Britannica Book of the Year 1970 0852291442

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BRITANNICA Book of the \fear

1970

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc WILLIAM BENTON Publisher

Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo, Manila

©

1970

BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Copyright Under International Copyright Union Under Pan American And Universal Copyright Conventions By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-144-2

All Rights Reserved

No

part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR {Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat.

Off.)

Printed in U.S.A.

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Britannica Book

of the Year is published with thr editorial advice of the faculties of The University of Chicago

A

Message from the

Publisher

1970— THRESHOLD OF AN EPOCH?

William Benton

In our search for the significance and pattern of we begin to comprehend the future more clearly? The desire to do so is understandable in all the past, can

of us.

seem to sugthe place where one age

the tapestry of history sometimes

— —even though there

gest the edge of an epoch

stops and another starts

is never such a clear-cut breaking point? Indeed, in each year of the '60s as we took up our Britannica Book of the Year, it was our humbling experience to feel

that we stood we were alive

new epoch. We felt that when man knew an event of his own doing things

at the edge of a

at that point in history

—because of

would never again be

—

as they were.

upon us of the rush of modern science. Here is the glimpse of the future. For have we not in the words of H. G. Wells stood upon a footstool and laughed and reached out our hands amid This

is

the impact

—

—

the stars?

Now we the

enter a

most exciting

down onto

new decade which promises

in all of history.

the surface of the

When man

moon

to be stepped

last year, all

men

an immediate sense of the epochal but also to the visceral grasp of a new perspective of what is to come. What were national boundaries in the face of this human achievement? The fabulous venture was made possible by a chemical discovery from ancient China, by a law of physics first defined by an Englishman, by a research team pioneered by a German scientist, and by a sense of urgency born, after Sputnik, of the competition between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Thus the lunar landing should be considered the common heritage of all humanity. Part of that heritage is the anticipation of an epoch in the making. thrilled not only to

One

of the pleasures of the Britannica

Yearbook

is

the fact that the minutiae proliferate right along with

the cosmic: that the military budget of Andorra during 1969 remained at 300 pesetas, or five dollars, a

—

year

—

be spent only for "ceremonial salutes" and that the first annual International Bicycle Race of to

Antarctica, three miles across the polar ice cap, was

won by New

Zealand.

Of more importance

is

the quickening pace in mi-

crobiology, and most particularly in genetic research.

You

we

are gaining insight into the "trans-

DNA* is

portation system" by which

—

transferred from

one cell to another sometimes by riding piggyback on a virus It is such research that someday may lead not only to new methods of conquering disease but to the knowledge of how to grow not only specific cells but specific limbs a "new" arm, perhaps to replace one that has been amputated or how to induce entire organs to regenerate of their own accord, making such operations as heart transplants unnecessary. Indeed, it is not inconceivable that science may learn !

Does

that

gene, and that

will find in the

1970 Yearbook a recounting of the

fact that science has isolated for the first time

what

—

how

to "duplicate"

—

an entire human being. Can you

conceive sporting events as contests between geneticists to see which nation can turn out entire Olympic teams patterned after world record holders? On a more ominous level, science may also discover how to send a genetic message perhaps riding on a virus that would tamper with the genes of an entire population. For instance, such a genetic message might make an "enemy" population lethally

—

—

some common phenomenon,

sensitive to

or carbon dioxide

— thus turning the

like pollen,

air, in effect,

into

a deadly gas.

Microbiology thus stands today at the same fateful but events are moving more swiftly today than they did then. H. W. Thorpe, a scientist at Cambridge University, observed that today's genetic explorations "are as epochthreshold as physics did in 1940

making for mankind

They rank

as

—

any that have preceded them.

at least as high,

tance than the discovery of

not higher, in impor-

if

fire,

or agriculture, the de-

velopment of printing and the discovery of the wheel." Arthur Koestler put it more dramatically: "The biological time bomb is about to go off in our face." In this in the possibility that we may even turn mankind into a monster of some new and unfathom-

— able kind —we can see a of the particuof 1945. That was when the physicists began debating— too for the people of Hiroshima and Nagasaki — the implications of nuclear Genetireprise

past,

larly

late

fission.

cists are

now

examine the implicaMacfarlane Burnet, a

just beginning to

own work. Sir 1960 Nobel laureate and an expert in tissue transplant, said: "It is a hard thing for an experimental scientist to accept, but it is becoming all too evident that there are dangers in knowing what should not be known." tions of their

is

thought to be the basic chemical unit of heredity, the

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the "building block" of heredity.

Thus we

find that today, as always, the greatest

Kenya has been embroiled in touched off by a political

nal draft. Since then,

— turmoil

and most perplexing problems of science are ethical and moral and philosophical, and not merely scientific. For science is caught up in the ultimate paradox of mankind: it rewards man's impulse toward omnipotence at the same time that it torments him with his

political turmoil

human

sult the reader of this Britannica

limitations.

At Britannica, it is our hope always to help you remain aware of this more subtle, less tangible, but most important dimension in mankind's affairs man's sense of responsibility his ability to shape his achievements to the imperatives of his age. We are removed in time, but not far in spirit, from those con:

—

tradictions that led Machiavelli, in distinguishing be-

tween fortuna and virtu in The Prince, to argue that half of man's actions are ruled by chance and the other half are governed by man himself. We can see something of this in the vast feeling of frustration that now sweeps the world in the emerging '70s, a feeling impressive not only for

its

force but for

its

diversity:

the Soviets are frustrated with the Chinese, the

manians with the Soviets; the pope

is

Ro-

frustrated with

assassination;

now

even

turmoil

President

that

Kenyatta

is

struggling to control. I asked the President

to deal with the current situation through

He

to his original article.

an addition

graciously obliged.

Book of

As

a re-

the Year

has a rare insight into a major political crisis in a key African country. The final result of the current struggle in

Kenya can have

of

of Africa because of the sensitive nature of the

all

Book

that troubled

of

affairs

a profound effect

look at that

continent.

now have

of the Year

on the future

Readers of the

the privilege of an inside

crisis.

Moreover, the impact of the black

social

move-

Book

of the Year across a wide range of the year's activities and events

ment

reflected throughout the

is

United States and Great Britain as well as in is reflected in the articles on philosophy, economics, education and particularly and dominantly in the articles reviewing religion. In one of the in the

Africa. It

—

most powerful movements

in all history, the blacks

his bishops, the bishops with their priests; fathers are

are rising out of their past not only to form nations in

frustrated with their sons, and vice versa. There

Africa and cultures in Europe and America but also to

in all this,

much

— the

is,

of the classic challenge to age and au-

on the one hand, that seniority possesses a particular wisdom and the rebellious certainty, on the other, that it does not. My own feeling after reading not only the Yearbooks but other thority

feeling,

—

publications of Britannica

Perspectives)

—

is

that

(among them Britannica's

much

of the conflict of today's

an even more traditional dilemma that of whether morality and law should stand above power. We at Britannica try to remain sensitive to the fact that the world is a seething laboratory of sociological as well as of scientific change, and that some of the most challenging problems of our times involve the secrets not only of nature but of human nature. We world

may

is

—

also rooted in

find, in the perspective of history, that the

tion involving justice justice v.

power

and power

—has been

a

—some

more

plexing one than that involving e

equa-

might say and per-

delicate

= mc 2 .*

In this 1970 Yearbook, for instance, you will clearly see evidence of the effort the black peoples of the

world are making to find a place in justice and a place of power. Note particularly the major feature article by Jomo Kenyatta, who has led Kenya from the status of British colony to a role among the nations of the world. Early last summer I asked President Kenyatta to write the article, and he complied with a moving, informative account of the travail and the rev of a people struggling first to control their own destiny and then to build a democratic society OUl of B heritage of tribalism and colonialism. The article becomes even more significant because oi events thai have taken place in Kenya since wc received the ori^i*

The key equation by which

relation of energy

and matter.

Einstein

postulated the

intrr-

eminent place

find an

in the activities that fuel the

history of mankind. This black

movement

of our time

from the development of the great non-

different

is

white cultures that have preceded

it,

partly, perhaps,

encountering greater resistance. The black effort today affects all hemispheres and all peoples, in that

and cal

As

it is

it has been made highly visible by the technologiadvances of communication and transportation.

my

tor,

late friend

once

blessings.

said, .

Adlai Stevenson, a Britannica direcdifficulties are the price of our

"Our

." .

always important not only that new ideas be heard but that they be debated and challenged, if only to test the vitality of those that can endure. Out of It

is

such strife comes the creative tension that helps give every epoch its own identity and integrity. Yet of the events and the conflicts and the new ideas mirrored in the Britannica and its Yearbooks, none seems to me to quench the essential optimism of the age.

"The only deadly sin I know of is Henry Stimson. In this moment when seems

to

be emerging, as

of history,

we watch

we

at

cynic ism." said

again an epoch

earlier great

of Britannica see

moments

major achieverm

the world pursue great visions

\\ e

stand

the edge of the epo< b advan< ing before us In this

at

new

ition and andecade, and we tremble with ticipation, One day people may look back on out and envy us the expectation and even the anguish ol

our age. Shall we not welcome it. thi unfolding fu tuie. while we are seeking to undei tand it ?

^T/i^r

How

Use the

to

Book of

Contents

Year

the

1970—Threshold

TA

of an

Epoch?

3-4

Editorial Staff

he

Book

of the Year is carefully planned for ready availability of reference material.

Britannica

Three devices aid the reader to find information he seeks in main section, which begins on page 65 first and most important, the Index; second, hundreds of cross-reference entries grouped alphabetically in the margins of the pages for quick and convenient information; and third, inserted frequently in the

7-16

Contributors

:

or after articles, the suggestion to "see also" other specific articles for further related information.

The reader

will

be repaid richly

Feature Article

The Emergence of Kenya by Jomo Kenyatta

17^8

he learns more of the

if

contents than just the answers to an occasional reference question about

an event of the year. In the pages of

this

volume,

50

Calendar for 1970

including the special articles which begin on page 17, there are

many

features to be noted.

The

thing to catch the attention of the reader as he

first

thumbs through the volume will be the many pictures and other illustrations. These include many of the outstanding news photographs of the year, gathered from all over the world, and they constitute a remarkable pictorial record of the year's

51-64

Chronology of 1969

Book

of the

65-802

Year

events.

Special Reports

OTHER FEATURES OF SPECIAL INTEREST: A

list

in the .

.

.

of the authors of the articles

Book

The

of the Year

on page

starts

—

Obituaries

.

.

.

starts

— sketches of scores of prominent who

.

.

.

The Cinema and Censorship

204-206

Indestructible Trash

211-212

The Military Under The

many prominent

living figures

officials

are

named

in

262-264

Crisis in International

284-286

Development

Economic Background

for

297-299

many

remember to use the Index (starting on page 803) whenever you wish information in the Book of the Year. The alphabetical arrangement of the book enables a reader to find not only where articles appear but often guides the reader to other related subjects. Before using the Index be sure to read the instructions that precede it.

of the

313

Gray Flannel 342-343

Suit

The American Library

in Paris

467

Cold as a Treatment 517-518

for Disease

articles.

all,

subjects easily; the Index

The End

in articles

Statistical data of all types, the latest

available, appear in

Man's Fundamental Right to Read

1969

on their countries. Hundreds of other persons are mentioned in articles.

Above

Fire

Czechoslovakia's Crisis

dominated the news on page 137.

Government

•

99-101

186-188

died in 1969

activities

starts

Primitive Tribes of South

on page 578.

Biographies of

whose

78-80

Trudeau's Foreign Policy: An Early Appraisal

.

individuals

Danger Averted

America

Chronology of 1969 the major events of the past year listed day by day as they happened starts on page 51. .

A

7.

Calendar of major religious and national holidays scheduled or expected to occur in 1970 ... is on page 50.

.

Locust Plague:

United States Foreign Policy in East Asia

692-693

Do Amateurs

701-702

Exist in Sports?

tells

The Conglomerate Phenomenon Index

779-781

803-832

Editorial Staff Editor:

W.

Managing

R.

DELL

Editor,

London:

E.

J.

DAVIS

Consulting Editor: Jacques Havet, Paris Latin America Editor: Cesar A. Ramos, Mexico City Classification Advisers: A. G. Armstrong, Morris Fishbein, M.D., Jerome Holtzman, Miroslav Kriz, D. A. Pyke, M.D., M.R.C.P., John Kerr Rose, Harvey Sherman, David Willis

Associate Editor: Daphne

Daume

Copy Editors: Judy Booth, David Calhoun, Conrad Chyatte, Ray Dennerstein, Samuel W. Gadd, R. M. Goodwin, Mary Alice Molloy, Dorothy M. Partington, William Spector, Brian Williams Art Director: Will Gallagher

Associate Art Director: Cynthia Peterson Senior Picture Editor: James Sween Picture Editors: Florence Scala, Jan A. Wessels Assistant: Bette Spektorov, London

Layout Artists: Mark Cowans, Joseph Szwarek Cartographers: Chris Leszczynski, Supervisor; John Draves,

Ramon

Goas, William Karpa,

Mimi McCullough, Eugene Melchert Art Staff: Laurence Campbell, George Carlson, Zorica Dabich, Joan Gordon, Bernard Holliday, Jerome Lenz, Karl Schaller, James Taylor, Frank Verticchio

Geography

Editor: Ruth

M. Cole

Assistant Geography Editor: Olga A. Titelbaum Supervisor: Frank Staff: Juanita

Charlene

J.

J.

Sutley

Bartholomew, William A. Cleveland, Gerald E. Keefe, Virginia G. Kimmel, Aimee E. Van Valkenburgh, Janice F. Wesemann

Neidlinger, Joseph R. Sturgis,

Editorial Production

Manager:

J.

Thomas Beatty

Production Coordinator: Lorene Lawson John Atkinson, Anthony Burrell, Barbara Cleary, Robin Fink, Stephanie Golden, Dorothy Lachmann, Winifred Laws, Steven Meyer, Richard O'Connor, Ruth Passin, Rita Piotter, Carol Smith, Shirley Stake, Cheryl Trobiani, Valerie Walker Staff:

Proofreading Staff: Harry Sharp, Supervisor; Linda Bloom, Edith Franklin, Emily Friedman, Jean R. Hutchinson, Beilin Quinn, Julian Ronning, Frances A. Silvers, Elliott Major Singer

Records Coordinator: D. Grant Disney

Copy Control Supervisor: Felicite Buhl Barbara Coombes, Pat Woodgate, London Assistant Supervisor: Staff: Carol

Du

Mary

Thoner

C.

Bois, Jacqueline Jackson,

Marsha Zapatka

Barbara Chandler, London

Copy Recorder: Mary K. Finley Index Supervisor: Frances E. Latham Assistant Supervisor: Virginia Palmer Staff: Gladys

Editorial

Berman, Grace R. Lord, Mary Reynolds

Assignments: Mary Hunt

Staff: Elaine

McCloskey, Allena McCorvey,

Copy Correspondents:

('(( cli

i

Prio

Leslie

W

Florence Simon

Executive Vice-President Editorial, Encyclopaedia Britannica,

Inc.:

HOWARD

I

GOODKIND

CONTRIBUTORS Initials

and names

of contributors to the Britannica Book of the Year with the articles written by them. The arrangement is alphabetical by initials.

A. C.Ge. /Geography C. GERLACH. Chief Geographer, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Editor, The Professional Geographer, 1951-54.

ARCH

A. D.Bu. /Honduras

ALLEN D. BUSHONG. Associate Professor of Geography, University of South Carolina. A. D.C.H. /Industrial Review (in part)

ALAN DAVID CHRISTIE HAMILTON. Director, Technical Division, International Paints (Holdings) Ltd., London. A. Dr. /Industrial Review (in part)

ALFRED DAWBER.

Chairman and

A. P. Kl. /Religion (in part)

ALFRED PAUL KLAUSLER.

Ay. K. /Literature (in part)

Executive

Secretary, Associated Church Press. Author of Censorship, Obscenity and Sex; Growth in Worship.

A.R. A. /Cricket

ARTHUR REX ALSTON.

Broadcaster

and

Journalist. Author of Taking the Air; Over to Rex Alston; Test Commentary;

Watching Cricket.

BRACKMAN.

Writer and

Consultant on Asian Affairs. Author of Indonesian Communism: A History; Southeast Asia's Second Front.

Editorial Director, Emmott and Company, Ltd.; Kennedy Press Ltd., technical publishers, Manchester. Editor, Textile

A. R.G.G. /Australia; Biography (in part);

Manufacturer. Compiler of Mechanical World Year Book; Electrical Year Book.

Lecturer in History, Flinders University of South Australia.

Nauru

ANTHONY ROYSTON GRANT

GRIFFITHS.

A.R.R./Money and Banking Ad. T. /Literature (in part)

ADRIEN THERIO.

Professor of Lettres Franchises, University of Ottawa. Author of L' Humour au Canada francais; Soliloque en

hommage a une femme.

ALAN DAVID WILSON.

Sweden Assistant

Now.

Critic,

J.

Les Nouvelles

Literary

La Revue des — U.S.A. Author of

Litteraires;

Deux Mondes; France Ninon de Lenclos.

ALTON

DOODY.

Marketing, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State University. Author of Retailing Management; Marketing in America: Settlement to Civil War (vol. 1).

A.G./Malta

ALBERT GANADO.

Lawyer, Malta.

Free-lance

and Writer, Dublin.

B.B. Mo. /Medicine (in part) B. MOSS, M.D. Clinical Director, Division of Gerontology, Chicago Medical School; Medical Administrator, Jewish Home for Aged and Park View Home for Aged. Author of Caring for the Aged.

B.C.N. /Fuel and Power (in part)

BRUCE CARLTON NETSCHERT.

Director, National Economic Research Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. Author of The Future Supply of Oil and Gas; Co-author of Energy in the American Economy: 1850-1975.

B.D. /Biography (in part)

BRENDA

DAVIES. Head

of

Information Department, British Film

A.R.W./Panama

WRIGHT. Retired Senior Historian, U.S. Department of State.

Be. N. /Track

A. S. /Museums

Field News.

and Galleries

(in part)

Section,

Program

Monuments and Museums

UNESCO,

Paris.

A. S.M. /Medicine (in part)

ABRAHAM SAMUEL MARKOWITZ.

Department of Experimental Immunology, Hektoen Institute for Medical Director,

A. F.D. /Merchandising (in part) F. Professor of

BRUCE ARNOLD. Journalist

Institute.

ANDREW SZPAKOWSKI.

M. BRIERRE.

B.Ar./lreland

University of Cambridge.

Specialist,

Ae.B. /Literature (in part)

ANNIE

Research

Department of Applied Economics,

ALMON ROBERT

A. D.Wi. /Biography (in part);

Editor, Sweden

ALAN RAYMOND ROE.

Officer,

ANTHONY KERRIGAN.

BERTRAM

Ar.C.B./l ndonesia C.

ARNOLD

(THOMAS)

Editor and translator of Selected Works of Miguel de Unamuno (10 vol.). Author of At the Front Door of the Atlantic.

and

Field Sports (in part)

BERT NELSON.

B.Gr./Music

Publisher, Track and

(in part)

BENNY GREEN.

Jazz Critic, Observer,

London; Record Reviewer, British Broadcasting Corporation. Author of The Reluctant Art; Blame It on My Youth; 58 Minutes to London; Jazz Decade. Contributor to Encyclopedia of Jazz.

Research; Professor of Microbiology, University of Illinois Medical School.

B.N.D. /Trade, International

A. Th. /Libraries

Statistical Division,

ANTHONY THOMPSON.

General

Secretary, International Federation of Library Associations. Author of Vocabularium Bibliothecarii; Library Buildings of Britain

and Europe.

(in part)

BARRIE NICHOLAS DAVIES.

Director,

Economic Commission

for Europe, Geneva. C. CO. /Engineering Projects (in part); Industrial Review (in part)

CARTER CLARKE OSTERBIND. Bureau of Economic and Business Research, University of Florida. Co-author of Florida's Older People. Director,

A. G. A. /Investment, International; Trade, International (in part)

ALAN GORDON ARMSTRONG. Research Officer, Department of Applied Economics, Cambridge University; Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge. A.G.BI./Music

(in part)

ALAN GEOFFREY BLYTH. Critic,

Music

A. Tl. /Industrial Review (in part)

ARTHUR TATTERSALL. Cotton Trade Expert and Statistician, Manchester, Eng.

Cd.H. /Religion

A.T.M. /Historical Studies

ALEXANDER TAYLOR MILNE. Secretary and Librarian, Institute of Historical Research, University of London. Compiler of Writings on British History (annual).

A.W.Bs./Japan

ARTHUR GUY REYNOLDS.

ARDATH WALTER

Registrar

and Associate Professor of Church History,

Emmanuel

College, Toronto.

BURKS. Professor Director, International Programs, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. Author of The Government of Japan; East Asia: China,

and

Korea, Japan. A. J. A.M. /Turkey

ANDREW JAMES ALEXANDER MAN-

GO.

Orientalist

and broadcaster.

ARNOLD

ZURCHER.

Professor of Comparative Politics, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, New York University. J.

Al. Ma. /Engineering Projects (in part)

ALDO MARCELLO.

Civil Engineer.

C.E.R./Timber

CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL.

C.F.Sa. /Finland

CARL FREDRIK SANDELIN.

Foreign

News

Editor, Finnish News Agency. President, Society of Swedish-speaking Writers in Finland.

A. W.O. /Nicaragua

ARDEN

W. OHL.

Geography, Modesto

C.H.J. /U.S. Supplement: Church Membership

Instructor of

Table.

(Calif.)

CONSTANT HERBERT JACQUET,

Junior College.

A. J. Z. /European Unity

Editor, The Friend,

London.

Assistant Editor, Journal of Forestry. Author of Famous Trees; Our Forests.

London.

A. G.R. /Religion (in part)

(in part)

CLIFFORD HAIGH.

A. W. Wo. /Medicine (in part)

ALAN WALLER WOODRUFF.

Wellcome

Professor of Clinical Tropical Medicine, University of London, Physician, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London. Co-author of Recent Advances in Tropical Medicine.

JR.

Director of Research Library and Research Associate, National Council of Churches. Editor, Yearbook of American Churches, 1970. C.J. Ay. /Motor Sports (in part)

CYRIL J. AYTON. Sport,

London.

Editor, Motorcycle

8

Contributors

C.L. Be. /Conservation (in part)

CHARLES LEO! RIC

D.J.

Lieutenant-Colonel, R.A. (ret'd). Chairman, Survival Btuvlce Commission, International Dion for Conservation Of Nature and Natural Resources, 1958-63; Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, London, 1950-63. I

C.L.F.W. /Biological Sciences

I.

/Medicine

DWIGHT

lioYLE.

(in part)

E.H. Ha. /Vital Statistics (in part)

D.J.Ro./Peru

Associate in Electron Microscopy, Department of Biology, Harvard University.

Economic Research and South America

C.M.Jo. Bowling and Lawn Bowls

D.K.R.P./Sporting Record

(in part)

CLARENCE MEDLYCOTT JONES.

Editor. World Bowls; Lawn Tennis. Author of Winning Bowls; The Watney Book Way; of Bowls. Co-author of Tackle Bowls Bryant on Bowls.

My

Co. L. /Biography (in part)

COLIN LEGUM. Commonwealth Correspondent, Observer, London. Author of Must We Lose Africa?; Bandung, Cairo and Accra; Congo Disaster; Pan-Africanism A Short Political Guide. Co-author of Attitude to Africa; South Africa: Crisis for the West; The Bitter Choice. Editor of Africa

—

to the Continent.

C.R.C. /Biography

Writer and consultant on vital statistics and accident prevention programs. Ei.K. /Cities and

Urban

Affairs (in part) Officer, Inter-

EISSE KALK. Research

national Union of Local Authorities,

The

Hague, Neth.

(in part)

CHRISTOPHER LEONARD FRANK WOODCOCK. Lecturer on Biology and

— A Handbook

EVELYN HUNTINGTON HALPIN.

INGLE.

Professor of Physiology and Professor, the Ben May Laboratory for Cancer Research, The University of Chicago. Author of Physiological and Therapeutic Effects of Corticotropin (ACTH) and Cortisone; Principles of Research in Biology and Medicine. Editor of Perspectives in Biology ana Medicine. J.

(in part)

C(HARLES) RICHARD CORRIGAN. Environment and Resources Editor, The National Journal. Da. J. R. /Cinema (in part)

DAVID JULIEN ROBINSON.

DAVID JONATHAN ROBINSON. Officer,

Ltd.,

Bank

of

London

London.

DAVID KEMSLEY ROBIN PHILLIPS.

D.K.Wi. /Chronology (in part) DAVID K. WILLIS. Tokyo Correspondent, The Christian Science Monitor, Tokyo. Insurance

Professor of Insurance, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State to

D.L.McE. Dentistry L. McELROY. Associate Dean, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois. Co-author of Handbook of Oral Diagnosis and Treatment Planning.

DONALD

D.L.R. Industrial Review (in part) DENNIS LIONEL RIDER. Director, Glass Manufacturers' Federation, London.

D. A. S.J. /Employment,

D.M.L.F./Canada

Wages, and Hours

JACKSON.

Research Officer, Department of Applied Economics, University of Cambridge. D.Az. /Literature (in part)

DINA ABRAMOWICZ. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Library, New York, N.Y. Librarian,

D.B.J.F./Football (in part)

DAVID BROUGH JAMES FROST. Rugby Union Correspondent, Guardian, London. D.D. /Economics

DUDLEY

DILLARD. Professor and Head, Department of Economics, L'niversity of Maryland. Author of The Economics of

DAVID M.

E.T.Ch. /Medicine

EVELYN GITA ROSE. Home

Food; The Jewish Home.

E.W.M. /Religion

(in part)

ERIK W. MODEAN.

FRANCIS ALLEN RIDDELL.

BURKE.

Chemical Week.

F.Br./Boxing

FRANK BUTLER.

F.Dd. /Algeria

FRANCOIS DURIAUD. Contributor on

Statesman, London.

Author of Himalayan

Frontiers;

Republic of Indonesia; The

Reuters

(in part);

Nepal

New

Sports Editor. World, London.

correspondent, Algiers.

D.Wn. /Burma; Dependent States

DOROTHY WOODMAN.

The

Making

of

Burma.

F.F.R. Fuel and Power (in part)

FRANK FERDINAND ROXBOROUC, H. Lecturer in Mining Engineering, University of Newcastle

upon Tyne.

F.G./ltaly

E.A.J. D. /Transportation (in part)

FABIO GALVANO. London

ERNEST ALBERT JOHN DAVIES.

Correspondent, Epoca. Milan.

Engineering Practice.

F.H.Ka. /Religion

Dd.H. /Inter-American Affairs

E.B.Br. 'Religion (in part)

De.C. /Industrial Design

DENNIS CHEETHAM.

Lecturer in Liberal Studies, School of Graphics, City of Leicester Polytechnic, Eng.

;

DONALD FREDERIC CLIFTON.

EDWIN BLAINE BRONNER.

Professor

of History and Curator of the Quaker Collection, Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. Author of William Penn's Holy Experiment. Editor, American Quakers Today; An English View of American Quakerism.

Reformed Churches, Geneva,

n;\\ KLIN HAMI.i

PHILLIPS-BIRT.

Associate Member of the Royal Institution of Naval Architects.

Consulting naval architect. Yachting correspondent, Observer, London. Author of Sailing Yacht Design; Motor Yacht and Boat Design; The Waters of Wight.

\

l

l

l

ill

ni of Religion, Diversity, Philadelphia, Pa, Author of The origins of Sectarian Protestantism; From State Church to Pluralism. I'm).

in,

l

Temple

i

E.B.Nn. /Rubber

Former Manager, Advanced Rubber Technology, B.F. Goodrich Company. Brecksville, ().

ELFRIEDE DIRNBACHER.

Austrian

GEORGE

Mineral

ihw k

am

E.G.Es./Fuel and Power

(in part); Mining Supplement: Mining I

F.H.Sk. Fuel and Power part); U.S.

Civil Servant.

ERIC

DOUGLAS HEXTALL CHEDZEV

s«it/..

F.H.Li. /Religion (in part)

E.Di. 'Austria

D.H.C.P.-B./Sailing

K\W

Information Secretary, World Alliance of

Professor of Metallurgy, University of Idaho.

D.Fo. /Biography fin part); Migration, International (in part) DAVID FOUQUET. Staff Writer, Congressional Quarterly.

(in part)

FREDERIK HERMAN

EDWIN BOHANNON NEWTON. D.F.C. /Metallurgy

State

Archaeologist for California.

Editor, Traffic Engineering and Control (monthly) Roads and Their Traffic; Traffic

Manager, Economic Intelligence Department, Bank of London and South America Ltd., London.

News

Director,

Bureau, Lutheran Council in the L'.S.A.

John Maynard Keynes; Economic Development of the North Atlantic Community.

DAVID HUELIN.

economics

consultant; Broadcaster; Food Historian; Vice-Chairman, Association of Home Economists of Great Britain; Cookery Editor, Jewish Chronicle. Contributor to Home Economics; Guardian, London. Author of More Fun with Your

News of the

Asian Affairs,

Profes-

Department of

sor of Sanitary Engineering,

F.A.Ri. /Archaeology (in part)

D. P. B. /Industrial Review (in part) P. Senior Editor,

DONALD

(in part)

EMIL THEODORE CHANLETT.

FARR.

Professor of History, Carleton University, Ottawa. Author of The Colonial Office and Canada, 1867-1887; Two Democracies; The Canadian Experience. L.

ERWIN STENGEL. Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry in the University of Sheffield, Eng.

Ev.R. /Domestic Arts and Sciences

Film The Financial Times. Author of Buster Keaton; Hollywood in the Twenties; The Great Funnies A History of Screen Comedy.

DUDLEY ANTHONY STEPHENSON

E.St. 'Medicine (in part)

Multiple-

Line Insurance Companies. Co-author of General Insurance.

Critic,

—

Editor Emeritus, The Numismatist. Co-editor, The from Numismatist. Editor, Introduction to Numismatics; Franklin and Numismatics.

Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, ITniversity of North Carolina. Contributor to Air Pollution.

(in part)

DAVID LYNN BICKELHAUPT. University. Author of Transition

(in part)

ELSTON GORDON BRADFIELD.

Selections

Contributor, World Sports. Editor, World Sports Olympic Games Report. Co-compiler of Guinness Book of Olympic Records.

D.L.Bi.

and Numismatics

El. G.B. /Philately

I

)i.'

ii

orp


•

nd "" ms.

Initial

It

ind

NOVEMBER

son

presented

the

government's

White Paper on tax reform House of Commons.

to the

fully

launched

rainstorm from

in a

Cape Kennedy,

63

Fla.

Chronology of Events

France reversed

National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence issued a report asking for drastic revision of the U.S. system of justice.

India's ruling Congress Party formally split into two factions.

Defense posts around Saigon came under Communist attack for the

first

time since

European

Free

May

1968.

its 15-year polindependence by announcing it would build atomic plants based on U.S. designs.

icy of nuclear

Trade

Association reaffirmed readiness to negotiate integration with the EEC.

8

15 Antiwar protesters, estimated at more than 2 50,000, staged a peaceful march and rally in Washington, D.C.

U.A.R.

men charged with hijacking commercial airliners to Cuba reSix

turned voluntarily to the U.S.

Mexican Secretary of the Interior Luis Echevarria Alvarez was formally endorsed as the candidate of the Partido Revolucionario Insti1970 presidential

tucional for the

Pres. Nixon revealed that secret peace initiatives had been rejected

by North Vietnam and disclosed a plan to withdraw U.S. combat troops on an orderly but secret

Prince Philip disclosed that the British royal family would soon be operating with a deficit unless Parliament increased the queen's allowance.

10

schedule.

Lebanon and Palestinian commando negotiators announced an accord

in

Cairo

to

end their

fight-

ing and to provide for cooperation between their forces in Lebanon.

Canadian Secretary

of

State for

External Affairs Sharp announced that seven diplomatic missions abroad would be closed for eco-

nomic reasons.

Nixon

administration released Gov. Rockefeller's policy report based on his Latin-American trips.

South Vietnamese troops clashed with North Vietnamese forces near

Due Lap

Communique

closing the Arab League defense meeting in Cairo accused the U.S. of blocking peace efforts and pledged full support for

commandos.

11 UN

General Assembly rejected

for the

20th time a motion to seat

Communist China.

in

a

ity.

12

gun

battle

in

Sao

U.S. District Judge Julius J. Hoffman sentenced Black Panther leader Bobby G. Seale, one of the codefendants in the "Chicago eight" conspiracy trial, to four years in prison for contempt of court.

NATO

deputy foreign ministers rejected a Warsaw Pact proposal for an early all-European security conference.

planes and artillery North Vietnamese gun positions in Cambodia.

Allied

bombed

17

U.S.

and U.S.S.R. began waged

in

Army announced

that

strategic

their

Greek government instituted a new press code including prison terms and fines for press offenses.

Demonstrations

throughout Japan planned to prevent Prime Minister Sato from visiting the U.S.

Okinawa

resulted in 1,700 arrests.

Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi defeated a censure motion presented by the opposing Congress Party faction.

1st

19

Lieut. William L. Calley, Jr., had

been charged with murder in connection with the reported slaying of an undetermined number of South Vietnamese civilians during a military operation in March 1968 in Song My. Israeli Defense Minister Dayan announced new, sterner reprisal measures against Arab residents of

occupied territories because of increased guerrilla attacks against occupation rule.

Soviet novelist Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn was confirmed to have been expelled from the Soviet Writers Union.

13

U.A.R. Pres. Nasser appeared rebuff

reports

to

U.S.-U.S.S.R. plan for Middle East peace by deof

a

claring the Arab states had no alternative but to fight for recovery of their territories.

North Vietnamese delegate Xuan Thuy charged at the Paris peace talks that Pres. Nixon's disclosure of secret peace moves was "a betrayal of a promise" and a "perfidious trick."

Canadian Finance Minister Ben-

"March against death,"

in

South

Vietnamese

leader Gen. Duong called for a national on vietnamization.

U.S. astronauts Charles Conrad, and Alan L. Bean landed on moon in the Apollo 12 lunar module and began the first of two scheduled moon walks.

20 U.S. Vice-Pres. Agnew extended his charges of news management to the press.

White House announced that Henry Cabot Lodge had resigned as

chief

U.S.

negotiator

at

the

end to the use of the pesticide DDT in residential areas within 30 days.

clash with Lebanese troops since the November 3 truce agreement.

21 Defense

Department ananother 24 men were

23 Congo

(Brazzaville) ordered its troops on alert after Pres. Joseph

Mobutu of the Congo (Kinshasa) said his country could occupy Brazzaville at will. Israeli jets pounded U.A.R. installations between Qantara and the city of Suez following two days of U.A.R. commando raids on Israeli positions.

24 U.S.S.R. Pres. Nikolai Podgorny and Pres. Nixon ratified the nuclear nonproliferation

monies

in

treaty

at

cere-

Moscow and Washing-

ton.

U.S. military authorities released a captured enemy document stating that nearly 2,900 South Vietnamese had been "eliminated" during the Communist occupation of Hue during the 1968 Tet offensive.

25 Pres. Nixon ordered the destruction of U.S. germ warfare stocks.

West Germany talks

aimed

at

formally proposed improving relations

with Poland.

26 Pres. Nixon signed legislation providing for a draft lottery.

Border dispute between Saudi and Southern Yemen erupted into fighting around an outpost claimed by both countries.

Arabia

Biafra was reported to have asked Switzerland to mediate the Nigerian civil war.

27 Arab

threw a hand grenade into the Athens office of Israel's El Al airlines, injuring 15 terrorists

28 West Germany

signed the nuclear nonproliferation treaty after receiving assurances on its interpretation from the and U.S. U.S.S.R.

nounced that under investigation in connection with the alleged massacre at Song

My

Japanese

Prime Minister Sato and Pres. Nixon agreed in Washington, D.C, to the return to Japan in 1972 of Okinawa and the other

news coverage.

U.S. -held

Ryukyu

29 South Vietnamese

in 1968.

Vice-Pres. Agnew charged the three major U.S. television networks with a lack of responsible U.S.

scien-

persons.

U.S.

heaviest assault in a year against U.S. forces in the Demilitarized Zone.

School

ment.

Three Palestinian guerrillas were killed and six wounded in the first

Minh

North Vietnamese troops staged

Medical

reported they had isolated a gene in an elegant experi-

peace talks; no immediate replacement was named.

referendum

their

Harvard tists

single

Paris

opposition

Van

massaby U.S.

troops as "totally untrue."

the

which

46,000 persons carried names of U.S. soldiers killed in"Vietnam past the White House, began.

istry denied reports of the cre of civilians in Song

Jr.,

Nixon administration ordered an U.S. Senate approved and sent to Pres. Nixon a $20.7 billion military authorization bill that included initial authorization for the Safeguard antiballistic missile system.

22 South Vietnamese Defense Min-

Helsinki.

most sustained air attack against Jordanian targets since the 1967 war. Israeli jets

to negotiate the return of

Philippines Pres. Marcos was reelected by an overwhelming major-

four months.

Action, Paulo.

Israeli ships were damaged by explosive charges in Elath, on the Gulf of Aqaba.

arms limitation talks

attacks.

in their biggest battle in

Brazilian police killed Carlos Marighela, reportedly head of the revolutionary National Liberation

Two

by continuous

air

be a Supreme Court

16

U.S.

Palestinian

Republican Party candidates won gubernatorial elections in New Jersey and Virginia; mayors Lindsay of New York City and Carl B. Stokes of Cleveland, 0., were reelected; Negro mayoral candidates lost in five large U.S. cities.

election.

Israel reported that all U.A.R. ground-to-air missile sites along the Suez Canal had been destroyed Israeli

Jr., to

My

Navy

reportedly shelled Israeli positions in the northern Sinai Peninsula.

worth, justice.

military court convicted four men, including a former special assistant to Pres. Thieu, of high treason and 37 others of lesser charges of espionage.

Islands.

National Party of New Zealand Prime Minister Keith J. Holyoake

14

U.S. Senate refused, by a vote of 55 to 45, to confirm Pres. Nixon's

won

Apollo 12 spacecraft was success-

nomination of Clement F. Hayns-

mentary

its

fourth successive parliaelection.

1

eign Ministry requesting talks on the status of Berlin.

64

Chronology of Events

U.S. Secretary of State Rogers called on Israel to withdraw from Arab territories in return for a binding peace agreement.

DECEMBER

10 Dahomey Pres. Emile Derlin Zinsou was ousted by army lead-

Order of selection for draft in 1970 was determined by a lottery

ers.

held at the U.S. Selective Service

Pres. Nixon requested that the appropriation for the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities be nearly doubled, to $40 million, in fiscal 1971.

System headquarters ton, D.C.

in

Washing-

military command reported that the 60,000 troops to be withdrawn by Dec. IS, 1969, had left

U.S.

Canadian

federal-provincial

con-

on constitutional reform ended in disagreement on several

Army

began hearings in Washington, closed D.C, on the alleged massacre of South Vietnamese civilians in Song board

11

of inquiry

My.

jets downed three Syrian MiG's within sight of Damascus. Israeli

North Vietnamese

Thuy boycotted

chief negotiathe Paris peace

EEC

tor

ing 1970.

talks to protest their "sabotage" by the U.S. failure to name a replacement for Ambassador Lodge.

leaders agreed to open negotiations on U.K. membership dur-

U.S. House of Representatives endorsed Pres. Nixon's plan to negotiate a "just peace" in Vietnam.

Secretary

Laird could as a

stated that 1970 draft calls

5,000 men result of announced troop reduc-

be

reduced by

2

Chinese and U.S. diplomats held their

first

years

in

formal meeting

Warsaw

in

two

to discuss the re-

sumption of ambassadorial

Gen. Torrijos returned triumphantly to Panama to resume Brig.

control.

UN its

General Assembly adjourned

18 France

was

agreed to to Libya.

reported to have over 50 Mirage jets

sell

12

Israeli-Jordanian aspects of a Middle East peace treaty was submitted to France, Britain, and the U.S.S.R.

acy,

inside

for

the second consecutive day.

White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health voted to ask the government for emergency action against hunger.

NATO

Council

of

Ministers

ex-

pressed receptiveness to the Warsaw Pact proposal for an allEuropean security conference.

U.S. Senate approved a

15%

in-

crease in social security benefits as part of a tax reform bill.

Newark,

Mayor Hugh

N.J.,

House of Lords approved a bill abolishing capital punishment permanently in the U.K.

Greece withdrew from the Council Europe as it became clear the

Department anU.S. Justice nounced it would investigate the December 4 slaying of two Black Panther leaders by Chicago police.

J.

and tax evasion charges.

of

country would be suspended for abrogating democratic freedoms.

19 U.S.

State

ized

rules

Department governing

liberal-

with

trade

China.

Uganda

Pres. Milton Obote was leaving a political rally in

shot

Kampala.

Bomb tional

of

14 persons three bombs

also

exploded

in

Rome.

planes

U.S.

bombed

enemy concentrations

14 South Vietnamese troops initiated eight scattered engagements with Communist forces.

infiltration.

of

Brig.

Gen.

Agnew

U.S. Vice-Pres.

D.C,

ington,

for

Wash-

left

23-day,

a

Valley

for

Omar

Tor-

power behind Panama's was proclaimed by National Guard leaders.

Texas

billionaire H. Ross Perot Bangkok that North Vietrefused to allow the delivery of two planeloads of gifts intended for U.S. war prisoners.

said in

nam had

27 French government ordered an inquiry into the presumed sale to a Norwegian firm of five gunboats that were sighted passing through the Strait of Gibraltar into the

Mediterranean.

Liberal-Democratic Party of Prime Minister Sato won a decisive victory in Japanese parliamentary

the

30

suspected

U.S. negotiators at the Paris peace talks submitted a list of 1,406 men missing in action and asked that their status as prisoners be confirmed.

in the

time

first

A Shau two

in

months.

Sino-Soviet border talks in Peking were reported to be making no progress.

21 Correspondence between East German I'res. Ulbricht and West German Pres. Heinemann agreeing to a meeting in 1970 was made

Pres. Nixon signed the tax reform bill and pledged to take ate] prevent an unbalanced budget (or fiscal 1971.

International Monetary Pond an noinK (l appro\ al hi an agreement covering the purchl t "1 newly mined South African gold. (

public.

31

rijos as the

Coordinated

exchange

of

pris-

oners between Israel and Syria and the U.A.R. was accomplished.

ruling

Greek Brazilian Army command forbade the publication of reports of torture of political prisoners and the gen-

Minister

Israeli jets staged a five-hour raid

mortar, positions in Jordan.

on

artillery,

8 Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko met with West German ambassador

and

rocket

of

22

poulos ruled out the possibility of

of force.

the

had

i

embassy

Israeli

the

ertified

ontrai

i

ie< .ill

the itafl

that

t

early elections.

U.S. and U.S.S.R. agr
tl> production and export! contributed t a umss value "i produi tion in 1968 69 fori a year earlier Severe drought

prompted relict

tate .mil

the

I

I

billion

I

V

.

ibove

Queensland In 1969 i" adopt federal government in

'

Australia's 1969

Decembei

,

\\

i

I

70 wheal barve t

at

I

which began

O

bu.,

in

down

from the 1968-69 record of 539,600,380 bu. Moisture conditions during July and August were reported as excellent over the wheat belt, with the exception of Western Australia. In March the minister for primary industry warned wheat growers that advance payments were not likely to be continued on quota deliveries to the Australian Wheat Board unless there was a dramatic increase in wheat sales. While the government had no thought of imposing production controls, growers could not rely on government financial support for wheat crops of the order of 500 million bu. Later in March, at a meet-

mated

at

20.8

million

head,

well

above the pre-

drought high of 19,055,000 head. Dairy herd numbers were the lowest in 14 years, however, since all of the expansion was in beef cattle. Preliminary estimates placed the 1968-69 slaughter at 5.6 million head,

ever completed by the Australian Wheat Board. As of July 1969 carry-over stocks totaled 11.2 million tons,

about the same as in the preceding two years. Beef and veal production for 1969 was estimated at 905,000 long tons, compared with 890,000 tons in 1968 and 865,000 tons in 1967. Over a fourth of 1968 production moved into the export market. Sheep numbers in 1969 were estimated to have reached a new record, well above the 166.9 million head reported for March 1968. There was an emphasis on lamb production over mutton, and a shift from coarser to finer wool. Hog numbers reached a record 2,056,000 head in 1968, an increase of 14% over 1967. New Zealand's agriculture underwent further reexamination in 1969, after two years of adjustment that included sharply reduced wool prices, recession and devaluation, and reduced export markets for dairy produce. Low prices for wool and dairy products had decreased total farm income from U.S. $370 million in 1965-66 to $347 million in 1967-68. The long-range agricultural program had been reviewed in August 1968, and production targets had been

and un-

established calling for annual production increases of

exports could be increased sharply, they were

4.5% through 1978-79. The dairy industry was of primary concern in 1969. New Zealand's 620,000 head of cattle (mostly dairy cows) produced about 520,000 tons of dairy products for export, 211,000 tons of which was butter. Reduction of the U.K. butter quota had left the industry searching for markets, and the poor export outlook raised the question of whether New Zealand could afford to continue to expand at the rate called for by the August 1968 conference. Prime Minister Keith Holyoake was reported to be resolutely opposed to direct subsidies. Alternative proposals included incentives to promote

the Australian Wheat Growers' Federation, growers agreed to press for production quotas limiting output to about 9.5 million tons. New South Wales was the first wheat-producing state to aning of

nounce details of its 1969-70 delivery quota system; its quota of 123 million bu. would guarantee growers about 50% of their 1968-69 deliveries, with preference being given to wheat producers of long standing. Wheat and flour exports in fiscal 1968-69 totaled 5,366,000 tons, nearly 1.6 million tons less than in the previous year; China and Japan were the major customers; a contract with China, involving 82 million bu. of wheat valued at $140 million,

compared with less

was the

4.3 million tons a year earlier,

largest

expected to reach 17 million tons by July 1, 1970. The large carry-over strained storage facilities, and it

was

Wheat Board

clear to the

possible to accept

that

it

would be im-

the wheat to be delivered under

all

The board made special wheat boards to provide

the 1969-70 quota system.

funds available

to

state

facilities for more than 1.2 milEven so, growers in some areas would have difficulty moving wheat into storage and qualifying for the first advance payment on deliveries. Australia's 1969-70 rice harvest, -mostly grown in

emergency storage lion tons.

New

South Wales, was expected

to

reach a record

diversification

284,000 tons of paddy, compared with 225,000 tons in 1968-69. The drought in Queensland reduced the

weaker dairy

1969 grain sorghum crop from the 13.5 million bu. of 1968 to perhaps 10 million bu., of which some 4 million bu. was accounted for by a record crop in New South Wales. Production of sunflower seed continued to be encouraged; in 1968-69 crushers arranged with growers to produce 5,000 long tons, but adverse weather resulted in the production of only about

ment on June

1,500 tons.

Cotton production

in

1968-69 was estimated

at

170,000 bales (480 lb. net), compared with 150,000 bales in 1967-68. Yields were nearly 4^ times greater than the

1960-64 average. Traditionally a cotton-^

importing country, Australia for the first time exported 9,500 bales of cotton to Japan in late 1968. Excellent growing conditions produced a record tobacco crop estimated at 33.5 million lb., a 48% increase over the 22.7 million tially in

the

lb.

of 1968

and substan-

excess of the marketing quotas. In

Tobacco Board

March

marketing quota for million lb. The 1969-70

set the leaf

1970-crop tobacco at 31 citrus crop was forecast at 11,755,000 bu., 11% less than the record production in 1968-69 but about equal to 1967-68. Poor weather and disease reduced the 1969 canned fruit pack to

years;

the

total

its

lowest level in four

pack was estimated

at

9,510,000

compared with 10,989,000 cases a year earlier. The livestock industry in 1969 was considered to

cases,

^MfiH

be fully recovered from the devastating drought of 1965. Cattle numbers on March 31, 1969, were esti-

to

units,

duction quota.

beef

production,

elimination

of

and a guaranteed price for a pro-

The 1969 budget, presented

to Parlia-

an incentive plan for beef production, but dairymen protested that it was insuf26, contained

ficient to relieve the cost-price squeeze.

Wool production in Oceania, which accounted for about 44% of the world total, was forecast at 2,733,000,000 lb. in 1969, 2.3% above a year earlier. Australia's production, at 1,997,700,000 lb., was up 3% and New Zealand's, at an estimated 735 million lb., was up slightly. With world sheep numbers close to the 1968 record of 1,028,000,000 head, total world production of wool was indicated at about 6,230,100,000 lb., greasy basis (3,600,000,000 lb., clean basis),

only slightly more than in the preceding year. The world wool trade in 1968 had recovered from the low levels of a year earlier; exports of tops, yarns, and fabrics totaled 743 million lb., 15% above 1967 and slightly more than the high levels reached in 1966. A 9% rise was recorded for raw-wool exports from the Southern five major producing countries in the Hemisphere during July 1968-April 1969, and a con-

move most of the re1968-69 surplus production into export channels. However, wool stocks were well above average, largely because of holdover stocks in New Zealand. Prices in 1968-69 were generally steady, at a slightly lower level than a year earlier. Mill use of raw wool in the major manufacturing countries in 1968 and tinuation of this trend could

gion's

"LONDON

DAILY EXPRESS" FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

«••

.**•

*.

*

1

92

Albania

and by the 1968 occupation of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact forces. In October 1968 an Albanian delegation headed by Gen. Beqir Balluku, deputy premier and minister of national dethe Mediterranean

1969 was estimated at approximately 3,450,000,000 lb. (J. K. R.; H. R. Sh.) See also Commercial Policies; Commodities, Primary; Conservation; Cooperatives; Fisheries; Food; Gardening; Industrial Review; Prices; Tobacco.

Kn< vcloP/EDIa Britannica Films. Antibiotics (1952); The Story of Rice (19S2); The Story of Sugar (1953); The Middle States (1955); Milk (1955); Meat— From Range to Market (1956); The Wheat Farmer (1956); The Corn Farmer (1960); DNA: Molecule of Heredity (1960); Seed Germination (1960); Wheat Country (1960); Wheat Rust (1960); The Cotton Farmer (1963); Cattleman A Rancher's Story (1964); The Dairy Farmer (1965); The Great Plains Land of Risk (1966); Interior West: The Land Nobody Wanted (1966); The Orange Grower (1967); The Sheep Rancher (1967); Midwest Heartland of the Nation (1968); Produce From Farm to Market (1968).

—

—

—

—

Albania A

people's republic in the western part of the Balkan

Peninsula, Europe, Albania

is on the Adriatic Sea, bordered by Greece and Yugoslavia. Area: 11,100 sq.mi. (28,748 sq.km.). Pop. (1967 est.): 1,964,730. Cap. and largest city: Tirane (pop., 1967 est., 169,300). Language literary Albanian and two spoken dia:

lects,

Gheg

Tosk

in the north,

in the south. Religion:

Muslim, Orthodox, Roman Catholic. First secretary of the Albanian (Communist) Party of Labour in 1969, Enver Hoxha; president of the Presidium of the People's Assembly, Haxhi Leshi; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Mehmet Shehu. During 1969 Albania received arms and munitions of Soviet manufacture

from China. This was the rean urgent request from Albania, which was alarmed both by the presence of the Soviet fleet in sult of

fense, had visited Peking. At a banquet given by the Albanian ambassador, Premier Chou En-lai had declared that "the 700 million Chinese were determined to give firm support to Albania in every possible way." An agreement signed on November 20 by Chou and Adil Carcani, the Albanian deputy premier, had provided for a substantial expansion of Chinese military and economic aid to Albania. The first ships with military materiel from China arrived at the Albanian ports of Durres and Vlore in the spring of 1969. At the same time, a strong Chinese military and technical mission reached Albania and began improving the country's roads, railways, and communications. The existing railway lines linking Durres with Tirane and with Peqin were being extended northward to Shkoder and southeastward to Pogradec on the Ohrid Lake. According to Western press reports, six missile bases were being constructed to defend the two main ports and the island of Sazan, where the Soviets had built a submarine base that they had had to abandon in 1961. The almost permanently bad Albanian- Yugoslav relations improved somewhat, after a particularly tense period at the end of 1968 when Albanians of the Kosovo-Metohija autonomous province of Serbia started separatist demonstrations. Taking into account Marshal Tito's obviously anti-Soviet statement that "the Yugoslav people were prepared to defend their independence at all costs," Enver Hoxha in July 1969 instructed Zeri i Popullit, his chief daily newspaper, to state that in spite of their ideological differences

ALBANIA Education. (1965-66) Primary, pupils 361,241, teachsecondary, pupils 31,2 70, teachers 1,189; vocational, pupils 18,574, teachers 718; teacher training, students 5,417, teachers 209; higher (including University of Tirane with 7,284 students), students 12,761, teachers 517. Finance. Monetary unit: lek, with an official exchange rate of 5 leks to U.S. $1(12 leks £1 sterling) and a tourist rate of 12.5 leks to U.S. $1 (30 leks

ers 12,980;

=

=

£1). Budget (1968 est.): revenue 4,250,000,000 leks; expenditure 3,985,000,000 leks. Foreign Trade. (1964) Imports U.S. $98 million; exports U.S. $66 million. Import sources: China 63%; Czechoslovakia 10%; Poland 8%; East Germany 5%. Export destinations: China 40%; Czechoslovakia 19%; East Germany 10%; Poland 10%. Main exports: fuels, minerals, and metals (including iron ore and chrome ore) 54%; foodstuffs (including wine and fruit) 21%; timber, wool. Transport and Communications. Roads (motorable; 1960) 3,100 km. Motor vehicles in use (1960 est.): passenger 1,900; commercial (including buses) 3,400. Railways (1966) 151 km. Shipping (1968): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over uross tonnage 36,550; traffic (1966) goods loaded c. 1.3 million metric tons, unloaded c. 500,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1963) 10,150. Radio receivers (Dec, 1967) 135,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1965) c. I

1

;

with the Yugoslav leadership, the Albanian people "would without hesitation help the Yugoslav peoples in their resistance to an aggression."

On November 8, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the establishment of the Albanian People's Republic, the government decided that it would cancel the individual income tax, free agricultural coopera-

from annual tax and conthem in 1966 and 1967 as nonredeemable grants, reduce prices of consumer goods, medicines, and some agricultural implements, and increase the prices paid by the state for meat and tives in the hilly regions

sider the loans accorded to

wool

(K. Sm.)

deliveries.

Alcoholic Beverages Beer. World production of beer increased by approximately 23 million hi. (hectolitres) in 1968 to reach 570 million hi., an increase nl' •}',' over the previous year. The growth was greatest in Eastern Europe (over 8%) and in Oceania (over 69! Increase Id Asia (5'/', ), Central and South America 'I'. I, ami wen- close i" the average; Western Europe in< reases were omparath ely modes! in the I

1,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1966; 1965 in parentheses): wheat c. 115 (c. 100); corn c. 165 (158); rye c. 7 (c. 7); oats c. 16 (c. 16); barley c. 9, (1966) c. 9; cottonseed (1967) c. 16, (1966) c. 16; sugar, raw value (1968 '.'') c. 16, (1967-68) c. 15; potatoes r. 31 (< 33); tobacco c. 13 (12); sawn timber (cu.m.; 1964) 142, (1963) 156. tock (in 000; De< 1967 >: beep 1,700; cattle c. 425; pigs c. 144; goats (Dec. 1964; 1,1'''); poultry (Oct. 1964^ 1,730. Industry. Production fin 000; metrii ton 1967): lignite c. 340; crude oil 1,091 petroleum products (1965) 392; electricity (kw-hr.) ee 1850, a




J 10 2

WEST

EAST

9

6 3

y

102

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AKQ9542

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i

:

Denmark became The day after

liable

the ladies' championship, nol

one of them was de-

clared the winner.

The

Italian

Blue Team, which had held the

K 84

3

A (Vest \\.

I

East-Wi

t \

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Bi

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filling

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ulnerable,

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it.

hi

diamond 'l

and

i"it

to the ten ol

won and returned

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declarei to a

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al

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declarer

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round of third

to

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was that Great Britain and to a fine of two victory points.

presented with the runner-up prizes, whii h they courteously returned to the organizing committee Vnd the records showed that while 13 countries competed in

J

SOUTH

it

the championship, the appropriate committee met, found that the time limit had in fact been exceeded by 13 minutes, and penalized Great Britain and Denmark two victory points. This reduced Great Britain to level terms with France, and since France had the better "goal average" it became the winner. The British team appealed, but the decision was upheld. The French team renounced the title but accepted the winners' prizes. The British team was

A

10 8 7

existed in respect of the final round of the champion-

ship and the effect of

7 2

7

.

bampio

l

winning

hi

ill.

l'.^

'

,,,w

Boris Schapiro were eligible for competition at els after a

been accused of cheating in

all

lev-

story that had dragged on since they had

Buenos Aires

in 1965,

in the

world championships

Reese himself added a fur-

when he withdrew from the British selection trials at a stage when he seemed certain to qualify. R. Swimer, who had been the British nonplaying captain when Reese and Schapiro were accused of ther chapter

cheating in Buenos Aires, was one of the competitors

In the course of the

in the trials. libel,

and

arising out of the

in

it

Swimer gave evidence

an action for

trials

Buenos Aires

affair,

was heard,

at variance with the

League position (a full acceptance of its own Foster Report and vindication of the two players). Reese expressed himself unable to continue in trials in which Swimer was also a competitor, and several other players withdrew in sympathy with him. The validity of the trials was thereby considerably weakened. There was every prospect that the troubles were now at an end and that Great Britain would be fully represented in the Pairs Olympiad and the European championships in 1970. (Ha. Fr.) British Bridge

ICA, held in London in May 1969, discussed the problem of attracting youth to cooperative ideas. A meeting of the ICA Research Officers' Group, held in August in Helsinki, Fin., discussed "Research Techniques for Analysing the Cooperative Image." The International Cooperative Seminar, held in Czechoslovakia in September, discussed the position of a member in a cooperative society. In May a conference on "Coop Integration," organized by the ICA Committee on Retail Distribution in Stockholm, dealt with the integration of wholesal-

38th

ing

and

retailing.

International Seminar for

ICA Committee for Workers' Producand Artisanal Societies, was held in Genoa, Italy, in March. The work of the ICA Regional Office and Education Centre for South East Asia was discussed at a meeting of the Advisory Council for South East Asia, held in Teheran, Iran, in March. "Training of Indian Cooperative Personnel Abroad" was the subject of a seminar organized by the Regional Office and the Swedish Cooperative Centre in New Delhi, India, in tive

February.

A

national seminar on

was held

"Consumer Coopera-

at the University of

Teheran

with the assistance of the Regional Office.

During 1969 the process of integration continued within the cooperative

first

nized by the

tion"

Cooperatives

The

technical executives of building cooperatives, orga-

movements

number

of a

of

t,o meet the growing competifrom centralized enterprises. In Austria the Reform Commission submitted a report recommending the establishment of a cooperative structure to reorganize consumer societies, replacing small shops by large self-service units and re-

countries, in an effort tion

grouping central warehouses.

A

National Cooperative

in

The

May first

by and the com-

international cooperative study course organized the cooperative

movement

of Australia

monwealth government was held from March 24 to May 7. The course was based on an examination of the establishment and management of cooperatives Cooperative organizations in Southeast Asia participated in the second Asian International in rural areas.

Trade

Fair, held in

The work

of the

Teheran during October. ICA Office for East and Central

Council was established in France by the central or-

Africa was discussed at meetings of the Cooperative

ganizations of consumers, workers' productive, low-

Council

rent housing, fisheries, and credit cooperatives. the

first

time

Movement,

in the'history of the

For

French Cooperative

the various branches of cooperation, with

were brought together to define their aims and to decide on policy. Progress was made in the implementation of the new policy of centralized planning and coordination in the consumer movement of West Germany. The main feature of the modernization drive was a massive publicity campaign on a national scale, using the COOP symbol for the first time. A special congress held in March 1969 in the Neththe exception of the agricultural sector,

in February and March, with representatives from Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda in attendance. A

seminar tions

in

to bring the leaders of the national organiza-

the

countries

three

Moshi, Tanzania,

The Latin American gration, supported tives of

America, the International Cooperative

operations at the beginning of initiated

two projects: one

and the other

in

1969.

The

institute

Porto Alegre, Braz.,

of the International Cooperative

Hamburg, W.Ger., in SeptemThe central theme was "Contemporary Cooperative Democracy" in the free market and in planned economies. The paper presented by the ICA secreber.

of reconsti-

in

El Salvador.

The 24th congress

consumer movement should be organized into one national society. A working party was set up to review

recommended changes. The process

Alli-

and Kooperativa Fbrbundet, Sweden, began

ance,

Alliance took place in

the

Institute for Cooperative Inte-

by the Organization of Coopera-

erlands rejected an expert committee's proposal that the

together was held in

in April.

argued that greater rationalization and centrali-

tuting the organizational structure of the Polish con-

tariat

sumer movement was virtually completed, with new

zation were required to meet the pressures of compe-

regional cooperatives providing a

number

of central-

ized services for local retail societies. In Switzerland

the trend toward increased concentration

was

accel-

tition,

that decision

making was increasingly being

entrusted to professional management, and that the gap between members and management was thereby

The annual congress approved changing the name of the Swiss Union of Consumer Cooperatives to COOP Swiss. In the U.K. the number of consumer societies was reduced by 86 to 539

widened. Machinery had to be provided for more effective representation of the views of individual mem-

during 1968. Talks on integration of the 100-year-old Cooperative Union with the Cooperative Wholesale

tures were considered a precondition to

erated during

Society

1969.

(CWS)

—excluding

the Scottish

CWS — were

initiated.

The International Cooperative Alliance. At the end of 1969, the number of cooperative federations with membership in the tries.

The

first

ICA

totaled 142 in 59 coun-

youth conference organized by the

bers,

and members had

to

be stimulated to participate

Reforms of strucany improvement in efficiency in the market economy countries. This would allow better operation of democracy within better managed cooperative organizations. In the planned-economy countries, rationalization continued only up to the limits beyond which the process would hamper member participation. One of the new ways of increasing such participation was the in the affairs of their cooperative.

237

Cooperatives

— 238

formation of

An

Cosmetics

member committees

at the

shop

level.

Consumer Rights ICA congress. The

International Declaration of

was unanimously adopted by the

ICA

declaration, prepared in consultation with the

Consumer Working Party, opened with a short statement of rights: (1) a reasonable standard of nutrition, and housing; (2) adequate standards of safety and a healthy environment free from polluclothing,

tion; (3) access to unadulterated

merchandise at

fair

prices and with reasonable variety and choice; (4) access to relevant information on goods and services

and ence its

to in

education on consumer topics; and (5) influeconomic life and democratic participation in

control.

Other resolutions receiving approval dealt

with intercooperative trade, cooperative housing, cooperative legislation in developing countries, and the role

of

women

in

cooperative

Also

enterprises.

adopted were a resolution reaffirming the ICA's strong support for all forthright efforts in the pursuit of peace and a call to member organizations to increase their support of technical assistance programs in the less developed countries through the ICA Development Fund. Progress in cooperative insurance was reported at

one of the conferences that preceded the ICA congress. The ICA Insurance Committee had 57 affiliated members from 25 countries in 1969, and all were expanding their business in spite of increased competition. The Insurance Development Bureau, together with the Reinsurance Bureau, continued to survey the possibilities for cooperative insurance in various countries. Reinsurance contracts in force had risen from 117 in 1952 to nearly 550 in 1969, when the amount of business totaled almost £5 million. "Collaboration with UN Organizations" and ."Cooperative Housing Projects in Developing Countries" were discussed at the ICA Housing Conference. A feasibility study to develop cooperative housing in East Africa was completed by the International Cooperative Housing Development Association, under the auspices of the

(ECA). The activities

Economic Commission

of the

ICA

Agricultural

for Africa

Committee

were discussed at the Agricultural Conference. Two studies engaging the committee were on "Cooperative Processing and Marketing for the Development of Agriculture" and "The Financing of Cooperative Enterprise at the International Level." The subcommittee dealing with fisheries

cooperatives received the

Corn: Agriculture

see

from 230,547,925

The

to 255,508,443.

largest increase

both number of societies and membership was recorded in the U.S. The largest membership was again reported in the U.S.S.R. (over 56 million), followed

in

by India (over 53 the

Of the total membership, was in consumer societies

million).

greatest proportion

(44.14%), followed by credit societies (27.85%), (18.02%), miscellaneous societies (5.21%), building and housing societies (2.33%), workers' productive and artisanal societies (1.9%), and fisheries societies (0.55%). agricultural societies

The

total trade of cooperative societies affiliated

with the

ICA

reached $107.3 million in 1967. Conhad a turnover of more than $60,285,000. The total turnover of the international trading

sumer

societies

somewhat less than in the preceding At the end of 1968, 20 cooperative organizations and 15 banks were shareholders in the International Cooperative Bank. Turnover amounted to $88,296,000 in 1968, compared with $66,264,000 in 1967, an federations was

year.

33%.

increase of

Other Activities. Continued progress was made in the collaboration between the ICA and the UN. The ICA was classified in the "general" category by the UN Trade and Development Board, and the UN Economic and Social Council (Ecosoc) committee for nongovernmental organizations agreed to assign it Category

A

I status.

resolution concerning the role of the cooperative

movement

in economic and approved by Ecosoc in June.

social

A

development was

study on "The Role of

Cooperatives in the Industrialization of Developing Countries," commissioned by the International La-

bour Organization, was carried out by the ICA. The second ad hoc consultation on agricultural cooperatives and other farmers' associations in Africa, sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Labour Organization, the ECA, the International Federation of Agricultural Producers, and the ICA, was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in June. (L. Ke.)

Cosmetics The year 1969 saw

the rediscovery of soap

At

and water

as a cleansing agent for the face.

a feasibility study on a cooperative fish-canning fac-

appeared

tory.

woman who

resented the high cost of prestige cleans-

Considerable progress in cooperative trade was reported at the annual meeting of the Cooperative

ing creams.

Hopes were quickly

its own oil refinery. Membership and Trade. The

building

Copper: Mining

611,523 in 1966 to 593,712 in 1967—almost result of amalgamation. Membership within these societies had risen 10.82% over 1966 entirely as a

report of a mission to Ceylon, which had carried out

Wholesale Committee. Food sales had increased, mainly through the joint use by CWC members of existing buying offices of the Scandinavian Cooperative Wholesale Society in Santos, Braz., and San Francisco and of the English CWS in Sydney, Austr. Purchases in canned fruit had risen from £120,000 in L966 to £650,000 in 1968, while purchases in the nonfood sector had increased by 83% in the same period. The International Cooperative Petroleum A tion at its annual meeting reported a steadily expanding influence. One of its most remarkable achievements was assisting the government of Ceylon in

see

—from

available showed, for the total

number

first

of societies in

time,

latest b

de< rea

membership with

statistics e

in

the

tin-

ICA

when

to

be a

move

sight this

first

in the right direction for the

dispelled, however,

was announced by such new cosmi leading firms as Estee Lauder and the price of face soaps

.i

producing group, ('Unique.

A box

of two bars ol

Lauder Almond Meal Scrub soap carried

I

price tag

;i

of L2 I5.v. ($5), while a "clinically formulated" six-ounce cake of facial soap b) Clinique was offered at the astronomical price of £3

\.

($7.50).

Another breakthrough in the by Clinique, was the tnai Iceting ol fragrant e free beauty products The philosophy behind them wa Clinique's view thai a "We adore perfume bul h i

ii

woman not

should

nave

hei

imposed on

it

bei

in

own

fragrani

e,

be

leUi

i

chooses." Clinique claimed thai Its hypoallergenii products were subjected to three tonus ol medically

monitored !

te

t

Ing,

with the eternal question

in

the highly

i

om

in

makeup continued

in

Revlon described

1969. In

its

spring promo-

Ultima II "Transparent Face Tints" as "see-through, fresh-aired, sunny." The "Miss Ayer" face was said to have the "delicate (P. W. He.) shades of a watercolour painting." tion,

See also Fashion

its

and Dress.

Costa Rica A

High fashion makeup introduced by Max Factor 1969 included the breezy look (bottom), the gallery look and the star look (top).

in

(centre),

—

—

beauty business "What next?" Revlon answered by concentrating on woman from the neck down. In addition to a "Moon Drops" bath collection of sulfur, seawater, and milk treatments, Revlon put on the market the "Borghese Body Pride" collecpetitive

tion,

named

after

the Italian

cosmetician Princess

Central American republic, Costa Rica lies between Nicaragua and Panama and has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 19,650 sq.mi. (50,900 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.): 1,615,480, including white and mestizo 97.6%. Cap. and largest city: San Jose (pop., 1968 est., 196,720). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1969, Jose Joaquin Trejos Fernandez. In 1969 Costa Rica continued to progress, despite repeated altercations with its partners in the Central American Common Market. These were caused first by the Legislative Assembly's refusal to ratify the San Jose Protocol, signed by government representatives of the five member countries on June 1, 1968. This protocol required the imposition for five years of a 30% surcharge on import duties for nonessential goods imported from outside Central America and permitted emergency sales taxes of 10 and 20%, respectively, on semiluxury and luxury goods produced within Central America. The second cause of the difficulties was the government's refusal to permit imports of rice from El Salvador at a time when there was a heavy surplus of Costa Rica's own rather more

expensive

rice.

In political affairs the impasse between the president (Partido de Unificacion Nacional) and the As-

sembly majority (Partido de Liberation Nacional) continued. The most serious example of this was the

Marcella Borghese. It included a body night cream, a leg conditioning lotion, and a cleaning gel, aimed,

according to a brochure, "at the stands

that

nudity

is

woman who

a liberating

under-

self-awareness."

"There's nothing so sexy as looking as if you'd Mary Quant at the launching of her

just cried," said

"bedraggled eyelashes" in the spring of 1969. Despite the decline of the "emphatic eye" vogue, the false eyelash business continued to prosper. The British

company Eyelure maintained

its

dominance over the

market. In 1968 Eyelure sold five million pairs of false eyelashes in the

U.K. and exported over £750,000

worth, an achievement that

Queen's

Award

to

won

for the

company

the

Industry and an export gold medal.

In 1969 Eyelure was reported to be "revamping a special shape for the important Japanese market." In the spring of 1969, following its earlier venture

and nail polish field, the House of Dior introduced a comprehensive cosmetic range comprising nearly a hundred items with colour coordination as the dominant factor. Singled out was "Eau Tendre" (eye makeup remover), for which the company claimed an effect "similar to that of tears." Carrageen or Irish moss, a form of marine algae, was used by Dorothy Gray as the basic ingredient in a new range of skin foods called "Satura Algene." This "protein to protein" theory in skin treatment was the basic concept behind the "marine" products introduced in Paris by Ingred Millet in the fall of 1968. Of these, the two most important were "Creme Ostrea" (oyster cream) and a mud face-pack called "Marinea." The trend toward a "healthier," more natural look into the lipstick

COSTA RICA Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 296,058, teachsecondary, pupils 47,828, teachers (196566) 1,931; vocational, pupils 6,034, teachers (196566) 284; teacher training (1965-66), students 2,108, teachers 22; higher (including University of Costa Rica; 1965-66), students 7,229, teaching staff 617. Finance. Monetary unit: colon, with a par value

ers 9,354;

colones to U.S. $1 (15.90 colones = £1 Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $30.9 million; (June 1968) U.S. $20.7 million. Budget (1969 est.) balanced at 720 million colones. Gross national product: (1967) 4,486,000.000 colones; (1966) 4,149,000,000 colones. Money supply: (March 1969) 915 million colones; (March 1968) 808.1 million colones. Cost of living (San Jose; 1963 = 100): (May 1969) 111; (May 1968) 107. Foreign Trade. (196S) Imports 1,417,400,000 colones; exports 1,141,100,000 colones. Import sources (1967): U.S. 39%; Japan 9%: West Germany U.K. 7%; El Salvador 6%; Guatemala 6%. Export destinations (1967): U.S. 48%; Xicaragua S%; West Germany 8%. Main exports: coffee il^c; bananas of 6.625 sterling).

26%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1966) 10,000 km. (including c. 5,000 km. all-weather and 660 km. of Pan-American Highway). Motor vehicles in use (1967): passenger 29,800; commercial (including buses) 15,900. Railways (1967) 703 km. Air traffic (1968): 110.6 million passenger-km.; freight 8,570,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1968) 27,498. Radio receivers (Dec. 1965) 130,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 66,000. c.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1967; 1966 in parentheses): coffee c. 77 (c. 73); bananas 548 (c. 523): sugar, raw value (196S-69) 155, (1967-68) 146; dry beans 19 (19); cocoa (1967-68) 7.4, (1966-67) 9. Livestock (in 000): cattle (196768) c. 1.400; pigs (1965-66) c. 146. Industry. Electricity production (1967) 757 million c.

kw-hr.

(92%

hydroelectric).

239

Costa Rica

— 240

Cricket

failure to

down

in

approve the San Jose Protocol:

December 1968

despite votes in

it

its

was voted favour by

two Assembly committees, both with Liberacionista Later the Liberacionista

majorities.

candidate

for

1970 election, former Pres. Jose Figueres, called for approval of the Protocol, in an effort to persuade the Assembly majority to reverse president

the

in

decision.

its

Of

the candidates for the presidential election in

February 1970, Figueres was believed to stand ahead of the Unificacionista candidate, former Pres. Mario Echandi Jimenez. This was partly because for 20 years no party had won two consecutive presidential elections and partly because of Figueres' high reputation in the country.

The considerable economic progress

of 1968 con-

tinued in 1969. Costa Rica's rate of economic growth

1968 was probably the highest in Latin America 10.2% at current prices or 8% at constant prices. This was attributed partly to the 13% increase in total manufacturing output and partly to the large growth in the quantity of bananas for export. There was also an improvement in public finance and in trade: the budget deficit in 1968 was less than half that of 1967 and promised to be even smaller in 1969. With the expected growth in banana exports, total exports in in

1968 rose to $174 million, against only $144 million The free rate for the Costa Rican colon continued to appreciate until it reached 6.95 colones per only 33 points beU.S. dollar (selling) in mid-April low the official selling rate. By August relations with the international lending agencies, which had been poor as a result of Costa Rica's preference for deficit financing and for dual rates of exchange, and also because of the San Jose Protocol delay, improved sufficiently for the World Bank to lend the nation more than $18 million for the expansion of electric power and telecommunicain 1967.

—

West

Private foreign capital continued to flow into Costa Rica. Despite the prohibition on the taking of deposits

by foreign banks, there was

(Lawry

sufficient confidence in

of

them

government San Isidro

in

of

November 1968 between America (Alcoa) and the

for a $71 million investment in the min-

ing of bauxite

and

its

conversion into alumina, near

was expected to result in a greatly increased foreign exchange income for Costa del General,

Rica.

(J. C.

G. B.)

II

see

West

Indies and Australia,

West

Indies and

New

Zealand, Pakistan and England, England and West Indies,

and England and

Australia S.

v.

West

Sobers lost a series

New

Indies.

Zealand.

in Australia 3-1.

the first test, Australia under

After losing

International

103 in the fourth test at Adelaide, while G. D.

Government

West Indies

just failed

was drawn. West Indies made 276 (Sobers 110) and 616 (Butcher 118, Carew 90, Kanhai 80, D. A. J. Holford 80, Connolly five for 122). Australia replied with 533 (Walters 110, Chappell 76, Lawry 62, K. R. Stackpole 62) and 339 for nine (Chappell 96, Lawry 89, Walters 50, Stackpole 50). Australia won the fifth test at Sydney by 382 runs. A partnership of

making 619. West Indies

the issue, Australia

replied

with 279 (Carew 64, Lloyd 53). Australia in their second innings made 394 for eight declared (Redpath

made

and West Indies, after a blaze of (113) and Nurse (137), finally

352.

New Zealand

West

v.

Indies.

West

A

Indies drew

losing the sec-

first test,

ond, and drawing the third.

cricket-weary Sobers

played a small part, but brilliant batting by Nurse (two centuries) and Carew (one) compensated in

bowler R. M. Edwards wis the For New Zealand B. R. Taylor and B. F. Hastings made one century each, B E Congdon. (). K. Dowling captain l,andG. M. Turnei all batted steadily, and R. C. Mot/, was the leading

Reserve

part.

fast

chief wicket-taker.

i

(

1

wit kel

7

firsl test at Auckland. \ /. Zealand made 323 (Tayloi Congdon 85) and 297 i"r eight declared (Dowling Wesl indies made 7i, v. Pollard 51 not om Nurse 95) ami a brilliant 168 bj Nui e supported by Butcher (78 nol out), enabled W
U.S. $56.5 million; (June 196S) U.S. $64.7 million. Budget

=

fatigue.

of five

economy

Quarreling over the frontier had been sporadic for

ers

to switch to

conditions

for a truly integrated

and the blind

in the vibrations of a finger pad.

mes-

to "feel"

A West

firm marketed a gasless semiconductor heat

Ger-

pump

with no moving parts that functioned either to heat or to cool homes, camps, or airborne units; no maintenance was needed for years.

The Japanese exported

>

balanced at 21S,337,000 colones. Gross (1968 national product: (1967) 2,205,000,000 colones; (1966) 2,093,000,000 colones. Cost of living (1963 100): (June 1969) 104; (June 1968) 106. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports 538.8 million colones; exports 530.3 million colones. Import sources (1967): U.S. 31%; Guatemala 13%; Japan 8%; West Germany 7%J U.K. 6%; Honduras b Export destinations (1967): U.S. 27%; West Germany C Guatemala 16%; Honduras Japan S'j : Nicaragua 7%; Costa Rica o r 6 Main exports: coffee 44%; rev. est.)

=

1

',

.

1

tained a light-emitting diode readout. Australia reported developing an electronic taxi meter with a

memory

that computes

and displays the

fare;

and

a

:

7 '

,

.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1966) 8,394 km. (including 625 km. of Pan-American Highway). Motor vehicles in use 1967"): passenger 30.100; commercial ( including buses 13.700. Railways (1967) c. 750 km. Telephones (Jan. 1968) 37,796. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) c. 396,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 45,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): rice 84 (78); corn 235 (189); sorghum US (108); coffee (1967) \

it

large increase in federal expenditure

1.2

2.8 4.2 3.8

half

first

of 1968 at an annual rate of 6.4%, but in the second

-1.0

0.1

4.5% in 1968. Market Economies. Table VI

money and real wages manufacturing and of consumer prices in the industrial market economies. The average rate of increase of money wages was 7.8% in 1968 and was higher by one percentage point at 8.8% in 1969; the average rate of price increase had risen too, from 3.8% in 1968 to 4.5% in 1969, and consequently there was not much difference in the rate of growth of real wages— 3.9% in 1968 and 4.2% in 1969. The higher rates of wage and price increase were due to the expansionary policies generally being followed

2.0 0.3

1.3

to re-

in

0.9

— — — — — — — —

were trying

gives the rates of increase of

0.8 0.6

1.0 3.8 4.0

Romania

Industrial

4.2

1.2

Poland

Wages.

34.4 54.8

1.1

a poor agri-

per man-hour expanded by

1.2

1.4

East

11

by

in industrial productivity

rapid, as the authorities

-4.9 -2.8

5.1

Germany, Hungary

18

The growth

duce the outflow of labour from agriculture and to redeploy industrial labour. In Hungary, a new system of economic control was introduced in 1968. There the policy was to restrict the growth of demand so as to ensure that the changeover would not be endangered. The rate of growth of output was low and for various reasons (strict control of wages, a reduction in hours worked) employment expanded faster than planned. Thus, Hungary had a low rate of growth of output per man-year, although, output

2.1

3.3 1.2

Czechoslovakia

-

9

was very

-1.2 -0.7

Planned economies: Bulgaria

The output of the construction industry increased substantially, and this meant a faster rate of growth of employment and a lower rate of

erating surplus.

increase of productivity than had been planned. In

a slight rise in

Centrally Planned Economies.

Less

easier for

and

employment and

III.

it

enterprises to obtain credit and to reinvest their op-

Consequently there was a

the index of industrial production was 4% higher. This expansion entailed a slight rise in manufacturing

Table

How-

ever, an average rate of growth of industrial pro-

Labour Office,

International

making so that resources could be used more flexibly and hence more efficiently. This enabled enterprises to adopt systems of incentive wage payments aimed at raising labour productivity. levels of decision

Indu jtrla ized countries

income saved decreasing

t"

it-

pay the bighei

coi

Al-

ption

though consumer spending slackened in 1969 bu ine investment remained high and, with no official mi in

counteract e

i" e

the

inflation,

from 47',

in

annual

1968 to

rate

"i

5$

in

5

1969, thus reducing the rate of growth ol real w the end of

By

1969 credit re traint to combat expected to entail slowei growth and

tion \\i in

infli a

ri

e

unemployment, in

\\

i

i

i

,n

many

waget remained rate

"i

prfi e

ini

fairly

'hi-

low

rate in

rease rose

"i

growth

"i

money

1968 and 1969 and the

from

t

he

327

Employment, Wages, and Hours

WIDE WORLD

The Rev. James Groppi leads a demonstration against the Allen Bradley

Co.

in

Milwaukee, Wis.,

on Aug. 11, 1969, to protest alleged racial

discrimination practices.

faster rate of price inflation occurred as exports in-

creased strongly in the second half of 1968 and the half of 1969 and led to increases in investment and a small increase in private consumption. The rate of growth of real wages continued to be low at 2.6% in 1968 and 2.2% in 1969, but the labour force had the compensating advantage of working in a fully employed economy. In France the rate of growth of money wages was high in both 1968 and 1969 after the strikes of early 1968 and the consequent wage settlements. These

first

resulted in an increase in wages of 4-5% in June and of a further 2^-3% in October for 13 million

higher paid workers, an increase of

mum

legal

wage

35%

in the mini-

affecting 1-1.5 million workers,

and

an increase of 56% in wages for 700.000 agricultural workers. These wage increases were followed by a boom in private consumption, and the rate of price inflation increased from 4.6% in 1968 to 6.4% in 1969. Nevertheless, gains in real wages were substantial and the trade gap widened; the volume of imports was a third higher in the first half of 1969 than in the first half of 1968. The increase in wages was paid for by devaluation.

Table IV. Employ ment

in

Manufacturin g

In the Netherlands the rate of growth of money wages was high in both years at 8 and 8.7%, but the rate of price inflation was only 3.7% in 1968

in

Industrialized Countries Changes over pre vious year(%)

Unempl syment

Employ ment Country

1969*

1968

h ours worked per week

1969*

1968

1968

-0.8

3.6

21.3

0.3

United States

1.6

2.1

-5.4

-1.8

0.3

Japan

2.8

2.5 3.2

3.5

-0.4

Canada

Austria

-17

Belgium France

-2.0 -2.2

—

—

9.1

21.2 29.6

Germany, West

1.3

0.8 5.9

Ireland

2.3

6.3

2.8

1.7

4.0 0.0

-9.3

0.8

44.7

1.2

0.0

-1.0

0.6 2.3

16.0 0.3

Italy

-0.9 -0.3

Netherlands

Norway Sweden

Kingdom Average

United

0.1

-29.6 0.7

8.5

-3.9 -16.8 -3.3 -52.6 -5.4 -5.8 -32.2 -5.7 -4.4 -3.8 -10.2

0.2

—

-0.2

-0.9 -2.9

—

0.5

-0.1

Em ployment, and Productivity in the Pla nned Economies

Country Bulgaria

Czechoslovakia

Germany, Hungary Poland

Romania U.S.S.R.

Average

East

n 1968 over

Output

1967(%)

Emp loyment

Productivity

11.8 5.2

2.3

9.3

1.3

3.8

6.1

0.3

5.8

4.9

3.8 3.5

1.1

9.3

11.6 8.1 8.1

4.5 3.0 2.7

of

all prices.

These measures were expected to entail growth rate of real wages for 1969

a change in the

Table V. Output,

i

April the government announced a complete freeze

2.4

•Second quarter over second quarter 1968. Source: Organ zation fo Economic Coop •ration and Development. Mom Economic Indicators (September 1969).

Change

because rapid increases in productivity actually reduced labour costs per unit of output. But early in 1969 prices began to rise at a rate of almost 1% a month because of the new value added tax. and in

5.7 6.8 5.0 5.4

Source: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey 0/ Europe in 1968.

as a whole.

In the U.K. average earnings in 1968 were 8.6% higher than in 1967, most of this increase occurring in

During 1968 and 1969 there was supposed to be a ceiling of l\% on wage increases and for the first half of 1968 increases were moderate, but there was a large increase in wages in the second the last quarter of 1967.

half of 1968 after the railway unions forced the gov-

ernment to consent to a substantial wage increase. Thus, by mid-1969 money wages were 7.9% higher than in mid-1968, the rate of price inflation had increased from

4.7% in 196S to 5.5% in 1969. and the growth of real wages had declined sharply. The government resorted to monetary and fiscal control, which created more unemployment, in order to reduce consumption so as to restrain imports and enrate of

sure that exports continued to expand.

In Japan the rate of growth of

money wages was

in

hiring

328

very high ini

Employment, Wages, and Hours

1968 and 1969. With only small price

in

rcases in both years, there were substantial gains

and 10.9%. This was due to the continuation of the rapid boom based on investwages of

real

in

9.8

ment. After a period of trade

deficit in 1967, exports

and Far Eastern countries)

(particularly to the U.S.

and 1969, thus enabling the boom be sustained. Despite the very rapid growth of the economy, price increases were fairly moderate because of rapid productivity increases that kept pace with the wage increases. The growth of real gross national product was remarkably high at 10% in 1966, 13% in 1967, 14% in 1968, and a probable 10-12% rose rapidly in 1968 to

Japan was now the world's third largest inand the U.S.S.R. Less Developed Economies. In the less developed countries there was a marked tendency for money wages in manufacturing to rise at a rapid rate. (See Table VII.) Price increases also tended to be rapid, but there was nevertheless a tendency for real wages in manufacturing to rise at a faster rate than in the industrialized countries. However, these wage inin 1969.

dustrial nation after the U.S.

Money and

Table VI.

Real

Wages

Manufacturing and Consumer Prices:

in

Industrialized Countries

Money wages

United States

Belgium

Denmark France

Germany, West

their capital (if profits

4.8 5.5

prise),

15.7 6.9 5.6

4.2

1.0

—

2.8 2.5

3.4

11.4 12.4 4.4

16.9 4.8

7.5

9.9

2.2

7.3

2.6 3.9 2.2

5.1

4.2 4.2 5.4 2.6 2.7 8.7 4.6 1.8 4.7 1.4 3.7 3.4 1.9 2.5 4.7 3.8

—

8.7

4.1

0.5

4.0 4.5

8.5

6.7 4.7 7.9

8.6 7.8

VII.

Money and

Real

4.8t

4.2 2.0 2.3 4.2

1.5 3.7 3.9

8.8

'Second quarter over second quarter 1969 ov er first Source: Organization for Main Economic Indicators

fFirst

Table

1.1

10.9

12.1

Average

Pr ices

2.6

3.6 8.0 7.5 6.5 4.0

Switzerland United Kingdom

5.1

3.4 3.8

—

6.4 2.6 6.7 2.0 8.1

3.3 2.5 2.6 5.5 4.5

quarter 1968 quarter 1968.

Economic Cooperation and (September 1969).

Wages

in

Develc 3ment,

Manufacturing and Consumer Prices:

Less Developed Countries Change over previous year(%)

Money wages Country

1967

Ceylon

1.3

Chile

27.4 10.4

Colombia El

Salvador

1.3 3.2

Ghana Greece Guatemala

11.8 2.6 22.5 6.0 5.3 6.9 13.4 9.3

Korea, South

Mexico Philippines

Puerto Rico

Taiwan Average*

'Average of available

1968

_ 34.2 10.3

— —

7.3 2.5 26.5

1967

Prices

1967

1968

-0.9 7.8 2.0

-0.1 11.3 10.0

2.2 18.2 8.2 1.4

5.9 4.4

— —

-7.3

6.9

1.7

1968 5.9 26.7 5.7 2.6 10.0 0.4

2.1

0.6

0.5

1.9

10.5 2.9

14.2

10.9 3.0 6.9 4.2 3.3 4.4

10.8 2.3 0.7 2.8 7.9

— — 11.5 —

-1.5 9.7

— — —

15.4

4.7

6.8

2.6

VIII.

8.5

6.5

statistics.

Wages and Cost Money wages

Bulgaria

1967

1968

11.0

2.0

Czechoslovakia

5.5

Germany, East Hungary

2.4 4.0 4.0 2.8 4.2 3.4

8.2 —

Poland

Romania U.S.S.R.

Average*.

2-2.5*

of Living: Planned

Real

wages

1967

1968

_

-3.0

3.9 1.1

7.5

4.0 2.5 2.3 5.0

4.8

3.1

3.9 —

government

take

to

the

in the enter-

was for the companies concerned into solution

public ownership, so that the benefits of larger profits accrued to the whole community.

Centrally Planned Economies. Increases in the cost of living continued to be very low in the centrally

planned economies and rises in money wages were correspondingly moderate. (See Table VIII.) Those countries instituting economic reforms seemed to have higher rates of money wage and price increases as enterprises took advantage of the discretion given to them. The impact of the reforms in Czechoslovakia and the U.S.S.R. on money wages is obvious: wage increases in 1968 were about three percentage points higher than in 1967.

Hours. In most industrial countries the length of week was gradually being shortened as people took part of their increased incomes in the form of more leisure. In the short run. however, fluctuations in the working week were the result of economic fluctuations. While in the recession of 1967 the length of the working week tended to fall, in 1968 most industrial economies grew more rapidly and there was less short-time work and more overtime available. The length of the working week tended to increase slightly, especially in the U.K. and V In other countries the Germany. (See Table IV. change tended to be negligible, ezcepl in Noi where on July 1, L968, the contractual working week was reduced from hours, a fall of about It was likely thai in those countries with high rates of taxation and. with adequate provision foi i

Economies

Change over previous year(%) Country

were reinvested

common

an increasingly

the working

Real wages

Source: United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (August 1969).

Table

the standards of living of their citizens so that

3.0 1.8 9.8

Italy

Sweden

down

7.6 6.6 16.5 4.4 7.3

11. 9f

concern to tackle ingrowing un-

their citizens,

employment, and impoverishment of the rural areas, had legislated against trade unions, effectively banning strikes by forcing the parties to submit their unresolved disputes to an industrial court whose rulings were final and legally binding. They also put ceilings on the wage increases to be permitted. But these measures raised the dilemma that by controlling labour costs in this way profits were increased. As it was politically impracticable for governments to hold

1969

8.8

Norway

in their

among

bigger dividend or a faster rate of appreciation of

wages

Ireland

Netherlands

governments,

1968

6.1

Austria

Many

creasing inequality

1969*

7.3

Japan

effect of this

1968

1968

Canada

Real

1969*

burden of rising prices. was that real incomes for a large section of the population might well have been falling; that is, the few urban industrially employed rich got richer, and the many rural workers and urban unemployed got poorer. Furthermore, rising wages might well have hampered the growth of employment. Yery often the cause of rising wages was simply pressure from militant trade unions, particularly those dealing with large and wealthy foreign-owned companies. These political pressures usually resulted in a spiral of wage increases. tion while everyone bore the

The

shareholders (often foreign) might receive either a

Changes over previous year(%) Country

creases accrued to only a small section of the popula-

7.0 —

2-2.5* 1.5

Cost c f living 1967 1968 5.0 1.4

1.2

1.3

—

1.0

t

1.5

—

— —

t

2.0

1.0

0.5

cial security,

worker- might increasingly tend

decrease in the outright and taxable fer

number

a


ng 20 exceeding 12 m llion ac ft capacity. tType: E = earth; R = rocfefill A = arch; G™gravity MA«»mulliple arch. {Replacement of present dam

rr

4,284

emo
< r ™ from Beaugency and Djakao. The Prix Jean Prat went W g S second to the English-trained, U.S. -bred Hill Run. The Prix de Diane (Oaks) was won by M. Boussac's Crepellana from Saraca, while Felicio II won the Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud from Goodly. Chaparral won the Grand Prix de Paris, and Le Chouan won the French St. Leger from Honeyville and Chaparral. The Irish Two Thousand and One Thousand Guineas were won by Right Tack and Wenduyne, the Oaks by Gaia, and the St. Leger by Reindeer. The Italian Derby was won by Bonconte di Montefeltro, the favourite. The French filly Glaneuse won the Gran Premio del Jockey Club in Milan. Don Giovanni won the German Derby, and Four Socks the Danish d'Essai des Pouliches ,


\ cents per pound wai do longer applied, however. The COmml d thai it would "not have a fixed buy in level bul will operate on a level that may vary up to

but not exceeding the grower level of 22^ cents."

The

Wool

International

Secretariat's

worldwide promotion scheme, based on the "Woolmark," entered its sixth year. Its aim was to establish wool as a distinctive quality fibre, and create a demand for wool that could not be met by substitute fibres. The support given to the scheme by growers indicated recognition of

its

success.

M.

F. M.) the manmade-fibre industry continued to grow in most countries, and although the fully synthetic fibres showed a faster rate of expansion than the cellulosic types, there was considerable evidence of growth in the high wet modulus types of viscose, which appeared to be replacing cotton in a number of end products. Added to the widening demand for blends of polyester fibres with cotton, a trend spreading rapidly in Europe and else-

(H.

Man-Made

Fibres.

In

1969,

where following major developments in the U.S., there was a substantial interest in similar blends of polyester fibre with high wet modulus rayon. The term high wet modulus became widely used to embrace the modified viscose fibres that tended to complement if not displace the polynosic types, though both types could be regarded as high wet modulus. There was a notable expansion in demand for acrylic fibres in several countries and, in the U.K. particularly, the development of spun acrylic yarns on a modified cotton system to compete directly with worsted spun yarns for double jersey knitting was a major factor. In several countries there appeared to be some overproduction of false-twist nylon yarns for stretch materials, and in the U.K. the overtaking of demand by supply followed very rapid growth in the previous two years. This situation appeared to be a temporary phase as there was believed to be scope for a much wider use of nylon and indeed polyester yarns in this form. In the polyester-stabilized false twist section, the promotion of jersey fabrics for men's suitings gained considerable momentum during the year. Gradually more was being heard of second-generation synthetic fibres. Nylon with an onter skin of low melting point which did not require any spinning, weaving, or similar techniques began to be used for floor coverings. So far this development seemed to be confined to relatively rigid materials, Several bicomponent acrylic fibres were gradually finding a place in the fashioned knitting industry. Development of carbon fibres, first produced in the U.K. and subsequently used for a revolutionary plastic material for aircraft and precision engineering, began to evolve on an international Male. The materials, de scribed as a quarter the weigh! and lour times the strength of steel, seemed likely to

ome more

be
(/

I"

lllr

mid thr

Industrial

Heartland

lution tin,,

|

Industrial City (1969) (

196!

ol the

|

\

Tka Industrial W

\„

When

427

was on hand, documents could be retrieved and displayed for the user. These documents could then be accepted a satisfactory search formulation

selected

Information Science and

or, alternatively,

Technology

they could be used for further search

negotiation and for adjustment of the query formula-

Information science and technology

is

concerned with

the structure and properties of scientific information,

tion until satisfactory output products could be obtained.

As the research and development of new informamore attention was

the techniques for information handling, the charac-

information processing devices, and the design and operation of information handling systems. For some years this area has been of concern to an teristics of

tion handling devices continued,

increasing segment of the population, in part because

information stores. Thus, a number of studies were made of problems concerning the copyright and

the production of printed materials, for example,

being paid to the social problems connected with large

patent protection of the stored and easily reproducible

of the outpouring of potentially useful information is

The

information.

greatest

concern,

however,

was

thought to increase at a rate of about 10% per year in part because of the ever mounting costs of infor-

voiced in connection with the protection of privacy

mation generation and information handling, and in part because of the increasing technical difficulties in distributing selectively a large volume of information

While large information networks provided useful information sharing and often permitted rapid fulfillment of individual user requirements, as in automatic

to a large

Two

number

of stored information.

ticket reservation systems or automatic credit certifi-

of users.

were potentially far-reaching from a practical point of view related to the U.S. govprojects

Insurance

that

cation, adequate safeguards for the protection of sen-

operational, individual information centres could be

sitive information were not generally provided. Before mechanized information networks could come into more widespread use, it would be necessary to create protective devices that would prevent unauthorized access to the information. Some methods developed for this purpose included special techniques based on user Bowler-hatted insurance men form elegant picket passwords before access is obtained, reversible encodline to protest refusal ing to conceal stored information, monitoring tech- of the London Royal niques to keep track of each file access, and processing Exchange to recognize

relieved of a great deal of effort currently devoted to

restrictions limiting access of certain consoles to only

ernment's interest in furnishing common, centrally

prepared information products to individual libraries and information centres. Under the National Program for Acquisitions and Cataloging, the Library of Congress was charged with the acquisition and cataloging throughout the world of rent interest. If this

the acquisition

A companion

and

;

library materials of curto

become

fully

classification of library materials.

project also conducted at the Library of

Congress was Project Cataloging)

all

program were

MARC

(Machine-Readable

this consisted of recording catalog

typewriter or graphic display output consoles. Rela-

were thus in compose text and pre-

tively sophisticated text editing systems

pare

it

for printing or typesetting.

The operations

nor-

mally provided included browsing in a text by going forward or backward a line or a page at a time; implementing structural changes among various text portions by redefining the arrangement between paragraphs or sections; and editing text by the insertion, deletion, or substitution of

words or phrases.

files.

Additional legal safeguards were expected

be created

to

to ensure fair use of stored

files.

data

on magnetic tapes in a standard format and selling them to participating libraries. These tapes could then be used by the receiving institutions to prepare acquisition records, catalog data, and related listings. These efforts were expected to prove of major consequence when the coverage became large enough to satisfy a large proportion of the requirements of individual information centres. More visible, but conceivably of less practical importance, were the many experiments under way in on-line text processing. These were usually based on a mechanized store of texts, books, abstracts, and documents. To manipulate the stored information, they generally comprised a keyboard input system and

existence that could be used to

certain

information (Gd. Sn.)

Insurance its growth during 1969 most nations of the non-Communist world. Total sales approximated $100 billion for the year, although there was great variation between different countries and regions. For example, the U.S. had more than 60% of the total premium volume, Canada 4%, Australia and New Zealand 2%, Western Europe 25%, and all Asia, Africa, and South America less than 10%. A similar disparity was apparent in the ratios of

Private insurance maintained in

life

insurance in force to national income. Canada,

where as

life

insurance in force amounted to almost twice

much as national income, had the highest ratio. Life and Health Insurance. U.S. life insurance

companies reached another milestone early in the life insurance in force passed one and

year when total

a quarter trillion dollars ($1,250 billion).,

By

year's

end the amount was more than $1,350 billion, reflecting an annual growth rate of approximately 9%. Average life insurance protection per family was $19,000, with group life insurance accounting for 43% of the

included query negotiation procedures whereby a user

Income of U.S. life insurers rose to $45 which an estimated $34 billion was from policyholder premiums and the remainder from investment and other income. Approximately 30% of premium income was from health insurance, 60% from life insurance, and 9% from annuities. Benefits paid by U.S. life insurance companies exceeded $15 billion, of which death payments accounted for about

suggested certain search terms that were then supple-

43%.

mented by information supplied by the system in the form of stored dictionaries or lists of related terms.

midyear.

aggregate.

manu-

billion, of

ally indexed information items, using a preconstructed vocabulary of allowable information identifiers. Less often, the information content analysis was also mechanized, and information identifiers were automatically

assigned to stored items.

The

retrieval process usually

KEYSTONE

See also Electronics.

Several dozen on-line retrieval projects were also of interest. These were often based on stored,

their union.

Company assets amounted More than 42% was

to over

$192

billion at

invested in bonds,

37%

Inland Waterways: Transportation

see

6%

428

in

mortgages,

Insurance

in

real estate,

in stocks,

5%

and

in

6%

in policy loans,

miscellaneous assets.

largest relative change occurred which rose approximately 14%.

in the

3% The

stock holdings,

was expected that the net rate of return before U.S. income taxes in 1969 would be above 5% for the first time since 1930. One of the major changes in life insurance during 1969 was the rapid affiliation of life insurers with related financial services such as mutual funds and It

variable annuities.

Health insurance

grew rapidly dur-

in the U.S. also

ing 1969. Rising medical costs were a definite factor, as well as broadened group health insurance coverage.

Medicare payments for persons 65 and over rose

cor-

respondingly, both for the basic hospital and nursing

by social security taxes (Part A) and supplementary optional program for physiand miscellaneous medical costs (Part B). Total

benefits paid for the cians'

by private insurers amounted to more than $15 billion; somewhat less than one-half came from the Blue Cross-Blue Shield type of association and the remainder from other insuring organihealth benefits paid

zations.

Despite the steady pressure on personal incomes, for life insurance in the U.K. remained buoyant in 1968, and the industry broke all previous rec-

demand

New

ords.

ordinary and industrial

(home

service)

insurance totaled £8,340 million, compared with £7,131 million in 1967. lion

was written

Of the new

in the

lion in the industrial section. to secure the

new

business, £7,602 mil-

ordinary branch and £738 mil-

New premiums

necessary

benefits were £385 million,

com-

pared with £346 million in the previous year. A gross investment yield of 9% was general throughout the

and bonus distributions to policyholders were at or above previous levels. Property and Liability Insurance. Sales in the U.S. in 1969 rose almost 8% to approximately $30 billion, more than 40% of which was automobile insurance. The ratio of losses and expenses to premiums was expected to be about the same as in 1968, or slightly more than 100. Homeowners' and commercial industry,

multiple-peril insurance

and

most

premiums

rose to $3 billion,

emphasized such features as increased use of deductibles and endorsements that automatically raised the coverage to keep pace with inflation. Indications were that fire losses would increase by 7 to 10% in 1969. Fire damage was approaching $2 billion per year, and windstorm damin

age,

states revised contracts

after a

slight

decrease in

1968, was approxi-

mately $1.5 billion. Proposed solutions for the problem of rising automobile accident costs ranged from minor revisions of the existing tort liability laws to a complete shift to compensation plans that would pay injured parties regardless of fault. Major changes' were not likely, however, until the results of a Department of Transportation study were released in 1970. Accessibility of insurance coverage to the public

was increased

in 1969 with the inauguration of Fair Access to Insurance Requirements (FAIR) plans in

bama, and Virginia. The insured loss was predicted at $100 million-$200 million. Spring floods and summer tornadoes in the Midwest were additional causes of loss. Riot damage in U.S. cities and campuses amounted to $15 million, much less than had been anticipated.

The worldwide premium income

member com-

rose 11.6% in 1968 to £3,099 million, of which automobile insurance accounted for £603 million, fire for £495 million, and accident (nonmotor) for £459 million. The 0.8% underwriting loss of £12.9 million was the largest since BIA statistics were first compiled in 1965. Only miscellaneous accident insurance remained profitable, and even in this area profits declined. The companies netted a record £991.6 million in premiums on overseas fire, motor, and miscellaneous business in 1968, an increase of 15% that included some benefit

from the 1967 sterling devaluation. Half of this total was earned in the U.S., where difficult underwriting conditions and inflation were offset by revenue on invested funds and reserves. The trading accounts of Lloyd's Underwriters on a three-year basis reflected the closure of the 1966 account with an underwriting

compared with a £38 million loss Only the life, automobile, and aviation sectors of the market showed a profit. For marine insurers 1968 was slightly improved, but major casualties continued at a high level. Following disastrous years in 1964 and 1965 and only marginal results in 1966, a firmer approach was taken to hull and cargo renewals. Marine premiums of BIA loss of £18.5 million,

in 1965.

members

24%

rose

in 1967, a high proportion of this

coming from overseas. During 1968, 157 vessels, with an aggregate gross tonnage of 675,054, were totally lost, compared with 163 vessels with 746,834 gross tonnage in 1967. Ships sailing under Greek, Liberian, and Panamanian flags accounted for nearly half the number and more than half the tonnage. The London aviation insurance market was involved in a loss of £7,250,000 by the destruction or near-destruction of 13 aircraft as the result of the Israeli attack

The

on Beirut international airport

in 1968.

incident served to highlight the problems of po-

and war risks. The loss of an Aer Lingus Viscount over the Irish Sea, followed by the crash of a British Eagle Viscount over West Germany, was of

litical

added concern to underwriters in view of the imminent introduction of jumbo jets. With jumbo jet hull values estimated at $20 million each, and

people on board with a possible

some 400

$75,000 to $100,000 per person, the potential charge for one incident reached the staggering sum of $50 million to $100 liability of

million.

An unprecedented

series of

weather catastrophes

— from

in

Glasgow storms in January cosl insurto the southeastern floods in September ance companies over £20 million. ire damage rose 11% to reach £100 million for the firsl time. The upsurge in crime continued; burglary premium the

U.K.

in

1968

—

1

I

rose sharply,

but

most

states.

unprofitability

come

eligible for federal riot reinsurance.

panies paid out

These plans were being adjusted to beFlood insurance, also backed by federal reinsurance, became available to property owners in a few selected areas in mid-1969, with 40 regions scheduled for eligibility as the system matured. The major disaster in the U.S. in 1969 was Hurricane Camille, which caused an estimated $500 million to $1 billion damage in Mississippi, Louisiana, Ala-

of

panies of the British Insurance Association (BIA)

were hardly

of

tin's account. £16.3 million in

d with £1 5.9 million in

At the end of 1968,

1

end the

to

sufficient

BIA member com* ei,

COm»

967.

tin- t.uiti

rating system for auto-

mobile, employers' liability, and fidelity guarantee omp.inv business n end. and e.i< h member


n

duction in the price of coverage for the good driver while

all

other motor costs continued to

rise.

(D. L. Bi.; P. Ss.) See also Cooperatives; Disasters; Industrial Review; Social Services.

Encyclopaedia Britannica

Films.

Casualty

Insurance

(1954).

was agreed

Krogers for Brooke and two

to release the

other prisoners. In addition, four Britons received permission to marry their Soviet fiancees as part of the

On

July 24, 1969, Brooke returned to London. October. 24 the Krogers left London by air for

deal.

On Warsaw

—and

supposedly a

home

press ignored this event, which

cance since as a result of

Intelligence Operations Espionage continued throughout 1969, and counterespionage produced its usual sporadic crop of arrests. The year was notable for the agreement between the U.K. and the U.S.S.R. under which the Soviet spies Helen and Peter Kroger were exchanged for the British lecturer Gerald Brooke. In one of the year's most curious spy cases, Hannsheinz Porst, West German millionaire and East German spy, received a mild sentence for his espionage activities. Morris Cohen, alias Peter Kroger, and Leona Petka, alias Helen Kroger, both U.S. citizens and members of the U.S. Communist Party since the mid- 1930s, began their work with the Soviet spy network operating in the United States under Rudolf Abel. They vanished from New York in 1950 within hours of the arrest of David Greenglass, who had been detained on charges of stealing atomic secrets and who had denounced his sister Ethel and her husband, Julius Rosenberg. The Krogers reappeared under that name in London in 1954 with forged New Zealand passports. They bought a suburban house in Ruislip. near London, and opened an antiquarian bookshop in the Strand. Their home was equipped with a powerful radio transmitter, which was used by the head of a Soviet spy ring, Konon Trofimovich Molody, alias Gordon Lonsdale, who possessed a forged Canadian passport.

The main task of this spy ring was to obtain secret information about ships of the Royal Navy and particularly about the work going on at the Admiralty Underwater Detection Establishment at Portland, The three spies, with their two English aides, Harry Houghton and Ethel Gee, were arrested on Jan. 7, 1961. On March 22 Lonsdale was sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment, and the Krogers to 20 Dorset.

years each.

New York on Nov. 15, 1957, 30 years' imprisonment, was swapped on Feb. 10,

Abel, sentenced in to

1962, in West Berlin, for the U.S. pilot Francis Gary Powers. Lonsdale was exchanged on April 22, 1964, for Greville Maynard Wynne, British businessman

and secret agent. The Soviet Committee for State Security (KGB or Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti) had arrested Gerald Brooke in Moscow on April 25, 1965. Brooke, a London lecturer, had acted as a courier for an anti-Soviet emigre group, carrying coding instructions concealed in a postcard album and a dressing case. He was sentenced on July 23, 1965, to a year in jail and four years' detention in a labour colony for anti-Soviet activities.

Almost immediately after Brooke's trial, feelers were put out from Moscow about the possibility of swapping Brooke for the Krogers. The British government, aware of the implications of such a deal, showed no interest until more sinister hints were dropped that Brooke could be tried again on new charges and sentenced to another 10-15 years. This time, on humanitarian grounds, the British government opened discussions with the U.S.S.R., and it

in

Lublin

—under

The Polish some signifi-

the pretense that they were Polish citizens.

was

of

there were no major Soviet

it

spies in British or U.S. prisons, or British or U.S.

agents in Soviet hands.

Hannsheinz Porst, 46, a Nurnberg millionaire whose camera shops were on almost every main street in West Germany, agreed in 1953 to work for the East

German

security service.

Two

years later he secretly

German Socialist (Communist) Unity Party and, more openly, the West German Free Democratic Party (FDP). Porst became friendly joined the East

with Erich Mende, then leader of the

West German

chancellor of the

FDP

coalition

and vicegovernment.

Porst was arrested in October 1967 and was released

on

bail of

DM.

million.

1

At

his trial,

which began in

May

1969 before the Federal Court at Karlsruhe, the prosecution uncovered Porst's relations with the East

German Ministry of State Security, to whom he had passed confidential political information. On July 8 Porst was sentenced to two years and nine months in and fined

jail

On zen of

German

KGB

the

aliases,

10,000. citi-

nationality and an important agent of

working

in

West Germany under many

presented himself in West Berlin to the local Intelligence Agency was flown to Langley, Ya. of the CIA informed Hubert Schriibbers,

representative

(CIA) and

An

DM.

Oct. 10, 1967, Evgeni Runge, 39, a Soviet

officer

of

the

Central

the next day

president of the Federal Office for the Protection of

Bundesamt fiir Yerfassungsschutz), Runge had betrayed four of the West German members of his spy ring. Two of them were Heinz Sutterlin, a Bonn press photographer, aged 45, and the Constitution

(

that

his wife

Leonore, 39, nee Heinz. Both were arrested,

but Leonore, a secretary at the West German Foreign Ministry, committed suicide in prison three days later after she had discovered that Sutterlin had

married her on KGB orders. Heinz Sutterlin was sentenced on November 28 by a Cologne court to seven years' imprisonment. He had passed to the U.S.S.R. photographs of confidential documents to which his wife had had access since 1962. She had taken home the documents in a false-.bottomed handbag, which her husband had provided. Runge was not allowed by the CIA to be present in court in Cologne, but gave evidence at a special hearing in the U.S.

On April 12, Rupert Sigl, 44, an Austrian-born member of the Soviet KGB, defected to the CIA in West Berlin. According to a West German newspaper, Sigl brought with him the names of as many as 250 Soviet agents working in

West Germany.

Yuri Loginov, 36, a Soviet spy arrested in South Africa in September 1967, was flown from Pretoria to London and from there to West Berlin to be exchanged in July for ten West German agents detained in East Germany. On February 25 Yuri Vorontsov, 45-year-old head of

the political section

of

the Soviet

Embassy

at

Bonn, was killed in an automobile accident. The West German magazine Der Spiegel alleged on March 24 that Yorontsov was a KGB officer with the rank of colonel and head of a group of 80 out of 100 secret

429

Intelligence

Operations

430

Inter-American Affairs

cials

employed

staff

fee

Soviet

at

the

embassy and at the West German offi-

trade mission in Cologne.

admitted that the Federal Intelligence Service or Bundesnachrichtendienst) had been trailing

BND

(

Relations between the Latin-American republics and

orontsov for 2\ years.

\

The Soviet

press retaliated.

On May

published an. article denouncing the

Moscow

23 Izvestia

West German em-

and attacking Horst Gropper, the former ambassador, and many high-ranking diplomats in the political and economic sections of the embassy. Komsomohkaya Pravda had earlier accused Ludwig Lerner, a third secretary who had been posted to Moscow in 1965, of being the head of a spy network and a well-trained agent of the BND. bassy

in

as a "nest of spies,"

left Moscow. West German Army major, Hans Joachim Kruse, appeared on East German television

Shortly afterward Lerner

On May

3

a

and explained that he had been instructor of tactics at the officers' training college in Hamburg. According to Kruse, when he discovered that during one year the number of active neo-Nazi National Democratic Party (NPD) members in the Bundeswehr jumped from 400 to 1,000, he had become convinced that the policy of the West German government "did not serve peace," and had decided to escape to East Germany. On August 13 French police charged Francis Roussilhe, 40, a French interpreter at NATO headquarters in Brussels, with working for Romania against French military, diplomatic, and economic interests. At the same time a Romanian diplomat disappeared from Paris and three others were expelled. Lieut. Col. Charles de Jurquet de last

survivors

squadron that II, committed

la Salle d'Anfreville,

one of the

Normandie-Niemen fighter fought with the Soviets in World War the

of

suicide. Lieut. Col. Bernard Marie du Cheyrou de Beaumont d'Abzac de la Douze, head of the Eastern European section of the Ministry of Defense, died while returning from a visit to Bucharest when his car hit a military truck on the wide road

The commanding officer Deuxieme Bureau said in his funeral "Du Cheyrou accepted the risk of making the

leading to Bucharest airport. of the French oration,

Inter-American Affairs

supreme sacrifice." Six Frenchmen, including two minor Quai d'Orsay officials and members of the counterespionage organization, and a Romanian, Atanese Mihai, were detained on espionage charges. It was understood that the French counterespionage service received a tip-off from a defecting Romanian UNESCO employee, Ion

the U.S. were strained in 1969, although there were

some improvements

mutual understanding among The most significant development was a clarification of Latin-American grievances over economic aid and foreign trade in general and over financial relations with the U.S. in parin

the Latin Americans themselves.

ticular.

The election of Richard M. Nixon to the U.S. presidency aroused little enthusiasm and some anxiety in Latin America, partly because of recollections of the hostility that greeted him on his visit as vice-president in 1958, and partly because he had made it clear in his campaign speeches that he gave Latin America's problems low priority. Both the Andean group of Pacific coast countries and those nations involved in the Rio de la Plata Basin scheme owed their modest advancement to the growing skepticism engendered by the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) which proved unwieldy and geographically diffuse. The progress of the Central American Common Market (CACM) was checked in 1969 not only by immediate threats from Costa Rica and Nicaragua to suspend concessions previously negotiated but also more dramatically by a small-scale war between El Salvador and Honduras. There was hesitant progress in the development of the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which included former British territories in the area and might later embrace former French and Dutch colonies and perhaps the Dominican Republic. The kidnapping in September of the U.S. ambassador to Brazil, Charles Burke Elbrick, and his release in exchange for 15 political prisoners had no repercussions as both governments remained calm. Relations with the U.S. In his dealings with Latin America President Nixon showed considerable caution, which was widely (though probably wrongly) interpreted in the region as indifference. It was not until April that he addressed a meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS); although he de,

plored the failure of the Alliance for Progress to

achieve the social improvements in Latin America that were its main objective, he was not able to state that

U.S. aid would be available to meet

sufficient

Iacobescu.

In September the Swiss government announced the arrest of an aircraft engineer, Alfred Frauenknecht,

on charges of sending secret blueprints of

jet fighter

engines to Israel. It was alleged that the plans, prepared for the French firm SNECMA, which supplied

*-*

^NtT

5

HONDURAS

engines for the Mirage fighter, had been smuggled to Israel via West Germany. The French arms eml-

prevented Israel

from getting spare parts

for

its

l Nuev a j" Ocol

Mirages from France. U.S. intelligence operations in Vietnam were

a

ause

I

CARIBBEAN SEA

^"

^Tegucigalpa

'«£

of public controversy in 1969 as a result of the alleged '.reen murder by members of the U.S. Special of a Vietnamese double agent. (See Defense.) In South Vietnam in August aboul 100 persons were arrested and charged with "liaison with the it>ed as a Communist inenemy" in what v.

f San SalW)

I

Berets)

telligence network. Saigon police sources said thai the

group had contacts and France.

in

Cambodia, Hong Kong

llepan

?

Alrpo ft

o

to

1, 10

I

A

80

100

Km.

Ml.

%h*»i

.

\

These and related subjects

Latin America's development needs. His policy was to encourage investment of U.S. private capital in Latin America, in the hope that this would compensate for deficiencies in assistance from the government.

—especially the question

of the barriers preventing access of Latin-American

and other

industrial products to the U.S.

kets

—were discussed Mar and

at the

CECLA

rich

meeting

in

marVina

The implication

del

rates

Chilean foreign minister, Gabriel Valdes, presented

that official funds at low interest would be replaced by private capital demanding a much higher return was not welcomed in Latin

America.

As

importance of private enterprise with Latin America, Nixon announced in March the appointment as assistant secretary of state for Inter-American Affairs of Charles A. Meyer, a chain store executive with business experience in Latin America. In June Nixon asked the U.S. Congress for aid appropriations for Latin America of slightly above $600 million, which was less than the $765 million applied for by Pres. Lyndon Johnson but more than the $420 million authorized for 1968-69. Nixon's if

to stress the

in U.S. financial relations

plans were, perhaps, less radically different from those of his predecessors than

had been assumed, and the

Nixon

CECLA

stressed the importance of the

report in his

him

conversations with Nixon, and urged

to

take

suitable action.

The

was due in seemed to sensitive Latin-American feelings to show a lack of tact, particularly in light of the dispute between the military junta governing Peru and the International Petroleum Company (IPC) a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (New Jerfailure of the Rockefeller mission

part to

its

timing;

it

—

sey).

The junta introduced

a

strong

element

of

economy and

decided to resolve a long-standing legal and fiscal dispute by expropriating all the assets of IPC in Peru.

to

Latin

New York America.

to lead a fact-

This

was

fol-

lowed by a further deterioration in relations between the U.S. and Peru, which prompted the Peruvian military junta to state that Rockefeller's visit would be inopportune and pointless. Moreover, the timing of the mission for May-June gave the impression that Nixon was ignoring the meeting of the Comision Especial de Coordinacion Latinoamericana (CECLA) in Vina del Mar, Chile, on May 15-17; the idea of a special mission implied that nothing would be learned from the CECLA meeting (of foreign ministers), and also appeared to belittle the considered comments on U.S. financial relations with Latin America made by the secretary-general of the OAS, Galo Plaza Lasso, by the Committee for International Aid (sponsored by the World Bank), and by other well-informed bodies.

Other Latin-American governments followed the Peruvian example of declining to receive Rockefeller; in countries the mission did visit there were violent demonstrations of hostility. These reactions were reminiscent of those experienced by Nixon himself in 1958, but it was never clear perhaps not even in the demonstrators' own minds whether the expressions of antagonism were directed against Nixon, or Rockefeller, or Uncle Sam, or were merely additional evidence of the increasing frustration felt in Latin America at inadequate economic growth, unemployment, and an almost universal lack of opportunity. Galo Plaza pointed out in November 1968 that the

— —

-

failure of the Alliance

for Progress

the whole principle of bilateral official

and indeed of aid was in part

the result of bureaucratic restrictions, such as the

requirement that aid funds be used to buy U.S. prodwould not otherwise be imported. Moreover, aid funds were loans which, though at low rates of interest, had to be repaid. It was claimed that in 1968 approximately 75% of the Alliance for Progress funds were used to repay earlier loans, and the Com-

ucts that

PARADE

in

lems was certainly unjust. There was, however, a continuing element of bad luck in his dealings with Latin America. Nixon announced in February that he had asked mission

PICTORIAL

Washington in June. The report was also adopted as a basic document for the meeting of the OAS Inter-American Economic and Social Council in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, June 14-23. Soon after this meeting Pres. Carlos Lleras Restrepo of Colombia to

nationalism into a traditionally liberal

Gov. Nelson Rockefeller of

Affairs

incorporated into a report that the

accusation of indifference to Latin America's prob-

finding

431

Inter-American

No payment

for the expropriation was offered at first, view of a claim for unpaid taxes that greatly exceeded the value of the assets expropriated. This placed the Nixon administration in the embarrassing in

position of being constitutionally obliged to apply the

1962 Hickenlooper

amendment

requiring the cessa-

U.S. ambassador to Brazil,

economic and military aid after a specified Charles Burke Elbrick, who was abducted period of warning. In August, Nixon sent a special in September 1969 envoy to Lima, John Irwin (the ambassador having by Brazilian terrorists, was released in exchange been recalled), who persuaded the junta to deposit a for 15 political prisoners compensation payment in favour of IPC, thus elimi- held by the Brazilian nating the need to apply the amendment, even though government. the deposit was embargoed against the tax claim. This dispute was most embittered at the time when the Rockefeller mission would have visited Lima. tion of

Concurrently with these negotiations, the question of U.S. fishing vessels in waters claimed by Peru as

—

matter that had not previously been was used by the junta as another means of embittering relations with Washington (see below). It was to Irwin's credit that he not only avoided a breakdown of relations between Peru and territorial

given

much

a

attention

—

the U.S. but persuaded the U.S. administration to

increase Peru's sugar quota and the Peruvian junta to accept a new U.S. ambassador.

Rockefeller's report on his findings was

made pub-

November. Urging that the "special relationship" between the U.S. and Latin America be maintained, he recommended a number of economic

lic

in

reforms, including preferential treatment of Latin-

American exports, generous refinancing of debts owed to the U.S., and elimination of the provision that aid

money be spent for U.S. goods. He also urged that military and democratic regimes receive equal treatment, that recognition not be used as a means of expressing approval or disapproval, and that more military aid be provided to counter insurgency, although the Latin-American nations should be discouraged

from buying sophisticated weaponry.

It

was

clear

from

President Nixon's October 31

mittee for International Aid found that the- balance

statement on Latin America, however, that the administration did not intend to accept the full scope of Rockefeller's recommendations.

of loans, repayments,

and related U.S. exports under the heading of "aid" resulted in a net inflow from

Territorial Waters. In March the Chilean foreign minister began conversations with the other Pacific

Latin America into the U.S. of $175 million.

coast countries with a view to drawing up a formal

— 432

collective declaration on territorial waters.

At a con-

cept only, since there were great economic disparities

Inter-American

ference in Buenos Aires in August, Chile, Ecuador,

among

Affairs

and Peru discussed with the U.S. their 17-year-old claim to 200 mi. of offshore waters as the "maritime zone." The concept of the continental shelf and the waters covering it as an extension of national territory had been enunciated for the U.S. by Pres. Harry

the joint exploration and development of the area's

S.

Truman

in

1945;

the Pacific coast countries of

South America, having virtually no continental shelf on which to base a claim, chose the mean width of the Humboldt Current, which had the same importance as a continental shelf in providing their offshore

marine wealth. The shoals of anchovies in the Humboldt Current, for example, enabled Peru to become the world's major fishing nation. After the conference in Buenos Aires, Argentina and four Central American countries joined the Pacific group with declarations of jurisdiction extending 200 mi. off their shores. Regional Integration. The Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) held its eighth annual meeting in Montevideo at the end of 1968 and made good progress with the addition of tariff concessions to

member countries' national common list of goods

of the

by an additional

25%

lists.

The enlargement

with such concessions

of regional trade, so as to in-

clude virtually the whole of regional trade by 1973, proved unattainable, however, since it would have

meant including wheat and petroleum. Unanimous agreement on these important products was not obtainable, and the timetable for complete trade liberalization established in the Treaty of Montevideo had, therefore, to be abandoned. The plan to create a LatinAmerican Common Market to include LAFTA and the CACM appeared unattainable in the near future. The

LAFTA

secretariat was, however, arranging a series

of meetings to reconsider the whole concept as defined in the

Treaty of Montevideo.

The LAFTA proved to be make cdhesive, involving as

a difficult association to it

did countries of dif-

ferent levels of economic development and disparate

national interests, in an area of

little

geographical

unity that lacked effective transport services, pay-

ments mechanisms, and common economic and monetary policies. Because of these difficulties, hopes were Interior Decoration: raised for more effective forms of integration in less see Domestic Arts and unwieldy subregional groups. Sciences The Andean group was first conceived in 1967 as an International Bank for Reconstruction association of countries forming a geographical unit and Development: having common interests and reasonably similar levels see Development, Economic of development. Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, International Court of Peru, and Venezuela after several inconclusive meetJustice: ings finally achieved a treaty on May 26 in Bogota, see Law though Venezuela did not immediately sign it. This International Criminal limited success was largely the result of the enthusiPolice Organization: see Police asm of Pres. Carlos Lleras Restrepo of Colombia and International was seen as the first step toward an Andean customs Development union with internal trade liberalization and a common Association: external tariff, to be achieved by 1980, and a common see Development, Economic market, by 1990. Venezuela's reluctance to join International Finance exactly as with LAFTA was said to be due to its Corporation: high cost structure and consequent vulnerability to see Development, Economic competition. In July the Andean group treaty was apInternational Labour proved by the LAFTA council as "compatible," and Organization: after ratification by Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and see Labour Unions Peru, it came into force on November 24, with Lima

—

Law

over the latter's use of the waters of the upper Parana, and between Argentina and Uruguay over demarcation in the Rio de la Plata estuary. A treaty giving formal existence to the group was signed in Brasilia on April 23, and the Inter-Governmental Coordinating Committee, first set up in February 1967, was made the permanent executive body. Argentina subsequently suggested to Uruguay that petroleum in the Rio de la Plata estuary be exploited jointly, and the boundary dispute was not allowed to become serious. The Central American Common Market, which had earlier been outstandingly successful in increasing trade both internally and externally for its five members (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua), made some progress technically, but politically it was in danger of disintegrating. Costa Rica and Nicaragua had for two years faced balance of payments difficulties because of excessive imports.

A

protocol signed in July 1968 authorized the Comsecretariat to increase* external tariffs by

mon Market

30%, but no action was taken. Pres. Anastasio Somoza Debayle of Nicaragua accused the Common Market of being the cause of his country's payments difficulties, and Costa Rica imposed restrictions on trade within the CACM, against which the other members retaliated.

More

significant was the small war that broke out between El Salvador and Honduras. For some years Salvadoran peasant farmers had found it easier to obtain land in Honduras than in their own country. The government of Honduras, faced with an accumulated illegal immigration of about 300,000 Salvadorans, when its own population was only 2.5 million, attempted to halt the flow and to regulate land tenure. The government of El Salvador sought to protect the interests of its nationals in Honduras. A soccer match between the two countries led to excitement and violence and eventually to armed conflict. The OAS achieved a cease-fire, but trade between the two countries was more or less at a standstill. Toward the end of the year the CACM foreign ministers met in an attempt to break the deadlock, and it was announced that negotiations between the two countries would in July

begin early

1962 to ostracize Cuba. This decision, reflecting

International

Monetary Fund: see Payments and Reserves, International

Plata Basin group,

(

bers excepl the

view

of

thai

is,

countries with territory in the Parana-

guay River system

—was based on a geographical

of

the o

Cuba wai

ed

Irrelevant

and should be ended Other Latin American govern ments were likely to adopl this view, if only to ihow their independent e of the

„:

tin

Pampa

Ofthi rn

:mh

tin

/'
n

I

Bra U

(1951 Of

1'

I

I

I

I.

\

I

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil. Paraguay, and Uruguay that

I

Mexico, Chile and Venezuela expre

ini'inn consisting

N

I

determination to impose a commeri la] and diplomatii embargo on Cuba, had been adopted by all VS mi

mnl la

in 1970.

Cuba. Fidel Castro desisted from his attempts to export the Cuban revolution to the South American continent and seemed disposed to renew relations with any country willing to repudiate the OAS decision of

as the group's headquarters.

The Rio de

members. Essentially the scheme was for

resources. The plan was later enlarged to include economic integration and development of industries that would complement rather than compete with one another. The enthusiasm for the Rio de la Plata Basin idea survived disputes between Argentina and Brazil

International Law:

see

the

a'


6 67) C. 179; poultry (on

government's refusal to permit the opposition leader, Oginga Odinga, to address them. All but five of the students were subsequently readmitted to the college after signing an apology to the government and pledging total obedience to official rules. In March the government announced a five-year, £3 million housing development program. Nairobi would benefit most from the scheme, but £1 million was to be spent in Mombasa, and there were to be pilot projects in rural areas in an attempt to curb mass migration to towns. The budget introduced in June by James Gichuru, minister of finance, contained no remarkable features. Oginga Odinga branded it as an election budget since most of the changes envisaged appeared likely to reduce the incidence of taxation on poorer citizens while there were no startling measures to offset these minor concessions. To raise £1 million over and above the increased revenue arising from the normal expansion of the economy, estimated at £3.2 million, Gichuru proposed to move forward the dates

on which the corporation tax and surtax were payable. To finance development he hoped to raise £14 million from overseas. Tom Mboya, minister for economic planning and development, warned of deteriorating prospects for some of Kenya's main export crops, and while Gichuru was optimistic about the future of corn (maize) exports Mboya forecast a substantial loss on them for 1969-70; he also admitted that wheat production must aim to meet the needs of East Africa only since it would be impossible to compete in wider markets. Mboya's remedy was to concentrate on developing commodities of higher value, such as beef and dairy produce. These products, however, called for greater farming

I

13i;

involving

the

education

further

of

On July 5 Mboya was shot dead in Nairobi (see Obituaries). There were immediate fears of tribal conflict since

many Luo

Mboya)

(the tribe of

sus-

pected the politically powerful Kikuyu tribe of responsibility for Mboya's death. Vice-Pres. Daniel .Wap

Moi

declared that the assassination was

in his view motivated and, although he refused to offer any firm suggestion as to who was responsible, his statement that Western nations were not implicated led some to think thai he suspected Maoists oi being involved. On July 21, however, a Kikuyu, Nahaahon Isaac Njenga Njoroge, was charged with the murder. In September he was found guilty and wai latei eze

politically

cuted.

No

forthcoming concerning

evidence wai

complices, and no clear motive for the crime

wi

at

di

covered,

The seriousness

(

in

i

of

nl by the death ted

208.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1967); salt 25; magnesite 0.4, soda ash 105; gold Ctroy oz.) limesto meat (1968) 544; electricity (kwhr.; 1968) 380,000.

skills

farmers.

when highly

lite

to

loss

Mboj a wa critii al membei oi

eo\

the quit oi

ei

mm ml

U\ demon

the National

emblj defeated the government on July 11 on two mini tei and votes during a debate In which \

.'

;.i

mini

tei

were

ing a gratuity oi 20*

|

ed oi 'hen u

i

u

oi

Ulegallj

dun

approprial

datinj

1962. Earlier attacks of a similar nature

had been

defeated by Mboya's eloquence. In the National Assembly in August, Oginga Odinga

upon the government to deny or confirm that Kikuyu oath-taking ceremonies had taken place in called

President Kenyatta's house.

Rumours

of the revival

had circulated in Nairobi since Mboya's death. The oaths were said to demand loyalty to the president and to the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Although Arap Moi denied that the oathtaking ceremonies were taking place, Oginga Odinga of oath-taking

chose to regard the reports as evidence that

KANU

its own failure to provide the country with adequate leadership. This opinion he expressed in September at the first full-scale conference of the opposition Kenya People's Union (KPU) that had been permitted by the government in two years. leaders in the Western Province joined the chorus of

recognized

KANU

and accusations that oath-taking was spreading to Kenya citizens in London were made by Gideon Mutiso, assistant minister for education. Arap Moi, on instructions from Kenyatta, had issued a statement condemning forcible and illegal oath-taking, but this, Mutiso said, had failed to stop the ceremonies. In October Kenyatta was the centre of violent demonstrations in Kisumu, the home of Oginga Odinga, during which 1 1 persons were killed. With other opposition leaders, Odinga was placed under house arrest, and on October 30 the government banned the KPU, accusing the party of sedition and the fomenting of intertribal strife. Thus all 600 candidates for the 158 National Assembly seats contested in the December election ran on the KANU ticket. Nonetheless, the criticism,

however, when he asked the ruling Democratic Republican Party to push through a constitutional amendment removing the legal barrier that prevented him from seeking a third term as president; his second four- year term was to end in 1971. The original amendment barring a third term was Park's own doing. He had enacted it soon after his 1961 coup in order to prevent another long reign like the 13 years of his predecessor, Syngman Rhee. By June student rioting sparked by Park's con-

451

Korea

amendment

drive had assumed serious proApproximately 300 opposition leaders formed the Pan-National Struggle Committee in July, arguing that the proposed amendment and Park's reelection would lead to perpetual dictatorship. Support for the president came from 250 retired military leaders, who said that the country needed strong stitutional

portions.

leadership.

On

announcement

dum and,

July 25 the president made a surprise would order a national referen-

that he

went against the idea of amendBut public opinion was not assuaged. In August opposition members of the National Assembly went on strike in a if

the verdict

ing the constitution, resign immediately.

desperate attempt to block the

amendment

bill.

The

speaker thereupon bypassed the formal introduction WIDE WORLD

some dissatisfaction with the existing government. More than 70 incumbents, including five government ministers and five junior officials, lost their seats. Since 22 incumbents did not seek reelection, a large majority of the next National Assembly voters expressed

would consist of new members.

On December

12, shortly before the election, Presi-

dent Kenyatta announced the second five-year plan at a rally in Nairobi. tural output

The plan aimed

by more than

a third

to raise agricul-

and industrial pro-

duction by 75%.

(K.I.)

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda) (1962).

and sent the

bill to

the Cabinet for a 30-day public

notice as required under the constitution.

ber

is

of

eastern

Asia,

bounded by China,

the Sea of Japan, the Straits of Korea, and the Yellow Sea. It

is

divided into two parts at

the 38th parallel.

Republic of Korea (South Korea). Area: 38,022 sq.mi. (98,477 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 31,139,000.

Cap. and largest city: Seoul (pop., 1967

est.,

3,972,-

000). Language: Korean. Religion: Buddhist; Confucian;

On Septem-

was

to expire,

New Democratic Party dissolved itself hope of depriving three rebel members of their seats. The climax to this strange drama came on September 14 when the National Assembly held a session at 2:15 a.m. in an annex. Opposition members staging a sit-in strike in the main assembly hall were unaware of the meeting until it had passed the controversial bill. A rampage followed in which chairs and tables in the assembly hall were destroyed and the government imposed a curfew. Students rioted again and the National Assembly speaker resigned "to assume the rein the

country

Korea

the day before the notice period

the opposition

Korea A

7,

Tonghak (Chutokyo). President

Park Chung-hee;

prime minister,

in 1969,

Gen.

Gen.

Chung

II

Kwon. Political turmoil at home and Communist threats from the north kept South Korea on tenterhooks for most of 1969. Apparently to consolidate his position, President Park reorganized the Cabinet on February 15, creating three new ministers and a new portfolio

called the Unification

Research Board.

A

storm broke,

sponsibility" for the parliamentary crisis. The government's proposed referendum finally took place on October 17, and resulted in 65.1% support for President Park's proposal to seek reelection. Three days

Park made further extensive Cabinet changes. observers were inclined to believe that the political crisis at home made President Park and his administration overplay the Communist threat from the north. The South Korean Central Intelligence Agency claimed a Viet Cong-style National Unificalater

Some

South Korean riot police pursue university students in Seoul on July 4, 1969. Students were protesting a proposed constitutional

amendment

to allow

Pres. Park

Chung-hee

to run for a third term.

1

452

was being secretly organized by North Korean agents. In one week in July two prominent agents were executed in Seoul. In September a 12-man spy ring was said to have been smashed. Visiting U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon in California on August 20, President Park said that North Korea had completed preparations for another war in line tion Liberation Front

Korea

with

Communist

Kim II Sung's pledge to unify He warned that any weakening

leader

by 1970. of the U.S. anti-Communist defense line in Asia could risk another Korean conflict. Earlier he had invited the U.S. to use Cheju Island either as a replacement for Okinawa or as a new naval and air base. President Nixon renewed the U.S. pledge to support South Korea. It was reported that military aid would continue at about $160 million a year. There was no immediate response to the South Korean request for $100 million supplementary military aid that the U.S. had promised after the seizure by North Korea of the U.S. ship "Pueblo" in 1968. South Korea was particularly eager to increase its air and naval power; its 620,000-strong land army was reputedly the fourth largest in the world. A three-man U.S. Defense Department team visited Seoul in June with plans to the country

establish a production facility for

M-16

rifles.

The

U.S. also transferred several thousand carbines to the 2.5 million-strong

home

reserve force as part of a plan

to modernize the antiguerrilla equipment. In March about 700 U.S. paratroopers had been airlifted directly

from the U.S.

for "the longest airborne assault exer-

40 mi. S of Seoul.

cise in history"

Meanwhile,

economy pressive

the

government was

expecting

the

down in 1970 after a period of imgrowth. The director of the Bank of Korea to slow

reported that the economic growth rate in 1968 was

13.1%, which was 1.1% higher than anticipated. The per capita gross national product

from $143.20

(GNP)

increased

1967 to $164.40 in 1968. This he attributed to the "highest investment rate, of 24.5%, since 1954." However, Deputy Prime Minister Kim Hak Yul said in July that the GNP growth rate would decelerate in 1970 to 11% in real terms against 1969's estimated 15%. Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea). Area: 46,557 sq.mi. (120,583 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 13.7 million. Cap.: P'yongyang (pop.,

KOREA:

in

Korean Workers' (Communist) Party and chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier) in 1969, Marshal Kim II Sung; president, Choi tary-general of the

Yong Kun. Diligently pursuing political,

exchange rate (November 1969) of 305.10 won to U.S. $1 (732.24 won = £1 sterling). Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $433 million; (June 1968) U.S. $379.5 million. Budget (1969 est.) balanced at 324.4 billion won (including defense expenditure 60.3 billion won). Gross national product: (1968) 1,570,000,000,000 won; (1967) 1,245,100,000,000 won. Monev supply: (May 1969) 165,620,000,000 won; (May 1968) 139,510,000,000 won. Cost of living (1965= 100): (May 1969) 150; (May 1968) 135.

Korean fraternal delegation went to Moscow for the world conference of Communist parties in June, though Soviet Pres. Nikolai V. Podgorny had journeyed all the way to P'yongyang in May apparently to persuade the North Koreans to attend. Reflecting North

Korean

disapproval

of

Moscow's

warmth

toward the U.S., the president of the North Korean Supreme People's Assembly said to Podgorny that it was the Korean people who were "defending the western outpost of the socialist camp under difficult conditions in which they stand face to face with U.S. imperialism."

With China, North Korean border troops had at two clashes, first in December 1968 and again in March 1969, but both sides played down the incidents. South Korean intelligence sources reported in least

June that, according to evidence they had collected, North Korea would eventually turn to China rather than to the U.S.S.R. for support in over the South.

its

plan to take

With the U.S. the struggle was as bitter as in the "Year of the 'Pueblo'." Indeed, North Korea achieved a repeat performance with the shooting down, on April 15, of an American EC-121 spy plane with a crew of 31 and six tons of sophisticated electronic equipment on board. It happened on Kim II Sung's 57th birthday. President Nixon immediately announced that surveillance flights would continue and that in the future the planes would be protected, which provoked the North Koreans to issue a lengthy statement warning of "another total war in Korea." On August 17 they shot down an unarmed U.S. helicopter with a crew of three that had strayed into

passenger 23,200; commercial (including buses) 37,500. Railways (1967): 5,103 km.; traffic 9,577,000,000 passenger-km., freight (1968) 6,592,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1967): 63,freight 305,000 net 755,000 passenger-km.; ton-km. Shipping (1968): merchant vessels 100 tonnage gross tons and over 232; gross 473,991. Telephones (Dec. 1967) 343,743. Radio receivers (Dec. 1966) 2,632,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 78.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in pan rice 4,286 f. 301 (310); potatoes 17 (566); barley C. 2,084 (1,916); sweet potatoes and yams (1967) 1.671, (1966) 2.690; soybeans c. 222 (201); tobacco 70 (66); lish catch (1967) 749, (1966) 701. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1967); cattle 1,255; pigs 1,296; horses 25; goats h 1966) 161; poultry 17 Industry. Production (in 000; metrlt 1968): coal 10,242; iron ore (

pn hum

I|m

Medical Developments

louse oi Lords,

is

the

1

1

e "i

Sw

i

(

.

In \

England Ihe

!'

\U

y,

ruled

that the defendant

was not

guilty of violating sec.

5(b) of the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1965 as a person "concerned in the management of any premises used" for the purpose of smoking cannabis, because there

was no proof that she knew the premises were

being used for that purpose. The U.S. Supreme Court, in the case of Leary v. U.S. (395 U.S.

89 S.Ct. 1532), reversed the con-

6,

Timothy Leary

viction of

marijuana tax of all those

for violating the federal

This act required that the names paid the tax be turned over to law

act.

who

enforcement officials in states where possession, use, or sale of marijuana are crimes. The court said that compliance with this part of the tax statute resulted in a

form of self-incrimination,

Amendment The

legal

in violation of the Fifth

to the Constitution.

implications of organ transplants con-

tinued to be considered. In the U.S. the National Conference

of

Commissions on Uniform State Laws

drafted a model law concerning the donation of hu-

man

organs for transplantation. The draft was approved by the American Bar Association and enacted, in some cases with variations, in Kansas, Louisiana, and Maryland. The Committee of National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia drew up an elaborate proposal for the conduct of organ transplant operations.

One

interesting feature of this pro-

posal was the requirement that two medical teams be

—

one for deciding when further medical treatment of the donor has become useless and a sec-

involved

ond for carrying out the operation. In England a voluntary euthanasia bill was defeated by the House of Lords. In West Germany the Bundestag passed a law allowing castration of convicted sex criminals under limited circumstances. The castration could be performed only if the sex criminal was found likely to repeat his crime, was at least 25 years old, and consented to the operation, and if the crime was found to be directly attributable to exceptional sexual urges that could be eliminated by castration. (W. D. Hd.) The report concerning former Suffolk County Judge Floyd Sarisohn, appearing on page 254 in the 1968 Britannica Book of the Year, should not have been placed under the heading of "Major Crimes." No charge of any crime was ever made against former Judge Sarisohn. Further, the charge regarding Judge Sarisohn advising a prostitute was dismissed on appeal.

International Disputes.

A

large

Law. Boundaries and Territorial number of boundary adjustments

were made peacefully by negotiations during 1969.

An

800-sq.km. tract of territory in the Chaco was

transferred from Bolivia to Paraguay.

An agreement common,

signed by Venezuela and Brazil defined the

border and added about 1,000 sq.km. to Venezuela. After a century of dispute between the U.S. and Mexico, the island of El Chamizal in the Rio Grande to Mexico. An agreement signed in Moscow redefined part of the common frontier between Norway and the U.S.S.R. the old line had become partly obsolete following construction of a dam

was transferred

;

and the consequent formation of a lake on the border. India and Pakistan agreed on the complete demarcation of the Rann of Cutch region of Gujarat and Pakistan. A new dispute arose, however, between Iran and Iraq when Iran denounced the treaty of 1937 concerning the common frontier along the Shatt al Arab. Spain's claim to Gibraltar reached a more serious

West

461

stage with the closing of the land frontier and the cutting of telecommunications links.

The

UN

resolu-

Law

demanding termination of the colonial situation was rejected by Britain 1 as unacceptable and unrealistic. The attempt of the UN General Assembly to terminate South Africa's mandate over South West Africa proved fruitless, and South Africa continued to administer the territion in

Gibraltar by October

tory. In S. v.

Tukadeleni 1969 (1) S.A.153 (A.D.),

the Appellate Division held that the South African

courts had no power to review legislation that purported to extend to South West Africa, and that the South Africa Constitution Act of 1961, which denied

them the power

to inquire into the validity of

any

prevented them from testing statutes against the terms of the mandate. Sanctions against Rhodesia had no greater success during 1969 than previously, in spite of occasional prosecutions of businessmen for exporting goods to Rhodesia via South Africa. In October a bill was introduced into the Rhodesian legislature for the enstatute,

also

actment of a new constitution that would increase racial separatism and sever the final links with the British crown by declaring a republic. In West New Guinea (Irian Barat), the "act of choice" (which the UN had required as a condition of handing the territory over to Indonesia) was held and declared in favour of continued association with Indonesia. The latter thereupon claimed the dependency as an integral part of Indonesian national ter- Al Fatah terrorists ritory. The "act" was not a plebiscite, but a taking patrol the banks of the Jordan in 1969. of opinion from representatives of the population An Israeli military court chosen by the administrators. held that captured

The

success of the U.S. icebreaking tanker

"Man-

hattan" in forcing the Northwest Passage around the northern coasts of Canada to the newly discovered

terrorists

were not entitled

to protection as prisoners

of war under the terms of the Geneva Convention. BLACK STAR

— UPI

COMPIX

and Uruguay. Those Latin-American 200-mi. belt came into open with the U.S., and negotiations were opened

462

Spain, Brazil,

Law

states

I

that claimed a

conflict

try to find a satisfactory modus vivendi. (See Inter-American Affairs. ) Canada promulgated an to

order in council delimiting

its

3-mi. territorial belt

and a further 9-mi. exclusive fishing zone off Nova Scotia, Vancouver Island, and the Queen Charlotte Islands.

Wars and Interventions. The war in Vietnam consome U.S. troops were withdrawn, but this and other signs of a battlefield slowdown seemed to tinued;

have

Dr2&0^j

on the Paris peace negotiations.

little effect

The

war

civil

in

Nigeria also continued, as the

down condemnation from many countries on humanitarian grounds. Civil war broke out in Chad, and the government called on France to send troops under the Franco-Chad mutual assistance treaty. The Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia gave rise federal blockade of Biafra called

to

a

new

theory of "limited sovereignty,"

Soviet

apply to any state that fell within the sphere of influence of a major power. A war that broke out in June between Honduras and El Salvador (the so-called "soccer war") ended

which appeared

to

in a cease-fire after

strenuous mediation by the Or-

ganization of American States.

Under pressure from American Common Market, talks between the two countries were scheduled for early 1970. the Central

Page from Sirhan B. was part

The

Sirhan's diary

of copy introduced as evidence on Feb. 25,

1969, at Sirhan's for the murder

trial

^

fa-

Palestinian

\

oil fields led to

some concern

Canadian and waters

that

sovereignty over the Arctic territories might be disputed. Legislation was prepared to reinforce Canadian jurisdiction in the area. Even more activity took place in the field of maritime and water boundaries. This applied particularly to the continental shelf, but also to Lake Constance, where West Germany. Switzerland, and Austria began negotiations on their common boundaries. Interstate continental shelf boundaries were agreed between the U.S.S.R. and Poland (Baltic Sea and Gulf of Gdansk), Iran and Qatar (Persian Gulf), Brazil and Uruguay (South Atlantic), and Sweden and Nor-

way (Skagerrak/Kattegat). Negotiations

to the

same

end were opened between the U.S. and Canada. The dispute over the continental shelf boundaries between West Germany on the one hand and Denmark and the Netherlands on the other was the subject of an inconclusive judgment by the International Court of Justice in February (North Sea Continental Shelf Cases). Under the widely adopted equidistance principle contained in art. 6 of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958,

terrorist

The

took the war to

organizations

other countries by hijacking aircraft, bombing air-

of Robert F. Kennedy.

Alaskan

Arab-Israeli conflict intensified, with border

skirmishes increasing in frequency and scale.

West Germany,

which has a concave coastline, would have only a small area of the North Sea as compared with the convex Netherlands. The court held that the equidistance principle was not binding on West Germany (which was not a party to the convention), but neither did the principle that "each coastal state is entitled to a just and equitable share" apply. No single principle did apply, and the parties were told to renegotiate on the basis of equitable principles, all relevant circumstances, and the principle of natural

craft on foreign soil, and bombing buildings in several Western European countries. The Sea. Perhaps the biggest topic of discussion in international law circles was the question of jurisdiction and sovereignty over the seabed and its re-

sources outside the limits of the continental shelf.

Conferences,

discussions,

draft

proposals,

learned

and books proliferated. The main dispute was between the protagonists of national jurisdiction articles,

(by an extension of the continental shelf rules which can indeed be spelled out of the existing defi1958 Geneva Convention) and those favouring international jurisdiction (in trust for mankind as a whole; i.e., in effect, the poor countries). The UN committee on the peaceful uses of the seabed and ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction adopted its report to the General Assembly. Meanwhile, exploration of the deep-sea bed took place despite the uncertainty over its legal status. Saudi Arabia specifically claimed rights over the ocean floor resources in the Red Sea. Encroachment on the freedom of the high seas and nition of the continental shelf in the

be character as res nullius took other forms. construction of artificial harbours for supertankers in international waters was projected in a number of its

I

countries,

and the harbour off Kuwait was opened A similar development was the position-

during 1969.

ing at sea of giant

loading, as

Of

great

i

:iker

oi

was done oik ern

in

the Persian Gulf.

was the problem Of pollution.

The 1954 convention on largely ineffectual,

the

expo

detect

and

pollution

itates

ilar air

studies

The trend toward a 12-mi. belt of territorial waters was continued by, among others, Kenya, The Gambia,

liability

the to in. or

patroli of the lea Law

unauthorized discharge! oi had been initiated, and

prolongation of land territory.

of

were unwilling

oil tin-

A number

of

International

Maritime Committee produced two conventions for oil spillage at sea that were t0 DC

n

cussed at an international conference in 1970.

major

ing the a

The

COLDM/I

>>\v

damage caused by unlawful oil spillage up to of some $9.6 million. Both Sweden and

ML UH

maximum

the U.S.S.R. took initiatives to convene conferences of Baltic states to discuss cooperative efforts to pre-

vent or minimize

North Sea

oil

combating

introduced stringent ploration within oil

and a

its

Baltic.

Rhodesia

^1L

The

isyour

oil

The

pollution.

governing

home.Protectit

U.S.

oil

ex-

Dy rating

jurisdiction (primarily as a result off the

Soutti

California coast),

m

however, was not the only potential source of pollution. The proposal of the U.S. authorities to transport large quantities of surplus poison gas crosscountry and dump them in the sea caused a public Oil,

outcry and drastic modification of plans.

A

PiX

Sweden had dumped in the Baltic in the early 1930s were crumbling, and that if they released their contents there was enough to poison practically the whole

accused the Greek government of various undemocratic practices, including the torture of political prisoners. Facing almost certain expulsion,

was increasing concern about the new habit of netting salmon in the open sea. Salmon countries complained that they risked losing much of their salmon if the young fish were caught at sea before breeding. Adjudication.

International

The

International

Court of Justice found itself out of work when it gave judgment in its last remaining cases, the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases and Concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company Ltd. There was a flurry of speculation on the future of the court. The European Court of Human Rights, on the other hand, seemed at last to have picked up steam, and although it did not deliver any judgments during 1969, it had several cases on hand. In at least one of them, involving Belgium, it was expected to give judgment early in 1970. Other events included the final adoption of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties; the coming into force of the Tokyo Convention of 1963 on offenses and certain other acts committed on board aircraft and the growing agitation for even stronger rules to prevent or punish aircraft hijacking; the further consideration by the International

mission of

its

Law Com-

draft articles for a convention on the

subject of relations between states and international organizations; the continuing

work

of the

UN

work-

ing party on direct broadcasting satellites; the legal

worked out by the UN legal subcommittee on the peaceful uses of outer space, relating to compensation for damage caused by objects launched into outer space; and proposals that a special UN membership category be created for "microstates." International Organizations. Two Latin-American groupings of potential importance appeared: the Andean Common Market (Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia Venezuela for the time being standing aloof) and the Rio de la Plata Basin Treaty (Argentina, Bolivia. Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay). principles

—

The Council

Europe continued

its usual activiestablishment of a convention on the protection of water from pollution. More impor-

ties,

of

in particular

was the controversy over the membership of Greece. The action brought against Greece before the European Commission of Human Rights by the

tant

Una uraai

at tka

Imtm* W*W

YOU

Scandinavian states and the Netherlands reached its conclusion and the commission's report was published

fisheries, there

wtaX

um term

agraM

Mi

.jL,ccf\

apprehension also followed a report that the concrete canisters surrounding large quantities of poison that

marine

Tta

ripple of

of the Baltic.

lab i

Brttaia

before the Senate provided for unlimited

field of

Mr-waM

IB

Kg

liability in cases of negligence.

In the

SMI1H Sill?

agreement to exchange

regulations

seepage from a rig bill

the

pollution in

states signed an

information on

of

II

tanker firms agreed on a scheme for meet-

oil

in

November.

It

Greece withdrew from the Council. In December 1968 the Nordic countries (excluding Iceland) produced a report on closer economic cooperation (Nordek), which was considered at a prime ministers' meeting in Stockholm on January 18-19. A further committee of experts prepared a second report and draft treaty by July, and this was the subject of extensive public discussion.

Expansion of the European Communities became French Pres. Charles de Gaulle. The European Commission produced an updated favourable report on admission a practical possibility with the resignation of

of the existing applicants

— the

U.K., Ireland, Den-

mark, and Norway. Negotiations were expected to begin in 1970. (See European Unity.) Despite a number of traumatic breaches of the Community spirit by national governments (e.g., French negotiation of a trade treaty with the U.S.S.R. without involving the Commission, West German unilateral imposition of import duties on agricultural produce after floating the mark, Belgian and Italian refusal to implement the directive requiring the valueadded tax to be introduced in 1970), many advances were made. The convention on recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments in civil and commercial matters and a first-draft directive on freedom to supply services within the legal profession were major legal steps. The Commission for the first time imposed fines on high-ranking businesses for cartel policies violating art. 85 and 86 of the Rome Treaty (the quinine and the aniline dyes cases, respectively). In the aniline dyes case, the Commission went further and imposed fines on four foreign (non-EEC) companies. This attempt to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction was resisted, and the matter was expected to be taken to the Court of Justice at Luxembourg. Family Law. The most revolutionary development was the Swedish governmental proposal, embodied in the terms of reference of a committee set up to consider reform of the marriage laws, to abolish in practice the differences between the married and the unmarried state. Thus, the same laws of inheritance, distribution of property,

and maintenance would ap-

ply whether children were legitimate or illegitimate

and whether a union was or was not registered as a marriage.

FROM

PUBLIX

Conflicting advertisements in

June 18, 1969,

issue

of "Rhodesia Herald"

oppose and support proposals for

new

constitution to ensure

minority rule by whites.

464

Lebanon

reform the divorce law by of marriage the sole ground (but in effect retaining the old matrimonial offenses under a new name and merely adding divorce by consent after two years and unilateral divorce In the U.K. the

allegedly

bill to

making breakdown

after five) received the royal assent in October, after

Law Commission had produced

the

its

proposals for

The

dealing with the property aspects of divorce.

would not come into force until January 1971 when, it was assumed, the more fundamental changes recommended by the commission would also be law. A report on marriage and divorce was published in Kenya, which recommended breakdown of marriage as the sole ground for divorce and which had important things to say about the equality of husband and wife, the position of polygamous marriages, and consent in marriage. This report coped with the problems of a pluralist and African society and was expected to have considerable influence. Consumer Protection. The effects were felt of two legislative events of major importance: the U.K. Trade Descriptions Act, 1968, and the U.S. Truth in Lending Act, 1968, both of which imposed strict standards on traders when selling goods or services to customers. Many other efforts were made toward consumer protection an area of increasing concern to law reformers including the Australian Uniform Packaging Code, the New South Wales Consumer Protection Act, and Canadian proposals for a series of statutes on consumer protection. Censorship. The most far-reaching consideration bill

—

—

censorship took place in the Scandinavian

of film

countries (see Court Decisions and Related Develop-

ments, above).

An

Indian report on film censorship

recommended considerable liberalization of censors' practices, particularly by allowing kissing in Indian and even,

films

certain

in

cases,

the portrayal

of

nudity. In the U.K., a report issued under the auspices of (but not by) the Arts Council

recommended

aboli-

tion of the offense of publishing obscene matter, but

the

home

such an

secretary stated that he would not support initiative.

High Court held

In West Germany, the Federal Fanny Hill was not obscene

be punishable, literary descriptions of sexual must be gross and perverse. In Finland a press council was set up, which would embrace radio and television broadcasting as well. A

since, to

ombudsman" was

instituted in

Sweden

(in ad-

dition to the existing press council) to handle

com-

from the public and, where appropriate,

initi-

plaints

ate proceedings against newspapers.

Administrative Law. The institution of an ombuds-

man was

officially proposed for the Netherlands, Ireand some other countries. The British ombudsman was also appointed to the new post of ombudsman for Northern Ireland. The government

land,

intended to extend his jurisdiction to cover local authorities as well as the central administration, to

which he was at

In Sweden the first new combined and expanded

first restricted.

report was issued of the

ombudsman ombudsman

office; in

Norway, the

since his jurisdiction

first

report of the

was extended

include local authorities was published. Also

in

to

Nor-

way, the new Administrative Law Statute was ordered by the Storting to come into force on Jan. 1, 1970.

New

principles of tortious liability of civil servants

were contained

The

in

a

Swedish government proposal.

principle of publicity in administration, an esof Swedish and Finnish administrative was embodied in government bills in both Nor-

sential part

law,

two years

It

had been introduced

in the U.S.

earlier.

Serious concern was felt in inability of

the judicial

many

machine

countries at the

cope with the

to

demands being put upon it. In Italy the machinery was breaking down. Far-reaching reforms were being worked out in France and the U.K., and in Sweden a thoroughgoing reorganization of the court structure

was under way. See also Crime;

(N.

M. H.)

Defense; Police; Race Relations.

Encyclopedia Britannica Films. Understanding the Law —Equal Justice for All (19S3); The Congress (1954); The Supreme Court (1954); The Bill of Rights of the United States (1956); The Constitution of the United States (1956); Magna Carta, Part I (Rise of the English Monarchy) (1959) Magna Carta, Part II (Revolt of the Nobles and the Signing of the Charter) (1959); Justice Under Law (Gideon Case) (1966): Equality Under Law The Lost Generation of Prince Edward County (1967); Freedom to Speak (N.Y. v. Feiner) (1967); Equality Under Law California Fair Housing Case (1969); Free Press vs. Fair Trial by Jury The Sheppard Case (1969). ;

— —

—

Lebanon A republic of the Middle East, Lebanon is bounded by Syria, Israel, and the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 4.015 sq.mi. (10,-

400 sq.km.V Pop. (1968 est.) 2,580,000. Cap. and largest :

city:

Beirut

(pop.,

1961

298.129). Language:

est..

Arabic. Religion: approximately

50%

Christian,

34%

Muslim. President in 1969, Charles Helou; prime ministers. Abdullah Yafi to January 8 and, from January 15, Rashid Karami. Lebanon was gravely disturbed in 1969 by internal disunity over the Palestine problem and the Palestinian guerrillas. In January Lebanese and Arab nationalists among the Lebanese were united in criticism of the government for its total failure to defend Beirut airport against the Israeli raid on Dec. 28, 1968, and 25,000 students of all political persuasions demonstrated demanding the introduction of conscription

that

intercourse

"press

way and Denmark.

Lebanese mans a machine gun Nov. section of Tripoli.

The

city

2,

1969,

was the scene of

in

rebel-held

fighting

the Lebanese-guerrilla warfare brought about by the government's decision to prohibit guerrilla activity. in

UPI

COMPIX

and a more vigorous defense policy. On January 8 the resignation of the government of Abdullah Yafi was accepted, and on January 15 Rashid Karami returned to power. The Maronite Christian leaders, Pierre Gemayel and Raymond Edde, immediately resigned because their ally in the right-wing Triple Alliance, former Pres. Camille Sham'un (Chamoun), had not been invited to join the new government.

The Karami government was increasingly embarrassed by the presence of Palestinian guerrillas in southern Lebanon and especially by members of Al Saiqah, the Baathist group supported by the Syrians. In April, after a clash between the Lebanese Army and Al Saiqah, there was serious rioting. Curfews were imposed for a week and on April 24 Karami resigned, saying that he would not take office again until a common policy concerning the Palestinian problem had been worked out. This proved impossible. The Al Fatah guerrilla leader, Yasir Arafat (see Biography), came to Beirut for talks which were inconclusive despite mediation by the United Arab Republic. To avoid forcing the issue President Helou retained Karami as the head of a caretaker government. Israel launched several attacks on alleged guerrilla bases in Lebanon and during October 21-November 13 Syria

border with Lebanon in retaliation for Lebanese attacks on guerrillas. Karami resigned once more, but later agreed to remain in office. closed

its

Armed

clashes between the guerrillas

and Lebanese

troops occurred frequently in late October, with the establishing

guerrillas

strongholds in southern and

eastern Lebanon. Negotiations to end the conflict were

LEBANON Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 365,403; secondary, pupils 96,482; primary and secondary, teachers 2S,00S: vocational, pupils 1,482, teachers 446; teacher training, students 1,936, teachers 356: higher (including 4 universities), students 23,475, teaching

(1965-66) 1,434. Finance. Monetary unit: Lebanese pound, with an (L£7.40 = £1 official rate of L£3.08 to U.S. $1 sterling) and a free rate (Oct. 1969) of L£3.23 to U.S. $1 (L£7.70 = £1). Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $321.8 million; (June 1968) U.S. $318. 2 million. Budget (1968 est.) balanced at L£716 million. National income: (1965) L£3,154 million; (1964) L£2.861 million. Money supply: (May 1969) L£l,778 million; (May 1968) L£l,648 million. Foreign Trade. (1967) Imports L£1.782 million;

staff

exports L£453 million; transit trade (through the free port of Beirut) L£957.7 million. Import sources: Svria 11%; U.S. 10%; West Germany 9%; France 9%; Italy 8%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: Saudi Arabia 20%; Kuwait 11%; Jordan 8%; Iraq 7%; Syria 6%: U.S. 5%; U.K. 5%; Libya 5%. Main exports: fruit and vegetables 24%; precious stones and metals 20%; textiles and clothing 8%; livestock and meat 8%; machinery 6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1967) 7,108 km. (including 1,990 km. main roads') Motor vehicles in use (1967): passenger 114.242: commercial Railways: (1967) 417 km.; traffic (1968) 12,763. .

6.7 million passeriger-km., freight 36 million net ton-

km. Air

traffic

(1967):

695,567.000 passenger-km.;

freight 65,034,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1968): vessels 100 gross tons and over 122; gross tonnage 443,-

881. Telephones

(Jan.

1968)

c.

130,000.

Radio

re-

ceivers (Dec. 1967) 451,000. Television receivers (Dec.

1967) 150,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): grapes 84 (88); wheat c. 45 (68); dry onions (1967) 44, (1966) 32: olive oil c. 6 (c. 13); figs 13 (13): bananas (1967) 27, (1966) 30; oranges 175 (168); lemons 61 (70); apples (1967) 157, (1966) 104; tobacco (1967) 6.4, (1966) 6.3. Livestock (in 000; 1966-67): cattle 97; asses 30; goats 431; sheep 198; poultry 14,980. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1967): petroleum products 1,664; cement (1968) 906; electricity

(kw-hr.) 907,000.

and on November 2 a cease-fire was Lebanon endorsed the presence of guerrillas on its territory in return for a pledge by the guerrillas to "cooperate" with the Lebanese Army. The Lebanese service-based economy was harmfully affected by the political uncertainty. Industrial exports rose sharply and transit trade was up because of

begun

465

in Cairo,

arranged.

Lesotho

closure of the Suez Canal but the banking, tourism,

and building sectors were depressed.

Md.)

(P.

Encyclopedia Britannica Films. The (1955); The Mediterranean World (1961).

Middle

East

Lesotho A

constitutional monarchy southern Africa, of Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa. Area: 11,716 sq.mi. (30,344 sq.km.). Pop. (1968): 1,018,135, almost 99% African. Cap. and largest city: Maseru (pop., 1966, 14,000). Language: English (official) and Sesotho. Religion: about 70% Christian. Chief of state in 1969,

Moshoeshoe

II;

Paramount Chief

prime minister, Chief Leabua Jona-

than.

Progress was

made

in all sectors of the

economy

accounted for more than 70% of Lesotho's gross domestic product, followed by the output from small industries in the west and diamond exploitation in the Maluti Mountains. In spite of continuing drought which necessitated some famine relief, record wheat, wool, and cattle exports were achieved in 1968; and irrigation and conservation schemes progressed despite traditional land tenure problems. Farmers from Taiwan demonstrated methods of growing vegetables, and in August the prime minister, Chief Leabua Jonathan, visited Taiwan and signed a cooperative agricultural agreement. A $2.8 million agreement with Lonrho, a private firm, for mining and prospecting in the Mokhotlong area gave fresh impetus to the potentially vitally imporin

1969. Agriculture

tant

still

diamond industry.

mainly budgetary and development million for 1969-70 and led to the provision of a variety of voluntary agencies. The main hope for achieving a viable economy in British

aid,

grants, totaled

more than £4

Lesotho,

Oxbow

the

hydroelectric

scheme

Maluti Mountains, reached the stage of

in

the

final feasi-

UN

financed by the Development Program. South Africa, with which Lesotho maintained a currency and customs union, agreed to act as main bility tests

power and water purchaser. The Lesotho National

LESOTHO Education. (1966) Primary, pupils 167,169, teachers 2,799; secondary, pupils 2.S25, teachers 120; vocational, pupils 173, teachers 29; teacher training, students 530, teachers 57; higher (University of Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland), students 344, teaching staff

(1964) 38.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: South African rand, with a par value of R 0.71 to U.S. $1 (R 1.71 £1 sterling). Budget (1969-70 est.) balanced at R 11,322,650 (including R 4,970,600 U.K. grant). Foreign trade (1967): imports R 23.8 million; exports R

=

4,168,000. Main exports: cattle 29%: diamonds 24%; wool 21%; peas and beans 11%; mohair 9%. The adverse trade balance is partlv offset by receipts from labour working in South Africa (R 2,450,000 in 196S69). Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1967; 1966 in parentheses): corn c. 110 (109); wheat c. 50 54; wool (1966) (r. 22). Livestock c. 2.2, (1965) c. 2.2; (in 000; 1967): cattle 376; sheep 1,526; goats 891. (58^);

sorehum (1966)

(1963) meat c. 22 54,

c.

Lawn Bowls: see

Bowling and Lawn Bowls

Lawn Tennis: see

Tennis

Lead: see

Mining

Leeward Islands: see Dependent States

7

466

Liberia

Development

continued

Corporation

promote

to

prisoners

.

.

except those that have already been

.

The amnesty decree did not apply to former Liberian ambassador Henry Fahnbulleh, who

small industries. South Africa maintained a supply of technical and practical aid and remained Lesotho's

convicted."

main source of revenue. About 60,000 Basuto working South Africa earned more than R 10 million ($7 million; in 1969. In an effort to increase savings in Lesotho, a National Development Bank was estab-

had been sentenced

lished.

continued, however. In a nationwide broadcast on

in

The

elections since independence, due in 1970,

first

provoked a

resurgence

of

activity,

political

with

squabbles splintering the left-wing opposition parties. Chief Jonathan enhanced his stature at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference with his realistic views on economic cooperation and the problems of

landlocked countries. He revealed that Lesotho had approached South Africa to allow easy access for

bound

tourists

for Lesotho.

I

M. Mr.)

Liberia A republic on the west coast of Africa, Liberia is bordered by Sierra Leone. Guinea, and Ivory Coast. Area: 43.000 sq.mi. (111.370 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.): 1,130,000. Cap. and largest city: Monrovia (pop., 1962, 80,992 ). Language: English and tribal dialects. President in 1969,

William V.

S.

Tubman.

to 20 years in prison

charges in July 1968.

Fahnbulleh's appeal for release from confinement on

February

Nov.

8,

Controversy over the Fahnbulleh case

7.

Tubman had denounced

1968.

can Episcopal missionary bishop of Liberia, the Right Rev. Dillard H. Brown.' Liberia showed encouraging signs of economic growth in 1969, although the country's large foreign debt remained a troublesome burden. In a review of economic and other achievements of Tubman's regime, Agence France-Presse reported on the last day of 1968 that Liberia's national budget had increased from less than $1 million in 1944 to more than $60 million for 1969. The report noted that since 1948 exports had risen from $15 million to Si 58 million, while imports had climbed from $9 million to $125 million. It also pointed out that Liberia's education budget had grown from SS4.000 in 1944 to $13.5 million in 1967, with a corresponding rise in the number

of schoolchildren

Ankrah, the only foreign head of state to attend the

Lloyd's Register of Shipping Statistics reported late in 1968 that, in the year ending June 30. 1968, Liberia

first

festivities,

came from Ghana

for his first visit.

He

told

Ghana have been very cordial and brotherly since the Na," tional Liberation Council came to power [in Ghana] reporters that "relations between Liberia and

and he thanked Tubman for being the first head of state to recognize his government after the February 1966 coup d'etat. Ankrah was given Liberia's highest decoration, the Venerable Grand Order of Pioneers. In a special silver jubilee gesture. Tubman announced on January 4 an "amnesty to all political

LIBERIA Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 1 10, 2 SI, teachers 3,137; secondary, pupils 11.324. teachers 521; vocational, students 856, teachers (1964-65) 39; teacher training, pupils 279, teachers 31; higher, students 797, teaching staff 129.

Finance. Monetarv unit: Liberian dollar, at par with the U.S. dollar (LS2.40 £1 sterling). Budget (1969 est.): revenue L$58 million; expenditure L$60.1 mil-

from 19.000

Liberia solidified

most nation

had added

in

terms of registered shipping tonnage.

3.1 million tons of

Trade. (T96S) Imports L$118 million; L$169 million. Import sources (19671: U.S. 44%; West Germany 12%; Japan l c/c U.K. '%. Export destinations: U.S. 30%; West Germany 28%; Italy 11%; U.K. 9%; Belgium-Luxembourg 7%; France 5%; Netherlands 5%. Main exports (1967): iron ore 73%; rubber 17%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1967) c. 3,200 km. Motor vehicles in use (1967): passenger

Foreign

:

c.

8,300; commercial (including buses)

c.

5,100. Rail-

ways (1967) 420 km. Shipping (1968): merchant ves100 gross tons and over 1,613 (.mostly owned by U.S. and other foreign interests); gross tonnage 2 5,719,642. Telephones (Jan. 1968) c. -3,500. Radio rc-

sels

i.Dec.

1966) 152,000. Television receivers (Dec.

1967) 4,600. Agriculture. I'roduction (in 000; metric tons; 1967; 1966 in parentheses;: rice c. 152 (c. 150); ca 430 (c. 430); rubber (exports) 62 (53; palm ?.4 (c. (exports; 14 (13;: cocoa 1.9 3;. Livestock (in 000; Aug. 1967): cattle c. 29; pigs c. 31 sheep c. 12; goats c. 5 7. Industry. Production (in 000; 1967): iron ore content) 12.575 metric tons; diamond 550 metric carats; electricity (1966) 000,000 kw-hr.

(metal ports;

c.

339,-

shipping for a total

W.)

Libraries The

International

tions

(IFLA

of Library Associaannual session in August 1969 at the Royal School of Librarianship, Copenhagen. The main theme, presented to 400 participants from

held

>

Federation

its

38 countries, was "Library Education and Research in Librarianship." Sir Frank Francis, formerly director of the British Museum, completed his two terms as president (1963-69). and his place was taken by H. Liebaers of Brussels for 1969-72; R. Malek of Prague was elected as one of the six vice-presidents.

UNESCO Department braries,

of Documentation, Liand Archives. During 196S-69 UNESCO

signed contracts with the

IFLA and

the International

Federation for Documentation (FID) for studies on the national planning of library services; (he standardization of bibliographical data

ten-year

a

Decimal

trilingual

catalog entries;

in

supplement

to

the

Universal

Classification; an audio-visual course in

li-

Spanish and French; and manuals on library legislation and library stations. The development of library services was promoted by the estabbrarianship

in

lishment of a pilot project in a

Honduras, pilot

Ion;

to serve

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project on publii

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7.67

6.90

bank's discount ra te.

= Money market rate B = Day-to-day money. B 2 = 90-day Treasury bills. ]

C = Long-term government bond

yield

7.67 6.90

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546

was inevitable that some form of control should be brought to bear. The June measures of the U.S. Federal Reserve discussed below represented the first steps in this direction. There was little doubt that it

Money and Banking

these originated as much from the anxieties of European central bankers as from those of the Americans

themselves.

Meanwhile, the volume of new issue activity in Eurobond markets was somewhat reduced. The amounts involved in the first two quarters were $987 million and $635 million, compared with $1.1 billion and $1,011,000,000 in the preceding two quarters. The restrictions on the activities of Italian banks in international capital markets, the introduction of waitlists for new issues in West Germany, and the postponement of issues in the hope of reduced rates in the future were the major factors involved. Calls on the market by private U.S. firms were substantially lower, both in absolute terms and as a proportion of the total, and the previous year's trend toward greater use of the convertible bond was sharply reversed. United States. The enactment of the income tax surcharge in June 1968 and the expenditure cuts that accompanied it produced far less deceleration in the growth of economic activity than might reasonably have been expected. Though the growth of output was reduced below what would have been permitted by available capacity, and unemployment rose slightly from its extremely low level of December 1968, demand pressures remained strong and prices were forced even higher. The retail price index had risen 4.7% in the 12 months to December 1968, and the rate of inflation in the early months of 1969 was even more rapid. Monetary policy was already tight, but it clearly had to be made even tighter in the face of the inadequacy of existing fiscal measures and the

ing

'Trench Stylist"

—

Pierotti.

BEN ROTH AGENCY

other major countries were numerous. France, which had increased its discount rate from 5 to 6% in November 1968, increased it by a further 1% in midJune 1969, and by a similar amount in October. Canada and West Germany both increased their discount rates three times during the year; Belgium raised its six times, Denmark twice (once by a massive 2%), and the Netherlands three times. In the U.K. the difficulties of curbing bank lending by putting ceilings on advances led to an increase in the bank rate from 7 to

8%

in

February.

Eurocurrency and Eurobond Markets. Two factors dominated the Eurocurrency market in the 12 months to September 1969: the heavy borrowing demands from the U.S. banks and the repeated specula-

November 1968

difficulty of enacting

new ones

Dealers in bond and

rapidly.

markets had begun to anticipate this in early December, and their presumptions were reinforced by an increase in the commercial banks' prime lending rate to 6j%. The first official moves came on December 17, when the discount rate of nine of the Federal Reserve banks was raised to

5^%

bill

(the discount rates of the other three reserve

for conversion marks, but thereafter the importance of this factor declined relative to heavy borrowings by U.S. banks, whose first-quarter borrowings exceeded the total growth of the Eurocurrency market in all of

banks followed three days later). Though the increase was only \%, its effect was compounded by the fact that it was not accompanied by any rise in the ceiling rates of interest that commercial banks were permitted to pay on CD's. Since many banks were already paying the ceiling rates, the rise in the discount rate

1967. From a level of 6.16% in August 1968, the rate on three-month Eurodollar deposits in London reached

put CD's at a considerable disadvantage as compared with other instrument-, and heavy nel withdrawals oc-

8.56% by April 1969. In the same month,

curred. The immediate response of the banks was to push their prime lending rate up by another ;'. to a

tion in favour of the mark. In

the

main pressure came from withdrawals

into

the possibilities of a

new

re-

gime taking over in France revived speculation against the franc and in favour of the mark. Once again the funds for this speculation were either withdrawn or borrowed from Eurocurrency markets, and the rate rose by almost two points in little more than a week. The rate of 13% reached at one point in June was soon shown to be a temporary aberration, but remained near 10.5% in the face of continuing heavy demands from the U.S. and in spite of a partial reI

treat on the part of the speculators.

much

They moved very

August and September following the franc devaluation and the abandonment of the fixed parity applying to the mark. However, the West Ger-

man

higher

in

revaluation was expected to be

a

strong influent

e

for reduction.

With

the Eurodollar markets expanding so rapidly,

new

record

l% war

U.K. Treasury

bills

U.S. Treasury

bills

U.S. long-term

1967

London

loan

government bonds

1969

550

Mongolia

became

a strong candidate for revaluation, and this increasingly true after the

mark revaluation

in

Octo-

ber.

However, the

rate of the rise in prices, especially

wholesale prices, began to give some cause for concern later in the year, and a modest increase in the discount rate took effect in early September. Although foreign exchange reserves continued to rise rapidly, the official view persisted that these reserves were

Cooperatives; Economics; Economy, World; Finance; Housing; Investment, InternaMerchandising; Payments and Reserves, Inter-

also

Government tional;

sarangibin

Sambuu was

chairman of the

reelected

Presidium, and Yumzhagiyin Tsedenbal once more was asked to form a government. (K. Sm.)

still

inadequate and that the case for a yen revaluation was therefore rather poor. (A. R. R.) See

practically zero in the early 1950s, in 1969 was expected to increase by 18.7% over 1968. The United Bloc of Communists and Non-Party People won 99.99% of the vote in elections to the Great People's Khural (Assembly) of June 22. Zham-

national; Stock Exchanges.

Morocco A

monarchy

constitutional

of

northwestern Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean and the Medi-

terranean Sea, Morocco

Mongolia A

(451,880 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.) 14,634,000. Cap.: (pop., 1960, 227,445). Largest city: Casablanca (pop., 1960, 965,277). Language: Arabic; Ber-

(1,565,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.) 1,210,000. Cap. and largest city: Ulan Bator (pop., 1966 est., 250,000). Language: Mongolian. Religion: Lamaistic Buddhism. First secretary of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary (Communist) Party and chairman of

ber. Religion:

the Council of Ministers (premier) in 1969,

Yumz-

hagiyin Tsedenbal; chairman of the Presidium of the

Great People's Khural, Zhamsarangibin Sambuu. The major event of 1969 was the increase in Soviet forces stationed in Mongolia, following the signature on Jan. 15, 1966, of a 20-year treaty of SovietMongolian alliance. In his book The Coming War Between Russia and China, Harrison E. Salisbury affirmed that the buildup of Soviet troops was turning that country into an armed camp with the most sophisticated modern weapons. In a speech at the Moscow world conference of Communist parties in June, Tsedenbal claimed that China was out to reannex Mongolia. On October 20 a Soviet military mission headed by Marshal Vasili

Chuikov arrived

Ulan Bator. In December closer relations with the U.K. were established by the appointment of an ambassador to the Court of St. James's. The national economic plan for 1966-70 was nearing completion. Industrial output, which had been at

MONGOLIA Education. ( 1965-66) Primary and secondary, pupils 164,400, teachers 5,721; vocational, pupils 9,200; higher (including University of Ulan Bator), students 10,700. Finance. Monetary unit: tugrik, with an official parity of 4 tugriks to U.S. $1 (9.60 tugriks £1 sterling) and a tourist rate of 6 tugriks to U.S. $1 (14.40 tugriks £1). Budget (1967 est.): revenue 1,670,000,000 tugriks; expenditure 1,660,000,000 tugriks. Foreign Trade. (1962) Imports 102.6 million tugriks; exports 68.5 million tugriks. Import sources (1960): U.S.S.R. 62%; China 23%; Czechoslovakia 5%. Export destinations: (1960) U.S.S.R. 75%; Czechoslovakia 8%; China 5%. Main exports (1960): wool 44%; cattle 34%; butter and meat 8%; hides

=

=

Monophysite Churches:

6%.

see Religion

Transport and Communications. Roads (1965) c. 75,000 km. (including c. 8,600 km. raotorable). Railways (1967) 2,067 km. Telephones (Jan. 1968) 14,720. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 90,900.

Dependent States Mormons:

see

see Religion

Motion Pictures: see

Cinema

Motorboating: Motor Sports

see

Motor Industry: see Industrial Review

bor-

people's republic of Asia lying between the U.S.S.R. and China, Mongolia occupies the geographical area known as Outer Mongolia. Area: 604,247 sq.mi. :

Montserrat:

is

dered by Algeria and Spanish Sahara. Area: 174,471 sq.mi.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metrii tons; 1967; I960 in parentheses): wheat c. 325 (c. !' c. 25 (r. 24). Livestock (in 000; Dec, 1966): cattle c. 2,074: jheep 13,065; goats (Dec. 1965? Dec. 1965) 2,433: camels (Dec. 1965 Industry. Production (in 000; mi 1965): coal 45; crude oil (1966) 12; electricity (kw-hr.) 199,000.

:

Rabat

ters in 1969, 7,

Ahmed

Muslim. King, Hassan II; prime minisand, from October

Muhammad Benhima

Laraki.

Morocco made peace with its neighbours Algeria and Mauritania in 1969, and the resultant relaxation in tension was expected to make it possible to devote more domestic energy to economic development. The year was also notable for continued financial cooperation with France, the Islamic and Arab summit conferences held in Rabat, and the holding of the first elections in six years.

The

monarchy appeared

position of the

stable, a

fact reflected in the continuity of the system in which

and executive powers remained concenKing Hassan II and in those of his appointed Cabinet, which had been in power since the king dissolved Parliament in June 1965. In October the foreign minister, Ahmed Laraki, became prime legislative

trated in the hands of

minister.

The

opposition, led

by the

demand

tinued to

Party and the

Istiqlal

National Union of Popular Forces legislative elections

(NUPF), and a new

concon-

stitution, but the only real threat to authority

was a

and demonstrations by

leftist

series of student strikes

The communal and municipal

groups.

elections held

on October 3 to renew councils elected in 1963 were boycotted by the NUPF and leftists, while the Istiqlal Party accused the authorities of falsifying results and urged its members to vote for "nonofficial" candidates. King Hassan and Pres. Houari Boumedienne of Algeria concluded a treaty of friendship and solidarity in January, thus putting an end to a period of strained relations dating

from 1963, when

two countries

the

conflict

armed clashes on their arose out of Mon>< an laims to

Algeria

in

were involved

in

i

i

frontier, v

The

asl tract! of

an area where the border had never been

clearly defined

September

In

I'res.

Mokhtar


*-r

f^™^ 5^1969

performance of Lars Jo'han y lne Santa Werle's Die Reise. Bernd Alois Zimmermann's Die Company. Soldaten, an avant-garde work, received its most successful production to that time on March 23 at Munich. George Balanchine was in charge of a new production of Glinka's Ruslan and Ludmila, presented at the Hamburg State Opera on March 30 with Charles Mackerras conducting. At Frankfurt on May 10, Anja Silja sang Renata in a new production of Prokofiev's The Fiery Angel. The Hamburg State Opera gave the first performance of Krzysztof Penderecki's The Devils of Loudun on June 21, but most commenState Opera gave the

first

tators preferred Rennert's Stuttgart production given

two days later. At the Munich Festival (July 12August 5), Les Vepres Siciliennes had its Munich premiere in a German translation. Rennert also produced Richard Strauss's Adriadne auf Naxos. At Bayreuth (July 25-August 28) the new production was August Everding's Der fliegende Hollander, the first production by a nonmember of the Wagner family since

1951.

The outstanding performances,

j,

Fe Opera

however, were those of Birgit Nilsson and Wolfgang

production.

Music

Windgassen in Tristan und Isolde. In September the Cologne Opera gave a new production of Mozart's La clemenza di Tito, which was

performance of Henri Sauguet's one-act La Gageure imprevue. Other Operatic Events. At the Teatro Colon, Buenos Aires, Arg., there was a new production of Norma on June 21, with Joan Sutherland. A complete cycle of Janacek's operas was presented at the Prague (Czech.) Festival in the spring. Henri Rabaud's Marouf was produced in January at La Monnaie in

subsequently seen in London at Sadler's Wells during the Cologne company's week-long season there. The Berlin Festival opened on September 25 with Boris Blacher's

new

opera, Zweihunderttausen Taler, con-

ducted by Lorin Maazel. Austria. Alban Berg's Lulu was produced at the Vienna State Opera in December 1968, with Anja Silja in the title role. At Vienna in February 1969, the Volksoper produced Fra Diavolo and the Kammeroper gave Puccini's La Rondine. Luchino Visconti's new production of Verdi's Simon Boccanegra at the Vienna State Opera (March 28) was considered eccentric. On March 30 Siegfried was produced at the

Salzburg Easter Festival.

The centenary

of the Vienna State Opera ended on

Renata Scotto as Gilda in the Edinburgh Festival

performance

of Verdi's "Rigoletto" in

On

562

September 1969.

celebrations

May

26 with

Paris gave the

Oct. 3, 1969, the

Opera-Comique

in

first

Brussels.

(A. G. Bl.) Jazz. Without question, the 1960s had been the

most

crucial

Many

and revolutionary decade

in jazz history.

times in the past, particularly in the 1940s, the

music had undergone

convulsions

that threatened but only in the past few years had the music experienced the wholesale rejection of formal logic practiced by the new generation of imto destroy its coherence,

provisers.

For some years the realization that making

variations on a given set of harmonies was a finite art

Mozart's Don Giovanni, conducted by Joseph Krips. At the Salzburg Festival (July 26-August 30) Bohm conducted Der Rosenkavalier, produced by Rudolf Hartmann. Jean-Pierre Ponnelle produced Cost fan tutte and Herbert Graf resuscitated Emilio de'Cavalieri's sacred drama La Rappresentazione di anima e di corpo (1600). The Vienna State Opera gave a new

had nagged

production of Dalibor on October 19, with Leonie

whereby each member of an ensemble played whatever came into his head and under his fingers, in the hope that the accumulative results might win for the music a new innocence. The fact that this approach was in some ways the musical equivalent of the six

Rysanek and Ludovic Spiess. Italy. In December 1968 there was a new production of Ernani at La Scala, Milan. Renata Scotto inaugurated the 1968-69 Teatro Massimo season at Palermo with a fine performance in Bellini's rarely performed La Straniera. She had a further success at the Edinburgh Festival in September when she appeared with the Florence Opera company as Gilda in Rigoletto

—

a success equal to that of her

Lammermoor

in the Scala

Lucia di

ment

of a need for one.

Whereas

in all previous eras the jazz

musician

fol-

lowed, however deviously, the iron laws of discord

and

resolution,

among

by 1969

this practice

the younger players

by

had been replaced

the "freakout," a proc-

ess

monkeys

at the six typewriters did not deter its prac-

titioners,

who brought

to their

dialectical justification that

new methods

had the

all

a fierce

too predictable

world

effect of splitting the already fissiparous jazz

into even tinier splinters.

An added

company's 1964 Moscow

season at the Bolshoi. She was described by one dis-

move-

at the jazz soloist, but the free-form

of the 1960s was less a solution than the denial

new

complication was the fact that

much

of

was so deeply involved with the philosophy of self-assertion, symbolized by the Black Power movement, that there were moments when criticism of the music was interpreted, quite wrongly, as a critithe

jazz

tinguished British critic as being "unique among the younger generation of Italian operatic sopranos." In January, Luigi Dallapiccola's Ulisse had its Italian premiere at La Scala. Also in January, Wagner's Rienzi was produced at the Teatro dell'Opera, Rome, and in February, Gian Francisco Malipiero's new opera, Gli Eroi di Bonaventura, had its premiere at the Piccola Scala. Ildebrando Pizzetti's Clitennestra was revived at Rome. Franco Mannino's Luisella had its premiere at Palermo in February. At La Scala, on April 1 1 Rossini's L'assedio di Corinto was given a new production, with Beverly Sills {see Biography) and Marilyn Home in the main roles. The conductor was another American, Thomas Schippers. The Maggio Musicale at Florence (May 2-June 28) included a new production of Fidelia with Sena Jurinac and Verdi's Aida with Virginia Zeani, both conducted by Zubin Mehta. Georg Reinhardt produced Schoenberg's Moses und Aron, the third production of the opera

problem was, of course, new only insofar as jazz was concerned. The spectacle of the committed artist was common enough, and the "new thing" in jazz only underlined the truth that art committed to a worthy cause is not necessarily worthy art. It was this situation of violent turmoil and destructive reasoning that caused older musicians anil commentators to wonder whether they were not perhaps witnessing the dissolution of the music, and to ding to the steadily decreasing examples of conventional mastery with renewed fervour. Because jazz was still a

in Italy.

man Hawkins,

,

Don

Carlo was produced by Jean Vilar at the 47th

Verona Summer Festival (July 16-August 17). There were also productions of Turandot (with Nilsson) and Aida. Besides Rigoletto, the Florence Opera brought three programs to the Edinburgh Festival ('August 24-September 13): Malipiero's SettO Can zoni in a double Donizetti's

bill

with Dallapiccola's

//

Prigionero,

Maria Stuarda (with Leyla Gencer and

and Puccini's Gianni Schicchi, produced by Tito Gobbi with himself in the title role. Shirley Verrett

I,

France. In December 1968 the La Damnation de Faust, in Maurhe

I'

Ip6rs

Bejart's

fai

gave

cism of the political attitudes of the players. The

comparatively new art form, many of thers had remained active throughout the fate through 1969 of it- three

Duke

figures,

its its

founding history,

tnosl

fa-

and

dominant

Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and Cole-

perhaps served as an allegor)

future of the musit

>>i

the

it

By 1969 it was no longer possible to pretend that "i genius Louis Armstrong Mil retained tin- powei that had enaliled him to enriih the |a/v. tradition prolihcally, Reduced in effectiveness by illness and Armstrong in 1969 bore little re emblance t" the pent pro trumpeter of even ten yean in-t.ni' ii< longed periods i the yeai mi tin- bo pltal, and in pit* «,i popular vocal triumph with Wonderful World," on hi no longei l>e regardi da an effective force Coleman Hawkini \\h" had literally invented the age,

'

i

i

proi e

e

"i

plaj

me

jazz

on

tin-

tenoi

azophoni

perhaps an even more potent symbol than Armstrong, because he had retained much of his old resource into

His physical decline horrified the jazz it was no surprise when, after a lifetime of barnstorming all over the world playing 1960s.

the

world, however, and superlative jazz,

May

in New York City in Obituaries.) Perhaps the

Hawkins died

at the age of 65. {See

most eloquent testimony

to his greatness

that his recorded masterpieces of the

dust,"

"Body and

ens of others, the jazz art,

was the fact

1930s, "Star-

Soul," "Out of Nowhere," and doz-

still

stood as magnificent examples of

classical

form draped

in

the

dazzling

colours of Hawkins' highly subjective, passionate ro-

manticism.

For Duke Ellington, 1969 was the year of apotheremarkable career entered its sixth decade. In April, Ellington's 70th birthday was marked by tributes and celebratory concerts all over the world, a reception at the White House, and a bland denial by Ellington that he was old at all. For the moment the Ellington orchestra remained what it had been since 192 7, an exquisite musical keyboard on which its leader produced fragments of impressionistic music that might yet oblige posterity to measure their intrinsic worth by standards broader than those assoosis as a

ciated with the tight little island of jazz.

The year saw many other important successes of a The rapid advance of the European-based and multinational Kenny Clarke-Francy conventional kind.

Boland band was impressive proof that jazz in 1969 was less a local American dialect than an international musical language. The vibraphonist Gary Burton, still in his 20s, continued to flit back and forth between jazz and pop without ever diluting the intensity of his jazz gifts, while the older modernists, especially Miles Davis, showed no diminution of their ability. Perhaps the greatest shock of the year was the sudden apostasy

of the saxophonist Stan Getz. For

preme master

many

years the su-

romantic improvisation, executed through a staggering technique and an ice-cool brain, Getz in his 1969 performances served notice that he intended to follow the younger players in their rejection of conventional methods. Perhaps the crowning irony in a year of bewildering of

turbulence was the fact that the Newport Jazz Festival, for many years the great state occasion of jazz,

was replaced as the most important event in the calendar by London's "Jazz Expo." While Newport succumbed more and more to the pressures of pop music, extended to eight days and involving "Jazz Expo" more than 120 musicians, most of them American demonstrated that an enormous body of people believed jazz to be one of the most vital and stimulating

—

all musical forms. (B. Gr.) Popular. If 1968 was the year of rock 'n' roll and revivals, 1969 followed with splits, supergroups, and self-consciousness. The noisy infant born in 1954 and christened rock 'n' roll was now 15 years old and changed almost beyond recognition.

of

For many of the British boom groups, 1969 marked the end of the line. Splits occurred everywhere: the Hollies lost Graham Nash, the Bee Gees decreased by degrees from five to two, and many other groups disbanded altogether. Even the Rolling Stones were af-

Mick Taylor; but do with the tragedy of a few weeks when Brian Jones was drowned in his swimming

fected, replacing Brian Jones with this

had nothing

later,

to

pool.

Mass disbandment up

in

led to ex-group

members

joining

what were popularly termed supergroups.

A

THE "NEW YORK WIDE WORLD

TIMES"

FROM

example was Blind Faith, consisting of Stevie A crowd of 300,000 (ex-Traffic), Eric Clapton and Ginger Baker swarms around the stage (ex-Cream), and Rick Grech (ex-Family). This was a at the Woodstock Music and Art Fair near Bethel, true "supergroup," since its members were excellent N.Y., on Aug. 16, 1969. musicians. However, the term came to be used to de- Massive traffic jams, rain, scribe almost any re-formed group, such as Humble food and water shortages accompanied performances Pie which tried its best to reject it. by Joan Baez, Ravi Blind Faith made its much-publicized debut in June, Shankar, Jimi Hendrix, in London's Hyde Park, where 150,000 people heard and the Jefferson Airplane. it for free. Free concerts in the park had been launched the previous year by Blackhill Enterprises; 1969 saw them well established, with Blind Faith and later the Rolling Stones drawing audiences of nearly half a million. The music heard at these concerts was of the "underground" genre. Originated on the U.S. West Coast, it was highly experimental and sought to transcend popular appeal and bring pop to the status of art. Beginning as the music of the hippies, it soon emerged into the daylight and became a huge commercial success. At worst it was pretentious and obscure, but the best was very fine indeed. Groups such as Deep Purple displayed genuine musicianship, and audiences, instead of rushing the stage, sat still and listened a far cry from the days of Beatlemania. Experiments in combining styles led to the breaking of musical barriers, and groups became more individual in style, making classification difficult. A favourite term was "heavy," used to describe the music of groups such as Led Zeppelin simple in form, slow in pace, and massive in volume. While the underground was preoccupied with experiment, the more commercial groups were returning to simple rock, led by the Beatles' April single, "Get Back." Despite the teething troubles of their Apple organization, the Beatles remained trend setters, and typical

Winwood

—

:

album became a best seller despite lukeJohn Lennon married Japanese artist Yoko Ono, and their story was told from the chart tops in "The Ballad of John and Yoko." There were rumours of the Beatles' giving a live show, but this never materialized; instead they produced another LP, "Abbey Road" (named after the location of EMI's studios). A macabre aftermath was the widespread rumour that Paul McCartney was dead and that "Abbey Road" contained clues to this fact, but McCartney their double

warm

reviews.

vigorously denied

On

it.

the business side, the pattern of record sales

a

was changing:

singles

were

selling less, while

figures rose rapidly. Increasing

placed on the LP, which was a natural

song cycles (The orchestra

Moody

album

emphasis was being

medium

for

pop

Blues), works for group and

(Deep Purple), and

jazz-like extemporiza-

good singles did appear: "Get Back," the Stones' "Honky Tonk Women," and Joe South's "Games People Play." Many of the year's most successful singles were rereleases. Tamla Motown did particularly well in this line, headed by the Isley Brothers' "This Old Heart of Mine" (first released in tion. Still,

1966).

Of the newcomers, one of the most promising was Peter Sarstedt, whose "Where Do You Go To, My Lovely" held the British number one position for most

1969.

first place.

Another chart-topper that broke the language barrier was Jane Birkin's and Serge Gainsbourg's "Je t'aime moi non plus," which gained notoriety by having its lyrics banned by the BBC. Irish singer Clodagh Rogers and the Scottish group Marmalade made the charts after a long struggle, and U.S. artists Glen Campbell and the Fifth Dimension found British success. Tom Jones drew capacity audiences in cabarets in the U.S. Elvis Presley and Bob Dylan returned to live performance Presley in Las Vegas, Dylan at the Isle of Wight pop festival. Of considerable importance was the invasion of the theatre by pop, in the shape of the musical Hair and its numerous imitators. Premiered in New York City in 1968 and coming to Britain in the autumn, Hair was a great success on both sides of the Atlantic. Cast LP's became best sellers, and songs from the show provided hits for numerous artists. Hair apart, 1969 saw a great calming down of pop; musicians were mellowed by experience, and fans had also matured. Pop had at last become respectable fact that, inevitably, meant the beginning of the end; pop was growing away from entertainment toward art. Whether it would retain its individuality was uncertain; pop and jazz were becoming increasingly interactive. Only one thing seemed sure: rock had run its course, and all the pop scene could do was wait until something completely new appeared to begin the cycle all over again. (H. R. Mo.) Folk Music. An important event of 1969 was the 20th Conference of the International Folk Music Council, held at Edinburgh, August 6-13, by invita.

.

—

Medicine

see

Defense

National Incomes: see Income, National National Parks: Parks

see

Natural Fibres: see Agriculture; Industrial

Review

Naturalization: see Migration, International

parts of the world.

The International Folk Music Council began a World Anthology of Folk Music Records, of which the first was The Folk Music of Scotland. published.

The

showed an increasing ap-

countries of Africa

Ghana

dance. In

the Arts Council organized national

and regional folk-music events, while in Zambia the Cultural Services and Arts Trust were responsible for the formation of folk-music clubs in

A

parts of the

series of lectures

music. Publications included Hebridean Folksongs:

A

Col-

Waulking Songs by J. L. Campbell; AngloAmerican Folksong Style by Roger A. Abrahams and George Foss; Dance and Song Rituals of Six Nations Reserve, Ontario by Gertrude Prokosch Kurath; and Music in Aztec and Inca Territory by Robert SteMa. Ka.) venson, lection of

i

See also

Cinema; Dance; Television and Radio; Theatre.

Encyclopedia Britannica Films.

Listening

Good

to

Music (The String Quartet) (19SS); Playing Good Music (The String Quartet) (1955); The Brass Choir (1956); Conducting Good Music (1956); The Percussion Group (1956); The String Choir (1956); The Symphony Ore:h (1956); The Woodwind Choir (1956); Casals Conducts, 1964 (1965).

Nauru An

island republic in the Pa-

cific

Ocean. Nauru

E

lies

New

about

Guinea.

Edinburgh. Delegates from more than 30 counThe themes of the conference were "Folk Music in a Bilingual Community," "Folk Music in Twentieth Century Composition," and "The Contribution of Films in the Study and Practice of Folk Dance and Instrumental Folk Music." In addition, there were meetings of representatives of radio and television organizations in which profitable discustook place on methods of increasing interest in folk music among young people. The academic study of folk music continued to develop in many countries, particularly in the U.S. where some 40 universities and colleges were offering courses

Area: 8.2 sq.mi. (21 sq.km

attended.

all

on African music was organized by the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing practice of folk song and dance was carried on in private circles, in clubs, and in public festivals. Radio and television were an important factor in encouraging knowledge and appreciation of folk country.

1,200 mi.

tries

National Guard:

many

carried out in

UNESCO

tion of the School of Scottish Studies of the University of

see

work being

preciation of their rich heritage of folk music and

—sharing

—

Narcotics:

national institutions. Par-

break through language barriers)

.

5

many

of

noteworthy were the Romanian Institute of Ethnography and Folklore, the Irish Folklore Commission, and the School of Scottish Studies at Edinburgh, all of which had large collections. Many national and regional surveys were compiled and published, notably in the Eastern European countries. Most important of all was the great increase in fieldticularly

sponsored a much needed expedition to record peasant melodies in India, where little research had been done. Side by side with the collecting, there was an increase in the number of records and films

—

KEN REGAN — CAMERA

work

part in the

March. On the female side the brightest new star was Mary Hopkin, the Beatles' Welsh protegee, who made a 1930s song, "Those Were the Days," a 1960s standard. She was nominated as the U.K. entrant in the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest. The 1969 contest in Madrid ended with four countries, France, the Netherlands, Spain, and the U.K. represented by Lulu with "Boom bang-a-bang" (a song calculated to of

Returning to personal appearances for the first time since a motorcycle accident in 1%6, Bob Dylan appeared in the Isle of Wight pop festival in August

in folk music or ethnomusicology. An International Film Catalogue of Folk Music and Dance and Associated Customs was compiled by the International Folk Music Council under the auspices of UNESCO. The cataloging and indexing of folk music collections, both manuscripts and recordings, played a prominent

of

Pop. (19(> ident

in

16

1969,

.

i.

Pres-

Hammer

de

Roburt. •ne a

member

of the

(

\.m-

monwealtfa of Nations in a new associate which conferred full membership benefit the Prime Min promised membership in the smith first mmenting on tb< Pa< iiH Commi ei de Robui of independen that merely to Mirvive, without major difficil

membership

in

to

I

I

greatly on

Education. (1966) Primary, pupils 1,298, teachers 79; secondary, pupils 317, teachers 19; teacher training (1965), students IS, teachers 1. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Australian £1 sterling). U.S. $1: A$2.14 dollar (A$0.89 Budget (1965-66): revenue A$940,704; expenditure A$l, 778,2 14. Foreign trade (1965-66) imports A$6,366,248 (82% from Australia, 7% from U.K., 7% from New Zealand) exports (phosphates) A$8,659,472 (54% to Australia, 34% to New Zealand, 12% to U.K., by tonnage). industry. Production (in 000): phosphate rock (metric tons; 1966-67) 1,806; electricity (kw-hr.; 1967) 17,300.

=

=

its

565

improved communications. In 1969 for

time jets flew twice a week between Kathmandu and Thailand. Progress was made on the Asian Highway linking Afghanistan and Nepal. The Mahendra Highway across Nepal, being built by the the

NAURU

first

Netherlands

U.S.S.R., the U.S., the U.K., and India, was nearing completion; it would permit trade, for the first time,

:

;

The

republic's greatest difficulties concerned phos-

phate development. After independence the Nauru Phosphate Corporation (NPC) was set up to take over from the British Phosphate Commission (BPC). In

June de Roburt led discussions on Nauru's claim that it ought to sell phosphate directly to Australian manufacturers, in addition to renewing a contract with BPC, which handled the importation of Australian phosphate under a pool marketing arrangement. The 1969 BPC price for phosphate was A$ll ($9.80) a ton, but during the year Nauru was able to sell 300,000 tons to Japan at A$14 ($12.40) a ton. By an agreement signed in Canberra, Austr., on September 17, the Australian airline, Qantas, was to operate from Australia to Nauru, while the Nauruan airline would fly between Nauru and Brisbane. (A. R. G. G.)

constitutional

monarchy

of

Nepal is in the Himalayas between India and Tibet.

Asia,

Area: 54,362 sq.mi. (140,797 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.) 10,651,626. Cap. and largest city: :

Kathmandu

(pop., 1968, 137,400).

;

also

Buddhist

India's

minister

of

Kathmandu

external

its

neutrality.

affairs,

When

Dinesh Singh,

June he stressed Nepal's "speThe Nepalese government promptly reasserted its sovereignty by demanding the withdrawal of Indian radio operators from checkpoints on the Tibetan border and of the 23-man Indian military liaison group. Nepal also announced that it had canceled its 1965 arms agreement with India. During this period of diplomatic coolness between the two countries, the Chinese ambassador, who had been recalled in June 1967, returned to Kathmandu. India agreed in September to the withdrawal of Indian contingents, but reports indicated that talks aimed at providing new arrangements had been incon-

visited cial

in

relationship" with India.

clusive.

did not bring political stability.

Language: Nepali

Newari and Bhutia. Religion: Hindu 8% Muslim 2%. King, Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva chairmen of the Council of Ministers (prime ministers) in 1969, Surya Bahadur Thapa and, from April 7, Kirti Nidhi Bista. Locked between India and China geographically, strategically, and economically, Nepal was relying (official);

85%

Nepal remained sensitive about

In March new rules for mountaineering expeditions were announced, placing greater emphasis on the maintenance of Nepalese security. In April unrest was reported from western villages. Reports indicated that as many as 50 peasants were killed in disturbances occasioned by the maladministration of land taxes intended to improve farming methods. The release from detention in October 1968 of B. P. Koirala and other Nepali Congress Party leaders

Nepal A

remain on the trans-Nepalese route without making Indian railways. In December 1968, India agreed to undertake a survey for the improvement of the 60-km. railway between Raxaul and Hithoda. Chinese engineers, after completing the road from Kathmandu to Kodari, were building a 176-km. mountain road linking Kathmandu with Pokhara. In the face of pressure from both India and China, to

use of

;

;

The king

still

con-

sidered the system of building democracy from the village

spite

council

(panchayat) level indispensable, dedissatisfaction. Kirti Nidhi Bista,

some student

who succeeded Surya Bahadur Thapa

as prime minison April 7, strengthened the royalist membership of the Cabinet and suspended the controversial land taxes. Student disturbances in Kathmandu and Biratnagar indicated that Nepal's feudalistic society was feeling the stresses of its slow but inevitable entry into the modern world. (D. Wn.) ter

NEPAL Education. (1965-66) Primary, pupils 386,100, teach secondary, pupils 57,440, teachers 3,280 vocational (1964-65), pupils 1,785, teachers 70 teacher training (1964-65), students 428, teachers 55 higher (including 1 university), students 8,100, teach ing staff 565. Finance. Monetary unit: Nepalese rupee, with a par value of NRs. 10.12 to U.S. $1 (NRs. 24.30 £1 sterling: NRs. 1.35 Indian Rs. 1). Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $74.3 million; (June 1968) U.S. $58.4 million. Budget (196869): revenue NRs. 641 million (including NRs. 276 million foreign aid); expenditure NRs. 667 million (including NRs. 4S8.4 million development expendiers 13,400;

=

=

ture).

Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports NRs. 395 million in 1963-64); exports NRs. 290.6 India in 1963-64). Main exports (1964-65): food and livestock 59%; crude materials (including timber and jute) 26%; manufactures 11%. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons): rice (1968) 2,322. (1967) 2,217; jute (1967) c. 38, (1966) 38. Livestock (in 000; 1966-67): cattle c.

(88% from India (93% to

million

2,910; pigs

c.

190; sheep 2,000; goats 2,250.

Netherlands A

kingdom

Europe on the North Sea, the is bounded by Belgium on the south and West Germany on the east. of northwest

Netherlands, a Benelux country,

Overseas parts of the realm comprise the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam. Area: 14,139 sq.mi. (36,621 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 12,798,346. Cap. and largest city: Amsterdam (pop., 1969 est., 845,821). Language: Netherlandic (Dutch). Religion (1960): Ro-

man Catholic 40.4%; Dutch Reformed 28.3%; Reformed Churches 9.3%. Queen. Juliana; prime minister in 1969, Piet J. S.

de Jong.

The composition of the government in 1969 remained at six members of the Catholic People's Party, three members of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Liberals), three members of the Anti-

Navies: see

Defense

W

1

'

COURTESY, N.V. NEDEnLANDS CONG RESG EBO U

April 8 the government announced a general price

which was revoked on September 4, The CenPlanbureau announced in its March 14 report that expected further price and wage rises in 1969 and

freeze, tral it

1970.

The

general economic situation was analyzed

by

the

president of the Netherlands Bank, Jelle Zijlstra, in

Although he considered the improvement in productivity and employment gratifying, he warned of the danger of continued inflation. Productivity had risen by 10% and wages by 7% over 1968. The running account of the balance of payments showed a surplus of 253 million guilders. The 1968 export volume was 15.5% higher than in 1967 and the import volume, 12.5% higher. New industrial mergers took place in 1969, most attention being drawn to that between AKU (General Rayon Union) and Koninklijke Zout-Organon (chemicals). In late October it was announced that a rich potassium deposit had been discovered in the province his report of April 29.

Main hall of the 11-ac. convention and civic Congresgebouw, which opened officially in The Hague on March 14, 1969. Every other row of seats in the front area of the main hall can be converted to tables for large conferences.

members

tian Historical Union. Thirteen parties

sented in Parliament.

On

July

2

years

previously

one of the

world's greatest natural gas fields had been discovered

of the Chris-

were repre-

in the

the upper house

same area and exploited commercially.

The execution

was elected by the members of the provincial states. The new house was composed as follows Catholic People's Party, 24; Labour Party, 20; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, 8; Antirevolutionary

the sea

arms

of the Delta Project (the closing of

in the

southwestern part of the country) On April 28 the Volkerak,

continued throughout 1969.

:

a sea

arm between

the isle of Overflakkee and the

province of Noordbrabant, was closed. On July 22 the opening of a tunnel under the Oude Maas River near Heineoord completed a high road across the Delta area from Rotterdam to Zealand. In the northern part

Party, 7; Christian Historical Union, 8; Pacifist Socialist Party, 3; Farmers' Party, 3; Communists, 1;

and Political Party Radicals, 1. Queen Juliana opened the new session of Parliament on September 16. In her speech from the throne she said that the government would promote democratization of education, of culture, and of enterprise. The budget for 1970, presented by the finance minister, Hendrik J. Witteveen, estimated an income

of the country a

new

project of land reclamation that

would add about 23,000 ac. to the Netherlands was started by the closing of the Lauwers Zee. The last of 25 caissons were sunk in the presence of Queen Juliana on May 23. These caissons had a total length of 900 m., a record for this method of dike building. On July 28 the Netherlands withdrew from the multi-role combat aircraft 75 (MRCA-75) project, in which West Germany, Italy, and the U.K. were

of 26,772,000,000 guilders. Total expenditure in 1970,

6%

Some

Groningen.

of

revolutionary Party, and two

centre, Nederland

higher than in 1969, was estimated at 28,965,000,-

000 guilders. Aid to less developed countries was to be increased by 135 million guilders to 767 million guilders, of which 175 million guilders were to go to Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles. Economic developments in early 1969 were rather unbalanced. The introduction on January 1 of a new system of purchase tax, the value-added tax, caused a rapid rise in prices. At the end of March the price index for family consumption had risen by 5.5%. On

also participating in order to develop an aircraft to

the Starfighter F-104G. Defense Minister Willem den Toom said the MRCA-75 did not satisfy Dutch operational demands and was too expensive. In reaction to the August 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia by the U.S.S.R., the government decided in November 1968 to increase military expenditures for 1969-72 by 225 million guilders. In March the govorn-

replace

NETHERLANDS Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 1,418,665, teachers 45,634; secondary, pupils 537,306, teachers (1965-66) 27,954; vocational, pupils 562,363; teacher training, students 12,780; higher (including 9 universities), students 163,213. Finance. Monetary unit: guilder or florin, with a par value of 3.62 guilders to U.S. $1 (8.69 guilders £1 sterling). Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $1,965,000,000; (June 1968) U.S. $1,922,000,000. Budget (1969 est.): revenue 27,363,000,000 guilders; expenditure 30,101,000,000 guilders. Gross national product: (1968) 91,330,000.000 guilders; (1967) 82.970,000.000 guilders. Money supply:

=

(May

(May 1969) 23,080,000,000 guilders; 1968) 20,920,000.000 guilders. Cost of living = 100): (June 1969) 134; (June 1968) (1963 124.

Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports 33,639,000,000 guilders; exports 30,199,000,000 guilders. ny 26%, Import sources: EEC 55% (W Belgium-Luxembourg 18%, France 6%, Italy Export U.S. destination*; U.K. 'i 5%. 5%); EEC 57% (West Germany 28%, Belgium-Luxembourg 14%, France 11%, Italy 5%); U.K. 1

1

9%;

U.S.

5%. Main

exports:

chemicals

13%;

9%;

machinery (nonelectrical) 7%; textile yarns and fabrics 7%; meat products 6%; petroleum products 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 75,163 km. (including 790 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in us,e (1968): passenger Railways: commercial 311,522. 2,073,450; (1967) 3,227 km. (including 1,642 km. electri7,337,000,000 pa fied): traffic (1968) km., freight 3,273,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1967): 4,310,616,000 passenger-km.; freight 260,556,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland ways (1967) 6,017 km. (including 2.491 km. for freight ti ships of 1,000 tons and over 18): merchant 395,000,000 ton-km. Shi| and tons gross 0V( vessels 100 nage 5,267,681. Ship- entered (19 electrical

machinery

i

;

93,187,001 etrii 40 loaded ( 1968 150.310.000 metric tons, Telep i

2,718,7'',;.

I

1968; 1967 in parentheses): wheat 679 (739); 239 (239); barley 389 (44 7 (356); potatoes S.045 (4,840); (346); apples c. 359 720, (1967 68) 750; dry r> .9) (48); rapeseed 18 (15); linseed fibre i" (13); beei and veal 284 (275 593 (529); cow's milk 119 (9 If 223 1967) H 5, (217) rye

I

I

1

I

i

4,1 Id.

chickens (May 1967) r> ufa< lured

1

I

(dclivi

n

u

11

in

1

1

1

tons,

Radio

ui

1967

i

Men

III

railings

:

Agriculture. Production (in 000;

compli

H00.

ment reached agreement in principle with the governments of West Germany and the U.K. on the common production of enriched uranium by means of ultracentrifugal processing.

On January

Ho-shu, the acting Chinese his post and the Netherlands. He later requested

24, Liao

charge d'affaires in

asked to remain

in

The Hague, resigned

asylum in the U.S. The reform of the structure of scientific education drew much attention in 1969. On April 28 students of the Tilburg Economic High School occupied the university building and stayed there for nine days. For political

several days in

mid-May Amsterdam

students occu-

National Party government resisted a strong challenge from the Labour Party and was returned with a 45-seat majority in the 84-seat Parliament. Economic recovery from a slump in export receipts

two years previously continued

(mainly wool)

in

1969, and unemployment, which reached 8,665 in mid-

down to 3,358 by mid-1969 and was still The improvement was assisted by the return immigrants to their home countries and by the emi-

1968, was falling.

of

gration of

New

Zealanders to Australia and other

numbers that in the six months to September 13,000 more people left the country than entered it. The government doubled its countries in such

the end of

pied the Maagdenhuis, the administrative centre of the

intake of assisted British migrants, retaining

University of Amsterdam. In other university

erence for skilled workers. In spite of the healthier

too, students

greater

cities,

took action to enforce their demands for in organizational and educa-

participation

tional affairs.

Much

national finances, the preference of so

New tries

public concern was aroused in January

by

its

pref-

many younger

Zealanders for the opportunities of other counhad an adverse effect on the national morale.

The

a

brightest economic development

was the

dis-

program that alleged that the Netherlands Army, while in Indonesia during 1945-50, had committed war crimes. The government established an official research committee to comb out governmental and military archives. On June 2 Prime Minister de Jong sent the report of the committee to Parliament. He declared that the government deplored that excesses had taken place, but also stated that the evidence showed that there was no question of systematic

covery of oil offshore that looked promising enough for a Sedco 135F rig to be towed to the South Pacific to explore the field fully. In December it was reported that light crude oil and gas had been found

cruelty having been committed.

Kapuni.

television

At the end of June the nation was alarmed by a very serious poisoning of the Rhine River by industrial waste. Hasty measures had to be taken to protect the drinking water of large areas of the country.

From January Prince Bernhard,

23 to January 30, Queen Juliana, Princess Beatrix, and Prince

Crown

Claus paid a state

visit

to

On May

Ethiopia.

2 7

and 28 Prime Minister de Jong and Foreign MinJoseph M. A. H. Luns visited Pres. Richard M. Nixon of the U.S. The Belgian prime minister, Gaston Eyskens, and foreign minister, Pierre Harmel, paid an official visit to the Netherlands on February 4. On October 1 1 the third son of Crown Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus was born. He was named Constantijn Christof Frederik Aschwin. (G. H. v. E.)

ister

Dependent States. Encyclopedia Britannica Films. People

See also

lands (19S7); Holland:

Hold Back

the Sea

of the

Nether-

(1967).

significant quantities off the Taranaki coast. Hydrocarbon-bearing sand was found in an Auckland district shore well in April, and gas at Hokianga in May. Arrangements went ahead during the year for in

land,

a

of

New

parliamentary

and member of the

power

Zeastate

Common-

rated from southeastern Aus-

and Tasmania by the Tasman Sea. The country proper consists of North and South islands and Stewart, Chatham, and other minor islands. Area: tralia

103,736 sq.mi. (268,686 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 2,780,839. Cap.: Wellington (pop., 1969 est., 134,-

Christchurch (pop., 1969 est., 165,700). Largest urban area: Auckland (pop., 1969 est., 588,400). Language: English; also Maori. Religion (1966): Church of England 33.7%; Presbyterian

21.8%;

A NZ$100

for a

million contract for

Comalco smelter

at Bluff

September.

NEW ZEALAND

I

Education. (1967) Primary, pupils 500,898, teachers 17,983; secondary, pupils 168,534, teachers 8,356; vocational, pupils S7,374, teachers 633: teacher training, students 6,155, teachers 426: higher (at 7 universities), students 26,331, teaching staff 1,605. Finance. Monetary unit: New Zealand dollar, with a par value of NZ$0.89 to U.S. $1 (NZ$2.14 £1 sterling). Gold and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1969) U.S. $165 million; (June 1968) U.S. $169 million. Budget (1967-68 rev. est.): revenue

=

NZ$1,160,300,000; expenditure NZ$1,161,000,000. Gross national product: (1967-68) NZ$4,043,000,000; (1966-67) NZ$3,911,000,000. Money supply: NZ$762.1 million; (June 1969) 1968) (June NZ$729.2 million. Cost of living (1963 = 100): (2nd quarter 1969) 127; (2nd quarter 196S) 121. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports NZ$799.1 million; exports NZ$901.6 million. Import sources: U.K. 31%; Australia 20%; U.S. 12%; Tapan 8%. Export destinations: U.K. 46%; U.S. 12%; Japan 9%; Australia 8%. Main exports: wool 20%; lamb and mutton butter

12%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 93,806 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 826,155; commercial 163,249. Railways (state; 1968):

wealth of Nations, is in the South Pacific Ocean, sepa-

400). Largest

from Manapouri was signed in

the piping of natural gas to metropolitan areas

18%;

New Zealand The Dominion

567

New Zealand

city:

Roman

Catholic 15.9%. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1969, Sir Arthur Porritt;

prime minister, Keith J. Holyoake. In the general elections of Nov.

29,

1969,

the

5,018 km.; traffic 564 million passenger-km., freight 2,497.000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 1,266,300,000 passenger-km.; freight 33,590,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1968): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 127; gross tonnage 191,618. Telephones (Dec. 1967) 1,119,422. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 657,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 604,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): wheat 442 (348); barley 219 (135); oats 42 (28); potatoes 236 (250); dry peas 36 (32); apples (1967) 105, (1966) 119; mutton and lamb 578 (536); beef and veal 347 (318); milk 6,204 (6,242); butter 252 (260); cheese 112 (112); wool, greasy 330 (322); timber (cu.m.; 1967) 6,800, (1966) 6,600; fish catch (1966) 56, (1965) 48. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1968): cattle S.217; sheep (June 1968) 66,474; horses c. 84; pigs 612; chickens (April 1966) c. 4,600. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1968): coal 588; lignite 1,709; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 167,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 12,084,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 196S): cement 762; superphosphates (1967) 1.358; mechanical wood pulp (1967-68) 225; chemical wood pulp (1967-68) 256; newsprint 195.

Netherlands Antilles: see

Dependent States

Netherlands Overseas Territories: sec

Dependent States

Neurology: sec

Medicine

New see

New see

Caledonia:

Dependent States Guinea:

Dependent States;

Indonesia

New sec

Hebrides:

Dependent States

Newspapers: see

Publishing

568

Nicaragua

Final approval for the development of Wellington and Auckland as container ports was given in October following the Molyneaux (March), Metra (April), Transport Commission (June), and Ports Authority (October) recommendations. A roll-on/roll-off ferry for trans-Tasman freighting (the Union Steam Ship Co.'s "Maheno") opened this era in May. In internal freighting the government confirmed the success of interisland road-rail ferrying by asking bids for a third Wellington-Picton ferry. The Union Steam Ship Co., which provided the news story of the pre-

vious year through the disastrous stranding of

its

Wellington-Lyttelton ferry, "Wahine," in a gale, or-

dered a replacement, to be called "Rangitira." A storm in May reminiscent of the previous year's April 10 hurricane shifted the wreck of the "Wahine" inside the Wellington Harbour heads, broke it to pieces, and delayed the work of a salvage team preparing it for foam treatment and removal into deeper waters. Maritime tragedies in 1969 were centred on the outlying, exposed Chatham Islands, where fishing boats hunting crayfish or running between the islands and the mainland seemed always to be sinking.

peal against recommendations of the Security Service,

The divorce speeding up

enforcement of the Matrimonial A commission, starting with the Wellington district, began the reorganization of New Zealand's local government structure. The government decided in February that New Zealand troops would remain in Malaysia and Singapore after the British withdrawal in 1971. A new Broadcasting Authority had a troubled year caused by the need to replace its ailing chairman and reversals of attitude on procedure in calling for and deciding on applications for New Zealand's first independent (noncorporation) radio and TV stations. The voting and liquor-drinking age was reduced from 21 to 20. (Jo. A. K.)

Nicaragua

packed the previous year. But the grasslands continued to sustain the economy, with wool and meat continuing to earn well: September receipts for exports of meat were up NZ$66.1 million, and for wool up NZ$S1.3 million. Total export receipts rose by NZ$174 million to NZ$1,061,500,000, to give an overall trade balance that was the highest yet: a current account surplus of NZ$72.2 million. Import payments also continued to rise; at NZ$797.2 million they were NZ$136.5 million above the previous year to September, a rise of 20.7% but only 7.4% over the predevaluation high year of 1965-66. The most notable payment increases were in travel and items associated

tral

Repayment

of official overseas

debt was mainly responsible for a net capital outflow of NZ$47 million, financed by the current account surplus and leaving an overall balance of

NZ$25.2

exports to the U.S. provoked an international

when Prime Minister Holyoake in June warned U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon that government quotas on meat imports could have such a harmful effect on a primary industry trader like New Zealand that it would have to review its relations with any country shutting it out. Nixon in July replied that most serious efforts would be made to ensure that New Zealand's interests in the U.S. were advanced rather than harmed in "all decisions related to our mutual affairs." Visits by U.S. Secretary of State William Rogers to New Zealand in August and by Prime Minister Holyoake to the U.S. in September

incident

confirmed the inclusion of freer trade in the partnership. New Zealand dairy farmers, hit by surpluses in importing countries, were urged to move more into beef production, and the annual budget made special provision for these farmers. Wool growers who saw their reserves running out

by the mid-1970s

failed to

obtain direct government assistance in paying their

Wool Secretariat. The government planned much larger expenditures

levy to the International for university education

mary and secondary

and smaller

classes for pri-

education, and refused to "auc-

Labour Party opposition in the g< m November on the amount of ini reased

elections in it

bounded

republic

by

Hon-

duras, Costa Rica, the Carib-

bean

and

Sea,

the

Pacific

Area:

Ocean.

49,173 sq.mi. (127,358 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.): 1,809,477, ineluding mestizo 70%; white 17%; Negro 9%;

Indian

1968

4%. Cap. and

est.,

largest city:

Language:

380,966).

Roman Catholic. President Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The booming economy

Managua

Spanish.

in

1969,

(pop.,

Religion:

Brig.

Gen.

that characterized the first

year of Pres. Anastasio Somoza Debayle's administration (May 1967-May 1968) tapered off to a standstill during the second year. The annual growth rate of the gross national product dropped from 6-8% to less than 1%. Cotton, the chief export and principal

aid

would give private schools. It re\ ed e< urity Legisby defining "sedition" and providing for api

was produced in good quantity after three dry years, but unfortunately this advantage was offset by a two-to-three-cent drop in price due to foreign competition. The cotton sector of the economy was further complicated by the fact that 20% of the cotton land was taken out of production in 1969.

Not only

did this cut the supply for

the all-important export market, but the resultant layoffs of farm workers also threw many into the already swollen ranks of the unemployed. Coffee, the second most important export, also enjoyed a good production year, both locally and world-

wide. Nicaragua's international export quota WS

duced 7^% by the International ("niter Council, and this cut, accompanied by a 30$ drop '" price, definitely affected the nation*! economy, The meal industry grew •I'.', and ranked as the nation*! third too had iti frustration most important export, but it

imported Nicaraguan beel Because of these decreases in export and a dwindling there wa a corresponding international re erve

as the U.S. (ui

its

quota

Bet an

«

in

impoj

ol a

"I

I,

i

rediK tion

I

hea>

\

trade defii

il

ame

Nil aragua bei

somewhal di illu ioned aboul its position in the iral American Common Markel Nicaragua boughl l

Ihm\ Mv

tion" with the

lation

largest country of CenAmerica, Nicaragua is a

indicator of the nation's economy,

million.

Meat

of the previous year.

Dependent States.

See also

Crayfish exports became a big earner with 214,750

with trade promotion.

rate increased in 1969 as a result of

the

Amendment Act

The

cwt.

Labour Party annual conference had sug-

after the

gested irregularities in the operation of the service.

Central \\ manufai tured good from good thai could nol carry an import online to tei mi ol the lommon Marl in line with hope ol bet oming the br< ol

l
Sim kliolm in jam; nmended der cooperation between Denmark Finland N01 way, ami Sweden in a numbei ol economii field but visional report of a •

nie.i

in

complete agreement was not reached on customs, agriculture, fisheries,

and

financial policy.

In July a new report including a draft convention on Nordic economic cooperation (Nordek) was presented. The committee proposed a customs union, to be implemented from Jan. 1, 1970; preferential arrangements for agricultural produce from Nordic countries; abolition of restrictions on the inter-Nordic trade;

fish

agricultural

stabilization of base prices;

and a Nordic investment bank. Finland's sudden withdrawal from the Nordek talks in December led to their postponement, however, proba-

and

fisheries funds;

bly until after the Finnish elections in 1970.

Reaction to the proposed customs union in induscommercial, and shipping circles in Norway was largely unfavourable, and it was stressed also by government spokesmen that the country's prime aim must be to achieve membership in the EEC in order to obtain access to a greatly enlarged nontariff market. trial,

Norway was one

of the chief backers of the

move

to suspend Greece from the Council of Europe, which ended in Greece's withdrawal from that organization in December. (0. F. K.)

Department of Defense hoped to complete development of both land-based and submarinelaunched versions in 1970. Concerning the Soviet version, little reliable information was available, and U.S. intelligence agen-

that the

sharply in their estimates of

cies differed

status.

Accepting the most alarming assessment (by the Department of Defense), the U.S.S.R. probably would soon be in a position to use it in a full-scale attack, relying on its extremely large SS-9 intercontinental missile as the prime vehicle. Such weapons would not only multiply each side's already enormous striking power but might open the way for the aggressor to destroy at a blow most of the other's ability to retaliate. For example, one or

two might be enough ing a sites.

number

to

wipe out a complex contain-

of widely dispersed missile-launching

Moreover, the multiple warheads would be to overwhelm any foreseeable

by sheer numbers,

able, anti-

missile defenses.

Thus the new weapons promised to upset the "balance of terror" between the two countries: the temporary near-equilibrium of their capacities for mutual destruction. U.S. military authorities

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Scandinavia- -Norway,

its

warned of the

Sweden, Denmark (1962).

consequences of permitting the Soviet Union to win a long lead, and there was also evidence that the U.S.S.R. was under heavy pressure to keep abreast

Nuclear Energy

of the U.S. Failing

The most important event

of the year

was the long-

had the two countries actually met

in formal session

arms comThat the circumstances were favourable, perhaps more favourable than they would ever be again, was obvious and was implicitly acknowledged by both sides. Yet it was far from clear that any positive results, let alone a broad and effective agreement, would be achieved. While both countries stressed that the first phase of the negotiations, begun in Helsinki, Fin., in November 1969, would be only preliminary, there was some faint hope that it might produce an agreement to halt the deployment and even the development of new nuclear weapons and delivery systems while the talks continued. That hope was disappointed if such a moratorium was proposed by either side, word of it never reached the public. When the talks were temporarily suspended in December, the most hopeful sign was that the atmosphere of restrained goodwill and highly cautious optimism in which they had begun had not evaporated. While the nominal objectives of the negotiators were clearly implied by the popular acronym SALT (for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), nothing was known of either side's specific aims nor was it clear that either had defined its purposes in detail. In particular, it remained to be seen whether either was prepared to forgo installing a new, advanced strategic weapon whose impending advent threatened to push them both into an intense new nuclear arms comto discuss

means

of bringing their nuclear

petition to an end.

:

That weapon was an intercontinental missile capaof

to stop

short,

it

all

prospects were

made

still

more forbidding by

virtual certainty that the advent of the

new

the

offensive

weapons would spur both sides to counter with ever more elaborate and costly antimissile defenses. Worse still, it seemed obvious that if a new "balance of terror" were someday achieved at a higher level, both countries would find it harder than ever to work out an arms limitation agreement. One practical reason for this was that without mutual on-the-spot inspections, which the Soviet Union had never shown any willingness to accept, it would be impossible to determine whether a given site in either country was equipped

to

ordinary missiles or the multiple-

fire

warhead versions. Citing that problem,

held that the far too late,

SALT

many

observers in the U.S.

negotiations had probably begun

and few were

willing to speculate

on the

chances that the talks would permit the two countries to escape the heightened dangers that confronted

them. Given the complexity of the negotiators' task and the many unresolved conflicts and deep suspicions that lay between their nations, the only certainty was that progress would be painfully slow at best. Meanwhile, it was taken for granted that without a temporary moratorium faithfully observed by both sides the development and deployment of new weapons would continue.

Those who took the most hopeful view of the

SALT

prospects could point out that the negotiations were the culmination of a series of U.S. -Soviet achieve-

petition.

ble

an agreement

but certain that both governments would soon be drawn, however reluctantly, into a new. incalculably dangerous and costly competition, with no end in sight and no reason to believe that either would be even as secure as when the race began. These grim

seemed

delayed beginning of nuclear arms limitation talks between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Never before

573

Nuclear Energy

delivering

several

thermonuclear warheads,

ments

reflecting a

Among them were

steady willingness to cooperate. the limited nuclear test-ban treaty

simultaneously. According to the U.S. concept, christened MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle), each warhead could be aimed at a

of 1963

separate preselected target. Although the exact status of progress on was classified, it was no secret

nonproliferation treaty, passed a crucial obstacle in

Norwegian Literature:

November, when

sec Literature

MIRV

and the nuclear nonproliferation treaty of

1968.

The most impressive the

result of their cooperation, the

government of Chancellor Willy

— 574

Nuclear Energy

Brandt committed West Germany to signing it. This move broke a long and embarrassing impasse: the U.S.S.R., which had long since signed the treaty, had been unwilling to ratify it until West Germany acted, and the U.S., in a position to ratify since early in the year, had held back until the Soviet Union was ready. Meanwhile, as the treaty's two main architects marked time, little progress was made toward meeting the requirement that 43 nations must ratify it before

it

could come into force.

Even

so, at the year's

end more than half of the necessary ratifications had been achieved. Several of the countries best equipped to acquire nuclear arsenals showed no inclination to adhere to the treaty. Heading the list were Israel and India, each capable of assembling a nuclear weapon in a matter of months if not of weeks. In Australia, there was much talk, difficult to evaluate, of the need for an independent national nuclear force to discourage any Chinese aggression. Japan, also reluctant to accept the treaty, was more concerned that it would hamper deCOURTESY. SANDIA LABORATORIES

The number

of

U.S. land-based intercontinental

missiles had

remained the same since 1966, as had the number of Polaris-launching submarines since 1967. The long-range bomber force had been steadily reduced since the mid-1960s. On the other hand, the long-range missile figures given for the U.S.S.R. were said to reflect a dramatic and continuing expansion more than 500% in land-based missiles since 1966 and about 200% in submarine-launched missiles since 1968. No recent change in numbers of Soviet longrange bombers was reported. In addition to these weapons, both the Soviet Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) had installed large numbers of intermediate-range missiles in Europe. Whether any or all of these must be considered "strategic" and so subject to limitation was one of the many complex questions with which the SALT negotiators presumably would have to deal. Its implications were far from being merely academic, for NATO, faced with the need to compensate for a relative loss of strength in conventional arms, had adopted a policy of relying increasingly on "tactical" nuclear weapons including intermediate-range missiles to counter any aggression from the East. In the U.S. there was abundant evidence that planning for the wide deployment of multiple-warhead the land-based Minuteman III and strategic missiles the submarine-based Poseidon was far advanced. The U.S.S.R.'s plans were another matter, and estimates from various sources differed sharply. The conflicting opinions on Soviet plans figured im-

—

—

—

—

portantly in the hard-fought, wide-ranging U.S. Senate

debates precipitated by the government's proposal to begin deploying the nuclear-armed Safeguard anti-

(ABM) system. Under fire from ConDepartment of Defense quickly abandoned its first position, that the system would protect cities from a possible Chinese attack in the mid-1970s, and instead took the line that Safeguard would merely

ballistic missile

gress, the

ABM's

counterbalance Soviet

To

already installed.

own

intelligence

estimates suggesting that the U.S.S.R.'s

ABM's and

buttress

arguments,

its

cited its

it

fast-growing strategic missile force together might

its

soon give

a decisive offensive-defensive

it

margin.

Basic to this argument was the contention that Soviet

multiple-warhead missiles were being developed and would be installed for the specific purpose of destroying U.S. strategic missile sites in an overwhelmHermes

II,

a giant

generator at Sandia Laboratories in Albuquerque, N.M., which was used to simulate

gamma

radiation

in

tests

by the Atomic Energy Commission. It produced bursts of energy of five trillion watts lasting

70

billionths

of a second each.

commercial nuclear energy industry. Weapons and Weapons Tests. As the SALT negotiations began, U.S. and Soviet arsenals of longrange thermonuclear weapons systems were generally

velopment of

its

believed to be more or less in balance, in that either country, if attacked, could be fairly confident of be-

Those Department of De-

ing able to strike a devastating counterblow. arsenals, as described

by

the U.S.

ing

first strike.

Senatorial critics quickly established that neither

Department of State nor the Central IntelAgency accepted this interpretation of Soviet motives. They were able, too, to find many in the scientific and technical communities who doubted the the U.S.

ligence

Safeguard system's ability

cope

to

will)

a

major

tack, especially the multiple-warhead strike that

The

at-

the

fense and U.S. intelligence agencies, consisted of:

Department of Defense

Land-based missiles In the U.S., 1,064, of which 1,000 were of the solid-fueled Minuteman type and the rest liquid-fueled Atlas missiles. The U.S.S.R.'s total was put at 1,300-1,400, of which about 300 were said to be of the SS-9 type, helieved capable of carrying a much more powerful warhead than any U.S. missile. From U.S. sub2. Submarine-launched missiles marines, 656 Polaris missiles. From Soviet submarines, about 200. Approximately 500 in the 3. Long-range aircraft U.S. and 150 in the Soviet Union, all Bubsonic. Each was capable of carrying several large weapons.

contended, moreover, thai deploying Safeguard might well arouse Soviet suspicions oi S motives open*

1.

—

—

—

Baid

feared.

it

critic!

I

way

ing the petition

for a

new phase

of nn. [ear

weapon

and practically ruling out any chance

m

negotiations

i

ould

ui

i

that

eed

c\ erv weeks of debate touching on alnio defen e polii y, from the wai in \ 1 nam to the Selective Service System, the admini tion prevailed and an authorization to in tall Safe nn lie granted l/iind at two Btrategil

Vfter t

of

t

it

3

However, the tenacity row margin

ol

that the battle

'Ik-

of the

victory

oppo

left

Ition

little

would he refought

In

and the

room 1970.

foi

I

run

doubt

Britain's nuclear striking force consisted of a grow-

ing but

small

flotilla

the Polaris missile

fire

of

still

medium-range

of submarines equipped to

and

aircraft.

nomically attractive nuclear power system for domestic use, let alone for export. These humiliating reali-

were belatedly acknowledged

in the

autumn, when

a small, obsolescent force

ties

The U.K. had

the government formally abandoned the line of natu-

long since

uranium-fueled, gas-cooled reactors that had been

suspended virtually all nuclear weapons development efforts in favour of relying on U.S. technology.

ral

France, obliged to look entirely to its own resources, apparently needed at least one more series of weapons

under the de Gaulle regime and announced that it would look abroad for a viable alternative primarily the water-cooled, enriched-uranium reactors first de-

be held in Polynesia in 1970, to complete development of a submarine-launched thermonuclear weapon comparable to the Polaris. Meanwhile, its tests, to

nuclear striking force consisted entirely of attack aircraft. During the year it advanced and later aban-

doned a proposal to Britain to create a joint force that would be independent of NATO.

To

the outside world, the only solid evidence of

development efforts conSeptember at the Lop Nor test

nuclear weapons

China's

two

sisted of

tests in

Sinkiang. One, obviously of a thermonuclear

site in

weapon prototype, produced an extremely powerful detonation, estimated by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) at the equivalent of three weapon

or

megatons of

TNT.

Contrary to

its

practice following

the two earlier Chinese high-yield tests, the

AEC

not identify the weapon's active components.

did

The

test, the first that China conducted underground, was of a smaller weapon, described by the AEC as

other

20-200 kiloton range. Again according to the AEC, nine underground nuclear explosions occurred in the Soviet Union during the year. The AEC itself reported having carried out more than 20 "weapons-related" tests, all underground. By far the largest and most controversial was the first at a new site, on Amchitka Island in Alaska. Opposed by some geologists and conservationists, who were concerned that it might cause severe ecological damage or even precipitate a major earthquake, it was conducted without incident. Nuclear-Electric Power. For the nuclear power industry, 1969 was an uneven year, in some ways disappointing but never dull. Among the few clearly encouraging developments was a continued quickenin the

ing of interest in nuclear-electric generation in countries that had had no experience with it. South Korea and Taiwan placed orders for their first nuclear power units, and Finland became the first non-Communist country to buy a Soviet-designed and manufactured

plant. Others at or near the point of placing their first

orders included Australia, Austria, Mexico, South

Africa, Thailand,

and Turkey.

An arrangement under which Greece was

buy

its

membership in the Council of Europe. Both Romania and Czechoslovakia solicited nuclear power equipment bids from European and Canadian manufacturers. In Britain, the power authorities found that they needed to buy little generating capacity of any kind and put off new orders until 1970. Meanwhile, government and industry were making the final moves in a broad reorganization aimed at creating a sounder nuclear-industrial structure that would combine private ownership with some government control. While efforts to sell British power reactor equipment to other countries met with no success, sales of nuclear fuel processing and manufacturing services reached significant levels. all

the heavily industrialized nations, France

alone was not in a position to manufacture an eco-

power program

—

veloped in the U.S.

The West German nuclear power industry clearly emerged as the most potent in Europe. Highly integrated, thanks largely to government encouragement, and technically proficient, it had proved itself fully capable of holding

its

own

competi-

in international

Co. and Westinghouse Electric Corp., the huge U.S. reactor manufacturers. Its growth was hampered, however, by the slowness

with General

tion

of

West German

Electric

placing

in

utilities

new

orders.

Mostly small organizations, these utilities could seldom justify buying nuclear units of economic size without setting up cooperative arrangements among themselves, and this they found difficult. As might be expected, Japan, too, emerged as a factor to be reckoned with. As in West Germany, the development of its nuclear power industry was based primarily on licensing arrangements with the two big U.S. manufacturers and on the resources of a highly developed industrial infrastructure.

One

clear

coming of age was the first appearance of a Japanese firm as a competitor for contracting a nuclear power facility in another country. In Sweden, where utilities were firmly committed to intensive use of nuclear power, two large plants were ordered from a domestic manufacturer. Canada, the only nation committed exclusively to power reactors fueled with natural (unenriched) uranium, encountered a serious if temporary problem: an acute worldwide shortage of the heavy water such units require. Italy's state power board after long delays indication of

its

contracted to buy

its

fourth nuclear unit, the

first

manufactured mostly by domestic firms. The Soviet Union announced no major new nuclear power construction plans and gave no indication that national policies favouring the generation of power by fossil fuels were soon likely to be changed. In the U.S., nuclear power orders by utilities, which had fallen off sharply in 196S, continued to decline. At the end of 1969 they represented generating cato be

pacity of approximately 10 million to

first nuclear power unit from Britain, paying for it with tobacco or other products, came to nothing when Britain failed to support Greece's efforts to retain

Of

the keystone of the national atomic

than the total for

all

k\v.,

little

more

other non-Communist countries

combined and only about 40% of what U.S. utilities had bought in 1967. Even so, the new U.S. orders represented capital commitments of at least $2 bilAll

lion.

called

for

the

construction

of

enriched

uranium-fueled, water-cooled reactors.

Heading the

list

of reasons

why

away from nuclear power were cost of building a nuclear plant

cant at a time high

—and

plete

when

U.S. utilities turned the relatively high

—particularly

signifi-

costs of borrowing were extremely

the relatively long time required to comamounting to at least one year longer than comparable fossil-fueled plant. Because of the difference, a number of utilities, under heavy

it,

for a latter

pressure to install possible,

new generating

found that they had

little

capacity as fast as choice but to order

coal-, gas-, or oil-fired units.

From

the point of view of public policy, however,

the most significant deterrent that

was the high probability any new nuclear power project anywhere was

575

Nuclear Energy

576

encounter determined opposition from groups it would endanger human life or degrade the environment. Essentially, these fears were a reflection of rising public concern about the effects of pollutants discharged by industrial installations of all kinds, and it was often apparent that those who opposed a given nuclear project would have been as disturbed if a fossil-fueled plant had been proposed in likely to

Nuclear Energy

who

believed that

From

place.

its

this point of view, the

problem was

merely an aspect of a dilemma that almost all utilities faced: confronted with a sharply rising demand for low-cost electricity, they often found that it was al-

most impossible to put in a noncontroversial plant of any kind at a noncontroversial site. However, nuclear power construction proposals were especially vulnerable to opposition of

were always subject

to

all

kinds for they alone

elaborate

federal

licensing

proceedings, including public hearings.

Much

antinuclear-power sentiment stemmed from still widely held, that a power reactor might

the belief,

explode at any moment, bringing death to all in the however, usually con-

area. Sophisticated opponents,

fire on two features common to all nupower plants of the types being built com-

centrated their clear

mercially throughout the world: the fact that they Projacted Nuclear Power Production, 1970-2000 (In

discharged large quantities of water heated by passage

through their condensers, and the fact that they made-

megawatts)

small, controlled releases of radioactivity in liquid

and gaseous effluents. Conceding that the radioactive discharges were consistent with internationally established limits and in practice were usually well below

900,000 800,000

^^

700,000 600,000

0^

500,000

c

1

the limits of safety, critics often insisted that they

were

excessive.

still

Broadly, the problem of cooling water discharges raised much the same kind of question. In this case, the immediate issue was "thermal pollution." Again and again, proposed nuclear power plants were challenged by conservation groups and state or local governments on the ground that their operation would degrade the ecology of the body of water or might into which the heated water was returned. Utilities often found themselves under pressure to install special equipment or take other costly steps to prevent the problem from arising, and in a few cases they were obliged to abandon otherwise satisfactory sites. Their difficulties were compounded because water quality standards and lines of regulatory authority were seldom clear and also because it was seldom possible to determine what action was really justified

Xf0»r

400,000

— ff\

//i /i 5

POD OOO

/ /^ / /?

—

make

to

a given plant acceptable at a given

site.

Generally, observers in the U.S. agreed that these

and other problems discouraging new nuclear power commitments would be solved case by case, and that public confidence would rise as more and more large nuclear units proved themselves in performance. Meanwhile, the effect of the depression was severe, particularly for nuclear power equipment manufacturers that had incurred heavy losses in the past and had expected to recoup from new orders. Even the uranium mining and milling sector of the industry, perhaps the only one that had been consistently profitable, found itself in a weak position.

100,000

90,000 i?/ - /

80,000

"V

70,000

-25/

5jf

60 oon

I 1

SI

/^ ESI

zip

50,000

Ac

=>l

/£

Beginning about 1966, scores of minerals companies, representing almost every industrialized country, had

' 1957, designed the me to the Ardeatine Cavei In Rome (i He wai ded a ber of honoui le< tlon d.

i

i

in

Natarajan

Tom

—

Khartoum, Sudan, Aug. 26, 1969), president of the Supreme Council of the Sudan from 1965 until deposed by a military coup on May 25, 1969, came into power with his National (b.

i

Earl Alexander of

Tunis

G., U.S. biophysicist (b.

Decatur, 111., March 6, 192 8 d. near Charlotte, Mich., Nov. 8, 1969), who researched in genetics and brain function, was chairman of the biophysdepartment of Michigan State University ics (from 1962), and author of a study in genetic manipulation, Let Us Play God (1969).

a time at the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia.

CHARLOTTE,

France, Sept. 15, 1885 Saint-Germain-end. Laye, France, Aug. 25, 1969), was one of the creators of Fantomas, an evil character widely known in France who gave his name to a long series of popular thrillers. Of a total of 45 Fantomas books, Allain, whose stories began to appear in 1905, wrote 33 in collaboration with Pierre Souvestre (d. 1914) and 12 on his own. They were translated into some 40 languages and for

AUGENSTEIN, LEROY

zig, Ger.,

til

ALLAIN, MARCEL, French

Swiss conductor (b.

Wells in the 1945 election, she nearly won Colne Valley in 1951. President (1944-45) of the Liberal Party, she was a governor of the BBC (194146), and president of the Royal Institute of International Affairs from 1964. She was created a Dame of the British Empire in 1953 and a life peeress in 1964.

Hi' i

Ann

the '

irdei

1969

in ao oi

\'

Mei

adi

mj

ol

ll

^rl

ol

Republii

the

ol

Ital

I,

BERAN, JOSEF CARDINAL, ate

ni

the

Roman

Bohemia, Dei

'

ind

•

'1

latholli

1888 1969 I, exiled an hbl bop of Czechoslo 19,

d. ol

ii

race horse trainer in the U.S., dl da of Thoroti ree Kensault

politician

I

—

wrights,

HORSBRUGH,

FLORENCE

Scotland, Oct. reported Dec. 6, 1969), minister of the was education from 1951 to 1954, firs woman in a Conservative government to be a membei of the Cabinet, t" which she was promoted by 13,

HILL,

British trade unionist (b. London, Eng., 20, 1899 d. Colchester, Eng., Dec. 14, 1969), one of the most influential figures in the British trade union movement, was president of the Amalgamated Society of Boilermakers, Ship-

Aug.

—

HORNE, (CHARLES) KENNETH, British entertainer and broadcaster (b. London, Eng., Feb. 27, 1907— d. London, Feb. 14, 1969), made his name in the radio comedy series "Much Binding airin the Marsh," centred on a mythical field. He launched the radio series "Beyond Our Ken" and "Round the Horn" and had a comedy series "Home a' Plenty" on Independent Television.

to

d.

HILL OF WIVENHOE,

London, Eng., Aug.

Calif.,

Olympia, Wash., Nov. 3, institution director of Michigan and of Washington (1916-57) (1957-67), whose philosophy of penology stressed the possibility of probation and parole rather than strict adherence to traditional punishment. From 1967 he was executive director of the Joint Commission on Correctional Manpower and Training. dale, Mich., 1969), state

(b,

British ad-

—

vocate (b. Sutton, Eng., Sept. 8, 1902 d. Hove, Eng., Nov. 2, 1969), was attorney general of the Duchy of Lancaster from 1951, and chairman of the committee appointed in 1963 to report on rented housing in London.

around $3.5 million.

77 passes for 1,239 yd. Herber football's Hall of Fame in 1966.

presi-

dent of North Vietnam (b. Kim-Lien, Nghe-An 1890 d. Hanoi, Prov., Indochina, May 19, N.Viet., Sept. 3, 1969), who became a Communist organizer in Southeast Asia as early as 1923, was constantly attempting to free his country" from foreign domination and to gain control over a unified Vietnam, first against the French and later against the involvement of the U.S. In 1945, as

assistant counsel at the Nurnberg War Crimes trials after World War II. Subsequently he became a British subject.

Oslo

—

ball player

helped draft the constitution that created the republic from the Irish Free State in 1937.

B

W.Ger., June w

i

;-

f

WORLD

Sonja Henle

HROMADKA, JOSEF

L., Czechoslovak theologian Hodslavice, Moravia, Austria-Hungary, June Dec. 26, 1969), was Prague, Czech., 8, founder (19S8) and president (1958-69) of the Christian Conference for Peace, considered a spearhead for Christian-Marxist dialogue. After collaborating with his friend Thomas Masaryk in the birth of the first Czechoslovak republic, he was the sole Christian leader of his country to join the Communists in 1936 in their support for the Spanish Republic. After the Nazi take-over of his country (March 1939) he spent seven years teaching in the U.S. before returning to Czechoslovakia in 1947. Hromadka received the Lenin Peace Prize in 1958.

(b.

1889— d.

HUGHES, EMRYS,

British politician

—

(b.

Tony-

pandy, Wales, July 10, 1894 d. Ayrshire, Scot., 18, 1969), who, representing the Scottish constituency of South Ayrshire from 1946, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Labour movement and a close associate of Kier Hardie, its founder. Hughes's independent left-wing extremism and pacifism (for which he spent three years in prison during World War I) frequently left him isolated from the bulk of his party. He Oct.

was editor of Forward, the Scottish Socialist newspaper (1931-46), and of a Scottish edition

World War II. HUNT, MARTHA, British actress (b. Jan. 30, 1900— d. London, Eng., June

AMPARO,

ITURBI,

Spanish-U.S. pianist (b. Spain, March 12, 1899 d. Beverly April 21, 1969), who sometimes joined her brother Jose in duo-piano concerts, but generally followed an independent career, having played with the New York Philharmonic, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the Lamoureux of Paris. Her last concert was given in New Y'ork City in November 1968. Hills,

JASPERS, KARL, German

existentialist philoso-

(b. Oldenburg, Ger., Feb. 23, 1883— d. BaSwitz., Feb. 26, 1969), was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg (1920-37) and at Basel (from 1948). Educated at Heidelberg, Munich, Berlin, and Gottingen, he worked in a psychiatric clinic in Heidelberg (1910-16), and was professor of pathology there (1916—20) before being

pher sel,

made extraordinary (1920) and then ordinary (1921) professor of philosophy. Removed by the (1937), he was reinstated in 1945. He chiefly influenced by Kierkegaard, Kant, Nietzsche, and Max Weber. His works include Allgemeine Psychopathologie (1913; 6th ed., 1953), Vermunst und Existenz (1935; Eng. trans., Reason and Existence, 1956), Philosophic, 3 vol. (1932), and Einjiihrung in die Philosophie

Nazis

was

(1950).

JENSEN, EILER, Danish

Argentina, 13, 1969), began her stage career in 1921 with the Liverpool

Copenhagen, Den., April 14, 1894 d. Copenhagen, Dec. 23, 1969), chairman and secretarygeneral of the Danish Trade Union Congress from 1943 to 1967, was a Social-Democratic member of the Danish Parliament from 1945 to 1953, and in addition played an active part in the international trade union movement, being for many years vice-chairman of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

HUSAIN, ZAKIR,

Indian scholar and statesman (b. Hyderabad, Deccan, India, Feb. 8, 1897 d. New Delhi, India, May 3, 1969), president of India from 1967 to 1969, was the first Muslim to attain that office. He was educated at Aligarh Muslim University where he became a staunch follower of Mohandas Gandhi. He was, in succession, vice-chancellor of the Jamia Millia Islamia and Aligarh Muslim universities. After a fiveyear term as governor of Bihar (1957-62), he served as vice-president of India from 1962 to 1967 and, as the nominee of the Congress Party, succeeded to the presidency in 1967.

HYMAN,

—

LIBBIE, U.S. zoologist (b. Des Moines, Dec. 6, 1888 d. New York, N.Y., Aug. 3, 1969), research associate at the American Museum of Natural History (New \r ork City) from 1937, whose study The Invertebrates (vol. 1 published in 1931, vol. 6 in 1968), a classic reference on the subject, was to be carried through volume 10 by other scientists, was the author of a number of college manuals, 150 papers on invertebrates (1914-66), and the editor of Systematic Zoology (1959-63). She received the Gold Medal la.,

—

Linnaean Society of London in 1960 and the Gold Medal for distinguished achievement from the American Museum of Natural History in

of the

1969.

INGRAM, REX, U.S. actor (b. River, 1896— d. Hollywood,

on the Mississippi Calif.,

Sept.

19,

1969), who, although holding a medical degree, spent 50 years on the stage and screen. He played such diverse roles as a native in the original Tarzan pictures of the 1920s, the Emperor in the stage production Emperor Jones, and "De Lawd" in The Green Pastures, an all-Negro film of 1936. In the 1960s Ingram appeared in a number of television series.

Home

Ho Chi Minh

Kenneth

A.F.P. FROM PICTORIAL

CAMERA PRE5S — PIX FROM PUBLIX

PARADE

Obituaries 1969

Calif.,

of Tribune after

Repertory Company and from 1923 was seen, mostly in London, in parts differing as widely as polished socialites, Rosalind, the Queen in Hamlet for the Old Vic Company (1929), and Angelica in Hotel Paradiso (1956). She achieved acclaim as Aurelia in The Mad Woman oj Chaillot, played in New York and on tour (1949-51). Her film roles included Miss Havisham in Great Expectations.

583

—

Valencia,

JONES, (LEWIS) BRIAN,

trade

unionist

—

British guitarist

(b.

(b.

Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, Eng., Feb. 28, 1944 d. Hartfield, Sussex, Eng., July 3, 1969), one of the best-known figures in the field of contemporary popular music, was with the Rolling Stones, having joined the group at its outset in

—

1962.

JONES,

KARLOFF, BORIS (William Henry Pratt), actor (b. London, Eng., Nov. 23, 1887 d. Midhurst, Sussex, Eng., Feb. 2, 1969), was famous for his portrayal of horrific parts in British-U.S.

—

films. Originally intended for a

diplomatic career, he ran away at the age of 2 1 to Canada and the U.S., adopting his maternal grandfather's name of Karloff. After ten years' acting in stock companies he turned to films and in 1931 won fame as the monster in Frankenstein, the first of a long series of films with titles like Grip oj the Strangler, The Body Snatchers, The Walking Dead, The Mummy, and The Cat People. He was also successful on the stage, particularly in Arsenic and Old Lace in 1941 and as Captain Hook in Peter Pan in 1951.

KASAVUBU, JOSEPH,

U.S. sculptor (b.

1892— d. Hyannis, Mass., designed the Tomb of the Un-

president

seph D. Mobutu in his first coup (September 1960) but Kasavubu was reinstated and remained as head of state until Mobutu's second coup in November 1965.

KAY, VIRGINIA, U.S. columnist

(b. Chicago, 111., 1969), wrote "DateChicago" for the Chicago Daily Xcws from

—

line:

d.

Chicago, April

9,

1965.

Nov. 4, 1969), knowns, erected in 1931 at Arlington National Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

KENNEDY, JOSEPH PATRICK,

man

—

L.,

U.S. clergy-

1912 d. Koinonia Farm, Ga., Oct. 29, 1969), Southern Baptist minister, who founded (1942) a 1,400-ac. interracial farm near Americus, Ga., gained national attention in 1957 when the farm was subjected to nightly attacks. Jordan was the author of Cotton Patch Version oj Paul's Epistles (1968). (b. Talbotton, Ga.,

KARIM AL-, colonel, Syrian Army, and political leader (b. As Salamiyah, Hamah Prov., Syria, 1932 d. Damascus, Syria, March 2, 1969), was a supporter of the Baath Party and chief of Syrian national security at the time of his death by suicide. After following a military career he had become minister of agrarian reform and acting minister of the interior in 1964. JUNDI, COL. ABD-AL

—

KABIR, (b.

HUMAYUN,

West Bengal,

Indian educator and author

India, Feb. 22,

1906— d. New

Delhi, India, Aug. 18, 1969), member of the Indian Parliament, was education secretary in the Indian government during 1948-56; later he became minister of civil aviation and minister for scientific and cultural affairs. Among his publications were several volumes of poems in Bengali, Education in New India (1956), and Britain and India (1967).

Brian Jones

the

the priesthood but entered the Belgian administration (1942) where he worked in the Treasury. In 1954 he became president of Abako, a cultural association of the Bakongo tribe which he organized as a political front, and in 1957, when the Belgians permitted elections for the major urban councils, became mayor of Dendale, a Leopoldville commune. On independence (June 30, 1960) he became president with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister. Both were ousted by Gen. Jo-

Buffalo, N.Y., July 24,

JORDAN, THE REV. CLARENCE

of

—

1927

THOMAS HUDSON,

first

Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. Tshela, Leopoldville, Belgian Congo, 1917 [?] d. Boma, Republic of the Congo, March 24, 1969), one of the first Congolese leaders to demand independence from the Belgians, studied 1 1 years for

U.S.

financier

and diplomat (b. Boston, Mass., Sept. 6, 1S88 d. Hyannis Port, Mass., Nov. 18, 1969), who served as U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1938 through 1940, after having amassed a huge fortune through many diverse business enterprises. In 1928 he bought the Keith-AlbeeOrpheum theatre chain and quickly realized $5 million in the movie business. In the early 1930s he secured a franchise for Scotch whiskey, later selling the franchise for about $S million in profit. In the late 1940s he bought Chicago's Merchandise Mart, world's largest commercial building, and properties in New Y'ork and Palm Beach, Fla., transactions that were to bring him many

more

millions. In the political field, Kennedy was chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1932-35) and served as chairman of the Maritime Commission before taking the post of ambassador. Joseph P. Kennedy was the father of four sons, each of whom served his country in the highest tradition: Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., World War II Navy flier, who was killed over England in 1°44; John F. Kennedy, U.S. senator from Massachusetts, 1952-60, and 35th president of the U.S., who was assassinated in 1963; Robert F. Kennedy, U.S. attorney general, 1960-64, and U.S. senator from New York, 19o4 until his assassination in 1968; and Edward M. Kennedy, U.S.

the

first

senator from Massachusetts from 1962.

Boris Karloff

Joseph Kasavubu

Joseph Patrick Kennedy

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KEYSTONE

WIDE WORLD

584

Obituaries 1969

KEROUAC, JACK, U.S. 12, 1922— d. St.

author (b. Lowell, Mass., Petersburg, Fla., Oct. 21, 1969), proponent of the "beat generation" of the the who wrote On Road, the autobiographi1950s, cal account of his wanderings across the United

March

and a voicing of his rejection of materialism (published in 1957). This work was the most successful of his 1 1 novels, which included The Dharma Bums (1958), The Subterraneans (1958), Big Sur (1962), and Desolation Angels (1965); a volume of poems, Mexico City Blues, appeared in 1959. States,

ANDREW

KERR,

("Andy"), U.S.

football coach d. Tucson, 7, 1878 head coach 1969), as at Colgate University from 1929 until 1946 led the Red Raiders to a record of 95 victories, 50 defeats, and 7 ties. (b. Cheyenne, Ariz., Feb. 16,

Wyo., Oct.

—

KING, FRANK, U.S. cartoonist

(b. Cashon, Wis., 1883 d. Winter Park, Fla., June 24, 1969), in 1918 created "Gasoline Alley," a strip he continued to draw until 1951, when it was taken over by other artists; in 1969 it was still enjoyed by millions of newspaper readers.

—

KOPECHNE, MARY JO, U.S. political worker (b. Wilkes-Barre, Pa., July 26, 1940 d. near Edgartown, Mass., July 19, 1969), presumably drowned when a car driven by Sen. Edward M. Kennedy, and in which she was a passenger, plunged off a narrow bridge into a tidal pond. Miss Kopechne was one of a 12-member group participating in a reunion on Chappaquiddick Island off Martha's Vineyard. Along with others at the gathering, she had worked for Sen. Robert F. Kennedy during

—

campaign for the presidential nomination of the Democratic Party in 1968. After Senator Kennedy's assassination in June 1968, she accepted a position with Matt Reese Associates of Washington, D.C., a firm engaged in setting up campaign his

headquarters for politicians.

KOROTCHENKO, Ukrainian

DEMYAN

SERGEEVICH,

Pogrebki, Ukraine, 1894— d. Kiev, U.S.S.R., April 7, 1969), president of the Ukraine Republic, was a partisan leader in the Russian Revolution and World War II. He was also a deputy president of the Soviet Union, a hero of the Soviet Union, and held seven Orders of Lenin. politician

(b.

KOSTRZEWSKI, JOZEF,

Polish

archaeologist

and anthropologist (b. Weglewo, Pol., Feb. 2 5, 1885—d. Poznan, Pol., Oct. 19, 1969), was one of the founders of the Poznan Polish University in 1919, and for almost five decades its professor of prehistory.

He

discovered a prehistoric Slavonic marsh dwelling at Biskupin, near Znin. He published over 700 works and studies, including Die ostgermanische Kultuf der Spdtlatenezeit (2 vol., 1919) and The Prehistory of Polish Pomerania

(1936).

LA ROQUE, ROD,

U.S. actor (b. Chicago, 111., Nov. 29, 1898— d. Beverly Hills, Calif., Oct. 15, 1969), star of the silent screen, played in more than 30 pictures ranging through The Ten Commandments, Gigolo, Captain Swagger, Our Dancing Daughters, One Romantic Sight, and into the sound era of the 1930s with Till We Meet Again

and The Hunchback oj Notre Dame.

LEE,

EDWARD

1906— d. New

L.,

U.S. billiards champion

York, X.Y.,

May

18,

(b.

1969), only

American ever to hold the world title (1936) in amateur three-cushion billiards, won more championships

(including

20 annual national

was best known for his discoveries in parasitology. His expert knowledge was acquired by travel and study in Europe, America, Africa, and Asia between 1905 and 1938, while he was helminthologist to the London School of Tropical Medicine (1905-24), and director of its Department of Parasitology (1924-46). He was emeritus professor of helminthology at the University of Lon-

LINDSAY,

LETTRICH, JOZEF, Slovak

May

(b.

—

d.

21,

ROBERT THOMSON, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire,

(b.

—

He became chairman

was filmed with James Mason). He also wrote philosophical works, such as Creative Effort.

of

the Central Committee of the Council for a Free Czechoslovakia, and chairman of the Czechoslovak delegation to the Assembly of Captive Xations, serving as chairman of the assembly in 1968. He published History oj Slovakia in 1955.

LEWIS, DOMINIC BEVAN

LI

—

d.

British Altea, Spain,

Xov. 21, 1969), best known as a humorous columnist, was also a biographer and authority on French history and literature. After serving in the Welch Regiment during 1914-18, Wyndham Lewis became literary editor of the Daily Express. From 192 5 to 1930 he wrote humorous columns for the Daily Mail. After a time in Paris he returned to the Mail in 1933, but later moved to the Xews Chronicle. In 1954, with Ronald Searle, he wrote The Terror of St. Trinians. He also published

by

craft

workers

and

skill,

—

wanting instead

LOESSER, FRANK,

each of the big industries into special single unions. His idea was voted down at the 1935 AF of L convention in Atlantic City. X.J. Within a few weeks Lewis formed the Committee for Industrial Organization to sign up new unions in the auto and other open-shop industries. The was withdrawn from the CIO in 1942 and by 1946 was back in the AF of L only to leave it again in 1948 over Lewis' refusal to sign the non-Communist affidavit, a requirement under the Taft-Hartley Act, with which he wholeheartedly in

UMW

—

bow (1947).

a

LOPEZ MATEOS, ADOLFO, Mexican statesman (b. near Mexico City, Mex., May 26, 1910 d.

—

LEY, WILLY, German-U.S. science writer (b. Berlin, Ger., Oct. 2, 1906 d. Xew Y'ork, N.Y., June

—

Mexico City, Sept. 22, 1969), who served president of Mexico from 1958 until 1964,

1969), chief popularizer of the rocket age, was the author of more than 30 books in German and English. In 192 7, with a few German colleagues, he founded the Verein fiir Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel), and among his recruits w-as Wernher Von Braun with whom he later collaborated on several books, including The Exploration of Mars (1956). Running afoul of the Xazis in 193 5 over his rocket research, 24,

Ley went

to

England and then

to the U.S.,

Jack Kerouac

Korotchenko

in

omy

which, during his presidency, grew by annually.

where

John

Lewis

L.

British physiApril 17,

Scot.,

tropical

as enof

tered national politics in 1946 as a member the Partido Revolucionario Institutional and won a six-year term in the Senate. As president he nationalized the electric industry, worked at solving the El Chamizal border dispute with tb( endeavoured to make Latin America a nuclearfree zone, and encouraged the growth of the econ-

Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire 1969), a pioneer

—

LOGAN, ELLA, U.S. musical comedy star (b. Scotland, 1913 d. Burlingame, Calif., May 1, 1969), best remembered for the role of Sharon McLonergan in the Broadway hit Finian's Rain-

UMW

disagreed. Lewis retired as president of the on Jan. 14, 1960. In 1964 he was awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom.

U.S.

U.S. composer (b. Xew June 29, 1910 d. Xew Y'ork, July 28, 1969), whose many Broadway shows included Where's Charley? (Tony Award, 1948), Guys and Dolls (Tony Award, 1950), The Most Happy Fella (Xew York Drama Critics Circle Award, 1956), and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (Pulitzer Prize, 1962). Among the more than 1,500 songs he wrote were "Baby, It's Cold Outside" (Academy Award, 1948), "Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammunition," "Once in Love with Amy," "Two Sleepy People," and "On a Slow Boat to China." Y'ork, X.Y'.,

lump

to

—

Calif.,

UMW;

ers

fig-

—

champion (b. 1905 d. Beverly Hills, Xov. 2, 1969), who was national junior champion in 1926, went on to become U.S. women's foils champion in 1928 and 1931. She was a member of the U.S. Olympic teams of 1928, 1932, and 1936. fencing

U.S. labour leader Lucas, la., Feb. 12, 1880 d. Washington, for 40 years president of D.C., June 11, 1969), the United Mine Workers of America, started working in the mines at age 12. In 1909 he was in 1917 elected legislative agent of the he became vice-president, and in 1920, president of the union. Lewis was critical of the American Federation of Labor's method of organizing work(b.

Chinese soldier and political

LLOYD, MARION (Mrs. Joseph Vixce),

biographies and, in collaboration with Charles Lee, compiled an anthology of bad verse, The Stufjed Owl (1930).

LEWIS, JOHN L(LEWELLYN),

TSUNG-JEN,

ure (b. Kwangsi Prov., China, 1891 d. Peking, China, Jan. 30, 1969), vice-president of X'ationalist China (1948-54), was, with Gen. Chiang Kaishek, one of the leaders of the Kuomintang. Later he broke with Chiang but in 1937 the two generals united again to combat the Japanese invaders. In 1941 Li was elected vice-president of Xationalist China, and in 1949, when Chiang left the mainland for Taiwan, he was named acting president. The same year illness forced Li's hospitalization r in Xew Y ork City. Refusing to return to Taiwan, he was dismissed from his post in 1954. In 1966, however, after a 16-year self-imposed exile, Li defected to Communist China and settled in Peking.

WYNDHAM,

writer (b. Liverpool, Eng., 1891

WILLIAM, Aus-

—

d. Diviaky, Austria-Hungary, June 17, 1905 New York, N.Y., Xov. 29, 1969), was dedicated to freeing Central European nations from Soviet domination. He organized young democratic forces in the underground during World War II, and was a leader in the 1944 Slovak uprising against the Xazis. After the war, with the reuniting of Czechoslovakia, he was president of the Slovak Xational Council and a co-founder of the Democratic Party of Slovakia. In 1948, with Communist take-over in Czechoslovakia, the

Lettrich fled to the U.S.

NORMAN ALFRED

tralian artist and writer (b. Creswick, Victoria, Austr., Feb. 23, 1879 d. Sydney, Austr., Xov. 21, 1969), joined the art staff of the Sydney Bulletin in 1901 and was for many years the paper's chief cartoonist. Living in the Blue Mountains, he produced an abundance of paintings in oils and watercolour, sculptures, etchings, and line drawings, and illustrated Boccaccio, Casanova, Theocritus, and Petronius. His numerous novels, in which he often offended Australian moral attitudes of the day, included Redheap, Saturdee, The Cautious Amorist, and The Age oj Consent (which

Demyan Sergeevich

U.S. banker and art collector (b. New York, X.Y., Sept. 29, 1891— d. Sands Point, X.Y., Aug. 9, 1969), senior partner of the investment firm of Lehman Brothers, whose art collection included the finest old masters and modern works. In addition to more than a thousand paintings, he owned tapestries, jewelry, bronzes, and glass. Lehman in 1963 endowed a chair in the history of art at Yale University, and in 1967 gave to New York University $1 million for its Institute of Fine Art.

1881

political leader

titles,

LEHMAN, ROBERT,

LEIPER,

science editor of the newspaper PM from 1940 until 1944, when he became a U.S. citizen and took up full-time writing and lecturing. One of his major works, Man and the Moon, was completed shortly before his death. Other of his later books were Watchers oj the Skies (1963) and Beyond the Solar System (1964).

He was

don.

1931-64) than any other player.

cian

he turned out a score of science-fiction books.

medicine, *

i

r

i

*

-

'

;

r>

Willy Ley

6%

LUKE, SIR HARRY CHARLES,

British admin-

—

d. Cyistrator (b. London, Eng., Dec. 4, 1884 prus, 11, 1969), was a member of the Brit-

May

ish Colonial Service (1908-43). He was acting high commissioner of Jerusalem (1928-29); lieutenant governor of Malta (1930-38); and governor of Fiji and high commissioner for the Western Pacific (1938-43). A traveler and writer with a particular interest in the Middle East, he was Bailiff of Egle (1961-69) and Bailiff Grand Cross (1960-69) of the Most Venerable Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and was a contributor to Encyclopaedia Britannica.

MABANE, WILLIAM MABANE,

1st

Baron,

British politician (b. Leeds, Eng., Jan. 12, 189S

—

London, Eng., Nov. 16, 1969), was member of Parliament for Huddersfield from 1931 until d.

1945, holding a number of parliamentary secretaryships during that time. In 1944 he became a member of the Privy Council, and in 194S was one of the British delegation to the founding conference of the United Nations in San Francisco.

MACMICHAEL, SIR HAROLD ALFRED,

—

became governor of Tanganyika, and from 1939 to 1944 was high commissioner for Palestine and Trans-Jordan. He retired from regular service on leaving Palestine, but in 1945 visited Malaya to study problems of postwar reconstruction. From 1946 to 1947 he was constitutional commissioner in Malta.

MCMILLAN, DONALD,

U.S. Salvation Army officer (b. Middlesbrough, Eng., June 8, 1887 d. New York, N.Y., Dec. 3, 1969), was U.S. national commander of the Salvation Army from 1953 to 1957. During World War II he served as national secretary, and as vice-president of United Service Organizations (USO). He was appointed eastern territorial commander in 1947.

MacNALTY,

SIR

—

ARTHUR

(SALUSBURY),

Calif., 1898 d. Santa Monica, Calif., July 1969), won Academy Awards for directing The Awjul Truth (193 7), and for writing and directing Going My Way (1944).

British physician (b. Glenridding, Westmorland, Eng., Oct. 20, 1880 d. Epsom, Surrey, Eng., April 17, 1969), medical investigator, public health worker, and medical historian, whose first appointment on the preventive side of medicine was as medical inspector at the U.K. Local Government Board in 1913. From 1919 to 1932 he was deputy senior medical officer at the Ministry of Health, becoming chief medical officer in 1935. On his retirement in 1941 he was appointed editor in chief of the official medical history of

McCOWN, THEODORE DONEY,

World War II. MacNalty wrote several books and was a contributor to Encyclopaedia Britan-

He was chairman

Defense Commission in 1951, was knighted in 1954, and raised to the peerage in 1962. From 1960 to 1963 he was chairman of the British Travel Association, and subsequently

its

of the Civil

president.

McCAREY, LEO,

U.S. film director (b. Los Ange-

—

les, 5,

ogist

1908

and educator

—

(b.

Macomb,

U.S. anthropol111.,

June 18,

Berkeley, Calif., Aug. 17, 1969), an authority on human fossils, joined the staff of the University of California at Berkeley in 1929 upon his graduation, and became a full professor of physical anthropology in 1951. One of his major finds was made in 1931 on Mt. Carmel in Palestine, when he unearthed the skeleton of a threeyear-old child dating from the Mousterian period of the Stone Age. McCown was the author of The Stone Age at Mt. Carmel (with Arthur Keith, vol. ii, 1939). (See Anthropology.)

McGILL, RALPH EMERSON,

U.S. publisher (b.

.

.

.

synagogue

in Atlanta, Ga., and a school in Clinton, Tenn., terming it the work of "rabid, mad dog minds." As publisher and columnist of the

Atlanta Constitution he attacked injustice in all forms. He upheld rapid desegregation of schools in the South, strove to better living conditions of the Southern poor, and, not confining himself to local problems, spoke out on world affairs as well. McGill had joined the Atlanta Constitution in 1929 as sports editor, then, after a study trip to Europe, returned as editor in 1942, becoming publisher in 1960. In 1963 he wrote The South and the Southerner, a significant contribution to an understanding of the region. McGill

was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in

1964.

McHUGH, JAMES

F.

(Jimmy), U.S. composer

1895—d.

Beverly Hills, Calif., May 23, 1969), wrote about 500 popular tunes including "The Sunny Side of the Street," "I'm in the Mood for Love," "Coming in on a Wing and a Prayer," "I Can't Give You Anything but Love, Baby," and "Lovely to Look At." He also wrote scores for some 55 screen plays and many Broadway (b.

—

nica.

hits.

Sir Harry Charles

Luke

Miles Malleson

MADRAZO, CARLOS,

Mexican political leader (b. Tabasco State, Mex., June 7, 1915 d. near Monterrey, Mex., June 4, 1969), head of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional from December 1964 until November 1965, when he was forced to resign because of his desire to introduce reform within the party. Madrazo had served as governor of the state of Tabasco for six years (1958-64).

MALLESON, (WILLIAM) MILES,

British actor Surrey, Eng., May

and dramatist (b. Croydon, d. London, Eng., March 25, 1888

15, 1969), known for his interpretations of Shakespearean comic characters, first appeared on the stage in 1912 at the Liverpool Playhouse and made his debut in London in 1913 at the Royalty Theatre. World War I gave him inspiration for such plays as D. Company and Black 'Ell, and in 192 7 one of his most memorable works, The Fanatics, was produced. After World War II he appeared frequently with the Old Vic and National Theatre companies. Two of his plays, The Fanatics and Six Men of Dorset, were revived on

best

television in the 1960s.

MANLEY, NORMAN WASHINGTON, Jamaican and barrister (b. Roxburgh, Jamaica, d. St. Andrew, Jamaica, Sept. 2, July 4, 1893 1969), began his political career after the Jamaican labour riots of 1938 by founding the People's National Party. Giving up a career as an advocate, he took the post of chief minister in 1955, after his party's first electoral victory. He became the first premier of Jamaica in 1959 and served until 1962 when he became leader of. the opposition. He campaigned again in Jamaica's first post-independence election, in 1967, but was politician

unsuccessful. in

—

Manly

retired

politics

early

MANN, ERIKA, German

writer (b. Munich, Ger., Zurich, Switz., Aug. 27, 1969), eldest daughter of Thomas Mann, studied for the stage under Max Reinhardt and in 192 5 played a leading part in her brother Klaus's first play. In Munich in 1933 she staged her own satirical review Die Pfefjermiihle ("The Peppermill"), which after Hitler's rise to power was much performed outside Germany. In 1936, in order to obtain a British passport, she married the poet W. H. Auden and went to the U.S., returning to Europe with her father in 1952. Her books include School jor Barbarians (1938), The Lights Go

Nov.

9,

1905— d.

(1940), and A Gang of Ten (1942).

MARCELLO, CLAUDIO,

CAMERA PRE5S — PIX FROM PUBLIX

from

1969.

Down

CAMERA PRESS — PIX FROM PUBLIX

—

broad

—

Obituaries 1969

In 1949 he was nominated president of the Committee of Studies for Hydroelectric Production of the International Union of Producers and Distributors of Electric Energy (UNIPEDE). From 1961 to 1964 he was president of the International

Commission on Large Dams, and afterward honorary president. He was a contributor to Encyclopaedia Britannica.

MARCIANO, ROCKY (Rocco Francis Marchegiano), U.S. boxer (b. Brockton, Mass., Sept. d. near Des Moines, la., Aug. 31, 1969), 1, 1923 undefeated world heavyweight champion, held the title from 1952 until 1956. Becoming a professional in 1947, he scored 12 knockouts in 1948 and 4 more in 1949. On Oct. 26, 1951, he met former champion Joe Louis and won the clash in the eighth round. By the next year Marciano earned the right to box the heavyweight champion, Jersey Joe Wolcott, and scored a knockout in the 13th round of the fight, held in Philadelphia on

—

Sept. 23, 1952. In defense of his title, Marciano had a return match with Wolcott (May 1953), two bouts with Roland LaStarza (September 1953 and March 1955), two with Ezzard Charles (both in 1954), one with Don Cockell of England (1955), and one with Archie Moore (Sept. 21, 1955), his last. Marciano's record stood at 49 victories, 43 of them KO's, in 49 professional fights.

MARSHALL, GEORGE PRESTON,

d.

Soddy, Tenn., Feb. 5, 1898— d. Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 3, 1969), a Southern liberal and longtime champion of civil rights, was winner of the 1958 Pulitzer Prize for his editorial writing covering the year 1958, and especially for "A Church, A ," that dealt with the bombings of a School

585

British

administrator (b. Oct. 15, 1882 d. Folkestone, Eng., Sept. 19, 1969), was appointed assistant civil secretary to the Sudan in 1919, and later promoted to civil secretary. In 1933 he colonial

Italian civil engineer (b. Forli, Italy, Feb. 24, 1901— d. Milan, Italy, Jan. 9, 1969), an international authority on dam construction, gave his name to a type of gravity dam lightened by hollow elements, of which 15 had been built in Italy and elsewhere up to 1969. In 193 7 he became director of the hydroelectric installation division of the Italian Edison group.

U.S. sports

—

promoter (b. Charleston, W.Va., Oct. 11, 1896 d. Georgetown, D.C., Aug. 9, 1969), owner and president of the Washington Redskins of the National Football League, started his team in Boston in 1932, then moved it to Washington in 1937. Marshall was credited with originating the title play-off game and the Pro Bowl.

MARTIN, (BASIL) KINGSLEY,

British journalist

(b. Hereford, Eng., July 28, 1897— d. Cairo, U.A.R., Feb. 16, 1969), editor (1930-60) of the New Statesman, decisively influenced the intellectual opinion of the period from the mid- 1930s to the mid-1950s. He served an apprenticeship (192 7-30) on the Manchester Guardian. He turned the New Statesman, a near-bankrupt Liberal-imperialist journal, into the widest selling, most profitable weekly of its kind in the world; required reading in many countries for Cabinet

ministers and university teachers and students. It reflected his own ideas and ideals; it also showed his ability to gather and nurture diverse and distinguished talents, and he was as concerned with upholding literary standards as with molding political opinions. Martin wrote many books, from the early historical studies (revised in retirement) to the acute analyses of The Magic o> the Monarchy (1937), The Press the Public Wants (1947), The Crown and the Establishment (1962), and the autobiographical Father Figures

(1967) and Editor (1968).

MARTIN, THE REV. WILLIAM KEBLE,

British

clergyman and botanist (b. Radley, Eng., July 9, 1877 d. Woodbury, Eng., Nov. 26, 1969), author of a best-selling book on British wild flowers (published when he was 87), studied botany at Oxford, where he took his master's degree in 1907, having been ordained in 1902. Over a long lifetime he painstakingly and with great skill built up a

—

collection of coloured illustrations of 1,486 British plant species, which was published in 1965 as the Concise British Flora in Colour. It sold 100,000 copies within a year and had doubled that number within four years. The University of Exeter conferred on Keble Martin an honorary D.Sc, and some of his drawings were used on postage stamps issued in 1967.

MARTINELLI, GIOVANNI,

U.S. operatic singer

—

2 5, 1885 d. New York, N.Y., Feb. 2, 1969), was the Metropolitan Opera Company's leading dramatic tenor for 3i years, from 1913 until his retirement in 1945. He made his debut in Rome in 1910 in The Girl of the Golden West. His London debut in 1911 was followed by his first appearance at the Met in New York City in 1913 in La Boheme. His most important roles were in Otello, Aida, and Norma.

(b.

Montagnana,

MASCHWITZ,

Italy, Oct.

ERIC, British

theatrical producer, broadcasting executive (b. Bir1901 mingham, Eng., June 10, d. Ascot, Eng., Oct. 27, 1969), wrote and produced several highly

librettist,

and

—

586

Obituaries 1969

musical comedies, such as Balalaika (1936), Carissima (1948), Belinda Fair (1949), Zip Goes a Million (1951), and Love from Judy (1952). He also wrote some memorable song lyrics, including "Good Night Vienna," "These Foolish Things," and "A Nightingale Sang in Square." Maschwitz worked with the British Broadcasting Corporation from 1926 to 1937 and again from 1958 to 1963 and was director of variety programs (1933-37) and assistant and adviser to the controller of television programs (1961-63). In 1963 he was appointed producer (special projects) to Rediffusion TeleviShoulsion. His autobiography, No Chip on der, appeared in 1957. successful

.

My

MAXWELL, GAVIN, Scotland,

(b.

ist

Sept.

7,

1969), was

Scottish author and naturalInverness, Scot., d. best known for his book about

1914

—

two otters, Ring oj Bright Water (1960). During World War II Maxwell served as a major in the Scots Guards. He spent his later years traveling and writing on wildlife from his cottage in the Western Highlands. His other books included Harpoon Venture, his first (1952), People oj the Reeds, and The Ten Pains of Death (1960); also The Rock Remains (1963) and Raven Seek Thy Brother (1969), which completed the Ring of Bright Water trilogy.

(q.v.) and Le Corbusier also worked. In the 1920s Mies developed his radically different designs for tall office buildings and apartments, using great amounts of steel and glass. For a time in the early 1930s he was director of the Bauhaus in Berlin, then in 1937 he left Germany for the U.S. to become head of the architecture department at the Illinois Institute of Technology. There he designed 20 buildings, including Crown Hall, for the 100-ac. campus. In 1951 he completed his dramatic 26-story, all-glass-facaded apartment towers on Chicago's lakefront buildings that exemplified his concept of objective architecture based on technology. Mies was

—

awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, and held gold medals from the Royal Institute of British Architects and the American Institute of Architects.

MILLIKAN, MAX,

U.S. economist (b. Chicago, Dec. 12, 1913— d. Boston, Mass., Dec. 14, 1969), director of the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, from the time of its founding in 1952; was president of the World Peace Foundation from 1956. 111.,

his

MBOYA, THOMAS JOSEPH ("Tom"), Kenyan politician

and Pan-Africanist

Machakos

District, Eastern

(b. Kilima Mbago, Prow, Kenva, Aug.

1930— d.

Nairobi, Kenya, July 5, 1969), member of the Luo tribe, considered a possible successor to Jomo Kenyatta as president of Kenya, was assassinated in Nairobi. Mboya was one of eight Africans who were first elected to the former Legislative Council in 1957. Returned to power as member for Nairobi East in the general elections of 1961, and for Nairobi Central in 1963, he became minister for justice and constitutional affairs when Kenya became self-governing on June 1, 1963. After independence in December 1964 he was appointed minister for economic planning and development. Mboya was secretarygeneral of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), the ruling party. 15,

MERLOT, JOSEPH JEAN, Belgian politician (b. Seraing, Belg., April 2 7, 1913 d. Liege, Belg., Jan. 21, 1969), was leader of the Walloon Socialists in the Social Christian-Socialist coalition

—

government formed in June 1968 under Gaston Eyskens, and held the positions of deputy prime minister and minister of economic affairs. Previously he had been minister of public works but resigned in 1962 over the linguistic issue.

MERTON, SIR THOMAS (RALPH), physicist (b. Jan. 12, 1888

—

British

d. Oct. 10, 1969), 1916 succeeded in reproducing spectral features of hydrogen and helium, previously seen only in starlight. He later demonstrated the influence of impurities in gas spectroscopy. In 1935 he invented a cheap method of copying diffraction gratings, and in 1948 devised a new way of ruling them. He was elected to the Royal Society in

1920.

MIES VAN DER ROHE, LUDWIG, German-U.S.

—

Aachen, Ger., March 27, 1886 d. Chicago, 111., Aug. 17, 1969), acclaimed for his uncompromisingly spare design, began his career in 1909 as an apprentice to Peter Behrens, the industrial architect, with whom Walter Gropius (b.

Thomas Joseph Mboya

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

—

commissioner of Peshawar and by 1946 was joint secretary in the Ministry of Defense, New Delhi. With partition of India in 1947, Mirza chose Pakistan and helped reorganize its Army. In 1954 he became minister of the interior, states, and frontier regions, and was responsible for forming West Pakistan into a single province. In October 1955 he became governor-general and was elected president the following year. Pakistan's increasing poverty and corruption, and the threat of a coup by young army officers, led to Mirza's turning over the government to Gen. Muhammad Ayub Khan in 1958. He spent his political retirement in

London.

MODY, SIR HOMI, Indian politician and industrialist (b. Bombay, India, Sept. 23, 1881 d. Bombay, March 9, 1969), was governor of Uttar

—

Pradesh (formerly the United Provinces), 194952. From 1927 to 1934 he was chairman of the

Bombay

Millowners' Association, being primarily responsible for the unification of the Indian textile industry. He was a member of the Indian Legislative Assembly from 1929 to 1943, when he resigned in protest against the government's treatment of Mohandas Gandhi. In September 1947 he acted as governor of Bombay before being returned to the Constituent Assembly (1948-49) following independence.

MONDLANE, EDUARDO CHIVAMBO, guerrilla leader

in

architect

MIRZA, SYED ISKANDER, Pakistani statesman (b. Bombay, India, Nov. 13, 1899 d. London, Eng., Nov. 12, 1969), was the first president of Pakistan upon its becoming a republic in February 1956. In 1926 he was selected for the Political Service and in 1938 became political agent in the Khyber. Three years later he became deputy

—

African

Mozambique, 1920

(b. southern

d. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Feb. 3, 1969), killed in a bomb blast, was head of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). Described as one of Portugal's most wanted men, he had set up an institute at Dar es Salaam to train future African political leaders, technicians,

and administrators. After being expelled as a "foreign native" from the University of Witwatersrand, S.Af., he studied in Portugal and in the United States, where he obtained a doctorate in sociology from Northwestern University. After a

UN

period of teaching he became an official of the Trusteeship Council befdre returning to Africa to reorganize the splintered liberation movement in

Athens, June 20, 1969), one of the world's richest men, at one time owned simultaneously 115 companies, including a controlling interest in the New York Central Railroad.

MUS, PAUL,

French orientalist (b. Bourges, France, June 1, 1902 d. Murs, Vaucluse, France, Aug. 9, 1969), was professor of Far Eastern civilizations at the College de France. Educated at Hanoi, Indochina, and later in Paris, where he was a pupil of Alain (E. A. Chartier), he began early to study Far Eastern religions and philosophies. During World II he joined British parachutists and was dropped twice in Indochina, later becoming political adviser to Gen. Jacques Leclerc and taking part in the first negotiations with Ho Chi Minh. A large part of his published work concerns Vietnam.

MUTESA

MOWBRAY, (CEDRIC) ALAN, IS. London 25,

400

l

d.

969

I,

played chai

films, Including

Hollywood,

artor

(b.

MUTESA, 36th kabaka Kampala, Uganda, Nov.

Laughing

In

(1956).

I

He

and I

In

iilum

I

V

Flach.

MURCHISON, CLINTON WILLIAMS, tycoon U PI

COMPIX

(b.

I

ex.,

(

'

O'DANIEL, W(ILBERT) LEE (•Pappy"). (1941-48) from Texas

senator

March

I

'.

I I

Af-

11,

1890— d.

(b.

Dallas. Tex..

May

U.S.

Malta. O., 11, 1969),

owner of a flour mill who won the governorship of Texas after running on the slogan "Pass the biscuits, Pappy." He served one term (193941) before he was elected to the U.S. Senate.

was

the

O'DOUL, FRANK JOSEPH ("Lefty"). U.S. baseball player (b. San Francisco, Calif., March d. San Francisco. Dec. 7, 1969), twice 4, 1897 won the National League batting title: in 1929 with a .398 average while with the Philadelphia Phillies, and again in 1932 when he hit .368 while playing as an outfielder for Brooklyn. His gained during 16 years lifetime average was .349 (1919-35) of major league ball.

—

—

ORAM, SIR MATTHEW HENRY, New member (1943-57) church, N.Z., June

2,

.

ChristJan. 22, 1969), from 1950 to 1957.

Parliament

of

(b.

1885—d.

was speaker of the House

ORLICH BOLMARCICH, FRANCISCO JOSE, Rican

Cost.i Rii

politician

March

.i.

San San

(b,

1907

10,

d.

Ram6n

was president o M. was and strove to advance friendly relations i,

niunist

with the

I

OSBORN, FAIRFIELD, sen

ationisl

the

New




raell

I

Pa

,

^m
K's in

100

fixed proportions;

From

50

r"

serves

to

take dollars out

by having them turned

into

.

.

re

official

t

entries

on

die

all

other

books of an international

countries

si

)l


-. ^

F or

ii|

in e> cl ia ig et

^

15

\

'• '

.

-

the representatives of seven nations "felt" that, in

view of the prospective activation of SDR's, central banks had sufficient gold and that there was no need to buy gold from the market. In the wake of the decline in the market price on a thin volume from the high of $43.65 a fine ounce in May 1969 to $35, the monetary price, in early December, the U.S. Treasury announced on December 16 "a basis for a satisfactory mutual understanding" on the handling of South African gold. The understanding followed discussions among governments and central banks of the major

—

—

countries and was further elaborated "in the

framework of

South Africa

may

$35

i *

10 •

•

*

Li

ib

:

If

ie

1

;

o

g 3V sr in ie

ei

a nc c ;n tr

It -*

si

3a nl si

%

5 •'

by deliberations

•

\

IMF." It provided that some of its gold to monThe view thus prevailed that

.'

the.

dispose of

etary authorities at $35. additions

;

G ol

from new gold output

•• .

to official stocks at

—without, therefore, denuding the U.S. gold stock

1935

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

19 69

—would

•An nounts that can be drawn "essentially automatically" from the IMF, correspo nding to the U.S. gold subscription and amounts of U.S. dollars sold by the Fund to o ther

15 years to a level representing almost half of the

tLa rgely assets acquired as a result of general support in foreign exchange marl ,ets for otl ler currencies such as sterling. The United States can, therefore, use such ho Idings only for bilateral settlements.

be a stabilizing development. For the governments of the major nations of continental Europe that had increased their gold stocks fourfold in world's monetary stock could obviously not disinterest

themselves in matters concerning the price of gold. Some students of international liquidity regard the

m< ambers

(net).

posits, short-term money market instruments, and U.S. government notes a bo nds, including special nonmarketable Treasury securities. s ovrce: Federal Rervrv*

Bulletin.

— 604

was whether or °f

ooi the allocation of

SDR's would, by

help the process of adjustment in the balances

itself,

Payments and Reserves

payments among the surplus and the

deficit

nitial Amour ts of Special Drawing Rights Allotted »ut of the First

Table IV.

coun-

$3.5 Billion Creation*

The adjustment process comes, of course, tries. through the workings of price, cost, and interest rate

International

—

In

United States United Kingdom

mechanisms helped or hindered, as the case may be, by government policies or lack of policies and

West Germany

—

Italy

devaluations

Netherlands Belgium, Luxembo jrq

rates that

balance of payments disequilibriums. Exchange Rate Flexibility. Understandably, there-

Sweden of Ten

229 141

Developed countries

2,524

Asia other than Japan

381

America

Latin

322

Africa other than South Africa Middle East Less

2,154

163 110

developed 976

countries

Grand •Assumes participation of

all IMI

3,500

total

members on

the basis of present

quotas.

don the present system of

fixed

which

parities,

thought emerged that SDR's alone canthe international monetary system once

except for adjustments necessary to deal with "funda-

again workable. Further innovations should be sought

but limited freedom for market rates. The drawback is that freely floating rates would be determined not only by the forces of trade and investment

the

fore,

make

not

smooth the process of adjustment through

to help

greater flexibility in exchange rates. In the aftermath

monetary crises between November 1967 and September 1969, this search, initiated mainly by nonofficial monetary doctors, did not come as a surprise. For in a dynamic world, the pace and the patterns of production and productivity change continuously, and prices and costs get out of line because of disparities among countries in the degree and pervasiveness of inflation. Exchange rate relationships of the five

appropriate at one time will not necessarily fit later. If they are nevertheless maintained, they accentuate

balance of payments disequilibriums, encourage speculation, and exacerbate crises in the exchange markets. The real question, therefore, is not whether an un-

exchange rate should be changed, but when,

realistic

by how much, and how. Various possibilities have been suggested. The most is to aban-

radical and, theoretically, attractive idea

CHART

Canada Japan

Group

Other Europe Australia, New Zealand, South Africa

198 162 103 86 73 122 119 37

France

or upvaluations of exchange have become inappropriate. Since the problem is political in nature and since, as experience shows, there is a wide gap between understanding and practice, the probable effect of SDR allocation on the balance of payments discipline of the world might well be to postpone rather than to speed up the painful and unpalatable measures necessary to deal with the

through

$000,000

851

403

4.

mental"

—

{i.e.,

—which

among

reflect,

other things, changes in pur-

chasing power relationships

by

also

guesswork,

gossip,

among

currencies

—but

and mass psychology.

Furthermore, governments cannot be expected to

dis-

interest themselves in so vital a price as the exchange rate,

which automatically and powerfully influences

general prices, incomes, and the terms of trade. As

governor of the Bank of England, Sir Leslie remarked, "It seems to me Utopian to talk of taking the exchange rate out of politics: one might just as well talk of taking tax rates out of politics." Governments can thus let the day-to-day determination of actual trading be handled by the the

O'Brien,

market; but they do not want to leave the entire process to be determined by market forces. In view of the widespread doubts about the workability of a floating rate system among major industrial countries, emphasis is placed on a limited, circumscribed, and internationally agreed upon flexibility within

the

framework of

a fixed-rate system.

suggests the widening of exchange rate

One version

Monetary Reserves of Governments and Central Banks*

and serious) disequilibriums

persistent

offers

margins beyond the present permitted spread of 1% on either side of parity. Another version proposes

Billions of U.S. dollars

80

IMF and World September and early

crawling or gliding parities. At the

Bank annual meetings October, Re serv e

p< isitic ins

i

t

th

s

IM Ft-

ministers

finance

the

in late

expressed readiness

reexamine the appropriate role for adjustments in exchange rates in order to help deal with si rains and disruptions in the world's exchange rate structure. This reexamination would also review the possibilities of making more active and intensive use of existing IMI'' arrangements ami rules for keeping to

60

Ste rlinj. anc other

1

U.S ;.

Japan 15%; West Germany 11%; Belgium-Luxembourg 7%; Netherlands 6%. Main exports: copper 2 7%; fish meal 18%; silver 8%; iron ore 7%; sugar :

.

cotton

Transport and Communications. Roads 42,818 km. (including 10.635 km. with improved surMotor vehicle- in use (1967): passenger 195,I

100; commercial (including buses) 111,800. Railway* (1965): 3,345 km.; traffic 236 million passenger-kin., freight 646 million net ton-kin. Air traffic km.; freight 12,790,000 net ton-km. Shipping elephones id over 275; gross tonn (Jan. 1968) 152,136. Radio receivi (Dei relevision reci ivei Agriculture. Production (in 000; metrii 5i wheal 1967 in parentheses >. potatoes (461 I; barley c. 170 (172); o 1,700 (1.71 >

I

I

I


7) 5*34; superphosphates (1967) 1,569; passenger cars (units) 40; commercial vehicles (units) 40; cotton fabrics (m.) S35.000; woolen fabrics (m.) 94.000; rayon and synthetic fabrics (m.) 11S.000. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1968) 416,000 gross tons. New dwellings completed (1967) 185,700. c.

=

among them being Zygmunt Moskwa, leader Democratic Party, and Mieczyslaw Moczar, former minister of the interior and from November

of disaster victims. in ten countries

a

on the uses of electronic data processing

1968 a secretary of the Central Committee of the

PZPR. Jozef Cyrankiewicz was once more asked to form He retained two of the former three

a government.

deputy premiers

— Piotr Jaroszewicz,

Poland's repre-

in

tinued.

Zajfryd.

January

—

Committee of discussed on November 14 and 15 the

PZPR

of the Central

at the

congress of the Polish United Workers' Party held

fifth

in

1969.

Roman

nation against the

reached the proportions of

Catholic minority almost

war.

civil

The

force of the Royal Ulster Constabulary

was quite inadequate

3,000-strong

(90%

Protes-

with the series of violent outbursts that continued throughout the year, tant)

to deal

and the call-up of 8,400 B Special Protestant)

sively

only

reservists (exclu-

exacerbated

the

situation,

leading to allegations of police partiality and brutal-

These allegations were partly substantiated, and

ity.

16 policemen faced charges for misconduct in the riots.

With

the building of barricades, the

extensive burning of property, attacks on post offices

tions.

it

In a speech in Warsaw on May 17 Gomulka dwelt on the German problem. Referring to the Budapest appeal for an all-European conference on collective security, he stated that, so far, successive

West Ger-

man governments had

blocked every initiative aimed at detente. With pending West German elections in mind, Gomulka remarked that Willy Brandt, leader of the Social Democratic Party and then vice-chancellor in the coalition government, had made a realistic assessment of the

German and European

Nurnberg on March

16,

stance, that he regarded

1968. it

He had

situation in

said, for in-

as necessary to recognize,

or respect, the Oder-Neisse frontier.

:

confronting a police

situation

was probably that in Northern Ireland, where disturbances springing from alleged discrimi-

clared that the country's industrialization

I.

Commonwealth"

difficult

attained such a level that

had already was necessary to enter a new phase of intensive and selective growth. It was decided in Moscow in April that a higher degree CAMERA PRESS — PIX FROM PU8LIX of economic integration within was essential, but this Brezhnev, general did not exclude economic and technological collaboraLeonid secretary of the Communist tion with the West. (See Economic Planning.) U.S.S.R., calls

The most force in 1969

and police stations, the use of gasoline bombs and machine guns by civilians, the death of at least 11 persons, and the wounding of hundreds, including 540 policemen, by mid-August the Northern Ireland government was forced to call in the British Army, which enforced an uneasy "peace line" between rival fac-

the

need for technological progress in order to ensure the success of the 1971-75 development plan. Jan Kaczmarek, chairman of the new Committee for Science and Technology of the Council of Ministers, de-

in

in

report on the topic to the

Mutual Economic As(Comecon), and Eugeniusz Szyr, a former fighter in the International Brigade in Spain and an old Communist of Jewish extraction and made three new appointments Stanislaw Majewski, Marian Olewinfor a new total of five. ski, and Zdzislaw Tomal Most of the ministers retained their posts in the new government with three exceptions: Jozef Trendota became minister of finance to succeed Stanislaw Majewski; Edward Kowalczyk succeeded Moskwa as minister of communications; and Andrzej Giersz was appointed minister of building and building materials to succeed Marian Olewinski. In September Piotr Lewinski, minister of transport, was relieved of his post for inefficiency and replaced by Mieczyslaw

The plenary meeting

Party

Geneva

January, and submitted its annual UN. Regular participation the criminal work of the Council of Europe con-

held in

sistance

—

police

in

work. The third African regional conference was held in Addis Ababa, Eth., in February. Interpol was also represented at the conference on illicit drug traffic

sentative to the Council for

—

for unity in the "Socialist

Throughout 1969, 16 laboratories were engaged in a research program

nificant

of the

When, after the elections of September 28, Brandt became head of the new West German government, he announced in the Bundestag on October 28 that he would propose to the Polish government the opening of bilateral negotiations on issues touched upon by Gomulka. On December 22, Warsaw, replying to a November 25 note from Bonn, indicated its willing(K. Sm.) ness to begin talks on a number of issues.

An

their

to

inquiry into the role of the

disbandment and

to

B

Specials led

the disarming of

the

Royal Ulster Constabulary.

Student Protests. The spate had erupted

of student protests

1968 continued. In London, following the student occupation of the London School of Economics in January and the subsequent erection of control gates by the authorities, busloads of police surrounded the site and clashed with militants, who that

in

succeeded in smashing the gates before being evicted. Later in the year police dealt firmly, but with minimal violence, with the "London Street Commune," groups of squatters, including hippies who had occupied a mansion in Piccadilly and a school in Holborn. After the troubles of May 1968. French universities were relatively quiet, although students and police did clash at the Sorbonne, Vincennes, and in the Latin Quarter of Paris. In March there were three daj fighting between police and demonstrators in Louvain, Belg. Police used truncheons, tear gas, and water hoses;

many

of their opponents

crash helmets. In

Rome

came prepared with

police clashed with students

Pres and Communist demonstrators during U.S Richard M. Nixon's visit in February, In March about 3,000 policemen raided the barricaded campus of Rome University and found do/ens of Moloto\ cock tails, fused and ready for ai tion, In the U.S. police bad to use tear gas time nighti

running to disperse rioting students at the Univ< Wis* on, in in Febi uai j i\ e poli< emen wen;

of

Police

jured

Membership

of the International Criminal Police Or-

1969 numbered 105 CO ably, held in Mexico City in October, concerned international drug traffic, measures to prevent the hijacking of aircraft, police ,,i powers of detention prior to arrest, and tin u ganization tries.

I

(Interpol)

Reports

to the

in

Gen

had recovered more quickly, perhaps because readers preferred their magazine-type format and featurearticle style.

Competition between The Times, the Guardian, and the Daily Telegraph for position as "top" quality daily

grew keener with the tendency to drop a second paper, and led to speculation about the timing of new price rises. In February 1969 the Guardian was redesigned, and editorial changes were made in November. W. Harford Thomas, deputy editor since 1963, became managing editor. The Daily Telegraph, financially safe as Lord Thomson's "second" daily, had lost less by price rise than other "popular" papers. Typographical improvements in February were followed in October by moving news to the front page in line with the Guardian and The Times. What might prove to be a general price rise began on October 18 when The Times went up to &d. The Times's circulation rise, begun in 1967 with Lord Thomson's ownership, continued but at a cost to

him

of

more than £5

million in less than

Concern over concentration of media ownership was apparent on several fronts during the year. A Supreme Court decision in March upheld an antitrust action against the joint operating arrangement of the newspapers in Tucson, Ariz. Action against newscities with similar arrangements was evidently being withheld pending a resolution of legislation that would exempt such newspapers from papers in 21 other

antitrust prosecution.

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) show concern about newspaper owners who

started to

hold broadcast licenses. the

license

of

In January

WHDH-TV,

it

owned by

transferred the

Boston

Herald-Traveler Corp., to another applicant, Boston Broadcasters, Inc. The FCC expressed concern about the actions of the parent newspaper in publishing

an exclusive, significant story without sharing it with the television station. The decision also noted that the

programming proposals of the

rival

applicant

were better balanced than those of the owners, and that the rival better

met the

FCC

criteria for diversifi-

three years. During 1969 he stated in general terms

cation and integration. License renewals of two news-

more economic The Times

paper-owned stations were also held up pending an examination of charges of news distortion. An agreement was reached in September between Times Mirror Co. of Los Angeles and the Times Herald Co. of Dallas, Tex., that would make the Los Angeles publisher the new owner of the Dallas Times Herald and its affiliated broadcasting stations. In another major purchase announced in October, Knight Newspapers, Inc., agreed to buy the Philadelphia Inquirer and the Philadelphia Daily News for a reported $55 million from Triangle Publications, headed by Walter H. Annenberg, the U.S. ambassador to Great Britain. The oldest Sunday newspaper supplement in the U.S., This Week, suspended publication late in

the need for newspapers to price.

Soon after

its

sell at

a

price rise, however,

began a separate Saturday Business News to compete with the Financial Times, &d. since July 1968, which, unlike other papers, had its highest sale on Saturday. Early in October the London Evening Standard was revamped, perhaps with an eye to increased home delivery.

Relations between managements and unions continued to be the industry's greatest problem. After a dispute about wage differentials between the National

(NGA) and several managements (notably IPC), on September 22 the NewsGraphical Association

paper Publishers Association (NPA) dismissed all NGA members. The Daily Mirror dispute, which had caused the loss of over nine million copies, had resulted from a claim by NGA machine-minders that separately negotiated productivity deals had eroded differentials

tives

between

—members

of

their

pay and that of the operaSogat, meanwhile, gave

Sogat.

warning that pay increases not related to productivity would put a stop to its productivity talks and necessitate renegotiation of existing settlements.

By

setting

1969. Pulitzer Prizes for journalistic efforts in the U.S.

went

major publications with the exception of the which was won by Paul Greenberg of the Pine Bluff (Ark.) Commercial. The Los Angeles Times won two prizes meritorious public service and the international reporting award, which went to William Tuohy for his work in Vietnam. Press control in other parts of the world included to

editorial writing award,

—

up an all-union meeting to discuss the printing industry's wage structure, the Trades Union Council

the return to prepublication censorship in Czecho-

averted a national strike, temporarily at least. (X.) In the U.S. throughout most of the year it seemed

press in such countries as Greece, Spain, Brazil, South

as

if

the low-key approach to the presidency taken

by Richard M. Nixon had carried over to activities involving the press. In mid-November, however, VicePres.

Spiro T.

Agnew

first

charged that the three

national television networks were abusing their

power

over public opinion and, a week later, extended the attack to include newspapers and the "concentration of more and more power over public opinion in fewer and fewer hands." He specifically named the New

York Times and the Washington Post, whose parent company also published Newsweek magazine and owned radio and television stations in Washington, D.C. While the White House maintained that Agnew was it was generally known that the administration had not been happy with news media criticism of the president's November 3 policy state-

speaking for himself,

ment on

the

expressed by

Vietnam war. Fears

Agnew

that the attitudes

could serve as a basis for re-

on freedom of the press were expressed by segments of the news media.

slovakia and continued authoritarian reactions to the

Vietnam, and South Africa. The Brazilian situation was probably the most serious. A pattern of censorship and prosecution of newsmen begun in 1968 carried through 1969. In June the Greek government indicated that newsprint quotas would be adjusted up or down based on a newspaper's contribution to the nation's intellectual and moral standards. Spanish newspapers, free of prior censorship since January 1966, got a return taste of it in February and March 1969 when a "state of exception" was declared. By mid- 1969 the South Vietnamese government had suspended over 30 newspapers for periods ranging from a few days to permanent suspension. The government also jailed several newspaper editors and publishers on charges unrelated to newspaper activities. South Africa opened itself

up to new criticism by convicting the editor in chief and a reporter of the Rand Daily Mail for printing "false information" about prison conditions.

A

more

positive note

was the abolishment

in

France

strictions

of the Ministry of Information following the resigna-

all

tion of Pres. Charles de Gaulle.

Hubert Beuve-Mery,

647

Publishing

REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF THE CRISIS PUBLISHING COMPANY

648

Publishing

Monde, retired on the paper's 25th anniversary (December 23) and was succeeded by Jacques Fauvet. Also in Paris, the editors and staff of Le Figaro struck the newspaper in an effort to perpetuate an agreement that gave them a founder-director of Le

THE CRISIS A RECORD OF THE DARKER RACES

voice in the selection of the editor. Along a related line in the U.S., news media personnel in Chicago began publishing a critical review of their employers' journalistic efforts under the title of Chicago Journal(M. D. Bu.) ism Review. Books. The growing internationalism of publishing was evidenced in 1969 by international mergers, while technological improvements continued to benefit printing and packaging operations. Mergers increasingly involved companies and interests new to publishing. In July the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), which had earlier merged with the U.S. publishing house of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, entered the British market with its acquisition of Antony Blond Ltd. and Blond Educational Ltd. In May another U.S. firm, the International Textbook Co., which at the end of 1968 had acquired two New York companies, the John Day Co. and Ballantine Books Inc., acquired the British firm of Abelard-Schuman Ltd.; in both cases the British firms would continue under existing management. The most discussed take-over in book publishing, as in newspapers, concerned Robert Maxwell. This time the Leasco Data Processing Equipment Corp. (New York) made an offer for Pergamon Press, Ltd., the British scientific and educational group headed by Maxwell. In August Leasco withdrew its £25 million bid for the share capital of Pergamon, expressing doubts about the position of related Maxwell holdings. There followed, amid mutual recriminations, an in-

quiry by the City take-over panel, and a fresh agreement in which five Leasco directors would join the Pergamon board. At an extraordinary meeting of the board in October Maxwell was voted off the reconstituted board and later resigned also as chairman of International Learning Systems Corp.

(ILSC).

Also in the U.K. Hutchinson acquired a 48% interand the Granada Publishing Group acquired Weidenfeld and Nicolson (Educational)

est in Constable,

from May 1 in the Rupert HartJonathan Cape and Chatto & Windus joined forces by forming a holding company, Chatto & Jonathan Cape Ltd., in which shareholders of each company had equal control.

Ltd., incorporated

Davis educational

In March the followed by the Nice,

list.

Book Fair took place first International Book Festival at France (May 31-June 9). The organizers hoped first

Brussels

these fairs would serve as half-year relays to the im-

portant Frankfurt (W.Ger.)

Book

Fair in October.

Publishers remained concerned over copyright legislation.

The Intergovernmental Copyright Committee

met with

the

Bern Union's permanent committee

(Paris, February)

to revise the so-called safeguard

NOVEMBER. Edited by J.

Max

W.

BLIRGHARDT DU

E.

Barber, Ch.rle.

Bdwerd

of existing copyright protection the

bill's

enactment.

was extended pending

7

12

C. P.

....

The Burden

What

to

.

.

.

Read

.

.

MONTHLY BY THE

PUBLISHED

National Association for AT TWENTY VESEY STREET

13

MOORFIELD STOREY

Br

Advancement

trie

of Colored People

NEW YORK

CITY

TEN CENTS A COPY

ONE DOLLAR A YEAR

Cover of first issue of the NAACP monthly "The Crisis," edited by W. E. B. Du Bois. Arno Press in 1969 began publishing a 50-book facsimile edition of all the issues from 1910 to 1960.

Technological developments included the planned

announced

publication,

January, by Encyclopaedia

in

Britannica International Inc., of a series of compre-

hensive resource and research libraries in ultramicro-

new medium

fiche, a

that could contain

images on a small card. The

up

to 3,000

project, for publica-

first

autumn 1970, would be The Library of American Civilization, Beginnings to 1914, representing 20,000 volumes. The pattern of corporate mergers continued unabated in 1968. In December 1968, the U.S. Department of Commerce reported that, between 1963 and 1967, 637 major book publishing companies were tion in

acquired, half of them by other book publishers.

The

book trade mergers in the U.S. in New York Times Co. purchase of 51% of Arno Press, publisher of facsimile reprints. Harcourt, Brace and World acquired Ojibway Press, publisher of 27 periodicals, and F. A. Owen principal

1968 included the

Publishing, which published Instructor magazine the education field, and expanded

further

into

in I

ln-

tradc magazine field, Crowel) Collier and Macmillan bought 25 companies in 1968 ln< hiding the rotogravure

Kenedy &

28 years with 28-year renewal.

10

ville

lowed transfer of membership from the Bern Union to the less restrictive Universal Convention. The copyright revision bill introduced in January into the U.S. Senate would extend copyright to the initial

3

Athens and Browns-

two

passage was complicated by disputes aboul photocopying and cable television, and the duration

Vill.rd.

.... ....

The N. A. A.

Publication

bill's

Carmen

and M. D. Maclean.

the Color Line

Editorial

(/roup,

The

O.w.ld

S. Braithwaite

Opinion

printer

of the author plus 50 years, replacing the existing

W.

Along

clause of the Universal Copyright Convention which,

provision for an

the co-operation of

Ruieell, Kelly Miller.

CONTENTS

as a concession to less developed countries, had al-

life

BOIS, with

1910

Schirmer,

Sims

and

music

a

Management

Corp.,

publishers

Catholic

of

Bruce

Publishing

books,

Vcqui itions

publisher

P

I

G

and

Publishing,

1969

In

and Standard Rate and Data Service the, Litton [ndu tries, one oi the larger conglomerates, bought Chapman Reinhold and included Benziger Brothers,

i

Van Not trand

>

\\

,i

hiiurn

ravel

'l

quired a

ting


a> id

firm

E quire Globe Book

ruide

the

I

the

Ini

thai tin-

Co

Fair* bild

bough!

publi bet

the

magasine publi Capital

Citie

Publii ation

I

i

Fodor bei

Broad National

Hardcover fiction: Couples by John Updike; The Salzburg Connection by Helen Maclnnes; A Small Town in Germany by John Le Carre; Testimony of Two Men by Taylor Caldwell; Preserve and Protect by Allen Drury; Myra Breckinridge by Gore Vidal; Vanished by Fletcher Knebel; and The Tower oj Babel by Morris L. West. Hardcover nonfiction: The Random House Dictionary of the English Language: College Edition, Random

General Corp., a producer and exhibitor of films, purchased Grosset & Dunlap. Xerox Corp. added Ginn and Co. to its education division. Kraus Reprint was sold to U.K. press tycoon Lord Thomson. Columbia Broadcasting System entered the medical book field by acquiring W. B. Saunders Co. The Thomas Y. Crowell Co. was sold to Dun & Brading Co.

became a part of Barnes and Noble. Viking Grossman Publishers. Farrar, Straus

Press bought

& Giroux bought Octagon Books. Areata National bought Halliday Lithograph. Grolier bought Scarecrow Press. In 1969 the Dell Publishing Co. completed its acquisition of Dial Press. Barnes and Noble became a subsidiary of Amtel; Harcourt Brace and World acquired Academic Press, owners of the Johnson Reprint Corp. Cass Canfield,

Row,

set

Jr.,

up a European

vice-president of Harper and affiliate,

which was

to be op-

Kompass

of Milan,

erated jointly by himself and Etas

works in the McGraw-Hill entered

Italy, for the publication of college-level

social

and behavioural

sciences.

Far Eastern Publishers Ltd. and publishing in Singapore and Malaysia. Time-Life Books announced a joint venture with Salvat Editores of Barcelona, Spain, for a book club to be known as Salvat Ediclub. A new group was set up to handle the company's relations with affiliated enterprises, which included Rowohlt books (West Germany), Editions Robert Laffont (France), and Organizacion Editorial Novaro (Mexico). In October Time-Life's acquisition of Andre Deutsch (U.K.) was announced. In April Sir William Haley resigned as editor in chief of Encyclopedia Britannica, a post that he had taken in January 1968. Censorship continued to be a headache in the U.S. The House Subcommittee on Postal Operations heard into a joint venture with for printing

proposals to curb a reportedly increased flow of por-

nography through the mail. The Supreme Court ruled that states had the right to enact statutes imposing "variable censorship," i.e., for adults and children. In the U.K. in July a conference on the obscenity laws adopted the report of a working party set up in 1968 by the Arts Council to investigate the operation of the Obscene Publications Acts of 1959 and 1964. The report advocated the repeal of all existing legislation, and the chairman explained that it was felt that the level of permissiveness controlled the ob-

Publishing

House; Listen to the Warm by Rod McKuen; Between Parent and Child by Haim G. Ginott; Lonesome Cities by Rod McKuen; The Doctor's Quick Weight Loss Diet by Erwin M. Stillman and Samm Sinclair Baker; The Money Game by Adam Smith; Stanyan Street and Other Sorrows by Rod McKuen; The Weight Watcher's Cook Book by Jean Nidetch; Better Homes and Gardens Eat and Stay Slim, Meredith Press. Paperback best sellers (all reprints of hardcover best sellers): Rosemary's Baby by Ira Levin; Myra Breckinridge; The Arrangement by Elia Kazan; and The Exhibitionist by Henry Sutton.

the financial publisher. Translation Publish-

street,

649

A

The Chairman, by Jay Richard Kennedy,

novel,

achieved the curious distinction of appearing

first

as

a film, then as a paperback, and finally in hardcover

form. The author had written the screenplay first and had not completed the novel before the release of the film. Harold Robbins disclosed that he could earn more from book sales than from film rights, the reverse of the usual situation. He had received a $2.5 million advance for The Inheritor, while an independent Hollywood producer had paid only $1 million for the film rights. Publisher Lyle Stuart accepted

new sex-in-the-suburbs novel by Long Island housewife," Penelope Ashe.

a manuscript for a

"a demure

After 20,000 hardcover copies of Naked Came the Stranger had been sold, it was announced that the

book had been written as an exercise in bad writing by 25 editors and reporters of Newsday newspaper. In the U.K. the retirement of Sir Allen Lane, founder of Penguin Books, after 50 years in publishing, was a milestone. In 1968 British publishers produced 31,420 titles, the highest total ever. Although this exceeded the U.S. total output, U.S. publishers printed 23,321 new titles, compared with the U.K. figure of 22,642. The total British turnover was around £133 million, of which £59 million was earned in foreign exchange; exports accounted for 43% of output as against 6% for the U.S. This reflected a growth of 5% over the previous year. In 1968 an estimated 60 million paperbacks were sold in the U.K. The number of paperback titles at all price levels issued in the U.S. in 1968 was substantially reduced from 1967 (1,432 from 1,613), reflecting a stabilization

in

this

area of publishing.

Publishers issuing

paperbacks, however, reported a substantial increase in volume from 10 to 20%, tending to follow the

—

scenity laws.

The year was noteworthy

for the publishing activity

surrounding the successful journey of the Apollo 11 astronauts to the moon. The best-known project was

year's

inflationary

spiral

in

other businesses.

U.S.

the account of the

1968 approached $2,750,000,000, an increase over the $2,434,150,000 shown for 1967. A 1968 Gallup Poll reported a 3% rise in book reader-

{see

ship between 1965

moon landing by Norman Mailer Biography), for which Little, Brown and Co. paid an advance of $150,000 and Lije magazine $100,000 for magazine rights. Both were owned by Time, Inc. A paperback co-published by Bantam Books and the New York Times entitled We Reach the Moon had been started two years earlier but the final chapter was written the day the astronauts splashed down in the Pacific. The Times of London prepared a book by its space team which was published in the U.S. by Doubleday. In 1968 total U.S. output of books was 30,387, an increase of 5.6% over the previous year. The bestselling novel was Airport by Arthur Hailey with 250,000 copies. The Better Homes and Gardens New Cook Book was the top nonfiction work with 433,000 copies. Other best

sellers in

1968 were:

total

sales

for

and 1969, but showed that

the U.S. public did not read books at

books

in

1968

totaled

$782,430,000,

7.8% over 1967. Average book

of

all.

58%

of

Sales of text-

an

increase

prices also rose;

for novels, $5.82 in 1968 versus $4.32 in 1967; biography, $13.73 versus $8.39; and history, $9.95 versus

$7.97.

In Australia the incidence of foreign take-overs

remained high. Most significant during the year was the acquisition

by

the International Publishing Corp.

of the Australian-owned half share of the ire

Group

(F.

W.

CheshCheshire Publishing, Lansdowne

Press, Jacarande Press, Landfall Press). IPC thus had control of the largest single slice of Australian publishing, with a claimed turnover in 1968-69 of A$14 million. During the year the federal government

World Dally Newspapers and

Circulations,

passed the Copyright Act 1968 making Australia a signatory to the Universal Copyright Convention. The Australian Book Publishers' Association joined with

1968-69*

the Publishers Association of Great Britain to Circula-

Circula-

tion

tion

per 1,000

Country

Daily

of

newspapers

popula-

per 1,000

Country

tion

AFRICA

China Cyprus

Algeria

3

Angola

4

Hong Kong

15 9 4 0.6

1

2

Ceuta

1

58

1

0.4

Israel

3

1.3

7

2

Japan Jordan

3 6

1

1

1

Dahomey Ethiopia

Gabon Ghana

37

4

6 20 116

t

Lebanon

Macao

Kenya

4

Liberia

1

3 9 9

Libya

Malagasy Republic

8 6

5 13

Mali

2

0.5

Philippines

14

109 60

Ryukyu Islands Saudi Arabia

1

6 5

Niger Nigeria

14 6

0.4 7 3 61

1

Portuguese Guinea Reunion Rhodesia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone

Somalia South Africa South West Africa

Sudan Tanzania

18 2 1

325

3

11

Taiwan

32

Thailand Turkey Vietnam, North Vietnam, South

18

64 22 45

48

Total

10 2

EUROPE

21

57

2 13 5

12 5 3 6 27

402

Yemen

Albania

3

15 t

France

1

8

Germany, East Germany, West

12 137

NORTH AMERICA Barbados Bermuda British Honduras

Canada

Austria

Belgium Bulgaria

Czechoslovakia

Denmark Finland

Cuba Dominican Republic El Salvador

Greece Hungary

10 5

88 27

Norway

86

Poland

41

8

47

Portugal

9 38

Romania

2

8

Haiti

5

Honduras Jamaica Leeward Islands

6

1

2 1

Netherlands Antilles

Nicaragua

Panama

2

239

Mexico

(incl.

Canal Zone)

Puerto Rico Trinidad and Tobago United States Virgin Islands (U.S.) Windward Islands Total

5 6 11

4

2 1,752 4 1

Bolivia Brazil Chile

Colombia Ecuador French Guiana

Guyana Paraguay

8

87 14 73 36 35 16 1

4 5

128 26 34 118 53

Switzerland United Kingdom Vatican City (Holy See) Yugoslavia

118

Total

399

ASIA 15

45 249 285 190 283 354 358 248 421

328 120 125 197

435 242 112 477 t

301

382 189 69 164 159 514 344 295 488

1

§

22 2,050

80

OCEANIA American Samoa

1

Austrolia Cook Islands Fiji

Islands

37

58

370

1

37 20 73 266 65 380

1

3 2 1

37

Niue Tonga

1

60

2

16

107

Total

Grand

6

8

9

18 9

11

6,861

total

44

'Only newspapers issued four or more times weekly are in< luded. Areas not listed had no known dail y newspapers. fTotal circulotion less than

1

p


:

with a par value ol R i\ sterling and a free market rate

=

its

new designations the

>

RwFr. (June 3

dim

7.s

indicated the

a

pe