show developed for five- to eightyear-olds to fill a gap in children's programming. For nearly nine years (1958-67) and more than 500 shows, he was a reliable and adventurous surrogate older brother to a generation of youngsters. Trace was especially effective when he demonstrated do-it-yourself projects, and he originated the much-parodied phrase "Here's

one

I made earlier." After service in the army. Trace decided to become an actor; until "Blue Peter," however, being Charlton Heston's double in Ben Hur was the closest he came to fame. After leaving "Blue Peter,' he joined the Spectator feature film company. It failed after two years, though,

1

(

Communist regime.

of the

Obituark

:

—

I

'

I

government

iv 1995-96. New direct income supports of ECU 45 (about $42) per ton of grain were to substitute for part of the support lost through the reduction of intervention prices. Larger, so-called professional farms had to set aside (idle) part of their land to be eligible for payments. Such farms those that produced more than 92 tons of grain annually and were ordinarily 20 ha (about 50 ac) or larger represented some 35% of all farms and 65% of the total

—

area planted to the crops covered.

The 1992-93 world wheat crop was

the second largest

on

record although well below the 1990-91 record. Crops in

both the U.S. and the former Soviet republics were more than 20% larger than a year earlier. Eastern Europe's wheat production, however, was 30% smaller. Wheat imports by eastern European countries were expected to be heavily dependent on the availability of credit and donation programs bj exporters. Stocks of EC wheat from the 1991-92 harvest were sufficient to increase exports in 1992-93, despite the

drought-reduced

A

EC

wheat crop.

of government planting restrictions and favourable weather conditions resulted in the largest U.S. relaxation

coarse grain crop since 1985-86

—

up one-fourth from 199192 to 274 million tons. That, together with a substantial recovery in production in the former Soviet republics, more than offset the

much

smaller crops in eastern Europe and

the EC.

A

Oilseeds. modest increase in 1992-93 global oilseed production was expected (in December), largely the result of a U.S. soybean crop favoured by unusually good weather. The strong expansion of 1991-92 oilseed output led by cottonseed, rapeseed, and soybeans together with

—

the availability of substantial carryover soybean stocks, fueled strong increases in production of both high-protein

meals and edible vegetable oils. The ample oilseed supplies were reflected in soybean prices (c.i.f., Rotterdam, U.S. No. 2 yellow), which were trending slowly downward, averaging $237 per ton from October 1991 through September 1992, compared with $241 in 1990-91 and $247 in 1989-90. The demand for protein meal strengthened a little in 1991-92, stimulated by the expansion of the hog and poultry sectors of the U.S., EC, and those Latin-American and Asian countries that were experiencing rapid economic growth. The price of soybean meal increased from an average of $198 per ton (c.i.f., Rotterdam) in 1990-91 to $203 in 199192. Although soybean oil prices (f.o.b., Rotterdam) fell from an average of $454 per ton in 1990-91 to $437 in 1991-92, about the same as in 1989-90, strong price increases were recorded for coconut and palm oil in 1991-92. In response to an earlier GATT finding that the EC's oilseed policy denied the U.S. and other oilseed exporters the benefits of a 30-year-old tariff concession that reduced EC tariffs on oilseeds and oilseed meals, the EC adopted a

new

set

was not in

Table

IV.

Livestock in

In

Numbers and Meat Production

Major Producing Countries

1991'

1992'

and buffalo 055 9 1.047 9

Cattle

World

total

t

Canada United States

tt 4

100

1

302 565

Mexico Argentina

130

Brazil

1

99

Uruguay Western Europe

116 1023 307

237

43 247

39 244

India

271 2

271 3

China

1057 1046 Hogs 7626 761 1 104 106

FSU* Baltic states

Australia

World

total

Canada

57 7

United States

Mexico Western Europe

EC

99 1150 1062

552 646

Eastern Europe

FSU«

97

11

3697

1065

1

58

1

781 041

697 036

1

72 2 03 1 54

1

1

1488

108

24 52 Poultry

1

69

1

1

42

1

37

159 10

US

634

649

Nonfat dry milk

meat

EC

160 70

year s end Consists of 51 countries

US '

Includes united Germany Former Soviet Union comprising 12 nations, excluding its Baltic states Ready to eat equivalent Coverage includes China Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service August and October

1992

1

347

31 5

149

15.8

145

12 8

1020

95.4

822

58 42

51

142 10.7

442

6.307

EC

11

145 147 283

Butter

Cheese

27 8

114

10.7

In

450

25.2

14.5

Production 1992' 1991

US

688

11

Product/Region

EC

87.3

113 150 153

27 5

Total

'Forecast

•

255

Japan/South Alrica

beel and veal 38 lor pork 51 lor poultry meat 30 lor sheep and goat meat, and roughly the same coverage lor animal numbers Includes nearly all European producers, the most significant in the Western Hemisphere, and scattered coverage elsewhere

•

257 289

31 2 11.5

Australia/New Zealand 3

lor

«

264 (united)

India

Sheep goat meat All

1

1115

Poland Former Soviet republics

10

3 95

at

113 9

62

012

numbers

118.0

Netherlands. The United Kingdom Other western Europe Eastern Europe

meat5

6 85

Preliminary livestock

126 2

Germany

38 1 44 26 00

Eastern Europe

Total

128.7

France

FSU*

'

148

1334

China

EC

total"

142

480

296 696

World

14.5

531

39 33 11 75

SheepJ 845 1 8185

24 2

Baltic states

269

Japan Oiina

85 4 67 4

245

EC

783 083 13 78

states

67 3

South America

Western Europe

18

1

37 78 11 20

Banc

1991

846

Brazil

67 06

14 86

total

1990

Italy

13 75

371 7

000.000 metric tons

North America United States

76

109 2 52 9

United States

In

204

6591

549 564 045 148

World Production of Dairy Products'

V.

Region and country

74

Brazil

World

billion

Production of cow's milk

83

1180

Poultry

Table

Pork

082

37

ruling,

32

1

2

569

EC

66

894 829

589 11

to restrict

260 380

032 934 868 208

1.13 7 26

4 4

Baltic states

Japan China

47 98 93

1053

3 70

78 7

The

Beel and veal

1294 104

24 6 106

EC Eastern Europe

— mainly of soybeans— the benefits of the rejected the and the U.S. threatimports worth $1 from the EC—the

oilseed exporters

ened

48 92 89

265

859

The U.S.

1991.

1992'

1991

567

877 804

December

in

and requested another panel, which ruled March 1992 that the new policies continued to deny U.S.

concession.

000.000 head and 000.000 metric Ions (carcass weight)

Region and country

of oilseed policies

satisfied

46

49 52

282 147

294 154

107 4294

4150

10.8

Year-end stocks 1992' 1991

000 metric tons

1.801

6,056 1.619

606

615

10.169 4.892 2.763 3.474 1.499

11,127 4.982 2,920 3.177 1.208

398

390

538 249

924 458 225

1.629 1.088

1.627 1.120

189 769

175 354 130 45

1,006

482 98

Based on 37 maior producing countries Those not shown individually include (North America) Canada and Mexico, (South America) Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Venezuela; (EC) Belgium-Luxembourg, Denmark. Greece, Ireland. Portugal, and Spam, (other western Europe) Austria. Finland. Norway. Sweden, and Switzerland, and (eastern Europe) Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia Coverage of production and stocks ol other dairy products is not as comprehensive or uniform for the countries not shown above individually

'

Preliminary

3

Year ended June 30 tor Australia and May 31 lor New Zealand Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service, November 1992

Agriculture and

U.S. estimate of the

damage

to U.S. export sales. Following

unsuccessful EC attempts to renegotiate its tanll bindings on oilseeds and oilseed meal, the U.S. in September asked

GATT

lor binding

sation the

arbitration to rule

EC owed

damage eaused them by ensued

EC

after the

how mueh compen-

the U.S. and oilseed exporters lor the

the

EC

policies.

More

negotiations

unilaterally blocked the proposal for

arbitration.

On November of

its

2 the U.S. announced the

retaliation should the dispute not

December

first

installment

be resolved to

its

withdrew U.S. tariff reductions negotiated in earlier years on $300 million worth of EC exports to the U.S. Prohibitive duties were announced on a list of EC exports that included white wine, rapeseed oil, and wheat gluten. U.S. imports of agricultural products from the EC (excluding distilled spirits) amounted to $4.4 satisfaction by

5.

It

billion in 1991.

The

EC

and the U.S. announced on November 20 that

they had resolved the oilseed dispute and several other ferences between

them

that

were delaying the

GATT

dif-

mul-

The agreement on oilseeds was commitment to limit its oilseed production

tilateral trade negotiations.

prices iioii.

North

strengthened

a little in

October

si. 4DI)

at

for butter

I

nod Suppllef

HI

uropean and selected world pons)

1992 from spring onward, peaking $1,750 per ton lor butter, $1 750 I

in

$2,050-$2,450 lor cheese, and $1,650 $2,060

oil.

(NFDM). The

for nonfat dry milk

NFDM

and

for cheese

I

increases were greater

than for butter, partly reflecting a

long-term trend in many countries toward lower per capita consumption of butter because of dietary concerns and competition from vegetable margarine. Butterfats were also

tending to receive lower levels of support, particularly

in

and U.S. dairy programs, relative to NFDM. The EC in May 1992 adopted important changes in its dairy policy, which cost it some $7 billion annually, as part of overall CAP agricultural reforms. The reforms were less drastic than were those for the grains and oilseed sectors; a 2% cut in milk quotas for 1991-92 resulted in a reduction in EC dairy surpluses and reduced pressures for further

EC

production cuts. The reforms provided for only small reductions in support prices, leaving most adjustments to future

A 5%

years.

cut in the support (intervention) price for

butter was approved.

based on an EC by setting aside in the first year of the agreement 15% of the area now planted to oilseeds and 10% in subsequent years. The outcome of the issue, however, remained in doubt because of a bitter French claim that the agreement

unexpectedly large increases in output in Asia, especially by China and India, disproved early forecasts of a smaller harvest. Global sugar output was expected to exceed con-

was invalid. Meat and

continuing growth

Another decline in the world cattle herd, by about 1%, was expected in 1992 (in October) because increases in the U.S. and China were overwhelmed by large reductions in the former Soviet republics and eastern Europe and smaller declines in the EC. The formerly Communist countries were also the source of the largest reductions

Livestock.

in

beef production

in 1992, resulting in

mated 2% reduction globally. World pork production continued

to

expand

at

an

esti-

almost

annually, led by strong growth in Chinese output that

World sugar production in 1992-93 was expected November) to about match output in 1991-92, when

Sugar. (in

sumption for the fourth straight year. The prospects of in world sugar stocks helped keep the average monthly spot prices of freely traded raw sugar mostly in the 8-10-cent-per-pound range. World prices of refined

The crisis

in

the 12-13-cent range.

Union and the economic

dissolution of the Soviet

faced by

its

successor states resulted in a breakdown of

the barterlike arrangements under which

Cuba had traded

2%

more

Table

than offset substantially smaller production in the former Soviet republics. World poultry output continued to grow briskly, but not quite as rapidly as the 5% rate achieved in 1991. The growth in Chinese poultry production also slowed a little from the 7.5% expansion recorded in 1991. CAP meat-industry reforms created a new support mech-

anism that made direct payments to beef and sheep farmers based on the number of animals owned up to a designated maximum, with premiums for a certain number of animals per hectare of land used. The intervention price (government purchase guarantee) for beef was cut 15% to maintain the competitiveness of beef with other meats, but this was offset to some extent by reductions in feed costs resulting from CAP reforms that lowered intervention prices for grains. Much less EC pork and poultry than beef was purchased under EC support programs, but they would also benefit from the lower grain prices. Dairy Products. The production of cow's milk by 37 major producing countries in 1992 was expected (in November) to decline for the second straight year, again falling about 3%. Economic upheaval in the former Soviet republics was primarily responsible, but drought also compounded the problems of reorganizing the dairy industries of eastern Europe. EC milk production again fell as the buyout of production quotas held by EC milk producers continued. Many small producers were leaving the industry, contributing to an increased slaughter of dairy cows and smaller dairy surpluses. Cheese production increased in most areas outside the former Soviet republics and eastern Europe in 1992 as a greater proportion of fluid milk was converted into cheese in

moved mostly

sugar

response to strong consumer demand. International dairy

VI.

World Production of Centrifugal (Freed from Liquid) Sugar In

Region and country North America United States

Mexico Caribbean

Cuba Central America

Guatemala South America

000,000 metric tons raw value 1990-91

1991-92

1992-93'

10.3

10.2

107

6.3 3.9

6.6

8.8

81

68 38 72

76 22

7.0

10

1.1

1.2

14.9

35

6.0 2.5

24

13.2

14.7

Argentina

1.3

1.6

1.4

Brazil

79

89

92

16

1.8

1.8

23.0 18.2 17.0 4.7

21 3

22.1

4.7

42 45

Colombia Europe Western Europe

EC France

Germany

(united)

Eastern Europe Poland

Former Soviet republics

48 22 92

and Middle East South Africa Turkey

Asia

China

18.1

15 8

17.0 4.7 4.5 4.0

4.4

1.6

1.6

69

7.5

0.1

0.1

10.6

10.9

9.6

22

2.4

2.0

2.1

1.8

327

37.4

68

383 85

Baltic states

Africa

169

1

1.6

8.6 14.6

13.7

15.5

Indonesia Pakistan

2

1.7

23 25 20

2,1

Philippines

Thailand

40

5.1

5.5

4.1

43

36

34 30

19.5

220

246

17.7%

19 5% 116 3

India

Oceania Australia Totals

Beginning stocks

As

%

of

consumption

Production Imports 2

114

Consumption Exports 2

1

21

273

24 19

3.4

21

5%

116 2

1103

27.2 112 9

114 6

286

280

283

27.1

1

Preliminary

2

Exports do not equal imports because "Totals" are a composite of slightly differing marketing years, not all beginning in the same months Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. November 1992

Agriculture and Food Supplies

its sugar on very favourable terms for petroleum and other raw materials produced by the U.S.S.R. and the European countries under its influence. These new states of the former

Soviet Union at first sought to eliminate the subsidies to Cuba by exporting for hard currency to the highest bidder. However, many eventually found it convenient to establish their own barter arrangements with Cuba because of severe

foreign exchange shortages and a continuing need for large quantities of imported sugar. Cuba's exports declined

from

about seven million tons to a forecast five million tons in 1992-93. A shortage of fuel and spare parts and antiquated machinery were contributing to further declines in Cuban sugar output. In China large stocks of sugar and a desire to earn foreign exchange continued to support growth in both consumption and exports which now exceeded imports despite a smaller sug'ar crop in 1992-93. In October Brazil ordered an increase in the required alcohol content of gasoline from 14 to 22% as part of a plan to cut carbon emissions in half by 2000. About 4 million of Brazil's estimated 12 million motor vehicles used fuel alcohol derived from domestic sugar or

—

—

imported methanol exclusively. Coffee. The 1992-93 world coffee harvest was expected (in December) to be the smallest since 1988-89, primarily because of a sharp drop in Brazilian output. Weak market prices, the high cost of credit, and the Brazilian government's suspension of guarantees to buy surplus coffee

Table

VII.

World Green Coffee Production 000 60kg bags

In

Region and country

1991-92'

1990-91

North America Costa Rica El Salvador

Guatemala Honduras Mexico South America

Colombia Ecuador

4 620 51 197 28,500 17,980

1.830

1.800 18.971 1.485

18516

Africa

Cameroon Cote d

1.450 3.300

Ivoire

Ethiopia

3500

Kenya

Uganda

1.455 2.700

Zaire

1

Asia and Oceania

3.967 3,000 1.572 3.000

695

1

7480

Indonesia Total production Exportable3 Beginning stocks" Exports

3000

500

1.300 14.370 2.500 7 350

14.604 3.200 7.100 102.893

14.589 2.970

India

16.990 2.375 2,500 3.150 2.000 4.200 45.955 24.000 17,000 1.900 18.565 1,470 4,000 3.000 1.550

2.530 2.357 3.444 2.200

31.000 14.500

Brazil

1992-93 2

18.121

17,350 2.565 2.603 3.282 1.685 4,550 50.010

100 465 76.564 39.218 76,903

95.880 73.786 39.489 76.412

81.103 39.301

81.128

Preliminary

1

-

J 4

Forecast Production minus domestic use In exporting countries Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. December 1992

production influenced the replacement of some 650 million lower-yielding coffee trees with other crops and the adoption of less intensive cultivation there. International prices for raw coffee had

downward

—

duction, resulting in a small

Region and country North and Central America

—

IX.

176

16.3

0.8

02

Argentina

14

11

0.9

Brazil

32

34

12

07

30 09

1.4

1.5

9

113

5.7

55 13 04

104

1.236

1,319

Ghana

100 804 293

Nigeria3

160

95 750 242 110 448 180 210

95 780 270 135 459 200 200

2,259 2.236 2,330 94

2,351 2.327

Turkey

2,350

Australia

Cameroon Cole d

Ivoire2

Asia and Oceania Indonesia Malaysia Total production Net production

Cocoa grmdings Change in stocks

1

221

15.5 0.8

1,398

Ecuador Africa

Forecast Includes

568 375

458 165

235 2 526

2.500

2355 145

some cocoa marketed trom Ghana incudes cocoa marketed through Benin Source USOA. Foreign Agricultural Service October 1992

Paraguay Europe Former Soviet republics Africa

Egypt Sudan. The Asia and Oceania 2 China

-23

2

1990-91

1

1

14

04 44 4 20 7

17 94

60

52.5

15 04 467

26

21.0

1

India

91

94

100

Pakistan

75

100

90

3.0

26 23

Total '

480-lb bales

1992-93'

Mexico

107

000000

252

466 290 85

Brazil

2

107 469

Cocoa

the former

1991-92

295 83

South America

'

1991 92

in

235

Western Hemisphere

1992 93'

United States

102

stocks.

World Cotton Production n

Region and country

000 metric tons 1990 91

in

Union once the world's second largest consumer because of depressed economic conditions and a shortage of foreign exchange. Nigeria's capacity to produce cocoa products such as cocoa butter, cocoa cake, and chocolate liquor for export exceeded domestic cocoa bean production in 1992 and could lead to a ban on bean exports. Soviet

World Cocoa Bean Production In

drawdown

grindings and consumption declined sharply

i

VIII.

steadily

under the International Coffee Agreement (ICA). The ICA composite indicator price (15-day moving average, New York), which had averaged better than $1.16 per pound in the year prior to suspension, declined steadily to an average of about 67 cents per pound in 1991, falling to a 10-year low of about 46 cents in August 1992 before strengthening a little on prospects of a much smaller 1992-93 coffee harvest. The low prices reflected the large stocks held in both exporting and importing countries. Negotiators extended the deadline for completing a new ICA to March 31, 1993, after failing to meet their year-end goal. They agreed to the principle of a "universal quota" to govern exports to both ICA members and nonmembers and were close to agreeing on how to achieve "selectivity," which seemed to imply separate export quotas and indicator prices for different classes of coffee both questions of critical concern to importing countries. Among the many issues remaining to be resolved were the allocation of quotas among exporting countries and how the arrangement would respond to market forces. Cocoa. African cocoa bean production, along with global cocoa production, was expected (in October) to recover in 1992-93. Producers in many countries cut back on new plantings because low world cocoa bean prices caused them to produce at a loss or barely recover production costs. Prices for cocoa beans (nearest three-month average, New York futures) fell steadily from an average of $1.06 per pound in 1984 before holding at about 55 cents per pound in 1989 and 1990, slipping to 52 cents in 1991, and drifting even lower through October 1992. In Indonesia, however, low production costs made cocoa profitable, and output continued to expand rapidly. Cocoa bean grindings declined in 1991-92 largely because grindings and cocoa imports in the former Soviet republics were sharply reduced; however, they still exceeded pro-

Table Table

moved

since the July 1989 suspension of export quotas

20 869

96

2.8

16 859

Estimate Includes Middle East. Source USDA. Foreign Agricultural Service. June and December

1992

Agricnlturc ;n»i

A new corn

The

plant

sprouts in the previous year's stubble No-till farming,

among

soil

became

it

MFA

89

Agreemeni (MIA), which was extended one yeai in

clear that the

GAT]

multilat-

time

in

rules governing the importation ol

textile-

The agreement, which sanctions restrictions on ess such imports by its members, falls outside the GATI developed countries that were members of the sought liberalization of such restrictions by the developed countries products.

.

and

I

MFA

moisture. TIME MAGAZINE

STEVE USS

1992,

31,

negotiations would not be completed

to replace

of the

conserve

expire Dec.

trade

eral

the

previous crop, was being adopted by farmers to

international Multi-Fibei

to

December when

which seeds

in

are planted

remains

was

ood supplies

I

and were said

demand increased market MFA's extension.

to

condition of the

access as a

EC CAP Reforms. After debate, the EC's agricultural ministers on

Agricultural and Trade Policies.

long and

May

difficult

21 adopted a package of measures aimed at reducing

the large budgetary expenditures and agricultural surpluses

A

negotiating conference convened

UN

auspices of the

ment

in April under the Conference on Trade and Develop-

(UNCTAD) made

International

little progress in developing a new Cocoa Agreement (ICCA). The conference

demonstrated that producing countries wanted an exportquota system to control supply, while consuming countries wanted producing countries individually to withhold cocoa in

conjunction with the existing

meeting issues,

such as

ICCA

saw the negotiators

in July

how

buffer stock. still

Another

divided over key

to deal with the structural oversupply

of raw cocoa, the nature and financing of a withholding

scheme, and what price level to defend. A November conference brought some narrowing of positions, and negotiators planned to meet again in February 1993. Cotton. The sharp downturn in world cotton production in 1992-93 (estimated in December) was expected to result in output approximately matching cotton use and would end a two-year buildup in global cotton stocks. The largest reduction was in China, which was affected by drought and insect damage. Depressed cotton prices resulting from the record crop of 1991-92 also led to smaller cotton plantings elsewhere, especially in the U.S. Output was also reduced by unseasonably cool, wet weather in the former Soviet republics and by flooding in Pakistan. The Chinese harvest, nevertheless, remained large enough to permit a substantial increase in cotton use without drawing down stocks, which represented about 35% of world cotton stocks at the beginning of the 1992-93 season. Low

generated by its CAP. About one-half of EC agricultural output, in terms of value, was affected. These major reforms were to be carried out over three years beginning in 199394. They focused on the grains, livestock, and dairy sectors and extended the reform process initiated with the oilseedsector reforms of 1991. Previously, the EC had provided both price and income support to EC farmers primarily through government guarantees to intervene in markets in a manner similar to the U.S. loan-rate system; the EC purchased products at a minimum "intervention price" that was usually set well above world prices. The CAP reforms relied more on supply controls, in the form of land "set-asides" for crops, to support prices and to reduce government acquisition of stocks. Intervention prices were retained but at substantially reduced levels. Income support was provided largely by direct compensation payments similar to U.S. deficiency payments. The reforms created some practical obstacles to how far the EC could go in reducing its trade restrictions in a GATT agreement. The need for import barriers and export subsidies, the focus of the concerns of the EC's negotiating partners, depended on the level of support provided by the EC countries. When domestic supports are reduced, as in the CAP reforms, individual countries have less need to enact trade-distorting measures to protect their domestic markets. country may reduce such barriers even further, but the cost could be prohibitive without costly expenditures or further reductions in domestic support, both of which are likely to be controversial. This explains the mandate given by the EC countries to its negotiators on the EC Commission that any agreement it reached with the U.S. or in the had to be compatible with CAP reform. The and the Oilseeds Agreement. The EC-U.S. oilseeds agreement also dealt with the much broader agricul-

A

MTN MTN

Table X. Shipment of Food Aid In

world prices prevented China from moving much surplus cotton onto world markets without large subsidies that would greatly increase its already dangerously high budget deficit and make it more difficult to gain admission into the

Cotton use continued to grow worldwide about 2% antended to be largest in countries that were such as China, India, and Paklarge exporters of cotton istan but that also were producing more textiles to meet increased domestic demand caused by rapidly growing populations. International prices of cotton (Northern European Cotlook Index "A"), which averaged a little under 83 cents per pound in 1990-91 (August-July), fell to an average of 63 cents in 1991-92, and slid to about 52-53 cents in

—

late 1992.

in

Cereals

grain equivalent

Average Region and country

1987-68, 1989-90

Canada

EC By members By organization Japan Norway

—

To

less

300

1,064 2,687 1,018 1,669

1,149 2,609

1.005 3.487 991 2,496

1,000 3.500

477 38 110 56

512 47 96 103

6,417

7,260 231 12,356

472

270

.689

13,522

12,800

11.160

11.012

1 1

.895

11,300

502

2

1 1

944 1,665

363

N/A N/A 350

75 128 44

40 90 50

7,533

7,200

developed

countries '

1992-93'

415

Others 2 Total

1991-92

349

Sweden Switzerland United States

1990-91

338

Australia

GATT. nually. Increases

000 metric ton

Estimated. Includes Argentina, Austria. China. Finland. India, OPEC Special Fund. Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and World Food Program, but not necessarily lor all years. Source; FAO, Food Outlook. December 1992

Agriculture and Food Supplies

90

them

had blocked conclusion of the agreement was the so-called "Dunkel Proposal," which GATT's director general, Arthur Dunkel, put forward to revive the MTN after it collapsed in December 1991 because of EC-U.S. differences over agriculture. Initially rejected by both the EC and Japan, the Dunkel paper eventually was accepted by all GATT members as a basis for negotiations. Various attempts were made to move the agricultural negotiations forward during the year, but all failed because of the EC-U.S. deadlock. If an overall MTN agreement was reached in 1993, it would likely substantially incorporate the EC-U.S. oilseeds accord. These were among its major features: 1. The average level of internal farm supports across commodities would have to be reduced 20% from a 1986-88 base. Reducing average support as opposed to Dunkd's proposal to' cut support of each commodity and allowing credit for reductions already made would mean that neither party would have to reduce domestic support for any specific commodity from current levels. The reason was that prices that depressed the market pushed supports to unusually high levels in the 1986-88 base period, while changes in policies and stronger market prices thereafter brought reductions in support greater than 20% for many commodities. The reductions of more than 2(1' for some commodities would allow retention of support on others such as dairy products and sugar for which support had tural issues dividing

MTN

in 1991.

The

that

starting point for the

—

—


2

processing techniques to increase yield. Deepwater

trials

had already proved successful in several countries, including New Zealand and Australia, where the discovery and commercial exploitation of such species as hoki and orange roughy proved to be an outstanding success. Newly discovered stocks of deepwater redfish and grenadier also seemed

commanding

poised for success, with the latter already

high

FOOD PROCESSING While economic pressure forced many families to restrict spending on food, the trend away from traditional meals continued as more consumers combined healthy eating with convenience products. Consumption of dietary foods and fresh produce increased. In the U.K. sales of vegetarian

on the market in Spain, France, Italy, and Germany. Similarly, the fish meal and fish oil industries were forced to seek new or underutilized stocks and to improve production efficiency. For decades, fish meal had been sold on the world market as a commodity for the animal feed

products rose 49% over the previous year, a phenomenon not matched anywhere else in the world. The U.S. govern-

competition with such products as soybeans and with prices based on protein content as the major quality criterion. It was only about 10 years since serious development, of specialized fish meal products had started in Norway with the mink feed and expanding fish feed industries in mind. The high costs of fresh raw material and of the energy-intensive production process, coupled with a more discerning demand by fish farmers, paved the way for

the U.S. Fear of additives declined, and processed foods

prices

industry,

in

more specific product types and production methods. For the past five

the introduction of newer, less energy-intensive

years world

meal production had been steady at about fish oil at about 1.5 million tons.

fish

ment announced new food-labeling

regulations.

However,

ingredient and nutritional information on product labels was largely ignored by the majority of purchasers in

Europe and

gained wider acceptance. Food-poisoning incidents contin-

showing that many caterers,

ued

to rise,

still

not giving proper attention to hygiene.

in particular,

were

Business Trends. The effect of recession on the food

in-

dustry was hard to assess, and opinions ranged from "none"

and mergers worldwide were down by nearly half during the year. Many companies tried to save money by cutting their marketing budgets but were left with a reduced share of the market as a result. to "severe." Acquisitions

German

reunification

and

liberalization in eastern

Europe

This represented some 32 million tons of fish, or approximately one-third of the worlds catch. The major producing

provided growth opportunities that were seized by many major food companies. Salesmen were pleasantly surprised by the high brand awareness of east Germans, who for

countries were Chile, Peru. Japan, the U.S., the U.S.S.R.,

years had watched West

6.5

million tons, with

(yivianne

Norway. Denmark, and Iceland. This article updates the Vtacropaedia

L.

aers)

Commercial Fish-

article

l\c,

103 large food

companies

German TV in eastern

advertising.

Of

the

Germany, 52 had been

March 1992. The food industry in the former Union was in a horrendous condition, with obsolete equipment and a distribution system in which half the food was wasted or stolen between producer and consumer. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) accepted an ofprivatized by

Soviet

Table

XI.

World Fisheries, 1990'

fer Catch in

Country

Total

China

12,095 4

USSR

10.3890 10.353 6

Japan Peru

Inland

Imports

5,237 4 974 9

183 9

1629

933 4

2081

10.6683 4

8075 5068

5.8732

3.0199

US Chile

5,1954

India

37906

1.484 8

Indonesia

3,080 4

795

South Korea

2 750

Thailand

2.650

Philippines

2.2088

330 2000 5858

North Korea

1.750 1 1,747 1 1,624 3

Norway Canada Denmark Iceland

Spam Mexico France Vietnam Bangladesh

1,363 3

794 4

2.2649

848

3960

—

07

237 4

20598 2.2698 2,1655

116

1

17

1

2.809

847 8

5944 159 2097 1146

New Zealand

565 4

Argentina South Atnca

5556

Malaysia

536 4 525 2 479

Italy

Pakistan

Ghana

4730 4383 3918

Ecuador

391

Germany Turkey Tanzania Venezuela

390 7 382 2 337 332 3

Portugal

321 9

Poland The Netherlands

1

3163 3130 2996

garii

289 8 7 498 6 97 245 7

mammals

—

1458

25

23 572

1152 2.458

45

54 580

1

03

835 1922

303

9 1

3188 1075 2385

48.3 843 6

7168 278

1

332 8

226 488 6 673 2

695

66

3300 188

03 3

65 6

26 987

6060 1558 690

2799 146

37 4

339 2

2377 170 01 1.370 1 14.444 4

1

5.827

36 410 8

crocodiles and alligators, pearls,

sponges and aquatic plants Source United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Vearooo* of fa/wry Statistics, vols 70 and 71

corals,

228 5 522 2 439 2

62

1132

41 7

9619 1530 130

883

362

543

229 2 174 8

1.811 2

4

,240 3

743 4 361 4 931 2

—

01 106

1

1

422

14 7 1

52

6203

2.3608

Morocco

504 9 978 6

—

1

1

428 3647

480 2400

Myanmar (Burma)

1.622

8664

291 1946

8035 8000 7438 6025 5655

Excludes aquatic

1100 4830 503 356

Campden Food Research

Exports

1

4

2

8968 8500

Brazil

'.

1

1

1,458 1 1,401.0

United Kingdom

Egypt Senegal Namibia Other World

31 3

255 8

1.5172 1.507 6

U.S.S.R. with technical assistance.

$000 000

in

6.875 5.865

1

from U.S. food manufacturers to provide the former

Trade

000 metnc tons

11 4

6.374 7 36 428 2

Association

in

the U.K. set

up

tion

Consumer Complaint Database to pool informaprovided by companies' own computer-based systems

for

handling customers' complaints. This could produce

a National

detailed analyses of complaints and help to identify their

nature and cause.

The U.K. food workplace became

dispro-

portionately perilous, with an accident rate second only to

The Health and Safety Executive launched a campaign to cut the number of serious accidents.

the construction industry.

Major

retailers, especially

in

the U.S.,

moved

closer to a

"no-stock" policy by imposing "just-in-time" deliveries on manufacturers to eliminate warehousing, a trend seen also

Europe. The additives market in the European Commu(EC) continued to grow, with flavours, phosphates, and intense sweeteners increasing the fastest in line with the use of convenience products. Germany was the largest in

nities

national market.

Technology. groups, a

Despite fierce opposition

new company. Vindicator

from consumer up the first

Inc., started

U.S. irradiation plant for treating fresh foods; the $7 million was irradiating citrus fruit, strawber-

plant at Mulberry, Fla.,

ries, tomatoes, and other local produce. British Technology (iroup USA of Philadelphia developed a process for removing from cocoa powder the protein allergens that cause rashes and migraine in some people. The proteins are denatured rather than extracted, so the taste of the finished chocolate is unaltered. ABC Research of Gainesville, Fla., perfected a method of defatting and restructuring beef to

SKW

Chemicals the fat content of turkey meat. it of Trostberg, Germany, developed a process for extracting concentrated citrus oils with supercritical carbon dioxide give

instead

til

solvents; the process could be

extended to the

decaffeination of coffee and tea and to other food extraction

tgricoltlirc

which organic solvents, now thought to carry risk, had hitherto been used. Freshtainer GmbH of Austria teamed up with the BOC Group ol the U.K. to launch a system tor preserving fruits and vegetables during transportation over long distances. The system controls the composition and humidity of an artificial atmosphere in the container comprising oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene. It would be used by a joint venture company set up to distribute food in the former U.S.S.R. and eastern Europe. New Products and Ingredients. While the number of new food products fell as a result of the recession, new beverages did not. Worldwide, dairy product launches plunged by half compared with the year before. Lymeswold, introduced in the U.K. in 1982 as the first new English cheese in 200 years, was withdrawn in the face of falling sales. In the U.S. new products featured less fat, cholesterol, salt, calories, and sugar, with the greatest increase in products claiming low or no fat. Another noteworthy trend was the growth of "green" marketing; the number of new products making environmental claims rose to a record level. The U.K. snackfood market was growing faster than the overall food market, and this was reflected in the number of new product launches in that sector, with savory snacks accounting for about half. Scientists at the University of Melbourne, Australia, discovered a protein that combats tooth decay and can be used in chocolate and other high-sugar products. It was patented in the U.S. and was expected to be cleared for commercial production within seven years. Ault Foods Ltd. of Ontario developed Dairylite, a milkbased fat replacer containing no chemicals or additives. The result of a $5 million research investment, the product could be used in low-fat and fat-free products; the technology was to be licensed around the world. Hercules in the processes

in

a possible cancer

made from natural new product launches about 99%, failure rate

U.S. introduced Slendid, a fat replacer

Japan led the world with around 4,000 and also led in fruit pectin.

compared with 80-85%

in

—

New

Japanese products included a breakfast cereal made from green peas, an alcoholic milk drink, a cosmetic drink said to beautify the skin, a mineral water claimed to prevent hangovers when taken at bedtime after heavy drinking, and "healthy" fruit drinks formulated to match consumers' blood groups. Packaging. In the U.S., where renewed interest was being

shown

in edible films

in

other countries.

and coatings, some eight universities

APW1D6 WORLD

A

protester demonstrates against the sale of

Although consumer groups opposed the practice on the grounds irradiated strawberries.

of safety, a

company

irradiating several

in

Florida

began

types of produce

in

1992.

ind

I

"i.d

Supplies: foix) PrOCCMtn|

and the USDA were researching the technology. A major focus was on preserving and packing fruits and vegetables; edible wax for apples and pears was already being used. In Australia gelatin-based edible films were in use. as was an edible wrap made from rice paper in Japan. The Potato Cup Co. of Queensland, Australia, produced an edible food container for potato chips and french fries. Japanese companies were taking the lead in the emerging technology of "intelligent" packaging. Examples included a bar code printed in special ink so a bar code reader could tell instantly whether a product was past its "use by" date, and "microwave doneness" indicators. The Coca-Cola Co. introduced the first plastic soft drink bottles made with recycled plastic, with U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. The bottles, currently under trial, contained 25% recycled material.

Company Developments. The Swedish food machinery and packaging companies Tetra Pak and Alfa-Laval, which merged in 1991, announced that the merged group would become Tetra Laval on Jan. 1, 1993. With 35,000 employees worldwide and a turnover in 1992 of $8.5 billion, the group was one of the biggest privately owned companies in the world. Tetra Pak signed a joint venture agreement with the Kuban cooperative in Russia to manufacture, pack, and distribute a wide range of fresh and frozen food and drink products and also to make aseptic packaging materials and equipment. Nestle of Switzerland and BSN of France formed a joint venture to purchase Cokoldovny, a large Czech food manufacturer, for $96 million. Nestle acquired the French Perrier business for $2,760,000,000, but it was warned that the deal might contravene EC laws on competition. Nestle also bought control of the Hong Kong and southern China business of Dairy Farm International. Taking advantage of the expiration of NutraSweet's U.S. patents on the intense sweetener aspartame. Holland Sweetener Co. invested over $30 million to quadruple its aspartame-manufacturing capacity and challenge NutraSweet's market dominance. NutraSweet responded by beginning construction of its first factory in Europe, a $45 million plant at Dunkirk, France. In the U.S. Philip Morris Companies announced plans to buy RJR Nabisco's cold cereal business. Government Action. On December 2 the U.S. government announced new labeling rules for processed foods that would standardize such terms as low fat, less and reduced (which would now be synonymous), and healthy and

Anthropology

94

would allow consumers to determine the nutritional content of food products. The rules did not apply to fresh meat, poultry, fish, and produce. Manufacturers had until May 1994 to comply. The number of U.S. states with labeling laws regulating "green" claims reached 14. An EC directive on nutrition labeling 1,

1992.

A

for foods

came

on April

into force

regulation controlling the production of organ-

grown foods and the labeling of products containing them also appeared in the EC, as did the final draft of a packaging waste directive setting recycling and recovery targets. The U.K. government introduced regulations setting a ically

maximum

limit

of 125

mg

litre of beverage requirement in soft

of caffeine per

and abolishing the minimum sugar

level

(anthony woollen)

drinks.

See also Environment; Health and Disease; Industrial Review: Beverages; Textiles, Tobacco. This articlfupdates the Macropiedia article Food Processing.

Anthropology The

modern prosimians

ancestors of the

(lemurs, lorises,

and tarsiers). the "prosimian primates of modern aspect," were well established by the mid-Eocene, about 45 million years ago. They must have originated in the previous epoch, the Paleocene, but all that has been found so far are the "archaic primates" or Plesiadapiformes, which probably were not really primates at all. Two new fossils from that group, Ignatius and Phe/iacolemur. from the earliest Eocene of Wyoming, do have some anatomic similarities to the primates, but what they most resemble are the Dermoptera, represented todaj by the "flying lemur" an animal that does not flj (it glides) and certain!) is not a lemur. Thus the "archaic primates" from the Paleocene of North America and Europe are not the ancestral primates they were once thought to be. Where, then, did the primates originate'.' A new find from the Paleocene of Morocco, Altiatlasius, may

—

be

a

primate.

11

so,

it

provides additional support for an

African origin of the Primate order. Another new fossil, Algeripithecus, from the Late Eocene and Earl) Oligocene

of Africa,

is

an earl) anthropoid.

I

his

is

part of the

growing

evidence that the ancestors of the monkeys diverged from those of the prosimians far earlier than had previously been believed. In

noid

l l

>92

Mcavc Leake) reported

fossil

from the Oligocene

million years ago. Since

is

it

o!

the discovers of a homi-

Kenya, 27 million to 24

estimated that the ape/human

from the monkev line somewhere between 32 miland 22 million years ago. this is not onlv the oldest bominoid found to date but one ven near that important divergence. In the Miocene there was an extensive radiation ol these bominoids in Africa, Asia, and Europe. These were diverse groups, but alter the Middle Miocene, during the period 14 million to 4 million years ago. there is a great gap in the tossil record A new find in that gap was a relatively millioncomplete lossil skull from Greece. It was dated at Ill million years ago and assigned to the genus Ouranopithea member of the cus Some considered it to be a hominid line split

lion

l

>

—

Hommidae.

An

interesting

new Australopithecus

lossil

was found

in

an area that is geographical]) between eastern and southern Africa, the areas where all previous finds have been made. It

—

was described as being morphological]) gracile somewhat intermediate between the less rugged auslralopithecincs and Homo luibilts With Ethiopia once again open to paleontologists, a number of new finds were reported. At Hadar. ularcnsts bones were discovered that date 500,(100 years hev had prior to the well-known afarensis fossil Lucv I

I

I

not yet been fully described, but it appeared that there was a great diversity of shapes and sizes and that in general these

hominids were more powerful in their arms and shoulders than Lucy. At a different site in the area called Fejej, hominid teeth

were found that date between

3.7 million

and

4.4

million years ago.

"taxonomic space" between the australopithecines during a period of about 2.4 million-l.6 million years, is H. habilis. In 1991 Andrew Hill was able to use an argon-dating technique on a Homo temporal bone originally found in Kenya in 1965. The date of 2.4 million years ago made this the earliest date for the genus. This In the

and H.

erectus,

coincides with a time

dryer climate, and

it

when is

that part of Africa shifted to a

close in time to the date of the

first

Olduvai Gorge in 1959, was now represented by a number of specimens from the Rift Valley and even one from South Africa. But are they all one species? Bernard Wood believed not. He saw evidence for a substantial radiation of these early members of the genus Homo. At the Kenyan site of Koobi Fora he could identify three species, all representing adaptive shifts away from the australopithecine ancestral forms. The year 1990 marked the hundredth anniversary of the discovery of Java Man, and two monographs on H. erectus were published, one by G.P. Rightmire, the other by Jia Laupo and Huang Weiwen. A number of African fossils were getting a second look, as it were, to determine whether they indeed warranted designation as H. erectus. Among them were the fossils at Ternifine in North Africa and Swartkrans in South Africa and a number of specimens from Olduvai Gorge, Lake Turkana, and Koobi Fora. The early European hominids, on the other hand, were still not considered //. erectus by most investigators. One recent find, a mandible with 16 teeth from Georgia in Transcaucasia, was of great interest since it was dated at between 900,000 and 1.6 million years ago. That was older than any western European hominid, although million-year-old stone tools had been found in France. Neanderthal research included the redating of the St. Cesairc fossil by thermoluminescence at 36,000 (±3,000) years ago. The previous dates were 31,000 to 34,000 years ago. This was still the last of the known Neanderthals who used an Upper Paleolithic stone industry, and it may have coexisted with anatomically modern humans. It is a problem that this interesting period of 50.000 to 30,000 years ago is beyond the reach of radiocarbon dating, but the thermoluminescence, uranium series, and electron-spin resonance techniques should yield some interesting information for the time period when Neanderthals and moderns may have lived side by side in parts of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The Israeli Neanderthal cave sites of Tabun and Kebara are dated at 120,000 and 60.000 years ago, respectively, while the caves occupied by modern humans are dated at 100.000 years ago. Recent lossil finds in China also indicate the possible coexistence, about 350,000 years ago, of modern stone tools. H.

humans

habilis,

first

identified at

with anatomically less

modern forms,

in

this case

presumably //. erectus. The "Eve hypothesis" of a common African ancestor of anatomically modern humans, as first published in 1987, was criticized for methodological shortcomings: the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis could have been better done, African-Americans should not have been used to represent Africans, and the computer program used to build the tree of relationship had its shortcomings. In 1991 Allan Wilson

and colleagues corrected these flaws and, if anything, their were reinforced. Then it was found that the conclusions of the study were a product of how the data

original findings

(continued on page 96)

Special Report: Anthropology

Muhammad at Mecca and Medina in ad 607-632, and sunna, his practice. Hadith documents the sunna and is the

The Changing

transmitted. Qur'an, sunna. and Hadith are considered the

form

Women

of

Status

which the sayings and actions

the Prophet are

of conduct for Muslims. Shari'ah

The

these sources.

ume

is

Islamic

lavs

based on

authenticity of the oven* helming vol-

of Hadith literature, collected and compiled from oral

transmissions traced to the Prophet's time, has been the

Societies

The

authenticity of each Hadith

is

integrity of the chain of transmitters.

A

subject of controversy.

determined by the

BY KHAWAR

ol

keys to understanding Islam as a doctrine and as a code

Muslim

in

in

MUMTAZ

substantial

faulted

on

number of Hadith this count,

relating to

women

but they have remained

have been

in circulation.

Their status (authenticity) has blurred over time, but their emotive aspect is ingrained in the Muslim psyche.

Muslims are divided the turn of the century, the condition of

Since

women

in

—

Muslim societies has been undergoing change slow in some instances, cataclysmic in others, but complex everywhere. To comprehend this one must bear the following factors in mind:

While Islam remains a major reference point, a strong determinant of the role and status of women has been the social, political, and economic development of each society. The Muslim world is not a single homogeneous entity; it comprises diverse societies and peoples with diverse histories of state

women

and

The

situation of Muslim and also, within each or urban location, and level

class formation.

differentiated by country

is

society, by class, ethnicity, rural

of development.

Though

among Muslim

significant variations exist

societies,

there are also persistent similarities, specifically in the condition of

women. These emanate

in large part

from Islam.

Culture, class, kinship, and political system interact with

women's position or the extent of their subordination. Thus the desire to control women seems to pervade all Muslim societies. The ferment of change accompanying the collapse of coloIslamic tenets to determine

and the concomitant global rearrangements left between the economic compulsion to integrate with world capitalism and the psychological need to assert their identity. In the absence of appropriate social structures to cope with transition, Muslim states have looked toward Islam to provide legitimizing ideologies. In the process women have been used as both instruments of change inducted into nationalist struggles (Algeria, Iran) and subsequently into the industrial sector and repositories of identity, pushed behind the veil and denied autonomy. nialism

Muslim

societies caught

—

—

Islam as a religion operates at

many

levels

—as

personal

symbol of identity, political motivator/mobilizer, instrument to be used in the pursuit of legitimacy and power. Sometimes one aspect dominates, sometimes another. With the rise of the "fundamentalists," drawn largely from the alienated, newly urbanized, and upwardly mobile classes, the struggle for power between various forces secularists, has sharpened. reformists, and obscurantists/traditionalists

faith,

—

From a

this perspective, recent "Islamic"

political

phenomenon than

this

background, the

tral

in

woman

—

movements

are

more

Against

a religious revival.

question has emerged as cen-

defining the nature of the

Muslim

society.

Proper

modest behaviour, visibility in public spaces, women's all have become major issues of debate. Religious Sources. The two main sources of Islam are the Qur'an, embodying the texts revealed to the Prophet

dress,

roles

—

is

coordinator of the Shirkatgah

centre in Lahore, Pak.

Two

Steps Forward,

She

One

is

the coauthor of

women

Women

Step Back? (London,

's

resource

of Pakistan:

Zed Books,

1987).

Shi'ites,

those

who

accept only the

occurred in ad 658 over the selection of the fourth caliph. Each group follows its specific texts of fiqh (religious knowledge) as sources of the Shari'ah. Sunni Islam has four major schools of law, developed on the basis of interpretation of theology and law during the first century of the introduction of Islam: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. The Hanafis are spread across Turkey, The Sudan, Egypt, Syria, and Central and South Asia; the Maliki school is dominant in North and West Africa; the Shafi'i school in Indonesia, Malaysia, Lower Egypt, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, and East Africa; and the Hanbali in Saudi Arabia. On the question of women's rights, status, and role, the four schools agree in principle. The differences between them traditions of the Prophet's family.

The

split

relate to details of legal procedures.

Women in Muslim Societies. Given the complexity of the Muslim world diverse on the one hand, unified through Islam on the other women's situation has improved not in a linear fashion but with a forward-and-backward movement. Two processes of change were discernible as Muslim countries came into their own. One, initiated by reformist leadership (sometimes within the Islamic framework, sometimes not), was committed to modernization and women's emancipation (e.g., Tunisia, Pakistan, Egypt, Turkey). Educational institutions for women were opened; women got the vote and representation in legislatures; new employment opportunities became available. Initially, privileged women benefited, but the overall impact was greater than their numbers warranted. At the same time, pressures of economic development and sheer survival drew women into the modern industrial and services sectors. The other process of change arose from resistance to this modernizing trend by

—

—

indigenous emerging elites galvanized by traditional Islam. these forces grew, their ability to manipulate gains for themselves within existing systems also increased. Women,

As

weak and unorganized

in

most countries, found their

rights

falling victim to political bargaining.

In Algeria following the liberation struggle, the constitu-

women the same rights and duties men. These, however, were contravened in 1984 by passage of the Family Code. Women's status was thus frozen tion of 1963 guaranteed as

A

woman line with the existing patriarchal traditions. given in marriage by the (male) guardian; she does not have the right of divorce; polygamy is not curtailed; and her subordination continues. The rise of the Islamic Salvation in is

Front (FIS)

in

Algeria, the forced and unforced spread of

the veil, the debates over what

women

can or cannot do

runner who won a gold medal in the Barcelona Olympics was bitterly opposed by the FIS for her participation) exemplify the tensions in society. new politiIn Iran, a predominantly Shi'ite state, (e.g.,

Khawar Mumtaz

into Sunnites, the followers of the

Prophet's tradition, and

the

woman

95

cal

— merchant —succeeded

forces

geoisie

clerics, urbanized petit bouroverthrowing a monarchical system. under the shah had gotten the vote, the right

class,

in

Women, who

and

to enter paramilitary forces

universities,

and some mea-

sure of protection under progressive family laws, mobilized

the thousands against

in

his oppressive

system,

political

donning the black chador (veil) as a dual symbol of resistance and identity. However, the subsequent introduction of orthodox religious laws was a step back for women. The minimum age of marriage was reduced to 13; polygamy was permitted and inula (temporary marriage) was restored; a woman's right to travel abroad and hold a passport was made conditional on the husband's permission; a dress code requiring the use of the veil was introduced; women were excluded from certain services like the judiciary. Women's education itusegregated schools continues, however, as does women's entry into universities. They have the vote, have been elected to assemblies, and in recent years have vocally advocated their rights as "prescribed by Islam." In Pakistan women experienced a setback after the 1977 military coup of Gen. Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq, who opted to use Islam as propagated by the obscurantists to legitimize his hold on power (unlike Pakistan's previous military dictator. Gen. Mohammad Ayub Khan, who had used progresm\c interpretations of Islam to provide relief to women).

Women

became the worst

victims of Zia's discriminatory

so-called Islamic legislation. Paradoxically, the leader of the

main opposition party is a woman. Benazir Bhutto, who triumphed in the general elections of 1988 and was the first woman to head the government in a Muslim state in contemporary times. In Saudi Arabia, a monarch) where conservative Islam prevails and no codified system of law exists, women's mobility is

strongly curtailed.

Women

are not allowed to

move

out of the house without a mehram male (father, brother, husband, son), and their spheres of activity are determined by the state. Female education

women may

and

institutions),

is

encouraged

(in

segregated

un-Islamic.

women's development of the Muslim world (49 f 7

In Indonesia indicators of

than in other parts female labour force participation, suffrage

53.79!

are betliteracy. in

1941).

There, as in parts of Malaysia, a number of Islamic legal concepts have been absorbed into customar) laws that favour women. Women's mobilit) and entry into professions are

(women can be judges and can

not curtailed

Islamic religious courts), nor

lamic marriage code

is

is

veiling compulsory.

applicable, however:

sit

The

polygamy

is

on Is-

not

banned, but monogamv may be ensured through a clause in the marriage contract, and the woman also has the right of divorce. Frenetic religious conflict

donesia, certain!) as

is

not characteristic of In-

compared with other Muslim

societies.

Women who

benefited from past reforms have resisted the upsurge of "fundamentalist" Islam in their countries.

Algerian strong)

women

in

l l

first

demonstrated

As2 against the Family

Women's Action Ponim was

major wa> (211.000 Code. In Pakistan the

in a

a direct

response to Zia's so-

The women's demonstration in Riyadh reflects the debate regarding expansion of women's space. At the same time, new groups of women have emerged, called Islamization.

vocal

and

likelv

asserting

•Islamic"

rights

—

in

Pakistan.

Iran he ferment and tension, debate and conover definition and redefinition of women's roles is to continue in Muslim societies and to shape women's

ysia, flict,

veiled,

condition

I

many other

into the

computer program and

that

many,

conclusions could be equally valid. Nevertheless,

what remained was

modern humans

a consensus that African populations of

are in fact

more

variable in their

mtDNA

than peoples elsewhere and are therefore older. Beyond that, the proponents of the "out of Africa," single-point origin continued to challenge those who interpreted the data as evidence of regional continuity in all areas of the Old World. Their competing analyses remained one of the most interesting areas of research in anthropology. Human population geneticists joined linguists and archaeologists in research on the origins of the Indo-Europeans. Are they descendants of horse-riding Kurgan invaders from the Pontic steppes or of early farmers migrating from Turkey and Asia Minor? Did agriculture spread as an idea or with the migrants? The hope was that the genetics of current populations might shed some light on these questions. In most cases, gene frequency and linguistic boundaries coincide, although there is considerable local genetic diffusion because people mate with their geographic neighbours, regardless of linguistic differences. Mass movements of populations over generations are thus difficult to measure. Also, languages, like anything that is learned, including farming, can spread horizontally. Robert Sokal found that in Europe genetic differences do associate closely with linguistic differences, even when geography is controlled for. He suggested

may indicate that there were numerous invasions and movements of Indo-Europeans at different times, an interpretation that does not support either the Kurgan or the eastern farmer hypothesis. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, on the other hand, believed Sokal's analysis might really indicate that the Kurgans were themselves somewhat later descendants of the Indo-European-speaking farmers. Their (Hermann k. bleibtreu) research continued. that this

.See ciImi

Archaeology.

This article updates the

Macropwdia

article

Human Evolution.

run small, all-female busi-

nesses, such as boutiques. But in 1991, when women staged an unprecedented demonstration to demand the right to dri\e automobiles, the) were categorically told that this was

ter

(continued from page 94)

were entered

Archaeology Eastern Hemisphere. There were two remarkable discoveries in 1992, one in France and the other in Oman on the Persian Gulf. Also, much more was learned from the frozen body of a man that melted out of an Alpine glacier in 19911 The find in France, in a cave with a deep underwater entrance on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille, was of late Pleistocene engravings and paintings. In Oman the "lost city of Ubar," on the frankincense road, was discovered with the aid of satellite photos, and preliminary excavations were begun. The previous year's remarkable find (about 5.000 years old), the body of a fully clothed man and his possessions, gave valuable information on what life was like in the late Neolithic in central Europe. The use of special cameras carried on satellites was becoming more widespread and useful. The traces of very old sites and of roads, fields, and other remains of ancient use not easily visible on the ground -could be located in this way. There was also increasing use of computers for

—

—

handling great quantities of descriptive data in the records of finds from large excavations. At Pompeii, for example, a new data base was set up to help untangle records reaching

back almost 200 years. There were many archaeologically important regions of the Old World where, because of political turmoil, no fieldwork could be done. Field excavations in Iraq, for example, were terminated by the Gulf war, and few foreign archaeologists had even been allowed to visit the country. It was

Archaeoiog)

In April

I

archaeologists announced

the discovery of remains of the

ancient fortified city known as Saffara Metropolis, in what is now southern

Oman, The

city,

of satellite

known from

a centre

in

was located

frankincense,

the trade

in

with the aid

photography.

that art markets in the

Iraqi

West were

selling artifacts

museums.

Pleistocene Prehistory.

000 years old)

The

importance.

The European cave

art

(about 20,-

was of great was 37 m (121

the cave near Marseille

in

late Pleistocene sea level

below the present surface of the Mediterranean. From a rocky bluff, now underwater, a cave gallery sloped up from the beach to a large chamber. This chamber itself is mostly above the present water-fill of the gallery. A French deepft)

sea diver, searching for evidence of Paleolithic

entered the gallery and made his way up to the open chamber. Many engravings of human hands, usually with incomplete fingers, were present, as well as engravings and paintings of bison, ibex, stag, chamois, horse, felines, seals, and penguins. art,

problem was whether the public could ever gallery. Two other end-Pleistocene sites were of real

In southern

Abu Simbel

visit

millet

the

that early

interest.

on Cyprus were the cause of the

hippo's extinction.

Middle East. In Egypt considerable activity took place around Giza, as well as in the Luxor region. At the yearly meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a sharp debate focused on the date for the Sphinx; a geologist claimed that it was several thousand years older than the 2500 bc date supported by archaeologists. Mark Lehner of the University of Chicago urged the later date on archaeological grounds. He had also undertaken a computer "re-creation" of the Sphinx's original appearance. At Abydos, 12 3rd-millennium boats, encased in mud bricks (as burials), were exposed. The restoration of the magnificent tomb of Queen Nefertari was completed. In Israel a geologist, after carefully examining Jerusalem's ancient subterranean waterworks, showed that they were adapted from a natural karst system and not dug out by hand. A Harvard University excavation at Ashkelon, on the coast in southern Israel, suggested that the Philistines were linked to the early Greeks.

The

family

tomb of Caiaphas,

who

presided at the trial of Jesus, was discovered in a desert cave near Jerusalem. Israeli archaeologists continued their work at the port town of Caesarea, the Jewish high priest

near Haifa, and of Bet She'an.

at

There was a Turkey, covered

fair in

amount of archaeological

activity

Machteld Mellinck's yearly survey

in

the

in

American Journal of Archaeology. Increased attention was being paid to the regions of Anatolia south of the Tauros,

some 95 km (about 60 mi) west of desert, the remains of seeds of sorghum

settlers

from a pre-Halafian early

where the beginnings of the region's settled village life developed, with linkages toward Mesopotamia. New evidence of a somewhat different early village development, more to the north and west, was also being recovered. Nevali Cori and the even earlier Hallan Cemi were important very early village sites in the south and east; Asikli was a promising example of further developments toward the northwest. In west coastal Thrace, Hoca Cesme was a site with important

were recovered.

human

transition

the

Egypt, in

showed the settlement's

village to a fully developed, large Halafian town.

A

It was not clear that actual domestication of these food plants was involved, but they were apparently being harvested. On Cyprus a collapsed and eroded rock shelter yielded many animal bones, mostly of the now extinct pygmy hippopotamus. It was suggested

and

In Jordan the work of German excavators at the early preceramic village of Basta was of particular interest. In the port area clearances at Aqaba, an Oriental Institute (Chicago) exposure encountered a horde of gold coins; probably they had belonged to a pilgrim coming from southern Morocco en route to Mecca around ad 1000. A report on the work at Tell Sabi Abyad, a large Halafian site in northern Syria, appeared in the American Journal of Archaeology. The yield

the Roman-Byzantine portion of the site

linkages to eastern Europe.

The Greco-Roman World. Satellite remote-sensing techniques used in Greece near Preveza, at the site of Nikopo-

showed changing relationships in the area, from earlier At the site of Midea, in the Argolid, an important yield of Mycenaean material was recovered. Elizabeth Gebhard of the University of Illinois at lis,

prehistoric to medieval times.

Chicago made new clearances in the temple of Poseidon at Isthmia. In the central Mediterranean, Sardinia and Sicily received attention, especially for their occupations during

On Sardinia some paleolithic remains had been recovered, as well as evidence of a long sequence of developments from 5000 bc onward. A report on the expre-Classical times.

amination of the gardens of Hadrian's Villa in Rome yielded interesting evidence of how Roman gardens were managed. On the Adriatic coast, near Brindisi, a diver discovered over 1,000 pieces of Roman bronze statue fragments and tools at a depth of about 15 m (50 ft). On the extreme eastern end of the Greco-Roman world, and perhaps reaching much further back in time, was the site taken to be the so-called lost city of Ubar, located in

the desert of

Oman

by

satellite

instigated by a pair of amateurs,

photos.

whose

The

effort

interest

was

focused

on the location of the ancient frankincense route and the possibility that satellite

Once

photos might be used to locate

it.

the surface indications had been found. Juris Zarins

Archaeology

98

of Southwest Missouri State University, an expert on the

the proper documentation of

Arabian area, was appointed field director, and preliminary investigations were begun. Pre-Classical Europe. Further investigations of the Alpine "mummy" confirmed that the man had been high in the mountains, probably hunting, when a freezing fog caused his death. Details of his clothing and the tools and weapons he carried give a very personal picture of what life must have been like for a late prehistoric European of about 5,000 years ago. The fact that he had a copper ax was of added interest. New radiocarbon dates placed Great Orme Head in Wales, long taken to be the remains of a Roman copper mine, at between 1800 and 600 bc. In England, Flag Fen, adjacent to Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, had an alignment of wooden posts and a wooden platform about 1.4 ha (3.5 acy*in area. The late Bronze Age site was being recovered from a region where the wetlands were drying out. At Svenloji, Lithuania, the remains of huts around an

to the

extinct lake yielded evidence of the lives of hunter-gatherers

and

fishers of

Africa, Asia,

about 3500-2000 bc near the Baltic Sea.

and

much

the Pacific

Political turmoil

in

Africa

do with the lack of archaeological news from that region. New work on the impressive remains of stone buildings in Kenya indicated that they were probably had

to

probably built by the indigenous inhabitants. In the Deccan, in India, excavation on two early 2nd-millennium bc sites yielded evidence of craft specialization. Liangzhu (Liangchu), China, showed evidence of late Neolithic development, with much attention to the working of jade ornaments. In-

problem of when Pacific voyagers first reached New Zealand was being stimulated by an impressive series of radiocarbon age assays. The samples began their cluster around ad 1200. (robbrt j. braidwood) Western Hemisphere. Archaeological research and a series of new discoveries in North and Latin America focused attention in 1992 on the insights that can be derived from terest in the

unn. BROOCASI GMMAUNSON

human

remains. In addition

announcement of extensive new discoveries of both precontact and historic-period burials of the Maya and Aztecs in Mexico, there was confirmation of the earliest dated human remains in North America. At Jamestown, Va., archaeologists exposed the remains of the village destroyed by the

first Indian English colonists. While archae-

been noted for their use of modern techniques to study the past, the year saw the vivid application of traditional archaeological procedures toward

ologists have often scientific

the documentation of recent mass burials, in this instance the mass graves of villagers in El Salvador

who

fell

victim

to right-wing death squads.

October the New York Times featured a front-page coupled with a large photograph of forensic archaeologists exposing the mass grave of 38 children, reported to have been among 792 victims massacred by U.S.-trained Salvadoran soldiers over a decade earlier. Local Indian farmers had claimed that counterinsurgency units "rampaged" through El Mozote province in eastern El Salvador, and the stark archaeological evidence verified their claims. The team of forensic archaeologists from Argentina was exposing the remains to provide evidence to present to the Truth Commission, set up under the El Salvador peace agreements to investigate human rights abuses. Once documented and exhumed, the remains would be sent to the University of California at Berkeley for genetic analysis aimed at matchIn

article

ing the archaeological traces of

Improvements

in

DNA with

that of survivors.

the techniques of radiocarbon dating

permitted the evaluation of increasingly smaller samples. In 1992, 0.5 g of ancient skull material provided fresh evidence that the skeletal remains of a woman, found by amateur archaeologists in 1953 near Midland, Texas, date back to at least 11,600 years before the present, with a standard deviation of plus or minus 800 years. Announced by Curtis McKinney of Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas,

new chronometric results established the earliest known human remains in North America and the only known

the

example of an individual of the Clovis culture, which was distinguished by the manufacture of distinctive chippedstone spear points.

Archaeologists conducting a salvage excavation at a construction site eight kilometres (five miles) west of Akron,

Ohio, under the direction of David Brose, chief curator of archaeology at the Cleveland (Ohio) Museum of Natural History, announced the discovery of traces of the oldest known structural remains in North America, dating to 10200 bc. The find, consisting of three postholes and two pits covering a 14-sq m (150-sq ft) area, was described by John Blank of Cleveland State University as among the most important in the eastern U.S. in 20 years. The antiquity of the ancient structural remains was supported by the discovery of associated Clovis fluted points, which have been dated elsewhere to 12,000 years before the present. Salvage excavations at a site being developed into a golf course near Jamestown yielded Native American human and structural remains from the village of Paspahegh, the Indian village closest to Jamestown, the first English colony to survive in North America.

hands are among prehistoric drawings, said to rival those Lascaux, found in a cave on the coast of France near Marseille. Because ot a rise in sea level, the entrance to the cave was submerged although the chamber itself remained mostly dry. Stencils ol at

The

project field supervisor,

Mary Ellen Hodges, working under the direction of Nick Luccketti, director of the James River Institute of Archaeology, reported to the Associated Press that the work to date had exposed seven whole skeletons and partial remains of five other individuals. The village site included at least 40 structures, apparently dating to between 1500 and 1610. The village was attacked by the British settlers under Lord Thomas De La Warr; 60 people were murdered, and the village was burned to the ground. According to Hel-

\n haeolog Archaeologists digging at the Mayan city of Copan, in western Honduras, found what they believed was the tomb of a 6th-century king who had died before age 30 Of the contents, ceramic vessels were especially well preserved vVthM* MURRAY ZOflA

en Rountree, professor of anthropology at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Va„ the event marked the first attempt by the English to take over native territory and the first recorded instance in which Native American women and children were killed. The issue of national rights and responsibilities with regard to marine archaeological resources was brought to the fore by the discovery and salvage of a Spanish cargo ship found untouched in the estuary of the Rio de la Plata offshore from Montevideo, Uruguay. A team headed by a private investment and salvor group under the direction of Rubin Collado, an Argentine treasure hunter and investor, announced the recovery to date of 1,600 gold coins, 3.3 kg (7.3 lb) of gold bullion bars, and three additional "masses" of consolidated gold coin hoards weighing 2.3 kg (5 lb) apiece.

While estimates varied

wildly,

some government

functionaries projected that the government's

would be

sufficient to cover the national debt.

50%

At

share

least

one

marine archaeologist James Parrent, cautioned to York Times, however, that by the 18th century few Spanish ships were carrying large stocks of gold since the sources in Peru had been largely exhausted by that time. Caribbean archaeology was advanced by the discovery by Robert Carr, while working for the Spanish Wells Museum, of the remains of the first British settlers in the Bahamas. In scientist,

the

New

May

archaeologists and government officials announced the

discovery in Preacher's Cave on North Eleuthera,

km

(200 mi) east of Miami,

Fla.,

some 320

of the domestic remains of

a small sect, remembered as the "Eleutherian Adventurers." Their ship was breached on a reef in 1648, and they used the cave until the 1660s. In addition to the bodies of three children found in a small cemetery within the cave, the archaeological team documented the recovery of a range

of datable 17th-century historic artifacts.

The

findings rep-

resented the earliest evidence of British settlement on the island.

Working just ahead of the bulldozers constructing Mexico new subway system, teams of Mexican archaeologists

City's

under the direction of Salvador Pulido discovered the colonial-era graves of hundreds of Aztecs, possibly the first victims of

European diseases taken

conquistadors. After the

initial

to the capital by the

discovery of 50 graves in

March, extensive interments were found adjacent to one of New World's first hospitals, which operated until the

the

20th century. In a press account, Pulido indicated that the majority of the dead, many of them children, were found

clasping rosaries and crucifixes. Imported diseases reduced

the Aztec population of

Mexico City from 60,000

to 18,000

within two years of the arrival of Cortes.

Honduras the year was marked by the discovery of to be an almost undisturbed royal tomb at the ancient Mayan capital of Copan. The tomb dated to the 6th century ad, the peak of the Classic period, nearly three centuries before the city collapsed. In April, Jose Maria Casco of the Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History announced the discovery of a 3.7 x 1.5-m (12 x 5-ft) stone-lined tomb with a 1.5-m-high roof of stone arches. The find was made by a joint Honduran-U.S. team under In

what appeared

the overall direction of William L. Fash of Northern Illinois University. The actual discovery was made by an anthropology graduate student from the University of Pennsylvania, excavating under the direction of Robert J. Sharer of the

Museum. The moment of discovery matched the romantic images of an Indiana Jones movie. The student came upon the tomb while excavating to clear a stone stairway. Under the University

staircase she recognized a line of eight stone

beams, one

of which had partially collapsed. In the gap between the

beams, the archaeologist saw the chipped interior of a red plaster-lined stone

on a stone

chamber containing a

royal body, raised

slab covered with jade beads, carved shells,

and

other jewelry. Around it on the floor were over two dozen decorated ceramic pots filled with shells, beads, and animal bones. Initial photographs taken by remote cameras showed the teeth to be in good condition, possibly implying a relatively young man. The stylistic details of the well-preserved pottery offerings suggested the 6th-century date for the find.

The tomb, with its apparently unlooted burial offerings, provided for the first time an undisturbed, scientifically documented sample from this least known period of Copan Mayan history. Sharer speculated that, on the basis of the age and wealth of the tomb's contents, the chamber could be that of one of the four rulers who dominated Mayan politics from Copan during the 6th through 9th centuries. Archaeologists had identified the first of these rulers as Water Lily Jaguar, who was followed by two successors known only as Rulers 8 and 9 and finally by Moon Jaguar, who ruled until the apparently sudden collapse of Copan as (joel w. Grossman) a key Mayan urban centre. Sec also Anthropology. This article updates the Macropaedia article The Study of History: Archaeology.

100

Architecture

The Chiat/Day/Mojo

Building, designed by Frank Gehry, includes a section in the form of giant binoculars by sculptor Claes Oldenburg. Built as headquarters for an advertising agency in Venice, Calif., the structure won a design award

1992.

in

GRANT MUDFORD

by Rafael Moneo.

Architecture

Among

the national pavilions were a

Grimshaw and a more wood-framed Japanese effort by Tadao Ando (see Biographies). Awards. Ando was also the winner of the first Carlsberg Prize, a $225,000 honour sponsored by the well-known brewery and intended to be the architectural equivalent of the Nobel Prize. Ando was chosen by a multicultural jury that included filmmaker Wim Wenders and composer Andrew Lloyd Webber. Known for severe sculptural buildings, built usually of plain concrete, Ando was praised for "his fear of impending chaos, his will to create a haven of calm, high-tech British design by Nicholas traditional

France and Spain were architecture in 1992.

complex

among

the busiest sites for

Euro Disney,

new

the vast entertainment

the Paris suburb of Marne-la-Vallee, opened Also opening during that month was Expo 92, a world's fair in Seville. Spain. And the Olympic Games were held in Barcelona. Spain, in July and August. Euro Disneyland comprised six hotels, an entertainment centre, a campground, and the usual theme park, at a cost of $4.4 billion on 2,000 ha (4,800 ac). The architecture— much of it designed by famous architects received mixed reviews. Hie Disney Corp. was known for "theming" its architecture, which means echoing familiar buildings from history or literature. A hotel b) Robert A.M. Stern, the Newport Bay Club, was modeled alter American Victorian seaside resorts, and another Stern design. Hotel Cheyenne, was intended to resemble the movie set lor a western. Hotel New York, b) Michael Graves, embodied a jazzy Manhattan theme, and Hotel Santa e, b) Anionic Predock. used motifs from the American Southwest. The only French architect asked to design for Euro Disneyland, Antoine Grumbach, produced an imitation Montana hunting lodge. Most observers found the themes banal. The most-praised architecture at Euro Disneyland proved to be the nonthematic entertainment complex. Festival Disney, designed by U.S. architect Frank () (iehrv. a street ol shops and restaurants and shows in

in April.

—

1

1

lectric

Avenue"—lined

with 20-m (66-ft)-high ruby-and-

In Barcelona the architecture tared better. Barcelona in

recent years had been regarded architectural])

Oriel Bohigas. deliberate!)

as

one of

the world. Designers, led by used the Olympics to reshape

in

where the) prominent individual buildings were the Olympic stadium by Arata Isozaki ol l.ipan. a sports palace b) Bonell & Gil, and archery the

city,

placing Olympic facilities

could stimulate urban renewal.

pavilions b\

Miralles

&

Pinos.

artistic

late

moment

modernity."

European

The

amidst the overstimulation of the senses

hysterical search for the

Ando donated

()(),()()()

that

is

prize to

the

mark of

help young

Japan for study. promoted as a No-

architects travel to

rival Si

new his

Pritzker Prize, also

bel equivalent, went to Alvaro Siza of Portugal. The $1 15,000 Japanese Praemium Imperiale award was given to Gehry for lifetime achievement in the arts. Gehry also shared the 1992 Wolf Prize in the Arts with architects Jorn Utzon of Denmark and Sir Denys Lasdun of Britain, all sharing $100,000. In September, at ceremonies in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, the triennial Aga Khan Awards for architecture were presented to nine projects from the Islamic world, including not only buildings but also programs for restoration or construction. This was the fifth round of the Aga Khan Awards since 1980, their purpose being to nurture architecture that sustains Muslim culture while still responding to a changing

world.

silscr-striped stainless-steel towers.

the most progressive cities

an

and the

in

locations

Among

The

cit)

of Atlanta.

Ga.,

meanwhile, began work on its 1996 Games, embarking on a master plan for 26 sports facilities. In Seville, Expo 92 similarl) stimulated $10 billion in civic improvements, including the stunning new Alamillo Bridge b) architect engineer Santiago Calatrava and a nevs airport

Massachusetts architect Benjamin Thompson received the 1992 Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the highest U.S. honour. Thompson was best known for his ""festival marketplaces" such as Faneuil Hall Marketplace in Boston, South Street Seaport in New York City, and Harborplace in Baltimore, Md. In December it was announced that in 1993. for the first time, there would be two Gold Medals: one posthumously to Thomas Jefferson, architect of Monticello and the University of Virginia; and the other to Kevin Roche, Irish-born, Connecticut-based architect of the Oakland Museum in California and of corporate headquarters such as the Ford Foundation in New York City and General Foods in Rye, N.Y.

The AIA

also

picked

10

new

buildings

for

its

an-

Architecture

Honor Awards. Among the better known were the Paramount Hotel renovation in New York City by Philippe Starek; Team Disney Building in Lake Buena Vista, Fla., nual

by Isozaki; the Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery in London by Venturi, Scott Brown; and the Canadian Centre for Architecture in

Year Award

Montreal by Peter Rose. The AIA's 25-

was presented designed by Louis I. Kahn. The Salk was the subject of intense controversy during 1992 over a proposed addition, which by the end of the year seemed certain to be built. The New York City firm of James Stewart Polshek & Partners won the AIA's Firm Award. The Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects went to a structural engineer, Peter Rice, who collaborated with architects on such notable buildings for a building of lasting merit

to the Salk Institute in

La

Jolla, Calif.,

Sydney (Australia) Opera House and the Pompidou

as the

Centre

in Paris.

Cultural Buildings. Perhaps the biggest event architecture

in

1992 was the reopening

Guggenheim Museum

in

New York

City, a

in

in

U.S.

June of the

1960 masterpiece

was completely refurbished by the firm of Gwathmey Siegel, which also added a new 10-story wing of galleries and offices. Long controverdesigned by Frank Lloyd Wright.

sial,

the

Gwathmey

It

Siegel redesign restored the great spiral

rotunda interior to a condition that was closer than ever before to Wright's intentions. But the new wing was widely criticized for crowding and taming the spiral as seen from outside. The Guggenheim also opened a branch in a loft building in lower Manhattan, with interiors by Isozaki, and announced an ambitious plan for other satellites in Bilbao, Spain (by Gehry), and Salzburg, Austria (by Hans Hollein). new Seattle (Wash.) Art Museum by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown was a big curved box of grooved

A

limestone, exhibiting a mix of

pop and

of that firm. Jaipur, India, was the

seum by the noted Indian

esoteric motifs typical

site

of a

new

crafts

architect Charles Correa.

mu-

Among

attention was paid to a museum for a Los Angeles by Franklin Israel. Perhaps the most eagerly anticipated U. S. building, the Disney Concert Hall for Los Angeles by Gehry, went into construction and was scheduled to open in 1996. Commercial Buildings. Probably the most noteworthy office tower of the year was Century Tower in Tokyo by British architect Norman Foster. Overlooking the Imperial

smaller works

much

private collector in

FREDERICK CHARLES

Although

many people expressed outrage

the addition

(at left of

at

photo) to Frank Lloyd

Guggenheim Museum was pointed out that the

New

York

Wright's

in

City,

architect himself

it

had proposed a similar structure. The addition, designed by Charles Gwathmey and Robert Siegel and opened in 1992, provided much-needed space for exhibitions and office functions and also allowed the interior of the original building to be restored.

Palace

the hcarl

at

tWO toweis ol atrium between.

ol

threat

in

19

i>l

the

and

21

city,

lower consisted

Century

stones with

101

a

full-height glass

he building responded to the earthquake

I

Tokyo with an

exterior ol bold, bridgelike trusses.

Chiat/Day/Mojo, an advertising agency, moved into a new three-story headquarters in Venice. Calif., designed by Gehry in collaboration with sculptors Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, who created an entrance lobby in the shape of a 9-m (30-ft)-higb pair of binoculars. Visitors entered between the lenses. Gehry surely the architect of the year for 1992-

remarkable

line

—won

—

further notice for his design of a

of laminated bentwood chairs and tables,

unveiled in January at the

York

Museum

of

Modern Art

in

New

City.

Bloomington, Minn., appeared the vast Mall of Amer"megamaH" designed by the Jerde Partnership of Los Angeles, with 13,000 parking spaces, 281 retail stores, 48 food stores, 21 restaurants, and 9 nightclubs, all wrapped around an amusement park. In Orlando, Fla., the ever busy Disney Corp. opened an elegant small convention centre and a golf club by Gwathmey Siegel. Civic Buildings. A popular and critical home run was hit by the new Oriole Park at Camden Yards, a ballpark in Baltimore designed by Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum of St. Louis, Mo. Fans and architects alike praised its heart-ofthe-city downtown location; its asymmetrical playing field, which was thought to make for a more interesting game than a more standardized layout; the intimacy with which spectator seats were placed close to the action; and the decision to integrate an 1898 freight warehouse and 1857 rail terminal into the new complex. Cities continued to build aquariums at a record pace, including a new Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga by Cambridge Seven Associates and a New Jersey State Aquarium in Camden by Hillier Group. Genoa, Italy, acquired a new soccer stadium by Vittorio Gregotti, in which a piece of a demolished older stadium was preserved and applied to the facade of the new one to reduce its apparent size. The stadium's roofs were hung by cables from towers, as in a suspension bridge, for column-free viewing. Competitions, New Commissions, and Exhibitions. Canadian/Israeli architect Moshe Safdie won a competition for a new central library in Vancouver, B.C., with a design that echoed the ancient Roman Colosseum with a curved In

ica,

a $625 million

L02

Architecture

The departure concourse

of the

new

airport terminal in Seville, Spain,

features arches that

span the width Designed by Rafael Moneo, the complex opened in time for the city's Expo 92. of the

four-Story wall of reading rooms. Isozaki

was winner of an

home

of Frank Lloyd Wright

broad

in

hall.

Wisconsin, work began on

international design competition for a convention centre in

a massive renovation effort expected eventually to cost tens

Nara. Japan. (An exhibition of the 10 finalist designs for Nara opened at the Museum of Modern Art in New York

of millions of dollars. Wright's

Citj in

November,

Venturi, Scott

Brown bested

Manhattan

Island Ferrj

five

other

finalists

with a

lermmal on the Battery

at

Island, intended to replace a Staten

terminal destroyed b)

fire.

The Venturi de-

featured a 12-m (40-ft)-tall illuminated clock lacing harbour and a vaulted waiting room for passengers. Robert A.M. Stern was commissioned to revitalize existing theatres and other buildings along 42nd Street in New York City's limes Square after a long-controversial proposal for a group ol lour giant lowers. In John Burgee and Philip Johnson, was quietlv scrapped "Czech Cubism: Architecture and Design." an exhibit organized bj the \ lira Design Museum ol Germany and the Museum of Decorative Arts of. Prague, traveled in Europe, Canada, and the U.S., displaying the work of avant-garde architects who worked in Prague in the years 1411-18. he Canadian Centre fol Architecture produced an exhibit. OOCUrated bv the centre's founder, Phyllis Lambert, entitled "Opening the Gates ol Eighteenth-Centurj Montreal." Some 400 objects -letters, maps, portraits, drawings, deeds. and computer simulations were deployed to explore the sources ol the architecture and urban form of the city. sign

the

I

Preservation Issues.

first

Juliet" windmill

time,

the public were permitted to tour the house

i

design for the Whitehall Ferrj the tip of

"Romeo and

of 1897 was restored and, for the

The

Piazza d'ltalia

in

New

Orleans,

la. designed bv Charles Moore and regarded as an early 1975) icon of the Postmodern movement, was falling apart, and its site was threatened bv redevelopment. At Ellis Island in New n ork Harbor, the U.S. National Park Service withdrew, under fire from preservationists, a proposal to demolish 12 historic buildings lor a new hotel and conference centre. Bostons most historic structure, the Old State House, was restored bv architects Goodv. Clancv in a manner that preserved remnants ol each period of its history. he Art-Dcco I nion lermmal in Cincinnati, Ohio, perhaps the most architectural!) distinguished ol surviving U.S. railroad structures, reopened as home to a group of museums. ,is well as—for the first time in 20 years an active rail station, used bv Amtrak. At Taliesin last, the onetime (

1

—

members of

itself in small,

advance-reservation groups. Controversies. Perhaps the most controversial building design

in

the world in

1992 was the proposed

liotheque de France in Paris by

Dominique

new

Bib-

Perrault, an

arrangement of four glass book towers around a podium. The towers were reduced in height by 7 m (23 ft), but that still left them at 79 m (259 ft). It was also announced that

books in the towers would be protected from the sun by movable wood panels, raising the question of why the towers were glass in the first place. Construction on a modified design began in March. The always-controversial Prince Charles of Great Britain launched a new school, the Prince of Wales Institute of Architecture, in London, with an illustrious faculty of architects of conservative tastes, including Leon Krier, Demetri Porphyrios, and Christopher Alexander, as well as the U.S. team of Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, creators of the model community of Seaside in Florida. In his inaugural speech the prince, a noted anti-Modernist, said he hoped to restore "an architecture of the heart." He was also involved in sponsoring three urban redevelopments: Paternoster Square in London, a project to erase modern buildings and restore portions of the medieval street plan near St. Paul's Cathedral; the South Bank Arts Centre, where raw concrete buildings of the late 1960s in the socalled Brutalist style of architecture were to be partially demolished and replaced with new shops, cafes, and galleries; and, largest of all, a new town called Poundbury near the city

of Dorchester, to be designed by Krier.

Urban Design and Planning. Two huge waterfront developments continued in 1992. Phase one of Canary Wharf, part of the vast Docklands redevelopment on the River Thames in London, reached completion, comprising a total of 600,000 sq

m

(6,450,000 sq

ft)

of floor area, including

245-m (800-ft) office tower by U.S. architect Cesar Pelli. By the year's end, however, the developer, the Canadian firm of Olympia & York, was the tallest building in Europe, a

Art

in

financial collapse,

leaving the future o\

(

l.xhil.iliiiris .Hid

\rl S.il.s

HM

anary Wharf

uncertain. In Genoa, the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, a complete renovation of the harbour was undertaken under the leadership of architect Renzo Piano. Piano had been known for such new buildings as the Pompidou Centre in Paris (with Richard Rogers) and the De Menil Collection in Houston, Texas, but in Genoa he meticulously restored historic structures, as well as collaborating on such new works as an aquarium with Cambridge Seven Associates. Business and Practice. Times continued to be difficult for the architectural profession, mired in a worldwide recession. Seminars and conferences on finding new ways to practice were common. The so-called Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June stimulated many to think about the relation between architecture and the environment, and the term sustainable architecture gained currency. Flooding in Chicago and rioting in Los Angeles were seen as symptoms of both physical and social decline in U.S. cities, and many architects, including the AIA, called for a new urban political agenda. Architects in Miami, Fla., established an Architecture Recovery Center to assist the rebuilding effort after Hurricane Andrew. Nine thousand people attended the annual convention of the AIA, held in Boston in June, where L. William Chapin II of Rochester, N.Y., was elected first

vice president/president-elect.

James

Stirling,

one of the world's leading

architects, died

June, at the age of 66, 12 days after being knighted by Queen Elizabeth. Stirling was noted for having changed his in

style radically several times during his career. His best-known work, regarded as a masterpiece of 20th-century design,

was the

Staatsgallerie

Germany

museum

of art (1983) in Stuttgart,

Obituaries). Other deaths included those of historian Spiro Kostof, 55, who was posthumously awarded the AIA Topaz Medallion for Excellence in Architectural Education; Craig Ellwood, 70, noted architect of modern houses in California; and Paul Gapp, 64, Pulitzer Prizewinning architecture critic of the Chicago Tribune. (see

(ROBERT CAMPBELL) See also Engineering Projects; Industrial Review: Building and Construction.

This article updates the Macropxdia article The History of

Western Architecture.

COUcCTION OF THE

J

PAUL GETTY MUSEUM MAUBU. CALIFORNIA

"Adoration of the Magi" was included in a 1992 exhibition devoted to the Italian Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna. Organized by the Royal Academy of Arts in London and the Metropolitan

Museum

of Art in

New

exhibition included

York

the large works.

City,

some 130

Art Exhibitions and Art Sales The 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage to America in 1492 was the occasion for a number of exhibitions in 1992.

Genoa, birthplace of the explorer, was a natural venue, and one of the largest shows was mounted at the Palazzo Ducale in that city. Entitled "Due Mondi a Confronto," it comprised a multimedia presentation covering the period 14921728 and focusing on exploration of Europe and America. Two Columbus-year exhibitions were shown at the New York Public Library, "Mapping the New World," devoted to American mapmaking from the 16th to the 19th century, and "Native Americans in Prints and Photography." At the American Museum in Bath, England, "Columbus and His World 1451-1506" consisted of engraved maps, mostly by the cartographer Theodor de Bry, that illustrated the explorer's voyages. Two important exhibitions formed part of Expo 92, the world's fair held in Seville, Spain, in the summer. "Art and Culture in the World of 1492" drew together late 15thcentury objects from many different cultures, while "Treasures of Spanish Art" included important works by major Spanish painters, among them Goya, Picasso, and Dali. The year 1492 was also the year of the death of Lorenzo

A number of commemorating the an-

de' Medici, the great Florentine patron of art.

exhibitions were

mounted

in Italy

one devoted to the drawing of his time Others concentrated on manuscripts, books, and documents relating to Lorenzo and aspects of his many and varied intellectual interests. Exploration was also the theme of a fascinating exhibition held in London at the Accademia Italiana and entitled "Rediscovering Pompeii." Unlike the last major exhibition on Pompeii in London, at the Royal Academy in 1976— 77, this show concentrated not on the more famous findings and well-known aspects of Pompeiian life but rather on unknown finds, many recently discovered. It comprised only 193 exhibits, making it quite selective. Included were sculptures, frescoes, and decorative objects such as jewelry. Highlights were a fine statue of Bacchus and a complete niversary, including

at the Uffizi.

104

Art Exhibitions and Art Sales

painted

room with frescoes. Computer terminals offered among them re-creations of the eruption

varied experiences,

of Vesuvius and the experience of a Roman bath. One of the programs enabled visitors to "walk around" a Pompeiian house, examining the decorations by wall.

room by room and

wall

The art year was notable for the number of fine shows about sculpture and sculptors. A large exhibition at the Museo Correr in Venice devoted to the work of the neoclassical sculptor Antonio Canova was on view throughout the summer months. Paintings and drawings as well as sculpture were included. This provided the first opportunity in about 20 years for visitors to enjoy a significant number of works by this sometimes underrated artist. The show comprised 152 works, including 35 of the marbles for which he is probably best remembered. The centrepiece of the show was the collection of 11 marbles lent by the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, but works were also lent by collections in Florence, Munich, Paris, Vienna, and elsewhere, and these were added to the important holdings of the Museo Correr and other Venetian collections. There were also a number of portraits of Canova himself, together with a selection of drawings and models illustrating major sculptures and

showing his expertise as a draftsman. The most important marbles were those dedicated to mythological subjects and dating from the final two decades of the 18th century. The complexity of composition was clear, as was the exquisite surface of his works. The French sculptor Clodion, a contemporary of Canova, was represented by a major summer exhibition at the Louvre in Paris, allowing a reassessment of the works of one of the greatest French sculptors of the 18th-century rococo. His subjects ranged from mythology to portraiture. Terracotta was his preferred medium. Modern sculptors were not neglected. An important retrospective of the work of the 20th-century Italian sculptor MUSEUM Of

FINE ARTS

HOUSTON. THE JOHN A AND AUDREY JONES BECK COOECTION

Alberto Giacometti was shown at the Musee d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris in the spring, one of a series of shows at that museum focusing on important artists who influenced Parisian modern art. On view were well over 100 sculptures, more than 60 paintings, and about 150 works on paper, as well as books, catalogs, special editions illustrated by the artist, and even sections of a grafittoed studio wall. In the 1920s Giacometti worked with Antoine Bourdelle, and his working life was closely connected with major French artists of the time. A major retrospective of the work of the English sculptor Henry Moore was on view at the Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. It comprised nearly 200 sculptures, prints, and drawings and was the first largescale showing of the artist's work in Australia in nearly half a century.

The Australian National Gallery in Canberra held an important exhibition entitled "Rubens and the Italian Renaissance" illustrating the influence of Italian Renaissance art and scholarship on the Flemish artist and demonstrating Rubens' vital role in disseminating Italian influence in northern Europe. A major Renaissance show devoted to the works of the Italian painter Andrea Mantegna was seen at the Royal Academy in London in the spring and from May to July at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. It was the first such exhibition in 30 years and gave a good overview of the artist's personal style and varied talent. Paintings, drawings, and prints were shown together at the Royal Academy, and the selection of prints and drawings was very large indeed, with loans from most of the major European and Italian collections. Western art remained highly regarded in Japan, and Japanese art enthusiasts enjoyed a number of exhibitions comprising loans from European collections. Notable among them was a show at the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo in the summer that included exquisite items of jewelry and glass by the French artist Rene Lalique. Opera sets and costumes designed by David Hockney were shown in Tokyo at the Bunkamura Museum of Art, and the National Museum of Modern Art at Kyoto held a large retrospective of sculpture by Isamu Noguchi, an artist as well known in the West as in Japan. In Yokohama the Sogo Museum exhibited a selection of 69 German works from 19th century lent by the Wallraf-Richartz Cologne. The Isetan Museum of Art in Tokyo showed "British Landscape Paintings," a survey of work by the major British artists of the 18th to 20th century, including Gainsborough, Constable, and Turner. As usual, Paris was home to an important selection of in-

the 17th to the

Museum

in

ternationally praised art exhibitions.

A

retrospective of the

work of Toulouse-Lautrec, which had been at the Hayward Gallery, London, in the winter, moved to the Grand Palais in Paris in the spring. The selection of works on show covered 20 years of the artist's working life and included posters and lithographs as well as paintings. The integration of printed images with painterly effects was best seen in the famous posters. The show was arranged by theme, making it easy to appreciate Lautrec's variety and continuity. Almost all of Lautrec's most famous paintings were on view, but two important works, "Au Cirque Fernando" and "Bal au Moulin de la Galeae from the Art Institute of Chicago, '

were seen only in Paris. "The Loves of the Gods," also

at the

Grand

Palais in

Museum of Art in Museum in Fort Worth,

the winter, traveled to the Philadelphia the spring and to the Kimbell Art

summer. This was a traveling exhibition of works drawn from international sources the type of exhibition that was becoming more and more difficult to mount. Sixty-eight important works were Texas,

The painting "Woman

in

a Purple

Robe was on view

in

the Henri

Matisse retrospective that opened in September 1992 at the Museum Modern Art in New York City Part of the popular exhibition was to appear in 1993 at the Pompidou Centre in Paris of

in

the

Old Master

—

paintings, with

Art Exhibition* and

brought

together,

subjects.

The

to David,"

\rt

Silts

105

concentrating on French mythological "Mythological fainting from Wattcau

subtitle,

demonstrated the intelligence and seriousness

of the subject matter, often wrongly assessed on its purely decorative qualities. Works were lent by such diverse collections as the Philadelphia Versailles, France,

An on

exhibition at

Picasso's

of Art, the Trianon

at

Geneva and Stockholm. the Grand Palais in the autumn focused

still-lite

Entitled "Picasso

Museum

and museums

&

in

paintings over a period of 50 years. les

Choses,"

it

illustrated the artist's

amazing inventiveness and variety, which could infuse even the most ordinary items with artistic quality. The earliest painting, dating from 1901, was executed when Picasso was only 20. A thrilling image of the skull of a bull, painted in 1958 when the artist was nearly 80, completed the time span. The German Expressionist painter Otto Dix was another 20th-century artist honoured with a retrospective, this time at the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin on the occasion of the centenary of the

artist's birth.

was also shown known works from more familiar works

London

A

slightly revised ver-

the Tate Gallery. Little1946-69 were shown with dating from the prewar years. Many of the canvases were extremely fragile and unlikely ever to be brought together again in such a large retrospective. Part of the fragility was due to the artist's unusual technique, developed in about 1925, of painting in oil over tempera, as well as his method of using pigments, intended to re-create effects achieved by German Old Masters. sion

in

at

the period

Modernism" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in the spring was a major international show devoted to drawings, an unusual subject for such an important event. The overwhelming majority of artists represented were from the U.S. or Germany, and the "Allegories of

exhibition illustrated the varied purposes of drawing, with

"The Treachery of Images," a painting of a pipe above the text "This is was part of the Rene Magritte retrospective organized in 1992 by the Hayward Gallery in London. From there the exhibition was

not a pipe,"

to travel to three U.S. cities— New York;

in 1969.

The

work in

Guggenheim Museum in New York City celebrating museum's reopening after two years of renovation. "The Guggenheim Museum and the Art of this Century" was a two-part show comprising "Masterpieces" and "From Brancusi to Bourgeois." The first included works selected from the

collection,

The museum's

first

and the second emphasized recent art. major loan exhibition was a show of

Russian avant-garde art seen earlier

at the Stedelijk

Mu-

seum in Amsterdam. A major retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York was devoted to the works of Henri Matisse and included some 300 paintings and more than 100 works in other mediums. The works lent included some from important Russian collections in Moscow and St. Petersburg and from the Musee National d'Art Moderne in Paris. As with many popular shows, timed admission and prebooking were employed to prevent overcrowding. A major exhibition of the work of the Belgian Surrealist Rene Magritte was held at the Hayward Gallery and traveled to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The last major exhibition devoted to Magritte had been

at

the Tate Gallery

was work The show, on

Verona,

Italy,

at its best.

The

exhibition

moved from

his early

works

the style of Corot to his splendid, fully Impressionist

landscapes of the 1870s.

The American artist Stuart Davis was the subject of a mamounted by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and also shown at the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco. The exhibition catalog included 175 works, providing

traveled

the

in

Foundation. At the Royal Academy a retrospective devoted to the work of Alfred Sisley, one of the less famous French Impressionists, included 72 canvases illustrating the artist's

potent images.

that

Moderna

of the Swiss artist Paul Klee ever seen in Italy. view during the summer, included more than 350 paintings, watercolours, and drawings, many selected from the Klee

jor exhibition

at

Galleria d'Arte

the venue for the largest retrospective devoted to the

examples ranging from traditional studio drawings to those intended as "stand alone" works of art. Many thoughtprovoking examples of Postmodernism were included, providing evidence of how far drawing as an art in itself had moved in the 20th century. "Helter Skelter: LA. Art in the 1990s," organized by the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, wanted to be provocative and succeeded. Violence, tawdriness, and cult religion were common images in the works by 16 artists, including Chris Burden, Manuel Ocampo, and Llyn Foulkes. Burden's "Medusa's Head," an enormous meteorite covered by miniature railroad tracks, was a vision of ecological disaster and one of the show's Twentieth-century art was also the focus of the exhibition

Houston, Texas; and Chicago.

LOS ANGELES COUNTY MUSEUM OF ART. THE MR ANO MRS WILLIAM PRESTON HARRISON COLLECTION

a representative overview of the artist's output during his 50

The show included portraits and landscapes along with his well-known still-lifes. Though influenced by such movements as Cubism, Davis remained quintessential^ American. An important traveling exhibition, "Master European Paintings from the National Gallery of Ireland," was shown at the Art Institute of Chicago. It comprised 44 of that museum's most important paintings, including works by Hogarth, Reynolds, Chardin, and Velazquez. The show years of activity.

on to San Francisco, Boston, and New York. At Dulwich College Picture Gallery in London, "Treasures of a Polish King" comprised a selection of works collected by Stanislaus Augustus, the last king of Poland. The show included works by Rembrandt, Fragonard, and Boucher lent

by various public collections.

An

exchange exhibition

in

Warsaw, entitled "Collection for a King," included works by Rembrandt, Tiepolo, and Poussin, purchased for Stanislaus Augustus but undelivered at the time of his abdication and eventually given to Dulwich. "The Making of England" was the title of an exhibition at the British Museum in the late winter that concentrated on Anglo-Saxon art of ad 600-900. Included were the sole surviving copy of the epic poem Beowulf, the

A

Rome

Gospel, and the Stockholm Codex Aureus.

section devoted to the Northumbrian church included

relics of St. Cuthbert, such as a leather-bound copy of St. John's Gospel closely connected with the saint's cult and his own altar and cross. Artifacts, manuscripts, carving, and

jewelry were featured prominently. The exhibition provided a unique chance for visitors to reconsider many of the finest surviving art works from early medieval England.

(SANDRA MILLIKJN)

106

Art Exhibitions and Art Sales

ART SALES The 1991-92 auction season recorded

the worst results in

14% at Sotheby's This compounded the adverse effects of the previous season, when the turnover of both houses fell by around 50% from the all-time high in 1989-90, the peak of the '80s speculative boom. The decline was a direct reflection of world recession. The year also saw a steady succession of gallery closings in London, Paris, and New York, including Ackerman's, the London dealers in sportTurnover for the year

five years.

and 10%

fell

by

at Christie's.

That left the two highest auction prices of the year as the £10,120,000 paid by the composer Andrew Lloyd Webber for Lord Malmesbury's large Canaletto view of "The Old Horse Guards, London, from St. James's Park" and the surprise £7,480,000 for Lord Normanton's "Venus and Adonis" by Titian. The latter came up at Christie's in December cataloged as by "Titian and workshop" and estimated at £1 million. However, everyone decided it was a real Titian, especially the J. Paul Getty Museum of Malibu, Calif. The Getty paintings curator, George Goldner, did not have time to convince his trustees before the sale; Hazlitt,

Gooden

David Hockney's dealer and one of the stars of the 1960s contemporary art scene. The question of central importance to the future of the art market, however, was whether A. Alfred Taubman, the U.S. tycoon, would manage to hold on to Sotheby's. Forbes magazine estimated that his personal fortune had fallen from $2 billion to $600 million. He sold 8 million Sotheby's shares in July for $100 million, retaining 14 million special "B" shares that carried 10 votes each and left him control of the company. Much less material came up at auction than in previous years. The most expensive paintings came from British aris-

and Fox in London and Hermann Schickman in New York bought it together, in the hope that the Getty might take it later. It was duly bought by Malibu. Goldner remained the dominant buyer in the market. He rescued Agnew's, the Bond Street dealers, from severe financial difficulties in late 1991 by paying around £7 million for Sebastiano del Piombo's portrait of "Pope Clement VII," and he rescued a consortium of dealers by taking a large Canaletto "View of the Grand Canal" off their hands for roughly the same price. Old Master sales remained the strongest sector of the picture market, but with few buyers around, prices were erratic.

of the threat that

In April Christie's could not find a buyer prepared to pay the

ing pictures established in the 18th century,

tocratic collections

— largely

as a

result

and Kasmin,

they might be banned from export by a heritage

a

"list,"

scheme subsequently rejected by the government. It appeared that Holbein's "Portrait of a Lady with a Squirrel" would make the year's top auction price when Christie's announced its forthcoming sale on behalf of the Marquess of C'holmondeley

managed

February, but the National Gallery to negotiate its purchase before the auction at in

tax-exempt figure of £10 million. This might have been equivalent to anything from £15 million to £25 million at auction, depending on how the Treasury decided to calcua

late

Cholmondeley's

tax

£6 million they were asking for a ravishing tiny Rembrandt, "Daniel and Cyrus Before the Idol of Bel," but Sotheby's persuaded Milwaukee (Wis.) collector Alfred Bader to give Rembrandt's portrait of Johannes Uyttenbogaert a home at £4,180,000

in July.

In the Impressionist

markets, where prices collapsed

"bottom fishing"

became

in

and contemporary

1990, something called

—seeing how low one could buy a picture-

fashionable. Christie's had the two best sales of the

year, the

Tremaine and McCarty-Cooper

collections,

Dejeuner," and Cooper's Braque, "Atelier VIII." In the

bill.

Reattribution, or

Where Have

"A thing of beauty is a joy forever." Or so observed John Keats on the immortality of great works of art. To a growing number of collectors and curators, however, the poet's words offer scant consolation. What is one

All the his

Rembrandts Gone?

style.

The most talented students often collabo-

rated with the mentor himself, and several went on to achieve their

own measure

of fame. Rembrandt's

Rembrandt that sudden!) isn't? Rembrandt Research Project (RRP). an

enormous popularity encouraged anyone who owned a "Rembrandtesque" painting to consider it the real thing. It should also be noted that some painters,

international committee of art historians and connois-

such as Rembrandt's Flemish contemporary Peter Paul

make

to

ot a

In 1968 the

seurs based

in

Amsterdam, began

a systematic, high-

tech reassessment of the entire bodj ot

conventional!)

attributed

master. This corpus at

to its

the

oil

paintings

17th-century

Dutch

most generous reach

—

—

in

the Hush of a 19th-century Rembrandt "revival" exceeded 1,000 works Subsequent inventories based on examination ot technique and subject matter trimmed

the

number

by

nearly

hall

I

he esoteric pursuit

of

drama in 1992 when the RRP committee "deattributed" a number of paintings including "The Polish Rider" (1 rick Museum) and " he Curl at the Door" (Art Institute of Chicago) authentication

art

became

public

—

1

former!) esteemed as unassailable masterworks. I

his uncertainty in the

Dutch socioeconomic deception. The medieval to

and

scored $7.7 million for both Tremaine's Leger, "Le Petit

Rembrandt canon owes more history craft

than

to

any grand

guild system, in which

all trades, including painting, served formal apprenticeships with exacting masters, still nourished in 17th-century Amsterdam. Rembrandt supervised a

learners oi

large studio ot paying novices

who

diligent!)

imitated

Rubens, were more fastidious

in

distinguishing their

own work from that of their disciples. In its monumental effort to clarify

this muddle, the employing an unprecedented combination of informed judgment and scientific objectivity. Traditional scholarly appraisal, newly focused, has accounted for most of the "demotions" thus far. But, interestingly, it is the cooler eye of technology the X-ray and so-called dendrochronological analysis (dating of the paintings' wooden panels) that has shown even the deattributed works to date from Rembrandt's time. The first three volumes of a projected five-volume Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings have received a largely favourable response. A major exhibition reflecting the committee s findings thus far attracted large crowds in Amsterdam, Berlin, and London. While some owners of "former" masterpieces remained predictably unconvinced, others looked for a silver lining, such as a new interest in the often brilliantly gifted figures who (jim carnes) laboured in Rembrandt's shadow.

RRP

is

—

—

\stroiiomv

field, 1980s art was selling much better than Charles Saatchi, the British advertising mogul, and the bankrupt estate ol Swedish collector I-redrik Roos put a lot of good 1980s material on the market. There were many new price records for Latin-American artists. Diego Rivera's "The Flower Seller" set an all-time high at 52.970.000 matching the new record for a Victorian painting. Richard Dadd's "Contradiction," paid, again, by Andrew

contemporary '60s or '70s;

—

107

Other notable sales included the autograph manuscript ol Charles Dickens' he Haunted Man and the Ghosl S Bargain." 5308,000 at Sotheby's on October 11; a magnificent I

high Renaissance binding

Mansfeld

German

first

made

in

Paris lor Peter Ernst von

on December 5; the Nuremberg Chronicle. 5264,000

1556. £308,000 at Sotheby's

in

edition of the

the sales of important French and Continental furnishings.

Sotheby's on June 18; and a 1455 manuscript of Basinio da Parma's astrological poem "Astronomicon," £115,000 at Sotheby's on June 16. The most unexpected high of the year was the £253,770 realized at Phillips, London, on June for the papers of the 18th-century bluestocking Catharine Macaulay (1731-91) against a presale estimate of £20,000

Some

to £30.000.

Lloyd Webber. In virtually every field, auctions

were dominated by

pri-

vate buyers rather than dealers. This was notably true of

F 23 million for an exquisite jewel cabinet made for Queen MarieAntoinette, 51,980,000 for a Louis XVI commode painted of the extraordinary prices included

at

1

—

IM.RALDINE NOKMANJ

This article updates the Macropcedia articles The History of Western PAINTING; The History of Western Sr rULPTURE.

with roses from the Ortiz-Patino collection, SI. 8 million for a pair of silver ice buckets

made

in Paris for

Horace

Walpole, £770,000 for a rococo bureau by Pietro Piffetti of Turin, and 51,210,000 for a Savonnerie carpet, the highest auction price for a carpet on record. Prices for English

Astronomy For astronomy, 1992 was the year of Galileo, Hubble, and a half centuries ago the great astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei was sentenced to house arrest by the Roman Catholic Church and forced to recant his view that the Earth moves around the Sun. After deliberating for 13 years, a commission appointed by the church finally announced intentions to find Galileo "not

furniture were

more hit or miss. Christie's had two hits the sale of the Samuel Messer collection in December and Chippendale furnishings from Harewood House in July. Messer's Chippendale commode made £935,000, while a pair of Harewood silvered mirrors made £319,000. It was generally a quiet year for the Oriental market.

Compton. More than three and

Chinese sales were not doing well, and Japanese buyers were suffering from recession and art market scandals back home. Korea proved to be the new wild card in the pack;

guilty."

a 14th-century

Korean painting made 10 times estimate

at

51,760,000 in October, and an 18th-century blue and white vase made seven times estimate at £418,000 in December.

Though operating with

defective optics, the orbit-

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) achieved many firsts in providing exciting new images of the universe. And the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GROj. the first true gamma-ray telescope launched into orbit, made a host of ing

findings about sources of these very

high-energy photons

The impact of the recession on the book market was much less marked. Heavily publicized auctions no longer made prices out of line with the market, but

coming from the Milky Way Galaxy and beyond.

competition for real rarities was as strong as ever. Average prices had probably dropped some 10-15% from their peak. It was notable that a high proportion of the year's star turns were handled by Christies, which traditionally had

comets, and other debris. New discoveries were made about each of these during the year. Earth's nearest cosmic neighbour, the Moon, always keeps one side facing Earth. Despite

Book

Sales.

book business than Sotheby's. On Oct. 30, 1991. Christie's sold a pair of terrestrial and celestial globes dated 1579 and attributed to the workshop of Gerard Mercator for £1,023,000. They followed up with a 36-line Bible at £1.1 million on November 27; dating from before 1460, it was set from matrices struck in the Mainz workshop of Gutenberg. Only 14 copies were known to have survived. and this one was sold, via New York dealer H.P. Kraus, done much

less

to the Scheide Library

new

price record for an

December

5 with

Princeton. Christie's also set a

in

American

Abraham

letter in

New York

on

Lincoln's 2'/4-page defense of

Emancipation Proclamation written to Major General McClernand; it sold for 5748,000 to Profiles in History of Los Angeles. Sotheby's scored the other big price of the autumn. £1.1 million for one of the last complete autograph manuscripts of a major work by Beethoven in private hands. his Piano Sonata in E Minor. Opus 90. written in 1814. It was the highest price ever recorded for a music manuscript. handled the top-priced books of 1992. Christie's Audubon's The Birds of America, with its sensational elephant folio illustrations, is always among the most expensive books in the world. A new high of S4.070,000 was set on April 24 for a copy conserved since its publication by the University of Edinburgh. Back in London on May 20. one his

of the

first

pictorial records of

garden flowers, a manuscript

containing 473 drawings of ornamental plants from the garden of the Niirnberg botanist and physician Joachim Camerarius (1534-98). was sold at Christie's for £638.000 to the University Library of Erlangen.

Solar System. Within the solar system

lie

the Sun, the

nine major planets and their moons, and the asteroids,

manned

landings on the near side of the Moon, the far side held deep mysteries. In 1992 the spacecraft Galileo,

still

launched

in

1989, returned to the

part of the complicated trajectory

ultimate destination

its

spectacular

in

new images of

it

Earth-Moon region as was following to reach

1995, Jupiter. Galileo obtained

the far side of the

Moon

at

many

wavelengths, allowing scientists to assess the composition of various lunar craters. Analysis revealed that ejecta from the Orientale Basin, an impact-created feature

some

1.000

km

were excavated from the Moon's crust and not from its mantle, as had been previously thought. (One kilometre is about 0.62 mi.) On the other hand, another crater in the South Pole-Aitken Basin, which is some 2,000 km in diameacross,

ter,

indicated the presence of iron-rich materials, suggesting

that the impact

making

that crater

may

well have penetrated

into the lunar mantle.

As reported

widely

made

in

1991. Galileo

was the

first

space-

encounter with an asteroid. Although early images of the asteroid Gaspra were released that year, because of a defect in the telemetry system of the spacecraft, scientists had to wait until 1992 to get a fullcolour look at the object. The newer view, which was three times sharper than before, revealed more than 600 meteorite impact craters on the 20-km-long rock. Because of the calculated high impact rate, however, scientists concluded that the asteroid must be very young, perhaps less than 200 million years old. compared with the 4.2 billion-year age of the solar system. Gaspra probably formed as a splinter craft

to have

a close

of a larger asteroid following a cataclysmic interplanetary collision with another solar system body.

108

Astronomy

Image of the nucleus of the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) taken with the Hubble Space Telescope reveals what astronomers believed was the first view of the dust ring surrounding a massive black hole at the galaxy's core. Forming the thicker bar of the X, the light-absorbing,

doughnut-shaped

ring lies almost perpendicular to the disk of the galaxy, which is oriented nearly face-on to the Earth. Hidden within the intersection of the X may be a black hole with as much mass as a million Suns.

David Jewitt of the University of Hawaii and Jane Luu of the University of California at Berkeley discovered what

may be

the

first

of a

new

class of objects at the

edge of

the solar system, beyond the orbits of Pluto and Neptune. is about 200 km in diameter. It lies 1.6 Neptune, or about 42 astronomical units from the Sun. (An astronomical unit, or AU, is the EarthSun distance.) The object, currently dubbed 1992 QB1, may well belong to a belt of icv objects whose existence the astronomer Gerard Kuiper predicted in the early 1950s. He had suggested such a belt as the source of short-period comets, such as Halley's Comet, which orbit the inner solar system with periods of less than about 200 years. Observations of the Sun revealed for the first time the presence of fast neutrons produced in solar Hares. In June 1991 recorded high-energy gamma-ray emission from the Sun at the time oJ some very large flares. Following the optical emission from the Bares, GRO found an "afterglow" oi gamma rays and neutrons lasting several hours. Analysis Ol the data, reported in 1992, supported the notion that energetic protons are accelerated in a Hare and then get trapped in loops of solar magnetic fields, subsequent]) striking the gas present and producing neutrons and gamma rays. Neutron images of the Sun derived from GRO data were the first-ever such images ol any extraterrestrial object.

The "planetesimal" billion

km beyond

GRO

Stars.

he solar system is not the only place to look for seeking possible places for life beyond Earth,

I

planets.

In

scientists

have usual!) searched for signs of planets around

stars like the Sun.

In

1991 scientists

announced what

they

believed to be the discover) ol a planet circling a pulsar, a highly

magnetized rotating neutron

represents the usually

formed

last in

stage

in

star.

Since a pulsai

the evolution ol a star and

a supernova explosion,

it

seemed

a

is

most

an orbiting planet. "Detection" of the planet was based on reported slight variations in the clockunlikely

place

for

radio pulses coming from the pulsar PSR 1N29-10. In 1W2, however, the discover) was withdrawn, owing to an

like

error

in

the analysis of the arrival time of the pulses.

Mean-

two planets around a different pulsar was reported by Alexander Wolszczan of Cornell University, Ithaca. N.Y. This object, named PSR 1257 + 12. appeared to have planets roughly three times the mass of the Earth that circle the pulsar in orbits similar h> that ol the planet Mercury about the Sun. If confirmed bv lurthcr observations, tin.- discovery would raise many questions about the late stages ol stellar evolution, not to mention the origin of planets around old pulsars. Before dRo began systematical!) mapping the sky in gamma rays, there had been limited satellite studies ol the

while, another detection of at

least

gamma-ray

Perhaps the most perplexing discovery in gamma-ray astronomy was the object dubbed by its discoverers Geminga, which is derived from an Italian expression meaning "It's not there." Although it is the second brightest source of gamma rays in the sky, it was initially undetectable at any other wavelength. Later, weak optical and X-ray emission was detected from Geminga, but its true nature remained a mystery. Finally in 1992, observations by as well as by the X-ray-desky.

the preceding two decades of

GRO

tecting Rontgensatellit

(ROSAT)

settled part of the puzzle.

detected pulsations from the object with a period of 237 milliseconds (thousandths of a second), from

Both

satellites

which astronomers concluded that the object is a pulsar. Why its radiation properties are so different from all other pulsars, however, was still unclear. Extragalactic Astronomy. Black holes remain an elusive quarry for detection. Though a black hole cannot be seen directly, every year astronomers report new indirect means of demonstrating the presence of these invisible, alleged denizens of the universe. In particular, black-hole mania swept over HST users in 1992. The active galaxy M87 (Virgo A), well known for the luminous jet emanating from its nucleus, was studied by Tod R. Lauer of the National Optical Astronomy Observatories in Arizona and collaborators using the HST. The galaxy lies some 50 million light-years from Earth in a comparatively nearby cluster of galaxies in the constellation Virgo. They found that the light coming from its centre is some 300 times brighter than would be expected if there were only stars at the centre. The observation,

combined with the existence of a

4,000 light-years from

its

jet

core, suggests that

tain a black hole having a

mass two

extending some

M87 may

con-

billion to three billion

times that of the Sun.

Holland Ford of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., and co-workers used the HST to make a dramatic image of what was interpreted to be a massive black hole at the centre of the spiral galaxy M51, the Whirlpool Galaxy, lying some 20 million light-years from Earth. The object's presence is marked by a dark X across the centre of the nucleus of the galaxy. The thicker of the two bars of the X was suggested to be a doughnut, or torus, of cold gas and dust about 100 light-years across that is rotating around the otherwise unseen million-solar-mass central black hole. And closer to home in the elliptical galaxy M32, which lies only about two million light-years from Earth, Lauer and collaborator Sandra M. Faber of the University of California at Santa Cruz, using the HST, found that the density of stars increases to form a sharp "cusp" as one gets closer to the centre of the galaxy. They concluded that at its very

\Mruriiiriiv

Tiny temperature fluctuations

in

109

the

cosmic background radiation lurk among pink and blue patches of signal noise in this computer-enhanced map of the sky

made

from data collected by the Cosmic

Background Explorer (COBE)

satellite

The

long-awaited discovery of the fluctuations,

announced

in April,

offered critical input to

theories attempting to account for the present

lumpmess of matter in the universe in the form of galaxies and larger-scale structures. NASA

core

lies

a black hole of perhaps three million solar masses.

To some

astronomers, however, the lack of jets or other sign of activity at the centre of this galaxy made the claim for a black hole less viable.

Cosmology. Hubble's name appeared in another guise throughout 1992. Edwin Hubble, for whom the HST is named, is credited with having discovered the expansion of the universe by producing the first detailed correlation between the distances to galaxies and the rate at which they appear to recede from the Milky Way and from one another (now called the Hubble law). During the past half century, astronomers have sought to establish an accurate distance to nearby galaxies, thus allowing an accurate calibration of the current expansion rate of the universe, a number called Hubble's constant. From this, one can deduce the approximate age of the universe, the time since the original big HST, Allan Sandage of the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and co-workers bang. Using the

measured the luminosity of 27 Cepheid variable stars (a class of stars whose periods of variation are proportional

Earth Perihelion and Aphelion, 1993

km (91,402,000 mi) Irom the Sun km (94,505,000 mi) from the Sun

Jan. 4

Perihelion. 147,097,000

July 5

Aphelion, 152,091,000

March 20

Vernal equinox, 14.41'

Equinoxes and Solstices, 1993 June 21

Summer

Sept. 23

Autumnal equinox. 00 22'

Dec

21

Winter solstice, 20:26'

May

21

Sun,

solstice, 09:00'

Eclipses, 1993 (begins 12:18'). visible in the central and western coterminous United States, most ol Canada and Alaska, the entire Arctic region (including Greenland, northern Russia, Scandinavia, and the Baltics), and eastern Europe (including Belarus and Ukraine) partial

to their true brightness) in the small galaxy

IC 4182. This

galaxy contains even brighter yardsticks called type la supernovas, which can also be used to calibrate Hubble's constant

peak at the same brightness. Combining these observations with the best estimates for the average mass density of the universe. Sandage found that the universe is at least 15 billion years old, in good since these stellar explosions

agreement with independent estimates of the ages of the Way. Nonetheless, at year's end many observational cosmologists perhaps the majority remained skeptical, arguing that the universe is younger, perhaps only half this age. Though 1992 was an active year in astronomy, the dis-

oldest stars in the Milky

—

covery that received the greatest attention, at least

in

the

popular press, was the detection by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite of small fluctuations in the microwave background radiation. The big bang model rests

on four crucial observational pillars: the already mentioned Hubble law; the age of the oldest known stars; the measured abundance of the various chemical elements; and the existence of background radiation pervading the sky with a temperature of about 2.7° above absolute zero (2.7 K; - 455° F, or -270° C). The big bang model predicts that if the universe began with an initial hot, high-density explosion, some of the lightest elements would be synthesized and radiation would be produced, initially as gamma rays, that would subsequently cool as the universe expanded. COBE had already confirmed that the cooled radiation has the predicted temperature and spectrum. And it had already found that the radiation comes from all over the sky. But the model also requires that, at some level of strength, fluctuations be seen in the radiation corresponding to places

where there

is

structure in the universe, such as in the

directions of superclusters of galaxies.

June 4

Moon, total (begins 10:10'). the beginning visible along the east coast ol Asia, Australia, Antarctica, southern Alaska, extreme western Canada, western United States, most ot Mexico, the coastal regions ot Peru and Ecuador, southwestern South America, the Pacific Ocean, and the southeastern Indian Ocean, the end visible in most of eastern and south central Asia. Madagascar, Australia, Antarctica, the Hawaiian and the Aleutian islands, the Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific Ocean

In a dramatic announcement in April, George Smoot of the University of California at Berkeley, speaking for the COBE instrument team that made the measurements, said that COBE had seen what one scientist called "the

Nov 13

Sun, partial (begins 19 46'), visible in Antarctica, the southern tip of South America (including the Falkland Islands). New Zealand. Tasmania, and the south central and southwestern regions of Australia

tuations, only a

Nov. 29

Moon, total (begins 03:27'), the beginning visible in extreme eastern and northern Asia, the Hawaiian Islands, North America, Central America, South America, the Arctic, Greenland, Europe, western Africa, extreme western Russia, the eastern Pacific Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean, the end visible in northeastern Asia, most of New Zealand, the Hawaiian Islands. North America. Central America, South America except the extreme east, the Arctic regions, Greenland, the Pacific Ocean, and most of the North Atlantic Ocean.

'Universal time

Source: The Astronomical Almanac

lor the

Year 1993 (1992)

What COBE found were small flucfew parts in a million, in the temperature of the radiation observed coming from different directions in the sky. Though the significance of the discovery was still being assessed at year's end, 1992 was definitely a year for astronomy that, to rephrase T.S. Eliot, ended with a bang, (kenneth brecher) not a whimper. (See Physics.) handwriting of God."

See also Space Exploration. This article updates the Macropcedia articles The Cosmos; Galaxies; The Physical Sc iences: Astronomy; The Solar Sys-

tem; Stars and Star Clusters.

1

Botanical Gardens and Zoos

10

summer two major tropical botanigardens renowned for conservation work, the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Florida and the Waimea Botanical Garden in Hawaii, were devastated by hurricanes. native species. In late

Botanical Gardens and Zoos The contemporary

Botanical Gardens.

many urgent

botanical garden has

tasks, the conservation of plant resources

being

paramount. A number of botanical gardens were showing great Hair and imagination in taking their conservation messages to the public. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, built a Bornean longhouse within a tropical greenhouse,

New York

Garden built a traditional South American healers' house. The Botanic Garden of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, used the celebrations for the Day of the Dead to promote

while the

Botanical

the role of the festival's plant components.

The

topics of major international meetings reflected the

and contemporary challenges of botanithe botanical gardens of the Southwest Pacific region were discussed at the Wellington (N.Z.) Botanic Garden. The Etnobotanica-92, meeting in Cordoba, Spain, examined the effects of plant transfer between the Old and New Worlds. The third International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress, held in October 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, examined the theme "Botanic Gardens in a (hanging World." The last few years had seen a spectacular and welcome surge in botanical garden activity in the Spanish-speaking world. The botanical gardens of Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela were expanding in influence and importance. In some respects the new botanical gardens and plant germ-plasm centres of South America were showing the waj in the evolution of the contemporary tropical botanical garden. Botanic Gardens Conhistorical Jegacies

cal gardens.

In

cal

March 1992

(MICHAEL MAUNDER) The most important international conference of the sixth World Conference on Breeding Endangered

Zoos. 1992,

Species, held in

May

in Jersey,

delegates from 40 countries.

was attended by over 250

The main emphasis of

servation International started issuing a special bulletin for

London, further cliff-hanging developments were

Latin America. Boletin de tea Jandines Botanicos de America

war-torn Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina, the

Latina. In January 1991 the Brazilian botanical gardens had

viving animal in the city's zoo, a bear, died in

network. Rede Brasileira de Jardins Botanicos, and the Venezuelan botanic gardens met to form

On

formed

a collaborative

a national

Main of

network

in

Botanic Garden

political

and

financial neglect.

Cameroon, established by

in

m

colonial authorities ot plantation crops, 198.S.

1992.

The Limhe

the

German

1892 as a centre tor the development in decline since the 1960s. In

had been

however, a renovation program for the garden and

associated ram foresl reserves was initiated as a collab-

( amcroonian government, the Overseas Development Agencv of the British government, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. As a result, the garden was able to celebrate its ccntcnarv in 1992 as a centre for plant conservation and environmental education. Botanical gardens were increasing!) having to adopt new

orative project between the

skills lor

the

management

cultivation ot a single

ol rare plants

specimen

m

cultivation.

ot a rare species

1

he

does not

constitute conservation ol that species. Genetic variability

must be retained to ensure long-term survival. One of the most eagerl) awaited publications for botanical garden conservationists was Genetics ami Conservation of Rare Plants, he book reedited In Donald alk and Kent Holsinger. views the available literature on the genetic management ot rare plant species, both in cultivation and in the wild. A growing number ot botanical gardens were undertaking he univercollaborative pro)ccts with endangered species. sity botanical garden ot Bonn. Germany, was working with the GOteborg (Sweden) Botanic Garden on the conservaI

1

I

tion ot Sophora toromiro, a tree extinct in

Island to in

All

known

plants

in

cultivation

in

its

native Easter

Europe appeared

be descended from a single seed collection. In 1992, common with main other gardens, the Berlin-Dahlem

Botanic Garden started a remtroduction program lor rare

a

likely.

last

In

sur-

November.

happier note, the Miami (Fla.) Metrozoo reopened

in

damage

in

December, four months Hurricane Andrew.

after suffering extensive

The taxonomically unique aye-aye (Daubentonia mada-

the old colonial botanical gardens ot the tropics

had suffered from

its

August

the

papers and discussions was on the increasing importance of the conservation role of zoos, especially the interlinking of work on animals in captivity and in the wild. This theme was also stressed at the annual meetings in Vancouver, B.C., of the Captive Breeding Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), September 4-6, and the International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens, September 7-10. That zoos are an integral part of the conservation movement was accepted and endorsed by the major international conservation organizations in their Global Biodiversity Strategy, published in 1992. The document stated that the conservation role of zoos should be strengthened, especially in conservation/education, research, and cooperative animalmanagement programs and by support of the global, regional, and national network of zoos. The loss of London Zoo, one component in this coordinated network of over 1,000 zoos, would be tragic. The soap-opera drama of London Zoo and its proposed closure continued throughout the year, and though a reprieve was announced in September by the parent-body council of the Zoological Society of

gascariensis),

endemic

to

Madagascar and

listed as critically

endangered, had high conservation priority. The population in the wild had certainly declined, and there were only 16 in captivity, in three institutions. Encouragingly, the first captive births outside Madagascar were recorded in 1992: one, conceived in the wild, at Duke University Primate Center, Durham, N.C.. and one. conceived in captivity, at Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust.

Other

births

and hatchings of particular

interest

in-

cluded: Poor Knight's Island giant weta (Deinacrida fallai) at

Wellington (N.Z.) Zoo;

frilled lizard

(Chlamydosaurus

kingii)

Melbourne (Australia) Zoo; Attwater's prairie chicken Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) at Fossil Rim Wildlife Cen-

at (

ter,

Texas; a

number of

rare parrots including Spix's

macaw

Loro Parque, Tenerife; San Clemente Island loggerhead shrike (Lamus ludovicianus mearnsi) at San Diego (Calif.) Zoo; streak-bellied woodpecker (Picoides macei) at Carl Hagenbeck Tierpark, Hamburg, Germany; purple-crowned fairy wren (Malunis coronatus) and C'alabv's mouse (Pseudomys laborifex calabyi) at Territory ((

yanopsitta ?pixii) at

Wildlife Park, Australia: Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus ver-

Los Angeles Zoo; and Malagasy giant jumping (Hypogeomys antimena) at Jersey Wildlife Preservation

rcaiai) at rat

Trust.

There were a number of important advances o!

artificial

in

the use

insemination techniques. Collaborative work of

the National Zoo, Washington, D.C., and Salisbury (Md.) Zoo, using semen preserved at low temperatures, resulted in

(Cenus eldi) in December and January 1992; collaborative work between New

the birth of seven Eld's deer

1991

(

bemittrj

HI

The Lied Jungle, opened in 1992 at the Henry Doorly Zoo in Omaha, Neb includes 0.6 ha (1 5 ac) of rain forest along with several hundred rare animals Much of what appeared to be natural vegetation was actually man-made, but the simulated material would eventually disappear from sight as the living plants grew ,

NEBRASKALAND MAGAZINE NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION

York Zoological Park and thawed semen, resulted (Felis bengalensis) in

Defiance

in

the National Zoo, using frozen/

ing other versions of the 20-atom cage in which titanium

the birth of two leopard cats

is replaced by vanadium, zirconium, or hafnium. They also presented evidence for their synthesis of larger clusters comprising two or more of the small cages linked together by shared faces. Intense interest in the fullerenes continued as researchers learned more about fullerene properties while isolating

February; collaborative work of Point

Zoo and Aquarium, Tacoma, Wash., and

the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, using fresh semen, resulted in the birth of three red

The

wolves (Canis rufus)

in

May.

California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) captive-

breeding and reintroduction program continued. In January two eight-month-old birds, together with two captive-

bred Andean condors, were released in the Sespe Condor Sanctuary in California, but the male died in October after drinking from a puddle of antifreeze. It was just under five years since the last bird in the wild had been taken into captivity. A census of the only population of Bali starling {Leucopsar rothschildi) left in the wild showed an increase from fewer than 20 in 1990 to an estimated 52-56 birds in 1992, due mainly to the introduction of captive-bred birds, a decrease in poaching, and a series of relatively good breeding seasons. Ling-ling, the 23-year-old female giant panda (p.j.s. olney) at the National Zoo, died in December. See also Environment; Gardening.

and characterizing new

varieties of the molecules. Typiby the 60-carbon-atom, soccer-ball-shaped buckminsterfullerene (C„„), fullerenes are all-carbon molecules with an even number of atoms arranged in a framework resembling a cage. Each fullerene cage comprises 12 pentagons and 2 or more hexagons. American and Swiss chemists demonstrated conclusively that fullerene coalescence reactions occur, with smaller fullerene molecules fusing to produce giant fullerenes. Robert L. Whetten and his associates of the University of California at Los Angeles and Francois Diederich of the Federal Technical Institute, Zurich, Switz., used a laser to vaporize C M C^ or mixtures of both under conditions that yielded multiples and near multiples of the original molecules for example, C MS and C i:o from C m starting material. By controlling the density and temperature of the vapour, Whetten and Diederich were able to obtain different distributions of giant fullerenes. They suggested that controlled coalescence could be used selectively to produce fied

,

—

Chemistry Molecular Cluster Chemistry. The scope of molecular clusexpanded beyond the fullerenes in 1992 with the synthesis of several members of what appeared to be a new class of molecules composed of atoms arrayed in a highly symmetrical and stable cagelike structure. Although structurally similar to the ball-shaped carbon molecules that make up the fullerene family, the new molecules have difter chemistry

large quantities of specific giant fullerenes including large

and physical properties. Chemists at Pennsylvania State University led by A. Welford Castleman, Jr., initially made the cluster Ti s C i: which contains 8 titanium atoms and 12 carbon atoms. T\ H C I2 has a dodecahedral structure, with its 12 faces made up of pentagonal rings. A ring contains two titanium atoms, each bonded to three carbon atoms. The chemists synthesized Ti s C 12 through laser vaporization of titanium, with the metal reacting with carbon atoms supplied by hydrocarbons like methane, ethylene, and benzene. Castleman named the molecule a metallo-carbohedrene, or met-car, and predicted that it may be the first of a broad class of molecular clusters with unique properties and practical applications, including catalysts. Soon thereafter, Castleman's team reported mak-

endohedral complexes, in which one or more atoms are trapped inside the fullerene cage. Richard E. Smalley of Rice University, Houston, Texas, reported making a family of small fullerene-uranium endohedral complexes. Previous efforts at encapsulating metal atoms inside fullerenes had resulted only in large complexes having 60 or more carbon atoms in the cage structure. Smalley 's group laser-vaporized graphite impregnated with uranium dioxide to obtain a series of fullerene-uranium complexes ranging from C 2S to C m or 2S to (Proposed nomenclature for endohedral fullerenes uses the symbol to indicate an atom encapsulated by a fullerene.) Smalley believed that C :s like C w „ may have an extraordinarily stable geometric structure. C :s is extremely small yet is able to encapsulate uranium, one of the largest atoms, without bursting, whereas larger fullerenes proved unable to encapsulate smaller atoms. Smalley's group also prepared complexes of C'. s encapsulating single atoms of hafnium, titanium, and zirconium.

ferent chemical

,

,

@

,

U@C

U@C

Chemistry

112

The symmetrical, cagelike molecule Ti 8

C 12

(far left),

made

of 8 titanium

atoms (purple spheres) and 1 2 carbon atoms (green spheres), is the first

member of

of a newly discovered class metal-carbon cluster molecules,

dubbed

met-cars, to be synthesized. Chemists also reported making larger met-cars comprising two or more of the small cages, including the double-cage structure at

At San'dfa National Laboratories in New Mexico, Douglas Loy and Roger Assink reported making a fullerene polymeric material, a copolymer containing C W1 as one of the monomers. Their process used simple free-radical chemistry in which paracyclophane was sublimed at 650° C (1,200° F) to obtain xylylene, which then was reacted with a solution of pure Cn, dissolved in toluene (see 1). The result was an insoluble brown precipitate consisting of the copolymer C„,-/?-xylylene. The results indicated that fullerene polymers can be produced with straightforward free-radical reactions. Fullerene-based plastics with practical industrial and com-

(Ns) after Niels Bohr, the Danish scientist who pioneered the modern theory of atomic structure; element 108 hassium

(Hs) after the German state of Hesse, site of Darmstadt; and 109 meitnerium (Mt) after Lise Meitner, the Austrian physicist and pioneer in nuclear fission. All three elements are radioactive and extremely short-lived. Once accepted by the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry

(IUPAC), the new names would replace interim names viously suggested by

Next to oxygen, called silicates that

Inorganic Chemistry. Researchers at the Carnegie InstiWashington (D.C.) and the University of Amsterdam reported producing the first solid compound of

resenting fully

the noble gas helium.

The

material,

He(N

;)

u

,

formed when

helium and nitrogen were mixed together and subjected to a pressure of 7.7 gigapascals, about 77,000 times normal atmospheric pressure Carnegie's Willem L. Yos conjectured that it may be the first of u new family of chemical compounds that are formed at high pressure and held together by weak interactions known as van der Waals forces. He that studies of such compounds may be important in understanding the structure and properties of matter in the interiors ol the gas-giant planets of the outer solar system. Names for the three heaviest known chemical elements were tormalK proposed in September by researchers at GSI felt

(Laboratory for Heavj Ion Research). Darmstadt, Germany. The elements, which bear the atomic numbers 107, 108. and KW, were synthesized at GSI between 1981 and 1984 by a

group headed by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Munzenberg. Discoverers of new elements traditional!) select the names. The GSI group named element 107 nielsbohrium

\— r^~^ == /

/

>v\

\

'

\

^La

xylylene diradical

paracyclophane

-UD \

1

C M -p-xylylene

toluene,

-78°

'm

copolymer

X

is

the most abundant element in

form sand,

clays,

compounds

and other minerals rep-

of the crust. Silicates exist in a particular

the silicon is bonded to five or six oxygen atoms (see 2). Such bonding states provide enough reactivity for conversion to silicate polymers, glasses, and other materials. Organic Chemistry. Dutch chemists took an important step toward developing metal-like organic compounds that could complement or replace the inorganic semiconductors now used in transistors and other electronic devices. Such organic compounds would have a number of advantages,

xylylene

//

silicon

molecular structure, with each silicon atom bonded to four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedron. The exceptional stability of that structure poses difficulties for chemists who want to exploit silicon's properties in new forms of glass, electrically conducting polymers, and other materials. In order to exploit silicon at present, they must strip the oxygen atoms out of the tetrahedron in a tedious, costly process. During the year a group led by Richard Laine of the University of Michigan reported a simpler technique for making silicates possessing greater chemical reactivity. The process involves dissolving silica gel or fused silica in ethylene glycol, under the influence of a strong alkali, to produce silicates in which

- •—F~\—

W" /

650 C

75%

pre-

IUPAC.

the Earth's crust. Silicon occurs with oxygen in

mercial applications could result. tution of

left.

C^

C

(

OIIMMIM

I

\II.IIIS

I

I




/

200

160.000 Jan

y

/Sv

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec.

100 1970

1972

1974

1976

and Financial Weekly. SoufCes:

The Financial Times.

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

Economic Ufairs: Stock Exchange! except mortgage and asset-backed markets.

Goldman, Sachs

&

Co. remained second, and the Lehman Brothers division ofShearson Lehman Brothers Inc. was third. Merrill Lynch earned more than 2195 ol the $6.7 billion in Wall Street underwriting revenues, or approximately $1.4 billion. $72.4 billion in

new common

A

total of

stock was sold in 1992.

More

than $301 billion was raised in the debt markets, excluding the mortgage and asset-based sectors. This was equal to the cumulative rates

made

amount

raised in the

attractive for

it

bond

two prior years. Lower

issuers to refinance long-

term debt. Junk bonds (high-risk, high-yield debt) made a remarkable comeback, with an all-time record $38 billion in new issues in 1992, up almost 300% from the $10 billion in 1991. The previous record was $31 billion in 1986, during the heyday of the junk-bond market. Interest rates were down across the board in 1992. The bank prime rate ended the year at 6%, compared with the prior year's 6.5%. The yield on the U.S. Treasury's main 30-year bond closed at 7.37%, down from 7.46% in 1991;

was

3%

compared with 3.5%; and the Fed funds rate was 2.5%, contrasted with 4.6% the prior year. Three-month Treasury bills ended the year yielding 3.05' b, contrasted with 3.86% the previous year, while six-month bills closed at 3.23%, down from 3.87%. Municipal bond average yields fell from 6.7% in 1991 to 6.39% in 1992. Turnover of shares on the New York Stock Exchange the discount rate

(NYSE)

rose 13.1% in 1992 to 51,375,671,500 shares, as

compared with the

A

of 1,81 1 issues advanced, 831 declined, and 53 were unchanged. The total number of issues traded was 2,695, up from 2,464 in 1991. Most of the best gainers for the year were small, little-known stocks, while the best industries were semiconprior year's 45,424,500,000.

total

On

OTC

a more was reflected on the majoi excha he Nasdaq composite index ol 4.(11)11 mostly small stocks achieved a high of 676.95 at years end. a rise ol 15.5%,

the

I

compared with 56.895 in 1991. The number on the Nasdaq exchange, 48,396,600,000, from

1992.

the

volume on the

volume of 569,397,600 shares traded;

RJR

237,800; General Motors, 537,620,700; Philip Morris, 472,418,900; Telefonos

512,988,300;

de Mexico, 464,883,-

Table

VII.

Australia.

Sydney

Belgium. Brussels BEL20 Canada. Toronto Composite Denmark, Copenhagen Stock Exchange Finland. HEX General France. Paris CAC General

Hong Kong. Hang Seng Milan Banca Comm. Ital. Japan, Nikkei Average Netherlands, The. CBS All Share Italy,

SES

South

Africa,

Johannesburg

Taiwan. Weighted Thailand,

Bangkok SET

United Kingdom, FT-SE 100 United States. Dow Jones Industrials

T

Based on

Month

356.62

34207 334.44 321.77 323.19

Bond

sales

were down by 9%, from

$11,629,012,000 in 1992. The number of traded issues declined from 2,087 in 1991 to

$12,693,690,000

in

1991

to

+1

-6 + 28

-12 -26 +4 2

-5 -13 -1

-16 -27 -26 -14 +4

Pu olic

May

000 shares sold short.

3301

+6

Table VIM. U.S. Stock Market Prices Transportation (20 stocks) 1992 1991

July

by buying the shares back later at a lower price to replace the borrowed stock, passed the billion-share mark for the first time in mid-December 1992, with 1,010,000,-

3137

3936 179 639 596 3352 668

-5

daily closing price.

June

profit

2281

667 395 4363 214 913 688 3377 893 2847

351

+3

-26

Source: Financial Times.

borrowed stock in the fall and that they can

expectation that the stock's price will

16.925 198

532

-6 -17

*lndex numbers are rounded

427,798,300; Merck, 406,015,700; and Ford Motor, 395,743,sell

Industrials

Spain, Madrid Stock Exchange Sweden, Affarsvarlden General Switzerland, SBC General

12/31/91

14,309 190

216 773 417 4689 267 1015 682 5392 963 2792 3413

All-Singapore

change from

close

442 566 4302 355

541

23.801

Norway. Oslo Stock Exchange

Year-end

1550 313 1127 3350 262 829 484 603 5512 446

291

1046 3195 250

3666 365 936 556 725 6447 552

Germany. Frankfurt FAZ Aktien

Singapore.

1357

1685 578 1235

Ordinaries

All

Austria. Credit Aktlen

April

which traders

which

active issues,

Percent

346 73 344 98

500. Short sales, in

252 trading days. Of

1992 range' High Low

Country and index

340.35

428,898.700; Chrysler,

348.31

August September October

327 46

November December

1992

1991

241 .37 279.36 267.91

149.70 143.06 139.45

273 89

141.61

284.72 296.23 294.32 295.57 295.12 314.42

14725 14679

31586

138 38 143 19 142 84 143.13 138.66 135 73 137.75 140.88 142.84 144 54 146.66

312.73

148.81

153.70 149.97 155.36 154.28

Composite

Industrials

utilities

(40 stocks) 1

(400 stocks) 1991 992

(500 stocks) 1991

1992

493.37 490.89 484.86 484.53 470 72 481 96 487 16 490 88

382.78 427.94 441 87

416.08

450 17

493 56 483 33

459.11

450.05

450 87

32549

41256

362.26

407.36

37228

407.41 414.81

379 68 377 99 378 29

408.27 415.05 417,93 418.48 412.50

453.38 463.26

457 39 454.97

380.23 389.40 387.20 386.88 385-92

38851

458 00

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Survey of Current Business. Prices are Standard & Poor's monthly averages of daily closing prices, with 1941-43 = 10. except Transportation. 1982 = 100

1,382 in 1992.

On

the

American Stock Exchange (Amex), annual

clines,

and 24

issues

down from

unchanged

for a total of 948 issues

Held back by the poor performance of many small energy and mineral stocks that traded on the Amex, the market-value index rose by just 1.1% for the year. Bond sales declined 6.8%, from traded,

$952,360,000

in

1,049 the prior year.

1991 to $891,913,000 in 1992.

Table

sales

of shares increased 6.75%, from 3,368,380,000 in 1991 to 3,595,779,000 in 1992. There were 579 advances, 345 de-

The number

fell from 262 to 158. The "Emerging Issues Market" on the Amex, designed to facilitate the entry of smaller companies into the market, continued to expand with the addition of many new entrants. Trading volume on the Pacific Stock Exchange (PSE) was 1,990,389,794 shares, virtually unchanged from the prior year. The value of shares traded on the PSE was up 5.7% from 1991— $54.9 billion, compared with $51.9 billion. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange set a record for volume in its stock and currency markets in 1992. Equity volume was 1.1 billion shares, up 24' from 1991:

IX.

U.S.

Government Long-Term Bond Yields

Yield (%)

Month

Yield (%)

1992

1991

Month

1992

1991

January February

748

833

July

740

850

78

8.12

August

793

September

April

May

7.88 7.80

838 829

7.19 7.08 7.26

8.17

March

8.33

June

772

November December

7

854

October

796 788 7.83 7.58

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business Yields are for Treasury bonds that are taxable and due or callable in 10 years or more.

US

of issues traded

,

in

and surpassed

Selected Major World Stock Market Indexes*

March

AT&T,

ol the

and 85 were unchanged. Nasdaq's most

January February

400; Citicorp, 453,483,600;

on S3

traded

17.2'-

rose

a total 4,667 issues traded, 3,119 advanced. 1,463 declined,

Nabisco, 543,-

IBM,

NYSE

of shares

1991.

a level of 41.310,043.0011 in

ductors (up 65.7%) and communications (56.5%). The most active issues on the Big Board were: Glaxo Holding, with a

market, average prices reflected

bullish attitude than

Table

X. U.S.

Yield

Corporate Bond Yields Yield

(• •)

Month

1992

1991

Month

January February

8.20

9.04

July

8 07

9.00

829 8 35

April

August September October

795 792 799

May

8.33 8.28

883 893 886 886

875

March

June

822

9.01

1992

November December

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Survey of Current Business. Yields are based on Moody's Aaa domestic corporate bond index

1991

861

855 848 8.31

150

Economic

Affairs:

Stock Exchanges

had turnovers comparable to or better than those of the NYSE, were primarily computer-related stocks, including Corp., with 553,729,200 shares traded; Novell Inc.,

Intel

434,325,000; and Microsoft Corp., 402,467,700.

Mutual fund managers had a mediocre 1992 in terms of investment performance. The average equity mutual fund recorded just an 8.88% gain for the year. The results were far below the 35.61% gain in 1991 or the 11.1% average gain over the previous 30 years. Small-company stock funds were the performance leaders, surging 9.77%. Mutual funds bought $68.6 billion in 1992. In 1991 net stock purchases were 44.6

up from 14.4 billion in 1990 and just 1.2 billion in 1989. Mutual funds had become the second largest institutional holders of equities, owning 9% of all U.S. stocks. The bulk of mutual fund assets still were held in government and corporate bonds. In the 1950s and 1960s nearly 90% of all mutual funds' assets were invested in billion,

stocks.

The S&P 500 composite index (Table VIII) averaged 416.08 in January, 27.8% above the corresponding 325.49 figure of the previous year. The index declined to 407.36 in

March, rose modestly to 414.81

May, and moved within

in

a narrow range until year's end.

The high

for the index

was 441.28, the low was 394.50, and the closing 435.71.

The S&P

figure

was

industrials index registered a 1992 high of

and 507.46 at the close. After it dipped to 470.72 in May June and breaking through the

515.75, with 470.91 as the low

the January average of 493.37,

before beginning a climb

500 mark leled the

in

in

December. Public

movements of

utilities

stock prices paral-

the broader indexes with a high of

and a close of 158.46. Transportawere above the previous year's levels throughout 1992, but the year-to-year comparative differences narrowed from 99 points in January to 13 points in October. The high for the year was 369.97, the low was 307.94, and the close was 363.75. U.S. government long-term bond yields were lower in 161.98, a low of 135.59,

tion stocks

1992 than in the previous year. The January average (Table IX) was 7.48%, compared with 8.33% in 1991. After a modest gain to 7.93% in March, the average yield slid slowly through September at a level of 7.08% and then climbed to close the year at 7.39%. Corporate bond yields (Table X) declined during 1992 from an average level of 8.2% in January to 7.92% in September before a modest year-end gain. The junk-bond market was strengthened, as the default rate fell to 3.9%, down sharply from 9.7% in 1991 and below the average of

4.65%

for the previous 21 years.

Traders

in

the futures pits had a discouraging year, as

economy lessened demand for basic industrial commodities such as copper and silver. The Commodity Rethe lagging

search Bureau's widely watched index of 21 futures contracts

ended the year at 202.76, down 2.6%. The CRB Futures Index (1967= 100) began the year at 208, traded irregularly to reach a high of 211 in June, declined to

and climbed back slowly to

The

200 by August,

year's end.

NYSE

firms of the

that

dealt with

1992.

the public

achieved record pretax profits, with estimates ranging to as much as a total of $7 billion. Underwritings rose sharply in 1992. Total U.S. corporate financing was $846 billion, up 45% from 1991. Initial public offerings of stock raised a record $39.4 billion from investors in 1992, up 57% from 1991. fueled by a bull

new

market

in

OTC

stocks.

Once

issued,

1992 but not as spectacularly as I991's new issues. Secondary offerings raised $33 billion, up 7% over 1991. compared with preferred stock ($29 billion, up 47%), mortgage debt ($377 billion, up 51%), investment stocks did well

in

billion,

billion, up 42%), asset-backed debt ($51 up 2%), junk bonds ($38 billion, up 280%), and

convertible debt ($7 billion, down 7%), according to the Securities Data Co. The five largest common-stock offerings

1992 were: General Motors, 1.5 billion shares; Blackrock 2001 Term Trust, 1.3 billion; Chemical Banking, 1,226,000,in

000;

Wellcome Group (ADRs),

1,068,000,000;

and GTE,

789 million. The largest debt issuers were Federal Home Loan Mortgage and Federal National Mortgage. More than a third of corporate debt issued was refinancing at lower interest rates.

The

Securities

and Exchange Commission took a number

of important initiatives during the year, including a program to facilitate capital raising by small businesses by reducing

them by federal secuimplementation of new disclosure requirements for broker dealers in penny-stock transactions; increased net capital requirements for broker dealers who served as market makers; and increased investment adviser oversight. Canada. Canadian stock prices lost ground in 1992 as investors worried about a depressed economy, a weak dollar, concerns about constitutional reform, and the financial health of several of Canada's largest corporate empires, including Olympia & York Developments, Ltd., and Bramalea, Ltd. The unemployment rate rose to a cyclical high of 11.8% in November, up from 11.3% in October. The Canadian dollar traded at new lows in November amid slim evidence of a recovery. Domestic demand was weak, and employment growth and income gains remained sluggish. Interest rates were subject to major fluctuations during the year. The prime rate, which hit a low in September at 6.25%, the lowest level since 1971, was raised, in response to wild gyrations in the currency market, to shore up the dollar's sagging fortunes. During July the dollar tumbled against major currencies, brushing close to all-time lows. The rate rose to 9.95% in late November, the highest level in two years. After the market's initial sigh of relief over the failure of the October 26 referendum on constitutional reform, the Canadian market sold off sharply in November. Downward pressure on the currency was met with higher short-term interest rates, with the prime rate rising from 7.75 to 9.75% over the month. During December the banks dropped the rate six times in seven days to 7.25%. Canadian fixedincome markets experienced attractive gains during the last quarter. Investors earned an average 7.69% on Canadian bonds in the 11 months to November 30, measured by the Scotia-McLeod Universe Index, well below the 19.47% in the corresponding period of 1991. The Toronto Stock Exchange composite index, which was above 3600 in January 1992, dipped to 3325 by April, fell to 3200 in October, jumped to 3350 in November, and closed the compliance burdens placed on rities laws;

the year at 3350.44. The index, including dividends, was down 1.4% for the year. The 90- and 200-day averages both trended downward throughout the year. Advancing groups

included industrial products, transportation, and gold stocks. and metal prices were down. The Vancouver Stock

Oil

securities industry enjoyed record profits in

Member

grade debt ($271

Exchange's share of volume on all Canadian exchanges was 29%, while its share of total value remained at 3%. At the end of November there were 1,903 issues listed on the VSE. Mining companies continued to account for the largest

VSE companies, at 43% of money High-tech companies maintained a 14% share. Investors turned bullish toward the end of the year in anticipation of a U.S. recovery spurring demand for Canada's mining and forestry products. U.S. -Canadian trade reached another record in 1992. For the first 10 months of the year, U.S. imports from Canada totaled U.S. $78,060,000,000, an share of capital raised by raised.

11.2% increase from 1991. U.S. exports

to

Canada showed

Economic Mfairs: Stock Exchange!

a

9.3%

increase.

The

exports and supplied

U.S. took more than 77% of Canada's more than 70% of Canada's imports.

(IRVING PFEFFER) Western Europe. With few exceptions, stock markets in Europe underperformed their North American counterparts; they declined more than Wall Street early in the year and failed to recover in the autumn. An overall gain of 3%, as measured by the Financial Times European index, disguised losses investors suffered in many European bourses in 1992. The star performers in Europe were Switzerland and the U.K., with around 16% and 14% rises, respectively, from the beginning of the year. By contrast, the worst performers in 1992 were Denmark, Austria, and Spain. Investors in Germany, France, Italy, and Sweden also saw their investments valued on Dec. 31, 1992, at a lower level than at the beginning of the year. The London Stock Exchange (LSE) took off only after the government's spectacular U-turn in September following the European currency crisis that forced the pound to withdraw from the ERM. No longer constrained with maintaining the value of the pound against the Deutsche Mark,

economic strategy shifted from low inflation to high growth, and interest rates were cut by three points in successive stages between mid-September and mid-November. Growth-stimulating and job-generating capital-investment projects were given greater priority at the expense of curBritish

rent spending.

This was the second powerful rally in London. The year had opened with moderate gains correcting the previous autumn's weakness. As the general election campaign got under way and the opposition Labour Party, despite a commitment to raise income taxes, remained ahead in the opinion polls, the market took fright. The Financial Times Stock Exchange (FT-SE 100) Index dropped by around 100 points to 2400. It soared to 2740 when Prime Minister John Major was unexpectedly returned with a working majority. However, the postelection euphoria did not last long, as it became evident that the recession was worsening instead of ending. During the summer, as corporate results disap-

some large corporations cut their dividends, unemployment climbed, and company failures reached record levels, the FT-SE 100 Index dropped to 2300. Then came the U-turn, with lower interest rates, and the LSE established a new all-time high. At year's end the market was firmly above 2800, as it was encouraged by expectations of recovery at home and in the U.S. Given the speed with which the German economy approached a recession, it was not surprising that the Frankfurt Stock Exchange reacted adversely. Encouraged by betterthan-expected economic growth, the FAZ Aktien Index rose steadily during the spring to 720 a gain of 13%. The market consolidated during the summer and occasionally tested higher levels on hopes of lower interest rates as the inflationary pressures eased somewhat. The bubble burst in July when the Bundesbank raised its discount rate at a time when the rapid appreciation of the Deutsche Mark was hurting exporters, domestic demand was weakening, and it was painfully clear that unification was costing much more pointed,

—

than previously expected.

As

international investors bailed

market fell, dragging the FAZ Aktien Index close to 580 by the beginning of September. As the economic downturn deepened in the autumn, with forecasts of minimum growth in western Germany in 1993, the markets remained depressed. In September Germany came under pressure from other European countries to cut its interest

out, the

rates to relieve the currency tensions within the

ERM.

In

0.25% cut was less than expected. Afterward the Bundesbank reaffirmed its concern with the strong growth

the event, a

1^1

in money supply rather than the looming recession. As the year drew to a close, investors remained cautious and the

market drifted sideways, nursing capital losses close to W Given the French economy's close ties with Germany and the fact that it was hampered by sluggish global economic activity and political uncertainty, it was not surprising that the Paris Bourse underperformed in 1992. As with other major stock markets, it rose strongly in the opening months of the year, taking the CAC 40 Index to 2078 in May, up from the January 2 level of 1750. However, as the prospects of lower interest rates receded and economic growth lost momentum, the Paris Bourse looked expensive and declined steadily in the summer. Following the Danish rejection of the Maastricht Treaty, uncertainty surrounded the outcome of the French referendum and was heightened by the news that Pres. Francois Mitterrand was suffering from cancer. The narrow "yes" vote was initially well received, but soon the Paris Bourse went into a steep decline as the crisis in

the

ERM

hit

the franc, forcing

it

to

its

ERM

floor.

A

hike in interest rates to protect the franc and considerable

support from the Bundesbank forestalled a devaluation that could have wrecked the whole system. The stock market

remained unimpressed by two small cuts in prime interest rates in November, as the real interest rates, at around 7%, were inimical to corporate profits, and economic outlook remained uncertain. Switzerland benefited from the rest of Europe's uncertainties. It was a market dominated by big banks and multinational drug and industrial companies. This provided better defensive qualities, and the market was up some 16% overall during 1992. Having moved up swiftly in the spring, it was nearly 17% higher in May, but it gave up some of the gains as the corporate earnings for 1993 were revised downward in the summer. However, an autumn rally developed as the investors shrugged off a "no" vote on a referendum on closer economic integration with the European Communities. The Benelux countries, which were heavily dependent on international trade, were caught up in the higher Deutsche Mark valuation and suffered depressed exports. The stock markets broadly reflected the trends in Germany and France and gave up their earlier gains to end the year with very small gains.

The Scandinavian stock exchanges were also disappointDenmark's rejection of the Maastricht Treaty in June marked a turning point, and the Copening for the investors.

hagen Stock Exchange

lost

over 100 points, or

25%

of

its

value, in the second half of the year. Sweden's fundamental

economic weakness and high interest rates drove the Affarsvarlden General Index nearly 15% below its level at the beginning of the year, but

it

staged a strong recovery in late

November, following the devaluation of the krona, and recouped most of the earlier losses. Finland, a comparatively smaller market, picked up in 1992, ending a long period of sustained underperformance in the wake of the collapse of the former Soviet Union.

The southern European bourses were among the worst performers in 1992. The Milan Bourse fell steadily until October and was more than 12% down year to year, despite a sustained rally in the closing months. Investors reacted adversely to Italy's growing economic crisis, which was accentuated by financial and political scandals. While Prime Minister Giuliano Amato's tough austerity measures were welcomed as long overdue to address the country's structural economic problems, investors were jolted when the September

ERM

crisis initially led to

21%

short-term

was followed by a small devaluation and the withdrawal of the lira from the system. Once a favourite interest rates. This

152

Economic

Affairs:

Stock Exchanges

Japan, the world's second largest stock market, defied fell by another 26% during 1992. From the December 1989 peak, the Nikkei Price Index had fallen 56.5%. The fundamental problem with

expectations of a recovery and

Japan remained one of economic weakness. Consumption and capital spending, which between them accounted for nearly 80% of GDP, fell during 1992. Corporate earnings suffered, too, as the imbalance between revenues and fixed costs sharply eroded profits. The Nikkei Price Index staged a halfhearted rally in the spring as short-term interest rates

were cut, but it continued to lose ground. Another rally in September fizzled out. The year ended as it started, with the Nikkei Price Index back in sick bay. In sharp contrast

many

to Japan,

of the smaller stock exchanges in the region

good increases. Indonesia and Malaysia outperformed South Korea and the Philippines, where the gains were smaller. Singapore went against the trend and fell registered

slightly.

Commodity Markets. The continuing global recession down the prices of many commodities. The Economist Commodity Price Index, which measured spot prices in U.S. held

and sterling for 28 internationally traded foodstuffs, nonfood agricultural products, and metals, was largely unchanged in dollar terms from the beginning of the year. As dollars

the dollar depreciated against other currencies, especially in the Dealers on the Tokyo exchange watch on March 16 as the Nikkei Price Index drops 3% to below 20,000, the lowest level in five years. The Japanese stock market later fell another 6,000 points, to a six-year low, increasing concern for the stability of the country's financial institutions. APWIDE WORLD

of international investors and a star performer, the Madrid Stock Exchange found it heavy going in 1992 and fell by

around 13%. While many European stock exchanges rose in the spring, Madrid was shunned as the economic prospects and the inflationary outlook in Spain seemed relatively less attractive. The steady decline through the summer, however, turned into a slump in September as Spain, like Italy, was caught up in the currency crisis and had to raise interest rates and devalue. What discouraged investors most was an unexpected temporary reintroduction of capital controls. Other Countries. With the exception of Hong Kong and the Southeast Asian "tiger countries," stock exchanges

in

Southern Hemisphere countries fell in 1992. A delayed economic recover) in Australia, coupled with poor corporate profitability, meant that the stock exchange could not hold on to earlier gains and ended the year down 6%. Likewise, political deadlock, tribal clashes, and declining gold and diamond prices meant that South Africa experienced a volatile year with a small gain on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. Hong Kong, with an overall gain of more than 28%, was the best performing stock exchange in 1992, despite a severe setback in the autumn. Encouraged by rapid economic growth in the colony, international investors looking for an alternative to Japan in East Asia and for exposure to China's rapid economic growth piled into Hong Kong, doubling the Hang Seng Index in less than two years. The growing economic link between Hong Kong's industrialists, who employed more than two million workers in China's southern region, and Beijing (Peking) was perceived to outweigh the political tension between Gov. Chris Patten and Chinas rulers over attempts by the former to introduce certain democratic changes into the colony before the 1997 handover. In late November, however, investors took fright from renewed Chinese sabre rattling, and the market went into a headlong dive. In a week it fell 17% before stabilizing. At year's end the Hang Seng Index was nearly 15% off its

early

November

high.

summer, there was a 13% gain

in sterling

terms (despite

the September devaluation of sterling).

The

which was not included in the 7% in 1992. North Sea (Brent) crude oil fluctuated between $17 and $21 per barrel during the year, and in mid-December it was selling at $17.70 per barrel for January delivery. This price weakness was largely a result of sluggish demand from the recessionprice of crude

Economist Index,

hit industrial

ment

in

fell

oil,

by around

countries, as well as a mild winter.

November by

OPEC

An

agree-

countries to cut production

did not stabilize prices, as the level of production was

still

thought to be above the likely global demand. Furthermore, the revised ceiling did not include Ecuador, which had left

OPEC. The two major

sectors of the Economist Index performed

The food index declined 2%, while the was up by a similar magnitude. Nonfood products such as wool, cotton, and rubber were

slightly differently.

industrials index

agricultural

held back either by slack

demand

or by overproduction.

An exception was New Zealand wool prices, which climbed 30% thanks to Chinese and Russian buying. The Economist metal index, which was largely unchanged in dollar terms, was the weakest of the subindexes. Although investment buying boosted metal prices in the summer, this was shortlived. With the economic recovery proving elusive, industrial demand was weak, and prices drifted. There were large surpluses, particularly in aluminum and nickel, owing to large

Russian exports. Gold, while cheap by historical standards, traded in a narrow price range and ended 1992 with a 9% fall. As an ultimate safe haven, it had lost its appeal in the post-cold war, low-inflation era. While rock-bottom interest rates in the U.S. also reduced the demand from gold fund man-

demand

for the metal was stronger, as the and jewelers purchased more. Supply, however, was also higher as sales by central banks in Japan, Brazil, and Canada supplemented newly mined gold. The price, having started the year at around $360 per troy ounce, drifted to $330 in December, raising hopes that at this lower level it would begin to attract buyers. However, as the year drew to a close, there was still no life in gold prices.

agers, industrial

electronics industry

(ieis)

This article updates the Macropcedia article Markets.

Education

bottom

the

Education

two

Noteworthy topics in 1992 included academic-achievement testing, ways to expand educational opportunities, the rebuilding of war-damaged educational systems, and students' political activism.

Comparisons of academic performance across nations were highlighted in two reports of educational achievement that compared the success of pupils from a number of countries in reading, mathematics, and science. The study of reading literacy, sponsored by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), tested 210,000 students, ages 9 and 14, from 9,000 schools in 52 countries. The tests measured skill in reading expository and narrative matter and in comprehending documents containing graphs, maps, and charts. Pupils in Finland earned the highest scores. Relatively strong scores were also achieved by participants in Sweden, France, the U.S., and New Zealand. Factors that consistently distinguished high-scoring from low-scoring countries were large school libraries, large classroom libraries, regular book borrowing, frequent silent reading in class, frequent story reading aloud by teachers, and more class hours spent in language instruction. Although in most school systems urban children achieved at higher levels than their nonurban age-mates, in a few highly developed nations rural pupils scored as high as, or higher than, those in city schools.

The Educational Testing Service (ETS) measured the mathematics and science achievement of 9-year-olds in 10 countries and of 13-year-olds in 15 countries. Among the nine-year-olds, South Korea placed first in mathematics, followed by Hungary, Taiwan, the former Soviet Union, and Israel. The U.S. ranked ninth. In science, South Korean nine-year-olds were again first, followed by Taiwan, the U.S., Canada, and Hungary. Among 13-year-olds, South Korea and Taiwan tied for first place in mathematics, followed by Switzerland, the former Soviet Union, and Hungary. In the science test for 13-year-olds, South Korea was first, followed by Taiwan, Switzerland, Hungary, and the former Soviet Union. U.S. 13-year-olds were 14th in math and 13th in science.

A

the schooling ladder

ol

stable than at the top; over 809?

total of 174,000 pupils participated in the survey.

ETS results concluded that success on the could not be accounted for by such variables as class size, length of the school year, or the amount of money spent on education. Factors that appeared more significant were curriculum, parental expectations, and the amount of time pupils spent on homework or on reading as opposed

to five

were regularly

ol

was considerably more French children aged

nursery schools, while half the

in

students attending universities dropped out during the

two

153

first

years. Alter lour years as France's minister of educa-

Lionel Jospin was replaced by Jack Lang, who added education to his existing responsibilities as minister of culture. Jospin's record in office included increased salaries tion,

more

for educators,

flexible

teaching methods

in

primary

schools, a unified teacher-education system, a major expan-

and a new training partnership between industry and the schools. In eastern Europe there was increasing change in the schools of former socialist countries. In Czechoslovakia, for example, world history books over four decades had focused chiefly on the Soviet Union and the triumph of communism, but newly revised textbooks emphasized Czechoslovakia's place in European history and the influence of the nation sion of higher education,

among world powers. The annual conference of the U.S.based Comparative and International Education Society in March was attended by the ministers of education from 14 of the 15 countries that formerly made up the Soviet Union. The occasion provided the ministers with their first opportunity to meet each other and discuss education issues. The visit to the U.S. was financed by donations solicited from U.S. industries. Civil in

war

in

Yugoslavia forced the closing of most schools

the regions under siege. In Croatia, 65,000 pupils and

6,000 teachers had to leave their homes.

A

total

of 81

preschools, 204 primary schools, 61 secondary schools, and 17 colleges

were damaged or totally destroyed. During the town of Karlovac, educators attempted to

shelling of the

teach textbook-based lessons over the local radio stations but were constrained by limitations on air time that permitted only five minutes per subject per class each week. Another area where schooling fell victim to unrest was Iraqi Kurdistan. In the town of Said Sadiq, volunteer Kurdish teachers set up school in seven tents and operated three shifts

of classes each day

in

an

effort to serve nearly 15,000

children.

Following the breakup of the Soviet Union,

officials in

control of China's schools reemphasized the teaching of

Analysts of the

Marxist-Leninist-Mao Thought, often accompanying study

test

sessions with military drills intended to maintain political

watching television. Educational opportunity in the European Communities (EC) took a step forward with the implementation of a policy permitting children from the Community to attend school in any EC country, with the host nation paying the cost. In Britain, where the enrollment of boarding students to

had declined, 43 state boarding schools enthusiastically welcomed the program as a way to fill empty beds. The Council of Europe, formed by 10 countries in 1949 as a forum for political discussion, had 27 member nations by 1992 and an agenda featuring cultural and educational cooperation. Major projects

in 1992 included establishing language learning in member countries and a secondary-school curriculum focusing heavi-

a

common framework

for

on European affairs. Primary and Secondary. School attendance continued to be a topic of general concern. According to the French Ministry of Education, 62% of young people aged 2-29 in France were in education programs, higher than the 5057% reported for other developed countries. Enrollment at ly

among the young. As a further means of preventing students from straying off the communist path, the discipline

government endeavoured to suppress news of events in the former U.S.S.R. With the unification of Germany, schools in the eastern sector, which had followed state atheism for 40 years, were

now

obliged to reintroduce religion as a regular part of the

curriculum.

Under

the

German

constitution, students are to

be taught "in accordance with the tenets of the religious communities," which in most west German schools meant Catholic or Protestant instruction. Four new federal states in the east adopted this pattern, but Brandenberg intended to integrate religion into a life orientation and ethics course being introduced in 44 schools on a trial basis. Church leaders objected to the Brandenberg plan on the grounds that teachers trained under the former regime were unqualified to teach religion and that religion was in danger of receiving short shrift in a course that also focused on such topics as unemployment, tolerance of minorities, ethics, and sexuality.

In the latest chapter of the effort to define the constitu-

ban on the establishment of religion in the U.S., the Supreme Court barred public prayer at high school graduation ceremonies. The ruling was more specific than the

tional

154

Education

Japanese students attend a science class at ajuku, or cram school. As a supplement to regular schools, jukus have become increasingly

common

in

Japan.

KAKU KURITA— THE NEW YORK TIMES

court's 20-year-old, three-part test for maintaining the wall

of separation between church and state. Since graduation

an

official

ceremony, prayer during

sanctioned religious

activity.

Some

it

was viewed

is

as a state-

experts conjectured that

moment

of silence might be permissible. Sex education in the era of AIDS continued to be a contentious subject. Britain's Basil Cardinal Hume urged participants at a Catholic education conference to include sexuality and AIDS as topics in religious education classes so pupils might achieve a moral awareness extending beyond the physiological knowledge taught in science classes. In the U.S. the distribution of condoms in schools as a means of stemming the spread of AIDS was a source of conflict in a number of districts, although 68% of respondents in a Gallup Poll favoured it. One-fourth supported distribution only if parents consented. Spending on education at all levels in the U.S. during the 1992-93 school year was estimated at some $445 billion, an increase of 5% over the preceding year. Education spending had risen by 40% in 10 years (adjusted for inflation), accorda

Department of Education. More than seven Americans were employed in education at all levels,

ing to the U.S.

million

and some 70 million persons, one-fourth of the population, were involved as students, administrators, or support staff. Reform of the nation's schools was a major topic in the U.S. presidential election campaign, despite the fact that control of the schools rested largely with state and local governments. The major candidates all claimed to support education as a national priority. Pres. George Bush pointed to his America 2000 initiatives to reform education, Bill Clinton to improvements made in Arkansas schools during his governorship, H. Ross Perot to his leadership role in citizen-led reforms in Texas education. All pictured education as essential to improvement of the nation's lagging economy. Both national teachers' unions, the National Education Association (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), endorsed Clinton. The NEA was the single largest group represented at the Democratic convention. In July U.K. Education Secretary John Patten published a White Paper, Choice and Diversity, setting out proposals for a rapid increase in the opting-out process, whereby schools in England and Wales could switch from the control of local education authorities to grant-maintained status control by the central government.

A

new

—

in effect,

centralized fund-

would take over many of the local authorities' where more than 10% of pupils had opted out. The White Paper also outlined strong measures for schools deemed to be badly run, encouragement for schools that had opted out to specialize, a crackdown on truancy, a review of religious education, and an emphasis on the teaching of moral standards. So far fewer than 300 schools had chosen to opt out, but it was expected that the process would speed up significantly when the proposals outlined in the White Paper became law. It was reported that half a million pupils in Japan were staying away from their classrooms more than 50 days a year because they found school life oppressive. Analysts charged ing agency

responsibilities in areas

that the

rapidly rising

number of absentees

(tokokiyohi)

was caused by the schools' rigid regimentation and strict discipline, the breakdown of family control over the young, and a demanding national curriculum that discouraged slow learners.

Attempts

in

Australia to provide suitable education for

the country's 340,000 Aboriginal people featured curricula

adjusted to the students' backgrounds, teacher training for Aborigines via radio and correspondence, bilingual programs, and newsletters produced in remote communities by means of desktop publishing. The Israeli Ministry of Education instituted a special program to train Ethiopian immigrants to teach in schools enrolling Ethiopian Jews, who had been airlifted to Israel in 1991. More than half the newcomers were under age 18. The training program included such subjects as the study of Israeli society, democ-

and civics. Unequal educational opportunities for women in the U.S. were highlighted in a report titled How Schools Shortchange Women, published by the American Association of University Women. A summary study of hundreds of research reports, the report traced how girls end their high school careers trailing boys. Girls start school on an equal footing and fall behind as a result of discrimination by teachers, stereotypes in textbooks, biased tests, and male peer harassment. A study of 40,000 schools by Gary Orfield of Harvard University revealed a dramatic increase in the segregation of Hispanic students in the U.S. The rate had doubled during the past two decades, and dropout rates for Hispanics were nearly triple the national average. Among racy,

AAUW

other findings

in

the report, school desegregation progress

Mutation

had been greatest in the Deep South, while central cities had been largely vacated by whites and were increasingly

government,

being abandoned by middle-class African-Americans. study published by the NEA found that 13.3% of teachers belonged to minority groups, a small drop from previous years. Of the approximately 2.4 million teachers in 1' i had earned advanced degrees. The average the U.S., 53.

scientists,

workweek

in theoretical physics

A

for a teacher

was 46.5 hours. Teacher

salaries

averaged $34,213 during the 1991-92 school year, according to the AFT. This represented a 3.6% increase from the preceding year, but the union noted that the outlook was clouded by economic difficulties. More than 20 strikes were reported as the 1992-93 school year started. Detroit, Mich., the nation's seventh largest school district, experienced a 27day strike over a demand for an 8% pay raise. Some 168,000 students were affected. In another large district, Philadelphia, a strike was averted by a last-minute settlement. A stalemate in salary negotiations between the Italian government and the teachers' unions motivated teachers to adopt a novel mode of industrial action. To display their dissatisfaction, while still honouring a no-strike agreement, the teachers refused to order textbooks for the coming year. that they were among the lowest Europe. However, the government noted that Italian teachers enjoyed the lowest teacher-pupil ratio on the continent (1 to 9) and that salaries accounted for 98% of the nation's education budget. Over 98% of New Zealand's secondary school teachers staged a one-day walkout, followed by a series of regional strikes, to protest the government's move to eliminate traditional collective pay agreements and require each teacher to negotiate an individual contract. Opinion polls showed that 80% of the public supported the

The teachers contended paid

in

teachers.

In the U.S.

beamed

Channel

1,

a private, for-profit

to high schools, entered

news program

second year with an

its

audience estimated at 8.1 million students. The program continued to be controversial because it included commercials. Meanwhile, Whittle Communications, the developers of Channel 1, began plans for a network of private schools. Benno Schmidt resigned as president of Yale University to head the program. Higher Education. In an effort to improve instruction in German universities, students launched a nationwide "test the teacher" (Priif-den-Prof) project that involved collecting student assessments of instructors by means of questionnaires, with the results leading to awards for faculty

The program was intended to encourage instructors to place at least as much emphasis on teaching as on research. The German university members

identified as the best teachers.

institutions

nation's

higher education.

ol

155

The Australian

move, established a loan lurid to help finance the immigration ol highly qualified scientists from the former Soviet republics to take research positions in Australian universities. Meanwhile, institutions in the U.S. were appointing substantial numbers of former Soviet in

a similar

particularly those with international reputations

2,000 academics

Union were

Soviet

posts ers'

and fundamental mathematics. Over to Israel from the

who had immigrated still

unable to find teaching or research because of the newcomHebrew. During the previous two

in Israeli institutions, partly

lack of fluency in

years, an estimated one-third of such

placed

new

arrivals

had been

in suitable positions.

In the aftermath of social upheaval, higher-education in-

many

stitutions in

operations.

Two

countries struggled to reestablish normal

years after the end of Sandinista rule in

Nicaragua, the country's four universities faced the prospect 22% cut in government funding as a result of the

of a

nation's dire

economic

state.

barely covering modest

With government

allocations

few funds were available for research, equipment, or supplies. Kuwait University was gradually recovering from the destruction of its seven campuses during the 1990-91 Iraqi occupation. Officials were seeking to replace books and valuable equipment taken to Iraq, and damaged buildings were being repaired. Enrollment totaled around 9,000 students, 15% below the

number

faculty

salaries,

prior to the invasion.

Following the October 1991 peace agreement that ended 13 years of civil war in Cambodia, universities and institutes in the capital of Phnom Penh were endeavouring to rebuild campuses abandoned during the hostilities. Students who had been refugees in Thailand were returning to attend classes alongside members of the Khmer Rouge, whom they still viewed as enemies. Thus university officials faced problems not only of providing learning resources and qualified instructors but also of subduing the conflicting political philosophies that many students and faculty members were seeking to propagate. In Finland the loss of the nation's profitable trade arrangement with the former Soviet Union seriously weakened the economy, causing the government to cut funds for the country's 20 higher-education institutions by 4%. The revenue reduction forced a deferment of building and maintenance programs and the elimination of 150 faculty positions.

Student demonstrations were launched to effect political change.

in several nations

The pro-democracy

uprising in

Bangkok, Thailand, led by students from Ramkhamhaeng

system, designed for 900,000 students, currently struggled to

University, led to the resignation of the military-controlled

accommodate twice

government. Nigerian students periodically clashed with police on campuses across the nation during protests against

that

From 1963 through

many.

1992, the

rolled in higher education rose

number of from

British

7.2 to

group, with the greatest increase occurring particularly those attending part-time.

21%

youth en-

of the age

among women,

Although the

British

population was 40% working class and 60% middle class, only 20% of degrees in higher education were earned by working-class students, a proportion that had not changed over the past two decades. During that 20-year period, the percentage of university applicants entering with high test scores had risen.

To enhance

the quality of faculty

members

at

Brazil's

leading university, officials of the University of Sao Paulo successfully challenged the clause in the nation's constitution

permanent appointment of professors from abroad. At the same time, Brazil's Ministry of Education planned to expand its program of bringing researchers from the former Soviet Union and eastern Europe to the

that prohibited the

ineffective

university

administration,

human

rights

viola-

and economic austerity programs that resulted in the deterioration of campus facilities. During July more than 15,000 Yugoslav students seized 12 university buildings in Belgrade in a demonstration against the government of Serbian Pres. Slobodan Milosevic. The takeover followed antiwar protests in which Milosevic's regime was blamed for the nation's civil war and deteriorating economic condition. In retaliation, the government passed legislation drastically limiting the university's traditional autonomy. Shortly after Peru's Government of Emergency and National Reconstruction took control of the country in April, tions,

Pres. Alberto Fujimori moved to cleanse the universities of left-wing activists. Hundreds of students were detained by police for several days to prevent them from organiz-

ing protests against the government's action.

As

in

other

Education

L56

when

representatives

of the African

National

Congress

and the Union of Democratic University Staff Associations counseled against it on grounds that it would be counterproductive, hastening the exodus of talented academics from the country without advancing political negotiations. The boycott had officially ended in October 1991 when the

Commonwealth

nations agreed to

sanctions against South Africa.

When

lift

person-to-person

was

in force, it had prevented many South African academics from attending international conferences or publishing their works abroad. The possibility that it would be renewed in 1992 was occasioned by the breakdown in political negotiations between the ANC and the South African government. Colleges and universities in the U.S. began the 1992-93 academic year prepared to receive 14.3 million students; more than 60% of U.S. high school graduates attended college. Institutions of higher education planned to spend more than $172 billion in the 1992-93 school year, a 36%

The

increase since 1982-83.

it

total dollar outlay per college

25% increase over the past 10 years. Degree completions for 1992-93 were projected

student was at

more than

$16,000, a

470,000 associate degrees, 345,000 master's degrees, and

41,000 doctorates.

The expected increase in job recruiters on campus did not occur. Job opportunities for the current crop of gradu-

works with his class at a juvenile detention centre in Ann Arbor, Mich. Sponsored by Encyclopaadia Britannica, Inc., and the Council of Chief State School Officers, the award is given in recognition of excellence in teaching.

were curtailed by competition with the previous year's who were still job hunting. Engineers were still in demand, and their salaries were in the mid- to high $30,000s about $10,000 higher than the offers being received by accounting and business majors. Many employers were adopting a wait-and-see attitude about the possibility of economic recovery, and this was reflected in conservative

MICHELLE ANDONIAN

hiring.

Latin-American countries, student governments in Peru's state universities over recent decades had favoured such leftist doctrines as those advocated by the Maoist guerrilla movement Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path). Right-wing military forces that opposed Shining Path had also been using the universities as an ideological battleground. In the midst of this struggle, the politically moderate rector of San Cristobal de Huamanga National University, Pedro Villena Hidalgo, was the target of frequent death threats. Youths in several countries demonstrated against proposed increases in tuition. The University of Zambia expelled all III. Olid of its students alter weeks of mass protests against a 25'/ lee increase ordered by the government. In Chile students boycotted classes and took over university buildings in response to financial-aid procedures they claimed were slow and required an unreasonable rate of repayment, particularly for graduates who entered teaching posts that, in Chile, were notoriously underpaid. The National Autonomous University of Mexico (I NAM), with an enrollment of 270,0(10. laced the threat

from minorities and transfer students. Of 627 colleges responding to a survey, 70% reported increases in applications. Financial aid to students rose 7.5%, to $30.8 billion, according to the College Board. This included grants ($15.1 billion), loans ($14.9 billion), and work-study

ates

graduates,

—

Thomas

A. Fleming,

1992 Teacher

of the Year,

Many

ol

a

student

strike

if

authorities raised the

tuition

rate,

which had not changed in 44 years. The established fee of 250 pesos, the equivalent of' about U.S. $170 in 1948, barelj equaled ilt-s

i.il

new world order" aspect

he

industry was emphasized by

]

Js

the

ol

Gen

would pull out ol th< European Fightei Ail A) project on the basis that such a

nouncemenl

thai

ii

multinational (I

I

could not be justified with the \ disappearance ol the Soviet threat. supporters countered that top-class Russian fighters would be operated by increasingly volatile Third World nations and perhaps by former Soviet republics. In the U.S.. companies were preparing to bid for a new U.S. An Force U.S. Navy AX multimission costl) aircraft

I

I

strike fightei.

But some things do not change. At Famborough two companies were offering

Douglas DC-3s, with turbine engines and airframes, and were recording brisk sales. The DC-3 first flew in 1936, and salesmen predicted that several hundred would be flying well into the next century. (MICHAEL WILSON) "as new"

With engines sealed, planes from various airlines are lined up in rows on a giant desert "parking lot" in the southwestern U.S. As hard times for airlines continued in 1992, many carriers found themselves with too much capacity and resorted to temporary storage for excess craft. DOUGLAS BURROWS— GAMMA LIAISON

AUTOMOBILES bled state of the airline industry.

It

was

a

sign that the time of speculative acquisition

by middlemen of expensive aircraft in the expectation of selling them at a premium had ended. Some observers were predicting that the airline industry would continue to shrink as weaker operators collapsed. The uncertainty of the situation was highlighted by the announcement in September that Britain's Hatfield factory, famous since 1930 as the home of de Havilland, was to close. Half of its BAe 146 regional airliner production was to be transferred to Scotlaiul, and the rest was to be shared with Taiwan on a 50-50 joint-venture basis. As a

measure to retain

partial

of airlines asked that the

number deliveries of new

capital, a

be postponed. In total, delivery extensions covering some $20 billion of new aircraft were agreed on for the U.S. airline industry. Thus the airlines themselves prepared to meet their third successive unprofaircraft

The problem was not

itable year.

so

much

a

the effect of overcompetition and fare wars. Many operators ac-

decline

in

traffic as

tually recorded substantial traffic increases during the summer, but heavily discounted fares,

which had become commonplace,

deeply into their revenues.

bit

The challenge

was

to increase fares to a viable level without causing the fragile market to collapse

again. Despite falling revenues, overcapac-

and rollbacks in deliveries, however, still expected to increase their capacity by about 4-5% during 1993. ity,

U.S. airlines

In the airframe business, after

its

worst-

ever recession and despite the stretch-out in deliveries, some recovery appeared to be under way, though it was likely to be four or five years before, as one observer put it. "the bunting comes out in the streets

Long Beach, Toulouse, Hatfield, ami .Amsterdam." In March came the first indications of an improvement when during successive days three airlines ordered 30 Boeing 737s, 4 747-4()()s. and 2 Boeing 777s. Then, during July, United Airlines announced that it would lease 50 Airbus A320s from the manufacturer and then option 5(1 more leased A320s. Airbus flew its first A340 four-engined transport in October 1991 and was planning

ot Seattle.

to certify virtually

made while.

it

for service in early

identical

but

1993.

I

he

twin-engined A330

fust llight on November 2. MeanDouglas froze the design ol its 511-

its

MD-12

The program was

The production of automobiles throughout the world fell 5% in 1991 compared with 1990. The total of 33,518,000 cars produced

have been launched during the year but was postponed owing to the predicted poor financial returns for 1992. Farther into the future perhaps was Airbus's proposed 600-

was the lowest since 1987. Production of trucks and buses (commercial vehicles) was 4.7% lower in 1991, at 10,998,000 vehicles. This was nearly 15% below the record pro-

long-range transport, a direct challenger to the Boeing 747 as the world's seat

number one

large airliner.

to

seat

UHCA

(ultra-high capacity aircraft),

for possible launch in 1997.

The

military sector suffered at least as

badly as the airlines and commercial aircraft industry. The collapse of the Soviet

Union and its new reliance on the West had two effects. First, the disappearance of the perceived threat from the former Soviet Union resulted in pressure to cut Western defense budgets in favour of increased soexpenditure, and second, competition in export markets from relatively cheap aircraft from Russia, now equally eager to become part of the capitalist system, was expected to increase. Russia's desire and ability to enter world markets, and to show itself a technological equal of the West, was evidenced at the Famborough Air Show in September when it brought along a large number of notable new types of aircraft. Advanced versions of the MiG-29 Fulcrum and Su-27 Flanker fighters flew impressive flight schedules, and visitors could inspect the Tupolev Tu22M3 Backfire swing-wing bomber, equivalent to the U.S. Rockwell B-1B, and the unique Yakovlev Yak-141 supersonic V/ cial

STOL

(vertical/short takeoff

experimental

and landing)

fighter.

The fear among U.S., U.K., and French observers at Famborough was that the unregulated selling of advanced Russian aircraft and missiles to North Korea, China, and volatile countries in the Middle East would change the balance of power in strategic areas of the world. Military budgets in the former Soviet republics had virtually collapsed, and so top-class companies such as Mikoyan and Sukhoi had no alternative but to sell abroad if they were to survive.

Added

to the potential competition from companies was the steady rise to prominence of competitive Third World

those

duction of 12,903,000 units in 1988. Among major car-manufacturing nations the only gains in 1991 over 1990 were by South Korea, up from 987,000 to 1,158,000 cars, and Spain, up from 1.679,000 to 1,774,000. Smaller manufacturing countries with increased output in 1991 included

Argentina to 120,755, Brazil to 705,633, and Turkey to 195,574. Small gains in the production of commercial vehicles were recorded in 1991 by Argentina, Austria. Belgium, Brazil. Germany, Korea, Turkey, and the Soviet Union.

New

car sales in 1991 in the countries of

European Communities (EC), at 11,805,000, were 3% lower than in 1990; the the

greatest

where

decline

took place

the

U.K..

—

products such as Taiwan's IDF defensive lighter; this plane could be politically attractive to countries that did not wish to be associated with the U.S. or Europe, and it

be small for several years.

was also

had begun manufacturing

less expensive.

in

slumped from 1,930.000 to 1,530,000. EC commercial vehicle sales fell 8% to 1,512,000, the biggest drop again being recorded in the U.K. In the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) nations Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden. and Switzerland car sales declined 4% to 957.000, but commercial vehicle sales were 19% lower at 112,000. For all of Asia car sales fell 3.4% to 6,850,000, and commercial vehicles were down 7.8% to 3.580,000. Declines in Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines more than offset gains in South Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand. Commercial vehicle sales were also lower in Hong Kong and Thailand in 1991. The initial enthusiasm for rapid growth in demand for new cars and production facilities in the former communist nations of eastern Europe was tempered by a growing realization of the scale of the economic malaise in most of those countries. While Western automakers, including Opel-GM. Volkswagen, and Mercedes-Benz of Germany and Italy's Fiat group, entered manufacturing agreements in man) ol those countries, their rewards were expected to sales

W2 Honda and Toyota joined In late Nissan as Japanese carmakers starting production at new factories in Britain. Nissan c

l

in

volume

in

the

182

Industrial Review: Automobiles

U.K.

in 1986. In

1991 British production of

the Nissan Primera rose 64% to 124,666, and for 1992 it was scheduled to increase

again to

The

GM's

loss of

and had been

270,000 units

layoffs.

Honda began manufacturing automobiles the U.K. at Swindon. Wiltshire, in October 1992. Toyota's more ambitious plant at in

Burnaston, near Derby, began production in December. For established British and mainland European manufacturers, those new factories represented important competition and provided a preview of the free access of Japanese cars from Japan due at the end of the century. Britain was not Japan's only springboard into Europe, and Japanese vehicle produc-

also

in

35%

posted stag-

a $4.5 billion

The same board members had been in control when Stempel an-

deficit in

in 1993.

GM

in office as

gering losses, culminating

introduction of a second car, the smaller Micra, in late 1992 was expected to boost Nissan production to 175,000.

market share from 45 to

1991.

nounced major plant closings and employee Smale was named chairman to succeed Stempel, and John Smith was named chief executive officer to run the company's day-to-day operations. The only other time a been driven from office was

chairman had

when company

founder William Durant was forced to

re-

sign in the 1920s.

Europe was expected to top by the year 2000. (In 1991 EC car production totaled 12.7 million; Volkswagen Group led the

also quit.

1.2 million

field

for the sev-

At the same time that

enth year with 2.440,000.) Suzuki produced

models in Hungary in 1992, and Daihatsu began making small vans and its

lirst

Swift

pickup trucks in a joint venture with Piaggio in northern Italy. Volkswagen was expected to link with Suzuki to produce small cars in Spain beginning in 1995. Nissan was investing heavily in new models at its Spanish commercial vehicle maker, Nissan Motor Iberica. Ford Motor Co. planned to take some Spanish-built Nissan four-wheel-drive models and rebadge them for sale as Fords (john r. weinthal) in Europe. United States. Robert Stempel in 1992 became only the second chairman in the history of the General Motors Corp. to be ousted from ofiice when a group of outside directors led by former Procter & Gamble chairman John Smale forced him to resign from office 27 months after he had succeeded Roger Smith in the job. Stempel's departure was expected since the directors earlier had demoted president Lloyd Reuss and made him an executive vice

GM

president while promoting John F. ("Jack") Smith to the office of president. The purge was viewed by many with bitter irony since most of the directors who were responsible for Stempel's ouster had been on the hoard for at least 10 years, Thus thej had been on the board during

GM was embroiled

executive turmoil, the Chrysler Corp. quietly elected Robert Eaton, the former head of GM's overseas operations, to take over in

from Lee Iacocca, who was automaker. At Ford Motor Co. Harold ("Red") Poling was also planning to step down. Alex Trotman, head of Ford's North American Automotive Operations, and Allan Gilmour, president of the North American Automotive Group, were in line to succeed him. Neither Trotman nor Gilmour waged a as chairman

retiring after 14 years with that

power

struggle for the post. U.S. automakers ended the 1992 model year by selling 8,160,000 new cars, down

from

8.3 million in 1991.

Truck

sales,

how-

rose to 4.7 million units from 4.2 million the prior year. It was the second year in a row that the industry had failed ever,

to reach the 13 million sales level.

General Motors sold 2.9 million cats. even with a year earlier; Ford sold 1.7 million cars, up from 1.6 million in 1991.

Both Honda, with sales ot 771,321 cars. and Toyota, with sales of 764.480 cars. topped Chrysler, whose sales reached 671,936. However, when car and truck sales were combined. Chrysler was still able to retain the rank of third in the industry with

combined

Honda

Ford

sales of 1.5 million units versus

ROGEfl MASTROUNNI

sold

topped

no trucks

Chevrolet

in in

the U.S. sales

with

1,158,591 cars and 1,399,639 trucks to Chevrolet's 1,039,522 cars and 1,120,148 trucks. The full-size Ford F-Series pickup truck was the industry's top-selling vehicle size

at

488,146

C-K

ond with

GM

On the same day the board of directors forced Stempel to resign (November 2), a trio of his allies and men who had been loyal to former chairman Roger Smith resigned as well. Reuss, vice-chairman Robert Schultz. who headed the automaker's nonautomotive units, and F. Alan Smith, who was in charge of overseeing marketing operations,

tion capacity in

million at Toyota, which sold 263,171

1.1

trucks.

units.

The Chevrolet

full-

series pickup truck finished sec-

sales of 424,933 units.

The

best-

was the Honda Accord at 387,883 units, followed by the Ford Taurus at 347,534 units, which made those two cars the third and fourth best-selling vehicles in selling car

the industry, respectively.

Rounding out the top 10 sales leaders were the Ford Explorer utility vehicle (292,069), the Toyota Camry (277,789), the Ford Ranger compact truck (244,661), the Ford Escort (244,231), the Dqdge Caravan (234,792), and the Chevrolet Lumina (219,120). The top 10 cars were the Accord, Taurus, Camry, Escort, Lumina, Ford Tempo (213,352), Chevrolet Cavalier (212,675), Toyota Corolla (206,560), Honda Civic (204,839), and Pontiac Grand (198,596). Four of the top 10 cars were Japanese nameplates Accord, Camry, Corolla, and Civic, all of which were built in the U.S. Japanese nameplates accounted for a 30.1% share of the U.S. market, up from 29.7% a year

Am

—

earlier.

In an attempt to soothe consumer unrest over high new-car prices, the domestic automakers surprised observers by holding the line on price increases on the 1993 models when they appeared in the fall. Ford increased prices by 0.3%, General Motors by 1.6%, and Chrysler by 1.9%. That translated into an average $63 increase at Ford, $290 at GM, and $400 at Chrysler. The pricing action by U.S. automakers magnified the increases imposed by the Japanese, who were forced to boost prices to account for the lower value of the U.S. dollar against the Japanese yen and a weak economy in the home country. Toyota, for example, raised the price on its compact Corolla by $1,046-$ 1,521, making it $2,000$3,700 more expensive than the compact Saturn from GM. The Europeans in some cases also lowered prices. Jaguar, for example, dropped sticker prices by $10,750 on its XJ-S coupe line because it replaced the car's V-12 engine with a six-cylinder model. MercedesBenz raised prices, but modifications to its engines to increase mileage and therefore reduce federal gas-guzzler taxes canceled out much of the increase. On a 300SE, for example, the sticker price went up by $500, but the gas-guzzler tax was trimmed by $400 down to $1,700. The net price increase, therefore, was only $100. A host of new domestic and imported vehicles were introduced in the fall for the 1993 model year. At GM, Chevrolet brought out a new version of the Prizm. a version of the Toyota Corolla that was built in conjunction with the Japanese automaker at Fremont, Calif. Chevrolet dropped the hatchback version of the Storm only one year after it was introduced. The Corvette ZR-1 gained engine modifications to boost horsepower to 405 from 375, but at the same time, Chevrolet said that, starting with the 1993 model year and extending through 1995, it would build and sell only 380 ZR-ls annually, a hint that the car would then be discontinued.

GEO

GEO

A worker operates machinery at the General Motors assembly plant in Lordstown, factory instituted a number of changes— including round-the-clock production and workers to handle a greater number of tasks designed to make operations more

—

Ohio.

The

retraining of efficient.

Industrial Review: Beverage*

183

At Cadillac the full-size, reai wheel-drive Brougham, Cadillac's biggesl car, was re designed and renamed Fleetwood, a name thai previously had been used to denote the top-of-the-line Deville sedan,

die Deville

was renamed the Sixty Special. Cadillac also added a new 4.6-litre, 32-valve, 295-hp V-8 engine, dubbed Norfhstar, to its Allanic. Idoradc Touring ( cupe Seville SIS and In November it announced plans to drop I

the Allante luxury roadster. Saturn added a pair of station

as

well as a

its

wagons new low-priced base model in

coupe lineup. Saturn also made driver-side air bags standard in all of its cars and for the first time offered traction control as a $50 option for buyers who also purchased automatic transmission and antilock brakes. Ford introduced a restyled version of the compact Probe and a front-wheel-drive

minivan, called Villager, in the Mercury

SHO

The Taurus

offered automatic transmission for the time, while the

line.

high-performance sedan first

subcompact Mustang un-

The Ford Explorer, an off-road utility vehicle, was among the top 10 in sales in the U.S. in 1992. The Explorer was one of 10 current models produced as a joint venture between Ford and Mazda, which had been working together for 13 years in development, production, and marketing.

veiled a limited-edition, high-performance model called Cobra, as well as a high-

FORD MOTOR COMPANY

pickup truck Ford's Lincoln-Mercury division brought out the next generation of the Mark, called the Lincoln Mark VIII, with a 4.6-litre, 32-valve, 280-hp engine. Chrysler's long-awaited LH sedans were introduced, the first all new car platform from the automaker since the K-car in 1981. The LH cars were the Chrysler Concorde, Eagle Vision, and Dodge Intrepid. There was no Plymouth version, which fueled even more the speculation that Chrysler was eventually going to drop that nameplate.

pact by announcing that plans to unveil in 1995 a

performance called

The

full-size F-Series

Lightning.

LH

were billed as family-size on 287-cm (113-in) wheelbases

cars

models built and 508-514

cm (200-202 in) long. Early 1993 Chrysler prepared to bring out two additions to the LH lineup, the Chrysler New Yorker and Chrysler LHS, built on the same wheelbase but longer at 526 cm (207 in). All LH cars offered a choice of two engines, a 3.3-litre V-6, the same as that offered in the Chrysler minivans, and a new 3.5-litre, 24-valve V-6. All LH cars also boasted as standard features fourwheel antilock brakes and air bags on both the driver and passenger sides. In the Jeep utility vehicle line, Chrysler added a Grand in

Wagoneer companion

to

its

Grand Chero-

kee version. It had a 5.2-litre V-8 engine as a standard feature; that engine was made optional in the Grand Cherokee. There was also a flurry of activity among the imports. Toyota redesigned the subcompact Corolla and in doing so stretched it in size to a compact. Nissan replaced the compact Stanza with a new car called Altima. In a move to preserve the low insurancepremium ratings won by the Stanza, Nissan put Stanza decals on the Altima even though formally refusing to use that name. Nissan also brought out a new front-wheeldrive minivan called Quest, a companion version of the Villager at Mercury. Honda took the wraps off a new convertible hardtop, the Civic del Sol. The metal roof of the two-seater del Sol was removable for open-air driving. The del Sol replaced the CRX line. The Civic series also added a new coupe, while Accord added a luxury SE sedan version with both driverand passenger-side air bags. Mazda rolled out restyled 929, MX-6, and RX-7 models but made the most im-

called

Amati

that

it

and Nissan

luxury line

was designed to compete

against the Toyota Lexus, Infiniti.

Mazda

Honda Acura, said

that

certainty in the luxury-car market

un-

was the

primary reason, though admitting that a decline in profits

was also responsible for the

decision. Mitsubishi redesigned the Mirage,

Subaru brought out an all-wheelturbocharged Legacy station wagon and a new Impreza sedan and wagon that

while

drive,

would eventually replace the Loyale. rethe European imports placed the 735 series with a new 740i and 740iL sedan powered by a 32-valve, 4-litre, V-8 engine. In addition to replacing the V-12 with a six-cylinder engine in its XJ-S coupes, Jaguar added an XJR-S coupe powered by a 6-litre V-12 engine and for the first time in two decades made a fivespeed manual transmission available in the XJ-S coupe. Mercedes-Benz added a 300CE Cabriolet, it

said

BMW

Among

four-passenger convertible since the 1971 model 280SE 3.5, while preparing to

its first

add a V-12-powered 600SL, a V-8-powered 500SEC, and a V-12-powered 600SEC later in the model year. The 400SE sedan was dropped in favour of a longer 400SEL version. Porsche expanded the 911 lineup with both America Roadster and RS America models, while Rolls-Royce brought out a new Bentley Brooklands model with a $138,500 price tag and such options as a

picnic table

BMW

was dropping

new

and cocktail cabinet.

Saab introduced a four-door 9000CS hatchback and Volvo an 850GLT frontwheel-drive sedan. Volkswagen dropped the Vanagon and replaced it with a new model called the Eurovan with front-wheel drive. The two most significant new models, however, were the Dodge Viper, a twoseater roadster that listed at $55,000, including a $5,000 gas-guzzler tax, and a Toyota pickup truck. Only 200 1992 Vipers were built, and they came only in red. The pickup truck, a new full-size model, was seen as the first import that threatened to wrest the title of top-selling truck from Ford's F-Series. Ford and Chevrolet had always dominated the full-size truck market, and no full-size import trucks had ever before been offered in the U.S.

would

first

its

announced during the year that it up assembly in South Carolina, U.S. production plant and only

set

the second attempt at U.S. assembly by a European car company. (Volkswagen built at a plant in Westmoreland, Pa., before closing that operation and focusing on European assembly only.) Three other European automakers decided to give up on the U.S. market. Yugo, the Yugoslav-built mini that captured attention at $3,990 before attracting criticism for quality problems, left the U.S. market, as did Peugeot of France and Sterling of Great Britain. (james l. mateja) Japan. Sales of new cars in Japan for 1992 were expected to fall below those of the previous year for the second year in a row. For the three quarters of the year ended in September, sales totaled 5,332,191 units, 6.4% lower than during the same period of 1991. Because of the sales decline, automak-

subcompact Rabbit cars

ers

were becoming increasingly reluctant to

launch new models into the market, and Isuzu announced that it would stop making passenger cars entirely. This hurt related industries, especially manufacturers of metal molds. Car production was sluggish, totaling 6,334,774 units in the first half of 1992, 3.5% below the same period of the previous year. The bright side was the number of exports, 2,896,552 units, up 1.7% and the

first

upward turn

since 1986.

contrast, was booming. Used-car sales in the first half of 1992 rose 17% to about 2.8 million units,

The used-car market, by

slightly

over that of the new cars. The price

luxury cars, were and used-car dealers even claimed (rinzo sakauchi) shortages of supply. tags, particularly of the

soaring,

BEVERAGES Beer. In contrast to the onslaught of new labels and varieties released in the past few years by major U.S. brewers, the only debut

product of note from one of these firms in 1992 hardly qualified as a beer. Zima, a clear, alcoholic malt beverage from Coors, was intended to appeal to drinkers seeking a "lighter" taste. Crazy Horse malt liquor, marketed by the small Hornell Brewing, was immersed in controversy because of its name, taken from a famous Sioux tribal

Industrial Review: Beverages

184

Table V. Estimated Consumption of

Beer

In litres'

West Germany

Belguim

143.0 143.0 131.7 119.9 115.8 117,8 118.6

Ireland

109

Germany

Czechoslovakia

Denmark Luxembourg Austria

New

1152

Zealand

United

Kingdom

110.9

Australia2

113.1

Hungary

101.5

142.9 145.7 131.8 123.4 119.3 119.3 114.9 115.6 116.8 110 4 111.6 103.0

143.1

East

141.3 135.0 126.2 121.4 121.3 120.7 117.0 110.6 110.2 108.2 107.0

Hungary

886

908

Japan

90.0 83.5

Iceland Soviet Union

Romania

c 2.0

3.3 2,9

34

30

Finland

3,1

3.0 3.2

Spain France

28

71 .7

71.8

Netherlands, The

693

69 8

Cuba

67.4

70.3

668

Switzerland

53.1

638

65.1

Sweden

823

635

United

59.5

61 8 57.7

60 7

Sweden

548

576

Cyprus South Africa

50.5

54.1

509

52.0

One litre = 1 .0567 U.S. quart = Years ending June 30 Years ending March 31 in

8799

Austria

2.1

2.3 2.0

2.2

2.5

2.1

22

West Germany Romania

c 2.4

22

2.1

Belgium

Chile

26.0 35.0

25 9

263

26.1

26.0 23.2 20.5 23.2 21.6

26.0 24.9 24.0 23.4 21.3 20.0

186

Denmark

1.8

East Germany Yugoslavia

121

19

21.1

21

1.9

1.8

1.7

Australia 2

19.1

1.8

17

'1.7

New

14.8

18.3 14.3

Ireland

17

1

59.8

Yugoslavia

1,5

57.1

Uruguay New Zealand

1.6 1.3

52 5

imperial quart

'One

1

Kingdom

litre

=

1

0567

US

quart

c.

==

Netherlands, The

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

Czechoslovakia Cyprus

14.8 13.0 13.7

1.4

1.6

Sweden

12.1

in

its

that wafrom the Rockies. Such negative advertising was unusual lor beer, but it was titling in a way. U.S. beer volume growth was negative in 1991, falling from 90.8 litres per capita in

1.057 quarts).

C.

8799 imperial

quart.

Consumers

increasingly

the 20th century.

==

1

17.6 14.7

14.9 13.8

14.5

13.6 12.5

13.5 12.2

139

8799 nperial i

quart.

The Netherlands

wanted

more

Flavoured spirits, such as a Puerto Rican coconut-based rum introduced in 1992, were designed to meet this new demand. Sales of white spirits (gin, vodka, rum, and tequila) in the U.S. remained stronger than those of brown spirits (whiskeys). Sales of tequila products in particular continued to grow. A singleserve premium tequila margarita product introduced in April 1992 was thought to be promising. A margarita-flavoured schnapps was the fastest growing line of a major U.S. producer of cordials. A new premium rum from Trinidad and Tobago was said to be based on a recipe unchanged since the 17th century, and new ultrapremium, smallbatch bourbons from Jim Beam Brands Co. were said to be based on recipes predating choices.

litre = 1.0567 US quart Years ending June 30.

'One 2

Years ending March 31

taste

Zealand

1.7

7

47.5 37.4 35.0 32.6 30.4 30.0

35.2 29.9 27.5 35.0

1.9

1.8

C.

494

369

299

Greece Uruguay

2.5 2.4

2.4

association with Produktschap voor Gedistilleerde Dranken, Schiedam,

=

Spain

61.4 58.2 54.2

61.4 54.7 49.5 53.0

9

2

litre

Argentina Switzerland Portugal

3.2 3.0 2.7

73.1

697

20

as pure as that

(I

Luxembourg

Hungary

commercials featuring

litres

Italy

3.8 3.3 3.2

Bulgaria

Shenandoah Valley declaring

1990 to 87.8

4.3

1990

74 .1

2.0

president, Peter Coors. wandering through |ust

c.

1989 74.3 70.0 58.3 56,5 49.9 54.0 40.6 34.2

2.0

—

is

France

c.2.0

U.S. In August the top brewer began a series of ads disparaging Coors. the third-leading U.S. brewer, for touting Coors Light for its "Rocky Mountain water" because some Coors Light contains water from Virginia. Alter losing a court suit to stop the negative assault, Coors re-

the

5.2

1.9

rarity in the

ter there

C.

per capita

2.0 2.0

major campaign for Micheloh

TV

Selected Countries

2.1

four years, running a series of ads wooing women as well as men something of a

sponded with

in

16,9 23,0 20.0 21.8 19.2 12.0

leader: Native Amerieans sutler from alcoholism at highly disproportionate rates. In February, Anheuser-Busch undertook first

Country

28 26

2.4

806

1990

3.2

2.5 2.4

United States

Canada2 West Germany

74,1

c.

c.

5.2 4.8 4.5

Cyprus

687 687

•

c.

Bulgaria

81.8

•

Estimated Consumption of

In litres'

1989

5.2 c 4.6 4.6

Canada 3

Source: World Drink Trends,

its

1988

87.5 79 4

Venezuela Colombia

'

Country

Poland Czechoslovakia

VII.

Wine

pure alcohol per capita

1990

Germany

Table

Selected Countries

1989

893 833

Switzerland Bulgaria Portugal

'

In litres' of

United States Netherlands, The Finland

Spam

2

Estimated Consumption of

VI.

Distilled Spirits in

per capita

Country

East

Table

Selected Countries

in

In a major deal between distilled spircompanies in late 1991, Seagram Co. Ltd. sold trademark rights to seven of its its

mid-priced brown and white brands to Jim Beam. Paddington Corp. of Ireland attempted to increase U.S. sales of cordials by introducing Baileys Light, a low-fat, lowcalorie version of Baileys Original Irish Cream. The Louisville, Ky.-based distiller Brown-Forman Corp. recorded a 0.8% increase in sales over fiscal year 1990-91, attributed to the strong performance of Jack Daniels overseas. (Stephen neher) Wine. After an exceptionally poor harvest in 1991 (251.6 million hi worldwide, including 175.6 million hi in the European Communities [EC]; 1 hi = 26.4 U.S. gallons), the first estimates for 1992 were encouraging. World production was set at close to 300 million hi and EC production at about

•'•'~TT"V

Poor weather, continued antialcohol pressure, and increased tariffs on Canadian imports contributed to lagging sales

in

L992,

and brew cis resorted to discounting. Coors began distributing its Extra Gold in

parts of the U.K.. with the help of ScotNewcastle Breweries. Miller High

tish I

&

lie

made

became in

the

first

foreign beer to be

Beijing (Peking) after Miller Brew-

agreement with Shuang He Sheng Five Star Brewery. Pittsburgh Brewing took its aptly named American Beer to Russia, while rleineken finally began selling its Dutch beer in Germany.

TlA

ing signed an

Spirits. a

The

ability

mature industry remained

the spirits industry

discovered that,

and smgle-sen e

in

L992.

problem for Marketers had a

tf?

;

A

laboratory worker examines cultures of

grapevine rootstock

low alcohol content portions had been kc\s

just as

to increasing sales in the

resistant to phylloxera.

As

1980s, so conve-

nience had now become an important consumer preference. Drinking habits of many consumers in the IS. changed because of the recession of the carls 1990s. They not only drank less but paid less for what they did dunk.

0gp

(GR] t. W. I'RINC K) to increase share in

infestations of the

microscopic insects continued to destroy vineyards in California, cloning techniques for producing large quantities

.'¥

of ,

mt-'

new

being

plants quickly

tried.

were

Industrial Review: Ceramics

hi. Italy, winch had |iisi passed mandating the labeling of wine by region of origin, was the world's leading wine (

l

)(l

million

1992, attributable tO

ail

unseasonably cool

a law

summer. Volume was also sluggish through mosl of Western Europe, with slight gains

producer, with 68 million hi. France, with hi, had an excellent harvest. Other major producers included Spain (36,

France (up to 23.4 litres per capita in and Italy (20.1 litres) offset by losses to 15.7 litres) and the in Spain (down U.K. (8.8 litres). Germany got a boost from Coke's activity in the eastern half of the country. Both Coke and Pepsi took steps to expand their product lines in the Far East. Coke brought Sprite to Korea, and to Pepsi signed an agreement with distribute that company's root beers across (greg w. prince) the region.

63.5 million

million hi), the U.S. (16.5 million),

(

17 million),

Germany

Argentina

(13.4 million), the

former U.S.S.R. (13 million), Portugal (10 million), and South Africa (9.7 million). The worldwide decline in wine consumption continued. Sharp falls in the great wineproducing countries (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Argentina) were not compensated by the increases in countries that were currently self-sufficient (Australia, South Africa), net importers (Belgium, Luxembourg, the U.S., Canada, Japan), or nonproducers (the U.K., The Netherlands, the Scandinavian countries). The downward trend in demand aggravated the instability of the market. Trade was stagnant overall, and the Western Hemisphere nations were expanding their exports at the expense of the major EC producers. It seemed likely that chronically excessive supply at the in-

would continue until the year 2000, since the European regulatory mechanisms had proved to be largely ineffective. Offering some hope of improvement was the spectacular effect on U.S. consumption of red wines generated by a television broadcast announcing that vascular diseases were less frequent among consumers of French wines than among nonconsuming Americans. It was reported that the grape phylloxera, which devastated European vineyards in the last century, had infested 20% of ternational level

California grapevines.

The Wine

Institute

estimated that 75% of the infested vines would have to be uprooted within 10 years.

(marie-jose deshayes) Both Coca-Cola and PepsiCola moved into categories they had preSoft Drinks.

viously ignored, after seeing their potential cultivated by others. Bottled

and canned

tea experienced a renaissance. Coca-Cola and Nestle consummated their previously

announced relationship by releasing a line of packaged Nestea products in the U.S., while Pepsi-Cola and Lipton formed the Pepsi Lipton Tea Partnership. Also getting together were and Tetley and Cadbury and All Seasons. This activity was, in part, a reaction to the success of Snapple, a New York-based firm whose real-brewed bottled teas had given it a leadership position in this burgeoning category. U.S. sales of canned and bottled tea were reportedly

A&W

growing by 20% in 1992. The other segment catching Coke and Pepsi's attention clear beverages.

was

that of

"New Age"

The motivating

factor

was

the advent of Clearly Canadian, an amalgamation of sparkling Canadian water, natural flavourings, and high fructose corn

syrup

in

stylish

glass

bottles.

Coke

re-

sponded with a new "sparkling water beverage" called Nordic Mist, and Pepsi unveiled Crystal Pepsi, a differently flavoured

A

number of version of its flagship cola. smaller North American companies were also taking their shots at Clearly Canadian with like products. The reason for the "innovations" was the basic flatness of the primary soft drink category. U.S. volume was up a scant 1.7% to 46 billion litres in 1991 (183 litres per capita).

Even

slighter

growth was noted through

in

L991

)

A&W

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION The U.S. Department of Commerce

re-

September that expenditures for building and construction in the U.S. during the first eight months of 1992, on a seasonally adjusted annual-rate basis, were ported

higher

1992 to stimulate investment,

II

the

Production figures for the first hall ol 1992 indicated that growth for the year would beslow. Housing investment was expected to rise very little, and business investment was forecast to decline. In Japan the substantial decline on the stock market that began in 1990 and contin-

ued into 1992 had extensive repercussions throughout the economy. The decline in equity prices influenced investment in business and housing. Business investment rose only 6.2%

in

1989 and 12.4% in 1990. It appeared that there would be little gain in 1992. Housing investment was down 7.7% in 1991 and appeared headed for a further decline in

each month of 1992 than

in the

this basis, in

August

compared with $405 billion a year The Commerce Department also reported that the number of employees in construction was higher in the third quarter of 1992 than in the same quarter of 1991. In September 4.8 million employees were reported to be on construction payrolls. While the increases over 1991 were good news, the bad news was that both total expenditures and employment in construction were lower than they had been in 1988, 1992,

earlier.

1989, or 1990.

The number of housing

units started in

the U.S. in the first nine months of 1992 was also reported to be higher than in the

comparable months of 1991 but still lower than in the comparable months of 1986 through 1989. The monthly average prices of new homes sold were down in 1992 compared with prices in the three preceding years. The average price in August 1992 was $140,200. The Composite Cost Index of the U.S. Bureau of the Census showed increase in the cost of construction materials in 1992; in August it stood at 112.4 (1987=100). Mortgage interest rates

little

in

in

government weni forv ird with its spending plans the added stimulus should increase investments in housing and business in 1993. In France the economy mew at about 1.2% in 1991, compared with 2.29t in 1990.

in

comparable month of 1991. On total outlays were $424 billion

1992 were

at

the lowest levels in 20

months of the year the rate fell below 8% on a 30-year fixed-rate mortgage. The lower prices and mortgage

years.

tures

185

In several

rates contributed to

the sales of

monthly increases in the second

new houses during

and third quarters. In Canada investment in housing and business had declined greatly in 1990 and 1991. In 1992 there was recovery over those two very depressed years, but the increase in construction was slow even though interest rates on mortgages were very low. The National Economics Review provided information on economic developments in

Great Britain, selected European countries, and Japan. The August 1992 issue showed that in Great Britain depressed economic conditions had brought investment in housing and business to very low levels in 1990, in 1991, and into the first half of 1992. It was projected that investment in housing and business would be conditioned by the level of consumer confidence. Germany's economy was reportedly still experiencing problems resulting from the reunification of the eastern and western parts of the country. This had proved very expensive for the government and delayed plans for additional governmental expendi-

in 1991,

1992.

compared with 16.5%

(carter

c.

in

osterbind)

CERAMICS Worldwide sales of ceramic materials and components in 1991 totaled approximately $82 billion, according to a survey by Ceramic Industry. Captive production that for a specific consumer and not intended for the open market was not included in this number since those data were not reported to the U.S. Department of Commerce or similar government agencies in other countries. Captive manufacture of advanced ceramic materials and components for use in high-tech industries was estimated as approximately equal to the total for the open market. This would increase production to more than $150 billion. The captive production of ceramic materials and components continued to grow as advanced ceramics were being used at an increasing rate to develop market advantages in the electronics, machine-tool, automobile, aerospace, and other industries. The advanced ceramics market was much more international than were the markets for traditional ceramics, because of the higher value per kilogram of the advanced materials. According to a Ceramic Industry survey, the worldwide market for advanced ceramics in 1990 was approximately $15.3 billion, and the U.S. market was approximately $5 billion. If the value of captive production was included, the value for worldwide advanced ceramics production could be as high as $30 billion. Electronic ceramics continued to dominate the market for advanced ceramics with about twothirds of total sales. This market included electronic substrates, electronic packages,

—

—

and senSales of engineering ceramics grew significantly to approximately $1.7 million. capacitors, ferrites, piezoelectrics, sors.

Optical fibre production in the U.S. was growing at a rate of approximately 20% per year, and the worldwide thrust to install local area networks of optical fibre was projected to cause this market to continue to grow at a 20% rate through at least 1996. Sales in 1991 were approximately $1 billion, and a $2.5 billion market was projected for 1992. Ceramic ferrules for use as fibre-optic connectors accounted for $71 million in sales in 1991, and sales of $172 million were projected for L996. The introduction by General Electric Co. of ceramic scintillators for advanced medical

X-ray detectors clearly illustrated the

186

Industrial Review: Chemicals

value-added potential of advanced ceramics at the systems level. These scintillators were being used in X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanners, where they provided greater sensitivity and higher resolution than previous scanners. This performance enhancement allowed cancer to be detected at an earlier stage than was possible with previous scanners. As a result, the presence of this advanced ceramic scintillator in a $1 million CT scanner gave that machine a significant edge in the multibillion-dollar market for scanners. That market potential created the major incentive needed for GE to develop the special advanced ceramic. Worldwide whiteware sales totaled $8 billion-$8.5 billion in 1991. This included tile, sanitaryware, dinnerware, and electrical porcelain. Tile sales continued at 1989 levels because of a weak housing market;

troubled cities as the winter of 1992-93 began. Because the U.S. used 10 times the motor fuel burned in any other nation in the world, it had a singularly serious problem that oxygenates could help solve. Within decades, though, a large market for oxygenates would probably develop in most of the industrial countries. The recession made U.S. companies skittish about building huge additional units, however. Plants in the planning stages now were being nursed along slowly, in hopes that they would be ready about the time that the U.S. demand maximized estimated to be

was the leading producer. Sanitaryware sales were approximately $2.5 billion on a worldwide basis.

making and thus had exgrowth prospects. Oxygen and nitrogen, derived from the air, carried no burden of hazardous waste products or worrisome by-products. Their only obvious negative was that separating them consumed con-

Italy

U.S. shipments of refractory materials decreased 5.6% to $1.9 billion in 1991 owing to decreased steel production caused by weakness in construction and the production of automobiles and appliances. Worldwide sales were approximately $6 billion. The market for refractories continued to demand materials with improved higher performance and longer life in order to reduce downtime and increase productivity. The shift in steel-production technology to continuous casting was also affecting the mix of refractories sold. The outlook for 1992 was for slowly improving sales due to an increase in steel consumption. Porcelain enamel sales dropped approximately 9 r ; in 1991 owing to the weak market for appliances. Worldwide sales totaled more than $7.5 million. (dale e. NIESz)

CHEMICALS "They're hanging crepe

all

over the world,"

remarked Robert Kennedy, chief executive Union Carbide Corp. in October 1991, and his words well characterized

officer of

the chemical industry in 1992. Following a dismal 1991, there were gusts of hope that 1992 was going to be a recovery year. Instead, virtually everywhere in the world,

continued, and the hints in 1991 that recession would affect the important chemical industries of Germany, France, and Italy turned into grim reality. Japan's chemical industry also began to sag. Suffering worst of all was the chemical industry of the former communist countries of eastern Europe. Nowhere did there seem to be difficulties

clear indications that the industry, so closely

and automobile inhad a way out of its troubles. Compared with many of their customer industries, however, chemical makers were fortunate. While the 2-3% growth for the chemical industries of the industrialized countries was disappointing, it was general!) better than the growth experienced by other manufacturing industries. There were some bright spots, but they were few and decidedly small. For the U.S. petrochemical companies there were "oxygenates" lor motor fuel. These compounds, of which methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) had become most prominent, were important mainly because of recent U.S. laws designed to reduce the smog problems attributed to automobile exhaust gases. The laws were put into effect in many smogtied to the construction

dustries,

MTBE

—

about 1995.

The use of

industrial

substantially in 1992.

gases also grew

Oxygen and nitrogen

continued to

sell in the highest volumes, but a variety of other expensive, ultrahigh-

purity gaseous

compounds were important

for electronic chip

cellent

siderable

amounts of energy. Even

recession,

their

in

the

growth exceeded that of

most chemicals. Worldwide, and

in virtually all

branches

of the chemical industry (organics/petrochemicals and inorganics), 1992 held little prospect of being much better than 1991. Although the 1991 statistics showed East Asia to have the most encouraging record, the fact that it rose from a comparatively small base had to be considered. In 1991 half of the world's 21 leading industrial nations reported production down, and only one could boast of an output volume increase of more than 3% Ireland, up 21.8%. Ireland's $5,140,000,000 1991 chemical industry, however, was only 1.4% of the European Communities' (EC's) total of $373 billion. Combined, western Europe's 15 nations

—

achieved a 1% production growth in 1991. The 12 nations in the EC hiked production 1.6%. The U.K. managed a 3% production gain (value up to $50.9 billion despite its third successive year of recession). France,

which

had

been

making a government-

its chemical poworldwide and had become Europe's second largest chemical producer (with a

aided effort to strengthen sition

1991 sales volume of $66.1 billion), also increased production 3%. Germany (excluding contributions by the former East Germany) remained the leader in Europe with a sales volume of $99,780,000,000 and a 2.295 production gain in 1991. Italy's $50.3 billion chemical industry slumped 1.4'r in output. Spain, which had an excellent 1991). dipped in volume in 1991 roughly 1.2' and dropped about the same in sales volume. Detailed data from the former Soviet Union were almost entirely lacking, as were believable statistics on the chemical industry of the eastern European nations. Chemical and Engineering News magazine, using a combination of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency reports, data from the private concern PlanEcon Inc. (London), and sparse national data along with its own projections, estimated that the former Soviet Union chemical output dropped 10%, Poland 14'V. Bulgaria 34%, Czechoslovakia 20%, Hungary 16%, and Yugoslavia 16%. Nowhere were there any indications that the downslide in eastern Europe would
.

(

1992.

in it

i'

INSURANCE The insurance world would remember 1992 the >car of disasters. Even before midyear, there had been two earthquakes

as

and the

billion-dollar

Los Angeles

riot

in

flood in Chicago, and two freak hailstorms in central Florida. Then. in .August. Hurricane Andrew swept across

California,

Wildcat miners search for diamonds in Angola. It was estimated that in 1992 as many as 50.000 prospectors were digging in Angola, and the resulting flood of diamonds threatened the stability of world markets,

which were normally

tightly controlled.

REUTERS BETTMANN

net from the same source was reportedly back on the market. Fine and varied colours

of diamond continued to come from the Western Australian mines, where a significant proportion of total production was of gem quality. Some gem minerals were once more appearing from Nigeria (emerald of reasonable quality); supplies from Madagascar were still uneven. The main question still occupying the attention of gemstone dealers was alteration/ improvement of colour. Some merchants suggested that at least 90% of sapphire was routinely heat-treated, and the question of whether treatment should be disclosed to

customers continued to be a vexed and unresolved issue. There was no likelihood that earlier conditions, where stones were not interfered with,

would

return, so the

disclosure problem passed to the gem and jewelry regulatory bodies. Most treatment was carried out in Bangkok, Thailand.

(MICHAEL O'DONOGHUE)

GLASS Competitive pressures and a sluggish world

economy bined to

in

comand long-term

industrialized countries

make

profitability

viability in the glass industry

much more of

expanding markets, such as Southeast Asia and South and Central America, investment in capacity and production technology was occurring to meet demands that were expected to double or even triple in the next decade. In eastern Europe, however, there was considerable economic distortion since production and labour costs were cheaper than in the West and the ecological constraints that were becoming increasingly stringent in the West were virtually nonexistent. Exports to the West rose to compensate for the collapse in the domestic market and the dramatic drop in trade volume in east-

a challenge than ever before. In

A

markets. number of large enterwere considering the possibilities of investing in eastern European companies.

ern

prises

a

southern Florida and Louisiana causing an estimated $15 billion-S16.5 billion of insured losses, the highest in history. Almost three weeks later Hurricane Iniki battered Hawaii for some $2 billion more in losses. Outside the U.S.. the worst windstorm in three decades in France resulted in 50 deaths, an earthquake in Cairo killed 400. and a jumbo jet crashed into an Amsterdam apartment complex, with expected claims of $100 million-$300 million. British insurers faced these disasters following a year in which net losses, after considering £3.5 billion investment earnings, were 12% of nearly £30 billion premium income. Household insurance crime losses rose 75%, while subsidence damage claims were four times as severe as in an average year. Life insurance was a bright spot, with premiums growing by 17% to £47 billion.

In Czechoslovakia two recent partnerships

Many employees

developed, and a major

gained freedom to opt out of employers' pension plans in favour of personal insurance pensions. Lloyd's of London had a traumatic year. The latest year (1989) under its three-year accounting system showed a record loss of £2 billion. Particularly hard hit were about 4,500 of some 30,000 members of syndicates writing catastrophe reinsurance. Although few calls for claims were made on Lloyd's Central Fund, a levy was increasing the fund by £500 million. The number of syndicates fell from 384 to 279 as legal actions against them rose sharply. Lloyd's weathered the short-term capacity crisis with £6.5 billion of net resources, nearly the same as

flat

glass

producer

invested in Poland and intended to build

the country's

first

full-size

float

line

for

making plate glass. Shipments of glass containers in the U.S. declined by 2.6% in 1991 to 277,760,000 gross units. However, in the first quarter of 1992 market demand strengthened appreciably as shipments rose 6.4% above those for the first three months of 1991. Production of glass containers in the European Communities (EC) grew by slightly less than 5% in 1991, with production at 95% of capacity. Market penetration by imports, although still relatively low (6.5%), was growing. The trend was expected to

exercised

their

recently

continue for some time as imports originating from the EC's main competitors, the countries of eastern Europe, were encouraged by the liberal import policy and tariff concessions that the EC had granted them. Weakness in the construction and automotive industries caused flat glass shipments in the U.S. to dwindle by 3.3% in 1991 to 297,280,000 sq m (3.2 billion sq ft). This was the third consecutive annual decline in shipment volume, although the downward trend was expected to reverse in

two years earlier. The European Communities adopted directives to ensure a common market in both general and life insurance by 1994, but a few countries, such as Greece and Portugal, might postpone the changes. In eastern Europe new insurers were replacing state insurance monopolies that existed under communism. European brokers were opening offices there, with the most progress reported in Hungary and Poland. Banks were

the EC moved from a position of very strong growth in 1987 and 1988 to a drop in sales of 1%

particularly

dropped from 1987-88 to a situation of increasing surplus capacity in 1992 and 1993. This was exacerbated by increasing imports from outside Europe, notably the U.S. The value

billion for the

1992. Flat glass

in

in

1991. Capacity utilization

91%

of

demand

in

flat

glass also declined. Glass prices in

25% lower than two years before Europe and the U.S. and 38% lower

1991 were in

than they had been

in Australia.

Demand for glass fibre, which grew 810% per annum in the latter half of the 1980s, continued to slow down following a downturn

in activity for its

more

traditional

applications in the construction, automotive, and defense industries. Sales fell by

increasing their involvement life insurance. With policyholder surplus

in

insurance,

of

approxi-

mately $160 billion and premiums of $223 liability

first

insurers

half year, U.S. property-

were challenged by the

disasters but not seriously threatened. Indi-

vidual

company

results varied considerably,

however. Additional capital was

pumped

into several large insurers, notably the ITT Hartford Insurance Group ($681) million)

and Prudential ($900

million).

Mergers and

reorganizations proliferated with the large losses. Aetna and Continental Corp. decided to sell their reinsurance units, and Sears put 2D'' ol Allstate up for sale. Other insurers stopped or reduced business in

troubled states, particularly California.

Florida. Texas,

and New Jersey.

Industrial Review: Iron and Steel

190

I

:

~C-~r_" _

.

-

-

Buildings and vegetation

in south Florida lie devastated by Hurricane Andrew, which struck the August. For insurance companies the storm was the single most costly disaster in history, and as a result, several had their credit ratings lowered later in the year.

area ALLAN

in

TANNENBAUM—SYGMA

Pressure grew on insurers to raise prices. In liability insurance, for example, tort costs

had grown four times

economy during

faster than the U.S.

the past half century.

Of

annual tort costs of $132 billion in 1991 (including $9 billion for rising malpractice total

costs),

43% went

for legal costs. Pollution

liability costs were notoriously uncertain, with four recent court decisions denying coverage for gradual pollution and four granting such protection. Continued work-

jump

in five years,

the $1.3 billion paid was

A federal

court ruling permitted employers to reduce health coverage for victims of AIDS and other costly illnesses. Health insurance was likely to be the numsignificant.

ber one issue for insurers for some time to come. With annual health care costs skyrocketing to more than $800 billion, major

changes seemed

likely.

(DAVID

er's

IRON AND STEEL

cutting

As

compensation losses prompted costreform bills in Maine and other states, and 24-hour health insurance as an alternative to reduce claim abuses was advocated. Assets of U.S. life-health insurers reached a record $1.5 trillion, but declining interest rates and depressed real estate values were major problems. Corporate readjustments included demutualization of several insurers, the largest by far being that of the Equitable Life Assurance, which included a $450 million stock sale. The number ol mutual life insurance companies had fallen 32% during the past 50 years. One of the largest of numerous mergers combined Phoenix Mutual and Home Life. Mutual Benefit of New Jersey went into conservatorship. The capital and surplus of many life insurers was lowered at the end of 1992 by new interest maintenance reserve regulations of the National Association of Insurance Commissioners. (See Consumer

Affairs.)

The

rebounded months of 1992, up 75%

sale of variable annuities

during the

first six

compared with the previous

year. Variable

insurance policies were also popular, but overall their one-fourth share of new premiums dropped as interest earnings diminished. Sales of "first-to-die" life contracts, insuring two or more persons but paying off only at the first death, were growing because they could reduce costs for dual-income married couples and for business partners. Although AIDS-related life and health claims rose only 11% in 1991, the smallest universal

life

a

of the

result

economies

in

BICKELHAUPT)

L.

increasingly

sluggish

the major countries, the mar-

ket for steel products in 1992 was very weak. In most of the industrialized nations, estimates of the year's apparent steel consumption were for a decrease, with a very strong decline from 1991 (13%) expected for Japan and a slighter reduction (1.7%) in

the countries of the

nities

European Commu-

(EC). Altogether, steel

demand

in

the industrialized countries was expected to reach only 309 million metric tons of finished steel products, the lowest level since 1988. Steel

demand

in

countries, although

marginally lier

some of

1992, lost

in

vigour;

the less developed anticipated to rise

still

it

its

ear-

was expected, however, to

amount

before the drastic changes in the political and economic system occurred. Taking account of some further expansion of steel needs in China, the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) estimated that world finished-steel consumption in 1992 would remain at about the previous year's level of 623 million metric tons. Given the slack in steel demand, steel production in 1992 was also at a low level; during the first nine months of the year, crude steel output in the 65 countries covered by the IISI monthly statistical reports was down by 2.8%, to 523 million metric tons, 15 million metric tons less than in the corresponding period of 1991. The bulk of this decline occurred in the industrialized countries, which, taken together, produced 7 million fewer tons; crude steel output in Japan was nearly 11, million tons below that of the first nine months of 1991. The countries of eastern Europe and the CIS reduced crude steel production by as much as 20 million metric tons (15.6%). For all of 1992 world crude steel production was estimated to amount to 715 million metric tons, compared with 734 million metric tons in 1991. The geographic breakdown was expected to be as follows: industrialized countries, 370 million metric tons ( — 2.6%); less developed countries, 115 million ( + 4.5%); total Western world, 485 million (-1%); eastern Europe and CIS, 144 million (-13.3%); and China and other eastern Asian countries, 86 million ( + 12.2%). As a consequence of weakening demand, steel prices were under pressure worldwide. The f.o.b. Antwerp export prices relatively reliable general indicators of over-

—

world price developments in October 1992 were, for certain products, at levels below those in 1981, when the authorities of the EC had declared the industry in a state of "manifest crisis." Apart from the general economic slowdown, the price fall was ascribed to increased low-priced imall

European countries and to excess capacity in a number of western European economies. The rather bleak market situation gave rise to a number of trade conflicts and defensive measures, including the filing of 84 lawsuits by many major steelmakers in the ports from the eastern

in Japan, western Europe, Brazil, and South Korea. Steelmakers in the EC reintroduced import quotas for certain products originating from eastern Europe. The so-called Multilateral

U.S. against producers

Steel

Agreement

negotiations, held parallel

General Agreement on Tarand Trade Uruguay round proceedings,

to the stalled

to 124 million metric tons of finished steel products, with most of the 4.8% increase coming from the newly industrializing countries in Asia. Steel consumption in the West would remain at the 1991 level

had come to a virtual standstill. It was not likely that the next year would bring any substantial improvement in the

of 432 million metric tons.

the

Estimates of steel consumption in the former planned economies of eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS; republics of the former Soviet Union) were fraught with considerable uncertainty; the economic turmoil and

was expected

the virtual collapse of investment activity and of international trade in the region were expected to result in a substantial fall

in steel

requirements

finished steel

in

1992; at best,

consumption could reach 120

million metric tons,

compared with about

170 million metric tons

in

the peak years

iffs

demand

for

steel

weak and

products.

hesitant

In

the

U.S.

economic recovery

to generate only a marginal

consumption, and similarly slow growth was expected for the countries of the EC and for Japan. The principal investment driving force for steel demand spending remained hesitant; apart from the uncertain economic outlook, the main reasons for this were the disturbances that had occurred in the international financial markets and the rather violent and erratic fluctuations of exchange rates. For the West as a whole, steel consumption was expected to attain at best about rise

in

steel

—

—

Industrial Review: Microelectronics

Table

VIII.

World Production In

Crude Steel

of

Table

1992

World Soviet Union/CIS

Japan

1988

1989

1990

1991

736,414 161.874 98,513 80.877 56.280 36,248 22.859 22,228 17.693 17.147 15,416 17,414 16.782 14,962 14.737

780.062 163.037

786.182 160.096 107,908 88.834 61,590 41.073 25,213 25.055 19,335 15.094 15.465 18,740 21.873 14,415 15.458 14.608 12,765 10,948 9,337

769.991 154.414 1 10.339 89,723 66,349 38.434 25,510 20,567 19,015 13,625 14,775

733.734 132.666 109.649 79,203 70,436 42,169 25,007 22.617

US China

Germany' Italy

Brazil

France Poland Czechoslovakia U.K.

South Korea

Romania Canada

105.681

90.650 59.430 41.023 23.760 24,657 19,122 16,873 15,379 18,950 19.118 14.314 14.866 14.309

13.121

India

Spain Belgium South Africa Mexico

1 1

.886 11,217 8.837 7.779 6.387 6,830 7,982 8,288 5,518 4.485 4,560 4.779 3,582

.691

1 1

9.783 8,991

Australia

North Korea

Turkey Taiwan Netherlands. The Yugoslavia Austria

Sweden Hungary Luxembourg Venezuela Argentina Bulgaria Finland Indonesia

Egypt

7,642 6.100 6,730 7,044 5,771 5,082 4.367 4.301 4,595 3,622 3,302 3,699 3,633 3,044 2.669 2,059 1,433

World Production In

1987

Country

IX.

000 metric tons

7,851

6,735 6.930 7,799 9.047 5,681

4.500 4.717 4,692 3,315

3.661

3.721

3.646 3.652 2.880 2.798 2.054 2,025

3.196 3,908 2.899 2.921

2.383 2.114

change 1992/91

86.400 72.832 62,457 58.810 31.225

15 6

18.434 10,439 12,071 16.474 26.001 7,092

17.841

23.125 9.754

12,987 16.394 12,867 11.331 9,358 7,883

12,281

14,963 12.935 11,414 8.619 8.726 6.676 7,000 9,322 9.747 5,412 3,608

6,141 7.0003

9.336 10,957 5.171

2.497 4.186 r4,248 t 1.862 3,379 3.119 2.992 1,703 2.890 3,0003 2,541

4,291

4,454 2.866 3,560 2,998 3,657 2,180 2,860 2,892 2,235

World Soviet Union/CIS Japan China

i

129 +

US. Germany

62

+ 14.2

Brazil

-2.2 + 29

18.931 17,829 13,921

+

France Italy

61

India

Poland

+ 0.6

-9,4 -11.8

7,508 8,424 12,338 20,195 4,135 10.318 12.841 9.547 7.929 6.808 6,253 5.122

U.K.

Czechoslovakia

Romania Canada

+ 0.3 + 5.0

-27

73.418 55.030 43,917 28.517 20.944 13.449 11.335 10.923 10.023 12.017 9,788 9,500 9.719

+ 5.6

Australia

5,581

South Africa North Korea Spain

6,317 5,900 4,804 4.575 3.732 3.712 4.068 3.451 2.867 2,743 2,305 2,314 2,109 2,063 1,752

8,184 4,067

+ 2.7 + 7.3

1.129

37,1

Yugoslavia East Germany

3,073

-5.0

Luxembourg

+

Sweden

Austria

3.1

-25.0 -11.6 + 18.1 -14.6

2.287

+ 7,2

1,854

42

Hungary Finland Argentina

— —

23454

,057

8,239

Taiwan Mexico Turkey

+ 6.3

1,133 2,250 2.713 1.977

1 1

Netherlands, The

7,411

— —

1989 544,826 113 928 80,197 58,200 50,677 32,777 24,363

-0.6 -6.6 -4.9 + 5.1

—

3,161

1988 538.164 114,559 79,295 57.040 50,572 32,453

South Korea Belgium

+ 12.8

—

1987

+ 7.3

2

of Pig Iron

000 metric tons

508,81 113,900

Country

Percent

First

9 months

I9|

14,786 11,375 11,714 9,929 13,056 9,706

15,071 1 1 ,795

8,941

9.051

9,498 12,578 9,184 5,723

10,139 14,846 8,923 6,084 6.543 5.900 5.535 5.163 5.780 3.230 3.508 3.823 2,898

6.171

5,900 4,691

4,994 5.487 3.639 4.462 3.665 2.916 2,786 2,519 2.492 2.093 2,173 1,596

12.074 9.167 12.638 9.911

i

MO

531.835 110.167

80229 62.606 49.666 30.097 21,141 14.415 1 1 .882 12.645 8.423 12.319 9,667

1991

507.876 90.953 79.985 67,164 43,999 30,969 22,695 13,646 10,862 14.176 6.355 1 1

2 732

2,684 2,638 1,954 2.284 2.248

.883

8.479 4.700' 8.268 18.510 9.353 5.633 6.968 6.000? 5.588 4.696

6,355 7,346 15,339 9,416 6,127 6,257 5,900 5.482 4.960 5.491

5.561

3.645 4.827 3,452 2,313 2.159 2.645 2,736 1,708 2,283 2.003

3.039 4,594 3.439 1,266

—

2,463 2,812 1.311

2,331 1.437

'Includes the former East Germany from 1991 'Estimate Source: International Iron and Steel Institute.

'1992 figures not yet available, 'Includes the former East Germany from 1991 Source: International Iron and Steel Institute

445 million metric tons; for the CIS ami eastern Europe, there was expected to be a further decrease in steel demand, to 115 million metric tons. With some expansion of steel use in China, world steel demand in 1993 could reach a maximum ot 633 million metric tons, which would require crude steel production of roughly 725 million metric tons.

(D.F.ANDERSON)

Data collected

for the year

1991 revealed

United States, exports of machine tools reached a record total of $1,070,000,000. Total U.S. export sales had climbed each year since 1983. As a percentage of total production, exports continued their rise and approximated 27% in L991. The principal foreign markets for U.S. -built machine tools included Canada, Mexico, Germany. Japan, and South Korea, in that order. Sales to Mexico, Germany, Japan, South Korea, and China all posted signififor

the

cant gains over the levels registered in the

preceding year. Imports of machine tools to the U.S. fell for the third straight year in 1991 to a total of $2.1 billion, the lowest level since L988. The drop in imports plus the previously noted rise in exports combined to improve the U.S. machine tool trade deficit by 1595 in 1991 compared with 1990.

Machine tool consumption (the measure of new machine tools installed) fell in the U.S. by 7% from 1990 to 1991. This was a result of the economic slowdown that affected most sectors of the U.S. economy and the economies of other countries as well. In 1991 U.S. machine tool consumption totaled

$4.3 billion, the lowest level since 1988. Imports as a share of total U.S consumption fell to 45.4' < in 1991. down

from 46.2%

in

1990.

fell in

1991 to $2.6 billion,

down 12%

levels in 1990. However, the export portion of those orders jumped 26%

from order to their

second highest

Figures for

1991

level ever.

indicated

that

Japan

continued to lead the world in machine tool production with machines worth $11.6 billion. Following in order were Germany, $8.8 billion; Italy, $3.5 billion; the U.S., $3.3 billion; the Soviet Union and its successor, the Commonwealth of Independent States

MACHINERY AND MACHINE TOOLS that,

Net new orders for U.S. -built machine tools

(CIS), $2.5 billion; Switzerland, $2 billion; China, $1.4 billion; and the U.K., $1.3 billion. The corresponding order of countries lor 1990 was Japan, Germany, the U.S.S.R., Italy, the U.S., Switzerland, the U.K., and China. Regarding consumption, figures for 1991

indicated that Japan installed $8.3 billion worth of new machine tools, more than any

other country. The countries that followed were, in order, Germany, $6 billion; the U.S., $4.3 billion; the Soviet

Union and the

CIS, $3.4 billion; Italy, $2.7 billion; France, $1.8 billion; China, $1.8 billion; South Korea, $1.6 billion; and the U.K., $1.4 billion. The order in 1990 was: Japan, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy, France, the U.K., South Korea, China, and Spain.

(JOHN

b.

deam)

MICROELECTRONICS Projected worldwide sales of semiconductors rose again in 1992 by 7.8% to $58.9 billion, according to the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA). Although falling 7% from a year earlier, Japan retained its lead with $19.5 billion, with the U.S. a close second at an estimated $17.9 billion. The largest gain in consumption, 25.3%, was achieved by the Asia Pacific market, which in 1992 claimed 17.4% of the worldwide market to Western Europe's 19.1%.

The

Intel

Corp., the largest chip pro-

ducer in the U.S. and supplier ot the 386 and 486 microprocessors used in IBM and

IBM-compatible personal computers that run the DOS Operating System and Windows, announced that its new chip, codenamed P5, would break from tradition and be called Pentium instead of the 586 processor. During the year Intel introduced its second-generation 486 chip, the 486DX2 processor, operating at 50 MHz. This was later improved to operate at 66 MHz. In addition, Intel introduced its low-voltage 386SL and 486SL microprocessors for use in portable and notebook computers. It also announced a $50 million joint venture with VLSI Technology, Inc., to design the chip sets that would be used in the next generation of portable computers the hand-held or personal digital assistant. In the race to make portable comput-

—

ers smaller, lighter,

more

power hungry, new

plug-in devices the size

efficient,

and

less

of credit cards were introduced; they were being used to attach modems, networking interfaces, and solid-state mass-storage devices to small, notebook-size computers. Conforming to the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) standard and Intel's new Exchangeable Card Architecture (ExCA) specification, these cards could be exchanged between different vendors' products that

conformed

The

to the standards.

PCMCIA

cards

were

using

the

newest development in nonvolatile memory (memory that retains its information even without power). Called resident Hash

memory, it was already replacing some oi the components in portable computers. Using the PCMCIA and ExCA specifications, the floppy disk drive on portable computers would be replaced by flash cards that ranged

in size

from

2.5 to 20

megabytes.

( 1

)2

Industrial Review: Nuclear Industry

All the major U.S. chip manufacturers entered into strategic partnerships to develop "fuzzy logic" applications for their microcontroller chips. Fuzzy logic and neural networks were being used to solve complex problems by approximating the human thought process and "learning" from past experiences. Applications included object, speech, and handwriting recognition; engine diagnostics; medical diagnostics; and imaging and vision systems. Neural microchips. such as those manufactured by Inc., could perform up to 1,280,000,000 "connections" per second. Digital Equipment Corp. announced its new Alpha microchip, a reduced instruction set computing (RISC) chip. The 64-bit chip was designed to process up to 400 million instructions per second (MIPS).

HNC

(THOMAS

E.

KROLL)

NUCLEAR INDUSTRY Data

for

released by the

1991,

Interna-

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in ^2. showed that construction began on two units. Wolsong 2 in South Korea and

tional l

l

Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 6 in Japan. One unit each in Bulgaria. China. France, and Japan was connected to the grid for the first line, and one project in Bulgaria and three 1

in

Operators work

one

a Russian nuclear power plant west of St. Petersburg, where a problem with caused radioactive gases to be released into the atmosphere on March 24. no reported danger either to workers or to people outside the facility.

There was ALEXEl

at

ot the reactors

flOGOV—SYGMA

German) were suspended or canceled.

Nine units were closed permanently. For the first time since 1967, no new unit was brought on-line in the U.S. At the end of |W| there were 420 units in operation throughout the world, with a total capacity ot 326,61

1

MW (a net

fall

of three units but compared with

a slight rise in total capacity

produced 2,009.1 TW hr (terawatt hours; one terawatt equals one 1990). Nuclear plants

trillion

watts) of electricity

in

1991.

Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. concluded a deal with the Korean Electric Power Co. for two pressurized heavy water reactors (PWRs), units 3 and 4 at Wolsong. The YA olsong site was expected to produce more than 2.5(1(1 when completed. South Korea planned to add IS new nuclear power units before 2006; seven units were under W2. and were planned. construction in he new nuclear station site at Higashidori would allow Japan to reach its target oi 359! nuclear electricity production by 2000. The site, where four boilingwatei reactor (BVVR) units were planned, was the first to become available in Japan in mine than six years. The Japanese lokai 2 unit became the lirst BWR in the world

MW

1

1

1

1

1

MW

hr. generate loo million U.K. Bradwell 2. one of the two 123-MW Magnox-type nuclear units at the

to

In the

station,

won

a

new

lease

on

lite

from

industry agglomerate, also pledged $50 milWestinghouse was proposing a 600-

lion.

MW

"passive" design; General Electric was working on designs for both 600 and 1.300 MW; and the ABB/Combustion group was

preparing a 1,300-MW design. A study of advanced reactor designs by the U.S. Council for Energy Awareness showed that the 30-year average costs of electricity generated by both the mediumsized and large units would be competitive with the output from fossil-fired stations of similar sizes. Costs for various types of plants operating at the end of the decade were (in 1992 U.S. dollars) 3.8 cents per kilowatt hour for one 1.200-MW nuclear unit and 4.5 cents per kilowatt hour for one reactor, compared with 4.8 cents 600per kilowatt hour tor a low-emission coalfired plant or 4.3 cents per kilowatt hour

MW

tor a

combined

cycle gas-fired station.

included

estimates

The

decommissioning and

fuel-cycle costs.

The nuclear power legacy of the Soviet Union to its successor republics resulted in a good deal of "tire-lighting" operations. The Ukraine government, for example, decided to rebuild the sarcophagus enclosing the destroyed reactor at Chernobyl so that K

would

last

for at least

100 years.

Cash

the U.K. Nuclear Installations Inspectorate,

prizes were offered tor the best solution to

which allowed it to continue operation beyond its ahead) extended 30-year lifetime. «i2 with a he unit began operation in design life ot 2(1 vears. It might now con-

the problem. Principal requirements were

l

l

I

>s. operation until The U.S. Nuclear Power Oversight Committee, the nuclear powei industry's policymaking body, issued formal requests lor "advanced nucleai power plant designs" from three groups led by Westinghouse

tinue

in

l

(.up. General Electric Combustion Engineering.

l »(

Co.,

ant!

ABB

he winning proposals were expected to obtain U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funding. The l)()l committed more than $100 million ovei five vears loi support ot the development. The Advanced Reactor Corp., an I

the new enclosure be completed in years at the most, normal personnel exposure satety regulations be met, and the processing and disposal of radioactive waste from the site also be included in the that five

proposals.

Early in the year the leaders of Russia affirmed their continuing support for the IAEA in all important nuclear-related areas, including safety and the exchange of information. At a March meeting in Vienna, national regulators and utility managers from Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Russia discussed measures taken or contemplated to improve the safety of the VVER-type

pressurized water reactors.

Another joint agreement between the Czechoslovak manufacturer Skoda and a Western company was announced as part of the process of privatization from a single state enterprise into two companies, Skoda Energo and Skoda Transport. Both companies were to have Siemens as a foreign partner to provide a positive link with

Western technology. Siemens was to contribute finance, technology, and work orders to the joint-venture companies, while Skoda would provide assets, production capacity, and skilled workers. Skoda Energo would be active in all forms of energy production, with emphasis on ecologically benign sources, encompassing the four original power engineering plants in Plzen and Prague for turbines, nuclear machinery, electrotechnology, and automation engineering. The French nuclear program, which had been the most intensive in the world (France produced 72.7% of its total output of electricity by nuclear power in 1991), continued the slowdown that had begun in recent years. At the start of 1992 there were 56 units in operation, 5 units being built, and only 6 in the planning stages. The state-owned utility, Electricite de France, approached the government for approval for at least

two new units of 1,455

MW.

A

report from the French safety authority on the problems with the commercialscale fast-breeder reactor at Creys-Malville (called Superphenix) pointed to "inherent weaknesses" in the technology, particularly the liquid-sodium cooling system, which had

bedeviled the early operating experience with the plant. Even if the government decided to allow the project to continue, the report indicated that it should be for only a limited time to gain as much information as possible from this prototype project. The report called for studies to be made on using the reactor to "burn" actinides in a nonbreeding mode in order to reduce the large stockpile of plutonium accumulating at the La Hague reprocessing plant.

IikIiisim.iI

A report by the U.S. National Research Council endorsed advanced versions ol the liquid-metal reactor together with the "passive" advanced lighl watei reactors. The council said that they offered the best prospects for long- and near-term develop-

ment

in

plications tor paint makers and industrial uscis during 1992, but the upgrading dead-

between old rivals France and Siemens in Ger-

manufacture was postponed

line for paint

to April

the U.S. The new collaboration in

Framatome

In the U.K. the stepwise compliance schedule ol the 1990 Environmental Pro tection Act began with authorization ap-

1999.

In

European

the

Commu-

amendment

nities at

large, the seventh

the IW>7

Dangerous Substance Directive

new "dangerous

to

lor the environ-

many. joining in a search for contracts in a lean market for new and replacement nuclear steam generators, was rewarded with contracts for 12 units in Spain and 3 in Sweden. Mitsubishi, in its lirst successful

with

foray for nuclear business outside Japan, won an order for three steam-generator re-

si ill under development. Meanwhile, France produced its own national Eco-Label for paints. In the U.S., air emissions and waste controls continued to dominate the regulatory landscape, but lead abatement in old paintwork was emerging as a major problem. Much of the industry's research and development agenda was now dictated by environmental considerations with the replacement of conventional solvent-based paint the prime

placements at Tihange in Belgium. Work on the second unit at Angra in Brazil had come to a stop in 1988 after 1

1

years following the transfer of the nu-

clear project to Furnas, a concessionary of

company ElecThe World Bank, which does not

the state-owned electricity trobras.

finance nuclear projects, promptly ceased Brazil's

energy financing.

A

new agreement

between the Brazilian government and the German financing agency KFW, together with the Dresdner Bank, was designed to allow the project to be completed by 1947. The negotiations between the governments succeeded after a $130 million reduction was achieved in the projected costs. The new heavy water plant at Arroyito in Argentina was due to have completed its commissioning by the end of 1992. when it would begin production of heavy water for Atucha 2, the German-built PWR. Argentina might have to sell its two other nuclear plants (Embalse and Atucha 1) to private investors to finance the completion of Atucha

2.

(richard

a.

knox)

PAINTS AND VARNISHES The economy and the environment continued to weigh heavily on paint makers in the West; expansion was a more typical experience for their counterparts

in

its

—

ment'' symbol was adopted. Also adopted during the year was the voluntary EC-wide Eco-Label Regulation. Although its admin-

provisions were in place, the in-

istrative

dividual criteria for paints were

goal.

Waterborne coatings currently ap-

peared as a viable alternative.

(helma jotischky)

When

— —environmental

com-

the fall ol 1992 involving reconfiguration of the scheme so in

lees could go directly to improvami streamlining the FDA approval process, and limitation of the notion to prescription drugs. The result was passage of the Prescription Drug User Fee Act of 1992. During its five years of life, the measure was expected to bring in about $330 million, allowing the FDA to hire 600 new that usei

ing

examiners.

NDAs

The

would

cost

to

firms

submitting

from $100,000 to $233,000 per application over five years, and other fees would also increase. In the fall a U.S. General Accounting Office study of prescription drug prices over a six-year period found that the price rise

increase of 29 widely used drugs "generally exceeded 100 percent," with some prices rising by 200 to

Consumer

300%. During

this period, the

Price Index (CPI) rose 26.2%,

while the CPI for prescription drugs rose by 67* Findings like these prompted criticism of drug manufacturers during the election .

ers Association asserted that price increases

had "moderated" since 1989, but this did not reassure Wall Street analysts, who saw pressure building for government controls on prices and profits. There were further repercussions of the generic drug scandal, with heavy sentences and fines handed down to generic company officers found guilty of fabricating phony

leg-

opportunities for joint ventures, technology licensing, and trade. Specialties, such as coil and powder coatings, enjoyed good growth prospects. The Chinese mainland,

when

promise was reached

in

Administration (FDA)-regulated industries encountered considerable opposition. The primary objection hinged on the fact that the fees to be paid by manufacturers applying for new drug application (NDA) approvals, certification of food or cosmetic colours or additives, or agency approval of new medical devices were earmarked for general revenues, meaning they could be used for any purpose, not just for improving FDA efficiency or staffing. Small generic drug companies saw the scheme as

Europe and North America was making additional demands on the industry. At the same time. Southeast Asia's buoyant paint markets were offering attractive

A

lab technician helping

the search for new drugs works with in

equipment traditional

methods

that

combines

screening

with

modern

biotechnology. Rather than testing entire protein

molecules

for their activity

against disease-causing

organisms, the

new

approach tested

millions

of different, synthesized

protein fragments, or peptides, for their

molecular interactions with the organisms; once such masses of information

were processed by computer, researchers

the announced merger between the powder coatings interests of the Ferro

hoped

Corp. and ICI failed to take place.

therapeutic proteins.

ever,

food and cosmetii

campaign. The Pharmaceutical Manufactur-

islation in

Western expansion into the area was proceeding. Restoration work in eastern Germany brought a brisk demand for building paint, as shown in the expansion of paint production from only 17,500 tons in the first half of 199] to 42,000 tons during the same period in 1992. In general, the globalization of marketing strategies was finding expression in worldwide takeovers and joint ventures. The consolidation of the powder coatings market took a step backward, how-

hi

I

the mid-1980s,

proposed

East

with its vast, as-yet-untapped market, was beginning to exert an increasing pull. Its paint output rose by 9.3% in 1991 to 928,III 10 metric tons. Another market with an as-yet-unrealized potential was eastern Europe. In the wake of the privatization wave, paint production there had fallen drastically. Nonetheless.

time and effort.

dustries had similar objections. After several years of stalemate, a

Food and Drug

originally

in

so-called user fees for U.S.

Asia. While recession was biting deeply into paint output and profits in the U.K. and the U.S. in particular

an unlaii burden, since the drugs they were were essentially copies ol tuily innoiell vative drugs ami thus needed less reviewer



Caribbean

LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS

1992, which marked the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas, turned out to be a particularly turbulent one in large areas of Latin America. Perhaps the most dramatic events were registered in Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. Political Developments. In Venezuela there were two failed, attempts by the military (on February 4 and November 27) to seize power from the government of Pres. Carlos Andres Perez. Both were led by members of the RevoluLieut. Col.

Movement, whose inspirational leader was Hugo Chavez (imprisoned after the February

coup attempt). Peru's president, Alberto Fujimori, acted to suspend the country's constitution on April

5, in effect

UN

Clinton.

imposing a "self

Little

progress was

made

in

1992 toward securing the

coup," following challenges by the legislature to his freemarket reforms. When it became clear that the country

return of Haiti's democratically elected Pres. Jean-Bertrand Aristide in exile since September 1991 although the mil-

democratic procedures were not reinstated, Fujimori announced that polls to elect an 80-member constituent assembly would be held later in the year. During the period from May to September, the terrorist organization Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) stepped up its bombing campaign in the capital, Lima, adding to the government's difficulties. On September 13 the authorities captured the Sendero leader, Abimael Guzman. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on October 27, but this did not deter the movement from taking fresh action. Meanwhile, disquiet within the country's military resulted in an assassination attempt on Fujimori on November 13 barely a week before the assembly elections (which went ahead as planned and produced a majority of pro-government

itary-backed government was prepared to allow partial elec-

risked international isolation

if

—

members). In

allegations

Brazil

racket devised by Pres.

in

May

of an

influence-peddling

Fernando Collor de Mello's former

campaign treasurer, Paulo Cesar

Farias, led to a congres-

produced evidence members, and associates were also involved. This did not prevent Collor from scoring an im-

sional inquiry during July-August that that Collor, close family

portant personal success

when

serving as host to the

UN

"Earth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro during June. However, on September 29 more than a two-thirds majority of Congress voted for an impeachment trial of the president. This was conducted by the Senate during October-December. In the interim, from October 2 Vice Pres. Itamar Franco became acting president, with a new government team, and he was expected to be sworn in as president after the Senate verdict on Collor. On December 29, just as the Senate was beginning the decisive session of the impeachment hearings, Collor resigned. Hours later Franco was sworn in as president.

The year

got off to a promising start in regard to bringing

sustained peace to El Salvador, which had been riven by civil

war

for

some 12

years.

An

Central American summit held

in

accord was reached at a Mexico City on January

and chaired by Mexican Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari. However, an October 31 deadline, by which time the leftwing Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front was to demobilize, was missed, and the deadline was extended to midDecember. On September 11 a World Court ruling ended a long-running dispute between El Salvador and Honduras. 15

—

—

December. In the deposed leader were working within the Organization of American States and the UN, and in discussions with advisers of the incoming tions for 9 of 27 Senate seats in late latter part of the year, associates of the

U.S. Clinton administration, to find a solution that might

overcome the obstacles difficulties

to Aristide's return and to resolve posed by large numbers of Haitian asylum-seek-

ers in the U.S.

Ecuador Duran Ballen

In presidential elections held in

(May

17 and July 5), Sixto

in

two rounds

{see

Biogra-

phies) of the new Republican Unity Party defeated Jaime Nebot of the Social Christian Party as well as eclipsing the former ruling party, the Democratic Left. Duran began his four-year term on August 10, but the swift introduction of a series of free-market reforms (including extensive privatization) and economic-adjustment measures was not well received, and a one-day general strike was held on

September 23. Guyana's twice-postponed general election was held on October 5. It resulted in victory for Cheddi Jagan's People's Progressive Party, but not before there had been rioting and violence, largely perpetrated by supporters of the former ruling People's National Congress. In Jamaica Prime Minister Michael Manley retired at the end of March owing to health problems and was replaced by former finance minister Percival Patterson (who had been removed from office in

a Cabinet reshuffle

The year began

in

January).

Colombia's president, Cesar Gaviria, with the ruling Liberal Party winning an overall majority in local elections in early March. But the situation deteriorated from April, when the government declared a state of economic emergency on account of electric power shortages. During subsequent months peace talks with guerrilla groups lapsed, imprisoned Medellfn drug baron Pablo Escobar escaped (July 22), and the general fairly positively for

political situation deteriorated.

This was

compounded

after

Gaviria again declared a state of emergency on November 8, in a bid to fight so-called Marxist rebels. In late November members of the ex-guerrilla M-19 movement which,

—

having demobilized to become a political party in 1989, had previously supported the government withdrew from the government.

—

latin America and

On

thi-

(

arihlu-aii:

475

Argentina

front, important progress was made in North American Free Trade Agreement between Mexico, the U.S., and Canada. The accord was agreed to in principle by July 13. and initial signings were made on December 17 prior to ratification by the legislature of each country. In early November the 13 members of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom) agreed to cut external tariffs from 1993. The Andean Pact was beset by division earlier in the year but appeared closer to consensus in the final quarter. Differences between Argentina and Brazil (and the political difficulties in Brazil in the second half of the year) hindered further progress on the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) arrangements, although there was time to rectify this by the end of 1994, when full integration was scheduled to begin.

the

regard

to

trade the

(SUSAN CUNNINGHAM)

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA Representatives of the governments of Argentina and Brazil shake hands at the signing of the Tlatelolco Treaty in Mexico City on August

The

26.

treaty,

which would

prohibit nuclear

and the Caribbean, was signed by AP/WIOE

weapons

in

Latin

America

countries.

1 1

WORLD

Uruguay the fortunes of the government of Luis Lacalle and the ruling National (Blanco) Party were mixed, with Cabinet resignations in January and increasing oppoIn

block key planks of the party's economicreform program. Not least, on December 13 a national referendum on privatization resulted in heavy defeat for

A

constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Antigua and Barbuda comprises the islands of Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 442 sq km (171 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 64,000. Cap.: Saint John's. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992)

ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir Wilfred E. Jacobs; prime minister, Vere Cornwall Bird. a par value of

sterling).

sition activity to

the government,

which had favoured privatizing some

state-

The Antigua and Barbuda government was under continuing political pressure in 1992, as

opponents of the 82-year-

old prime minister, Vere Bird, sought to drive him from

on the

basis of an alleged "check scandal."

The

controlled firms.

office

Economic Affairs. Concerning economic developments, 1992 was expected to produce average growth of the region's gross domestic product (GDP) of 3-4%, with inflation declining to well under the roughly 300% of 1991. Among the major economies, by the final quarter of the year, increases in the GDP were more than 10% in Chile, over 9% in Venezuela, 6-7%- in Argentina, and close to 3% in Mexico. Brazil was the main exception, with a deep

closure that Bird had deposited an EC$67,000 government

recession continuing in the nation's industries throughout the year

and zero

to negative

growth expected

overall.

On

was running a strong trade surplus ($12,890,000,000 by the end of October), while Mexico was expected to end the year with a deficit of more than $18 the other hand, Brazil

billion.

Argentina's trade position also

moved toward

a $1

annual deficit, and Chile's surplus was cut to about $850 million, both results largely influenced by a high level billion

of imports.

The region's foreign debt remained high (more than $420 billion in nominal terms), although further progress was made toward converting the commercial debt of Argentina and Brazil into bonds.

Agreement

in principle

on

an arrangement covering $31 billion (including $8 billion of

was reached between Argentina and its bankers on April 6, and there was a similar accord (covering $44 billion) for Brazil on July 9. Neither deal had been completed by the end of 1992, but initial signings had begun for Argentina (and progress made on assembling up to $3.2 billion of collateral), with a view to the new bonds being issued in April and May 1993. Completion of the Brazil deal was arrears)

check to his own bank account sparked several opposition protest demonstrations during the year, starting in February. Bird explained that he was being repaid legitimately by the government for money he had lent to a woman entitled to government-assisted medical attention overseas. This did not satisfy the three main opposition parties, which banded together as the United Progressive Party (UPP). A UPPinspired general strike in April closed most businesses. Bird was sufficiently moved by the protests to announce he would step down as Antigua Labour Party leader before the 1994 general election, but the party failed to elect a successor.

The Barbudans, meanwhile, indicated in August that they might "secede" from the union if their needs did not receive more attention. On the economic front, the country's debt burden remained high, at $328.6 million, equivalent to 74% of gross domestic product. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropazdia article The Antigua and Barbuda.

federal republic of Argentina occupies the eastern section of the Southern Cone of South America, along the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,518 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 33,070,000. Cap.: Buenos Aires. Monetary unit: peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official rate of 0.99 peso to U.S. $1 (1.68 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Saul Menem.

Domestic Affairs. By the standards of recent years, Argenwere characterized by a high degree of stability during most of 1992. This was due in large measure to the underlying calm on the economic front that resulted from

Monetary Fund standby accord (which was agreed to in late January but which lapsed from May). Banks also appeared to have made progress in debt talks late in the year with officials from Peru and Ecuador.

Minister

billion

International

Indies:

The

tine affairs

$2.1

West

ARGENTINA

back by political circumstances, although a Senate panel had approved the bank terms at the beginning of December prior to a vote by the full Senate in 1993. More hurdles also had to be overcome in regard to renegotiating the country's

set

dis-

the convertibility plan established in April 1991 by

Domingo

Cavallo.

The continuation of

Economy this plan,

which was incorporated into law and obliged the government to back the issue of currency with dollar reserves, provided the platform for further reform and deregulation

476

World

of the

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

economy and reduced the

potential for significant

movement or the main Union (UCR). The country also

disruption by the organized labour

opposition Radical Civic benefited from steps taken to minimize the scope for military interference in the country's political process since Carlos Menem became president in July 1989.

Menem

managed

also

to avert

bad publicity from the

continuing saga of corruption scandals affecting close aides

and family members;

his sister-in-law

Amira Yoma, was given

and former

secretary,

a prison sentence in August for

in the laundering of funds derived from drug Only one major Cabinet change had taken place

involvement trafficking.

by late October, the replacement of Justice Minister Leon Carlos Arslanian on September 8 by Menem's legal secre-

Jorge Maioriano. In December, however, Menem dismissed Home Minister Jose Luis Manzano, Labour Minister Rodolfo Diaz, and Education Minister Antonio Salonia. Signals from Menem early in the year suggested that he might move toward revision of the constitution during 1992, at least partly in order to secure passage of an amendment that would permit him to run for president again in 1995. However, this idea was dropped, particularly after Avelino Porto, the pro-Menem candidate in the Senate election in Buenos Aires, was beaten by a substantial margin in June by his UCR rival, Fernando de la Rua. Porto won only some 30% of the vote, against almost 50% for de la Rua. While Porto had not been expected to win, the magnitude of the defeat was taken to indicate a high degree of dissatisfaction with government policies and corruption among voters in the country's most economically advanced area. Soon after the Buenos Aires vote, it was made clear that constitutional changes would not be sought in the short term; instead the aim would be to deepen the reform process. This would include enacting proposals to reform pension provisions, making changes in labour law, further streamlining public-sector employment, and making adjustments to the judicial system. There remained a strong contingent tary,

within the ruling Peronist (Partido Justicialista, PJ) move-

ment, however, that wished to see Menem reelected, and this could revive constitutional reform moves during 1993. By the final quarter of 1992 both the UCR and dissident members of the General Workers Confederation (CGT) appeared to be stepping up their opposition to certain aspects of government plans. In late September the

UCR

announced that it would no longer attend periodic discussions convened by Menem with the aim of winning consensus for reform measures, while during October the CGT threatened a work stoppage to protest against government policies (an earlier planned strike in July was averted when the authorities successfully negotiated with

On November

CGT called

CGT

leaders).

one-day general strike. The Economy. Having succeeded in bringing about sustained stability to the economy from the start of the second 9 the

quarter of 1991, along with a

a

fairly

robust recovery that pro-

vided growth of some 5% in gross domestic product (GDP) and relatively low annual inflation (84%, down from 1,344% in 1990) in the same year, Cavallo proceeded to extend his

program of reforms during

1992.

A

6.5% growth

rate

was

envisioned for the year, with the consumer boom that had been based on imported goods during 1991 giving waj to more solidly based domestic investment and output growth by 1993. In dollar terms GDP was initially projected officially

at

$153

billion for 1992, but

an alternative method of

cal-

culation by the country's central bank published in early

October indicated that the true figure could be closer to billion. Inflation, meanwhile, was kept under control, with monthly rates for consumer price rises registering 3% or less during the first nine months of 1992 and with an S228

accumulated increase to the end of September of 15.2% and an annual rate of 18%. Wholesale prices, however, had increased only 5.6% as of the end of September. Efforts to boost tax revenues and reduce tax evasion were evident throughout the year. The key moves were the increase in the value-added tax (VAT) from 16 to 18% on March 1, 1992, along with a new tax on assets held abroad, and, in June, the extension of VAT to bank loans. The measures proved effective in improving tax revenues and diminishing the Treasury's reliance on income from the privatization program, which also continued. Among the main projects of the latter were the sale of a 30% government stake in the telecommunications concern, Telecom de Argentina, in March 1992 and the disposal of parts of the Buenos Aires electricity concern, Segba, at various times during the year. Congressional approval was given in late September for the sale of the state oil concern, YPF, which could begin in early 1993. Further changes designed to simplify the tax regime (and in some cases reduce or phase out taxes) were announced in early October. They included: the phasing out of the stamp duty on capital goods; the reduction of federal taxes on fuels used by both rural and industrial producers; a call for provincial governments to eliminate business taxes on gross revenues and replace energy and financial taxes with new provincial sales taxes; and simpler tax and customs procedures for exporters. In July 1992, when the government published its draft budget for 1993 (projecting growth of 4.5% and annual inflation down to 5.3%), the authorities expected a budget surplus for 1992 equivalent to $3 billion (rising to $3.4 billion in 1993). It was unclear by mid-October whether this surplus would be achieved, although there had been no contraindications from, for example, the regular monitoring of the economy by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), with which Argentina had a $3 billion extended financing facility (approved at the end of March). Success in obtaining the IMF facility helped underpin the

conclusion of a debt-rescheduling deal with foreign commercial banks. It covered some $23 billion that would be restructured under two

bond maturing

bond options (par and

discount),

30 years, and arrangements for dealing with $8 billion of arrears (apart from a cash payment of $400 million, the remainder was to be covered by 12-year past-due-interest bonds). After bank options were lodged in early August, it became clear that there was an unequal distribution between the par and discount bonds in the proportion 80-20 (reflecting the better returns that banks expected from par bonds). It had been hoped that, in order to have a workable deal and ensure that pledged collateral needed to back the bond issues would be disbursed, the mix would have been closer to 50-50. Subsequently, banks were approached to review their options and, at the annual IMF- World Bank meetings in Washington, D.C., in late September, there was agreement that an acceptable mix would be 65% for the par bonds and 35% for the discounts. By the third week of October some progress had been made toward this goal, and on December 7 the banks agreed to accept the 65-35% mix. Having rescheduled part of its debt with Paris Club creditors in September 1991, Argentina reached an additional accord in late July to rewith each

in

some $8,730,000,000. Argentina's foreign trade position was less favourable

structure

during 1992 than in 1991 (when there was a $4.3 billion surplus) or 1990 (when the surplus was almost $8.3 billion).

For the period from January to May there was a surplus of $700 million, compared with $2.4 billion for the same period of 1991. The authorities were projecting an annual 1992 surplus of $1,320,000,000 based on exports of $12,-

i

320,000,000 and imports ol SI envisioned for L993.

I

billion,

with

little

change

large

measure

to the falling trade surplus.

As of

the end

of July, Argentina had incurred a $600 million deficit

in its

Menem

remained committed to the Mercosur common market, which was scheduled to become fully operative in January 1995, but during a state visit to Mexico in mid-October, he was understood to be exploring ways in which links might be enhanced with the North American free-trade area. trade with Brazil. President

(SUSAN M. CUNNINGHAM)

A

constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, The Bahamas comprises an archipelago of about 700 islands in the North Atlantic Ocean just southeast of the United States.

Area: 13,939 sq km (5,382 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 264,000. Cap.: Nassau. Monetary unit: Bahamian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of B$l to U.S. $1 (free rate of B$1.70 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Clifford Darling; prime ministers. Sir Lynden O. Pindling and. from August 21,

in Caribbean politics took place August 1992 when Prime Minister Sir Lynden Pindling's Progressive Liberal Party was swept from power after 25 years, to be replaced by the Free National Movement, led by Hubert Ingraham (see Biographies). Ingraham's policies were not markedly different from Pindling's, but there was a slightly stronger emphasis on free markets and privatization. He said he would maintain a non-

of the biggest upsets

The Bahamas

in

resident diplomatic relationship with

hamas' interests In

November

up

set

to coor-

Two major development projects were announced: a German-financed ship-repair yard at Freeport and a $30 million Japanese-backed citrus-processing plant at Abaco. In April the Bahamas Appeal Court ruled that a prominent Nassau lawyer, Nigel Bowe, could be extradited to the U.S. to face drug charges. The 10,000th international business company formed under liberalized legislation that took ef(david RENWK fect in 1990 was registered in July. This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies:

m

The Bahamas.

BARBADOS

ern Caribbean Sea. Area: 430 sq km (166 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 259,000. Cap.: Bridgetown. Monetary unit: Barbados dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of BDS$2.01 to U.S. $1 (free rate of BDS$3.42 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governorgeneral in 1992, Dame Nita Barrow; prime minister, Erskine Sandiford.

Barbados entered 1992 under an International Monetary Fund adjustment program, which included reductions in the

Hubert Ingraham.

in

sponsored Hurricane Relief Committee was

477

The constitutional monarchy of Barbados, a member of the Commonwealth, occupies the most easterly island in the south-

BAHAMAS, THE

One

America and the Caribbean: Belize

dinate rehabilitation efforts.

Argentina's less competitive exchange rate, especially with neighbouring Brazil, with which it was linked in the Mercosur pact (along with Uruguay and Paraguay), contributed in

.ii 111

lay with

Cuba but

that

The Ba-

North America and the Caribbean.

civil

service salary

employment

and divestment of state enterprises. Devaluation of the Barbados dollar was avoided at the insistence of the Democratic Labour Party (DLP) government, which obtained $64.9 million in credits from the Fund to stabilize foreign reserves.

The economy remained depressed. Sugar production, ter

hitting

APWIDE WORLD

60-year record low in

a

1991,

af-

plunged even

further, to about 55,000 metric tons in 1992.

The

British

multinational consultancy firm Booker Tate, called in to

manage the

Pindling resigned as leader of his party.

Only four days after the election, Hurricane Andrew slammed into The Bahamas, doing $250 million worth of damage and leaving 1,700 people homeless. A government-

higher interest rates, cuts in un-

bill,

benefits,

industry,

recommended

the closing of one of

the three remaining sugar factories and restructuring of the industry's debt.

A

U.S. State Department advisory in April,

warning U.S. tourists about increased crime in Barbados, affected visitor arrivals. The British government took a similar

step a

month

later.

Harold Blackman resigned as minister of state in the Finance Ministry in April and proceeded to launch a scathing attack on the DLP leadership. In September the Barbados Mutual Life Assurance company was given the green light to take over local

Credit and

assets of the

Commerce

scandal-ridden

Bank of

(david renwick.) Macropaedia article The West Indies:

International.

This article updates the Barbados.

BELIZE

A constitutional Belize

is

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, on the Caribbean coast of Central America. Area:

22,965 sq

km

(8,867 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 196,000. Cap.: Belunit: Belize dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of BZ$2 to U.S. $1 (free rate of BZS3.40 = £1 sterling).

mopan. Monetary

Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Gordon; prime minister, George Cadle Price.

Dame

Minita

In his 1992 budget Prime Minister George Price forecast continued growth and budgeted a total of BZ$335.1 million, a 14.6% increase over the previous year. Expenditures rural electrification and a hydroelectric power Leading growth sectors in 1992 were construction, transport and communications, utilities, and tourism. Belize also became a member of the Inter-American Development Bank. Belize opened its doors to 100 Haitian refugees during

included

project. Hubert Ingraham, head of the Free National Movement and new prime minister of The Bahamas, speaks to supporters after elections

on August 19. His party defeated the Progressive Liberal Party of Lynden Pindling, which had ruled the country for 25 years.

Sir

World

478

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

the year. Because the population of Belize was predominantly Hispanic, 100 Belizeans were included

in

resettlement area to encourage ethnic mix. In

November

the Haitian the

Congress of Guatemala voted to approve the decision by Guatemala's president to recognize Belizean independence. In February members who had been expelled or had resigned from the opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) announced the formation of a new political party, the National Alliance for Belizean Rights (NABR), which was coordinated by Philip Goldson. Both the UDP and the NABR protested the publication by Guatemala of a map that advertised oil concession bids in an area that included part of Belize's exclusive economic zone and part of its territorial waters. (ines t. baptist) This article updates the Macropcedia article

Central Amer-

ica: Belize.

is

a landlocked republic in central South America. Area:

km (424,164 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 7,739,000. Administrative cap.. La Paz; judicial cap., Sucre. Monetary unit: boliviano, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 4 bolivianos to U.S. $1 (6.80 bolivianos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Jaime Paz 1.098.581 sq

Zamora.

Municipal elections held

in

December 1991 were described

by Pres. Jaime Paz Zamora as the "cleanest on record," and the poll passed off peacefully. The government coalition won only 31.5% of the vote, but this was higher than any other political grouping. The two populist parties did well, with the Civic Solidarity Union gaining 26.9% of the overall

vote.

The government

coalition

nominated Gen. Hugo

Banzer as its presidential candidate in the general election due in May 1993. The year began shakily with a national strike on Jan. 2, 1992, led by the Confederation of Bolivian Workers, protesting the government's privatization program. Internal transport was paralyzed as workers blocked roads and held demonstrations throughout the country. The government, nevertheless, continued its program, with the most interest being shown in the energy sector. Seven groups of private operators were exploring for oil in all nine of Bolivia's departments, and nine companies were negotiating new

The

Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, the national carrier, was also encouraged by the government. The economy was boosted by gas exports to Argentina and a new gas pipeline to Brazil, to open by the end of the year. Inflation was expected to drop to 12%. Growth of gross domestic product was announced at 3.8%, down from the 4.1% registered in 1991 but higher than the 1990 index contracts.

sale of

of 2.6%.

On

January 24 an agreement was signed by President Paz Peru allowing Bolivia access to the Pacific. Bolivia has been landlocked since it lost its coastline to Chile in the 1879 War of the Pacific. Bolivian companies would now be able to use the Peruvian port of Ilo, and movement of individuals between the two countries would be freer. In return, Bolivia promised to help Peru gain access to the Atlantic through Brazil via the Bolivian border town of Puerto Suarez. The Bolivians saw Ilo as the springboard for exports to the Pacific Rim countries. In the campaign against cocaine, Bolivia fell 1,000 ha (2.47(1 ac) short of its target of eradicating 7,000 ha (17,290 ac) in 1991. A U.S. embassy official in La Paz announced that S6.2 million of the $66 million allocated for drugrelated campaigns would be withheld because of the shortfall. Joint operations between Bolivian and U.S. officials to destroy the drug-trafficking network had been hampered

and

Enforcement Agency in the Beni district. The Bolivian government responded to criticism by claiming that seven prominent drug traffickers had surrendered between July and November 1991, under protection from its guarantee of nonextradiction to the U.S. By May 1992, however, only 1,000 ha of coca fields had been destroyed; at that rate only half of the 1991 goal would be achieved by the end of the

(huw clough)

year.

BRAZIL Brazil is a federal republic in eastern South America on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 8,511,996 sq km (3,286,500 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 151,381,000. Cap.: Brasilia. Monetary unit: cruzeiro, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 6,558 cruzeiros to U.S. $1

(11,149 cruzeiros = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Fernando Collor de Mello and, from October 2, Itamar Franco.

» *

BOLIVIA Bolivia

by mutual accusations. Relations were soured by rumours were building a secret base for the Drug

that U.S. soldiers

Pres. Alberto Fujimori of

Domestic Affairs. The year 1992 proved to be a turbulent one for Pres. Fernando Collor de Mello, who began his third year of office in March. As had been evident for some time, Collor was increasingly on a collision course with the legislature, which added to his difficulties in pushing ahead with reform. Then, during late May, allegations made by his younger brother, Pedro, triggered what became known as "Collorgate." In a nutshell, the allegations were that the president was involved in (or knew of ) a multimillion-dollar influence-peddling and corruption scheme orchestrated by Paulo Cesar Farias, who had been Collor's campaign treasurer in 1989. Further revelations regarding the affair con-

tinued

in

the following months, and a congressional inquiry

was begun. The findings of the inquiry, whose report was completed in late August, were sufficient to merit impeachment proceedings of Collor by Congress. The lower house of Congress on September 29 voted 441— 38 to impeach the president. Also, on November 12 the atinto Farias' dealings

moved separately to launch criminal proceedings against Collor. The impeachment trial of the president by the Senate began on December 29. Only minutes after it started, Collor resigned, and Vice Pres. Itamar Franco was sworn in as president. The Senate then banned torney general's office

Collor from public office for eight years. Franco had taken the reins of the presidency on October

A

seasoned politician who had been at odds with Collor time, he moved to appoint a new, multiparty Cabinet, whose composition was intended to help guarantee congressional support for urgent economic measures. Among them was a revised package of fiscal reforms that needed approval before the end of 1992 to avert a budget collapse in 1993. Collor had submitted a detailed package of fiscal reforms in July, but these required several constitutional amendments. Given the poor state of his relations with Congress and the unfolding ramifications of "Collorgate," it proved impossible to pass these measures. Franco 2.

for

some

acted to decentralize the power of the Economy "superministry," which had been established by Collor, by returning to the pre- 1990 format of separate Finance, Planning,

and Industry/Commerce that allowed for

ministries.

He

also

adopted a

style

more consultation with Congress than had

been evident under Collor. He signaled, for example, that Congress would be asked to review proposals to privatize certain large state-owned concerns, and in December he suspended the privatization program for three months. Subsequently, his finance minister, Gustavo Krause, resigned. Municipal elections took place throughout the country in October and November. Left-of-center parties made the greatest gains.

Latin America and the Caribbean: Chile

up to $16 billion Othei measures, involving changes that aimed to improve the fiscal base over the long term, were also expected following the submission o| revised proposals loi the $224 billion 1993 budget to Congress. It was tar from clear whether Congress would fully approve the var-

ious measures, but

On December

some compromise plan seemed likely. Franco introduced his new eco-

31 President

nomic program. Among its major provisions were increased wages for government workers, at least a doubling ol the minimum wage, and the creation of four million new jobs during the next two years. Concerning the external sector, the trade position continued to improve significantly, with an accumulated surplus of $11.6 billion in the nine months to the end of September (up from $9 billion in the same period of 1991) based on exports of $26.1 billion and imports of $14,560,000,000. The country's international reserves also increased $8.5 billion at the

end of 1991

August and were estimated

at

rom about

to $18.9 billion by the

about $22 billion

in late

end of Octo-

The upturn in capital inflows was encouraged earlier in the year when Brazil in January reached an accord with the International Monetary Fund for a $2.1 billion standby loan

ber.

and in February achieved a rescheduling deal with the Paris Club of official creditors. In July there was an agreement in principle on a rescheduling of $44 billion of bank debt; a Senate panel approved the agreement on December 10.

(SUSAN M. CUNNINGHAM) Fernando Collor de Mello and his wife. Rosane Collor, leave the presidential palace in Brasilia on October 2 after his powers were suspended for 180 days. On December 29, minutes after his impeachment trial began. Collor resigned. Brazil's Pres.

ALEXANDRE SASSAKI -GAMMA LIAISON

The nation was shocked

in

December when Daniela

was found murdered near Rio de Janeiro. Guilherme de Padua, the actor who played her jealous boyfriend on the soap opera, Perez, the star of a popular television soap opera,

CHILE The

republic of Chile extends along the Pacific coast of the Southern Cone of South America. Area: 756,626 sq km (292,135 sq mi), not including Chile's Antarctic claim. Pop. (1992 est.): 13,599,000. Cap.: Santiago (national); Valparaiso (legislative). Monetary unit: Chilean peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 384.90 pesos to U.S. $1 (654.33 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Patricio Aylwin Azocar.

was charged with the crime.

The Economy. Throughout 1992 Brazil's economy remained largely in recession, with manufacturing (which had registered declines in both 1990 and 1991) being particularly hard hit. Until October the economy was managed along orthodox lines under the control of Economy Minister Marcflio Marques Moreira (who had been appointed in May 1991 after the departure of Zelia Cardoso de Mello). Moreira, however, was constrained by the effect of measures specified under previous plans (including the need to return, until September 1992, some $1.5 billion-$2 billion per month of new cruzado assets frozen in 1990). It thus proved difficult to moderate the high interest rates and to reduce inflation, which was well above 20% per month from January through October (26.07% in the latter month). The growth of gross domestic product for 1992 was officially expected to be negative (about -0.2%) following a rise of 0i93% in 1991 (the 1991 rate was revised downward in November from the 1.1% previously indicated). A strong performance from agriculture helped offset what would otherwise have been a much worse result for 1992. A new economic team under Finance Minister Gustavo Krause and Planning Minister Paulo Haddad, which took over

in

early October, initially provided policy continuity,

with no radical

new plans envisioned. As noted above, the immediate priority was to prepare revised proposals for Steal reform, although there were strong indications that social welfare measures would also be introduced. Fiscal reforms were submitted to Congress in early November. They involved the introduction of some new taxes (including a and excise taxes) and the eliminaof others, with the aim of boosting revenue for 1993 by

financial transactions tax tion

Former president Augusto Pinochet underwent heart surgery in May 1992, but by the end of the month he had fully recovered and reassumed command of the army, the post under the constitution he could hold until 1997. One of the reforms to the constitution proposed by Pres. Patricio that

Aylwin consisted of measures to reduce the autonomy of the armed services, which they had conferred on themselves before handing over the government to civilians in 1990. Currently, the president was not allowed to interfere in military

discipline.

Though he formally held

supreme commander,

the

title

of

powers were limited to approving promotions. Pinochet's defense for this state of affairs was that since the armed services have an overriding duty to defend the constitution, they must be beyond the control of politicians who might threaten it. President Aylwin stated that if the Senate, where the ruling coalition lacked a majority, passed the reform, he would not use his new power to interfere in military affairs. Aylwin also promised that senators appointed for eight years by the previous regime would be allowed to complete their terms. In municipal elections on June 28, the ruling Coalition of Parties for Democracy polled 53.3% of the vote, against 29.8% for the right-wing National Renovation Party and the Independent Democratic Union combined. The populist Centre-Centre Union received 8% of the poll, and the Communist Party 7%. President Aylwin claimed the result gave him a clear mandate to proceed with constitutional reform. However, the right wing warned that it would not allow his

the president to steamroller the country into constitutional

change while it retained control of the Senate. On January 23 the official exchange rate was reduced

480

World

America and the Caribbean

Affairs: Latin

from 395.4 pesos to 374.99 pesos to the U.S. dollar. This produced a 4% drop in the parallel rate to 375.64 pesos = U.S. $1. The move was aimed at stemming foreign exchange losses of $150 million over two years, caused by the inflow of hot money seeking Chile's high interest rates. At the same time, the government raised its savings targets by 50% to $930 million to help lower inflation and sustain the exchange rate. The stock exchange was a main beneficiary of the government's decision to revalue the peso and introduce looser exchange controls, and trading volume doubled. The consensus forecast was for a rise of 50% in real share values, compared with 124% in 1991. However, the peso move was hurting the prospects of large exporting conglomerates such as those operating in the timber products, fish meal, steel,

Bank profits were also expected to suffer and corporate profits fell. Many of Chile's exporting companies were perceived to have reached the limits of expansion within Chile and would have to become multinational in order to expand further. Chile had invested more than $800 million over the past two years in Argentine assets, which were cheap compared with their Chilean equivalents. Chilean pension fund managers also hoped to expand into Argentina, despite a critical International Labour Organization review of their domestic performance. Chile had privatized its pension system 11 years earlier and was considered to be in the vanguard in this regard, but Chilean fund managers could invest only and sugar

sectors.

as interest rates

10%

of their assets overseas.

money, amounting

to

As

a result, the high inflow of

$200 million monthly, was depressing

domestic returns. with the return to

had not probed alleged

irregularities in the sales, despite

many Chileans over

the way the firms had been traded under the military regime. Many employees had been encouraged to trade their shares for ownership rights in investment societies. The shares, in turn, were used as collateral for loans that allowed managers to buy controlling stakes in companies. Employees' shares in profits were then

used to repay the collateralized loans. The Chilean experience pointed to the need for effective legislation to protect the rights of employees compelled to take shares instead of pay.

Since 1976 Codelco, the state-owned copper corporation, had provided a fifth of state revenues, but the government had reinvested only 0.2% of profits back into the firm. Largely as a result of this policy, Codelco could contribute only $870 million to revenues in 1991, compared with almost $2 billion in 1989. To reverse the trend, Codelco obtained

Treasury approval to invest $2.8 billion over the next five new mines and to modernize. Codelco

years to develop officials

conceded

for control over

On November military regime,

Orlando

that full

had to be a goal

autonomy

in

for the

the longer term

to gain the trust of foreign partners.

company was

A

if

Codelco was

step in the right

was a recent law allowing Codelco to form joint was to majority control." This did not go down well with

ventures, though by presidential decree the firm

prospective multinational partners,

who

preferred to have

majority control over their major investments. Codelco's

managers saw the reform long-term development.

It

as a key to the

would allow the

copper sector's

state

company

to

when it did not have the resources to develop own. Codelco owned one-third of the mining prospects in Chile, but investment restrictions had limited exploration and expansion. Part of the problem was that the firm was so important to the economy that its managers, the mines on

its

struggling

Manuel Contreras and

were charged with the murder in 1976 of government minister during the 1970-

Letelier, a

(michael wooller)

COLOMBIA

A

republic in northwestern South America, Colombia has on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area:

coastlines

1,141,748 sq km (440,831 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 33,392,000. Cap.: Bogota. Monetary unit: Colombian peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 625 pesos to U.S. $1 (1,062 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Cesar Gaviria Trujillo.

On

July 22, 1992, Pablo Escobar, leader of the Medellfn drug

escaped from prison in an operation that exposed the government's weakness against the powerful crime network. Escobar reportedly sauntered out of Envigado prison, 220 km (135 mi) northwest of Bogota, amid orchestrated confusion during his transfer to a high-security military prison. Six people were killed in the escape. In the subsequent investigation, 7 government officials and 26 prison guards were dismissed. Escobar remained at large, and the government turned down his offer to surrender again under "certain cartel,

Peace talks in Tlaxcala, Mexico, between the government and guerrilla organizations collapsed in March following news of the death in captivity of a former minister, Argelino Duran Quintero, who had been kidnapped by guerrillas in January. Subsequently, Pres. Cesar Gaviria Trujillo announced that peace talks would not be resumed; hope of reaching a political agreement with the guerrilla groups had been abandoned, and army action was now aimed at "wiping them out." Some of the fiercest fighting in months broke out at the end of May in Antioquia province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 40 guerrillas and 20 soldiers. On November 8 Gaviria declared a state of emergency to combat increased violence by guerrillas and drug traffickers. A state of emergency was declared on April 23 because of a serious energy shortage. Hydroelectric power, on which the country is heavily dependent, was strictly rationed as a result of the worst drought on record. El Nino, the warmwater current that surges through the Pacific every few years causing severe local climatic effects, was cited as the official cause of the drought. Critics, however, blamed corruption and incompetence in the energy sector and the failure to invest in coal-generated power as a safeguard against such hazards.

seek partners

10 retired general

73 presidency of Salvador Allende.

forest

"aim for

all

10% of copper sales, More than 70% of this

received

Col. Pedro Espinoza, heads of the secret police during the

of the Aylwin administration. However, they believed that

direction

The army

or $300 million indexed to 1989. was spent on salaries. The army had 22,000 officers and noncommissioned officers to only 30,000 soldiers.

too explosive an issue to be raised in the final two years this

it.

conditions."

program had been halted in 1990 democracy. The Aylwin administration

Chile's privatization

the resentment of

government, the unions, and the army were

A

was

sharp increase also

blamed

in

the destruction of tropical rain

for the dramatic

drop

in rainfall.

announced major Cabinet reshuffle of the year, prompted by mass resignations of ministers. The new Cabinet maintained

At the beginning of

the

July, President Gaviria

first

a coalition balance, including representatives of the April 19

Movement Democratic

Alliance (M-19), the party of the

left-wing guerrilla group disbanded in 1991.

Gaviria declared the state of emergency

in

However, after November, the

M-19 representatives resigned. The tax-reform bill, in much-watered-down form, was finally approved by Congress at the end of June. The valuewas raised from 12 to 14%, and income tax was The government continued its economic liberalization program. Lower tariffs had stimulated a boom in imports, with 20% growth in 1992.

added

tax

increased from 30 to 37.5%.

Latin America and the Caribbean:

(

uba

481

was contrary to the rules ol the General Agreement on l;u ills and Trade. Production ol bananas. Costa Rica's main foreign exchange earner, had been expanded in expectation of greater access to EC markets alter liberalization ol Com munity trade rules at the end ol 1992. Initial negotiations to find a compromise under GATT in September failed. Costa Rica's second largest export crop, coffee, also faced problems as the International Coffee Organization was unable during the year to achieve consensus between producers and purchasers. In June the Legislative Assembly approved a plan for construction of a rail link between Parismina on the Caribbean coast and Cuajiniquil on the Pacific that would complement (ben box) the Panama Canal. This article updates the Macropcedia article

Central Amer-

ica: Costa Rica.

CUBA the island of Cuba and in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 110,861 sq km (42,804 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 10,848,000. Cap.: Havana. Monetary unit: Cuban peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official rate of 0.76 pesos to U.S. $1 (1.29 pesos = £1 sterling). President of the Councils of State and Ministers in 1992,

The

socialist republic of

Cuba comprises

several thousand smaller islands

and cays

Fidel Castro Ruz.

Pablo Escobar appears with his wife and children in this photograph taken in prison by a fellow inmate. Head of the Medellin drug cartel, Escobar escaped from prison on July 22 but later offered to surrender to the

GAMMA

Colombian government under

certain conditions.

LIAISON

In April,

Americas Watch, a U.S. human

rights group,

described the situation in Colombia as ""appalling."

egorized 3,760 murders, out of a total of 24,033 as "politically motivated," an increase,

over the previous four years. killed in conflicts

and

in

between the

It

cat-

1991,

in

on average, of 3,500

The victims included those armed forces and guerrillas

"social cleansing" campaigns, as well as

murders

union leaders, and members of the judiciary. Americas Watch credited efforts made toward peace but emphasized the obstacles of military and police of left-wing

activists,

intransigence.

seem

likely.

Nevertheless, military intervention did not

There was a

civilian minister of defense,

Rafael

Pardo, and the consistent growth of the Colombian econ-

omy would work

to the disadvantage of potential plotters.

(huw clough)

COSTA RICA The Central American republic of Costa Rica has on the Caribbean Sea and the

coastlines

Ocean. Area: 51,100 sq km (19,730 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,161,000. Cap.: San Jose. Monetary unit: Costa Rican colon, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an official Pacific

rate of 135.17 colones to U.S. $1 (230.54 colones

President

in 1992,

=

£1 sterling).

Rafael Angel Calderon Fournier.

The Cuban economy experienced another

difficult year in 1992 as the government strove to increase foreign trade and investment to generate much-needed foreign exchange. Since the breakup of the Eastern European bloc and especially the Soviet Union, Cuba had had to secure new trading partners, and its exports and imports had fallen dramatically. Compared with about $8 billion in 1989, exports were expected to be only $4 billion in 1992, while crucial oil purchases were reported as falling from 13 million metric tons in 1989, when subsidized by the Soviet Union, to 6 million metric tons in 1992, when bought at market prices. Though Cuba maintained links with several republics of the former Soviet Union for the sale of sugar, contracts were also signed with several Arab countries: Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Libya, and Yemen. A trade protocol was signed with China for the export of nickel, sugar, citrus, and medical products in return for food and medicine and spare parts for the sugar industry. By 1992 tourism had become the major foreign exchange earner. About 500,000 visitors were expected during the year, up from 400,000 in 1991, and with the help of foreign investment, an additional 3,000-4,000 hotel rooms per year were scheduled to be built by 1995. The industry was given a boost when the board of directors of the Caribbean Tourism Organization approved Cuba's application for membership

in July.

The domestic economy was Power

loss of Soviet support.

still

severely affected by the

cuts of 3-4 hours a day re-

mained the norm, while shortages of Costa Rican exporters hoped to benefit from the easing of foreign exchange restrictions in February 1992. This move, which also floated the colon against the dollar and legalized the black market in dollars, combined with other measures to continue the process of opening up trade under the International Monetary Fund Structural Adjustment. In July, Japan withdrew its $100 million commitment to the $300 million third phase of the Fund. It was unhappy with the progress of the program, especially as regards tax reform and social development. Costa Rica was in the forefront of those claiming that the European Communities' proposal to protect exports from former colonies, at the expense of Latin-American growers.

fuel

led to further cuts in railway services.

and spare parts

Supplies of basic

goods such as cooking fat and soap were poor, and there was increased use of wood and charcoal for cooking. The sugar harvest started six weeks late and was expected to be less than 7.5 million metric tons, down from 7.6 million in 1991. Although the sugar mills use the sugarcane product bagasse as fuel, there were fuel shortages for the vehicles that were used to cut and transport the cane. A massive effort to cut down on food imports pushed supplies of farm produce up by 11% compared with the first quarter of 1991. Thousands of workers were displaced from their office or factory jobs and went to work in the fields to grow food crops. Tourism receipts were up by 23%. Nickel production

482

World

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

Cuban men work on

the engine of a 1956 Chevrolet in order to keep the automobile in running condition. The

country continued to suffer economic difficulties in 1992, many of them related to loss of aid from former Soviet-bloc countries. ROB CRANDALL-PICTURE GROUP

was expected to be 35,000 metric tons in 1992, up from 34,000 metric tons in 1991, and was forecast to rise to 100,000 metric tons by the end of the decade with the modernization and upgrading of three plants and a fourth being brought into operation.

The

decline

in living

standards led to resentment against

the Castro regime; dissidence

increased,

but

it

was not

government. In January three exiles were put on trial following their capture in Cardenas when they landed with weapons and explosives, intent on sabotage and local recruitment. The three were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, and enemy propaganda and were sentenced to death. Two of them later had their sentences commuted to 30 years' imprisonment, but one, Eduardo Diaz Betancourt, was executed. In February two men were executed for murdering three policemen while trying to steal a boat in which to escape from the country; four men and three women involved in the episode were jailed for between 4 and 30 years. In March the UN Commission on Human Rights adopted a U.S.-sponsored resolution criticizing Cuba's human rights record. Twenty-three countries voted for the resolution, including such former allies as Russia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. However, Grenada subsequently announced that Cuba had satisfied all conditions for a normalization of diplomatic relations, which had been in abeyance since the 1983 Grenadian crisis. The U.S. intensified its economic pressure on Cuba to sufficient to destabilize the

achieve political reforms. U.S. Pres. George Bush authorized the U.S. telephone

comany

AT&T

new which Cuba

to install a

telephone cable between the U.S. and Cuba, for received a lee ot $620,000, but this rare exception to the blockade was made because of claimed benefits from an increased How of information to Cuba. The link was severed in August, however, when Hurricane Andrew destroyed AT&T equipment. A Cuba democracy bill debated in the U.S. Congress would prohibit U.S. subsidiaries in other nations from trading with Cuba. The bill would also authorize the president to cut oil aid. trade, or debt relief to any country that provided assistance to Cuba. Several countries reported unwanted U.S. pressure on them to cease trading with Cuba. In November the UN General Assembly voted

59-3 with 79 abstentions in favour of a resolution calling on the U.S. to end its embargo of Cuba. Constitutional reforms were approved by the National Assembly in July as a result of the recommendations made at the fourth party Congress in October 1991. Direct secret voting for members of the National Assembly would replace the previous method of election by municipal and regional councils; the first direct election was likely to take place in 1993. A major change allowed private investment in certain state companies; also, the state monopoly on trade was ended, and foreign ownership of property in joint venture enterprises was recognized. (sarah Cameron) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies: Cuba.

DOMINICA An

island republic within the Commonwealth, Dominica is in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 750 sq km (290 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est): 71.500. Cap.: Roseau. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Clarence Augustus Seignoret; prime minister, Eugenia Charles.

The major

public issue in

Dominica

in

1992 was whether

the government should "sell" citizenship to businessmen

from Taiwan and Hong Kong

as a means of encouraging much-needed foreign investment. A Taiwanese jewelry manufacturer was the first to be granted a Dominica passport in

return for $35,000 worth of investment, but opposition

parties

gain

were

little

hostile to the concept, arguing that

it

would

for the country in the long term.

Demonstrations led by the

official

opposition

United

Workers Party, which began in May, finally forced the Dominica Freedom Party government to announce adjustments to the policy in September. The $35,000 requirement remained, but the investment would have to be maintained for at least 10 years, and an extra $25,000 would have to be deposited in a special fund. In April ground was broken for a new 250-room hotel, which the government hoped would be financed by funds from "economic citizens." The goal was 800 such citizens within the next few years. Michael Douglas, leader of the Dominica Labour Party,

Latin America and the Caribbean: hi Salvador

died of cancer

in April.

He had

led the

DIP

lor seven years.

June tailed lor EC$229.8 million publie spending, hut no new taxes were imposed.

The 1992-93 budget

in

in

483

ECUADOR he republic Ol Ecuador is in western South America, on the Ocean. Area: 270.667 sq km 104,505 sq mi), including the Galapagos Islands. Pop. (1992 est): 10,607,000. Cap.: Quito. Monetary unit: sucre, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 2, sucres to U.S. $1 (free rate ol 3.40(1 sucres = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Rodrigo Borja Cevallos and, from August 10. I

This article updates the Dominica.

(DAVID RENWH K) Mucropcedia article The Wi si iNDn s:

Pacific

(

mm

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Sixto

Duran

Ballen.

The Dominican Republic covers

the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti. Area: 48,443 sq km (18,704 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 7,471,000. Cap.:

Santo Domingo. Monetary unit: Dominican peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 12.71 pesos to U.S. $1 (21.60 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Joaqufn Balaguer.

Celebrations for the 500th anniversary of Columbus' landing on Hispaniola on Oct. 12, 1992, culminated in the inauguration of the massive Faro a Colon (Columbus Lighthouse). (See Race Relations: Sidebar.) Violent demonstrations against the celebrations took place in September and October. Plainclothes secret police killed the head of the Dominican Committee for Human Rights during a march on September 30, and 10 of them were later arrested. ^ Divisions in the opposition Dominican Liberation Party

(PLD) exploded when 47 of

its

high-ranking

members

re-

signed following the expulsion of a leading trade unionist

and deputy for Santo Domingo. Nelsida Marmolejos had criticized the PLD's stance on the proposed new Labour Code. Several other members of the PLD were later suspended or expelled. They subsequently formed a new party, the Alliance for Democracy, and expressed their willingness to form a broad front to vote Pres. Joaquin Balaguer out of office in 1994. The Labour Code was approved by both houses of Congress and ratified by the president in May.

One

of

its

organize

controversial points gave unions the right to

in free-trade

Allegations were

Agency

zones.

made by

the U.S.

Dominican

Drug Enforcement

were engaged drug trafficking. The president denied any knowledge of involvement by members of his staff. (sarah cameron) that high-ranking

officials

in

This article updates the Macropcedia article The

West

Indies:

Dominican Republic. SOREN RASMUSSEN—SIPA

On

Aug. 10, 1992, Sixto Duran Ballen (see Biographies), former mayor of Quito, took office as president after winning 58% of the vote in a July 5 runoff election. In the first round of voting on May 17, Duran, the candidate of a newly formed conservative coalition, Republican Unity Party (PUD), captured just 36% of the vote. Second place went to Jaime Nebot, president of the Social Christian Party (PSC), with 26%, followed by Abdala Bucaram Ortiz, director of the Roldosist Party (PRE), with 21%. After his a

elimination in the

first

round, Bucaram advised his support-

Duran, who claimed victory in 19 of the 21 provinces in the second round. The May 17 elections for the 77-seat Congress resulted in the PSC's gaining 21 seats, the PRE 13, and the PUD 12. The Conservative Party, allies of the PUD, won six seats. Mirroring the poor performance in simultaneous local elections, centre and leftwing parties fared badly. (For tabulated results, see Political ers to vote for

Parties, above.)

Though the president lacked a working majority in Congress, he sought to build a national consensus by relying on two right-wing parties

from business, Three weeks after his inauguration, Duran sanctioned a 26.2% devaluation of the sucre and eliminated energy price subsidies, forcing gasoline price increases of 300%. In late September the United Workers Front called a national strike in protest. Cities throughout Ecuador experienced unrest, with demonstrations and looting in Guayaquil and a riot in Quito. Public sector workers also staged strikes protesting government reforms in health care and the judiciary. At the November OPEC meeting, Ecuador withdrew from the 13-member oil cartel, citing a need to economize on annual dues of $1.5 million and expressing disappointment as well as support

indicating his espousal of free-market policies.

over

OPEC's

failure to benefit smaller producers.

(MICHAEL WOOLLER)

EL SALVADOR The

republic of El Salvador is situated on the Pacific coast of Central America. Area: 21,041 sq km (8,124 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 5,460,000. Cap.: San Salvador. Monetary unit: Salvadoran colon, with (Oct. 5, 1992) an offical rate of 8.58 colones to U.S. $1 (14.62 colones = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Alfredo Cristiani.

The year began

auspiciously with the Jan. 16, 1992, signing of the peace accord between the government and the rebel

Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), ending 12 years of a civil war that had cost about 80,000 lives, displaced one million people, and caused material losses estimated at $1 billion. A detailed timetable was drawn up for the gradual demobilization of the guerrilla forces, the

Guard and the Treasury Police, armed forces, and political and ecowould enable the FMLN members to

elimination of the National the reduction of the

nomic reforms that be incorporated into The Columbus Lighthouse,

built to commemorate the 500th anniversary Christopher Columbus, looms over Santo Domingo. A project of Dominican Pres. Joaquin Balaguer, it was criticized for both

of the landing of

its

expense and

its

symbolism.

civilian life.

There were delays in complying with the deadlines. On June 30, two months behind schedule, the LIN mission in El Salvador confirmed the demobilization of the

first

20%

484

World

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

improve the mood of public-sector forced the government to settle a 1990-92 wage claim, at a cost of EC$10.8 million. layoffs did nothing to

employees,

who

In February, Parliament passed the highly controversial Traders and Professional Licenses Act, requiring profes-

from EC$100,000. The act was strongly attacked by professional associations. Winifred Strachan, sole remaining opposition Grenada United Labour Party member in Parliament, was expelled from the party in March for "blatant disloyalty" and "substandard performance." The government announced during the year that Cuba had "satisfied all conditions" for a resumption of diplomatic relations with Grenada. In August, Reginald Palmer, a former senior public servant, was appointed governor-general to succeed Sir Paul Scoon. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies: sional people, including journalists, to pay fees ranging

EC$100

to

Grenada.

GUATEMALA A

republic of Central America, Guatemala has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 108,889 sq km (42,042 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 9,442,000. Cap.: Guatemala City. Monetary unit: quetzal, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 5.32

quetzales to U.S. $1 (9.04 quetzales 1992, Jorge Serrano Elias. in San Salvador celebrate the signing on January 16 of a peace treaty between the government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front. It was hoped that the accord would end the country's brutal 12-year civil war.

The new year began with

CINDY KARP— BLACK STAR

Court

=

£1 sterling). President in

Citizens

extensive political maneuvering

for the election of the president of justices.

Edmond Mulet

Congress and Supreme

Lessieur of the National

Union was elected to the presidency of Congress amid allegations of vote selling, although the last-minute Centrist

of the

FMLN

Under pressure from

forces.

the U.S., the government and the

timetable for the demobilization. criticized the

government

disarm while

failing to

the

UN

and

FMLN agreed to a new The FMLN leadership

wanting the rebel forces to the reforms or fulfill its obligations to guarantee security for the ex-combatants and grant them land, financing, technical assistance, and farm equipment. By August 20, however, the FMLN had concentrated all its forces in the 15 agreed-upon sites. The demobilization was finally completed on December 14. and a ceremony in San Salvador the next day marked the formal

end of the

civil

for

institute

support of Pres. Jorge Serrano Elfas also influenced the outcome. Nine justices were elected to the Supreme Court for six-year terms. Later in the year, following many scandals and allegations of criminal activities, a congressional commission recommended an end to secret hearings for all legal proceedings against congressmen. AP/WIDE

WORLD

war.

The founder and

leader of the ruling right-wing National-

Republican Alliance (Arena), Roberto d'Aubuisson (see Obituaries), died on February 20. He was a hard-line anti-Communist and had been linked with many political murders. His death was expected to lead to a battle for ist

power within

(sarah Cameron) Central Amer-

his party.

This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: El Salvador.

GRENADA A

constitutional

monarchy within the Commonwealth, Grenada

dependency, the Southern Grenadines) is in the eastern Caribbean Sea Area: 345 sq km (133 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 90,900. Cap.: Saint George's. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean (with

its

ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 Queen, Elizabeth II; Paul Scoon and, from August

dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of

(tree rate of

ECS4.59 =

tl sterling).

governors-general in 1992, Sir Reginald Palmer: prime minister, Nicholas Brathwaite.

6,

The governing National Democratic Congress party spent most of the year fending

off criticism of

its

justment'" program, designed to stabilize the

"structural ad-

economy

with-

out direct International Monetary Fund intervention. The program included a reduction in the size of the civil service and the sell-off of government enterprises. The prospect of

newly exhumed bodies of residents 1981, reportedly after having been killed by

Villagers from Pujujil carry the

who had disappeared

in

the Guatemalan military.

throughout the world

in

The government continued to be criticized for its record on human rights.

1992

Latin America and the

Human when

came to the tore at the beginning of 1992 human rights groups released their figures lor 1991. The government launched a campaign in convince the world that human rights were un-

rights

several

abuses

in

Europe

to

UN

der control, prior to the convening in February of the Commission on Human Rights meeting that would lead to reduced levels of aid if Guatemala's record was condemned. U.S. State Department Human Rights Report, released February, blamed the Guatemalan security forces for the majority of human rights violations, although it noted that

The in

UN

A report by the however, that there had not

the overall situation had improved.

human

rights adviser stated,

been any substantial decrease in criminal violence and that many of the crimes were clearly politically motivated. The UN Commission on Human Rights decided not to appoint a permanent observer in Guatemala but to maintain a special adviser to visit several times a year. A second UN report in August again condemned Guatemala for consistently violating

human

continued military operations.

(sarah Cameron) Central Amer-

This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: Guatemala.

GUYANA A

republic and

member

of the

Commonwealth, Guyana is on the Atlantic Ocean.

situated in northeastern South America,

km

Area: 215,083 sq

(83,044 sq mi). Pop. (1992

748,000. Cap.: Georgetown. Monetary unit: Guyana dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of G$ 125.27 to U.S. $1 (G$2 12.96 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1992, Desmond Hoyte and, from October 9, Cheddi Jagan; prime ministers, Hamilton Green and, from October 9, Sam Hinds.

Cheddi Jagan, office after

est.):

and longtime maon the Guyana scene, was returned to

74, a U.S.-trained dentist

jor political figure

28 years

in

opposition

in

the Oct. 5, 1992, gen-

eral election. Jagan's People's Progressive Party

(PPP) won

52.3% of the vote under Guyana's system of proportional representation, compared with 43.6% for then president

Desmond

Hoyte's People's National Congress (PNC). Jagan

became president and his running mate, Sam Hinds, prime minister. The PPP had 28 of the 53 directly elected seats

AP/WIOE

WORLD

A refugee being returned

to Haiti

is

onshore from a U.S. Coast Guard cutter. The U.S. government began repatriating Haitian refugees in 1992 on the grounds that they were economic refugees and thus not

carried

eligible for political

artbbean

Haiti

485

had 23. he Working People's and the United Force obtained one seat each. Jagan had quietly abandoned the Marxism-leninism with which he had long been associated, and the new government would encourage private initiative, though it would also slow the state enterprise divestment program. Jagan said he would review all privatization deals made after March 1992, including that for the sugar industry. The PNC had sold off 14 state companies by mid-1992, earning GS1 billion. The market-oriented policies pursued by the PNC in its last years in office had helped boost production. Some 32,000 troy ounces of gold were mined in the first six months of 1992, and annual sugar output reached 225,000 metric tons, compared with 162,753 in 1991. A GS500 note was in

Parliament, and the PN(

I

/\lh, nice

put into circulation in July for the high inflation.

Guyana signed

agreement with the U.S.

first

time, reflecting the

a tax information exchange

in July.

(david renwick)

HAITI

rights.

Discussions were held during the year between the government and the rebel alliance Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity. A few accords were reached, but the guerrillas

'

asylum.

The

republic of Haiti occupies the western one-third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Area: 27.700 sq km (10,695 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 6,764,000. Cap.: Port-au-Prince. Monetary unit: gourde, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 9.98 gourdes to U.S. $1 (16.97 gourdes = £1 sterling). President in 1992. Joseph Nerette (interim) until June 19; prime ministers, Jean-Jacques Honorat (interim) and, from June 19. Marc Bazin.

Marc tial

Bazin, a former

candidate

in

the

World Bank economist and presidenDecember 1990 elections, was sworn

prime minister of Haiti on June 19 under a tripartite agreement made by the army, administration, and parliamentary leaders. Officially his mandate was to negotiate a settlement with the deposed president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who had won 67% of the vote, compared with Bazin's 14%. The figurehead president, Joseph Nerette, resigned in as

after Bazin's inauguration, leaving the post vacant for the

The ceremony was boycotted by all diplomats except for the papal nuncio, the Vatican being the only state to recognize the army-backed regime. Representatives of the army-backed regime and of Aristide met in September and agreed that 18 representatives of the Organization of American States (OAS) should go to Haiti and monitor human rights violations. Michael Manley, the former prime minister of Jamaica, was named as "facilreturn of Aristide.

World

486

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

itator" for the OAS mission, in which two monitors would be stationed in each province. Prime Minister Bazin appeared before parliament in August to hear reports of repression and abuse, which he called shocking but failed to condemn. Tens of thousands of people applied to the U.S. for political asylum, and people flooded into Florida by boat. Amnesty International accused the U.S. of flouting international law because it repatriated Haitian refugees without examining their cases and determining whether they were at risk of human rights abuses in their own country. The U.S. held that they were economic refugees and therefore not entitled to asylum.

(SARAH CAMERON) West Indies:

This article updates the Macropcedia article The Haiti.

HONDURAS A

republic of Central America, Honduras has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 112,088 sq km (43,277 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,996,000. Cap.: Tegucigalpa. Monetary unit: lempira, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 6

lempiras to U.S. $1 (10.20 lempiras 1992, Rafael Leonardo Callejas.

In

=

March 1992 Congress passed

£1 sterling). President

the Agriculture

in

Modern-

Law, designed to encourage foreign investment and promote crop development. Its provision allowing farmers to sell cooperative land received through agrarian reform was criticized for eliminating the remaining benefits of the reform designed to give land to poor peasants. In May officials from the armed forces and the National Agrarian Institute (INA) began to evict campesino groups who had invaded 25,000 ha (61,750 ac) of fallow land in 10 departments two weeks earlier. The campesinos complained that the suspension of agrarian reform and the freezing of credits by the National Agriculture Bank had made their lives onerous. After negotiations, it was agreed that new occupations of land would be suspended and the INA would ization

discuss resolving disputes

The emergence of unions caused tions

splits

"parallel" leadership boards of trade

parallel

weaken the unions so

ing could take place with

little

boards were a government that privatization

and

fir-

opposition. Political violence

continued with a series of assassinations of leaders from both the right and left in July. On March 30 the Nicaraguan National Assembly repealed law 99, thereby dropping the country's lawsuit in the International Court of Justice against the government of Honduras for supporting, housing, and training contras during the Nicaraguan civil war. The Honduran Ecological Association accused the transnational fruit companies of using harmful pesticides on their plantations. Labourers who handled the pesticides had developed skin disorders or cancer or had become sterile. Preliminary investigations indicated that there had been misuse of toxins and inadequate protection for workers. This

article

updates the Macropcedia

J.

minister of Jamaica.

the Jamaican government for several years. NAJLAH FEANNY-SABA

The lengthy Manley political dynasty came to an end in March 1992 when 67-year-old Michael Manley, who had followed his father, Norman, as head of the People's National Party (PNP), bowed out of politics, citing ill health.

He had been

leader of the

PNP

for 23 years

minister for several five-year terms.

basis.

within the labour movement. Allega-

were made that the

strategy to

on a case-by-case

Patterson speaks at his inauguration on March 30 as prime He replaced Michael Manley, also of the People's National Party, who resigned for reasons of health after having headed Percival

(SARAH CAMERON) article Central Amer-

ica: Honduras.

The

and prime

succession passed

who said he would maintain the economic deregulation, divestment of state enterprises, and encouragement of private initiative. Gun battles between supporters of the two main political parties, the PNP and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), led to Percival

current

J.

PNP

Patterson,

policy of

by Edward Seaga, continued

in

the early part of the year,

following the death in prison of a well-known

known

JLP

activist,

Brown, and the murder of his son. At least eight people died. Sugar workers went on strike for two weeks in March; civil servants threatened to stop work in protest against the proposed loss of 8,000 jobs; and demonstrators blocked roads and burned tires when bus fares and school fees went up in September. In June the central bank set up a currency stabilization fund to support the weak Jamaican dollar. Patterson met Venezuelan Pres. Carlos Andres Perez in September and Lester Coke, also

as Jim

obtained an increase, to 13,000 bbl per day, in the oil Jamaica could buy at subsidized prices. He later negotiated an oil-supply agreement with Nigeria. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropcedia article The Jamaica.

West

Indies:

JAMAICA

MEXICO A

constitutional

monarchy within the Commonwealth, Jamaica

occupies an island in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 10,991 sq km (4,244 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 2.445,000. Cap.: Kingston. Monetary unit: Jamaica dollar, with (Oct. 5. 1992) a free rate of JS21.89 to U.S. $1 (JS37.21 = tl sterling). Queen, Elizabeth 11: governor-general in 1992, Howard Cooke; prime ministers, Michael Manley and, from March 30, Percival J. Patterson.

A

federal republic of

North America, Mexico has coastlines on

the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Area: 1,958,201 sq km (756,066 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 84,439,-

Mexico City. Monetary unit: Mexican peso, with (Oct. 1992) a free rate of 3,013 pesos to U.S. $1 (5,122 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Salinas de Gortari.

000. Cap.: 5,

I.alin

Gubernatorial elections were held during July and August 1992 in 8 of Mexico's 31 states. The ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party PRI retained control of all except (

Chihuahua, the

largest

)

and

richest state

in

the country.

Francisco Barrio Terrazas of the right-wing National Action Party

(PAN) won

there.

It

over 60 years that PRI had

was only the second time in However,

lost a state election.

the ruling party defeated the candidate of the left-wing

Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) in Michoacan, the PRD leader Cuauhtemoc Cardenas Solorzano. In Durango the PRI candidate, Maximiliano Silerio, won by a slim majority. PAN and PRD had tried to force PRI out by combining their votes, and their defeat drove enraged opposition supporters onto the streets, claiming fraud. Order was restored when PRI conceded several towns to PAN in return for its candidate's dropping his claim to the state governorship. On August 29 some 40,000 people led by Cardenas gathered in the main square of Mexico City, demanding changes in the electoral system and protesting the controversial elections. Absenteeism was as high as 70% in some states, and mutual accusations of cheating were rife among all participating parties. Continued demonstrations in Michoacan caused the newly elected PRI governor to step down on October 6. On November 8 elections for governor took place in Puebla, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas. PRI candidates were declared the winners in all three, but the opposition parties charged fraud, challenged the results, and held protest demonstrations. An electoral commission office in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, was looted and burned on November 10. In elections in the states of Oaxaca and Tlaxcala on November 8, PRI candidates were victorious, with few stronghold of

Economic growth was healthy during rise

of

3%

in

forecast. Inflation

down from 18.8%

the year.

the gross domestic product

was predicted

to average

An

over-

(GDP) was

14.5% for 1992,

Proceeds from the privatization campaign totaled $14.5 billion over the first three years, most of which had gone toward paying off the national debt. In June the Finance Ministry released figures showing that the debt amounted to 28.4% of the country's total GDP, a significant drop from 35.6% at the end of 1991. In November the government submitted an austerity budget for 1993 in which total spending would decline 0.2%. At the end of August the government announced the privatization of 60 companies, including mining, gas suppliers, fertilizer manufacturers, and gasoline (petrol) service sta-

PETER MORGAN

Workers

-

in

in 1991.

MATRIX

sew clothes for Many economists believed

Juarez, Mexico,

a U.S. company.

proposed North American Free Trade Agreement would encourage additional U.S. companies to move some of their manufacturing operations to low-wage Mexico. that the

Amid growing

tin-

Caribbean: Mexico

4X7

labour unrest, trade unions criticized

the program, claiming that over 100,000 workers had lost their jobs since 1982 either directly or indirectly as a result

of privatization. Several industries were

hit

by damaging

strikes during the year, including textiles, farming, fishing,

and the state oil industry. On August 12, after 14 months of negotiation, agreement was reached on a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. However, the details of NAFTA would not be officially confirmed until it was signed and ratified by the three governments. Mexico was thought to have won important concessions for its oil industry and agriculture, considered vulnerable sectors. Many Mexicans remained concerned, nevertheless, about being exploited for cheap unskilled labour. Jan. 1, 1994, was set as the target date for enactment of the treaty. Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari made several Cabinet changes, prompting speculation over likely candidates to be his successor in the 1994 presidential election. Under the Mexican constitution no president could be reelected. Pedro Aspe Armella, previously the finance minister, took over the newly merged Ministries of Finance and Planning and Budget, the two most important economic departments, making him the front-runner. Another likely successor was the

PRI

put him

Donaldo Colosio, made minister of Urban Development and Ecology. This

president, Luis

the Secretariat of in

charge of the important Solidaridad program.

Genaro Borrego Estrade, governor of Zacatecas, was the new PRI president, and Beatriz Paredes, Tlaxcala state governor, was appointed PRI secretary-general.

On

April 22 a series of sewer-line explosions destroyed

more than 20 blocks of

a working-class district in the city

of Guadalajara, leaving an estimated 200 people dead and

charges of fraud. all

tions.

America and

1,500 injured. The government moved emergency rescue teams and bulldozers

A

swiftly,

sending

in

to clear the rubble.

preliminary report ordered by President Salinas showed

that gasoline had leaked out of a pipeline into a parallel

sewage pipeline, ultimately causing the explosions. It also confirmed that local authorities had not taken adequate precautions when residents had complained of strong gasoline odours several days earlier. The attorney general's report laid the blame for the incident on local government, the water board, and Pemex, the state oil company; 1 1 officials were charged with criminal negligence, and most were imprisoned. The Jalisco state governor, Guillermo Cosio, was forced to resign.

For several weeks during March and April,

air pollution

488

World

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

Mexico City rose to dangerously high levels. Schools were some 200 plants cut output by 75%, and 300,000 cars were forced to stay off the roads. Long-term measures announced by the government included the conversion of 144,000 freight and public transport vehicles to natural gas or liquid petroleum gas by 1994. Industries in the capital also agreed to cut toxic emissions by the end of 1993. According in

struction

and that without

closed,

meet

international reserve target agreed

to a local environmental protection agency (Asociacion

de

Lucha Metropolitana para el Mejoramiento Ambiental), as many as two million inhabitants of Mexico City suffered from serious respiratory problems. (huw clough)

republic of Central America, Nicaragua has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 130,682 sq km (50,457 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,131,000. Cap.: Managua. Monetary -unit: cordoba oro, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 5 cordobas oro to U.S. $1 (free rate of 8.50 cordobas oro sterling). President in 1992,

=

£1

Violeta Barrios de Chamorro.

1992 the Cerro Negro volcano erupted, spewarea in the west; 10,000 persons were evacuated, and there was considerable damage in In April

ash over a large

province of Leon, where the roofs of houses collapsed under the weight of black sand. At the beginning the

of September a powerful earthquake offshore spawned a series of tidal

waves up to 13.75

m

(45

ft)

which 105 people

high,

swept over Nicaragua's Pacific coast. At least were drowned and several hundred more were injured or reported missing, while more than 4,200 were left homeless. Towns all along the coast suffered damage, though the extent of the destruction would take some time to evaluate. Pres. Violeta Chamorro launched an international appeal for aid, and the U.S. pledged $5 million in disaster relief. The U.K. sent 5100,000. instigation

of Sen. Jesse

the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations

$116 million

Nicaragua would be unable to

upon with the

Under obvious U.S. announced measures

pressure, the president subsequently

speed up the settlement of expropriated property claims. All 5,000 claims were to be settled to

in favour of the former owners; they would receive land if unoccupied or compensation, largely in the form of shares in state companies to be privatized; no property would be returned to the Somoza family, which formerly ruled

Nicaragua, or

its

close associates.

30 President Chamorro reacted to an

in-

creasing conflict between the executive and the legislature

A

At the

it

Monetary Fund.

International

On December

NICARAGUA

ing

its

in

aid in June.

A

Helms (Rep., N.C.), Committee suspended

report by Republican staff

members of the committee, released in recommended continuing the freeze on

early September,

U.S. aid on the grounds that the country was still controlled by Sandinistas. The report called for the removal of the army commander, Gen. Humberto Ortega, and other Sandinista army officers, the appointment of new judges, and the return of property expropriated by the Sandinistas when they were in office. The Nicaraguan government rejected the report as full of lies, stating that the aid freeze threatened economic recon-

by ordering the police to occupy the National Assembly building and seize ing.

An

its

assets

and documents

assembly's affairs until the election of

on Jan.

fot safekeep-

manage the new assembly leaders

interim commission was appointed to

9,

(s-arah

1993.

This article updates the Macropcedia article ica: Nicaragua.

Cameron)

Central Amer-

PANAMA A

republic of Central America, Panama lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean on the Isthmus of Panama. Area: 75,517 sq km (29,157 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 2,515,000.

Cap.:

Panama

City.

Monetary

unit: balboa, at

par with the U.S.

dollar, with a free rate (Oct. 5, 1992) of 1.70 balboas to £1 sterling. President in 1992,

In January 1992 the

Guillermo Endara Galimany.

human

rights

released a report on Panama's

group Americas Watch

human

rights record in 1991,

which concluded that there had been little improvement in the country's penal and judicial systems since the 1989 invasion by the United States. The report drew attention to the length of time prisoners were detained before trial, often up to five years, and noted that at least 80% of those in jail had not been convicted and in many cases had not even been formally charged. Pres. Guillermo Endara Galimany announced a new antiterrorist force, to be called the Elite Tactical Weapons Unit, to combat Panama's rising crime and terrorism. The unit would be specially trained to deal with attempts to overthrow the government. On February 7 the president held a press conference to announce the success of the unit in foiling a conspiracy to stage such a coup. Critics regarded the unit as a smoke screen to distract attention from the economic and social problems affecting the country and also

REUTERS/BETTMANN

Surrounded by security agents, U.S. Pres. George Bush (lower left) and Panamanian Pres. Guillermo Endara (lower right) rub their eyes after tear gas fired at demonstrators in Panama City on June 1 drifted back to where they were to address a rally. Bush was in Panama to commemorate the 1989 U.S. invasion that toppled Gen. Manuel Noriega, but the demonstration prevented the two leaders from making their speeches.

Latin America and

as an excuse to enlarge the

armed

forces

and

to increase

repression of the civilian population. In February U.S. Seeretary of Defense Richard

paid an

official

where about

1

visit

(),()()()

to

Panama

to inspect

Cheney

military bases

U.S. troops were stationed. According

on the Panama Canal, all U.S. troops were removed from Panama by the end of 1999, when the canal was to be officially handed over to the Panamanian government. Many groups within Panama, however, feared that the loss of U.S. troops would mean unemployment to the treaty to be

for thousands of workers.

erendum on

A

movement

to press for a ref-

on by the

the issue gathered force, spurred

increasing instability in the country and the perceived inability

The

of the administration to

manage or defend

treaty could be renegotiated only by

tin-

(

aiibbean: Peru

W)

Wasmosy. Charging vote fraud, Wasmosy announced that he would challenge the results. The candidate l the opposition, led by the Authentic Radical Liberals, was Domingo

(michael wooller)

Laino.

PERU The

is located in western South America, on the Ocean. Area: 1,285,216 sq km (496,225 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 22,454,000. Cap.: Lima. Monetary unit: nuevo sol, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1.52 nuevos soles to U.S. $1 (2.58 nuevos soles = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Alberto Fujimori; prime ministers, Alfonso de los Heros and, from April 6, Oscar de la Puente Raygada.

republic of Peru

Pacific

the canal.

mutual consent

based on a popular referendum in Panama or in the event that Panama was determined by the U.S. to be incapable of effectively defending the Canal Zone. However, despite surveys showing that a large percentage of the population supported the U.S. military presence, thousands protested against the June visit of U.S. Pres. George Bush, and there

On

April

1992, Pres. Alberto Fujimori carried out an

5,

when he

autogolpe (self-coup)

closed Congress, sacked ju-

and set up a new government of "national emergency and reconstruction." The president blamed Congress for blocking his efforts to strengthen the economy and quash guerrilla activities. Congress condemned the move and raised fears that Fujimori was being used as a puppet of the armed forces prior to a military takeover. However, no blood was shed in the initial confusion, and the army showed support for the president by its restraint. On November 13, however, a small group of army officers tried to seize the national palace and kill Fujimori. Loyalist soldiers routed the rebels, and some 25 army officers were diciary authorities,

were several violent attacks against the U.S. military. Angry demonstrators protested that the U.S. promise of reparation and reconstruction after the invasion had never been fulfilled, and hundreds of Panamanians were still homeless as a result of the war. President Bush was unable to deliver his public address, and police had to disperse the protesting crowd with tear gas. On November 15 Panamanians voted in a national referendum on a package of 58 reform measures proposed by the government. Only 40% of the eligible voters went to the polls, and 64% of them rejected the package. The most controversial of the measures was one that would have abolished the armed forces. Citing the "no" vote and the mass abstentions as a rejection of the government, opposi-

Fujimori attempted to appease international concern by promising constitutional reforms and new elections. In elections for the new Democratic Constituent Congress on November 22, parties supporting Fujimori won some 38% of the vote but nonetheless gained an absolute majority. Most of the major opposition parties boycotted the election, charging that the Congress would be only a rubber stamp

tion leaders called for the election of a national constituent

for Fujimori.

assembly to draw up a new constitution, (sarah This article updates the Macropcedia article ica:

later arrested.

Cameron)

Central Amer-

Panama.

Several friendly nations that had previously promised

on

PARAGUAY Paraguay is a landlocked republic of central South America. Area: 406,752 sq km (157,048 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 4,519,000. Cap.: Asuncion. Monetary unit: guarani, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1,543 guaranies to U.S. $1 (2,624 guaranies = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Gen. Andres Rodriguez.

—Germany,

—

France, and Japan held back and Spain withdrew from the agreement altogether. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), however, removed its block on new loans to Peru, which had been suspended after the events of April 5. The economy appeared to be set for a modest recovery loans to Peru

their pledges,

at the

beginning of the year, with the government's severe

austerity

measures bringing

inflation

December

gust, the lowest since

down

to

industrial output declined, with a particular

Pressure from the army forced the ruling Colorado Party to paper over its internal strife and helped it gain an emphatic victory in the

December 1991

elections for a constituent

assembly; this guaranteed the government a major role in

new constitution. On June 15 the assemapproved a measure whereby Pres. Andres Rodriguez was included in the constitutional ban on reelection bids by serving presidents. The inclusion of Rodriguez in the prohibition was taken by him as an attack on his family, his honour, and his word as a soldier that he would not run for the drafting of a

2.8%

in

Au-

1985. But during the year

slump

in July.

Agricultural production rose in 1991 but was nipped in the

1992 by disastrous effects of El Nino (a warm current sweeps through the Pacific every few years, provoking severe climatic reactions on land). Unseasonably heavy rains

bud

in

that

bly

flooded the north of the country, while the south suffered severe drought.

reelection in 1993.

that one of its highest prioriwas to wipe out Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru, whose activities had spread throughout Peru. Reports emerged that prisons were being used as indoctrination centres for the guerrilla

The

president refused to attend the final

session of the constituent assembly

on June

18.

A

series of

protests by his supporters fueled fears of a military coup,

were

fears that

laid to

rest only

when Rodriguez

finally

swore allegiance to the new constitution in a ceremony on June 22. On December 27 the Colorado Party chose Luis Maria

Argana uled for

as

its

May

candidate for president 9,

1993. Argana,

schedserved as president

in the elections

who had

of the

Supreme Court under Gen. Alfredo

ceived

48%

of the vote to

41%

Stroessner, re-

for second-place Juan Carlos

The government declared

ties

May

groups. In early

the police tried to restore order in

the Miguel Castro prison

on the

outskirts of Lima.

When

move female detainees to another prison, some 35 members of the Shining Path and 2 policemen they attempted to

were

the ensuing conflict.

In July a series of Lima, causing many casualties and marking the worst spate of violence in the capital in many

car

killed

in

bombs exploded

years.

On September

in

12 police arrested

Abimael Guzman,

leader of the Shining Path, in a raid on a house in Lima.

The capture of Guzman

after 12 years in hiding

was

at-

490

World

Affairs: Latin

America and the Caribbean

There was some cheerful news on the economic front the sugar crop closed in midyear at 20,159 metric tons, well above the 19,000-ton target. The British government helped boost economic development by providing £900,000

when

new road

for three

This article updates the Macropcedia Saint Kitts

and

new bypass to the (david renwick) article The West Indies:

projects, including a

east of Basseterre. Nevis.

SAINT LUCIA

A constitutional

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,

Lucia is the second largest of the Windward Islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 617 sq km (238 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 135,000. Cap.: Castries. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of EC$4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Stanislaus A. James; prime minister, St.

John Compton.

The United Workers

Abimael Guzman, leader of the Shining Path, remains defiant in a jail cell in Lima. The head of the terrorist group that had threatened the Peruvian government for more than a decade, he was arrested on September 12 and in early October was sentenced to life

was returned

majority in the

The

imprisonment.

Party

(UWP),

House of Assembly and 56.3% of

Saint Lucia

an 11-6

the vote.

Labour Party (SLP) remained the

Compton had been prime

opposition.

John Compton,

led by

to office yet again in April 1992, with

official

minister since 1982.

was head of successive governments during the period 1964 to 1979. In June, Compton presented the first budget of his new administration. It envisaged expenditure of EC$490.7 million, with EC$219.2 million earmarked for capital development. Prior to independence, he

tributed to Dincote, Peru's counterterrorist police force.

Guzman was taken before a top-secret military tribunal and charged with terrorist offenses related to an unofficial total of about 22,500 deaths since the inception of the guerrilla war in 1980. In early October he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to life imprisonment. The loss of Guzman and the later arrests of other leaders were the worst setbacks in the Shining Path's history. However, the guerrillas were thought to be well organized into self-contained cells and capable of quickly finding new leadership. The police, meanwhile, stepped up security in the capital,

Despite

Hunte

An

and around Lima, leaving dead and several injured. out, mainly in

at least

one person

(huw clough)

the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 269 sq km (104 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 43,100. Cap.: Basseterre. Monetary unit: Eastern dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of ECS2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of EC$4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir Clement Arrindell; prime

Caribbean

Kennedy A. Simmonds.

dismissal of

inquiry into reports of malpractice and irregularities in

in

midyear. In August,

Compton promised an

Deputy Prime Minister Michael Powell

"all-out of-

fensive" against drug traffickers, following revelations that

schoolchildren were being suborned into the drug trade.

The Royal Caribbean Cruise

Line, one of the main cruise dropped Saint Lucia from its the cruise visitor tax was raised from $2 to

ship operators in the region, itinerary after

$10.

Compton accused

the line of "singling-out" Saint Lucia

(david renick)

West

Indies:

Saint Lucia.

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, and Nevis comprises the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis

in

The

reelected Julian

This article updates the Macropcedia article The

A constitutional

minister,

SLP

leader in July, ignoring calls for his removal.

for "discriminatory action."

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS

St. Kitts

its

the operations of the Castries City Council was launched

bracing themselves for a backlash reaction to Guzman's sentence. Nevertheless, a spate of terrorist attacks did break

defeat at the polls, the

its

as

in

SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

A constitutional

monarchy within the Commonwealth,

St.

Vincent and the Grenadines comprises the islands of St. Vincent and the northern Grenadines in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 389 sq km (150 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 109,000. Cap.: Kingstown. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of ECS4.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, David Jack; prime minister, James Fitz-Allen Mitchell.

April 1992 brought crowds into the streets of Basseterre in

was a popular politician, but his relationship Kennedy Simmonds, the prime minister and leader of the governing People's Action Movement (PAM), had been strained for some time. The results of the Nevis local protest. Powell

with

election in June did

partner, the

little

to

lift

PAM's

spirits. Its coalition

Nevis Reformation Party, was defeated 3-2

by the Concerned Citizens

Movement (CCM), which had

established itself at the national level in the 1989 election

CCM

by winning one seat in the federal parliament. The victory removed, for the moment, the threat of Nevis' secession from the federation.

Shortly after the election, Nevis was jolted by the discovery of the body of the deputy governor-general, Weston Parris. He was found floating in the sea near his home in

Charlestown.

The ECS274.4

million budget presented in January 1992 included a capital spending component of ECS104.8 million, to be financed principally from external sources. The largest

was completed May, when the new EC$55 million airport opened for business in Bequia. The airport was named after the prime minister, James F. Mitchell, who represented the island in

capital project in the country's recent history in

Parliament.

Plans for an even bigger project, a $75 million boatyard and marina near Kingstown, were approved by Parliament at midyear. It would be a joint venture between the government (49%) and an Italian company (51%). The West Deutsche Landesbank pledged funding to the extent of $50.3 million to the operating company, Caribbean Charter

Latin America and

and Yacht Yard Holdings

Ltd.

The company would

receive

duty-free concessions during the construction stage, a 15year tax break, and lice repatriation of profits. Forty Vin-

centians were to receive training in Italy. Ivy Joshua, the first elected female member of the

St.

Vincent and the Grenadines legislature, died in August at the age of 67. She was the wife of the late Ebenezer Joshua, the country's

first

(david renwick)

chief minister.

This article updates the Macropcedia article The Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.

West

Indies:

SURINAME The

republic of Suriname is in northeastern South America, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 163,820 sq km (63,251 sq mi), not including a 17,635-sq km area disputed with Guyana. Pop. (1992 est.): 404,000. Cap.: Paramaribo. Monetary unit: Suriname guilder, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of 1.79 guilders to U.S.

$1 (free rate of 3.03 guilders = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Ronald Venetiaan; prime minister, Jules Adjodhia.

May

1992 the two main guerrilla groups, Ronnie BrunsSurinamese Liberation Army or Jungle Commando and Thomas Sabajo's Tucayana Amazonas, announced a cessation of hostilities against the government, and in early August a draft peace treaty was signed by the government, these groups, and some smaller guerrilla factions. The agreement included a general amnesty and integration of the guerrillas into the civilian police. A disarmament meeting took place on August 24 at Moengo, where Brunswijk, who had led a seven-year insurgency, was the first to hand over his weapons to an observer from the Organization of In

wijk's

American

On March

remove

bly to

army

21 the government asked the National

allowed the

articles in the constitution that

to act in a

way

Assem-

"that did not stand with the func-

tioning of a democratic Constitutional State."

On

February

Ronald Venetiaan visited U.S. Pres. George Bush, who reportedly promised assistance in case of another military coup in Suriname. In The Netherlands on June 18, Venetiaan and Dutch Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers signed an agreement providing for the resumption of Dutch aid, suspended during the period of military rule. The Dutch government promised some 1 billion guilders over the next five years. (klaas j. hoeksema) 3 Pres.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

A

republic and

Tobago

member

consists of

of the Commonwealth, Trinidad and

two islands

in the

Caribbean Sea

off the

coast of Venezuela. Area: 5,128 sq km (1,980 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 1,261,000. Cap.: Port of Spain. Monetary unit: Trinidad

and Tobago

dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a par value of TT$4.25 to U.S. $1 (free rate of TT$7.23 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Noor Mohammad Hassanali; prime minister, Patrick Manning.

The People's National Movement (PNM) government presented the first budget of its new administration in January 1992, setting expenditures for the year at

TT$7.9

billion.

Income tax rates were increased, and the corporation tax was restored to 45%. Prime Minister Patrick Manning met U.S. Pres. George Bush and other U.S. government officials in Washington, D.C., in May. Cooperation between the two countries in combating the drug trade was discussed. Following

its

decisive defeat in the

December

1991 elec-

Reconstruction (NAR) elected a new leader, Carson Charles. The previous leader, A.N.R. Robinson, who had been prime minister during 1986-91, resigned shortly after the election. tions,

the

National Alliance

for

(

aribbean: Venezuela

491

114 members ol the Jamaat al Muslimccn group stormed Parliament and held the prime minister and several other government ministers hostage foi live days m July-August 1990 were released from jail in July. A High Court judge upheld the validity of the amnesty they had been granted by the acting president in an effort to avoid bloodshed. The government appealed part of the judgment. Local government elections in September confirmed the

he

I

that

PNM's

popularity.

The

party regained total control of four

boroughs and was victorious in six of the nine regional councils. However, the NAR retained control of the Tobago House of Assembly in elections on December 7. Efforts were under way at the year's end to merge the two government-owned oil companies, Trintoc and Trintopec, at

the

instigation of international

company was expected

integrated

and

assets of

TT$3.2

to

The

lending agencies.

have 6,000 employees

(david renwick)

billion.

This article updates the Macropcedia article The Trinidad and Tobago.

West

Indies:

URUGUAY

A republic

of eastern South America, Uruguay lies on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 176,215 sq km (68,037 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,130,000. Cap.: Montevideo. Monetary unit: Uruguayan new peso, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 3,271 new pesos to U.S. $1 (5,561 new pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Luis

Alberto Lacalle.

The in

Union Assembly and the National ConfederaWorkers (PIT-CNT) called another general strike

Inter

tion of

January 1992 as part of

economic

States.

tin-

its

ongoing protest against the

policies of Pres. Luis Lacalle; the

PIT-CNT

con-

federation had previously organized a 36-hour general strike in

December 1991

following the award of a

12% pay

raise

to public sector workers that the confederation described as

wholly insufficient. On February 27 Finance Minister Lie Ignacio de Posadas

announced the third most severe stage in the fiscal readjustment program designed to bring Uruguay back into line with its agreement with the International Monetary Fund and international banks. Partly as a result of a Cabinet reshuffle in

which Posadas became finance minister, the Battlismo

Radical faction pulled out of the governing coalition. By mid-February the opposition left-wing Frente Amplio

and the PIT-CNT had gathered the necessary 12,000 signatures required for a special poll to be held in their campaign to slow the government's privatization program and preserve PIT-CNT jobs. The poll was duly held on July 5, but only 458,818 actually voted, as compared with the 581,069 in favour (25% of the electorate) required for a referendum on the issue to be forced. Another referendum on the issue took place in December, and the government again lost.

(MICHAEL WOOLLER)

VENEZUELA

A

republic of northern South America, Venezuela lies on the Caribbean Sea. Area: 912,050 sq km (352,144 sq mi). Pop. (1992 20,184,000. Cap.: Caracas. Monetary unit: bolivar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 69.49 bolfvares to U.S. $1 (118.14 bolivares = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Carlos Andres Perez. est.):

At 2 am on Feb. 4, 1992, Pres. Carlos Andres Perez appeared on national television and announced that an attempted military coup had been thwarted. The uprising had begun a few hours earlier at the Jose Leonardo Chirinos paratroops regiment base in the city of Maracay. Even as the president spoke, sporadic gunfire continued to erupt capital.

in

the

Later another rebel unit took control of the city of

492

World

Affairs:

Oceania

Alleged troublemakers are rounded up in early February during an attempted coup against the Venezuelan government. In spite of grievances among military officers and discontent among the populace over economic and other problems, the government put down the February uprising and a second coup attempt in November. BILL

Maracaibo. By daybreak, however, loyal government troops had regained the upper hand, and at midday the leader of the rebels, Lieut. Col. Hugo Chavez Frias, surrendered and made an appeal on television for any remaining forces to follow In

ment

fell

from 8.7%

the aftermath

133

officers

were arrested for

their

The rebels belonged to the radical Bolivarist Revolutionary Movement (MRB). Their activities began during the 1989 riots, when they circulated pamphlets part in the uprising.

around army barracks, accusing the military leadership of corruption and calling for a coup. Military unrest had been growing for some months, since the emergence of scandals linking high-ranking officers to drug traffickers and financial profiteering. But despite warnings from the ministry of defense, no one really believed that the military would

at the

end of 1991

to

8.4% by mid-1992

and, following 1991 growth, per capita income increased to $2,600.

On

the

down

compared with the time since 1976,

suit.

GENTILE -SIPA

private oil

side, oil exports fell

first

when

six

the

months of oil

by $14 million

1991. For the

first

industry was nationalized,

companies were offered 20-year contracts for fields. Any oil produced, however, processed by Petroleos de Venezuela

exploration of marginal

would have

to be

(PDVSA),

the state oil company. government reform package, announced in August, included a freeze on public-sector pay at 1992 levels, a $369 million cut in spending on PDVSA, a cut in internal government spending, a ban on new weapons systems for the armed forces, and the privatization of Alcasa, a state aluminum producer. (huw clough)

A

challenge the 34-year period of civilian rule. Public condemnation of the rebels was muted. However,

there was increased support for opposition leaders, particu-

former president Rafael Caldera of the Social Christian (COPEI). The government announced a series of reforms in the wake of the uprising, including an inquiry into corruption within the armed forces, an increase in the minimum wage, an increase in low-cost housing expenditures, and lower interest rates to stimulate the private sector of the economy. On February 25 a Cabinet reshuffle was announced, and dominant figures within the leading Democratic Action party were appointed. The defense minister. Gen. Fernando Ochoa Antich, was appointed foreign minister during Cabinet changes in June. He was the first military figure to hold the post in the civilian government, and his appointment was viewed as a concession to disgruntled army factions. After the government defeated a move to cut short its term by a year, the next presidential elections were scheduled for larly

Party

December 1993. On November 27

rebellious units of the air force along groups staged the year's second coup attempt. Air attacks were made on the office of President Perez, and two air bases were captured. After 12 hours of heavy fighting in Caracas, the rebels were defeated. In December a court-martial ordered the arrest of 240 soldiers and civilians for their part in the attack, in which at least 170 died. Regional elections took place in December. Preliminary returns indicated that the governing Democratic Action Party won only 6-8 of the 22 governor's seats; in 1989 it had won of the 20. Despite continuing political unrest, the economy was reasonably healthy. In June the gross domestic product was 8.5% higher than in the same period of 1991. Unemploy-

with

leftist

I

1

Oceania

3*-

OCEANIAN AFFAIRS Regional organizations played a prominent role in Oceanian with environmental concerns an underlying theme. The South Pacific Forum, now with 15 members that were independent or self-governing states, met in Honiara, Solomon Islands, in July. The meeting was chaired by Solomon Mamaloni, prime minister of Solomon Islands. This was the last Forum meeting to be attended by Sir Robert Rex, premier of Niue, who had attended his first Forum meeting as an observer in 1973 and had the longest unbroken record of attendance at the Forum of any Pacific leader. Absent from the meeting for the first time was Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, former prime minister of Fiji, who had been a founding member of the Forum in 1971 and had served since that time, except for a break after the Fiji coups of 1987. Mara was a strong advocate of informal discussion rather than formal business in the Forum and had urged recognition of the "Pacific Way" of discussion, compromise, and consensus in decision making. During the year, the region marked the death of Sir Robert Muldoon {see Obituaries), former New Zealand prime minister. As a member of the Forum, Muldoon was a strong advocate of regional trade and the Forum Shipping Line, though he sometimes drew criticism because of perceived racism in the immigration policies of his government. affairs in 1992,

— Oceania: tastralla

493

The Forum welcomed an Australian-funded program to monitor climate change in the region and to evaluate the impact of global warming on sea levels, freshwater supplies, and the frequency of cyclonic storms. Several of the independent nations were represented at the "Larth Summit" in Rio de Janeiro in June and were among the first to sign the Conventions on Climate Change and Biodiversity. Any significant rise in sea levels would raise questions about the viability of maintaining populations on many low-lying Pacific Islands. The Forum expressed continuing concern over the destruction of chemical weapons by the U.S. at Johnston Atoll and was critical of proposals to dispose of toxic waste in the Pacific Islands. The concern was by no means allayed by the visit to Johnston Atoll of a team of

development activities of the colonial powers, the SPC had remained an important point of contact lor island nations, especially those not eligible for membership in the South Pacific Forum. However, the organization had been troubled by financial and management difficulties. The facilities in Noumea, New Caledonia, needed replacement, but there was difficulty in reaching agreement between the French and New Caledonian governments, which wanted to rebuild on a new (and less desirable) site in Noumea, and many of the region's governments, which wanted to rebuild on the current site or remove to another Pacific capital. Fiji offered to meet the $13.6 million cost of moving the organization to Suva. A compromise was reached to rebuild in Noumea, with costs to be met by France and Australia

Forum countries. The Forum joined in criticism of Japan's proposal to ship plutonium from Europe by a route that would pass close to a number of member countries. France's announcement that it would suspend its nuclear testing program for 1992 was

but not without acrimony. The new secretary-general-elect, Jacques Iekawe of New Caledonia, died before taking over the position from Atanraoi Baiteke of Kiribati. Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu combined to participate in Expo 92 in Seville, Spain. They planned a Pacific Village with buildings representing various regional building styles, but the spectacular exhibit was destroyed by fire just days before Expo opened. This left little time to make alternative arrangements, though New Zealand and other adjoining pavilions made space and facilities available. It was hoped that the publicity from Expo participation would promote tourism development. The Tourism Council of the South Pacific won the award for the Most Effective Corporate Image among 3,000 exhibits from 140 countries at the World Travel mart in London. Within the region, there was widespread participation in, and publicity for, the Pacific Arts Festival in Rarotonga in October. (barrie macdonald)

scientists representing

welcomed, and the Forum called for the U.S., the U.K., and France to sign the protocols of the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (the Rarotonga Treaty) of 1985. Despite protests from China, the Forum recognized Taiwan as a dialogue partner one of those nations from outside the region that are invited to hold talks with Forum members. The invitation recognized the growing role of Taiwan in

—

New Caledonia's Kanak Liberation Front was denied observer status on the grounds that it did not meet the normal requirement of representing a nation that had achieved self-government or was on the verge of independence. The Forum also expressed disappointment over delays

the region's economies.

in

establishing the Joint

Commercial Commission proposed

during talks between U.S. Pres. George Bush and leaders in Hawaii in 1991.

The

Forum

leaders were concerned that

no funds had been forthcoming from the U.S. and expressed doubt as to whether the venture could survive on private funding alone. By the end of the year, a director (Jioji Kotobalavu of Fiji) had been appointed, and there were plans to draw up detailed terms of reference and to establish a headquarters organization in Hawaii in association with the East-West Center. It was intended that the commission would promote economic development through the private

AUSTRALIA

A

federal parliamentary state (formally a constitutional monarchy) and member of the Commonwealth, Australia occupies the smallest continent and includes the island state of Tasmania. Area: 7,682,300 sq km (2,966,200 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 17,562,000. Cap.: Canberra. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Bill Hayden; prime minister, Paul Keating.

Affairs. The prospect of a snap general elechung over Australian politics in 1992. The two party leaders, Prime Minister Paul Keating (see Biographies) and the leader of the opposition, John Hewson, jockeyed for supremacy in the public opinion polls. Hewson ex-

Domestic

sector.

Earlier in the year, the inaugural

summit of smaller Pa-

Island states was held in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and was attended by the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, and Tuvalu. Kiribati, with some 74,700 inhabitants, had more than twice the population of the other states put together. The summit explored possible sources of development capital for very small states, expressed concern over the reduction of the Forum Line's feeder service, looked

cific

at

—

the possibilities of sharing technologies for black pearl

production, and considered the amalgamation of their respective exclusive

economic zones

to facilitate negotiations

over the licensing of commercial fishing. Plans for a regional approach to environmental issues a step closer when the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program produced a draft plan that would provide for the coordination of efforts to deal with shortterm problems like disaster relief and to plan for longer-

came

—

—

—

term developments related to global warming including the management of freshwater resources, reef protection, and the development of building standards to meet hurricane conditions. The program was also concerned with broader issues such as the protection of rain forest. The South Pacific Commission (SPC) had a troubled year. Originally designed to coordinate the social and economic

tion

pected Keating to

call

an early election because Australia's

economic position was continually worsening, but Keating continued to work for an improvement in living standards and a lowering of the high unemployment rate as essential

The yearlong both leaders. Hewson's major problem was that he had decided to approach the next election promising a new tax instead of following tradition and letting the government fail through its own

prerequisites before going to the electorate. political uncertainty frayed the nerves of

ineptitude.

Throughout the year, Keating's personal popularity remained low. He recorded the lowest-ever popularity rating for an incoming prime minister in his first Morgan Gallup Poll, 25% a figure that matched the lowest rating ever

—

recorded by a prime minister in office, Sir William McMahon in 1972. Nor was the Australian Labor Party (ALP) helped by former prime minister Bob Hawke's behaviour on leaving Parliament. Hawke's decision to resign his seat of Wills in February 1992 left the ALP facing the prospect of a swing to the conservatives in the by-election as voters in

494

World

Affairs:

Oceania

the formerly safe Labor seat deserted the leader

who had

deserted them. The voters of Wills, however, were fed up with both major parties and returned an independent, Phil Cleary,

whose

member

was based on his ability as was only the seventh independent

local popularity

a football coach. Cleary

of Parliament since federation in 1901.

During the by-election campaign, there was considerable negative public comment on deals organized by the International Management Group on the ex-prime minister's behalf when Hawke retired from Parliament. These included tele-

accommodation, and free clothing and tailoring advice. Hawke also reneged on his promise not to undermine his successor. He attacked Keating for raising impossible public expectations in his economic predictions as well as for dressing personal staff at the official Canberra residence of the prime minister, the Lodge, in morning suits. Hawke commented that for nearly nine years while he was prime minister the standard garb had been an ordinary Aussie suit. "You," he said, addressing Keating, "have put them into morning suits, the uniform of the British butlering vision appearances, free

class

—just a mite hypocritical mate."

The prime damage done

minister was far

more concerned about the

GraRichardson, one of the key figures behind Keating's career. Richardson was forced to resign as a minister over his relationship with a relative by marriage, who was arrested in the Marshall Islands on a forgery charge while involved in a business migration program designed to attract Asian investors to the Marshall Islands. Senator Richardson denied any wrongdoing but decided to step down to avoid long-term damage to the ALP. "I owe the party too much to contribute in any way to inhibiting its chances of electoral success," he said. Keating reluctantly accepted Richardson's resignation but refused to condemn him, saying only that his relationship with his relative had been unfortunate rather than improper. The ALP's troubles were compounded by the resignation of Premier John Bannon of South Australia, who took political responsibility for the losses of a stateowned bank, and the landslide victory of the conservative opposition in state elections in Victoria in October. The battle between Hewson and Keating was marked by personal bitterness. In April, Hewson accused the speaker to his party by a scandal involving Sen.

ham

McLeay

as a national disgrace

House of Representatives

to

become

opportunity of the royal tour to

who had

call for the establishment of an Australian republic and accused Britain of abandoning Australia and Southeast Asia to the Japanese in World War II. The British prime minister, John Major, was forced to caution the British press about a reciprocal attack on Keating and Australia. Keating touched a particularly raw nerve when he put his arm round the queen while guiding her

a

through a crowded reception, inspiring such British tabloid

of the Parliament, Leo McLeay, of subverting the political process by denying the opposition a fair go. Hewson described

members of the New South Wales right-wing faction, which both Keating and McLeay belonged, were "the nearest thing this country's had to the Mafia in decades." Keating replied that Hewson's remarks were a deliberate, unjustified slur that would do nothing but lower the esteem in which the Parliament was held by the public, and he asked Hewson to repeat his remarks outside Parliament so that action could be taken against him in the courts. Hewson declined to take up Keating's challenge, instead responding that Keating could dish it out but not take it. He described Keating as a nasty, mean school-yard bully "squealling and whingeing and whining and sniffling," but he admitted that the threats of legal action had confined his debate on the alleged Mafia links to the parliamentary arena, where he was protected from litigation by parliamentary privilege. So low was public esteem for its political leaders that a man who planned to kill Hewson by shooting him with a shotgun received only a suspended jail sentence and a fine. Clifton Moss told a Canberra court that he had thought, "If I done Hewson in, Keating might have to go out of Government, so I'd get two birds in one stone." Foreign Affairs. As the new Labor prime minister, Keating determined to distance himself from his predecessor by a high-profile interest in the Pacific and Australia's northern neighbours. Keating gave high priority to making overseas trips to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.), and Japan. Australia's support for the P.N.G. against secessionist guerrillas was a sensitive issue, particularly when a range of witnesses claimed that Australian-supplied helicopters were being used to attack targets in Bougainville. Australia asked the P.N.G. to provide a detailed response to the allegations, but Keating himself used the Australia-P.N.G. link to cement his domestic popularity at home. Australia also criticized P.N.G. incursions into the Solomon Islands. Australian foreign policy toward the U.K. hardened also, cynics said, for domestic political reasons. Relations with Britain were soured by Keating's behaviour during a visit by Queen Elizabeth II in February. Keating took the that

to

allowed the shambles and said

OIRCK HALSTEAD-

GAMMA UAISON

in Sydney protest policies of George Bush on the occasion of his

Demonstrators U.S. Pres. visit

to Australia at the

beginning of the year.

As part of his trip to several Pacific Bush spent four days in Australia.

countries,

Oceania: Australia

headlines as "Hands 27,000 heroes." In

a

our Queen" and "An

oil

insult

to

lengthy reassessment of Australia's constitutional the U.K., Keating told the queen that

relationship with

changed during her 40-year reign. "The men Parliament on your first visit and they were practically all men in those days had memories of Empire," Keating said. This was an altogether different generation, reflecting the profound changes in the two countries and the relationship between them. Just as Great Britain some time ago sought to make its future secure in the European Communities, so Australia now attitudes had

who

—

sat in the Australian

—

sought partnerships with the countries in its own regions. editor of The Times observed that Keating had been accused of lese-majesty for so rudely bringing up the issue of republicanism to the queen's face. The prime minister's wife, Annita Keating, declined to curtsey to the queen, and neither the queen nor the Duke of Edinburgh

The diplomatic

was

duke going so far might catch a ghastly

willing to hold or pat a koala, the

as to

comment, "Oh

no,

I

couldn't,

I

Exchange in Sydney look over a economic news. The Australian government announced several initiatives, including a program to create jobs, to cope with the country's continuing recession. Dealers

at

the Australian Futures

paper giving the

latest

disease."

Keating, unrepentant, said

in

Parliament that he learned

A

tragic disaster that could have severely

school about self-respect and self-regard for Australia, not about cultural cringing to a country that had decided

July

not to defend the Malay Peninsula, not to worry about Sin-

tas

gapore, and not to give Australia back

the plane as being

at

its

troops to keep the

it was announced that, by agreement with the queen, Australian citizens would no longer be nominated for knighthoods or

country free from Japanese domination. In October

other British honours. In

December

the Cabinet decided to

remove any reference to the queen from the country's oath of allegiance, and legislation amending the Citizenship Act was to be introduced in Parliament. Keating inflamed a new brand of aggressive nationalism by calling for a new Australian flag. He told Parliament that he regarded the Australian flag as an ambiguous representation of his nation and that he believed the flag should be changed. During the debate, he stirred up public opinion by continuing to put forth arguments about such historical matters as the fall of Singapore. Hewson accused Keating

of using the flag as a diversion from unemployment.

He

amplified this by saying that Keating had a particularly limited

formal education and was an illegitimate prime minister

not been properly elected. He accused Keating making a mockery of himself and Australia by speaking about the flag in Indonesia and of distorting history to defend his position. Keating responded vigorously by calling the opposition "snivellers, crawlers and lick-spittles to forces

who had of

tralia's relationship

when

a U.S. warship threatened to shoot

passenger

jet,

dent involved the

down

a

in

Qan-

its pilot had clearly identified on a routine commercial flight. The inci-

even though

USS

Cowpens, a Ticonderoga-class guided

and a

cruiser

missile

damaged Aus-

with the U.S. was narrowly averted

sister

ship to

the

USS

Vincennes,

which shot down an Iranian A-300 Airbus over the Persian Gulf in 1988, killing all 290 passengers and crew. When the pilot of the Qantas Boeing 747-400, two and a half hours into its journey from Los Angeles to Sydney, heard a U.S. naval warship instruct him to leave the area or be fired upon, he immediately diverted his course and radioed the U.S. Federal Aviation Authority in Los Angeles before being given clearance by Cowpens to resume the flight to Australia. Both the U.S. Navy and the Australian Bureau of Air Safety investigated the incident. The U.S. apologized, and diplomats from both countries tried to minimize the incident's importance. Relations with Malaysia improved in 1992. The contro-

ABC

versial

television series

"Embassy" toned down

its

ceived anti-Muslim bias and then ceased production.

per-

More

important, two days of talks were held in July 1992 between the Australia-Malaysia and Malaysia-Australia Business Councils.

To

signal better relations, Malaysia's minister

abroad."

and industry, Dato'Seri Rafidah Aziz, joined Australia's minister for trade and overseas development, John Kerin, at the seminar. The meeting's concluding

Relationships with the U.S. were harmed when Pres. George Bush used the U.S. Export Enhancement Program

statement referred to the resolution of recent difficulties in bilateral relations, clearing the way for increased trade and

to

subsidize grain exports into markets that Australian farmers traditionally considered theirs. Stephen Censky, the

investment.

acting administrator of the U.S. Foreign Agricultural Ser-

tralia did

vice, rejected

Australian assertions that Bush had gone back promise that the U.S. would try to minimize damage caused by its wheat subsidies. The Adelaide Advertiser, in an editorial called "U.S. becomes our grim reaper," commented that although the U.S. action was infuriating, there was no merit in trying to flex Australia's undersized muscles by tying other bilateral agreements, such as joint bases or airline access, to trade issues. Australia welcomed the decision by President Bush to discontinue production of plutonium and highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons. Foreign Minister Gareth Evans praised Bush for taking a historic step

war

on

the use of ethnic

in

his

preventing the further proliferation of nuclear weapons

and applauded Bush's increased contribution to the International Atomic Energy Agency's safeguards budget.

for international trade

Despite high levels of migration from Yugoslavia, Ausnot experience local repercussions from the civil in

the migrants' homeland.

names

The government banned and community

for sporting teams,

leaders from both the Serbian and Croatian groups played

down

the ethnic rivalry.

Club

in

"We

tell

The president of the Serbian Youth Sydney's western suburbs, Stephen Damjanovic, explained that the Serbs were trying to keep things calm. goslavia;

the kids to just forget what

we

live in

Australia now."

happened back

As

in

Yu-

part of his strategy

of focusing attention on Australia's immediate region, Paul

Keating attended the 23rd South Pacific Forum Meeting in Honiara, Solomon Islands, on July 8-9. The Forum, which

meets annually

at

head-of-govemment

level,

discussed envi-

ronmental, trade and investment, and law-enforcement and nuclear issues. (See Oceanian Affairs, above.)

4%

World

Affairs:

Oceania

The Economy. While

ALP was successful in reducing unemployment continued to rise,

the

Australia's inflation rate,

reaching the worst levels since the Great Depression of the 1930s. By July 1992 the unemployment rate stood at 11.1%, or 963,500 people. All states had jobless rates above 10%, with South Australia continuing to have the highest, 12.5%.

The youth unemployment rate (15- to 19-year-olds) jumped from 34.1% to 35.8%. The government's policy of reducing interest rates to stimulate the economy appeared to have little effect.

Both Keating and Hewson proposed new solutions to economic woes. Keating's One Nation package, presented in February, cut sales tax on new cars, relaxed foreign investment guidelines, and increased family allowances. At the centre of Hewson's Fightback plan was the imposition of a new goods and services tax (GST). Both leaders Australia's

projected a rosy future, Keating promising to "kick start" the economy, provide an extra 800,000 jobs, upgrade roads

and railways, and compel increased pension contributions by employers. Treasurer John Dawkins (see Biographies) made unemployment relief the major target of government policy in the August budget. With a general election due in 1993, the government saw reducing unemployment as crucial to its hope of retaining office. Accordingly, the budget pledged $A 742 million in 1992 and $A 467 million in 1993 to attack the unemployment crisis. The target was to return 800,000 Australians to work with a grass-roots-level job-creation program. The major initiative was a $A 345 million local capital works program involving 411 local government councils, situated in areas that were home to 70% of Australia's unemployed. Priority would be given to getting long-term unemployed adults back to work, and Dawkins promised sensible projects, not painting rocks or putting up pinelog fencing. The budget also attempted to fund a $A 1.6 billion overhaul of the public health system by increasing the Medicare levy from 1.25% of taxable income to 1.4%. The government decided to raise revenue by selling off uranium stockpile and privatizing the merged by the amalgamation of QANTAS and Australian Airlines. The pension for single persons was slightly increased to $A 312 a fortnight by January 1993. In another popular move, the environment minister, Ros Kelly, said that the government would spend $A 1.5 million to attack Australia's

Tricontinental.

trial

animals hunting native species. Shortly after the budget was introduced, the Australian dollar fell to a five-year low against the U.S. dollar and lost even more ground against other major currencies. Hewson blamed the budget and commented that the dollar's plunge would lead to higher inflation and a cut in living standards. Dawkins, on the other hand, argued that the dollar's fluctuation was caused by Germany's high interest rates and concern about the U.S. economy. The Reserve Bank of Australia spent over $A 1 billion on August 25 trying to prop up the dollar, which reached a 12-year low against the German Deutsche Mark, and intervened to defend the dollar again in early December. Dawkins, meanwhile, was being investigated for possible irregularities in connection with loans to the former Labour government of Victoria. The fallout from the boom-and-bust phenomenon of the 1980s continued. In June, John Elliott, the man behind the Foster's Brewing Group and a person once touted as a future prime minister, had his investment group forced into receivership by Australia's biggest company, BHP. Alan Bond of America's Cup fame was imprisoned in May 1992. He had been declared bankrupt on April 14 after months of haggling over the responsibility for a $A 255 million debt to the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and

ended

convicted of dishonest financial

(a.r.g. Griffiths)

in acquittal.

See also Dependent

States,

below.

FUl The

occupies an island group in the South Pacific km (7,056 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 748,000. Cap.: Suva. Monetary unit: Fiji dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of F$1.51 to U.S. $1 (F$2.57 = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau; prime ministers, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara and, from June 2, Sitiveni Rabuka. republic of

Fiji

Ocean. Area: 18,274 sq

The

interim government of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, in-

coups of 1987, remained in power until were held in May 1992. In its budget for 1992, the government introduced a 10% value-added tax, adjusted income and company taxes, and made further adjustments to protect lower-income earners. The government expected stalled after the

elections

1% of gross domestic product (GDP). Because of a decline in tourism and sugar production and a prolonged strike at the Vatukoula gold mine, GDP fell by 0.4% in 1991. In elections in May, Maj. Gen. Sitiveni Rabuka, leader of the two coups in 1987, became prime minister as leader of the Fijian Political Party, which supported affirmative action to protect the interests of indigenous Fijians. The new constitution guaranteed ethnic Fijians a preponderance of seats in the legislature and reserved the presidency, prime ministership, and other key positions for ethnic Fijians. In the election most Indian votes went to the National Federation Party and to the Fiji Labour Party, which enjoyed a degree of multiracial support. The election brought the retirement from politics of Mara, who, except for brief periods in 1977 and 1987, had a net deficit of $15.3 million, or

independence in 1970. He had also been a founder and leading member of the South Pacific Forum. (barrie macdonald) led Fiji since

This article updates the Macropcedia

airline created

feral

Bond was

dealings and sentenced to two and a half years in prison, but the conviction was quashed on appeal, and a second

article

Pacific Islands:

Fiji.

KIRIBATI

A

republic in the western Pacific Ocean and member of the Commonwealth, Kiribati comprises the former Gilbert Islands, Banaba (Ocean Island), the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands. Area: 811 sq km (313 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 74,700. Cap.: Bairiki, on Tarawa. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). President (beretitenti) in 1992, Teatao Teannaki.

A number of new economic

initiatives

were taken

in Kiribati

during 1992. The Asian Development Bank funded a development plan for the Northern Line Islands, which contain

most of the country's land but are some 3,200 km (2,000 mi) to the east of the Gilbert Islands, where most of the people live. Continuing resettlement from the Gilberts was envisioned, together with developments in fisheries, agriculture, and tourism. Further steps were taken to establish a garment industry in the Gilbert group, with some 40,000 garments produced under a training program. Exported garments were to have preferential access to Australian and New Zealand markets under the South Pacific Regional Free Trade Agreement. Using aid and technical assistance from China, Kiribati began upgrading its main airport at Bonriki, Tarawa, with improved navigational aids and facilities for night landing; it would be able to accommodate Boeing 737s.

Oceania: New Zealand

In political developments, the minister of public works and energy. Nei Koriri Teaiwa Tenieu, the only woman member of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu (legislature), was forced to resign alter she was found guilty of improper (barrie macdonald) electoral practice. Islands: Tins article updates the Macropcedia article Pach l(

Kiribati.

MARSHALL ISLANDS A

republic in the central Pacific Ocean, the Marshall Islands comprises two 1,300-km (800-mi)-lohg parallel chains of coral atolls. Area: 181 sq km (70 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 50,000. Cap.: Majuro. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of U.S. $1.70 to £1 sterling. President in 1992, Amata Kabua.

In general elections in

ministers were defeated,

president

November 1991, several Cabinet but Amata Kabua was reelected

by the Nitijela (legislature)

in

January

1992.

Kabua's new government announced that it would expand and shift the emphasis of development from urban centres to rural areas and outer islands. Priorjty would be given to agriculture, fisheries, and tourism projects that would generate revenue. The government also announced that it would seek an additional $74 million from the U.S. as compensation for nuclear testing that had been conducted by the U.S. and for development projects that were left incomplete at the time of the Marshall Islands' independence. Under the Compact of Free Association, the Marshall Islands received 75% of its revenue from the U.S. in the form of aid and defense payments. The Marshall social services

Islands also received

—

its first

loan

—$6,950,000 for

fisheries

development from the Asian Development Bank. In January the first personal compensation payments were made for illness caused by U.S. nuclear testing. Some 300 individuals received $10.9 million. A study was scheduled for measuring radiation on Rongelap Island, which was damaged by fallout from a 1954 test. The islanders disputed U.S. government claims that the southern islets of their atoll were safe for resettlement. Under the Historic Preservation Act of 1991, the government established a research code, imposed controls on access and modifications to historic sites, established procedures for the handling of human remains discovered by archaeologists, and banned the export of artifacts. (barrie macdonald) This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Marshall Islands.

MICRONESIA, FEDERATED STATES OF

A

republic in the western Pacific Ocean, the Federated States of Micronesia comprises more than 600 islands and islets in the Caroline Islands archipelago. Area: 701 sq km (271 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 114,000. Cap.: Palikir, on Pohnpei. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of U.S. $1.70 to £1 sterling. President in 1992, Bailey Olter.

The Federated

States of Micronesia was admitted to the United Nations in 1991. In his first address to the General Assembly, Pres. Bailey Olter praised the role of the United States in helping his country move toward self-determination. He raised environmental issues important to Pacific Islands nations and was critical of continuing nuclear testing. After talks in Washington, D.C., between Olter and U.S. Pres. George Bush, a planned tuna-fishing industry for the Federated States of Micronesia was granted concessionary tariffs for the U.S. market and exempted from import-quota

requirements.

197

Sustained drougttl in the island state- ol ( huuk (formerly Truk) caused severe problems with the supply l domestic watei and brought an increase in watcrbomc diseases. As a result. President Olter sought additional assistance from the U.S. In keeping with the close relationship that existed between the two countries under the Compact ol Free Association, President Bush declared a state of emergency in Chuuk to facilitate the granting of emergency aid. The unusual climatic conditions were blamed on the El Nino weather pattern over the Pacific Ocean. (barrie macdonald) This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Micronesia.

NAURU An

island republic within the

Ocean about

Pacific

Area: 21 sq

Monetary of

$A

km

1,900

Commonwealth, Nauru

km

(8 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.):

lies in

the

New

Guinea. 9,600. Cap.: Yaren.

(1,200 mi) east of

unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate

1.38 to U.S. $1

($A

2.35

=

£1 sterling). President

in 1992,

Bernard Dowiyogo.

In

its

dispute with Australia before the International Court

The Hague, Nauru made some progress in Nauru claimed that Australia, acting as the adminis-

of Justice in 1992.

trator of

way

Nauru, allowed phosphate mining to occur

in

a

that breached the basic obligation of trusteeship. In

number of

response, Australia raised a

objections to the

On

June 26 the court ruled that the Australian objections were unsound and decided to proceed to hear the merits of Nauru's claim for compensation for the phosphate lands. Commenting on the judgment, Nauru Pres. Bernard Dowiyogo said that, in a year when so much emphasis had been placed on the world environment, it was a joy to see that Nauru's environmental problems were being given proper recognition. On a sadder note, an era in Nauruan history ended in July when former president Hammer DeRoburt, Nauru's elder statesman, who had led the nation to independence, died in Melbourne, Australia (see Obituaries). (a.r.g. Griffiths) court's dealing with the case.

This Nauru.

article

updates the Macropcedia

article

Pacific Islands:

NEW ZEALAND New

Zealand, a constitutional monarchy and member of the in the South Pacific Ocean, consists of North and South islands and Stewart, Chatham, and other minor islands. Area: 270,534 sq km (104,454 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,481,000. Cap.: Wellington. Monetary unit: New Zealand dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $NZ 1.84 to U.S. $1 ($NZ 3.13 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Dame Catherine Tizard; prime minister, Jim Bolger.

Commonwealth

On

Sept. 19, 1992, in the

a turnout of about

50%

first

of

part of a two-part referendum,

New

Zealand voters declared

an 84.5% preference for change from their first-past-thepost method of electing members of Parliament. Offered the opportunity to indicate which of five options they would prefer, 70.3% voted for mixed member proportional (MMP) representation. In this system each voter would have two votes:

one

to

choose an individual electorate

MP

and the

other to be expressed for a political party, which would have the opportunity to nominate additional MPs on the basis of the proportion of votes received nationwide. Voters had been warned that coalitions between parties might be

needed

to

form a government under

The government announced referendum would be held

in

this system.

second part of the conjunction with regular genthat the

498

World

Affairs:

Oceania

due toward the end of 1993. At that time a binding choice between MMP and the traditional system. Details of the alternative system would be added, such as the size of electorates and of Parliament and whether MMP would continue the traditional guarantee of four Maori electorates. By late 1993 MMP proponents would have an opportunity to lobby for specific details, and the incumbents would have more opportunity to work together to improve Parliament's image. Many observers saw the size of the rejection of the status quo as a condemnation of Cabinet conniving, caucus impotency, and parliamentary bickering in a single-chamber system where two parties dominated and the winners usually had an ample cushion of seats, although they might represent less, than half the total vote. A Royal Commission on Electoral Reform had recommended some form of MMP. If a new system was confirmed, it could be in place for general elections in 1996. At the 1993 elections the government was also expected to inquire whether the electorate wanted the restoration of an upper house, abolished as ineffectual

Papua New Guinea faced an election year in 1992 against a background of disturbances in Bougainville and the Solomons. In April the Bougainville leader Tony Anugu, who had negotiated establishment of the South Bougainville Interim Authority with Papua New Guinea authorities Sir Michael Somare and Father John Momis, was murdered. Government troops launched a major offensive on Bougainville in October, and at the end of the month it was announced that the rebel stronghold of Arawa had fallen. Prime Minister Rabbie Namaliu was defeated in the June general election, and Paias Wingti, elected prime minister on the casting vote of the speaker of Parliament on July 17, was given responsibility for preventing the spread of the relatively small revolutionary secessionist movement. The new prime minister announced his 27-member Cabinet after taking office. It included the leaders of the two parties in his coalition government, Sir Julius Chan and John Nilkare,

in 1950.

propriating government funds.

eral elections,

voters would

As

make

a backdrop to the voting,

New

Zealanders faced un15%, which owed something to a continuing

employment at economic restructuring process, the health services in a

and

new

bite of

some user-paid

era of privatization of state ser-

which edged out of its straitjacket to 1.1%. The Bank of New Zealand was acquired by National Australia Bank, while a "no-frills" federal budget moved some business leaders to comment that they were "bored to cheers." Meanwhile, the winter was so bleak that power resources were stretched beyond capacity and more than a million sheep disappeared under the snow. Cabinet strategist Minister of Labour Bill Birch guided various follow-ups to the previous Labour administration's policy of deregulation and to its corporatism of state services. These included user-paid health services and the breakdown of industrywide unionism in favour of a singleplant focus. Industrial reforms in New Zealand even became an election issue in an Australian state (Victoria) and a bone of contention in Canberra. In September the New Zealand Reserve Bank said the economy appeared to be becoming "increasingly well-grounded and broad-based," and the country's Institute of Economic Research forecast gross domestic product growth of 2.7% during the five years vices,

to

March

inflation,

1997.

In the contentious field of equal race opportunities, the

government and representatives of most Maori tribes signed a compensation agreement aimed at ending a 150-yearold dispute over commercial fishing rights. The government caucus expelled its most recalcitrant member, former Maori affairs minister Winston Peters. Members of Parliament of all persuasions closed ranks to pay tribute to Sir Robert Muldoon, who died in his sleep on August 5 (see Obituaries). (JOHN A. KELLEHER) See also Dependent

States,

below.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

A

as well as leading

opposition. In

him

MPs who

played a major

to office.

(a.r.g. Griffiths)

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Papua New Guinea.

SOLOMON ISLANDS A constitutional the

Solomon

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,

Islands comprises a 1,450-km (900-mi) chain of

and atolls in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 28,370 (10,954 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 339,000. Cap.: Honiara. Monetary unit: Solomon Islands dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of SI$2.97 to U.S. $1 (SIS5.04 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Sir George Lepping; islands

sq

km

prime minister, Solomon Mamaloni.

During 1992 Solomon Islands became embroiled

in border Guinea. The island of Bougainville, geographically and culturally part of the Solomons chain but constitutionally part of Papua New Guinea, tried to secede because of the closure, by terrorist activity since 1989, of a major copper mine. A blockade of the island by Papua New Guinea was breeched from Solomon Islands, leading to incursions across the border by Papua New Guinean troops, who attacked civilians and destroyed fuel stores. In October the UN secretary-general announced an inquiry into these incidents. After a substantial improvement in export earnings in 1991, especially for fish products and copra, the government issued a 1992 budget with appropriations of $91 million. Priority was given to expenditure on fisheries and forestry, industrial development, and a rural health program. Public service expenditure increased to cover a salary rise of 16%, and new payroll and wholesale taxes were introduced. The central bank warned of rising government debt levels and imposed controls on the use of overseas funds. In July Solomon Islands was host to the South Pacific Forum, which primarily discussed environmental issues.

disputes with neighbouring Papua

New

(barrie

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Papua New Guinea is situated in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and comprises the eastern part of the island of New Guinea, the islands of the Bismarck. Kiriwina (Trobriand), Louisiade, and D'Entrecasteaux groups, Muyua (Woodlark) Island and other nearby islands, and parts of the Solomon Islands, including

km

(178,704 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 3,834,000. Cap.: Port Moresby. Monetary unit: kina, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 0.97 kina to U.S. $1 (1.65 kinas = 11 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Wiwa Korowi; prime ministers, Rabbie Namaliu to June 13 and, from July 17, Paias Wingti.

macdonald)

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands:

constitutional

Bougainville. Area: 462,840 sq

independent

Somare became leader of the December Namaliu was charged with misap-

role in electing

Solomon

Islands.

TONGA A

constitutional

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,

an island group in the Pacific Ocean east of Fiji. Area: 780 sq km (301 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 97.300. Cap.: Nuku'alofa. Monetary unit: pa'anga, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 1.38 pa'anga to U.S. $1 (2.35 pa'anga = £1 sterling). King. Taufa'ahau Tupou IV; prime minister in 1992, Baron Vaea.

Tonga

is

Oceania: Western Samoa

not all o! main's islands could that were predicted, many become uninhabitable. The Tuvalu Trust Fund, intended to assist m meeting the recurrent costs of government, showed an annual return ol 11% over its first four years. In a new development Tuvalu it

I

received significant French aid to rebuild classrooms that

had been destroyed by storms on the main island of FunaThe new school was opened by the French ambassador. Tuvalu joined Unesco and received its first grant, for the development of a national archives and library. After a Taiwanese fishing vessel was detained for encroaching on Tuvalu's exclusive economic zone, a fine of $75,000 was imposed. Under a bilateral agreement Taiwanese vessels had been licensed to fish in the zone until 1989, but the agreement was not renewed at that time. (barrie macdonald) futi.

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Tuvalu.

Agriculture remained the principal

most land was held by the

economic

activity of

nobility but allotted to

Tonga, where

commoners

proposals for developing new sources of revenue win the support of segments of Tongan society.

cultivation. Several

had

failed to

PHIUP QUIRK

WILDUGHT

In association with foreign investors,

Tonga took another

becoming a major provider of satellite services for the Pacific region with the announcement that its first satellite would be launched early in 1993. The economy continued to improve, with inflation down from 17% in 1990 to 7.4% in 1991. Foreign reserves at the end of 1991 were 5% higher than in 1990, largely owing to remittances from Tongans overseas, tourism receipts, and revenue from squash exports to Japan, which in 1991 acstep toward

objective of

its

counted for almost two-thirds of

all

export earnings.

Business interests unsuccessfully opposed legislation to impose a 0.7% currency tax on all foreign exchange transactions; the measure was also seen as an attempt to tax personal remittance income. In anticipation of general elections in 1993, there were preliminary moves toward the

formation of a political party that would represent the interests of commoners; Tonga's parliament was dominated by hereditary nobles and Cabinet ministers appointed by the king. In an attempt to protect rare native species, a

16-km

(10-mi) strip of coastline on the island of 'Eua was declared a national park,

and

limits

were imposed on public access. (barrie macdonald)

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Tonga.

TUVALU A

constitutional

in

the western Pacific

monarchy within the Commonwealth, Tuvalu comprises nine main islands and their associated islets and reefs (

1992

est.):

VANUATU

for

Ocean. Area: 24 sq km (9 sq mi). Pop. 9,500. Cap.: Fongafale, on Funafuti Atoll. Monetary

Australian dollar, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of $A 1.38 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.35 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1992, Toaripi Lauti; prime minister, Bikenibeu Paeniu. unit:

republic of Vanuatu, a member of the Commonwealth, comprises 12 main islands and some 60 smaller ones in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area: 12,190 sq km (4,707 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 154,000. Cap.: Vila. Monetary unit: vatu, with (Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 112.94 vatu to U.S. $1 (192 vatu = £1 sterling). President in 1992, Fred Timakata; prime minister,

The

Maxime

Carlot

Korman.

A general

election in December 1991 launched a new era in Vanuatu's politics in 1992. In August 1991 the ruling Vanuaaku Party, led by Father Walter Lini since Vanuatu's inde-

pendence

When

in 1980,

dismissed him as president of the party.

no confidence, he was replaced as prime minister by Donald Kalpokas. In the election 19 seats were won by the francophone Union of Moderate Parties (UMP), which then formed a coalition with Lini and his newly formed National United Party (10 seats), leaving the Vanuaaku Party (12 seats) in opposition. (For tabulated results, see Political Parties, above.) The new government was formed by Maxime Carlot of UMP in alliance with Lini. Soon after the election, the new prime minister was given Lini lost a vote of

the honorific title of Korman by his home village. With the change of government, there were allegations of politically motivated dismissals from the public service, countered by an insistence that the officials in question had refused to follow directions from incoming ministers. The new government moved quickly to normalize relations with France after years of friction over diplomatic representation, aid,

and alleged interference

in

Vanuatu's politics. (barrie macdonald)

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Vanuatu.

WESTERN SAMOA A

constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Western Samoa occupies an island group in the South Pacific Ocean. Area: 2,831 sq km (1,093 sq mi). Pop. (1992 est.): 160,000. Cap.: Apia. Monetary unit: Western Samoa tala, with

(Oct. 5, 1992) a free rate of 2.44 tala to U.S. $1 (4.15 tala = £1 Head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) in 1992, Malietoa Tanumafili II: prime minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana. sterling).

Tuvalu, which

one of the

is

first

composed of

was Change and the "Earth Summit" in Rio de low-lying coral islands,

nations to sign the Climate

Biodiversity conventions at

June 1992. Prime Minister Bikenibeu Paeniu made an impassioned plea on behalf of small island states like his own, which faced serious environmental problems

Janeiro

in

because of the actions of industrialized powers. If global warming were to cause some of the extreme consequences

Addressing the UN General Assembly in October 1991, Prime Minister Tofilau Eti Alesana had delivered a regional perspective on a

number of

international issues.

He

raised

concern over the effect of climate change on small island countries, attacked attempts to dump toxic waste in the Pacific Islands, and called on the major world powers to

World

500

Affairs:

Dependent States

join the

comprehensive nuclear

met with

Pres.

test ban treaty. Later, he George Bush. In December 1991, less than two years after the devastation of Typhoon Ofa, Typhoon Val struck Western Samoa, killing 12 people and causing extensive damage. As a result, gross domestic product was expected to fall by 4-6% in 1992. The government shifted development emphasis from agriculture to tourism, with plans for growth of 9.4% a year

drug profits to be registered and enforced in the Caymans. Agreement was also reached with the U.S. for the building of a radar station with a range of 240 nautical miles, bringing most of Cuba within its range. A $20 million recapitalization plan was announced during the year for the

numbers. Western Samoa's national team competed in the rugby World Cup in Europe as an outsider, but its success in reaching the quarterfinals and its flamboyant play won media attention and greatly enhanced awareness of Samoa and its people. The games were broadcast to crowds in a football

Michaux-Cherry, was elected council president, with support from two socialist parties. The opposite situation occurred in Martinique, where the presidency fell to a Communist, Emile Capgras, despite the fact that the right-wing party obtained the largest single block of seats. Coastal Oil of Texas started moving its marketing headquarters to Aruba from Bermuda during the year and began preparations for doubling the size of its refinery, formerly owned by Exxon Corp. By contrast, the. future of the Isla refinery in Curagao, in the Netherlands Antilles, became uncertain. The Venezuelan state oil company, PDVSA, which

in visitor

stadium link

in

Apia, the capital, through a

and were followed by

satellite television

a decision to establish a limited

television service for the country.

(barrie

This article updates the Macropcedia Western Samoa.

article

macdonald)

Pacific Islands:

technically insolvent

Caymans Airways.

In regional council elections in

Guadeloupe

in

March, the

leader of the right-wing group Objectif Guadeloupe, Lucette

had a lease on the refinery into 1994, indicated its reluctance to renew it unless Curasao and Amsterdam agreed to share part of the $279 million cost of upgrading the plant. It

Dependent

try,

in

States

was a bad year

for

Bermuda's bread-and-butter indus-

tourism, with visitor arrivals falling by 2.3%, to 222,827, the

first

six

months. In the summer a strike by the

main labour union further aggravated the situation. Meanwhile, the government announced it was spending $78 million on capital projects to boost employment. Lord Waddington (formerly British Home Secretary David Waddington) was named to succeed Sir Desmond Langley island's

Europe and the Atlantic. In 1992 the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas commemorated the 10th anniversary of the Falklands War between Argentina and the U.K. with a fourday program attended by Baroness Thatcher, who, as Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, had authorized the deployment of British forces. In the intervening decade the economy of the Falklands had improved dramatically, largely because of revenues from licenses issued to foreign trawlers fishing for squid in surrounding waters. The islands suffered a serious financial loss in 1992, however, after Argentina began issuing cheaper, less restrictive licenses. British officials filed a protest with the Argentine government. In December the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corp. took control of the Falklands' only trading operation.

Gibraltar continued to seek an end to in

its

as governor.

Following a

visit

to British

dependencies

in

the Caribbean,

Mark Lennox-Boyd, parliamentary under secretary of state in the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, said a board of management would be installed by the U.K. to speed up spending on development and welfare projects for the Caribbean. The British Virgin Islands was paid $1.8 million by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration during the year, as an installment on assets taken from convicted drug dealers. Pacific. Although still a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand, the Cook Islands continued to extend its international relationships. It accepted $1 million

colonial status

1992. Jose Bossano, Gibraltar's chief minister

and the

HEUTEHS/BETTMANN

leader of the crown colony's fight for self-determination within the European Communities (EC), was overwhelm-

He met with British Foreign November. The Isle of Man,

ingly reelected early in the year.

Secretary Douglas

compelled

to bring

Hurd its

in

laws into line with

decriminalized homosexual acts

EC

directives,

Local tradition got language was taught

in 1992.

September when the Manx two of the island's schools for the first time since it fell out of use early in the century. Manx was to be introduced in the remaining schools in 1993. In September a 500-page report on the 1982 collapse of the Isle of Man Savings and Investment Bank was finally released. The report blamed the collapse on a lack of regulation by Manx authorities. After the report's release, two bank officials were given suspended sentences for conspiracy to defraud. a boost in in

Caribbean. Construction of the largest hotel project ever undertaken in the Caribbean commenced in Puerto Rico during the year. The 926-room El Conquistador Hotel and Country Club was located at Las Croabas, 48 km (30 mi) cast of San Juan. It was expected to be ready for occupancy by September L993. In the Cayman Islands the government signed an agree-

ment allowing U.S. court orders

for confiscation of illegal

Apra Harbor, Guam's main port, shows extensive damage caused by Typhoon Omar, which struck the island in August with winds up to 385 km/h (240 mph). Of the several storms that reached Guam in 1992, Omar hit most directly and was by far the most destructive.

— World

Affairs:

Dependent Slalis

501

French aid to upgrade utilities and received an Asian Development Bank loan of $1.5 million lor private-sector developments in tourism, agriculture, fisheries, and light in

meeting of the hank's hoard of governors, however. Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Henry was critical of lending policies for small states, maintaining that the bank took too narrow a view of a country's assets and prospects. In May most of the government centre at Avarua, Rarotonga, was destroyed by arson. Niue continued to feel the effects of New Zealand's deindustry. At a

economic assistance. It faced a deficit of $1.5 and there were layoffs in the public sector, which

cision to cut million,

had 500 members for a resident population of 2,500 (threeall Niueans lived in New Zealand). Following a referendum, Niue was to have its own Court of Appeal, and its High Court and Land Court would be combined. The residential qualification for voting was increased from 3 to 12 months. On December 12, 83-year-old Prime Minister Sir Robert Rex died. Rex had been leader of the Niuean government from 1966 (prime minister from 1974) and was the longest serving premier in the South Pacific. When France announced the suspension of nuclear tests in French Polynesia, Pres. Gaston Flosse expressed concern because nearly one-fifth of employment and economic activity in the territory was directly related to the testing program. French spending and assistance was $1,030,000,000 a year, giving a per capita income of $1,840, among the highest in Oceania. In New Caledonia there were signs of a split within the pro-independence Kanak Liberation Front over whether to explore an accommodation with "moderate" (pro-French) elements. A new nickel mine, which was expected to handle a million tons of ore a year for 15 years, opened at Kopeto on the central west coast. In the Republic of Palau (Belau) a Supreme Court procedural ruling caused the cancellation of a proposed seventh constitutional referendum to remove antinuclear provisions and thus approve a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. In the November 4 election the voters approved a referendum proposal to allow passage of constitutional amendments by a simple majority, rather than the 75% majority required in the past. At the same time, Vice Pres. quarters of

Kuniwo Nakamura was elected president. In August Typhoon Omar caused serious damage on Guam; one person was killed, more than 130 were injured, and 5,000 were made homeless. Another typhoon, Brian, Dependent States

1

Portugal

Australia

Macau Kingdom

Christmas Island

Cocos

(Keeling) Islands Norfolk Island

United

Anguilla

Denmark

Bermuda

Faeroe Islands Greenland France French Guiana French Polynesia

British Virgin Islands

Cayman

Islands Falkland Islands

Gibraltar

Guernsey

Hong Kong Man

Guadeloupe Martinique

Isle ol

Mayotte New Caledonia Reunion

Jersey Montserrat

Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna Netherlands, The

Aruba

Pitcairn Island

Saint Helena Turks and Caicos Islands United States American Samoa

Netherlands Antilles

New Zealand Cook

Islands

Niue Tokelau

Guam Northern Marianas Palau Puerto Rico Virgin Islands (ot the U.S.)

Svalbard

which Antarctic Treaty is applicable in whole or in part, (2) without permanent civilian population. (3) without internationally recognized civilian government (Western Sahara, Gaza Strip), or (4) repreterritories (1) to

senling unadjudicated unilateral or multilateral

(right),

recently appointed governor of

Hong Kong,

October. Angered by his policies, including proposals to broaden the franchise and to build an expensive new

visits Beijing

(Peking)

airport, high-level

in

Chinese

officials

snubbed Patten on

his

trip.

in October, but on November 3 Typhoon postponement of the U.S. general election on the island. In American Samoa, Star-Kist Foods announced plans for a $20 million investment in the expansion and upgrading of its Pago Pago tuna cannery. Star-Kist, which was the largest private-sector employer in American Samoa, was responding to the local government's promise of tax advantages. The deal was jeopardized, however, by proposed U.S. legislation that would increase the minimum wage. East Asia. In British-run Hong Kong the most important event of 1992 was the change of governor. Late in 1991 London had announced that Sir David Wilson (later Lord Wilson) would be replaced. Subsequent press leaks made it clear that Prime Minister John Major had been unhappy with the way Wilson conducted negotiations with China over construction of a new airport in Hong Kong.

did

damage

little

Elsie forced a

In April 1992, after the Conservatives

won

reelection in

Major announced that his close friend party chairman Chris Patten (see Biographies) would be the new Britain,

governor.

When

was

Patten arrived

in

Hong Kong

in July,

the

between his glad-handing style as a professional politician and the aloof reserve of the long line of diplomats who had preceded him. The contrast became substantive when Patten delivered his maiden policy speech on October 7. Along with an expansive social program, he announced a series of "proposals" for a more democratic Hong Kong. These immediately drew scathing denunciations from Beijing (Peking)-controlled local newspapers. China had already made clear that it would brook no change to arrangements for direct election in 1995 of 20 of the 60 legislative councillors, whose terms would span the 1997 return contrast

striking

of sovereignty over the territory to China. Patten, however, proposed to broaden the number of people who could vote in the council's 30 so-called functional constituencies

mainly professional, business, and other sectoral groupings and to define nine in such a way that they would

—

all working people. He also moved democratize an "election committee" that would choose

effectively enfranchise

to

the last 10 councils.

Norway Jan Mayen 'Excludes

Chris Patten

territorial

claims.

When Patten visited Beijing later in October, he was snubbed at the highest level. The head of the Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office, Lu Ping (Lu Ping), insisted that Patten's reforms contravened the post- 1997 Basic Law. Tensions increased in late November, when the Hong Kong

World

5(12

Affairs: Polar

Regions

government announced plans

to

proceed with the new

air-

port without Chinese approval. Despite the political turmoil,

Hong Kong

the

November. Meanwhile,

in

stock market reached an all-time high in

neighbouring Macau, a £465 million interopen on schedule in 1995.

national airport was expected to elections held

In

on September

20,

a

west than previously thought, a fundamental topographical difference that would change understanding of ocean circulation. The scientists obtained clues that might explain the mystery of why the western Weddell is covered by ice all

where

year, unlike areas to the east

and remains

new and complex

The

melts

ice

summer

in

thin even in winter.

floe generally followed the path that Ernest Shackel-

voting system helped pro-China candidates to expand their

ton's ship

representation to half of the eight directly elected seats in the 23-member Legislative Assembly, at the expense of lib-

trying to land a party for an expedition across Antarctica,

The Portuguese-run enclave was due to be returned China in 1999. (barrie MacDONALD; david renwick; Ml LINDA c. shepherd; berton woodward)

erals.

to

This article updates the Macropcedia articles ic

ii

(

Islands; The

West

Hong Kong;

Pa-

Indies.

Endurance took involuntarily

in ice and, over nine months, had been (570 mi) north, where the ice crushed and sank it. Shackleton and his crew escaped by dragging boats over the ice to open water and rowing to Elephant Island.

The

km

was rescued after Shackleton and a small crew on South Georgia Island.

party

sailed to a settlement

Antarctica today holds

km

90%

(8.4 million cu mi) of

of the world's ice

Regions

ANTARCTICA of Earth's least known areas— even by Antarctic standards is the ice-covered southern portion of the Weddell Sea. Yet the Weddell Sea is the major producer of the cold, nutrient-rich bottom water that moves as far as the Northern Hemisphere before upwelling to influence climate and nurture fisheries. On June 4. 1992, U.S. and Russian scientists completed a 17-day occupation of a camp on Weddell Sea ice the first

—

—

1

on sea

stalled research station ever established

ice

of the

southern ocean and the first human presence in the area since 1915. The expedition provided a unique opportunity to study the region's biological and physical development. The resultant data suggest that scientists will have to alter their views of how the region fits into the global climate system. v\as set

up on an

ice floe 2

m

(6

1

/: ft)

thick

square kilometres (two square miles)

and

less

than

On

February 6 the Russian icebreaker Academic Federov

in area.

Among

over various time scales, geologists in 1991 reported finding rocks in the Transantarctic Mountains containing three million-year-old fossil leaves.

has not changed

much

in

showed

that, within in

the

last

equal to a

/:

million years, intensified in a

sea level of about 40

reduction

its

volume,

m

(130 ft). Turning from millions to thousands of years ago, radiorise in

the Antarctic

(62 mi) farther

1

of the Antarctic ice sheet by about a third of

kilometres to either side of the floe's track. The new U.S. research icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer, performing its first

km

2

the Northern Hemisphere resulted

formerly occupied areas that

Antarctic Peninsula was found to be 100

ice sheet

years, but

is not typical of ice sheets over the 38 million years. Other investigators found that the Sirius Group, a geologic formation widely distributed in the Transantarctic Mountains, contains diatom floras, suggesting open marine conditions in interior East Antarctica as recently as about three million years ago. Other work

(400 mi) from south to north while the scientists worked from it. Adding value to data collected at the camp itself. two helicopters made numerous research sorties tens of

other discoveries, the continental slope off the

means the

two million

last

km

Among

find

last

the present ice sheet

off East Antarctica

completion in March by a shipbuilding firm in Louisiana, rotated crews in April at about the midpoint of the floe's drift. The June recovery of the expeditioners and their camp was made by the U.S. and Russian icebreakers, working together. The researchers studied formation and movement of sea ice. ocean currents beneath it, atmospheric conditions above it. and the rich marine plant and animal life under and in it. The entire western rim of the Weddell Basin was mapped in great detail, a remarkable achievement considering the region was essentially unexplored before the 1992 expedi-

The

the

carbon dating of

its

with confidence.

the examples of recent research indicating change

camp buildings, and supplies, sticking to U.S. and Soviet plans made years before despite difficulties posed by the concurrent breakup of the former Soviet Union. The floe, driven by winds and ocean currents, drifted some 640

sonnel,

to

made

predictions could not yet be

delivered the scientists and their instruments, support per-

tion.

existed about 40 million

first

when Antarctica moved

However, recent discoveries indicate that the ice sheet has been dynamic these last 40 million years and perhaps even disappeared for a while. The time scales for the changes range from millions of years to mere decades. The influence of the changes on both global climate and sea level could be significant within the next decades or century, although

cooling

mission after

—35 million

scientists agree that a

its polar position and separated from Australia and South America. Antarctica has been isolated ever since, so there was no particular reason to suspect that the size of the ice sheet had changed greatly.

Polar

five

Most

it.

continental Antarctic ice sheet

years ago,

The camp

1915. Endurance,

had been trapped

carried 915

cu

One

in

tiny fossils in

marine sediment cores drilled

showed that, at and around glacial maximum 18,000 years ago, grounded ice sheets extended to the

Antarctic continental shelf edge

north of present-day

— hundreds

ice sheets. Ice

of kilometres

shelves and ice tongues

in the last 4,000 years have been open ocean. The record was now complete enough for

scientists to state with

confidence that climatic warming in ice sheets bigger, not smaller. That a cold climate it appears that higher

makes the

may seem odd, but in temperatures put more moisture into the more

air

and thus cause

snowfall.

Dropping from thousands to tens of years ago, a survey along a 700-km (435-mi) segment of East Antarctica documented changes in the net rate of snow accumulation since

1806.

The

rate increased significantly after a mini-

mum

around 1960, leading to recent rates about 20% above the long-term mean. Shorter-term accumulation data from across a large part of Antarctica suggest the increase since

1960 has been widespread. This increase

in

accumulation

rate should contribute to a lowering of sea level of

mm

1

to 1.2

(0.039 to 0.047 in) per year, although a tripled rate of iceberg calving in 1986 and 1987 from the annual average

—

Pillar Regions:

Antic Regions

503

A

balloon carrying an ozonesonde. which measures concentrations of atmospheric

is sent aloft from the South Pole on November 19 The measurements were part of a research project being conducted by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to study

ozone,

the behaviour of the thinning

ozone

layer

over the Antarctic

more than 7,000 cu km (348 to more than 1,680 continued could change that prediction. The involvement of Antarctic ice in man-induced climate change was the subject of much study and, as yet, uncertainty. Nevertheless, the oxygen-isotope record in ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica indicates that changes in the amounts of greenhouse gases have amplified the effects of glacial-to-interglacial climate changes. A National of 1,450 to

cu mi)

—

if

Academy

of Sciences report on the role of land ice in seachange stated that the Antarctic ice sheet may be growing at a rate equivalent to about 0.6 mm (0.024 in) per level

year of sea-level

fall.

On

rate of iceberg discharge

the other hand,

says that the

it

may have been underestimated,

may be close to balance. The report notes warmer climate may cause warmer ocean water to

so the ice sheet that a

ARCTIC REGIONS The dominant theme

for

1992 was the growing interna-

The focus was on empowerment of indigenous peoples and sustainable development activities. With the opening up of the former Soviet tionalization of the circumpolar north.

Union, the Russian Inuit participated in the sixth general assembly of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), held in July in Inuvik, N.W.T. For the first time since its inception in 1977, the ICC could claim to represent all of the Inuit, estimated at about 117,000 people living in Russia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Twenty representatives from the newly formed Republic of Chukotka on the easternmost peninsula of Siberia reported on their experiences living in a largely unregulated industrialized economy, their concerns

and

intrude under Antarctica's floating ice shelves, causing the

for the Arctic environment,

streams that enter the shelves to accelerate. This process could deplete the ice sheet enough to raise sea level by 0.3 m (c. 1 ft) by the year 2100. Complete disintegration of the

with the concept of sustainable development.

ice

West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which would raise sea (c. 20 ft), was seen as unlikely for centuries or Increased accumulation, sea level

hundred

fall

m

happens, could contribute to

if it

by 0.1 to 0.5

level 6

millennia.

m

(0.3 to

1.6 ft)

in

the next

years. In short, the Antarctic ice sheet presents an

enormous

scientific challenge,

but the consequences of

its

future actions are of such significance that a considerable

amount of

scientific

In other news,

(the

study continued to be given to

ozone

in

it.

the stratosphere over Antarctica

ozone hole) reached new record low

October and aerosols

levels in

1992, probably because of the discharge of dust

from the Mt. Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines after its June 1991 eruption. On October 7 the U.S. Senate approved the Antarctic Treaty protocol that prohibits mining on the continent and strengthens environmental protection measures. The Senate sent the measure to the president, who would have to deposit the treaty papers to complete the ratification process. The U.S. finished removing waste that had accumulated at McMurdo Station over many years and opened a new $23 million research centre at the station, Antarctica's largest. Plans were under way to send a robot named Dante, developed by Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pa., into the crater of the Mt. Erebus volcano early in 1993.

(guy

g.

guthridge)

This article updates the Macropivdia article Antarctica.

their strong desire to

work

Over 40 resolutions were passed by the assembly. Included were resolutions concerning recognition of the inherent right of native self-government, which was being considered in the constitutional discussions taking place in Canada; the desire of some Alaskan Inuit to secede from the state of Alaska; opposition to the establishment of quotas on bowhead and other whales by the International Whaling Commission; recognition of traditional Inuit environmental knowledge; and economic development suggestions such as the establishment of an Inuit free-trade zone across the Arctic. After serving a six-year term as president of the ICC, Mary Simon, a Canadian, was succeeded by Eileen MacLean, an Inuk from Alaska who was also a member of the Alaskan House of Representatives. There was increasing evidence that the Inuit already had themselves as important contributors to the environmental decision-making process in the Arctic. In October the Toronto Globe and Mail reported on voluntary agreements being drafted by the Exploration and Production Forum, an umbrella organization representing the world's major oil companies, that would establish drilling standards for the Arctic. Land-use maps for the western Arctic were being developed as a joint effort by Canadian federal and Canada, territorial governments. All eight Arctic nations established

—

Russia, the U.S., Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and

Greenland

— had

sides seeking

signed the Finnish Initiative, which, be-

means

to safeguard the Arctic ecosystem,

was

World

504

Affairs: Polar

Regions

North Slope crude oil. Alaska's attorney genclaimed that Congress had exceeded its constitutional powers by limiting sales to domestic markets and that the wellhead price of the oil had been devalued as a result. Alaska was seeking $2.5 billion in damages for the state revenues it claimed to have lost because of the export ban. The North Slope produced 1.8 million bbl of oil a day, and it was reported that 85% of Alaska's operating budget came to export eral

from the

oil

industry in the form of royalties, taxes, and

The New York Times also reported that Norway, and Sweden were considering financial assistance

other fees. Finland,

Moscow

order to ensure the environmental security nearby Russian nickel smelter, one of the largest in the world, was identified as the source of the high levels of sulfur dioxide affecting the whole Scandinavian region. In May the residents of Arctic Canada voted in favour of redrawing the map of the Northwest Territories to mark off the western boundary of a new territory called Nunavut, meaning "our land" in the Inuit language. The vote appeared to clear the way for final settlement of a massive land claim that would eventually create a new territory of 2.2 million sq km (850,000 sq mi), roughly one-fifth of Canada's total landmass. In November the Inuit voted in favour of ratification of the claim, which would provide the 17,500 Inuit with $1.5 billion over 14 years, outright ownership of over 350,000 sq km (135,100 sq mi) of land, and the right to

in

of the Russian-Norwegian border area.

Scientists, working on the Greenland Ice Sheet 645 km (400 ml) above the Arctic Circle, cut through an ice core believed to reveal many thousands of years of past life. They were part of the five-year Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2, designed to study volcanic, solar, and

to hunt, fish,

climatic activity. AP/WIDE

also building for the establishment of an international

Arctic council that would act as a sort of

mini-UN where

governments and indigenous peoples could meet

to con-

These complemented the declaration of friendship and

sider key environmental questions facing the Arctic. initiatives

cooperation with regard to Arctic environmental protection that was signed in February by Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin and Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. The fall issue of Cultural Survival reported that after years of plummeting oil, diamond, and gold production, Russia hoped to renew the exploitation of Siberia's natural resources and encourage foreign investment. Many major

companies from the U.S., Canada, and Japan were showing interest in joint-venture petrochemical, forestry, and natural-gas projects. The new economic and political climate in Siberia also was stimulating interest in tourism investments, ranging from remote salmon-fishing lodges to the creation of opportunities for big-game hunting. Questions were being raised about the environmental consequences of resource development under the former Soviet Union; in some areas three-fourths of the land had been rendered useless for hunting, fishing, or reindeer herding. Thirty indigenous Siberian groups, totaling an estimated

4%

in the territory.

The new

scheduled to be created by 1999, would effectively be run by Canada's first aboriginal government, since the Inuit represented 85% of the population. Canada launched its first northern television network in January. "Television Northern Canada" broadcast to a possible audience of 100,000 people distributed in 94 communities from the Yukon to Baffin Island and Labrador. The station broadcast for 12 hours daily in 10 native languages, as well as in English, on topics of interest to its northern audience. Programs included, for example, information shows discussing native self-government and hunting skills and sports shows featuring dogsled racing. Tourism in the form of adventure tours, wildlife viewing, and cultural activities continued to gain considerable territory,

WORLD

institutionalizing ways in which governments, the Inuit, and other indigenous peoples could develop forums for the exchange of information and for discussion. Momentum

was

and trap anywhere

A

of the population, were claiming to be the rightful own-

and were demanding a voice in any Some groups were proposing to establish designated "zones of life," which would be set aside for traditional activities, fully protected from industrial exploitation. Siberia's indigenous peoples were receiving advice in connection with royalty negotiations and other practical business matters from native groups in North America who had gained relevant experience during the settlement of land claims in Canada and Alaska. In May the New York Times reported that the state of Alaska was suing the federal government to allow it ers of Siberia's wealth

future development activities.

attention in the Arctic. In August the Canadian minister

new national park from the Inuvialuit word meaning "where people travel" would be established on Banks Is-

of the environment announced that a to be called Aulavik

land

in

—

the western Arctic.

more than 12,000

sq

km

The area of

the park, covering

(4,600 sq mi),

is

characterized

by deep canyons, desertlike badlands, and archaeological sites with evidences of human occupation dating back 3,400 years. In August the Kapitan Khlebnikov became the first tourist-carrying Russian icebreaker to travel legally through

Canada's Northwest Passage. The 52 passengers made it through the virtually impassable Northwest Passage thanks to the incredible power of the 150-m (492-ft)-long, 26,000hp icebreaker. The Globe and Mail reported that while the North Pole was enjoying a tourism boom, controversy was arising as to whether adventure-seeking tourists should make deposits to help cover the costs in case rescue operations were needed. The year marked the 50th anniversary of the Alaska Highway. Formerly known as the "Alaska Military Highway" or the "Alcan Highway," it was built in 1942 in response to the Japanese threat in the Pacific following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The highway begins in Dawson Creek, B.C., and spans 2,446 km (1,520 mi) to Fairbanks, Alaska.

(KENNETH DE LA BARRE) This article updates the Macropxdia article The Arctic.

—

BRITANNICA UPDATE

Major Revisions from the 1 993 Macropasdia This section of the Britannica Book of the Year consists of articles or parts of articles reprinted from the Macropaedia. The articles appearing here have been selected from among those recently revised or rewritten and have been chosen for their general interest or their timeliness.

Four of the articles that have been chosen from the 1993 printing are wholly new: the sections on the recent history of South Africa from Southern Africa and of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; the section (in part)

on Organized Labour from

and Employment; and

the biography of

Work

Frederick

on the recent history of has been extensively revised.

the Great; the section

tral Asia

Cen-

Subscribers desiring update sheets to put in their encyclopaedia to indicate that an article has been revised or added, and owners of older sets wishing information about the exact article being replaced by the reprints, should address their requests to Editorial Yearbooks, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604. There is no charge for the article update sheets, but you must tell us the copyright year of your set of Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Central Asia The Mongol epoch.

The

creation of the

by Genghis Khan was a great

Mongol empire

of political and military skill that left a lasting imprint on the destinies of both Asia and Europe. The geographic basis of Genghis' power, the northwestern parts of which later became known as Mongolia, had been the centre of such Turkic empires as those of the Turks and Uighurs. There are no indications of the time and the manner in which the Mongols took over this region. Creation of the Mongol empire. It is probable that Turks were incorporated in the nascent Mongol empire. In a series of tribal wars that led to the defeat of the Merkits

Mongol thrust into

eastern

Europe

and the Naimans,

his

feat

most dangerous

rivals,

Genghis

gained sufficient strength to assume, in 1206, the title of khan. Acting in the tradition of previous nomad empires of the region, Genghis' aggressive policies were directed primarily against China, then ruled in the north by the Chin (Juchen) dynasty. His western campaigns were set in motion quite accidentally by a senseless attack on Mongol forces by the fugitive Naiman prince Kiichliig, and they maintained their momentum through the pursuit of 'Ala' ad-Din Muhammad of Khwarezm, who in 1218 ordered the execution of Mongol envoys seeking to establish trade relations. As a result, many of the flourishing cities of Khwarezm, Khorasan, and Afghanistan were destroyed, and by 1223 Mongol armies had crossed the Caucasus. Although an important Russo-Kipchak force was defeated on May 31, 1223, at the battle of the Kalka, the Mongols did not make a definite thrust into eastern Europe until the winter of 1236-37. The fall of Kiev in December 1240 with incalculable consequences for Russian history was followed by a Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241-42. Although victorious against the forces of King Bela IV, the Mongols evacuated Hungary and withdrew to southern and central Russia. Ruled by Batu (d. 1255 or 1256), the Mongols of eastern Europe (the so-called Golden Horde)

—

became

a major factor in that region and exerted a decion the development of the Russian states.

sive influence

Simultaneously with these western campaigns, Genghis' successor Ogodei (reigned 1229-41) intensified Mongol pressure in China. Korea was occupied in 1231, and in

1234 the Chin dynasty succumbed to Mongol attacks. the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China (1260-1368) was accomplished by the great khan Kublai (ruled 1260-94), a grandson of Genghis. Mongol rule. The great khan Mongke (ruled 125159), who had sent his brother Kublai to conquer China, entrusted another of his brothers, Hulegii, with the task of consolidating the Mongol hold on Iran. In 1258 Hulegii occupied Baghdad and put an end to the 'Abbasid Caliphate. He laid the foundations of a Mongol state in Iran, known as the Il-Khanate (because the il-khan was subordinate to the great khan in faraway Mongolia or China), which embraced, in addition to the Iranian plateau, much of Iraq, northern Syria, and eastern and central Anatolia and which, under Abaqha (ruled 126582), Arghun (ruled 1284-91), Ghazan (ruled 1295-1304), and Oljeitu (ruled 1304-17), became both powerful and highly civilized. Although practically independent, the ilkhans of Iran (Persia) remained loyal to Mongke and Kublai, but with the passing of Kublai, the drift toward full independence grew stronger. With Ghazan's decision to make Islam the state religion a gesture intended to gain the confidence of the majority of his subjects a big step toward integration in the purely Iranian (as opposed

The establishment of

—

—

Mongol) tradition was taken. A lengthy conflict that opposed the il-khans to the Mamluks of Egypt was not resolved until 1323, when a peace was concluded between the sultan al-Malik an-Nasir and Abu Sa'id (ruled 1316to

35), the last effective il-khan. After

Abu

Il-Khanate, no longer held together by

Sa'id's death the

Mongol

efficiency,

disintegrated.

505

Al

506

Central Asia In Iran and China the Mongol rulers, who increasingly linked their destinies with those of their sedentary subjects, inevitably began to lose their Mongol identity. But in the Central Asian heartland the descendants of Chaghatai and Ogodei, sons of Genghis, maintained traditional steppe polities geared to the interests of their nomad followers and increasingly opposed to the policies of the great khan in China and his ally, the il-khan, in Iran. After Mongke's death in 1259 there was a struggle between his two younger brothers, Kublai and Arigboge. The steppe candidate, Arigboge, lost in his bid for supreme power to the older Kublai, and further attempts to reestablish the centre of Mongol power in the Central Asian heartland also failed. The most active and successful proponent of this policy

was Kaidu, a grandson of Ogodei, who made several attempts to carve out an empire for himself in the heartland from lands ruled by other Mongol princes. In the course of time, he extended his control over most of the Semirechye, Kashgaria, and Transoxania, and in 1269 he even assumed title of great khan. Chaghatai's descendants, enfeoffed with the territories stretching from Bishbaliq in the Dzungarian Basin westward to Samarkand, were to some extent victims of Kaidu's ambitions but for lack of better alternatives lent him their support. After Kaidu's death in 1301, however, the Chaghataid khan Duwa hastened to make peace with his Mongol kin in both Iran and China. Thereafter the Chaghataid khanate, coterminous with the Central Asian heartland, enjoyed a checkered fortune. For the next 30 years it remained united, but during the 330s and '40s it split into a western and an eastern khanate, the former consisting of the area between the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya, together with much of what is today Afghanistan, while the latter comprised the Semirechye and Kashgaria. The Chaghataid khans who ruled in the western khanate, where they usually resided in Bukhara, openly espoused Islam and a Muslim life-style, as did perhaps the majority of their followers. Northeast of the Syr Darya, the Chaghataid rulers of the eastern khanate endeavoured to maintain the nomadic traditions of their Genghiskhanid ancestors with a considerable degree of success. They continued to locate their headquarters in the Hi or Chu valley, while amirs of the important Mongol Dughlat clan, with whom the Chaghataids were closely linked through marriage alliances, ruled the Tarim Basin on their behalf from Kashgar. To the inhabitants of Transoxania and Iran, the eastern Chaghataid khanate was known as Mughulistan (literally, "Land of the Mon-

the

Mongol khanates of the steppes

1

gols"),

and

its

inhabitants, unflatteringly, as Jats (literally,

"Robbers").

During the last third of the 14th century, the western Chaghataid khanate passed under the control of the Barlas Turk Timur (d. 1405: known in the west as Tamerlane), while the eastern khanate went through a protracted period of political instability but also gradual Islamization. Under a succession of vigorous rulers Esen Buga (d.

—

1462),

The Golden Horde

Yunus

(d.

1487),

and Ahmad

(d.

1503)— the

east-

ern khanate held its own, ringed as it was by Oyrat foes in Dzungaria. the Kyrgyz in the Tien Shan, and the Kazakhs in the Semirechye. But decline did set in, temporarily postponed during the reign of Ahmad's able son Sultan Said Khan (reigned 1514-33), who ruled from Kashgar. By the beginning of the 17th century, however, the Chaghataid khans in the east had become mere figureheads, with the towns under the quasi-theocratic rule of a family of Khwajahs originating from Bukhara, while the countryside was dominated by rival Kyrgyz confederacies. The line seems to have died out obscurely before the end of the century. Developments within the most enduring Mongol successor state, that of the Golden Horde, with its headquarters at Sarai on the lower Volga, followed a rather different course. Its Islamization, begun under Batu's brother Berke (reigned 1257-67), led to tensions with the il-khans but resulted in the forging of strong links with the Mamluks of Egypt. The Mamluks were themselves Kipchak Turks from the Kipchak steppes of southern Russia over which the khans of the Golden Horde ruled. The prosperity of the Golden Horde under Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad Ozbeg (Uzbeck or Oz Beg) between about 1312 and

about 1341 stands

in

sharp contrast to the disintegrating

Il-Khanate and Chaghataid khanate, yet it had its own problems, both internal and external. From within, the growing and unavoidable antagonism between the TurkoMongol ruling class, Turkish-speaking and now Muslim, and their Christian Russian subjects was exacerbated by the ceaseless dissensions among the members of the ruling house and the military elite, increasingly referred to by their Slav neighbours as Tatars. In foreign policy, the peace concluded in 1323 between the il-khans and the Mamluks weakened the Golden Horde's influence in Egypt, while the establishment of the Ottomans on the Dardanelles (1354) put a virtual end to commercial relations between the Volga and Nile valleys. Perhaps the gravest political mistake of the rulers of the Golden Horde was their failure to recognize that the West with which, through the Russians, they had excellent links offered a more fertile ground for further expansion than the sunbaked deserts of Turkestan. The khans of the Golden Horde, instead of controlling the Russian and Lithuanian princes, increasingly relied upon their help in internal and dynastic struggles that were rending the khanate. While their attention was drawn southward and eastward, they overlooked the rise of dangerous enemies Russian and Lithuanian in their rear. The policies of the khan Tokhtamysh (reigned 1376-95) differed from those of his predecessors. Hereditary ruler of the White Horde, its pastures located in western Siberia and extending to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, he was able to enlarge his power base by uniting its resources with those of the Golden Horde, of which he eventually made himself master. He thus introduced fresh "steppe power" into the Golden Horde at a time when it was no longer the force it had once been (in 1380 the Muscovites had inflicted a crushing, if temporary, defeat on the horde at Kulikovo Pole). Furthermore, instead of seeking the assistance of petty eastern European princes, he hitched his wagon to the rising star of Timur, with whose support he reasserted Mongol supremacy in Russia. After Tokhtamysh's death the Golden Horde survived under the aegis of an able usurper, Edigu, but after Edigii's death in 1419 a process of disintegration set in. The core territories of the former Golden Horde, centred on the Volga-Don steppes, became known as the "Great Horde," while outlying regions seceded to form independent khanates based on Kazan and Astrakhan on the Volga, the Crimea, western Siberia, and the Nogai steppe east of the lower Volga. All eventually fell victim to dynastic feuds, internecine rivalry, and Muscovite expansionism. Thus, in the case of the Kazan khanate, its founder Ulugh Muhammad (reigned c. 1437-45) bequeathed the throne to his able son Mahmud (or Mahmutek), who reigned with conspicuous success between 1445 and 1462. Mahmud's brothers, however, fled for sanctuary to Vasily II of Moscow, who set up a puppet khanate for one of them (Kasim) at Gorodets-on-the-Oka (thereafter renamed Kasimov). The khanate of Kasimov was to be a thorn in Kazan's flesh until the latter's extinction in 1552. Kasimov itself survived as a political fiction until about 1681, by which time the last khans had abandoned Islam

—

—

—

—

for Christianity. In 1502 the Great Horde was extinguished and its lands annexed by the khan of the Crimea, Mengli Girai, who had already placed himself under Ottoman suzerainty in 1475. Kazan fell to the troops of Ivan IV of Moscow in 1552, and Astrakhan was annexed two years later. The

khanate of Sibir (western Siberia), after a stubborn

resis-

Godunov, the regent for Ivan's son Fyodor (reigned 1584-98). Only the khanate of the Crimea was left, separated from Muscovy by the stillunconquered Ukrainian steppe and enjoying some protection because of its status as an Ottoman vassal. It survived for two more centuries, until Catherine the Great's contance, submitted to Boris

Its capital, Bakhchisaray, long a centre of Tatar culture, was to take on a new life in the late 19th century as the home of the Tatar national revival associated with the name of Ismail Bey Gasprinski. Timur. While the Golden Horde was beginning to enter its long decline in the late 14th century, the demise of Chaghataid rule in the area between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya was taking place as a result of the rise of

quest in 1783.

Demise of Golden Horde

the

— (

Timur and his descen-

dants

I

imur

I

imur

lirst

united under his leadership the in the basins of the two

Mongol tribes located With the assistanee of

these tribes he

I

urkorivers.

expanded into

the

neighbouring regions of Khorasan, Sistan, Khwarezm, and Mughulistan before embarking upon extensive campaigning in what are

now

Iran

and

Iraq, eastern

lurkey. and

Caucasus region. In addition, he launched two sucon his erstwhile protege. okhtamysh, ruler of the Golden Horde. In 1398-99 Timur invaded northern India and sacked Delhi, and between 1399 and 1402 he turned westward again to harry the Egyptian Mamluks in Syria and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I. whom he captured in battle near Ankara. At the time of his death at Otrar on the Syr Darya in 1405, Timur was leading his forces on an invasion of China. He never assumed openly the

cessful attacks

I

the full attributes of sovereignty, contenting himself with the title of amir while upholding the fictional authority of a series of puppet khans of the line of Chaghatai, to whom he claimed kinship by marriage; in consequence he styled himself guregen, meaning son-in-law (i.e., of the

Chaghataid khan). Timur seems to have lacked the innate administrative capacity or the foresight of Genghis Khan. and after Timur's death his conquests were disputed among his numerous progeny. In the ensuing struggles his fourth son. Shah Rukh (reigned 1407-47), emerged victorious. He abandoned his father's capital of Samarkand for Herat in Khorasan (now in western Afghanistan), where he ruled in great splendour, leaving his son, Ulugh Beg. as his deputy in the former capital. Ulugh Beg's rule in Samarkand between 1409 and 1447 probably brought a considerable measure of tranquility to the long-troubled region. Himself an enthusiastic astronomer and the builder of a celebrated observatory, he ensured that during his lifetime Samarkand would be a major centre of scientific learning, especially in astronomy and mathematics. He

Shaybani's lend with the Iranian Safavids, and with the Mughal dynastv in India, whose founder, the limurid Babur. had been driven out ol (entral Asia b) Shaybani In contrast,

friendly,

it

sporadic, ties with the

Ottomans

were maintained b\ wav ol the Volga-Don steppes Unlike the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. however the Uzbeks had only limited access to firearms, which placed

them

at a

considerable disadvantage with their

rivals.

During Shaybanid rule, and even more under the Ashtarkhanids (also known as the Tuquy-Timurids or the Janids) who succeeded them during the 1600s. Centra! Asia experienced a decline in prosperity compared to the preceding Timurid period, due in part to a marked fallingoff in the transcontinental caravan trade following the opening of new oceanic trade routes. In the 1700s the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya passed under the control of three Uzbek khanates claiming legitimacy in their descent from the Genghiskhanids. These were, from west to east, the Qungrats based on Khiva in Khwarezm (1717-1920), the Mangits in Bukhara (1753-1920). and the Mings in Kokand (c. 1710-1876). in the upper valley of the Syr Darya. During this same period, east of the Pamirs. Kashgaria was torn apart by the rivalries of Khwajahs and Kyrgyz; in the Semirechye the Kazakhs were locked in conflict with the Mongol Oyrats and Dzungars: while between the Aral and Caspian seas the Turkmens roamed the northern borders of Iran, enslaving the sedentary population and transporting it to Bukhara to labour in the oases. The time was ripe for Russian intervention, made easier by the intruders' possession of cannon

and

firearms.

THE MODERN PERIOD: THE AGE OF DECADENCE

From

the beginnings of recorded history,

pastoral

no-

The

tively challenged.

and

architecture,

with Chaghatai Turkish, a dialect derived partly from Khakani, the language spoken at the Karakhanid court (and a precursor of modern Uzbek), emerging as a flex-

Uzbeks

Muhammad

was the economic basis of the great Central Asian empires. Once the domestication of the horse was sufficiently advanced to allow for

courts of these rulers witnessed an extraordinary cul-

ible vehicle for sophisticated literary expression. These Timurid epigones, however, were locked in unceasing rivalry with each other and were unable to combine against intruders from beyond their frontiers. By the close of the century, therefore, all the Timurid possessions in Central Asia had passed into the hands of the Uzbeks. The Uzbeks. The early history of the Uzbek people (whose rulers were descendants of a younger brother of Batu, khan of the Golden Horde) is wrapped in obscurity, but by the middle of the 15th century they had migrated from their original homeland, east of the Ural Mountains, southeast toward the lower Syr Darya, whence, under their leader, Abu'l-Khayr Khan, they began to threaten the Timurids across the river. However, before Abu'l-Khayr Khan could undertake a full-scale invasion, he was killed in battle in 1468 by two rebellious kinsmen who, refusing to recognize his assertion of paramountcy, had defected, together with their tribal followers, and placed themselves under the nominal suzerainty of the Chaghataid khan of Mughulistan. Their descendants were to become the Kazakh hordes of later centuries. With the death of Abu'l-Khayr Khan, the fortunes of the Uzbeks temporarily declined, only to be revived under the

leadership of his grandson,

Muhammad

Shaybani.

who by

1500 had made himself master of Samarkand as well as of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya basins and was advancing into Khorasan (Herat fell to him in 1507) when he was defeated and killed in 1510 by Shah Isma'il Safavi. He had, however, changed the course of Central Asian history. By the time of his death, all the lands between the Syr Darya Darya were in Uzbek hands, and so they were and

Amu

to remain.

Throughout the 16th century,

Muhammad

Shaybani's kinsmen ruled over a powerful and aggressive khanate from their capital at Bukhara. They continued

507

articulated along Shi ite-versus-Sunnite lines

was killed in 1449. Throughout the second half of the 15th century, the western part of Central Asia was divided into a number of rival principalities ruled by descendants of Timur, among which Bukhara and Samarkand were the most important. tural florescence in literature, the arts,

Rise of the

entral Asia

madism, practiced on a grandiose

scale,

its use in warfare, the superiority of the mounted archer over the foot soldier or the war chariot was never effec-

The waning of nomadic military power. When headed by capable leaders, well-trained and disciplined mounted troops were almost invincible. The sedentary civilizations could not, by their very nature, put aside for breeding purposes pastures sufficiently large to sustain a cavalry force that could equal that of the pastoral nomads; hence the latter's military superiority remained a constant for about 2,000 years of Eurasian history. \t its highest degree of development. Central Asian no-

mad

and highly specialized social and economic structure, advanced but also highly vulnerable because of its specialization and the lack of diversification of its economy. Geared almost entirely to the production of war materiel i.e., the horsewhen not engaged in warfare, it was unable to provide society constituted a very sophisticated

the people with anything but the barest necessities of life. To ensure their very existence. Central Asian empires

had to wage war and obtain through raids or tribute the commodities they could not produce. When, owing to circumstances such as severe weather decimating the horse herds or inept leadership, raids against other peoples the typical Central Asian nomad state had to disintegrate to allow its population to fend for itself and secure the necessities for a subsistence. Hunting and pastoral nomadism both need vast expanses to support a thinly scattered population that does not naturally lend

became impossible,

itself to strong, centralized political control. The skill of a Central Asian leader consisted precisely in the gathering of such dispersed populations and in providing for them on a level higher than they had been accustomed to. There was but one way to achieve this: successful raids on other, preferably richer, peoples. The military machinery was dependent on numbers, which then precluded selfsufficiency. In case of prolonged military reverses, the nomadic aggregation of warriors had to disband because it was only in dispersion that, without recourse to war. they

were economically autonomous. In the course of the

15th century, the steppe territory

Social and economic

structure of

nomad society

508

Central Asia suitable for great horse herds began to shrink. In the east

emperor of the Ming led five major campaigns against the Mongols (1410-24), all successful but none decisive. Yet when, under the leadership of Esen Taiji (1439-55), the Mongol Oyrats pushed as far as Peking, they found the city defended by cannon, and they withdrew. In the Middle East, as noted above, the Ottoman and Safavid gunpowder empires barred the road to the nothe Yung-lo

nomad cavalry, and, along the western borders of Central Asia, the Russians were soon to start on their decisive and irresistible march across Central Asia to the borders of China, India, and Iran. The Russian conquests. Their most spectacular advance into Central Asia carried the Russians eastward through the forest belt, where the hunting and fishing populations longer-invincible

offered

little

resistance

and where the much-coveted

furs

of Siberia" could be found in abundance. Acting on behalf of the Stroganov family of entrepreneurs, in 1578 or 1581 the Cossack Yermak crossed the Urals and defeated the Shaybanid prince Kuchum, who alone represented organized political power in Siberia. The Russian advance from west to east across Siberia, motivated by commercial rather than political considerations, remains unparalleled in history for its rapidity. The Samoyed or Tungus hunters acnative Finno-Ugrians

—

customed

Russian

advance into Siberia

— were

concerned with the nationality of the tax collectors and found dealing with the Russians no more unpleasant than with Turks or Mongols. Russian penetration was marked by the building of small forts, such as Tobolsk (1587) near the former capital of Kuchum, Tara (1594) on the Irtysh River, and Narym (1596) on the upper Ob River. The Yenisey was reached in 1619, and the town of Yakutsk on the Lena was founded in 1632. About 1639 the first small group of Russians reached the Pacific in the neighbourhood of present-day Okhotsk. About 10 years later, Anadyrsk was founded on the shores of the Bering Sea, and, by the end of the century, Kamchatka was annexed. When advanced Russian parties reached the Amur River about the middle of the 17th century, they entered the Chinese sphere of interest. Although some clashes occurred, restraint on both sides led to the signing of the treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kiakhta (1727), which remained in force until 1858. To this day, the border delineated at Kiakhta has not been altered substantially. The thorniest question to be dealt with in the early RussoChinese negotiations concerned the Mongols wedged between the two Great Powers who, in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, reasserted their control over most to paying their fur tribute

little

—

—

1

1

of the steppe belt. In the 15th century the western Mongols, or Oyrats, had become quite powerful under Esen Taiji but. under the strong leadership of Dayan Khan (ruled 1470-1543) and his grandson Altan Khan (1543-

Mongols — and more precisely the Khalkha —gained ascendancy. In 1552 Altan took possession

83). the eastern

tribe

of what was

left

of Karakorum, the old Mongol capital.

Altan's reign saw the conversion of a great

many Mongols

Tibetan Buddhism, a religion that, until the 1920s, played a major role in Mongol life. The attempts of Ligdan Khan (reigned 160434) to unite the various Mongol tribes failed not only because of internal dissensions but also on account of the rising power of the Manchus, to whom he was forced to surrender. The active Central Asian policy of China's Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty brought a lasting transformation in the political structure of the region. More distant from China, the Oyrats could pursue a more independent course. One of their tribes, the Dzungars, under the leadership of Galdan (Dga'-ldan: ruled 1676-97), created a powerful state that remained a serious menace to China until 1757, when the Ch'ien-lung emperor defeated their last ruler, Amursana, and thus put an end to the last independent Mongol state prior to the creation, in 1921, of Outer Mongolia (the Khalkha princes had submitted to to the tenets of the

Yellow Hat

sect of

Manchus in 1691). The treaties of Nerchinsk and Kiakhta

and Dzungaria. China's western boundary remained undefined, but it ran farther west than it does today and included Lake Balkhash and parts of the Kazakh steppe. Wedged between the Russian and Chinese empires, unable to break through the stagnant but solid Ottoman and Safavid barriers, the Turkish nomads of the steppe

and the Caspian Sea and south of Russian-occupied Siberia found themselves caught in a trap from which there was no escape. If there is cause for surprise, it lies in the lateness rather than in the fact of the ultimate Russian conquest. (DENIS SINOR; GAVIN R.G. HAMBLY) West of the Uzbek khanates, between the Aral and Caspian Sea, were the nomad Turkmens, notorious robbers who roamed the inhospitable land. The Kazakhs, who since the 17th century divided into three "hordes," lying east of the Volga

nomadized between the Volga and the Irtysh. During the 16th and 17th centuries, they fought Oyrats and Dzungars but succeeded in holding their own, and in 1771 Ablai, ruler of the "Middle Horde," located west of Lake Balkhash, was confirmed as ruler both by China and RusYet Russian expansion, motivated by the urge to get Ocean, forced the Kazakhs to yield. Although some Kazakh leaders, such as the sultan Kine-

sia.

closer to the Indian

up spirited resistance (1837-47), the line of the Syr Darya was reached by the Russians toward the middle of the 19th century. The Uzbek khanate of Kokand was annexed in 1876; those of Khiva and Bukhara became Russian protectorates in 1873 and 1868, respectively. The conquest of the Turkmens in the last quarter of the 19th century defined Russia's (now Turkmenistan's) southern frontier with Iran and Afghanistan. Under Russian rule. The Russian conquests in Central Asia had given the tsars control of a vast area of striking geographic and human diversity, acquired at relatively little effort in terms of men and money. The motives for the conquest had not been primarily economic; peasant colonization of the virgin steppes and the systematic cultivation of cotton were later developments. The factors that determined the Russian advance into the area were complex and interrelated. They included the historic pull of the frontier, the thirst for military glory on the part of the officer corps, and the fear of further British penetration into Central Asia from across the Indus, as well as the infectious rhetoric of imperialism common to the age. From the outset, Russia's objectives as a colonial power were strictly limited: to maintain "law and order" at minimum sary. put

cost

and

to disturb as

little

as possible the traditional

way

of life of its new subjects. Such an approach was favoured by the remoteness of the area and its isolation even from the rest of the Muslim world. It was improbable that an almost wholly illiterate population, its prejudices formed by a venal and obscurantist 'ulama' (class of Muslim theologians and scholars), could offer any concerted resistance to the Russian presence; and such, indeed, proved to be the case. The Russians, like other colonial powers, did experience an occasional uprising, generally of a very localized character, but the overwhelming military superiority displayed by the Russians at the time of the initial conquest, the inability of the inhabitants of the khanates to offer effective resistance, and the heavy-handedness with which subsequent insurrection or insubordination was dealt with ensured minimal opposition. Finally, by preserving the titular sovereignty of the amir of Bukhara and the khan of Khiva, they left a substantial part of the population, especially the urban classes, most deeply devoted to the Islamic way of life, under traditionally minded Muslim rulers.

Tsarist rule.

Yet the Russians, whether intentionally

became agents of change throughout the area in much the same way as any other colonial power. The economy was gradually realigned to meet the Russian need for raw materials and new markets. This required or not,

the construction of railroads: by 1888 the Trans-Caspian

the

established the

northern border of the Chinese zone of influence, which included Mongolia. In the wars against the Dzungars, the (hi ruse established their rule over East Turkestan

Railroad had reached Samarkand; between 1899 and 1905 the Orenburg-Tashkent Railroad was completed; the Turkestan-Siberian Railroad came later, begun just before World War I and not completed until 1930. In Tashkent

Motives for conquest

— Central Asia

and Samarkand new European suburbs were laid out at a distance from the walled native cities, but, as in the

bazaar. Nonetheless, the Russians favoured, for reasons of expediency, the preservation of the traditional social

case of the newly established garrison towns, such islands of European life required local services and supplies. Nor did the Russians wholly ignore the welfare of their new

framework and endeavoured, with only

An

subjects.

down

put

were

effort

was made, halfheartedly

at

first,

to

the indigenous slave trade; irrigation projects

initiated;

and

bilingual elementary education was As elsewhere in colonial Asia, the

cautiously introduced.

work of Russian scholars studying the literature, history, and antiquities of the Central Asian peoples aroused upon the part of a numerically small but influential Russianeducated elite, especially among the Kazakhs, nostalgic awareness of a colourful past and a sense of national, or cultural, identity.

—

Kazakh response to Russian rule

—

Of the major racial groups in Central Asia Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Turkmens, Tajiks, and Kyrgyz the Kazakhs were the first to respond to the impact of Russian culture. Their early contacts with their new masters had in Kazan the main been carried out through intermediaries Tatars, who, paradoxically, had contributed to strengthening the Kazakhs' awareness of being part of a greater Muslim world community and their sense of being a "nation" rather than a welter of tribes and clans. Moreover, through the Tatars they were exposed to current Pan-Turkish and Pan-Islamic propaganda. In the 1870s the Russians countered Tatar influence by establishing bilingual RussianKazakh schools, from which emerged a westernized elite of considerable distinction. Kazakh unrest. This Russo-Kazakh "dialogue" was, however, doomed to founder on the rock of the government's policy of settling peasants from European Russia and Ukraine on the Kazakh steppe, where agricultural settlement on an extensive scale could be undertaken only by curtailing the area available for grazing by the nomads' livestock and by restricting their seasonal migrations. As 867-68 the northwestern fringes of the Kazakh early as steppe had been the scene of violent protests at the presence of colonists, but it was not until the last decade of the century that the movement got fully under way with the arrival of upward of one million peasants, resulting in the inevitable expropriation of Kazakh grazing grounds and in savage conflict between the Kazakhs and the intruders. Finally in 1916, during World War I, the Kazakhs, driven to desperation by the loss of their lands and by the ruthlessness of the wartime administration, rose up in protest against a decree conscripting the non-Russian subjects of the empire for forced labour. The rebellion assumed the character of a popular uprising, in which many colonists and many more Kazakhs and Kyrgyz were massacred. The revolt was put down with the utmost savagery, and more than 300,000 Kazakhs are said to have sought refuge across the Chinese frontier. With the collapse of tsarist rule, the westernized Kazakh elite formed a party, the Alash Orda, as a vehicle through which to express their aspirations for regional autonomy. Having found during the Russian Civil War that the anticommunist "Whites" were implacably opposed to their aspirations, the Kazakhs cast in their lot with the "Reds." After the war the Kazakhs were granted their own republie, in which, for the first few years, the leaders of the Alash Orda maintained a fairly dominant position and were active in protecting Kazakh interests. After 1924, however, direct confrontation with the Communist Party became more intense, and in 1927-28 the Alash Orda leaders were liquidated as "bourgeois nationalists." The history of the Kazakhs in the first half of the 20th century was bleak indeed expropriation of their grazing lands under the tsars, the bloody uprising and reprisals of 1916, the losses in the civil war and in the famine in 1921, the purges of the intelligentsia in 1927-28, collectivization during the 1930s, and further peasant colonization after

—

1

The Kazakh republic

—

World War

II.

between the administration of Russian governor-general of Turkestan, based on Tashkent, and that of the amir of Bukhara and the khan of Khiva, opposition to colonial domination was centred in the most conservative elements of a profoundly the 'ulamd' and the inhabitants of the Islamic society In Transoxania, divided

the

—

509

partial success, to

insulate the inhabitants of the region

from contact with the more "advanced" Muslims of the empire the Volga and Crimean Tatars. In this they were aided by the fact that the virtual absence of European colonization provided no fuel for popular resentment comparable to that felt by the Kazakhs; and, in consequence, the westernized products of the bilingual Russian-Uzbek educational system, concerned primarily with reform of the Islamic

way of

life,

—

regarded the Muslim "ultras" as their most

dangerous opponents. If the main influence in shaping the outlook of the Kazakh intelligentsia was the educational system imported from European Russia, the catalyst in the case of the Uzbeks was knowledge of the educational reforms and the Pan-Turkish ideology of the Crimean Tatar renaissance of the late 19th century. The Uzbek reformers, known as Jadidists, advocated the introduction of a mod-

ern educational system as a prerequisite for social change and cultural revitalization; and, despite intense opposition from the clerical classes, they opened their first school in Tashkent in 1901 and by 1914 had established more than 100. After 1908, influenced by the Young Turks of the

Ottoman Empire, the Young Bukharans and the Young Khivans worked for a program of radical institutional in the ramshackle governments of the khanates. be doubted, however, whether by 1917 the Uzbek intelligentsia had made any substantial impact outside a fairly narrow circle of like-minded persons. Soviet rule. Neither before nor after the Russian Revolution of 1917 were the nationalist aspirations of the Muslims of Central Asia compatible with the interests of the Russian state or those of the European population of the region. This was demonstrated once and for all when the troops of the Tashkent Soviet crushed a short-lived Muslim government established in Kokand in January 1918. Indeed, the Soviet authorities in Central Asia regarded the native intelligentsia, even the most "progressive" of them, with lively and (from their point of view) justifiable apprehension. At the same time, there was the problem of an active resistance on the part of conservative elements, which was anti-Russian as much as anticommunist. Having extinguished the khanate of Khiva in 1919 and that of Bukhara in 1920, local Red Army units found themselves engaged in a protracted struggle with the Basmachis guerrillas operating in the mountains in the eastern part of the former khanate of Bukhara. Not until 1925 did the Red Army gain the upper hand. Thereafter, Central Asia was increasingly integrated into the Soviet system through a planned economy and improved communications, through the communist institutional and ideological framework of control, and, for young males, through compulsory service in the Red Army. The economy of the region became further distorted to meet the needs of the central planners. Traditional religion, values, and culture were suppressed, but in such areas as education, health care, and welfare Central Asians benefited to a degree from their forced participation in the system. Eventually the Soviets developed an ingenious strategy for neutralizing the two common denominators most likely to unite Central Asians against continuing control from Moscow: Islamic culture and Turkish ethnicity. After a protracted period of trial and error, their ultimate solution was the creation of five Soviet socialist republics: the Kazakh S.S.R. (now Kazakhstan) in 1936, the Kirgiz S.S.R. (now Kyrgyzstan) in 1936, the Tadzhik S.S.R. (now Tajikistan) in 1929, the Turk-

change It

may

men

S.S.R.

(now Turkmenistan)

S.S.R. (now Uzbekistan) in into being five new nations

1924,

in

1924.

and the Uzbek

The plan was

to will

whose separate development under close surveillance and firm tutelage from Moscow would preempt the emergence of a "Turkestani" national identity and such comcomitant ideologies as Pan-Turkism or Pan-Islamism. To some extent, this ethno-engineering reflected colonial conceptions of the peoples of Central

Asia dating back to

whose absorption

tsarist

times.

into the Russian

Thus the Kazakhs, Empire had been a

Creation of Soviet republics

510

Frederick gradual process extending from the early 8th to the early 19th century, were perceived as wholly separate from the Uzbeks south of the Syr Darya, whose territories had been annexed during the middle decades of the 19th century. As speakers of an Iranian language, the Tajiks could be clearly distinguished from their Turkish-speaking neighbours, while the Russian perception of the nomadic Turkmens, whom they had conquered during the closing years of the 19th century, set them apart from the sedentary Uzbeks. Similarly, the Kyrgyz of the Issyk-Kul region (whom the Russians of tsarist times had confusingly designated "Kara-Kirgiz," while applying the name "Kirgiz" to the Kazakhs) were declared to be distinct from their Kazakh neighbours. Thus, the colonial experience and 19th-century Russian ethnological and anthropological fieldwork were, when appropriate, enlisted by the Soviets to serve very different ideological ends. Inevitably, the boundarie^.of these artificial creations willed into being by Soviet fiat did not reflect the ethnic and cultural patterns of Central Asia, and all five republics contained substantial minority populations (among them, immigrants from European Russia), a situation which, with the coming of independence in 1991, was fraught with the likelihood of future conflicts. To ensure the success of this design for stabilizing Central Asia under Soviet rule, school 1

textbooks, scholarly research and publishing, and cultural policies in general were devised to stress, on the one hand, the particular and unique experience of each republic and, on the other, the enduring benefits of the Russian

Frederick II

to 1786, ranks

played to striking effect. From early in his reign Frederick achieved a high reputation as a military commander, and the Prussian army rapidly became a model admired and imitated in many other states. He also emerged quickly as a leading exponent of the ideas of enlightened government, which were then becoming influential throughout much of Europe; indeed, his example did much to spread and strengthen those ideas. Notably, his insistence on the primacy of state over personal or dynastic interests and his religious toleration widely affected the dominant intellectual currents of the age. Even more than his younger contemporaries, Catherine II the Great of Russia and By courtesy

Frederick

1757)

In

II.

portrait

ot the Staalliche

Museen zu

Berlin

by Antome Pesne (1683-

the Gemaldegalene, Berlin

made to emphasize the linguistic differences among the various Turkish languages spoken in the republics, clear evidence of intent to divide and rule. During the last two decades of Soviet history, the remoteness and economic backwardness of Central Asia meant that this region felt less intensely the winds of change beginning to blow through metropolitan Russia, Ukraine, or the Baltic republics, although from 1979 Soviet intervention in neighbouring Afghanistan produced ripple effects across the frontier. Historians, however, may conclude that the most significant aspects of the history of Central Asia under the Soviets were the extent to which its

peoples

managed

to retain their traditional cultural

most debilitating circumstances. Now are independent sovereign states, their future

heritage under the that

all five

more than regional significance: They some of them) may continue to maintain significant

destinies will be of (or

economic

and various other former Soor they may form some kind of economic common market or seek to give substance to old dreams of a united Turkestan. What is certain is that Central Asia will no longer be the backwater that it became when the age of European maritime discovery brought to an end the centuries-old transcontinental caravan trade. links with Russia

viet republics,

(GAVIN R.G. HAMBLY)

the Great

the Great, third king of Prussia from 1740 among the two or three dominant figures in the history of modern Germany. Under his leadership Prussia became one of the great states of Europe. Its territories were greatly increased and its military strength dis-

Frederick

connection, which paradoxically required that the tsarist conquests and their consequences be represented as an overwhelming boon to Central Asians. Great significance was given to language policy, with strenuous efforts being

Joseph II in the Habsburg territories, it was Frederick who, during the mid- 18th century, established in the minds of educated Europeans a notion of what "enlightened despotism" should be. His actual achievements, however, were sometimes less than they appeared on the surface; indeed, his inevitable reliance on the landowning officer (Junker) class set severe limits in several respects to what he could even attempt. Nevertheless, his reign saw a revolutionary change in the importance and prestige of Prussia, which was to have profound implications for much of the subsequent history of Europe. Frederick was born on Jan. 24, 1712, in Early life. Potsdam, near Berlin. He was the eldest surviving son of Frederick William I, king of Prussia, and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, daughter of George I of Britain. Frederick's upbringing and education were strictly controlled by his father, who was a martinet as well as a paranoiac. Encouraged and supported by his mother and his sister Wilhelmina, Frederick soon came into bitter conflict with his father. Frederick William 1 deeply despised the artistic and intellectual tastes of his son and was infuriated by Frederick's lack of sympathy with his own rigidly puritanical and militaristic outlook. His disappointment and contempt took the form of bitter public criticism and even outright physical violence, and Frederick, beaten and humiliated by his father, often over trifling details of behaviour, took refuge in evasion and deceit. This personal and family feud culminated spectacularly in 1730, when Frederick was imprisoned in the fortress of Kiistrin after planning unsuccessfully to flee initially to France or Holland. Lieutenant Hans Hermann von Katte, the young officer who had been his accomplice in the plan, was executed in Frederick's presence, and there was for a short time a real possibility that the prince might share his fate. During the next year or more Frederick, as a punishment,

was employed as a junior official in local administration and deprived of his military rank. The effects of this terrible early life are impossible to measure with accuracy, but there is little doubt that the violent and capricious bullying of his father influenced him deeply. In

1733, after a partial reconciliation with his father.

Tension between father and son

1

I

rederick was married to a member or a tumor German princely family, Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern, for whom he never eared and whom he systematically I

neglected.

In

the following year he saw active military first time under the great Austrian com-

service for the

against the French army in the Rhineland. In the later 1730s, in semiretirement in the castle of Rheinsberg near Berlin and able for the first time to give free rein to his own tastes, he read voraciously, absorbing the ideas on government and international relations that were to guide him throughout his life. These years were perhaps the happiest that Frederick ever experienced. However, his relations with his father, though somewhat improved, remained strained. Frederick Accession to the throne and foreign policy. William I died on May 31, 1740, and Frederick, on his accession, immediately made it clear to his ministers that he alone would decide policy. Within a few months he was given a chance to do so in a way that revolution-

mander Eugene of Savoy

ized Prussia's international position. The Holy Roman emperor Charles VI. of the Austrian house of Habsburg, died on October 20. leaving as his heir a daughter, the archduchess Maria Theresa, whose claims to several of the heterogeneous Habsburg territories were certain to be disputed. Moreover, her army was in a poor state, the financial position of the Habsburg government very difficult, and her ministers mediocre and in many cases old. Frederick, however, thanks to his father, had a fine army and ample funds at his disposal. He therefore decided shortly after the emperor's death to attack the Habsburg province of Silesia, a wealthy and strategically important area to which the Hohenzollerns, the ruling family of Prussia, had dynastic claims, though weak ones. The most important threat to his plans was Russian support for Maria Theresa, which he hoped to avert by judicious bribery in St. Petersburg and by exploiting the confusion that was likely to follow the imminent death of the empress Anna. He also hoped that Maria Theresa would cede most of Silesia in

return for a promise of Prussian support against her other enemies, but her refusal to do so made war inevitable. Invasion of The first military victory of Frederick's reign was the Silesia battle of Mollwitz (April 1741), though it owed nothing to his own leadership; in October Maria Theresa, now threatened by a hostile coalition of France, Spain, and Bavaria, had to agree to the Convention of Klein-Schnellendorf, by which Frederick was allowed to occupy the whole of

Lower

However, the Habsburg successes against and Bavarians that followed so alarmed Fred-

Silesia.

the French

1742 he invaded Moravia, the region south of Silesia, which was under Austrian rule. His rather incomplete victory at Chotusitz in May nonetheless forced Maria Theresa to cede almost all of Silesia by the Treaty of Berlin of 1742 in July. This once more allowed Habsburg forces to be concentrated against France and Bavaria, and 1743 and the early months of 1744 saw Maria Theresa's

erick that early in

position in

Germany become markedly

stronger. Freder-

again alarmed by this, invaded Bohemia in August 1744 and rapidly overran it. However, by the end of the year lack of French support and threats to his lines of communication had forced him to retreat. Moreover, the ick,

Augustus III (king of Poland and the elector of Saxony) now joined Maria Theresa in attacking him in Silesia. He was rescued from this threatening situation by the prowess of his army: victories at Hohenfriedberg in June 1745 and at Soor in September were followed by a Prussian invasion of Saxony. The Treaty of Dresden, signed on Dec. 25, 1745. finally established Prussian rule in Silesia and ended for the time being the complex series of struggles that had begun five years earlier. Silesia was a valuable acquisition, being more developed economically than any other major part of the Hohenzollern dominions. Moreover, military victory had now made Prussia at least a semigreat power and marked Frederick as the most successful ruler in Europe. He was well aware, however, that his situation was far from secure. Maria Theresa was determined to recover Silesia, and the peace she signed with France and Spain at Aix-

elector

la-Chapelle in

improvements

1748 allowed her to accelerate significant of her territories and

in the administration

rederick

51

the organization of her army.

Frederick's alliance with France, which dated from an agreement of June 1741. was based merely on mutual hostility toward the Habsburgs and had never been efTective. More serious, anti-Prussian feeling was now running high in Russia, where both the

who had ascended the throne in 1741, and her chancellor. Aleksey Bestuzhev-Ryumin. bitterly disliked Frederick. Moreover, Great Britain, under George empress Elizabeth,

seeking an efTective continental ally against France, to be moving closer to Maria Theresa and Elizabeth. In September 1755 Britain signed an agreement with Russia by which Russia, in return for British subsidies, was to provide a large military force in its Baltic provinces to protect, if necessary, the electorate of Hanover, ruled by George II, against possible French or Prussian attack. Frederick was deeply alarmed by this: a hostile Austro-Russian alliance backed by British money seemed to threaten the destruction of Prussia. In January 1756 he attempted to escape from this menacing situation by an agreement with Britain for the neutralization of Germany in the AngloFrench colonial and naval war that had just begun. This, however, deeply antagonized Louis and the French government, who saw the agreement as an insulting desertion of France, Frederick's ostensible ally. The result was the signature in May of a Franco-Austrian defensive alliance. This did not in itself threaten Frederick, but he soon became convinced that a Russo-Austrian attack on him, with French support, was imminent. He determined to forestall his enemies and, in a daring move, invaded II,

seemed

XV

Saxony in August 1756 and marched on into Bohemia. This action has been more actively debated by historians than any other event of Frederick's reign because it raised in an acute form the general issue regarding the morality of preventive military action. Though Frederick took the offensive and thus unleashed a great military struggle, there is no doubt that he was by 756 seriously threatened, indeed, even more seriously than he himself realized, and that his enemies, most of all the empress Elizabeth, meant to destroy Prussia's newly won international status. The Seven Years' War, on which he embarked thus soon became a life-and-death struggle. In 1757 France. Sweden, Russia, and many of the smaller German states joined the ranks of his opponents, while the Prussian invasion of Bohemia collapsed after a serious defeat at Kolin in June. Brilliant victories over the French and Austrian armies, respectively, at Rossbach and Leuthen in 1

November and December ick's position,

but

it

still

partially reestablished Freder-

remained extremely precarious.

Ruthless exploitation of every available resource (notably of much of Saxony, which was under Prussian military occupation during most of the war), debasement of the currency, and a British subsidy that he received in 758— 62 allowed Frederick with increasing difficulty to keep up the unequal struggle. More than anything, however, he was helped by the complete failure of his enemies to cooperate effectively, while a partly British and Britishfinanced army in western Germany from 1758 onward neutralized the French military effort. Nevertheless, the strain was immense; in October 1757 a cabinet order suspended all payment of salaries and pensions to Prussian civil servants and judges apart from diplomats serving abroad. Frederick could still win victories in the field, as, for example, at Zorndorf (August 1758) against the Russians at heavy cost or at Liegnitz and Torgau (August and November 1760) against the Austrians. But he also suffered serious defeats at Hochkirch in October 1758 and above all at the hands of a Russian army at Kunersdorf in August 1759. This disaster temporarily reduced him to despair and thoughts of suicide; if it had been effectively followed up by his adversaries, he could not have continued the struggle. As the forces he could put in the field 1

dwindled and resistance grew among his subjects to the unprecedented burdens imposed by the war (in 1760 the landowners of Brandenburg refused to contribute further), the Prussian position became increasingly difficult; by 76 it was desperate. However, the death in January 762 of the empress Elizabeth, the most bitter of all Frederick's enemies, completely changed the situation. Her successor, Peter III, a fanatical admirer of Prussia and Frederick. 1

1

1

Invasion of Saxony

and Bohemia

512

Frederick

The Treaty of Hubertusburg

signed an armistice in May. followed by a Russo-Prussian peace treaty. This turn of events ended Maria Theresa's hopes of recovering Silesia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (Feb. 15. 1763), which ended the war in Germany, left the province in Frederick's hands. Prussia had survived, and its military reputation was now greater than ever. The cost had been enormous, however. The Prussian army had lost 180,000 men during the struggle, and some Prussian provinces had been completely devastated. Henceforth Frederick was determined to avoid another such conflict: the alliance with Russia that he signed in 1764 and which lasted until 1780 was directed largely to this end. Nevertheless, he still firmly opposed any growth

of Habsburg power in Germany, and in July 1778 a new A ustro- Prussian struggle broke out over the efforts of the emperor Joseph II, the son of Maria Theresa, to gain a large part of Bavaria. This War of the Bavarian Succession was half-hearted and short-lived, and the Treaty of Teschen ending it in May 1779 was a severe check to Joseph's ambitions and a diplomatic victory for Frederick. But this new conflict showed unmistakably that AustroPrussian rivalry stemming from the events of 1740-41 was now a deeply ingrained fact of German political life. Fear of Habsburg ambitions continued to haunt Frederick to the end of his reign. His last significant achievement was to inspire the formation, in July 1785, of the League of Princes (Furstenbund), which united a number of German states the most important being Hanover, Saxony, and in successful opposition to the archbishopric of Mainz Joseph II and his renewed efforts to acquire the whole of Bavaria in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands. The most important foreign policy development in the The first partition of second half of Frederick's reign was the first partition of Poland Poland, in 772. By this Prussia gained the Polish province of West Prussia (though without the great commercial city of Danzig), and thus Brandenburg and Pomerania, the core of the monarchy, became linked with the theretofore isolated East Prussia. This gave the state a much greater territorial coherence and more defensible frontiers. It also moved its geographic centre decisively to the east and sharpened the social and political differences that tended to separate it from the states of western Europe. Frederick had always hoped for territorial gains of this kind, and, as the weakness and confusion of the internally divided Polish republic increased during the 1760s, the possibilities of realizing them grew. In 1769 he tried indirectly to interest Catherine II of Russia in a partition but in vain. By January 1771, however, faced by strong Austrian opposition to her expansionist ambitions in southeastern Europe, the empress had changed her mind. The visit to St. Petersburg in that month of Frederick's younger brother Prince Henry played a decisive role in making a

—

—

1

Habsburg government, which had hoped to recover Silesia or gain territory in the Balkans, was persuaded to join in the process. Frederick bears partition possible: the

much of the responsibility for the partition, for he alone of the monarchs who took part had consciously desired it. Since both Russia and Austria were persuaded to follow a policy that was largely Prussian in inspiration, it ranks as perhaps his greatest diplomatic success. economic, and were essentially conservative. Much of what he did in these areas was little more than a development of policies pursued by his father. He justified these policies in terms of the rationalizing rhetoric of "enlightened despotism," whereas the devoutly Protestant Frederick William I had done so in terms of

Domestic

In

policies.

administrative,

social policy Frederick's attitudes

many of the objectives, and the them, were the same. Frederick, in

religious obligation, but

means used

to attain

spite of his appalling personal relationship with his father,

admired him as a ruler and freely acknowledged the debt he owed him. "Only his care," he wrote during the Seven Years' War, "his untiring work, his scrupulously just policies, his great and admirable thriftiness and the strict discipline he introduced into the army which he himself had created, made possible the achievements have so far I

accomplished." Like Frederick William as a duty.

To him

it

I,

Frederick thought of kingship met only by

entailed obligations to be

untiring and conscientious work.

It was his duty to protect from foreign attack, to make them prosperous, to give them efficient and honest administration, and to provide them with laws that were simple and adapted to their wants and their particular temperament. In order to achieve these objectives, the ruler must sacrifice his own interests and any purely personal or family feeling. Raison d'etat, the needs of the state, took precedence over these and also over the immediate comfort and happiness

his subjects

of his subjects. The ruler could carry out his duties effectively only if he kept the reins of government firmly in his own hands. His rule must be personal. He must not rely on ministers who were likely to be influenced by selfish ambitions or factional feeling and who might well keep important information from their master if they were allowed to. Personal rule alone could produce the unity and consistency essential to any successful policy. In his Anti-Machiavel, a somewhat conventional discussion of the principles of good government published in 1740 just before his accession, Frederick wrote that there were two sorts of princes those who ruled in person and those who merely relied on subordinates. The former were "like the soul of a state" and "the weight of their government falls on themselves alone, like the world on the back of Atlas," whereas the second group were mere phantoms. Yet he would have rejected outright, and on the whole with justification, any suggestion that he ruled as a despot. On the contrary, he would have claimed that his power, however great, was exercised only within limits set by law and that the obligations inherent in his position made it impossible for him to govern in an arbitrary way. The insistence that any effective monarchical rule must be intensely personal had obvious potential dangers. As Frederick grew older, these showed themselves with increasing clarity. His whole psychology was hostile to the development in the Prussian administration or army of any real originality, new ideas, or willingness to take initiatives or accept individual responsibilities. He fostered among those who served him a tendency to play safe and to perform their duties conscientiously but to do no more than that. Under him the Prussian administration was the most honest and hardworking in Europe. Its achievements, however, stemmed from the impetus supplied from above by the king rather than from any creative force inherent in the system itself. The provincial War and Domains Chambers established by Frederick William in 1722 remained very important, and their number grew from 9 to 12. The General Directory, again created by Frederick William, as the main organ of central government with wide-ranging powers, acquired under Frederick several new departments (for commerce and manufactures in 1740, for mines and metallurgy in 1768, for forestry a few years later) but tended, as the reign went on, to become ossified and to lose a good deal of its former importance. The administration of Silesia after its acquisition in the 1740s was notably efficient, and its resources helped greatly in carrying Frederick through the dark days of the Seven Years' War. But tradition and continuity rather than innovation were the hallmarks of the Prussian administration under him; many of what new departures there were (for example, an effort in 1770 to introduce a system of state examinations for entry into the civil service) were not very effective. Many of the truly successful innovations were in the judicial system, where the reforming efforts of Samuel von Cocceji resulted in all judges in higher and appellate courts being appointed only after they had passed a rigorous examination. Cocceji also inspired the establishment in 1750 of a new Superior Consistory to supervise church and educational affairs and began the process of legal codification that culminated after Frederick's death in the issue of the Prussian Common Law (Das Allgemeine Preussische Landrecht) of 1794, one of the most important 18th-century efforts of this kind. Yet Frederick's unwillingness ever to admit a mistake or change his mind tended, as he grew older, to make the processes of government increasingly rigid and inflexible. The government's refusal to adapt and adjust, which was already visible during the monarch's later years, culmi-

—

I

Concept of rulership

ricl

nated in the Prussian collapse l NS AND ZOOS

(.

I

David M.

Stall

(111

p.lll

I

Writer, Reader's Digest;

Free-lance Writer.

SOCIAL SfcCURIIY AND VW LFARE

SI

K\

1(

1

s

(in

entury Painten

O'Dwjer, Post;

University. Philadelphia.

dle East affairs.

CONSUMbR AFFAIRS (III parti; INDUSTRIAL REVIEW: Advertising Mermel, T.W. Consultant; formerly Chairman, Committee on World Register of Dams, International Commission on Large Dams. engineering PROJECTS: Dams; Dams tabic Millikin, Sandra. Architectural Historian. art exhibitions and art sales: Art Exhibi-

world

Modiano, Mario. Athens Correspondent (1952The Times, London.

world

affairs: Greece

Moragne, Edward Paul. Index Supervisor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

biographies

(in

pain

Morris, Jacqui M. Editor, Oryx magazine.

environment

(in part)

Morrison, Donald. Assistant Managing Editor, Entertainment Weekly magazine. publishing: Newspapers (in part); world affairs: United States; United States: Special


.2' ( ). Expenditures: B$563,377,000 (education 19.5%, health 14 6%, interest on public debt 12.2%, general administration 11.1%, public order 10.1%, tourism 8.0%, defense 3.3%). Public debt (September 1991): U.S.$829,500,000. Production (value of production in BS'OOO except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): marine products landed at Nassau (mostly crayfish, groupers, conchs) 56,400 6 fruits and vegetables 22,800, poultry products 18,400, beef and mutton 300; roundwood i 15,000 cu m. Mining and quarrying (1991): salt 9,400; aragonite 3,600. Manufacturing (1991): pharmaceuticals 94,200; rum 35,700. Construction (gross value of buildings started in B$'000,000; 1991): residential 111; nonresidential 20. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 950,000,000 (950,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric

Education and health Education (1990-91) schools Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 1117) Higher 14

teachers

100 '2 37 12

1.409 '3 1.555'3

1

300

students

27,26412 23,616'2 2,200

student/ teacher ratio

20.9'3 19.1 13

7.3

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 139,000 (95.0%). Health (1988): physicians 303 (1 per 809 persons); hospital beds 1,009 (1 per 243 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 26.3. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,791 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 115% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

1

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 850 1S Military expenditure as percentage of G/Vf-16 (1989): 0.2% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S23. .

,

tons; 1990) negligible (435,000); natural gas, none (none). receipts from visitors (1491) U.S.$1,222,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.S 196,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$2,9 13,000,000 (U.S.$11,510 per capita).

Tounsm

!Land area only of individual islands or island groups. 2 Family (Out) Islands (all islands other than New Providence) are administered by commissioners assigned by the central government. Extent of commissioner districts varies from part of an island to island groups. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4 Includes seven people not accounted for by island. 'Population cited is for New Providence Island. M991. includes 1,990 not adequately defined and 14,910 unemployed. ^April. ''New Providence Island only. '"Domestic purchases by resident households only; data

and hotels are not available. "Imports c.i.f.; exports i2Data exclude 86 combined primary/secondary schools with 10,739 students. 1986-87; includes combined primary/secondary schools. ^College of The Bahamas only. ''Naval defense force (excludes 1,700 police). ">Includes police. for expenditures in restaurants f.o.b. i
n. Retail

and service enterprises (1990) annual

,

:

I

no of

no

Retail trade

Grocery stores Department stores Other food shops Agricultural supplies stores Electrical appliances stores Household supplies stores Grain and oil shops Textile stores Drugstores

Bookstores Coal stores Service trade Repair shops

prises

employees

8,709,000 162,000 159.000 109,000 88,000 72,000 66.000 63,000 36,000 27,000 26.000 14,000 1 .639,000

20.914,000 1,162,000 1,793.000 733.000 436,000 715,000 344.000 647,000 247.000 210,000 127,000 167,000 4,027,000 1,004,000 670,000 1.308,000 205,000

669.000 422.000 171.000 89,000

Barbershops

(11.6%).

of

enter-

Hotels

Photo studios

wage as a all

annual gross output

% of wages

(Y

value 000,000)

Vital statistics

population 1991 ): 6.7 (world avg. 9.2). \atural increase rale per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. Total tertilit\ rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 2.3. Marriage rate per [,000 population (1990): 8.4. rate per I.IHHl population 1990): 0.7.

Death

rale per 1.000

I

(

(metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): grains— rice 187,450,000, wheat 95,003,000, corn (maize) 93,350,000, sorghum 5,615,000, millet 4,501,000, barley 3,000,000; oilseeds— rapeseed 7,436,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 6,060,000, sunflower seed 1,250,000; watermelons 6,280,000, oranges 5,385,000, apples 4,816,fruits and nuts 000, cantaloupes 3,135,000, walnuts 153,000; other— sweet potatoes 107,-

Production

liinh rate per 1,000 population (1991): 19.7 (world avg. 26.4). 17.2).

—

Nations

190,000, sugarcane 73,103,000, potatoes 35,533,000, seed cotton 16,989,000, beets 16,237,000, soybeans 9,807,000, cabbage 8,103,000, tomatoes 5,690,000, cucumbers 4,148,000, tobacco leaves 3,121,000, eggplant 2,383,

person. il effects

srni.ii

tea 566,000; livestock (number oi live animals) $63,975,000 pigs, 112,820,000 sheep. 97,378,000 goats, 81,407,000 cattle, 21,635,000 water buffalo, 11,198,000 asses, 10,174,000 horses, 2,077,000,000 chickens, 369,000,000 ducks; roundwood (1990) 277,015,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 12,095,363. Mining anil quarrying 1991 ): metals (metal content of ores) coppei 560,-

000,

,

cultural activities 8.8%, fuel

.

U%,

5K5

medicines

I

mm,-

Population economically population 54 "• (participati

employed

2.093

'')

\

198

Urban work

i

fore*

total 584,569,200; activity rate ol total

/er age 15, 76.8%; female 49. in sector oi employment, 1978

state-run enterprises 74,500,000 103 160,000) collectives 20,000,000 000); self-employment or privately run enterprises 150,000 (8,343
o. coconuts 515,000, corn (maize) 510,000, coffee 240.000: livestock number of live animals) 1,150.000 sheep, 1,064,000 cattle. 905.000 goats; roundwood (1990) 12,654,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 108,935 Mining and quarrying (1991): diamonds 280,000 carats. Manufacturing (1986): cement 770,000; beer 1,300,000 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 495.000 hectolitres; synthetic fibres 5,000,000 metres. Construction

yams

(

2,559,000, sugarcane

l

I,

(

(in^(

1

\l

1984): 62,000,000,000.

Energj production (consumption): elec-

From 1986, Cote d'lvoire has requested that the French version of the country's name he utilized as the official protocol version in all languages. -Fifteen additional 1

departments were created in 1985, for which separate data are not available. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. J 1990. M986. '•December. 'January 1; index refers to the S.M.I.G. (salaire minimum interprofessionel garanti), a form of minimum professional wage. Weights of consumer price index components. 'M987; traffic includes Burkina Faso. i»Air Ivoire only. "1979-80. 121981. '-M982.

Nations

World

of tin-

National economy

Croatia

Production (metric tonsexi com (maize) 2,540,000, wheat

nculture, forestry, fishing (19 i 431,000,

,

name. Republika Hrvatska (Kcpublic hi < Iroatia) Form oj government multipart} republic with a two-chambered Official

plums

13,000;

1,495,000, potatoes 65l (number ol live animals) |,i

livestock

cattle, 753,000 sheep.

16

rounds

!,000 poultry;

I

u

legislature

catch (1990) 45,333, l which freshwatei 10,432. Mining and quan bauxite 109,000; gypsum 100,000; refined silver 2 (1990): lime 437,

[n.a.];

Manufacturing (1990): nitrogenous

(Chamber ol Districts Chambei of Deputies [138]).

Head o] slate. President. Head of government: Prime

:

fertilizers 1,172,000;

crude

steel 424. 0(H):

hot rolled iron slabs 184,000; detergents 110,000; polyvinyl chloride powder 105.000. Construction (residential units constructed; TWO): 18.565. Incrgy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990)9,1 H m 15,442,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 173,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 14.719.000 (n.a.): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 8,471,000 in K natural gas (cu m; 1990) 1,989,000,000 (n.a.). Gross national product (1990): U.S.$20,900,000,000 (U.S.54,399 per capita).

Ministei

apitah Zagreb. Official language: Croatian.

1

(

mine. unit: Croatian dinar valuation (Oct. 12. 1992) U.S.$ = HrD 365.67;

Official religion:

Monetary

m;

fish

(HrD)

..

1

I

I

l=HrD

Structure of gross material product and labour force

622.95.

1989

area sq km 2

Districts Beli

Manastir

1,147

Benkovac

640 232 732 395 368 319 280 724 455 513 440 833 610 713 249 606

Biograd na moru Bjelovar

Brae Buje Buzet

Cabar Cakovec

Cazma Cres-Losinj Crikvenica

Dakovo Daruvar Delnice Donja Stubica Donji Lapac Donji Miholjac

471

840 979

Drnis

Dubrovnik

Duga Resa Dugo Selo

561

223 680 505 419 543

Ourdevac Dvor Garesnica Glina

Gospic Gracac Grubisno Polje Hvar

1,674 1,016

435 312 606 345 380 632 637 250

Imotski

Ivanec Ivanic-Grad Jastrebarsko Karlovac Kastela

119

Klaniec Knin

1.079

Kopnvnica

715 336 365 182 548 428 596 386 53 223 226 279 675

Korcula Kostajnica Krapina Knzevci Krk

Kutma Labin Lastovo

Ludbreg Makarska Metkovic Nasice

population

Districts

54,265 33.378

Nova Gradiska

17,661

Novska Obrovac

Ogulm Omis

13,824

23,877 7,439 5.169 119.866

1,077

379 310 436 659

Opatija

Orahovica Osijek

15263

Otocac

1,117

278 285 567 532 390 169

Ozalj

,796

Pag

19,154 52.954 30.092 17,848

Pakrac Pazin Petnnja Ploce

30.760 8,054 20.365 24,169 71,419 30,485 19.693

Podravska Slatina Porec Pregrada

781

350 150 574 115

Pula

Rab

40,901 14.555 18.442

Rijeka Rovinj

523

Sen) Sibenik

658

291

Sinj

23,040 29,049 10,434 14,206

Sisak

Slavonska Pozega Slavonski Brod

,459

Slunj

39,052 41,680 25,592 32,422 81.319 32.286 10,917 42,954 61,052

Solin

1 1

969 283 585 509

Novi Marof

66.039

1 1

area sq km 2

1,020 1,077 1,052 1,249 1.065

802 472 149 216

Split

Sveti Ivan Zelina

Titova Korenica Trogir

1,150

Varazdm

250 360 375

Vinkovci

1.024

Valpovo

642

Virovitica

19,651 14.851

Vis

101

vojnic

26,382 39,248 16,402 39,520 25,983

Vrbovec Vrbovsko Vrginmost

237 514 280 447 284 606

Vrgorac Vukovar

Zabok

1,228

Zadar Zagreb

21,848 21.041

221 1.121

1,705

343 815

Zlatar-Bistnca

22,818 40,829

Zupanja TOTAL

56,538

Mining Manufacturing Construction

60,749 29,254 24,696 1 1

km

of labour

forces

69,156

4.6

27,299

48.7

595,489

39.4

3.896

6.9

118,656 36,601 124,943 238.075 60,980

7.9

J

Trade Finance

588

1.0

5.256 10.848

9.4

19.4

f

Pub. admin., defense Services

Other

1

34}

1,894

J

2.4 8.3

15.8 4.0

265.591

17.6

1.509.491

100.0

J

100.0

56,057

TOTAL

Population economically active (1991): total 1,327,000: activity rate of total population 27.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female [1990] 44.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1984

Consumer

57 100

price index

Annual earnings index 7

Land

1985

1986

100 100

193 109

430 100

16,500 114

1,270

93

114,000 93

use (1990): forest 36.5%; pasture 36.0%; agricultural 23.5%; other 4.0%.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.9; income per household (1990) Din 165,813 (U.S.$14,650); sources (1990): selfemployment 40.8%, wages 40.2%, transfers 12.1%, other 6.9%; expenditure (1988): food 34.2%, transportation 9.3%, clothing 8.6%, housing 8.3%, energy 7.6%, drink and tobacco 5.1%, durable goods 4.5%, health care 4.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

,393

22,168 33.108 94,373 98,445 46,661 4,354 8,236 28.074 7,528 16,599 7,497 84.189 36,309 136,572 933,914

Din 000.000

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

-10

-32

-31

-155

-3.774

-16,692

7.1

16.0

7.9

10.2

18.1

20.2

% of total

Imports (1990): Din 49,728,000,000 (raw materials and semifinished goods 29.9%, consumer goods 24.2%, mineral fuels 19.2%, basic manufactures 13.4%, machinery 9.1%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (1990): Din 33,036,000,000 (machinery 29.7%, chemicals 11.3%, food 9.2%, clothing 8.5%). Major export destinations: n.a.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): passengers transported 35,762,000; cargo transported 27,867,000 tons. Roads (1991): total length 19,932 mi, 32,071 km (paved 73%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 865,516; trucks and buses 72,043. Merchant marine (1990): fishing vessels 369. Airports (1992) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): 9; total circulation 715,000; circulation per 1,000 population 150. Radio (1989): 1.226,000 receivers (1 per 3.9

31,291

49,026 4,784.265

Demography Population (1992): 4.808,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 220.2, persons per sq Urban-rural (1981): urban 50.8%; rural 49.2%. Sex distribution (1981): male 48.411', female 5 I. MIS:.

%

11.2

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

,557

29,095 25.784 29,799 >5,631 165,253 24.992 14,787 7.612 27,589 19,006 35.565 13,008 31,227 22,988 16,939 85,326 9.562 206,229 19,727 9,205 85,002 60.210 84.348 71.745 114,249 18,962 27,402 207,147 17,152 1 1

1

labour forces

of total

value

6,276

Agriculture

population

1990

%

in value Din 000.000

Area and population (1991 census)

persons). Television (1989): 1,063,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Telephones (1990): 1,101,451 (1 per 4.3 persons).

85.0.

Education and health

;

Age breakdown (1981): under 15, 20.9%; 15-29, 23.3%; 30-44, 20.2%; 45-59, 19.9%; h()-74, 11.0%; 75 and over, 3.9%. (2(H(i) 5,157,000. Population projection: (2000) 4,960. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition 1981): Croat 75.1%; Serb 11.6%; Magyar 0.6%; Slovene 0.5%; Bosnian 0.5%; other 11.7',. Religious affiliation 1991): Roman Catholic 76.5%; Eastern Orthodox 11.1%; Muslim 1.2%; other 11.2%3. Major cities (1991)*: Zagreb 930.753; Split 206,559; Rijeka 205,842; Osijek

Education (1990-91)

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher

2.588

27,197

229 60

13.121

497.790 215.425

6.633

70.781

18.3 16.4 10.7

ratio

;

(

(

164,589;

Zadar

134.669.

Vital statistics Hirth rule per 1.000

population (1990):

I

1.9

(world avg. 27.1); legitimate,

Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher

Educational attainment (1 981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 45.4%; primary 19.2%; secondary 28.3%; post-secondary and higher 6.4%. Literacy (1981): total population age 10 and over literate 3.734,000 (94.4%); males'97.5%: females 91.6%. Heulth (1990): physicians (1989) 10,160 (1 per 466 persons); hospital beds 35,603 (1 per 133 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 10.0.

n.a.;

illegitimate, n.a.

Military

Death rule per 1,000 population (1990): 1.4 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rule per 1,000 population (1990): 0.5 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rule (avg. births per childbeanng woman): n.a. Marriage rule per 1,000 population (1989): 6.1. Divorcerate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth 1980 82): male 67.0 years; female 74.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 581.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 222.2; accidents, violence, and poisoning 86.5; diseases of the digestive svstem 54.7. I

(

Total active duty personnel 1991 ): n.a.; however, the Croatian National Guard was formed in April 1991. Military expenditure as percentage of GXP: n.a. (

'The Croatian dinar was introduced on Dec. 23, 1991, at parity with the Yugoslav dinar (Din), which it replaced .is Croatia's official currency. -One su km is equal Includes a significant minority ol adherents of the to approximatelj 0.3861 sq mi. i roatian Old Catholic Church, as well as small communities of Protestant Christians and Jews. 'Populations refer to municipal areas, not cities proper ^Excludes 58,000 workers in the private sector. "On Jan. I. 1990, the new dinar, equal to 10,000 old dinars (Din), was introduced. 7 Based on worker real net personal income

Britannica World Data

592

Cuba

60.8%, transportation services 5.4%, energy 2.5%, value of self-produced and consumed food 1.5%, household repairs 1.2%, other 1.9%. Population economically active (1988): total 4,570,236; activity rate of total population 43.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 56.9%; female 36.1';: unemployed 6.0%).

name: Reptiblica de Cuba (Republic dI Cuba). orm oj government: unitary socialist

Official

/

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People's

Power

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Implicit

consumer

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

94 9

980 990

100.0

101.4 100.1

102.8

103

1989

[510]).

Head of

State

and government:

price

deflator index

President.

Monthly earnings ndexs

95.9

100

1

996

98.1

1000

Capital: Havana. Official language: Spanish. unit:

Cuban peso (CUP) —

1

bentavos; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = 0.76CUP:

Hit) 1

I

Public debt (hard currency to the West; 1989): U.S.$6,8OO,0O().OOO. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$246,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$48,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$20.900,000,000 (U.S.$2,000 per capita).

none.

Official religion:

Monetary

5,

1992)

£=1.29 CUP.

Structure of global social product and labour force 1989

Area and population population

area

in

CUP

1989'

Provinces

sq mi

Capitals

Camaguey

Camaguey

Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos Ciudad de la Habanaz

Ciego de Avila Cientuegos

Granma Guantanamo Holguin La Habana 3 Las Tunas

sq

km

10,925 6.744 6,170 8,662

732,056 358.059 358.589 2,077,938 781.331 491 .422 982.722 636,889 485,136 602,996 684,725 424,243 980,002 801 ,456

2,398 110.861

71.097 10.468.661

6,174 2,668 1,613

15.990 6,910 4.178

281

727

Bayamo Guantanamo

3,232 2,388

8,372 6.186

Holguin

3,591

Pinar del Rio Sanctl Spintus

Pinar del Rio Sancti Spintus

Santiago de Cuba

Santiago de Santa Clara

2,213 2.544 4,625 4,218 2,604 2,382 3,345

9.301 5,731

Matanzas

Havana Las Tunas Matanzas

Villa

—

Clara

Special municipality Isla de la Juventud

Cuba

Nueva Gerona

TOTAL

estimate

6.589 1 1

926 42,804

,978

%

value

000,000

Mining^ Manufacturing

3 9

1

394

>

2,510

2.7 9.3

2.151

8.0

— 5.401 — —

— 201 — —

Other

191

07

TOTAL

26.915

100.0

Trade Public administration Services

%

of labour

force

•

721,100

20.4

767,500

21.8

344.300 235.900 21,700 395,300 151,700 835,700 53,400 3,526.600

9.8 6.7 0.6

15.9

733

Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun Finance, insurance

labour forced

value

4,273 1.039 10,617

Agriculture

of total

J

11 2

4.3

23.7 1.5

100.0

use (1990): forested 25.1%; meadows and pastures 27.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.3%; other 17.5%.

Land

Foreign trade 7 Balance of trade (current prices) 1984

Demography Population

CUP

% Of total

1992): 10,848,000. >2): persons per sq

(

mi 253.4, persons per sq km 47.9. urban 72.8%; rural 27.29! Sex distribution 1990): male 50.35%; female 49.65%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 23.3%; 15-29, 31.7%; 30-44, 19.5%; 45-59, 13.7%; do and over, 11.8%. Density

l

(

l

»

l

Urban-rural

(

L990): (

Population protection: (2000) 11.502.000; (2010) 12,181,000. Doubling time: 63 years. Ethnic composition (1981): white 66.0%; mixed 21.9%; black 12.0%. Religious affiliation 19K(l): nonreligious 48.7%; Roman Catholic 39.6%; atheist 6.4%; Protestant 3.3' Afro-Cuban syncretist 1.695 other 0.4%. Major cities 19891): Havana 2.077,938; Santiago de Cuba 397,024; Camaguey (


lln ial religion:

Monetary unit: Egyptian pound (LE) = 100 piastres = 1,000 milliemes; I

valuation (Oct.

U.S.$

1

= LE

1992) 3.34; 1 £ =

Public

LE

10.923

21 8

I

2,514 1,9225 4.992

utilities

5.0

3.85

5.68.

area

population

force

42.7

595.900

4,9

1

Services TOTAL

of labour

5,160,500 37,000 1,872,400 571,200 92,400

100

5,719 2,225 50.177

>

0.3 15.5 4 7 0.8

85

.027.300

121,900

1.0

44

2,616,000

21.6

1000

12,094,600

100.0

11.4

1990

Regions Governorales

km

sq mi

sq

78,643 81,897 12,796 10,646 145,369

203.685 212,112 33,140 27,574 376,505

108,000 182,000 33,000 196.000 126.000

3,911 1.340

10,130 3,471

3,602,000 3,828,000

227 750 557

589

808.000

1,942 1,442

3,113,000

ash-Shaykh ShibTn al-Kawm Ban ha

1.327

3437

592 387

1.532 1,001

.968.000 2,449,000 2,868,000

az-ZaqazTq

1.614

4,180

3766.000

262 600 510 705

679

883.000

1553

2,456,000 1 ,586,000 1.720.000 4.265,000 2.916,000 2.493.000 2,689,000

Capitals

estimate

Desert

al-Ghurdaqah Marsa Matruh

al-Bahr al-Ahmar

Ma(ruh

Janub STna Shamal STna

aj-Tur

al-Arish al-Khari|ah

al-Wadi al-Jao7d

Population economically active (1990-91): total 14,760,000; activity rate of total population 27.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] 45.1%; female [1986] 14.6%; unemployed 8.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1985

Lower Egypt

Consumer

Damanhur

al-Buhayrah ad-DaqahlTyah

al-Mansurah

Dumya!

Dumyal

Tanta

al-Gharblyah

—

al-lsmaTTiyah (Ismaitia) Kafr ash-Shaykh

Kafr

al-Mmufiyah al-QalyubTyah ash-Sharqlyah

623,000 1

Upper Egypt

Aswan

Aswan

AsyOt Ban! Suwayf al-Fayyum

AsyuJ

al-JTzah

al-JIzah

al-Minya

al-Minya

Bani Suwayl al-Fayyum

32,878

873 715 597

Qma

Quia Sawhaj Urban Bur Said

Sawhaj

(Port Said) al-lskandariyah (Alexandria) al-Qahirah (Cairo)

as-Suways (Suez)

1,322

1,827 85,153 2,262 1,851

1,547

— — — —

28

72

1,034

2,679

83

214

6,888

17,840

385,229

997.739

461,000 3,170,000 6.452.000

392.000 53.153,000

Demography Population (1992): 55,979,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 145.3. persons per so, km 56.1. I rban-rural 1986): urban 43.9%; rural 56 1' s, distribution (1990): male 51.14%; female 48.86%. \ge breakdown (1986): under 15, 41.8%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 60-74, 4. 7 ', 75 and over, 0.8$ 10.49! Population projection: (20(H)) 65.556,000; (2010) 77.251.000. (

(

i

100)

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100.0 100.0

123.9 108.8

1483

174.4

211.5

2470

2959

114.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986): 4.9; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure 1974-75) 6 food 49.7'i clothing 14. 2', (

:

Doubling tune: 24 years. Ethnic composition 1983): Egyptian 99.8%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation 1990): Sunnl Muslim c. 90%; Christian c. Mr, Major cities (1990): Cairo 6,452.000; Alexandria 3,170,000; al-JTzah 2.156.000; Shubra al-Khaymah 811,000; al-Mahallah al-Kubra 385,3003.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) LE 000,000

%

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

-5,193.0

-7,117.0

54.1%

-10,6848 57.2%

-9.228.1

55.8%

-15.389 3 52.5%

-10.932.2 31 .7%

of total

45.6%

LE 21.849,200.000 (machinery and transport equipment 20.4%; foodstuffs 14.2; chemical products 10.2%; base metals 7.1%). Major import sources 1988): I I.S. 1.9%.; West Ciermany 1.0%; France 8.4%; Italy 7.0%; Japan 5.0%, Lxporis (1990-91): LE 8,606,100,000 (petroleum and petroleum products 50.7%; cotton yarn, textiles, and fabrics 13.6%; raw cotton 2.1 r/,). Major export destinations (1988): U.S.S.R. 12.2%; Italy 11.1%; The Netherlands 6.9%; U.S. 6.3%; France 5.8',; West Germany 4.2%'; Saudi Arabia 3.2%. Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990-91): length 5,489 mi, 8,831 km; passenger-km 43,185.000.000; metric ton-km cargo 3.162.000,000. Roads (1989): total length 28,300 mi, 45,500 km (paved 6895 ). Vehicles (1989); passenger cars 826,915;

(

Vital statistics

1

1

(

(

trucks and buses 550,649. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross ions and over) 444; total deadweight tonnage 1.852.457. Inland water (1990): Sue/ (anal, number ol transits 17.664; metric ton cargo 271,881,000. Air transport (1991)7; passenger-km 5,230.1)09,1)01); metric ton-km cargo 131,572.000; airports 1992) 10. ommunications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 17; total circulation 3,307,1008; circulation per 1.000 population 628. Radio (1991): 14,000,000 receivers (I per 3.9 persons). feLevision (1991): 3,750,000 receivers (1 per per 34 persons). 1987): 1,455,000 15 persons). Telephones (

(

(

1990): 32.2 (world avg. 27.1 |. Death rate pel 1,000 population 1990): 7.5 (world avg. 9.8). Vatural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990): 24.7 (world avg. 17.3).

Birth rale per 1.000 population

woman;

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing 1987): 5.4. Marriage rate pei 1,000 population 1990): 8.4. population (1940): 1.5. Divorce rate pet l. Life expectancy .it birth (1989): male 59.0 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes oj death per 100,000 population (1987): diseases ol the circulator] system $14.4; diseases ol the respirator) system 140.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 98.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 22.0.

I

1

Fducation and health Education (1989-90)

(

I

(

(


yi. 'Includes valueadded taxes, customs duties, and imputed bank service charges. ^Unemployed. 7 Metal content of ores. *AII energy statistics include Monaco. ^September, unless otherwise marked. '"August. "Air France and UTA only. 2 89 newspapers only. "Does not '

include public telephones. i"1988-89.

Villous

Gabon

»l

the

World

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): Ui>.$3,654,000,000 (U.S.$3,220 per capita).

name: Republican: Gabonaise iabonese Republic). Form of government: multiparty' republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Chief of •.tun: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

((

1990 in

1983

%

value

CFAF 000.000 123.200 518,400 54.500 67,800 23,400

Agriculture, forestry, fishing

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Libreville.

Public utilities Transportation and

Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 franc

communications

CFA

Kid centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 238.75; £ = CFAF 405.88.

,

47.8 5.0 6.2 2.2 8.1

78,2008

Other, including taxes on imports TOTAL

1,084,6003

7

7

7

27

7

7

31.0

7

7

56.143' 137,867

100.0

29 30 95

42,678 7.28

J

idbour

102

7

3.732

12.1

defense >

•

force'-

14,118 3.919 4,123 13,154

\

Pub. admin Services

1

11.4

88,100 131,100

Trade Finance

(CFAF)=

labour force 8

of total

value

40.77 100.0

Area and population population

aree

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,889,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1983): private sector 73.4%, public sector 26.6%; expenditure (1983) 9 food and tobacco 54.7%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, housing 13.0%, transportation and communications 6.3%.

1978 Provinces

Capitals

Estuaire

Libreville

Haut-Ogooue

Franceville

Moyen-Ogooue

Lambarene

Ngounie

Mouila

Nyanga

Tchibanga

Ogooue-lvindo Ogooue-Lolo

Makokou Koulamoutou

Ogooue-Mantime Woleu-Ntem

Port-Gentil

Oyem

sq mi

sq

8,008 14,111 7,156

14.575 8,218 17,790 9,799 8,838 14.851

103.3473

TOTAL

km

20.740 36.547 18,535 37,750 21.285 46,075 25,380 22,890 38,465 267.667

estimate?

359.000 213.000 49,000 118,000 98.000 53,000 49,000 194,000 166,000 1,300,000*

:

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF 000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1942)-: 1,253,000. Density ( 1992)-: persons per sq mi 12.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 45.7%; rural 54.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.23%; female 50.77%.

km

4.7.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 32.5%; 15-29, 30.4%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45-59, 12.9%; 60-74, 7.3%; 75 and over, 1.6%. Population projection-: (2000) 1,612,000; (2010) 2,052,000. Doubling lime: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fang 35.5%; Mpongwe 15.1%; Mbete 14.2%; Punu 11.5%; other 23.7%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 96.2%, of which Roman Catholic 65.2%, Protestant 18.8%, African indigenous 12.1%; traditional religion 2.9%; Muslim 0.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1988): Libreville 352,000; Port-Gentil 164,000; Franceville 75,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 43.4 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 16.0 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 27.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 5.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 51.9 years; female 55.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however,' major diseases include malaria, measles, shigellosis (infection with dysentery), trypanosomiasis,

and

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

+500,000 39,2%

+140,000 18.9%

+ 170,000

+ 120,400 20.3%

+ 274,400 36.3%

+ 267,800 35.6%

28.2%

Imports (1989): CFAF 241,800,000,000 (machinery and mechanical equipment 29.2%, food and agricultural products 14.6%, transport equipment 12.5%, manufactured products 12.1%, metal and metal products 11.2%, chemical products 5.4%, mining products 1.6%). Major import sources: France 46.3%; Cameroon 9.7%; The Netherlands 5.5%; United States 5.4%; Japan 4.1%; West Germany 3.7%; United Kingdom 2.9%; Italy 2.4%; BelgiumLuxembourg 1.9%. Exports (1989): CFAF 509,600,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 70.8%, manganese ore and concentrate 11.6%, wood 9.4%, uranium ore and concentrate 4.1%). Major export destinations: France 36.2%; United States 26.1%; The Netherlands 6.2%; Japan 3.3%; Cote d'lvoire 2.9%: Italy 2.3%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1992): length 414 mi, 668 km; passenger-mi 21,000,000 in, passenger-km 34,000,000 ">; short ton-mi cargo 126,000,000 ">, metric ton-km cargo 184,000,00010. Roads (1987): total length 4,286 mi, 6,898 km (paved 11%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 19,000; trucks and buses 15,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 28; total deadweight tonnage 29,956. Air transport (1990)U: passenger-mi 276,679,000, passenger-km 445,273,000; short ton-mi cargo 17,863,000, metric tonkm cargo 26,079,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 18. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation 15,000; circulation per 1,000 population 14. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 250,000 (1 per 4.8 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 40,000 (1 per 30 persons). Telephones (1991): 19,000 (1 per 64 Transport.

persons).

tuberculosis.

National economy

Education and health

Budget (1992). Revenue: CFAF 398,000,000,000 (oil revenues 50.0%; customs duties 18.6%; other revenues 31.4%). Expenditures: CFAF 375,000,000,000 (current expenditure 80.3%, of which running costs 58.4%, public debt 21.9%; capital expenditure 19.7%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $4,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$ 143,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): roots and tubers 430,000, cassava 250,000, plantains 240,000, sugarcane 210,000, corn (maize) 20,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 16,000, bananas 9,000, palm oil 4,900, cacao beans 2,000, coffee 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 165,000 sheep, 162,000 pigs. 81,000 goats, 28,000 cattle, 2,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 3,789,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 22,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): manganese 1,600,000; uranium 710 4 Manufacturing (1989): cement 117,000; flour 25,976; refined sugar 20,905; beer 460,200 hec.

drinks 297,200 hectolitres; cigarettes 17,800,000 packs'; textiles 2,420,000,000 s Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1940) 915,000,000 (915,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 103,328,000 (13,602,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 620,000 (426,000): natural gas (cu m; 1990) 304,526,000 (304,526,000); fuelwood (cu m; 1990) 2.567.000 (2,567,000). Land use (1990): forested 77.6%; meadows and pastures 18.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.8%; other 2.4%. Population economically active (1990): total 518,000; activity rate of total population 44.2% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 68.2%; female 38.4%;

Education (1987) schools Primary

Secondary Voc teacher ,

Higher^,

14

tr.

992 5112 2912 1

'

teachers

students

teacher

4.229 1.512

195,049 32,922 15,352 2,896

46.1

759 363

ratio

21.8 20.2 8.0

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 60.7%; males literate 73.5%; females literate 48.5%. Health (1984): physicians 565 (1 per 2,000 persons); hospital beds 10,980 (1 per 103 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 94.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,700 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); (1984) 104% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

tolitres; soft

CFAF

.

unemployed, Price

n.a.).

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1984

Consumer

price index

Earnings index

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

105.3

95

101.6

110.4

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 4,750 (army 68.4%, navy 10.5%, air force 21.1%), not including 500 French troops. Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 4.5% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S132.

Transitional constitution approved May 22. 1990; first multiparty elections held September 1990 through March 1991. -Population distribution is based on country estimate, which is substantially higher than estimates from external sources (such as the United Nations and the World Bank), which form the basis ol the 1992 estimate. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. -M990. M984. ''Official government figures for salaried workers only, not including traditional agricultural workers; agricultural workers (FAO estimate, 1986) totaled 370,000 (71.09! of the labour force). 'Public utilities. Transportation and communications, Finance, and Service employees included with Other. s Less imputed bank service charges. 'Libreville only. 1D1987. "Air Gabon only. 121984-85. ^Universities only. W1988.

610

Britannica World Data

food and beverages 58.0%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, energy and water 5.4%, housing 5.1%, education, health, transportation and communications. recreation, and other 14.0%.

Gambia, The name: Republic of The Gambia.

Official

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$352,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$229,00O,O00

Form

of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

(U.S.S260 per capita).

(House of Representatives [50 1] ). Head of state and government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990-919

President. Capital: Banjul. Official language: English.

in

Agriculture

Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

dalasi

1

valuation (Oct. 1

U.S.$

=D

1992) 8.42; 1 £ = 5,

D

236

32.1

69

30.1

3

—

Public

14.31.

utilities

%

labour force

value

109,7

Mining Manufacturing Construction

(D) = 100 butut;

1983

% of total

value

D'000.000

of labour

force

73.7

6.5

239,940 66 8,144 4,373

07

1,233

04 25

—

1

00 2.5 1.3

Transportation and

850

183

8.014

171.7 33.0

37.0

16,551

Public administration

565

122

4,577 8,295

Services Other TOTAL

15.0

3.2

9,381

communications

Area and population Divisions

Kombo

St.

sq mi

Capitals Mary3,

*

Mansakonko Kuntaur/Georgetown

km 76

799 681

—

1983 census 101,504 55,263 126,004 112,225

1,618 2,894 2,256 2,069 1,764

1,117 871

Kerewan Basse Brikama

City Ban|ul< TOTAL

sq

29 625

Kanifing

Lower River MacCarthy Island North Bank Upper River Western

population

area

1 1 1

44.188 687.817

12 10,689

5 4.127

,388

137.245

Trade Finance

Land

7.1

-71.910

-15.5>°

464.3

1

25.049' 325,623,

100.0

use (1989): forested 16.2%;

5.1

4

2.5 2.9 7.711

100.0

meadows and

pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.8%; built-on area, wasteland, and other

57.0%.

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) 1986

1987

1988

1989

-4970

-6159

-530 7

-1,023,0

51.3%

52.3%

40.6%

72.1%

Demography Population (1992): 921,000. Density 5 (1992): persons per sq mi 277.0, persons per sq km 106.9. Urban-rural (1988): urban 21.5%; rural 78.5%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.36%; female 50.64%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.1%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-^14, 16.1%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60 and over, 4.9%. Population projection: (2000) 1,132,000; (2010) 1,446,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Malinke 40.4%; Fulani 18.7%; Wolof 14.6%; Dyola 10.3%; Soninke 8.2%; other 7.8%. Religious affiliation (1983): Muslim 95.4%; Christian 3.7%; traditional beliefs and other 0.9%. Major cities/urban areas (1986): Serekunda 102,6003; Banjul 44,188*. 6 (Greater Banjul 145,6924.6); Brikama 24,300; Bakau 23,6003; Farafenni 10,1686.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.9 (world avg. 26.4); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,(1(1(1 population (1990-95): 19.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1990-95): 25.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.2.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1.000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 43.4 years; female 46.6 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.; however, major infectious diseases include malaria, gastroenteritis and dysentery, pneumonia and bronchitis, measles, schistosomiasis, and whooping cough.

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: D 827,000,000 (tax revenue 71.5%, of which import duties and excises 62.4%, income taxes 9.0%; nontax revenue and grants 28.5%). Expenditures: D 704,400.000 (administrative expenses 31.1%; goods and services 23.4%; interest payments 21.2%; transportation and communications 11.2%; agriculture 5.8%; public services 4.6%; education and culture 3.5' ). i

Production (metric ions except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): peanuts (groundnuts) 75.000, millet 50,000, paddy rice 20,000, corn (maize) 15.000. cassava 6.000, pulses (mostly beans) 4,000, palm oil 2,50(1, palm kernels 2.000, seed cotton 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 400.0(10 cattle, 200,000 goats, 170,000 sheep; roundwood 928,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 17,619, of which inland water 2,700, Atlantic Ocean 14,919. Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel are excavated for local use. Manufacturing (value ol production in D '000; 1982): processed food, including peanut and palm kernel oil 62,878; beverages 10,546; textiles 3.253; chemicals and related products 1,031; nonmetals 922; printing and publishing 358; leather 150. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 67,000,000 (67,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (61,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1983); total 325,623; activity rate of total population 47.39! (participation rates: ages 15-64 78.2%; female 46.3%;

unemployed,

%

of total

1990 -

1

1991

,252 4

-1,292.0

66.1%

63.9%

D

1,759,374,000 (food 30.4%; basic manufactures 18.1%; machinery and transport equipment 14.7%; mineral fuels and lubricants 10.7%; chemicals and related products 6.8%). Major import sources (1990): United Kingdom 17.2%, China 13.9%; France 10.9%, Germany 8.5%; Hong Kong 8.5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.7%. Exports (1990-91): D 332,189,000 (reexports 59.1% 13; domestic exports 40.9%, of which peanuts 12.4%, fish and fish preparations 9.1%, peanut meal 1.9%). Major export destinations (1990): Belgium-Luxembourg 44.8%; New Zealand 35.4%; Guinea 4.0%; United Kingdom 3.0%; France 3.0%;

Imports (1990-91):

Switzerland 2.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):

total length

1,483 mi, 2,386

km

(paved 32%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 5,500; trucks and buses 1,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 9; total deadweight tonnage ,65 Air transport ( 1989): passenger arrivals and departures 203,353; cargo 2,128 metric tons; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation 1,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.2. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 175,000 (1 per 5.2 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1991): 1

1

11.000

(I

.

per 80 persons).

Education and health Education (1989) Primary (age 8-14)

Secondary (age 15-21) Secondary vocational Postsecondary 1 ''

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

232

2.451

73,620 3,624 12,982

12.9 24.0

1,489

84

281

540 177

300

Educational attainment (1973). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling 90.8%; primary education 6.2%; secondary 2.6%; higher 0.4 r Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 27.2%; males literate 39.0%; females literate 16.0%. Health (1989): physicians 48 (I per 17,604 persons); hospital beds (1981) 756 (1 per 865 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 132. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,351 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;

.

Military Total active duly personnel (1991): 900. Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 0.7% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.Sl.

GNP

n.a.).

Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer

D 000,000

price index

Daily earnings index 7

= 100)

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100

156 6 104 6

193 4

2160

2339

262 5

285.0

1000

'Includes 5 indirectly elected chiefs and 9 nonelective seats. -Preliminary. 'Kombo Mary includes the fast-growing urban areas of Serekunda and Bakau. 4 Kombo Mary and Banjul city make up Greater Banjul. '"Based on land area, which is 8,613 sq km (3,325 sq mi). M983. 'December; nonagricultural employees only. "Lowincome population in Banjul and Kombo St. Mary only; weights of consumer price index components. 9 At factor cost in constant prices of 1976-77. '"Indirect taxes less subsidies. iiNot adequately defined. ^Imports c.i.f; exports f.o.b. ''Mostly unofficial trade with Senegal, h 1984-85. St.

902

St.

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$26,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.Sx.ooo.imh

Household income and expenditure. Average household

come per household:

n.a.:

sources of income:

n.a.;

size (1983) 8.3; inexpenditure** (1986):

Nations

Gross national product (at current market prices (2,000 rubles per capita)

Georgia Official i

name

Republic

Sakartvelos Respublikis

ol

(

m

republic with a single legislative body Agriculture

ol State

Council (president Head of government: Prime Minister, ).

Official language: Georgian.

Official religion: none. ruble unit: I

valuation (Oct. tree rale, I

£

5,

=

10(1

]

Public

J

utilities

\

communications Trade Finance

kopecks;

Area and population area

Adzhar South Osselias Regions under

Sukhumi

sq mi

% of labour

force

force

640.300

260

3.8003

35.0

738,800 147.800

300

1.194.1

11.0

531 6

49

— —

5 6

197,000 172,400

8.0

6127

681.2 10,865.7

6.3 100.0

population

sq

1991' estimate

km

Batumi

3,300 1.200

8.600 3.000

Tskhinvali

1.500

3.900

533.800 381 ,500

6.0

70

73,900 492,500

200

2,462.700

100.0

3.0

_

Population economically active (1990): total 2,834,000; activity rate of total population 51.9% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 90.1%; female 45.9%; unemployed 3.5%). Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

-1

—

—

Services

Other TOTAL

Capitals

I

1988 labour

value

37.2

defense

rubles;

rubles.

Regions Abkhaz

M

% of total

4,0458

Public administration,

1992)

U.S.$=316.82

= 538.59

Mining Manufacturing

Construction Transportation and

'apital: Tbilisi.

Monetary

value

000.000 rubles

(Parliament [234]).

c

World

10,865,700,000 rubles

1990

multipart)

Head of state: Chairman

Iht

Structure of net domestic product and labour force

rcorgia).

Form of government:

1990):

l

price index

Monthly earnings index

1985

1986

1987

100.0 100.0

101.8

105.7

4,548.900

republican

—

jurisdiction TOTAL

20.900 26.900

54.200 69.700

J

5.464.200

Demography Population (1992): 5,482,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 203.7, persons per sq km 78.7. I rban-rural 1991): urban 56.2%; rural 43.8%. Sex distribution 1989): male 47.2%; female 52.8%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 19.2%; 45-59, 17.50 60-74, 10.8%; 75 and over, 3.6%. Population projection: (2000) 5,777,000; (2010) 6,101,000. Doubling time: 77 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Georgian 70.1%; Armenian 8.1%; Russian 6.3%; Azerbaijani 5.7%; Ossetes 3.0%; Greek 1.9%; Abkhazian 1.8%; other 3.1%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Georgian Orthodox (65%); minorities include Muslims (11%), Russian Orthodox (10%), and Armenian (

(

Land

use (1990): forested 0.4%; meadows and pastures 28.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.2%; other 69.8%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1988): wages and. salaries 71.4%, pensions and stipends 10.8%, income from personal plots 7.3%, other 10.5%; expenditure (1988): food and beverages 38.3%, clothing and footwear 14.8%, social and cultural 9.2%, furniture and household utensils

5.9%, building materials 2.0%,

utilities

0.3%.

(

Foreign trade

;

Orthodox (8%). Major cities (1991): 137.500; Sukhumi

Tbilisi 1.283,000; Kutaisi 238,200;

Rustavi 161.900; Batumi

120,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population (1990): 17.0 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 82.3%; illegitimate 17.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.4 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990): 8.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 69.0 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 553.2; diseases of the respiratory system 513.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 98.6; accidents, poisoning, and violence 58.2; diseases of the digestive system 32.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 13.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 12.0; diseases of the nervous system 4.1.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 5,741,000,000 rubles (turnover tax 36.2%, profit tax 25.3%, individual income tax 11.5%). Expenditures: 6,879,000,000 rubles (national economy 48.5%, social and cultural affairs 43.5%, government administration 3.6%, other 4.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): grain 693,1011.110(1, grapes 691,100, fruit (other than grapes) 592,200, crude tea 501,700. vegetables (other than potatoes) 443,200, potatoes 293,800, citrus fruit 283,100, sugar beets 30,600, sunflower seeds 7,700; livestock (number of live animals; 1990) 1.834,000 sheep and goats, 1,427,000 cattle, 1,028,000 24.002,100 poultry; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch 104,000. Mining and quarrying (1990): manganese ore 1,316,000. Manufacturing (1990): crude steel 1,316,000; rolled ferrous metals 1,109,000; rolled steel 1.105,000; milk 702,500; canned food 677,000; steel tubes 499,000; mineral fertilizers 130,000; meat and sausage 96,200; synthetic resins and plasties 40.000; synthetic fibres 32,300; paper 28,200; soap 12,100; bricks 328,000,000 pieces; cement tiles 26,4(10,000 pieces; footwear 13,300,000 pairs; knitwear 49,600,000 units; magnetic stations 137,000 units; colour television sets 50,000 units; machine tools 1,565 units; prefabricated concrete structures 1,761,000 eu m; ceramic tiles 830,000 cu m; silk fabrics 45,000,000 sq m; cotton fabrics 34,100.00(1 sq m; wool fabrics 9,800,000 sq m; carpets 800,000 sq m: grape wine 1,628,300 hectolitres; beer 947,700 hectolitres; cognac 216,500 hectolitres; vodka and liqueurs 82,200 hectolitres. Construction (1990): 1,313,000,000,000 rubles. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 14,200,000,000 (n.a.); coal (metric tons; 1991) 700,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 1,327,000 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 3,308,400 (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 44,900,000 (n.a.). pigs,

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988

1989

1990

000,000 rubles

-592

-385

-855

1.154

%

4.8%

3.1%

6.7%

8.6%

of total

Imports (1991): 7,266,000,000 rubles (machinery and equipment 18.4%, lightindustry products 16.5%, food 14.6%, oil and gas 9.6%, chemicals 9.6%, ferrous metals 4.1%, nonferrous metallurgical products 3.3%). Major import sources: former Soviet republics 89.6%; other countries 10.4%. Exports (1991): 6,112,000,000 rubles (food 34.5%, light-industry products 19.3%, machinery and metalworking equipment 13.7%, ferrous metallurgy 5.8%, chemicals 3.5%, building materials 1.1%). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics 98.0%; other countries 2.0%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 976 mi, 1,570 km; (1989) passenger-mi passenger-km 17,000,000; cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1989): length 21,000 mi, 33,900 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 427,400; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (1,000 gross tons and over) 54; total deadweight tonnage 1,108,068. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 3,290,500,000, passenger-km 5,295,600,000; short ton-mi cargo, n.a., metric ton-km cargo, n.a.; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 147; total circulation 3,677,000; circulation per 1,000 population 671. Radio and television (1990): total number of receivers 3,760,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Telephones: n.a. Transport.

10,600,000,

Education and health Education (1989-90)

student/

teachers Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr Higher

students

teacher

ratio

1

924,700 J

,

93,100

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 12.3%; some secondary 15.2%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.4' higher 15.1%. Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate, n.a.; males literate, n.a.; females literate, n.a. Health (1990): physicians 32,100 (1 per 170 persons); hospital beds 60,000 (1 per 90 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.9. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.


i

618

Britannica World Data

Gross national "produc

Guatemala

I

(

1990): U.S.$8,309,000,000 (U.S.S900 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

name: Republica de Guatemala (Republic of Guatemala). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Congress ot the Republic [116]). Head of state and government: Official

1991 in

Q

President. Capital: Guatemala City. Official language: Spanish.

Monetary

unit:

(Ol=

100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 U.S.$ = 5.32; 1 £= 9.04.

5,

Area and population

1992 sq mi

Departments

Capitals

Verapaz Baja Verapaz Chimaltenango Chiquimula El Progreso

Chimaltenango Chiquimula Guastatoya (Progreso)

Coban Salama

Alta

3.354 1,206

Escuintla

Escuintla

Guatemala Huehuetenango

Guatemala City Huehuetenango

Izabal

Puerto Barrios Jalapa Jutiapa

Jalapa Jutiapa

Peten Quelzaltenango

797 1,243 13,843

753

1,951

8378

717 180

1,856

San Marcos

1,464

Cuilapa Solola

1,141

3,791 2.955 1,061

Retalhuleu Antigua Guatemala

Sacatepequez San Marcos Santa Rosa Solola

estimate 1

3.235

Quetzaltenango Santa Cruz del Quiche

Retalhuleu

km

8,686 3,124 1,979 2,376 1,922 4,384 2.126 7,400 9.038 2,063 3,219 35,854

764 917 742 1.693 821 2,857 3,490

Flores

Quiche

sq

410 969 410

Mazatenango

Suchitepequez Totonicapan

Totonicapan

Zacapa

Zacapa

465

1,039

42,0422

TOTAL

2,510 1,061

2,690 108.889

610,714 189.510 353.877 257.355 110,687 558.497

8.4

02

5,241

02

14.9

388,301 114,246

134

Public utilities Transp. and commun

880

25

284.2

8.1

8403 3258 2493

24.0 7.1

1

212.2

61

J

3,501.3

100.0

20

—

Consumer

price index

-

(

km

39 04 25

.784

72.493 374.690 38,115

12.9

417,065

144

59,8825 2,898,316

2.15 100.0

1.3

Annual earnings index'

2,074.462 740,371 336,971 195,849 362.215

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100

136.9

170.5

357.1

1170

1899 2290

268 .1

100.0

153.8 144.2

263.5

333 6

193.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.4; income per household (1989): Q 4,306 (U.S.$1,529); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981): food 64.4%, housing and energy 16.0%, transportation and communications 7.0%, household furnishings 5.0%., clothing 3.1%.

266,793 573,651 593,158 246,067 185.488 723.075

Foreign trade 8 Balance of trade (current prices)

273.519 249,761 371 .726 306.144 164,737 9,744,627

US$000,000

% of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

+185.2 9.6%

-345.8 14.9%

-391.5 16.1%

-389.2 14.9%

-207.4 8.0%

-197.3 7.5%

Imports (1990): U.S.$ 1,648,798,600 (primary and intermediate materials for industry 40.3%; capital goods 19.4%; nondurable consumer goods 12.8%; petroleum 10.0%). Major import sources: United States 39.5%; Venezuela

7.2%; Mexico 6.7%; Japan 6.0%; West

(

1 1

9.3

—

48 9

1.416,499

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Demography Population (1992): 9,442.0001. Density IW2): persons per sq mi 224.6. persons per sq ( rban-rural (1992): urban 38.3%; rural 61.7'; Sex distribution 1989); male 49.00' female 51.00%.

force

522.0 68.7

25.8

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2, 100,000,000. Population economically active (1989): total 2,898,316; activity rate of total population 33.5% (participation rates: age 15-64, 59.1%; female 25.5%; unemployed 2.9%6).

population

area

ot labour

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Other TOTAL

Q

Q

%

labour force

of total

value

902 4

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

Guatemalan quetzal

1

000,0003

Agriculture

Trade

Official religion: none.

1989

%

value

Germany 5.6%.

Exports (1990): U.S.Sl, 162,970,100 (coffee 27.8%; sugar 10.4%; bananas 6.0%; vegetables 3.6%; fish, crustaceans, and mollusks 2.8%). Major export destinations: United States 38.7%; El Salvador 12.4%; Costa Rica 6.3%; West Germany 5.5%; Honduras 3.3%.

86.7.

:

breakdown (1989); under 15, 46.2%; 15-29, 24.7%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 8.4%; Mi- "4. 4.4',; 75 and over. 1.2%.

[ge

Population projection: (2000) 11,809,000; (2010) 15,242,000. Doubling tune: 22 years. / thnic composition adino (Hispanic/Amerindian) (1987): Amerindian 45%; 45',; white 5%; black 2' other mixed race and Chinese 3%. Religious affiliation (1986): Roman Catholic c. 75 f ;. of which Catholic, ttuli tional svneretist e. 25',; Protestant (mostly fundamentalist) C. 25%. 1

,

Major

cities

(1942):

;

Guatemala

City

1,114,432; 134,372; Chinautla 55,492; Amatitlan 35.714.

Mixco 368,9403;

Nueva

Villa

Vital statistics Birth ran- per l. population 1989): 39.4 (world avg. 27.1). Death rate per l.ooo population 1989): 7.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 32.1 (world avg. 17.3).

Transport and communications transport.

Railroads (1990) 9

:

route length 570 mi, 917 km; passenger-km

10,099,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,700,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,297 mi, 13.352 km (paved 26%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 130,000; trucks and buses 100,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 447. Air transport (1990) 10 passenger:

km 21 5,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,1)00,000; airports (1992) 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 8; total circulation 186,50011; circulation per 1,000 population 22U. Radio (1991): 400,000 receivers (I per 23 persons). Television (1991): 475,000 receivers (1 per 19 persons). Telephones (1990): 250,000 (1 per 36 persons).

(

Education and health

(

fertility run- (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1.000 population 1988): s .4. Divorce rate pei 1.000 population (19.S8): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1985-90): male 59.7 years; female (>4.4 years. Major causes of death per ioo.ooo population (i l W4): infectious and parasitic diseases 21 1.5; diseases of the respirator] system 145.7. ol which pneumonia 112.4; diseases ot the circulator} s\stem 57.2; malnutrition 45.3; homicide and other violence 35.1; til-defined conditions 72.6.

Total

Education (1989)

(

National economy

Q 4,296,100,000 (tax revenue 81.2%, of which tax services 34.8%, income taxes 24.6%, customs duties 16.5%; nontax revenue 18.1%) Expenditures: O 4,312,000,000 (1990; education 14.3%; defense 12.7%; transportation 8.2%; health 8.1%; agriculture 3.7%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$185,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad I S.si $9,000, Land use (1990): forested 34.6%; meadows and pastures 12. 9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.4',; other 35.1%. Production (metric toiis except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): sugarcane 9,797,000, corn (maize) 1,150,000, bananas 470,001). coffee 195,000, tomatoes 128,000, dtv he. ins 110,000, seed cotton 110,000, SOrghum 80,000, cottonseed 60,000, plantains 55,000; livestock (number of live animals) Budget (1991). Revenue:

on goods and

(

roundwood (1990) 7,822,000 catch (1990) 6,894. Mining and quarrying (1990): iron ore 6,370; '000,000; 1989 3 ): antimonj ore 1,400 Manufacturing (value added in lood products 138.0; beverages 66.2; clothing and footwear 47.6; textiles 43.2: metal products 10 onstruction (value of buildings authorized in 1,000; 1991) 4 residential 170.2; nonresidential 127.5. Energv production 1,695,000 cattle. 1,110,000 pigs, 675,000 sheep;

cu m;

lish

Q

Q

(

:

(consumption): electricitj (kW-hr; 1990) 2,325,000,000 (2,325,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 1,975,000); petroleum products (metric '

I

tons; 1990) 598,000 (962,000)

Primary (age 7-12)

Secondary (age 13

Voc teacher .

Higher

18)

student/

teacher

schools

teachers

8,840

33,666

1,235,509

367

1,541

17,313

297,437

172

5

4,346

69.532

160

students

ratio

tr.

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 50.0%; incomplete primary education 21.6%; complete primary 16.2%; secondary 9.2%; higher 3.0%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 2,809,000 (60.3%); males literate 1,544,000 (69.79! ); females literate 1,265,000 (51.7%). Health (1987): physicians 3,579 (1 per 2,356 persons); hospital beds 13,667 (1 per 602 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 43.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,254 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 103% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 44,600 (army 94.2%, navy 2.7%, air force 3.1% ). Military expenditure as percentage of C,N1> ( 989): 1 .6% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.S15. 1

population of departments and cities taken from official projections based on 1973growth rates and subsequent vital (birth and death) rates; 1942 national population estimate based on demographic surveys taken in October 1986-August 14X7 and April-July 1989. -Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3 At prices of 1958. -'Private construction in Guatemala City metro area only. -^Includes persons in activities not adequately defined and 57,958 officially unemployed. I. '124 '•Officially unemployed; 63% of economically active population is estimated to be underemployed. 7 Based on employees entitled to social security. "Import figures are lob m balance ol trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. ''Guatemala Railways only. i"Aviateca Airlines only. "Five newspapers only. 81 inlercensal

N. ill. his ol

Guinea

cement 69,934; matches 375.154;

'///(

ol

>>i

i,\

production in CI 000; tobacco products

plastics 162,242;

$26,138; printed mattei 116.5J1; Iruit juice 22,449. Construction n.a. Energy production

tion): electricity

I

.1

(341.000); natural gas.

15-meraber transitional Committee Recover) Head of •.law and government: President (and Head ol rransitional Committee for National Recovery) 1 foi National

(value

and sheet iron 571,081;

World

hi-

(consump(kW-hr; 1990) 518,000,000 If 000,000); coal, noni crude petroleum, none (n.a.K petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)

(

government (composed

Manufa

kg

00

1985): corrugated

ial name. Republique de ( iuinee Republic ol < ruinea). Form of government: transitional' t

gold

caral

l

Gross national product (U.S.$480 per capita).

|

none (at

(n.a.).

current market prices;

1990):

'

S.$2,756,000,000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

.

(

'apital:

1990

tonakrj

(

in

Official language

French. Official religion: none,

Monetary (Cil

;

=

)

1092) 1

GF

Guinean franc Hid emus; valuation (Oct.

I

unit:

Agriculture

551

Mining Manufacturing Construction

474

I

5,

U.S.$ = GF 811;

£ = G1-

Public

1,378.

Area and population population

area

Regions

Capitals

Beyla

Beyla

sq mi

Boffa

6.738 1.932

Soke-'

Boke

3,881

Conakry

Conakry

Coyah (Dubreka)

Coyah

Dabola Dalaba Dmguiraye Faranah 2 Forecanah

Dabola Dalaba

119 2,153 2.317

Boffa

Forecariah Fria

Gaoual

4,440

Gueckedou

Gueckedou Kankan

1,605 7.104 3,070 3.409 3,425 571 2,124 4,647

Kerouane

Kindia

Kindia

Kissidougou Koubia

Kissidougou Koubia

Koundara Kouroussa Labe Lelouma

Koundara Kouroussa Labe Lelouma

Lola

Lola

Macenta

Macenta

Mali

Mali

Mamou

Mamou

Mandiana

Mandiana

Nzerekore

Pita

Siguiri

1 1

Telimele

Telimele

Tougue

Tougue

Yomou

Yomou

1 1

.500

4,157 18,400 7.950 8,828 8,872 1,480 5.500 12,035 2,520 2.150 4.219 8,710 8,800 6,160 12.950

973 830

3,781

4.000 19.750 8.080 6.200 2.183

843 94.9263

TOTAL

,000

12.400 4.265 2,175

1,629 3.363 3,398 2,378 5,000 1,460 1,544 7,626 3,119 2.394

Nzerekore

Pita

5.576 6.000 3.400

840

Fria

Gaoual

Siguin

308

4,247 4,788 1,647

Faranah

km

17.452 5,003 10.053

1.313

Dinguiraye

Kankan Kerouane

sq

245.857

1983 census

km

29.4.

(

Age breakdown (1990): under 8.0%; 60 and over, 4.4%.

15,

commun.

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

1

Services

J

46.7%; 15-29, 25.9%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59,

Population projection: (2000) 8,879,000; (2010) 1,451,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fulani 38.6%; Malinke 23.2%; Susu 11.0%; Kissi r 6.(l Kpelle 4.6%; other 16.6%. Religious affiliation I9S8): Muslim 85.0%: traditional beliefs 5.0%; Christian 1.5%; other 8.5%. Major cities (1983): Conakry 705.280; Kankan 88,760; Labe 65,439; Kindia 1

;

(

55,904.

force

27.8 23.9

16 71

3.6 5.6 0.8 3.6

434

21.9

222

112

32 1

%

ol labour

force

2,246,000

76.3

327.000

11.1

371 .000

126

2,944.000

100.0

'

.

1

I

\

TOTAL

Demography Population (1992): 7,232,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 76.2, persons per sq Urban-rttral (1990): urban 25.6%; rural 74.4%. Sex distribution 1990): male 50.17%; female 49.83%.

labour

value

1 1

Other

161,347 141,719 225,207 705.280 134.190 97,986 132,802 133.502 142,923 116.464 70,413 135,657 204,757 229,861 106,872 216,052 183,236 98,053 94,216 136,926 253,214 138,467 106,654 193,109 210.889 190.525 136.317 216.355 227.912 209.164 243,256 113,272 74.417 5.781.014

1987

% of tota

71

utilities

Transp. and

;

value

000.000.000

1.6

100

,982

Population economically active (1990): total 2,476,000: activity rate of total population 43.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 76.2%; female

40.8%; unemployed, Price index (1988 Consumer

n.a.).

= 100)

price index

19885

19895

1990S

100

126.0

160.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 6.7; average annual income per capita (1984) OS 7,660 (U.S.S305); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1985): food 61.5%, health care 11.2%, clothing and footwear 7.9%, housing and energy 7.3%, transportation 5.1%. Land use (1990): forested 59.3%; meadows and pastures 25.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.0%; other 12.7%.

Foreign trade" Balance of trade (current prices) 1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

U.S.$'000,000

+111

+147

+120

%

11.0%

12.6%

9.6%

+ 10 0.7%

+ 146 10.6%

+ 177 1 1 .8%

+ 33.2 2.7%

of total

Imports (1990): U.S.$693,000,000 (1988; intermediate goods 33.7%, capital goods 13.1%, petroleum products 10.5%, food products 9.8%, consumer goods 9.7%). Major import sources: France 36.0%; U.S. 9.0%; BelgiumLuxembourg 9.0%; Germany 6.0%.; Italy 5.0%. Exports (1990): U.S.$788,000,000 (bauxite 56.9%, alumina 20.7%. diamonds 8.9%, gold 5.8%, coffee 4.5%, fish 1.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 23.0%; France 14.0%; Germany 14.0%; Spain 13.0%; Ireland 9.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 411 mi, 662 km. Roads (1988): total length 17,600 mi, 28,400 km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 13,000: trucks and buses 13,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross

tons and over) 26; total deadweight tonnage 2,827. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 17,873,000, passenger-km 28,764,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,684,ton-km cargo 2,458,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): 1; total circulation 13,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.0. Radio (1991): 200,000 receivers (1 per 35 persons). Television (1991): 65,000 receivers (1 per 108 persons). Telephones (1990): 19,602 (1 per 355 persons). 000, metric

Education and health Education (1989)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 47.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991 ): 21.0 (world avg. 9.2). (

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 26.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rule (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1990): 6.5. Life expectancy at birth 1990-95): male 44.0 years; female 45.0 years. Major causes of death per 1(10,000 population: n.a.: however, major diseases include malaria, venereal disease, tuberculosis, and measles.

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc teacher tr. Higher ,

schools

teachers

2,442

8,113 3,868

225' 35?

635?

student/ teacher ratio

310,064 71,346 7,313

38.2 18.4 5.2?

(

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: OF 415,200.000,000 (mineral sector 46.3%; other 53.7%). Expenditures: GF 593.100,000.000 (capital spending 52.3%; current expenditure 47.7%, of which personnel 22.4%, services 14.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,249,000,000. Tourism: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): roots and tubers 732.(10(1 (ol which cassava 450,000, yams' 106,000), rice 628,000. vegetables and melons 42(1,(10(1, plantains 408,000, sugarcane 225,(10(1, citrus fruit 163,000, bananas 110,0(10. corn (maize) 79,000, pulses 62,00(1. peanuts (groundnuts) 52,000, palm kernels 40,000, pineapples 38,000, coconuts 18,000, eggs 13,860, coffee 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,800,000 cattle. 518,000 sheep, 464,00(1 goals, 33,000 pigs, 13,000,000 chickens; roundwood 4.034.000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 32.(IO(f. Mining and quarrying (1991): bauxite 17,500,000 4 alumina 640,000; diamonds 200.000 ;

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 24.0%; males 34.9%; females 13.4%. Health (1988): physicians 672 (1 per 9,732 persons); hospital beds 3,382 (1 per 1.934 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 134 Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,242 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active dun' personnel (1992): 9,700 (army 87.6%, naw .2' 1988): 8.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.$4.

GNP

1

(

4 ,

I

'

.

.

air force

(world 5.1%);

'Transitional government established January I9, of which frozen cod fillets 17.6%, uncured salted fish 11.7%, fresh whole fish chilled or on ice 9.6%, frozen shrimp 6.8%; aluminum 8.8%; ferrosilicon 1.9%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 23.4'v United States 12.6%; Germany 12.1%: France 10.1%; Japan 7.9%; Spain 4.8%. :

;

Transport and communications transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990);

total length 7,070 mi,

,

(

1991

):

Marriage rale per 1.000 population 1990): 4.5. Divorce rate per I.OOO population (1990): 1.9. Life expectancy at birth 1984-90): male 75.7 years; female 80.3 years. Major causes of death per lOO.OOO population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 292.9, of which ischemic heart diseases 171.4, cerebrovascular disease 70. J; malignant neoplasms (cancels) 178.0; diseases of the respiratory system 79.6. (

(

(

Education and health Education (1990-91)

Budget (1991). Revenue: ISK 99,953,000,000 (sales tax 39.0%, income tax 19.3%, import duties 10.6%, taxes on alcohol and tobacco i>.5'< Expenditures: ISK 112,487,000,000 (health and welfare 44.9',. education 15.7%, general services 10.4',. interest on public debt 8.8%). Production (metric ions except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): milk (1990) 110,000, potatoes 15,100, silage 962,900 cu m; livestock (num).

(

animals) 510,800 sheep. 77,700 cattle. 74.10(1 horses; fish catch of which cod 294,700, capelin 250,600, redfish 100.500. lobster and 991, shrimp 44,800). Mining and quarrying (1991): diatomite 25.000. Manufacturing (value added in ISK '000,0110: 1989): lood products 20,068; graphic ails 4.201: fabricated metal products and machinery 4,167; wood furniture 1,964; nonmetallic mineral products 1,646. Construction (number of buildings completed: 1988) residential 1,728; nonresidential 649. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 4,610,000,000 (4,610,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (70.000): crude petroleum, none (none): petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (637,000); natural gas. none (none). Land use (1989): forested 1.2%; meadows and pastures 22.7%; agricultural live

cultivation

or,

.

1

Price and earnings indexes (1985

==

Primary (age 7-12)i6 Secondary (age 13-20) Voc teacher tr Higher .

student/

schools

teachers

265"

3,200"

students

teacher

ratio

l

>

58,642"

183"

5,450

14.0'e

J

5

369 '8

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians 1989) 675 (1 per 373 persons); hospital beds (1988) 2,490 (I per 10(1 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1991) 5.5. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,518 (vegetable products 62%, recommended minimum requirement. animal products 38% ); 132% of (

FAO

Military loud active duty personnel (1991): 130 coast guard personnel; NATOsponsored U.S. -manned Iceland Defense Force (1991): 3,000 (navy 60.0%, air force 40.0% ). Milium expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): none (world average 4.9',

).

oilier "'6.0%.

Population economically active (1989): total 128.055; activity rate of total population 50."', (participation rates: 15-64. 78.6%; female |1984] 39.5%; unemployed [June 1991-Juh 1992] 2.13

Consumer price index Hourly wages index

km

i

National economy

and under permanent

11,378

(paved 20',). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 120,862; trucks and buses 16.012. Merchant marine 1991 ): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 392; total deadweight tonnage 118,478. Air transport (1991)' 4 passenger-mi 1,147,,000, passenger-km 1,846,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 23,713,000, metric ton-km cargo 34,620,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 21. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 6; total circulation 147,500; circulation per 1,000 population 572. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 155,000 (I per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 76,250 (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (1990): 130,0001? (1 per 2.0 persons). :




:

1.086,673 739.961 1 .454,678

population Rajkot

556.137 598.498

Ranchi Sholapur

519,530 648.621

Jalandhar (Jullundur)

Jodhpur

1,014.062

536,444 1,012,062

1

(Solapur)

Srinagar Surat Thane (Thana)

Trivandrum

603,870 586,038"> 1

,496.943

796,620 523,733

Vadodara

951,696 752.078 646.896 916,980 515,962

(Baroda) Varanasi (Benares) Vi|ayawada

.559.558

Vishakhapatnam

1,021,084

925,962 701 .351

750,024

;

0.7%.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1981) 11 Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 64.8%; no formal schooling (literate) 1.0%; some primary education 7.1%; completed primary 10.9%; some secondary 6.2%; completed secondary 7.1%; higher vocational 0.4%; completed undergraduate degree 2.5%. .

income (1983)

percentage of household income by 2

3

12.3%

16.3%

quintile

5 (highest)

41.3%

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1989): 42 hours. Rate of fatal (nonfatal) injuries per 100,000 workers: industrial workers (1987) 14 (4,140): miners (1987) 31 (169); railway workers (1987-88) 17 (1,188). Employees covered under Employee's State Insurance Scheme (1989) 6,807,000; number of beneficiaries 26,411,000. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workdays (1989): 20. Access to services. Proportion of villages having access to electricity (1990) 83.4%; proportion of urban (rural) population having access to (1990): safe water supply 84.0% (74.0%), safe sewage disposal 46.0% (2.0%). Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (May/June 1991) national election: 53%. Verified trade union membership in total work force (1986): less than 5% (about 10,000,000 workers). Social deviance (1984). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 3.4; dacoity (gang robbery) 1.4; theft and housebreaking 43.7; rape 0.8. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population (1990): 6.9. Leisure (1987). Favourite leisure activities in urban areas: listening to the radio, watching television, reading periodicals, and attending the cinema. Material well-being (1983). Households possessing: automobile 0.8%: telephone 2.3%; television receiver 1.6%; radio receiver 17.2%.

National economy Gross national product (1990): U.S.$294,816,000,000 (U.S.S350 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1981'

1989-90' in

Agriculture

Public

utilities

Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin defense Services ,

Pune

•

1

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Other principal cities (1991) population

hnstian 2

in

I

Distribution of Port Blair

Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu

I

Zoroastrian

same district but at different residence as district, same state 22,557.000; different state

Population living

population

area

States

Muslii

627

persons H.0%, 4 persons 14.1 person 5.6%, 2 persons 8.3%, 5 persons 15.9%, 6 or more persons 44.6%. Average number ol rooms per household 2.0; no exclusive room 0.6%, 1 room 44.7%, 2 rooms 28.6%, 3 rooms 12.2%, 4 rooms 6.3%, 5 rooms 2.7%, 6 or more rooms 3.1%, unspecified number of rooms 1.8%. Average number ot persons per room 2.8. Shelterless (homeless) population estimated (1987) at more than 100.000,000. Emigration (1987 estimation): persons living abroad 12.697.0(10 (accepting foreign citizenship 8.200,000), of which in Nepal (1980) 3,800,000 (2,388,000); Malaysia 1,170,000 (1,029,000); Middle Eastern countries 1.064,000 (102,000); Sri Lanka 1.028.000 (457,000); South Africa 850,000 (850,1 United Kingdom 789,000 (395.000); Mauritius 701.000 (7lii mted States 500,000 (287,000); Trinidad and Tobago 430,000 (430,000); Fiji 339,000 (339,000); Myanmar 330,000 (50,000); Canada 229,000 (129.000). S.6;

Rs)=

1992)

i

17,604,000; different moved outside the country Households (1981)". Iotal households

Delhi.

unit:

(Re, plural

1981

10,860,000;

Official languages: Hindi; English. Official religion: none.

Monetary

i

World

ol llu-

Other TOTAL

value

% ot total

Rs 000.000,000

value

1,232.6

312

865

2 2

740.6

188

2202 866 2779

5.6 2.2 7.0

506.2 341

128

1

2374 2223

—

3,951.4

8.6

labour force

172,713.291 1.301.632 26.554.517 3.864,104

989,490 6,206,697 12,638.204 1.822.229

5

>

of labour

force

66.4 0.5

10.2 1 5 0.3 2.4 4.9 0.7

18 514 810

7.1

15.670.1 44 '6 260,275.118

6.0'6 100.0

'

'

5.6 }

—

100.0

Budget (1991-92). Revenue: Rs 1,002,493,000,000 (tax revenue 63.6% of which excise taxes 26.8% customs duties 25.8%, corporation taxes 6.7%; nontax revenue 36.4%, of which economic sen ices 20.1'/. interest receipts 11.0%). Expenditures: Rs 1,141,032,000.(100 (interest payments and debl transportation 12.6',; servicing 24.1%; grants to state governments 13. defense 10.2%; agriculture 5.5%; social services 3.3%).

2%

Britannica World Data

628

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$62,585,000,000. Production (in '000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 240,290, rice 110,945, wheat 54,522, potatoes 15,254,

Service enterprises (1980)

annual no, of

sorghum

10,800, mangoes 9,700, millet 9,000, corn (maize) 8,200, peanuts (groundnuts) 7,000, coconuts 6,550, bananas 6,400, cassava 5,600, chick-peas rapeseed 5,152, seed cotton 5,106, dry beans 4,052, cottonseed 3,404, tomatoes 3,100, palm oil 2,800, soybeans 2,100, oranges 1,890, cotton lint 1.700, barley 1,642, jute 1,620, apples 1,020, sunflower seed 850, lentils 835, sesame seed 800, tea 730, chilies 609 7 tobacco 560, turmeric 340 l7 ginger 154 17 black pepper 43 17 livestock (number of live animals) 198,400,000 cattle, 112,000,000 goats, 77,000.000 water buffalo, 55,740,000 sheep; roundwood (1990) 274,460,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 3,619, of which freshwater fish 1.371. Mining and quarrying (1990): limestone 64,1 16 18 iron ore (metal content) 29,469; bauxite 4,618; dolomite 2,520 18 manganese 1,404; chromite 1,084; magnesite 476 18 zinc concentrate 79; copper (metal content) 65; gold 59.700 troy oz.; diamonds 16,500 carats 18 Manufacturing (1990-91): cement 46,609; steel ingots 14,194; refined sugar 11,808; finished steel 11,118; nitrogenous fertilizers 7,068; paper and paperboard 2,062; jute manufactures 1,388; soda ash 1,384; aluminum 443; nylon and polyester yarns 261; electric motors 5,850,000 horsepower; bicycles 6,768,000 units: motorcycles and scooters 1,865,000 units; diesel engines 1,795,000 units; passenger cars and jeeps 221,000 units; passenger buses and trucks 146,000 units; cotton cloth 12,738,000,000 metres' 8 computers, Rs 8,200,000,00019; gold jewelry, Rs 7,200,000,00020; silk goods, Rs 6,760,000,00020. Construction (value in Rs;

5,196,

,

,

,

value no. of

enter-

em-

added

ployees

prises

(Rs 000,000)"

Wholesale and retail trade Community and personal

6,046,200

10.228,700

412,450

services Transportation, storage Construction Real estate and business services

3.177,700 429,800 152,000

13,128.800

205,880 202,750 198,560

273,500 33.700 98,900 807.000

1,570,800

1

.551 ,200

451,200

150,670 132,270 64.260 37.690 24,690

;

;

Finance and insurance Electricity,

gas, and steam

Communications Restaurants and hotels

363.500 530,900 2.080,500

;

;

.

Land

use (1990): forested 22.4%; meadows and pastures 4.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 56.9%; other 16.6%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990-91) U.S.S 1.362,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.$425,000,000.

Foreign traded

Balance of trade (current prices)

;

Manufacturing enterprises (1986-87) 21 annual value

avg. no. of factories

Chemicals and chemical products, ol which industrial chemicals drugs and medicine fertilizers and pesticides^

546

17,299 3.120 1.567

Transport equipment,

which motor vehicles Nonelectrical machinery/apparatus of

Electrical

of

7254

machinery/apparatus,

3,888

which radios and televisions

992

Refined petroleum Bricks,

tiles,

17 7,184 5,978 1,720

cement

Metal products

Paper and paper products Printing and publishing

3.201

Tobacco products

6,716

Beverages Plastic

1

447

products

1.953

Professional and scientific goods Petroleum, coal derivatives

737 470

added

of

wages

all

(Rs 000,000)15

148 9

524,000 86,000 120,000 80,000

11.761 5,251

and steel Food products Iron

% of avg.

engaged

6,335 1.017 1,374

Textiles (excl. clothing)

wages as a

no of persons

30.455 7.207 7,117 5,920

166.4

1672 180 2

.429,000

906

571,000 956,000 487,000 183,000 412,000 339,000 93,000 16,000 345,000 178,000 130,000 147,000 346.000 46,000 59.000 47,000 33,000

130,7

29.451 20,561

54 3

19,531

147.3

18,959

1692

1

130.7

17,551

1476

16,446 3.664 9.573 8,478 5,257 3,982 3,959 3,795 2.094 1,975 1,738 1,625

124.7

3123 678 965 983 106 6

296 898 762 1152 1366

1

,033

electricity (kW-hr; 1941-92) 286,700,000,000 ([1990] 286,940,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991-92) 229,000,000 9.7%, interest 8.6%, profits and dividends 6.0%, rent J.5%; expenditure (1988 89): food and beverages 52.1%, clothing and footweai 12.2%, transportation and communications 8.4%. housing 6.6%, household furnishings 4.4% energy 4.3%. .

-

Nations

emenl

i

10

(

name: Republik Indonesia

Republic

oi Indonesia),

Form of government,

unitarj multipart} republic with two legislative houses (House of People's Representatives

World

44,260,000,000 (44 !60,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 7,327,000 99 000(273,1 000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) roleum products (metric tons. 1990) 12 150,000 (24,641,000) natural gas (cu m; I) 1990) 40,453,000,000 (1 1,155,000, Gross national product 1990): U.S.$101 151,000,000 (U.S.S560 per capita).

Indonesia Official

ill"

1989

% ot total

labour

value

force

force

43,062 28,748 38,602 10.828 1,258

21.7 14.5 19.5

41,097.381

54.0

6,496,655

85

,041

5.6 16.2

10.777,639

14.2

11,725.261

15.4

value

Rp 000.000.000

%

ot labour

apital: Jakarta. Agriculture

Bahasa Indonesia. monotheism. Indonesian rupiah

Official language: Official religion:

Monetary

(Rp)=

unit:

1

100 sen; valuation (Oct.

1992) 1 U.S.$ = £ = Rp 3,520.

Rp

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

5,

utilities

commun.

Transp. and

2.071;

1 1

Trade

1

Area and population Metropolitan district

Capitals

Jakarta Raya

Jakarta

sq mi

228

km

1990 census^

590

8,254,000

5,561

2.7W.000

sq

Finance, real estate

32,154 13,073

Pub admin

12,801

65

6,434

3.3

.

defense

Services Other TOTAL

population

area

_

55 06 66

1 \

J

100.0

198.001

7.96

5.991,8206 76.088.756

100

.

.

Population economically active: total (1989) 76,088,756; activity rate 43.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 68.6%; female 39.9%; unemployed 2.9%).

Provinces

Denpasar Bengkulu Jayapura Jambi

Bali

Bengkulu Jaya Jambi Irian

Jawa Barat Jawa Tengah Jawa Timur

Bandung Semarang

Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan

Pontianak Banjarmasin Palangkaraya

Surabaya

Barat Selatan

Tengah

14,541

Kendari

58,919 78,162 12,860 28.767 7,790 18,485 36,510 28,101 26,921 10,690

Menado

7345

Samannda

Timur

Lampung

Tanjung Karang

Maluku Nusa Tenggara Barat Nusa Tenggara Timur

Ambon

Riau

Pakanbaru Ujung Pandang

Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi

2,147 8,173 162,928 17,297 17,877 13,207 18,502 56,664

Mataram Kupang

Selatan

Tengah Tenggara

Palu

Utara Sumatera Barat Sumatera Selatan Sumatera Utara

Medan

Timor Timur

Dili

19.219 40,034 27,331 5.743

Aceh

Banda Aceh

21.387

Yogyakarta

Yogyakarta

Special

autonomous

Padang Palembang

21,168 421,981 44.800 46.300 34.206 47.921 146.760 37,660 152,600 202,440 33.307 74,505 20,177 47,876 94,561 72.781 69.726 27,686 19,023 49,778 103,688 70,787 14,874

1,179,000 1.641,000 2,016.000 35,381.000 28,522.000 32.504.000 3.239.000 2,598,000 1 .396.000 1 .877.000 6.006,000 1,856,000 3,370,000 3,269,000 3,306,000 6,982,000 1,711,000 1,350,000 2,479.000 3,999,000 6,277.000 10,256,000 748,000

55,392 3,169 1.919,317

3,416,000 2.913,000 179,323,000

districts

1,224

741,052

TOTAL

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index 7

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100 100.0

105.8

115.6

124.9

133.0

142.9

156.1

1084

114 7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1976): wages 42.1%, self-employment 41.5%, transfer payments 2.5%; expenditure (1987): food 61.3%, housing and utilities 17.1%, clothing 5.1%, durable goods 3.0%. Land use (1989): forested 62.6%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 11.7%; other 19.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.SOOO.OOO

% of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

+5.249 21.5%

+5,625 19.6%

+7,419 23.5%

+ 7,229 19.6%

+ 6,240 13.8%

+ 6.075 1 1

.6%

Imports (1991): U.S.$25,868,800,000 (machinery and transport equipment 45.0%, chemicals 13.3%, mineral fuels 9.0%, crude materials 8.3%). Major import sources: Japan 24.5%; U.S. 13.1%; Germany 8.0%. Exports (1991): U.S.$29, 142,000,000 (crude petroleum 19.5%, natural gas 14.3%, plywood 9.9%, garments 7.9%, preparation rubber 3.3%). Major export destinations: Japan 36.9%; U.S. 12.0%; Singapore 8.3%.

Demography Population (I 992): 184,796,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 249.4, persons per sq km 96.3. Urban-rural (1991): urban 31.4%; rural 68.6%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.88%; female 50.12%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 37.0%; 15-29, 28.1%; 30-44, 17.8%; 45-59, 10.9%; 60-74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2000) 211,288,000; (2010) 238,174,000. Doubling time: 34 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1980): Javanese 40.1%; Sundanese 15.3%; Bahasa Indonesian 12.0%; Madurese 4.8%; other 27.8%. Religious affiliation (1985): Muslim 86.9%; Christian 9.6%, of which Roman Catholic 3.1%; Hindu 1.9%; Buddhist 1.0%; other 0.6%. Major cities (1985): Jakarta 7.829,000; Surabaya 2,345,000; Medan 2,110,000;

Bandung

1.633.000;

Semarang

1,269,000.

Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 6,583 km; passenger-km 9,288,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,192,000,000. Roads (1988): length 250,314 km (paved 43%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 1,372,673; trucks and buses 1,533,152. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,991; deadweight tonnage 3,130,834. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 12,707,924,000; metric ton-km cargo 423,900,000; airports (1992) 116. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 60; total circulation 3,716,000; circulation per 1,000 population 22. Radio (1991): 22,000,000 receivers (1 per 8.2 persons). Television (1991): 11,000,000 receivers (1 per 16 persons). Telephones (1989): 1.015,275 (1 per 172 persons). Transport.

Education and health Education (1989-90)8

Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1991): 32.2 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991); 1 1.7 (world avg. 9.2). (

Natural increase rale per 1,000 population 1991 ): 20,5 (world avg, 17.2). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 3.7. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1988-89): 7.4. Divorce rale per 1,000 population (1988-89): 0.8. / ife expectancy at birth (19'M): male 55.6 years; female 58.9 years. Major causes of death: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery, cholera, and plague. (

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue; Rp 50,555,000,000,000 (royalties from energy production 2 C).7%, aid for development 20.5%, value-added tax 16.3%, income tax 15.9%, nontax revenues 5.6%, import duties 5.1%). Expenditures: Rp 50.555.000,000,000 (development 39.6%, debt service 28.4%, civil service 15.3% subsidies for autonomous regions 9.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding: 1990); U.S.$44,3 14,000,000. Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.S 1,879,000,000; expenditures U.S.$886,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): rice 44,490,000, sugarcane 25,503,000, cassava 17,064,000,' corn 6,741,000, palm oil 1,937,000, rubber 1,300,000, copra 1,250,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,800,000 goats. 10,300.0(111 cattle, 5,700,000 sheep, 3.4(10.110(1 buffalo; roundwood 171.532.000 cu m; lish catch 3,131,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): nickel ore 2,300.000; bauxite 1.240,000; copper oil-' 656,520; iron ore" 173,242; tin ore 4 30,061; silver 89,690 kg. Manufacturing (1990):

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) teacher tr Highers

Voc

schools

teachers

students

146,558 28,745 3.880

1,140,886 703,099

792

115,359

26,528,590 8.473.299 1,410,073 1,179.489

1 1 1

,448

student/ teacher ratio

23.3 12.1

12.7 10.2

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 30.3%: less than complete primary 32.2%; primary 22.8%; some secondary 6.4%; secondary 7.1%; higher 1.2%. Literacy ( 1987): total population age 15 and over literate 80,233,132 (77.6%); males literate 43,062,304 (85.6%); females literate 37.170,828 (70.0%). Health: physicians (1988-89) 23,367 (1 per 7,427 persons); hospital beds (1989-90) 118,585 (1 per 1,490 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1991) 90.

Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,708 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum. Military Total active duty personnel ( 1991): 27S.OOO (army 76.3%, navy 15.1%, air force 8.6%). Military expenditure as percentage o/GA/P (1989): 1.795 (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $9. Kill nonelective seats reserved for the military. -Includes the 5(1(1 members ot People's Representatives plus 501) other delegates. Preliminary 'Concentrates. 51988. ''Includes unemployed. 'Based on daily average wages ol agricultural estate workers. ^Refers to schools under the Department of Education and Culture only. "1487-88.

Includes

of the

results.

House

630

Britannica World Data

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 1990): U.S.$9,021,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$ 139, 120,000,000 (U.S.$2,450 per capita).

Iran Official

name: Jomhuri-ye EslamT-ye

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran). Form of government: unitary Islamic republic with one legislative house (Islamic Consultative Assembly [270]). Supreme leader: Rahbar (religious

1990-91 Rls 000,000,000

Petroleum, natural gas Other mining Manufacturing Construction

President. Capital: Tehran. oflnitil language: Pars! (Persian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: rial (Rls); valuation

Public

RK

2,479.

Area and population

population

area

Provinces

Capitals

Azarbayjan-e GharbT Azarbayjan-e SharqT Bakhtaran

OrumTyeh Tabriz

BGshehr Chahar Mahall va BakhtTarT

Bushehr Shahr Kord

Esfahan

Esfahan

Fare Gilan

ShTraz

Hamadan Hormozgan Ham

Hamadan

sq mi

sq

14.517 25.421

37,599 65,842 23.622 25,360 14,820 105.805 125,627 14,820 19,445 65,379 19,086 185.675 315,687 66,532 13,699 27.858 28,560 29,530 46,645 91,544

1.971.677 4,114,084 1.462.965 612,183 631.179 3,294.916 3,193.769

181,471 28,221

1,197,059 8,712.087 574.028 1 .588.600

Bakhtaran

9.121

9.792 5,722 40,852 48.505 5.722 7.508 25,243 7,369 71,690 121.887 25.688 5,289 10,756

Rasht

Bandar Abbas

Ham Kerman Mashhad

Kerman Khorasan Khuzestan Kohktluyeh va Buyer AhmadT Kordestan Lorestan MarkazT

Ahvaz

Mazandaran

Sari

Semnan

Semnan

STstan va Baluchestan

Zahedan

Tehran Yazd Zanjan

Tehran Yazd Zanjan

Yasuj

Sanandaj

Khorramabad

1 1

Arak

1 1

,027 ,402

18,010 35,345 70,066 10,896 24,704 14,047 630,578' 1 .8802 632,457'

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

TOTAL

km

1986 census

63,984 36.382 1,633,189' 4,8682 1,638.057

2081,037 1

,505,826

762,206 382,091 1.622,958

5280,605 2.681,978

18.2 3.9 1 7 1

250 3.220

91

1,853

5.3

2.639 10.185 4,537 3,656

28.9 12.9

838

2.4

Other

—

TOTAL

35.285

force

249

3.190.761

32.370

03

1,451,330 ,206.264 91,044

11.3 9.4

1

08 75

299

utilities

Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

I

value

,385

1

% of labour

labour force

of total

6.423

Agriculture

guide ). Head of state and government:

(free rate; Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = Rls 1,458; 1£ =

1986

%

value

in

07

630.546 875.458 114,288

10.4

1

J

—

100.0'

4.9

68 09

3,049.753

23 8

2,178.4776 12.820.291

17.06 100.0'

Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$62,000,000; expenditures U.S.$396,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 12,820,291; activity rate 25.9% (particip. rates: ages 15-64, 51.3%; female 10.2%; unemp. [1992] 25-30%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

= 100)

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992?

118.4 96.6

152.3 104.6

195.9

2397

2580

3022

368.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.1; income per urban household (1988) Rls 1,339,970 (U.S.$19,536); sources of urban income (1988): wages 37.4%, self-employment 30.5%, other 32.1%; expenditure (1988-89): food and hotels 47.5%, housing and energy 23.9%. Land use (1990): forested 11.0%; meadows and pastures 26.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 9.2%; other 52.9%.

411.828 1,078.415 1 ,367.029 1.082,109 3,419.346

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

417,035

49.445,010

US$000,000

%

Of total

Population (1992); 59,570,000. Density 1942): persons per sq mi 94.2, persons per sq km 36.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban 56.7%; rural 43.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 51.15%; female 48.85%. \ge breakdown (1990): under 15. 43.8%; 15-29, 26.9%; 30-44, 15.2%; 45-59, 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2000) 71,894,000; (2010) 91,537,000. (

.

Doubling time: 2ll years. Ethnic composition 1983): Persian 45.6%; Azerbaijani 16.8%; Kurdish 9.1%; GTlakT 5.3%; Luri 4.3%; Mazandaran! 3.6%; Baluchi 2.3%; Arab 2.2%; Bakhtiari i.7%; Turkmen 1.5%; Armenian 0.5%; other 7.1%. Religious affiliation (1986): Muslim 98.39! (Shu 90.5%. Sunn! 7.8%); Bahal 0.8%; Christian 0.7%; Zoroastrian 0.1%; Jewish 0.193 Major cities (1986): Tehran 6,042,584; Mashhad 1.463,508; Esfahan 986.753: Tabriz 971.482; ShTraz 848,289.

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

-719

+2,330 11.8%

-409

+ 2,148 10.0%

+ 807 2.7%

4.2%

2.5%

imports (1990): U.S.$14,354,000,000 (^nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 20.9%; iron and steel 9.7%; grains and derivatives 6.9%; transportation equipment 6.8%). Major import sources: Germany 20.0%; Japan 12.4%; Italy s.5'

Demography

1985

+2.745 11.1%

r

:

U.K. 5.3%; France 4.6%; Turkey 4.3%.

Exports (1990): U.S.$15,161,000,000 (^crude petroleum, petroleum products, and natural gas 91.3%; carpets 3.0%; pistachios 1.6%; copper bars 0.5%; caviar 0.3%). Major export destinations: Japan 20.8%; Italy 9.5%; France

8.2%; The Netherlands 6.1%; Brazil 6.1%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 2,779 mi, 4,473 km; (1989-90) passenger-km 4,752.000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7.963,000.000. Roads (1989): length 95,273 mi, 153,327 km (paved 34%). Vehicles: passenger cars (198990) 2.008,000; trucks and buses 472,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels

(

(100 gross tons and over) 401: total deadweight tonnage 8,382,930. Air transport (1990) 10 passenger-km 5,561,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 113,653,000; airports ( 1992) with scheduled flights 18. Communications Daily newspapers (1990): 13; circulation 728,000"; circulation per 1,000 population 13". Radio (1991): 11,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons) Television (1991): 2,250.000 receivers (1 per 26 persons). Telephones L989): 2.104,000 per 26 persons). :

(

(

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population

1991): 44.li (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population 1991): 9.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural im reuse rale per 1,000 population 1991 ): 35.0 (world avg. 17.2). lotul fertility rale (a\g. births per childbearing woman; 1991 ): 6.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1988): 6.9. / He expectancy at birth 1991 ): male 64.(1 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population 1987-88)3; diseases of the circulator system 298.8; accidents 175.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 77.5; diseases of the respiratory system 67.4; diseases of early infancy 58.1.

Death

Education and health

(

rate

(

Education (1989-90)

(

(

(

(

National economy Budget (1990 91). Revenue: RK 4,009,700,000,000 (taxes 40.5%, oil and gas 27.2%) Expenditures: RK 5,595,800,000,000 (current expenditure 70.8%, development expenditure 29 2', Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): wheat 8,900,000, sugai beets 3,950,000, barlev 3,600,000, rice 2,100,000, sugarcane 2,000,000, grapes 1,650,000, apples 1,350,000, oranges 1,270,000, dates pistachios \^». livestock (head) 45,000,000 sheep. 23,500,000 570, 10 goats, 'ittle; roundwood 6,727,000 cu m 4 fish catch 250,000*. Mining and quarrying (value of production in RK '000,000; 1987): gravel and sand 12,653; marble, granite, and travertine 11.225: copper 9,427. Manufacturing (value added, in RK 1,000; 1987-88); textiles (excluding wearing apparel 232,000; bricks, tiles, and cement 225,60(1; tobacco products 161,products nonelectrical food machinery 95,600; iron and steel 148,300; 900; no Construction 1988 89); 21,375,000 sq m\ Energy production (consumption): electricitN (kW-hr; 1990- 91 59,102,000,000 (45.107.000.00(1); coal (metric tons; 1990) 12300, (1,700,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 07,000,000 (261,500,000*); petroleum products (metric tons; 199(1) 34,560,.000 (23.500.000,000). 000 (40,114,000); natural i;as (cu m; 1990 91 25,600,1 |.

(

I,

1

Primary (age 7-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

56.537 1 5.834

'2

361,878 240.102

8,817.145 4,456.342

1,088

'2

85 '2

23297 20,515'3

teacher

ratio

244 18.6

212,100 315,65713

9.1

15.4'3

Educational attainment (19X6). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 12.8%; primary education 40.4%; secondary 38.0%; higher 7.8%; not specified and not reported 1.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 18,200,000 (54.0%); males literate 11,600,000 (64.5%); females literate 6,600,000 (43.395 Health (1988-89): physicians 18,350 (1 per 2,882 persons); hospital beds 81,000 (I per 653 persons); infant mortality rate (1991) 66.0. Food 1986-88): daily per capita caloric intake 3,317 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10% ); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ).

(

;

Military

;

'

Total active duty personnel (1992): 528,000 (revolutionary guard corps 32.2%, army 57.8%, navy 3.4%, air force 6.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of'GNP (1989): 2.2%> 14 (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$158 14 .

l

i

)

i

I

'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. -Area of Lake Urmia. '21 ^Completed private construction, urban areas only, 'includes 1,818,756 unemployed. 7 May. "Based on 1988-89 data totaling U.S.S8, 177,000.000. "Based on 1990-91 estimate totaling U.S.$15,80O,0O0,000. "'Iran Air. ''Circulation based on seven dailies only. '21987-88. 131988-89. 4 Defense costs are highly tentative; barter cities only. -U99().

'

and counter-trade agreements are excluded.

Nation!

al

World

(he

Ml

000 ([1990] 137,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 17,430,000 (10,191,000); natural gas (cu m. 19 1,000). Gross luiiK'iuil product 1990) LJ.S.$73,000 000 (1 S.$4,110 per capita).

Iraq Official /nunc

l

I

al-Jumhflrfyah

-'lraulvah (Republic of Iraq).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Form

o) government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly

1990

1987

'

ID 000.000

250]).

Haul

of state

Agriculture

and government:

Mining Manufacturing Construction

President

aptiah Baghdad. Offu iiil language: Arabic-. (

Public

Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Iraqi dinar

(ID)

I

dirhams = 1,000 1992)

fils;

ID=U.S.$2.86-';

1

1

commun

5,119 2,981

20.3 11.8

2,578 2,012

102

Area and population

al-Anbar

ar-RamadT

Babil

al-Hillah

Baghdad

Baghdad

al-Basrah

Basra

DhT Qar Oiyala

an-Nasiriyah

Baqubah

6,828

17.685 5.034 16.072 51.740 28.824 37,323 8,153 24.363 9,679 17.153

al-Muthanna

as-Samawah

an-Najaf

an-Najaf

NTnawa

Mosul ad-DTwanTyah Tikrit

Kirkuk al-KDt

1,944

6.205 19,977 11,129 14,410 3,148 9.407 3,737 6,623

865.500 1,221.100 3.910.900 1.168.800 1 ,030.900 1

,037.600.

567,600 524,200 350,000 666,400 1,618,700 595.600 772.200

605,900 605.700

Kurdish Autonomous

Region Dahuk

16.1

10.6

14

67 8.6 0.9 5.6

54

07

3.472

—

13.7

100.0

494

1.954,816 352.112 3.956.345

—

8.9

100.0

Population economically active (1987): total 3,956,345; activity rate of total population 24.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 43.1%; female 11.6%; unemployed 4.6%).

1991 estimate

km

4.071 19.070 12,900

Karbala'

124

population

sq

137.808 5.603

al-'Amarah

at-Ta'mlm Wasi)

sq mi

1,572 7,363 4.981

Maysan

al-Qadisiyah Salah ad-DTn

area 4

53,208 2,163

Karbala

8.0 0.9 8.4

25.241

Other TOTAL

Capitals

force

493,006 45,137 266.961 341,186 36,236 224,271 215,605 27,015

,

ID =£1.69.

Governorates

% of labour

labour force

value

2,119 4,071 2.669

Finance, real estate Pub admin defense, and services

5,

'0

220

utilities

Transp and Trade

= 20

valuation (Oct.

% of total

value

in

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

89.0

95,9

1000

101.3

115.5

140.2

Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1988): self-employment 33.9%, wages and salaries 23.9%, transfers 23.0%, rent 18.6%; expenditure r clothing and (1988): food and beverages 50.2%, housing and energv 14. *~)

,

,

footwear 10.6%. (1990): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 9.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.5%; built-on, wasteland, and other 74.1%.

Land use

5

Dahuk

Irbit

Irbil

as-Sulaymanlyah LAND AREA INLAND WATER

as-Sulaymanlyah

TOTAL

2.530 5.820 6.573 167,618

357 167,975

309.300 928,400

6,553 15.074 1 7.023

1,124.200

434.128 924 435,052

17,903,000

Foreign trade 11 Balance of trade (current prices) ID 000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1992): 18,838,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 112.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 70.4%; rural 29.6%. Sex distribution (1991): male 50.28%; female 49.72%.

km

43.3.

Age breakdown

(1991): under 15, 44.5%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 14.1%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

+282

+966

+ 2.006

-198

3%

4.4%

-1,124 6.9%

12.5%

11%

+ 1 .782 8.0%

1

Imports (1990): U.S.$4,834,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 30.3%, food and live animals 27.9%, chemical and pharmaceutical products 8.8%). Major import sources: United States 13.6%; Germany 8.5%; Japan 8.2%; United Kingdom 6.7%; France 5.8%. Exports (1990): U.S.$ 10,353,000,000 (1989; fuels and other energy 99.5%, food and agricultural raw materials 0.5%). Major export destinations: U.S. 28.5%; Brazil 9.9%; Turkey 9.8%; Japan 7.8%; The Netherlands 7.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 23,947,000; (2010) 30,834,000.

Doubling time: 18 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 77.1%; Kurd 19.0%; Turkmen 1.4%; Persian 0.8%; Assyrian 0.8%; other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (1990): Shu Muslim 61.5%; Sunn! Muslim 34.0%: Christian 3.7%, of which Eastern-rite Roman Catholic 2.5%, Nestorian 0.8%, Orthodox 0.4%; YazTdT syncretist 0.8%. Major cities (1985): Baghdad (1987) 3,844,608; Basra 616,700; Mosul 570,926; Irbil 333,903; as-Sulaymanlyah 279,424. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 46.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 7.0& (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 39.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.1. Life expectancy at birth (1991)7; male 46.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death. During the 1980s there were high war casualties and high incidences of trachoma, influenza, and measles. The 1991 war resulted in 70.000-90,000 postwar civilian deaths from gastroenteritis, typhoid, deprivation of medical care, and malnutrition.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: ID 13,935,000,000. Expenditures: ID 13,935,000,000. Details of the 1992 and 1993 proposed budgets were not released by the National Assembly. Special emphasis was to be placed on the reconstruction of the infrastructure.

Tourism (1989): receipts U.S.$59,000,000; expenditures, n.a. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1988): U.S.$75,000,OOO.tiOO. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): wheat, 1,476,000, barlev 768,000, tomatoes 438.000, watermelons 394,000, dates 375.000. grapes 470,0008, cucumbers 298,000, corn (maize) 297,000, rice 189,000, oranges 180,0008; livestock (number of live animals; 1990) 9,600,000 sheep. 1,675,000 cattle. 80,000,000 chickens: roundwood ( 1990) 155.000 cu m: fish catch 16,100. Mining and quarrying (1989): sulfur 1,270,000; phosphate rock 1. 3(lll.l«il); gypsum 450,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$'000,000; 1987): petroleum products 1,359; industrial chemicals 852; nonmetal mineral products 701; food 384; textiles 293; machinery and transport equipment 289, of which transport equipment 79; tobacco 175; beverages 142; printing and publishing 112; metal products 101. Construction (buildings authorized; 1991): residential 4,558,000 sq m; nonresidential 410,000 sq m.

Energy production (consumption):

(kW-hr; 194(1) 29,478,000,000 (26,132,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991 99,800,electricity

)

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 1,484 mi, 2,389 km; passenger-mi 271,000,000, passenger-km 436,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 223,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 326,000,000. Roads (1989): total length 28,305 mi, 45,554

km

(paved 84%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 744,252; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 138; total deadweight tonnage 1,589,925. Air transport (1992): no scheduled service -. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5: total circulation 572,000; circulation per 1,000 population 32. Radio (1991): 3,500.000 receivers (1 per 5.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1990): 712,109 (1 per 25 persons). 295,744.

1

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11)

Secondary (age 12-17) Voc teacher tr. ,

Higher

schools

teachers

students

8.875 2,746

127.578 43,937 9,957 10,520

3,316.036 1.084,715 152,903 197,786

296 20

student/ teacher ratio

26.0 24.7

154 18.8

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 6,030,000 (59.7%); males literate 3,570,000 (69.8%); females literate 2,460,000 (49.3%). Health (1991): physicians 9.366 (1 per 1.922 persons); hospital beds (1990) 31,227 (1 per 568 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 80.0 7 Food (1991)7; daily per capita caloric intake 2,300-2,400; 93-97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. .

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 382,500 (army 91.9%, navy 0.3%, air force (1990): 18.2% (world, n.a.); 7.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $749.

GNP

'Multipartyism authorized by a September 1991

lav..

-Kurdish

is

official in

the Kurdish

only. 'Official pegged rate: black market rate was about 18 Iraqi facto dinars per U.S.S in May 1992. 4 Excluding Iraqi-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone self-government as of May 1992 elections. ''Excludes war-related deaths. 7 Postwar estimate. 819QO, 9Bj mid-1992 the embargo was estimated to have reduced the by at least 50%. '"At factor cost. "Import figures are lob. in balance ot trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. >2IJN sanctions stopped international service from March 1991; lack of spare parts ended domestic service from June 1992.

Autonomous Region

MV

UN

GNP

632

Britannica World Data

(kW-hr; 1990) 14,515,000,000 (14.515,000,000); coal (metric tons: 1990) 35,000 (3,034,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (13,308,000); petroleum products (metric tons: 1990) 1,456,000 (3,716,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 3,763,000,000 ([1990] 3,671,000,000). Gross national product (1991); U.S.$41.354,000,000 (U.S.$11,740 per capita). electricity

Ireland name: Eire

Official

(Irish); Ireland

1

(English).

Form of government:

unitary multi-

party republic with two legislative houses (Senate [60-]; House of Representatives [166]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. ( 'apitak Dublin. Official languages: Irish; English. Official religion: 3

Monetary

unit:

1

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 value

in

Mining

I

Construction Public utilities J Transp. and commun.

8,530

370

4,426

19.2

|

Irish

pound

(£Ir)

100 new pence: valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 £Ir = U.S.$1.85 = £1.10.

=

5.

Area and population

Trade Pub. admin Services 1 Finance f J Other TOTAL

population

area

.

defense

sq mi 6.611

2 293 581 2,084 951

Leitrim

Mayo

Roscommon

693

Sligo

7.580

Lemster Carlow Dublin^

346 356 654 796 664 403 318 902

Kildare

Kilkenny Laoighis

Longford Louth

Meath

771 681

Otfaly

Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster

908 782 9.315

Clare

1.231

Cork 5

2.880 1.815 1,037 771

Kerry Limerick 5 Tipperary North Riding Tipperary South Riding

872 710

WaterfordS Ulster

Cavan Donegal

498 26.600

537 27.137

1.0

5.2

17.39

49 21 6

9

1

9

13.7'0

100

,305.000

51 .876

Price

and earnings indexes (1985

40,946 1

.024,429

4,830 1.291

51 .262

823 2.336 1.998 1.763 2.351

2,025 24,127 3.188 7.460 4,701 2,686 1.996

100)

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

Consumer pnee ndex

1000

107.1

109 4

113.8

Weekly earnings index

100.0

103 8 107.5

113.0

1183

1231

117.6 127.3

121.4 133.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 58.6%, self-employment 13.3%, interest and dividends 8.2%; expenditure (1988): food 39.1%, rent and household goods 18.6%, transportation 12.6%.

Land

use

(

1989): forest

5.0%; pasture 68.1%; agricultural 13.8%; other 13.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) £lr

000.000

% of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1.164

2.004 10 3%

2.574

2.880

2.458

2,784

11.7%

11.0%

9.4%

10.2%

6.6%

1991

Imports (1990): £Ir 12,455,800,000 (machinery and transport equipment 35.9%, chemicals 12.4%, food 9.0%. petroleum and petroleum products 6.4%, beverages and tobacco 1.2%). Major import sources: U.K. 42.2%; U.S. 14.5%; Germany 8.3%; Japan 5.6%; France 4.6' Exports (1990): £Ir 14,336,200.000 (machinery and transport equipment 31.3%, food 19.9%, chemical products 15.9%, beverages and tobacco 2.3%). Major export destinations: U.K. 33.7%; Germany 11.7%: France 10.5%; U.S. 8.2%.

08,8956 1,390 70,285

==

1985

.860.037

122.516 73.613 52,325 30,293 90.707 105,540 58.448 61.882 102,045 97,293 1.008.443 90,826 409.814 121.719 161.856 57.829 74.791 91.608 232.012 52,756 127,994

1,891

58

:

54.736 1

1.694 2.062 1,719 1,044

730

100,0

0.6

Population economically active (1990): total 1,305.000; activity rate of total population 37.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.2% >': female 30.5% n unemployed 13.7%).

422.909 180,304 25,297 110,696

896 922

3,093

23,052

128 17.1

census 4

17,122 5.940 1.525 5,398 2.463 1,796 19.633

2.258 1.838 8,012

1.865

Monaghan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

km

sq

59

278

force

179,000'°

1991

Provinces Counties Connacht Galways

1,363

6,396

% of labour

167,000 8,000 223.000 76.000 13,000 68.000 225.0009 64.000 282,000

10.1

"]

Manufactunng

.

value

2,337

Agriculture

labour force

°o of total

000,000

£lr

3523,401

Demography

Transport and communications

Population (1992): 3,519,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 129.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 57.1%; rural 42 9' (

km

Sex distribution (1941):

male 44.74',; female 50.26%.

Age breakdown

(1986): under 15, 28.9%; 15 29, 24.7%; 30-44, 18.8%; 45-59. 12.8%; 60-74, 10.7%; 75 and over. 4.1%. Population projection. (2000) 3,492,000; (2010) 3,458,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Irish nationality. Ethnic composition 14S1 |: more than 44' Religious affiliation |I4M): Roman Catholic 93.1%; Church of Ireland (An2.8' glican I'rcsbvterian 0.4%; other Major cities' (1441): Dublin 477,675; Cork 127,024; Limerick 52.040; Galway ,

(

Railroads (1940): length 2,814 km; passenger-km 1,224,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 589,000,000. Roads (1991): length 57,354 mi, 92,303 km (paved 94%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 796,408; trucks and buses 147,213. Merchant marine (1441): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 187; total deadweight tonnage 203,038. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3.804.000,000; metric ton-km cargo 431,618.000; airports (1992) 11. Communications (1941). Dailv newspapers: 7; total circulation 632,300; circulation per 1,000 population 179. Radios: 2,000,000 (1 per 1.8 persons). Televisions: 441.0(H) (1 per 3.6 persons). Telephones (1990): 916,207 (1 per 3.8 persons). Transport.

50.1.

!

;

i

.

Waterford 40,345.

50,842;

Education and health Education (1989-90)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1441):

mate 85.5$

.

15.7

(world avg. 26.4); (1490)

legiti-

illegitimate 14

Death rate per 1,000 population 1991): 9.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1441): 6.7 (world avg.

17.2).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1440-45): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth 1985-87): male 71.0 years; female 76.7 years, Major causes oj death per 100.000 population (1990); heart and circulator) 1

diseases 413.7, of which ischemic heart disease 231.6: malignant neoplasms (cancers) 203.9; respiratory disease 79.1, of which pneumonia

^

1

Budget

(

Revenue:

tlr 9,311,000,000

9'

!

3.428

493 352 43

20.321 12 11.630 7.118 3.93413

students

560.833 213.788 129 702 61.323

teacher

ratio

18 4 18.2 16.013

Educational attainment ( 1981 ). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education 52.3%; secondary 23.3%; some postsecondary 16.5%; universitj or like institution 7.9%. Literacy (1987): virtually 100% literate. Health (1990): physicians (1984) 5,180 (1 per 681 persons); hospital beds 13,709 M (1 per 257 persons); infant mortality rate 8.0. Food 1487-84): daily per capita caloric intake 3,779 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%): 151% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

(income taxes 36.8%, value-added

excise taxes 19.6%). 1 xpenditures: £Ir 9.076,000.000 (debt service ocial welfare 19.9%, health 14.8%, education 13.3%, defense 4.1%). Public debt (1441): U.S.$46,184,000 Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$1,447,000,000; expenditures U.S.Sl, 159,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990) tax 2:

teachers

(

National economy ).

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teacher tr Higher .

(

1441

student/

schools

.

Military

dun personnel (1991): 12,900 (army Military expenditure as percentage of

Total active

6.2%

).

86.8%, navy 7.0%, air force 1.6% (world 4.9%);

GNP (1989):

per capita expenditure U.S.S128.

(

sugar beets 1,480,000, bariej 1,380,000, potatoes 633,000, wheat 625,000, oats 104,000, milk 52,400,000 hectolitres; livestock (number of live animals) 8,691,000 sheep, 6,99M>(K) cattle. 1,046,000 pins: roundwood 1,527,000 cu m: tish catch 1989) 245,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): gypsum 342. son; zinc ore 186,8008; lead ore 40,2008. Manufacturing (value added in £Ir; 1988): metals and engineering goods 2.i>31.MX).(HKi;*food products 1,609,100,000; chemical products 1,101,600,000; nonmctalhc mineral products 388,200,000: paper, printing, and publishing 578,600,000; textiles 173,600,000. Construction (1440) residential 5,887,000 sq m. Energx production (consumption): 1

'As provided by the constitution; the 1948 Republic of Ireland Act provides precedent for this longer formulation of the official name but. per official sources, "has not changed the usage Ireland as the name of the state in the English language." includes" 11 nonelective seats. ^Though a 1973 amendment to the Irish constitution deleted sections that had given "special position" to the Roman Catholic Church, much doctrinal language remains. 4 Preliminary. ^Includes county borough(s). 6 Detail 7 does not add to total given because of rounding. County boroughs. 8 Metal content of ores. Trade includes Finance. "'Unemployed. '11988. '-National schools only. "1988-89. "Acute-care public hospitals only.

Nations

'

~^>-v K-X^-^"

,

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

'•% Official name: Medina! Yisra'el (Hebrew); [wall (Arabic) (State

World

-,

'

Israel

of the

Consumer

Z.T*

price index

Monthly earnings index

rCf

1985

1986

1987

100 100

148

178 212

161

206 258

248 312

368 442

291

366

Of Israel).

Tourism (1940): receipts from visitors U.S.S 1,382,000.000: expenditures bv nationals abroad U.S.S 1,485,000.000. Gross national product (1990); U.S.$50,866,000,000 (U.S.$10,970 per capita).

Form of government multiparty republic with one legislative house

(Knesset [120]). (

hief of State: President.

Head of government: Prime (

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Minister. 1

in

1991

% of total

value

NIS 000.000

but recognition of its status as capital by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of territorial and other issues through peace talks between Israel and the Arab parties concerned. Official languages: Hebrew; Arabic. Official religion: none. Monetan una: New (Israeli) sheqel (NIS)= 100 agorot; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = NIS 2.49;

Agriculture

Transp and commun. Trade Finance

23.1

and community services

2,545

4.1

Public

utilities

% of labour

labour force

value

1,922 1 1 ,937 3.319 1,649 5,582 7.174 14,344

Manufacturing, mining Construction

force

55.500 339,700 96.200 16,800 96,600 224,000 160,800

3.1

19.2

53 27 9.0

116

3.1

19.2

54 0.9 5.5

127 9.1

Public

Services

1

Other

J

TOTAL

1

1

1989

1

£ = NIS4.24.

13,625

21.9

62,097

100.0

264

468.300 114,900 197.7006 1

6.6

11.26 100.07

.770.500

Household income and expenditure (1989). Average household size 3.6; monthly income per household (1988)» NIS 2,937 (U.S.S1.496); sources of income (1988) 8 salaries and wages 87.9%, allowances and assistance 9.7' self-employment 2.3%; expenditure (1991): food, beverages, and tobacco 25.4%, housing 20.0%, household durable goods 6.8%, clothing 5.8%, en:

Area and population

area

population

1

19902 Districts

Capitals

Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Hefa)

Ramla

Jerusalem (Yerushalayim) Northern (Ha Zafon) Southern (Ha Darom)

Jerusalem

Tel Aviv

Tel Aviv-Yafo

sq mi

Haifa Tiberias

Beersheba

sq

1.242

1.347 5.555

3.490 14,387 170 20,700

854 557

7.992

969,800 612.600 556.000 762,700 541,900 1.043.600 4,486.600

Demography Population (1992): 5,239,000. Densirv (1992) ': persons per sq mi 655.5, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 89.9%; rural 10.1%. Sex distribution (1989): male 49.87%; female 50.13%.

ergy 3.8%, transportation 3.6%.

estimate

479 330 215

66

total

km

,

km

253.1.

Age breakdown

(1989): under 15, 31.7%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-44, 20.0%; 45-59, 11.2%; 60-74, 8.5%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2000) 6,275,000; (2010) 6,581,000. Doubling time: 47 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Jewish 82.0%; Arab and other 18.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Jewish 81.5%: Muslim (mostly Sunn!) 14.4%; Christian 2.3%; Druze and other 1.8%. Major cities (1990): Jerusalem 504,100; Tel Aviv-Yafo 321,700; Haifa 223,600; Holon 148,400; Bat Yam 133,200.

Vital statistics

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.SOOO.OOO

%

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

-2.352.1

-3.253.8 16.6%

-2.841.8

-2.358.1

13.1%

10.0%

-3,504.0 13.1%

-5.473.3 19.6%

14.5%

of total

Imports (1991): U.S.$16,688,400,000 (investment goods 18.3%; diamonds 16.2%; consumer goods 11.2%; fuel and lubricants 8.8%). Major import sources: U.S. 19.3%; Germany 11.9%; Belgium 11.1%; Switzerland 8.5'.; U.K. 8.3%; Italy 6.5%; Japan 4.3%; France 4.2%. Exports (1991): U.S.$11,215,100,000 (machinery 28.9%; worked diamonds 27.4%; chemicals 13.0%; textiles 7.6%; food, beverages, and tobacco 4.8%; rubber and plastic 3.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 30.2%; Japan 7.4%; U.K. 7.1%; Germany 6.0%; Belgium 5.8%; France 4.9%; The Netherlands 4.6%; Hong Kong 4.5%; Italy 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 323 mi, 520 km; (1989-90) passengermi 94,858,000, passenger-km 152,660,000; short ton-mi cargo 710,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,037,600,000. Roads (1989): total length 8.075 mi. 12,996 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 786,266; trucks and buses 157,886. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over)

deadweight tonnage 654,170. Air transport (1990) g passenger-mi 4,363,000,000, passenger-km 7,021,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 568,856.000, metric ton-km cargo 830,516,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 28; total circulation 1,611,000; circulation per 1,000 population 350. Radio (1991): 2,250,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,200,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Telephones (1990): 2,425,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). 58; total

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 21.4 (world avg. 26.4); (1988)3 legitimate 98.8%; illegitimate 1.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 15.1 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1990): 6.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1988): male 73.9 years; female 77.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the circulatory system 275.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 123.7; accidents 44.0; diseases of the respiratory system 43.5.

National economy Budget (1990-91). Revenue: NIS 63,517,000,000 (income tax and property tax 22.9%, internal loans 22.0%, value-added tax 14.6%, external loans 14.1%). Expenditures: NIS 63,517,000,000 (debt 20.4%, defense 19.7%, interest on loans 15.3%, labour and social welfare 8.2%, education and culture 7.4%). Public debt (1989): U.S.$74,215,700,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): oranges 567,000, grapefruit 384,000, tomatoes 245,000, potatoes 220.000, wheat 160,000, watermelons 100.000, seed cotton 58,000; livestock (number of live animals) 375,000 sheep. 331.01111 cattle. 15,000 goats, 100,000 pigs, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 113,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 26,114. Mining and quarrying (1990): phosphate rock 2.400.000; potash 2,200,000; phosphoric acid 200,000; bromine compounds 130,000; bromine 127,000. Manufacturing (1990): cement 2,868,000; sulfuric acid 153,800; polyethylene lll(i,599; cardboard 92,864; paper 41,159; chlorine 36,342; ammonium sulfate 35,441; wine 12,795,000 litres. Construction (1940): residential 2,900,000 sq m; nonresidential 1.070,000 sq m. Energv production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 20,730.000 (20,340,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (3,708,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1940) 94,300 (59,412,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 7,633.000 (7,590,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 30.317,000 (30.317,000). Land use (1990): forested 5.5%; meadows and pastures 7.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%, other 65.8%. Population economically active (1991) 4 total 1,770,500; activity rate of total 1

:

population 35.3% (participation rates: over age unemployed 10.6%).

15,

51.7%; female 41.1%;

:

Education and health Education (1989-90) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Vocational Higher

schools

teachers

students

1,989

37,768") 43.548

611,671 393,508 110,967 67,750

710 383 7

6.479"

student/ teacher ratio

90

Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 6.5%; primary education 21.7%; secondary 48.3%; postsecondary, vocational, and higher 23.5%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate 2,542,403 (91.8%); males literate 1,312,258 (95.0%); females literate 1,230,145 (88.7%). Health (1989): physicians^ 11,895 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 28,399 (1 per 162 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 9.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,220 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active dutv personnel (1992): 176,000 (army 76.1%, navv 5.7%, air force r (world 18.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 12.,s 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $1,323.

GNP

,

'Excluding West Bank. Gaza Strip. Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem. -Jaiiuar) 'Jewish population only. -"Excludes jure; includes population i>t East Jerusalem forces; includes Isiaelis in occupied territories. 'November. 'Mostly unem7 ployed. Detail does not add to total given because oi rounding Hib.ni population only. 'El Al only. '"Teaching posts financed by Ministrj ol Education and Culture I

De

armed

onlj

U1987

88.

-1987.

Britannica World Data

634

Italy

Area and population Toscana

Official name: Repubblica Italiana (Italian Republic).

Form of government: two

Livorno

Lucca Massa-Carrara

Lucca Massa-Carrara

Pisa

Pisa

Arezzo Firenze

Grosseto

republic with

houses (Senate [325 '] Chamber of Deputies [630]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. legislative

Capital:

Rome.

Pistoia

Pistoia

Siena

Perugia

Siena Bolzano Bolzano Trento Perugia Perugia

Terni

Terni

Trentino-Alto Adige

Official language: Italian. Official religion:

Monetary

unit:

lire) = 100 5, 1

1992)

£

= Lit

1

Trento

lira (Lit,

Umbria

plural

centesimi; valuation (Oct.

U.S.$

1

Bolzano-Bozen

none.

= Lit

1,315;

Abruzzi

sq mi

Capitals

4.168

L'Aquila

999

Chieti

Chieti

L Aquila

L'Aquila

1.944

Pescara

Pescara

Teramo

Teramo

473 752

Catanzaro

Potenza Matera Potenza Catanzaro Catanzaro

Cosenza

Cosenza

Basilicata

Malera Potenza Calabria

3,858 1,331

Campania

Reggio Naples

Avellino

Avellino

Benevento

Benevento

Caserta

Caserta Naples Salerno

Reggio

di

Calabria

Napoli Salerno

Emilia-Romagna Bologna

di

Bologna Bologna

Ferrara

Ferrara

Fori!

Forli

Modena Parma

Modena

Piacenza

Piacenza

Ravenna Reggio neH'Emilia Friuli-Venezia Giulia Gorizia

Calabria

Parma Ravenna Reggio neH'Emilia Trieste

Gorizia

Pordenone

Pordenone

Trieste

Trieste

Udine

2.527 5.823 2.026 2,568 1,229 5,249 1,078

sq

km

10.794 2,587 5.034 1,225 1.948 9,992 3,447 6.545 15,080 5,247 6.650 3.183 13,595 2.792

800

2.071

1.019

2.639

452

1,171

1,900 8.542 1,429 1,016 1.123 1.039 1,332 1,000

4.922 22,123 3.702 2.632 2,910 2.690 3,449 2,589 1,859 2,292 7,845

718 885 3,029 180

467

827 691

population

Treviso

Treviso

1991

Venezia Verona Vicenza

Venice Verona Vicenza

956 950

census 1.249,388

379,689 301,296 291,115 277,288 591 ,897 200.519 391,378 2,010,195 711,526 730,081 568,588 5,625.575

430,210 291,036 825,294 3,023.366 1 .055,669 3,984,055

943,269 363.451 618,670 61

1

,883

401 .952

271.167 351,296 422.367 1,216.398 139,315 279.784

212

267.118

1.889

530.181 5,145.763

Frosinone

Frosinone

1,251

Latina

Latina

Rieti

Rieti

1.061

Roma

Rome

Viterbo

Viterbo

2,066 1,395 2.092

4.893 17,203 3,239 2,251 2.749 5,352 3.612 5,418 1,836 1.155

882

Impena

Impena

709 446

La Spezia

La Spezia

341

Savona

Savona

Lombardia

Bergamo

Milan

Bergamo

Brescia

Brescia

Como

Como

Cremona

Cremona

Mantova

Mantova

Milano Pavia

Milan Pavia

Sondno Varese

Sondrio Varese

Marche Ancona

Ancona Ancona

Ascoli Piceno

Ascoli Piceno

Macerata Pesaro e Urbino

Macerata Pesaro

Molise

Campo basso Isernia

Piemonte

Campobasso Campobasso Isernia

Turin

Alessandria

Alessandria

Asti

Asti

Cuneo

Cuneo

Novara

Novara

Torino

Turin

Vercelli

Vercelli

596

1.545

9.211 1.066 1.846

23.857 2.760 4 782 2,067

798 684 903 1.066 1,145 1,240

463

9,807 1,375

583

1.511

2.665 1.388 2,637 1,159

6,903 3.594 6.830

749 806 1.071

1,117 1.713 1,123

590

7470

Ban Ban

Brindisi

Brindisi

710

Foggia

Foggia Lecce Taranto

2,774 1,065 941 9,301 2,662 2,720 1,016 2.903

Lecce Taranto

Sardegna Caglian

Nuoro Onstano Sassari

Caglian Caglian

Nuoro Oristano Sassari

Agngento

Palermo Agngento

Caltanissetta

Caltanissetta

Catania

Catania

Enna

Enna

Messina Palermo

Messina Palermo

Ragusa

Ragusa

Siracusa Trapani

Siracusa Trapani

Sicilia (Sicily)

1.980

9 926 1,175

822 1.371

989 1.254 1.927

623 814 951

478,393 475,633 145.848 3,764,298 281,591 1

3.001 19.348 5.129 1,838 7,185 2.759 2.437 24.090 6,895 7,044 2,631 7,520 25,709 3,042 2.128 3,552 2.562 3.248 4,992 1,614 2,109 2,462

.701 ,788

961.276 218.616 230.835 291,061 8.940.594

943,584 1.062,416

799,050 328,279 371,472 3,957.547 496,924

3212 1,199 9.693 1,940 2.087 2.774 2,892 4.438 2.909 1.529 25,399 3.560

3,743

Ban

Puglia

1,771

2,339 2.762 2,965

819

Rovigo

6.642

Genova

2.401

Padova

Rome

Genoa Genoa

3,821 13,618 7.400 6,218 8,456 6,334 2,122 3,262 18,364 3,678 2,142 1.789 2.477 2,460 3,096 2.722 301 ,277

Belluno

Udine

Liguria

1,475 5.258 2.857

Belluno

2 273

869

1.213 1.773 1,157 2.448

Rovigo

878 82

Lazio

468 684 447 945 373

Padova

Veneto

Area and population

Provinces

22,992 3.232 3.879 4,504

1,259 7,090 1.420

2,236.

Regions

8,877 1.248 1,498 1,739

3.265 2,446

Aosta Venice

Valle d'Aosta

area

(continued)

Florence Arezzo Florence Grosseto Livorno

174,781 806,541

1,195 1,051

TOTAL

116.324

3,599,085 315,874 1,217,454 216,535 342,130

378,350 199,057 394,277 270,054 265,354 934,731 478,617 456,114 822,972

965

598.181 224,791 117,208 4,452,667

211,140 846,71

246,784 745.991 839.847

810,079 752,115 57.103,833

Demography Population (1992): 57,103,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 491.4, persons per sq km 189.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 67.1%; rural 32.9%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.61%; female 51.39%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 17.8%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 20.1%; 45-59, 18.6%; 60-74, 13.5%; 75 and over, 5.9%. Population projection: (2000) 57,274,000; (2010) 56,270,000. Doubling time: n.a.; population stable. Ethnolinguistic composition (1983): Italian 94.1%; Sardinian 2.7%; Rhaetian 1.3%; other 1.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 83.2%; nonreligious 13.6%; atheist 2.6%; other 0.6%. Major cities (1991): Rome 2,791,354; Milan 1,432,184; Naples 1,206,013; Turin 991,870; Palermo 734,238; Genoa 701,032; Bologna 411,803; Florence 408,403; Catania 364,176; Bari 353,032; Venice 317,837. National origin (1980): Italian 98.8%; foreign-born 1.2%, of which Austrian 0.4%, French 0.2%, Slovene 0.2%, Albanian 0.1%, other 0.3%. Mobility (I4,sl ). Population living in the same residence as in 1976: 92.4%. Households. Average household size (1986) 2.8; composition of households: 1 person 21.1%, 2 persons 24.4%, 3 persons 22.5%, 4 persons 22.0%, 5 or more persons 10.0%. Family households (1983): 15,205,000 (85.3%); nonfamily 2.617,000 (14.7%), of which 1-person 13.0%. Immigration (1989): immigrants admitted 81,201, from Europe 48.2%, of which West Germany 16.2%, Switzerland 7.8%; Africa 14.0%; Argentina 9.3%; Asia 9.2%; U.S. 5.4%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 9.8 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate illegitimate 6.395

93.7%;

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1990): 9.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population ( 1990): 0.5 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1985-90): 1.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1.000 population: (1990): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1988): male 73.2 years; female 79.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the circulaiory system 411.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 248.3; diseases of the respiratory system 60.1; diseases of the digestive system 51.8.

1,446.751

445.877 364,220

Social indicators

298.371

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 19.3% 2 primary education 47.4%; lower secondary 18.0%; upper secondary 11.2%; higher 4.1%.

338,283 320,916 230,380 90,536 4,338,262 441,225 209,348 552.722 505,399 2,254,622 374.946 3.970.525 1

,507.059

402,639 685,804 783,714 591 ,309 1,645,192 770.113 267,281 155.474 452,324 4,989,871

472,800 273.978 1,036,480 185,008

690,882 1,233,359 281 ,779

;

Distribution of

income (1986)

percent ot household income by qumtile 1

2

3

4

5

68

12.0

16.7

235

41.0

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1985): 36.6 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (1988) for: injury or accident 3,697; industrial illness 405> death 5.7. Percentage of labour force insured for damages or income loss (1982) resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Number of working days lost to labour stoppages (1989): 4,436,143. Average duration of journey to work: n.a. Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work; 1982): 0.9. Material well-being. Rate per 1,000 of population possessing (1990): telephone 555; automobile 4394; television 258 4 (colour 188 4 ). Households possessing (1979): television 72%; refrigerator 91%; washing machine XX' Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (1987): 88.5%. Population participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce (1984): c. 70%. Practicing religious popula
); per capita expenditure U.S. $360.

13.6';.

air

orld

).

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985

1986

1987

Consumer pnee index

91.6

900

105.9 104.8

1109

Earnings index

111.6

1165 1184

123 8 125 6

131.8

1401

1347

1479

Household income and expenditure (1988). Average household size 2.9; average annual income per household (1984) Lit 19.692.000 (U.S. SI 1.208):

Includes 10 nonelective seats. 2 More than two-thirds are age 55 and over. '1978. 'Imputed bank charges less duties on imports. ''Includes 2.621.000 unemployed. "Enterprises with 20 or more persons engaged. "Total number of persons Alitalia engaged. '1981. i"All enterprises (1982). U1987. KJuhr. -'Jut. engaged onTy~iM988-89. 4 1988.

Britannica World Data

636

Jamaica

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

name: Jamaica. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative Official

houses (Senate

[21

J;

%

value JS'000,000 in

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Representatives [60]). Chief of slate: British Monarch represented by governor-general. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingston. Official language: English. Official religion: none.

Public

utilities

Transp. and

commun.

Trade Pub, admin., defense Finance, real estate Services Other TOTAL

Monetary unit: 1 Jamaica dollar (J$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = J$21.89; 1 £ = J$37.21.

value

2,412 4,816 7,704 5,565 1,079 3,650 8,766 2,879 5,472 2,010

Agriculture

House of

%

labour

of total

of labour

force

5.7

114 18.2 13.1

26 86 207

force

247.700 5.300 95.600 54.900 6,200 35,800 173,500

23

283,000

26.3

0.5 8-9 5.1

06 33 16.1

6 81

129

\

4.7 J

-1,9866

-4.7«

42.367

100,0

174,600' 1

16.2? 100,0

,076,600

Population economically active (1991): total 1,076,600; activity rate of total population 44.4% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 71.6% 8 female 47.4%; unemployed 15.7%). ;

Area and population area

'.*

population

Price and earnings indexes (1985

1991 Capitals

Parishes Clarendon Hanover Kingston

Lucea

174 8 321

450 22 830 814

Saint Ann's

314 166 468 460 468 230 236 287 338 312

Bay

Spanish Town Black River

Montego Bay

Saint

Mary

Port Maria

Saint

Thomas

Morant Bay Falmouth Savanna-la-Mar

Trelawny

Westmoreland

212,324 65,958

price index

= 100)

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100.0

115

122,8

132.9

152.0

1853

280.0

1

Monthly earnings index

2

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 4.3; average annual income per household (1988) J$8.356 (U.S. $1,525); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 66.1%, self-employment 19.3%; transfers 14.6%; expenditure (1988) g food and beverages 55.6%, housing 7.9%, fuel and other household supplies 7.4%, health care 7.0%, transportation 6.4%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, household furnishings 2.8%, other 7.8%.

164.979 76.067 643,8012 149,015 361 ,535 144,118 156,152 107,993 84.266

431 1.213 1.192 1.212

595 611

743 875 807

4.244

TOTAL

census

Consumer 1.196

i

James

km

462

Mandeville Port Antonio

Portland Saint Andrew Saint Ann Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth

sq

May Pen I

Manchester

Saint

sq mi

:

Foreign trade

71 ,646

128,213 2,366.067

10.991

111

Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000

Demography

%

Population (1992): 2. 445,000. Densin 1-992): persons per sq mi 576.1, persons per sq km 222.5. Urban-rural L990): urban 52.3%; rural 47.7%. Sex distribution 1991): male 50.00%; female 50.00%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 33.0%; 15-29, 31.1%; 30-44, 16.7%; 45-59. 9.2%; 60 and over. 10.0%. Population projection: (2000) 2,602,000; (2010) 2,813,000. Doubling time: My years. Ethnic composition (1982): black 74.7';; mixed black 12.8%; East Indian 1.3%; other 11.2%, of which not stated 9.5%. Religious affiliation 1982): Protestant 55.9%, of which Church ol Ciod 18.4%, Baptist 10.0%, Anglican 7. IS. Seventh-day Adventist 6.9%, Pentecostal 5.2%; Roman Catholic 5.0%; nonreligious or atheist 17.7%; not stated 11.2%; other 10.2%, of which Rastalarian c. 5.0%. Major cities (1991): Kingston 103,7713 (metropolitan area 643,801); Spanish Town 92,383; Montego Bay 83,446; Portmore 73,400 4 May Pen 46.785. (

I

(

1

;

Of total

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

-437

-248

-357

-606

-468

27.7%

17.4%

-357 20.1%

16.8%

23.3%

16.8%

1990

Imports (1991): J$20,83O,OO0,OO0 (raw materials 63.5%, of which fuels 18.1%; capital goods 21.6%, of which machinery and apparatus 12.5%; consumer goods 14.8%). Major import sources (1990): United States 45.0%; Canada 6.4%; United Kingdom 5.7%; Venezuela 5.5%; Mexico 5.4%. Exports (1991): J$ 13,079,000,000 (alumina 47.4%; bauxite 9.9%; raw sugar 7.6%; bananas 3.9%; rum 1.3%; coffee 1.1%). Major export destinations (1990): United States 30.4%; United Kingdom 17.3%; Canada 13.5%; The Netherlands 10.0%; U.S.S.R. 3.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989): route length 211 mi, 339 km; passenger-mi 22.460,000. passenger-km 36,146,000; short ton-mi cargo 71,505,000, metric ton-km cargo 104,395,000. Roads (1991): total length 10,212 mi, 16,435 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 93,000; trucks and buses 16,000 Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population 1991 ): 1 '. 2 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbeanng woman; 1990); 2.4.

deadweight tonnage 21,317. Air transport (1991) 11 passenger-mi 805,758,ooo. passenger-km 1,296,745,000; short ton-mi cargo 14,893,000, metric tonkm cargo 21,743,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 130.400; circulation per 1,000 population 53. Radio (1991): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1991): 484,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1991): 192,100 (1 per 13 persons).

Marriage rate per 1,00(1 population 1440): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population 1990): 0.3.

Education and health

:

Vital statistics Birth ran- per

1.000 population (1991); 24.7 (world avg. 26.4); (1987) legiti-

mate 14.9%, illegitimate 85.1' Ihuih rate per 1,000 population

-

1991): 5.5 (world avg. 9.2).

(

I

(

(

(

1940-45): male 71.4 years; female 75.8 years. death per 100,000 population (1484): diseases of the circulator system 217.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.9; diseases of the respirator) system 35.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 33.6.

Life expectancy at birth

Major causes

(

oj

National economy Budget (1991-92), Revenue J$ 14,496,400,000 (tax revenue 74.1',, of which income taxes 52.7%, consumption (axes 19.8%, stamp duties 7.1%; nontax revenue 7.4', ). Expenditures: J$17,422,800,000 (current expenditure 60.6%, which debt interest 24.2%; development expenditure 34.4', ).

.I

Public debt (external, outstanding; L990): U.S.$3,673,000,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990) U.S.$764,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad 1989) U.S.$54,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 I: sugarcane 2,732,000, yams 186,100, vegetables 101,200, bananas 75,300, citrus fruits 43,000, plantains 26,700, coffee 9,200, legumes 8,400, cacao beans 4,374, pimientos 1,752; livestock (number ol live animals; 1990) 440,000 goats, 290,000 cattle. 240,000 pies, roundwood 215,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 10.605. Mining and quarrying (1991) crude bauxite 4,249,000; alumina 3.004,000; gypsum 136,800. Manufacturing (1991 1: sugar 232,200: flour 149,300; poultry meat 57,000; beer and stout 595,300 hectolitres; rum 187.200 hectolitres; i

(

Construction (1990): residential units comcompleted 6,989 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricit) (kW hr; 1990) 2. 30 ,000 (2,730,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1440) none (6,643,000); petroleum products (metric tons; |440) 850,000 (1,405,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use 1989): forested 17.2', meadows and pastures 17.5%; agricultural Lindei permanent cultivation 24.8%; oilier 40.5%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1440): U.S.$3,606,000,000 cigarettes 215,000,000 units. pleted 3,292 s factor) space

Education (1990-91) Primary (age 6-11)'3 Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacher tr Higher

'2

student/

schools

teachers

790 127

9.693

17'
1984. 4 1986. 'The Democratic People's Republic of Korea categorizes economically active as including students in higher education, retirees, and heads of households, as well as (hose in the civilian labour force. ''Workers and clerical workers only. 7 Four dailies only. "Number of telephone lines. '1982.

Vitions of

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990)

Korea, South

1 1

Offii (

ml name

Republic

I

oi

aehan Min'guk KoreB

1} &#

unitarj multipart)

republic with a National Assembly (299 members) (

President.

niej o) state

Head

o)

^

?

government: Prime Minister.

Seoul. Official language: Korean. (

'apital:

Official religion: none. won Monetary unit: I

valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 745; U.S.$ = £=

W

1

W

1

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

100 chon;

7

1,352.

y\/v7

sq mi

Cholla-pukto

Cheju Kwangiu Chonju

Ch'ungchong-namdo

Taejon

Ch'ungch ong-pukto

Chongju

Kangwon-do

Ch'unch'on'

Kyonggi-do

Suwon

Kyongsang-namdo

Masan Taegu

Kyongsang-pukto

sq

km

705

1.825

4.561 3,109 3,211 2.872 6,524 4,158 4,545 7,507

11.812 8.053 8.317 7,437 16,898 10,769 11,771 19,443

1990 census

514.000 2,523,000 2,070,000 2,028.000 1,414.000 1 .592.000 6.154.000 3,679,000 2.866,000

Inch'on

Kwangju Pusan

Soul-t'ukpyolsi

Seoul

Taegusi

Taegu

Taejon-si TOTAL

Taejon

121

313

193 203 234 176 207 38,326

501

526 605 456 537 99,263

1,818,000 1,145,000 3,798,000 10,628.000 2,229,000 1 .062,000 43,520,000

km

439.9.

1

(1940): under 15, 25.4%; 15-29, 29.9%; 30-44, 23.2%; 45-59. and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 46,789,000; (2010) 49,683,000. 6(1-74, 6.2 r 7; 75

Doubling time: 70 years. Ethnic composition 1990): Korean 99.9%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation ( 1991 ): religious? 54.0%, of which Buddhist 27.6%, Protestant 18.6%, Roman Catholic 5.7%, Confucian 1.0%, Wonbulgyo 0.3%, Ch'ondogyo 0.2%, other 0.6%; nonreligious 46.0%. Major cities (1990): Seoul 10,628,000; Pusan 3,798,000; Taegu 2,229,000; In(

chon

1,818.00(1;

Kwangju

2,2 7.1

}

-0,44 100.06

1,145.000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population (1991); 15.5 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 5.8 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1991): 9.7 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1990): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1989): 7.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.1. / dc expectancy at birth (1990): male 67.4 years; female 75.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 133.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 89.6; accidents, poisonings, and violence 68.8; diseases of the digestive system 36.1; diseases of the respiratory system 13.8.

5.1

2,630,000

14,2

451 .0005 18.487.0006

100.06

Revenue:

W 26,818,000,000,000 (income taxes 33.3%, taxes on c

'r. nontax revenue 11.1%, customs duties 10.4%). 26,278,000,000,000 (defense 25.8%, education 19.6%, ecosocial security and welfare 9.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$18,152,()00,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Auriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): rice 7,786,000, cabbages 3,214,000, apples 629,000, oranges 493,000, garlic 417.000, barley 416,000, dry onions 407,000, soybeans 233,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,801,000 pigs, 2,051,000 cattle, 62,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1989) 6,803,000 cu m; fish catch 3,274,506. Mining and quarrying (1991): iron ore 563.000; graphite 85.953; zinc ore 44,985; lead ore 17,197; tungsten ore 1.867. Manufacturing (1991): cement 39.167.000; crude steel 26,879,620; pig iron 18,546,017; animal feed 10,864,517; chemical fertilizers 2,753,090; synthetic fabrics 3. 28 1, 499.000 sq m; television receivers 15,514.793 units; passenger cars 1,131,792 units. Construction (1991): residential 59,060,000 sq m; nonresidential 46,124,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 118.738.000.000 (118,738,000.000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 17,217,000 (43,405,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (306,321,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 36,325,000 (40.597.000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) none (3,243,000,000). Household income and expenditure (1992)3. Average household size (1990) 15,516,000 (U.S.$19,800); sources of income3.8; income per household wages 84.2%, other 15.8%; expenditure: lood and beverages 28.4%, education and recreation 14.7%, clothing and footwear 8.2'*. transportation and communications 8.2%, health care 5.5%, household durable goods 5.1%,

goods and services 32.8

Expenditures:

W

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

102.8 108.2

105.9 119.2

113.9 137.7

119.9 166.7

130,2

142.8

energy

rr '

5.tt

,

housing 3.6';, other 21.3%.

1923

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

+4,237 7,4%

+6,940 9.8%

+8,510 10.6%

+ 2,875 3.6%

-701 0.8%

-3.968 3.6%

Imports (1991): U.S.$81,524,900,000 (machinery and transport equipment 33.3%, manufactured goods 16.3%, mineral fuels and lubricants 15.6%, inedible crude materials 10.9%, chemicals 10.0%). Major import sources: Japan 25.9%; United States 23.2%; Germany 4.5%: Saudi Arabia 4.0%; Australia 3.7%; Canada 2.3%; Malaysia 2.3%; United Kingdom 1.9%. Exports (1991): U.S.$71,870,100,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.6%, manufactured goods 22.0%, chemicals 4.4%, food and live animals 2.9%, mineral fuels 2.1%). Major export destinations: United States 25.8%; Japan 17.2%; Hong Kong 6.6%; Germany 4.4%; Singapore 3.8%; United Kingdom 2.5%; Canada 2.3%; Taiwan 2.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 4,012 mi, 6,456 km; passenger-km 29,868,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 13,476,000,000. Roads (1988): total length 34,659 mi, 55,778 km (paved 61%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 2,074,922; trucks and buses 1,308,385. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons

and over) 2,136; total deadweight tonnage 12,227,135. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 18,708,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,494,000,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990):

total number 81; total circulation 13,000,0007; circulation per 1.000 population 3097. Radio (1991): 42,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.0 persons). Television (1991): 8,700,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1990): 12,814,000 (1 per 3.3 persons).

Education and health

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Vocational Higher

nomic development 17.0%,

W

2.45

1985

Education (1991) Budget

5.0

21.2

935,000

100.0 100.0

student/

National economy (I9i)0).

04 262 72 04

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $3,559,000,000: expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,166,000,000. Land use (1989): forested 65.7%; meadows and pastureland 0.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%; other 11.9%.

% of total

Age breakdown ;

81,000 4.847,000 1 .339,000 71,000 922,000 3.920.000

17 8

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

price index Monthly earnings index

1990): urban 74.4%; rural 25.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.34%; female 49.66%. 13.7';

0.5 29.2 12 9

-750,4"

U.S.S'OOO.OOO

Population (1992): 43,663,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 1,139.3. persons per sq 'rban-rural

7837

13.419.8 11.172.5

Consumer

Demography

I

3292,000

11,3 13.8 7.9 6.6

labour

force

9.1

169,701.46

Price

$

Kwang|u-si Pusan-si

% of

labour force

15,444,5

Population economically active (1990): total 18,487,000: activity rate 43.1% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 60.0%; female 40.4%; unemployed 2.4%).

1

Special cities lnch'6n-si

32.000.000

population

area

Capitals

value

23.3584

Services TOTAL

Area and population

% ol total

49.499.1 21.835.0 3.682 1 12,100.5 19.156.3

Other

Provinces Cheju-do Cholla-namdo

1

1990 value

000,000,000

in

W

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

(W)=

1.

I

S.$5,400 pel capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

|

Form of government:

World

lln

teacher

teachers

students

6,245

138.200

4.758.505

4,198

187,620

4.443.242

23.7

560

43.821

1,518,512

34,7

ratio

34.4

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: primary education or less 33.7%, of which no formal schooling (1985) 14.3%; some secondary and secondary 52.1%; postsecondary 14.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 96.3%; males literate 99.1%; females literate 93.5%. Health (1990): physicians 42,554 (1 per 1,007 persons); hospital beds 99,843 (1 per 429 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 12.8, Food 1987-89); daily per capita caloric intake 2,853 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (

Military Total active duty personnel ( 1991): 750.000 (army 86.7%, navy 8.0%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 4.3% (world 4.9', ); per capita expenditure: U.S. $214.

GNP

'Census data arc preliminary. -Rclcrs to persons who have received commandments, religious function accepted baptism, or entered a faith and who participate m regularly or put the religious idea into practice. 'Excludes (arm households. •Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 'Unemployed. ("Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7 Cireulation for 1988. ,i

646

Britannica World Data

145,200; bread 84,100; hydrated lime 51,802; metal pipes 41,800; bran 41,600: soda 17,879; chlorine gas 15,850; asbestos pipes

Kuwait

salt 37,859; liquefied caustic

12,969; fats

name: Dawlat al-Kuwayt (State

Official

Kuwait

Capital:

City.

unit:

(KD)=

1,000

1992)

KD = U.S.$3.45=£2.00.

1

1

Kuwaiti dinar

fils;

valuation (Oct.

oil

10,912; plastic pipes 4,903; detergents 2,800; biscuits 1,173,000 gallons; hydrogen gas 5,011,000 cu m;

sodium hydrochloride 11,987 cu m. Construction (floor area approved for construction; 1989): residential 2,563,000 sq m; nonresidential 416.00(1 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 20.610,000,000 (20,610,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 432,393,000 (202,800,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 27,325,000 (3,156,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 5,227,139,000 (7,277,299,000). Population economically active (1990): total 722,495; activity rate of total population 37.2% (participation rates [1988]: ages 15-64, 56.1%; female 18.8%; unemployed 1.9%).

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

Monetary

and

1,195; hydrochloric acid

of Kuwait). Form of government: Constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (National Assembly [50]). Head of state and government: Emir, assisted by Prime Minister.

5,

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

19906

9

100.0

101

101.6

103.1

106 6

17

Earnings index

Area and population area

population

1

sq mi

Governorates

Capitals

al-AhmadT

al-AhmadT

al-FarwanTyah

al-Farwanlyah

al-Jahra

al-Jahra

Capital

Kuwait City

Hawaii!

Hawaii!

Islands^

_

sq

4,372

1 1

38 138

.324

98

358

347

900

6.880"

TOTAL

)

301,513 416.644 241,285 241.356 496,503

5,138

1.984

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.4; annual income per household (1973 7 KD 4,246 (U.S.$ 12,907); sources of income: wages and salaries 53.8%, self-employment 20.8%, other 25.4%; expenditure (1988): food, beverages, and tobacco 28.1%, housing and energy 15.5%, transportation 13.7%, household appliances 11.2%, clothing and footwear 8.1%, education and recreation 5.2%, health 0.7%. Land use (1990): forested 0.1%; meadows and pastures 7.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.2%; other, built-up, and wasteland 92.2%.

1985 census

km

17,818

1

,697,301

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1992): 1,190,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 173.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 95.6%; rural 4.4%. Sex distribution (1990): male 56.50%; female 43.50%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

km

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

+1,861,9

+1,618,1

33.7%

+ 996.8 26.9%

+ 679.5

34.5%

+ 664,2 18.7%

+ 1 ,774 35.6%

66.8.

KD 000,000

% Of total

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 35.5%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 27.2%; 45-59, 10.3%; 60-74, 2.1%; 75 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2000) n.a.; (2010) n.a. Doubling time: n.a.

Ethnic composition (1991): Kuwaiti Arab 51.6%; non-Kuwaiti Arab 45.3%; Asian 3.1%. Religious affiliation (1986): Muslim 90.0%, of which SunnI 63.0%, Shfah 27.0%; Christian 8.0%; Hindu 2.0%. Major cities (1985): as-SalimTyah 153,220; Hawaii! 145,215; al-Jahra' 111,165; al-FarwanTyah 68,665; Kuwait City 44,224.

Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1989): 25.9 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1989): 2.3 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 23.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 3.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth ( 19X9): male 72.(1 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): circulatory diseases 73.6 accidents, poisoning, and violence 31.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 25.5 respiratory diseases 16.5; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 6.9 infectious and parasitic diseases 6.7; diseases of the digestive system 4.9 diseases of the nervous system 1.3.

KD

1,849,410,000 (machinery and transport

;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):

total length 2,655 mi, 4,273

of receivers 1.100.000 of receivers 800,00(1 per 6.9 persons)

(1 (1

per 1.9 persons). Television (1989): total number per 2.6 persons). Telephones (1988): 281,771 (1

Education and health student/

schools

KD

870,000,000 (oil revenue 80.5%). Expenditures: 6,087,000,000 (defense 43.4%; electricity, water, and public utilities 7.6%; education 7.5%; administrative services 3.9%; health 3.1%; transportation and communications 1.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$610,0()0.0005. Tourism (1990): receipts from usitors U.S.$80,000.000; expenditures by na-

KD

abroad U.S.$2,315,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1989): U.S.$33,089,O0O,OOO tionals

(U.S.$16,15(I per capita)

km

(paved 100%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 499,388; trucks and buses 110,663. Merchant marine (1991); vessels (100 gross tons and over) 197; total deadweight tonnage 2,293,230. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 1,185,994,000, passenger-km 1,908,264,000; short ton-mi cargo 197,624,000, metric ton-km cargo 288,526,000; airports (1992) with scheduled nights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 9; total circulation 655,000; circulation per 1,000 population 550. Radio (1989): total number

Education (1991-92)

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue:

18.6%

equipment 29.5%, manufactured goods 22.1%, food and live animals 17.3%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 17.2%, chemical products 7.7%, fuels 1.0%). Major import sources: United States 14.6%; Japan 11.4%; West Germany 7.8%; United Kingdom 6.4 f r Italv 5.7%; South Korea 3.9%; France 3.6%. Exports (1989): KD 3,378,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 92.2%). Major export destinations: Japan 18.8%; The Netherlands 9.2%; United States 8.4%; Pakistan 5.9%; Singapore 4.6%; India 4.2%; Italy 4.1%; Denmark 3.5%; Taiwan 3.3%. Imports (1989):

Primary (age 6-9) Secondary (age 10-17) Voc, teacher tr,

Higher

2038 315* 34 1

teachers

students

10,310 21,585

189,560 270,580 2.872 17,988

617 1.181

teacher

ratio

18,4 12.5 4 7

152

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 33.2%; primary education 18.4%; some secondary 22.7%; complete secondary 14.6%; higher 11.1%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 73.0%; males literate 77.1%; females literate 66.7%. Health (1989): physicians 2,949 (1 per 695 persons); hospital beds 6,104k (j per 336 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 14.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,146 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. 1

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988

989 in

value

KD 000.000

460

Agriculture

Mining (oil sector) Manufacturing Construction

2.773,0

Public utilities Transportation and

-43

974 155

communications Trade Finance

TOTAL

labour force

of total

value

07 409 14.4

23 -0

6

272

4,0

5550

82

,

defense

2.0470 6.779.0

30.2

100.0*

\

8.756 6.028 50,160 107,404 6,908

36,938 79.882 22,132

]

Pub admin Services Other

%

}

of labour

force 1.3

Military

0.9

72

Total active duty personnel 1992): 11,700 (army 68.4%-, navy 10.2%, air force 21.4%). Milium expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 6.2% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $692. (

15.4

10 5.3 1

14 3.2

370,238

530

10.472 698.918

100,0"

1.5

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): tomatoes 34,0(1(1. cucumbers and gherkins 2(1,(1(10, onions 20,000, eggplants 2.000. pumpkins and squash l.ooo. uarlte 1,000: livestock (number of live animals) 200,000 sheep. 25,000 goats.' 18,000 cattle. 6.000 camels. 21,000,000 chickens; fish catch 4.500. Mining and quarrying 1988): sulfur 360,000; lime (

(

65,000.

Manufacturing (1989): cement

1.107,700;

ammonia

808,400; flour

(Area of governorates reflects conditions prior to Amiri Decree No. 156 of 1988, which established al-Farwanlyah governorate. 2 Governorates have no administrative function. 'Bubian Island 333 sq mi (863 sq km) and Warba Island 14 sq mi (37 sq km). 4 Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, includes external long-term debt not guaranteed by the government. ]vlay. 'Kuwaiti households only. S1990-91. "1488-89. '"Public hospitals only.

Nations

Kyrgyzstan

of tin-

Structure of net material product and labour force 1991

name Kyrgyzstan Respublikasj Republic ol Kyrgyzstan). Form of government: unitary multipart} republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [350]). Head of state: President. Head of government. Prime Minister. Capital: Bishkek (Frunze). Official language: kyrgyz. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: ruble = 100 kopecks; Official

Public

1

U.S.$=316.82

I

1 = 538.59

36 4

474.000

332

5.0540

453

400.000

280

78.600 92.900 40.000

5.5 6.5 2.8

Area and population

1 1

Construction Transportation and

864.0

7.7

communications Trade

307.0

28

— —

—

population

Other

—

TOTAL

11.152.0

100.0

8690

Capitals

Chu

Kara-Balta

Dzhalal-Abad

Dzhalal-Abad

Issyk-Kul

Issyk-Kul

Naryn

Naryn

Osh

Osh

Talas

Talas

km

sq mi

sq

7,200 15,200 16,800 18.300 14,700 4,400

18,700 39,500 43,500 47,300 38,100

76,600

198,500

1991 estimate

Price

1 1

,400

288,100 55.300 1

,428.900

20.2 3.9 100.0'

Population economically active (1990): total 1,894,000; activity rate of total population 42.8% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [feunemployed 2.6%). male], 81.3%; female 4N.n'


529,000

28.0

.5

3.4

4J

,A

)

100.0

expenditure: n.a. use (1990): forested 53.6%;

US$000,000

km

18.6.

(1990): 74. 4.2' i 75 ;

male 50.25%; female 49.75%. under 15, -43.7',; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, and over, 0.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,435,000; (2010) 6,710,000. Doubling tunc 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Lao-Lu (Lao) 67.0%; Lao-Theng (Mon-Khmer) 16.5%; Lao-Tai (Tai) 7.8%; Lao-Soung (Miao |Hmong] and Man [YaoJ) 5.2',; other 3.5%. Religious affiliation (1980): Buddhist 57.8%; tribal religionist 33.6%; Christian 1.8%, oi which Roman Catholic 0.8%, Protestant 0.2%; Muslim 1.0%; atheist 1.0%; Chinese folk-religionist 0.9%; none 3.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities 1985): Vientiane 178,203; Savannakhet 96,652; ouangphrabang I

(

Pakxe 47,323.

68, J99;

72.0

100

1,888.000

meadows and

pastures 3.4%; agricultural

cultivation 3.8%; other 39.2%.

Foreign trade 4

(

i>n-

force

,359.000

,

10 3

333.6753

and under permanent

Demography

.

1

of labour

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 6.0; average annual income per household KN 3,710 (U.S. $371); sources of income:

377.409 3,584,803

236.800

Population (1992): 4,409,000. l W2): persons per sq mi 48.2, persons per sq Density Chan-rural 1990): urban 19.0%; rural 81.0%.

I

""''

/

% of total

9.2'

57.4 9.9 0.3 3.7 2

%

force

Balance of trade (current prices)

Municipalities Vientiane TOTAL

(

191.667 32.940

14,683 34,344 4,986 11.250

Trade Finance

69,631 54,925 122,300 403,041 209,921 213,462 97.028 295,475 187,115 122.984 187,515 543,61 264,277 223,61 50,909 161,589

Phongsali Saravan

Phongsali

U.S.$848,000,000

labour

of tota

value

12.499 6.517

and communications

1985 census

km

Thakhek Louang Namtha Louangphrabang Xay

Oudomxay

1990):

1989

%

value

KN 000,000

1,048

Public utilities Transportation

population

Xam Nua

Khammouan

current market prices;

(at

at;

Area and population

Bolikhamxay

(74,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).

1989

(KN)=

kip

I

none

Gross national product (U.S.S200 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official language: Lao. Official religion: none.

Monetary

Energy production (consumption): electric(kW-hr; 1990) 870,000,000 (363,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1981) 1,000 (1.000); crude petroleum, n.a. (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) hectolitres. Construction: n.a.

Vital statistics

1984

1985

1986

-118.0 39.8%

-139.0 56.3%

-131.0

544%

-

154

55.4%

-125

-162.0 58.7%

49.8%

Imports (1989): U.S.$219,000,000 (important imports include cereals, other food products, petroleum products, agricultural and general machinery, and transport equipment). Major import sources: Thailand 55.1%; Japan 22.0%; China 4.0',; Hong Kong 0.5%. Exports 1989): U.S.$57.()00,000 (1988; wood 47.6%, electricity 17.5%, coffee 12.7%, tin 3.2%). Major export destinations: Thailand 37.4%; China 11.6%; Japan 7.3%; Hong Kong 0.6%. (

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990):

total length 8,681

mi, 13,971

km

(paved 21%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 17,000; trucks and buses 3,500. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 1,469. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 11,000,000, passenger-km 18,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,370,000, metric ton-km cargo 2.000.000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 3; total circulation 30,500; circulation per 1,000 population 7.7. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 425.000 (1 per 10 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 32,000 (1 per 134 persons). Telephones (1985): 8,136 (1 per 450 persons).

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 37.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population 1991); 15.0 (world avg. 9.2). (

Natural increase raw per 1,000 population (1991): 22.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman: 1991): 5.0. Marriage rale per l.OOO population; n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. / ife expei nun .it birth 1990): male 48.3 years; female 51.3 years. Major causes "I death per 100.000 population: n.a; however, during the 1980s bronchitis, influenza, pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhea were among the country's major health problems. )

(

National economy

Education (1988-89)

student/

schools Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) voc. teacher tr Higher

8,330

750 1175 9

teachers

students

19,438 9,752 2,0496

571 ,630

503

124169 16,2936 5,253

teacher

ratio

294 127 80S 104

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 83.9%; males literate 92.095 females literate 75.8%. Health (1985): physicians 558 (1 per 6,495 persons); hospital beds 9,815 (1 per 369 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 124. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2.190 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10'; ); 101', of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;

Budget (1990). Revenue: KN 58,245,000,000 (taxes 76.0',. nontax revenue Expenditures: KN 131,957,000,000 (current expenditure 49.9%, capital expenditure 50.1' Publu debt external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.S 1,052,000,000. Tourism 1989) total number of tourist arrivals 2,631. Population economically active (1989): total 1,888,000; activity rate of total population 49.095 (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 84.2%; female '

Education and health

1

1

I

1

45.3'

,

:

unemployed,

n.a.).

Price and earnings indexes (1985 1982

Consumer

price index

30

= 100) 1984

1983

1

1985

1986?

100.0

136.2

Military

dun personnel (1992): 37,000 (army 89.2%, navy 1.4%, air force 9.4%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP (1984): 10.5% (world 5.7%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 16.

Total active

Earnings index

Production (metric tons except .is noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishinu 1991 ): cassava 66,000, corn rice 1.400.0011. sweet potatoes 120,000, sugarcane 97, (maize) 60,000, onions 42.01m, potatoes 33,000, pineapples 32.000, melons 32,000, oranges 22.0O0. bananas 18,000; livestock (number ol live animals) pigs, 1. 100.0011 water buffalo, 865,000 cattle, 143,000 goats. 45,000 horses. 8,000, chickens; roundwood (1989) 3,972,000 cu m; fish catch IW)) uvpsum 104,000: rock salt 7,950; 0. Mining and quarrying (

(

:

'Formerly known as the Supreme People's Assembly. -January-June. -'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4 lmport figures are c.i.f. in balance of trade and commodities. 51984-85. 61987 88.

Nations

ol the

World

roundwood

1,526,000 CU m; fish catch 129.7(H). Mining and quarryim lass and construction materials and gypsum 105,000 clay l"i ceramics are also produced. Manulacturing (1990): processed milk

Latvia

1,000;

name: atvijas Republika (Republic ol Latvia). Form of government: unitary multipart] republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Council |2oi |). Official

l

hie) oj state: Chairman of Supreme Council. Head of government: Prime (

cement 744,300; steel 550,100; processed meats 308,500 107,200; synthetic fibres 18,330; telephones 2,546,000 units; diesel engines 1,893,200;

and generators

177. lino units: minivans 17,100 units; rail passenger cars 539 beer 873,800 hectolitres; vodka 212,100 hectolitres; textile sq m. Construction (1990): new residential ni rgj production 19,000 sq m (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 10 >al none petroleum, none gas. (n.a.); crude (n.a.j: natural none (n.a.). I lydroelectrical power (67.69! and peat provide most of Latvia's energy. Gross national product (1990): 20,612,000,000 rabies (7.676 rubles per capita)-1

units;

I

the Minister.

)

Capital: Riga.

.

Official language: Latvian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: (until May 7. 1992)

Structure of net material product and labour force

(Soviet) ruble = 100 kopecks; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ 316.82 rubles; l£=538.59 rubles. Latvian ruble (LR) introduced May 7, 1992, at par with Soviet ruble and circulated parallel with it; on July 20, became sole legal tender, floating against all currencies; valuation not available.

1990

1

in

=

Agriculture

1

LR

Manulacturing and mining Construction Transportation and

communications Trade

Area and population

population

area

1991 Cities of republic jurisdiction

Daugavpils Jelgava Jurmala Liepaja

Rezekne Riga Venlspils

Capitals

— — — — — — —

7

72 60 100 60 17

114

295

18

46

43.200 910,200 50.400

988 867 920 727

2.558 2,246 2,384 1.884 3.062 2,526 1,680 1,876 2,998 1,613 2,288 2,503 3,589 2,602 2,566 3.348 1.816 2.042 2,654 3,094 2.134 2,748 2,457 2,444 2,377 2.471 64.610

44,900 28.700 33,500 55,800 64.400 46.000 45.200 30,200 62.300 39,100 41.200 40,800 54,700 41,200 41.600 49,600 66,100 45.300 43,200 153,300 39,700 49,900 59,200 37,300 63.200 15.400 2,680,500

28 23 39 23

129.000 74.500

66500 1H.900

Pub. admin., defense, and finance Services Other TOTAL

Aizkraukle

Aluksne

Aluksne

Balvi

Balvi

Bauska

Bauska

Cesis Daugavpils

Cesis Daugavpils

Dobele Gulbene

Dobele Gulbene

Jekabpils

Jekabpils Jelgava Kraslava KuldTga

1.158

Uepaja

Liepaja

Limbazi

Limbazi

Jelgava Kraslava Kuldiga

1.182

975 649 724 623 883 966

Ludza

Ludza

Madona

Madona

Ogre

Ogre

1,386 1.005 991 1.293 701

Prei|i

Prei|i

788

Rezekne

Rezekne

Riga Saldus

Riga Saldus

Talsi

Talsi

Tukums

Tukums

Valka Valmiera Vents pils TOTAL

Valka Valmiera Ventspils

1.025 1.194

824 1,061

949 944 918 954 24.9462

value

1,980 4,213

227

697

8.0

48.3

650

7.4

1.191

13.6

— —

% of labour

labour force

force

218,700 426,200 144,500

15.5 30.3 10.3

103,200 128.300

73 9.1

)

-\

387,800

27.5

,408,700

100.0

-J 100.0

8,731

Population economically active (1990): total 1,408,700; activity rate of total population 52.5%; (participation rates: ages 16-59/55 4 93.4%; female, n.a.: ,

unemployed, Price

Rural districts Aizkraukle

% of total

value

000,000 rubles

n.a.).

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1985

1986

1987

100.0

105.4

110.0

100

1028

1066

1991

114.6 115.9

120.6 127.6

133.7 148 5

350.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1990): wages and salaries 75.7%, pensions and transfers 8.5%, self-employment 3.8%. other 12.0%; expenditure:

n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 000.000 rubles

% of total

1988

1989

1990

-700

-617

-784

6.7%

5.4%

6.5%

Imports (1990): 6,358,000,000 rubles (industrial goods 88.1%, of which machinery and metalworking equipment 28.2%). Major import sources (1989): Commonwealth of Independent States- (CIS-) member countries and Georgia (former U.S.S.R.) 75.0%, non-CIS countries 25.0%. Exports (1990): 5,574,000,000 rubles (industrial goods 87.9%, of which machinery and metalworking equipment 27.2%, consumer goods 21.5%). Major export destinations (1989): CIS countries and Georgia 93.2%, non-CIS countries 6.8%.

Demography Population (1992): 2,685,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 107.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 71.1%; rural 28.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 46.60%; female 53.40%.

Transport and communications

km

41.6.

Age breakdown

(144(1): under 15, 21.5%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30-44, 20.6%; 45-59, 18.9%; 60-74, 12.2%; 75 and over, 5.3%. Population projection: (2000) 2,768,000; (2010) 2,853,000. Ethnic composition (1989): Latvian 52.0%; Russian 34.0%; Belorussian 4.5%; Ukrainian 3.5%; Polish 2.3%; Lithuanian 1.3%; Jewish 0.9%; other 1.5%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, or Roman Catholic. Major cities (1991): Riga 910,200; Daugavpils 129,000; Liepaja 114,900; Jelgava 74,500; Jurmala 66,500.

Vital statistics

Transport. Railroads (1990): length 1,489 mi, 2,397 km; passenger-km 5,366,000,000; metric-km cargo 18,538,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 79,100 km (paved 49%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 271,500; trucks and buses 14,1 16. Merchant marine (1991): cargo vessels 87; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3,357,000,000; metric 22,000,000; airports (1992) 1.

Education and health Education (1990-91)

per 1,000 population (1990): 14.1 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate 83.1%; illegitimate 16.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 13.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rale per 1.000 population (1990): 1.1 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989-90): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 4.0. Life expectancy at birth 1990): male 64.2 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 1(10,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 756.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 207.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 138.9; diseases of the respiratory system 44.0.

student/

teacher

Birth rate

(

National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: 4,575,100,000 rubles (turnover tax 46.4%; slate participation in economic enterprises 25.6%). Expenditures: 4,376,500,000 rubles (economic affairs 54.8%; social affairs 31.6%, of which education and science 13.8%, social security 10.4%, health 7.3', ), Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): grains 1,622,000, potatoes 1,016,000, sugar beets 439,100, vegetables 169,400, fruits and berries 31,900, flax librc 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,401,000 pigs, 535,000 dairy cattle. 165.000 sheep, 10.321,000 poultry; (

ton-km cargo

Communications. Total newspapers (1990): total number 172; total circulation 4,396.000; circulation per 1,000 population 1,637. Radio (1990): 1.4 receivers per household. Television (1990): 1.2 receivers per household. Telephones (1990): 732,000 (1 per 3.7 persons).

Primary

Secondary f Voc, teacher Higher

ratio

1

32,200 tr.

36,100 46,000

Educational attainment ( 1989). Percentage of persons age 15 and over having: primary or less 18.7%; incomplete secondary 23.4%; complete secondary 46.4%; some higher 11.5%. Literacy: approximately 98%. Health (1990): physicians 13,240 (1 per 202.7 persons); hospital beds 39,500 ).7 (1 per 67.9 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births I

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 2,550. Military expenditure: n.a. Until 1991, the U.S.S.R. was responsible for Latvia's external security: about 40,00(1 of its troops remained in Latvia at year-end 1992.

'Interim currency unit until its eventual replacement b) a new national currency, the lats, when the LR exchange rate has stabilized. -Detail dues not add in total given because of rounding. -'No equivalent U.S.S value is offered, as Soviet GNP very speculative. 4 Males relue at age 59, females at 55.

Britannica World Data

650

Lebanon

Consumer

name: al-Jumhuriyah

Official

Consumer

al-Lubnanlyah (Republic of Lebanon). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [128])'. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

price index

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

40.6

48.7

51.9

61.0

1000

204 6

1.030.6

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1985): U.S.S 1,800,000,000 (U.S.S690 per capita); though estimates are very uncertain, the GNP may have grown during 1985-88, perhaps regaining 83% of its prewar value. Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1987

Capital: Beirut.

none.

1

£

5,

= LL

1992)

1

U.S.$ =

LL

2.473;

Public

Area and population

area

Pub admin

population

1970

Governorates

Capitals

BayrOt

Beirut (Bayrut)

al-Biqa'

Jabal Lubnan al-Jandb

Zahlah B'abda Sidon (Sayda)

ash-Shamal

Tripoli (Tarabulus)

TOTAL

191

694

14.7 4.8

01 178

6

6

1.127

34.2

123.647 43,357 6.668 48,242 114.706 24,224

commun

sq mi

sq

7 1,653

km

defense

474,870 203,520 833,055 249,945 364,935 2.126.325

2.001 1.981

10,230

08 87

171

5.2

1

22 96/ 100

7566 3.296

estimate

18 4,280 1,950

753 772 765 3,950

—

286 ,

force

483 158 28

—

Services TOTAL

of labour

132,211

utilities

Transp and Trade Finance

%

87

Mining Manufacturing Construction

4,204.

labour force

of total

value

287

Agriculture

Monetary unit: 1 Lebanese pound (LL) = 100 piastres; valuation (Oct.

%

in value U.S.$'000,0005

Official language: Arabic. Official religion:

= 100)

price index (1985

,

62 1

7.0 16.5 3.5

200,063

28.8

693.812

1000

Land

use (1990): forested 7.7%; meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 28.9%; wasteland and other areas 62.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

LL 000.000

%

Population (1992): 2,803,000. Density 1992); persons per sq mi 709.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 83.7%; rural 16.3%. Sex distribution (1990); male 48.57%; female 51.43%.

km

(

(1990): under 15, 36.1%; 15-29, 30.5%; 30-44, 15.8%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60-74, 6.1%; 75 and over. 1.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,327,000; (2010) 3,898,000.

Doubling time: during the 1970-75 prewar period the average growth rate was 2.6%; however, the dislocation of the population by the civil war between 1976 and 1991 rendered both the absolute size and principal components of population change (births, deaths, migration) highly problematic. Ethnic composition (1983): Lebanese 82.6%; Palestinian 9.6%; Armenian 4.9%; Syrian, Kurd, and other 2.9%. Religious affiliation: no official data exist subsequent to the 1932 census, when Christians (predominantly Maronite Roman Catholic) were a slight majority; it is thought that Muslims today constitute the majority but by what margin is highly uncertain. Unofficial and CIA estimates (1984/1986) indicated that the main religious groups were distributed as follows: Shfi Muslim 32/41%; Maronite Christian 24.5/16%; SunnT Muslim 21/27?? Druze 7 7'r; Greek Orthodox 6.5/5%; Greek Catholic 4/3%; Armenian Christian ;

V

other 1/1%. Beirut 1,500,000; Tripoli 160.000; Zahlah 45,000; Sidon (Sayda) 38,000; tyre 14,000 ,

n.a.:

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

-12,461

-13,987 64.9%

- 25,581 61.8%

- 59,090 60.6%

-269,311 50.4%

69.0%

Imports (1987): LL 402,027,000,000 (1982; consumer goods 40.0%, machinery and transport equipment 35.0%, petroleum products 20.0%). Major import sources: Italy 10.7%; Turkey 8.5%; France 8.1%; West Germany 5.9%. Exports (1987): LL 132,716,000,000 (1985; jewelry 10.2%, clothing 5.2%, pharmaceutical products 4.9%, metal products 4.8%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 8.7%; Switz. 7.6%; Jordan 6.0%; Kuwait 5.4%; U.S. 5.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1982) 7 length (1986) 417 km; passenger-km 8,570,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,010,000. Roads (1987): total length 7,370 km (paved 85%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 300,000; trucks and buses 49,560. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 164; total dead:

weight tonnage 424,646. Air transport (1990)**: passenger-km 1,503,227,000; metric ton-km cargo 24,037,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1986): total number 39; total circulation 572,7349; circulation per 1,000 population 211.69. Radio (1991): 2,150,000 receivers (I per 1.3 persons). Television (1991): 838,037 receivers (1 per 3.3 persons). Telephones (1987): 150,400 (1 per 18.4 persons).

cities (1990):

Education and health Education (1984-85)

Vital statistics Birth rule per l.ooo population (1990-95): 29.6 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1990-95): 7.7 (world avg. 9.2).

Primary (age 5-9)

Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990-95): 21.9 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 3.4. Life expectancy at birth ( 1940-95): male 61.5 years; female 69.0 years. Maim causes of death: normally, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, including typhoid fever and dysentery; but violence and acts of war were aKo among the principal causes of mortality between 1975 and 1991.

National economy Budget

1982

-9,890 48.5%

274.0.

Age breakdown

Major

of total

|

1992).

Revenue: LL 1,470,000,000.000

Higher

1

0- 1 6)

teachers

students'^

student/ teacher ratio

2.130 1 ,405

22,810" 21,344"

399,029 279.849 30.407 70.510

10.6 9.5

'

181" 18"

3,506 7,460

Educational attainment (1 970). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 45.6%, of which, ability to read and write 35.6%; incomplete primary education 28.5%; complete primary 10.8%; incomplete secondary 7.1%; complete secondary 4.9%; higher 3.1%. Literacy 1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 1,538,800 (80.1%); males literate, c. 798,100 (87.8%); females literate, c. 739,100 (73.1%). Health 1986): physicians 3,509 (1 per 771 persons); hospital beds (1982) 11,400 (1 per 263 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 44.0. Food (1979-81): daily per capita caloric intake 2.995 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (

(

1986;

income taxes 49.6%, cus-

toms J1.59J Expenditures: LL 1,470,000,000,000 L990; debt service 22.9%, public works and transportation 7.0 C education 5.0 c i ). defense 16.0' Publu debt (external, outstanding; 1990V U.S.$248,000,00p. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): oranges 270,000, potatoes 200,000, grapes 200,000, tomatoes 200,000, apples 195,000, sugar beets 90,000, cucumbers 75,000, lemons and limes 65,000, onions 50,000, tangerines, mandarins, and Clementines 50,000; opium poppics were an increasingly important cash crop in the late 1980s; livestock (number of live animals) 400,000 goats, 205,000 sheep, 57,000 cattle, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood 467,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 1.500. Mining and quarrying (1989): lime 10,000; salt 3,000; gypsum 2,000. Manufacturing (1988): cement 907,000; wheat flour 190.000 2 paper and paperboard 37,000; petroleum refining is also significant. Construction 1^87): 4.938,000 sq m Energ} production (consumption): electricity (kW'-hr: 1990) 4.735,000,1,777, ,000); coal. n.a. (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) n.a. (9,265,000); petroleum products (metric tons. 1990) 1.192.000 (2. 781.000); ).

|

'
.-'

•

population

km

sq mi

sq

21,000 18.000 45,000 19,000 47,700 43 000 30.000 32,000 55,000 32.000 29,000 39,000 64,000 24,000 16,000 32,000 31.000 27,000

55,000 46.000 116,000 49,000 123.500

100

200 800

1 1 1

,000

78,000 82,000 142,000 82.000 76,000 101,000 165,000 63.000 42,000 82,000 81,000 69,000

1,722 9 2.919.8

Agriculture

1989 census 84,700 90.900 74.600 51.900 80,800 57,000 49,300 88.500 62,f00 73.800 76.500 101.800 42,400 96,500 86,900 50,900 100,000 83.900

Mining and manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun Trade Services 5 Other

16.1

27.2

6172 9038

84

47,000''

2,3274

21.7

57,100" 133,400 48,400 633,200

5.8

120

1,285.4

954 46

8.96 100.0'

10,730.9

TOTAL

18 9 6.6 7.4« 9.0« 21.1

7.6

100

Population economically active (1990): total 648,700; activity rate of total population 30.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1985] 82.2%; female [1987] 52.4%; unemployed [1991) 10.0%). Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

99.4 99.0

100.0 100.0

99

990

99.0 101.3

102 9

100.4

101.0

99.0

Household income and expenditure. Average family size (1989) 4.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 75. 1% 7 transfer payments 15.1%. self-employment 3.4%, other 6.4%; expenditure ,

(1989): products 82.0%, services 18.0%. Land use (1989): forested 8.9%; meadows and pastures 79.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.9%; other 10.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

— — —

Ulaanbaatar TOTAL

300 800 604,800'

2.000 1.566,500

85,800 56,100 548,400 2,043.400

Demography Population (1992): 2,182,000. Density 1492): persons per sq mi 3.6, persons per sq i rhan rural (1990): urban 58.0%; rural 42.0%. (

km

1.4.

male 49.90%; female 50.10%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 41.9%; 15-29, 29.2%; 30-44, 14.6%; 45-59. 8.5%; 60 and over. 5.8%. (

(n.a

Cross national product (1990):

in

area

Provinces Afhangay

Sex distribution

tuns;

673

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(F=

Area and population

Autonomous

(metric

World

petroleum products (metric tons: 1990) none (706,000); natural

name Mongol

tugriks;

\

(

Hit

l

1989):

000.000 rubles

% of total

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

- 272 22.7%

- 283 22.8%

- 259 21.2%

-251 20.2%

-162

-176

14.4%

16.6%

1990

Imports (1990): 139,400,000 tugriks (1989; machinery and transport equipment 29.6%; fuels, minerals, and metals 27.3%; consumer goods 21.9%; food products 12.5%; chemical products and rubber 8.7%). Major import sources (1989): U.S.S.R. and socialist countries 95.6%; capitalist countries 4.1%. Exports (1990): 99,700,000 tugriks (1989; minerals and metals 42.8%; raw materials and food products 35.7%; consumer goods 17.5%; construction materials 4.0%). Major export destinations (1989): U.S.S.R. and socialist countries 93.1%; capitalist countries 6.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,552,000; (2010) 3,104,000.

Transport and communications

Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1979): Khalkha Mongol 77.5%; Kazakh 5.3%; Dorbed Mongol 2.8%; Bayad 2.0%; Buryat Mongol 1.9%; Dariganga Mongol 1.5%; other 9.0%. Religious affiliation: although formal freedom of worship exists, all traditional religious practice (lamaistic Buddhism, shamanism, Islam, and others) has been greatly reduced during the 20th century: reliable data on the current

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 1,445 mi, 2,325 km; passenger-km 578,000,000-1 metric ton-km cargo 5,960,000,0001 Roads (1988): total length 30,600 mi, 49,200 km (paved 2%). Vehicles: n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1988): passenger-km 532,400,000; metric ton-km cargo 10,600,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation

situation do not exist. Major eities (1991): Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator) 575,000; Darhan 90,000: Erdenet 56.200-.

Vital statistics

;

222,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1991): total number (1 per 7.8 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 120,000 (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1990): 66,400 (1 per 32 persons).

of receivers 275,000

Education and health

Birth rate per 1.000 population (I9S9): 36.0 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1989): 8.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1989): 28.0 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.8. Divorce rate per 1.000 population (1989): 0.5. 1990): male 61.2 years; female 63.8 years. Life expectancy at hirth Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, in the 1980s, major causes of mortality included diseases of the respiratory system, diseases of the cardiovascular system, malignant neoplasms (cancers), diseases of the digestive system, and injuries, accidents, and poisonings.

Education (1990-91)

student/

schools Primary and secondary (age 8-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

665 44

teacher

teachers

21,900 1.2008 1,465

459.400 29.100 13.829

ratio

21.0 17.76 9.4

(

National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: 7,375,000.000 tugriks (turnover tax 59.7%, deductions from profits 33.8%, social insurance contributions 3.5%, income tax 0.7%). Expenditures: 7,375.000,000 tugriks (economy 47.2%, social and cultural services 40.5%, defense 8.0%, administration and other 4.3%). Public debt (external; 1991): U.S.$ 16,800,000,000. Tourism (1990): number of international arrivals 147.200. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): cereals 718,300. potatoes 131.100. vegetables 41,700; livestock (number of live animals) 14,831,900 sheep. 5.028,200 goats, 2,773,900 cattle, 2,200,100 horses, 557,900 camels, 171,000 pigs'; rounuwood 2,390,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 254. Mining and quarrving (1989): copper 165,000: molybdenum 1.200. Manufacturing (1990): cement 440.800; Hour 187,000; bread 63,000; meat 53,900; plywood 3.400 cu m; woolen cloth 1,065,800 sq m; leather shoes 4,800,000 pairs; soft drinks 200.000 hectolitres; vodka 69,000 hectolitres; bricks 205.300,00(1 units; sheepskin coals 136,900 units. Construction (1988): residential 46 1, 000 sq m; nonresidential 176.000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 3.600,000,000 (3,760,000,000); coal

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: primary education 33.7%; some secondary 31.9%; complete secondary 16.9%; vocational secondary 9.4%; some higher and complete higher 8.1%. Literacy (1989): total population age 10 and over literate 97.9%. Health (1990): physicians 6,233 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 27,080 (1 per 79 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 64.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,449 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 14,500 (army 96.6%; navy, none; air force 3.4%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP: n.a.: per capita expenditure (1989) U.S.$122. The last elements of the U.S.S.R. 's 67,000-person garrison (1988) were withdrawn in September 1992.

'Detail dues not add to total given because of rounding. -1990. '1989. 'Trade includes communications. 'Services includes finance, public administration, and defense. h Other includes depreciation of fixed capital. 'Includes income from agricultural cooperatives. » 1988-89.

Britannica World Data

674

roundwood

Morocco Official

2,136,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 520.354. Mining and quarrying (1990): phosphate rock 21,189,000; barite 370,0002; iron ore 120,000; fluorite 105,0002; salt 89,0752; lead 74,400; zinc 17,500; copper 14,500. Manulacturing (1989): cement 4,641,000; refined sugar 751.979; carpets 1,642.914 sq m. Construction (value added in DH; 1989): 9,217,000. Energy produc-

name: al-Mamlakah

al-MaghribTyah (Kingdom of

Morocco). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

tion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 9,628,000,000 (9,628,000,01)0); coal (metric tons; 1990) 526,000 (1,762,000); crude petroleum (barrels: 1990) 114,000 (41,544,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4,752,000 (4,9(,5,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 50,741,000 (50,741,000).

(Chamber of Representatives [306]). Head of state and government: King.

Gross national product (1990): U.S.$23,788,000,000 (U.S.S950 per capita).

Capital: Rabat. Official language: Arabic.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official religion: Islam.

Moroccan dirham (DH)= 100 Moroccan francs;

Monetary

unit:

1

valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = 7.94; 1 £ =

DH

DH

in

DH Agriculture

13.50.

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Area and population

area

population

1992

Provinces

Capitals

Agadir

Agadir

Azilal

Azilal

Ben Mellal Ben Slimane Boulemane Chaouen (Chefchaouen)

Bern Mellal

Ben Slimane Boulemane Chaouen (Chefchaouen)

Essaouira

Essaouira

Fes

Fes

Figuig

Figuig

Guelmtm

Guelmim

al-Hoceima

al-Hoceima

Ifrane

Ifrane

el-Jadida el-Kelaa des Srarhna Kenitra

el-Jadida el-Kelaa des Srarhna Kenitra

Khemisset Khemfra Khouribga Marrakech

Khemisset

Marrakech

Meknes

Meknes

Nador

Nador Ouarzazate

Oujda

Oujda

er-Rachidia

er-Rachidia

Safi

Safi

Kacem

Kacem

Sidi

Tangier

Tangier

Tan-Tan Taounate Taroudannt

Tan-Tan Taounate Taroudannt

Tata

Tata

Taza Tetouan

Taza Tetouan

Tiznit

Tiznit

5.910 10,050 7,075 2,760 14,395 4.350 6,335 5,400 55.990 28.750 3.550 3.310 6.000 10.070 4.745 8.305 12,320 4.250 14,755 3,995 6,130 41,550 20,700 59.585 7,285 9.750 4,060 1,195 17.295 5,585 16,460 25.925 15.020 6,025 6,960

23,006 2.813 3,764

Settat

Settat

sq

2,282 3,880 2,732 1.066 5,558 1,680 2.446 2,085 21.618 11.100 1,278 2.317 3.888 1,832 3,207 4.757 1,641 5.697 1,542 2,367 16,043 7,992

Khounbga

km

sq mi

1.371

Khenifra

Ouarzazate

Sidi

1,568 461 6,678 2.156 6,355 10,010 5.799 2,326 2,687

estimate

807,000 419.000 936.000 204,000 156,000 363,000 428,000 1,029,000 108,000 168,000

371.000 116,000 928,000 684,000 920.000 473,000 442,000 547.000 1

,525,000

753,000 796,000 649,000 974,000 503.000 848,000 790,000 602.000 566,000 55.000 603,000 658,000 107,000 715,000 864,000 381.000

Prefectures

-

Chok-Hay Hassani Sebaa-Hay Mohammad Ben Msik-Sidi Othmane

Ain Ain

Casablanca Anfa

Mohammadia-Znata Rabat Sale Skhirate-Temara

452,000 587.000 984,000

}

623

1,615 1

I ]

492

1,275

177.117

458,730

J

TOTAL

,069.000

219,000 690,000 656,000 199,000 25,344,000

Demography Population (

1982

Public

utilities

Transp. and

commun.

Trade Finance Pub. admin,, defense Services Other TOTAL

\

%

value

000,000

labour force

% of labour

2,351 .629

39 2

63,360 930,615 437,464 22,465

15.5 7.3

of total

value

32.414 5,607 39.089 11,418 15,074 13.794 41,590

15.5 2.7 18.7 5.5

25.643

12,3

24,084

11,5

7.2

1

04 23

498,130

83

89

532,803 474,109 547,7043 5,999,260

1

100.0
. "Includes Netherlands Antilles and Aruba. i" 988 89. 111985-86. ^Economically active population (4.612,000) only. '-^Includes 1

3.900 military police.

Britannica World Data

680

Netherlands Antilles

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988

name: Nederlandse Antillen

Official

in

NA

(Netherlands Antilles). Political status: nonmetropolitan territory of The Netherlands with one legislative house (States of the Netherlands Antilles [22])>. Chief of state: Dutch Monarch represented by governor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Willemstad. Official language: Dutch. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Netherlands Antillean guilder (NA f.)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = NA f. 1.79:

l£ = NAf.

3.04.

Agriculture

1

Mining J Manufacturing Construction

sq mi

sq

km

estimate

4,690 15,890 4,596

64 21.8

21 ,259

292

54

335.8

14.0

Trade Finance

6323

Pub. admin., defense Services Other

482 5

26.4 13.6 20 2

325.2

2566

74 1

100

8

63

1

107 J -6.6"

-156.91" 2.3922

14,729'5 72.906

202'5 1000

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index"

288 444

111 171

Kralendijk

11.139 143.816

The Bottom

5

13

1,116

Oranjestad

8

21

1.781

13

34 800

191.311

Philipsburg

308

TOTAL

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

99.6 95.5

100.0 100.0

101.3 89 3

105.1

107.8

112.0

116.2

84.6

Public debt (1991): U.S.$375,400,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1991) U.S. $450,400,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1983)3 U.S.$ 107,000,000.

Maarten

(Dutch part only)

62

127.8

Price

population

Sint Eustatius, Sint

07

4,524 5,404 1,274

force

Population economically active (1988): total 72,906; activity rate of total population 38.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 43.1% 16 female 43.1%; unemployed 20.4%). area

Willemstad

or Stalia

540

9.5

TOTAL

Leeward Islands

Saba

09

;

Capitals

Curacao Windward Islands

225

59

19922

Bonaire

labour force

139.6

and communications

% of labour

value

000,000

of total

226 8

Public utilities Transportation

..

Area and population Island councils

f

%

value

Foreign trade 33.459

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1992): 191,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 620.1, persons per sq km 238.8. Urban-rural (1985)3; urban 92.4%; rural 7.6%. Sex distribution (19922): male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Age breakdown (19902): under 15, 26.2%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 24.0%; 45-59, 13.8%; 60-74, 7.1%; 75 and over, 2.8%. Population projection: (2000) 194,000; (2010) 198,000. Doubling tunc: 56 years. Ethnic composition (1980)3: Netherlands Antillean (Dutch/Spanish/black/ Amerindian) Creole 84.0';; white 6.1%; other West Indian 4.9';; Suriname Creole 2.9%; other 2.1%. Religious affiliation (1981): Roman Catholic 83.8%; Protestant 10.2%, of

which Lutheran/Reformed tradition 33 c/< Methodist 3.2%, Seventh-day Adventist 1.5%; Jewish 0.3%; nonreligious 2.6%; other 3.1%. Major cities (1985): Willemstad (urban area) 125,000; Philipsburg 6.000 4 ,

.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 18.3 (world avg. 26.4); (19885) legitimate 51.6%; illegitimate 48.4%.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1991): 12.5 (world avg. 17.2). total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1984)3; 3.4. Marriage rate per 1,110(1 population 1991 ): 6.4. Ihvme rate per 1.00(1 population (1991): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1981) 6 male 71.1 years; female 75.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987) 7 diseases of the circulatory system 205.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 150.6; respiratory diseases 41.0; endocrine and metabolic diseases 31.9; accidents 29.0; conditions originating in the perinatal period 17.5. (

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

NAf. 000.000

-603

-124

-59

-214

-227

%

9.1%

3.6%

1.2%

5.0%

+ 19 0.4%

of total

34%

Imports (1990)13; NA f. 3,842,857,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 70.4%, machinery and transport equipment 9.7%, food and live animals 5.2%, chemicals 3.0%). Major import sources: Venezuela 59.2%; United States 12.3%; The Netherlands 5.7%; Ecuador 5.5%; Mexico 2.5%. Exports (1990)13; NA f. 3,217,861,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 96.5%, chemicals 1.4%, machinery and transport equipment 0.6%). Major export destinations: United States 30.6%; Dominican Republic 7.4%; Venezuela 4.6%; Colombia 3.2%; Cuba 3.2%; Brazil 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads

(1989): total length 525 mi, 845 km Vehicles (19922): passenger cars 55,136; trucks and buses 12,511. Merchant marine (1990): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 103 3 total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1982)"*: passenger-mi 234,000,000, passenger-km 377,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,243,000, metric tonkin cargo 1,815,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 10; total circulation 95,000; circulation per 1.000 population 499. Radio (1991): 125,000 receivers (1 per 1.5 persons). Television (1991): 32,000 receivers (1 per 5.5 persons). Telephones (1991 ): 58,076 (1 per 3.3 persons).

(paved,

n.a.).

;

Education and health

:

Education (1990-91)

:

Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 12-17) Voc, teacher tr. Higher'9

schools

teachers

students

86 23 38

1,077

2

80

22.410 8,075 6,354 700

552 431

student/ teacher ratio

20 8 14.6

147

88

National economy Budget (1491). Revenue:

NA

f. 338,100,000 (taxes 71.8%, of which taxes on import duties 26.1%, property taxes 2.7%; nontax revenue 28.2%). Expenditures: f. 351.400.000 (current expenditures 94.3%, of which goods and sen ices 19.1%, debt service 10.4%, transfer payments 9.295 capital expenditures 5.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in NA f. '000; 1982): eggs 3,863, fruits and vegetables 2,850 s pork 1,250, goat meat 555; li\estock (number of live animals; 1941) 14,000 goals. (,.(ili(i cattle, 4,000 sheep, 3,000 pigs; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1990) 8,500. Mining and quarrying (1990): unrefined salt 354,000''; limestone 3fi0,000. Manufacturing (1985): residual fuel oil 6,900,00010; ship repair NA f. 48,000.000 " Curasao liqueur 780 hectolitres; other manufactures include electronic parts, cigarettes, textiles, and rum. Construction (number of buildings completed; 1491 h residential 547; nonresidential 173. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 735,000,000 (735,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (82,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 10,365,000 (1,276,000);

goods and services

32.4'

,

.

NA

;

,

;

)

:

natural gas, none (none). use (1990): forested, negligible: meadows and pastures, negligible; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.0 r;: other (dry savanna) 90.0%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 3.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1986) - 13; transportation and communications 23.6%, tood 19.0%, housing 16.8%, household furnishings 10.2%, clothing and footwear 8.4%, recreation and education 6.6%, health 2.3%, beverages and tobacco 2.2%, other 10.9%. G/OSS national product (at current market prices; 1991). U.S.$1,490.000.000 (U.S.S7.800 per capita).

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or some primary education 29.7%; completed primary 31.59! completed vocational or secondary 37.6%; completed higher 1.2%. Literacy (1981): total population age 15 and over literate 154,860 (93.8%); males literate 73,400 (94.2%); females literate 81,460 (93.4%). Health (1992): physicians 273 (1 per 701 persons); hospital beds 1.436 (1 per 133 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 6.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2.681 (vegetable products 68%, animal products 32%); 111% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ;

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): none; external security is maintained by The Netherlands via a Dutch naval contingent stationed in the Netherlands Antilles.

Land

1

'Aruba withdrew from the Netherlands Antilles on Jan. 1, 1986. becoming an autonomous member of the Kingdom of The Netherlands, the same status as the whole of the Netherlands Antilles. ^January 1. 'includes Aruba. 4 1981 census. 'Excludes Sint Eustatius. 6 Curacao only. 'Excludes Sint Maarten. "Mostly tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, gherkins, melons, and lettuce grown on hydroponic farms; aloes grown g 1988. lor export, divi-divi pods, and sour orange fruit are nonhydroponic crops. ("1989. I'Foreign income in 1986. '^Weights of consumer price index components. ('Curasao and Bonaire only. 14 Less imputed bank service charges. ''Unemployed. 161986. ''Average nonagricultural wage. '"ALM Airlines only. '''1986-87.

World

Nati. »ns of the

Land

us,1989): forested 38.7%; meadows and pastures 15.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.1%; other 44 GrOSS national product fal current market prices; 1987): U.S.S 1,606,000,000

New Caledonia Official

name:

rerritoire

«.lc

>1.

la

(U.S.SI0.14II per capita).

(

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

overseas territory

(u->

(France) with one legislative house

Congress

(Territorial

Chief of

|54|).

President of France.

state:

AUEfc,*' Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

oj government: High Commissioner (for France); President

of the Territorial Congress (for Caledonia).

New

Public utilities Transportation

Official language: French. Official religion: none.

Services J Pub. admin., defense

franc of the Comptoirs frangais du Pacifique (CFPF) = fOO centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFPF 84.71; 1

£=

unit:

CFPF

1

population

area

Regions

Capitals

value

3,575 11.667 51,351 10.712 5.723

16

7,763

5.2

910

229

48

4.668 4,476

2.5

576

8,806 46,794

39 208

32,009

14.3

53.861

240

3.087 9,454 2,475 12,587 9.429 10.520 65,945

100

224.498

26.3%. Tourism (1990): receipts from

1989 census

km

% of labour force 11.8 1

4

7

1

68 09 47 14.3

38 19.1

14.3 15.9 100.05

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.0; average annual income per household (1980-81) CFPF 1,627,000 (U.S.$18,598)6; sources of income (1986): wages and salaries 59.0%, self-employment 19.6%, transfer payments 21.4%; expenditure (1981): food 27.5%, transportation 15.1%, housing 13.3%, household furnishings 11.4%, recreation 6.4%, other

Area and population

sq

labour force

Other TOTAL

144.00.

sq mi

1989

% of total

value

and

communications Trade Finance 1

Noumea.

Monetary

1988 in

CFPF 000.000

Head

Capital:

1

-

Nouvelle-Calidonie el D6pendances rerritory of New Caledonia and Dependencies). Political statu*,

681

visitors U.S. $150,000,000;

expenditures by na-

tionals abroad, n.a.

Loyaute Nord

Sud TOTAL

765

1,981

3,700 2.707 7,172

9.583 7,012 18,576

17,912 34,526 1 1 1

Foreign trade

.735

164,173

Balance of trade (current prices) 7

Demography

CFPF 000,000

Population (1992): 174,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 24.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1989): urban 59.4%; rural 40.6%. Sex distribution (1989): male 51.08%; female 48.92%.

% of total

km

(1989): under 15, 32.6%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 19.8%; 45-59, 12.1%; 60-74, 5.4%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 199,000; (2010) 230,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Melanesian 44.8%; European 33.6%; Wallisian 8.6%; Indonesian 3.2%; Tahitian 2.9%; Vietnamese 1.5%; Ni- Vanuatu 1.0%; other 4.4%. Religious affiliation (1989): Roman Catholic 59.2%; SunnT Muslim 3.0%; other (mostly Protestant) 37.8%. cities

(1989)1:

Noumea

65,110;

Mont-Dore

16,370:

Dumbea

10,052;

Paita 6,049.

Vital statistics

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 3.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989); 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1989): male 66.5 years; female 71.8. Major causes of death per 100,000 population ( 1981)-: diseases of the circulatory system 45.0; traumas 31.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 23.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 10.9; ill-defined conditions 94.2.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:

1989

1990

1991

-10,708 6.4%

-42.998 32.9%

-42,881 31.8%

Imports (1991): CFPF 88,798,000,000 (machinery and electrical goods 21.0%, food 17.0%, transportation equipment 14.5%, mineral products 9.7%, metal and metal products 7.0%, chemicals and chemical products 6.8%). Major import sources: France 45.7%; Australia 9.7%; United States 7.0%; Japan 5.8%; New Zealand 3.7%. Exports (1991): CFPF 45,917,000,000 (ferronickel and nickel matte 68.8%, nickel ore 21.2%, nonmineral products 10.0%). Major export destinations (1987): France 44.0%; Japan 19.1%; West Germany 8.6%; United States 7.5%; India 4.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1989):

total length 3,580 mi, 5,762

km

(paved 22%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 50,000; trucks and buses 18,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 17; deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990) 8 passenger-mi 79,655,000, passenger-km 128,193,000; short ton-mi cargo 332,000 9 metric ton-km cargo 485,000^; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 10. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1; total circulation 18,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 90,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 35,500 (1 per 4.8 persons). Telephones (1990): 28.776 10 (1 per 5.8 persons). ,

Education and health Education (1990) schools

teachers

students

279 44 29 6

1,696

1,685

34,242 14,237 6,765 1.207

Primary (age 6-10)

CFPF 56.704,000,000 (current revenue 98.5%, of which indirect taxes 49.9%, direct taxes 27.2%, French government grants 9.4%; development revenue 1.5%). Expenditures: CFPF 55,781,000,000 (current expenditure 84.9%, of which social and cultural services 67.7%, administrative 10.3%, public debt 3.8%; development expenditure 15.1%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$313,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): fruits (excluding melons) 7,000, sweet potatoes melons) 4,000, cassava 4,000, sweet potatoes bananas and plantains 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 124,000 cattle, 39,000 pigs, 18,000 goats, 1,000,000 chickens; roundwood 12,000 cu m; fish catch 6,996. Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 1991): nickel ore 5,640,000 (ferronickel [metal content] 34,411, nickel matte [metal content) 9,041); chromite ore (1990) 11,031 (concentrate 6,207). Manufacturing (metric tons; 1988): cement (1991) 90,490; soap 381; crude vegetable oil 164; copra cake 108; beer 65,141 hectolitres. Construction (dwellings completed; 1991): 772 units. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 1,144,000,000 (1,144,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (164,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (357,000); natural gas, none (none).

coconuts 8,000,

12,000,

1988

+ 496 0.4%

:

per 1,000 population (1989): 23.9 (world avg. 27.1); legitimate 48.1%; illegitimate 51.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1989): 6.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 17.9 (world avg. 17.3). Birth rate

yams

1987 -34,691 37.7%

9.4.

Age breakdown

Major

1986

-36,164 40 3%

4,000. vegetables (including 4.000, potatoes 2,000,

Secondary (age 11-17) Vocational

Higher

141"

student/ teacher ratio

20.2

125

86

Educational attainment ( 1989). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 5.2%; primary education 52.5%; secondary 37.8%; higher 4.5%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 33,288 (57.9%); males literate 16,807 (57.4%); females literate 16,421 (58.3%). Health (1990): physicians 216 (1 per 776 persons); hospital beds 1,118 (1 per 150 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 11.2. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,863 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 126% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 3,800 French troops. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.

Population economically active (1989): total 65,945; activity rate of total population 40.2% (participation rates: over age 20, 65.7%; female 37.5%; unemployed 7.9%). Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985

Consumer

price index

Earnings index

"

1

100 100.0

'Populations cited are for

1986

1987

1988

99 5

100.9 101.5

104 5 104.6

100.6

113.9 113.5

communes

that

make up Grand Noumea.

-Public health

on minimum hourly wage. 'Detail because of rounding. ^Average European household CFPF 2.243.(100 (U.S.$25,640); Melanesian CFPF 777,000 (U.S.58.882). "Import figures are c.i.f. *Air Caledonie only. "1988. "'Subscribers. 111989. facilities only.

110.3 109.9

'All figures are end-of-year. -"Based

does not add to

total given

Britannica World Data

682

New Zealand

Gross national product (1990): U.S.$4: (,185,000,000 (U.S.$12,680 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

New Zealand (English); Aotearoa (Maori). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (House of Representatives [97]). Chief of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official' name:

1988 -89

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

New

100 cents; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = $NZ 1.84;

1

Services Other TOTAL

Zealand dollar

($NZ)= 1992)

commun.

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

none.

Official religion: unit: 1

5,

1£=$NZ3.13.

9.0

%

of labour

force

94 02

1.301

2.0

4,534 10.879 14,637

7.1

22.9

8,346

13 .1

415,600

257

163,6008 1,620,200

10 1 8 100.09

}

1

2,215

18.5 3.5

17.1

3,721? 63,805

5.8?

100.0

14.8 4,8

08 5.4

193

96

population

area

Price and earnings indexes (1985

1991

Islands

sq mi

Regional Councils

sq

km

115,777

44,702

North Island

census

1

Consumer

2,549,707

Manawatu-Wanganui Northland Taranaki

Waikato 151.215

58,384

877.235 441,091 113,073 185.225 102.269 35,577

Otago Southland West Coast Remainder? .3 1,746

963 270.534

104,454

SNZ 000.000

% of total

3.427,796

131.0 125.7

139.4 141.6

1986

1987

1988

+578.6 2.6%

+927.9 4.0%

+3.215.0 13.6%

Imports (1991-92):

Demography Population (1992): 3,481,000. Damn L992); persons per sq mi 33.3, persons per sq km 12.4. Urban-rural (1991): urban 75.9%; rural 24.1%. Sex distribution 1991 |: male 49.299! female 50.71%. Age breakdown 1991): under 15, 23.2%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 22.4 f 14.4%; 611-74, 10.9%; 75 and over, 4.5%. Population projection: (2000) 3,802.(1(111; (2010) 4,128, (

;

{

1988

113.2 116.4

147.3

156 3

1473

153.7

160.4 157.6

161.8 158.7

Balance of trade (current prices)

854

322 674 372

1987

Foreign trade

854

Oflshore islands 4 Stewart Islands Chatham Islands^ TOTAL

= 100)

1986

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.9; annual income per household (1989-90) SNZ 39,800 (U.S.$23,760); sources of income (1987-88): wages and salaries 68.7%, transfer payments 14.1%, selfemployment 8.1%; expenditure (1989-90): housing 22.7%, transportation 18.3%, food 16.6%, household durable goods 13.6%., clothing 4.6%. Land use (1440): forested 27.4%; meadows and pastures 50.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.5%; other 20.8%.

401.851

Wellington

South Island Canterbury Nelson-Marlborough

price index

Weekly earnings index

953,058 208.030 44,302 139.104 226,298 131,547 107.112 338,405

Auckland Bay of Plenty Gisborne Hawkes Bay

1

,

;

45-59,

I.

7(1

force

Population economically active (1991'): total 1,623,900; activity rate 47.3% (participation rates: over age 15, 64.0%; female 43.5%; unemployed 9.8%).

Area and population

Doubling time:

labour

value

152,900 3.500 239.400 78,200 12.200 87,800 312,200 154,800

utilities

Transp. and

ml languages: English; Maori.

Monetary

1992

% of total

5,771 611 1 1 ,790

Agriculture

Capital: Wellington. Offit

value

in

SNZ 000,000

SNZ

1989 +

.380 6

1

4.8%

1990

+

1.351.2

4.4%

1991

+ 3.310.6 1 1 .0%

14,215,800,000 (minerals, chemicals, and plastics

25.5%; machinery 24.4%; transport equipment 14.8%; basic manufactures 8.6%; food and live animals 7.4%; metals and metal products 6.8%; textiles. clothing, and footwear 6.5%). Major import sources: Australia 22.2%; U.S. 18.3%; Japan 15.2%; U.K. 6.2%. Exports (1991 -92): SNZ 17,875,700,000 (food and live animals 49.5%; basicmanufactures 22.7%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 9.3%; metals and metal products 7.1%). Major export destinations: Australia 19.0%; Japan 15.3%; U.S. 12.8%; U.K. 6.5%; South Korea 4.3%; Malaysia 2.6%; Germany 2.3%.

years.

Ethnic composition (1991): New Zealand European 73.8%; New Zealand Maori 9.6%; Pacific Island Polynesian 3.6%; multiethnic 4.5%; other and not specified 8.5%. Religious affiliation (1991): Anglican 21.4'^; Presbyterian 16.0%; Roman Catholic 14.8%; Methodist 4.1%; nonreligious 19.7'',: other 24.0%. Major cities (1991): Auckland 315,425; Christchurch 292,537; Manukau 225,928; North Shore 151.330; Wellington 144.598.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population 64.3',; illegitimate 35.7%.

(1991):

17.8

(world avg. 26.4); legitimate

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1991): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Vatural increase rate per 1,000 population (1441); 4.4 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rule (avg. births per childbeanng woman; 1991): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1990): 6.9. Divorce rale per 1,000 population 1989): 0.3. Life expectancy at birth (1941 ): male 72.0 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (14N7): diseases of the circulator) system 380.7, of which ischemic heart disease 230.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 193.7; diseases oi the respiratory system 87.1; accidents 60.3; diseases of the digestive system 22.1; metabolic diseases 15.0. (

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 2,627 mi, 4,227 km; passenger-km (1984) 458.l60.ooii; short ton-mi cargo (1988-89) 1,837,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,682,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 57,771 mi, 92,974 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (1940): passenger cars 1,557,074; trucks and buses 310,671. Merchant marine ( 1441 ): vessels Kill gross tons and over) 142; total deadweight tonnage 314,038. Air transport (1440): passenger-mi 6,541.000,000, passenger-km 10,608,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 227.000,000, metric ton-km cargo 332,000,000; airports (1442) 36. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 34; total circulation 1.031,000; circulation per 1,000 population 306. Radio (1991): 3,100,000 re1441): 1,100,000 receivers (1 per 3.1 ceivers (1 per 1.1 persons). Television persons). Telephones (1988): 2.403,000 (1 per 1.4 persons). (

(

Education and health

(

Education (1990) Primary (age 5 12)" Secondary (age 13-17) Voc. teacher tr.

Higher

'2

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2.455

22140 14683

421.259 229,273

15.6

4.498

56.771 78.919

12.6 21.0

336 32 7

3,761

190

National economy 1989-90). Revenue: $NZ 28,234,000,000 1988 89; income tax 59.9%, goods and services tax 16.5%, interest and profits 4.8%, sales tax 7.0%). Expenditures; $NZ 25,686,200,000 (social services 40.1%, debt service and

Budget

(

(

investment 18.4%, education 15.7%, health 14.7%, administration 11.9%). National debt (fiscal year 1991): U.S. $25,822,000,000. Tourism L990): receipts U.S.$900,( ,000; expenditures U.S.$996,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): barks 367,100, corn (maize) 176.000. wheat 173.700. peas 63,900, oats 60,$00; livestock (number of live animals) 55,941,000 sheep. 8,085,000 cattle, 00 goats, $85,000 pigs; roundwood (1989) 10,557,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 565,440. Mining and quarrying (1990): limestone 3,082,000; iron ore and sand concentrate 2,367,000; serpentine 21,000; gold 4.4(,.'! kg; silver 4,837 kg. Manufacturing 1990 91 ): wood pulp 1.348,700; chemical fertilizers 994,000; cement 581,000; beer 362,656,000 litres; carbonated soft dunks 162,748,000 litres; footwear 4.022.000 pairs. ( .instruction (SNZ '000; 1440-41): residential 2.430,000; nonresidential 544,700. Energ) production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; L990) 30,158,000,000 (30,158,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 2,415,000 (2,015,000); crude petroleum (barrels; L990) 13,963,000 (32,743,000) petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4,347,000 (4,260,000); m: 1990)4,605,900,000(4,605,900,000) natui i

Educational attainment (I4K7). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary and some secondary education 51.9%; secondary 35.8%; higher 6.9%; not specified 5.4%. Literacy: virtually 100.0%. Health (1989): physicians 9,453 (1 per 359 persons); hospital beds 29,352 (1 per 114 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1941): 8.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,461 (vegetable products 59%, animal products 41%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1442): 10.400 (army 44.0%, navy 22.0%, air force (1989): 2.2% (world 4.9%); J4.0' , ). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.S258.

CNP

(

March 5. -Includes the population of Kermadec Islands and persons 'Includes the population of Chatham Islands county and Campbell Island. "Excludes islands in Regional Councils. 'Part of Southland Regional Council. 'Chatham Islands county remains outside any Regional Council. 'Includes import duties less imputed bank service charges. ^Includes 161,600 unemployed. ''Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "'Second quarter, o Includes 74 composite schools that provide both primary and secondary education. ^Universities only. 'Provisional;

cm

nil

rigs.

Nations

Gross national product (U.S $460 per capita).

Nicaragua name: Republica de Nicaragua Republic ol Nicaragua), Form of government: unitary multipart) republic with one legislative house (National Assemblj [921]). Head of Hate and government: Official

(at

current market prices;

of ilu

1988);

World

683

U.S.S 1,66 1,000,000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(

1990

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Managua.

apital.

Public utilities Transportation

Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

I

and communications Trade

c6rdoba oro C$ 2 = 100

centavos; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) £=TC$8.50~. 1 U.S.$ = C$5.00;

Finance, real estate

Pub admin

,

defense

I

Services^ Other

sq mi

Capitals

Boaco

Juigalpa

Esteli

Esteli

km

839 383

Granada

Granada Jinotega

Leon

Leon

Madnz Managua Masaya

Somoto Managua Masaya

1,300

9.640 5,243 1.612 3,368

267

690

Matagalpa

2,675

Ocotal San Carlos Rivas

1,388

6,929 3,594 7.402 2,190 60.035 120,349 10,333 130.682

Rivas Zelaya TOTAL LAND AREA

992

3.722 2.024

Bluetields

INLANO WATER 3

TOTAL

622

2,857

846 23,180 46,467 3.990 50,457

US$000,000

%

74,946;

1985):

1

Managua

Chinandega

682,111;

Leon

km

34.3.

100,982;

Granada

88,636;

Masaya

67,792.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 37.0 (world avg. 26.4).

Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rule per 1,000 population (1991): 30.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 2.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988); 0.4. Life expectancy at birth 1991): male 60.0 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population (registered only; 1987): diseases of the circulatory system 69.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 64.9; deaths from war operations and homicide 51.0; diseases of the respiratory system (

48.7; accidents 33.3.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: U.S. $440,000. 000 (current and development revenue 79.3%, foreign loans 20.7', ). Expenditures: U.S.$499,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 3,018,000, corn (maize) 245.000. rice 140,000, bananas 114,000. seed cotton 75.000. cassava 71,000. sorghum 70,000, oranges 68,000, plantains 63,000, dry beans 56,000. coffee 28.000, sesame seed 13,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,680,000 cattle, 709,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 4.077.000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 2,766, of which crustaceans 1,803. Mining and quarrying (1989): gold 39,000 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of production in CTOOO.OOO; L988 5 ): processed foods 1,556; beverages 1.204; metal products 694; textiles 640; chemicals and chemical products 572; nonmetal mineral products 361; clothing 285; tobacco products 247. Construction (buildings completed; 1988): 41,600 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 1,038,000,000 (1,238,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 199(1) none (3,592,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 4(1(1,000 (628,000); natural gas. none (none). Population economically active (1991); total 1,386,300; activity rate of total population 34.795 (participation rates: over age 15, (i2.0'r; female 33.2%;

unemployed [1992] Price

60.09!

)

and earnings indexes (1988 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index?

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

100.0

4.146 6,141

326.086

27.174.000

27.174.0006

100

48,141

4.2

256,976 69,406 133,730 51.559

223

1.151.686

8.0 1.5

0.7

18

20.900 94.600

8.4

4.5

18,700 77.400 148.500

132

100.0

1,126.300

6.0 1 1

.6

282,900

1.7

6.9

25.1")

3

1000

size (1980) 6.9: in-

1986

1987

1988

1989

-609 6

-622.7 50.9%

-270.4 33.1%

- 234 9

55.2%

of total

1990

-343

29.0%

1991 5

34.8%

- 395.8 35.3%

(1990): U.S.$664.700,000 (nondurable consumer goods 23.2%, petroleum products 16.4%, capital goods for transport 14.6%, capital goods for industry 11.9%). Major import sources (1991): United States 21.3%; former U.S.S.R. 10.2%; Cuba 8.0%; Costa Rica 7.8%; Guatemala 7.3%; Venezuela 7.1%-. Exports (1990): U.S.$321,200,000" (coffee 21.0%, meat 20.0%, cotton 11.4%, sugar 10.8%. bananas 7.2%). Major export destinations (1991): United States 16.4%; Germany 14.4%; Japan 11.0%; Canada 11.0%; Italy 7.8%.

(1990): under 15, 45.8%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 5,261,000; (2010) 6,824,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1985): mestizo (Spanish/Indian) 77.0%; white 10.0%; black 9.0%; Amerindian 4.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 90.7%; other (mostly Baptist, Moravian, and Pentecostal) 9.3%. (

.2

Balance of trade (current prices)

Age breakdown

cities

1

03

Imports

(

Major

35

32,4

Foreign trade

Demography 1

0.6

15 9

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $12,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2.000,000. Land use (1990): forested 28.5%; meadows and pastures 45.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.7%; other 15.3%.

3,870,700

Population ( 992 ): 4. 3 ,000. Density 1992)-*: persons per sq mi 89.9, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 59.8%; rural 40.2%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.12%; female 49.88%. 1

365,200 3,000 90,500 16.800 7,800

Household income and expenditure. Average household

117.900 150.000 330.500 129,600 169.100 162.600 175,600 344.500 88.700 1,026,100 230,800 322.300 122.100 52.200 149.800 298,900

4,789 6.324 2.173

1.849 2.442

Jinotega

Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Rio San Juan

force

30.2

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$7,920,000,000.

estimate

4,271 1,097

424

Chinandega

Chontales

sq

1.649

Jinotepe

% of labour

force

population

area

1990

Departments J Boaco Cara20 Chinandega

labour

value

—

TOTAL

Area and population

1987

% of total

348.342 6,713 182.990 40,170 13,659

Agriculture

President. (

value

in

C$000,000.0008

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 186 mi, 300 km; (1988) passengermi 15.800,000, passenger-km 25,400,000; short ton-mi cargo 46,600,000, metric ton-km cargo 68,000,000. Roads (1988): total length 9.319 mi. 14,997 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 31,111; trucks and buses

Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 25; total deadweight tonnage 3,013. Air transport (1990) 12 passenger-mi 68,800,000, passenger-km 110,700,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,451,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,579.000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1". Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 113,000; circulation per 1,000 population 28. Radio (1991): 880,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Television (1991): 210,000 receivers (l per 19 persons). Telephones 1990): 47,000 (1 per 82 persons). 42,974.

:

(

Education and health Education (1989) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher 's, '6

student/

teachers

students

18,746

595,612 143.954 17.258 34.166

4,768" 1,170 1,591

teacher

ratio

31.8 24.0'"

148 21.5

Educational attainment (1971). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 53.9%; some primary and complete primary education 41.7%; some secondary and complete secondary education 4.4%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 74.0%. Health (1988): physicians 1,789 (1 per 2,024 persons); hospital beds 4,762 (1 per 761 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 60.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,472 (''vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 14.700 (army 88.4%, navy 3.4%, air force 8.2%). Milium expenditure as percentage of central government expenditure (1991): 16.0%.

'Includes two unsuccessful 1990 presidential candidates meeting special conditions. -The Cordoba oro. introduced in August 199(1, circulated simultaneously with the new cordoba until April 30, 1991, when the new cordoba ceased to be legal tender; on April 30, 1 cordoba oro equaled 5,000,000 new cordobas. The new cordoba had been introduced in February 1988 at the rate of 1 new cordoba to 1.900 (old) cdrdobas -'Lakes and lagoons are excluded from the areas of departments. 'Based on land area 5AI prices of 1983 in old cordobas. 6 June. 'Registrants ol Nicaragua!] Institute ol So eial Security and Welfare. s At current prices in new cdrdobas 'Includes restaurants, hotels, and business services. '"Mostly underemployed informal workers. "Estimated exports (1991) U.S.$266,000,000 (cotton !198().

only.

nUniversite de Niamey and Ecole Nationale d'Administration du Niger

Nations

World

of tin

i>«5

9,945,000,000 (9,845,000,000) coal (metric tons; 1990) 90,000(55,000); crude petroleum (b.urcK: 1990) 647,940,000 73,140,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)8,993,000(10,276,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) >,668,000,000 5,688,000,000) Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$21,000,000; expenditures U.S.$51,000,000. Gross national product (1990): U.S.S3 1,285.000,000 (U.S.S270 pet capita)

Nigeria

1

Official

name: Federal Republic of

(

Nigeria.

Form of government:

federal republic;

temporarily governed (pending restoration Ol civilian governmental

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

apparatus by L993) by Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC). Head ol state and government

1991

N

President. ( 'apital:

Agriculture

Abuja (Federal

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital Territory) Official language: English. 1

.

Public

Official religion: none.

Nigerian naira Monetary unit: (#) = 100 kobo; valuation (Oct. 5, = 1992) 1 U.S.$ N18.42; 1 £ = #31.31.

commun

I

Area and population

% of total

000,000

value

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

population

area

37,000 12.000 7.800 1.800

39.2

500

0.5

3.200 12.400 8.500 8.400 2.800

34

utilities

Transp. and

1986

value

in

12.7 8.3

19

13.1

9.0

94.400

89

1

3

J

labour force

% of labour

13.259,000 6.800 1 .263.700 545.600 130.400 1.111.900 7,417.400 120,100

43

force

4.1

1.8

04 3.6 24.1

04

4,902,100

15.9

2,008.500 '2 30.765,500

100.0

1

0.1

6.5

'2

100.0

1991

States

Capitals

Abia

Umuahia

Adamawa

Yola

Akwa Ibom Anambra

Uyo Awka

Bauchi

Bauchi Makurdi

sq mi

sq

10.5162 35.2863

km

27.2372 91.3903

Rivers

Ibadan Jos Port Harcourt

Sokoto Taraba

Sokoto

9

9

Jalingo

3

3

2,297,978 2,124.049 2,359.736 2.767,903 4.294.413 2,780,398 2,596,589 1.865,604 2,570.181 2,159,848 3,161,295 2.485,499 2,829,929 3.969,252 5.632,040 3.878,344 2,062.226 2.099,046 ,566,469 5,685,781 2,482.367 2.338,570 3.884.485 2,203,016 3,488.789 3,283,704 3.983,857 4,392,391 1.480.590

Yobe

Damaturu

5

5

1.411,481

7,315

378,671 88.514.501

Benue

Maidugun

Borno Cross River

Calabar

Delta

Asaba

Edo Enugu

Benin City

Imo Jigawa Kaduna

Owerri

Katsina

Katsina

Kebbi Kogi

Lokoja

2

35,5006 6

Birnin Kebbi

7

39.5899

Ikeja

Niger

Minna Abeokuta Akure

1.292 25.111 6,472 8.092 14.558'°

102,5359 4

66.869 3,345 65.037 16,762 20,959 37,705")

10

10

22.405 8,436

58,030 21,850

2,824

356.669"

TOTAL

43,285? 70,2458 8

'

Federal Capital Territory Abuja Abuja

,850

8

25.818

Oshogbo

2 1 1

7

llorin

Plateau

116,4005

2

4,575 16,712? 27.1228

Kwara Lagos

Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo

45,174''

6

Dutse

Kaduna Kano

17.675 64.605

2

13.7076

Enugu

Kano

2

2

6.824 24.944 17.442" 44.9425

Public debt (external, outstanding; Dec. 31, 1991): U.S.$32,849,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 30,765,500; activity rate 31.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 58.8%; female 33.3%; unemployed 4.1%).

census

923,768

Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer

(1992): Lagos 1,347,000; Ibadan 1,295,000; 660,600; Oshogbo 441,600; llorin 430,600.

1990

1991

117.7

2735

293 7

331 9

7.5%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) M

Kano

000,000

% of total

1985

1986

+ 4.049

+ 3.043

22.0%

21.8%

699,900;

1987

1988

+ 8,283 14.2%

+15,401 35.2%

1989

N 89,488,200,000

Transport and communications Railroads (1987): length 3,505 km; passenger-km 3,808,277,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,743,000,000. Roads (1984): total length 124,000 km (paved 48%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 785,000; trucks and buses 625,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 259; total deadweight tonnage 718,616. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 774.844,000; metric ton-km cargo 21,675,000; airports (1992) 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 24; total circulation 1,553,000">; circulation per 1,000 population 181+. Radio (1991): 10,000,000 receivers (1 per 12 persons). Television (1991): 4,100,000 receivers (1 per 30 persons). Telephones (1988): 722,070 (1 per 117 persons). Transport.

Education and health Education (1989-90)

H

+ 68.587 45.4%

Ogbo-

student/

schools

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 46.5 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.0 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.5 (world avg. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 50.8 years; female 54.3 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.

1990

+ 29.730 34.5%

(machinery and transport equipment 41.1%; manufactured goods [mostly iron and steel products, textiles, and paper products] 23.5%; chemicals 17.1%; food 8.7%; mineral fuels 0.5%). Major import sources: Germany 13.8%; U.K. 13.6%; U.S. 11.8%; France 8.9%. Exports (1991): N 121,533,700,000 (crude petroleum 96.2%; cocoa beans 1.4%; rubber 0.8%; chemicals 0.1%; other significant exports include cocoa products, textiles, and cashew nuts). Major export destinations: U.S. 40.7%; Spain 12.6%; Germany 8.6%; Netherlands 5.0%, France 5.0%; Italy 4.0%. Imports (1991):

Vital statistics

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:

1989

105 7

1

;

cities

1987

100.0

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1983) 5.0; annual income per household (1981) $i 2,300 (U.S.$3,745)13; sources of income (1979): self-employment 49.4%, wages 36.2%, interest 5.4%, rent 4.7%, transfer payments 4.3%; expenditures (1979): food 53.0%, fuel and light 11.4%, clothing 6.0%, transportation 4.7%, household goods 3.8%, other 21.1%. Land use (1990): forested 13.1%; pastures 43.9%; agricultural 35.5%; other

Demography

mosho

1986

Earnings index

Population (1992): 89,666,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 251.4, persons per sq km 97.1. Urban-rural (1990): urban 35.2%; rural 64.8%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.53%; female 50.47%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 8.0?? 60-74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 105,885,000; (2010) 130,344,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Hausa 21.3%; Yoruba 21.3%; Igbo (Ibo) 18.0%; Fulani 11.2%; Ibibio 5.6%; Kanuri 4.2%; Edo 3.4%; Tiv 2.2%; Ijaw 1.8%; Bura 1.7%; Nupe 1.2%; other 8.1%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 49.0%, of which Protestant 26.3%, Roman Catholic 12.1%, African indigenous 10.6%; Muslim 45.0%; other 6.0%.

Major

price index

= 100)

1985

17.2).

35,200,000,000 (petroleum profit tax 39.2%; import duties 12.7%; company income tax 5.0%). Expenditures: $422,100,000,000 (recurrent expenditure 56.6%, of which debt service 39.1%, defense 3.9%, police 2.8%, education 2.3%; capital expenditure 43.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): cassava 20,000,000, yams 16,000,000, sorghum 4,800,000, millet 4,200,000, rice 3,185,000, corn (maize) 1,900,000, plantains 1,314,000, sugarcane 1,250,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,219,000; livestock (number of live animals) 36,000,(KHI goats, 24,000,000 sheep. 14,500,000 cattle; roundwood (1990) 107,732,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 316,328. Mining and quarrying (1991): limestone 1,435,405; marble 52,379. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$'000,000; 1990): food and beverages 703; textiles 373; chemical products 165; metal products 16(1; machinery and transport equipment 159; paper products 62; rubber and plastic products 61. Construction (dwellings completed; 1982): 31,038. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990)

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-17) Voo, teacher tr. Higher'5, 17

34.904 5.594 '5 376'5 48

teachers

344,221 136.677 15,738'6 3,235

teacher

students

ratio

369

12.712,087 2.723,791 391.583'6 55,068

19.9 24.9 '6 17.0

Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 29,538,200 (50.7%); males literate 17,792,300 (62.3%); females literate 11,745,000 (39.5%). Health (1986): physicians 16,003 (1 per 6,573 persons); hospital beds 90,668 (1 per 1,160 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 96.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,200 (vegetable products 97%,

animal products 3%);

93%

of

FAO

recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 76,000 (army 81.6%, navy 5.9%, air force (1989): 0.5% (world 4.9%). 12.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of

GNP

•The transfer of the capital from Lagos to Abuja in the Federal Capital Territory was completed in 1992. -Abia includes Akwa Ibom, Cross River, and Enugu. -'Adamawa includes Taraba. 4 Benue includes Kogi. s Borno includes Yobe. ''Delta includes Edo. 7 Jigawa includes Kano. «Kaduna includes Katsina. g Kebbi includes Sokoto. '"Osun includes Oyo. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding '-Includes 1,263,600 unemployed persons. 'JUrban households only. 4 For 15 newspapers onl\. (51987-88. 1M988-89. "For colleges of education only. >

686

Britannica World Data

Norway

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

name: Kongeriket Norge (Kingdom of Norway).

Official

Form of government: monarchy with one

in

constitutional legislative

house

Mining

Crude petroleum and natural gas Manufacturing Construction Public

U.S.$

Services Other

= NKr5.75;

TOTAL

l£ = NKr9.78. Area and population

area

—

1,898

Arendal

3,557 5.763 18.779 10,575 6,036 5,832 14,798 8.673 9,753 175 1,615 3,529 7,195

Drammen Vadso

Hedmark

Hamar

Hordaland

Bergen Molde

More og Romsda! Nordland Nord-Trondelag

Bodo

Oppland

Lillehammer Oslo

Oslo

Steinkjer

Ostfold

Moss

Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane

Stavanger Leikanger

Sor-Trondelag Telemark

Trondheim

Troms

Tromso

Vest-Agder

Kristiansand

Vestlold

Tansberg

7.271

Skien

5.913

km

4,917 9.212 14.927 48.637 27.388 15,634 15,104 38.327 22.463 25,260

454 4.183 9,141 18.634 18.831 15,315

10.021 2,811

25,954

856

2,216 323,878

125.050

TOTAL

sq

7,281

95,170 90.589 27,568 25.445 57,555 73,3018 61,294 104,149 64,113 39,905 661,669")

%

labour

of total

of labour

value

force

force

2 9

116.000

55

0,5

21 ,000

10

294,000 130.000 21,000 162,000 354,000 153.000

13.8

14,4

13,7 4,2

3 8 8,7

1118 9.3 15,7 9.7 6.0

6

1

1.0

76 16.7 7.2

1

869,0009

40.99

2,126.000")

100.0")

\ J

100.0

Population economically active (1991): total 2,126,000; activity rate of total population 49.6% (participation rates [1990]: ages 16-64, 77.1%; female 43.6%; unemployed [1991] 5.5%).

population

19922 sq mi

Capitals

Counties Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark

utilities

Transp and commun. Trade Finance Pub admin,, defense

Monetary unit: 1 Norwegian krone (NKr) = 100 ore; valuation (Oct. 5, 1

19,306 3,275

Agriculture

(Parliament [165]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Oslo. Official language: Norwegian. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran.

1992)

1991

%

value

NKr 000,000

estimate

Price

421,510 97.828 225.712

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985

1986

1987

price index

100,0

Hourly earnings index

1000

107.2 110.0

116.5 128.0

Consumer

75,251

187,542 414,038 238,810 239.856 127.491 182.479 467.090 238,373 341,838 106.834 252.872 163,020 147.979 145,954 199.553 4,274,0303

124.3 135.0

1300

1354

141.0

149 6

140.0 157,2

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 2.4; consumption expenditure per household (1989) NKr 158,900 (U.S.$23,000); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 59.9%, social security 21.6%, self-employment and property income 17.0%; expenditure (1990): housing 18.9%, food 18.4%, transportation 12.6%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, household furniture and equipment 6.8%, beverages and tobacco 6.7%. Land use (1989): forested 27.1%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; built-up and other 69.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986

NKr 000,000

Demography

%

Population (1 992): 4,283,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 34.3, persons per sq km 13.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 75.0%; rural 25.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.44%; female 50.56%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 19.0%; 15-29, 22.9%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59, 15.1%; 60-74, 13.8%; 75 and over, 7.1%. Population projection: (2000) 4,426,000; (2010) 4,550,00(1. Doubling nine: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (by country of citizenship; 1991): Norway 96.6%; Denmark 0.4%; Sweden 0.3%; United Kingdom 0.3%; Pakistan 0.3%; United States 0.2%; Vietnam 0,2%; other 1.7',. Religious affiliation (1980): Lutheran 87.9%; nonreligious 3.2%; other 8.9%. cities (1992)*: Oslo 467,090; Bergen 215,967; Trondheim 139.660; Stavanger 99,764; Baerum 91,851.

of total

-12.403 4.4%

1987

-3.645

12%

1988

-2.976 1.0%

1989

1990

+ 27.248

+ 48.231

7.9%

12,9%

1991

+ 59,565 15.9%

Imports (1991): NKr 165,181,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 38.3%, of which ships 6.6%, road vehicles 4.9%; metals and metal products 7.0%, of which iron and steel 3.8%; food products 5.2%, of which fruits and vegetables 1.5%; petroleum products 3.1%, of which crude petroleum 0.9%). Major import sources: Sweden 15.4%; Germany 14.1%; U.K. 8.7%; Denmark 7.3%. Exports (1991): NKr 220,316,000,000 (fuels and fuel products 48.5%, of which crude petroleum 36.5%, natural gas 7.4%; metals and metal products 11.4%, of which aluminum 4.9%; machinery and transport equipment 7.7%; food products 7.3%, of which fish 6.5'; ). Major export destinations: U.K. 26.5%; Germany 11.1%; Sweden 10.3%; The Netherlands 7.9%.

Major

Transport and communications km; passenger-km 2,116,000,ton-km cargo 2,617,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 88,800 (paved Vehicles passenger cars 1,614,623; trucks and km 70%). (1991): buses 383,128. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2,577; total deadweight tonnage 40,950,168. Air transport (1990): passengerkm 7,664,588,000; metric ton-km cargo 831,113,000; airports (1992) 47. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 61; total circulation 2,163,000; circulation per 1,000 population 508. Radio (1991): 3,300,000 receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1991): 1,465,858 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1990)H: 2.132,290 (1 per 2.0 persons). Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 4,182

Vital statistics

000; metric

Bin/, ruic per 1,000 population (1991):

14.3

(world avg. 26.4); (1990)

mate 61.4%; illegitimate 38.6%. Death rate per 1.000 population L991): 10.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.8 (world avg.

legiti-

|

17.2).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population 1490): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth 1990): male 73.4 years; female 79.8 years. Major causes of death per 100.000 population (1990): ischemic heart disease 265.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 232.5; cerebrovascular disease 132.5. (

(

Education and health

National economy

Education (1990-91)

Budget (1992). Revenue: NKr 304.389,000,000 (social-security taxes 26.5V value-added taxes 21.4%, taxes on interest and dividends 12.0%, ordinary income tax 4.4%, taxes on petroleum income and activitv 3.4 r:J ). Expenditures: NKr 316.046,000,000 (social security and welfare 25.3%, health 8.4%, debt service 5.5%). Public debt

(

1990): U.S.$23,430,000,

Toun»n

(1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$ 1,506,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,413,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): barley 740,000. oats 601.000, potatoes 484,000, wheat 224.000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,029,600 sheep*, 967,700 cattle, 721,700 pigs; roundwood (1990) 11,794,000 cu m; fish catch 1.957,550. of which capelin 564,000, herring 379,398. cod 166.2:5. mackerel 150,000. Mining and quarrying (1991)f>: iron ore 2,028,000, zinc 17.520 7 copper 17.400. lead 3,0007. Manufacturing (value added in NKr '000,000; 1990): machinery and equipment 26,605, of which transport equipment 6,433. electrical equipment 4,698: food products

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)

and vocational Higher

student/ teacher ratio

schools

teachers

students

3,406

33.961

475,344

140

843 227

20,647 7,556

237,053 137,982

115 183

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 16 and over having: lower secondary education 32.2%; higher secondary 49.0%; higher 18.8%. Literacy (1990): virtually 100'; literate. Health (1990): physicians (1991) 13,826 (1 per 309 persons); hospital beds 25,201 (1 per 168 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.0. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,338 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

,

15,308; paper and paper products 13.572; chemical products 11,253; wood and wood products 5,353. Construction (1991): residential 2,696,000 sq m; nonresidential 2,228,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity

(kW-hr;

1990) 121,601,000,000 (105,651,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) 311,000 (779,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 622,051,000 (99,218,000); petroleum products (metric tons. 1990) 13,069,000 (",761.000); natural gas (cum: 1940) 19383,000,000(1,746,000,000) Gross minimal product (1990): U.S.$98,079,000,000 (U.S.S23.120 per capita).

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 32,700 (army 48.6%, navy 22.3%, air force (1989): 3.3% (world avg. 29.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$691.

GNP

Excludes Svalbard and Jan Mayen (24,360 sq mi [63,080 sq km]). -January 1. includes the Norwegian population of Svalbard and Jan Mayen registered as residents in municipalities on the mainland. 4 Population of municipalities. 5 One year and cner "Metal content of ore. 7 1990. ^Includes hotels. ''Includes 1 16,000 unemployed. '"Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "Main lines only. •

Nations

Oman

petroleum products, cement blocks and Moors, furniture, alumintm UCtS, electric wire and cable, spark pities, household utensils, (ertilizers. and fibreglass products, Construction (1989): number of residential permits 3,408; nonresidential permits J53 nerg) production (consumption): electricitj (kW-hr; 1990)5,345,000,000(5,345,000 coal none (none). crude petroleum (barrels; 199 petroleum prod-

name: Saltanat Umfin (Sultanate of ( )man) Form of government, monarchy Head o) Hale and government. Sultan. ( apitaL Muscat. Official language: Arabic. Official

I

1

.

Monetary

(RO)= 1992)

I

unit:

i

(metric tons; 1990) 3,22( 2.722.356,000 (2,722,356,000) Population economical^ active (1990) 9 ucts

Islam.

Official religion.

population 39.9';

Omani

rial

I

1,000 baizas; valuation (Oct.

RO= is V

i,;

i

[1986] 7.5';;

Price

km

estimate

13,770 77,110 117.510 3,670

416,200 197,400 146,900 410,000

sq mi

Centres

al-Batinah al-DakhifTyah

ar-Rustaq; Suhar

5,320 29,770 45.370

Nizwa; Samail Salalah

Muscat Khasab Ibra, Sur

Musandam

1.420

al-Burayml;

price

index"

'Ibri

sq

590

1.530

21 .400

16.190 19.490 118,150

41.920 50.490 306.000

206,500 131.600

Land

use (1990):

manent

680,850; activitj rate of total ages 15-64 [1986] 60.9%; female

total

talcs:

n.a.).

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

100.0

107.1

109.8

111.6

113.2

114.7

1991

'0

118.4

pastures 4.7%; agricultural and under perand developed area) 95.0%.

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) RO

1.530,000

000.000

Demography

*

(

;

I

10,000".

Vital statistics

1985

1986

+555.0 19.3%

+113.0 5.5%

RO

1987

+707 31.9%

1988

1989

1990

+ 385.0 17.6%

+ 646.0 26.2%

+ 1 .034 34.3%

equipment 36.1%; manufactured goods 18.4%; food and live animals 16.0%; miscellaneous manufactured articles 10.4%; chemicals 5.8%; minerals, fuels, lubricants, and related materials 4.0%). Major import sources (1989): United Arab Emirates 24.2%; Japan 15.7%; United Kingdom 11.7%; United States 8.4%; West

Imports (1990):

Population (1992): 1.640,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 13.9, persons per sq km 5.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban LO.6%; rural 89.4%. Sex distribution 1990): male 52.40', female 47.60%. WO): under 15, 43.1%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 21.7%; 45-59, Age breakdown 7.7%; 60-74. 2.6%; 75 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2000) 2.176.000; (2010) 3,106,000. Doubling tune: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Omani Arab. 73.5%; Pakistani (mostly Baluchi) 21.0%; other 5.5%. Religious affiliation (1984): Muslim 86%; Hindu 13%; other 1%. Major cities (1990): Muscat 85,0006; Nizwa 62,880; Sama'il 44.721; Salalah (

meadows and

cultivation 0.3%; other (mostly desert

% of total

(

m

Earnings index

Regions-*

a?-Zahirah TOTAL

gas (cu

populations

1990

ash-SharqTyah

natural

and earnings indexes (1985=100)

Consumer area?

Masqat

(participation

unemployed,

186,000);

5,

1.54.

Area and population

al-Janublyah

f>87

tin- VNcirld

..I

1,031,000,000 (machinery and transport

Germany 5.5%.

RO 2,110,000,000 (petroleum 91.7%; reexports 5.1%; other commodities 3.2%). Major export destinations (1989): Japan 37.2%: South Korea 26.7%; Taiwan 8.6%; Singapore 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.4%; China 3.2%; United States 3.1%.

Exports (1990):

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length 17,053 mi. 27,438

km

(paved 18%). Vehicles (1990): private vehicles 96,559, commercial vehicles 70,231. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 27; total deadweight tonnage 11,941. Air transport (1991) 13 passenger-mi 1,042,000.000, passenger-km 1,676,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 35,100,000, metric tonkm cargo 51,245,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 4; total circulation 61,500; circulation per 1,000 population 39. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 900,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 1,000,033 (1 per 1.6 persons). Telephones (1990): 107.409'-1 (1 per 14 persons). :

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 41.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population (1991): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 35.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 7.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. / ife expectancy at birth 1991): male 65.0 years; female 68.0 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1989): influenza 6,823; malaria 1,235; chicken pox 1,156; mumps 1,048: dysentery 376; measles 294; bacillary dysentery 206; infectious hepatitis 96; tuberculosis (

Education and health Education (1989-90)

33; brucellosis 15.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: RO 1,627,700,000 (oil revenue 78.4%; gas revenue Expenditures: RO 1.932,700,000 (civil ministries 48.3%, 4.2%; other 17.4', of which 1990] education 8.8%, general public services 7.0%, fuel and energy 5.7%, health 3.9%; defense 34.4%; interest paid on loans 5.1%). ).

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-17) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

671

12,344 2,219

304,207 36.617 5.596 3.925

128 25 5

728 482

teacher

ratio

24.6 16.5 7.7

1

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,783,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$9,503,00O.0OO

(U.S.$6,327 per capita).

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 6 and over literate 41%; males literate 58%; females literate 24%. Health (1990): physicians 1,393 (1 per 1,078 persons); hospital beds 3,952 (1 per 380 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 40. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Military

1990 in

RO Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

utilities

value

000.000

% of total

labour

value

force

% of

labour force

126 9

3.1

146400

27.7

2,0680

50.6 3 7

2,800 32.800 104,800 4,100

6.2 19.8

151 1 124.7 51.2

3.1

1.3

Total active duty personnel (1992): 35,700 (army 81.8%, navy 8.4%, air force 9.8%); foreign troops 3,700, Militan' expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1989): 20.3% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$ 1,085.

05

08

Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

Other TOTAL

132.2

467

1

293.3 656.7 83.7 -70 9'

4.0840

3.2

114 7.2 16.1

2.0

14.500 87.500 9.400 81,000 45,800

2.7 16.5

529,100

100.0

-1.7? 100.0

1.8

15.3 8.7

—

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $69,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S. $47,000,000. Household income ami expenditure. Average household size (1986) 3.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; food expenditure 1978): meal anil eggs 20.6',, cereals 15. 2%, fruits and nuts 12.4 r V vegetables II.')';, dairy products 10.3',, other foods 29.6%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): vegetables and melons 159,000 (of which watermelons 27,000), dates 125.000, mangoes 33,000, bananas 24,000, onions 9,000, potatoes 5,000, papayas 3,000, tobacco leal 2.000. wheat 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 725,000 goats, 280,000 sheep. 138,000 cattle, 90,000 camels, 3.000.000 chickens: fish catch (1990) 120,2398. Mining and quarrying (1990): copper 15,200; silver 2,500 kg; gold 20 kg. Manufacturing: major products include refined (

.

The sultan is assisted by an appointed 60-member advisory council consisting of 59 governorate representatives and the sultan's representative, who leads the body. : No survey of surface area has ever been carried out in the Sultanate of Oman. 'The firs! census ol Oman has been scheduled for 1993: figures given represent official 1990 estimates of the Omani government. 4 Kcgions arc divided into 59 wilayat (provinces). SCentreS ol the regions are not administrative capitals. "19X2. ?Net imputed hank service charges. s lish landed. ''Non-Omani workers constitute approximately 55 mi of the labour force. '"Average of first two quarters. "Applies to food and beverages 'One-fourth apportionment ot in the capital area only. '-Import figures are c.i.f. international flights of Gulf Air. '-"Number of subscribers. ,

i

688

Britannica World Data

Pakistan

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990-91

name: Islam-T Jamhuriya-e Pakistan (Islamic Republic of

Official

in

Pakistan).

Agriculture

multiparty, federal Islamic republic with two legislative

Mining Manufacturing Construction

houses (Senate

Public utilities Transportation and

Form of government:

Assembly

[87];

%

value

PRs 000,0005

National

[217]).

'hief of state: President. Chief of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Islamabad. Official language: Urdu.

communications Trade Finance Pub admin defense

Official religion: Islam.

Other

Pakistan Rupee Monetary unit: (PRs) = 100 paisa; valuation

TOTAL

(

230,388 6.262

22.7 0.6

1

154.091

152

I

36,790 28.898

3.6

74 66

67,223 128,921 1.016,728

force

496 12,4

2,030.000 190.000

62 06

1 ,550,000 3.790,000

11.5

4,910,000"

15.0"

7.2

75 459

.

of labour

4,080,000

15.0

62

%

16.260,000

28

72,822 152,416 63.458

Services

labour force

of total

value

47

1 1

[

12.7 J 100.0

32.810,000

100.0

1

U.S.$ (Oct. 5, 1992) £ = PRs 42.60. 1

= PRs

Population economically active (1940-41): total 32,810,000; activity rate of total population 26.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 50.3%; female 11.4%; unemployed 3.1%).

25.06;

1

Area and population

Price

population

area

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985

1986

1987

1988

'l989

1990

1991

100.0

103 5 105 3

108.4

117.9

127.2

138.7

147.8

1983

Provinces

Capitals

sq mi

Balochistan

Quetta

North-West Frontier Punjab

Lahore

134,051 28,773 79.284

Smdh

Karachi

Peshawar

sq

km

estimate^

347,190

54,407

205,344 140,914

4,611,000 1 1 ,658.000 50.460.000 20.312,000

10,509

27.220

2,329,000

350

906

307,374

796,095

359,000 89,729.000

74,521

Consumer

Areas

100

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$ 15,338,000,000. Land use (1990): forested 4.6%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 26.9%; built-on. wasteland, and other 62.0%.

Federally Administered Tribal

price index

Monthly earnings index

Foreign trade h

Federal Capital Area Islamabad TOTAL

Balance of trade (current prices) PRs 000.000

Demography

%

Population (1992): 13(1.124,000. Density 1992): persons per si| mi 383.1, persons per sq Urban-rural L987): urban 32.0%; rural 68.0%. Sex distribution 1991): male 52.50%; female 47.50%.

km

(

147.9.

of total

1986

1987

1988

-25,214 18.3%

-19,938 12.1%

-27,036 14.2%

Imports (1990-91):

PRs

ized machinery 8.4%,

(

(

breakdown (1987): under 15, 46.0%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 14.0%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 4.895 75 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2000) 162,409,000; (2010) 205,496,000. Doubling tune: : years. Linguistic composition (1981): Punjabi 48.2%; Pashto 13.1%; Sindhl 11.8%; Saraiki 9.893 Urdu 7.6%; other 9.5%. Religious affiliation 1981): Muslim 96.7%; Christian l.h r ,; Hindu 1.5%; other 0.2%. Major cities (1981): Karachi 5,208.132; Lahore 2,952,689; Faisalabad 1,104,209; Rawalpindi 794,843; Islamabad 204,364. Ige

;

i

;

1

1989 37,093

1990 -

16.1%

1991

24.896

9.3%

- 28.537 8.4%

171,052,400.000 (petroleum products 22.1%, specialroad vehicles 5.8%, vegetable oil and fats 5.4%,

organic chemicals 3.8%, manufactured fertilizers 3.5%, iron and steel manufactures 3.3%, power-generating machinery 3.2%). Major import sources: Japan 13.0%; U.S. 1.8', Germany 7.3%; Saudi Arabia 6.3%; China 5.1%; U.K. 4.9%; Malaysia 4.0%; Italy 3.5%; Singapore 3.2%. Exports (1990-91): PRs 138,341,700,000 (ready-made garments 17.7%. cotton 7.89, rue 5.795 leather and leather goods 4.6%, fresh fish 1.9%, petroleum products 1.6%, professional instruments 1.4%, fruits and vegetables 0.9%). Major export destinations: U.S. 10.8%; Germany 8.5%; Japan 8.3%; U.K. 7.3%; Hong Kong 6.0%; France 3.8%; Italy 3.8%; Saudi Arabia 3.6%. ;

1

.

,

Transport and communications Railroads (1440-41): route length 5,453 mi, 8,775 km; passengerpassenger-km 20,052,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 4,529,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 6,612,000,000. Roads (1990-91): total length 87.040 mi. 140.077 km (paved 46%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 738,059; trucks and buses 171,519. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 74; total deadweight tonnage 513,061. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 9,384,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 428,484,000; airports (1442) with scheduled flights 35. Communications. Daily newspapers 1989): total number 271; total circulation 1,106.035; circulation per 1.000 population 9. Radio (1991): total number ol receivers 10,000,000 (1 per 13 persons). Television (1991): total number ol receivers 2,080,000 (1 per 61 persons). Telephones (1989-90): 922,500 (1 per 131 persons). Transport.

Vital statistics

mi

Birth rule per 1,000 population

L991): 40.5 (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population (1991): 10.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate pel 1,000 population 1991 ): 29.7 (world avg. Total fertility rate (avg, births pet childbearing woman; 1991): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1975-80): 10.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1975 80): 0.3.

Death

(

rale

(

17.2).

1991 1: male 59.3 years; female 60.7 sears. ife expectancy al birth Majoi causes llu ial

96,000,000(1

1990 in

of

and government:

Official religion.

S.$4

I

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

0.1

120 67

03 29 8.3

17

174,228

16.8

J

86.444 1.039.258"

J

8.3

100.0

Population economically active (1982): total 1,039,258; activity rate 51.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.5%; female 19.7%; unemployed [1989) 9.2%). Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100

131.7

160.5

124

2487

3437

427.1

1

Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 5.2; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 39.4%, transfer payments 2.5%, other 58.1%; expenditure (1980): food 48.7%, housing 16.4%, clothing 9.7%, household durable goods 6.2%, transportation and communications 4.5%. Land use (1989): forested 34.7%; meadows and pastures 53.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 5.6%; other 6.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) ©000.000

%

Of total

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

-75,892 28.2%

-150.210

-115.975 21.8%

+ 28,520 4.5%

+ 376.875 22.5%

-234,684 10.9%

44

9%

Imports (1991): U.S.$ 1.275,387,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.1%, of which transport equipment 7.6%; fuels and lubricants 10.1%; tobacco and beverages 8.7%; chemicals and pharmaceuticals 6.2%; iron products 3.8%). Major import sources: Brazil 18.4%; United States 14.5%; Japan 12.9%; Argentina 11.9%; United Kingdom 4.4%; Germany 4.3%; Algeria 3.0%. Exports (1991): U.S.$737,096,000 (cotton fibres 43.3%; soybeans 21.3%; processed meat 7.5%; timber 6.1%; vegetable oil 3.3%, of which tung oil 1.1%; perfume oils 2.6%; tobacco 1.0%). Major export destinations: Brazil 27.6%; The Netherlands 14.9%; Argentina 6.1%; Italy 5.3%; Germany 4.9%; Switzerland 4.8%; United States 4.6%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1988): route length 274 mi, 441 km; passenger-mi passenger-km 21,843.000; short ton-mi cargo 13,580,000, metric ton-km cargo 19,826,000. Roads (1988): total length 15,957 mi, 25,681 km (paved 9%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 117,067: buses 3.375. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 38; total deadweight tonnage 38,514. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 355,019,000, passenger-km 571,349,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,427,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,543,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 6; total circulation 123,0005; circulation per 1.000 population 28. Radio (1991): 775,000 receivers (1 per 5.7 persons). Television (1991): 350,000 receivers (1 per 13 persons). Telephones (1990): 128,394 (1 per 33 persons). transport.

13,573,000,

(

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 0901,740,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 34.8%, customs duties 16.4%, income on fixed assets 13.8%, income tax 10.4%, sales tax 8.1%, pension funds 5.2%, alcohol tax 3.7%, real estate taxes 1.8%). Expenditures: 61,247,251,300,000 (education 11.8%, defense 11.4%. interior 8.2%, agriculture 6.7%, public works 5.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S. $1,832,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): cassava 3,900,000, sugarcane 2,300,000, soybeans 1,304,000, corn (maize) 980,000, seed cotton 750.000. oranges 367,000, bananas 311,000. lint cotton 259,11011, sweet potatoes 85,000; livestock (number of live animals) 8,260,000 (

cattle. 2.450.000 pigs.

17.000.000 chickens;

roundwood (1990)

Education (1989-90) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)6 Higher

student/

schools

teachers

4,411

812

31,590 9.4443

2

2,694'

teacher

656.877 165.373 28.677

ratio

20.8 17.43

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 13.6%; primary education 64.7%; secondary 15.5%; higher 3.4%; not stated 2.8%. Literacy ('1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 90.1%; males literate 92.1%; females literate 88.1%. Health (1989): physicians 4.128 (I per 1,008 persons); hospital beds 4,596 (1 per 931 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1990-951 39.0. Food ( 1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2.684 (vegetable products 82' animal products 18', ); 116% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. >

8.430.IIOO eu

m; fish catch (1990) 12,500. Mining and quarrying (1989): limestone 500,000 kaolin 74.000; gypsum 4,500. Manufacturing (value of production in Ci'000,000; 1988): woven cotton fabric l4.32 ): processed meat 129,222; soft drinks 47,621- beer )8,580; gasoline 23,308; sugar 22,986; wheat flour 21,043; soybean Hour 20,626; naphtha 17.287; cement 14.275. Construction (1985): residential 60.800 sq m; nonresidential [63,200 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 2.434.000.000 (1,837,000,000); coal. none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (2,555.000); petroleum products (metric tons; L990) 342,000 (537.000); natural gas. none (none). 5

Education and health

Military

;

1

Total active duly personnel (1992): 16,500 (army 75.7%, navy 18.2%, ail force 6.1% ). Military expenditure as percentage oj 1989): 1.4% (world 4.993 |; per capita expenditure U.S. $13.

GNP

1

H985. -CimI Registry records only. '1988. 'Detail does nol add to total newspapers only. "Includes vocational education and teacher training.

Foi foui

692

Britannica World Data

petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 7,395,000 (5,766,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 499,808,000 (499,808,000). Gross national product (1990): U.S.S25, 149,000,000 (U.S.$1,160 per capita).

Peru Official name: Reptiblica del Peril (Spanish) (Republic of Peru). l-orm of government*: unitary multiparty republic with one

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 in

house (Congress [80] 2). Head of state and government: legislative

President. (

Lima.

apital:

Official languages: Spanish; Quechua. Official religion: Roman Catholicism.

Monetary unit 3

1

:

nuevo

100 centimos; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) U.S.$ = 1.52 nuevo sol; 1 £=2.58

Area and population

population

area

sq mi

Departments

Capitals

Chachapoyas

Ancash Apurimac

Abancay

Arequipa

Arequipa

Ayacucho Cajamarca Cusco

Huancavelica

Huancavelica

Huanuco

Huanuco

lea

lea

Junin

Huancayo

La Libertad

Trujillo

Lambayeque

Chiclayo

Lima

Lima

Loreto

Iquitos

sq

15.154 13.529 8.068 24,458 16.917

Huaraz

Ayacucho Caiamarca Cusco

8,453 2,284

29.9

191

1,055 4.333

0,7 3.7 15.3

8,848' 28.270

31.3? 100.0

Puerto Maldonado

Moquegua

Moquegua

Pasco

Cerro de Pasco

Piura

Piura

Puno San Martin Tacna

Puno Tacna

Tumbes

Tumbes

Ucayali Constitutional Province Callao TOTAL

Pucallpa

27,758 8.545 14,565 8,235 17.147 9,573 5.495 13,437 142.414 32.889 6,105 9.776 13,858 27,804 19,789

Moyobamba

6,171 1.803 39,541

1991 estimate

376,400 939,900 586,800

380.500 629,200 527,400 1.106.500 1,211.800

902,900

34,802 368,852 85,183 15,813 25,320 35,892 72.012 51.253 15,983 4,669

6.431 .800

147 1.285,2164

667.500 50,800 132,400 298,900

Consumer

572300 21 ,998,300

8.1

2.4 10.5 3.7 0.3 4.4 15.6

1

2.4

26.78 100.0

7,661,800

price index

Monthly earnings index

">

1985

1986

1987

100

177 9

100,0

199.8

330.7 379.2

1988

1989 88,733 39,141

2.536 1

,405,9

1990

1991

6.7279

34,274-)

Household income and expenditure ( 1986). Average household size 5.2; income per household I/. 39.392 (U.S. $2,824); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: food 55.4%, rent and utilities 10.4%, transportation 8.6%, clothing 7.5%, education 6.9%, household durables 4.6%, health 4.6%, other 2.0%. •
.2' income taxes 10.0%, nontax revenues xpenditures: 2.6%). 74,826,000,000,0003 (general public services 50.2%, education l(>.2''. public ordei and salctv 12.3%, defense tl.2%, health 5.1%, agriculture 2.1%, transportation and communications 2.09i
.\' Health (19X7): physicians 40 (l per 2,819 persons); hospital beds (1983) 640 (I per 158 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live binhs (1989) 72. hood 1988-90): daily pel capita caloric intake 2,153 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 92% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (

,

|.

(

Military

acme duty personnel (1992); a gendarmerie i about 900 men was to be established in the eailv 1990s. Military expenditure as percentage / GNP (19X0): 1.6', (world 5.4%); pel capita expenditure U.S. $6.

lotiil

turing (19X7): bread 2,459; soap 604; coconut oil 330; ice 191'; palm oil 177; limes 22 corn (maize) Hour IX'; sawn wood 3,272 cu m; beer 28,540 hectolitres; bottled water 13,750 hectolitres; soil drinks 10,460 hectolitres; other products include clothing, bricks, and clay products, ((instruction (1972): buildings authorized 44 (5,561 sq m. of which residential 3,698, 1

;

mixed residential-commercial 1,361, commercial 502). Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 15,000,000 (15,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (22.000); natural gas, none (n.a). Household income and expenditure. Average household si/e: n.a.; income per household: n.a.; sources ol income: n.a expenditure; n.a. ;

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$142,000,000. Population economically active (19X7): total 20,912; activity rale ol total population ix. 5', (participation rates [1981]: ages 15 64, 61J%; female 32.4%;

unemployed

30.7',

l

).

'1987 11983 1988 (Multiparty system effective as ol January 1991 elections 6 Detail doei ""i add nemployi 'Manufacturing includes [*radi and Financi '1984 85 ^Vocational because ol rounding, 9 Impoxt figures air 'Students ilno.nl. 1982 83 1

to total given teai hers only.

'

i

'

.

i

i

Britannica World Data

708

Population economically active (1986): total 3,032,000; activity rate of total population 29.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 51.5%; female 3.2%).

Saudi Arabia Official

name: al-Mamlakah

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Price

al-'ArabTyah as-Sa'udlyah (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Form of government: monarchy. Head of state and government: King. Capital: Riyadh. Official language: Arabic.

1986

Consumer

price index

1987

1988

96.8

Area and population

Mining

population

1

1985 sq

Capitals

km

Manufacturing Construction

estimate

—

Public

Transp, and

al-Bahah

Medina (al-Madinah)

—

Pub, admin., defense Services and other TOTAL

Abha JTzan Najran

—

ash-ShamafTyah (Northern) al-Hudud ash-Shamaffyah

Tabuk

—

ash-Sharqlyah (Eastern) ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern) al-Wusta (Central)

3.030.765

6.2 8.1

6.6 16 1

0.8 6,5

164 2.2

45 15.6 1.7

10.8

31.6 100.0"

,822,000 5,771,800

2.8

1

100.0"

n.a.;

:

Balance of trade (current prices)

Hail

Hail

Buraydah

ar-Riyad

Riyadh (ar-Riyad)

865.000

2.240,000

11,010,539

Demography Population (1992): 15,267,000. Density 1492): persons per sq mi 17.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 77.3%; rural 22.7%. Sex distribution (1990): male 54.35%; female 45.65%. (

Age breakdown

km

6.8.

(1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 18.0%; 8.2< (.0-74. 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 20,697,000; (2010) 29,557,00(1. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Saudi 82.0%; Yemeni 9.6%; other Arab other 5.09i Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim (mostly Sunnl) 98.8%; Christian other 0.4%. Major cities (1980): Riyadh (ar-Riyad) 1,308,6001; Jiddah 1,500,0002;

45-59,

:

(Makkah)

21,700 28.200 23,000 56,200 9,900 349,300

01

3,632,092

al-QasTm

-

9.1

9,9

Foreign trade 6

ad-Dammam

—

9.5

-0,2

force

size (1986) 6.6; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1980)-5 food 52.2%, housing 17.2%, clothing 6.6%, furniture and utensils 5.9%, transportation and communications 4.5%, health care 2.1%.

come per household:

Sakakah an-Nabk Tabuk

al-Jawt al-Qurayyat

35,0

-800

% of labour

force

Household income and expenditure. Average household

679.476

Arar

(Northern Borders)

commun.

Trade Finance

Mecca (Makkah)

Jlzan Najran

utilities

labour

569.200 3,500 46.800 374,900 944,100 126,900 262,300 898,300 99.000 624,800

6.4 0.5

1,700 122.300 33.100 31,800

Oil sector

Regions

of total

value

22200

Agriculture

Asir

102,9

1990

%

in value SRls 000,000

1

al-JanObTyah (Southern)

19923

104.0

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(SR!s)= 100 halalah; valuation (Oct. 1992) 1 U.S.$ = SRls 3.79; £ = SRls 6.44.

Makkah

1991

991

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$1, 187,000,000. Gross national product (1989): U.S.$89,986,000,000 (U.S.$6,230 per capita).

5,

al-GharbTyah (Western) al-Bahah al-MadTnah

1990

97.1

Monthly earnings index

Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Saudi rival

Administrative Districts

1989

3.4%; o,v

,

.

Mecca

550.000: at-Ta'if 300,001).

Vital statistics Birth rate per l.ooo population (199] ): 36.6 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1.000 population ( L991): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per l.ooo population (1991): 30.3 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 6.7.

Marriage rate per 1.000 population: n.a. Divorce rale per 1.000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth 1991 1: male 65-0 years; female 68.0 years. Ma/or causes of death per 100.000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include cholera, cerebrospinal meningitis, yellow fever, typhoid, tuberculosis, lung infections, and asphyxia

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

SRls 000.000,000

+20.2

+ 15.1 9.0%

+ 82.1

113%

+16.5 10.5%

+ 32.3

% of total

+8.6 6.1%

17.9%

32.8%

Imports (1990): SRls 90,139,000,000 (transport equipment 20.5%, machinery and appliances 16.4%, textiles and clothing 8.8%, metals and metal articles 8.7%. chemicals 8.0%, precious stones and jewelry 6.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 16.7%; Japan 15.3%; U.K. 11.3%; W.Ger. 7.4%; Switzerland 6.6%; Italy 4.6%; France 4.0%; South Korea 3.3%; The Netherlands 2.3%; Taiwan 2.2%; Belgium 1.7%; Turkey 1.2%. Exports (1990): SRls 166,339,000,000 (crude petroleum 74.1%, other 25.9%). Major export destinations: U.S. 24.0%; Japan 19.0%; Singapore 5.4%; France 4.8%; The Netherlands 4.7%; Bahrain 3.9%; South Korea 3.8%; Italy 3.6%; Taiwan 3.4%; Brazil 3.3%; India 2.5%; United Arab Emirates 1.8%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1989): route length 555 mi, 893 km; passenger-mi 75,passenger-km 121,000.000; short ton-mi cargo 548,639,000, metric

Transport, 186,000,

ton-km cargo so I, (100.000. Roads (1990): total length 75,506 mi, 121,516 km (paved 43%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 2,350,000; trucks and buses 2,150,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) $09; total deadweight tonnage 1.999.497. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 9,984,000,000, passenger-km 16,068,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 417,554,000, metric ton-km cargo 609,619,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 10: total circulation 664,300; circulation per 1,000 population 49. Radio (1991): 5,000,000 receivers persons). (

I

per 2.9 persons). Iclevision (1991): 4,500,000 receivers (I per 12.7 persons).

(1

per 3.3

Telephones (1988): 1,069,325

(

Education and health Education (1988-89)

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: SRls I51.000.ooo.ooo (1990; oil revenues 72.8%). Expenditures: SRls 181,000,000,000 (defense and security 30.0%, education 17.2%, health and social development 6.7%, transportation and communications 4.6%, economic resource development 4.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991 ): wheat 4,000,000, dates 505,000, tomatoes 435.000. watermelons 426,000, barle) S75.000. urapes 103.000. cucumbers and gherkins 101.000. eggplants 74,000, pumpkin's, squash, and gourds 64,000, potatoes 59,000, carrots 21,000, onions 17,000; livestock (number ol live animals) 5,692,000 sheep. 3,350,000 camels. 176,000 cattle. 103.000 asses, 80,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1990) 46,427. Mining and quarrying (1989): gypsum 375,000; lime 12,000. Manufacturing (1985): cement 10,633,500; methanol 1.287,000; steel rods and bars 948,000; ethylene 927,900; urea 825,000; ethylene glycol 310,000; industrial ethanol ethylene dichloride 190,000; styrene 125,000; caustic soda 125,000; nitrogen 82,000; citric acid 75,000; oxygen 55,000; melamine 14,000 onstruction (value added in SRls; 1990): 31,800,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 47.400.000,000 goats. 390,

i

I

I

(47,400,001

n.a.

>al

(n.a.);

,

teachers

8,631

105.937 52,818 3.295

4,153

32 82

9,631

students 1

teacher

ratio

.694,394

16.0

739,088 31,354 1 1 5,006

11.9

140

95

Educational attainment (I986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 31.8%; primary, secondary, or higher education 68.2%. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 62.4%; males literate 73.1%; females literate 48.1%. Health (1990): physicians 22,688 (1 per 623 persons); hospital beds 39,500 (1 per 358 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 69.0. Pood (1488-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,929 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 169? ); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 102,000 (army 71.6%, navy 10.8%, air force (1989): 16.0% (world 17,6%). Military expenditure as percentage of 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$897.

GNP

crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 2,350,-

912,000 (557,270,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 84,916,000 natural gas (cu m; 1990) 28,223,000,000 (28,223,000,000). 56,39< Tourism receipts from visitors (1989) U.S.$2,050,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad 988 I £.$2,000,000,000 Pilgrims to Mecca from abroad 1989): 774.560. Land use (1990): forested 0.6%; meadows and pastures 39.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.1%; other, built-on. and waste 58.8%. 1

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc leacher tr i Higher

student/

schools

i

(

I

i

1

'1981 estimate. -1983 estimate. 'September. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5 Urban middle-income households only. ''Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. '1987-88.

Nation-, of the

World

709

Household income and expenditure*. Average household size n erage annual income pel household (1975) Sources of income (1975); wages and salaru luittanccs and gifts pensions, social security, and related benefits 12.5%, other 18.4%; expenditure (1979); food and tobacco 57.59! housing, maintenani utilities 18.4%, clothing 11.9%, transport 5.4%, othei 6 Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$5,260,000,000

Senegal

I

(

name: Republique du Senegal (Republic of Senegal). Form of government: multipart) republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Head / state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. ( apital: Dakar. Official language: French. C Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 238.75; 1 £ = CFAF 405.88. Official

I

(U.S.S7I0 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

1982

n value

% of total

labour

% of labour

CFAF 000,000,000

value

force 4

force

326.5

205

248.0

156

10.654 1,918 30,736

264

1

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Public

Area and population Regions

population

area

sq mi

Capitals

sq

km

1988 census

46.2 150.5

2.9

3886

24.5

428.7

27.0

Services Pub admin., defense

Dakar

212

550

1,571,614

Other

Diourbel

1.683

TOTAL

Fatick

3.064

Kaolack Kolda

Kaolack Kolda

6,181

4,359 7.935 16,010 21,011 29.188 44,117 59,602

620,197

Fatick

Louga Saint-Louis

Tambacounda

Tambacounda

Thies

Thies Ziguinchor

Zigumchor

8.112 11.270 1 7,034 23,012 2,549 2,834 75.951

TOTAL

6,601

7,339 196,712

9.1

1.6

3.221

utilities J

Trade Finance

Diourbel

Louga

>

Construction Transp. and commun

Dakar

Saint-Louis

1

\

2.8 7.2 21 2 12.6

8.402 24,789 14,648

95

1

7,921

68

14.339

12.3

1

100.0

1,588.5

100

116.628

507.651

805.859 593.199 507,572 656.941 383,572 937.412 398.067 6,982.084

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $152,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$105,000.000. Land use (1990): forested 54.8%; meadows and pastures 16.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.2%; other 16.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1992): 7,691,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 101.3, persons per sq km 39.1. Urban-rural (1988): urban 38.6%; rural 61.4%. Sex distribution 1988): male 48.65%; female 51.35%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 47.5%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 13.6%; 45-59, 7.8%; 60 and over, 5.0%. Population projection: (2000) 9,519,000; (2010) 12,424,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Wolof 43.5%; Fulani- (Peul-) Tukulor 24.1%; Serer 14.9%; Diola 5.3%; Malinke 4.3%; other 7.9%. Religious affiliation (1988): Sunn! Muslim 94.0%; Christian, predominantly Roman Catholic 4.9%; traditional beliefs and other 1.1%. Major cities (1992): Dakar 1,729,823; Thies 201,350; Kaolack 179.894; Ziguinchor 148,831; Saint-Louis 125,717.

CFAF

'000.000,000

% of total

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

-203.1

-100.1

30.3%

21.4%

-93.0 18.7%

-130.3 28.8%

-169.6 35.5%

-168.4 27.6%

(

(

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 44.0 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2).

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: CFAF 660,900,000,000 (1990; current revenue 86.0%, of which import duties 28.0%, personal and corporate income taxes 17.0%, value-added taxes 16.9%, personal property taxes 3.1%; aid, grants, and subsidies 13.9%). Expenditures: CFAF 660,900,000,000 (1990; debt service 22.4%; public services 16.0%; agriculture 13.9%; education 11.0%; defense 6.1%; transportation and communications 4.9%; public order and security 4.5%; industry 3.2%; health 2.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$3,891,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): sugarcane 820,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 700,000, millet 560,000, paddy rice 160.000, corn (maize) 106,000, sorghum 85.000, cotton 41,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1991) 4,000,000 sheep. 2,813,000 cattle, 1,200,000 goats. 547,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 4,480,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 268.781. Mining and quarrving (1991): calcium phosphate 1,740,500; cement 503,300; aluminum phosphate 119,3001. Manufacturing (1988): peanut oil 202.200; wheat Hour 103,600; nitrogenous fertilizers 68,000; soap 32,900; fresh fish 26,800; sugar 22,200; cotton fibres 19,200; canned fish 14,006; carbonated beverages 238,000 hectolitres; beer 170,000 hectolitres; footwear 561,400 pairs. Construction (authorized; 1988): residential 253,300 sq m: nonresidential 24,900 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 684,000,000 (fi84.000.000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (5,882,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 694,000 (704.000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1990); total 3.146,000; activity rate of total population 42.9', (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 46.2%; female

Price

12.0'


Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. s 199(1. ''Imputed rates calculated from registered deaths. 7 August; economically active persons 13 years and over. ^Import figures are lob. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. "Traffic data refer to fiscal year ending September 30. 101980. "1985.

ol

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100.0

101.8

104 4

108 4

114 2

121

127 9

Nation* of the World

Togo

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988

Official (

name: Rdpublique Togolaise

Republic oi

Agriculture

transitional

Mining Manufacturing Construction

regime with one interim legislative bod) High Council ol the Republic [79|)i. Chiej of slate: President. Head o] government: Prime Minister. (

Public

unit:

(CFAF) = (Oct.

=

£

I

5,

101)

I

= CFAF

Price

Area and population

De

la

1981

sq mi

Sokode Sotouboua Tchamba Sokode

Kara

2.892

sq

km

269,174 128.617 44.912 95.645 432,626 32.444 118.345 50,077 66.120 44,762 120,878

7.490

2

2.1982

Bafilo

Bassar Binah Doufelgou Keran

Bassar

2

5,6922

362

938

2.444

6,330

Pagouda Niamtougou Kande

180 432

465

653 419

1,120 1,692 1.085

.6923 1,412 1,077 2,372

4,3823 3,658 2,790 6,145

Kara

Atakpame

Amou

Amtame

Haho

Notse Kpalime

Kioto

Ogou

1

Atakpame Badou Dapaong Sansanne-Mango Dapaong

Wawa Des Savanes Oti

Tone

Lome Lome

Maritime Golfe

Vo Yoto

Tabligbo Tsevie

Zio TOTAL

3

3.762 4.840

133 275 290 483

345 712 750

561 ,656 72.951

109,995 106.429 163.906 108,375 326,826 77,747 249,079 1

Aneho Vogan

Lacs

3

1.453 1.869

1,289

21,925

Consumer

census

Kara

Assoli

Kozah Des Plateaux

,039.700

438.110 140,006 150,313 100,387 210.884 2,700.982"

1,250 3,339 56,785

Demography Population (1992): 3,701,000. Density 1992): persons per sq mi 168.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 25.7%; rural 74.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. (

km

65.2.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60 and over, 5.0%. Population projection: (2000) 4,668,000; (2010) 6,238,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1981): Ewe-Adja 43.1%; Tem-Kabre 26.7%; Gurma 16.1%; Kebu-Akposo 3.8%; Ana-Ife (Yoruba) 3.2%; non-African 0.3%; other 6.8%. Religious affiliation (1991): traditional beliefs 50.0%; Roman Catholic 26.0%; Muslim 15.0%; Protestant 9.0%.

Major

cities

,600

2 9

27,300 90.800

22 5

64

33,100 29.400 402.8009

706

142000

10.8

244,000

18.6

1,312,000

1000

I

35 6.8

926.000

J )

}

8.2

73

J

100.0

(1983):

Lome

366,476;

Sokode

and earnings indexes (1985 = = 100)

population

area

Regions

Tchaoudjo

force

344

Population economically active: total (1990) 1,430.000; activity rate of total population 40.5% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 69.5%; female 37.5%; unemployed [1980] 2.3%).

238.75;

CFAF

Tchamba

% of labour

force

CFA

1992) 1 U.S.$ 405.88.

Sotouboua

labour

value

...

Services TOTAL

franc centimes; valuation

Centrale

commun.

% of total

138,400 25,800 32,300 14,000 1 1

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Official language: French. Official religion: none.

Monetary

utilities

Transp. and

Lome.

apital:

1987

m value CFAF 000,000

t*ogo).

Form of government:

(

729

48,098';

Kpalime

27,6695.

price index

Hourly earning index'"

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

101.8 100.0

100.0 100.0

104.1

104.2 105.5

104.0 105.5

103.2 105.5

104 2

100.0

105.5

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.6; average annual income per household CFAF 102,000 (U.S. $452); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1970): food and beverages 60.9%, housing 9.9%, transportation 8.2%, clothing 7.7%, household durable goods 3.9%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$ 1,052,000,000. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $23,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$46,000,000. Land use (1990): forested 29.4%; meadows and pastures 32.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.3%; other 25.4%.

Foreign trade 11 Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF 000.000.000

% of total

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

-46.2 27.2%

-34.9 17.3%

-8.7 3.8%

-29.7 13.2%

-36.2 19.8%

-52.5 26.7%

Imports (1990): CFAF 160,500.000,000 (1987; machinery and transport equipment 27.2%, food products 14.6%, cotton yarn and fabrics 11.3%, chemicals 10.5%, refined petroleum products 7.3%). Major import sources (1987): France 32.7%; The Netherlands 9.3%; W.Ger. 8.8%; U.K. 7.1%; Cote d'lvoire 5.5%; Japan 5.0%; U.S. 3.6%. Exports (1988): CFAF 72,209,000,000 (1987; calcium phosphates 45.8%, coffee 12.6%, cotton [ginned] 11.8%, cocoa beans 11.4%, machinery and transport equipment 6.2%). Major export destinations (1987): The Netherlands 14.8%; France 7.7%; Spain 7.4%; U.S. 7.3%; Italy 7.0%; U.S.S.R. 6.6%; Canada 5.7%; U.K. 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 326 mi, 525 km; passenger-km 109,000,0007; metric ton-km cargo 11,000,000 7 Roads (1990): total length 7,545 km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 4,920; trucks and buses 389. Merchant marine ( 1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 8; total deadweight tonnage 34,126. Air transport (1989)'-: passenger-km 32.344,000; metric ton-km cargo 5,753,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation .

10,00013; circulation per 1,000 population 2.913. Radio (1991): 700,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1991): 23,000 receivers (1 per 156 persons). Telephones (1990): 21,032 (1 per 169 persons).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population

1991); 49.0 (world avg. 26.4). per 1,000 population (1991): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 36.0 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 7.1. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1979): 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 54.0 years; female 58.0 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1978): infectious and parasitic diseases 26,926; diseases of the respiratory system 9,296; diseases of the digestive system 8,007; accidents, poisoning, and trauma 7,172.

Death

(

Education and health

rate

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:

CFAF 92,500,000,000 (1990; tax revenue 92.9%, nontax revenue 7.1%). Expenditures: CFAF 92,500,000,000 (1990; general public services 25.4%, education 23.1%, defense 14.9%, debt service 14.1%, economic services 7.4%, health 5.2%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing ( 1991 ): cassava 500,000, yams 433,000, corn (maize) 236,000, sorghum 106,000, millet 70,000, cottonseed 55,000, riee 34,1)0(1, peanuts (groundnuts) 33.00(1, pulses bananas 16,000, coconuts 14,000, palm oil 14,000, oranges 12,000, 12,000, tomatoes 9,000, cacao beans 8,000; livestock (number of animals) 1.741,000 goats. 1.200.000 sheep, 500,000 pigs, 250,000 cattle, 6,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1990) 910,000 cu m; fish catch (1989) 16,458. Mining and quarrying (1988): phosphate rock 3,464,000; salt 600,0006;

Education (1988)

student/

schools Primary (age 6-11)" Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational

Higher"

2,429 35815 18 '6 116

teachers

10,426 4,003'6

357 276

teacher

students

569,388 103.835

ratio

54.6 27.116 16.7 28.0

5,956 7.732

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 76.5%; primary education 13.5%; secondary 8.7%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 631,700 (39.1%); males literate 401,800 (51.7%); females literate 229,900 (27.5%). Health: physicians (1985) 230 (1 per 12,992 persons); hospital beds (19N2) 3,655 (1 per 752 persons); infant mortality rate (1991) 110.0. Food ( 1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,141 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 92% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

20,000,

coffee live

marble 5,0007. Manufacturing (1987): cement 370,000; wheat Hour 58,000; beer 452.000 hectolitres; soft drinks 149,000 hectolitres; footwear 29,000 pairs*. Construction (value added in CFAF; 1987): 14.200,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 41,000,000 (350,000,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990)

none

(125,000).

Gross national product (1990): U.S. $1,474,000,000 (U.S.S410 per capita).

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 5,250 (army 91.4%, navy 3.8%, air force (1989): 3.3% (world 4.9%); 4.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.$12.

GNP

iMultiparty system introduced in April 1991, but single-party transitional government run the country until multiparty elections (which remain unscheduled) are held in 1993. 2TchaoudjO includes Tchamba. -'Amou includes Wawa. 4 Total includes 71,000 persons not counted separately. 51981. 61982. '1986. SExcludes rubber. ''Detail does figures. ''Import figures are not add to total given because ot rounding. "'January t.o.b. in balance ot trade and c.i.l. tor commodities and trading partners. '-Air Afrique only. ''I. >i one daily onlyi '41989. L51984. "'1987. ^Universities only.

will

i

730

Britannica World Data

Tonga name: Pule'anga Fakatu'i

Official

(value in T$; 1984): residential 9,552,300; nonresidential 11,377,100. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 22,000,000 (22,000,000): petroleum (barrels; 1989) none (154.000); petroleum products (metric tons;

'o

1990) n.a. (24,000).

Tonga (Tongan); Kingdom of Tonga

Gross national product (1990): U.S.$10(),000,000 (U.S.$1,010 per capita).

(English).

Form of government: monarchy with one

constitutional

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

legislative house Assembly [31] ). Head of state and government: King

(Legislative

1988-89

1

assisted by Privy Council. Agriculture

Nuku'alofa.

l 'apital:

Official languages: Official religion:

Monetary unit:

1

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Tongan; English.

none. pa'anga 2 (T$)= 100

Public

valuation (Oct 5. 1992) U.S.$ = T$1.38; 1 £ = T$2.35.

seniti; 1

area

population

1986 census

Divisions

sq mi

Capitals

Districts

sq

km

Ohonua

33.7

874

Pangai

42.5

1100

4.393 1.995 2.398 8.979 1.409

'Eua Fo'ou Eua Motu'a

Haapai Foa

value

force

force

24,200 600 6,500 4,000

33 7

10,429

42,9

0,8

0.1

9.1

27 622

5.6

1.741

7.2

800

1.1

326

1.3

4,400 6.900 2.900

6.1

1.176 1.612

4.0

465

48 66 19

12.500

17.4

5,492

22.6

2.434 2^.324

100.0

commun.

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

9 6

%

of labour

26

} 9.000 7 71,800

12.57 100.08

10,0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$47,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 24,324; activity rate 25.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 44.7%; female 21.5%; unemployed 9.1%).

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Price

892

Ha'ano Lulunga

1985

1987

1986

1988

1989

1990

1991

140.0

145.8

159 9

176 8

1,588

897

Mu'omu'a Pangai Uiha Niuas Niua Fo'ou Niua Toputapu

Hihifb

Tongatapu

Nuku'alofa

277

2,840 1.353 2.379

71.7

763 100.6

2605

46.0

1192

1.616 63,614 15.782 13.117 4.023 6.992 5.790 6.778 11.132 15.170 2,292 2,095 2,875 1.387 5,273 1.248

Kolofo'ou

Kolomotua Kolovai

Lapaha Nukunuku Tatakamotonga Vain.

Neiafu

Vava'u

Hahake Hihifo

Leimatu'a

Motu Neiafu

Pangaimotu

289 53

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

749.93 29 6 779.5

11.4

3009

TOTAL

94.535

Demography Population (1992): 97.300. Densit) 1992) 4 persons per sq mi 336.1. persons per sq Urban-rural (1986): urban 30.7%; rural 69.3%. Sex distribution (1986): male 50.30%; female 49.70%. :

1

km

;

1

12.1%; Free Church of

Tonga

11.0',;

Consumer

price index

Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household

size (1986) 6.3; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure ( 1984) y food 49.3%, household operations 13.3%, housing 10.5%, tobacco and beverages 7.0%, transportation 5.8%, clothing and footwear 5.6%. Land use (1990): forested 11.1%; meadows and pastures 5.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 66.7%; other 16.6%.

come per household:

n.a.;

:

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) TS 000.000

% Of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

-47.7 72.7%

-58.0 74.4%

-50.3 70.9%

-54

-49

8

-42.1

73.5%

62.1%

47.4%

Imports (1991): T$76,800,000 (food and live animals 21.5%, machinery and transport equipment 19.0%, mineral fuels 15.8%, basic manufactures 15.5%, chemicals 8.1%). Major import sources: New Zealand 29.6%; Australia 25.5%; Fiji 15.5%; U.S. 9.1%; Japan 9.0%. Exports (1991): T$20,600,000 (squash 60.2%, vanilla beans 14.1%, coconut products 1.9%). Major export destinations: Japan 60.2%; U.S. 13.1%; Australia 8.7%; New Zealand 7.8%.

129.8.

15 29. 29.0%; 30-44. 13.8%; 4s 59, (1986): under 15, 40.6', 10.2%; 60-74. 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.4',. Population projection (2000) 101,000; (201(1) 106,000. Doubling tunc 30 years Ethnii composition 1986): Tongan 95.5%; part Tongan 2.8%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (1986): Free VVesleyan 43.0%; Roman Catholic 16.0%;

Age breakdown

Mormon

T$0006

Trade Finance

Area and population

Eua

labour

value

utilities

Transp. and

1986

% of total

in

Church of Tonga 7.3%;

othei 10.6

Major cities (1984): Nuku'alofa (1986) 21,383; Mu'a 4.047: Neiafu Haveluloto 3,136; Pangai-Hihifo 2,179.

3,948;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length 433 km (paved 65%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 1,433, commercial vehicles 2,784. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 17; total deadweight tonnage 51.018. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 5.897,000; metric ton-km cargo 12.000; airports 1992) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 1; total circulation "ooo: circulation per 1,000 population 73. Radio (1988): total number of receivers 79.716 (I per 1.2 persons). Television: total number of receivers, n.a. 10 Telephones L990): 5,212 (1 per 18 persons). (

(

.

Education and health Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population

L990): 30.4 (world avg. 27.1). population 1990): 7.1 (world avg. 9.8). increase per population Natural rate 1990) 23.3 (world avg. 17.3). 1,000 Total fertility rate (avg. births per chtldbearing woman: 1988): 4.0. Marriage rate per l.ooo population (1985): 6.6. Divorce rate per l.ooo population (1985): 0.6. Life expectancy al birth 1980 85): male 61.0 years; female 64.8 years. \fajor causes of death per loo.ooo population (1988) 5 diseases of the circulatory system 112.2; malignant neoplasms 59.8; diseases of the respirator* system 37.7; infectious diseases 30.4; injuries and poisoning 18.9.

Death

(

:

National economy (

schools

teachers

students

115

689 767 65

16.522 13.877

student/ teacher ratio

1

(

Budget

Education (1990)

(

rate per 1,000

1992-93). Revenue: T$50,600,000 (foreign-trade taxes 49.4%, govern-

ment services revenue IN. 2', indirect taxes 12.4',. direct taxes 8.6%, interest and rent M9i Expenditures: T$50,570,000 (education 17.6%, general administration 17.5%, law .ind order 11.6%, public works and communica.

|.

tions 11.5%, health 11.4',. public debt 7.5%, agriculture 4.9', Tourism: receipts from visitors [99] U.S.$7,699,000; expenditures bv nationals abroad (1990) U.S.Sl.OOO Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991 ): yams $3,000, taro 27,000, coconuts 25,000, cassava 15,000, sweet potatoes 14,000, vegetables (including melons) 14,000, fruits (excluding melons) 13,000, copra 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 60,000 pigs, 10,000 cattle. 9,000 goatS, 6.O0II horses; roundwood (1990) 5,000 cu m; fish catch Mining and quarrying 1982): coral 150.000; sand 25.000. Manufacturing (output in T$; 19 >ii): food products and beverages 6,279,000; wearing apparel and lootvvcar 3,351,000; metal products 1.672.000; paper and paper products 1,586,000; chemical products 1.347.000. Construction

Primary (age 6-11)

Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teacher tr. .

57" 9

1713

112

Higher

872 705 '3

24.0 18.1

13.4 41 5'3

Educational attainment (1976). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; incomplete primary education 37.3%; complete primary 12.4%: lower secondary 45.6%; secondary 0.1%; postsecondary 0.1%; higher 0.6%; special education 2.4%; other 1.1%. Literacy (1976): total population age 15 and over literate 46,456 (92.8%); males 23.372 (92.9', ); females 23.084 (92.8%). Health 19X9): physicians 45 (1 per 2.130 persons); hospital beds 307 (1 per 312 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1988) 49.0. Food 1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,967 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19', ); 1309? of FAO recommended minimum requirement. (

(

|.

i

(

c

Military

)

ioial active duty personnel (1991): Tonga has a national police (defense) (1989): 4.9% force of about 300. Military expenditure as percentage of

GNP

(world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S. $21. 'Includes 13 nonelective seats. - he pa'anga is now linked to an international basket ot currencies rather than to the Australian dollar. 'Total includes 39.0 sq mi (101.1 uninhabited islands. ^Density is based on land area. 5 Excludes deaths so, km) ot from non-intestinal infectious diseases. 'v\t constant 1981-82 prices. 'Includes indirect laves less subsidies. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Current weight ot consumer price index components. '"Tonga has no authorized television service, but a "pirate" station began transmitting in mid-1984. 'U987. 1-1986. 131985. 1

'

Nations

Trinidad and Tobago

nl the

Form

oi

Trinidad

TTS'OOO.OOO

'hiej oj state

(

Petroleum

Minister.

dollar

(Oct. 5. 1992) 1 £ = TT$7.23.

1

1

U.S.$

Capitals

Caroni

Chaguanas

Nanva/Mayaro

Rio Claro

St Andrew/St. David

Sangre Grande

George

St. Patrick

Siparia

Victoria

Princes

Town

1990 census

Km

sq mi

sq

214,0 352.0 361.7 350.4 251.0 314.1

554.3 911.7

8135

177.109 36.781 62.944 445,620 120,129 210,833

116.2

301.0

50,282

3.7

9.6 6.5

50,878 30.092

122 254

29.695 20.025 1,234.388

9368 9075 650.1

Price

1

Tobago?

Scarborough

Cities

—

Boroughs Arima Point Fortin

21,200 47,000 64,800 8,500 31,000 81,000 28,300

10.8

98 9.2 1 7

96 14.2

97

360 '2

12.0

1

66

I

13.9 1.8

66 17.3

61

286

133,500

1.712

1.600

0.3

467,7003

100

20,978

4.5 10.1

100.0

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Consumer

price index

'

1985

1986

1987

100.0

107.7 101 8

119.3

128,5

1432

1062

1080

108.8

1000

Weekly earnings index

Unitary State

San Fernando

229

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2.508.000,000. Population economically active (1990): total 467,700; activity rate of total population 38.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.5%; female 34.0%; unemployed [1991] 18.8%).

population

area

Counties

Port of Spain

4,810 2,059 1.936

= TT$4.25;

Area and population

St

50.700

355

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

unit: Trinidad and Tobago (TT$) = UK) cents; valuation

force

26

2,002 2,982 2,033 2,517 1,387

Trade

Spam.

value

natural gas, '

Official language: English. Offii ial religion: none.

Monetan

,

quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

President.

apital: Port of

10

% of labour

labour force

537

Agriculture 9

government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [311; House ol Representatives |36|).

(

1990

% of total

value

in

oj

Head of government Prime

731

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

name: Republic and Tobago.

Official

World

159.0 115.2

164 7 119.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.1; income per household (1988): TT$17,083 (U.S. $4,444); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981-82): food and beverages 27.7%, housing 22.7%, clothing and footwear 15.5%, transportation 13.2%, household furnishings 8.8%, other 12.1%.

—

2.5

Foreign trade 14

— —

TOTAL

4.7

98 1

5.128.43

,980.1

Balance of trade (current prices) TT$ 000.000

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

+129

+877

1.3%

9.1%

+1,114 11.4%

+ 1,517 12.7%

+ 3.480 24.5%

% Of total

1991

+

1

.359

8.8%

Demography Population (1992): 1,261,000. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 636.8, persons per sq km 245.9. Urban-rural (1990): urban 69.1%; rural 30.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.07%; female 49.93%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15. 31.3%; 15-29, 26.9%; 30-14, 21.5%; 45-59, 12.2%; 60 and over, 8.1%. Population projection: (2000) 1,362,000; (2010) 1,500,000. Doubling time: 50 years. Ethnic composition (1986): black 43.0%; East Indian 36.0%; mixed 16.0%; white 2.0%: Chinese 1.0%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 32.2%; Protestant 27.6%, of which Anglican 14.4%, Presbyterian 3.7%, Pentecostal 3.4%; Hindu 24.3%; Muslim 5.9%; nonreligious 1.0%; unknown 6.0%; other 3.0%. Major cities (1990): Port of Spain 50.878; San Fernando 30,092; Arima 29.695; Point Fortin 20,025; Scarborough 6,089-».

Imports (1990): TT$5,362,000,000 (nondurable consumer goods 22.8%. of which food 14.3%; capital goods 20.2%, of which industrial machinery 11.6%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 9.8%). Major import sources (1991): United States 38.9%; EEC 14.7%, of which United Kingdom 7.4%; Venezuela 14.0%: Japan 5.6%; Canada 4.9%. Exports (1990): TT$8,842,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 66.7%; ammonia 8.2%; iron and steel bar rods 5.1%; urea 2.9%; methanol 1.9%; sugar 1.5%). Major export destinations (1991): United States 49.3%; Caricom 12.3%, of which Barbados 3.2%; EEC 9.2%, of which United Kingdom 2.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1987):

total length 4,906 mi, 7,895

km

(paved 46%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 269,238; trucks and buses 68,759. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 48; total deadweight tonnage 12,549. Air transport (1990) 15 passenger-mi 1,694,000,000, passenger-km 2,726,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 9,850,000 6 metric tonkm cargo 14,381,000&; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 4: total circulation 172,801; circulation per 1,000 population 140. Radio (1991): 700,000 receivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1991): 250,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1990): 216,039 (1 per 5.7 persons). :

Vital statistics

,

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1989): 20.7 (world avg. 27.1); (1979) legitimate 56.9%; illegitimate 43.1%.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1989): 6.8 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989): 13.9 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 69.7 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 263.9. of which ischemic heart diseases 116.5, cerebrovascular disease 81.8; diabetes mellitus 85.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 83.0.

National economy Budget (1991): Revenue: TT$6,704,200,000 (petroleum-sector corporate taxes 27.6%, value-added taxes 15.7%, individual income taxes 13.6%, import duties 8.1%, royalties from petroleum sector 7.6%). Expenditures: TT$6,809, (,(Kl,lK)(l (current expenditures 88.8%, development expenditures 11.2%). Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S. $95,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$ 122,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishint; (1990): sugarcane l,301,0uu 5 coconuts 4(1,(10(1. rice 13,500, oranges 7,000, bananas (,.000, grapefruit 4,000, corn (maize) 3,000, cocoa 2,111, coffee 1,944; livestock (number of live animals) 80.00(1 cattle. 70,000 pigs, 50,000 goats; roundwood 72.001) cu m; fish catch 3,200 6 Mining and quarrying (1991): natural asphalt 21,000. Manufacturing (1991): anhydrous ammonia and urea (nitrogenous fertilizers) 2,465,600; cement 485,600; methanol 452,800; steel billets 439,700; steel wire rods 364,100; raw sugar 110,400 7 beer 303,600 hectolitres; rum 142.700 proof hectolitres. Construction (buildings authorized; 1990): residential 210,600 sq m; nonresidential 27,200 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 3,466,000,000 (3,105,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1941 52,404,000 (33,989,00Q8); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991 5.359,000 (976,0008); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 5,381,600,000 (5,065,000,000). Land use (1989): forested 43.1%; meadows and pastures 2.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.4%; other 31.4%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$4,458,000,000 (U.S.$3,470 per capita). ,

.

;

Education and health Education (1989-90) Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacher tr

1

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

472

6,839

189,623

277

10016

4,878

99,133

20,3

346

4,090

11.8

I

Higher"

1

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 7.1%; primary education 66.5%; secondary 21.7%; higher 2.7%; other 2.0%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 751,600 (96.1%). Health (1990): physicians 802 (1 per 1,543 persons); hospital beds'" 3,894 (1 per 318 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 10.2. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,913 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 2,650 (army 100.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1989): 1.6% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$48.

GNP

)

)

I

'Preliminary data. -Attained full internal sell government in 1987 'Detail Joes not Includes to total given because of rounding. 41980. 51991. '1989. '1992 51990 sugar industry. '"Includes refined petroleum. ^Excludes refined petroleum and sug.u 'Average industries. i-'Ncl ol value-added taxes less imputed hank service charges. through September. !-2 '. 28.6%; 30-44, 16.4%: 45-59, (

-

(

1

:

Population projection: (2000) 9,779,000; (2010) ll,28f

>

years.

Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 98.23 0.1%; other 0.3 Religious affiliation O.lV othei 0.2

Majoi 403;

Berbei

.

221.77U:

Aryanah

131.-

Vital statistics 1.000 population (1990): 25.4 (world avg. 2"

mate w.s f , illegitimate Death rale per 1,000 population

540.0

6

16

422,300 295.200

17 9 12.5

1

2,552.4

232

1.831.0

167

\

1

349,000

148

465,400

197

J 1

11.46 100.0

,256.06

10.9870'

249.000 7 2.360,600

10.5? 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.S6,716,000,000. Population economically active (1989): total 2.360,000,' activity rate of total population 28.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64. 42.2%; female 20.9%;

unemployed Price

13.4'

'




426

2.699

1

19.6

168,000

10.6

3.126

1

227

151,300

95

42

63.500 90.000

4.0

5784

Services

Capitals

Balkan

Nebit-Dag

Chardzhou Mary Tashauz

Chardzhou Mary Tashauz

City

—

sq mi

population

sq

1991 estimate

km

90.300 36.200 33.500 28.400

233.900 93.800 86.800 73,600

925,500 774,700 859.500 738.000

188.5002

488.100

3 714.100

100.0

Price and earnings indexes (1985 Consumer pnee index Monthly earnings index

1

25.9 1.7

100

,585,400

=

100)

=

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100.0 100.0

101.0 101.0

102 103 8

107

112.4 115.7

125.0 127.5

195 2 196 1

1090

Foreign trade

416.400

TOTAL

410.400 27,400

7,1

13.771

57

Population economically active (1991): total: 1,585,400; activity rate of total population 42.7% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 84.2%; female [1990] 52.2%; unemployed [1991] 20-25%).

Area and population

Provinces

9777

Other

area

— — — —

—

— — —

TOTAL

force

674.800

defense

1

value

46.4

Public administration.

ruble = 100 kopecks; unit: valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) free rate, 1 U.S.$ = 316.82 rubles; 1 £ = 538.59 rubles.

% of labour

labour

of total

6.389 7

Finance

Official religion: none.

Ashkhabad (Ashgabat)

1

and communications Trade

Ashkhabad (Ashgabat). language: Turkmen.

Monetary

Mining Manufacturing

Construction Transportation and

President. Capital:

%

value 000,000 rubles in

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1992): $.859,000. Density 1592): persons per sq mi 20.5. persons per sq km 7.9. Urban-rural (1991): urban 45.4%; rural 54.6%. distribution Set (1989): male 49.30%; female 50.70%. Age breakdown (1989); under 15. 40.5%; 15-29. 28.8%; 30-44. 15.5%; 45-59. 9.1%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.4',. Population projection: (2000) 4.585,000: (2010) 5,491,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1989); Turkmen 72.0%; Russian 9.5%: I'/bek 9.0%; Kazakh 2.5',; Tatar 1.1', other 5.9%.

1987

1988

1990

1991

000.000 rubles

-477

-284

-676

-971

*898

% of total

8.9%

5.1%

11.3%

1989

15.5%

6.1%

l

;

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly SunnI Muslim (Sufi). Majoi cities 1991 i: Ashkhabad 416,400; Chardzhou 166.400; Tashauz 117,000 Mary 94,900; Nebit-Dag 89,100. {

Imports (1991); 5,938,000,000 rubles (detail, n.a.). Major import sources: former Soviet republics 91.8%; foreign countries 8.2%. Exports (1991): 7.836.00(1. (Kill rubles (detail, n.a.). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 1,317 mi, 2,120 km; passengers 9,000,0(H); short ton cargo 37,600,000, metric ton-km cargo 34,100,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,300 mi, 13.400 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 170.600; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels

(100 gross tons and over)

deadweight tonnage,

n.a.; total

n.a.

Air transport

(1989): passenger-mi 2,021.000,000, passenger-km 3,253,000,000; short tonmi cargo 222.000.000. metric ton-km cargo 324.200.000; airports (1992) with

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 34.2 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 96.5ft illegitimate 3.595 Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 7.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate pei 1,000 population (1990): 27.2 (world avg. 17.3). :

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 4.3. Marriage rate per 1.000 population L989): 9.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.4. / ift expectancy at birth (1990): male 62.9 years; female 64. 7 years. Major causes ol death per 10(1.000 population (l ).Ss>): diseases of the circulatory system 275.3; diseases ot the respiratory system 160.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 79.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 65.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 62.4; diseases of the digestive system 32.2; diseases of the nervous system 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.0.

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily neyyspapers (1989): total number 66; total circulation 1,141,000; circulation'per 1.000 population 307. Radio and television (1990): per 1.9 persons). Telephones (1989): total number of receivers 1.967.000 251,800(1 per 15 persons). (

1

(

l

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 6,489,000,000 rubles (nontax revenue 69.6%, of which corporation profit transfer 23.995 union transfers 21.7', tax revenue $0,491 ol yylneh turnover tax 10.3%, company, profit tax 8.0%, individual income tax 5.4',. sales tax 4.895 Expenditures: 5,597,000,000 rubles (social and cultural affairs 56.9%, of yyhieh social security 26.7%, education and 7 ',, 9.4',; science health national economy 34.(1',: government admin;

.

).

1

I

).

istration 2.795

Education and health Education (1989-90)

student/

students

schools Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr Higher .

398

1

1,324

I

92 9

teacher

ratio

710,600 115,000 35.000 42.000

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over haying: primary education or no formal schooling 13.6%; some secondary 21.3%: completed secondary and some postsecondary 56.8%: higher 8.3%. Literacy: n.a.

Health 1990); physicians 13.200 (1 per 274 persons): hospital beds 42,000 per 86 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 45.2. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a. (

(1

)

Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a.

Military

Tourism: n.a. Production ('000,000 rubles except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1990): seed cotton 2,223. vegetables 139, tirain 91, fruit 52; livestock (number ol live animals; 1989) 5,083,000 sheep and goats. 807,000 cattle, 268,000 piiis; roundwood 4,000,000 cu m; tish catch, n.a. Mining and quarrying J9): sulfur 5,547,000; sodium sulphate 261,000. Manufacturing (1990): light industrj 2,028, ol which textiles 1.^45; fuel 989; food 700; building materials 285; electricity 250; machinery and metalvvorking equipment 246; chemicals and petroleum products 192; paper products 64; pharmaceuticals 12; printing 8. Construction 1991 5,949,200,000 rubles. Energj production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991 17,171,400,000 (8,337,000,000); coal: n.a. (n.a.): crude petroleum (barrels: 1989) 42,601,960 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 7,131,800,000 (2,024,300,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 84,300, ,000 (9,500,000,

Total active duly personnel: CIS-joint control 34.000 expenditure as a percentage of GNP: n.a.

(100% army).

Military

1

(

1:

1

Land

use: n.a.

Household income and expenditure. Average household si/e (1989) 5.6; income per household: i\.a.\ sources of income (1991): salaries and wages 61.4',. pensions and grants 26.0%, income from agriculture sales 9.4%, nonwage income ol workers 2.7%; expenditure (1991): food and clothing 79.4',. services 10.1%, taxes and othei payments 10.5' national product (at current market prices. 1991 13,771.000.000 rubles ):

I

$.700 rubles per capita)

Constitution ol Ma> IS. L992, provided for transitional status of former Supreme Soviet as Majlis (from May 19) until a permanent representative body, the People's Council (Khalk Maslakhaty) could be constituted. -Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'No equivalent U.S.S value is offered, as Soviet GNP data are very speculative.

.

Nations

World

715

(metric tons except as noted) Agriculture ", forestry, fishing coconuts 4,000, fruits 1,000, hens' eggs Kill, other agricultural products include breadfruit, pulaka (taro), bananas, pandanus fruit, sweet potatoes, and pawpaws; livestock (numbei "i live animals) 12,000 pigs -; forestry, n.a.; fish catch 1,460, oi winch tuna l\.Z'i. Mining and quarrying: n.a. '. Manufacturing (I4N4): copra 840 metric tons; handicrafts and baked goods are also important. Construction: n.a.; however, the main areas of construction activity are road works, coastal protection, government facilities, and water-related infrastructure projects. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1987) 3,000,00(1 (3,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products, none (n.a.);

Production

Tuvalu

1

(1991):

name.

Official

llu-

ill

I

uvalu. coiistinniun.il

1

Form of government:

monarch) with one

legislative

house

1

(Parliament

[

12]).

Chie] of Hate: British Monarch, represented bj Governoi General. Head of government: Prime Minister.

on Funafuti

Capital: Fongafale,

atoll.

Official language: none. Official religion:

natural gas. none (none). Public debt: n.a. Tourism (1990): number of visitors 567; receipts from visitors $A 169,700; hotel occupancy 95%. Population economically active (1979) 7 total 4,010; activity rate of total population 55.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 81.1%; female 51.3%; unemployed 4.0%).

none.

Tuvalu Dollat = Australian Dollar ($T = $A) = 1 100 Tuvalu and Australian cents;

Monetary unit 1

:

I

valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.38; 1 £ =

:

$A

2.35.

Price

Area and population

sq mi

Islands 2

sq

091

Funafuti

Nanumaga Nanumea

1

1

00 38

016 082

Nlulakita

Niutao Nui

km

2,810

0.41

74

904 604 694 315

1.18

2.12 3.29 3.06

0.64

1

89

4.90

TOTAL

925

2396

1

1985 census

236 259 357

Nukutetau Nukulaelae Vaitupu

1.27

Consumer

1985

...

...

...

...

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

100.0 100.0

111.0

113.3 105.0

116.3 110.0

1232

1025

112.5

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 6.4; average annual income per household $A 2,575; sources of income: agriculture and other 61.2%, cash economy only 17.9%, agriculture only 14.9%, other 6.0%; expenditure (1987) 15 food 45.5%, housing and household operations 11.5%, transportation 10.5%, alcohol and tobacco 10.5%, clothing 7.5%,

672 879

66

1984 price index

Earnings index 14

:

other 14.5%.

1.231

8,2293

Land

•»

use (1983): agricultural and under

permanent

cultivation

75%

I6 ;

other

25%.

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1992): 9,500. Density (1992): persons per sq mi 1,027.0. persons per sq km 396.5. Urban-rural (1985): urban 34.2%; rural 65.8%. Sex distribution (1441): male 46.00%; female 54.00%. Age breakdown (1474): under 15, 33.8%; 15-29, 31.0%; 30-44, 14.3%; 45-59, 13.2%; 60-74, 6.1%; 75 and over. 1.6', Population projection: (2000) 11,000; (2010) 14,000.

Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (1474): Tuvaluan (Polynesian) 91.2%; mixed (Polynesian/ Micronesian/other) 7.2%; European 1.0%; other 0.6%. Religious affiliation (1979): Church of Tuvalu (Congregational) 96.9%; Seventh-day Adventist 1.4%; Baha "I 1.0%; Roman Catholic 0.2%; other 0.5%.

Major

and earnings indexes (1986 = 100)

population

area

locality (1940):

Fongafale, on Funafuti

Balance of trade (current prices) $A 000

%

of total

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

-3,637 85.4%

-3.969 92.7%

-4.076 99.9%

-4,946 99.9%

-6,780 99.7%

-5,158 99.5%

Imports (1989): $A 5,170.000 (1986; food and live animals 29.5%, manufactured goods 25.2%, machinery and transport equipment 15.1%, petroleum and petroleum products 13.8%, beverages and tobacco 7.0%, chemicals 6.6%). Major import sources (1986): Australia 40.6%; New Zealand 10.9%; United Kingdom 5.1%; Japan 3.0%; United States 1.0%. Exports (1990): $A 30,400 (1986; copra 86.4%). Major export destinations: n.a.

atoll, 3,432.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1985):

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 30.0 (world avg. 27.1); (1989) legitimate 82.2%; illegitimate 17.8%.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1990): 10.0 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990): 20.0 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 3.1.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 60.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the digestive system 170.0: diseases of the circulatory system 150.0; diseases of the respiratory system 120.0; diseases of the nervous system 120.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 70.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 40.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 20.0; ill-defined conditions 430.0; in 1992 the leading causes of death included liver diseases, meningitis, tuberculosis, and still and perinatal deaths; other health problems included acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, (ilariasis, conjunctivitis, fish poisoning, diabetes, rheumatism, and hypertension.

National economy Budget (1940). Recurrent revenue: $A 5,301,000 (local sources [including fisheries licenses, import duties, sales tax, and income and company taxes] 77.4%; Tuvalu Trust Funds 22.6%). Expenditures: $A 10,826.0006 (1987; capital [development] expenditures 68.9%, of which marine transport 20.7%, education 13.0%, fisheries 5.6%, health 3.1%; current expenditures 31.1%). Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S. $8, 750,000 (U.S.S967 per capita).

none). Vehicles 17

:

passenger cars,

n.a.;

total length 5 mi, 8 km (paved, trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant

marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over)

2; total

deadweight tonnage

798. Air transport (1977): passenger arrivals (Funafuti) airports (1992) with scheduled flights 1.

1,443; cargo, n.a.;

Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 3,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1987): 160 ( 1

per 54 persons).

Education and health Education (1987)

student/

schools Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational !8 Higher

teacher

teachers

64

ratio

1.364

1518

243 354

16

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; primary education 93.0%; secondary 6.1%; higher 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population literate in Tuvaluan 8,593 (95.0%); literacy in English estimated at 45.0%. Health (1990): physicians 4 (1 per 2,261 persons); hospital beds 30 (1 per 302 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births 78.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1987): there

is

a police force of 32 men.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 value

value

2,699,000 302,000 358,000 1 ,635.000 235,000

24.1

38

403.000

$A Agriculture, fishing, forestry

Mining Manufacturings Construction Public

utilities

1979

%

labour force 7

in

of total

% of labour force 7 1.0

—

2.7

1

32 14.6

62 224

2.1

14

3.6 14.9 8.9

107 98

27

11

0.3

1.6

56 03

Transportation and

communications Trade, hotels, and restaurants

Finance

Pub admin

,669.000

997.000 ,

defense

Services

Unemployed Noncash economy TOTAL

1

1 I

2.901,000

25.9

— —

— —

11.199,000

100.0

177 170 162 2,9469 4.010

2.4 4.4

42 4.0

73.59 100.0

'The value of the Tuvalu Dollar is pegged to the value of the Australian Dollar, which is also legal currency in Tuvalu. -Local government councils have been established on all islands except Niulakita. 'Total includes 46 persons unaccounted for in island populations. 4 De facto population; about 1.50(1 Tuvaluans live abroad, mainly in Nauru or on foreign fishing vessels. 5 The Tuvalu Trust Fund was capitalized in 1987 with $A 27.7 million to replace recurrent grant aid from the United Kingdom; the Fund was valued at $A 36 million in late 1991. "Figure includes $A 5,200,000 of capital expenditures, paid for, primarily, by foreign-aid contributions that are not part of recurrent revenue. 'Based on indigenous de facto population only, "-including cottage industry. "Mostly subsistence fishermen and handicraft workers. '"Because of poor soil quality, only limited subsistence agriculture is possible on the islands. ll 1989. '-Other livestock include goats. ^'Research into the mineral potential of Tuvalu's maritime exclusive economic zone (289,500 sq mi [750.000 sq km] of the Pacific Ocean) is currently being conducted by the South Pacific Geo-Science Commission 14 Average minimum wage. |S Y\ eights oi consumer price index components. '"Capable "There are several cars, ol supporting coconut palms, pandanus, and breadfruit. tractors, trailers, and light trucks on Funafuti; a few motorcycles are in use on most islands. i»1482-83.

Britannica World Data

736

Uganda Official

Price index (1985

name: Republic of Uganda.

Form of government:

legislative body (National Council [278l])2.

President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital Kampala. Official language: English; Swahili. Official religion: unit:

Monetary shilling

none.

Uganda (U Sh)= 1(1(1 cents: 1

valuation (Oct.

U.S.$ =

I

U

1

£ = U Sh

1992)

5.

Sh

1985

1986

1987

100.0

261

783

1988

1989

2,519.0

1990

3.743

1991

4,9830

6.382

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing ( 1991 ): bananas and plantains 8,310,000, cassava 3,350,000, sweet potatoes 1,800,000, sugarcane 880.000. millet 60(1,000, corn (maize) 600,000, dry beans 400,000, sorghum 380,000, coffee 180,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 173.000, cacao beans 8,000, tea 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5.000.00(1 cattle, 3,300,000 goats, 1,950,000 sheep; roundwood (1990) 15.142,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 245,200. Mining and quarrying (1990): tungsten (wolfram) 37.1; tin ore 24.6; gold 2,322 troy oz. Manufacturing (1990): soap 30,600; sugar 28,900; cement 14,960; animal feed 15,000; metal products 1,300; footwear 319,000 pairs; fabrics 8,200,000 sq m; 1,289,700,000 cigarettes; beer 194,000 hectolitres. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricitv (kW-hr; 1990) 603,000,000 (493,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons;

Resistance

and government:

oj state

price index

transitional

regime with one interim

military

Head

Consumer

= 100)

1,192;

2,026.

1990)

none

(267.0(10).

Gross national product (1990): U.S.$3,814,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita).

Area and population

population

ares

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

Regions Capitals

Districts

sq

sq mi

km

1990

census^

— Kampala —

Kalangala

Kampala Kiboga Luwero

70

Luwero

Kawuga Mukono

3,550 6,310 2.400 3,980 5.500

Byakabanda

1,920

Masaka

Kasawa Bukoto

Mpigi

Mpigi

Mubende Mukono

Bageza

Rakai Eastern

Iganga

Bulamogi

Jinja

Jinja

Hamuli

Namwendwa

Kapchorwa Kumi Mbale

Kaptanya

670

Kumi Bunkoko

1,100

Pallisa

—

Soroti

Soroti

Sukulu

Tororo Northern

Apac

Apac

Arua Gulu Kitgum

Olaki

730

980

4.350 1,740 2,860 2,550

3,880 1,780

10,060 4,550

2,510 3,020 4.530 8.230 5.100 2,800

Lira

Lira

Moroto

Katikekile

Moyo

Moyo

5 450 1.930

Nebbi

1,120

Hoima

Hoima

2.080 3.820

Kabale Kabarole

Rubale

960

Kasese

— —

Karambe

3.230 1.240

Rukoki

Kibaale Kisoro Masindi

Nyangeya

Mbarara Rukungin

3.720 4.190 1,060 76.080 16,990 93.0705

Kakika

Kagunga

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER 4 TOTAL

2.340 5.400 9.900 2.490 8,360 3,200

116,000 734,800 197.800 412.800 741.400 343.000 219.300 184,900

9.640 10,840 2,750 197.040 44.000

253,500 929.600 388.000

241.0405

Manufacturing and mining Construction

69.891 73,860 9,538 102,342

68 72 0.9 10.0 21.5 5.2

220,557 53,520 100,737 33,364

Services TOTAL

1

force

6.240,000

826

385.000

5.1

929.000

12.3

7.554,000

1000

1

J "I

98 3.2 J

100

,027,082

size. Average household size (1983) 4.8; income per household: expenditure (1989-90) food 57.1%, rent, education, and health 15.7%, lighting 7.3%, transportation 5.9%, clothing 5.5%. Land use (199(1): forested 27.9%; meadows and pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.6%; other 29.5%. Public debt (external, outstanding: 1990): U.S.$2,301, 000,000.

Household

' Ma/or import sources: Kenya 23.3%; U.K. 15.0%; Japan 9.3%; Germany 6.9%. / tports (1991); (J Sh 146,661,000,000 (1990; unroasted coffee 79.6%, cotton 5.3%, tea 1.295 ). Major export destinations: The Netherlands 21.5%; France L6.2%; U.S. 11.9%; Spam 11.1%; Germany 10.9%; Italy 7.9%. l

,

,

Transport and communications Railroads (1990): route length 1,240 km; passenger-km 109,000,metric ton-km cargo 1(13.000,000. Roads (1986): total length 28,332 km (paved 22' ). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 35,492; trucks and buses 14.902. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 3; total deadweight tonnage 8.600 10 Air transport (1990) n passenger-km 67,000,airports L992) I. I; 000; metric ton-km cargo 3,000, Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 6; total circulation 1.000 circulation population 3.7. Radio (1991): 3,500.000 reper 63,800; ceivers (1 per 5.1 persons) television (1991): 90.000 receivers (1 per 197 per 286 persons). persons). Telephones 19911): 57,185 transport.

16,582,7005

000;


.N42.000. 1


>. 22.5%; 50-44. 21.0%; 45-5». 16.6%; 60-74. 13 7' 75 and over, 7.0%. distribution

;

;

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Demography

1

(

1,485.100 1,365.100 860.500 573.900 1 .376.800 736.400

698.700 572.900 300,600 980.600 553.800 401.600 459.100

legiti-

l

I

1.981

1,344 5,452 30.418

Belfast

1 .495.600 520.600 6.377.900 2.454,800

3,927

1.441

Preston

Merseyside 4

2,631 6.711 2.654 2.436 1.795 3.672 2,643 1.579 1,287 3.777

2,591 1,025

Chelmsford

& Worcester

583 3,564 6,810

1,376 2,629 1,016

Durham Lewes

East Sussex Essex

919.800 514,200 716,500 619.500 640,700 937,300 541.100 469.300 486,900 914.600 998.200 645.200 589.800 670,600

(world avg. 26.4); (1990)

13.8

1.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.6 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman: 1990): 1.8. Marriage rale per 1.000 population 1989): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1.000 population 1989): 2.9. / ife expectancy at birth (i is"-S"i: male 72.4 years; female 78.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 515.3. of which ischemic heart disease 295.3. cerebrovascular disease 153.1: malignant neoplasms (cancers) 280.4; diseases of the respiratory system 123.9, ol which pneumonia 56.8; accidents and violence 37.1; diseases of the digestive system 36.4; diseases of the endocrine system 17.7. of which diabetes mellitus 14. S: diseases of the genitourinary system 14.6. (

Bristol

Bedfordshire Berkshire

.S'.-t

,

.

population

1991'

Countries

Hereford

Indian

I

i

(

othei and nol stated Religious affiliation (1980) Christia i

monarch) with two legislative houses (House ol ords 1,191); House ol I

World

Population projection (2000) 59,021,000; (2010) 59 '»..'. 000. Doubling tune not applicable; doubli weeds iihi vc.irs. Ethnii composition (1986): white •>'-' Vsian Indian West Pakistani 0.8 Vfri< in 2%\ Bangladeshi

Official name: United Kingdom ol (in.-. n Britain and Northern Ireland.

Form of government,

the

«\

.

Trade Finance

Pub admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

8.772 28,27315 104,283 33.686 is

34,755 73.024 88.179 84 429 33,915 7.685 '6 497,001

%

18 5 .7 '5 21,0 6,8

% of labour

labour force

of total

value

force

272,000 437.000' 4.758.000 960.000

1.0 1

5'5

168

34

IS

15

15

7.0

1.313.000 4.596.000 2.595.000

162

14.7 17.7 17.0 6.8 1.5 '6

100.0

1

.891 .000

4,845,000 6.743.000' 7 28.410,000

46 9.1

6.7 17.0

237" 1000

Britannica World Data

740

Budget (1991-92). Revenue: £201,463,000,000 (income tax 39.4%, taxes on expenditures 30.7%, social-security contributions 17.1%). Expenditures: £213,204,000,000 (1990-91; social-security benefits 35.0%, national health service 13.5%, defense 13.5%. debt interest 10.8%, education and science 4.1%).

(March

Total national debt

Population economically active (1991): total 28,410,000; activity rate of total population 51.2% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.1% 13; female 47. X' , unemployed 7.9%). Price and earnings indexes (1985

1990): £185,870,000,000.

Financial aggregates

Consumer 1986

Exchange

1988

1987

1989

1990

1992 '8

1991

U.S. dollar per C SDRs per £

000000,000)

Total (excl gold;

(000,000,000)

Reserve pos

64 22

1,78

36

1,31

34.77

35 85 1 25

41.89

43.25

14

1.31

1,34

64

1.68

85

1.84

31.99 18.99

32 93

38 73

4008

19 00

18.97

1889

18 68

2.0

2.0

2,0

2,0

2.0

9.48

9.36

9.58

11,08

992

9.16'9

163.8

147.6

176.5

1733

190.2

213.32°

1.47 1.20

1.64

32

1,78 1.34

18.42 1.55

41,72

44.10

1.38

1

32

1

1.98

1.78

1-67

1

14.89

38.56

41 12

1901

19.01

2.0

20

987 124,1

1

1

1

1

1

77

1 1

92 33

IMF

in

103 4

107.7 116.7

107.9

= 100) 1988 13.0 126.4 1

133 4 150 9

121.8 137.9

141.2 164

144.1

170 7

Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size 2.3 12 average annual income per household (1989) £15,800 (U.S.$25,900); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 62.3%, social-security benefits 10. 8%, income from self-employment 10.7%, rent, dividends, and interest 10.0%; expenditure (1990): food and beverages 18.2%, transport and vehicles 17.7' housing 14.3%, household goods 6.5%, clothing 5.9%, energy 3.5%. Land use (1990): forested 9.9%; meadows and pastures 46.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 27.6%; other 16.2%.

;

,

('000,000,000)

Foreign exchange (000,000.000) Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) world reserves

%

and prices bank discount ^%) Govt bond yield (%) long term

1

Interest

.

Foreign trade

Central

industrial

Monthly earnings index

1987

rate

International reserves (U.S.S)

SDRs

price index

1986

Balance of trade (current prices)

share prices

(1985=100)

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

-12,801

-17,926 6.4%

-37.446

-39,157 11.4%

-31.131 7.8%

-17,990

Balance of payments £'000.000

(U.S.S'000.000)

Balance of

-12.801 -17.962 119,272 148.247 106,472 130,285 16,104 17,354

visible trade,

Imports,

fob.

Exports,

fob

Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

- 7.373 - 26.956 -31,289

158

%

36,994 -39,157 -32,400 -17,990 180,527 190.898 214,693 201,081 143,534 151,741 182,293 183.091 17,417 15,323 13,468 10,944 -

27,676

- 9,447

Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$12,873,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$17,648,000,000. Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1989) annual

Manufacturing Food, beverages, and tobacco Transport equipment

no. of enter-

no.

prises^

employees

annual

wages as a

%

of

value

of avg, of

added

wages 14

(£000,000)

all

8,916 4,233

598.000 529.000

103.0

13,268 13.103

9,644 23.322

590,000 590.000

96 8 108 4

12.650 12.622 1 1

Clothing and footwear

1 1

469.000 296.000 237.000 141,000 215,000 320,000 216.000

133.8

Metal manufacturing Timber and wood products

21.495 3,137 4,785 1,186 13,794

and dataprocessing equipment Mechanical engineering Paper and paper products; printing and publishing Chemical engineering Rubber and plastic Electrical

,207

4,466 123

Mineral-oil processing

15,000

118.1

.469 11.394 4.704 4,236 3,478 3,288 2.962 1.960

121,000

118.1

9.330

103.1

742.313 20.426

118.1 118.1

102 8 98.1

856

natural

.5%

4.7%

79.2

Transport and communications Railroads (1991) 27 length 23,518 mi 7 37,849 km 7 passenger-mi 20,620.000,000, passenger-km 33,184,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 10,947,000,noo. mcttic ton-km cargo 15,982,000,000. Roads (1990)*: total length 222,472

Transport.

Mining

and

1 1

r

Textiles

Extraction of coal, mineral

5.7%

of total

Imports (1991): £118,871,400,000 (machinery and transport equipment 36.3%, of which road vehicles 8.6%, data-processing equipment 6.4%; petroleum and petroleum products 9.9%; chemicals and chemical products 9.2%, of which organic chemicals 2.2%; food and live animals 8.7%, of which vegetables and fruits 2.5%, meat and meat preparations 1.6%; paper and paperboard 3.2%; textile yarn and fabrics 3.1%; iron and steel products 2.2%; nonferrous metals 2.1%). Major import sources: Germany 14.9%; U.S. 11.5%; France 9.3%; The Netherlands 8.4%; Japan 5.7%; Italy 5.4%; Belgium-Luxembourg 4.6%; Ireland 3.7%-; Norway 3.6%; Switzerland 3.2%. Exports (1991): £104,818,400,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.6%, of which road vehicles 8.2%, data-processing equipment 6.3%, power-generating machinery and equipment 4.8%, machinery specialized for particular industries 3.7%; chemicals and chemical products 13.2%, of which organic chemicals 3.3%; petroleum and petroleum products 6.5%; nonmetallic mineral manufactures 3.0%; iron and steel products 2.9%; professional, scientific, and controlling instruments 2.4' ). Major export destinations: Germany 14.0%; France 11.1%; United States 10.8%; The Netherlands 7.9%; Italy 5.9%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.6%; Ireland 5.0%; Spain 4.1%; Sweden 2.4%; Japan 2.2',: Switzerland 2.0%.

oil,

gas

Extraction of minerals other

19,100"

793

than fuels Construction

185,854

1.160,000

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing 1991 ): wheat 14,300,000, barley 7,700,000, sugar beets 7.340.000. potatoes 6,700,000, turnips and rutabagas 3,451,00021. 22 corn (maize) 3.151,000, rapeseed 1,330.000. cabbage 765,000, oats 527,000; livestock (number of live animals) cattle. 7,379,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 6,455,29,954,000 sheep. 11,846,1 000 cu m; lish catch 1990) 803,536. Mining: iron ore 13,20023; zmc 5,60022; (

]

(

lead 2,200. Manufacturing (total sales in £'000,000; 1990): motor vehicles and parts 13,061; aerospace equipment 7,753- 4 electronic dataprocessing and telecommunications equipment 6,403; basic electrical equipment 3,504; mechanical lifting and handling equipment 2,626; constructional steelwork 2,617; boilers 2,078, Construction (value in i: 1440 s ): residential

(

,

;

;

mi, 358,034 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1991)«: passenger cars 19,737,000; trucks and buses 2,773,000. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1.444; total deadweight tonnage 8,249,700. Air transport (1940): passenger-mi 49,448,000,000, passenger-km 79,579,600,000; short tonmi cargo 1,636400,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,388,700,000; airports (1442) with scheduled flights 56. ommunications. Dailv newspapers (1440): total number 44; total circulation 22,253,500; circulation per 1,000 population 388. Radio (1440): 57,456,832 receivers (1 per 1.0 person). Television 1441 ): 14,546.000 licenses (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1484): 29,517.441 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). (

Education and health

tin 2.300;

;

6,884,000,000;

nonresidential 21,470,000,000, of which commercial

10,390,-

Education (1989-90)28 schools Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11 19) Voc. teacher tr. », 30

Higher 32.

ooo.ooi). industrial 5,243,000,000.

Retail trade enterprises (1989)

wage as

annual

%

turnover

prises

no of employees

67.775

809,000

38,341

69

504 000 106,000 68,000 319,000

27,935 4,128 2.586 19.827

11.945 10.956 48.893

94,000 72,000 259,000

6.791 4.691

42,785 30.170

219.000 296.000

15,811

113.000 82.000 37,000 80,000 31,000

a

of

wages

all

33

student/

teachers

216.160 234,290 93,0003! 49,377

teacher

students

ratio

21 4 14.5

4.617,737 3,395.700 539,718 352,574

Literacy (1440): total population literate, virtually 100% 34 Health (1981): physicians 92,172 (1 per 611 persons); hospital beds (1487) pci 146 persons); infant mortality rale 1441 7.4. 388,700 Food 1988-40): daily per capita caloric intake 3,270 (vegetable products 66%, .

weekly no. of enter-

24,268 4,876 724 50

(£000,000)25

(

)

(

I

(

Food and grocery. of

FAO

recommended minimum requirement.

which

large grocery other grocery

24,921 14,295

meats Household goods, of

animal products 34%); 130% of

45.678

which

electrical

and musical goods

furniture

Drink, confectionery,

and tobacco.

which tobacco and confectionery

11,180

of

infants'

wear

footwear

3,934 3,938 8,590 15

men's and boys' wear Pharmaceuticals Mail order

Energ> production (consumption

8.664 1 1

.068

4,040 2,337 1.933 3.781

3:444

(kW-hr 990) 318,474,000.000 1990) 89,303,000 (100,249,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) 656,722,000 (568,604,000); petroleum products (metric ions; 1990) 81,919,000 (79,470,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 53,895,i.

000,000 (6)

•

Total acme duty personnel (1942): 293,500 (army lorce 29.3%). Military expenditure in percentage [ 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$605.

:

electricity

coa] (metric tons;

;

1

49.5% navy

GNP

(

1484):

2.1.2%, air

4.2% (world

'1442 estimate includes, and 1441 preliminary census excludes, adjustment for underenuraeration of about 5' -Detail dues not add to total given because of rounding. 'Includes separately administered Isles of Scilly (area 6 sq mi |16 sq km]; pop. 2,4(1(1), 4 Geographic entity only; since April 1, 1986, the administrative functions of the former metropolitan county councils have been dispersed among other local authorities. ^Comprises 26 local government districts not shown separately. ''Includes three separately administered island groups (Orkney 377 sq mi [476 sq km], pop. 14.300: Shetland 553 sq mi ( 1 .432 sq km], pop. 22,400; Western Isles 1,114 sq mi |2,,I6I,I2(> (95.7%); females literate 87,336,439 (95.3%); other studies indicate adult "functional" literacy may not exceed 85%. Health (1989): physicians 629,000 (1 per 391 persons), specialties in internal medicine 16.0%, general practice 11.5%, pediatrics 6.6%, general surgery 6.2' psychiatry 5.7%, obstetrics and gynecology 5.5%, anesthesiology 4.2%, '

1

.

orthopedics .V %, pathology 2.6%, ophthalmology 2.6%, radiology 1.4%, other 34.6',; muses 1,666,000 (I per 148 persons); dentists 168,000 (1 per 1,472 persons); hospital beds 1.224.000 (1 per 202 persons), of which nonfederal M..s', (community hospitals 83.0%, psychiatric 14.2%, long-term general and special 2.4%), federal 8.2%; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 10.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita calotte intake 3,642 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 138% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Per capita consumption of major food groups (pounds annually; 1990): dairy products 570.6; grains 185.4: sweeteners 137.5; potatoes 127.2; red meat 112.3; fresh vegetables 111.0; fresh fruits 92.3; poultry products 1

(

63.6; fats

and

oils 62.7; fish

and

shellfish 15.5.

Total active duty personnel (1992): 1.913,750 (army 35.2',. navy 28.6%, air force 26.1%, marines 10.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of 1989): 5.89S (world 4. >', ); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,222. Military aid (1990): total $4,893,000,000 (Middle Fast and South Asia 86.7%, of which Israel 36.6%, Egypt 24.5%, Turkey 10.2%. Greece 7.1%, Pakistan 4.7%, Jordan 1.4%; Latin America 4.8',. ol which El Salvador 1.7%, Colombia 1.5';, Honduras 0.4%, Dominican Republic 0.4%,; East Asia 3.1%, of which Philippines 2.9%, Thailand 0.1%; Africa 2.3%, of which Morocco 0.9%, Tunisia 0.6%; Europe 1.8%, of which Portugal 1.8%; international orga-

GNP

1

(

nizations 1.3%).

nat'l

13

0.6

1,683

81.9

2.054

100.03

— 17.4 —

'Excludes 5 nonvoting delegates. -Total area excluding U.S. share of Great Lakes 3,618,770 sc| mi (4.372,571 sq km). 'Detail does not add to total given because ol rounding, includes military personnel residing overseas. 'Fiscal year ending September 30. 'Year ending May 1992. 'October 1991; excludes construction and mining. "1989. ''1988. 101990. "l9K7. l2Excludes armed forces overseas. "Statistical discrepancy. 4 Includes unemployed persons not previously employed. '^Number of establishments is for 1987. "'Annual sales is lor WO. 'Personal-consumption expenditure. i 8 Persons of Spanish origin may be of any race. '''August. -"Annual average. -'End of year. "Second quarter -includes Central and South America. ^Includes statistical discrepancy. 251986; is

i

I

ommunications. Dail) newspapers (1992): total number tion (1990) 62,300,000; circulation pet 1.000 population (1990) 249. Radio per 0.5 persons). Television 1991): total number ol receivers 520, 1,000 1,755; total circula-

(

166,875.000.000 166,077,000,000 798,000,000

teachers

i

(

,000

of transportation (1990)

— 358 —

162

577 2.8553

1 1

69,559

passenger

cargo

Rail

International

Military

Transport and communications Transport.

53.000 42.000

Telex

Higher, including teachertraining colleges

%

25 187

Telegrams Domestic

Education (1990-91)

89

6.097 2,086

000)

(units,

Electronic 25

100.03

2.9 0.4

489 traffic

Education and health

exports

14,130 1,733 12.397 152.474 91,141

Africa

136 138 149 94

Cinema''

151

(age 14-17)

US.S'000,000

151

science

Psychology Sociology and anthropology Zoology

History

Primary (age 6-13)

%

Political

General interest

Secondary and vocational imports

182 130

Physical education and recreation

170 78

Education Engineering

118 158

Feature films

Agriculture

Children's periodicals

Direction of trade (1991)

US$000,000

sciences and language Mathematics and science Medicine Philosophy and religion

which

of

and information

Literature

375

Philosophy, psychology

8.4

Library

586

Medicine Music

70 273

Law

1,096 2,298 3,447

Literature

90

relations

5,413

Language Law

Fine and applied arts

24.168.7

communications Labour and industrial

949

Juvenile

%

Journalism and

1,569 2,193 1,569 1,054 5,941 2,332 2.563

Art

exports

90 106

Industrial arts

562

Agriculture

Trade by commodity group (1991)

Home economics

53,446

which

of

Imports (1991): U.S.$487,129,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 43.3%, of which motor vehicles and parts 13.8%; basic and miscellaneous manufactures 28.9%, mineral fuels and lubricants 11.2%; chemicals and related products 5.0%; food and live animals 4.5%). Major import sources: Japan 18.8%; Canada 18.7%; Mexico 6.4%; Germany 5.4%; Taiwan 4.7%; China 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.8%; South Korea 3.5%; France 2.7%; Italy 2.4%; Saudi Arabia 2.3%; Singapore 2.0%; Hong Kong 1.9%. Exports (1991): U.S.$421,730,000,000 (machinery and transport 44.4%, of which motor vehicles and parts 7.0%; basic and miscellaneous manufactures 18.6%; chemicals and related products 10.2%; food and live animals 7.0%; mineral fuels and lubricants 2.9%). Major export destinations: Canada 20.2%; Japan 11.4%; Mexico 7.9%; United Kingdom 5.2%; Germany 5.1%; South Korea 3.7%; France 3.6%; The Netherlands 3.2%; Taiwan 3.1%; BelgiumLuxembourg 2.6%; Australia 2.0%; Singapore 2.1%.

imports

titles

Print

(

I

.

Nations

Uruguay

1990

name: Reptiblica Oriental del Uruguaj (Oriental Republic of Uruguay limn ni government: republic with

in

Mining Manufacturing Construction

[99]).

Public utilities Transp. and commun

Montevideo. Spanish Official religion: none unit: Monetary Uruguayan new peso 'apital:

Pub. admin., defense Services

Official language.

1

centesimos; valuation (Oct. 5. 1992) U.S.$ = NUr$3,27l; £ = NUr$5,5r,l.

0.2

1.771

214.945 64,385

3.5 2 9

11.9

13 2

Other

-601,8773

TOTAL

9,623,666

2 g^ -6 23 100.0

145 01 183 5.4

17,377 59,289 139,242 42,688

59

1.140.808 1,274,416 886.721 1.991,353

force

170,183

278

275,583 571,805

Trade Finance

President.

109

1

% of labour

labour force

of total

value

,046,277 19,308 2,677,705 341 567

Agriculture

houses (Senate (31]';

legislative

Chambei ol Representatives Haul of state iiiul government:

(NUr$)=

745

1985

%

value

NUr$ 000.000

I.

(

World

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official

two

of tin

1.5

50 11.9

3.6

369.260

31.4

97,668" 1.176.808

8.3" 100.0

}

10(1

Population economically active (1985): total 1.176.808; activity rate 39 (participation rates: ages 20-64, 65.5%; female 33.2%: unemploved [1988] x.y,

1

I

).

Area and population sq mi

Departments

Capitals

Artigas

Artigas

Canelones

Canelones Melo

sq

4,605

Colonia del Sacramento

Durazno

Durazno

Flores Florida

Trinidad

Lavalleia

Mmas

5,270 2.358 4.495 1.986 4,022 3,867

Maldonado

Maldonado

1.851

Montevideo

Montevideo

Paysandu Rio Negro

Paysandu

Florida

Fray Bentos Rivera

Rocha

Rocha

Salto

Salto

San Jose

San Jose de Mayo Mercedes Tacuarembo

Soriano

Tacuarembo Treinta y Tres TOTAL LAND AflEA

.928 4,536 13,648 6.106 11.643 5.144 10,417 10.016 4.793

205

530

5,375 3,584 3,618 4.074 5,468 1,927 3.478

13.922 9.282 9,370 10,551 14,163 4,992 9.008 15,438 9.529 175,016 1,199 176,215

5,961

Treinta y Tres

3,679 67,574

463

INLAND WATER TOTAL

km

1 1

1,751

Cerro Largo Colonia

Rivera

population

area

68,037

Price

1985 census 69,145 364.248 78,416 112.717 55,077 24.739 66,474

Consumer

km

'

61 .466

94.314 1.311,976 103,763 48,644 89,475

1987

1988

288.5 319.8

467.9 524.8

100.0

844,4

946

1

1990

1991

1.794 1.844

3.624

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1985) 3.3; avg. annual income per household (1985) NUr$266,261 (U.S.$2,625); sources of income: wages 53.5%, self-employment 17.0%, transfer payments and other 29.5% 6 expenditure (1982-83)7; fOG d 39.9%, housing 17.6%. transportation and communications 10.4%, health care 9.3%, clothing 7.0%, durable goods 6.3%, recreation 3.1%, education 1.3%, personal effects and other 5.1%. Land use (1989): forested 3.8%; meadows and pastures 77.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.5%; other 11.4%. ;

Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000

%

of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

+305.2 16.3%

+99.6 4.4%

+300.3 12.0%

+ 478.8

+ 435.4

+ 44.9

17.6%

14.8%

1.4%

2,955.241

17.9.

Population projection: (2000) 3,274,000; (2010) 3,453,000. Doubling tune: 83 years. Ethnic composition 1980): mixed Spanish-Italian 85.9%; mestizo 3.0%; Italian 2.6'; Jewish 1.7%; mulatto 1.2%; other 5.6' Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 62.9%, of which Roman Catholic 59.5%; Jewish 1.7%; nonreligious and atheist 35.1%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1985): Montevideo 1,311,976; Salto 80,823: Pavsandu 76,191; Las Piedras 58,288; Rivera 57,316. (

i

Vital statistics 18.3

1986 176.4 186.7

Foreign trade 8

(

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): mate 73.8%; illegitimate 2r>.2',.

1985 100

66,601

108,487 89,893 79.439 83,498 46,869

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 25.8%; 15-29, 23.0%; 30-44, 18.9%; 45-59, 15.8%; 60-74, 11.9%; 75 and over, 4.6%.

:

price index

Monthly earnings indexs

Demography Population (1992): 3,130,000. Density? (1992): persons per sq mi 46.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 85.5%; rural 14.5%. Sex distribution 1990): male 48.74%: female 51.26%.

and earnings indexes (1985= 100)

(world avg. 27.1); (1983)

legiti-

Death

rate per 1.000 population (1990): 9.9 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.4 (world avg. 17.3). intal fertility rale (avg. hirths per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population I9S7): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth 1985-90): male 68.9 years; female 75.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 371.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 220.9; respiratory diseases 70.8; accidents 48.3; diseases of the digestive system 41.1.

Imports (1991): U.S.$1,621.988,000 (machinery and appliances 21.3%; mineral products 15.5%; chemical products 14.3%; transport equipment 11.3%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 7.4%; textile products 5.4%; base metals and products 5.2%). Major import sources: Brazil 22.8%; Argentina 17.4%; United States 12.1%; Germany 4.9%; France 3.2%. Exports (1991): U.S.Sl, 540,926,000 (textiles and textile products 26.6%; live animals and live-animal products 24.0%; hides and skins 13.7%; vegetable products 13.0%; food, beverages, and tobacco 4.3%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 2.7%). Major export destinations: Brazil 24.0%; Argentina 11.2%; United States 10.2%; Germany 8.6%; Italy 3.9%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1988): route length 3,006 km; passenger-km (1987) ton-km cargo 212.500,000. Roads (1985): length 52,000 km (paved 23%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 252,329; trucks and buses 144,728. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 91; deadweight tonnage 156,618. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 471,000.000; metric ton-km cargo 2,600,000; airports (1992) 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 33; total circulation 694,0009; circulation per 1,000 population 227". Radio (1991): total receivers 1,800,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): total receivers 700.000 (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1989): 528,674 (1 per 5.8 persons). Transport.

140,600,000; metric

Education and health

(

Education (1989)

(

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: NUr$3,7 14.34 1.000.000

(direct taxes 75.9%, receipts from foreign trade Ll.7%). Expenditures: NUr$3,636,941,000,0()0 (social security and welfare 56.7%, general public services 15.7%, interest on public

debt 9.5' capital investments 9.4%, subsidies 5.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$2,949,000,000. Tourism t990): receipts U.S.S26 1,000,000; expenditures U.S.Sl 1,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1990): sugarcane 682,800, wheat 542.400, rice 347,300, sugar beets 208,500, barley 202,600, corn (maize) 112,300; livestock (number of live animals) 25,220,000 sheep. 8,723,000 cattle, 480,000 horses; roundwood 3.295,000 cu m; fish catch 88,936. Mining and quarrying (1989): hydraulic cement 513,000; gypsum 110,000. Manufacturing (value added in NUr$'000,000; 19.N7): food products (excluding beverages) 73,085; textiles 47,375; petroleum products 47,053; chemicals and chemical products 40,322; beverages 33,906; transport equipment 32,641; tobacco products 19,829; leather products 17,540; paper and paper products 15.729. Construction (approvals; 1988): residential 277,425 sq m; nonresidential 31,380 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 7,372,000,000 (6,042,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (8,796,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 1,084,000 (1,164,000); natural gas. none (n.a.). dross national product (1990): U.S.$7,929,( ,000 (U.S.$2,560 per capita). ,

(

,

1

Primary (age 6-11)

Secondary (age 12-17) Vocational Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

2,735

19,391 13,571

359,455

293 95 2

1

10,

teacher

ratio

196,851 56,084

63.777

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 7.5%; less than primary education 26.6%; primary 31.2%; secondary 19.9%; higher 14.8%. Literacy (1985): population age 15 and over literate 95.0%; males 975,200 (94.5%); females 1,074,300 (95.4%). Health (1990): physicians 9,061 (1 per 341 persons); hospital beds (1983) 23,400 per 127 persons); infant mortality rate 20.4. Food ( 1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 2,697 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement (

1

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): 22,900 (arm) 69.9%, navy 15.3%, ait force 14.8%). Military expenditure us percentage ofCNP (1988): 2.2% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S. $55.

'Includes the vice president who serves as ex ollicio presiding officer. Based on land area. 'Includes indirect laves less subsidies. ^Includes unemployed nut previousl)

employed. ^Salaried employees only. "Urban only. "Weights of consumer pun index components in Montevideo. 'Import figures are l.o.b. in balance ol Hade and c'.i.f. 1988 for commodities and trading partners. ''Partial circulation only. '"Public only. '

'

746

Britannica World Data

6,200,000 (10,400,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 20,663,1100 petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 41,600,000,000 (37,800,000,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 19X9): 21.200.000,000 rubles (1,100 rubles per capita)-1 1992)

Uzbekistan

(61,865,00(1);

name: Ozbekistan Jumhuriyati (Republic of Uzbekistan). Form of government: multiparty Official

.

republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Soviet [550]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tashkent (Toshkent). Official language: Uzbek.

Structure of net material product and labour force 1991

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing

none.

Official religion:

% of total

value

in

000,000 rubles

unit: 1 ruble = 100 kopecks; valuation (Oct. 5, 1992) free rate, U.S.$ = 316.82 rubles; 1 £ = 538.59

Monetary

Public

utilities

1.977.000

29,1

15,246,2

33.2

1

,200.000

17.6

4,905,7 1,930.5 4,001.7

10.7 4.2 8.7

714,000 251 .000 462,000

105

45,963.1

100.0

2.067.000 129.000 6.800,000

]

> J

— — — —

Services Other

Area and population area

population

force 4

43.2

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

rubles.

of labour

19,879.0

Construction Transp. and commun.

1

%

labour force 4

value

TOTAL

— — — —

37 6.8

30,4

19 100.0

1991' sq mi

Autonomous Republic

centres

Karakalpakstan

Nukus

Provinces Andizhan (Andijan) Bukhara

Andizhan Bukhara

Dzhizak (Djizak)

Dzhizak

Fergana Kashka Darya

Fergana

Khorezm

Urgench

Namangan

Namangan

Samarkand

Samarkand Termez

1,600

4.200 142.100 20.500 7,100 28,400 6,300 7.900 24,500 20.800 5,100 15,600 447.400

1

1

,000

2,400 3.100 9.500 8,000 2.000 6,000 172,7002

Gulistan

Tashkent

TOTAL

km

164.900

54,900 7.900 2,700

Karshi

Surkhan Darya Syr Darya Tashkent (Toshkent)

sq

63,700

estimate 1

.273,800

1,795,100 1.708.000

780,000 2,226,400 1 ,697,700 1 ,068,500 1 ,557,800 2,386,200 1 ,335,900 580,300 4.298,500 20,708,200

Population economii -ally active (1991) total 8,976,800; activity rate of total population 43.0% (participation rates [1989]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 78.2%; female 43.X%; unemployed [1990] 3.9%). Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1985

Consumer

price index

1987

1986

1988

1989

100.0

1990

1991

126.6

117.2

Earnings index

use (1989): forested 4.2%; meadows and pastures 52.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.1%; other 33.2%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.5; income per household (1991) 12,900 rubles; sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 48.2%, subsidies, grants, and nonwage income 40.1%, other 11.7%; expenditure (1991): food and consumer goods 82.3%, other 17.7%.

Land

Demography Population (1992): 21,363,000. Density 1992); persons per sq mi 123.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 40.3%; rural 59 Sex distribution 1989): male 49.4(1', female 50.60%. (

(

km

Foreign trade 47.7.

Balance of trade (current prices)

(

15-29, 28.4%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59,

;

I

(

I

Religious

affiliation

believers

(1990):

000.000000 rubles

%

;

Population projection: (2000) 26,044,000'; (2010) 32,453,000. Doubling time: 25 years! 'is')): Uzbek 71.4%; Russian 8.3%; Tajik 4.7%; Kazakh Ethnic composition at. ii 2.4%; Kara-Kalpak 2.1%; Crimean Tatar 1.0%; Korean 0.9%; 4.1%; Kyrgyz 0.9%; Ukrainian 0.8%; Turkmen 0.6%; other 2.8%. are

predominantly

Sunn!

Muslim

(HanafTyah). (1991): Tashkent 2,119,900; Samarkand 394,600; Namangan 200; Andizhan 298,300; Bukhara 249,600.

Major

1987

1988

1989

1990

-3.9 20.8%

-1.2 8.5%

-3.5 17.0%

-3.7 i.4%

;

Age breakdown 1989): under L5, 40.8%; 9.3% 60 74. 4.7', 75 and over, 1.8%.

cities

519,

of total

Imports (1991): 20.200.1)00,1)00 rubles (foodstuffs and agricultural commodities 47.2%; consumer goods 43.5%; raw materials and processed industrial goods 4.9%; machinery and transport equipment 4.3%). Major import sources: mostly former Soviet republics. 19.600,000,000 rubles (raw materials and processed industrial / (ports (1991): goods 64.0%, of which cotton 33,6%; chemical products, fertilizers, and rubber 14.0%; fuel, mineral raw materials, and metals 4.5%; foodstuffs and agricultural commodities 4.4%; machinery and transport equipment 2.5%). Majoi export destinations: mostly former Soviet republics.

Vital statistics 1,000 population (1990):

Birth niic pei

mate Death

95.8?j illegitimate 4.2' rule per 1.11(10 population

337 (world

avg. 27.1); (1989) legiti-

Transport and communications Railroads (1990): length 4,225 mi, 6.X00 km; passenger-mi 2,485,passenger-km 4,000,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 40,137,800,000, metric ton-km c~argo 58,600,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 55,431 mi, Vehicles I9XX): passenger cars 790,800; trucks and 89,207 km (paved 83 r buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990): passcnyer-mi 6,835,100,000, passenger-km 1,000,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 47,672,000,000, metric tonkm cargo 69.h00.i loo.lli id; airports 1992) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers 1990): total number 279; total circulation 5,158,400; circulation per 1,000 population 249.1. Radio (1990): total number Transport.

:

1990): 6.1 (world avg. 9.8). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population 1990): 27.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman: 1989): 4.0. Marriage rate pei 1,000 population 1989) 10.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.5. / //

utilities

J

Services Other TOTAL

Yemeni

dinar valuation (Oct. 1

= YRls 16.50 = £ = YRls 28.00 = YD 0.79.

1992) 1

I

tils;

5,

force

1,151,348 11,771

Public

a

% of labour

labour force

value 14.8

Mining Manufacturing

Official language: Arabic. Official religion Islam.

1986

% of total

value

YD 000,000 525

7.8 1,6

107.611

5.3

12.2

10.3

29

248.979 8.757

106 7

30.0

226,054

11.1

2.043.237

100.0

04

\

35.2

9.9

3553

100.0

0.46;

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$4,919,000,000.

Household income and expenditure. Average household

come per household:

The Republic of Yemen was formed on May 22, 1990, by the union of the former Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) and People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen).

Price index Consumer

(1

n.a.;

sources of income:

n.a.;

size (1986) 5.6; expenditure: n.a.

985 = 1 00) '0

price index

1985

1986

1967

1988

1990

1000

121.1

140.3

155.2

240.0

Area and population population

area

use (1990): forested 7.7%; meadows and pastures 30.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.0%; other 58.9%.

Land

1986

Governorates North

Capitals

km

sq mi

sq

4,310 3,430 3,700 5,240 2,480

11,170 8,870 9,590 13.580 6.430

estimate 2

Yemen

Foreign trade

al-Bayda

al-Bayda'

Dhamar

Dhamar

Hajjah

Hajjah

al-Hudaydah

al-Hudaydah

Ibb al-Jawl

Ibb al-Jawf

al-Mahwit

al-Mahwit

Ma'rib

Ma*nb

830

Sadah

Sa'dah

Sana'

Sana'

Ta'izz

Ta'izz

2,160 39,890 12.810 20,310 10,420

15.400 4,950 7,840 4,020

381.000 813,000 898,000

87,000 322.000 121,000 344.000 ,857,000 1,644,000 1

Yemen

South

Abyan Adan Hadramawt

8.297 2.695 59,991 4,928

Zinjibar

Aden al-Mukalla

Lahij

Lahij

al-Mahrah

al-Ghaydah Ataq

Shabwah TOTAL

25,618 28.536 182.2783

434.000 407,000 686,000 382,000 85,000 226.000

21 ,489

'

6,980 155,376 12,766 66.350 73.908 472,0993

Balance of trade (current prices) 7

,294,000 1,512,000

1

YRIs 000,000

% of total

1985

1986

1987

- 7,782 77.2%

-8.466 78.4%

-13,460 90.4%

Imports (1987)7: U.S.$1,370,700,000 (food and live animals 31.6%, basic manufactured goods 28.6%, machinery and transport equipment 21.9%, chemical products 9.3%, raw materials 5.8%, beverages and tobacco 2.4%). Major import sources: Japan 12.0%; United States 10.8%; The Netherlands 10.0%; West Germany 7.1%; France 6.3%; Italy 5.3%; Saudi Arabia 5.3%. Exports (1987)7: U.S.$69,000,000 (coffee 16.6%, cigarettes 15.6%, biscuits 13.6%, leather 12.5%, grapes 8.6%, sesame seeds 4.2%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 53.6%; South Yemen 24.0%; Italy 8.2%; Japan 4.0%.

(1986): total length 39,152 km (paved Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 145,390; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 39; deadweight tonnage 13,653. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 1,032,248,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,661,000; airports (1992) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988) 7 total number 2; total circulation 120,000; circulation per 1,000 population 16. Radio (1991): 325,000 receivers (1 per 36 persons). Television (1991): 300,000 receivers (1 per 39 persons). Telephones (1988): 70,000 (1 per 157 persons).

9% 7

:

[1991] 219,105.

km

22.8.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 49.6%; 15-29, 27.8%; 30-44, 11.4%; 45-59, 7.2%; 60-74, 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 14,878,000; (2010) 19,173,000.

Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1986): predominantly Arab. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 99.9%, of which SunnI 53.0%, Shfl 46.9 r r; other 0.1%. Major cities (1986): Sana 4:7.150; Aden 318,000"; Ta'izz 178,043; al-Hudaydah 155,110; al-Mukalla 59,1006.

Birth rule per 1,000 population (1991): 51.3 (world avg. 26.4). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 16.2 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1.000 population 1991): 35.1 (world avg. 17.2). Total fertility rate (avg. births per ehildbearing woman; 1991): 7.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 49.0 years; female 51.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, and intestinal infections. (

National economy Budget (1991-92 est.). Revenue: YRIs 45.778.000.000 (1990?; tax revenue 59.8' property income 30.4' Expenditures: YRIs 58,1 14,000,000 (defense 21.9%, education 14.3%, general public services 6.3%. health 3.5%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990) U.S. $20,000,000; expenditures by na
' and footweai 9 ">. transportation furniture and utensil ical care 2.6%, recreation and education 2.0'. Gross national product 1990); U.N s.s (U.S.S230 per capita). n.a.;

Zaire

' « 1

>




200 200 200 200

169 12

200 200 200 200 200

13

12

200 12

200 200 200

Comparative National

subordination oi it may have none have several kinds ol subdivisions.

at

Each

all.

level oi

subordination

may

'iii I

ADB

mil Cooperatioi Inter-American Dew

i

1

memberships each

IAEA

Internationa] Atomic Energy

countrj maintains in the principal international intergovernmental organizations ol the world. Tins pari ol the table may also be utilized to provide a complete membership list tor each ol these organizations as of Dec. 1, 1992.

IBRD

International

Finally, in the

second

hall

ol

the table arc listed the

Agency struction

Notes tor

column headings

Hit

si. lies

i

aid

The

date ma) also he eithei thai "i the organization oi the present form "i gen eminent or the inception of the present administrative structure (federation, confederation, union, et( Constitutions whose dates are in italii type had been wholl) or substantially suspended or abolished as ol lair 1992 oi abbreviations used in tins column see

a.

contributing tunds to oi

from

INK EF in

receiving

1991

Palestine (Liberation Organization) also

g,

KO

[


International organizations, conventions

ITU

I

b.

i

1

the d.

e.

lis!

oil Ilk

fat

III:'

p

Igl

When a legislative hodv has been adjourned or otherwise suspended, figures in parentheses indicate the number of members in the legislative bodj is provided foi in constitution or law. If the provision for the legislative body in the constitution has been abrogated then the space has been marked with an '"X". Vatican City also a member.

membership United Nations

in

UN

ACT

African, Caribbean, and

ADB \S1

\N

Pacific (Lome IV) convention Asian Development Bank Association of South East

Asian Nations C'ARIC'OM Caribbean Community and

Common EC

ECOWAS FAO GATT

European Economic Community Food and Agriculture Org. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

OAU OPEC

UNCTAD UNESCO UNICEF

UNIDO

organs* and

affiliated

intergovernmental organizations

UPU

Universal Postal

WIPO

World H. alth Org. World Intellectual Prop. World Meteorologi

WHO

WMO

759

1

Abbreviations used in the executive-

International Civil Aviation Org. International Court of Justice Internationa] Development Assn. Islamic Development Bank International Finance Corporation International l-abour Org. International Monetary Fund International Maritime Org. International Telecommunication

branch column

Union League of Arab States Organization of American States

GPC

Organization of African Unity Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries South Pacific Commission United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Org. United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Industrial Development Org.

MC

C
-54 (female) 20Excludes armed forces '9|ncli ides self-employed and une mployed not previously employed. 291988 30Qver age 15, 2 Mostly employees of international companies and unemployec only 251990 26Ages 15-6 4 (male) and 15 59 (fema le). 27Agnculture mc udes mining, quarrying. 361984 real 3' 1 979 estate. 36|ncludes unemplo) red. 37Ser vices includes finance, "Over age 12. 35Republic of Cyprus only 32Mostly unemployf d. not previo usly employ ;d 33Ages 15-69. '

.

Comparative National

Statistics

803

-

country construction

other

services

transportation.

trade, hotels.

finance,

public

communications

restaurants

real estate

administration.

defense

number

%

(000)

econ.

number

ot

('000)

active

%

of

econ.

number

% of

number

%

(000)

econ

('000)

econ.

active

of

number

%

(000)

econ

of

06

15

06

208

88

2

0.1

546

1 8 21 7

1,112

3.6 5.3

7.417 53

24.1

120

6.7

78

369

17.4

80

166 26

4.0

23

3 6

4 3 8 7 3 0.2

2,036

62

1,615

12.4

277

0.8

142

04

49 66

4,072

09

1.1

187

02

32 22 70

39

43

5.3

118

14.4

31

5

5

29

1.7

3.4 8.3

5

5

31

25 86

4

6.7

2.4 2.9

29 38 06

18

1.7

5

5

284 974

3.7

337

4.4 4.6

1,195 3.145 1,493

156

184

2.4

5

5

12.8

18 17

5

5

5

5

42

s

197

444 322 208 27

2.5

109

3.2

142 52

1

4

,465

7.9

385

7,8

81

74

40 5

11" 653 7,018 2 5

38

20

1.4

1.137 1,235

6.7 4.3 3.6

212 40 7.4

1

6'"

6.5'"

6.0 8.925

7

1.2

22.0 14'"

3.7 3.4'"

7.325

8 1 14.7

726 216

69

752 5,77825

19 8

63

679 5.54525

80

0.2

8.3'"

7 125 2.5

1

156 1

16'"

44 40125 3

5 5

5

1.4

53

number

% of

econ

(000)

econ.

1305 4,9025

5

5

5

36.15 17.15

5432

5

7685 1105

5

5

4,0815

12.45

2.07922

08

13 7

26 75

5

2.0465 4,2205 3,5585 1,0985

5

5

4805 96.55

1.6

5

5

5

5

0.4 0.525

5

5

88225

1.125

5

5

0.3

1.6

1.3

7.3

0.8

4.7

1,0

57

63

1.5

3.5 5.4

28 26

6.5

0.5

1.1

2.4

5.6

74

4

1.0

5

5

1.7

2.2 2.0

16.7

03

15.7

2.1

6.5

0.2

2.2 0.5

2.1

3.4

24

7.8

3.5

6.0

964

18

151

2.8

5

5

12.8". 63

0.8". 63

3.4". 63

5

5

10.2 7.9 5.9

1.9

1,181

22.0

321

1.14,63

2 1

4.44,63

2.3" 63

9.4". 63

3.1

"63

9

9

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

99

64

153

9.8

345

222

163

10.5

5

5

5

6.5

46

5.9

98

12.5

37

4.7

56

2.0

5.1

33

84

0.6

14

5

5

9

9

10

10

'0

'0

10

10

10

10

6 4"

48"

339"

39"

446"

2.9 7,9 7.65

3.6".

1355 9.45

49310

66

7

2.2

.2

0.4

5

5

525

4.1

5

3.8

14

100

1.2

9

5

5

2.7

4

11

2.1

1.1

0.2

5

5

7.1

10.7

26

06 38

335 495

5.4

8

1.3

1.9

5

5

17.45

1,519

10.1

2.908

5.2 0.7

3,3425

510

790 49

5

35

19.3 7.3

5

2 6

776 247

5.2

183

5

5

139

2 2

3.4

294

4.6

5

5

47

3 6

11.4

14.1

21 2.0

0.3

3.8

215 2 9

10.8"

68

1

1

5.1"

1,520"

107

5

5

8055

.7

185

6.0

374

41

1.3

5

5

44

442

43

1,575 1452"

313

3.1

1.381

8265 652 4372"

392"

9

9

10

10

10

'0

1.018

35

715

24

3.102

10.5

9

9

10

10

10

10

10

1.7

7 2 13 9 10.5 4.2

1.1

4.7

1.5

6 4

65 248 876

31

66

81

17.3

96

4

781

37

151 0.2

9.5 5.6

64 0.1

9

9

10

10

1,88225

7.825

1.73225

1

6.4

6.978

6.7 10.52" 2.231

72 251

2"

1,331

10 1

10 '

5

5

5.15

60

5

5

1345 4445 2,6755

5

5

20

5

5

40

90

5.7

2.7

01

2.4

7.225

5.5 5.8 3.72" 2.631

10 1

,75325

96 5.445 25.900 72

1

1

1

0.2

4 4

0.2

10

10

10

10

933

7.225

12825

0525

28725

133 19.1

220 4622"

20.472 17 7 6.82"

2.23'

4,331

26

3.6

5

3215

3,143

11.1

2,190

77

13,941

11.0

5

5

5,981 43,0025, 72

57

4.6

5

5

4565

1

1

1

1

0.33'

0.63'

5

5

428 576

59

421

5.8

5

9

1.497 1 .880

20.7

1.9

6.2

90

0.3

305

10

9.7

28

7.4

9.0

238

26

67

4.1

477

25.2

9.5

5.0

25.9

13 7

37

37

21.8

10.8 11.5

2.3

5.5

14

3 3

1.8

1.3

3.1

18

4.4

4 95

0.1

5

5

3,6

5

5

10

10

10

10

1

'0

4,13425

1.225

5

3.7

89

410'

1

03

10

581

647

21.45 28.55 18.85 12.75

1.9

28

0.7

5

1.922

_ —

08

Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles

25.9' 4.2 12.4'0 17.125 44.25

21.0 33.95.72

22

38 23 19.6

98232

—

397

— —

5.0

27 3.1 36. 70

—

51625

1,556?

2.0075 1,374

27.75

6.4

15.4 12.95 18.95 17.710 19.110 12.25

—

Sweden Switzerland

3.82

Syria

1.722

Taiwan

— —

Tajikistan

Tanzania

Togo Tonga

0.331

5.137.39

Lanka

Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland

9822

10.75,31

4,5

Sri

2.322

30.4' .24

24.2

Venda Spain

Thailand

2,067'. 2" 5.55.31

9.2 9.737.39

Ciskei

Transkei

6.022

2 41222 1.5537

Islands

Somalia South Africa Bophuthatswana

12.4422

,76622

88032 292 1292"

36.75

Solomon

—

1,077" 17

1

Leone

Singapore Slovenia

0.3

2395

18.6'0

0.4

15

17.5" 15.75

245'0

10

414

17.15 23.95 18.7'0

1,49710 3,022'

10

San Marino Sao Tome and Principe

Sierra

3022

and Nevis

Lucia Vincent

St.

18.9'0

20.75

6.4 22.52" 13.010 10.3'

10

9.2

5.4

6 3

83 7142" 1131

1

103

,546

1,805 8,100

10

217

6.5

18.0

1

2.173

1

47

130

10

13.5 2.02"

Russia

-

1172 17122

61

60 10

Romania

8.6". 36. 63 35.8". 36. 63

15.0". 5.63

26.95

1.6925

3324

St.

2.722 1.17

5

652"

21.9 3.77 4.67

4.2

10

5

8.32"

7.6 0.57 1.47

3.4

10

1612*

17.0 18.8

St Kitts

12722

10

8.7

12.2 15.4 7.52"

Rwanda

12.822 24.022

37.25 22.45

5

10

397 383

Reunion

2.222 10.122

44.75 18.0'o

5

10

13.7

Qatar

9

36.25

24

10

624 730

Portugal Puerto Rico

0.3

12.332

10

Poland

—

77732

7.0

Philippines

23

—

8.75

10

Peru

248

5505

318 219

Paraguay

12.55 34.525 3.85

1,10422

9

Papua New Guinea

0.732 31.9'"-22

9805

69 92 1 1

22

8.95 26.05 22.25 14.15

9

358 447

.432

27.5 4.2 29.3 6.532 15.822

312 332

203

63

Panama

0.8 2

55'"

3665 5.

266 '0 3225

6 15

418"

4.722

16.0 11.3

942" 23

556" 22

231 22 92 1

Pakistan Palau

0.2 8.3'7

— 8.222 —

i"

Norway

Oman

787 9032

— 2,00822 —

21.85

1,9655

5

51

22

25.85.

1,3525 27.10625 1205

2.5

1.8

'"

Northern Mariana Islands

6.322

7332 2 86'7

47.95

455.

Nigeria

—

0.57

17.25 19.35 22.25 43.85

Niger

2.532

—

1

27.15 10.55 16.85

2.6 1.1

26

1.6

2225 775 1745

5.636 6.522 2.37

067

16.9

04 35

active

13236 2,00922

5.55 15.95

4.5

9.4'"

0.1

%of

C000)

active

5

14 5.8

number

active

active

active

03

Trinidad and Tunisia

17.522

747

Tobago

Turkey

Turkmenistan Tuvalu

1.7 77.536. 70

—

Uganda

2 125

Ukraine United Arab Emirates

—

United Kingdom United States

5.5? 0.732

232

Uruguay

1.92"

Uzbekistan

0.63'

Vanuatu

10632

1.532

1,85422 2.3? 8.37

6.122

Venezuela Vietnam

6.2?

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

447

West Bank Western Sahara

a -:

178

5 9

206

78

90 175

3.0 6.6

347

4 4 2.8 13.2

9

9

10

10

10

10

84

9

9

10

to

10

10

10

10

10

10

51

1.6

76

2.3

128

3 9

24

0,7

5

5

3915 5005 2.216'0 461 '0

3975

0.3

—

— — — 27722

Western Samoa

06

— — —

Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire

—

Zambia

Zimbabwe

8.522

43 Excludes Alderney a nd Sark "'Ages 15-65. "21986. ^Former West Germany only "SWorkers covered by ^Services includes public utilities ""Data are for per sons aged 15-64 only. "81977 "61978 "'Excludes Assam, «Ages 20-64. 5 >Ages 14-64. 511973 53|ncludes unemployed, compulsory social insurance only, 52Excludes about 20,000 oreign border workers. s agricultural workers. previously employed. ^Manufacturing, mining, quarrying; public utilities includes transportatio n, communications. seasonal 6|ncludes unemployed >5lsland of Mauritius only 581987. 59Mostly underemploy 3d informal workers. "Includes underemployed seasonal nonagricultural workers. 6'Citizens over age 10 involved in money-raising 6°Excludes nomadic populat ion. 621985-86 unemployed. activities only, "Excludes self-employed and domestic workers. "Wage earne s only 67f= xc des wortin Africa. u 650ver age 1 4. 66Excludes migrant ers South 7 'Services includes hotels ?0Mostly workers in the noncash economy ?30ver age 20. ^February survey. 69 De tacto indigenous population only. 7' Exclude armed forces overseas |

>

.

804

Britannica World Data

Agriculture and land use

FAO guidelines (economic planners need different information about a commercial, high-technology, multicrop agricultural sector than they do for a family-subsistence, low-technology, one-crop sector). When a complete census of agriculture is impossible, a sample survey may be taken. This is a limited census of a predetermined number of carefully screened holdings. From these results, nationwide projections may be prepared. from the

This table provides data on the structure of national agricultural sectors from the perspective of farms and farmland use. The data are taken mainly from national agricultural censuses and surveys, supplemented by reports of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO's) World C 'ensus of Agriculture. Many of these national censuses, of course, are taken under guidelines established by the FAO for the World Census of Agriculture programs (the 1990 census is the fifth and will include national censuses taken during the decade 1986-95). It represents a cooperative effort by FAO member countries to collect agricultural data within a general framework that permits international harmonization of concepts and definitions; transfer of technical expertise; and increased effectiveness in the collection, analysis, publication, and policy-related use of such statistics. More than 100 countries were expected to participate in the 1990 census. All agricultural statistics are subject to quality-control problems, including errors or biases arising from such factors as incomplete or inaccurate lists of holdings, ambiguous questions, respondents who inadvertently or willfully give inaccurate information, failure to record data for all parts of fragmented holdings, respondents' misunderstandings of the definitions of land use and cropping methods, or a failure to report livestock temporarily absent from the holding on public or common pasture land or in transit. Frequently, subjects studied, classificational schemes, and definitions vary

With respect

to the first section of the table, number and size of farms, countries impose a minimum size limit for holdings that may be in their census reports, and this cutoff, if not sufficiently low, can result in a substantial undercount of smaller holdings; conversely Sovietbloc nations often publish statistics only on state collective or cooperative farms and exclude privately held plots of land, even though in some instances these provide a significant fraction of agricultural output. The land tenure statistics classify farms according to the rights under which the farmer holds the land. Owner-operated includes two types of ownership: outright ownership in which the holder has title and has the right to determine use and transfer of the land; and ownerlike possession in which the holder lacks the legal title but uses It under perpetual lease, hereditary tenure, or leases of 30 years or more with nominal, or no, rent. Farms classed as owner-operated are divided into individual and family, corporate or state, and socialized or collective proprietorships. Rented

many

covered

Agriculture and land use country

farms

(latest

year

census

of agriculture) a

number

size of holding

farms (000)

average

tenure (% of farms)

of

owner-operated

size class (%)

(ha)

under 1 ha

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

Armenia Aruba Australia

Austria

Azerbaijan

Bahamas. The Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus

Belgium Belize

Benin

1981

126'

1989 1987 1990

8995

0.5 1.1

1970-71 1984 1974 1990

1991 1980'6

1990 1978 1980

1983-84 1969 1990 1988 1974

1.067

85

5526

4.4

19.4

529

10,045

0.9

02

958

81.0 5.835

1964 1991 1984

63

00826

2.2" 33 1.860

1983 19623" 1973 1986 1979

840 926 293

283 366 306

China

1984 1974 1973 1975-76 1987

1,650'"

Colombia

1971

1,177

Comoros Congo Cook Islands

1982 1986

Costa Rica

1973

82

Cote dlvoire

1975

550 569

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

Cayman

Islands Central African Republic

Chad Chile

19.4

1585

2565

21.75

1981

Cyprus Czechoslovakia

1988 1985 1980

Denmark

1991

Djibouti

1987-88 1986-88

over

individual/

corporate/

socialized/

200 ha

family

state

collective

1.833

1974

Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea

1985 1970-71

Estonia

1990 1976-77

corn-

munal

18.05

93 29 82

113

13.7

0.6 9.5

06

04

16.7

25.1

173

21.0

19 2

9.6'3 5.2

1238 17 4

1.1" 8.2

2.0

3.9

29.7

805

21.1

32.1" 73.8"

— 40.5" 11.7"

182

— —

0.2

4.5" 14.5"

75.3'

06

0.4'8 0.1-

387 74 9

0.6

4.0

379

01

620

205

2.52'

19.92"

16.7

2092"

15.22"

267

8.6

—

5 42"

4.4

27.7". 0.9

436

25

— 564

3.126

08 72.1

3.2

645 26

5.827 28-

51.36.27

42.9727-

253 334

42.1

12.1

489

13.7

32.1

499 286

126

11.1

44.16

40.47

13 2

6.8

6.1

4.9

-0.6-

20

70.3

100

—

994 14.0

179

632

15.6 15.528

—

52 3

10 84 6" "

2,467" 33

22.0

— —

24.7

595

32.9

18-43'

154"

48 36

307

16

42.7

231

1.66

1.7

32.2

26

197 160

94

1

549 538 3.47

10.4

34

32

03

52

12 135

29 736

36.3"

50 652

0.1"

-840

325

98.6"

1.2'

7.2

— 88 —

58

4

69.5

100"2

687 91 7'

8 3'

383

979

1.7

1

21.4

100 1.04733

-790-

38

30.8'

1,391

1981

tribal/

(including

sharecroppers)

23

480 "e

rented

-1.69-

13.88-

'2

0.2

1975«

Cuba

Ethiopia

50-200 ha

1.45

Croatia 29

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador

13.5

08

1985 1985

Burundi

33 8

4.2

Botswana

Burkina Faso

33 617

30 1?

1981

Bulgana

39

3,604 24.2

Bosnia and Hercegovma 29

Brunei

40 0'

126 303

160 315 540

Brazil

4476

21

Bolivia

Bhutan

29

399

89 2"

20-50 ha

10-20 ha

19 8' 12.75

23

89

5-10 ha

3.5'

1,1822 6.25

510

1983 1990 1984 1984

Bermuda

1-5 ha

77

359

12 19

04

385 517 3.546 271

9.4

—

— 0.6

1 1

.6""

—

...

532

18.5

1.6

—

52

6.3

154

70 3

03

7 7

7 4

17.4 14.3

33

07

95.55'

54

489

2.452

379

-0.15"-

12

15

Comparative National

includes sharecropping; communal tribal includes types ol customary or traditional arrangements in which title oi goods do not change hands. "Other" usually includes farms held under multiple tonus of tenure. Statistics on types ot farms by commodities produced refer to FAO categories. The terms "mainly crops" and "mainly livestock" indicate that more than half of the for-sale production was that indicated. The section on technology provides some incisures of the role modern technology plays in the farm activities of each country (although, of course, irrigation may employ technology developed in ancient times). Ratios referred to area mean area of "arable" (cultivated and cultivable) land, roughly "cropland," less area of permanent crops (see below). The classification of farmland by economic use is also subject to differing treatment internationally. For purposes of this table, "cropland" comprises: (1) land under temporary crops (those requiring replanting after each harvest), (2) land under permanent crops (those not requiring replanting, including tree, bush and shrub, and vine crops), and (3) land temporarily

than

years) fallow (unused, but capable of being returned to no special preparation). "Meadows and pastures" includes land (both permanent and temporary use) whose principal purpose is the raising of animal fodder or forage. "Woodland and forest" includes both natural and planted tracts of timber, whether harvested or not. "Other" (less

five

cultivation with

mainly crops

(%

technology

of farms)

1

A

—

country land use (%)

farms

mainly

mixed/

tractors

electri-

irriga-

artificial

total

%of

other

(per

city

tion

fertilizer

(000 ha)

total

1.000 ha)

(%of

(°oOf

(kg/ha)

farms

land

having)

irrig.)

0.1

55.73

in

live-

stock

61.53

land

(latest)

32.03

6.53

20.8 13.9

70

44.33

34 73

158

5

23

7

385

land area

61.0 40.0" 16.7 16.4

39,810 1,111i 39.701 3.2

mead-

wood-

ows

land

total

and

and

cropland

pastures

forest

75.4 35.7"

48

cropland

perma-

tempo-

nent crops

crops

fallow

rary

1.8

46.3

17.6 7.6

51.0

519 41.4

88.7

19.9

64.3"

82.4 11.3

19.2 71.4

783

82.0 36.0 78.9 53.8

other

Afghanistan Albania

—

2.5

5.3

44

10.6

78.9

1

23.0

34 298

105

8.1

89 io

4

4.180 2.5

90

7

5

203,345

73.1

1,300

433

272 24

1

56.0

19 9

4

6.8

236

29 208

24.2 1010

96

8.723

—

06

30

18.6

20.8 151 7 24.5

2.5

—

0.1

83 94

5

519 80

_

4

229 30 5

1.4

13.6

27.9

80.032

16.232

58.5 3.832

_

3.6

104

4.132

54.43

45.63

4

33 33

24.3 13.8

6 3

0.1

24

44.4

7

1

34 90 5

0.5 0.2 16.8 0.4

—

18 5

858

90.0 0.1

—

0.05

86

623

-

93.83

—

47 100 194

2 1

62"

46

—

44

186

3.4

11.7

American Samoa Andorra

16.2

Angola

78.0

6,159 8,919

55.6 32.6

6 3

2,388 2.984 1,490 67.826 2539

85.8 16.5 3.3

491 23,877 "0 28,759 166.902

22.0

_ 14.930 —

93 7

94.9

26.2 3.5

1.6

79 6

7.4

0.8

20 4

20.839

79.139

118 50.0"0

88.2 50.0"0

38.0

244

366

174

4.1

27.0 44.3

30.6 56.4

27.6

0.7

14.8

852

—

21.9 57.8

22.2

34

3.122

60.0

11

86

65.9

179 137

57.0 78.3

8.8

34 34 6

2.753 3.220 8.679

210

356

34.7

312

6.924

54.1

2.6

17

237

2.770 6

653 03

176

20

41

5.1

23 33

2,412 7.955

26.3 49.8 29.6

22.8

112

60 08

21

400 133

2,731 55 1.452

69.0

1

4

185

1,400 6,971

—

45.8«o

191

32

3.055

31

389 95.9

418 43.6

—

1

818

9.4

110

54 3 97.4-

98.9

68 38.0 32.8 3.555

40 2

21

51.5

15 7

.8

7.7

900'5

415

6.9

25.7

—

9.5

33.3

52.8 36.5

472 15.9

36

91

Azerbaijan

Bahamas, The Bahrain

— 1.1

—

11.6

1

Austria

54.1

11.323

— —

Armenia Aruba

44.0

36 3

656

Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

Australia

11.2

—

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus

Belgium Belize

Benin 1

6.9

442 83.530 15.830 54.8 75.4

8.9

—

—

Bermuda

47.7 55.4

— 39.0 —

47.830

24.230

12.230

Brazil

164

287

Brunei Bulgaria

6.4 0.4

Bhutan Bolivia

Bosnia and Hercegovina29

Botswana 0.1

24.6

56 7

37.7

96.1

— 5.2 —

100.0 61.5 100.039

96.555

100.0 23.7"0 11.5 100.0 24.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 15.7

100.0 50.4 33.9 74.9 75.3

Burundi

—

5.6 3.9

— — 33.3 —

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

—

—

—

Cayman Islands Central African Republic

207

25.5

Chad

76.3"0

42.3

-

-

— 189

56.4

—

—

49 9

22.9

— 1 1

4

Colombia

Comoros Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica

Cote

d'lvoire

—

11

Croatia29

319

2.1

Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia

25.1

247

Denmark

19.8

—

—

—

34

51.6 32.2

13.0 29.0

0.9

6.0

5 3

32.8

China

32.1

80.2 100.0 1

Chile

485

100.055

1

586

164

449

382

116

786

21.4

—

7.4

76 8

15 8

86.9

9

25

.1

5.7

—

26.0 52.4

88.723 13.7

1

2 2 74

5.7

Burkina Faso

3

03

100.030 66.930

73.8

41

60.0

23.3 45.9

100 45.0 20.2

70.9

18.230

2.8

1.4

23

85 88.3

—

55.9 42.2

12.9

1,523

0.6 5.8

729

89

134 22.5

65.1

—

55.0

164

83 226

100.0

10.015 21.3

1.4

4.8

100

20.6

6.239

16.8

96.323

81.1

24

44.5

6.0

59.9 49.3

97.8

156 22,670 2,525

5.930

99.715

6

1

29.3

34330 376.287

626

13.1

3,300

494

1.7

16.9

87 4

2.123

10.0

30,993

28.5

—

1

446

—

57.1

38.1

233

4

224

4.7

45.9 44.9

87

49

953

19.8

2

9.300 1.362

3

282

198

635

13

—

12.4

9,117

4.9

41 3

678

23.3 50 7

9.1

24.4

—

3.5

26 52

260

27 3

56.0

6.6

30 49

72 7 34 3

44

0.315

1

632

10.6 38.5

87.4 48.3

9.3

29.5 131

1

1

4

0.04

522

1

36.8 26.0

60.8'2

466,800 7^326 4,200 36.2

21.3 91.323

3.4

Algeria

23.3

20 329

805

comprises: (1) mixed and multiple use lands, (2) residue ol farmland holdings not classifiable according to categories listed above (including areas ul farm buildings, roads, ornamental gardens, flooded land, wasteland, etc.), (3) land not classified by respondents in census, or (4) detail not distinguishable as one of categories above by reason of its summarization in a published source. When "cropland" is indicated to compose 100 percent of farmland, it should usually be understood to mean only that woodland. pasture, etc., were not part of the published data, rather than that those classes of land use do not exist. Measurements of area are given in hectares (ha: hectare is equal to 2.471 acres). A kilogram (kg) is equal to 2.205 pounds (1 kg/ha = 0.89 lb ac). The following notes further define the column headings: a. All properties used wholly or partly for agricultural production. property need not have agricultural land to be considered a farm; piggeries, hatcheries, and poultry batteries are farms because they engage in agricultural production, i.e., raise livestock and produce livestock products. b. All forms of tenure not included in the preceding categories. Includes land operated by schools, religious bodies, squatters, seasonally by nomads, and built-on, waste, and similar types of alienation. ... Not available, or no agricultural census or survey ever taken. None, less than half the smallest unit shown, or not applicable.

farmland use activity

Statistics

1

— 40

Djibouti

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatonal Guinea Estonia Ethiopia

Britannica World Data

806

Agriculture

and land use

country

farms

(continued)

(latest

year

census

of agriculture) a

number of

tenure (% of farms)

size of holding

farms

(000)

average

owner-operated

size class (%)

(ha)

1-5 ha

under 1 ha

5-10 ha

20-50 ha

10-20 ha

50-200

over

individual/

corporate/

socialized/

ha

200 ha

family

state

collective

rented

tribal/

(including

corn-

sharecroppers)

munal

Faeroe Islands Fiji

Finland

France French Guiana

1978-79 199056 1988 1988

Georgia

1987 1975 1989-90 1968 1990

Germany 57 Ghana

19902 1970

French Polynesia

Gabon Gambia, The

Gaza

Strip

66 199 1.017

45

4.2

12.8 26.630 4.6

5.6 71

630 805

18.7 3.2

88 16.5

206

8.1

3.7

2.1

34.6 18.6 73.6

21.5

23.9

11.0

16.4

17.6 28.3

6.0

1.5

1.22.4-

3.5

21.4 33.512

16.92.4

37.7

365

680

81.8

12.

5«

17.758

20.6 3.9

16.8

366

487

9.0

6.959 58.3 33.97

3.360

0.7

7.0

1.6

6.3 0.3

57.1 5.3

12.5

— — — 5.869 —

12.7 34,362 31.3 13.969

24.8 1.8

Gibraltar

Greece Greenland 1.7

88.3 4 9

17

28

1987 1979

04

15.1

321 4226

600

39.764 6.770

8266

0102

6.8 16.2

49865

1991

24.070

23.1 70

37.5 46.6

Grenada Guadeloupe

Guam Guatemala Guernsey

1984-852

Guinea-Bissau

1961

Guyana

1964

Haiti

1971

617

1.4

587

Honduras

1974

195

13.5

17.3

Hong Kong Hungary

1986 1990

Iceland

1981

India

1976-77 1987

Iran

Iraq

Ireland Isle of

Man

1982 1979 1986 1987

Israel

1981

Italy

1982 1978-79 1990 1990 1983

Jamaica Japan Jersey

Jordan Kazakhstan

Kenya

19.162

4 3

-0268

2.067

-

14.1

46.662 64.4

-4.69

6.369 67.6ii.2i

_ 46.1 70-

24 30

Guinea

Indonesia

0.361-

-0.9

19.48-

—

0.3

90.0

11

1,412 7.0 81 .569 19.50155

470 27932 0.8

52

97.5 90.072

23

15.7

9.3

2.0 C.15S

54.6 70.755

13.3 25.0 ' 59.7 11.3

25.975 2.732

7.2

26.5

3,269 184 3,835

29

18063 32.5«

1.4

685

0.6

11.1

57

6.3

66.6 14.5

997

7.8

25.0

—

11.7 6.6

358

23.7

35.8

2.4

0.5

-3.7-0.1-

927 7485

-29 35527.676 23.277 37.832 25.88' 57.6 8.3

30283

37 783

60.785 29.4

4.860

94

11.578 52.432

—

14082

18.2'7

1.979 7.132

0.580

14.0

3.25

—

22.15

40.910

z

234'8

185'9

40

2.0

3.183

9.283

1.883

0.417

0.3

09

1.2

—

1.8-

_ Q.4'9

18

276

72.4 84.0

81 532 99.586

—

-19.090-

6^1

6.610

14.6 11.832 0.366 20.632

6.732

79432

2.1

16488

45.087

-

77.0

0.1

9.972

8.4 0.2

0.1

31.427

68.627

253

446

156

8 6

4,5

1.3

80.5

13.1

82532

0.132

10.232

8.732

4.Q32

3.132

95.3

4.7

19.789

0.3

6.1

1990 1976-79

Kinbati

Korea, North Korea, South

Kuwait Kyrgyzstan

Laos Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

Luxembourg Macau Macedonia^ Madagascar

19902

1.2

1985-86 1990 1983 1990 1970

2.4

48.632

25432

2.032

27.032

67.532

3.0

52.8

31

40

12.7

34

8.7

30.8

1986 1971*" 1974 1985 1990

1984-85

1980-81*

Malaysia Maldives

1980*

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania

144 0.45

3.7 17.4

279

134

13 2

44 7

43.0

6.7

1.2

1.3

548

442

1.0

02

1.2

54 9

40 196

20

54

176 1.453 1.136

12.0 13.6

-05-

40.0"

43.311

16.7"

-3 2-1.1-

85.5

11.7

—

2.8

49.9"

49.6"

—

—

4.9"

...

7.4"

...

9.032.99

—

100.0

01 5.097

2.299. 100

1985 1982-83 1983

562

1988

16.0

100

4

Mayotte

Mexico

1970'720to40ha. 1840 to 81 ha. '981 ha or more. 2010 '•100 ha or more. 151987-88. ^Excluding holdings without land. '21989-90. '350 to 100 ha. area, not number, of holdings. 30igso 284 214.0 to 10.1 ha 261985. 271932 ha or more. 29Holdings and tenure refer to private holdings only; land use 1990. 2210.1 ha or more 231977 241939 251979 39|mgated land only "01968 354.0 to 28 ha 3628 to 100 ha 37100 to 160 ha. 38160 ha or more. 34p re collectivization. 321970 3'Almost all squatlers 33State farms and cooperatives only 502.0 to 20 ha. 512.1 ha or less. "750 to 1000 ha "eArable area only. "60.5 to 50 ha. "9Less than 2.0 ha. •"1984 421971 43Rarotonga only ""Owned and rented holdings "5Less than 0.5. 6140 ha 592.0 to 4.0 ha. 604.0 to 10 ha 582 5421 ha or more. 57F rmer West Germany only. to 5.0 ha. 522.1 to 4.2 ha. 534.2 to 21 ha 551983 ha. 56Excludes holdings of less than 1 701974. 6745 to 452 ha. 68452 ha or more. 69Excludes holdings of 04 ha (500 sq m) or less. 667 1 to 45 ha. 621972. 650.7 to 7.1 ha. or more 63Commercial farms only 64|_ess than 0.7 ha 823.0 to 7775 t0 12.5 ha. 7812.5 to 20 ha. 7950 to 250 ha. 80250 ha or more, si Less than 8.0 ha 721991 731981. 762.5 to 7.5 ha. 7M990 74Excludes state of Punjab 7st_ess than 2.5 ha.

'1967

"Based on

to 4

ha

— Comparative National

1 (%

mainly crops

o( farms)

technology

mixed

tractors

electri

irriga-

artificial

total

%0f

live-

other

(per

city

tion

fertilizer

(000 ha)

total

(%

(%of

(kg/ha)

.000

1

ha)

of

tarms

land

having)

irng.)

005 04 64.33

35 73

2433

7063

22 176

3.93

9.0

14 2

9

1

3

10

0.5«

67 93

61

33 4

50.43

49.63

25 0?o

324

12.5

62

122 4

03

68.6

39.7

603 395'" 33.9"'

173'" 35530

54586

64.530

30.3

41 9

4 7

1

51.2

—

'

—

63.7'* 11 5

36.3'2«

38.5

1.4

Paraguay

58 63 398 138

14.893 9.034 18.720 5,183

11.6

24

27

1

475

19 8

56

Peru

30.1

575

59.9

1.9

86.3 78.3

21.7

56.1

26.1

52 6

3.2

345

280

46.4

19.1

37 36

349 120 243 138 1

2

9

63

1

44

14.759 213,700 1,350

61 9 12.5

4

96.0

12

453 380

31.5 68.570

34.8 76.5

643 609

2,732 5.6"'

85,447

3839

4.8

770 622 500 44.312

86.0

2 5

6

11.7

14

50

38

400W

1.203

6,065 2.827 4,300 7.54562 14,178

7 2

9

7453

25.53

483

408

'42

923 158 1.8"

141

91

29

1

32.8 78.5

81.1

10.5 32.0 16.9

91 .0 66.2

27

53

67

9.0

77.3

275

72.5

301 8562

19.162

276

135

72.562 86.5

710

35.800

73.4

2.262 41.400 17 59'

11.3

29.8

702

64.89'

18 29'

68.8

2 10 9

358 93 52

29

63.4

14.8

10.9

48

8 32

18.498

390,316 15.882 26.600 183

178 90

31 ,278

9.060

72

15.4

18530 5.002

5

1.8

7083

23 2

7 147

1.351

6.238 5.897

17.323

8.462

82723

62 7

37 3 44.1

20.6 11.5

0.291

75.8 41.0 90.7 59.4 15

343 274 20.9 31.430

361 91.7 31.7 18.6 49.862 93.8 71.023 81.2 62.3 78.2 85.4

07

983

1.0

90 5

1.0

8 5

96 9

3.1

625

17.191

30

19.0135

59.0'35

137

62230

37.830

35.8 46.0 8.8

34.5

7 4 18.3

100.0 80.7 97.69'

22.0'35

92 6 68.0

_

61

1

0.1

—

1.1

6

16

938

13

71.5""

75

8

59

29.620

76 6

26

82

16.4

59.7

20

—

28.883

67

697

8.8 7 7

89 3

45 25

_ 236 19

92 3

955 975

Russia

Rwanda

St.

—

and Nevis

Lucia Vincent

San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra

Leone

Singapore

—

0.1

79.7 97.6

1.3

7.1

—

—

21.7 2.7

249

23.1

19.1

60.6

12.0 50.3 10.5

17.4 7.7

Sudan. The Suriname Swaziland

10.9

Sweden

—

—

1.0

—

88

76.2

4.0

53.4

10262

09

—

24.762

8.3 2.4 4.7 15.362

961

— 16.9

Sn Lanka

Syria

Taiwan Tajikistan

Tanzania

10.1

1.9

Togo Tonga

6.1

27.2

1.7

5.4

Turkey

0.5

Turkmenistan Tuvalu

— —

—

Trinidad Tunisia

and Tobago

Uganda

1.191

Ukraine United Arab Emirates

83

3.2

United Kingdom Uniled States

4.2

1.7

2.4

1.39'

60.4 42.5 85.3

Spain

Thailand

21.8 7.3

Ciskei

Transkei

3.2

2.1

29.023 6.7 4.4

Somalia South Africa Bophuthatswana

Switzerland

65.7 76.7

Sloveniazs Solomon Islands

Venda

38

—

Uruguay

812

132'35

57.0 '3S

22 8 '35

7.0 '35

Venezuela Vietnam

75.3

103

3.7

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

100.0 10.7 100.030

93.883

1.9

z

West Bank Western Sahara

1.2

Samoa Yemen '«

06

Yugoslavia

7.3

Zaire

Western

6.283

988

Uzbekistan

Vanuatu

15.1

100.0

71.283

Romania

16.9 84.9

18.8

24883 01

Reunion

_

11.9

23.8 40.4 19 7 34.8

Qatar

St.

33.3

64.7

40.9 86.0

5.570

80.7

35.2 100.0

3.4

685

74 5

1

1

22.7

48 3

138

—

Portugal Puerto Rico

St. Krtts

26.470

115 77.6

88.7

175

17

15 7 6

8

15 2

31.1

—

10.270

92

11.0 20.4

558

61.1

58

41

43.6

399

21

20.5

63 6

55.9

9

5.2

238 564

44.5 25.8

8.5

10.6

25 4

33 132 9.449 30.732

271

0.8

90.8 12.5

2 18

30 9

40.7

637

— —

375

90.0

7.1

9.7 91

1.0

61.7

10.0 100.0

406

151

26.7"

30.6

779

88.5 22.4 100.0 19.3 66.7

Philippines

9.7 6.6

— —

803

8

_fJ7 386. 142_

9 7

878

— 41.3

843 692 383

Papua New Guinea

Poland

_

87.1

05

28 2

'41

97

1

6.9

6.8

2.4

0.3 6.8

773 249

"

953

94

8

38

76

5 9

39

63

569"

70.2 94.8

1.0

148

4

0.6 141

12786

10.4 79.3

22

14.127

35 5-'

89 6 20 7

80.0 45.2

14.9 64.9

77.2 99.9

79

,

27 6

187

4.5

4.230 0.6

6

19 40.0

13.3

4

32.6

6.5

428 34

44.6 21 7

39

196

Oman

39.9

4.8 22.1

100.0 53.9

58.1 57.970

31.570

161

25.0

165 766.775 8.253

281

685

75.0

31 .500

40.4

92 2

27.8 38.1 9.041

4

12.8

55.4 58.730

0.1

15 100

09

37.130

41

1.8

40.1

407

1.0

59.1

130 110

64.1

14.4

99 4

100

22 60

2009

53.3

1

856

51 3

46.4 31.9

29 46 137 454

74.8

26

2.135 11,338

29.3 29.6

70.4

393 25.2

7.5

11

446

0.5

2 2.800

2.1

98.1

844

96

5

75.9 42.5

1

5.7

23

428

837

212 6

17.9

14,8

35.4

Panama

19.2

386

44.1

44

Pakistan Palau

24

76.6

2 100

27.8

5.6

100.0 4.2

39 3

22.3 20.5

0.6

156

21.941

49.2

Is.

Norway

57.4 26.4 47.5

3

12586

Northern Mariana

609

24.6 33.7 12.6

1

330*

Nigeria

34.2 -50 8

938

1.7

03

06

36.9

16.3

93

20

60

4.3

41.1

35.0

866

200

302

43.3

56.6

43.4

1.0

27.5

329

21 6

-

03

98.5 31.4

31 4

293 08 539

6

29.5

80

24.0

620

39.0

20.0

2.259

20 25

81.3

Niger

37.1

58

19,109

195

65.8

forest

67 22 4

100 13 35

49 7

pastures

29

3.407 34.290

47

18 503

cropland

83

18.4 47.9 15.3 10.4

0.1

rary

7

5.6

75.0*>

crops

other

80

22 57

27.0 17.4

and

20.570 83

0.7

0.1

land

111

800 262 555

65

wood-

and

269

3

15 4623

53.83

1

nent crops

fallow

11

49 20

2

tempo-

87

3

5.1

perma-

63.5

348 330

mead-

ows total

cropland

land area

45

86

982

land use (%)

farms

mainly stock

49

m

land

(latest)

809

country

farmland use activity

Statistics

65.4 70.6

34.0

—

20.1

20

142

381

34.5

65.7

47.7

Zambia

Zimbabwe

94Excludes 861969. 938.0 ha or more. 850.4 to 4.0 ha. 87i_ess than 4.5 ha. 864.5 to 9.0 ha. 9018 ha or more. 925.0 to 8.0 ha 831975. 4 ha 899.0 to 18 ha. 911978. 84|_ess than 99Smallholder 95f£x C u des large commercial farms. 96 1 973 temporary rangeland available for agricultural use to subsistence farms ha or more 98West Malaysia except as noted. to 30 ha. 'OOAverage size of estate farm is 400 ha ""Based on number of households on estates. '02AII Malaysia. i03|ncludes rented farms, ^includes 1.828,000 holdings in 22.700 farms only ioso.8 to 4.0 ha. io9ioto25ha. "°25 '05| n area, state lands constitute 80.6% of Mongolia s agricultural cooperatives 19 4%. 'oepamily farms only. communes (e|idos) '07|_ess thar. 0.8 ha. "21.0 to 3.9 ha. "339to79ha "«7.9 to 19.7 ha. "519.7 ha to 40 ha. "61.0 to 2.0 ha. '"2.0 ha or more. "80 4 to 2.0 ha. "91.2to12ha '2012to toSOha '"Large holdings only '301988. '231 '2*6 only. '2'50 '2522 operations 122300 more. 6.4 ha. 4 to 4 4 '261963 '271 '267.5 '29Full-time 20 ha ha or .0 to 22 ha ha or more to 300 ha. ha or more. to 7 5 ha. '^Former Yemen '3220 to 72 ha. '3372 to 202 ha. '34202 ha or more. '351971. '39260 ha or more. '373 '38100 to 260 ha. '3' Excludes Northern Ireland ha. '36|_ess than 3 to 10 ha. '411976 ">38 i42Data refer Yugoslavia as constituted prior 1991. '"16 Arab Republic only to to to 16 ha. to 100 ha

20 ha

|

Britannica World Data

810

Crops and livestock Czechoslovakia, long published statistics only for collective or cooperative production and excluded the production of privately held plots of land that in some instances represented a significant part of total agricultural production. Some countries report only crops that are sold commercially and ignore crops produced for family or communal subsistence. Methodological problems attach to much smaller parts of the agricultural whole, however. The FAO's cereals statistics relate, ideally, to weight or volume of crops harvested for dry grain (excluding cereal crops used for grazing; harvested for hay; or harvested green for food, feed, or silage). Some countries, however, collect the basic data they report to the FAO on sown or cultivated areas instead and calculate production statistics from estimates of yield. Millet and sorghum, which in many European and North American countries are used primarily as livestock or poultry feed, may be reportable by such countries as animal fodder only, while elsewhere many nations use the same grains for human consumption and report them as cereals. Statistics for tropical fruits are frequently not compiled vjy piwuuvmg iwniiiini, .uii.1 i,uvi.iugv, i.t uui w av/iil^ u reporting only commercial fruits and others including those consumed for

This table provides comparative data for selected categories of agricultural production for the countries of the world. The data are taken mainly from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) annual Production Yearbook. The FAO depends largely on questionnaires supplied to each country for its statistics, but, where no official or semiofficial responses are returned, the FAO makes estimates, using incomplete, unofficial, or other similarly limited data. And, although the FAO provides standardized guidelines upon which many nations have organized their data collection systems and methods, persistent, often traditional, variations in standards of coverage, methodology, and reporting periods reduce the comparability of statistics that can be supplied on such forms. FAO data are based on calendar-year periods; that is, data for any particular crop refer to the calendar year in which the harvest (or the bulk of the harvest) occurred. In spite of the_ often tragic food shortages in a number of countries in recent years, worldwide agricultural production is probably more often UIIIIVIIV.|'MI

UU

111(111

IfVLIIl.LA'llVU.

IV|,111\

1.

V

>L]

1

1

1 1

IV.

^

1.11

'

IH'I

1

I* |

Ul

I

VV7111-

1

plete domestic production; the former Soviet bloc, for example, excepting

1

1

1

1

1 v

>

i

i

1

.

1

1

1

1

i. i

i

i

1

1

1

1

11.

Crops and livestock country

crops fruitsc

vegetables"

production

yield

production

production

(kg/hectare)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

('000 metric tons)

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

yield

(000 metric tons) 1979-81 average Afghanistan Albania

4,060

916

559

1,337 2.500

Algeria

1,958

3,623

656

2,724

1991

Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

Armenia Aruba Australia Austria

Azerbaijan

Bahamas, The

379

381

—

—

24,457 2003

20,351

21.164

17,212 4,921 1 ,400"

4,391 1,2003

200"

1

1

Belarus

Belgium®

20,983

29,655

2 5,4003 2,069

2 7,000" 2.467

223 65

112

540 3

1.000 4

533

386

1,820

1.833 2.632 1.840"

—

2.060

1.809 2,183 1 ,8403

2,328

3,150

1.322 4,130 2,3903 1,142

1,347 5.378 2,340" 1,262

2913

1,938 2,538 1 ,8603 4.861 1.924

2,546 2,500 2,660" 6,776 1,440

—

213" .5

5

844 1903 2

5

—

185" 2

,5593 5 1,468 3

2,120

11 1 1

Belize

27

24

Benin

366

534

698

821

1.363

Bhutan

159

1,072

40

53

663

105 1.010

1,439

Bolivia

1,183

1,581

1,061

1.467

Bermuda

Bosnia and Hercegovma

Botswana Brazil

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

338"

35

45

203

30.805

35.991

3

1

1,496 1,640 3.853

8,130 1,166

8.918 2,234

575

251 1,755 1.625 3.973 841

376

503

131

111 1,411

219

342

1,081

1,056

1.563 1,332

1.052

2,450 1,003 55.969

178

112

849

1.211

2,174

4

365

2,600 175

1.663 2.626

1,946 2,781 18

866 42.728 4

15

_ 529 587

1,191

1,106

891 2,866 392.919

680

424

760 665

2,124 3.029

4.054 4.286

901 144,326

851 147,291

3,339 19 15

3,948 19

2.452 1,082

2.451 1,290

4,144

4,494

26

780

813

57 678

64 845

11

Costa Rica

337

256

2.498

2.875

45

Cote

856

1,292

858

910

3.414

4.292

551

2,381 1,065

997 182

770 188

4,893

3.388

5,985 2,750 1,364 3.211

Chad Chile

China

Colombia

Comoros Congo Cook Islands

d'lvoire

103 508 1,742 286,591

165

Cyprus Czechoslovakia

87 9,762

11.853

2.458 1,793 3.798

Denmark

7.346

9.115

4.040

—

—

447 686

363 1,583

8,131

13670

719

729

Djibouti

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El

Salvador

Equatorial Guinea Estonia Ethiopia

—

8003 5.804

1

.000"

6,420

833 1,427 3,004 1,633

4.052 1.702 2,0803 1.186

1.981

5.516 1,635

2,410" 1,237

317

135 1,197 2

3,562 4.673 14.087 14,6003

3,927 5.077 20,388 9.500"

5

6,627 1 1 ,653 8,247 15.4003.5 13,500" 39,246 44,318 20,000 21,875 10,062

9.264 20,636 10,250 7.184 5.870"

1 1

2.279

142 23

1.345

695

992

120

2,876

3,458

—

1

—

1

1,238

1,309

917

875

637

507

646

706

1,304

913

1,511

26,904

37,762

26 214 552

26 235 492

.093

9.479 6.976 5,623

1,330

1,096

21 .971

18,336 12,350 2,926 14,5003 3,703

5

14.805 2,613 13,600" 3,641

2

2,490

1,052

985

666

12

12

28

35

21

15

11

1,251

1,224

1,592

2,182 951

1,596 471

856" 27

1

1.209

1,254

3

3

3,080

4,233

382

363

956

1

526

686

72

148

3

5

34

54

445

539

142

163

—

121 2

2

2 30

592

800 1,097

67 875

11

1,014

29 532

221 3 9

317

370

16 4,089 8

16 5,738

20

7 749"

185". 9

5

19 2,206

2,788

622 464

467 495

68 176

78 183

984 376

1,052

9 18,607 5 1,975

1.305

2,021

389

56

71

76

324

200 45 76 884 9

5,534 7,738

2.713

227 2.831

19 2

,899

5,783 9.595

1

1,066 10

15.141 1 1

488 248 1,948

390"

171

5,780 7,880" 4,858 22.059 16,155

2.078

224

8 5,507

3.945 3.536 5.599 14,105

5,154

1,631

425

9 6,258

4,345 3,270 4,505 10,262 13.592

6,092 23.108 16,730

617"

432

1,186

7.746 5,333 5,148 24,100 3,302

8,321

5

303

918

1

.838

28,919

40

385

1

5.826

5.764

81

40 274

14

2.813

11

27 53 9293

42

7

5,385

1991

1

239

6.956 6,569 3,994 23,818 3,146

1 1

516 338 824

5

12,551

5

647 97 1,073

7,800". 5

9,242 9,706

11

1991

5

30.326 24,868

80035

93

608",

526 65

807

401

431

043 3,660 6.683 30,158

Croatia

Cuba

989 376

967

14

45

5,513 11.570 1,470 10,175 8,783

1

1.438

Cayman

Islands Central African Republic

1

35

23 52

5

7 27,761

7

27.265

41

7222 8,333 5.810

7,449 9,041 6,767 5.151

1

1

16,767

6,967 6,878 4,829

8,998 19,048

1.100 7 8.591" 5 1.950 4

1991

14,881

5

—

1,705

1991

23.445 25,387

1,166 791

1.356

Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados

1991

265

1,161 2.281 1.161

American Samoa Andorra Angola

pulseso yield

roots

production

1991

and tubers 3

production ('000 metric tons)

grains

17

105 194 4

11

31,348 5

941

943

151

1,000

249

514

1,164 121 1,715

1,668

635 542

323 370

1,544

1,665

697

750

286

450

12

11

1,549

1,747 5

8 1.666 118

220 470 453 2.061

6

1

7

435

163 97

1.230 1.566

1.657 8.864

194 114 2.676 22.992

3,905

5,202

572

693 839 812

36 218

55 282

498

477

14 1,362

12 1.948

556 434 843

6,648

15 60 159 6,915

1,223

128

160

604

5

7 10

1,237

5 12

33

59

1,000

44 59

64

80,016

74 1.688 118.604

1,362 3

1,696 4

33 2 58

43 2 116

1,760

8

8

667

667

1,549

1,499

317

452

12

26

306

466

586

2

316

1.054 1.692

810 359 644

1,539

6 137

351 1.015 2,378

435 929

101 1,017

1,199

3,420

4,183

124

53

263

305

450

46

92

13 7

22

467 958 547

951

1,333

729

3,767

1,629 4.338

209 243

299 367

2.000

2,414

2,310

4,720

7,312

6,530

850

869

257

290

96

161

501

594

574"

5

14

410

—

—

73

96

39

61

283

381 67

41

11

17

201

231

9

133

7

105"

5

962

763

1.061

778

->

(

omparattve National Statistics

I

units as follows:

metric tons x 1.1023 = short tons kilograms x 2.2046 = pounds kilograms per hectare x 0.8922 = pounds per acre. The notes that follow, keyed by references in the table headings, provide further definitional information. a. Includes such crops as potatoes and cassava. b. Includes beans and peas harvested for dry grain only. Does not include green beans and green peas. C. Excludes melons. d. Includes melons, green beans, and green peas. e. From milk cows only. From chickens only. f.

FAO

country

livestock

cattle

sheep

hogs

chickens

milke

stock

stock

stock

stock

production

yield

('000 head)

(000 head)

(000 head)

(000 head)

(000 metric tons)

(kg/animal)

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1991

1,650

13.500 1,600 13.350

606

650

18.667 1,232

1.356

1.443

13.111

3.723

3,117 14 55.620

3,100 16 50,080

8006

600

26,161 2,553 1 ,8006 4 6

23,430 2,584

25,053 23 6,8006 3,104 50

23,500

810 1

1,800 5 15

21

7,000 3,000 51

955

225 12 31,473 2,2006

1

134,871

193 5.4006

35

40

7

8

52

6006 110

7

413 5,600

900 56 400? 166

3

4

972

970

10 9.050

853 2.500 152,000

147 18,414

614

435

831 3.521 13.328 12

2,150 4,700 12,369 19

5

2

1,662

4,360 3,650 52,567

2,677 4,400 3,300 81,407

24,110

24,875

60 64

47 68

11

49

2006

2,416 3.906

2006 18

44 4,6006 5,083 16

455

2.530 3,688

200 20

45 5.100 6,421

730

2

2

55 1,553

73 2 340

320

5

20,300

34,102

7,938 3,339

3,803 198

520

—

.000

25,000

56 125 7,000

1,000

426.000 1,000

39.000 ,000

365

44

729

780

1,139 9,709

103 1.610 1.414 10.516

3,000 3.000 8.000 96.000

6

40

86

59

84

135 1,983 6,650 112,820

2,399 8

2.745

69

108

>

7

197,870 96,804 40,9003

187,000 93,000 46,200"

Australia

420

3.238

2.750

206

39.745

40,000

1.489 154.3003 200,655 1,034

1.600 171.700" 185.000 1,430

1,405

350 712

350 793

765.117

2.638 175

3,059 177

1.787 131.679 7.448

1

363.975

860.000

2.013

2.700

30,000

43,000

28

52

1,000

17

17

63

3622 2,000

18,000

7,860

435

495 330

159 22.500

33.500 27.558"

921"

1 1

,378

105 15.300

1,843

1,756

81

83

37

26

14

17

88

117

350 170 500

500

7,354

7,340

4,137

500

1

350 170

20 118 1,111

1,143

2,187 3 3

5,000

4.000

318 12

5.166

4.920

1,620 1.900

52

753 385 325

1,417

22

162

289

4,935

4,923

1,030

7,694

7.090

24,000 2,000 46.000

27.000 16.612 28.000 3.000 47.000

2,970 52 7

2,220 170 9 2,250 4,200

111

9,699

9.489

15.000

16,000

8

8

5

98

298

435

1.148

120 1.250

3.417

2.125

12.000 33.000

1172 28.000 56.000

3,500

1.791

1,243 5

4,900 5

20 455

320

33

36 100? 23.000

4 1,1006

28,000 5,000 120 6,800 52.000

35,000 5,000 1952 6.500 58.000

36 113

170 270

627

792 1

.400.000 3.000

111.219 15.400

5,400

2.356 5,400 8.400 330.863

3,116 13.500 12.000 319.600

500

65

400

170

84 966

212

1,068

30

356

1,396

17.000

270

5

1.332 3.690

1.910 1.670

2,850 66.046 2.325.749

6,845.000

1,490 4,816

1,561

3,600 4

965 500

1.043

176.972

267,000

500

3

1.500

1.500

564 825 77

1.200

430 20 922"

1.854

91 .000

640 60

1,067

1.341

16.760

17,500

110

119

10,253

16,600 47,887" 110.000 8,500 266.230

1,045

1.070

1,579

1.911

33

106

3.601

5,830

5,826

3.140

4.885 3,552

98,936 5.309 243.327

5,126

4.620

4,920

6,228

77,130

84,000

3

5

427 924

420

1,000 1,742 1,446

1.000 1,714 1,750

177 19,267 43,056

158 33,000 56,900

674 958

1.130

420

4 2006.

4,066 3,565 1,746" 1,000 2,620

29 118

369

23,250

Angola

26

224

800

3,900 120 323,700 24,300"

502 1,058 2,214 1,765"

130 2,917 257

315

30,000

3,650 138 253,731 25,0003

800

120 2,836 257

223

8006

14.200 8,100 175.000

16

3,877

1991

14,000 9,957 20,217 34

1,252 1,045

12 2

3

26,000

430

1979-81 average

1,021

1.150

4

1991

7

2

1,906 1.234

13 7.457" 3.900

production (metric tons

1,303 3,220" 4,382 1,032

6,3063 4,042 4

1.020

2,987

2,989 3.509

970"

221 1,294

1,064

1,918

6.578 3,355

750

1,741

55 452 6 65

432*

833

664

356 290 883

500 977 1,746

6

2,183

757

975 800

1,000 2,703

90

4,000 8,000 18,000 114,000 1.000

491 1.326

3 19

2.000 570.000 2,000 28,000 22,000

313.660

243

3

71

3,000 4,000 29,000 2,077.000

14

8973

502

15 1,300

426

5393

19.000 10.607

16 2.000 3,000 18.000

243 9

148 6 6,200

60.000 2.000 50.600 35.000 1.000

—

3,550

2.620 6,059 101.864

146 6

1.000

>

1.000

— 1

z

5.590 3.434

301

205

I

62,000 13.000 29,100 2,000

2,167

—

802

46.000 15.000 20,700

1 1

340 283 596

5,311

59,000 1.000 39,200 29,000

1991

552 296 514

45.000 9,400

617 16 35,000 14 4.187

6,000

62

1 1

eggs'

502

5.000

38.000 11.100

26

59

11

10,358 1,855

300

12.300 1.317

1

1,475 2,900

6.000 3,000 18,000

495

309

750

5

4 4,464

5,400'

7,000 5.000 24,000

170

400

,200?

1991

4 10

4 3,751

1

1979-81 average

174

280

162.774 1

1991

13 27,552

1

299 4.570

2,906 116,645 3 1.782 2,760

1979-81 average

7

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

American Samoa Andorra

Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

Armenia Aruba

Austria

Azerbaijan

Bahamas, The Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus

Belgium® Belize

Benin

Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia

Bosnia and Hercegovma

Botswana Brazil

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

Cayman

Islands Central African Republic

Chad Chile

China

Colombia

Comoros Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica

Cote dlvoire Croatia

Cuba Cyprus Czechoslovakia

Denmark Djibouti

18

110 5 1.000

20

I

and reported or assumed egg laving rates. Othei countries report egg production by number, and this must be converted to weight, using conversion factors specific to the makeup by species of national poultry flocks. Metric system units used in the table may be converted to English system

subsistence as well Figures on wild fruits and berries are seldom included \o vegetable statistics include vegetables and in national reports al .ill melons grown for human consumption only. Some countries do not make this distinction in their repot is. and some exclude the production of kitchen gardens and small family plots, although in certain countries, such smallscale production may account foi 2(1 to 40 percent of total ouput. Livestock statistics may he distorted by the timing of country reports. Ireland, lor example, takes a livestock enumeration in December that is reported the following year and that appears low against data for otherwise comparable countries because ol the slaughter and export of animals at the close of the grazing season. It balances this, however, with a June enumeration, when numbers tend to be high. Milk production as defined includes whole fresh milk, excluding milk sucked by young by the animals but including amounts fed In farmers or ranchers to livestock, but national practices vary. Certain countries do not distinguish between milk cows and other cattle, so that yield per dairy cow must be estimated. Some countries do not report egg production statistics (here given in metric tons), and external estimates must be based on the numbers of chickens

1979-81 average

HI

648 268

1.505 1.140

327

1,1933

1,208"

615

752

814

4.056" 197

206

78,100 36.822 116 25.8003 73.140

128,000 39,000 180 26,700" 79,120

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Estonia Ethiopia

Britannica World Data

812

Crops and livestock country

(continued)

crops roots

grains

Finland

France French Guiana

production

yield

production

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

(000 metric tons)

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1991

1991

35

2,004

3,399 60,442

2.511

1

29

11

21

78

108

Germany Ghana

1991

2

1

19 2.993 46,091

Gambia, The Strip

vegetables"

:

1

yield

Gabon

Georgia

fruits

production

4.700 1.159

2,265 3.318 6.543 5.370

24 629

62 672

6.735 13

6.300 18

French Polynesia

Gaza

pulses"

tubers'"

yield

Faeroe Islands Fiji

and

production

4

1

6003

700''

1

718

1.189 2.793 2.0103

1.458 1.089 471 2.470"

19

13

372 6

430 6

20 294" .5

5

3933

5

1991

13.684 7.945 15.578 28.465 10.842

13,977 12.818 18.566 37.059 10,112

12.245 6 289 3.000 18.333

10,720 6.815 3.000 20.000 10.600" -5

1 1

.7003 5

—

1991

—

1991

540

600

2.182 3.304

2,527 4.690

528 267

650 267

13

28

340

3.294

— 4 —

— —

3.071

4.618

4

—

production

1991

1991

14

6

7

107

89

14,255 2

10.313 7

130 6.864 3

7.945 16

11

210

4

8

6

7

181

260 4 150

22 7

31

4

61

85 443"

200

8

32,043 726

39.270 1.436

8.061

10.225 5.897

49.631 6.721

116

175

14

21

101

966

3.103 1.320

3,205

6.111

5.710 102

4.447

1.221

19.465 3,183

56.186

807

299

452

4.951

5.167

3.090

3.411

1.041

1.102

16.378

20.000

94

49

1.262

1.465

3.437

3.795

3,636

3.946

— —

— —

949

1.000 1.200 1,392 1.897

5,249

1

—

1

—

1,607

1.078

1 1

514

600

22 112

2 17 2

22

2

810

277

366

756 50 69 959

410

420 20

1.568

95

1 1

.702

3.511

Gibraltar

Greece Greenland

Grenada Guadeloupe

1.117

1,301

1.200 3,000 1.604

Guinea

678

Guinea-Bissau

102 267 419 492

888 165 253 335 734

711 2.907 1.009 1.170

13.001

15.505

4.519

Guam Guatemala Guernsey

Guyana Haiti

Honduras

Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India

Indonesia Iran

Iraq

Ireland Isle of

958

1.712

2.000 5.593

823

6.318 6.250 7.273

42

62

646

2

2

971

885 920

639 44

1

1

487

591

4.151

90 38

99 110

471

558

518

711

41 1.007 1.675 3

4

189

114

127

333

1.547

2.173

2.389

2.262

1,841

2.078

4.582 8.459 13.756

60

3535

732 50 32 829 32

7,116 5,986 6.626 3.778 4.896

25.407 15.894 11,858 12,926 9.054

23.097 27.190 12.000 15.964 11,818

16

689 21

1

11

1,229 12

1.897 3.843

16.777 16.153

22.049 19.026

1.507

.024

14,070 5.042

6.848

14.007

461

582

352

508

882

1.383

16,666 17.600 29.954

247 36

309

—

10 7

799 802

627 583

3.444

4.667

36.551

37,506

8

9

955

18.614 12.786 24,584

321 8

208 6 155

1.335

882

899

332

108

1.254

1.570

6.330

8

6

588

636

90

2,835

8.930 1,803 2.009

14,626 1,248 2.084

1.478

1.269

2,500

832

254

4.733

6.260

96 822

176 650

14.436 18.464 20.799

239

167

1.840

1

874

201

229

18.025 7

19,043 3 13.165

3.548 1.667 5,252

4.336 1.548 5.443

2.962

2.258

68

571

21

9 281

1

10.509

195,109 50.732

1.132

844

2

138.182 33,611

1.324

121

3

23

2 52

644 47

981 1.484 3.226 1.015 1.358

77

29 115 2 734

3

22

2 4

12

273 169

2

20.409 4.943

28,388 6.542

41.379 2.434

54.358 4.112

3.215 1.161 21

6,744 1.169 22

5.009 1.880

7.625 2,295

283

216

1.137

1,913

2.000

762

1.104

1.381

20.661

17,632

13.401

375 5,281

104 15.230

14,676 102 15.022

234

437

Man

Israel

Italy

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan

Kazakhstan

Kenya

14 318 91

20,1003

7903

Kuwait Kyrgyzstan

Laos Latvia

Lebanon

245 5.804

18.274 11.666 22 838

45

16,866

406

2,281

28,500" 2.747

1.364

1.220" 1,397

9,001 8.073

10.080 7,905

5.964 4.764

6.315 5,777

_

_

5,667 2.800" 2.157 2,360" 1.829

9

1.909

2,324" .5 1.560 8 2.490

1655

794

_

_

.9523 1.257

1

5

9

Kinbati

Korea, North Korea, South

230 5,342

1.3003 1,056 1,3003 41

1.500" 1.460 71

3.087 2.4003 1.402 1 .7703 1.307

198

1

600"

3093.

365" .5 319

5

184 1.4683 .5

130

1.016" 201

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

254 225

125 110 298

977 1251 430

622 786 674

2.5003

3.300"

2,0703

3.010"

1.9213 .5

Luxembourg^ Macau Macedonia Madagascar

4

7

2178

1,664 1,161

1.873 1.147

2,267

3.149

562

508

2.422 1.000

468

530

7

993

123

3.431

21

8 145 18

22

25

Lesotho Libena

1.341

Malaysia Maldives

2.061

1.586

2.827

Mali

1.064 8

2.232

806 790

9

3.252

Mayotte Mexico

148 12" 1

.573"

s

20,000 5

—

—

11.300"

5

12 486 17,765

8.211 7.879 12.769 20.620

16.934 12,8003 10,114 14.5003 16.923

15.000 13,600" 5 8,507 12.700".* 15.388

8.011

5

5

15.526 15.000 6.894 6.641 6.671 8.132 18.742 17.974" 13,9003 .5 14.000" .5

11.174

944

490

642

5 1.330 1,893

4 2.636 9.070

5 4.459 10.205

89

137

184

487" 230

704

989

347

533

185

240

430

343

650 5

280

330

930

851

56

41

849 940

1,111

997

17

35

1,728

2.333

10

16

968

1.182

8 3 9

7 3 13

36

1

1

536 500 079

1

305 500

121

19 130

119

203

16

298

21

27

64 527

752

4

8,895 5,176 8.349 8.948

9.232 5.084 8,485 10.938

9.960 1.787 19,502

29

15.089

1,311

3

353"

5

53 204

47 271

—

—

47

57

1

1

852 609

815 583

719 375

781

925

452

2

1

283 212

330 255

310

322

15

19

173 47

258 52

24

9

600 338

625 200

8 13

2.333

2.333

11

1.109 10 15 12

178

285

27

...

117 2

384

908

1

2.536

2.889

7 12

6 19

6.997 2,888 17.368

20.692

23.056

2.152

2.330

1.120

1.127

12.906

48

1

21

407

15 6

16 8

8

491

365 750

7

2

26

42

1.661

719

743

7.316

9605

3860

4,840 ...

295"

1,177"

2.4003

2.500"

3,2303

3.400"

3993

Mongolia

320 3.583

591 8.648

573

Morocco

1.040 1.575

503

96 928

7.878 14.169

10.787 17.405

229

Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands The Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua

71

295"

13.273 5.650" 6.413 3,181

5

5

8.9003

5

7.200"

Monaco

Mozambique Myanmar (Burma)

_ 170"

Micronesia

Moldova

647 1.136"

5.704 4,458

75" -5

Malawi

Martinique Mauritania Mauritius

8

348

11

2.352 1.679

Malta Marshall Islands

6

346 97

5

9.9003 7.993

811

50

^

—

4 439

292 571

1.000 741

3 1.600

—

26

22

2.304

1.320

3.204

184

195 2.182

649

546

603

342

3712

3.821

2.583

1.077

31

356 966 36

1.872

7

588 944

327 838

275

59 365 6

263 695

488

167 203

484

468

3.869 8,627 9,167

381

13.667 114

2.521

90

4.194 8.087 9.242

78

12.984

28

33

3.640

5.919

1,615

957

349

863

5.455

7,816

140

279

536

605

404

504

517

1,075

1.280

1.205

5.696 653' 2,134 4.077 1.475

6.827

6329

6.735

37.752

38.398

24

83

3.145

4.368

535

356

2.527

3.591

21

22

—

772

667

9

9

3

5

311

58 56

3.045 611

363 313

825 306

382 47

493

9.107

63 39

2.965

96

5.703 29,948 12,114

—

220 28

5.691 26.301

tji

22

3

1

785 392

906 455

1

221

7142 1.244 5.052 1.665

...

576

f4^

(

omparative National Statistics

country

livestock

cattle

sheep

hogs

chickens

milke

stock

stock

stock

stock

yield

(000 head)

(000 head)

(000 head)

(000 head)

production (000 metric tons)

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average 2 153 1,747

23.825

6

2

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1991

,490

14 1.430 11.472

15 1,290 12,239

1,000 9,000 177.000

4

6

11

121

3,000 6,000 213,000 1002

24 126

32 162

_

_

2.000

10

11

2801

900

1.000 18,8006

2.000 1.000 3.000 21.800

1991

67

67

107 12,133 3

57

158 1,315 21,446 19

1 1

8

7

2

_

5

28 410

105 136

165 175

15 2.0006

10 1,6007

293 1

1979-81 average

1991

5 .6006

20.672

4 1,300

'

eggs'

1991

production (metric tons

(kg/animal)

1991

1979-81 average

1991

Faeroe Islands

9006

19.488 1,300

3.147 1,942

3,240 2,500

34.768

30,819

804

379

620

929

634

8,040

9,759

944

1.143

20

22

14 3

11

8 44 13

7

'

137,000 1 1

.000

62

1.701

2.477 26.000

—

4,572 2,634 2,080

1,699 5,618 2,956 2,143

2

2

2,771

5

7

250 175

11

6

4,185

54 3.236 26,720

— —

1

660"

6563

1,976 77,967 849,667

2.050 66.900 942.000

292

250

2,215

923

259 175

1.050

1.300 1.500

402

813

4,000 1.619"

2,265 35.0703

4.800 36.100"

Fiji

Finland

France French Guiana

French Polynesia

Gabon Gambia, The

Gaza

Strip

Georgia

Germany Ghana

106.000

31,724

29,300

25

130

1.123.574 12,203

912.000

16

7,882 130

9.993

.000

27.000

666

690

1,867

2,248

122,540

138.000

769 507

800 500

948 778 1,071

920 900 679

39.947

63.500

Guatemala Guernsey

7,420

13,860

Guinea

1 1

12.720

Gibraltar

6 91 1

4 65

—

1,886

1.695

4

3

1.753

1,800

290 189

410 230

1.000 1.980

1,400 2,388

7 1.936

2

5

615

675

737

130 92

1,533

5

8

418

33 293 80 930 740

520

304 8,000 19 10,450 6,800

39 256 115

1,865

8,232

838

700

11

186.500 6,502

44.987 4,124

55,700 5,750

9.433 3,234

5,450 1.630 6.043

6.800 1,400 6,029

31,672 10.842 2,374

45,000 7.800

17

6,001

1,122

299

331

243

375

96

8.697

8.647

9,120 4 13

11.575 2

8,885

32

9,851

950

1,400

7

29 8,7006 10.418

945 1,728

17 1

,0006

437 1,4006

300 4,863 6"

29 9,800 13.700 1.350 2,126

— 1,200 1,400

57

582 39

540 38

164 6 2.2006

14710

150 6 2,300

1,069 810

7.000

2602 3902 21

1

2

263

10.000

13.000 1.000 15,000 13.000 8.000

6.000 62,000

6.000 45.000

2471 160,000 168.000

3072 380.000 590.000

97.000 26.000 8.000

1

j-'

13.000 5.000 5.000

—

1

165.000 50,000 9.000 71'0

8

150 9

41

42

749

732

3.514

4,389

12

185 170

271

56 20 310

832 229 652

4

2

2,559 13.420

2,625 117 27,000

3.022 3,727 3,635

79

329

1,125

1,428

9 13

20

121

185

170 933 233

300

576

881

3.900 2,943 18.947

4,200 3,600 24,700

2,737 250.000 3.000 682,000 177,767

1.900

530 762

2,179 5.000 3,656 871 1,037

700 750

290

225

700 750

4,729

5,527

3,178

3,984

155,333 48.362 35.000

230,000 3,800 1.357.000

Haiti

Honduras

Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India

Iraq

Israel

Iran

Ireland Isle of

702

965

6,817

8,874

91.675

106,000

9.520

138,000 5,000 284.000

138.000 8.000 335.000

10,546

10,000

48

49 8,180

3,478 1.000 4.526

3.448 1,000 6,127

659,163 15,500

6,526

1,998.041

707.000 16,500 2,466.000

28.000

47,000

18

35

1.000

1,912

19.000

22.200

48,1006 17,000 1541 18,000 41.000

59.900 25.000

2,367"

169.7003 19,968 105 103.833 255.786

196.500" 42.000 126 148.000 489.000

250

Guyana

Indonesia

24.000

.335

Guinea-Bissau

278,000 35,000 30,000

25,000

1 1

Guam

400,000

100

210

Grenada Guadeloupe

Man

Italy

Jamaica Japan Jersey

35,2006 5.100

7

35,700? 6,550

292

390

7

5

250 10,0006.7

2006.7 137 1.183

200 5.046 2 1006.7

3,1006

89 10 2,100 2,115

3,200 105 9

3,300 4.528

— 10.000 7

3006

400

200? 205

1,117 1.8006 18

1,390 1,400

865

64

1271 14.000

518 245

2,960

279

15 1,110

115 89

73 198,400 10,350

4.261

36

2521 4201

436 177

32 io

Greece Greenland

1,571

60

30.000

1.470

220 5.500 3

100'

75 103 3 2.6006

45 75 120 3 2,400

9.000 10.3006 5.000 11,2006 19,000 1.000 2,000 6,000 431 13,9006

4,6293

958

5,642" 2,189

460

470

2.244 4.864

2.368 6,059

2.653

3.300 3,034"

2202 21 .000

74,000

_ 13,900 8.000 10,300 24,000

55 449

1.848

24 7173

1,185i

90

6 1,7663 85

1.000 4,000

20

55,000

63 9

16.800

2,731

10 1.893"

3

200 3,379" 2,857

60

2.290

24

290 130

290 130

1,499 3,310

1,556 4,702

1

1

200

140 13 3.157«

3,538"

8,573 22,1003 22,167 38,0003 41 ,275

60 33,500" 34,000 38,500" 53.000

789

828

2,336 16,233

4,032 34,650

49,5003

59.800"

—

—

Jordan Kazakhstan

Kenya Kiribati

Korea. North Korea, South

Kuwait Kyrgyzstan

Laos Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

LuxembourgS 3

287

1

3531

179

2.297

4502

10,265 1,150

695 84

753 230

1,090

1,461

817

192

280

18,000 8,000

532

658

65

200

1.869

2,400

51,000

148.000

25

30

549

641

96.767

5.670 13

5,000

6.247 5

5.850 6

48

61

139 29

122 24

245

102

22.000 1,000

245

12

12.000 1.000

4.111

3,810

6.720 6.256

5

10.147

22

645

575 185 4

5.729 22.000 9.000

443 35

472 49

259 458

461

12,327 10.503

270

27,559" 17,420 1 1

,270

211.500 1 1

,880

6,800

57

35

76

63

37

49

1.262

1,360

4,200 7

7

10

3.000 2.000

4,000 2.000

85 25

3 98 25

694 350

34

5.098 10

350

27

2,500

2,500

1.500 2.720 2.800

4,420 4,200

27.706

29,847

6.484

6,003

16,895

15,902

177,000

246,000

6,949

6.925

1,284

1,237

636.256

1,141.381

1.2006.7

1,300'

1,2453

1.512"

754

450

Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius

Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

1

,2006

1,100

2,0006

1,800

17,8006

24,600

3,972"

46,0003

53.000"

Moldova

Monaco

--

—

2,452 3.362

2.849 3.500

14,261

15.083 14,000

32

15,228

1.400 8.565 2.403

1.370 9.310 2.131

106

118

120

235

280

2,263

165 2,250

4,117

6,700

37

51

2

3

6.893

6,350

730

925

375

575

5,071

4,830

856

2 113 8,063 2.373

1,702 4

10,058 7 16

13,788 3

122 8,200

1

1,680

8

4 67,393 3

3 57,000 4

7

433 625

185 9

38 433 709

1651 24,000 17.000 23,000

3002 41.000

210 753

203 990

355 640

262 535

22,000 24,000 1.000

63 283 68

68

170

170

456 71

245 412

220 410

7.000

190

260

325

377

.220

31

6,000

81.000 100'

101.000 1352

7.000 3,000

1.000 10,000 7,000

,832 4

2

5,025 1,250

6,148 1,000

3

4

600

600

6.586

7,973

3,306

3,366

225

161

767

634

1 1

1 1

983

1,265

Mongolia

72,900

93,000

Morocco

9,400 31.435 113 8 14,300

12,800 34,780 130

Mozambique Myanmar (Burma)

540,409

645.600 400

517 887 56.855 28,833

20 18,000

1,650

46,020 25.500

Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The Netherlands Antilles

New New

Caledonia Zealand Nicaragua

I

Britannica World Data

814

Crops and livestock

(continued)

crops

country

roots

grains

truits'

vegetables'*

yield

production

yield

production

yield

production

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

(kg/hecta e)

('000 metric tons)

(kg/hectare)

(000 metric tons)

production (000 metric tons)

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

292 647

387

269 444

1991

440

372

212

1,206

18,926

251 37,602

7,210 8,823

7,153 10,827

3,634

4,491 2,143

524

484

1

5

25,884 13,663

25,866

982

21,198

1,608

1,783

423

755

10,495

10,407

595

806

397

299

1,469 2.087 1.538

1.759 1,695 1,837

76

78

6

1.267 3,968

6,695 6,530 15,862

5

1,125 2.080

8.496 6,952 13,100

2

2

69

55

412 500 803

1.933 1,633 2.345 1.102 8,925

2,357 2.043 3,196 1,535 5.000

2,477 3.100 39,508

7,574 6,632 16,808 8,947 6.470

8,095 6.858 16,785 7,937 6,268

111

216 76 6

99 37 668 63

39

2,350 2.788 29,038 972 25

2,623 5,064 2,854 1.3003 1,134

3,733 6,500 3.186

_

_

13.367 13,133 14,728 10.4003 8.809

6,000 12.857 8,089 9,900" 6,952

2.415 14,200

Norway

1,129 2

1,467 5

Pakistan Palau

17,200

Panama

252 4

3 1,508

»

•

659

Paraguay

1.422 .088

Peru Philippines

1 1

Poland

18.466 1.210 6

Portugal Puerto Rico

Qatar

1

Romania Russia

Rwanda St. Kitts

1,757 14,325 27,861 1,403

— 3

12 13 18,109 19.270 92,0003 116,700« 271 330

Reunion

and Nevis

Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino St. St.

Sao Tome and

Principe

— 1

1

.850" 1,187 1

703

696

3,294

3,535

1

1,538

2,000 5,026

813

43

1,011

126 2

4.476

914

820 690

Leone

542

442

1,249

Singapore

Solomon

3,513

—

474

552

—

1,896

2.003

19,195 2.440

1,986 2.464

5,407

3.393 190 159 5.092

843

12.701

14,222

39 85

9.930 4,344 5.000 3.727 11.330

15,000 3,712 5,000 4,201 16,800

15.048 10,863

13,670" 16,979 10.406 14,640

—

129

—

413" 109

5

5.382

717

577

15.986 9.685

655

634

296

3,329

3,451

3 13 1.191

1.233

1.281

3.972 1.345 3.595 4.883

158 3 10

924

725

28.914 37,834

3,069 3,565'

3,279 3,3032

1,156 4.264

300 J

300"

1.438 5.2722 1.310" 1,226 2,047

2.962

Sweden

51

.435

2

37

44

2,062

2,662

142 2,906

3,965

117 109

109 189

189 105

170 159

527

2,570

3.980

2,083

3.725

381

1.208 1,327

1.302 1.688

827

950

44 286 218

60 363 226

,483

6,816 1,584 2.055

1,406 6,848 1,874 2,145

296

177 777

500 868

856 652

921

1.232

1,954

228 916

283 690

720

856 4.253

267

1,443 1,533

6 26 2.952

8 49 2.022

18 14 4,168

2,162

3.089

169

1

2,626

163

258

221

250

727

839

_ — —

_ —

1,000

913

1,000 2.500 1.007

6

1,813

1,825

21

7 12

398

31

39

579

1

5

—

2,187

141

3,477 4,553 1.529 28

786

115

1

1991

1

90 35

5,521

1.975

42 24 29 2.607 10,328" 132

1

1

1

186

1

1

87

1

2

4

5

3

3

641

684

1,630

346

480 75

82

655

2 128

130 2 188 8

9

106 2

153 39

1

241"

5

1

156

9

2 10

2 12

840 494

1,200

11

15

300

304

5 27

6 60

110

119

1.051

1,152

182 3,139

3.813

1.662

1,950

19.466 9.203

365

215 72

704 845

713 727

12.603 1.718

12,542

8.547

10,377

47

832

535

1,081

2,990

99

110

1.260

1.060

903

750

3

5 103

1,061

121

2,248 3.354

2,475 4.140

207 724

844 74 129 167 499

795

849 576

763 52

'

'

Lanka

Switzerland Syria

Taiwan Tajikistan

Tanzania Thailand

Togo Tonga Trinidad Tunisia

19

3

37

1991

'

Spam Sri

14

5.670

Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland

Venda

8.071

2.459 2.969

14,709 2,132

Bophuthatswana

11

21

1 1

14,036

5

3,322 4,192 4,970

—

1,559

1991

24,091

3.649 4.246

1

1,303

305

251 10,945

Ciskei" Transkei

5

87 39 793

13

Islands

Somalia South Africa"

11 19 4,317 1,900 38,4393 .5 30.848" 1,743 1,725

1

—

303 850

Slovenia

1,141

2 10 24

Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra

1991

'

1,264

1,702 7,480

Papua New Guinea

pulses"

production

Niger Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands

Oman

and tubers

258 92

1.4403 1.063 1.910

1.930 4,480 6.200

3,010 20,314

3,826 24.279

301

447

729

836

13 1,146 25,232

17 2.554 31.051

3.167

2 821

828

279

295

2,341' 1653.5

5.4302

6,158 15,512

6.766 20.518

922

953 90

91

and Tobago

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Uruguay Uzbekistan

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam

207"

20 127

1.869

400"

2,1703

2.360"

1,171

1.652 51.000-'

1,555 2,3403 5,606

1.537 3.490" 4.667

3.548 20.0133

4.791 4.150 1.644 2,0203

6,467 4,511 2,351 1 ,880"

6.601

513

538

32

51

1,904 2,049

2,465 2,949

602

644

6.284

5.386

18,840 301 .405 1,012 2,400 1

1,550 12.225

22.649 279,923 1.098 1,900" 1

2,324 20,084

2.957 183.5

—

5

2

15.487 197 3053.5

35"

—

5,395 16,732" 6

5

7.0003

5

5.823 12.3003 14,558

5

28.933 5,497 9.7003 19.630 7.906 6,592

—

,633

2.289 26.869 37.958

5

32 1

— 9

28

228 306

298 307

12

127 402

799

686

944'

1,8872

1.639'

1.475 2.1652

2,973 2,387'

315 342

424 474

454 685

484 752

1,953 6.304

2,057 5,750

2,711

1.111 2,521

8.013 5.685 9.973

23

20

238

211

41

48

65

168

14

13

7

4

3

1.638

1,365

60

30

12.941

89 817

93

560

623

1,044

1,866

1,140

614 885

57 518 7.682

9,391

13,340

14 16 1.512 19.058

252

533

697

775

6.300

8,358

290

62

121

130 3.762 25.471 172

7,800"

5

6.461 11,700"

973

411"

5

—

1

3,297 1.966

524

502

1.746

3.168 1,633

26.531

24,668

6

909

997

273

424

240

722

1,457 5 5

37 117

8,060 8,311

415 6,666"

5

41,358 33,137

1.885 3,5312

528"

14,146

7,474 8,000" 10,200

733

5

22.439 5

5

6 12

180 32'

15,526 13,8892 14,300" 7,796 13,491

32.891

6,700 19.496

256 336"

15,302 15,146' 16,8003 9,491 14,226

1 1

8.722 5.934 12,206 12.905 16.679

220 4 600

300

7

5

9

1,546 2,256

37,900 3

5,301 1,993

67 203

509 558

615 674

1.08712

1,197 '2

10

19

6

2.048 2.578

2.594 4.012

401 2,578

204 3.532 32,227 182 2.843" 9

472 4.012

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

West Bank Western Sahara

1'

22

708'

7412

Western Samoa

Yemen

913

298

1,041

477

39 133

Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia

Zimbabwe

900 990 2,273

1.359 1,603 2.054

42 168 138" 19,038

807

755

13,595

1.676

2,308 1,327

205

302

76

124

1359

6.952

6.530

.992

11.831

1 1

5

6,901 3,465 3,823

34.510" 7.542 3,864 4,805

80'2

53'2

53 173

5

155 7

193 26

23

51

604 340 566

613 488 695

2.624 76 108

_

51

317 888"

335 9

,

574 ...

3,070 107

479 209

560 280

151

136

153

.

'

'

5

'

Comparative National

Statistics

8

"

country

livestock

eggs'

cattle

sheep

hogs

chickens

milk e

stock

stock

stock

stock

(000 head)

(000 head)

(000 head)

production (000 metric tons)

yield

(000 head)

1979-81 average

1991

1979-81 average

125 360

200 288 713

380 300 717

6,800 180,000

8.670 225.000

20

20 52.577 6.050

production (metric tons

(kg/animal)

!

a

1979 81 average

1991

3,343 12,267

2.200 14,500

1979-81 average

1979-81 average

1991

2.979 9,000

2.970 24.000

1

953

141

2.211

138

2,033 114

31

38 4,000 2

280

15,268

17,785

22.580

30.160

1.425

1,399

130 5.966

105 8,260

3.958 1.885 12,494 1.332

3,630 1,677 8,844 1,375

497

599

9 20

10 19

6.351

5,381

58,1006

57,000

675

256

2

4

387

460

1.090

1,000 2,450

.250

2.083 7.712 20,343 3.367

2.250 8,007 21,868 2,664

225

209

61

81 12,003 38,300

1 1

30

30

4.105 4.440 6

3,234 5,673 7

48 2 15.766 65,0006

'

10.926 36.0006 124

19,000 170.000

202

15'

420

54,000

192,000

2,189

3,449

864

1,183

96,367

238.300

Pakistan Palau

5,000 2,000 12,000

9.000 3.000 17.000

94

126

—

988 228

1,126

230

1,903

1,901

12,050 3,000 36,000

Panama

163

14,553 1,815 26,025

37.000 53.000 77.000 17.000 7.000

60.000 65.000 52.000 18.000 12.000

796

786 15

1.298

15,050 1,550

388

2.778 2.123 2,324

1,257 1,034 3,202 3,846 4.396

59,700 201 ,285 488.642 62,008 21,902

1.000

2.000 4.000 121.000 659,800

3

1,561

1.500

3,000 92,000 563,7006

8

14 13 13

15 16 15

2 10 6

2 12 9

74' 128' 139'

852 2502 1782

3

4

2

2

2

3

70'

1002

374 2,424 3

176 2,813 2

2.888 1.966

5.692 4,000

176 10

547

349

330

268

36

52 380

533

...

23 4,437 13,647

20

13 4.900 13.512

10.467 31,625

13,800 32.580

45 9 1,339

139

1,000

1,000

80,000 14,000

19,000 8.000 109' 4,000 14.000

588 53 10 1,490

Norway

420

5 12

1,017

Niue

-

44.665 710

5

330

Nigeria

5.621

394

—

Niger

5,125

303

1

—

1991

1,928 18

630

18

—

1979-81 average

1.926 18

625

10 8

97 354

1991

4.000 3.000

4,000

132 2 14.062 58,200?

1991

10.000 92,000

715

205 870

14.565

1979 81 average

1.000 1

989

1991

2902 6,000 4,000

— 13

16.250

750 420 4 5 3.987 48,7313 61

1432 3.000 40,000

526

6

1,914

3.150 55,715"

510

88

612 1.544 2.781"

281 2,413

323,833 2,021,3003

1 1

596

860

2.600

350 534 590

1

1,390 1,362

1,435 1,348

-

—

170

170

148

172

64 87

225

443 357 519 350

2,601

41,967 6,353 811 4,669 26,870

164,000 12,000 1,968 6.900 16,200

18

17

360 523 350

596" 1

477 2,553

Philippines

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico

Qatar

3,400 2,200

2

—

Peru

Reunion

Romania

370,000 2,228,600"

1

101

Paraguay

267,000 380.000 95,600 14,723

1

1

Papua New Guinea

7,000

297 497 530

12,766 133'

3,000 30.000

994

106

Oman

Russia

Rwanda

St. St.

San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra

2,515

600 414

900 390

2,809

2,734

284

288

2.320 159,952

2,680 191,100

Leone

Singapore

19,296"

1

497

and Nevis Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines

St, Kitts

Slovenia

Solomon

Islands

Somalia South Africa

'

Bophuthatswana" Ciskei"

...

Transkei

...

Venda 4,608 1,662

5.126 1,814

14,721

24,500

10,392

27

31

71

18,376

21 ,028

17,628 3

20.700 10 35

46 658

98 750

1.928 2.008

1,675 1.829

778 130' 1,2006 12,616 4,228

786 1052

250

10

10

60 631 11,377

5,467

6,0006

800

5,063 25,4006

5,000 24,600

26 13.321 112,152 10,965 3,5006 91

10.527 1,646 8

>

2,113 1

6.6742

200 282

3,344

5.000

231

10

14

4,651

6,290 40.553

105 59 4

500 60 50 6

13

12

'

1.152

9,0006 132 21,643 12,670 19,219 9,0006

.846

1006 160

1

1.220

4,5006

98,896 8.889 4,600 123

3,300? 3.556 178

30 24 2,175 1.723

592

46,199

53 1 1

15.321

19 17 2,711

3,267'

2.9006 3.754 25

13.138 6.052

77 583

406 409

9,311

1,400

229

1

32 392 350

16,100 102

?

5.500?

2006 6

12

1.950

242

850

8,400?

19,8006

300

19,400

270 29,954 1 1

?

,200

25.986 9.200?

525

13.368 3.282

333

8

4

3

17'

252

7,856 64.045

327 5006 68 2.156 9.396 5

7,379 54.427

215 700 60 1.971

12,583 3

51.000 6.000

51,000 10,000

5.984

27,000 5.000 1,000 13.000 6.000

33,000 7,000 1,000

1,352

,000

3,452 3.653

1 1

6,000

182

7 36

5,000 24,760' 6,3006 18,000 60,000

15,000 76,979 8,200 20,000 114,000

504

2,000 121' 7.000 24.000 55.000

6,000

7

1

1302 9,000 41.000 65.000

5.3006 10' 13.000

7.400

3,255

448

219

2.299 18

500

480

1,209

1,935 271 6,382 4,923

42

252

3.242 3,850

5,257 4,194

775 203 575" 463 178

1.353 3.426'

4,133

2,279 4.398 2.579"

160

122,000 1.520.000 9.000 36,000

41,000 55,000 57'

1802 55,000 82,000

492

665,560 28.857

657,000 48.400

31,745 2.638

34.333 3,100

'

'

Spain Sri

Lanka

Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland

272

320

113,633 43,186

106,000 36,100

68,759 59,462' 19,1003 35.302 104,667

65,000 178,5002 27,800" 40,040 127,600

Sweden Switzerland Syria

Taiwan Tajikistan

Tanzania

160 1.950

2.297

—

7

—

225

225

1,677

280

12

1.500 1,500 1,087

229

6

7,433 36,383

Trinidad and Tunisia

585

217,164

8,000 53.900 375.000 15,400" 15 15.200 764,600" 8,750

Turkmenistan Tuvalu

10.587 750.8003 2.533

834,000 4.123,566 16,903 83,2003

646.270 4,005,400 22,100 115.200"

19

216

396

2,106 1,169 1.064

3 449

2.865

579

3323

436"

354

437

2,555"

212 19.000 246,100 7,000

233,6006 2,000 116,000 1.068.000 6,000 25.6006 131'

46'

5273 374

6.200 147

13.0003 11

21,8623

4 15,917 58.139 811 2,4483 2

350

24,508" 6

350 2,940"

446 4,755 5.377 1,442

15,022 67,373

900 3,034" 3

201

305 5,200 6,744 1,500 2,578"

245

237

320

1.383

128,745 55,250 196

107,250 100.000

1,353

1,591

26 3

40

800

800

2

3,477

2.746

1,161

130

Thailand

Togo Tonga

5,520

Tobago

Turkey

Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Uruguay Uzbekistan

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.)

West Bank :::

26 973 ...

i

1

it

1

- _.

—# |

1.159 2.238 5,378

57

56

31

3,002

1,180 2.097 1,600 3,045 5,950

726 29 481

3.800 3,044

910 65 550

_ 6,000

4.354

685 217 155

spc- atoes only '1975-77 21986 '1990 31 981-85 '2Former Bophuthatswana. Ciske Transkei, and Venda ,

Western Sahara

1.0002

830 230 340

15,000 18,000 9,000

61981 Includes goats Arat Republic only

Yemen

1,000 24,000 30,213 21,000 16,000 10,000

1

79

1

1,000

1.000

152

98

234

250

7,220

827 300

896 300

1,435

2,000

7.247 27,893 11,100

2,015

6 60 152

SBelgiur n includes

7

82 250

Luxembou

g.

9Tree

fruits

and grapes only

196 1 7,500 92.018 8.100 34.800 13,050 '01987.

Western Samoa

Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia Zimbabwe

" South

Africa includes

1

Britannica World Data

816

Extractive industries Extractive industries are generally defined as those exploiting in situ natural resources and include such activities as mining, forestry, fisheries, and agriculture; the definition is often confined, however, to nonrenewable resources only. For the purposes of this table, agriculture is excluded; it is covered in the two tables immediately preceding. Extractive industries are divided here into three parts: mining, forestry, and fisheries. These major headings are each divided into two main subheadings, one that treats production and one that treats foreign trade. The production sections are presented in terms of volume except for mining, and the trade sections are presented in terms of U.S. dollars. Volume of production data usually imply output of primary (unprocessed) raw materials only, but, because of the way national statistical information is reported, the data may occasionally include some processed and manufactured materials as well, since these are often indistinguishably associated with the extractive process (sulfur from petroleum extraction, cured or treated lumber, or "processed" fish). This is also the case in the trade sections, where individual national trade nomenclatures may not distinguish some processed and manufactured goods from unprocessed raw materials. Mining. In the absence of a single international source publication or standard of practice for reporting volume or value of mineral production, single-country sources predominantly have been used to compile mining production figures, supplemented by U.S. Bureau of Mines data, by the United Nations' Industrial Statistics Yearbook (2 vol.), and by industry sources, especially Mining Journal's Mining Annual Review. Each country

has its own methods of classifying mining data, which do not always accord with the principal mineral production categories adopted in this table namely, "metals," "nonmetals," and "energy." The available data have therefore been adjusted to accord better with the definition of each group. Included in the "metal" category are all ferrous and nonferrous metallic ores, concentrates, and scrap; the "nonmetal" group includes all nonmetallic minerals (stone, clay, precious gems, etc.) except the mineral fuels; the last group, "energy," is composed predominantly of the natural hydrocarbon fuels, though it may also include manufactured gas. The contribution (value) of each national mineral sector to its country's gross domestic product is given, as is the distribution by group of that contribution (to gross domestic product and to foreign trade), although statistics regarding the value of mineral production are less readily available in country sources than those regarding trade or volume of minerals produced. Figures for value added by mineral output, though not always available, were sought first, as they provide the most consistent standard to compare the importance of minerals both within a particular national economy and among national mineral sectors worldwide. Where value added to the gross domestic product was not available, gross value of production or sales was substituted and the exception footnoted. Figures for value of production are reported here in millions of U.S. dollars to permit comparisons to be made from country to country. Comparisons can also be made as to the relative importance of each mineral group within a given country.

—

Extractive industries country

%of

mineral production (value added)

trade (value)

GDP. 1990

by kind (%)

total

exports

imports

(000.000 metals*

U.S.$)

energy-

nonmetals "

by kind (%)

total

(000,000 U.S.S)

16.2

823

9,569.7

97.6

Afghanistan Albania

1987 1987

Algeria

American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

339" 2.35

26

Armenia Aruba

1989 1988 1989

—

6.2

1000

3,813.2

49

95

4.9

nonenergy^ metals"

metals'

U.S.S)

—

100.02

04

1989 1990

0.1

100.0

1989 1984 1988

2.249.'

— —

1

92.4

52 .
lncludes 51.5% for ships' bunkers. 33Excluding petroleum products. 3i£xcluding exports to Israel ($143.2 million in 1987) million in 1987) 32january-September only. Kingdom include Guernsey. Isle of Man. and Jersey (the latter is also shown separately). 361980. 371936; commercial imports only (excluding oil companies' imports). 38Excluding imported military

metals.

*

"

(

Comparative National Statistics

85!

-t-

exports

country

Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) categories (%)

total

.

direction of trade (%)

value

(000.000

food and

US$)

agricultural

raw matenals 2 (0 + 1

-27-28 +

96 52 3.7

130.555 33,984 2 5.215.0

fuels

concen-

other

total"

trates

energy

(5

and

28 +667)

(27 +

(3)

4)

209.0

7,3834

manufactured goods

mineral ores and

which chemicals

of

-667

and

+7+8

products

and transport equipment

+

(5)

(7)

of

+6

9)

related

3.43

—

3

which

of

others (6 - 667

+8+

to

to

to

to

to

European Economic

United States

Eastern

Japan

all

Europe c

(EEC)»

9)

1.83

729

0.1

0.7

41 4

470

93

1.2

488

40 7

6 3

147

1000 196

1.9

2

91 4

66

03

3.6

26

18.8

03

—

—

662

4.7 5.64

3.54

Pakistan

Palau

Panama

09

—

41.2

23.9 37.8

2.5

108

Peru

0.2

19.8

29.4 24.5

2.8

30,6

1.4

283

Poland

48 880

06

1.0

19.6 8.5

Portugal Puerto Rico

46

59.2

02

2

2.4

3.0

3 2

01

93 66

32 .1

958 7

31.7

43

2,5065

294

28.4

35.5

20.5 14.9

4.6

726

23 32

1.5

8,186.0 13.466 1 16.406

67 22

12.5

33.4 17.7

25

9.7

73.0

7,7

336

134

3.1

80.1

19.6

16.9

1.0

53 398

369 740

13,952.8

35 22

197

31.6 57.0 31 7 55 3 20.4

8.5 29.2 35.3

20.716 22.13

1

2.6868

_

1856

82.9

10,487.3 174,100.0

8.4

820 0.3

0.2

32.1

10.32

22.8

1177

94.8

2.7

274

420 756

— —

76 9

0.12

82.9 51.7

17

7826 386

09 01

— —

145.0

52.5264

748 804 23.6280

0.9

0.4

55.8 31.8 31.444

9.3

66.444

7.8

06

93.9 93.3 8.6'9

06

—

0.1

01

—

11.519

124

18.0 16.7

59 5 '8

26 9 5

66.83

94

90.3 12.4

8.919

342

0.3

4.7

3

5.2

1

—

— 5.7 14.9

4.4 0.744

1.544

18.2

0.1

8.4

22.5

638

735

19.61

1

4.44 85.7 30.6

5.4

89.84

2.64

1.94

—

223

623

69.2 39.6

12.1

85.25

10.44

19.742

26.342

2.4

5.2

53.3 31.842

1

_4

—

0.1

—

2.542

Paraguay

Philippines

41.74

Qatar

11.1

Reunion

1.6

28.9 31.5 6.64

Romania

15.4

St. Kitts

18.7 45.3

St.

— — 17.842

36.242

42

2.0 0.442

44.6 65.342 60.2 54.6

24.4 14.4

15.1

03

—

21 3

1,0

87 33.2

Russia 27

Rwanda and Nevis Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino39 Sao Tome and Principe St.

4.44

42

Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra

Leone

Singapore Slovenia

—

5.5

28.0

0.1

—

6

58

17.1

01

0,1

2.5'9

65.8'9

24.94

7.54

0,14

61

Papua New Guinea

3.1

52.04

1.04

— —

15.0

—

0.744

0.1

33.5 68.557

1.6

17

03

—

—

50.1

2.819

22.8 19.3 16.43

1

1.1

— 44

_44

63

5.5 6.5 71

56 2.5

57.0 24.4 23.03

80

3.3

5.6

2.5

100

11.6

44,416.3

79.9

Oman

332

10.8

25.7

—

Norway

56.84

27.5 22.8 63.7

310

14.8

1,453.4

Northern Mariana Islands

34.24

47.1

779 309

0.1

—

Nigeria

260

1.9

03

—

5.1

—

Niger

21 11.5

100

8.2 58.8

1.0

19.9 11.9 9.9

—

—

1

—

—

04

0.1

69

01

29

79.2 30.9

1.6

05 2972

60

— — 1.2 — 0.4

1.7

78.3 28.7 90.0

6.2359

otherr Italy include San Marino goods valued at $1,195.8 million in 1990 40United Kingdom only. 4319 74. 4'lncluding coins. 421989. 441984. 451981. ^Includes 97.1% from rest A7 Excluding for mer East Germany 49 Domestic exf )Orts only. of Customs Union of Southern Africa. 48France only. soExcluding border trade 511986 52Based on trade with Australia and New Zealand o nly. 53Year ending June 30 54Curag ao and Bonaire only 5&AII reexports 56Excluding Dulk imports of fuels. 58Figures for South 57Qther reput lies of the former US S F only. Africa refer tn C n I

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(

illation