Britannica Book of the Year 1973 0852292821

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BRITANNICA 1973 BOOK OF THE YEAR

17T68

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. WILLIAM BENTON, Publisher

Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo, Manila, Johannesburg, Seoul

© 1973 BY ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Copyright Under International Copyright Union Under Pan American And Universal Copyright Conventions By Encyclop(sdia Britannica, Inc. Library oj Congress Catalog Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-282-1 •

All Rights Reserved

part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

No

BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR

' econ-

the dimension of goods

services, their production, distribution,

tion. It is the here

But we are moving into little

constant renewal of the person through systematic study.

and consump-

and now of the economy. The second

dimension deals with the formation and investment of capital

;

it is

concerned with the allocation of resources

—

every economy there is the dimension of jobs, of what human beings work at. to the future. Finally, in

Throughout most of our had very

little

there were no

history,

most people have

choice in any of these three dimensions;

mass

large-scale

services, in capital, or in jobs.

markets

goods and

in

The mass-market

level in

goods and services was not reached anywhere in the world until about 200 years ago, with the "commercial revolution" of the early 18th century in England and

Low

the

A

Countries.

sufficient

only in a few narrowly circumscribed "professions":

clergyman, physician, lawyer, and teacher, plus

newcomer

—

of the 19th century.

Of course there are

still

limits

—not only

of ability but

of wealth, of the accident of location, and certainly of race.

But on the whole we are rapidly moving from a and occupations were determined

society in which careers largely

by the accident of birth

which we

into one in

take conscious choice for granted.

supply of capital to permit mass choice

The problem today

was even longer in coming. As late as the early '30s, when I was a young investment banker in London, it was axiomatic that no more than one out of every

abundance thereof.

three or four hundred people had enough savings to invest

on.

anything but those time-honoured financial necessities,

in

— the one

Engineers came in at the end

civil servant.

hfe insurance and the

home mortgage. And

nomic theory assumed

essentially that jobs

eco-

all

were scarcer

is

not the lack of choice but the

Suddenly there are career choices

;

the great majority

only yesterday had their careers determined from birth

Suddenly there are decisions on the direction and purpose of knowledge. Suddenly we have to decide where

and how the

to invest our savings

economy

w'e

want

— what developments

to back.

And

of course

we

in

are

than available labour supply, that one worked at what

constantly choosing from the huge range of goods and

was

services offered us.

available.

The proportion

S0%

at

of shareowners in the U.S.

or higher, with

financial intermediaries

as pension funds or investment trusts.

"nationalized" capital in the U.S., but Financial ownership of the

it.

now

stands

most of them holding ownership

economy through such new

in the

now

We we

have not

are "socializing"

means of production is same degree of equality

distributed roughly in the

—

in which consumption of goods and services was distributed in the early '20s in the first great "mass consumption" boom. Since the millions of new share-

or inequality

The

may appear shall I

demands of the individual At first sight, the decision

society of organizations

decisions regarding himself.

only to concern career and livelihood:

do?" But actually

it

contains a

demand

individual take responsibility for society and tions.

"What cause do

I

want

to

serve?"

is

"What

that the

its institu-

imphed.

And

demand that the individual take responsibility for himself. "What shall I do with myself?" rather than "What shall I do?" is really being underlying this question

is

the

asked of the young by the multitude of choices around

holders leave their stocks under institutional control,

them. The range of choice forces the individual to ask

they do not exercise the power of owners.

of himself:

benefit as investors

from the

They simply

profits of industry

have a second income beyond the earnings

;

they

in their

"Who am

and "What do I want want to get out of it?"

I?"

"What do

to put into life

labour.

Perhaps more important, though less visible, is the emergence of the mass market in careers for educated knowledge workers. The supply of men and women with advanced education has increased almost 20-fold

But the supply of job and career opportunities them has increased even faster. During the '60s the

since 1920.

for

career choices for knowledge people practically limitless,

seemed to be and the economic resurgence of

1972 restored demand. Today, no matter

how unequally

educational opportunities are distributed, the majority

young have access

of the

with

it,

to a college education and,

access to mobility and meaningful career choice.

So we have mass markets and mass

and

ser\'ices;

This

No It is

is

longer

now

choice in: goods

investment for the future; and jobs.

a real revolution in the life of the individual. is this

a society of predetermined occupations.

possible to

make

one's hving, and a good living

doing almost anything one wants to do and applying almost any knowledge. What was once a labour at that,

market where people sold themselves into jobs

is

now

the opposite, a job market w-here organizations sell

themselves to the prospective worker.

Most

mankind through the ages has had no choice father. There was always some mobility, up and down, but it was the exception. A at

all.

of

Son followed

century ago even the educated

man

could

make

a living

"The computer has become a basic

tool."

I

want

to

be?"

and what do

I

WOMAN: A TECHNOLOGICAL CASTAWAY

she

may need for running his house and caring for their He can give her as much or as little as he chooses.

children.

She has no

claim to any part of his property or

legal

He

income.

legally responsible for her current debts,

is

but he can also legally disavow future responsibility whenever he finds

work

too onerous.

it

marriage ends

If the

This charitable handout

alimony

bf date Boothe

wife must go to must depend either on

in divorce, the

to support herself, or she

her ex-husband's charity or on the charity of the courts.

awarded

is

is

called alimony.

only 2^^ of

in

all

average alimony award

is less than 30Tc of the exhusband's wages. In awarding child support, the majority

Ltice

of judges generally expect able-bodied

work and

After

a lifetime of casting about in the depths of

female psychology, Sigmund Freud made this an-

.

guished entry in his diary:

God what do

My

"What do women want.

economic, and social equality with men, .\nd

this equality, the feminists contend, is

being denied them

by overt and covert masculine coercion.

with children

told in these statistics:

is

men

dian income of white

of black less

women.

than Negro

women

earn

with eight years of education,)

One

would certainly be higher if women were not faced with the economic problems suggested by the above

The

rate

\

recent

government study of marriage, made on a na-

tionwide basis, shows that only 3 out of 20 fess to be happily married.

power, generate

wealth, create the law, form the minds, and guide the ac-

but fight a

lot.

Ten out

military, judiciary, labour unions,

women

pro-

Seven out of 20 "get along"

of 20 confess to being

unhappy

but stick to their mates for "practical reasons,"

come unstuck more

and opinions of society are male dominated.

The government,

women, $2,448;

$2,145, ("College-educated

men

The me-

14 and over in 1971 was

out of three marriages, nevertheless, ends in divorce.

out, fact

of our society. All our social institutions that exercise

to go to

statistics,

The feminists would seem to have their work cut Male supremacy is the most obvious and massive

tions

children.

women

women

assume half the cost of supporting their The economic problem divorce presents to to

$7,237; of black men, $4,274; of white

they want?"

The feminist answer is: "By God, they want Freedom!" They want to be free, as men are free, to fulfill their own potentials and to seek their own identities. They want political,

Permanent and the

divorces,

Men

women. More than half by husbands. Husoverwhelming number of divorces easily than

the divorces granted are instigated

churches, universities, communications and advertising

bands instigate the

media, the banking, production, insurance, and transport

involving wives over 40,

systems, and

band's desertion of the wife. Desertion, the "poor man's

all

the significant professions (law, science,

medicine, engineering, architecture) are male oriented.

Men make In

all

women who occupy high policyThe sporadic appearance of women in

there are not a hundred

making

positions.

so-called top-level appointive political jobs

is still

largely

female tokenism.

show up in the statistics. The average woman who leaves marriage

Of America's 80 million adult women, only 30 million women 20 and over now

poor as she entered

jority are

jobs.

working

Women

in

menial, sex-typed, or dead-end

are the "domestics" of the

Male Establish-

it.

a good deal older,

employment with wages above the poverty About 40*^ of all families with a female head are level. In every marriage there are two marriages, his and hers. His is better. It's a man's world, no two ways about it.

The second obvious

fact

to like

it.

a (^pollster's) choice

i.

is

the

most male-dominated

institution of

women

all. It is

are expected to

A woman who

work

enters marriage penniless

most women do becomes totally dependent on her husband for bed, board, clothing, and whatever monies (as

)

that,

woman" and any

Male Establishment

offers,

of the other

women

opt

overwhelmingly for the job of homemaker. Hands down they prefer the gratifications of motherhood, the privileges

and the status conferred by society on the unmarried woman workman's world.

of wifehood, title

Mrs,

ing in a

without receiving any stipulated wages and with no fixed

working hours,

is

between the unpaid and increasingly

jobs that the

the only institution in which

about our society

this is the way most women seem The married, however, like it better. Given

married or unmarried,

Monogamous Marriage. The only instiwomen appear in equal numbers with men is our institution of monogamous marriage (S0% of all adult women are or have been married Legally, marriage

as

able to find

insecure job of "married

tution in which

it

far less

level.

ment.

Equality of

leaves

and

below the poverty

are gainfully employed, .Although

account for one-third of the labour force, the vast ma-

marriages end in the hus-

divorce," does not

the crucial decisions for society.

all

our great institutions, whether public or private,

Many

to the condition of the

But married or unmarried, happy or miserable, the vast majority of

And when

women

accept their unequal social status.

they are not indifferent to the efforts of the

organized and activist feminists to achieve sex equality,

A recent survey showed more women than men accept the stereotype view

they are openly hostile to them. Clare Boothe Luce journalist,

is

the world-famous author, playwright,

and ardent feminist of many years' standing.

that

of

Women's

Liberationists as sexually frustrated, hysteri-

cal,

and unfeminine creatures who,

if

not "old bags," are

probably lesbians.

The in a

at it

fight of

any group,

class, or minority for equality democratic society must be waged in many ways and

many

levels.

But

to be

if it is

made "within

the system,"

has to be energetically fought at the ballot box and in

the courts.

Forty-seven Years in Committee.

Women

have had the

vote for half a century. Unlike the blacks or Chicanos,

women

are not a political minority.

of the electorate.

They

women,

as a class,

A

is

to de-

deny

it.

Women,

as a

have made no such demand.

case in point

the history of the Equal Rights

is

Amendment. In 1923 elated

were

%

vote-hungry politicians (a tauto-

legal equality,

logical phrase) could not afford to class,

51

are a political majority that

treated as a minority. If

mand

They represent

by

a

group of militant suffragettes,

their success in securing the basic right of

every freeborn citizen

Congress to make

— the

women

vote

—presented

a bill to

first-class citizens in the

eyes

of the Constitution.

The language

of the Equal Rights Amendment bill was simple: "Equality of Rights under the law shall

not be denied or abridged in the U.S. or by any state on

account of sex." The bill was sent to the House Judiciary Committee where it remained bottled up for 47 years. The rationale of the Congress, totally dominated by males, was that while passage of the bill would give women the same legal rights as men, it would also result in their losing a handful of legal "privileges."

One

of these privi-

was exemption from military service. The main objection made to it, however, was that it might relieve husbands of their legal responsibility for child support. leges

The masculine view

of fatherhood is a pretty dim one. For almost half a century women voters did not exert enough pressure on the Congress even to have the bill debated on the floor. Many women's clubs and organizations refused to support

it.

(This was par for the

feminist course: in 1912, a decade before

women's

frage was passed, the General Federation of

suf-

Women's

Clubs refused

to endorse votes for women.) The Equal Rights Amendment bill was finally passed 22, 1972. But it now requires the ratification of 38 states, 22 of which had ratified it as of November 1972. If the same consideration (or lack of consideration) is given to it by the states as it has received

on March

from the Congress, and if women voters continue to remain indifferent to its passage, it could be two or three decades before the Constitution recognizes

women

as first-

show

that the majority of married

prefer to leave political questions

It

women

—even those adversely —

own personal rights in the hands of their would seem that most women are intellec-

affecting their

husbands.

sex objects

tually, as well as economically,

The temptation

is

dependent on men.

to leave the feminist question right

there. It's a free society,

and its female citizens have the and happiness in any way

right to pursue life, liberty,

they choose. If they prefer the

feminine gratifications and privileges

of marriage to the rights enjoyed

by men,

if

they don't

.

.

.

lets

women

is it

forget that they are

class, well,

own unequal

some

whose

but theirs?

Nevertheless, the widespread indifference of their

for

.

and domestic servants."

themselves to be an oppressed

feel

business

The

class citizens.

All surveys

"The Male Establishment never

women

to

status in a so-called free society calls

rational explanation.

antifeminist point of view

was never more clearly New York Herald

expressed than in an editorial in the of Sept. 12, 1852.

The nett),

editor (probably the great

James Gordon Ben-

commenting on

suffrage meeting in

a

women's

Syracuse, N.Y., wrote:

How did woman first beco over the world? By her nai always will be to the end o therefore, doomed to subj would be in any other con her nature. The

ibject to

mar

just inferior to Ihc white race and, ,

but she is happier than she just becaus ? it is the law of

antifeminist today, as well as yesterday, holds

— woman:

26

technological castaway

a

and psychological differences beand roles they play

that the physiological

—

tween the sexes determine the prefer to play

—as well as

their condition in society.

These

because he had succeeded This, according to the

in fastening

Women's

did only very recently.

Man

them on her mind.

Liberationists, he finally

woman

did not grant

the

differences are genetically and biologically ordained.

vote until he was reasonably certain that her slave

Each sex possesses a "true nature." Woman's true nature

mentality had become second nature and that she would

is

submissive, passive, dependent, and emotional. (Other

adjectives often added

uncreative, and self-sacrificing.) She

To boil this woman thinks

down womb, man

mentality."

proposition

language,

with her

to simple

thinks

with his penis. Their different "mentalities," so to speak,

the

God

of

from

But he

(Freud and

their genital organs.

Adam and Eve

Garden are

in the

accord on the proposition that anatomy

in absolute

destiny. It

is

is still

own emancipation.

taking no chances. Uppity wives are

is

younger

—

employees are permitted

to survive in the

world. Pretty employees

who

is

now standard

no masculine

—

—

them. And. give a

little

here or take a

little

there

maybe

—women want

equal wages for equal work, for example to

women

nine, sexually frustrated, etc.) Altogether, the

Establishment never

women

lets

but valueless to society except as sex objects (sub-

all

wombs) and

missive vaginas and fruitful

domestic servants (at

home

the great self-serving

is

woman

— the violation and de-

productive system differs from man's, there are no other

sex has a true nature that determines

natural differences between them. (Pause, for male

roles,

chauvinists to say vive

cannot be proved.

toric,

They

women were once men but may have been

in

not only the natural equals of their superiors.

which

when man, more down and get on top

also posit a time

or less consciously, decided to put

woman, and to subjugate and his own pleasure and profit.

of this naturally free ploit

ex-

and enslave her for

This he was able to do because her repeated pregnancies

made her

physically vulnerable.

He

then decreed that

her physical vulnerability was evidence of her psychological

bom

to

Liberationists ask,

be submissive, did

to use brute force to put

good question,

really.

came up with

a

man

woman was

if

find

it

in his struggle to

man

is,

in-

is,

sadistic. it.

it

man

finally hit

by

are never to be found living in nature

Male and female, they

way

to her condition of servitude.

many

and anthropological have displayed an astounding variety of behaviour patterns and played an amazing diversity of roles. Copulation, pregnancy, and childbirth are not social in society.

In the

They

roles.

historical

which they have

societies in

lived, they

are biological functions.

—male

denied her

the techniques that today are

known

domesticated her.

Shackles of

finally

as Pavlovianism

Her Mind. What man now

woman's natural feminine mentality

is

it is

is

role that

the role

—whence

or female

called the oldest profession.)

desire of one sex to possess the genital organs of the

other

(womb

stuck with

them

its

envy, penis envy), each sex

own

biological functions

But

is

inescapably

and cannot trans-

roles (the parts people choose

or are given to play in life) are both assignable and

her rights but gave her certain privileges. Using

and brainwashing, he

(The only

cannot be divorced from the sexual function

Alto-

to reconcile

He

— the

are always found living

fer

upon the use of the

carrot, as well as the stick, as the

The

studied.

She

gether a dim view of both natures.) After centuries of

all

Humans

social behaviour,

its

both arguments rest on a theory that

While whole psychologies have been written about the

(A very

answer

Woman

by nature,

enjoys physical suffering; he enjoys inflicting

woman

status,

only place where their "natural" behaWour might be

necessary

—and keep—her down?

Freud

melancholy solution:

nature, masochistic;

physical violence,

and

of professional prostitute

inferiority.

Why, Women's deed

Insofar as both arguments rest on the theory that each

Liberationists posit a sort of prehis-

Amazonian matriarchy

as devoted

or at work) of their superior

menfolks. Male chauvinism

spoliation of her true nature.

la difference.)

Male

forget that they are

The standard (though not yet traditional) position of the Women's Liberationists is that, while woman's re-

Some Women's

are ridiculed.

called pushy, aggressive, mannish, unfemi-

masculine put-down of

be unequal.

Lib-

equipment^ are given

office

small privileges, small pay raises, and ^sometimes) small

(They are is

on

male chauvinist

Women's

the casting couch (which, according to erationists,

promotions. Uppity professional

women after all. Women at least "real women" know what they are and what they really want. They want men to dominate

insist

are willing to submit to

civilization.)

discrimination or coercion against

who

ones. Uppity female employees,

equal wages for equal work or who organize to protest discrimination, are eased out or fired. Only submissive

the ancient and traditional proposition of Judeo-Christian

So, say the antifeminists, there really

—and usually

divorced and replaced by more submissive

born with a

is

"feminine mentality." The true nature of man is dominant, active, independent. He is born with a "masculine

actually exude

not act to bring about her

are patient, nurturant, faithful,

to the other.

transferable. Generally, they are assigned

signed

—according

—or

reas-

to the preferences or prejudices of

those who dominate the society. Sometimes a social emergency, great or small, causes a sudden reassignment of roles. War comes, and Rosie the housemaid be-

comes Rosie the

riveter.

Mother

falls

ill

and father takes

care of the baby and does the hou.sework. Both rivetcalls

the unnatural

slave mentality he forced on her, just as he forced

it

on the blacks. He made her the "house nigger." (Many Women's Liberationists see women as "nigger.") In the end, man dropped the shackles from woman's body only

ing

and child care are assignable and reassignable

roles.

The assignment of roles to the sexes is often wholly arbitrary. Once a role is assigned, however, the tendency is

to give the

directly or d

assignment the force of natural law, either

deuxiime main. Riveting

man's work. But Rosie

is

is

"naturally"

doing this "unnatural" work

only because

it

"natural" for

is

woman

man. Woman, "by nature,"

fighting

is

to

back up her

supportive of mas-

culine efforts.

was "natural" for the

it

A

sary to shoot Indians.

few decades

Grover

later, Pres.

Cleveland announced that "woman is too frail to conduct an automobile." The driving role was not "natural" to women because handling machinery, as every man knows, not "natural" to women.

Today

that

"natural" of

society accepts

woman

in the role of

family

man all

Diddle Diaper Service

the heads of the companies that

struating

—

work

is

role as wife requires her to relinquish her driver's role

industrial roles to

when they his

masculine ego, involved

—belied

by

is

at stake

in the traditional

—

is

assump-

any man "by nature" a better driver than any woman. In history women have played, at one time or another,

tion is

What

are with another couple.

—especially

every role that

monarch lector. role.

(

insurance statistics

all

man

that

has ever played, from absolute

men

to reassign

many

of their profitable

women. During World Wars

I

and

11,

women were permitted to fill an amazing variety of roles that men had considered them "naturally" too weak, too sensitive, or too stupid to fill. Women filled many of them so well that, when the boys came home, many employers let the women go only because the law required them to do so. (The women were often better,

A

to coal miner,

The only person

—

In the United States two vast national emergencies

more

from warrior to garbage colShe has, albeit rarely, played the "big brain"

men-

"natural" to women.)

have forced

in the car

for

overburdened housewives. The truth, of course, is that he took it over because he saw ways to make it profitable. (Profiting from work is "natural" to man. Unprofitable

it is "natural" for her to do the family shopping and take the kids to school. But her subservient

husband when he and she are

make tampons

women.

It would be nice to think that man took over all this woman's work and these "feminine roles" to relieve

chauffeur since

to her

has not taken over. Even that most

feminine tasks, washing the baby's dia-

become man's work. The president of Tidy is a man, not a woman. So are

pers, has

In American pioneer days,

pioneer wife to drive mule teams and covered wagons over uncharted deserts and mountains, and when neces-

is

woman,

reliable, and definitely cheaper workers.) Role in Decline. The impact of technology and woman's world the home has been psycho-

—

science on

—

Nobel Prize twice for science was Marie Curie. Her daughter, who was

logically devastating to her precisely because

trained to be a scientist, also received

however onerous, had given not only her personal life its meaning but traditional marriage its economic reason for

There

is.

to receive the

it.)

however, one consistent historical pattern

that runs through the role of role assignment. the role assigners.

sharp eye to their

and they assign

own

interests

Men

roles with a

are

and prejudices.

women. Men

women,

to

assume prestigious and profitable roles. The assignments come first; the law of nature bit comes after. Superior work is man's work because man is naturally superior;

woman

is

naturally inferior, so

ever the assignment) of assigning roles

is

is

woman's work (whatThe method

therefore inferior.

self-validating.

In the United States, our industrialized, capitalistic society has witnessed the most extraordinary reassign-

ment of "feminine

roles" to

has ever occurred in

For centuries,

work" was

human

men

("and vice versa) that

history.

in Judeo-Christian society,

"woman's

the entire preparation of food, the produc-

tion of household utensils, garments,

and necessities

("soap,

medicines, candles, etc.), the care of farm animals, and, to a large extent, work in the fields Cagriculture). These and a host of other roles (together with mothering a vast brood of children) were "woman's" work. Weaving

was, perhaps, woman's most prestigious work (whence, even today, women are sometimes referred to as the distaff side).

Woman

was the

Today, woman's traditional housewife's and

first industrialist.

venience foods, wash-and-wear clothing,

medicines have saved concern.

Mom

new

battery of automated household equipment and precooked or convenience foods has reduced the housewife's role to a point where more than half of what she does today is gratuitous make-work.

(The time that American women spend shopping

is

a scandal to

window-

in

many Europeans.) The mar-

woman

has long since ceased to be a producer of goods. She has become, par excellence, a consumer. ried

With

a life expectancy of 73-V years, a 20-year-old

woman

with two children can count on about 20 years from necessary child care and housework. The question that the Male Establishment must now answer is: What does man now expect woman to do free

with this free time that his technology has given her,

and what status is he willing to confer on her for doing whatever it is that he thinks she should be doing? Man has insisted on making all the crucial decisions for

woman. He

is

now

faced with making the most

the welfare of society depend on his answer.

is

now

crucial decision he has ever

— and

himself.

Her

the weaver, baker, butcher, candlestick maker, pot-and-

he see the "role of

pan manufacturer of

not yesterday's world?

tive

is

almost no produc-

domestic task, once traditional and "natural" to

children's

hours of child care and

An amazing

her

There

child-

Jeanne Binstock, a sociologist at the University of

equipment and utensils are "man's work." society.

has

Massachusetts at Boston, points out that "mother care," which was once an 18-hour-a-day chore, has now been reduced to a four-hour service. Diaper services, con-

Today all the weaving, almost all the preparation and production of food, and the manufacture of all household

Man

it

traditional feminine roles that,

rearing roles are in a rapid state of occupational decline.

are assigned the teach-

ing role of teaching men, and twt teaching

many

existence.

very

Prestigious and profitable roles are invariably assigned by men to men. Nonprestigious and unprofitable roles are assigned to

divested her of so

To come

been asked

to

make about

future happiness, and his. and

woman"

How

in today's world,

to the nitty-gritty,

does

which

is

what does he think about

Women's

not

It's

Lib, of course, that

motherhood profession

the

rible

and ever more

downgrading

is

awesome and

the

it is

;

ter-

visible fact of overpopulation

rather, the consequences of overpopulation

—

or,

crime,

(

pollution, crowding, political disorders, famine, disease,

the threat of nuclear war, etc.).

"A reduction in the occupation of now mandatory ... we are face to face with

Says Binstock,

Mother' [

is

fact that

lie

we do not take from women

if

mother and replace

/

their role

with something else, we will be

it

ihrottled with the over-production of babies."

^'•p

who have begun

to use

computers on

difificult

rather than their brains (on the whole, a benign

human

;im'

weather. Spring

re-

seeding of some of the damaged area was attempted,

and seeding of spring wheat in Siberia was expanded, but spring was late, the summer was uncommonly hot. and autumn came early with millions of tons of wheat yet unharvested. How much of this was attributable to bad weather and how much to inadequate equipment and labour shortages was not clear. In any case, it was estimated that the 1972 grain crop might not total more than 75' Industries projected a doubling of beef supplies available for export by 1976. Exports of meat in 1971-72 were expected to exceed the 1970-71 $442 million. The suspension of quota limits on beef imports to the U.S. in effect raised Australia's share of U.S. imports to some 268,000 tons, about 7% level of

more than

a year earlier.

to postpone long-term decisions U.K. entry into the EEC became

Australian wool production continued the decline had begun in 1969; 1972-73 production was estiat 1,781,100,000 lb.,

the lowest in five years.

7%

below 1971-72 and

World wool production

overall, with 1972 output (including the

fell

1972-73

season in the Southern Hemisphere) estimated at 5,928,700,000 lb. (greasy basis). There were signs, however, that the long depression in the wool industry might be ending.

Demand improved

markedly, and the reentry of Japanese buyers into the world market brought a surge of activity to primary markets. By October 1972 prices had risen to 1950-51 levels. Sales by the Australian Wool Commission averaged nearly 70 U.S. cents per pound (greasy basis) in the first week of October, compared with an average of 38 cents for the 1971-72 season, and October 1 stocks held by the commission were reported to be about 70,000 bales, compared with 930,000 bales in Decem-

ber 1971.

until the effects of clear.

(JOHN KERR rose; HAR\'EY

R.

SHERMAN)

Alcoholic Beverages; Commercial Policies; Commodities, Primary; Cooperatives; Fisheries; Food; Gardening; Industrial Review; Prices; Tobacco. EncvcloP/Edia Britannica FltMs. The Orange Grower (1967); The Sheep Rancher (1967); Midwest— Heartland ol the Nation (1968); Produce From Farm to Market (1968); Problems of Conservation Soil (1969); Problems oj Conservation Our Natural Resources (1970). See

also

—

— —

Albania A

people's republic in the western Balkan Peninsula, is on the Adriatic Sea, bordered by Greece and Yugoslavia. Area: 11,100 sq.mi. (28,748 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.); 2,226,000. Cap. and largest city: Tirana (pop., 1967 est.. 169.300). Language: Albanian. Religion: Muslim, Orthodox, Roman Catholic. First secretary of the Albanian (Communist) Party of Labour in 1972, Enver Hoxha; president of the Presidium of the People's Assembly, Haxhi Leshi;

Albania

ALBANIA Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 506,683, teach17,915; secondary, pupils 22,375. teachers 961; vocational and teacher training, pupils 36,525. teachers 941; higher (Including University of Tirana with 12,783 full-time students), students 23,100, teachers 827. ers

Finance. .Monetary unit: new lek, with (Sept. 18, 1972) an official exchange rate of 4.6 leks to U.S. $1 rate of 11 leks = £1 sterling). Budget (1969 revenue 4,888,000,000 new leks; expenditure 4,506.000,000 new leks. Foreign Trade. (1964) Imports U.S. $98 million; exports U.S. $60 million. Import sources: China 63%; Czechoslovakia 10%; Poland 8%: East Germany 5%. Export destinations: China 40%; Czechoslovakia 19%; East Germany 10%: Poland 10%. Main exports: fuels, minerals, and metals (including crude oil, iron ore, chrome ore, and copper) 54%; foodstuffs (including vegetables, wine, and fruit) 21%; tobacco; (free

est.):

that

mated

Albania

numbers declined 2% in 1971, but hog numbers, which had fallen in 1969 and 1970, rose 7%. Wool production in 1972-73 was expected to reach 715 million lb., compared with 710 million lb. in the preceding year. Farm incomes remained depressed, however, and the New Zealand Federated Farmers sought assistance from the government in the form of a parity-type cost-adjustment scheme using 1964-65 prices as a base for adjusting farm income. The government decided instead to continue its selective assistance and

fall.

from wheat. Barley production was up

1%

pected to increase 2% in 1972; milk production was expected to rise 3% and butter production, 4%. Sheep

Heavy production

of worsteds in Japan accounted for at least part of the improvement; Japan

was reported to have purchased 2.6 million bales of Australian and New Zealand wool, or 37% of the combined output of those two countries. New Zealand. Agricultural production began to show signs of recovery from the severe drought conditions of 1969-70. Dairy cattle numbers were ex-

wool.

Transport and Communications. Roads (motor1960) 3,100 km. Motor vehicles in use (I960

able;

p,asscnger 1.900; commercial (including buses) 3,400. Railways (1969): 205 km.; traffic 220.4 million passenger-km.. freight 230 million net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 17; gross tonnage 56,523. Shipping traffic (1969): goods loaded c. 1.6 million metric tons; unloaded c. 630.000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1963) 10,150. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 161,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) 2.500. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 107I; 1970 in parentheses): corn c. 320 (c. 2 70): wheat (1970) c. 145, (1969) c. 192; oats (1970) c. 15, est.):

(1969) c. II; cotton, lint (1970) c. S, (1969) c. 8; sugar, raw value (1971-72) e. 17. (1970-71) c. 17; potatoes c. 118 (c. 118); wine c. 9 (c. 8); tobacco c. 13 (c. 13). Livestock (in 000: Dec. 1970): sheep c. 1,600; cattle c. 442; pigs c. 155; goats (1969) c. 1,330; poultry (Oct. 1969) c. 1,790. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): crude oil 1,307: lignite 592; petroleum products 748; 1970) 194; iron ore c. 400; copper ore (metal content) 6; ceraent 220; electricity (kw-hr.) 788,000.

chrome ore (oxide content;

Aircraft:

Defense; Industrial Review; Transportation

see

Air Forces; see

Defense

;

76

Alcoholic

chairman of the Council of Ministers

Mehmet "It

Beverages

(premier),

Shchu. not possible to use one imperialism against Enver Hoxha had proclaimed at the sixth

is

another,

"

congress of the Albanian Party of Labour, held in Tirana in November 1971. The only faithful ally of China in Europe. Hoxha then continued his quixotic

"two-front struggle" against Soviet and U.S. imperialtheir respective "lackeys." A few months was suddenly muffled following

ism and

later, his vituperation

U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon's visit to Peking. However, Zeri i Popiillit, the chief Albanian newspaper, wrote in March that "the people of the world do not allow themselves to be deceived by Nixon's olive branch."

implying obliquely that the Chinese leaders might have been somewhat too gullible. Soviet propaganda did not miss Tirana's embarrassment, and .Albanianlanguage broadcasts from Moscow argued that Hoxha could not seriously decrease his criticism of the U.S. because this would reduce if not destroy his prestige at

home.

Chinese economic aid to Albania since the SovietAlbanian rupture of 1961 was estimated at more than $125 million. On Dec. 5, 1971, a protocol on the use of unspecified Chinese credit to .Albania for 1972 was signed in Tirana by Fang Yi, minister of economic relations with foreign countries,

and Kico Ngjela, the

Albanian minister of trade.

According to the fifth five-year development plan (1971-75 ), approved by the party congress in November 1971 and by the National Assembly in December of that year, the gross national product was to increase from 54 to

58% by

1975, as

compared with

1970. During the fourth five-year plan (1965-70), the annual rate of increase of Albania's industrial output

and fifth ranked were the U.S.S.R. (42 million hi.), whose brewing capacity was to be doubled under the current five-year plan, and Japan (31 million hl.i. In most Western countries the largest brewers further increased their share of the market.

Thus

in the

U.S. the leading quartet, Anheuser-Busch Inc. (28.5 hi. in 1971; up 9.5% ), Schlitz (19.6 million

million

up 10.4%), Pabst (13.8 million hi.; up 12.2%), and Coors 10 million hi.; up 17.1% I. increased their combined production by 6.2 million hi., while the rest of the industry achieved an increase of only 3(X),{XX) hi.;

(

hi.

in

Production in the European Economic Community 1971 was 140 million hi., with West Germany pro65% of the total. .Adding production figures for

viding

the U.K.,

larged

Denmark, and Ireland, output would be in the region of 210

EEC

of the enmillion

hi.,

43%.

with West Germany's share dropping to about

This loss of absolute predominance would weaken West Germany's ability to insist on "purity" (i.e., the use of natural raw materials only) in the formulation of

common EEC

standards for the brewing industry.

EEC members

and prospective members West German purity norm as hindering new brewing techniques. The Germans argued that it was the best means of preser\'ing beer's wide popular appeal as a wholesome drink and need not exclude use of the latest techniques. In West Germany, where consumption was about 145 litres per capita per annum, most of the leading brewers stated their intention of keeping to the purity norm

The other

rejected the

the introduction of

even if it should no longer be enforced. Standards of preparation were not the only bone of contention among EEC brewers. Special problems also arose with regard to the sought-after harmonization beer of about strength bore a

Among the original EEC members a 12% Balling (48° original gravity) maximum duty of about $7.50 per hi.

(on the average

less

per

prospective

had risen to 11%; the fifth plan postulated an annual growth of 10.3%. Replying in the British House of Commons on April 24, 1972, to the question of whether the British government would consider restoring diplomatic

of excise duties.

relations with Albania, Anthony Royle, parliamentary undersecretary at the Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Office, said that the matter was being con-

brewery concern with the biggest output in the enlarged EEC would be Bass-Charrington. with about 13 million hi. annually, one of whose plants currently under construction would be the biggest in Europe. Allied Breweries, with about 11 million hi. annually, and Whitbread, with about 8 million hi., would also

sidered. The chief obstacle was the question of compensation arising from the blowing up of two British

destroyers in the straits between Corfu and the Albanian coast in October 1946. The International Court of Justice at The Hague had awarded damages of Britain, but

£843,947 to had never made payment,

government (K. M. smogorzewski)

the Albanian

hi,

in

member

$30

to

$37.50

countries.

The

BREWEX

World production and consumption

of po-

Many and companies opened new plants in consuming countries, and more local industries sprang up, especially in the production of malt whiskies. Retail prices increased owing to currency devaluations, higher manufacturing and transport costs, and, in some cases, increased fiscal duties. On the whole, however, duties, usually the highest factor in retail price, remained ticularly in the bigger

Beer. World production of beer rose to 658 million hectolitres (hi.) in 1971, an increase of 4.4% over 1970; a similar increase was expected in 1972. European production, accounting for more than half the world total, rose by 4.6% to 360 million hi. Production in the Americas, about one-third of the world total, which increased by only 3.1%,, was affected by stagnation and recession in various Latin-American countries, particularly Argentina, Mexico, and Venezuela. Consumption of beer per capita worldwide was 18 litres in 1971; with China and India excluded, it was i2 litres. three top beer-producing countries registered hi.

(up 4.5%. ) West Germany, 90 million hi. (up 3.4%) United Kingdom, 57 million hi. (up 3%). Fourth ;

as against

).

be among the biggest. 72 exhibition In the technical field, the in London showed evidence of continuing refinement in the automation of practically all main and ancillary (tilman schmitt') brewery operations. Spirits.

The

than $5

table spirits show^ed further increases in 1971-72, par-

Alcoholic Beverages

the following figures: United States, 150 million

the

wealthier countries.

international

reasonably stable. Shortages of mature Scotch whiskies developed, partly because of cutbacks in production in the 1960s and partly because of increased demand, growing at the rate of at least

10%

per annum. Pure malts in-

creased rapidly in popularity in the U.S. and Europe, further accentuating the shortage for blenders, and premium prices for mature stocks were paid. Nearly 72 million proof gallons were exported in 1971, an in-

crease of 16%, mainly to the U.S. and Europe. Japan continued to be a disappointing market, owing to high domestic production and discriminatory taxation. Bigger exports of brandies from producing countries

caused concern to domestic producers in such counas South Africa and Australia, and protective

tries

were urged to keep out cheap brandies while allowing the import of high quality brandies at

tariffs still

premium

A

prices.

campaign for Californian

sales

brandy, with substantial advertising funds, was begun. British entry into the European Economic Community posed problems for Scotch whisky and gin exporters, particularly with regard to controlled exTJort prices, sole agencies, cereal prices, agricultural levies,

and various usages that might strictive practices

conflict

with the re-

Rome.

clauses of the Treaty of

Home

prices were generally lower than export prices

and,

these were to be equalized to

if

countries on British entry, similar terms to

non-EEC

countries where cally bottled

dent.

On

some

it

Common Market

would be hard

deny

brands imported

in

bulk was already evi-

the other hand, the possibility of equalization

of British fiscal duties with those of other tries

to

buyers, particularly in those

price resistance favouring lo-

was welcomed,

as British duties

others. In 1972 France superseded

EEC

coun-

were higher than

West Germany

as the second largest overseas market for Scotch whisky after the U.S. Regulations for a proposed .Alco-

EEC

hol

Regime were being prepared.

would, inter

alia,

require

all spirits

It

was hoped that

consumption or for use on the human body

Apparent consumption of

human be made

(

j.

to

w. mahoney')

distilled spirits in the U.S.

reached a record 381.1 million gal,

3%

above

1970. Per capita consumption rose

1.6% to 1.86 gal. Fifty areas of prohibition in 11 states were eliminated in 1971 by local option. In 1972, 15 more states reduced the drinking age to below 21; three lessened or removed bans on serving liquor on election days. Consumer expenditure for alcoholic beverages for 1971 was $24.7 billion, compared with $22.4 billion in 1970. The U.S. federal excise tax on spirits remained at $10.50 per proof gallon. Collections of the tax on alcoholic beverages totaled $5,110,001,000 in

Table

1.

Estimated Con:

30.3%

1972, or

fiscal

U.S. agents seized 2,981

346

less

A

intended for

only from agricultural products. in 1971

it

of

all

stills

excise

taxes

producing

collected.

illicit spirits,

than in 1971.

were

produced

in the U.S. in fiscal 1972, 0.67% more than 1971; this included some not used for beverages. Whiskey production was down 0.74% to 126,273,838

in

tax gallons; light

whiskey

this

figure included 31,233,408 gal. of

distilled at higher

than 160 proof,

first

authorized for production on Jan. 26, 1968, and not offered for sale to the public until July 1, 1972. Total U.S. bottlings rose 4.1% in 1971, to 325,805,447 gal;

whiskey accounted for 192,007,883 gal, or 58,9%. Bourbon whiskey continued as the largest selling spirit in the world,

tinued

its

56,475.099

with sales of 84,673,148 gal Vodka con-

phenomenal gal.

increase, jumping 12.6% to The swing to larger bottles continued; 4.7% and half gallons, 21.2%.

quarts increased

A

potential buyer inspects

a selection of France's

total of 764,350,925 gal. of distilled spirits

finest

wines

in

the Palace

of Versailles prior to an auction held on June 22, 1972. Increased demand

for fine wines has pushed

prices to record levels in recent years.

Total imports of spirits into the U.S., at 102.138.802 12.4% in 1971 and had a value

78

Algeria

Instead of matching

dam.age.

harvested

grapes

Canadian imports amounted to 34,795,117 tax gallons, up 12.1%, and Scotch was 54,300,790 tax gallons, up 11.5%. The percentage of bulk to total whiskey rose from 36.8% to 38.1% for Canadian whiskey and fell from 30% to 28.4% for Scotch. Tequila imports rose ii.i%, to 1,124,575 gal. Total U.S. distilled-spirits exports rose 34.3%, to 5,356,926 gal.; whiskey exports, at 3,861,833 gal., in-

yielded only 110.000 tons.

million.

41%. Canada public revenue from

In

alcoholic beverage

taxes rose 7.7%, to Can$983,903,OOO in fiscal 1971.

climbed 6.24%, to 25,390,000 imperial gallons. Production declined 0.34%, imports exports increased 3.07%. fell 1.22%, and spirits

(JULIUS wile)

Wine. In 1972 the volume of wine produced throughout the world was estimated at 280 million hi., almost equaling the 1971 total of 284 million hi.

Possibly because of the comparative smallness of the crop, the grapes brought into California's wineries were widely rated as good and even excellent. Prices paid by California wineries for their grapes established new highs in 1972, averaging roughly one-third above those prevalent the previous year.

moved up

Wine

prices also

steadily during the year, affecting the entire

of certain wines developed as the volume of wine sales pushed ahead firmly. During fiscal 1972 the U.S. wine industry sent 282 million gal. of wine to market, with California supplying 233 million gal. Dessert wine consumption totaled 71 million gal., table wine sales hit 132 million gal., flavoured wines topped 53 million gal., sparkling wines edged the 22 million-gal. mark, and ver-

mouth

sales totaled

some

5 million gal.

Around 78% 220 million hi. of this figure came from European vineyards and from the Soviet Union 28 (

200.000 tons of vineyards

range from "jug" wine to the top varietals. Shortages

creased

Consumption of

in

the

New York

1971,

tax gallons, were up

of $568.4

(IRVING H. MARCUS)

)

(

both quantity and quality of harvests because of unfavourable weather during early growth. In most cases corrective processes were able to make good the alcohol defimillion hi.). There

ciencies in

was

a slight decline in

European wines.

Algeria A

republic on the north coast

of Africa, Algeria

In France the 1972 harvest, at some 57 million

hi.,

Morocco,

by

is

bounded

Mauritania,

was about 7% down on that of the previous year. The volume and quality of red Bordeaux wines were as good as in 1971 but a slight decline was noted in the white wines. In Burgundy, which benefited from better weather, averages were surpassed everywhere. The volume of the Beaujolais wines was well above average and quality was fresh and fruity. In Champagne the preceding year's harvest was actually doubled,

Mali, Niger, Libya, and Tu-

enabling stocks to be replenished.

versary of

The

was badly hit by a cold, late spring, a bad summer, and an even worse, snowy fall and winter. Around 60 million hi. were produced, a decline of 4 million hi. on the 1971 figure and of 9 million hi. on the 1970 figure. In Sicily, however, the quality was excellent; the sweet moscato grapes were harvested earlier than the rest and survived reaItalian harvest

Area:

nisia.

(2,322,164

(1971

est.)

:

896,588

sq.mi.

sq.km.).

Pop.

14,643,700. Cap. and largest city: Algiers

Language: .Arabic, BerMuslim. President in 1972, Boumedienne.

(pop., 1970 est., 1,839,000). ber,

French. Religion:

Col. Houari

As Algeria celebrated

in July 1972 the tenth anni-

its independence. President Boumedienne by 1980 the country would have left the ranks of the third world and taken its place among the developed nations. Judging by the progress made

said that

in the first three years of the

velopment plan, tional

this

was no

1970-73 four-year de-

idle boast.

Monetary Fund praised

The Interna-

the austerity measures

harvests on record. Quality, however, was inferior,

met; the industrialized nations continued to provide loans and execute contracts for .\lgeria's industrialization program; and both the settlement of the oil dispute with France and the approval by the United States of imports of Algerian natural gas opened up prospects for greatly increased revenue from hydrocarbons in the rest of the 1970s. ,\lready, in 1972, there was an assured sur-

especially in contrast to the previous year.

plus in the balance of trade.

At an auction of some of the world's rarest vintages, conducted by telephone between London. Paris, and Los Angeles in November, a Jeroboam of Chateau

curtailment of production during the previous year. Sonatrach, the Algerian state oil corporation con-

Mouton Rothschild

trolling

sonably well.

The Spanish harvest at

27 million

hi.,

in 1972 regained its 1969 level but the quality was lower. Bad

weather affected both the volume and quality of Portuguese wines. The volume of wine produced in West

Germany was around

8 million hi,

one of the best

1870, Pauillac Second

Grand Cru

that

had enabled plan targets

The Saharan

oil

to be

industry revived in

77% of total production, resumed exploraand the government estimated its oil revenues

Classe, fetched a world record price of U.S. $10,953.

tion,

Both wine and bottle were handmade, (rene protin) Nature was also rough on U.S. vineyards in 1972. In California some counties along the coast and the upper reaches of the big San Joaquin Valley were hurt in spring by severe frost, in summer by some excessively hot days, and finally by heavy autumn rains. As a result California vineyards produced only 2.3 million

for the year at not less than $1

tons of grapes in 1972, against 4 million tons in 1971. was the smallest crop since 1942. In New York,

It

1972. after

billion.

With

the

French taking approximately 12 million tons of crude guaranteed under the 1971 settlement, Sonatrach found no difficulty in marketing the remaining 42 million tons. Heavy demand from Western Europe was supplemented by a new customer for Saharan crude: the U.S.; long-term supply arrangements were concluded with two U.S. companies. Liquefied natural gas showed promise of being an oil,

the second most important wine state, a misplaced

even greater money-maker than crude

storm dumped flooding amounts of rain on the vineyards and subsequently nature failed to provide the hot weather necessary to make up for the

geria's overseas sales estimated to reach 50,000,000,-

tropical

oil.

with Al-

000 cu.m. a year by 1977. In addition to existing exports to Britain and contracts for supply to Spain,

new

delivery agreements were

France, and

West Germany.

made with Belgium,

It was,

however,

to the

major natural gas After considerable debate the U.S. Federal Power Commission granted approval for U.S. firms to receive substantial supplies over a period ranging up U.S. that Algeria looked for

its

sales.

to

25 years.

To meet

Algeria began

work

demands for its natural gas, March on a new pipeline from

the

in

the gas fields to the existing terminal at .^rzew, in

western Algeria;

in

May

the pipeline to a

new Medi-

terranean terminal at Skikda, in eastern Algeria, was

opened.

Skikda port,

its

reconstruction completed during

became the showplace of the industrializaprogram and an indication to Algerians that as much attention was being given to the eastern part of the country as was previously given to the OranArzew area in the west. Also in the east, the El Hadjar steelworks, near Annaba, was opened in 1972, and the tractor plant at Constantine was brought into full the year, tion

operation.

Much of the rest Of the country remained dependent on agriculture, and the government admitted that as many

as half

the potential

work

force of 4.5 mil-

were unemployed or only partly employed. Although 150,000 jobs had been created under the fouryear plan, many of these were in construction work and would thus prove temporary. As a palliative to the rural unemployed, the government tried hard to push ahead with the "agricultural revolution" inaugurated in November 1971, under which the larger prilion

vate

landholdings,

particularly

those

belonging

to

absentee landlords, were to be nationalized and dis-

,ALGERI.\ Education. (1968-69) Primary, pupils 1,585,682, teachers (public only) ,16,255; secondary, pupils 130,960, teachers (public only) 5.384; vocational, pupils 40.684, teachers (public only) 2.752; teacher training, students 5,738, teachers (public only) 380; higher (including 2 universities), students 10.681. Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a free rate of 4.55 dinars to U.S. $1 (10.50 dinars £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $407 million; (June 1971) U.S. $420 million. Budget (1971 est.): revenue 7.5 billion dinars; current expenditure 4.9 billion dinar? (four-year development plan was estab-

=

lished (or

Foreign

1970-73). Trade. (1970)

Imports

6,205,000,000

dinars; exports 4,980,000.000 dinars. Import sources: France 42%; West Germany 10%; U.S. 8%; Italy 7%. Export destinations: France 54%; West Germany 13%; U.S.S.R. 5%. Main exports: crude oil 66%;

wine 14%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1970) 75,953 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 137.200; commercial (including buses) 106.000. Railways: (1970) 4.100 km.; traffic (1971) 1.097.000,000 passenger-km., freight 1.327,000,000 net lon-km. Air traffic (1970): 514,873,000 passenger-km.; freight 4,137,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 27; gross tonnage 94,838. Shipping traffic (19701: goods loaded 44.261,000 metric tons; unloaded c. 3.640.000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 184.000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1969) 700.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) c. 100,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970; 1969 in parentheses); wheat c. 1,500 (1.326); barley c. 500 (466); oats c. 45 (44); potatoes 262 (224); dates c. 100 (79); figs 66 (24); oranges 487 (470); tomatoes c. 85 (c. 85); onions c. 35 (c. 35); tobacco c. 5.3 (5); olive oil (1971) c. 28. (1970) c. 15; wine 869 (871). Livestock (in 000; Nov. 1970): sheep c. 8.400: goats c. 2,200; cattle c. 860; asses (1969) c. 310; horses (1969) c. 125; camels c. 170. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): crude

47,281; natural gas (cu.m.) 2,838,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 1,704,000; iron ore (metal content) 1,546; phosphate rock 492. oil

Fidel Castro gets a

tributed to landless peasants organized into cooperatives. The first title deeds, of land taken over by the state in the Mitidja Plain in central .Algeria,

were June, and construction began on the

'^'"'"'

ie°ader"en "route"" to

the'Hassi-Messaoud '^'^ 1^^^'

handed over in first model village in August, but progress with the '"""'"' "revolution" was slow.

The process of bringing new life to the sole political organization, the National Liberation Front (FLN), stumbled on amid general

political apathy,

and Presi-

dent Boumedienne appeared to be under no great pressure to honour his three-year-old promise to reestablish an elected National .Assembly. Even the previously vociferous university students were quiet.

In Algeria's relations with its neighbours, all was peace in 1972. President Boumedienne visited Tunis,

and Pres. Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia paid his first visit to Algiers. Of greater significance were Boumedienne's two visits to Morocco in June; the border dispute between the two countries was finally buried, and joint exploration of the Tindouf mineral deposits in the border area was agreed upon. West Germany and Canada were two new partners of Algeria, both politically and economically. Diplomatic relations with West Germany had been restored in December 1971, and Canada appointed its first resident ambassador in Algiers. President Boumedienne was still hesitant to reestablish full diplomatic relations with the U.S., but there were signs of closer understanding in Algeria's willingness to hand back to U.S. airlines the "ransom" money taken to .Algiers by hijackers in June and .August. On both occasions the hijackers claimed Black Panther connections but. although that organization was still accorded some

refuge in Algiers, the government clearly was dis-

by the activities of the local Panther leaders, especially their attempt after the second hijacking to dictate to their hosts. (peter kilner) illusioned

Andorra independent principality of Europe, Andorra is in Mountains between Spain and France. Area; 179 sq.mi. (464 sq.km.). Pop. (1972); 21,425. Cap.: Andorra la Vella (Catalan; Andorra la Vieja, Spanish; pop., 1972 parish, 8,534). Language: Catalan, French, Spanish. Religion predominantly Roman .An

the Pyrenees

:

hand

'""^ '''" Houari

oil

"^'''^ '"

'"

'""

'

"™'-

the valleys were

preparation for the drilling,

The lAGP. undertaken by .\ustralia, France, the U.S.S.R., and the was a continuing ten-year glaciological research program on the vast east .\ntarctic ice sheet. Its main objective was to determine the ice sheet's history and

Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 1,S50, teachers 63 urondary. pupils 804, teachers 48. Finance and Trade. Monetary units: French (ranc and Spanish peseta. No income tax, death duty, or customs; public treasury is funded by a 3% levy on gasoline and liquor. Exchange and deposit banking is important, Korcign trade (1971): imports from France Fr. If 2, 182,000 (U.S. $32.8 million), from Spain 1,158,941,000 pesetas (I'.S. $16.6 million); exports to France Fr. S.480.000. (U.S. $1 million), to Spain 44,532,000 pesetas (U.S. $600,000). Tourism (1971) c. 2 million

jointly

visitors.

of the world's freshwater supply. Six nations con-

Communications.

Radio

receivers

1969)

(Dec.

6,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) 1,700. Agriculture. Production: cereals, potatoes, tobacco, wool. Livestock (in 000; 1970): sheep c. 25; cattle c. 3; horses c. 1.

Catholic.

Co-princes:

the president of the French

Republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, represented by their veguers (provosts) and batiks (prosecutors). An elected Council General of 24 members elects the first syndic; in 1972. Francesc Escude-Ferrero. Parish elections held on Dec. 14. 1971. under a re-

to begin in 1973.

U.S.,

dimensions, as well as to reconstruct various stages in evolution and relate these stages to past global The .\ntarctic ice sheet was esti-

its

climatic variations.

mated

to contain 7 million cu.mi. of ice. holding

80%

tinued to develop plans for the RISP. which included drilling holes in

through the 1,500-ft. -thick floating shelf ice, the underlying waters, and

order to study the

the

ocean

floor.

.Argentina,

Chile,

the

U.K.,

the

U.S.S.R.. and the U.S. combined scientific and logistic resources in assessing results of the three violent volcanic eruptions that had rocked and reshaped Deception Island since 1967. British

and Chilean bases on by the erup-

the island were completely demolished tions;

main

the surviving Argentine station served as the logistic

base for the international expedition. for the Conservation of .Antarctic

The Convention

vised electoral law that extended the franchise to women, all citizens between the ages of 21 and 25, and

Seals,

second-generation Andorrans, resulted in a change in

treaty nations to curtail and control the har\-esting of

character of the parish councils, as new and younger faces assumed positions in the government. In December 1972. the first syndic and the second syndic

seals

completed their terms the Council General.

in office

Spaniards, including 3.000 Catalans married and established in Andorra since 1939.

The

numbered

13,035.

public budget for 1972 was appro.ximately $4 and defense

million; expenditure for public security

remained

(robert

at $5.

d.

Hodgson)

Antarctica The 12th plenary

session of the Scientific

Committee

on .Antarctic Research (SCAR) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) was held in Canberra, Austr.. Aug. 7-19, 1972. Of the 12 signatory nations to the .\ntarctic Treaty, 1 1 were represented along with 5 delegates from affiliated international scientific unions,

\

was the and schedules

highlight of the session

development of plans,

responsibilities,

for the following three emerging interdisciplinary re-

held in in

London, February 3-11, bound the

.'Kntarctic

waters, and called on

SC.\R

to

evaluate data and provide continuing scientific advice to the treaty powers.

and were replaced by

The population census of February 1972 revealed a 4.2% growth to 21.425 inhabitants. Native .\ndorrans C6.462) continued to constitute a minority while

Scientific

Programs. Ten of the

12

Antarctic

Treaty nations maintained more than 40 stations in Antarctica and nearby islands; Norway and Belgium temporarily closed their stations and operated through the expeditions of other nations. .\mundsen-Scott South Pole (U.S.) and Vostok (U.S.S.R.) stations were the only inland bases operating throughout the year. The U.S.S.R. conducted a reconnaissance of the Hobbs Coast and announced its intention of establishing its sixth coastal station on the continent; to be located at Cape Burks, the station was to be named Russkaya. Some of the worst Antarctic winter weather in years was experienced; storms and winds damaged power distribution and utility systems as well as pier facilities at a

Argentina.

number of stations. The .Argentine .\ntarctic

Institute car-

on a broad research program at its seven bases on the Antarctic Peninsula and at one other base on the main continent. Marine mammals, birds, fishes, lichens, and mosses were studied; investigations were also carried out in glaciology, geology, and oceanograried

phy. The U.S. icebreaker "Staten Island" cached supplies and equipment on Deception Island for use later glaciological party led

by N. H.

search efforts: International Antarctic Glaciological Project (lAGP). Ross Ice Shelf Project (RISP), and

by an Argentine

Dry Valley Drilling Project (DVDP). From October 30 to November 10

The Australian National .\ntarctic Research Expedition (.\NARE) of more than 100 men

Consultative

the seventh

Meeting of Antarctic Treaty nations

economic exploitations in the .Antarctic Treaty. Similar concern was expressed about inadesions for such

quate treaty controls over pollution,

conservation,

tourism, and the preservation of historical monuments.

Four major international research programs were conducted in 1972. Three countries. Japan, New Zeaand the U.S., joined together in the DVDP, to study the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the unique dry valleys, lying 60 mi. of land,

W

McMurdo

Fourcade. Australia.

took place in Wellington, N.Z. Several nations expressed their concern about emerging interest in exploiting mineral, petroleum, and marine life resources in the Antarctic, and the corresponding lack of provi-

Anglican Communii Religion

in

which was

;

src

made

ANDORRA

Sound. Preliminary geophysical surveys of

enjoyed one of its most productive years in Antarctic research due largely to good flying weather, favourable sea ice conditions, and excellent support from three helicopters and one light aircraft. .Activities centred

and near Mawson, D,ivis, and Casey stations, with resupply again provided by the two ice-strengthened in

motor vessels "Nella Dan" and "Thala Dan." Belgium. Though not maintaining bases of its own in Belgium participated with (he British and U.S. in the airborne radio-echo sounding of the east Antarctic ice sheet, an effort of the I.AGP. Chile. Studies on marine and terrestrial ecosystems, volcanology, geology, glaciology, meteorology, and .Antarctica.

oceanography were carried out

at

several

stations

along the Antarctic Peninsula, nearby islands, and sur-

rounding seas. Four Chilean scientists participated with those of three other nations in studying biological and physical changes brought about by the recent volcanic eruptions at Deception Island. I. Vergara and L. Arnaboli proposed a scheme for towing large icebergs from Antarctica to Chile to serve as water

"Endurance" ran aground in Marguerite Bay and was laid up for repairs. Heavy snowfall, strong winds, and poor

visibility

restricted land operations, while un-

usually light sea ice encouraged oceangoing activities.

At Halley Bay Station, glaciological studies were made of the interface between the ice sheet and shelf ice,

sources for irrigating arid lands. France. The 22nd French Antarctic Expedition was

U.S.S.R. The 17th Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE) comprised more than 100 scientists and tech-

launched to the main base of Dumont d'Urville on the Adelie Coast. The ship "Thala Dan" transported 770

nicians working at six

members

tons of material and 46

men who had

returned the 13

Heavy

of the expedition;

it

spent the winter at the

and several blizzards of long duration hampered movement and ship-to-shore operations. The main thrust of research was in the lAGP in joint participation with the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. In preparation for an oversnow tractor-train traverse from Dumont d'Urville to Vostok station, a distance of 1,200 mi., the advance camp, Carrefour, was esstation.

sea ice

tablished 25 mi. inland at an elevation of 2,800

ft.

was able to advance approximately 500 mi. before work was halted for the summer. Japan. For the third consecutive year the icebreaker "Fuji" was trapped in sea ice while trying to resupply Syowa Station, the main Antarctic base for the Japa-

The

tractor-train

nese Antarctic Research Expedition bers of the 13 th

were

airlifted to

(JAREI. Mem-

JARE,

along with some light supplies,

Syowa

Station by helicopters from a

point 55 mi, away, where the "Fuji" was beset in ice

6^

ft.

weeks the "Fuji" freed itself Tokyo. Thirty members of the winter

thick. After three

and returned

to

party returned aboard the "Fuji" along with heavy

equipment, construction materials, and fuel originally destined for Syowa, Seven upper atmosphere sounding rockets were launched from Syowa Station to altitudes of 80 mi, to study the aurora, and glaciological studies were undertaken at a remote station 185 mi. SE. Ne-w Zealand. Unusually good weather led to a high level of summer activity at Scott Base and nearby temporary stations. In collaboration with Japanese and U.S. scientists, a geophysical survey of the dry valleys

was undertaken

in

A

preparation

for

future

was the discovery, for the first time, of marine fossils 200 million years old in north Victoria Land. A wide variety of fossil plants and a thick coal seam were discovered deep-drilling operations,

highlight of 1972

in the southern Transantarctic

Norway. Norway had closed but

its

Mountains. its

base in Antarctica,

scientists continued to participate in research

programs of other countries. A six-man glaciological party was airlifted by the U.S. to Queen Maud Land, where velocity and gravity measurements were made of the broad Jutulstraumen Glacier. South Africa. The 13th South African National Antarctic Expedition (SANAE) was the largest ever sent to Antarctica. It consisted of 31 members, 11 of whom participated in the research program in and around the main Sanae Station, situated on western Queen Maud

"RSA" provided ocean transwhich included 25 tons of whale meat and dog food for the 25 Labrador huskies that remained permanently at Sanae, United Kingdom. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) conducted a broad range of physical and biological research programs at seven permanent stations on the Antarctic Peninsula and sub-Antarctic islands, as well as at Halley Bay Station, its only base on the Land. The research ship

port,

more than 100 men participated program, supported by four ships, two and helicopters. In early February, the

continent. Altogether, in the

BAS

light aircraft,

eral

remote

sites,

A

permanent stations and sevwas

highlight of the expedition

the establishment of an Institute of Polar Medicine at Molodezhnaya Station, the main Soviet research centre in Antarctica. Studies undertaken in the institute were to include microbiology and the physiological and psychological effects on human beings of cold, enforced immobility, living in close proximity to others, and the long polar nights and days. The overall research program continued to emphasize upper atmosphere physics, meteorology, and oceanography. At Bellingshausen Station in the South Shetlands, two species of cereal grains, one previously unknown, were discovered. This marked a new southern limit for flowering plants. Using helicopters and light aircraft, geologists, biologists, and surveyors conducted a twomonth exploration of little-known Mac, Robertson Land, an area of about 100,000 sq.mi. They discovered some of the oldest rocks yet uncovered in Antarctica,

along with a number of mineral deposits, fossil trees, and imprints of leaves.

United States. The U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP) included 200 scientists and technicians from more than 40 universities, government agencies, and industry, supported by more than 1,600

programs on terrestrial and marine earth sciences, atmospheric sciences, and oceanography were carried out at seven permanent stations, several temporary field sites, and aboard research vessels and icebreakers. The largest single effort, involving 13 participants from Japan, New Zealand, and the U.S., was in a preliminary site survey for the three-year DVDP. Seismicity and resistivity measurements were taken at 28 locations; lake water was analyzed for heavy metal concentration; and soils collected for geophysical, geochemical, and biological properties. A continuing U.K.-U.S. program for measuring the thickness of the Antarctic ice sheet by airborne radio-echo sounding revealed significant others. Research

biology,

under-ice

features

in

east

Antarctica.

A

chain

of

mountains with peaks up to 9,500 ft. above sea level was discovered in a region of gently undulating lowlands below sea level. The soundings also revealed a new maximum ice sheet thickness of 14,900 ft. in an area 155 mi. NE of Vostok Station. After 15 years of operation, Byrd Station was closed as a year-round base. Approximately 85% of the new Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station was completed, including the geodesic dome, which covered the station like a giant bubble.

Other Activities. The

Games were 1972, with

held at

New

First

McMurdo

Annual Ross Island

Station on June 23-25,

Zealand, the U.K., the U.S.S.R., and

the U.S. competing in soccer, track, sled races, basketball, volleyball,

badminton, bowling, pool, and dart

throwing. With the closing of Byrd Station, the tratists

New Year's Day

football game between scienand Navy men, which has been played for 11 was suspended. In 1972, the scientists won by a

ditional

years,

5 wins for scientie games. "Lindblad Explorer" ran

score of 13-6; the contest stood at tists,

4 wins for the Navy, and 3

The Antarctic

tourist ship

Antarctica

— 82

Anthropology

on King George Island during a blizzard on February 11, and was finally freed two weeks later by the West German tug "Arctic." The Chilean Navy transport "Piloto Pardo" provided vital support during the crisis; tourists aboard the ship endured some anxious moments and privations but no injuries. (laurence m. gould; into uncharted rocks

See also Oceanography.

anthropological studies of the past, this research had a direct problem focus, with social amelioration as a principal goal. It dealt with

such problems as the

reduction of conflict, the roots of poverty, improve-

ment of medical

and and the bases of racism. These changing emphases were exemplified in the controversy over the views put forward by Arthur R. Jensen, Hans Eysenck, William Shockley, and others services, the functions of drugs

sexuality in the youth culture,

to the effect that the

IQ

test scores of U.S. blacks,

which average lower than those of white Americans,

Anthropology

are

During

the

of

result

inherited

intellectual

inferiority.

(See Psychology.) Although somewhat late

l'J72 anthropology was again characterized by concern with ethical self-evaluation and by new directions in research. The two-year-old controversy over the alleged political involvement of a group of anthropologists in Thailand continued. Anthropological opin-

response, perhaps because of their general belief that these issues had been resolved years before, anthropologists entered the arena in 1972 with a collection of papers published by the .\merican Anthropological

ion was still divided concerning this particular case and others that presented a similar ethical dilemma.

the role of culture in producing differences in cogni-

The

tion

issues involved,

among

others, the right of anthro-

pologists to impose restrictions

in their

The papers centred on such matters

Association.

and competence, conceptual

difficulties

in

as

the

(by moral suasion, censure, licensing, etc.) upon one another, the immorality of secret or war-related research, and the

idea of intelligence, the cultural bias inherent in tests

responsibility of anthropologists to protect the people

tion,

they study from any harmful consequences that might follow the publication of research findings.

dren's school

Prominent attention was also given to discriminawomen and ethnic minorities, especially and to the past and present relationship between anthropology and colonialism. Accusations

creasingly to the study of language in

of IQ, the inequality of education for even "middleclass" black children, the possible effects of malnutri-

and the pervasive effects of racism on black and test performance.

chil-

In a parallel development, linguistics turned in-

Much

its social

con-

tion against

text.

in the U.S.,

ferences between the English spoken by middle-class

that the research of certain anthropologists (particularly those

who worked

contributed to vigorous,

if

former British colonies) the maintenance of colonial rule led to in

inconclusive,

debate.

Nevertheless, the

possible but inadvertent role of anthropological re-

search in maintaining colonial institutions, and the

manner in which such research may have distorted knowledge of small societies under colonial governments, became an issue that would undoubtedly re-

of this research focused on dialectical dif-

white children and the English of poor urban whites

and blacks, and the possible relationship of such differences to performance on tests and in academic settings. For example, several studies suggested that utilize, among themselves, a language with a far more complex grammar and vocabulary than the language they use in formal edu-

black ghetto children

when those tests or by other blacks. Thus the shown in school by some black chilfrom the situation and not from any

cational testing situations, even situations are presented linguistic deficit

may

ceive continuing attention.

dren

Another focus of debate was the obligation of anthropologists not only to avoid harming the people they study but, where appropriate, to become positive

basic linguistic or cognitive deficiency. Linguistic re-

advocates for them. There was growing agreement among anthropologists that they should indeed become advocates, especially when the people they study are

nate

relatively powerless against local, national, or inter-

national economic or political forces.

An example

of

concern was provided by the response of Filipino commercial exploitation of the Tasaday, a tiny Stone Age tribe discovered in this

anthropologists to possible

Mindanao

arise

search also reflected a growing interest in universals in language, especially as these universals

may

illumi-

evolutionary origins. David Premack and and Beatrice Gardner continued their work on the language abilities of chimpanzees, and other research was under way on the possible evolutionary significance of differences in vocal anatomy, development of lateral dominance, and neurophysiological its

."Mien

specialization for language.

A

largely

research

unrelated

emphasis

involved

Working through PAN.AMIN (Private Association for National Mi-

studies of religion, myth, symbolism, and ritual. Re-

norities, Inc.), anthropologists

found the Philippine to be sympathetic to the plight of the Tasaday, who were defenseless against encroaching commercial logging. As a result, Philippine Pres. Ferdinand Marcos set aside the Tasaday homeland

gists

government

the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss.

the forests of

in

1971.

as a 46,299-ac. reserve free of outside interference.

Similar humanitarian concerns were reflected in the directions taken

by anthropological research. .(Mthough

anthropologists continued their interest in small, iso-

non-Western societies, a strong emphasis on Western and urban populations was developing. This emphasis sometimes known as urban anthropology, but actually far broader than that term suggests focused research on a variety of populations including the urban and rural, migrant labourers, women, the young and the elderly, the ill and the handicapped, as well as all ethnic and racial minorities. Unlike many lated,

—

search on such matters was reported by anthropolo-

from many countries, indicating the influence of

volume contributed the largest of

its

in his

kind ever published

An important Homo fossil,

The

illustrated

in

anthropology.

erectus find was reported from

the French Pyrenees by

de Lumley. This

work was

by a honour which was probably

international impact of his

Henry and Marie-.Antoinette with a facial structure similar

well-known skull found at Steinheim, Ger., in 1933, appears to be a precursor to the Neanderthaloids dating from the Mindel-Riss interglacials (some 200,000 years ago) or earlier. This find may join with the Steinheim and Swanscombe, Eng., skulls in clarifying human evoJution in Europe prior to the emergence of the classic Neanderthals, Controversy continued over Richard Leakey's discoveries of early man east of Lake Rudolf, Kenya. In to that of the

— November

it

was announced

that a skull, pieced to-

some 2.6 mod-

gether from fragments found in volcanic ash million years old, appeared to

man

ern

be much

closer to

than either the contemporary Australopithe-

Homo

cus or the later

erectus.

Debate continued over the relative importance of non-Darwinian evolution, with critical opinion generally running against the importance of random factors in evolution. At i.e., nonselective pressure the same time, interest in molecular biology grew, as exemplified by an important controversy concerning the rate and constancy of protein evolution among primates. One theory, based on the assumption of

—

constancy

conclusion

in protein evolution, led to the

man and

more than 500 milan opinion that conflicts with accepted views. This theory had not found general acceptance, even though interest in molecular phytogeny and the so-called evolutionary clock had increased among (kobert b. edgerton) physical anthropologists. that

the gorilla diverged

lion years ago,

See also Archaeology.

Briunn;

Encyclop/Edi.a (1967).

The

Egyplologisls

Archaeology Eastern Hemisphere. With the lessening of tensions between the two giant

Communist

political

countries

and the West, a relatively generous supply of archaeological news was available in 1972 from China and the U.S.S.R. The most spectacular reports concerned the clearance of a Scythian royal tomb in the Ukraine

and the remarkable yield from a pair of princely Han dynasty tombs near Chang-sha in central China. In the West a great lind of an earlier era was recalled in the British

of

many

of the pharaoh

ment and

its

sign of easing tensions.

ties

illicit

by

professional archaeol-

international trade in antiqui-

gained more support. Harvard University, the Museum of Philadelphia, and Chicago's

University

Oriental Institute agreed not to buy, acquire, or accept as gifts any antiquities that lacked a full pedigree

and proper export papers issued by the country of origin. At the same time, new and subtle means of laboratory examination revealed that an increasing

Of 66 and figurines allegedly from Hacilar, Turk., that had found their way into museum or private collections, 48 were proved to be fakes. It was also reported that several U.S. museums had

number

of "antiquities" were actually forgeries.

pieces of pottery vessels

recently paid approximately $25,000 each for forged

"Etruscan tomb paintings." Such reports brought wry pleasure to professional archaeologists who knew only too well the destruction caused by illicit diggers supplying the

illegal

market.

New

breakthroughs in methods of laboratory analysis were reported. A study of the carbon- 13 and oxygen- 18 variations in Greek marbles made possible identification of the quarry sources. A method of assaying age by study of the molecular structure of amino acids in ancient bones reportedly would span the time gap between about 40,000 and 250,000 years ago, for which neither the carbon- 14 nor the potas-

sium-argon method yielded accurate

1971 and dated at about 200,000 years ago, was reported to be the stone tool industry known as the Tayacian. .\ new and fully Paleolithic exposure was reported from Christiansfeld in Denmark, Dated to about 75,000 years ago, it was thus far earlier than

any other Scandinavian archaeological material yet known. .\t the large Obirakhmat cave, near Tashkent in Soviet Uzbekistan, deposits were excavated ranging from Mousterian into the Upper Paleolithic. The Near East. Archaeological work in Egypt was still

restricted to urban areas.

The

Oriental Institute

studied recarvings of the reliefs of the temple of at Luxor. In Israel an interesting sequence Middle and Upper Neolithic materials was recovered at Hazorea in the Plain of Esdraelon, and significant exposures were made in 2nd-millennium B.C. and in Philistine levels at Gezer. Yohanan Aharoni of Tel-Aviv University cleared portions of the town plan of ancient Beersheba. In Jerusalem itself, an area adjacent to the Armenian convent was excavated, exposing aristocratic and priestly houses of the early Christian era. According to one tradition, the house of the high priest Caiaphas was in this

Khonsu

of so-called

neighbourhood.

The Jordanian government was said to be encouragnew archaeological activity by qualified foreign little news of work there was available.

ing

teams, but

News from Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq was also An early Christian church plan with inscribed floors

was cleared near Apamea,

Syria,

scarce.

mosaic

by a Belgian The

ed-Dabagh. near Hatra, with reportedly pre-Hassunan (c. 6000 B.c) materials. Along the Saudi Arabian coast Abdullah H. Masri, of the University of Chicago but working for the Saudi government, made significant tests in a number of sites yielding Jemdat Nasr and Ubaid

Tutankhamen. The Egyptian govern-

strong stand taken

one "incredibly

least

expedition. In Iraq D. Kirkbride-Helbaek exposed a

Antiquities Service agreed to lend this

ogists against the

At

exhibition

magnificent collection to the British, perhaps another

The

Prehistory.

from the tomb

Museum's 50th anniversary

of the finest pieces recovered

Pleistocene

well-made stone tool" was reported from excavations on the eastern shore of Lake Rudolf, Kenya, in a context dated to 2.6 million years ago. The archaeological context of the pre-Neanderthal skull, found in southern France near Tautavel in the Pyrenees in

results.

new and important

early village site,

Um

pottery as well as earlier materials. Jean Perrot's French team contributed to the basic

2,000-year-old remains of this Chinese

noblewoman, preserved to an extraordinary degree, were found in

a charcoal-sealed

tomb

at Chang-sha. Dating from the Han dynasty,

the

tomb

also contained

exquisite textiles,

a food-laden banquet table, and 120 clothed

wooden

figurines.

reassessment of earlier French excavations at Susa and Tepe Djaffarabad in Iran. The Royal Ontario Museum clearances on Godin proceeded, but a new nearby. Seh Gabri, was opened and yielded nearsurface levels of the 4th millennium B.C. Similar levels at Godin were covered with a great depth of later site

materials.

Ezat 0. Negahban of the University of

Teheran opened an important new site with early village materials near Kazvin. Uncovering of a wellpreserved Bronze .\ge centre at Sharh-Sokhta was announced by an Italian-Iranian team. In Soviet Armenia a 14th-century B.C. fortress and cemetery were recovered as the waters of Lake Sevan receded. There were war chariot burials in which the skeletons of all but one individual (the dead chief?) showed broken neck vertebrae. Another important clearance in Armenia was that of a long-occupied (c. 2000-750 B.C.) settlement of metalworkers at Metsamor.

Notable progress was made by both Turkish and foreign rescue teams in the Keban Dam salvage area in Turkey. Higher on the Anatolian plateau, where the long-range programs of the University of Ankara at Kanesh-Kultepe and Acemhuyuk continued, Kanesh and its lower town continued to yield cuneiform tablets, architecture, and artifacts of the early 2nd

Antimony: see Mining Arab Emirates: see United Arab Emirates Arabia: Bahrain; Kuwait; Middle East; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia;

see

United Arab Emirates; Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of; Yemen Arab Republic

millennium

B.C.

.•\cemhuyuk, dating several centuries

yielded evidence of the level of culture and of

later,

internalional contacts in early Hittite times.

The Greco-Roman Regions. New light on Aegean from the work of Jean Deshayes

prehistor>' resulted

of the University of Paris at Dikili Tash, near Philippi

northern Greece. Below a superficial level with Byzantine and Hellenistic materials, there was a succes.^ion of 26 levels with materials referred to as of Early Bronze and Neolithic times. The two were sepain

rated by a thick burned horizon. In the former, there

was evidence of important linkages with Troy and .\natolia. Another important prehistoric program was resumed at the Franchthi cave in extreme southern Greece by Thomas Jacobsen of Indiana University. Franchthi covers a span from Late Upper Paleolithic times into the range of effective agriculture. For later prehistoric times, the University of Minnesota's Messenia expedition encountered architectural remains from c. 1700 B.C. onward and an important record of Mycenaean stratigraphy. Greek archaeologists clearing the volcanic fallout on the island of Thera exposed several groups of well-preserved frescoes of c. 1500 B.C. Two life-size painted marble funerary statues of a young man and woman were found south of Athens. Subsequently,

it

became

girl's figure fitted

tion,

clear that the base of the

an inscribed base, signed by Aris-

Museum

already in the Epigraphic

tional .\rchaeological a port

Museum

in .\thens.

NaAt Halieis,

of the

midway between Sparta and Athens, Michael

traces of a stadium and a sancnow awash in the Aegean Sea. The royal Scythian burial of a prince, princess, and infant, found in the Ukraine, included much remarkably fine gold ornament, reputedly the work of Greek craftsmen. Lale Prehistoric and Historic Europe. Two important excavations in Yugoslavia were being carried on

Jameson recorded

tuary dedicated to Apollo, both

Heads

of terra-cotta

statuettes unearthed at Cnidus, Turk,, by an expedition led

by

Iris

C.

Love

of Long Island University in

New York

are evidence

Greek settlements Turkey date back to at least 1000 B.C., rather than 340-330 as had been tliat in

soutfiwestern

previously supposed.

with the aid of so-called blocked funds the U.S. but,

by

(money owed

treaty agreement to be used only

The

Anza in eastern Macedonia was being worked jointly by Marija Gimbutas of California and Milutin Garasanin of Yugoslavia, while the village site of Divostin, some SO mi. S of Belgrade, was under excavation by Alan McPherron of Pittsburgh, Pa., and Dragoslav Srejovic of Belgrade. The yields from both sites richly illustrated V. Gordon Childe's observation that the early farmers of Europe "were not slavish imitators" of the peoples of the Near East. A variety of sites of Saxon and "Dark Ages" times were reported from Britain. Traces of a large hall were exposed at Chalton, Hampshire, and the foundations of a Saxon watermill were cleared at Tamworth, within the debtor country).

village site of

Staffordshire. In Finland underwater efforts yielded

much information on an

18th-century Russian war-

ship sunk in a naval battle with

Sweden

in the

harbour

of Kotka.

What appeared to be a Chinese Tutankhamen find was described in from Peking. Two tombs, built into a cliff in the Lingshan Mountains south of Peking, contained the bodies of Liu Sheng, Prince Ching of Chung-shan, and his consort. This Han dynasty prince died in 113 B.C.; his body and that of his queen were shrouded in gold-wired jade-plaque suits. There was also a rich supply of mortuary furniture, including items in metal, glass, lacquer, and silk. The Chinese also reported on new work at the Shang dynasty Asia and Africa.

(16th-17th centur\-

number of

B.C.)

site

of Anyang, where a

inscribed "oracle bones" recorded imperial

Shang ceremonies. Wall paintings said to be of exceptionally fine quality were found in a tomb south of Nara in Japan. From South Africa came claims of very early mining for ocher, from which the appearance of a very early anatomically modern man was inferred. It was too early to assess the quality of the evidence,

still

however. In his report (Science, April 28, 1972

)

of a

in the Turkana District, Kenya, Lawrence Robbins of Michigan State Uni-

survey and test soundings

Age to braidwood)

versity described a sequence of Late Stone

modern materials. (Robert Western Hemisphere. Explanation

early

j.

of intracultural

variability, the analysis of settlement

respect to technological

systems with

and environmental

factors,

sampling procedures, and the experimental study of chipped stone technologies constituted major topics of New World archaeological investigation during 1972.

Western Hemisphere archaeologists joined

their

colleagues in expressing concern over the destruction

of archaeological sites and monuments, especially as a result of the increasingly commercialized activities

Of particular note was the continuing largemonumental sculptures from the Mayan were too large for easy transport, many of them had been illicitly cut into smaller pieces with power tools, often resulting in of looters.

scale theft of

region. Since these sculptures

their

complete or near-complete destruction.

Four research laboratories at the University of Utah and a commercial off-campus facility joined to form the Archaeometric Research Group, planned to provide training, research, and contract services involving dating and other types of analysis relevant to archaeology. A wide range of archaeological problems can be investigated through the available techniques, including the study of sedimentary- ecology,

ceramic analysis, identification of stone remains, and reconstruction of desiccated organic remains. In Flor-

Bureau of Historic Sites and Properties began implementing a computerized program for storage and retrieval of archaeological data designed to be compatible with other such systems in the U.S. The potential of such systems was foreshadowed by a technique used by Sylvia Gains of Arizona State University. Excavations under her direction at Hunters Point, Ariz., were directly connected to computer facilities by telephone, permitting immediate verificaida the

tion or modification of aspects of the research design.

Shortages of funds continued to plague archaeologi-

and increasing use was being made of working under the direction of trained archaeologists. A widely publicized example was the Koster excavation in southern Illinois, sponsored by Northwestern University, Evanston, which it was hoped would eventually throw light on the development of agriculture in pre-Columbian North .America. Threatened several times with closure because of lack of money, the work had been continued in large meacal

efforts,

volunteers

equivalent of the

sure through the enthusiastic volunteer efforts of stu-

brief reports

who came to the site from throughout the U.S. Cultural Ecology. Since basic chronological sequences have been established for most areas in North America, archaeological investigations increasingly focused on relationships between cultural behaviour, as shown in prehistoric remains, and environmental variables. W. James Judge, University of New Mexico, and Jerry Dawson, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex., carried out an analysis based on a dents,

reconnaissance

of

Paleo-Indian

settlements

in

the

Rio Grande Valley, an area encompassing

central

3,000 sq.mi. Aerial photography combined with field exploration revealed a total of 59 Paleo-Indian settle-

1200 until the arrival of the Spanish, the number of urban centres increased and the rural population rose once again. Betty Bell, Southern Illinois University, conduct-

ments, which were identified as components of the Clovis, Folsom, Belen, and Cody cultures. Analysis of environmental variables revealed that a water source

ing excavations in a previously

appropriate to the needs of large herbivores was a crucial factor in site location, as were drainage for

and west-central

the site itself

and proximity

to a suitable

hunting area.

unknown region in northeastern Jalisco, uncovered an assemblage related to the shaft-tomb

previously

were discovered

Variations in the relationships between these factors

first

were attributed to the gradually increasing dryness

known

that characterized the postglacial period.

In

Douglas D,

Alaska,

northwestern

Brown

Anderson,

University, Providence, R.I., reported on the

results of four years of archaeological survey in the

Noatak drainage.

A

considerable

number

of unstrati-

were found that provided panoramic views of known caribou migration routes and were believed to represent hunting stations. Such sites were dated to the end of the Paleo-Arctic period (about 5000 B.C.), the Northern Archaic period (3700-3600 B.C.), the Denbigh Flint complex (lSOO-1200 B.C.), and the recent Eskimo period (a.d. 1500 to the present). It was hypothesized that the gaps in the temporal record fied sites

reflected fluctuations in caribou population density.

of the State University of New York Albany, reporting on a study of prehistoric adapta-

Dean R. Snow at

Maine coast, refuted the traditional from a hunting and fishing sub-

tion along the

view that the

shift

sistence pattern

to

place about a.d.

1,

placement. Rather,

collecting,

shellfish

was the it

which took

result of population re-

could be explained by the inter-

play between cultural, climatologic, and geologic factors associated with the postglacial rise in sea level.

A

major underwater investigation was conducted by Bureau of Historic Sites and Properties at

Florida's the

Little

Springs

Salt

site

in

southern

Sarasota

Human

bone, dated by the carbon-14 method was recovered, along with cultural mahad been deposited when the water in the sink was at least 35 ft. below its modern level. Work

County. 3270

at

B.C.,

terial that

in

progress involved testing the hypothesis that the

sink constituted a water source for prehistoric peoples at a time

when

the climate

was

significantly drier

and

the sea level considerably lower than at present.

Mesoamerica.

Environmental, technological, and social variables were employed by Richard E. Blanton. Rice University, Houston, Tex., to account for a sequence of settlement systems

and demographic

patterns revealed by intensive archaeological recon-

naissance of the Ixtapalapa Peninsula in the Valley of Mexico.

The

transition

between the Middle and

Late Formative periods, dated about 600

B.C., was marked by rapid population growth. The piedmont zone was occupied for the first time, while the lake-

shore plain continued to be utilized. Large-scale pubarchitecture began, and communities of markedly had been noted in other portions of the Valley of Mexico, and were believed to be related to the introduction of hardier and more productive varieties of maize from

lic

different status appeared. Similar changes

the central highlands.

The development tre,

of Teotihuacan as an urban cen-

beginning in the Terminal Formative period about

was marked by an overall decline in population. Blanton hypothesized that enhanced status differentiation and the concentration of population in a single urban centre tended to exclude rural groups. During the Late Postclassic period, dated a.d. A.D.

100,

time.

complex characteristic of Nyarit

Jalisco. Horned human figurines, known only through the illicit art market, in

an archaeological context for the

In another study of a previously

little

Roman

Pina Chan, Institute Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, excavated a pyramid and region,

plaza and other remains at Tenango, west of Toluca

Mexico. The materials suggested occupation during the entire Postclassic period, begin-

in the state of

ning about

a.d.

700.

America. The discovery in the Mucuchies locality of Merida, Venezuela, of a cemetery and workshop containing "batwing"-style serpentine artifacts was reported by Erika Wagner and Carlos Schubert, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, Caracas. Serpentine is not native to the Venezuelan Andes, but it does occur naturally in several Caribbean regions. Thus the finds indicated the importation of raw materials from the Caribbean. Radiocarbon dating and stylistic comparisons placed the find between a.d. 1000 and 1500. In the adjoining highlands of Colombia, a survey completed by Karen Olsen Bruhns, California State University, San Francisco, provided evidence for a heavy population in the region beginning about a.d. 1000 but gave little indication of earlier occupation. Wesley Hurt, Indiana University Museum, in collaboration with Gonzalo Correal, Instituto Colombiano de Antropologia, investigated open terrace sites Soiitli

in the

The

middle Magdalena River valley of Colombia.

terraces yielded chipped stone artifacts, resem-

Abra rock shelters at Sabana de Bogota, which had been dated to 10,500

bling the series from the El

B.C.

Ecological studies continued to be emphasized, with prehistoric

methods of cultivation receiving consid-

erable attention. In the lower Cauca-San Jorge region of Colombia, nia at

James Parsons, University

of Califor-

Berkeley, investigated the relationships be-

tween seasonal flooding and the ridged-field agricultural system. In the lowland Venezuelan state of Barinas, Alberta Zucchi, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas, and William M. Denevan, University of Wisconsin, investigated prehispanic ridged fields and their related settlements. Both aerial photographs and field research were employed by Jeffrey Parson, University of Michigan, and colleagues

and investigate sunken-field cultivation This method enormous expenditure of labour, appeared to have been most significant during the Late Intermediate and Late Horito

identify

systems

in ten coastal valleys in Peru.

of cultivation, which represented an

zon periods. The spread of industrialization was threatening archaeological sites throughout South America, and many emergency salvage programs were under way. In Brazil, Silvia Maranca, Universidade de Sao Paulo, recorded eight sites in a locality that was being flooded in connection with a hydroelectric power plant at Ilha Solteria. Also in Brazil, Ondemar Ferreira Dias, Instituto de Anqueologia Brasiliera, coordinated a continuing nonemergency investigation of the l,800-mi.-long Sao Francisco River valley, de-

Archaeology

signed to connect the archaeologically

Architecture

known

areas of

Bahia and southern Minas Gerais. Evidence of human was discovered in 1 7 limestone caves scattered along the entire course of the valley. (DAVID A. FREDRICKSO.n)

utilization

to represent the final culmination of his search for

See alio Anthropology.

EncycloP/Cdia

Britannica

Films.

The

Egyptologistt

Architecture Oflnce

and commercial developments

buildings

in

progress or just completed dominated architectural activity in 1972.

New

sociological

and functional ideas

were becoming more evident. The trend of company headquarters buildings going up outside city centres continued but at the same time some successful re-

development projects were completed

in

downtown

areas.

The Standard Oil Co. of Indiana by Edward Durell Stone & .Assoand Perkins & Will, was topped out at 1,136 ft. in October to become, temporarily, the world's third tallest building. As with the other new skyscrapers, the Chicago building utilized tubular design, a new Office Buildings.

building, designed ciates

basic

architectural

concept.

In

tubular

design

the

perimeter columns of a building resist the lateral force of wind pressure, thereby permitting more economical

construction by eliminating the need for expen-

The twin-towered World Trade Center ft.,

in

New York

the world's tallest building at the end

of 1972, but the Sears Tower in Chicago was scheduled to surpass it during 1973 to reach 1,450 ft. Meanwhile, the owners of the longtime record holder, the 1,250-ft. Empire State Building in New York, announced in October that they were considering an addition to the structure that would make it once again

the world's tallest.

The new Toronto-Dominion Centre was completed site south of the new City Hall plaza. The

on a 5i-ac. The world's largest digital clock 50 ft. high

—

—

is one of many efforts of architect Meivyn

Kaufman

to

skyscrapers in

humanize

—

especially

New York City—

with "shock

and disruption."

Kaufman enlivened the lobby of the office building with neon-lighted corrugated tunnels, a giant fishing lure, and bright boutiques.

formal perfection in the glass skyscraper. The Toronto-Dominion Centre comprised two towers, one of 56 and the other of 46 stories, the latter containing the vast single open space pavilion of the TorontoDominion banking hall. The windows were of bronzegray heat-absorbing glass, and the buildings were grouped around an attractive plaza. Pepsico, Inc., was one of the many large companies to move its headquarters out of expensive, crowded New York City. The new location was a 112-ac. site at Harrison. N.Y., about 30 mi. N of the city. Only 10 ac. of the site were occupied by buildings, the rest being left as a wooded area screening ample parking facilities. The buildings, designed by Edward Durell Stone & .Associates, consisted of a series of seven three-story blocks arranged formally around an entrance court. The exterior walls were decorated with patterned precast concrete panels, and the small courts were laid out as sculpture gardens in which works by sculptors such as Henry Moore, Jacques Lipchitz, and Alberto Giacometti were imaginatively set out. In addition, a large stabile by Alexander Calder stood in an open field. The new headquarters enabled the company to house all its divisions in one location.

The new headquarters

sive internal bracing.

was. at 1,350

complex was designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (d. 19691, who acted as consultant to two Canadian John B. Parkin Associates and Bregman & Hamann. Mies's hand was certainly apparent in the elegant glass and steel structure, and the centre seemed firms.

Inc., a

huge

textile

of

Burlington

manufacturing firm,

at

Industries,

Greensboro,

N.C., occupied the 34-ac. site of a former estate within the bounds of the city. The architects. Odell Associates, designed two separate structures joined

by bridges. The six-story tower, which housed executive offices, was constructed with an exposed steel frame and giant X-shaped trusses. Reflected and multiplied by the huge reflective glass walls, the trusses produced a dramatic visual effect. The smaller twostory building contained meeting rooms, offices, and a cafeteria.

The home office of the California Casualty Insurance Group was relocated in San Mateo, Calif., a suburb of San Francisco. The architects, John Carl Warnecke &

Associates, chose a formal design of textured reinforced concrete with projecting round towers to

house the various

ser\'ices.

The

site

provided

enviable views over a golf course in one direction. Visitors

to

Commercial & Industrial Bank,

the

Memphis, Tenn., could enjoy a lush glass-enclosed garden adjacent to the main banking hall. The great wedge-shaped building was designed by Gassner, Nathan, Browne. Offices above the banking hall also looked out onto the garden. All the exterior walls were of concrete poured into place during construction.

A

skylit

garden was also a feature of the new build-

ing for the Equitable Life .Assurance Society of the

Mo. Designed by Hellmuth. Obata the 21 -story tower was linked to a lowcommercial centre by a skylit garden. The tower

U.S. at St. Louis,

& Kassabaum, rise

was clad

in silver reflective glass to

mirror the sur-

rounding cityscape.

The

first

Tex., was a

stage of Brookhollow Plaza in Dallas,

concrete office tower

16-story precast

designed by Paul Rudolph

in

wood K. Smith &

The

Partners.

conjunction with Harbuilding,

whose com-

ponents were totally precast except for the floors between stories, was designed to give 16 corner offices

— per floor instead of the usual four. All structural joints were exposed, a feature which caused the building

huge log cabin. Worcester Center, a new commercial and shopping complex in the old New England town of Worcester, Mass., was designed to reverse the trend toward suburban shopping and to renew and revitalize the city centre. The centre formed part of an extensive redevelopment plan for the city and was designed to to be likened to a

provide a

community

focal point as well as

all

the fa-

Paul Rudolph was the architect for the new Sid W. Richardson Physical Sciences Building for Texas Christian University at Fort Worth. The iive-story, $5 million complex was designed to house physical science departments, a computer centre, laboratories, offices, classrooms, and lounges. The building, though

very large, managed its

great richness of

Texas sun.

and convenience of a suburban plaza. Direct from an expressway and ample facilities were provided. The centrepiece was the Galleria, a two-story shopping arcade reminiscent of the grand 19th-century arcades that had largely disappeared from U.S. cities. The trans-

in the strong

The new chemistry building way College at Egham, Surrey,

parent roof of the arcade, 60 ft. high at the centre, consisted of a vaulted skylight of white precast con-

for growth

and bronze

Ple.xiglas.

Along

architects

Colquhoun & Miller of London to allow and adaptability. Two lecture theatres and

new

civic buildings of 1972

cert

and congress

The

as integral parts of the architectural design.

architects for the Worcester Center

were Welton

Alvar Aalto. The

ment

for a

new

was Finlandia Hall,

hall in Helsinki, Fin., first

civic centre in the Finnish capital, the

provided a

concert

building

by Norman Foster Associates seemed to be almost without walls. The open-plan space was delineated by a glass enclosing membrane a kind of minimal architecture. In Barcelona. Spain, Jose Antonio Coderch de Sentmenat was the architect for Edificios Trade, a development comprising four connecting towers with

attracted considerable interest.

interior space.

undulating sides sheathed in black glass. In the area connecting the towers were restaurants, a gym, a sauna, and shops on the ground floor, and conference

polyhedrons.

rooms and an auditorium on the mezzanine. University and College Buildings. Benjamin Thompson & Associates were architects for a new faculty office building and a classroom and administration building for the law school of Harvard University, Cambridge. Mass. The two new buildings were constructed within existing open space to add complexity and interest. The subtle and well-detailed buildings of dark brownish-purple brick were flexibly planned and embodied the best features of the conservative trend followed by many contemporary architects.

New dormitories for Bradford (Mass.) College were designed by architects Campbell, Aldrich & Nulty. They were conceived as domestically scaled residences, each housing ten students and representing a compromise between the traditional vast dormitories and individual apartments. Each house had two single and four double bedrooms with common living room and kitchen and shared bathrooms, and with a study loft at the top level. The roof sections consisted of plywood sheathing glued and nailed to lightweight rafters. This created a stressed skin panel that acted as a diaphragm, transferring its loads to the outside

The advantages of such a system were permitted relatively wide spans unobstructed by beams and columns and allowed greater flexibility in arrangement and appearance. The houses were grouped around an attractively landscaped quadrangle. shear walls. that

it

a con-

designed by

stage of a long-term develop-

Becket & Associates. In the U.K. two new buildings for IBM were Hearing completion. The first, housing a computer and an assembly plant at Havant, Hampshire, was designed by Ove Arup & Associates. Giant precast concrete cladding gave a massive enclosed feeling to the building. The new office headquarters at Cosham, Hampshire, was a complete contrast. The glass and steel structure designed

Royal Hollo-

a library were also provided within the building. Civic and Cultural Buildings. Striking among the

$800,000 worth of works of art

Damaz

for the

Eng., was designed to

house the teaching and research departments of a single faculty. The concrete structure was designed by

the 475-ft. length of the arcade were

some of the selected by Annie

Ma-

infill, and shadow patterns

used were concrete with smooth brick

terials

the broad overhangs threw dramatic

cilities

crete arches, steel ribs,

scale through

spatial complexity.

access to the centre

covered parking

human

to retain a

form and

hall

seating

1,750,

a

chamber music room seating 350, and conference and restaurant facilities. The structure, of reinforced concrete clad in white marble and gray granite, was noexciting and table for its architectural excellence

—

monumental but never overpowering. At the preliminary design civic centre for the

stage, plans for the

London Borough

new

of Hillingdon

Plans by architects Sir Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners featured a system of hexagonal grids to modulate the

Another building based on a hexagonal plan was the synagogue for an Israeli Army camp in the Negev Desert. Designed by architects Neumann and Hecker, the structure was composed of piled-up concrete In Paris the

by Roger

new Pare

Taillibert

des Princes stadium designed in June. The stadium,

opened

was built above the tuncarrying the expressway around Paris. The struc-

seating 53,000 under cover, nels

ture consisted of a series of prestressed curved con-

crete entire

Transamerica Corp.'s

new

853-ft.-tall

pyramid-shaped headquarters stands in San Francisco's financial district, not

far from the controversial Banl< of America building. San Franciscans objected to the bank building (not shown) because

out. It was claimed that the of its dark colour and to the Transamerica stadium could be emptied in only 20

arms cantilevered full

structure because of shape.

minutes.

Also in Paris, the new headquarters for the French Communist Party was completed. Designed by Oscar Niemeyer, it consisted of a six-story office block with

an undulating glass facade. Situated in an outer section of the city, the building provided offices, conference rooms, an auditorium, dining

facilities, a li-

brary, and parking space.

Conservation. A notable trend in 1972 was the growing interest in the preservation of old buildings throughout the world. Linked with this was a growing concern with the problem of how to adapt these old buildings to modern uses. In countries where fine old buildings were plentiful many architects seemed to be devoting a large proportion of their time and creative energy to conversions and renovations of all kinds. In the U.K. the Architectural Review devoted its May issue to "New Uses for Old Buildings." Among those featured was the late 18th-century neoclassical saltworks at Arc-et-Senans near Besangon in France, designed by Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The saltworks was converted into a conference and study centre, run by the Fondation Ledoux with the support of organi-

its

Arctic Regions

zations

from

opened

in 1971

rical

all

over the world. The centre was

with several short conferences, theat-

productions, and an exhibition entitled "Ledoux

et I'architecture visionnaire."

ments were opened

and some 20 small apart-

1972 for the use of research

in

Many new unused

uses were suggested to solve the problem

churches

downtown

in

areas.

Thomas

18lh-century Baroque church of St. Smith Square, London, badly bombed in World War II, was restored and converted into a concert hall and cultural centre by architect Marshall Archer's early

John

in

Sisson. In Oxford, Eng., the 18th-century church of

All Saints in the Turl

was being converted into a by Robert Potter with the

May

1 1

formally approved the

construction of the trans-Alaska crude

was

1975.

Further legal delays to the construction of the pipeline were caused by court injunctions brought

In Weston. Mass.. architect Lawrence Partridge converted a typical old New England stone barn into a comfortable house.

Enough

of the old building

retained to give scale and character, and three

was

by

conservation groups. The U.S. Circuit Court of Ap-

would review the decision of was expected evenSupreme Court. In midyear the Alaska legislature approved four

peals

announced that

it

tually to be appealed to the U.S.

nity features.

and would

the national interest

in

prin-

however, was unlikely to begin until sometime in 1973, and completion of the line was not expected until

the district court, and the case

were found for many other redundant but Breweries and malthouses were carefully restored and renovated to become culture centres, and old barns and mills were turned into restaurants, homes, and even a furniture gallery. The Old Brewery at Freshford, Somerset, was being converted into an architects' office by Leonard Manasseh & Partners, and many of the majestic old Victorian water pumping stations to be found throughout Britain were attracting attention as potential homes for museums and other cultural and commu-

pipeline.

The

stimulate the development of .\laska. Construction,

library for Lincoln College

New uses

line.

approval was that

cipal reason given for granting the

advice of Sir John Summerson. attractive old buildings.

oil

In August a U.S. district court judge lifted a 1970 court injunction against building the the pipeline

workers. of

tary of the interior on

that provided increased state control over its massive oil industry. The bills were designed to give Alaska an adequate return on its resources and prevent the exploitation, which, the state believed, had characterized earher efforts at fur, mineral, and fish development. As the year ended, a number of oil companies were challenging the constitutionality of bills

the laws. In

March

of

possibility

the

state

oil

industry had rejected the

ownership

of

the

multibillion

dollar pipeline but offered to offset an expected reve-

nue loss to the Alaska state treasury by advance payments on royalties from eventual North Slope production.

A

report issued

by

a group of independent con-

new

sultants concluded that the .Maska Railroad could be

added with roofs echoing that of the original barn. A novel house at La Lucila, Buenos Aires, .^rg., designed by architects Manteola, Petchersky, Sanchez Gomez, Santos. Solsona and Vinoly of Buenos Aires, featured a sloping roof completely covered with grass, producing a building that certainly

extended to the North Slope and used to carry oil to an ice-free port for substantially less than the proposed pipeline. The study estimated the railroad would cost $2.8 billion to construct and that five years would

sections were

blended well into the landscape. In the U.K. the furore over the redevelopment plans

Covent Garden and Piccadilly areas West End continued to rage. The problem was given a further airing by the Architectural Review, which devoted a substantial part of its July issue to an article entitled "Save the Garden." for the historic

of London's

The .American Gold Medal

Institute of Architects

awarded

its

for 1972 to Pietro Belluschi. Belluschi,

who practiced in Portland, Ore., was well known for his many fine buildings with their imaginative use of wood in the Pacific Northwest. The Royal Institute of British Architects Gold Medal for 1972 was awarded to the U.S. architect Louis I. Kahn (see Biography).

(sandra millikin)

be required to build and design

it.

The Canadian

transport minister in July issued a report. "Railway

which examined the technical feasibility of using a railway to move oil over the permafrost region from Prudhoe Bay. Alaska, directly to North .\merican markets. The study suggested that a railway to carry oil at the volumes projected appeared to be technically feasible and would require approximately 360 locomotive units and 11,000 tank cars of to the .\rctic,"

94-ton capacity each in order to

move

the projected

volume of 2 million bbl. of oil a day. During the year the Canadian government announced that bids were being asked for the construction of the initial phase of the 1,050-mi. Mackenzie Valley highway, which eventually would permit overland travel to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. During the winter of

1972-73 engineers planned

to

test

a

cable-operated air-cushioned transporter as a vehicle See also Cities and Urban Affairs; Engineering ProiectS; Environment; Historic Buildings; Housing; Industrial Review. us.

The Medieval Mind

highway traffic over major river crossings. If the tests proved successful, the use of these vehicles as ferries could make the highway operable for all but for ferrying

about

five

days annually.

The Dome Petroleum

Co., one of the

major

ex-

ploration firms, reported to the Canadian National

Arctic Regions The development

of

oil

and gas reserves and the ac-

companying

Areas: see Populations and Areas; see also the individual country articles

social and environmental problems dominated the Arctic during 1972. As the year closed there was sufficient progress in resolving most of the major issues involved to predict that the massive oil and

gas supplies of northern North .America were at last on the verge of being tapped.

After more than two years of delay, the U.S. secre-

Energy Board during the year that they estimated there were more than 15 trillion cu.ft. of natural gas in the Canadian Arctic and that there was no tech-

why the gas could not be in production within a few years' time. Dome also signed an agreement with three gas-short U.S. pipeline companies in which the firms committed $30 million toward exploration costs in return for having first call on purchasing any gas that Dome may discover. In February the first oil strike in the Arctic islands nological reason

was announced by Panarctic Oils Ltd. The petroleum was discovered on the Fosheim Peninsula of Ellesmere Island by Panarctic, whose largest single stockholder was the Canadian government. Panarctic held permits covering about 55 million ac. in the Arctic islands and had already made four commercial gas finds in the region.

The Soviet newspaper gas had begun to flow

to conclude an agreement to prohibit the hunting of polar bears who live on the pack ice out-

governments

The International Ice Patrol reported that the 1972 season was the fourth worst annual period for extreme

Izvestia reported that natural

southerly drift of icebergs on record since the iceberg

from the remote Medvezhye

watch was begun after the

gas field in Siberia astride the Arctic Circle.

The

field

was reported to have reserves of 50 trillion cu.ft. and was expected to be producing at a rate of 1.3 trillion cu.ft. by 1975. Ultimately, it was expected that Siberian gas would be flowing to Western Europe, and discussions were held late in 1971 regarding the possibility of exporting gas to the U.S. In

March

"Titanic," in 1912.

loss

of the ocean

More than 550

liner

icebergs drifted

south of Newfoundland, compared to a normal num-

(KEiNNETH DE LA BARRE)

ber of about SO.

Argentina

it

was reported that Soviet oilmen had started an exploratory well on Kolguyev Island in the Arctic Ocean in the hope of tapping the reputed huge petroleum reserves under the continental shelf off the Soviet Union's north coast.

The

federal republic of Argentina, occupying the southeastern section of South .\merica, is bounded Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and the

by

Atlantic Ocean. It

is the second largest Latin-.^merican country, after Brazil, with an area of 1,072,157

The U.S. government and Alaska reached a settlement in October whereby approximately 79 million

sq.mi. (2,776,888 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 23,552,-

land were set aside for the federal gov-

2,972,453). Language: Spanish. Religion: mainly Ro-

ac. of Arctic

ernment for possible use as national parks, forests, and refuge areas. According to the authorities the settlement would "permit the complex and interlocking process of land actions by Alaska natives and the state and federal governments to proceed under the terms of both the 1971 Native Claims Settlement Act and the Statehood Act without needless delay." Mean-

Canada established three new national parks Baffin Park with 8,200 sq.mi., on Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island; Kluane Park with 8,500 sq.mi. in the Yukon; and Nahanni Park, 1,800 sq.mi. in the Northwest Terriwhile,

north of the 60th parallel:

tories.

The

Eskimo

from Canada be shown in the U.S.S.R. was put on display in the Hermitage Museum in Leningrad, and also in Moscow, as part of the cultural agreement between Canada and the U.S.S.R. The exhibit, which consisted of 403 pieces representing contemporary Eskimo sculpture and the sculpture of Arctic cultures of the past, was also shown in Europe and the U.S. largest collection of

ever to be shown abroad and the

art

first to

international project known as AIDJEX (Arctic Dynamics Joint Experiment"), in preparation for

An Ice

understand the Ocean. One of the project's goals was to forecast and perhaps control the pack ice sufficiently to permit tankers

several years, continued forces that control ice

and ore ships

its

effort to

movement

in the Arctic

to transport the natural resources

the circumpolar regions.

A

from

project with similar goals,

sponsored by the Arctic Institute of North America, conducted in January and February the first winter reconnaissance in modern times of the historic "North Water," the large, open-water area that exists during the winter in northern Baffin Bay. An understanding of this region had important commercial implications in view of the large discoveries of gas and nearby eastern Arctic islands.

oil

in the

Summer surveys at Amchitka Island, Alaska, site of the November 1971 underground nuclear test, convinced biologists that as many as 1 ,000 sea otters had been killed from the shock waves which pulsed through the Bering Sea. No long-term effects on the seal population were expected, however. In February it was announced in Geneva that scientists

from

five

Argentina

side territorial waters. As of 1972 the Soviet Union was the only country that had imposed a complete ban on their hunting and exploitation.

circumpolar countries had asked their

000. Cap. and largest city:

man

r

Buenos Aires (pop., 1970,

Catholic. President in 1972, Lieut. Gen. Alejan-

dro Agustin Lanusse. Affairs. An uncertain and violent climate prevailed throughout most of 1972 in Argentina. Oberdan Sallustro, a Fiat executive, was kidnapped by members of the Trotskyite People's Revolutionary Army, who killed him as police arrived at their hideout on April 10; on the same day Gen. Juan Carlos Sanchez, commander of the II Army Corps and a leader of the fight against the guerrillas, was assassinated by machine-gun fire in Rosario. A 48-hour general strike took place in February following a 9.2% devaluation of the Argentine peso, and in June a second general strike was called in support of wage raises and the release of political prisoners. Many students throughout the country demonstrated in sym-

Domestic

pathy with the

strikers. In

August, 16 guerrilla pris-

oners were killed by police, reportedly while trying to escape from the remote Trelew military base. The government was incensed by Chile's refusal to hand Rioters in Mendoza back ten other guerrillas, who on August 15 had wrecked 146 cars in protest over a proposed escaped over the Andes in a stolen jet. Although former dictator Juan Peron (see Biog- 110% raise in electricity rates. Three people raphy) failed to meet the government's requirement were killed and hundreds

that presidential candidates for the

March 1973

elec-

injured or jailed during the April 1972 rioting.

ARGENTINA

:

Education. (1969) Primary, pupils 3,354.587, 171,759; sicondary. pupils 211.537, teachers voc»tion,il, pupils 519,079, teachers 31,947; teachers 71.583; teacher training, students 194,190, teachers 25,702; hiKhcr (including 38 universitirs and technical institutes), students 271,496. tcachinK staff 21,336. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a free rate of 5 pesos to U.S. $1 (12.20 £\ sterlinR). Gold, SDRs, and foreiRn pesos exchange, central bank: (March 1972) U.S. $278 million; (March 1971) U.S. $495 million. Budget (1970 est.): revenue 7,857,000.000 pesos; expenditure 8,450,000,000 pesos. Gross national product: (1969) 79,820,000,000 pesos; (1968) (Feb. 68.320.000,000 pesos. Money supply: 1972) 24.410,000,000 pesos; (Feb. 1971) 17,640,000,000 pesos. Cost of living (Buenos Aires;

=

I

.

1963

=

100):

(May 1972)

756;

(May 1971)

483.

Foreign Traije. (1971) Imports 8,588,000,000

Import pesos; exports 7.968,300,000 pesos. sources: U.S. 22%; West Germany 127o: Bra-

11%: Japan 8%:

Italy 6%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: Italy 15%; U.S. 9%; Netherzil

lands

9%:

Chile

7%;

West Germany 7%;

4%;

7%; U.K. 7%; 6%. Main exports:

Spain

Brazil

19?

Transport and Communications. (1970) 201,059 km. Motor vehicles

tion he resident in .Argentina by.\ugust 25. his personal

Hector Campora, delivered a ten-point program for national reconstruction drawn up by Peron in Madrid in early October. President Lanusse accepted the program as "a positive contribution" to the solution of the country's problems and at one point appeared ready to accept Peron's return and some accommodation with him. However, on October 17, delegate,

the anniversary of Peron's rise to power in 1945, his supporters organized demonstrations throughout the country in defiance of a government ban on open-air rallies

and demonstrations. Amid a general tightening

of security a series of

bomb

explosions occurred in

rail and road traffic and destroying the top floors of the recently opened Buenos .Aires Sheraton Hotel. Earlier. President Lanusse had advanced the date from which electoral campaigning could begin, from November 25 to October 1, and his plans appeared to have at least the tacit

several cities, causing disruption of

support of the armed forces. In an apparent effort to obtain Peron's backing for the

March

elections, the

government allowed him

to

clined crops.

the country for Paraguay. The Justicialistas, a Peronista party of long standing, nonetheless nomi-

nated him for president, but Peron declined.

On De-

cember 16 the party, with Peron's blessing, nominated Campora, a move that caused some labour leaders to walk out of the convention. The government announced

however, de6.7%, mainly as a result of poor 1972 grain

In the external sector, difficulties persisted: in the half of 1972 there

first

was an overall

with $138 million in January-June tional

Monetary Fund

credits

on curcompared

deficit

rent and capital account of $242 million,

1971. Interna-

and Special Drawing

Rights allocations covered the bulk of the loss, and the net reduction in reserves was limited to $18 mil-

The

lion.

Banco Central stood June 30, compared with $566.2 same date in 1971. On May 31 .Argenpublic foreign debt falling due in 1972 amounted gross reserves of the

at $338.7 million at

million at the in

September several

tina's

constitutional changes, including the election of the

to $316.7 million, thereby denoting the difficulty au-

president and vice-president

thorities

frage, instead of

by

by an electoral

direct popular suf-

college; the reduction

tina's

would encounter

record of meeting

in trying to preser\-e .Argenall

obligations at their due

of the presidential term from six to four years, with

date. In this respect

the introduction of the possibility of reelection for

for

second term; and the extension of regular congressional sessions from five to eight months each year. The Senate was to comprise three senators from each province: two representing the majority party and one the minority. Terms of both senators and deputies were to be for four years, and both could be reelected

pan.

indefinitely.

to a virtual suspension of imports.

a

Architecture;

preoccupation with the po-

satisfactorily. .Agricultural production,

On Noand im-

17 Peron arrived in his native land

Official

program to a certain extent made it impossible for the government to face up to the country's most recalcitrant economic problems. For political reasons the government avoided imposing an austerity program, which many commentators believed was the only policy that would put an end to spiraling inflation and monetary instability. From January to September 1972 the cost-of-living index rose by 49.2%, compared with 30.4% in the corresponding 1971 period. The minister of finance, Cayetano Licciardo, resigned on October 8 and was replaced by Jorge Wehbe. Some improvements were, however, registered in the growth rate of the economy and in the external sector. In January-June 1972 the gross domestic product rose at an annual rate of 4.4% in real terms, compared with 3.6% in the first half of 1971. The improved rate of expansion largely reflected a 9.1% increase in manufacturing output. The output of steel products, tractors, and other industrial goods rose

return to Argentina after 17 years in exile.

left

iff

The Economy. litical

vember

mediately began a series of consultations with the government and his supporters. If his aim was to persuade Lanusse and the military to allow him to run for president, Peron failed, and on December 14 he

Art:

Roads

in use passenger 1,304,300; commercial (including buses) 714.800. Railways: (1969) 39,710 km.; traffic (1971) 12.188,000.000 passenger-km„ freight 12,925.000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 2,394,925,000 passenger-km.; freight 55,998,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 335; gross tonnage 1.311.874, Telephones (Dec. 1970) 1,748,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 9 million. Television receivers (Doc. 1970) 3.5 million. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; wheat 5,200 1971; 1970 in parentheses):

(1969):

(4,250); corn 9,930 (9,360); sorghum 4,782 (4,068); barley 553 (367); oats 475 (360): potatoes 1,9S.S (2.336): sugar, raw value (197172) 996, (1970-71) 979; linseed 316 (680); sunflower seed (1970) 1,140, (1969) 876; cotton, lint 84 (145); oranges 1,255 (1,092); apples 424 (445); wine 2,178 (1,836); tobacco 59 (66); beef and veal 2,017 (2,670); cheese 197 (167); wool, greasy c. 170 (172); quebracho extract (1969) 118, (1968) 123. Livestock (in 000; June 1971): cattle 49.786; sheep c. 43,800; pigs c. 4,300; horses (1970) c. 3,620; poultry c. 55.000. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1971): coal 631; crude oil 21.300: natural gas (cu.m.) 6,448,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 18,734,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): cement 5,552; crude steel 1,914; cotton yarn 92; passenger cars (including assembly; units) 196; commercial vehicles (including assembly; units) 48.

Fourteen

political parties applied for judicial recog-

from banks

some

credit assistance

in the U.S.,

was hoped

Europe, Canada, and Ja-

In September, in a somewhat belated and drastic attempt to improve the country's trade performance, the government announced yet another economic program and severe controls on the opening of letters of

was tantamount The government commission to formua new import policy that would clearly define

credit for exports to .Argentina. This

also

announced the creation of

Art Exhibitions; Art Sales; Dance; Literature;

nition to present candidates in the elections.

late

Museums and

of

what constituted permitted imports. (WILLIAM BELTRA.V)

Galleries; Theatre

Eleven them were recognized, including the Justicialista Party and the Union Popular, also a Peronista group.

a

scripts covering a period of 2,000 years

demonstrated and

the importance traditionally attached to beauty vitality of line in

Art Exhibitions The ever growing

public interest in unusual art ex-

was evident in London in 1972 when seemingly endless lines formed outside the British Museum to see the "Treasures of Tutankhamun." Originally scheduled to run from April until September, the exhibition was extended until December because of the great interest shown. The 50 items on display were lent by the Egyptian government to mark the SOth anniversary of the discovery of the tomb of the boy king Tutankhamen by the Englishmen Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon. The priceless collection of ancient Egyptian objects included jewelry, furniture, weapons, and the famous gold and lapis lazuli death mask. The exhibits were individually illuminated in a series of dark rooms designed to recreate something of the atmosphere of the original tomb. Profits from the exhibition were donated to the UNESCO fund for the preservation of the Philae temples on the Nile. Strong interest in non-Western and ancient art was also evident in the U.S., where many excellent shows were devoted to exotic subjects. The Museum of Fine hibitions

Arts, Boston, held an exhibition "Ancient Art of the Americas" in the spring. The exhibits were drawn from museums and private collections in New England and included some fine pieces of Olmec art from tropical Mexico. Many items had never before been exhibited or published. Primitive art from New Guinea was shown at the Art Institute of Chicago in an exhibition that included over 200 masks, drums, ornaments, and shields from the Sepik River area. An exhibition of Chinese caUigraphy organized by the Philadelphia Museum of Art was shown at Kansas City, Mo., in the winter and at the Metropolitan Mu-

seum

of Art in

New York

in the spring.

Examples of

91

Art Exhibitions

Chinese writing. Equally exotic, but

closer to home, was the inaugural exhibition "Two Hundred Years of American Indian Art" staged at the Whitney Gallery of Western Art in Cody, Wyo. The show included some 300 objects made by Indians north of the Mexican border between 1700 and 1900. Paintings by American artists were shown in a number of important exhibitions in 1972. The Amon Carter Museum, Fort Worth, Tex., organized a show devoted to the 19th-century American landscape

painter Albert Bierstadt,

known

for his large

and dra-

matic scenes of the American v/ilderness. The exhibition was later seen at the Whaling Museum of New Bedford, Mass., the Corcoran Gallery, Washington, D.C., the Whitney Museum of American Art, New

York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. Eastman Johnson, the 19th-century American painter known for his charming country genre scenes, was the subject of a retrospective exhibition held at the Whitney Museum. The 83 paintings and 24 drawings were later seen in Detroit, Cincinnati, and Milwaukee. Another retrospective was devoted to the work of the American painter of the 1920s Charles Demuth (1883-1935). Organized by the Art Galleries of the University of California at Santa Barbara, the exhibition later traveled throughout the country.

"Worlds of Wonder" was the title of an unusual and entertaining exhibition at the Walters Art Gallery,

Baltimore,

17th-century

Md. The

exhibition recreated the

W underkammer

or chamber of curiosiand included nearly 340 objects of scientific, from a stuffed crocodile to pre-Columbian ceramics. Most of the material was drawn from the museum's own resources. "The Forest" (left), by Greek artist Pavlos, "Caravaggio and His Followers" was a scholarly was an exhibition ,

ties,

naturalistic, or artistic interest, ranging

exhibition held in the winter at the Cleveland (0.) Museum of Art and devoted to this important late

16th-century Italian painter especially known for his dramatic use of light. The show stressed his influence

in Hanover, W.Ger. The forest of fibre glass and paper was complete

with the recorded singing Jean Arp's

of birds.

and works by his followers included stainless steel sculpture "Threshold Configuration" some fine canvases by Dutch artists working in (below) was donated Utrecht. While there had been many exhibitions de- to New York's Metropolitan voted to the great Dutch painters of the 17th century, Museum of Art by Arthur and Madeleine Lejwa. "Dutch Masterpieces from the 18th Century: Paint- Executed from a model ing and Drawing 1700-1800" was the first major show after the artist's death, devoted to ISth-century Dutch art for 25 years. Or- it was the first monumental outdoor work ganized and first shown in Minneapolis, Minn., it later in the museum's on other

artists

20th-century collection.

seum, New York, organized a centennial exhibition devoted to the Dutch modern painter Piet Mondrian (1872-1944), The exhibition later traveled to Bern, Switz. Also at the Guggenheim in the spring was a show of drawings by the French sculptor Auguste

92

Art Exhibitions

Rodin, The exhibition, previously seen at the National Gallery, included 132 genuine drawings and 27 forgeries, allowing visitors to compare the real with the fake.

In London the Victoria and Albert Museum's exhibition "Victorian

show

Church Art" was the

first

large-scale

of 19th-century English ecclesiastical art.

exhibition

concentrated on church

fittings

The

such as

Drawings were also shown. Artists represented included all the major names in 19th-century design: A, W, Pugin, William Butterfield, G, E, Street, G. F. Bodley, J. D. Sedding, and many others. More Victorian decorative objects were on view at the Royal Academy of Arts in the spring where "Victorian and Edwardian Decorative .\rt: the HandleyRead Collection" was displayed. The collection was remarkable for the great richness and variety of the furniture, ceramics, paintings, and sculpture included. Objects were placed in settings as close to the original chalices, altar frontals.

The "British Sculptors 72" exhibition at the Royal of Arts in London surveyed a single aspect

Academy

contemporary art. The show presented the work of 24 living of

British sculptors.

to Toledo, 0., and Philadelphia. The first of kind outside the Netherlands, the exhibition conand drawings.

moved its

sisted of 105 paintings

English drawings and watercolours from the Paul Mellon collection were exhibited from April to July Morgan Library, New York. The 150 items, many of which had never before been exhibited or reproduced, included works by George Stubbs, Richard Wilson, John Constable, and J. M. W. Turner, Drawings were also the medium for an exhibition of stage designs from the collection of the at the Pierpont

Museo

Teatrale alia Scala, Milan, Italy.

entitled

"La Scala: 400 Years

The show, was

of Stage Design,"

of watercolours and drawings as well as some costume designs and small model stage sets. Artists

made up

represented included the great Italian stage set designers F. G. Bibiena. F. Juvarra,

designs were

shown

first

and G.

Galliari.

The

at the National Gallery of

Art, Washington, D.C., late in 1971,

and

in

1972 they

traveled to the Detroit Institute of Arts and the UniMuseum at Austin, Tex. Etchings by the

versity Art

Italian 18th-century painters G. B.

shown very

and G. D. Tiepolo more than 90

at the National Gallery included

fine

Early held the

and rare examples of in the first

spring the

U.S.

their graphic art.

New York

museum

and

lecterns.

as possible.

The show "Homage

to Senefelder" at the Victoria

Museum

traced the development of lithography, a technique invented by the playwright .\loys Senefelder (1771-1834), Work's from the earliest days

and Albert

shown along with works in the artists. The exhibition was drawn from the fine collection of Felix H, Man. The Royal Academy of Arts Winter Exhibition, "British Sculptors '72,'' represented a departure from the tradition of past years. The exhibition showed the work of 24 modern British sculptors and included works by Philip King, Robert Clatworthy, and Bryan Kneale. The common factor uniting the work of the artists included seemed to be an interest in geometric and symbolic form. Working drawings and maquettes for some of the pieces were exhibited concurrently at the Redfern Gallery, A most enjoyable exhibition at the Tate Gallery was devoted to paintings, drawings, and prints by the English 18th-century artist William Hogarth, The setting was designed to suggest the rooms in which the works would originally have been seen. There were items

of lithography were

medium by contemporary

all the phases of Hogarth's varied career. In the autumn the Tate held an e.xhibition of works

representing

Cultural Center

retrospective for 30 years

of the great

German Romantic artist Caspar David little known in England, The

devoted to the work of the Surrealist painter Giorgio de Chirico. The 150 paintings, drawings, prints, and sculptures covered 60 years of artistic activity. Many of them had never before been shown in the U.S. and most were lent by the artist from his private collec-

Friedrich, previously

tion.

important collection of Friedrich paintings in the

An

exhibition devoted to the sculpture of Henri

Matisse organized by the Museum of New York, was the first show ever to include all 69 known bronzes by the artist. The pieces, dating from 1894 to 1950, were mostly lent by private collectors. The exhibition also included 19 drawings, 4 prints, and

Modern

first

ever held

in

the

the largest anywhere. Paintings were lent galleries

and private

collections, including the

world.

In

Art,

tile relating to the sculpture. Emphasis was on the growing tendency toward abstraction in the artist's later work. Many of the female figures in the sculptures also appear in paintings by Matisse, The bronzes later traveled to the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minn,, and the University Art Museum at Berkeley, Calif, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Mu-

a ceramic

U,K, and by many Dresden Picture Gallery, East Germany, which had the most

exhibition was the

May

the

new headquarters

of the drawings col-

Royal Institute of British Architects was opened in London by Queen Elizabeth II. The Heinz Gallery, in Portman Square, was to house over lection of the

To mark the opening an exhibition of masterpieces from from all periods, including works by Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Soane, Sir Edwin Lutyens, and Frank Lloyd 200,000 architectural drawings.

RIBA mounted its

collection with 38 drawings

Wright,

At the Hayward Gallery, London, an exhibition was devoted to the work of the Dutch architect and de-

De

movement, Gerrit Rietveld. Museum, Amsterdam, the

sculptor Antoine Bourdelle that included 50 bronzes and 30 paintings and drawings. The exhibition later

exhibition included 75 pieces of furniture and 200 photographs of buildings as well as drawings and

moved to the Pushkin Museum in Moscow. In Copenhagen the Nationalmuseet showed an exhibition of sculpture by Canadian Eskimos. It included figures of humans and animals dating from about 800 B.C. that were remarkable for their monumentality of conception. The exhibition was also seen in Paris, Leningrad, London, and Philadelphia, and was expected to return to Ottawa early in 1973. In Genoa, Italy, "An Image for the City" at the Accademia di Belli Arti and Palazzo Reale focused on pictures illustrating modern industrial city life, and included works by F. Leger, F. Picabia, and Andy Warhol. (SANDRA MILLIKIN)

signer of the

Stijl

First seen at the Stedelijk

models. Especially interesting was the reconstruction of an entire Rietveld room.

Also in London the Council of Europe held its 1972 "The Age of Neo-classicism,"

exhibition devoted to

with sections on painting, sculpture, architecture, and the decorative arts. The exhibition, with its S50-page catalog, was said to have been one of the largest ever held.

English paintings were on view at the Petit Palais when the British Council staged

in Paris in the spring

an exhibition devoted

to English

Romantic painting,

kind in Paris since 1938. Over 340 paintings were shown, including 50 items by J. M. W. Turner emphasizing his role as a precursor of French the

first

of

its

Perhaps the most remarkable exhibition in Paris a show at the Orangerie devoted to the littleknown 17th-century French painter Georges de la Tour, The show included most of the 30 or so known paintings and copies and engravings of lost works. The pictures were borrowed from collections all over the world and the exhibition was the first, and probably the last, opportunity to study the artist's entire output in one place. "Architectural Drawings from the Fifteenth to the

Nineteenth Century" at the Pavilion de Flore of the Louvre consisted of 80 drawings, mostly by French architects but including works attributed to the Italian Renaissance architects Bramante and Brunelleschi. Many of the drawings were chosen for their value as decorative works of art as well as for their interest as historic documents. France's many provincial museums were well known for their outstanding exhibitions. Among the most interesting of the year was an exhibition at the Galerie des Beaux-Arts, Bordeaux, of 84 canvases from the Budapest Museum. These included paintings by Raphael, Titian, Goya, El Greco, and Reynolds. In West Germany the municipal museum of Munich mounted an exhibition entitled "Bavaria Art and Culture" for visitors to the 1972 Olympics. The centrepiece was the reconstruction in the courtyard of the museum of a Roman villa discovered near Ingolstadt

—

three years earlier.

featuring

work by

illustrators of

the period. Also in Cologne the Kunstverein held a

summer show devoted to ancient Chinese bronzes and ceramics, including many rare pieces from the ShangYin dynasty (c. ISOO-c. 1027 B.C.). The Stadtische Kunsthalle, Bielefeld, showed works by the French Wiesbaden Museum showed important wood engravings by artists of the Expressionist Die Briicke movement. "Flamboyant Gothic in Austria" was the theme of a summer exhibition at the Carolino Augusteum Museum, Salzburg, Aus. Emphasis was on painting, but some stained glass and illuminated manuscripts were included. In Geneva the Petit Palais was the site of an exhibition "Armand Guillaumin, Gustave Loiseaux et leur temps." Subtitled "Autour de I'lmpressionisme," the show was devoted to French art of the period sculptor Henri Laurens and the

1880-1930.

museum

Museums and

Sculptor (1970); Interpretations

(1970).

Art Sales The two

great

London salesrooms held

their positions

as leaders in the world art market, Sotheby Parke-

Bernet with total sales of £43,296,900 and Christie's with £24,539,365. Christie's figure again included prices bid for items that did not reach their reserve

prices

and were therefore unsold, probably about

10%

of the total.

The prospect of duced when Britain

the value-added tax being intro-

joined the EEC was a source of great anxiety to the art and antique trade, since at first there seemed no way of avoiding the 10% tax, and it was feared that London would lose its attraction as a tax-free auction centre. However, in July the government decided to use a loophole available in the rules for secondhand goods and to levy the tax only on the dealer's profit or auctioneer's commission, and even

then not on sales to foreign clients. This announce-

ment brought little joy to artists in the U.K., however, since their work when first sold would not be covered This lively T'ang dynasty glazed pottery figure of a polo player was sold in 1972 at Sotheby's in

Another major exhibition in West Germany was "Femininity Around 1900" at the Wallraf-Richartz

Russian

Georgia:

Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films. Meaning in Modern Painting (1967); The Artist at Work Jacques Lipchitz Master Sculptor (1968); Henry Moore— The Sculptor (1969); Siqueiros—"El Maestro" (1969); Richard Bunt-

—

Impressionism.

was

Museum, Cologne,

See also Biography: O'KeeSe, Galleries; Photography.

Art Sales

visitors

were treated

to

an exhi-

bition at the Hermitage, Leningrad, of the French

London for £28,000. was sold

A

similar piece

in

1964

for £3,500.

few years before. For instance, a George II Royal Race prize teapot, sold in 1967 for £40,000, went for £38,000 in 1972. However, an early 18th-century American silver punch bowl, made in Boston by John Coney and discovered in a farmhouse on the Scottish border, was sold by Phillips of London for £15,500. Works of modern art sold by Parke-Bernet's in New York included an elm wood "Reclining Figure" by

Henry Moore for $260,000, a painting, "Shade." by Jasper Johns for $60,000, and "Mauve Intersection No. 12 1948" by Mark Rothko for $42,000. Interest in Americana was clearly increasing; "Death of a Gambler," painted by Charles M. Russell in 1904, fetched $100,000. In Switzerland, Galerie Fischer of Lucerne sold a 14th-century French ivory diptych for SFr. 68,000, a "Madonna and Children," by Vittore Car-

painting,

paccio for SFr. 140,000. and a drawing by Amedeo Modigliani for SFr. 22,000. In Geneva modem pic-

by Galerie Motte included "Innondation," by Claude Monet, for SFr. 625,000, "Fenetre Ouverte" by Pierre Bonnard for SFr. 322.000, and "Paysage (vers 1884)" by Camille tures sold

signed and dated 1881

Pissarro for SFr. 240,000.

West German art "Death of Mary" by

The

sale of this early

Gainsborough at Sotheby's in London for £280,000 set a new world auction record for an English painting. Previously,

the highest price paid

Gainsborough was £130,000. for a

by the

rule.

Any

artist

whose gross

iS.OOO a year would be liable to the Impressionist and modern

sales

reached

tax.

brought the largest total sum. In New York, Parke-Bernet's sold Henri Rousseau's "Paysage Exotique" for $775,000. Some works by old masters also sold for remarkably high figures. A portrait of the due de Beuvron by Jean-Honore Fragonard went for £340,000 at Sotheby's, and "The Ponte delle Navi, Verona" by Bernardo Bellotto for £315,000 at Christie's. pictures

Especially interesting to U.S. collectors whose predecessors had bought ISth-century English portraits so lavishly in the 1920s and '30s was the renewed attention paid to the work of Gainsborough, Romney, and Reynolds. A portrait of the Gravenor family by Gainsborough was sold at Sotheby's for £280.000. At Christie's a particularly fine group of the Gower family by George Romney went for £147,000 and a portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds of the actress Mrs. Abington for £105,000. The highest previ-

ous auction price for a Reynolds had been £25,000 in 1965. although H. E. Huntington was believed to have paid Joseph

Duveen about £70,000

for one in the

Discerning bidders vied for rarities in most fields of art, and prices for the best examples continued to rise

A drawing by Annibale Carracci of "A Boy Act of Drinking" sold for £40,000 at Sotheby's and "The Harvest Moon," a tiny oil by Samuel Palmer, for £46,200 at Christie's. An intricately steadily. in the

painted and framed

was

Meister. sold in Cologne by Kunsthaus Lempertz for DM. 180,000, and "Strand bei Scheveningen" by Jan van Goyen, sold for DM. 270.000. An exquisite Meissen porcelain service of 1723 went for DM. 46.000, and a German silvergilt lidded tankard of 1570 for

DM.

From

13,000. the point of view of the small collector, pos-

were increased by the expertise and enterprise of auctioneers. Sales of early photographs were held at Sotheby's, Belgravia, which specialized in the 19th century. The highest price was £4.800 for an album of 32 photographs by Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson, but the lowest was £1. Old and modern etchings were not always highly priced, and small pieces of late 18th- and 19th-century silver were easily obtainable in London for under £10. Even at Sotheby's and Christie's more than two-thirds of the items were sold for under £100. and for other salesrooms the figure would be much smaller. (wilma laws) Book Sales. Although the U.S. university libraries saw their budgets cut drastically, high-quality items maintained a satisfactory level and there was a buoyant rise in medium and small collectors' pieces. Sotheby's once again had the largest number of sales, nearly 60. For the 1971-72 season, sales of books and manuscripts by Sotheby Parke-Bernet totaled £3,000,sibilities

500.

At Sotheby's

1920s.

14th-century Italian altarpiece

sold at Christie's for £257,250.

A

splendid 14th-

century Chinese ceramic wine jar went for £220,500 to a dealer from Japan after an expert from Christie's

had noticed it serving as an umbrella stand in a house where he had been called to advise on the sale of some continental china. More Japanese buyers than ever before were taking back Oriental art from London. The market in silver revived somewhat, although some important pieces sold for less than they had a

sales included a painting of the

the 15th-century Oberrheinischer

in

June 1972, the Chetham's Library

of Manchester sold for £62.000 the elephant folio copy

The Birds of America,

to which it had been one of the original subscribers over a century and a half before. A manuscript of John Keats's poem "To Hope" brought £5,800. Bought in below the reserve price of £25,000 in 1971, in one of the endless Philipps sales. Sir Walter Raleigh's autograph notebook (sold in 1935 as an anonymous commonplace book for £3'! was presented by Philip and Lionel Robinson to the British Museum to commemorate the centenary of the death of Sir Thomas Philipps. A further sale of the Boies Penrose library at Sotheby's included such early geographical manu15th-century portolan by Grazioso scripts as a Benincasa (£5.000) and a late 16th-century map of Guiana (£4,000). Among musical autographs, Erik

of Audubon's

— Satie's piano score for Parade brought £1,400 and a Debussy Fete galante fetched £1,600. The Dickens

collection

Comte Alain de Suzannet,

of

Museum

Sotheby's, gave the British

of acquiring, for £12,000, the

surviving

portion

sold

at

the opportunity

22 pages

private

in

still

first

—

the last

—

ownership

of

a

chapter of Nicholas Nickleby. Three sets of The Pick-

wick Papers in parts brought £1,700, £1,700, and £1,100, and Dickens' own annotated copy of Mrs.

Gamp

At Sotheby's in November a first edition of the first complete English Bible, translated by Miles Coverdale, printed in Marburg, and published in 1535, went for £12,000 to New York dealer John Howell. Thirteen copies are recorded in England and ten in the U.S. The cool reception that greeted the charming collection of calligraphica formed in recent years by Mrs.

New York

showed how resentful the

trade could be to the quick disposal of a collection

even when purpose.

it

made without any

has been

The 85 remarkable

scripts brought a

lots of

lucrative

books and manu-

mere £30,000.

The French market came

become Peace Corps James A. McDivitt became Power Co. By the Consumer senior vice-president of 1974 the astronaut corps would consist of 14 men, it was estimated. At its peak, in 1967, it had 63 men in in

Thailand;

Apollo 15 astronauts David R. Scott, James B. M. Worden were officially repri-

Irwin, and Alfred

manded by

NASA

when

was disclosed that stamped moon were being sold in West Germany for $1 ,500 apiece. The same astronauts also left a small statue on the moon. Replicas of the statue, "The Fallen Astronaut" by sculptor Paul Van Hoeydonck, were placed on sale in New York for $750, again bringing the astronauts under criticism. Worden and Scott were later removed from astronaut it

status.

The end of an era came at Kennedy Space Center in 1 when the Saturn I-B Launch Complexes 34 and 37 were sold to the highest bidder. The two sites cost $140 million and were sold for $15,051 to a concern that was to demolish them for Florida on February

scrap. Fifteen space shots in the Saturn-.^pollo pro-

noteworthy collection of the Armenian jeweler R. Esmerian was put on auction in Paris. This rather mixed selection of books was notable for a few gems that had been cleverly picked up during various periods of recession. Among them was the 1499 Rahir Hypnerotomachia in a supremely elegant 16th-century binding adorned with gilt tooling and gold powder. It brought Fr. 638,570. Of the same quality were the Major Abbey set of the 1498 Aldine Aristotles in six volumes (which at Fr. 163.590 even against the £7,600 in Major Abbey's sale of 1965 still seemed rather cheap") and the Cortlandt Bishop Herodotus of 1556, which brought Fr. 149.070, Modern illustrated books fetched high prices. A sale

gram were launched from the two complexes. The European Launcher Development Organization

—

March displayed expensive copies of the finest books illustrated by Chagall, Matisse, and others. Copies of Gogol's Les dmes mortes, 2 vol., in Paris in

1948, illustrated by Chagall, varied from Fr. 39,890 brought from Fr. 37,690 to Fr. 57,490 according to condition and addito Fr. 49,790. Matisse's Jazz, 1947,

tional material. toires

A

naturelles,

few days

later Jules Renard's His-

illustrated

1899, fetched Fr. 32,740. In

Faust. 1927, illustrated by

Max

by Toulouse-Lautrec, West Berlin Goethe's Slevogt, sold for

DM.

(PIERRE EERES)

3,000.

Astronautics manned space flight for 1972 was the announcement that the U.S. and U.S.S.R.

Clearly the biggest news in

would participate in a joint manned flight in July 1975. But in spite of the joint effort and a new U.S. space shuttle, the U.S. space program in 1972 continued the steady decline that began in the late 1960s.

The fiscal year 1973 authorization for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration fNASA) was $3,431,650,000,

down from

for fiscal 1967.

On

Braun

from

retired

July

1

the high of $4,968,000,000

Wernher von and accepted a position

rocket pioneer

NASA

with Fairchild Industries, Inc.

The number

of U.S. astronauts continued to dwin-

In August astronauts James B. Irwin and Edgar D. Mitchell resigned. Others who left in 1972 included Donald L. Holmquest, Philip K. Chapman, and Anthony W. England. Two former astronauts, still with

dle.

NASA

in other capacities, also left the

Astronautics

training.

to the forefront as the

—

95

F. Eisele began training to

director

envelopes they took to the

(Boston 1868) reached £3,600.

E. F. Hutton of

Donn

space agency.

(ELDO) announced million. It also

continue to

expenditures in 1972 of $79.3

announced

make

that Great Britain

would

available Blue Streak vehicles as

Europa series of boosters despite England's withdrawal from the program. Gen. Robert Aubiniere, director general of the French Centre National d'fitudes Spatiales, was named ELDO's new secretary-general. The European Space Research Organization ESRO) said it would spend $283.6 million on its space projects in the 1972-74 budgetary period. first

stages for the

(

France increased its space budget for the year, the from $132 million in 1971 to $150 million same period, Japan increased its space outlays. Funding rose from $51,332 to $80,000. West

figure rising

in 1972. In the

Astronaut John W. Young at the Descartes

'f'°'^}

landing site during the second extravehicular activity of Apollo 16.

Germany, however, reduced both

ELDO

India

its

financial support to

Vikram A. Sarabhai, chairman of

its

Space Research Organization, who died on Dec. 30, 1971. He was replaced by M. G. K. Menon, former director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Bombay. On May 10 Menon signed an agree-

ment with

the

Academy

of Sciences of the Soviet

Union for the development of cooperation in space between the two countries. Manned Space Exploration. With U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon's announcement in May 1972 of the joint U.S.-Soviet space effort,

NASA

revealed details

mechanisms being two countries. A and engineers met with

of the mission and of the docking

by team of 25 Soviet scientists

jointly designed

U.S.

their

Center

in

engineers of the

counterparts at the

Manned

Houston, Tex., on July 6

Spacecraft

to discuss technical

details.

What

was a

resulted

inally envisioned.

far cry

The U.S.S.R.

that a U.S. Apollo

from the mission origat first had suggested

command module dock

with their

Salyut space station or, even better, that a Soyuz dock

with one of the U.S. Skylab space stations. the Soviets began to doubt the to

When

explained that Skylab was a one-shot

officials

manned space

flight.

tingly discovered an apparent malfunction in the sys-

tem

and ESRO.

lost

U.S.

affair,

American commitment

Later, for technical reasons,

was adopted. As proposed in 1972, the Soviet Union would launch a Soyuz vehicle into an orbit about 140 mi. above the earth. About 7V hours later, an Apollo would be launched by a Saturn I-B booster from the Kennedy Space Center. After perhaps 14 orbits it would rendezvous and dock with the Soyuz. The Apollo would have a crew of three; the Soyuz only two men.

The ignition of the engine was postponed while earthbound engineers worked on the problem. For four hours the two craft orbited the moon waiting for instructions from Mission Control at Houston. Finally, the problem was resolved and Young and Duke were cleared for the lunar landing. They landed in the Cayley Plains of the Descartes region on .-Kpril 20. During their first excursion from the lunar module on .\pril 21, Young and Duke set up the .\pollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package f.ALSEP) and collected 42 lb. of rocks and soil samples. In doing so, the two logged 2.6 mi. on their lunar roving vehicle (LR'V). The moon surface trip lasted 7 hours and 1 minutes. For the first time, a far-ultraviolet camera/spectrograph was set up to photograph the earth and various galaxies to learn more about the distribution of interplanetary and intergalactic hydrogen. 1

in

atmospheric pressures

ALSEP, Young

In deploying the

inadvertently tan-

gled his foot in the cable of the heat-flow experiment

and tore it loose, rendering the instrument useless. Other features of this excursion included the firing of a thumper device 19 times to provide seismic waves for an array of geophones. This experiment indicated that the regolith, or rocky layer, of the lunar surface at that point

On

the .\pollo-Soyuz mission

Because of the difference

that points the engine in the proper direction for

firing.

was about 55.7

to 88.6

deep.

ft.

returning to the lunar module, the two astro-

LRV

through an engineering test called "the Grand Prix." While Duke photographed him. Young buckled his seat belt and raced the LRV across the moon's surface, making sharp turns, acput their

nauts

celerating,

and slamming on the brakes. He reached a 7.2 mph, but later in the mission achieved

top speed of 10.2

mph, only

0.2

mph

less

than the vehicle's top

speed.

On

within the two craft, a docking airlock module was to

the second excursion, April 22,

which lasted

Young and Duke

7

be developed. It would permit the Soviet and U.S. crews to visit each other's spacecraft without suffering "the bends." Once docked, the two craft would

additional 71

stay joined for 48 hours, .^fter separation the .'\pollo

slope of Stone Mountain, about 2.5 mi. to the south,

would remain

taking photographs and core samples of the

an additional ten days, performing earth resources experiments. The Soyuz would return to earth within a day or so. .Apollo 16 lifted off on April 16 from the Kennedy Space Center. It headed toward the moon on a voyage that was filled with major and minor problems. However, none of them proved ultimately serious enough in orbit for

to jeopardize either the astronauts or the mission.

The

John W. Young, commander; lunar module pilot and Thomas K. Mattingly, command module pilot.

crew

consisted

On

of

M. Duke,

Charles

way

the

Jr.,

to the

moon

;

a transient electrical signal

command module's guidance and

in the

navigation

hours and 23 minutes,

The

to

be groundless because of the favourable angle of

the sun.

More serious was a problem that arose after the command and lunar modules had separated while in around the moon. In making a check prior to engine of the service module to circularize the orbit of the craft at an altitude of 72 mi., Mat-

orbit

firing the

LRV. They

final excursion,

on

collected an

soil

and put an

explored the soil.

.April 23. lasted

lb.

of rocks, bringing their total to a

lb. The final journey was spent in explorNorth Ray Crater, about three miles north of the lunar module. In addition to the usual rock and soil samples, the two astronauts took several readings of

record 213 ing

the local magnetic field strength in the area, using a

portable

magnetometer. Readings as high as 313 found on the slope of Smoky Mountain,

gamma were

higher by a factor of 100 than either U.S. or Soviet

module.

interior

and

additional 100

a

was feared that the sun might heat up the of the lunar module. The fears turned out

third

and

5 hours and 40 minutes. During it. the astronauts added another 7.1 mi. to the LRV and gathered an

the panels covering the craft's reaction control sysit

of lunar rocks

additional 7.1 mi. on their

system occurred after Mattingly had taken a "fix" using the optical navigation subsystem. At first there was some concern in Mission Control over the signal, but later analysis proved that the problem was not serious. As the astronauts were docking with the lunar module, they noticed that paint was flaking off one of

tem and

lb.

had predicted. Later on April 23 the lunar module lifted off the moon. While astronauts Young and Duke were exploring scientists

the Cayley Plains, Mattingly in the orbiting

command

module photographed the lunar surface and operated battery of

scientific

He made many

instruments

in

the

service

visual observations for geologists in

Houston, including one that raised the possibility of the presence of an active volcano on the moon. In a wall of the Crater Guyot on the far side of the moon he noticed a hole and something that resembled a pool of material that had oozed from it. Mattingly compared it to similar sightings he had made flying over the Hawaiian Islands, the site of numerous volcanoes, active and dead.

When

the two astronauts transferred back into the

command module,

the crew separated the ascent stage, impact the moon for seismometers left

which was

to

by

Apollo missions. Something went amiss,

earlier

however, and the stage went into lunar orbit, where it could remain for years. While they were still in lunar orbit, the .\pollo 16 crew released a subsatellite from the service module on April 24. It went into a circular orbit at 61.1 mi. Its instruments were designed to measure the moon's gravitational field and to provide data on the mysterious mascons, believed to be concentrations of dense material lying beneath the lunar

surface.

However, the

subsatellite

made

only 425 orbits before crashing onto the far side of

moon on May 29. On April 25, during the return home, Mattingly left the command module and pulled himself through space hand over hand to the service module. From it the

he retrieved the film magazines from the cameras that had helped map the moon. On April 27 the Apollo 16 command module splashed down about a mile from its

recovery ship, the

USS

"Ticonderoga."

The mission had two unscheduled

Duke was in

events.

When

describing the effects of cosmic rays pene-

trating his head, a voice

began speaking and singing

Spanish for several minutes, then ceased abruptly. a telephone lineman in Spain

The voice was that of who had inadvertently

tied into the .\pollo

cations network in Madrid.

The second

communi-

volved Young. Thinking his microphone was off, he complained openly and in colourful language of recurring flatulence he attributed to an orange-flavoured drink spiked with potassium salt to prevent the heart

arrhythmia experienced by the Apollo 15 astronauts. As a result of the Apollo 16 mission, lunar geologists began modifying their theories about Cayley Plains. The abundance of impact breccia or rocks of angular fragments cemented together and a lack of basaltic rocks suggested that the Cayley region was not formed by volcanic flows as had previously been thought. Core samples from the region also seemed to indicate that they contained iron, an element not found in any other lunar samples. Apollo 17, the final mission in the Apollo series and perhaps man's last opportunity to walk on the moon in the 20th century, was launched from Cape Kennedy on December 7. Thousands lined the beaches and roadsides of Florida to watch the first nighttime launch, a spectacle that was delayed almost three hours because the oxygen tank in the third stage of the Saturn V did not receive an automatic command for pressurization. After lift-off, however, Apollo 17, with Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and Harrison Schmitt aboard, enjoyed a trouble-free flight.

This remarkable composite

incident in-

On December 11 Cernan and moon in a narrow

companied by Joseph

Kerwin, science pilot, and Paul J. Weitz, pilot. Commander of the second mission was to be Alan L. Bean, with his fellow crewmen to be Owen K. Garriott, science pilot, and Jack R. Lousma. pilot. The final mission was to be headed by Gerald P. Carr, and he would be accompanied by Edward G. Gibson, science pilot, and William R. Pogue, pilot. P.

On July 26 three astronauts at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center began a simulated Skylab mission The three were sealed in a dupliworkshop inside an environmental chamber that produced a vacuum similar to that of space. The checkout of Skylab was completed without of 56 days' duration. cate of the Skylab

incident.

For the Soviet Union's space program, 1971 ended on an unhappy note, a sadness and disappointment that could be shared by space enthusiasts everywhere. The three cosmonauts who had successfully docked their Soyuz-11 with the Salyut space station and had lived on the space station had perished from an oxygen failure on reentry June 30. 1971. After that, the orbit of the space station had been adjusted several times in hopes that other cosmonauts would be able to reach it and retrieve experiments left on board. Unfortu-

and

new

Schmitt, a geologist, landed on the

nately, redesign

valley near the southeast rim of the Sea of Serenity,

hatch of the Soyuz spacecraft descent module took

while Evans remained in lunar orbit. During their ex-

longer than anticipated. It then

and in a lunar rover, Cernan and Schmitt found orange and red soil, a discovery that scientists believed might indicate volcanic activity on the moon. On December 14, after spending a record amount of time on the lunar surface, Cernan and Schmitt with 249 lb. of rocks and soil rejoined Evans. They orbited the moon, surveying its surface with instruments, and then returned to a successful splashdown in the Pacific on December 19. On January IS N.'XS.^ also announced the names of the nine astronauts assigned to the Skylab flights, scheduled for April 1Q73. The first mission was to be headed by Charles "Pete" Conrad. He would be ac-

the Coordinating

plorations, both on foot

to

command

testing of a

seal

for the

became necessary

and Computing Centre

in

for

Moscow

the firing of the retrorocket of the Salyut it to plunge and burn upon enatmosphere on October 11.

space station, causing tering the earth's

Unmanned

Satellites. Late in

Union again demonstrated satellites

with

other

its

1971

the Soviet

capability of destroying

satellites.

On November

29,

Cosmos 459 was launched from Plesetsk by an SS-5 missile. On December 3 Cosmos 462 was launched from Tyuratam by an SS-9 Scarp missile. As it approached the other satellite. Cosmos 462 exploded into 13 pieces, also destroying Cosmos 459. The event prompted the U.S. Air Force to announce

Skean

photograph of the Seattle-Tacoma,

Wash., area was taken July 28, 1972, by Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1

from an altitude of nearly

Easily is

in

570

mi.

recognizable

Puget Sound (black area upper centre)

triangulated

by snow-covered Mount Rainier (lower right), the Cascade fylountains

(upper right), and the mountain ranges of Olympic National Park (upper left).

a contract to study the problems of developing a sim-

Space Flight Center on July 25. They were of the

ilar satellite-destroying capability for the

San Francisco Bay

Also, as 1971 ended,

ESRO agreed to

U.S. cooperate with

the U.S. in the development of an aeronautical satellite

on a 50-50 funding

member

Associated with the

basis.

ESRO

were Australia, Japan, and Canada. The scheme called for satellites to be placed over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to aid in the communications and navigation of transoceanic aircraft. Explorer 45, Small Scientific Satellite 1, was launched into an equatorial orbit on November IS from the San Marcos platform off the coast of Kenya. The NASA satellite carried the first onboard computer that could be reprogrammed from the ground. Made of riveted rather than machined aluminum sections, the satellite was much cheaper than its predecessors. Explorer 45 was instrumented to study the earth's magnetosphere and the interaction of the solar wind with

nations of

from the Western Test Range on January 20. was placed into NASA launched Intelsat 4 (F 4) from Kennedy Space Center on January 23. The Atlas Centaur placed the satellite into a synchronous orbit over the Pacific Ocean. Its first task was to transmit pictures of the visit of President Nixon to China in May. The final Intelsat 4 was boosted into orbit over the Indian Ocean on June 13. The largest satellite yet produced by ESRO was launched on March 12 from the U.S. Western Test Range. Weighing 1,040 lb., TD-IA carried seven scientific experiments provided by various European universities. They were designed to measure the forms of energy radiating from stars and galaxies. satellite

25,000-lb. photographic satellite

a near-polar orbit by a Titan IIIC.

March

16 marked the tenth anniversary of the Soviet Union's Cosmos series of satellites. Cosmos 478, launched the day before the anniversary, celebrated the occasion. Approximately

70%

of the satellites in

the series have been military in nature. the U.S.S.R. successfully launched satellite

On March

Meteor

11

30,

weather

into a near-circular orbit at an altitude of

nearly 560 mi., considerably higher than previous

Another Big Bird multipurpose reconnaissance satwas launched by the U.S. Air Force on July 7 from Vandenberg Air Force Base. It had the capability close-look of and search-and-find missions. The U.S.S.R., in turn, launched eight military satellites with the same booster on July 20. Labeled Cosmos 504-511, they were either communications or navigaellite

tion satellites for the Soviet

world's

first

bited on July 23

Range by

forces.

was

or-

NASA

launched ERTS-1. The was boosted from the Western Test

new model

a

armed

earth resources satellite

when

1,965-lb. satellite

of the Delta.

Data from the

sensors of ERTS-1 were to be sent to 300 scientists in 37 countries. These scientists were seeking information in seven different areas meteorology, marine resources, water resources, agriculture and forestry resources, environment, land use, and mineral and land resources. The data would be provided in the form of photographs made in various wavelengths by seven special sensors in the satellite. Each photograph covered an area 115 mi. square (for a total included area :

of 13,000 sq.mi.).

ERTS-1 was

able to transmit 1,316

such pictures per day.

The

satellite

same

could

A

map

the

high-altitude

would require 500,000 such pictures

airplane

to

do the

job.

On August

7

OSO-7

(Orbiting Solar Observatory)

reported a violent solar eruption that may have been the greatest ever recorded. In one hour the energy

was equal to the entire U.S. power consumption for 100 million years at

released from the sun electric

the present rate of consumption.

The

heaviest and most complex scientific satellite

ever launched by the U.S. was orbited from Cape 21. OAO-C (Orbiting AstronomiObservatory) weighed 4,900 lb. Its main optical device was a 32-in. -diameter mirror in a lO-ft.-long cylinder. The primary objectives of the satellite were to study the interstellar absorption of hydrogen, oxy-

Kennedy on August cal

and silicon and to investigate the ultrafrom young, hot stars. The satellite was named "Copernicus" in honour of the famous Polish astronomer of the 16th century. Interplanetary Probes. Mariner 9, which had entered Martian orbit on Nov. 13, 1971, continued to send back a wealth of information about the planet in 1972. Once the dust storm abated in December

first

pictures

violet radiation

1971, extremely high-resolution pictures of the to-

pography of the planet were transmitted by the probe's two cameras. Among the features of interest to geophysical scientists were a rille or chasm in the Tithonius Lacus region that was approximately 2,500 mi. long, 75 mi. wide, and 4 mi. deep (four times deeper than Grand Canyon). It cannot be seen by telescopes on earth because of the angle of the sun. One of the most dramatic pictures was a view of Nix Olympica, a volcanic caldera about 310 mi. in diamPictures of the south pole puzzled geologists because they showed pits and hollows that suggested glaciation or wearing away by ice. eter.

So different were the pictures of Mariner 9 from those of Mariners 6 and 7 that scientists completely

from ERTS-1 arrived

at

Goddard

Masursky of "Our photographs

revised their concept of Mars. Harold the U.S. Geological Survey said,

show something very, very different indeed. By seeing much more of the planet, we can see great volcanic piles

satellites in this series.

The

The

gen, carbon,

it.

The U.S. began its year in space with the successful launching of an Air Force Big Bird reconnaissance The

area.

entire nation with only 500 pictures,

and because of the crispness of the edges and

the lack of craters,

young.

The only

we

thing

think these are geologically

we can keep

as a primitive

satellites. Those do look unevolved bodies, but Mars itself turned out to be even more dynamic than we hoped." Mariner 9 took close-up pictures of Phobos and Deimos, the planet's two satellites, in November 1971. Other instruments in Mariner 9 sent back equally important data. From an analysis of S-band radio waves defracted by the planetary atmosphere, scientists computed the atmospheric pressure on the planet's surface to range between 3 millibars at the heights and 8.3 millibars at the lowest points. The average surface pressure was about 5.5 millibars (compared with 1,013 millibars at the surface of the earth).

body are the two Martian like

Studies in the variation of the acceleration of the its orbit also led scientists to theorize that

probe in

Mars has

a bulge of approximately 0.6 to 1.2 mi. at

two places on the equator, one at 70° E.

The

at

1

10°

W and the other

probe's infrared spectrometer indicated

about one-thousandth the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere above the Martian south pole as there is in the same region of earth. The surface temperatures reported by Mariner 9 that there

is

99

Astronautics

100

Astronautics

:^ Scuba divers

assist

astronauts selected for the Skylab space program during a test in the neutral buoyancy simulator at Marshall

Space Flight Center, Ala. Results from the three

manned Skylab missions should provide information on physiological responses to long-term manned space flight

The moon received an unmanned probe on February Luna 20, launched by the U.S.S.R. from Tyuratam

21.

on February of the Sea of

14, soft-landed in the

Fertility

highland region

and the Sea of Crises about 72

Luna 16. The probe was remotely controlled by engineers in the Soviet Union by means of television. The drilling required 30 minutes and was believed to have reached a depth of 13 in. At a depth of 5.7 in., the drill head struck extremely hard material, and it took almost seven minutes to remove the core from the hole. The return vehicle lifted off the moon on February 23 with 3.5 oz. of lunar soil and landed in mi. north of the landing site of

had an improved

drill

that

Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R., on February 25. On April 14 the U.S.S.R. launched a solar probe into earth orbit. Prognoz 1 was launched from Tyuratam into a highly elliptical orbit with a perigee of 623 mi. and an apogee of 123,793 mi. It weighed 2,860 lb. and was instrumented to measure solar corpuscular, gamma, and X radiation as well as the interaction of solar plasma streams with the earth's magnetosphere. Prognoz 2 was launched on June 29. It had an elliptical orbit and instrumentation similar to Prognoz 1. In addition, it had a special instrument developed by French scientists to measure the solar wind. Space Shuttle and Other Launch Vehicles. In mid-May four U.S. aerospace consortia submitted pro-

Kourou, French Guiana. An immediate consequence was postponement of the flight scheduled for April 1972 so that an exhaustive investigation could be completed. (Mitchell r. shaepe) See also Astronomy; Defense; Industrial Review; Meteorology; Telecommunications; Television and Radio.

Encyclop.^dia Britannica Films. Controversy over the (1971); Man Looks at the Moon (1971); Space ExA Team ESort (1972).

Moon

ploration:

Astronomy Instruments and Techniques. Several

large

new

op-

telescopes were close to completion at the end of

tical

1972. These included the Soviet Union's giant 6-ra. rein

flector

the

U.S.S.R. near

its

Caucasus Mountains, in southern border with Iran, which was to be

the largest optical telescope in the world. Several tele-

scopes of about 3.8-m. aperture were expected to be operating in 1973 or 1974 from sites in North America (Kitt Peak, Arizona), Chile, and Australia, and two large

soon

and

Schmidt telescopes (0.9 m. and 1.2 m.) were begin southern sky surveys from Australia

to

Chile.

Television equipment was in use by 1972 in observatories.

A

many

group from the Princeton and Hale

NASA for the space shuttle orbiter. North American Rockwell, which had built the Apollo command and service modules as well as the second stage

observatories used an integrating television camera

of the Saturn V booster, won the contract in July with a low bid of $2.6 billion. The company would be responsible for the design, development, and produc-

the quasi-stellar object

posals to

tion of the shuttle orbiting vehicle

and for integraThe com-

tion of all elements of the shuttle vehicle.

pany's Rocketdyne division had the shuttle

In April,

main engine

won

the contract for

would be Kennedy Space Center and Vandenberg Air Force Base. The former site would be utilized by NASA for its missions, while the latter one would be used by the U.S. Air Force its

Two

military satellites.

Soviet scientists, writing in Aviatsiya

i

Kos-

monavtiki, stated that the U.S.S.R. was also at work on a space shuttle. Since the Soviet Union launches three times as

many

Vidicon) at the Coude spectrograph of the Hale telescope to observe the spectrum of

PHL

957; this object has a

and the astronomers were able to record its spectrum in a six-hour exposure with a resolution of 0.75 A (1 A = 10"' mm.). The spectrum showed 31 absorption lines between 4270 and 4495 A, with at least four different redshifts and visual magnitude of 16.6,

possibly ten.

in 1971.

NASA officially announced that the launch-

ing sites for the space shuttle

for

(SEC 200-in.

spacecraft annually as does the

U.S., a Soviet space shuttle would certainly be an economical undertaking for that country. Despite their poor showing on Dec. 5, 1971, when an explosion in the second stage of the Diamant B booster cost France its Polaire satellite, the French were making plans for a third-generation Diamant booster. It was to consist of the first and second stages of the Diamant B with a new stage to be inserted between them. The new stage would be an adaptation of the second stage of France's MSBS (underwaterlaunched intermediate-range missile). The new Diamant was expected to be capable of placing a 440-lb. satellite into a circular orbit at an altitude of 186 mi. In India development continued on that country's SLV-3 launch vehicle. The four-stage booster was to be 69 ft. long and weigh 40,000 lb. The first launch was scheduled for 1974, and the rocket was expected to be able to place a 66-lb. satellite into a circular orbit 250 mi. above the earth.

"With the sixth consecutive failure in the Europa launch vehicle program on Nov. 5, 1971, ELDO began openly doubting the future of Europa III. A Europa II vehicle had exploded in flight after a launch

from

The measurement of stellar diameters is a difficult but important task for astrophysics. It has been done by classical double-aperture interferometry (the Michelson interferometer), lunar occultations, and the intensity interferometer of Hanbury Brown and Twiss. Recently, D. Gezari and associates (State University of New York, Stony Brook) devised a new technique, speckle interferometry. This method uses the full aperture of a single large telescope; resolution information

is

high-

extracted from the "speckle"

detail observed in stellar

images at large telescopes. The speckle pattern is an interference effect in the image produced by random phase and amplitude perturbations impressed upon the incident wave front by atmospheric turbulence and telescope aberrations. Mathematical analysis of this pattern allows the measurement of stellar diameters down to about 0.01 arc-seconds at the 200-in. telescope for objects as faint as the 9th magnitude.

Origin of the Elements. The origin of the chemielements in the universe remained a major problem. While the ratio of helium to hydrogen is believed to be approximately the same in most kinds of unevolved stars in the Milky Way galaxy, there is a cal

tremendous range among the stars in the ratio of heavy elements to hydrogen. This ratio is usually characterized by the relative abundance of iron to hydrogen, Fe/H. For some of the oldest stars in the galaxy, Fe/H is approximately 10-^ of the solar value. Most stars of all ages have Fe/H near the solar value, but some appear to have Fe/H several times larger; It

these are the super-metal-rich

(SMR)

stars.

was not yet known whether the galaxy contained

101

Astronomy

H and He when it formed and then produced its own heavy elements very early in its lifetime, or whether it inherited some heav-y elements from the intergalactic medium out of which it came. J. Silk only

fociflc O., E.

S,

Am.ric

Alrico, Allonlic

Moon, ptnumtxal gini 3:17

(

(b

P>

Cro^olar ie

quasi-stellar

O., E»

rice. Alio. Indian O., Auirrotia, Arctic ro-

the

Moon, psnumbrol

(bo*

gini J:05 P.M.'I. »i>S.E.

Europe, Al-

sources

enriched matter into

ejecting

medium. This matter, they believed,

through

gioni

ibio

and R. Siluk (University of California, Berkeley) argued that the intergalactic medium was enriched by

successive

generations

is

recycled

quasi-stellar

of

sources, progressively enriched to an abundance about lO"- of the solar value, and then accreted by the protogalajty.

duced

its

own

The

alternative, that the galaxy pro-

hea\'y elements,

generation of stars were

first

would require that the massive and evolved some

all

rapidly; otherwise, there should be at this time

low-mass stars from this generation, with extremely low abundances Hess than 10~- of the solar value).

The Moon, porliol (begini 6:37 P.M.*l.vi>ibl«W. Alio. Europe, Alrico, N. >, S. Americo. Allonlic

O.

onnular (begins 7:02 A,M.-),vi.ibleN. Swn,

&

S.

Americo, N.W.

Alrico, S.W.

4

Europe,

20 Vcrnol eqwino;

real nature of the

SMR

stars

is

controversial;

are they really overabundant in heavy elements, or is it some feature of their atmospheres that makes the abundances appear high? D. Branch and R. Bell (Hale Observatories and University of Maryland) analyzed high-dispersion spectra of the SMR dwarf

HR

and found Fe/H to be about 2.5 times However, they also found that 14 other elements are overabundant by approximately factor. This suggests that the overabundance the same may be caused by a reduction in the hydrogen and an increase in the helium content of this star's atmosphere, rather than by an increase in the number of heavy element atoms per gram of stellar matter. Pulsating Stars. Classical Cepheids are young, massive, pulsating variable stars. Apart from their star

12

the solar value.

interest as variable stars, they are vitally important as indicators of distance for nearby galaxies; because Cepheids appear to have a tight relation between their periods, colours, and intrinsic luminosities, their distances can be accurately estimated from their observed periods, colours, and apparent luminosities. The theory for the pulsation of these variables has become highly developed, but intrinsic

Earth Parihelion

and Aphelion, 1973

'Eoilern Slondord Tin

are some important inconsistencies between observed properties and the theory. of a normal Cepheid can be estimated in two ways. (1) An evolutionary mass is determined by comparing its estimated intrinsic brightness with

an observationally determined radius, leads to another mass estimate. E. Schmidt (Steward Observatory) studied the beat Cepheid TU Cas. He found that the beat mass and evolutionary mass agreed well, but the pulsation mass was again lower. This means that either the interpretation of the beat phenomenon in terms of the period ratio

incorrect, or that the

and period

model

cal-

ratios are in error.

At

the year's end the problem remained unresolved.

Clusters of Galaxies. It should be possible to estimate the mass for a cluster of galaxies from its radius and the random velocity of galaxies within it. WTien this procedure is followed, the resulting mass is many times greater than the total mass of the cluster's constituent galaxies. For example. H. Rood and associates (Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.) showed that the rich

random velocity

Coma

cluster

is

members

102

for

of the

about 900 km/sec; to make

bound would then require a "missing mass" about seven times the mass of the known cluster members. The alternative is that the cluster is disintegrating very rapidly, and this seems most unlikely. The nature of the missing mass, if it this cluster gravitationally

exists at all.

ten about

it

is

an old problem.

recently, but the

Much has been writanswer remained un-

clear.

There is almost certainly some diffuse matter between the galaxies in the Coma cluster; an extended diffuse region (size about 45 arc-minutes) was detected in the centre of the cluster, at radio, optical, and X-ray wavelengths. However, G. Welch and G. Sastry (Wesleyan University) argued that the mass of matter needed to produce this radiation is far less than the missing mass needed to bind the cluster. On the other hand. H. Gursky and associates (.American reported that the Uhuru Science and Engineering satellite observed X-ray emissions from many rich clusters of galaxies. \. Solinger and W. Tucker )

(American Science and Engineering) pointed out that

X-ray luminosity random velocity of a

this

luminous

there

most

their

spread.

The mass

is

culations of periods

They

correlates strongly with

the

cluster in the sense that the

clusters

have the largest velocity

inferred from this that the clusters are,

or were once, gravitationally bound.

mated brightness and surface temperature combined

More evidence for intergalactic matter in clusters came from an analysis of the properties of 34 simple double radio sources by D. de Young (National Radio .Astronomy Observaton,', Green Bank. W.Va.). He

with the results of the pulsation theory lead to a

showed

the results of stellar evolution theory.

The pulsation masses for come out as much as 40% evolutionary masses. The reason for

salion mass.

pheids have the

ancy

(2) Its esti-

piil^

lies in

this discrep-

sources in clusters, and the

I.

the observations; either the estimated absolute

dim by about 30% or the temtoo high by about 6%. If the former is

brightnesses are too

whole distance scale for the universe would be stretched by about 15%.. K. Fricke and associates (Cambridge, Eng. pointed out that the theright, then the

)

ories could be correct, but that uncertainties in the

physical and empirical data used to evaluate the evolutionary and pulsation masses to

may be

separation of the two com-

ponents for those sources not in clusters of galaxies is slightly more than twice the mean separation for

a serious

peratures are

mean

Cesmaller than

problem: is it in the observations Iben and R. Tuggle (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) argued that the problem is

or the theory?

that the

galactic

large

enough

account for the discrepancy.

Another way of estimating Cepheid masses is derived from the few Cepheids that appear to pulsate in the fundamental (pulsating as a whole) and first overtone simultaneously. These are called beat Cepheids; the ratio of the two periods, together with

mean

size-to-separation

ratio for sources outside clusters is

mean

about 0.6 of the may be due to

of those inside. This difference

the presence of a significant

amount of

intergalactic

gas in clusters of galaxies.

Many may be

astronomers believed that the missing matter hot (lO^-lO" °K) ionized gas. This should emit Lyman-a recombination-line radiation. R. Henry (Naval Research Laboratorv-, Washington, D.C.) searched for this radiation from the Coma cluster with a rocket-borne detector. He was able to place a low upper limit on the Lyman-a flux, which makes it unlikely that the binding mass

is

hot ionized gas.

W. Tifft (Steward Observatorj') pointed out a remarkable feature of the redshifl-magnitudc diagram for 70 galaxies in the core of the

Coma

cluster.

The

galaxies appear to group about a series of parallel

bands, sloping fainter with increasing redshift; the galaxies with higher redshifts are predominantly non-

ellipticals. Tifft

some

ascribed the presence of the bands to which is not understood. The

intrinsic effect

width of the individual bands represents the true random velocity of galaxies in this cluster, which then becomes no more than 220 km/sec. (compared with the usual estimate of about 900 km/sec). At this velocity the cluster is gravitationally bound, and so there is no missing mass problem. It will be interesting to see whether other apparently unstable clusters show this band structure in their redshift-magnitude diagrams; there was already some evidence that the

may do so. Observational Cosmology. To compare certain features of cosmological models with observational data about the expanding universe, a homogeneous isotropic model (the Friedmann model) is often used. The parameters for this model are the Hubble constant ff„ (a measure of the present rate of expansion) and the deceleration parameter ?„ (a measure of the rate at which the expansion of the universe is slowing down). The present density of the universe is reVirgo cluster

lated to ?„

and

G

by po

=

"

°

,

where p„

is

the density

the gravitational constant.

For a closed universe, 9„ is greater than O.S, while it lies between zero and 0.5 for an open universe. The most promising way of estimating ?„, and hence the nature of the universe, is from the redshift-magnitude diagram, which shows how the apparent velocity of distant galaxies increases for fainter galaxies; this depends on the value of g„. For this experiment it is necessary to use a particular kind of galaxy, the brightest elliptical in a cluster, because these galaxies all appear to

have similar intrinsic luminosities. However, the

Astronomy. Major advances in X-ray astronomy included the discovery of extended sources X-ray

associated with clusters of galaxies (already described above), sources associated with bright stars, and

two pulsating sources

The

the fact that their energy curves are shifted to the red by their redshifts; for the most distant galaxies,

panion.

cause

we

see

them

as they

may

also be necessary, bewere several billion years

ago.

The effects of this evolution are an active area for for example, if galaxies were significantly brighter then than they are now, the value of q„ estimated from the redshift-magnitude diagram would be study;

greater than

its true value. A. Sandage and J. Oke (Hale Observatories) and H. Spinrad (University of

California, Berkeley)

showed that the

intrinsic col-

ours and the detailed spectral energy distribution of elliptical galaxies change very little with increasing redshift; this may be evidence that evolutionary effects are negligible. However, B. Tinsley (University of Texas, Dallas) calculated that these galaxies evolve rapidly toward fainter luminosities, despite their neg-

evolution in colour. As a result, she claimed that q„ will be overestimated by about O.S from the

ligible

redshift-magnitude diagram if evolution is ignored. This is obviously an important point, and at the year's

end it remained unresolved. Another problem concerned the validity of a homogeneous model. Since nearby galaxies are distributed inhomogeneously, does an estimate of H„ (the expansion rate) from nearby galaxies have any relevance to the rate of expansion of the universe as a whole? Sandage and his associates at Hale Observatories studied the velocity fields of 30 local clusters of galaxies and showed that there appears to be no significant local perturbation to the redshift-magnitude

diagram; therefore, the local value of universally valid.

H„

is

probably

H. Gursky

were expected on the basis of chance. This study was prompted by the identification of the source Cyg X-1 with a bright BO supergiant binary star.

observed apparent magnitudes of these galaxies must be corrected by a known amount to take into account

a correction for evolution

in eclipsing binaries.

(American Science and Engineering) showed that ten bright stars are within the area of positional uncertainty of known X-ray sources, although only two

X

rays are believed to result from accretion of gas from the supergiant onto its nearby compact com-

The binary nature of the pulsating source Cen X-3 was established by E. Schreier and associates (American Science and Engineering). This object pulsates with a period of 4.8 sec. and is eclipsed by its companion each 2.087 days. The orbital motion of the source produces an observed sinusoidal variation in the 4.8-sec. pulsation period due to the Doppler effect. Although no optical counterpart had been discovered by the end of the year, the nearby eclipsing binary

LR

Cen (period 2.095 days) provided an

interesting

many observers until it became clear that the two periods are significantly different and that the positions of the two objects are entirely too red herring for

far apart.

The second binary is the source Her X-I. Its X-ray periods are 1.24 sec. (pulsation) and 1.700 days (orbital). Many investigators associated this source with the irregular blue variable Her, detecting both periods at optical wavelengths. This makes HZ Her the second known optical pulsar.

HZ

Many astronomers suggested that neutron stars may be associated with X-ray sources. B. Margon and associates

(University of California, Berkeley) ob-

the X-ray spectrum of the source GX 340 0. This spectrum is compatible only with a blackbody model. (A blackbody is a body or surface

served

+

that

completely absorbs

upon

it

it

emits

Its

all radiant energy falling and, as a result, the intensity of the radiation is a particular function of the wavelength.)

blackbody temperature

is

about 10'

follows from the X-ray flux that

its

°K and

radius

is

it

only

about 8 km. This source may provide direct evidence for the existence of a neutron star. S. Sofia (Uni-

Techniclans are dwarfed by one of eight radio telescope dishes at Cavendish Laboratory,

Cambridge, Eng., that were to be used to study

quasars. The eight dishes combined total three miles in diameter. A computer is used to control the complex.

object producing the pulsed X-radiation in the binary

Largest city: Sydney (metro, pop., I97I, 2.717,069). Language: English. Religion: (19661 Church of En-

system Ccn

gland iV'c

versity of South Florida) argued that the

X-,5

"black hole" and

compact

unlikely to be a white dwarf or a

is is

probably a neutron

detected

M

1

1

Roman

;

Presbyterian

star.

Radio stars. C. Wade and R. Hjellming (National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank. W.VaJ -cm. -wavelength radio emissions from the

The radio flux is variable and is associated with the B3 companion rather than with the supergiant itself. The optical spectrum of the B star shows sharp emission lines of iron and supergiant Antares in 1971.

but no hydrogen emission lines. This spectrum probably related to particle streaming in the en-

;

Methodist II:

10%

Whitlam.

Domestic Affairs. The Australian Labor Party took over the government of Australia for the first time in 23 years in the elections of Dec. 2. 1972. Led by Gough Whitlam

(see

Biography), the .\LP House of Rep-

obtained 67

resentatives to defeat the Liberal-Country Party co-

M

B star. Two other supergiants, Aur, were detected at radio frequencies.

ir

Wade and

a

Ori

Hjellming also detected the eclipsing

bi-

Per (Algol) and ^ Lyr at 2,695 and 8,08S and 3.7-cm. wavelengths). Algol is MHz, but there is no clear correlation between the radio variation and the optical light curve. Again, these objects demonstrate evidence of gas motions within the binary system. There are some interesting physical processes yet to be understood in even the best observed double stars. Mars. Data returned by U.S. and Soviet space probes during the year disclosed that Mars is not the geologically dead planet astronomers had envisioned. Instead, a number of large volcanic mountains were discovered, indicating that the planet has or had a hot interior. The fact that all the volcanoes are on only one side of Mars led astronomers to speculate naries

/3

MHz

(11-cm.

that the planet

is

Other surprising features included what appeared to be dried-up riverbeds and a giant canyon approximately 2,500 mi. long, 75 mi. wide, and 4 mi. deep. Some astronomers believed that the canyon might be the first evidence of continental drift on Mars. C.

FREEMAN)

See also Astronautics.

The ALP victory followed by only a week that of the New Zealand Labour Party under Norman Kirk, and Whitlam was expected to cooperate clo.sely with New Zealand. In foreign policy generally, he promised a "more independent" outlook. On his first day in office he announced the end of the military draft, the freeing of draft offenders, and the immediate opening of talks between the .Australian and Chinese ambassadors in Paris aimed at establishing diplomatic relations.

Domestically, Whitlam had tried to focus public He argued that

opinion on local government reform. the pattern of .Australia's urban

and regional devel-

opment would be distorted unless ment provided relief. The .\LP

the federal govern-

also presented an .\LP proposals involved compulsory contributions of a percentage of annual income to a central fund and the abolition of the large

number

of private health

a

member

of the

insurance agencies.

McMahon's public support had dwindled since he unseated John Gorton as prime minister in 1971, but improved stability of the LCP coalition had encouraged him to issue the call for elections. Within the LCP there had been only one major crisis durthe

to set

and

125-seat

which had come to power in 1949. Whitlam office on December 5, following McMahon's

The minister

Ham Wentworth,

federal parliamentary state

Commonwealth

the

resignation.

ing the year.

Australia .\

in

alternative health scheme.

just beginning to heat up.

(KENNETH

alition,

seats

assumed

strongly variable at 2,695

up

surer, Billy

for social services, Wil-

believed that the government ought

a national

pension program, while the trea-

Mackie Snedden, contended

that

it

could

the

not afford the cost of such a reform. Subsequently.

smallest continent and, with the island state of Tas-

Snedden announced that men and women over 65 years of age were to receive pensions without having to satisfy the government that they did not have the means to carry on without them. The pension was to

m.inia,

is

the

of

si.\th

Nations, .\ustralia occupies

largest country in the world. Area:

-','167,909 sq.mi.

i:,'J43,803.

(7,686,849 sq.km,). Pop. (1972 est.) Cap.: Canberra (pop., 1971, 141,575). :

AUSTR.^LI.\ Education. (1970) Primary, secondary, and vocational, pupils 2.768.233, tcachi-r.'i 120.041; teacher training, students 39,853; higher (at IS universities only), students 1 1 6,778, leaching staff 7,371.

Finance. Monetary unit;

Atistralian

dollar,

with rSept. 18. 1972) a free rale o( .•\$0.84 to U.S. $1 (A$2.06 = £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs, and foreign exchange, reserve bank; (June 1972) U.S. $4,396,000,000; (June 1971) U.S. $2,345,000,000. Commonwealth budget (1971-72 est.); revenue A$8.669,000,000; expenditure A$7,969,. 000,000. Gross national product: (1970-71)

A$32,390,000,000;

;

governor-

is

virons of the

l^

26%

Elizabeth

silicon,

and

'^.f;'*>s:'

Catholic

9%. Queen,

general in 1972, Sir Paul Hasluck; prime ministers, William McMahon and, from December 5, Gough

(1969-70)

A$29,470,000-

000. Money supply; (Feb. 1972) A$5. 738,000.000; (Feb. 1971) A$5,419,O00.000, Cost of living (1963=100); (Jan,-March 1972) 137; (Jan.-Marrh 1971) 128. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports A$4,140.100.000; exports A$4,6 12,900,000. Import sources; U.S. 22%; U.K. 22%; Japan 16%: West Germany 7%. Export destinations: Japan 28%; U.S.

12%; U.K. 10%; New Zealand 5%. Main

ex-

ports; wool ;

12%; machinery 11%; wheat

10%

:

9%

nfcri

10

etals

6%

nonferrous

Transport

and

Communications.

Roads

(1970) 884,290 km. (including 141,400 km. main roads). Motor vehicles in use (1970); passenger 3.898,500; commercial (including bu.scs) 971,500. Railways: (government; 1970) 40.330 km.; freight traffic (1970-71) 25,190,000.000 net tonkm. Air traffic (1970): 9.268.445.000 passengerkm.; freight 270,008.000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971); merchant ve-ssels 100 gross tons and over 350; gross tonnage 1.105.236. Shipping traffic (1971); goods loaded 112,006,000 metric tons; unloaded 24.074,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1971) 3.913,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1971) 2.684.000. Television licenses (Dec. 1971) 2,798,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses); wheat c. 8,380 (7,988); barley 2,722 (2,472); oats 1.305 (1,651); sorghum 1.266 (762); com 226 (203); rice 29S (247); potatoes 747 (762); sugar, raw value

(1971-72)

2.794.

(1970-7!)

2,524;

apples

(1970) 424, (1969) 422; oranges c. 275 (c. 295); wine c. 250 (288); wool, greasy 885 (886); milk c. 7,320 (7,790): butter 196 (214); beef and veal c. 1.100 (1.040): mutton and lamb c. 870 (808). Livestock (in 000; March 1971): sheep 179.137; cattle 24.372; pigs 2.580; horses c. 475; chickens c. 23.100. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1971); coal 48,990; lignite 23,384; crude oil 14,. 409; natural gas (cu.m.) 2.222.000; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 4.704.000; electricity (kw-hr.) 59.681.000, Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): iron ore (65% metal content) 62.010; bauxite 12.540; pig iron 6,127; crude steel 6,744; zinc 259; aluminum 224; copper 120; lead 163; tin 6.3; nickel concentrates (metal content; 1970) 29; sulfuric acid i.600; cement 4.720; cotton yarn 29; wool yarn 28: gold (troy oz.; 1970) 620; silver (troy oz.) 28.000; passenger cars (including assembly; tjnits) 391; commercial vehicles (including assembly; units) 78. Dwelling units completed (1971) 141,000.

be subject to income tax. At the same time the government appointed a committee to examine and report on financing the proposals. The government's administration of aborigines was

heavily criticized. Aborigines

camped

in tents outside

Parliament House in Canberra to draw attention to their claims for land rights. In Perth an aboriginal "consulate" was set up outside the 'tate Parliament to publicize the aboriginal housing problem, and a camp was set up in Adelaide, The federal government subsequently passed an ordinance under which the aborigines were forcibly removed from their

similar

camp

in

Canberra, Legal challenges of the ordinance

were successful, the court finding that the ordinance had not been properly promulgated. The aborigines immediately re-camped outside Parliament House, but the government remedied the legislative defect and again ejected them. On the positive side, the government increased expenditure on aboriginal advancement to A$53 million in 1972-73, an increase of 70%,

The LCP gained prestige following its success in A$50 million worth of wheat to the Soviet Union and A$50 million worth to China. The ALP selling

had contended that China was deliberately not buying Australian wheat because the Chinese government disapproved of Australia's hostile stand on diplomatic recognition. Another bright spot was the strength of the new season wool sales. There was a 100% clearance, with prices for merino fleece wool 10-20% above the closing rates of the previous season. By October wool prices had reached their highest level in 20 years, (See Industrial Review,) Earlier in the year, Whitlam had faced embarrassment when a draft resister, Barry Johnston, was en-

March as the ALP candidate Hotham. The ALP also

dorsed in

torian seat of

campaign

a further rebuff

committee of the

ALP when

of the Australian dollar.

countered that

it

from the economics

he suggested revaluation

The economics committee was

from overseas to the Israeli and Croatian extremists were

sent

in Australia,

held responsible for explosions in Sydney that destroyed two Yugoslav travel agencies.

A

major development

in the industrial relations field

was

the amalgamation of three left-wing labour unions into one organization. The Amalgamated Met-

alworkers' Union, with around 200,000 members, thus

became the country's largest union. Foreign Affairs. In 1972 Australia began more intently at the Indian Ocean following ing Soviet interest in the area.

A

to look

increas-

foreign affairs com-

mittee of the federal Parliament pointed out that the Indian Ocean was of great strategic significance to Australia;

more than 60%

South Vietnam,

The Australian government opposed French nuclear made in the Pacific in June. In a note to the

tests

of Australia's total exports

and imports passed over it. In the course of an overseas visit Prime Minister McMahon discussed the security of the Indian Ocean with the U.S. administration and with British ministers. He reported mutual agreement that a careful watch ought to be continued in the area and confirmation that the U.S. and Britain would continue their respective naval presences.

The Australian combat role in South Vietnam had ended in December 1971. By March 1972 the Army and Air Force rear parties that had remained in Vietnam to complete withdrawal arrangements had finished their tasks and returned to Australia. The last

This rock painting, found in the Northern Territory of Australia, mariend less time snooping into political dissidents' affairs and more cnerg>'

fighting organized crime. He also started easing out some of Hoover's entrenched old quietly at first, later lo some public guarci

—

clamour, which was startling in itself. He was quick to take full responsibility when his agents were criticized for shooting the tires of a skyjacked airliner as it was about to take off.'

Gray was widely applauded

for

many

of

nomination as permawhen it came, would almost certainly meet stiff opposition. The reason: cronyism. Gray had met Nixon at these actions, but his nent director, if and

a Washington party in 1947, became his confidant, campaigned for him in 1960 and '68. and was named a sub-Cabinet officer in the Department of Health. Education, and Welfare in 1969. He moved to Justice .is head of the Civil Division, and his appointment as deputy attorney general was penii ing when Hoover died. These consideration^, critics said, made him too "political" to maintain the total, nonpartisan independence of the agency Hoover had built. Grav was' born in St. Louis. Mo.. July 18, 1916. He worked his way through Rice University, Houston, Tex., and was appointed to the Naval .Academy. He served on submarines during World War II and the Korean War. The Navy sent him to law school, and he counseled both the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the secretary of defense before resigning his commission and entering

private practice in 1960.

(piiiup kopper)

HAYES, ISAAC Superstar Isaac Hayes, a self-styled "Black Moses," was a double presence in the galaxies of show business. A composer, he had "written" 200 songs, among them several hits of the first magnitude; a performer of musical rituals, he could pack the Hollywood Bowl, Lincoln Center, and Boston Garden. Born in a tin shack in Covington, Tenn., on Aug. 20, 1942, and raised by sharecropping grandparents who taught him to chop cotton and sing gospel, the bearded baritone with the shaved head now lived in Memphis amid the long-sought luxury that only four "platinums"— records that sold $2 million wholesale and personal appearance fees of $15,000 can support. When he appeared in concert, he was escorted on stage by four armed bodyguards while a woman performed an "African dance of adoration" before taking his cape. Wearing black tights, fur cuffs, a leather vest, and gold chains, he would sing six or seven songs in two hours, strew souvenir medallions among the crowd, and vanish. "The rite," as one critic put it, "is over." Hayes began singing in choir lofts when he was five, according to one account, and

—

formed

his first

music group as a teen-ager. Doo-Dads" toured the

omy, in which equal opportunities and fair working and living conditions for all would create the conditions for "one nation." His to break with the economic interventionist policies of his Labour predecessors were largely frustrated, however, by the need to assist industries in serious difficulties such as Clyde shipbuilding— and at the midpoint in his government's term of office,

efforts

—

he had to cope with wage inflation, bitter labour disputes, and a milHon unemployed. Although his reputation as a European thus was offset by disappointments at home, his control of the Conservative Party nevertheless

seemed

secure.

Born at Broadstairs, Kent, on July 9, 1916, Heath, the son of a carpenter and builder, obtained a scholarship to Oxford University. Typical of the new-style Conservative of middle-class background with none of the advantages of birth or wealth, he entered Parliament in 1950. In 1955 he became Conservative chief whip and in 1965 was elected leader of the party. A bachelor, he was regarded as a somewhat aloof person, although he was a remarkably successful yachtsman and an enthusiastic musician.

When The new

Guardian^s reviewer called two biographies of him published in 1972

"Sir Isaac and the

"more enigma

South playing one-night stands in moonand small towns. Teamed with

flected the public

shine joints lyricist

David Porter, he ad-libbed

positions

Stax

for

Records,

his

variations," this fairly review of a prime minister respect rather than affection.

com-

humming

a

melody into one tape recorder, then the rhythm into another. An arranger combined the two— Hayes reportedly did not read or write music himself. His style was eclectic, a combination of cool blues, hot soul, hard rock, white pop, and old black gospel. Perhaps his most widely heralded composition was the Oscar-winning theme song of the movie Shaft. The score for the movie

won three Grammys. Among his biggest hit albums were "Presenting Isaac Hayes," "Hot Buttered Soul," and "Black Moses." His most notable single was "By the Time I Get to Phoenix," a Glen Campbell ballad he stretched into a 19-minute exegesis. Hayes didn't just sing the song, he introduced it with "a rap" a prefatory narration accompanied by an orchestral Bb 11 chord. He developed this trademark playing nightclubs and bars; his rapping gave the audience time to quiet down and allow this master of black musical expression to explain the white man's song in terms of black experience. (philip kopper)

—

HEATH, EDWARD

RICHARD GEORGE When Edward Heath became prime

who had won

minister

of the United Kingdom in June 1970, he promised the country "a quiet revolution."

The most far-reaching component in Heath's revolutionary program was to bring Britain into the EEC, and during 1972 the necessary legislation for this was put through Parliament with a determination his critics found ruthless. But Europeanism was one of Heath's most consistent characteristics (he had won the Charlemagne Prize for to the unity of Europe in 1963, after Britain's first application for entry into the had been frustrated by services

EEC

France's veto), and by the time negotiations for Britain's accession to the Community had been completed, Heath was establishing himself as a dominant European figure. He came away from the summit meeting of prime ministers of the Nine in October 1972 not only with a commitment to the completion of European union by 1980 but also with important concessions to the British point of view.

Another key element in his political philosophy was his faith in a free market econ-

(HARFORD THOMAS)

HESBURGH, THEODORE MARTIN An outspoken opponent of racial injustice, a member of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights since

inception in 1958 and its 1969, and president of the

its

chairman since

University of Notre Dame, the Rev. Theodore M. Hesburgh in November 1972 became the first appointed official to be removed by Pres. Richard M. Nixon as he prepared for a second term in office. After some confusion over whether Hesburgh's resignation

from the

civil

rights

body had

been voluntary, the White House conceded that it had asked him to leave. Hesburgh's rift with the White House was attributed to the commission's irrepressible criticism of federal policies that, in its view, back the progress of race relations in exchange for the popular support of the white

set

majority.

The commission had been

particu-

larly critical of the practices of the Federal

Housing Administration and

of the presiposition against busing to achieve racial integration of schools. In September the Roman Catholic priest became the first recipient of the Reinhold Niebuhr Award, established by New York City's Union Theological Seminary in memory of the renowned Protestant theologian, who had died in 1971. In accepting the award, Hesburgh

dent's

made his views explicit: "There is no legitimate excuse for our politicians to foreclose educational opportunities for generations of deprived blacks because it would be popular with the white majority. No one has the right any more to play games with human life in

America."

As an educator, Hesburgh was equally Appointed Notre Dame's 16th pres-

forceful.

ident in 1952, he olic school from into one of the versities and, in

developed the Roman Cathan all-male football factory country's outstanding uni-

the fall of 1972, opened it to coeducation. He eased the clergy out of control in favour of laymen and gave students a greater voice in university affairs. He also appointed Protestants, Jews, and blacks to the staff. Born in Syracuse, N.Y., on May 25, 1917, the son of a glass company official, Hes-

burgh was educated at Notre Dame and Gregorian University in Rome. He entered

Theodore Hesburgh

Biography

sin 1934

I)

I'MJ, after

ai..i

whith he rc::umcd lib >lU(!ics at Catholic University, Washington, DC, joining the Notre Dame faculty in 1945. (NF,I.UF. L.

GIFFORD)

HULL. ROBERT MARVIN.

JR.

Taggfd the "moit CL-lebratcd player in contemporary professional hockey" as early as 1966, in 1972 Bobby Hull signed a contract for more money, probably, than any athlete in history. He received a down payment of $1 million on a S2. 750.000 contract to cover his services as player and coach for ten years.

The event was remarkable not just for number of dollars involved. It marked

the the

explosive

popularity

of

professional

hockey and the sudden respectability of the

World Hockey Association, fiedgUnfj rival of the established National Hockey League. Hull's signing was a major coup for the \VH.^. one made possible by the peculiar economics of professional sports. Franchises were available in the NHL for $6 million. Savvy promoters sold the first ten VVHA franchises for a very modest $25,000 apiece. Consequently, the new teams could all afford to chip into a common purse to seduce the superstar away from the and onto their circuit as sparkplug of the Winnipeg

NHL

Jets.

While Hull's prowess might freeze the players on the ice, his spectacular performance was certain to make them loasty

WH.A warm

all the way to the bank each time his a rink, A flashy player, he was the speediest sport's fastest skater; he had been clocked at 29.2 mph and could slap a puck goal ward at 118 mph, more than four times his skating speed. Hull's speed was undoubtedly a factor in his fabulous scoring ability. In the 1968-69 season he scored 58 goals to set a new mark. His career total was 604 goals in 15 seasons, only 182 less than the league record achieved by Detroit Red Wine Gordie Howe in 25 seasons. Hull was born on Jan. .S, 1939, in Pointe Anne, Ont. He began skating before he was three, and ten years later began playing for a boys' team supported by the Chicago Black Hawks. He made his professional debut with the Black Hawks at 18, scoring twice in his first game. The team he joined occupied the basement; after the "Golden Jet" took over the left-wing position the Hawks became a regular play-off competitor. Named most valuable player two years in succession and Canada's athlete of the year, Hull had a reputation for being an exceptionally friendly, approachable star off the ice. (philip kopper)

name packed

NHL

IRVING, CLIFFORD

MICHAEL

and beautiful mystery women. But all was told, nothing was left but a baroque fraud perpetrated by a hack writer. Irving was born in New York City, Nov.

then transferred the cash to another Swiss bank. But if to the public the story seemed a

5, 1930^ He went to Cornell and, after a varied career that included four wives and seven mildly successful books, eventually settled on the Spanish island of Ibiza. A magazine report on the eccentric Hughes gave Irving his idea. Collaborating with researcher Richard Susldnd, he forged some letters purporting to show that Hughes was

serious to

counts,

when

novelist

ready to talk at last. When McGraw-Hill asked for a contract, Irving flew to Mexico and returned with a signed letter of agreement that satisfied the publisher, although it later developed that he had spent his time with Baroness Nina van Pallandt, a night-

publication of his autobiography. Next, Hughes held his first press conference in decades (by telephone) to say that the book was a fake. Gradually the story unfolded, revealing such tantalizing tidbits as a forged passport, secret Swiss bank ac-

club singer. Plagiarizing the purloined memoirs of a disgruntled Hughes aide and using previously published material about the millionaire, Irving and Suskind created a convincing corpus of "tape transcripts" and a bright autobiography. The checks the publisher intended for "H. R. Hughes," totaling $650,000, were given to Irving's wife, Edith. In disguise and using a forged passport, she deposited the money in a bank in Ziirich, Switz., waited for the checks to clear, and

Parodying its own annual feature. Time magazine dubbed its Feb. 21, 1972, cover portrait ject

was

"Con Man

of the Year." The subClifford Irving, an expatriate minor

whose fiction-as-nonfiction biography of multimillionaire recluse Howard Huehes became a front-page sensation. The first news stories broke when the respected publishing house of McGraw-Hill announced a major coup^after years in seclusion Hughes had at last consented to

Roy Jenkins

Henryk Jablonski

James Bond, it was somewhat more McGraw-Hill, to Life magazine, which had subsidiary rights, and to the Swiss and U.S. authorities, who called it felony. Edith was fined $10,000, served a short jail sentence, and was then extradited to Switzerland to face charges of fraud and forgery. Irving was fined the same amount and sentenced to two and a half years' imprisonment. To help pay the fine he dashed off a book about his book. Once in jail, he proved to be a model prisoner; his prison job was to teach creative writing. (pnaiP kopper) real-life

JABLONSKI. HENRYK election on March :S, 1972. of Henryk Jablonski. a former professor of history, as chairman of the Polish Council of Slate second in the country's Communist hierarchy and nominal president of the republic was a delayed sequel to the workers* revolt of December 1970. Jablonski's predecessor and friend, Jozef Cyrankicwicz. became a scapegoat for the events that had brought about the fall of former partv leader

The

—

—

Wladyslaw Gomulka. Jablonski was born

into a worker's fam-

on Dec. 27, 1909, at Waliszewo, in the Lowicz district. Graduate of the humanities department of the University of Warsaw, ily

he obtained a doctorate in historical sciences He joined the Polish Socialist Party During World War II he served in the Polish Army, escaping to France where he joined the Polish Highland Brigade, one of the units of the new Polish Army reformed on French soil As part of a BritishFrench-Polish expeditionary force, the Highland Brigade landed in northern Norway in 1934.

in 1931.

The

mid-April 1940 and fought the Germans at Narvik, but had to be reembarked at the beginning of May. After the French surrender, Jablonski remained in unoccupied France at Grenoble, where he was able to continue his historical research. He returned to Poland in 1945,

library at

Phillips

in

Exeter Academy,

successfully

Exeter,

became

a

member

of the provisional

|\J,H.,

designed by Louis Kahn

Home

National Council, was elected as a Socialist to the Sejm (parliament) in January 1947, and was returned in every subsequent election. Siding with Cyrankievvicz in 1948, when the latter supported the merger of the Polish

Party and the Polish Workers' was elected a member of the CenCommittee of the Polish United WorkParty. On Dec. 20, 1970, he was elected

Socialist

Party, he tral

ers'

alternate

member

becoming a

full

of the party's Politburo,

member

Dec. 11, 1971. From 1945 Jablonski

of that

body on

was professor

of

first at the Academy of Sciences and, from 1946, at the University of Warsaw. In 1956 he was elected a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and until 1965 he served as its scientific secretary. In December 1965 he was appointed minister of higher education, and in November 1966, when his ministry was united with that of public instruction, he became head of the combined administration. (K. M. SMOGORZEWSKi)

modern

history,

Political

tation as a reformist in that office before to the Treasury in 1967. His intellectual and perhaps rather mandarin approach to politics offended many on the militant left wing of the Labour Party. In 1970 he was elected deputy leader by a convincing majority of 133 to 67 over left-winger Michael Foot, but his position

comes. In December he announced a new family -planning policy under which advice and contraceptives would be freely available. Joseph was born on Jan. 17, 191S. Credited with one of the best intellects in the government, he took a first-class degree in law at Oxford, becoming a fellow of All Souls, and was given his first Cabinet

weakened steadily, and in November 1971 he was reelected by a reduced margin of 140 to 126. (HARTORD THOMAS)

post at the age of 44.

JOSEPH, SIR KEITH

Light

moving

(harford thomas)

KAHN, LOUIS whom

was a passion of Louis Kahn, for 1972 was a year of triumph in 71 years and architecture. "Light," said Kahn, Material

JENKINS, ROY HARRIS

SINJOHN

The most notable political casualty in the British Labour Party's internal feuding over Britain's entry into the EEC was Roy

In Britain's "quiet revolution," proclaimed

"is the giver of all presences.

by Edward Heath

is

Jenkins, successively minister of aviation, home secretary, and chancellor of the Exchequer in the Wilson governments of 196470 and deputy leader of the Labour Party in opposition. Jenkins was a fervent and consistent advocate of joining the EEC. At a time when his party was turning against Europe he was awarded, in March 1972, the Charlemagne Prize for services to European unity. In April he resigned his post as deputy leader because he could not support the shadow cabinet's decision to press for a referendum on entry into Europe. He complained that the party had changed its

in 1970, the responsibility for the social services was given to Sir Keith Joseph, a second-generation baronet who inherited his title from his father, a former

mayor

of London. Elected to ParliaJoseph had been at the MinHousing and Local Government. In opposition (1964-70), he was Conservative spokesman for the social services and then "shadow" minister for trade. Long experience in the family construction and building firm of Bovis would have fitted him for the Board of Trade, but his interests and a lively social conscience equally fitted him to take his place in the Heath Cabinet as secretary of state for health and lord

ment

in 1956,

istry

of

ground and was now opposing EEC membership on principle rather than merely chal-

social security.

lenging the terms. In November his efforts to further Britain's entry into the EEC received additional recognition with the award of the Robert Schuman Prize. At the end of the year, in an outspoken letter to Prime Minister Edward Heath, Jenkins urged the

some

government to condemn U.S. bombing of North Vietnam. Jenkins, born Nov. 11, 1920, British

publicly at

Aber-

sychan. Wales, entered Parliament in 1948. He could claim family roots in the Labour movement; his father had been a miners' union official, an MP, and parliamentary private secretary to Clement Attlee, Labour prime minister from 1945 to 1951. But he had gone to Oxford University with the help of scholarships, and came to be regarded in the party as an intellectual. At one time he considered giving up politics for writing, but within a year of the formation of the 1964 Wilson administration he joined the Cabinet as home secretary, gaining a repu-

His faith in the free market economy made of his views on the social services controversial, particularly his ideas of how

they should be paid for. He believed in selfhelp within a civilized capitalist economy, based on competitive free enterprise and underpinned by humane provisions for the unfortunate. In practice, some of his ideas, such as payment for medical drugs graded according to their cost, raised so many objections that he did not pursue them. He was, however, able to establish a new administrative structure for the National Health Service and to switch attention and resources to neglected areas, notably the care of the old, the mentally ill, and the long-term sick. He pressed on with a big hospital-building program and introduced improved pensions. In his concern to relieve family poverty, he worked with the chancellor of the Exchequer, Anthony Barber, in devising a new form of taxation that provided grants for those with substandard in-

of life

that which casts a shadow,

.

and

.

.

the

shadow

belongs to light." Nearing completion as the year drew to an end was a 1,000-ac. building complex in Dacca, begun as the eastern capital of Pakistan and, surviving the explosive birth of Bangladesh, ending up as the capital of a new country. Completed during the year were a library at Phillips Exeter Academy; the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Tex.; and

Temple Beth-El in Chappaqua, N.Y. Kudos added to Kahn's long list of honours included the Gold Medal for architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Creative Arts Medal for architecture from Brandeis University, But Kahn himself transcended the medals and awards and the materials that shaped his structures. He was a form-giver, an artist-architect, recognized for his original rethinking of the design process, his thoughtful assembling of interior spaces.

He was the first U.S. architect to break the glass-and-steel box buildines of the International Style pioneered by Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus School and later copied ad nauseam in places like the Avpnue of the Americas in New York City. His massive structures flaunt the structural sources of their strength. Examples: the characteristic unfinished concrete surface of the stairwell of the Yale Art Gallery completed in 1953 the fortress-like, almost medieval look of the Salk Institute in La Jolla, Calif.; the Indian Institute of Management at Ahmedabad; and the Erdman dormitory at Bryn Mawr (Pa.) College. Kahn was born Feb. 20. 1901. on the Estonian island of Saaremaa, the son of a sergeant in the Imperial Army of Czar with

;

personality cult, Kim appeared to be the font of wisdom that had made it all possible. His position as the "shining sun of Korea" was part of the continuing scenario Kim had been directing in his countr>' ever

Biography

government became Communist in what was believed to be a campaign himself an independent power centre of world Communism, he was critical of both Soviet revisionism and Chinese dog-

since

its

1945. In

to

make

matism.

Kim was born Kim Song Chu near Pyongyang on April 15, 1912. He adopted the name of an anti-Japanese guerrilla hero as part of his official posture as the warriorpatriot father of Korean nationalism. Spend-

entering Parliament he was an apprentice fitter and turner, and later a foreman with the Railways Department.

ing his early years in Manchuria, he founded the Korean Independence Alliance and was imprisoned for a year for anti-Japanese ac-

KISSINGER, HENRY ALFRED

tivities. When war broke out in Europe. Kim was believed to have gone to Moscow. When he returned to Korea in 1945, he was a captain in the Soviet Red Army and was decorated by Stalin for his services. The Soviets chose him as their man for Korea. By 1946 he was head of North Korea's first central government, the Interim People's Committee. Consolidation of power followed rapidly. He obtained control of the reformed Communist Party, proclaimed the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September 1948, assimilated independent groups into the central political organization which in 1949 was renamed the Korean Workers' Party, and periodically purged "unreliable elements." His resort to political methods to extend his authority to South Korea came unstuck, and in 1950 he tried military force. U.S. intervention frustrated

that bid. Confirmed in office by successive party conferences, he was secretan-^general of the parly, member of the Political Committee, premier, and supreme commander of the armed forces. On Dec. 28, 1972, he was named president and head of state by the

National Assembly.

KIRK,

(t. j. s.

NORMAN

george)

ERIC

Following a landslide victory in the general election which gave his Labour Party 56 out of the S7 seats in the House of

Nicholas I of Russia who was also a stainedglass craftsman. The family moved to Philadelphia in 1905. The younger Kahn became a U.S. citizen in 1915, and Philadelphia remained his home. As an adolescent and before, Kahn showed promise in both drawing and piano, but a high school architecture

course struck deep into his being. He rejected art scholarships and enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania architecture school, earning his way by playing the piano and organ accompaniment to silent movies. In 1947 Kahn went to Yale University for a week as a visiting critic. The students refused to let him go and he became the school's chief design critic. He was resident

Rome

architect at the American Academy in in 1950, then returned to Yale as professor of architecture until 1957, when he trans-

ferred to the University of Pennsylvania. He never received a commission from the city of Philadelphia nor did he ever design a home for himself. He lived in a modest brick row house and worked in a shabby, sunfilled loft, assisted by younger architects.

(PAT tucker)

KIM

IL

SUNG

The historic July 4, 1972, joint statement by North and South Korea on peaceful reunification was, to North Korea's enduring premier, Kim II Sung, a vindication of Korean genius. Both Koreas claimed full credit for the initiative, but the North claimed it more loudly and, because of its unabashed

of .Representatives, holding the seat with majorities in the 1960 and 1963 elections. He was first elected to the Labour Party National Executive in 1959 as di\Tsional representative for Canterbury. He became vice-president in 1963 and president in 1964. In 1965 he was elected leader of the Parliamentary Labour Party. He retained the Lyttleton seat in the general election of 1966 and won the Sydenham seat in 1969. Kirk was born at Waimatc, Canterbury, N.Z., on Jan. 6, 1923. His formal education ended in primary school and before

Representatives, Norman E. Kirk on Dec. 8, 1972, became at 49 New Zealand's youngest prime minister in 50 years. Kirk's success was expected to bring considerable change to the New Zealand political scene. Labour supporters awaited the abolition of

wage

controls, stricter price regulations, rec-

ognition of China, withdrawal of military training teams from South Vietnam, and, after consultation with allies, a pulling out from the New Zealand-AustraUan force in Singapore and Malaysia. Regional development, tax relief, and social services expansion were high on the

government's list of priorities. Kirk made it clear that were the U.K. to restrict the immigration of New Zealanders, as seemed probable because of Britain's new EEC role, he

would consider

reciprocal

action.

The

prime minister showed considerable concern for environmental problems; in particular, he reaffirmed that if France continued its nuclear tests in the Pacific he would send a frigate into the area manned by a volunteer force and with a Cabinet minister aboard. 280-lb. cabinetmaker's son who was apply these relatively abrasive pollittle known outside New Zealand, although he had led his party for 7 of its

The

now

to

icies

was

12 years in the political wilderness and had traveled widely in the U.S., Asia, and Europe. He had joined the party at 20 in 1943 and ten years later was elected mayor of the South Island borough of Kaiapoi. In 1957 he won the seat of Lyttleton in the House

(r. j.

m. denxerstein)

Henry

Kissinger, assistant for national security affairs to U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon, secret peace negotiator, secret advance man to Peking. Time magazine's man of the year

(with President Nixon), and sometime bon vivant, became in 1972 the nearly successful (again with President Nixon) architect of U.S. -Vietnam peaceEarly in 1972, President Nixon revealed that Kissinger had traveled to Paris fully a dozen times in 30 months to negotiate secretly with the North Vietnamese. Weeks later, the U.S. chief executive made his hbloric visit to China, with the man whose clandestine trips had prepared the meeting at his side. In the spring, Kissinger escorted the president to Moscow. By fall he was back in Paris in one-to-one negotiations with Le Due Tho, a ranking official of the North Vietnamese negotiating team. Kissinger's announcement, on October 26. that "peace is at hand," culminated those negotiations. Suspicion that the pronouncement made less than two weeks before the U.S. elections was politically motivated gained weight following a subsequent Kissinger visit to Saigon, when it became clear that the bilateral pact between the U.S. and Hanoi did not have the support of South Vietnamese Pres. Nguyen Van Thieu. Peace

—

—

were stalemated and in mid-December bombing north of the 20th parallel was resumed by order of President Nixon. North Vietnamese air defense tactics had changed, however, and U.S. B-52 losses soared amid confusing and conflicting retalks

intensive

ports from both sides. Public frustration and political recrimination centred on the highly visible negotiator, sparking rumours that Kissinger had fallen from executive grace. The most likely benefactor of such a downfall, speculation continued, would be former treasur>' secretary John Connally. Yet by year's end Nixon had ordered the bombing stopped; negotiations had been scheduled to resume; and it seemed likely that Kissinger would not only survive the crisis but might yet participate in a successful peace settlement. Kissinger was born in Fiirth, Ger., on May 27. 1923. and became a U.S. citizen after fleeing Nazi Germany with his family in 1938. Prior to his appointment to the White House post in December 1968. he was a professor of government at Harvard Uni(PHILIP kopper) versity.

KLEINDIENST. RICHARD .\rizona conservative with blue-ribbon Republican Party credentials, Richard Kleindienst was nominated by Pres. Richard

An

to succeed John Mitchell as U.S. attorney general when the latter resigned to direct Nixon's reelection campaign. Despite grumbling among liberals, confirmation of the appointment by the U.S. Senate seemed almost routine in February, until

Nixon

columnist Jack Anderson (g.v.) published a "personal and confidential" memo by a Washington, D.C., lobbyist to her boss at International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT). The memo said that Mitchell "is definitely helping us" settle an antitrust suit brought by the U.S. Department of Justice against ITT, and mentioned that the corporation had a "$400 thousand commitment" to help defray costs for the Republican national convention. Subsequent evidence suggested that the quid pro quo had been

arranged by Kleindienst when he was deputy attorney general. At this point Kleindienst was acting attorney general, and he asked Sen. James Eastland, the conservative chairman of the Senate's Judiciary Committee, to reopen the hearings so that he could tell his side the story and clear newed hearings went on of

himself.

The

than any Cabinet confirmation hearings in history. In late April the committee, which had unanimously endorsed him earlier, voted 11 to 4 in Kleindienst's favour, effectively

exonerating him. The Senate then confirmed the appointment 64-19. Kleindienst was one of the comparatively few major officials retained in office in Nixon's post-election overhaul of the administration. Born Aug. 5, 1923. on land his grandfather had homesteaded near Winslow, Ariz., Kleindienst fought in the Italian campaign during World War II and was discharged from the Army as a lieutenant in 1946. Attending Harvard University on the GI Bill, he graduated magna cum laude in 1947. He took a law degree at Harvard in 1950 and then returned to Arizona to practice law. He served in the state legislature, was a Republican national committeeman, and unsuccessfully ran for governor. In the Department of Justice, Kleindienst was said to be articulate and aggressive. He directed a crackdown on drug smuggling from Mexico and favoured "carefully controlled" wiretapping to gather information in national security and organized crime (PHILIP kopper) cases.

KORBUT, OLGA in

the

1972

Munich Olympic Games delighted onlookers, miUions of television viewers, more than the diminutive Soviet g>'mnast Olga Korbut. Performing her exercises with grace, precision, and. above all. charm, the including

17-year-old girl from Grodno, Bclorussia, the faith of her coach. Renald Knysh, by carrying off two gold medals and a shared silver medal. justified

Born on May 16, 1955, Olga was always annoyed at being the shortest in her class at school, but she determinedly offset her lack of inches by running faster than the rest of

her classmates

—boys as well as

girls.

Her pace and power prompted someone to suggest she try her hand at gymnastics, and, with her sister, she joined the local gymnastic school, where Elena Volchetskaya, a medalist in the 1964 Olympics, was her first tutor. After a year Olga, then 11, began blossoming into a first-rate gymnast and Knysh, the school's head, decided to coach her personally. She progressed so well that after four years Knysh sought and received special permission for his protogether

to compete in the Soviet national championships, competitors in which must normally have reached the age of 16. Olga backed her coach's judgment by placing fifth. She trained assiduously and practiced new exercises, including a back somersault on the beam, and her proficiency was such that she

tegee

was

selected as a reserve for the world championships in Ljubljana, Yugos., in 1970. She was hit by injury the following year but

place

in

the

Peoples

Games. In 1972, before the Olympics, she finished third in the Soviet national championships to Liudmila Tourischeva and Tamara Lazakovitch, who both won medals in Munich, but then turned the tables on her colleagues to win the U.S.S.R. Cup. At the Olympics she won gold medals in the floor exercises and balance beam, a silver jointly with Erika Zuchold of East Germany in the uneven parallel bars, and helped the Soviet Union to the gold in the team event. It was an outstanding performance for one so young and so small— she stood S ft. 1 in. and weighed just 84 lb. After the Olympics Olga suffered an injury to her spine during a trip to Denmark. At the year's end she was recuperating at a spa in the Caucasus.

(TREVOR WILLIAMSON)

re-

for 22 days, longer

Probably no other competitor

managed a fourth

LAVELLE, JOHN DANIEL In the spring of 1972, Gen. John D. Lavelle, commander of U.S. air forces in South Vietnam, lost one of his four stars and was quietly retired

from the

service.

Then

the

Senate learned that Lavelle had been waging his own private war, ordering at least 28 air strikes over North Vietnam in direct violation of standing orders. He had covered

up

his actions

by

fifing false reports to the

Pentagon, which in turn had covered up the reason he was fired. The case raised two alarming possibilities: that Lavelle 's insubordination might have upset dehcate peace negotiations; and that military brass who command vast armaments can take affairs into their own hands, despite the long-standing U.S. tradition of civilian control. At the time of Lavelle's initiatives, U.S. strikes over North Vietnam had been halted, but under the so-called "protective reaction" policy, U.S. fighter-bombers esair

corting unarmed reconnaissance planes could attack North Vietnamese defenses if they were fired on first or were pinpointed by North Vietnamese radar. Under Lavelle's command there was a suspicious increase in "protective reaction" strikes. In fact, his planes attacked without provocation. Then the Pentagon was told they had been fired on first. Meanwhile, at the Paris peace talks, U.S. negotiators argued that North Vietnam was breaking the informal "understanding"

between Hanoi and Washington by

firing

unarmed

justifica-

overflights.

With more

on

turned out, Hanoi in turn accused the U.S. of breaking its "understanding" not to bomb the North. tion, as

it

Lavelle's private policy

was revealed when

Lonnie Franks, an intelligence sergeant, wrote to Sen. Harold Hughes, a member of the Armed Services Committee, who informed the Pentagon. Lavelle was offered a two-grade demotion and reassignment or quiet retirement with a $27,000 annual pension and the loss of one star, the option he

summoned before congressional committees, he defended his actions and implied that Gen. Creighton W. Abrams, then U.S. commander in Vietnam, knew what was going on. The evidence was contradictory, however, and after some delay Abrams was exonerated and confirmed as army chief of chose. Later

staff.

Born in Cleveland, O., Sept. 9, 1916, Lavelle took a science degree at John Carroll University in Cleveland in 1938 and was commissioned in the Army Air Corps two years later. Before his Vietnam command, he directed the hush-hush Defense Communications Planning Group. (PHILIP kopper)

HAROLD

B. LEE. The century-old Tabernacle building in Salt Lake City, Utah, was packed as members

Biography

of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints gathered for the 142nd semiannual conference in early October 1972. The highlight of the proceedings took place on October 6, when Harold B. Lee was confirmed or "sustained" as the 11th prophet and president of the more than three milUonmembcr church. The procedures that placed him in office were almost automatic. As president and senior member of the Council of the Twelve Apostles, which becomes the highest governing body of the church on the death of the first president, Lee had been named to the position by his fellow council members in July, following the death of Joseph Fielding Smith. Formal acceptance of the council's action by the 7,000 leaders of the priesthood at the October conference was unanimous. Even before he was sustained by the priesthood, the new first president was carrying out the duties of his office. In August he traveled to Mexico to participate in the first area general conference ever held for Mexico and Central America. The following month he made a three-week swing through Great Britain, Switzerland, Italy, West Germany, Greece, and Israel to visit church

—

—

communities. Lee faced the problem a pleasant one, he noted— of a mushrooming membership

—

that required suitable responses in the areas of leadership development, building construction, and membership indoctrination. He also faced a sensitive issue in the church's attitude toward blacks of African descent. There were an estimated 2.000 such mem-

They were accepted for membership, to all church buildings, and allowed to perform certain temple work, but were barred from the priesthood, a status open to other male Latter-day Saints bers.

admitted

(though not to women). The prohibition applied only to dark-skinned persons of African Negro lineage and was based on the belief that the African Negro is descended from Cain and bears his curse. Change could come only through a revelation from God to the church's president. Lee, the new first president, had spent most of his life in the service of his church.

He was a member of the Council of the Twelve Apostles for over 30 vears. Born March

28, 1889, in Chfton. Ida., Lee attended Albion State Normal College (later merged with Idaho State University) and the University of Utah. In 1937 he became

director for the newly formed church-wide welfare programs. (BERNARD S. KATZ)

managing

LEEK, SYBIL One

of the world's better-known witches 1972, Sybil Leek had journeyed from to the U.S. some years earlier to publicize a book she had written about her antique shop. But that was not what the newsmen asked her about. As one reporter said, "Authors are a dime a dozen, in

England

but gee, a witch !" Mrs. Leek, who traced her lineage back to the early 12th century,

was

a practitioner

of the Old Religion, a pre-Christian occult worship. For many nonpractitioners, occultism suggests the secret arts of satanic including Black Magic dewitchcraft, scribed by Mrs. Leek as a debased art rather than a religion. Her kind of occultism beyond the range seeks knowledge "simply of ordinary perceptions." As a "white." or benevolent, witch, she accepted certain tenets of faith based on a Supreme Being.

—

134

Biography "Witches," she said, "have always been at getting a bad press." But with interest in the occult on the rise, Sybil Leek,

good

for one, was giving witches a reasonably a resident of the U.S., she good one.

Now

continued to turn out books, give lectures, and appear on radio and TV. Her most popular book, Diary of a Witch (1968), provided a glimpse of her life, though in some ways the book concealed more than it revealed. The reader learns that she married a concert pianist at the age of 16 and was widowed at 18, but there is nothing about the man's name or background or about a subsequent marriage, which produced two sons. At 48 she was considered to be "practically a millionaire" (perhaps something of an exaggeration). At various times she had engaged in record making, dress designing, numismatics, and public relations, and for a time she wrote

an astrology column for a women's magazine. In October 1972 she was in St. Louis, Mo., to determine the feasibility of starting a business in the downtown Gaslight Square area.

She gained

initial

fame

in

England when

she appeared in a TV film on witchcraft. She was born Sybil Falk in Staffordshire, Eng., and, shortly after her first husband died, was initiated as a full-fledged witch at a coven held in France, near Nice. For a time she lived with g\'psies in the New Forest, later opening her first antique shop

Somerset.

in

(Bernard

s.

katz)

LEONE, GIOVANNI election of Giovanni Leone as sixth president of the Italian republic, on Dec. 24, 1971, was interpreted as a triumph for compromise after the direct choices of the main political parties had failed to obtain the necessary two-thirds majority. A few

The

weeks afterward, Leone was faced with a government crisis brought on by the resignation of Prime Minister Emilio Colombo. Af-

many unsuccessful attempts to restore a firm basis to the political life of the country, he invited Giulio Andreotti (q.v.) to form a caretaker government and dissolved Parliament so that a general election could take place on May 7. During the year President Leone received several foreign heads of state and of government and paid a state visit to the Vatican. (See Italy Vatican City State.) ter

;

.\

Leone was born in Naples on Nov. 3. 1908. brilliant law student, he graduated from

the University of Naples at the age of 21 and the following year took a second degree in political and social sciences. For many years he followed an academic career that took him from Camerino to Messina, to Bari, to Naples, and finally to Rome in 1956. He was chairman of the Italian group of the "A.ssociation Internationale de Droit Penale," and published various law books, some of which became standard works in Italian judicial literature. In 1944 Leone became a member of the Christian Democratic Party, and the following year was elected secretary of the Naples branch. In 1946 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly and was one of the main authors of the constitution. Returned to the Chamber of Deputies in 1948, he was elected

vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1950. In 1955 he became president, replacing Giovanni Gronchi, who became president of the republic, In June 1963 he was asked to form a caretaker government to carry the budget through Parliament. In

1967 Pres. Giuseppe Saragat made him a lifetime senator, and the following year, after the resignation of the prime minister,

Aido Moro, he formed a second caretaker government, which lasted five months. (FABIO CALVANO)

McGOVERN, GEORGE STANLEY George

S.

McGovern

led himself to

an over-

whelming defeat in the U.S. presidential election on Nov. 7, 1972. To the end the liberal Democrat maintained a small, devoted following, but on election day only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia remained in the Democratic column as the South Dakota senator had the unhappy distinction of losing even his home state. McGovern was not only too "extremist" for erstwhile Dixiecrats, he was too liberal for traditionally middle-of-the-road voters, who rejected his candidacy almost as decisively as they had rejected Barry Goldwater's diametrically opposite platform eight years earlier.

and foremost, McGovern was an antiwar candidate and public opinion polls had reported widespread opposition to the Vietnam war. But McGovern's pledge to withdraw U.S. forces within 90 days of inauguration day and "plead" for the release of U.S. prisoners of war disturbed chauvinistic citizens of a natinn that had not "lost" a war since its founding. McGovern's economic and social proposals, especially his First

devised welfare plan, further alienated middle-class voters. He later admitted the figures in his first plan had been faulty, but the Republicans continued to belabour it and, when he introduced new proposals, they were lost amid the rhetoric. A modest, softspoken man with a colourhastily

less, professorial manner, McGovern had one a.sset that compensated for his lack of dramatic appeal—his reputation for plain

honesty and moral courage. But that dissolved during his handling of the afialr of Thomas Eagleton (q.v.). When it was revealed that his vice-presidential choice had

been treated for mental illness, McGovern first stood by him and then, a week later, dumped him with what many people considered all the misguided pragmatic calculation of any old-time hack politician. McGovern was born in Avon, S.D., on July 19, 1922. the son of a countr>' minister. After distinguished service as a World VV'ar II bomber pilot, he graduated from Dakota Wesleyan University and earned a doctorate at Northwestern University, Evanston, III. He taught histor>' and political science at Dakota Wesleyan and then as executive secretar>' reorganized the moribund state Democratic Party. After serving two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives, he became a special assistant to Pres. John F. Kennedy, was elected to the Senate in 1962,

and reelected

in

1968.

When McGovern announced

his presidenin 1971 nearly a year before any major opponent the press and party regulars ignored him. His strong showtial

candidacy early

— —

ing in the New Hampshire primary undermined Sen. Edmund S. Muskie's favoured position and his victory in the Wisconsin primar\- effectively put the Maine senator out of the running. McGovern's nomination

was

all but assured when he defeated former vice-president Hubert H. Humphrey in the June California primary. (philip kopper)

MacSTIOFAIN. SEAN On Nov.

25. 1972. a Dublin court convicted Sean MacStiofain of being a member of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), an illegal organization. MacStiofain was reputedly chief of staff of the Provi.-iional wing of the

IRA that was conducting the terror campaign in Northern Ireland and his arrest on

i

November

19 heralded a firmer anti-IRA by the government of the Republic of Ireland. After his arrest MacStiofain began a hunger strike. Following the trial, he was moved from prison to a Dublin hospital line

Manley's appointment as organizer for the sugar workers in the and in 1955 he became first vice-president of the union. He was also elected president of the Carib-

to

NWU,

as priests, unsuccessfully tried to free him), then to a military hospital at Curragh,

bean Bauxite and Mine Workers Union and in 20 years of labour work became recognized as one of the most skilled union negotiators in the English-speaking world.

County Kildare. John Edward Drayton Stephenson (he adopted the Gaelic form of his name in the late 1940s) was born in Leytonstone, Essex,

Manley entered elective politics in 1967 when he was elected to Parliament for the Central Kingston constituency. He became leader of the opposition at a time when

(where armed sympathizers, some disguised

Eng., on Feb. 17, 1928, of parents born in England, and was baptized a Protestant. He left school at 14. did his national service in the Royal Air Force after World War II, and in 1950, after holding various jobs, started a small building firm in north London with a partner, marrying the same year. He became increasingly involved with Irish organizations and after his building business collapsed in 1951 became an IRA activist. In 1953 he was arrested and charged with stealing munitions from a school cadet armoury. With two other men he was sentenced to eight years* imprisonment and served six years. After his release in 1959 he moved to Ireland to live for the first time in what he regarded as his homeland. Already a fluent Gaelic speaker, he worked for a Gaeliclanguage organization. At this time the

Republican movement, embracing Sinn Fein (the political wing) and the IRA, was showing signs of internal division because of the limited success of the 1956-62 border campaign. When the campaign ended, leftwing and pacifist ideals began to dominate the movement. This did not suit MacStiofain,

speaking,

whose dream was Catholic

Marxism and won. The 1969 riots

if

in

for a GaelicIreland untainted by necessary, by the gun. Belfast,

N.Ire.,

were

to the Republican movement to bring the gun back into politics. The Provisional, more militant wing of the movement was established in January 1970,

an open invitation

with MacStiofain as chief of

staff.

(BRUCE ARNOLD)

MANLEY, MICHAEL After his People's National Party won genJamaica on Feb. 29, 1972,

eral elections in

Michael Manley took office on March 2 as prime minister of the Caribbean island nation.

A

passionate advocate of democracy and an anti-Communist, Manley faced severe problems in his country, including a high unemployment rate and a limited number of jobs in sugar, mining, and tourism. Demands by some in the country for increased black power caused concern, but Manley believed that he could alleviate the situation by working for an equitable distribution of

goods and ownership. A former Royal Canadian Air Force pilot in World War II and a postwar graduate of the London School of Economics, Manley was born Dec. 10, 1923, in Kingston. His late father, Norman W. Manley, was one of Jamaica's national heroes and served as prime minister from 1959 to 1962. Like his father, Manley became closely allied with the labour union movement in Jamaica, which was primarily connected with the bauxite and sugar industries. For a time he worked as a free-lance journalist for the British Broadcasting Corporation and as co-editor of the newspaper Public Opinion in Jamaica. He was associated with the National Workers' Union in a successful strike of bauxite workers against Aluminum Co. of Canada (Alcan) in 1953. This action for the first time in Jamaica produced wage scales based on ability to pay. This success led

Biography

the People's National Party, founded by his father, had lost two general elections. Man1972 led to the first smooth transition of leadership from one party to another in the history of the new Caribbean nations. (jeremiah a. o'leary) ley's victory in

MARCHAIS. GEORGES Georges Marchais's election as secretarygeneral of the French Communist Party at its 2Qth congress in December 1972 was a foregone conclusion: he had been the party's de facto leader for the past three years, during which time the nominal secretarygeneral, Waldeck Rochet, had been seriously ill. (Rochet was elected honorary president of the party. His illness had by 1972 incapacitated him totally.) The formalization of Marchais's leadership came six months after he had signed an agreement with the French Socialist Party led by Francois Mitterrand (q.v.) and with the left-wing Radicals on a "common government program." The pact had only one precedent: in 1935 the same parties

had combined and in the following year's election had come to power as the Popular Front. Now Marchais was speculating on a similar result, and the possibility seemed less remote than at any time since Charles de Gaulle's return to power in 1958. The Communists claimed more members than any other French political party, and opinion polls published in December showed that the new union could expect some 45% of the votes in the 1973 election; the Gaullists and their partners could expect 38%. Nevertheless, the "common government program" was radical enough to scare off middle-of-the-road voters, and Marchais was at pains to stress the Communists' devotion to democracy. "We are not the party of the raised fist." he declared at the congress. are the party of the hand stretched toward the French people."

"We out

Somewhat

forbidding in appearance, Marchais was described by Alain Peyrefitte, the Gaullist secretary-general, as "not the sort of man you'd stop to give a lift to." With increasingly frequent public appearances, however, his coldness and lack of

humour showed

signs of softening.

Born June 7, 1920, at La Hoguette, CalvaMarchais was a mechanic by trade. During World War II he worked in Germany under the compulsory labour system and did not join the Communist Party until 1947. By 1959, despite some resentment among party veterans, he had become a member of the Central Committee and a candidate member of the Politburo, and in February 1970 he became deputy secretarydos,

(PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)

general.

MARGRETHE

II

"To be queen is a richer experience than I have ever dreamed of," said Queen Margrethe II of Denmark at the first press conference ever to be given by a reigning monarch of the 1,000-year-old kingdom. Facing more than 100 journalists assembled at Fredensborg, the royal summer palace, in November 1972, with her consort, Prince Henrik, at her side, she answercd^or skillparried in Danish, English, and fully

—

Swedish, questions on such diverse topics as the future of the monarchy, home rule for Greenland, abortion, and women's liberation.

Queen Margrethe II (the first Margrethe was queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden from 1387 to 1412) succeeded to the throne on Jan. 14, 1972, on the death of her father. King Frederik IX (see Obituaries). Born April 16, 1940, she was baptized Margrethe Alexandrine Thorhildur Ingrid. After attending school in Copenhagen, she continued her studies at the universities of Copenhagen, Arhus in Jutland, Cambridge, the London School of Economics, the Sorbonne. In 1953, following a in the Danish constitution to permit female succession to the throne, Margrethe, the king's eldest daughter, assumed the title of "throne heiress" (i.e., crown princess, although that title, in Denmark, denotes the

and

change

wife of a male heir to the throne). As such, from her 18th birthday she regularly took part in meetings of the Council of State in preparation for her future regal duties. On June 10, 1967, she married Count Henri de Laborde de Monpezat, a French diplomat, who afterward took the title of Prince Henrik. Their first child, Crown Prince Frederik, was born on May 26, 1968, and a second son. Prince Joachim, on June 7, 1969. A popular figure from her childhood days during the German occupation of Denmark in World War II, when she was called "Princess Sunshine," the new queen, highly educated, charming, and with a ready wit, seemed well equipped to occupy the secure place in the affections of the Danish people that her father had held during his 25-year reign.

(stener aarsdal)

MEINHOF, ULRIKE Co-leader of the Baader-Meinhof gang of

West German urban guerrillas, Ulrike Mcinhof was arrested in an apartment near Hanover Airport on June 15, 1972. Andreas Baader had been seized after a gun battle with police two weeks earlier, and he, Meinhof, and others of the group's hard core faced charges of murder, arson, and bank robbery. The gang's activities began in April 1968, when fire broke out in two Frankfurt stores. Within 48 hours three young men and a

woman were arrested on suspicion of arson. All members of the extra-parliamentary opposition, they had started the fires as a dem-

Helen's anti-Communist feelings led him and 47 oi his colleagues to resign from the RPP, which had veered to the left under a new secretary-general (Bulent Ecevit). and to form the small Reliance Party. The new

136

Biography

onstralion against

what they

fell

to be

an

society and its inilitference to the victims of the war in Vietnam. One of the four was Andreas Baadcr. All were sentenced to three years' imprisonment ultramaterialistic

West German pracbecame legally binding. Baader went underground in West Berlin. There he met Ulrikc Mcinhof, and discovereil that their political views were as good as identical. Meinhof was born Oct. 7. 1934, in Olden-

but, in accordance with tice,

were

set free until the verdicts

but spent her childhood in Jena, where her father was head of the civic museum. At the university, where she was a brilliant student and an active protester against what she held to be a cynical, cruel, fragmented society, she met the man who

burg,

monthly left-wing the published Konkrei. Eventually they married and had two children, but were subsequently di-

later

vorced. Meinhof was editor of the magazine for a time, and she and her husband were prominent in the literary establishment. Meinhof then turned her back on bourgeois

life

and went

West

to

Berlin.

When

Baadcr was arrested there, she helped to him when he was allowed out of prison, under guard, to visit a library. Later the two of them, with other members of the gang, went to the Middle East for training in guerrilla warfare. They admitted responsibility for several explosions in West Gerfree

of 1972. when they were operating under the name of Red .-Vrmy Faction, or V.\V. The gang's strategy was based on the belief that, since capitalist

many

in the early

months

society could not be brought down by revolution, the most effective alternative would

be an urban guerrilla

American

lines.

movement on South (norm.4n crossland)

MELEN, FERIT .^s

for inspiring confidence in the leadership of his country, Fcrit

reward

military

Melen was appointed prime minister of Turkey by Pres. Cevdet Sunay on April 17, 1972. .\s minister of defense Melen had earlier acted as liaison

between the

civilian

administration headed by Nihat Erim and

commanders who had installed it in power on March 26. 1971. after ousting the democratically elected government of Suleyman Deniirel. Melen had once before benefited from a the military

military intervention in politics. He first held office as minister of finance in Ismet Inonu's coalition governments between 1962 and 1965, the troubled period between the military coup of May 27, 1960. and the elections that l)rought the Justice Party to power in Octfiber 1965. Melen was then a leading member of Inonu's Republican People's Party (RPP). the party established by Kcmal Ataturk. founder of the Turkish republic, as the instrument of the country's westernization. Born in Van in 1906, Melen became a finance official and by 1944, at age .38, had risen to the key position of director general of revenue in the Ministry of Finance. In May 1950 he was elected RPP deputy for his home town in the country's first freely contested elections. In addition to his public service background, Melen had another a.ssel in the eyes of the military commanders. This was his staunch anti-Communism, a common sentiment for a citizen of the small eastern Anatolian fortress town of \'an, occupied by the Russians in World War I, and still claimed by Armenian nationalists. In 1967

declared

party

itself

the

heir

true

•-.

.\taturk's nationalist tradition.

(ANDREW

MAN(.i'

MESSMER, PIERRE To

the surprise of

many

observers. Pierre

Messmer emerged from relative obscurity in July 1972 to become France's premier, leader of the parliamentary majority, and second

in

command

of the Fifth Republic.

noticed how this trusted lieutenant Charles de Gaulle had unobtrusively come to stand in the same relationship to Pres. Georges Pompidou, de Gaulle's successor. With opinion polls increasingly favouring the opposition left-wing alliance,

Few had

of

many doubted whether Messmer was

ourless

the somewhat colthe right man to

undertake the daunting usk of leading the Gaullists into the

March 1973

elections.

Born March 20, 1916, atVincennes, Messmer took a doctorate in law at the University of Paris and also graduated at the

Pierre

National School of Oriental Languages. In 1940 he rallied to de Gaulle, fought as a Free French company commander at the siege of Bir Hakeim in Libya, and was parachuted into Tongking and captured by Ho Chi Minh's troops in 1945. From 1946 he

vironment. Not only was her mother a star but her father, \inccnte Minnelli, directed such outstanding movie musicals as An American in Paris and Cigi. Her godmother, Eloise author Kay Thompson, said, "Liza was always show business. The basic quality" has been there since she said her first 'goo.' When she was 2i, Liza had a toddle-on part in one of her mother's movies. At 7 she danced on New York's Palace Theater stage while Judy sang. .\t 14 she herself starred for the first time in a Scarsdale (N.Y.) High School production of The Diary of Anne Frank. F"ed up with education at 17— her mother's frenetic life, frequent emotional crises, and roller-coaster fortune had shunted Liza to

served in the French colonial administration, first in Indochina, then in .Africa, where he successively governor of Mauritania and of the Ivory Coast. After a period at the Ministry of Overseas France, where he was involved in the first steps toward decolonizathe Socialist minister initiated by tion

was

Gaston Defferre. he became high commissioner for Cameroun. then, successively, for French Equatorial .\frica and French West Africa. In spite

of this outstanding career, de Gaulle's I960 appointment of Messmer as minister of defense, immediately after the abortive "generals' putsch" in .\lgiers. was unexpected. He remained at that post through crises and reshuffles until 1969, when he followed de Gaulle into retirement. He was one of the last visitors to Colombey shortly before the general's death. Founder of Presence et .\ction du Gaullisme. the association uniting the most faithful of de Gaulle's "companions." he was always ready to give le.ssons in Gaullist orthodoxy to the general's successors. However, realism and political sense soon overcame his bitterness and suspicion of the new order. He returned to the government in February 1971 as unobtrusively as he had left it, as minister for overseas dipartemettts

and

territories.

(

Pierre viansson-ponte)

MINNELLI, LIZA Once known

as

Judy Garland's daughter,

again persuasively spectacular talents as a singer and considerable ability as an Liza

Minnelli

1972

in

demonstrated her

own

actress. She was outstanding in Cabaret, the screen adaptation of Harold Prince's Broad-

way

hit,

based on Christopher Isherwood's

Berlin talcs.

The

film, co-starring Joel

Grey

as a leering nightclub emcee, was set in the soul-withering atmosphere of Berlin in the early 1930s. Liza played Sally Bowles, a tawdry, fame-seeking chantruse. to the quick of her green-painted nails. She seemed assured of an Academy .^ward nomination for her performance and was also likely to be in the

Born

in

20 schools— she quit the Sorbonne for New York. There, in 1963, she landed a featured role in an off-Broadway revival of Best Foot Forward and won one of Theater World's "Promising Personalities" awards. 19 she became the youngest Tony \t. Award winner for the title role in Flora, The Red Menace, a short-lived and swiftly torgotten charade about U.S. leftists in the 1930s. Her screen debut was with .Albert Finney in Charlie Bubbles. Then came an

.Academy .Xward nomination as kookey Pookic .\dams. the hapless antiheroine in The Sterile Cuckoo, a role that assured her peerless stature as performer of "the happy trauma." Meanwhile, she was becoming a veteran stand-up singer on the nightclub circuit. There audiences often begged for traces of Judy Garland, but when they requested "Over the Rainbow," Liza would (phiup kopper) say, "It's been sung."

MITCHELL, MARTHA The most

gregarious and outspoken Cabinet wife in recent memory. Martha Mitchell was muzzled briefly in the spring of 1972 in an incident as bizarre as the event that

prompted it. the "Watergate Caper." an attempt to bug the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate Office Building in Washington. DC. The matter soon became a cause c6lfebre as the press, with the Washington Post in the forefront,

worked

diligently to unearth facts

and

implications of the Watergate scandal, which were soon leading in many directions.

"Liza with

the Watergate affair had no appareffect on the presidential election, it appeared possible that some people close to

Hollywood, Calif., March 12, grew up in a show business en-

the president authorized and financed the criminal incursion at the Watergate as well as other acts of political sabotage.

running for an

Emmy

her electrifving television a Z." 1946, Liza

Messmer

award

S[>ccial,

after

Though ent

Martha Mitchell Liza Minnelli

Shortly after the break-in an enterprising reporter called Mrs. Mitchell, an ardent believer in the telephone. Asked for a comment on the Watergate matter, Mrs. Mitchell later recalled replying, "Politics is a dirty business," only to have a bodyguard terminate the conversation and jerk the phone from the wall. Then, she later reported, several bodyguards held her down while someone gave her a sedative injection. She said she had been held incommunicado for 24 hours. Mrs. Mitchell

made

public an ultimatum

issued to her husband, former attorney general John N. Mitchell, shortly after the alleged bodyguard incident: give up either politics or her. Mitchell made his choice and resigned as Pres. Richard Nixon's campaign

manager. The Mitchells then took up residence in a New York City apartment. Born in Pine Bluff, Ark., Sept. 2, 1918, Mrs. Mitchell was remembered in a high school yearbook by a still timely ditty: "I gentle warble,/ I love its gentle flow,/ I love to wind my tongue up,/ and (philip kopper) I love to let it go."

love

its

MITTERRAND, FRANCOIS MAURICE In 1965 Francois Mitterrand had stood against Charles de Gaulle as the sole candidate of the Socialist and Communist left for the French presidency. He collected over seven million votes and forced de Gaulle to a second ballot. On June 27, 1972, he again threw down the gauntlet, this time against the less formidable Pres. Georges Pompidou,

when he announced agreement between Parti Socialiste Frangais

his

and the Parti Com-

muniste Frantjais, led by Georges Marchais (g.v.), on a common pohcy platform to fight the spring 1973 legislative elections. Should the united left be successful, Mitterrand would undoubtedly be its presidential candidate in 1976. The agreement, ratified by the respective party congresses in July, was regarded as the most significant event for the French left since the Socialist Congress at Tours in 1920, when the left wing of the Socialists had seceded to form the Communist Party. With public opinion late in 1972 veering strongly in favour of social reforms after 14 years of Gaullist rule, Mitterrand's challenge was not to be ignored. Mitterrand was born on Oct. 26, 1916, at Jarnac, Charente, France. The son of a stationmaster, he became the youngest minister of the Fourth Republic in the Socialist government of Paul Ramadier in 1947, having

been elected deputy for Nievre the previous year. He subsequently served in 11 shortlived governments. Mitterrand escaped During World War from a German prison camp, but before becoming a leader of one of the principal movements, he spent several resistance

H

months working for the Vichy government and was awarded a medal for loyalty to the Petain regime. This fact, and his sudden change of attitude toward the Algerian secessionists in 1957, from bellicose hostility to firm support, fed the fire of opponents* accusations that his pohtical convictions were shallow. But Mitterrand had twice proved himself the strongest and most effective leader of the French Socialists, and he was one of the very few to have opposed de Gaulle consistently from 1958 onward. (PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)

MOBUTU SESE SEKO During 1972 President Mobutu of Zaire continued his campaign to promote "the authentic African personality" of his people. Following the changing of the country's name from Congo to Zaire in October 1971, foreign place and personal names were africanized and Mobutu changed his own Christian names, Joseph-Desire, back to his earlier tribal names, Sese Seko ("daring and unconquerable warrior" his full appellation being Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga ) Although he had been brought up in the Catholic faith and remained a staunch Christian, his "authenticity" campaign led to a confrontation with Joseph-Albert Cardinal Malula (who left the country for a time) and almost ruptured diplomatic relations with the Vatican before

—

.

the conflict

was

resolved. Oct. 14, 1930, at Lisala

Mobutu was born in

the

Equateur Province of the Belgian

colonialist society that was by the local inhabitants to be strongly discriminatory and that left a sharp imprint on him and his fellow countrymen. After seven years in the Belgian-officered Force Publique, he had the unusual privilege of a year at a Belgian university, where he studied social sciences. On his return he became a journahst and joined Patrice Lumumba's Mouvement National Congolais. At independence in 1960 he became defense secretary in Lumumba's government, then chief of staff of the Congolese Army. Five years later he staged a coup from which he emerged as the most powerful figure in the country.

Congo, into a felt

Although only 35 when he seized power, a remarkable capacity for tough, often ruthless leadership. He turned his once disorderly and ill-trained army into a modern, well-disciplined force, created his own ruling party, the Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution, and embarked on a series of radical reforms that included nationalizing Union Miniere, the Belgian mining corporation that once controlled most of the great copper and cobalt wealth of the Katanga region. Nevertheless, he succeeded in maintaining a cooperative relationship with Belgium. His foreign policies were essentially Western-oriented, notwithstanding the nationalist ardour that prompted his call for (colin lecum) "authenticity."

Mobutu showed

MOLINA BARRAZA, ARTURO ARMANDO In an election that triggered a bloody and abortive coup by rebel military forces. Col. Arturo Armando Molina Barraza of El Salvador was chosen president of Central America's smallest republic on Feb. 25, 1972. Molina, a career soldier, was in the United States when the fighting broke out in San Salvador, but forces loyal to outgoing Pres. Fidel Sanchez Hernandez acted in concert with the Air Force to defeat the rebels. Order was restored, and Molina, who had been secretary to Sanchez, was inaugurated for a five-year term on July 1. Before the presidential campaign, Molina was almost unknown outside of government and military circles. But Sanchez, El Salvador's strong man, supported him for the presidency as candidate of the National Conciliation Party. No candidate received a clear majority in the February election, and Molina, the front-runner by 10,000 votes, was declared elected by Congress. The runner-up, Jose Napoleon Duarte, candidate of the left-of-centre National Opposition Union, charged that the election was a fraud. Duarte was arrested during the uprising that followed the election.

Born in San Salvador on June 18, 1927, Molina graduated first in his class at the Salvadoran Military Academy. He became an artillery officer and studied at the Mexican Superior War College and the Infantry School in Spain. He served for several years on the board of the Salvador Railway Co. and on the port authority for Acajutla. His rise to prominence began in 1969 when Sanchez made him his private secretary. Molina described himself as a "Central Americanist." He was anti-Communist and

a

dedicated lo settling the differences between El Salvador and Honduras, which still faced

Biography

unsolved problems resulting (rom Iheit arnud conflict of 1969 (JLRrMlAll A. O'LEARY)

many

NIXON, RICHARD MILHOUS In the last year of his

first

term as U.S.

president Richard Nixon could point to some notable accomplishments and to two notable failures. He visited Moscow and

—

signed the first U.S.-U.S.S.R. aRrecment to hmit nuclear arms proliferation. He became the first U.S. president to visit China and in doini; so symbolically exorcised 20 years of hinalional phobia. And in November he was reelected by a margin that compared to the landslide victories of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson. But the

domestic economy, though improving,

re-

fused to conform to his appointees' rosy predictions and he had not yet succeeded in ending the war in Vietnam. In fact, when cease-fire negotiations con-

Henry Kissinger (q.v.) broke down, Nixon escalated the air war over North Vietnam, mercilessly pounding the capital, Hanoi, and the port city of Haiphong with the most devastating aerial bombardment in history. On December 30 the White House announced that Kissinger would return to negotiations in Paris on Jan. 8, 1973, and that bombing north of the 20th parallel would be halted indefinitely. There was speculation that the announcement was as much a response to resounding cries of outrage at home and abroad as it was to any overtures from North Vietnam. In the election Nixon faced, or rather

ducted

by

McGovern the hapless George (.q.v.). He struck a statesmanlike pose, barely appearing on the hustings and sending instead cohorts of "surrogate candidates," such as his Cabinet members, aides, wife, and daughters. Despite this and credible charges of campaign espionage, including the Watergate bugging incident, Nixon's popular vote margin was 23%; he won 60% of the votes, barely one percentage point less than Johnson in 1964, and overwhelmed McGovern in 49 states. The dimensions of the victory were belied by the absence of Nixon's coattails, however. Ticket-splitting was epidemic as Democrats ran successfully for the majority of state offices and for seats in both congressional

ignored,

hou'ies.

The most outstanding events of Nixon's year took place in Peking and Moscow, His talks with Chairman Mao Tse-tung and Premier Chou En-lai produced little more than future people-to-people exsolid changes and a trade agreement, but longterm ramifications were as important as they were ineffable. As Andre Malraux said, it would take half a century to understand what had occurred in a week. The Moscow

Richard M. Nixon

visit had more concrete results, including a treaty limiting antiballisticmissile systems, an executive agreement limiting offensive nuclear weapons, and pacts calling for cooperation in health and scientific research, trade, space exploration, environmental protection, and maritime navigation. Born in Yorba Linda, Calif., on Jan. 9, 191.^ .\ixon was graduated from Whittier College and Duke University Law School. After serving in the Navy during World War II, he was elected a U.S. representative from California in 1946, a senator four years later, and vice-president in 1952. He was defeated by John F. Kennedy in the I960 presidential election but returned in 1968 to defeat Hubert H. Humphrey. (PUILIP KOPrER)

O'KEEFFE, GEORGIA with "unjadcd joy," Georgia filled O'Keeffe at 85 continued to create the paint-

Still

ings that brought delight to the millions

knew and loved

her work.

who

Andrew Wyeth

was the only U.S. artist who could draw more people to an exhibit. Three major retrospective exhibits in New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, embracing the whole of her creative life until then, had brought O'Keeffe's gifts to new and old admirers across the country in 1970-71. Her painting was the only part of her life O'Keeffe was willing to share with the world. Calling herself a creature of solitude, she rarely left her New Mexico retreats of summer home at Ghost Ranch, 50 mi. Santa Fe, where she rose each dawn to walk the arroyos, and a nine-room winter house in the tiny village of Abiquiu (pop. about 300). But she had not always lived as a

—

N

loner.

Born in Sun Prairie, Wis., on Nov. 15, 1887, she studied art in Chicago and New York, gave up painting to teach, and then took up art again, this time in black and white. In late 1915 a friend, strictly against instructions, showed some of her drawings to that moody genius of photography Alfred StiegUtz, who promptly exhibited them. O'Keeffe marched to Stieglitz' place in a

rage to demand their removal and found a friendship that culminated in marriage in 1924. StiegUtz loved people, and their home became the lively centre of a spirited

avant-garde movement. O'Keeffe's

first

visit

to

New

Mexico

in

1929 convinced her that this was her true

home, and she moved there after StiegliU died in 1946. For a time she traveled widely, but by 1972 she left only when her work

demanded

it.

O'Keeffe hallmarks were lean, clean line; dear, vivid colour a combination of sweep ;

precision, mystery and starkncss. Each canvas had an almost hallucinatory quality. Although her paintings had the enchantment of Surrealism, they were of particular things and places. She concentrated in turn on Jimsonweed, desert roses, bones bleached white by the desert sun, clouds, and rocks. The world showered O'Keeffe with honours,

and

the

being the Edward MacDowcll for outstanding contribution to the

latest

Medal

(PAT TUCKER)

arts.

PAPP, JOSEPH From New York's

Central Park and the PubUc Theatre in the East Village, producer Joseph Papp made the transition to Broadway in 1972, and in the process garnered critical acclaim and awards. Identified for 18 years with

New

York's

free

"Shakespeare

Park" summer program, in December Papp had opened his first play on Broadway, the John Guare and Mel Shapiro

in the

1971

updated version of Shakespeare's Two Gentlemen of Verona. The musical had proved highly successful in its Central Park presentation and continued its hit career in 1972 at the St. James Theatre. Papp's second production. Sticks and Bones, the David Rabe play about a returning Vietnam veteran, opened on Broadway in March after a successful run at the Public Theatre. In April the League of New York Theatres gave a Tony for best musical to Gents and one for best play to Sticks. Later, the

New York Drama

Critics

Circle

named

Cents as the best musical and Jason Miller's That Championship Season as the best play of the year. The latter was another Papp production, which had opened early in the year at his Public Theatre and by September had gone to Broadway, By November Papp chalked up another play on Broadway when

Much Ado About Nothing opened enthusiastic reception during the

after

summer

an in

Central Park. If

the awards and recognition gladdened

Papp's heart, they also helped to focus attention on his long-standing efforts to provide playwrights with a stage and audience. Off-Broadway, he noted, still seemed to be the only place where producers could take a chance on young directors and writers. With Central Park and the year-round Public Theatre at his disposal, Papp could put on plays of varying scope. His Mobile Theatre, another offshoot of the Shakespeare program, took plays to the people throughout New York's boroughs. Early in 1972 the Rockefeller Foundation gave him a grant to explore the possibility of establishing an agency that would tour professional companies throughout the U.S. Born Joseph Papirofsky on June 22, 1921, in Brooklyn, N.Y., Papp served in the Navy in 1942-46, where he helped produce shows that toured the Pacific area on board an aircraft carrier. He began his association with the Central Park program in 1954. (BERNARD S. KATZ)

PARKS, GORDON Photographer, composer, writer, and successful film director, Gordon Parks won the NAACP's 1972 Spingarn Medal that goes annually to a preeminent American of African descent. It was only the latest of a number of awards for Parks, who had been

Museum of Art, the University of Missouri School of Journalism, and the National Conference of Christians and Jews. A restless, extraordinarily creative man, Parks recently had concentrated on motion-picture direction. He directed the low-budget box-office smash Shaft, one of the earliest and best made in the sudden new wave of adventure films featuring sex, violence, and notably black heroes as titanic detectives or legendary crooks. These films appealed largely to black honoured by the Philadelphia

—

—

writer with the publication of The Learning Tree, an autobiographical novel about a black youth in a small Kansas town. The book became a movie, which Parks directed and for which he created the musical score. It

his first attempt at moviemaking. He wrote an undisguised autobiography,

was

also

A Choice of Weapons. Born in Fort Scott, Kan., Nov.

30, 1912,

Parks emerged from a violent youth. He supported himself with a variety of odd jobs, including playing piano in a brothel, did a stint with the Civilian Conservation Corps, and drifted to Harlem with a jazz band that featured his compositions. He later wrote serious modern music, including several concertos. He studied photography and worked for the Farm Security Administration, later for the Office of War Information

and Standard

Oil Co. of

New

Jersey before (philip kopper)

urban audiences and revived the fortunes of movie houses long since languishing in cities from which affluent white residents had

joining Life in 194S.

fled.

Once the all-powerful dictator of Argentina and for 17 years an exile, Juan Peron returned to his native land in 1972. As the leader of a large and powerful political grouping, he was in a position to play a kingmaking role in his country's convoluted politics. His decision as to whether to be a

These filmed fantasies appeared

modern black equivalent

of the

James Cag-

ney or Humphrey Bogart crime won the adulation of mass white in decades past, and they certainly from superwhite James Bond's bed-and-blood heroics. But they

many

black leaders,

who

to be the

epics that

audiences

borrowed brand of dismayed

said they glorified

"superdudes" such as killers and dope dealers. Parks replied, "It's ridiculous to imply that blacks don't know the difference between truth and fantasy and therefore will be influenced by these films in an unhealthy way. I knew a black preacher in Chicago, and I remember people who wanted to kill their white bosses coming to prayer meeting, and being calmed down by the preacher. These movies are antiheroes,

serving the same therapeutic function." Said the noted black actor James Earl Jones, "If they're going to put the damper on John Shaft, let them put it on John Wayne, too, and they'll find out that there are a lot of people who need those fantasies." (The ghetto epic that caused the most furious outcry, Super Fly, directed by Parks's son, Gordon Parks, Jr., grossed $11 million in two months as city audiences packed movie houses to cheer the adventurous exploits of a cocaine dealer who in the end out-cons crooked white cops.) The elder Parks earned fame first as a Life photographer for his picture essays on human topics ranging from ghetto life to Spanish bullfighting. Unlike many visual artists, he also emerged as an accomplished

PERON, JUAN DOMINGO

force.

an

as

active

On January

—and

24

the

legal

— political

neo-Peronistas

were recognized by a federal judge in Buenos Aires as a legal political organization, and on April 7 the

(now

called Justicialistas)

last legal obstacle to Peron's return was removed when a 1955 treason charge against him was dismissed. The Justicialistas proclaimed him as their presidential candidate

June. It was not to be that simple, however. Subsequently, Pres. Alejandro Lanusse decreed that all candidates must be in Argentina by August 25. On July 22 Peron announced that he would not return for in

"security

reasons."

He

later

mind, however, and returned

on November for

changed his Argentina wish was

to

17, stating that his

the military

government

to

"call

free,

pure elections without conditions or proscriptions."

On

candidacy of Hector Campora, who had been Peron's longtime personal representative in Argentina. Peron was born Oct. 8, 1895, in Buenos Aires Province. Elected president in 1946, he set out on a revolutionary program of nationalization, industrialization, and social welfare. Basing his rule on the support of the proletariat and catering to anti-U.S. feeling, he— with his second wife, Eva ruled Argentina absolutely until his overthrow by the military. He fled to Paraguay in 19SS and eventually settled in Spain.

—

(JEREMIAH

candidate for the presidency or to endorse another loomed as a vital factor in the March 1973 elections, when the South American country he once governed was scheduled to return to democratic rule after six years of military control. The Peronista movement had never died out in .Argentina, and in 1972 it prepared to return

tuted strict security precautions, but at no time during his stay did Peron encourage mass demonstrations or uprisings and only scattered incidents occurred. After 28 days of consultations with the government and his supporters, he left Argentina on December 14 for a visit to Paraguay, en route to his home in Madrid. At year's end, the Peronistas appeared to be uniting around the

Peron's arrival the government insti-

A.

O'LEARY)

PETERS. MARY ELIZABETH After years of training Mary Peters reached the pinnacle of her long athletic career when

mounted the rostrum In Munich in September 1972 to receive the Olympic gold medal for the women's pentathlon. She scored a world record 4,801 points in the she

five events

(100-m. hurdles, shot put, high

jump, long jump, 200 m.), beating West Germany's Heide Rosendahl, eight years her junior, by 10 points. The success of this cheerful, outgoing secretary from Belfast, N.Ire., was just reward for complete dedication to her chosen sport. Seven times winner of the British pentathlon title, she trained regularly in the Belfast gymnasium of her

coach and employer, Buster McShane, and used the winter indoor competitions early in 1972 to sharpen up her sprinting and improve her weak event, the high jump. A switch to the "flop" style brought an improvement from her normal best of 5 ft. 5 in, to a potential 6 ft., and she was within a quarter of an inch of that height during the Olympics. JBorn in Liverpool on July 6, 1939, Mary Peters went to

Armagh and athletics scene

Portadown College first

in

County

appeared on the major

when

she

Northern Ireland team

was in

selected for the the

1958

Com-

monwealth Games at Cardiff, Wales. From then on she competed in many top tournaments and in 1962 came under the wing of McShane. Two years later she went to

Tokyo with the Olympic Games

British

team

XVIII women's

for the

as captain of the

140

Biography

finished fourth in the pentathlon. In 1968, with several local successes behind her, she went to Mexico but finished only ninth in the pentathlon. This poor showing steeled her resolve to beat the world's best, and in the 1970 Commonwealth Games at Edinburgh, Scot., she collected gold medals in the shot put and pentathlon. She then decided to pass over domestic and European competitions in 1971 and focus all her attention and training on winning the gold at Munich. She was helped in this aim by being awarded a Winston Churchill travel scholarship that took her away from troubled Ulster and enabled her to train in the sunshine and peace of California. On her return she took part in the Highland Games in Scotland, winning both the shot put and the pentathlon and setting a British record of 4,630 points in the latter. (TREVOR WILLIAMSON)

team and

POMPIDOU, GEORGES nearly three years of comparative calm since taking the French helm, Pres. Georges Pompidou in 1972 began to encounter rough patches. His first serious reversal came in April, when he held a referendum on the enlargement of the EEC. He had hoped to get the nation to underwrite his After

European policy and

at the same time enhis personal prestige and pave the way for the 1973 legislative elections. Although two out of three of those who voted were in favour, the 40% rate of abstention robbed the result of any real satisfaction. After this partial failure, a number of

hance

of corruption involving government deputies came to light. These led Pompidou in July to replace Premier Jacques ChabanDelmas with Pierre Mcssmer iq.v.), an

cases

orthodox Gaullist, at the head of a reshuffled government. But worse was yet to come. In September Gabriel Aranda (q.v.) burst upon the scene with "136 documents involving 48 persons," goading Pompidou to an unusual show of anger in his biannual press conference on September 21.

The

EEC

"summit" meeting, held

in Paris

October, also had disappointing results for Pompidou: the choice of Paris as the seat of the EEC's political secretariat was rejected, and the introduction of monetary in

union was postponed. Toward year's end

was speculation as to how pidou would open the government there

far Pomto the left

should the Socialist-Communist alliance fulfill the promise of opinion polls and win the 1973 elections. In the realm of personal diplomacy, Pompidou received several heads of state and

government and

visited others in their

own

He made two

trips to Africa and in Upper Volta in November announced the cancellation of a Fr. 1 billion debt owed to France by its former African

countries.

while

colonies.

Pompidou was born on July 5, 1911, at Montboudif in the Cantal. A teacher of literature from 1935 until 1944, he became director of Charles de Gaulle's Cabinet during the transition between the Fourth and Fifth Republics and, in 1962, premier. Following the student disturbances of May 1968

he was dismissed, but the following year he was elected president after de Gaulle's resignation.

—

A representative of the third world a black born on the island of Dominica in the West Indies became the third general secretary

—

firmly

group's top executive post at a meeting of the council's Central Committee in Utrecht, Neth., on August 16. The organization he would guide was composed of more than 260 Anglican, Orthodox, and Protestant churches in 90 countries and territories, representing a total membership of 400 million Chris-

man

tians.

Potter, a Methodist, was no stranger to the World Council. In 1948 he attended the first assembly of the council as a youth delegate. Before being named general secretary, he was chairman of Program Unit I on Faith and Witness and director of the

Commission on World Mission and Evan-

A strong believer in the unity of the church. Potter associated that unity with a unity of mankind. Such a unity is not to be achieved by abstract concepts. As a religious activist, Potter saw the gospel of Jesus Christ as having political implications: the church cannot function without taking cognizance of the struggle for justice and playing its part in that struggle. He noted that power in the World Council still resided with the West rather than the third world countries, and as general secretary he would undoubtedly press for changes of emphasis that would include taking greater note of the newly independent nations. He saw an urgent need to translate the word of God into social deeds and viewed the ecumenical movement as having forced the churches to the point of action. At the same time, he pointed out that "We need to consider anew what it means to be the people of God in the world today to rethink the universality of the church." Potter was born in Roseau, the capital gelism.

.

.

.

of Dominica, on Aug. 19, 1921. He received his bachelor of divinity degree from London University in 1948 and his master of theology in 1954. He was the pastor of a Methodist church in Haiti from 1950 to 1954, secretary of the World Council of Churches' youth department from 1954 to 1960, and served as field secretarv for Africa and the West Indies for the British Methodist Missionary Society from 1960 to 1967.

(pierre viansson-ponte)

POTTER, PHILIP ALFORD

image of a Hollywood whiz-kid and established himself as one of the foremost conductors on the international musical scene. He had done so partly through television appearances where he used his relaxed, informal manner to expound to the

of the World Council of Churches in 1972. The Rev. Philip Alford Potter was elected to succeed Eugene Carson 'Blake in the

(BERNARD

S.

KATZ)

PREVIN, ANDRE GEORGE With an

indcfinitelv prolonged contract with

the London Svmphony Orchestra (LSO) in 1972, Andre Previn had shaken off his ear-

lier

in the street the mysteries, or otherwise, of serious music. In 1972 he was invited to organize South Bank Summer Music in London, and took a leading part in this miniature festival as player and conductor. Previn had conducted the LSO for the first time in 1965 and three years later had become its principal conductor, initially for a three-year period. Having undertaken several U.S. and European tours with the orchestra, and still continuing to play the

piano

and

make numerous

classical

and

jazz recordings, in 1971 he launched "Andre Previn's Music Night" for BBC television; a second series was given in 1972. Also in 1972, to mark the centenary of the birth of composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, he completed his integral recording of Vaughan

WilUams' symphonies, and at Sir William Walton's 7dth birthday concert at Festival Hall, London, he conducted Walton's Belshazzar's Feast.

Previn was born April 6, 1929, in Berlin; he and his family emigrated to California in 1939. He had already written incidental music for radio shows when pianist Jose Iturbi suggested to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer that the 16-year-old Previn might help with the arrangement and orchestration of film scores. Of the 35 cinema scores he wrote, four (Gigi, Porgy and Bess, !rma la Douce, and Fair Lady) received Oscars; those

My

which he was proudest were Elmer GanTwo for the See-Saw, Irma la Douce, at Black Rock. In 1960 he decided almost overnight that he wanted to change his life completely and devote his of

try,

and Bad Day

time to classical music. After learning his craft with various provincial orchestras he

became musical

director

of

the

Houston

Orchestra (1967-69). A U.S. Previn married actress Mia Farrow

Symphony citizen, in

1970.

(alan blyth)

RAHMAN. MUJIBUR In January 1972 Sheikh Mujibur Rahmanknown to his people as "Mujib" became the first president of Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan), the new republic established on the Indian subcontinent after the defeat of the Pakistani Army by the supporters of

—

Mujib's

Awami League and

Army. He came

to

from imprisonment

the

Indian

the president's office Paliistan, the latest

in

of many incarcerations he had endured during his political career. Mujib's essentially moderate policies came under severe strain during his first year in office when he was faced with the grim problems of the aftermath of war, including crisis, widespread unemployment, and the corrupt practices of his own government. He also was committed

a serious economic

to conducting war crimes trials against Pakistani soldiers and administrators as well as local collaborators, although by the end of the year no date for such trials had been set. The strains of office had clearly begun to affect Mujib's health, already impaired by his prison experiences. Mujib was born in 1920 in Tongipara in the district of Faridpur, to a family of

middle-class landowners. He graduated in 1942 at the University of Calcutta and continued with law studies at the University of Dacca. He founded the East Pakistan Students' League, which later played a major and often violent role in the challenge that finally led to the breakdown of military rule in Pakistan. For these activities he was

expelled

from the university and served

his

term of imprisonment. His formal political career began when he became secretary of the .^wami League in first

the early 19,=iOs. In 1954 he was elected to the East Pakistan .\ssembly. Although he served briefly as a minister, his main preoccupation was as a party organizer of the Awami League, whose objective was autonomy for East Pakistan. When Pres. Muham-

mad

.\yub

Khan took power

in

Pakistan

in

1958, he at once imprisoned Mujibur, who refused to buy his release by pledging not to engage in politics for five years. When finally released, he continued to make "seditious speeches" which earned him further terms in prison. The clamour for his release precipitated mob violence that effectively

undermined Ayub Khan's authority

in East (colin legum)

Pakistan.

RAMANANTSOA, GABRIEL In October 1972 Gen. Gabriel

in a

national

referendum to become the Malagasy Republic's second president. He succeeded the island republic's first president and "father of the nation," Philibert Tsiranana, whom he had helped to overthrow in a military

take-over in May. The 66-year-old new president, elected for a five-year term, was essentially a conservative who acted reluctantly against Tsiranana, and then only because the country was moving toward a state of anarchy. Militant students and workers, backed by radical politicians and parties, were staging massive demonstrations that could not be brought under control by the ailing Tsiranana's discredited regime. .\lthough Ramanantsoa came to power with the support of militant radicals, his background and training were not very different from those of the man he replaced. Born in 1906, he was a leading member of the elite Merina, the hill people of Indonesian origin who had traditionally dominated the coastal peoples of the island of Madagascar.

Trained at the famed French military academy of St. Cyr, he fought with distinction in World War II and in the French colonial war in Indochina before associating himself with the Malagasy nationalists' own struggle.

As

the first

Malagasy army

chief

independence he displayed a strong for pohtical involvement, but his aloofness, soft-spoken prudence, and natural

after

dislike

drawing

closer to the radical circles of the

Organization of African Unity, and by reversing his predecessor's policy of developing economic and diplomatic relations with South Africa. At home, however, civil disturbances recurred in December; Ramanantsoa blamed them on "certain foreign elements." (COLIN legum)

REID, JIMMY When

a committee of shop stewards took over the running of the old John Brown shipyard at Clydebank on Clydeside in the summer of 1971, Scotland provided a practical demonstration of the philosophy of workers' control. The effective leader of the group was a 39-year-old Glasgow-born trade unionist, Jimmy Reid, who had devoted his life to working-class politics. As far as Reid was concerned, the occupation of the shipyard was something more than an improvised act of desperation, though it started as that. It was the expression of a deeply felt belief, and a protest against the injustice of an economic system that left men without jobs. With the collaboration of the liquidator who had been sent in to close the shipyard, the work-in was effective in keeping it open for 12 months until the Marathon oil rig construction corporation of Texas took over with new contracts.

During this time Reid made a reputation for himself, not only by his professional knowledge and competence in helping to manage the yard, but also by his highly articulate exposition of his views. "Man's inalienable right to work" was his theme. The students of Glasgow University elected him their rector in October 1971, and in address in May 1972 he expounded his philosophy with great orator-

his

Ramanantsoa

won an overwhelming majority

authority recommended him to both radicals and conservatives at a time of crisis. After taking office, President Ramanantsoa showed himself ready to change the quality of Malagasy's relations with France without weakening their close ties. He acted decisively to change the direction of Malagasy's policies by resuming the broken diplomatic relations with the United States, by entering into relations with the Soviet Union, by

rectorial

"A rat race is for rats," he told the students. "We are not rats, we are human beings. Reject these attitudes." Talking of the alienation of the worker from society and attacking profit as the sole criterion of success, he proclaimed that politics is about people, not power, and that society should be geared to social need. Reid's first job was in a stockbroker's office, and it was said that this was what outraged his sense of social justice. He then

ical skill as well as passion.

took an apprenticeship in marine engineering, but in 1966 became full-time secretary the Scottish Communist Party. He returned to shipyard work in 1969 in order to earn more money for his family.

of

(HARFORD THOMAS)

RICHARDSON, ELLIOT

litter

Elliot

a battlefield medical

bearer, leading

team serving the unit that suffered the high-

Normandy He was dubbed "Lucky" for his

est casualty rate in the

(HEW), to be secretary of defense, succeeding Melvin R. Laird. Richardson enjoyed the reputation of a supremely competent administrator who earned the devoted respect of subordinates. It remained to be seen whether he could conquer the Defense Department as he had less militant agencies.

A

reserved, aristocratic

man, he was widely regarded as the most Uberal, distinguished, and able member of Nixon's second Cabinet. Richardson was reported to have sought the job of secretary of state, but he acquiesced to Nixon's wishes, telling a news conference that the president "made me an offer I could not refuse."

Richardson was born on July 20, 1920, Boston, the family domain since his anceswere numbered among its first colonists. He was graduated cum laude from in

tors

Harvard and

after the

war he returned

to

law school where he edited the Harvard Review. He served as law clerk to Judge Learned Hand and Supreme Court

its

Law

Justice Felix Frankfurter before entering private practice. As assistant secretary of during the Eisenhower administration

HEW

he wrote the National Defense Education Act and was acting head of the department for a time. He returned to Massachusetts as U.S. attorney and prosecuted Bernard Goldfine, chief figure in a scandal involving Sherman .Adams, Eisenhower's presidenassistant.

tial

Richardson was elected

lieu-

tenant governor of Massachusetts in 1964 and state attorney general in 1966. Nixon named him undersecretary of state in 1969

and

HEW

secretary in 1970.

(PHILIP KOPPER)

RODRI'gUEZ LARA,

GUILLERMO of a bloodless coup d'etat that sent aged Pres. Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra into exile. Brig. Gen. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara became the president of Ecuador on Feb. 15, 1972. He said he took control with reluctance because of the eccentricity of the Velasco government, but many believed a major reason was the widespread fear that

As leader

World War

II a Boston draftboard reRichardson for poor vision. But he wangled his way into uniform as a

In

jected

llermo Rodrfguez Lara

invasion.

frequent

narrow escapes, and "Fearless Fosdick" for his outstanding bravery and jut-jawed profile. He was awarded two Purple Hearts and a Bronze Star for valour. This proof posi-

former Guayaquil mayor Assad Bucaram, an unpredictable populist, would win the presidential election that was to have taken

tive of a talent for tenacious daring could only stand the erstwhile reject in good stead

of

as 1972 ended, for on

Richard

Nixon

named

November

28 Pres. Richardson, then and welfare

secretary of health, education,

June 1972. The six million people Ecuador accepted the change with little and Rodriguez and his military regime

place in stir

ruled thereafter in a climate of rare domestic tranquillity and with no announced intention of returning to electoral processes.

— Oct. 31, 1910) was well able to cope with this debate. He knew of research from his own university work on si)ermatozoa, which won him membership in the Royal Society.

142

Biography

He had shown The new Ecuadorcan government was best characterized as nationalist and the 48-yearold Rodriguez himself defied any label of

He let it be known he fancy the widespread social and economic changes wrought by the military regime in neighbouring Peru, His government hinted it favoured eventual restoration of relations with Fidel Castro's Cuba. His major preoccupations were the issue of sovereignty over 200 mi. of Pacific Ocean waters off Ecuador's coast and the financial arrangements to be worked out with Texaco, Inc., and the Gulf Oil Corp. on the rich new right, left, or centre.

did

not

fields the U.S. companies had opened in Ecuador. The territorial waters issue got (Decemberhotter every fishing season March) as U.S. and other foreign flag tuna boats continued to be seized by Ecuadorean gunboats for fishing without a license in what Washington regarded as international waters. The oil fields, which were expected to net Ecuador at least $70 million a year, caused problems because the Rodriguez government felt the concessions, granted by the previous regime, were overly generous. Born in the small .Andean town of Pujili, in Cotopaxi Province, Rodriguez was a little-known staff officer in the .\rmy until he seized power. Most of his career had been spent in staff assignments or in military oil

schools, including the U.S. Command and Staff College, the School of the Americas in the Canal Zone, and the Colombian Military

.\cademy.

(jeremiah

a.

o'leary)

ROTHSCHILD, LORD of the banking family of Rothschilds Lord Rothschild, the third baron, deserted banking for science, became a Cambridge don, and went into big business as a scientific adviser. In 1970, when still designated as a Labour peer, he took a newly created key job in Edward Heath's Conservative administration as head of the Central Policy Review Staff in the Cabinet Office an organization that quickly became known as Heath's "think tank." Its contro-

Head

in Britain,

—

versial

recommendations on government

re-

search policy were embodied in a July 1972

White Paper, "Framework for Government Research and Development." The CPRS was set up to provide expert, independent evaluation of some of the larger, long-term policy issues that might either overlap the responsibility of a number of departments or escape the attention of ministers too busy with the problems of the the many subjects referred to Rothschild's "think tank" for strategy review, the one that touched off an explosive controversy was the allocation of government funds for research. Rothschild's group argued that applied research and development must be done on a customer-contractor basis. This was taken imply that government departments to should spend a greater part of their research funds on precisely commissioned contracts, and that the semiautonomuus research councils for agriculture, medicine, and the natural environment should have correspondingly less money and less freedom. The ensuing controversy touched on such issues as the need to maintain a totally independent approach to research, the elitist habits of the scientific establishment, the practicability or

moment. Of

desirability of closely specified commissioned research, and the need for the gov-

ernment to control its research resources more carefully. Temperamentally, Lord Rothschild (born

nerve and daring

in

secret

work on the dismantling of bombs during World War II, for which he was awarded the George Medal, and he had had experience with customer-oriented research as research director of Royal Dutch Shell.

(HARFORD THOMAS)

RYLE, SIR MARTIN Martin Ryle was made Britain's astronomer royal in June 1972. Such recognition took into account not only his preeminence as an astronomer but also his pioneer role in radio astronomy, .\fler spending World War II in radar research designing vital radar equipment, Ryle returned to Cambridge University to start work on radio astronomy at sites on the outskirts of the town. The first radio astronomical observations at Cambridge were made in 1946. By 1953 Ryle's department had acquired the world's first radio telescope, more than an acre in total surface area. .As opposed to the huge single dish radio telescope built under the direction of Sir Bernard Lovell at Jodrell Bank, Ryle pioneered the use of groups of small radio dishes. On a site west of Cambridge, a one-mile radio telescope was completed in 1964. Employing a disused stretch of railroad track over a conveniently flat at Lord's Bridge, near Cambridge, a 5-km. radio telescope was completed in 1972, giving performance equivalent to that of a steerable dish 5 km. in diameter. It was said that this required the most accurately sur-

site

veyed 5-km. line in the world. Ryle's development of radio exploration of the universe vastly extended the range of observations into depths of space beyond the reach of optical telescopes, and yielded

important new discoveries. Radio

sources with huge outputs of energy named quasars were identified in 1962 at distances of 1,500,000,000 Hght-years. Stars of immense density named pulsars were located in 1967. The Cambridge radio telescopes were being used in the mapping of the galaxies, for the stud\- of interstellar gas, and for the investigation of exploding stars. Ryle was born on Sept. 27, 1918, the son of a medical professor. Director of the

Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, Cambridge, from 1958 and professor of radio astronomy at Cambridge from 1959, he was knighted in 1966; he received the Roval Society's Hughes Medal (1954), the Royal Astronomical Society's Gold Medal (1964), and the U.S. National .Academy of Sciences' Henry Draper Medal (1965). His appointment to the honorific post of astronomer royal was unprecedented in that the title had traditionally been awarded to the director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. (HARFORD THOMAS)

SCHENK, ARD man

60 years to win all four same world ice speed skating championships was Ard Schenk of the Neth-

The

first

in

distances in the erlands.

He

achieved this feat at Oslo, Nor.,

February 1972. Less than two weeks earhe earned three gold medals in the Winter Olympic Games at Sapporo, Jap. The "Flying Dutchman," as Schenk was inevitably dubbed, was the individual hero of the Winter Olympics, the kind of hero readily associated with romantic fiction a blond, disarmingly handsome, 6-ft. 3-in, bachelor who had earned his first wages as a farm boy, later to become an articulate, witty speaker as well as a physically imin

lier

pressive figure. Born on Sept. 16, 1944, at

Amsterdam,

his first

appearance

1964 at Helsinki, Fin., finish-

in

world championship

ing seventh overall. Each subsequent year, except in 1969, he never placed lower than third, and in 1972 won the world overall title for the third successive time, a feat never bettered and accomplished by only two other men since the first championship

modest Olympic debut at .Aus., in 1964, Schenk took a medal for the 1.500 m. in the 1968 Olympics at Grenoble, France. In 1972 he became the third male skater to win three events, the 1,500 m., 5.000 m., and 10,000 m., in one Olympic meeting. 1893. .After a

in

Innsbruck,

silver

Sir

a series of

village north of

Dutch Schenk made a tiny

Anna Paulowna,

.At the beginning of 1972 he held five of the six major world records, ranking as the fastest man over all the internationally recognized distances except the 500 m. In all,

by the end of 1972 he had broken world four times over records on 14 occasions 3,000 m., three times each in the 1,000 m, and 1,500 m., and twice each for the 5,000 m. and 10.000 m. .After consistent success over middle and long distances, Schenk's remarkable versatility was underlined when he tied for first place in the 500-m. sprint in the 1972 world championship. .A powerful, gracefully smooth stride and shrewd linehugging technique made him master in a sport from which he refuted any suggestion

—

(Howard bass)

of retirement.

SCHMIDT, HELMUT One

of

West

W.

H.

Germany's most able and Helmut Schmidt was a

colourful politicians,

key

figure

in

Chancellor

Willy

post-election Cabinet, sworn in 1972. .Although the Ministries

Brandt's

on Dec. of

15,

Finance

and Economics, which had been combined under Karl Schiller (whom Schmidt had succeeded in July), were again separated, it was clear that Schmidt, as finance minister, would remain the Federal Republic's economic "overlord," In that capacity, following Schiller's resignation, he bore the brunt of the opposition's election campaign criticism that the government was responsible for a 6'7r-plU5 rate of inflation over the last year. He favoured a fairer distribution

of wealth, but was by no means on the left of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). Schmidt was born on Dec. 23, 1918. in

Hamburg, the son of a grammar school .After passing his university entrance examination, he was called up by the .Army. During World War II he served with an armoured division on the Eastern teacher.

front and later in Western Europe, ending the war as a lieutenant. .Afterward he studied economics in Hamburg, and subsequently joined the department of economics and transport in the city administration. He was elected to the Bundestag in 1953. to

In 1961 he gave up his seat and returned Hamburg as senator for internal affairs.

Four vears later he was back in the Bundestag, and he served as leader of the SPD parliamentary party during the period of the "grand coalition" with the Christian Democrats. 1966-69. .As defense minister in Willy Brandt's government, from 1969. he advocated a strong Western defensive alliance and insisted that the Luftwaffe must continue to be armed with nuclear weapons carriers.

—

Schmidt was a brilliant .speaker undoubtedly a match for the chairman of the Christian Social Union, Franz Josef Strauss and staged some memorable performances in the Bundestag. He was ambitious, but he made no challenge for the leadership of the party and gave the appearance of complete loyalty to the chancellor. He was, however, regarded as Brandt's natural successor. (NORMAN CROSSLAND)

—

SCHMITZ, JOHN GEORGE In the I96S U.S. presidential election, George Wallace iq.v.) of Alabama, candidate of a loose confederation of right-wing state organizations known as the American Independent Party, had won 13.5% of the popular vote, 46 electoral votes, and for a time threatened to throw a deadlocked contest

House of Representatives. But in 1972 the (renamed) American Party was a Wallacite group without Wallace. Its candidate, former California congressman John Schmitz, polled about 1.47o of the 77,684,082 votes cast. into the

Schmitz campaigned on a platform advocating more restrictive immigration laws, strong law and order measures, and voluntary school prayer. He opposed women's liberation, school busing to achieve integration, and aid to Israel. His own summing up of the party's platform was succinct: "Those who work should live better than those who won't, and don't go to war unless you intend to win." Both Schmitz and his running mate, Thomas J. Anderson, were members of the far-right John Birch

Society.

Early in 1971 Wallace had rejected a third-party candidacy and entered the race the Democratic nomination. He was campaigning in Maryland on May 15, 1972, when a would-be assassin shot him. He survived, but remained partially paralyzed. for

When

the

American

Party

convened

in

Louisville, Ky., in August, the 1,900 delegates

were determined to again make Wallace their candidate. Only after his own voice, piped in via telephone

hookup from

his hospital

them he could not run, did they nominate Schmitz. Schmitz was born in Milwaukee, Wis., on Aug. 12, 1930, graduated from Marquette University in Milwaukee in 1952, and served for eight years as a Marine Corps pilot. He held the reserve rank of lieutenant colonel. For several years he taught anti-Communism at the leadership school at El Toro (Calif.) Marine Corps Air Station. In 1964 he was bed, convinced

family

fortune disappeared in the 1929 crash, he won a scholarship to Yale, where he was editor of the Vaie Daily News and

graduated cum laude in 1938. At law school he and Kingman Brewster, who later became Yale's president, organized an isolationist .America First group. He graduated from Yale Law School in 1941 and entered the Navy, serving on battleships and submarines before being mustered out at war's end with the rank of lieutenant commander. After the war he tried his hand at journalism as an assistant editor of Newsweek. A friend's father asked him to edit the memoirs of an aviator son who was killed in World War II. The diaries proved unpublishable. but the father, Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., offered Shriver a job at Chicago's Merchandise Mart, then the world's largest privately

owned

office

building.

In

1953

Shriver

elected as a RepubUcan to the California State Senate, and in 1970 won a special election to an unexpired term to represent California's 35th congressional district. He was reelected in November 1970 with 68% of the vote, a larger majority than any other can-

married Eunice Kennedy. The couple, who went on to have five children, set up housekeeping in Chicago, where Shriver became president of the Board of Education, which oversees the second largest school system in

didate for the House in that year. In June 1972 the Republicans failed to renominate him, and he did not run for Congress again. Before his term expired, Schmitz registered as a member of the American Party, making him the first American Party member to sit in Congress. (pat tucker)

Labouring under an in-law's shadow, "Sarge" repeatedly proved himself as an un-

SHRIVER, (ROBERT)

SARGENT,

JR.

Sargent Shriver,

Jr., was the Democratic vice-presidential candidate in 1972, following Sen. Thomas F. Eagleton's withdrawal from the Democratic ticket. After sLx others had

declined the

number two

spot,

George Mc-

Govern asked Shriver to run. Campaigning was not new to the personable and outgoing Shriver; he had worked for his brother-inlaw, John F. Kennedy, in 1960. Nor was he any stranger to politics. He had been the first head of the Peace Corps, created by the

Kennedy administration. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson had appointed him director of the fledgling Office of Economic Opportunity and, later, ambassador to France. But as a Kennedy-by-marriage, his chance to run for national elective office had always been preempted by someone else in the family. He did test the Maryland gubernatorial waters in 1970 but found them uncomfortable. Born of an old Maryland family in Westminster, Nov. 9, 1915, Shriver did well at an elite boys' preparatory school. When the

the nation.

Sidky enjoyed good relations with the Soviets and compared the terms of Communist aid favourably with aid from Western countries. The failure of his mission to Moscow in July, which it was hoped would secure deUveries of advanced Soviet weapons, followed by President Sadat's expulsion of the Soviet advisers from Egypt, appeared to discredit his views, although Soviet economic aid to Egypt continued. However, when he revisited Moscow in October a Soviet-Egyptian rapprochement ensued, marked by the replacement of Egyptian war minister Muhammad Ahmed Sadek pro-Soviet Gen. Ahmed Ismael.

teacher. Shortly after the revolution that deposed the Egyptian monarchy, he was appointed a technical adviser to the prime ininister's office. He later served as a fulltime member of the services board until 1956, when President Nasser brought him into the government as minister of industry to supervise the Soviet-financed industrialization program. In 1957 Sidky launched a

five-year industrialization plan, which was later merged into the general five-year development plan for 1961-65. Promoted deputy prime minister for industry and mineral resources and minister of minerals and

usually energetic, visionary, and, many said, brilliant administrator. He was known as a supremely engaging man, once "the best salesman in Washington." Possessed of a gifted common touch, he was nonetheless elegant enough to cause the French government to suggest that he remain as ambassador after the 1968 U.S. elections. He stayed in Paris for two years under the Nixon administration. After the Democratic defeat in the November 1972 election, Shriver re-

SMITH, IAN DOUGLAS

turned to his $12S,000-a-year law practice. (PHILIP kopper)

settled

SIDKY, AZIZ Aziz Sidky became prime minister of Egypt on Jan. 16, 1972, succeeding Mahmoud Fawzi, who had held office since Pres. Gamal Abd-an-Nasser's death in September 1970. Fawzi had resigned to make way for a younger man "who could undertake the responsibility for unceasing and demanding

work in the coming stage," said Pres. Anwar as-Sadat. The new government was described as a Cabinet of confrontation (with Israel), but the emphasis was on strengthening the home front. It included a number of young Western-trained technocrats, although the key ministries of War, Industry,

Economy, and Information remained under the same deputy prime ministers as before.

by the

Sidky was born on July 1, 1920. An engineering graduate of Cairo University with a doctorate in economic planning from Harvard University, he became a university

petroleum

in 1964,

of an all-out

he earned the reputation

economic expansionist. In No-

vember 1970 he became deputy prime minister for production and trade. (PETER MANSFIELD)

Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith almost the long-standing dispute between

Rhodesia and Britain

in

ment he had negotiated have given

legality

to

The agree1971 would colony's uni-

1972.

late in

the

of independence (UDI) Nov. 11, 1965. It foundered, however, when a commission headed by Lord Pearce

lateral declaration

of

reported that the country's African majoroverwhelmingly objected to it. (See Rhodesia.) Smith had promised his Rhodesian Front supporters (almost all whites) that UDI would be no more than "an eight days' wonder" before being accepted as an accomity

plished fact. But, led

committed

itself

to

by Britain, the UN mandatory economic

sanctions as a means of isolating Rhodesia within the world community. Although the sanctions did not destroy Rhodesia's econ-

Smith was born

in

Pasadena.

Calif.,

where

and he headed for the University of Southern California on a tennis scholarship. Smith captured his first major champion-

Unable to succeed himself as president under the Nicaraguan constitution. Gen. AnasSomoza stepped down from the tasio presidency on May 1, 1972, and turned over the nominal leadership of the country to a triumvirate thai would act as president until he could be reelected in 1974. Where

ship in 1969 at the U.S. Lawn Tennis Association indoor singles tournament. He won the U.S. Open in 1971 by beating a Czechoslovakian. Jan Kodes. Later in that year Smith lost to John Ncwcombe of Australia its

U.S. indoor championships, won the final match against Nastase in a titanic struggle, and in a rare emotional gesture hurled his racket high into the air to acknowledge the victory. In October the Romanians, led by Xastase, mounted their most serious attempt to take the Davis Cup into a Communist country for the first time. However, Smith

won both

singles

matches and teamed

under

concession represented a crucial reversal of his policies, since the main object of his act of rebellion against the British crown had been to ensure that the African majority

almost five million would never be allowed to dominate the small white minority of about 250,000. Ian Smith was born April 8. 1919, at Selukwe, Southern Rhodesia, the son of a of

Scottish settler. He entered politics in 1948 as a member of the Rhodesia Liberal Party. When the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Malawi) was set up in 1953. he

joined the ruling United Federal Party, becoming government chief whip in 1958. He resigned from the government in 1961 to join the newly founded Rhodesian Front,

which demanded independence and white supremacy. The new party won a majority and, following dissolution of the federation in 1963, Smith succeeded Winston Field as prime minister of Southern Rhodesia (colin legum) in April 1964. in 1962

SMITH, STANLEY ROGER In an age when sports heroes were becoming increasingly flamboyant and unpredictable, Stan Smith became a hero to middle America with his consistent, gentlemanly, and disciplined display of tennis skills. His techniques led him to victory in 1972 in the Wimbledon singles and to triumphs in the Davis Cup finals in Romania. With a placid personality and a booming serve that earned him the nickname "Steamer," Smith displayed a different type of championship image. "Success," he said, "is hving for Christ and what he taught," and he devoted much of his energy off the courts to Big Brothers, a group that spends time with fatherless children. Called as "emotional as a sphinx" on and off the tennis court, the 25year-old Smith provided an interesting contrast to his most constant antagonist during the year, the fiery and controversial RoHie Nastasc. ;

his

Van Dillen to win the doubles, leading the U.S. to its fifth straight Davis (Kin eisler) Cup win. with Erik

Mainly because of these pressures, in November 1971 Smith agreed with British negotiators to terms whereby the eventual right to majority rule in Rhodesia would be constitutionally guaranteed. For Smith this

power

really

became

lay

clear

In

the

of the capital city of Managua and killed some 10.000-12,000 of its Inhabitants. Somoza, who had retained command of the Guardia Nacional, took charge of the stricken city, and also of the massive aid sent lo Nicaragua, principally by the U.S. Somoza's actions were only natural in the country that he had run like a private

finals

was not eligible in 1972 at Wimbledon, the road was cleared for Smith to become the first U.S. Wimbledon champion since 1963. Smith, who had already won the

rebel re-

the

Davis Cup win. Because Newcombe, as a contract profes-

Wimbledon

lead the U.S. to

sional,

it

ANASTASIO

aftermath of the earthquake thai, in the early hours of December 2i, leveled much

to

public diplomatically isolated.

SOMOZA DEBAYLE,

but then came back fourth consecutive

in the

omy, they did succeed in putting siege conditions and in keeping the

com-

(uarford tuomas)

mi.'-siuiRT in Bruvsels.

vailed,

Mark Spitz

preferred to accept nomination as a

his father was a college athletic coach. An excellent basketball and tennis player for Pasadena High School, he had lo make a choice between the two sports. Tennis pre-

SOAMES, SIR (ARTHUR) CHRISTOPHER (JOHN) No more

traditionally English figure could

have been selected as one of the two British

members

of

the

Commission

of

the

EEC

than Sir Christopher Soames, the British to France, who was to quit

ambassador

Paris for Brussels when Britain became a member of the EEC on Jan. 1, 1973. Son-inlaw of Winston Churchill, a former Conservative minister of agriculture, and an English farmer in his own right, Soames was, nevertheless, a convinced and ardent European who had played a crucial diplomatic role in the final stages of the negotiations for British EEC entry. It was the misfortune of losing his seat in

—

Parliament in 1966 he had been an 1950 that had cast Soames for

—

since

MP this

for he was then free to take up the invitation of the Labour prime minister, Harold Wilson, to become ambassador to role,

1968. Wilson was then preparing to make Britain's third application for EEC entry. For this lo succeed it was essential to dispel the suspicions of the French and to win the support of their government. Soames was the man who more than anyone else brought this about. He was well suited for the part. He had been military attache in Paris after World War 11, and spoke fluent French. He was a bon viveur, and the British embassy parties were said to be the best in Paris. But Soames was also

France

an

in

accomphshed

politician

and had been

Churchill's parliamentary private secretary. He understood the intricacies of agriculin 1961, had the first negotiaFrench Pres. Charles dc Gaulle in 1963. Thus, in the final stages of negotiation, Soames was able to impress the French with the seriousness of the Heath government's intentions, and he helped to bring about a close understanding between Heath and French Pres. Georges

tural

policy

shared with

tions

for

and, beginning

Edward Heath

entrv,

vetoed

bv

Pompidou. After the completion of the entry negoSoames. born Oct. 12, 1920, to contemplate a return to parliamentary politics and, no doubt, to the Conservative Cabinet. However, he tiations in 1971,

was young enough

Nonetheless, he had always been to charges of dictatorship, and 1971 he and his Nationalist Liberation Party had devised the accord with the opposition Conservatives whereby the letter of the constitution could be obser\'ed. Somoza would leave the presidency, a constitutional assembly would be elected to serve as the legislature for 2\ years, and the triumvirate would act as executive until the 1974 election. His retention of the Guardia command had been a form of insurance that the agreement would be kept. Actually. Somoza and his family not only ran Nicaragua, they owned a large part of Somoza's personal holdings included it. ranch lands, farms, a steamship line, newspapers, various manufacturing concerns, and an airline, LANTCA. The airline, actually one jet and a few propeller-driven planes, accounted for a visit to Nicaragua during the year by the enigmatic U.S. industrialist Howard Hughes. In July it was learned that Hughes had acquired a 2S^( interest in LANICA and that the airline had obtained two Convair jets, reportedly as the first move to upgrade Nicaraguan tourism to

estate.

sensitive in

—

the financial

benefit

Somoza. Hughes was

of still

both Hughes and in

Managua when

the earthquake struck, but he left immediately for London. Somoza was born Dec. 5, 1925. in the

homeland

his family

dominated from 1936

when his tough father. Gen. Anastasio Somoza Garcia, seized power. When the old general was assassinated in 1956, his two sons, Luis and "Tachito" ("Little Anastasio"), continued the dynasty.

(JEREMIAH

SPITZ,

A.

o'lEARY)

MARK

the Shark was going about his predatory business. Day after day a fresh group of victims would solemnly walk the length of the pool deck to the starting blocks. In however long it would take to swim the prescribed distance faster than anybody had before, all would be over." Thus did the magazine Sports Illustrated summarize

"Mark

.

.

.

the unprecedented performance of Mark Spitz at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. Competing in seven events. Spitz won gold medals and set world records in all of them. He thus became the first athlete to win

more than

five

gold medals in one Olympiad,

Nedo Nadi having won won the 200-m. butlermin. 0.7 sec; the 200-m. freestyle in 1 min. 52.78 sec; the 100-m. bultcrfJy In 54.27 sec; and the 100-m. freestyle in the

fencer 1920. Spitz

Italian

five in fly in

2

51.22 sec. He also competed in the victorious record-setting 400-m. freestyle relay, the 800-m. freestyle relay, and the 400-m. medley, in which he raced the butterfly leg.

— The performance of Spitz was all the more remarkable since it marked a stunning comeback in Olympic competition and the laying of a ghost that had haunted him for four years. Spitz had claimed that he would win six gold medals in the Mexico City Olympics of 1968 but came away with firsts only in

called the Redstockings in

two

Democratic national convention, where she was an active supporter of Sen. George McGovern. (pat tucker)

relays.

was born Feb. 10, 1950, in Modesto, Calif., and started splashing in the Pacific off Honolulu when he was two. His father urged him on as a swimmer, seeing to it that he was well coached from the time he was eight and the family had returned to Spitz

"Swimming

California.

isn't

everything,

winning is," said the elder Spitz, a steel company executive. "I never said to him, 'You're second, that's great.' I told him ... 'I care " for world records.' By the time Spitz was ten he was training 90 minutes a day, seven days a week. He

November 1968

and never looked back. She became a leader National Organization for Women and in 1971 helped form the National Women's Political Caucus. Much in demand in

the

as a lecturer, she became familiar to additional millions through coverage of the

TV

STOCKHAUSEN, KARLHEINZ Master of the new music and of new technical means for its realization, in 1972 West German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen was more concerned with performance than with composition and during the year he

was much

new magazine. Steinem was born

in the foreground of the international musical scene. Apart from playing, conducting, or directing concerts in West Germany, Switzerland, England, and Italy, his most important performances were that of his Hymnen (electronic music with instruments) with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in May, the two intensive series of concerts given during the Munich Olympics and at the Shiraz Festival of the Arts in Iran (of which he was the controversial central attraction), the new work .Alphabet for Liege a "process-plan" for numerous audiovisual performers in different rooms with mobile pubfic, premiered at the Belgian Radio building in Liege on September 23 and the world premiere of the complete version of one of his most imposing scores, Momenie (spatial music), on December 8 in Cologne, W.Ger. Stockhausen was born Aug. 22, 1928, at Mbdrath, near Cologne. From 1947 to 1951 he studied school music and piano at the Cologne Musikhochschule, earning his living by playing the piano in bars, conducting amateur operatics, and improvising accompaniments for a conjurer. He spent 1952 in Paris where he visited Olivier Messiaen's analysis classes and made friends with Pierre Boulez. In 1953 he returned to Cologne as "permanent collaborator" of the then newly established Cologne Studio for Electronic Music at the West German Radio. He became the studio's artistic director in 1963. From 1953 to 1956 Stockhausen studied phonetics and communications research with Werner Meyer-Eppler at Bonn University. From 1957 he held annual lectures or seminars at the Darmstadt Courses for New Music, and from 1958 gave concert and lecture tours throughout the world. During 1963-68 he ran the Cologne Course for New Music and in 1964 founded a small group of musicians that subsequently gave hundreds of performances of his live-electronic and "intuitive" compositions. In 1971 he was appointed professor of composition at the

25, 1936, the

Cologne Musikhochschule.

for

qualified

the

U.S.

Amateur

Athletic

Union (AAU) competition when he was 14 and took four gold medals the following year in Tel Aviv's Maccabiah Games. He won five gold medals at the 1967 Pan-American Games. After his disappointment in the Olympic Games in 1968 he entered Indiana University, where he was coached by Jim (Doc) Counsilman, a tutor of champion teams. In 1969 he took six gold medals at Tel Aviv. In 1972 he won the AAU's Sullivan Award as the outstanding amateur athlete of 1971. After his Olympic success Spitz, who had planned to attend dental school, was deluged with offers for personal appearances and endorsements and signed a contract to endorse the products of a razor

company.

(philip kopper)

STEINEM, GLORIA Gloria Steinem was a living refutation of the comfortable theory that women's protest was the whine of sour grapes. Trim, mod, attractive, and successful, she was one of the best known and most effective champions of women in the U.S. in 1972, and a willing wailing wall for any woman suffering from sex discrimination— politically, socially, or financially.

A journalist by profession, Steinem was editor of the new feminist magazine Ms. Ms. began as an insert in a December 1971 issue of New York magazine. Regular publication started in July 1972. The editors saw Ms. not primarily as a "movement'' journal but as a medium covering a new phase of human development, of vital interest to

everyone

who wanted

to understand

times. By mid-October 1972 Ms. had 200,000 subscribers at $9 a year and was selling close to 300,000 copies at $1 each on the newsstands— a phenomenal record for a

the

in Toledo, 0., on March second daughter of an itinerant

antique dealer and his wife, Ruth, a former newspaperwoman. Her grandmother, Pauline Steinem, an early suffragette, was one of two U.S. delegates to the 1908 meeting of the International Council of Women. Following her parents' divorce, when Gloria was 11, she lived with her mother in a depressing East Toledo slum, where she learned to sleep curled up to discourage the rats from biting her toes. Her mother sold her house to send Gloria to Smith College, where she earned a degree in government, magna cum laude, and a fellowship for postgraduate study in India.

Back

in

New

York, Gloria worked her

way up

as a free-lance writer. Research for one story included infiltrating the Playboy

Club as a bunny. In 1968 she got her own column in New York magazine. In search of material for the column, she attended a meeting of a women's liberation group

—

(tim souster)

I.

F.

Stone

charter subscribers. Ramparts magazine lauded him for having "taken upon himself the painful role of watchdog in a time when most of his colleagues bark rarely and bite not at all." When /. F. Stone's his

Weekly was ten years old, he said, "I am, suppose, an anachronism. In this age of corporation men, I am an individual capitalist ... a wholly independent newspaperman beholden to no one but my good readers." His journal was a bellwether of celebrated causes, and he had a way of blasting conservatives with words. Ronald Reagan was "the TV Tarzan of Republican I

.

.

.

politicos";

Billy

Graham

"spiritual

back-

scratcher of the pious rich." Richard Nixon, in his view, was "indecisive, weak, and tricky, with neither the statesman's vision nor the politician's finesse." Stone's prose may not have been as finely rifled as H. L. Mencken's during the days of the Bull Moose, but his scattershot phrasing was deadly against birds of mid-century politics. Born in Philadelphia on Dec. 24, 1907, and raised in New Jersey, Isidor Feinstein Stone first became a pamphleteer as a high school sophomore when he published a fivecent monthly. He was reporting for established newspapers before he left high school, then entered the University of Pennsylvania while working ten hours a day on the Philadelphia Inquirer copy desk. He dropped undergraduate philosophy studies to pursue newspapering and the fringes of politics,

went to Washington as correspondent for The Nation in 1938, and later wrote for several short-lived

New York

papers, notably

PM

and the New York Daily Compass, which folded in 1952. Over the years he wrote ten books and collected several prizes,

among them (MORE)

review's first A. J. Liebling for "unrelenting investigation," and some honorary degrees. Stone gave up his weekly to carry on as a contributing editor of the New York Review of Books because "the compulsion to cover the universe in four pages has become too heavy a burden."

journalism

STONE. I(SIDOR)

Award

F(EINSTEIN) F. Stone stopped being an anachronism on the first day of 1972 and the United States might be the worse for it. For 19 years I. F. Stone's weekly newsletter of fact and opinion prickled mendacious or incomI.

government officials more sharply than three networks, the ubiquitous wire services, and all the establishment dailies combined. Izzy wrote, edited, and proofed the copy, and his wife, Esther, handled busithe "journalness affairs of the little paper istic equivalent of the old-fashioned Jewish momma-and-poppa grocery store" that began with 5,300 subscriptions at $5 each and was grossing $100,000 by 1968. Henry Steele Commager called Stone "a modern Tom Paine"; Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Eleanor Roosevelt were among petent

—

—

Still

he had not lost his

humane and sym-

pathetic view of the world. "I tell people to take the long view," John Neary reported him as saying in Life magazine. "Remember that when Moses came down from Mount Sinai, the race had advanced far enough by then that it was not necessary to have a commandment about cannibalism."

(PHILIP kopper)

STONE, W(ILLIAM) CLEMENT Pres. Richard Nixon, said Chicago multimillionaire W. Clement Stone, had "Positive Mental Attitude," Stone's formula for sue-

ism

146

PMA

notwithstanding. Stone (by accounting) gave over $1 million to Nixon's 1972 campaign, making him by far was bethe GOP's largest contributor. It lieved that Stone wanted an ambassadorship, perhaps to Britain's Court of St. James's. PM.\, combined with hard work and personal sacrifice, had brought Stone a long way. The stocky multimillionaire with

cess

his

own

slicked-down black hair, pencil-thin mousbow tache, and a penchant for polka-dotted from the ties ruled a vast business empire Chicago home office of his Combined Insurance Co. of .America. He began life as the son of an impoverished gambler. At 6 he newspapers to help his widowed sold mother, and at 13 he owned his own newsstand. He devoured Horatio Alger stories, finding Robert Cloverdale's Struggle particularly inspiring. He started selling

insurance in his late

teens, and when he was 20 invested his $100 savings in his own insurance agency. By 1W9 he had acquired the management contract of the .American Casualty Co. of Dallas, Tex. The following year he organized the

Combined Mutual Casualty Co. in Chicago and, through adroit mergers, acquisitions, and investments, systematically built it into a far-flung organization that made him one of the world's richest men. His 1972 holdings were estimated at about $400 million. Stone acknowledged that his main inspiration came from the Bible, the writings of ^mile Coue (who in the 1920s urged his followers to repeat, "Every day in every way I'm becoming better and better"), and the Rev. Norman Vincent Peale. He collaborated with Napoleon Hill in writing Success Through a Positive Mental Attitude (1960) and with Norma Lee Browning on The Other Side of the Mind (1964). He himself wrote The Success System That Never Fails (1962). ecutives charities

PMA

was drummed into all his exand salesmen, and some of his many were devoted

to introducing

PMA

and other unfortunates. \ politconservative. Stone contributed over $,iOO,000 to Nixon's 1968 campaign and in to convicts ical

1970 gave over $800,000 to some 50

GOP

candidates.

Born in Chicago on May 4, 1902, Stone was largely self-educated, though he got a diploma from a night course at the YMCA Central High School in Chicago and took some classes at the Detroit College of Law and Northwestern University. (WILLIAM MADER)

passe.

.

.

.

The environmental

issue

According to one biographer, Maurice F. Strong was "a contemporary anomaly: a good man who finishes first." The self-made Canadian who organized the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972 was an environmentalist in the best sense of the word. What set him apart from the faddists was his extraordibroad, utterly realistic viewpoint, coupled with inexhaustible energy and enornarily

practical intelligence.

UN

Before taking the a reporter, "I became

job.

Strong told

aware of the importance of interdependence on not merely pollution is earth, and that at the heart of the environment issue: the necessity of conducting ourselves on this

—

increasingly

—

planet in a way that corresponds with the realities of the physical world. To survive we simply must have better standards of collaborative behavior. Rugged individual-

in

1972,

his

when his well-organized backers, demand for a chance, and political cunning gained him the

popular

the

own

hospital beds." Strong himself

prime minister. These factors also figured in the Liberal-Democratic victory in the December election, although the margin of success was not as great as Tanaka had

Born

hoped.

29,

in

was a rugged competitor. Oak Lake, Man. (pop. 400), April

remembered his father, with wrapped around his feet, chopping

1929, he

rags

wood

—40°

at

F.

He

left

home

at

13,

stowed away on a Great Lakes freighter, then worked on ships bound for .\laska and back, .\fter returning home to finish school, he became, at 15, an apprentice fur trader for the Hudson's Bay Company, learning Eskimo and studying economics and geology during the long Arctic nights. Within two years he organized a mining company. Excited by an old newspaper article about the birth of the UN, he went to New York where he filled water glasses, sharpened pencils, and vowed to return as an official. Years later he did just that, but first he made a small fortune and became president of the Power Corporation of Canada, a giant holding company. In 1966 he took a $163,000 salary cut to reorganize Canada's foreign aid program and later, for Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, he planned the organization of an internal development agency. He was slated to head that agency when U Thant persuaded Trudeau to lend Strong to the

(PHILIP KOPPER)

UN.

TANAKA, KAKUEI The

stocky, robust politician

who

in

1972

took charge of Japan's first major effort independent postwar diplomacy was a self-made milUonaire and career poHtician with virtually no experience in international affairs. But this was not the only unusual aspect of Kakuei Tanaka, who became prime minister of Japan on July 5. Not only was he the country's youngest prime minister since World War II but he was also its first "non-establishment" one, in that he was not a graduate of Tokyo University. In fact, he was not even a high-school graduate. But during his first few months in office, he acted swiftly and decisively. One of his outstanding achievements was estabhshing relations with China without humiliating Japan or jeopardizing its ties with the U.S. Tanaka's emergence as prime minister after 15 years in various Cabinet posts marked a new turn in Japanese history. With its economic might and growing poHtical power. Japan was moving from its postwar subservience to the U.S. to a more independent stance. But even before his first meeting with U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon in in

Hawaii

in

September Tanaka stressed that

ties with the U.S. would remain a cornerstone of Japanese foreign policy. He also made it clear that he would concentrate considerable effort on internal reforms. Tanaka was born May 4, 1918, in Niigata Prefecture, the son of a poor farmer. At an early age he moved to Tokyo, where an uncle financed his elementary education. He was drafted into the Army in 1938 and sent to Manchuria, but returned home and was discharged a few months later because of acute pneumonia. After World War II, Tanaka took over his uncle's tiny construction business. Through clever land speculation and business sense, he rapidly turned himself into a millionaire builder. He also joined the Liberal-Democratic Parly and established himself as an outstanding political organizer. When the party began losing its appeal in urban areas because of its conservatism, the politically moderate Tanaka quickly shored up its vote-getting potential. He also gathered a following among the party's younger members. His work paid off

close

STRONG, MAURICE FREDERICK

mous

is

is more a matter of political and social management than anything else: Vou can't go on forever with four competing service stations at every crossroads and a deficiency in

Biography

office of

(WILLUM MADER)

THOMSON, GEORGE One

of

enlarged

two Commission

nominees to the

British

the

the

of

EEC

was

George Thomson, a Labour member of Parliament who had led the negotiations for Britain's entry initiated by the Labour prime minister, Harold Wilson. .After the general election defeat of 1970 the Labour Party turned against EEC membership, but Thomson, one of the party's most steadfast proMarketeers, remained convinced that membership was

still

a vital British interest.

When the terms negotiated by Geoffrey Rippon were condemned by Wilson and other Labour leaders, Thomson said openly that in his view they were acceptable and the kind of terms a Labour government would have negotiated. During the debates of 1971 he argued that Britain would be doomed

to a second-class existence if it did not join Europe. He was one of the Labour MPs who voted with the Conservative government in a number of crucial debates on Europe, and after voting against his party he resigned from the shadow cabinet (in which since 1970 he had been in charge of defense) in June 1972. But he insisted that after a lifetime working in the Labour Party he would remain a party member. A Scot from Dundee, Thomson was born on Jan. 16, 1921. .After working for some years as editor of the Socialist paper Forfor Dundee East ward, he was elected in 1952. and had therefore been 20 years in Parhament when he accepted his new post in Brussels. He was a minister in the Wilson governments from 1964 to 1970, most of the time at the Foreign Office or the Commonwealth Relations Office. .Apart from his interests in Europe, he was involved in Middle East affairs, and in 1965 was the first British minister to visit Egypt since the Suez crisis. When at the Commonwealth Relations Oflice he headed abortive negotiations with Ian Smith of Rhodesia. Then in 1969 he was put in charce of the British team preparing the ground for the EEC negotiations that were taken over by the

MP

Heath government

in 1970.

(HARFORD THOMAS)

TOLBERT, WILLIAM RICHARD, JR. scholarly churchman William Richard Tolbcrt, who had become provisional president of Liberia on July 23, 1971, on the death of the assertive and flamboyant William Tubman, was inaugurated as his country's 19th president on Jan. 3. 1972. From the moment of taking provisional office Tolbcrt showed himself capable of decisive action. In order to reduce the price of rice, in a countrv where most people were earning as little as $100 annually, he took the

The

monopoly away from

rice

in

part by

the

late

Tubman (who was

a

company owned

president's son Shad Tolbert's son-inan undersecretary of

also

he dismissed two unpopular security chiefs, and his minister of planning and economic affairs

law)

;

state,

for corruption

and

inefficiency;

he set up

a commission to reorganize the civil service: he agreed on the reciprocal establishment of embassies with the U.S.S.R.; and in November 1972 invited a delegation of U.S. black bankers and businessmen to Liberia, and offered dual citizenship to those black U.S. citizens

who "wished

to formalize their his-

toric ties with Africa In general, Liberia in particular." For 20 out of the 28 years of

and with

Tubman's

rule Tolbert had served as the country's vice-president, a position to which he was first elected in 1951 at the age of 38. A quiet, unostentatious, and patient politician who had formerly directed much of his own activity into the affairs of the Baptist Church, he was president of the Liberian Baptist Missionary and Educational Convention, Inc., and of the Baptist World Alliance (1965-70). In the latter role he achieved international prominence in the ec-

marathon

umenical movement. Tolbert was born in Bensonville, Liberia, on May 13, 1913, of a prominent family of early settlers. He took his degree in 1934 in Liberia College (forerunner of the university). In 1952 the university conferred on him a doctorate in civil law. After graduating, he worked as a typist in the Liberian Treasury, then worked his way up to higher government posts. Entering poHtics in the early 1940s, he was elected to the House of Representatives for his home county, Montserrado, in 1943. Eight years later he was chosen by Tubman to be his running mate (colin legum) as vice-president.

UN

ministrative affairs of the Polish Communist Party. He joined the party in 1945 and, through his aggressive loyalty, political acumen, and ruthlessness, rose rapidly to the upper echelons. Within a few years his skills and loyalty brought him to the attention of Edward Gierek, then party secretary in Poland's industrial Western Region. For years, one of Trepczynski's prime tasks was to see that industrial workers maintained "proper discipline," that the party's interests in terms of production and ideology were not betrayed. If he felt that former party boss Wladyslaw Gomulka was insensitive toward rising consumer demands, Trepczynski did not betray it, at least not in public. In the last days of Gomulka, he held the important executive position of chief of the Central Committee's

—

was

to

make

sure that the top leadership's decisions were carried out. When Gomulka fell, as the result of the "food riots" of December 1970, Gierek emerged as the party leader. Shortly afterward Trepczynski was named deputy foreign minister and was suddenly plunged into the world of international affairs. Totally unknown abroad, he again appeared to be chiefly responsible for ensuring that Polish policy was carried out effectively, yet with proper ideological content. In a sense, Warsaw's putting him forward for the General Assembly presidency was a reward for his efforts.

Thus marked as a "post-Gomulka Pole," Trepczynski had the hallmarks of a typical Communist apparatchik superb self-control and surface impassivity. He was also noted for his vast capacity for work another sign of the successful apparatchik and he smoothly absorbed the mountains of documents that spew forth during an as-

—

— —

TRUDEAU, PIERRE ELLIOTT By

the end of 1972, Pierre ElUott

Trudeau

had

all he could do just to hang onto his job. His Liberal Party emerged from general elections on October 30 with only 109

of the 264 seats in the House of Commons, and the Canadian prime minister would have to submit to the will of Parliament if his government was to continue. For a man who had maintained a virtual rule of personality for four years, this would be hard to take. Trudeau's personality dominated the election, although in direct contrast to the way it had four years before, when his flamboy-

won him broad support for his call for a "Just Society" for all Canadians. In 1972 Trudeau waged a cool, aloof campaign, dismissing as "moaners" opponents ance had

decried the lack of action against per-

unemployment and inflation. The one achievement of the "Just Society," the Official Languages Act, which made French

sistent

His name was hardly a household word, even among diplomats, but in September 1972 the 27th General Assembly ensured that Stanislaw Trepczynski of Poland would be known in chancelleries around the world. On September 19 he was unanimously chosen president of the General Assembly's 1972-73 session, the second Communist official to be granted that honour (the first was Corneliu Manescu, foreign minister of Romania, in 1967). Trepczynski was a recent entrant into foreign affairs, having spent most of his adult life in labour and ad-

secretariat. In effect, his job

he went underground, studied languages to pass the time, and learned to speak English, French, German, and Russian with varying degrees of fluency. (william mader)

who

TREPCZYNSKI, STANISLAW

—

He was practical and careto allow ideology to openly influence his actions as assembly president. Born in Lodz, in central Poland, on April 7, 1924, Trepczynski attended the University of Lodz. During the Nazi occupation, sembly session. ful enough not

UN

the equal of English in all government business, had not been the step toward national unity he had claimed. None of the parties made bilingualism an election issue, but the

passage had strengthened Trudeau's appeal in Que\)ec and was often seen elsewhere as the work of a Frenchman taking bill's

care of his own. Trudeau was also no longer seen as the unconventional personality and unorthodox

who had inspired the "Trudeaumania" of four years before. The "swinger" of those days had become a family man, having ended his 51 years of bachelorhood in 1971. His haughty disregard of Parliament, common enough during his premiership, had been seen again in his call for elections before Parliament acted on two bills to curb foreign take-overs of Canadian companies, legislation many Canadians repolitician

garded as

vital to the preservation of their nationalism in the face of U.S. encroachment. Efforts to relieve the long-strained relations with the U.S. also had not been made. A pledge to clean up the Great Lakes was signed during an April visit to Ottawa by U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon, but negotiations on trade difficulties never got under

way. Trudeau was born on Oct.

18,

L.

WORSKOP)

UNGAR, GEORGES Having learned

to engineer formidable conover his environment, man turned to to engineer the human race itself. In 1972 Georges Ungar, research scientist and professor of pharmacolog>' at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Tex., was breaking new and controversial ground in his chosen part of this awesome and dangerous new adventure: the chemical coding of memory. In 1968 Ungar had published the revolutionary results of his experiments with transtrol

ways

ferring the memories of rodents. He trained rats to fear the dark, made an extract of their brain tissue, and injected it into the

abdomens

of

mally prefer the dark. He found that, contrary to accepted belief that what an individual learns can be transmitted only by teaching or example, many of the injected mice began to shun the dark. While others were attempting to confirm his results, Ungar sought to define the mechanism of transfer, which he concluded was an amino acid complex. By 1971 he had identified one particular peptide, a sequence of 15 amino acids, which he named scotophobin, from the Greek words for "fear" and "dark." One of his colleagues synthesized scotophobin accurately enough, for it caused mice to avoid the blackout boxes in their cages. The result of Ungar's work on four other "memory molecules" was expected in 1973. The possibilities for both good and evil opened up by Ungar's work were staggering, ranging from the chance to ameliorate mental retardation or senility with simple injections to wild Orwellian fantasies of administering college educations by hypodermic, or brainwashing populations with precision. Ungar pointed out, however, that the effects of his injections were temporary; he saw as the main significance of his work the insight it could bring to study of the brain. Ungar was also the co-discoverer of the antihistamine and oral antidiabetic drugs. A citizen of the Western world, he was born

1906 in Budapest, Hung., where his faFrench architect, was working. He was educated and later taught in France, did research and lectured in England during World War II, and taught in Montreal and then in Chicago, where he became a in

ther, a

U.S. citizen in 1954. After directing pharmaceutical research in New York and California for a number of years, he settled at (pat tucker) Baylor in 1963.

VILLELLA.

untrained mice, which nor-

EDWARD JOSEPH

Edward

Villella upheld his reputation in 1972 as one of the world's greatest dancers.

His incredible leaps and ability to appear suspended in air were put to magnificent use productions of The Prodigal Son, the "Rubies" section of Jewels, and Le Corsaire pas de deux. He extended the range of his artistry, however, in Jerome Robbins' controversial ballet Watermill. It was an important new role for him, requiring intense concentration and control rather than tech-

in

nical virtuosity. Villella was born on Oct. 1, 1936, in the City borough of Queens. Knocked unconscious by a baseball at the age of ten, Villella was kept off the diamond and sandlots by his mother, who sent him to ballet classes with his sister. A few months later he was awarded a scholarship to the School of American Ballet, where he studied for several years. He quit dancing to enter the Rhodes School in Manhattan and later attended the New York Maritime College, where he returned to the baseball diamond and became a campus welterweight boxing champion. He also resumed his ballet study. He received a B.S. in marine transportation in 1959, two years after he had joined the prestigious New York City Ballet. He became a principal dancer in 1960. Acclaimed as one of the world's most powerful and exciting dancers, Villella was always much in demand. Besides his regular performances with the New York City Ballet in 1972, he appeared as guest artist with regional companies throughout the U.S., performed on television and at concerts, gave lecture-demonstrations, and acted and danced in New York City Center revivals

New York

1919. in Montreal. In 1965, in his first try for public office, he was elected to the House of Commons from a prosperous Montreal suburb. Three years later he defeated six others to become leader of the Liberal Party and went on to victory in general elections.

(RICHARD

147

Biography

According to Haikkola, Viren's training

program demanded "lashing himself, a strong will, scientific research, and first-class skill runner." a New Zealander .Arthur Lydiard, who in the 1960s spent a few years in Finland as a coach, laid the foundation of the Finnish training system, but Haikkola worked out a special program with Viren that was "partly Paavo Nurmi, partly Percy Cerutly [Herb Elliott's trainer!, and partly Lydiard." .\ beautiful stylist, Viren had superb physical and mental control as was shown when, after falling during the 10,000 m. in Munich, he recovered himself and went on to beat the world's best. (CARL FREDRIK SANDCLIN) as

WALLACE, GEORGE CORLEY Once a one-issue Southern

Edward

VJIIella

of Brigadoon. In 1962 a cheering audience at Moscow's Bolshoi Theatre had accorded him the honour of an encore, unprecedented in the New York City Ballet and quite rare at the Bolshoi. In 1972 he also became artistic director of the semiprofessional New Jersey Ballet Company and hoped to lift it to professional status and to expand its schools. Villella showed that a dancer could be-

come a financial success, and his powerful, dynamic performances helped dispel the American myth that male ballet dancers are \'illella felt deeply that nothing could equal dancing for total control and awareness of what the human body

effeminate. total

(BARBARA W. CLEARV)

could do.

VIREN, LASSE Two

years' hard training gave Lasse Viren,

a 23-year-old Finnish policeman, two gold medals at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. He won the lO.OOO-m. race on September 3 in the world record time of 27 min. 38.4 sec. and a week later the 5,000 m. in the Olympic record time of 13 min. 26.4 sec.

These and other successes gave Finland back its pre-World War II dominance in middle- and long-distance running and recalled the feats of Paavo Nurmi and other giants of the 1920s and 1930s. When Viren and his teammate Pekka Vasala (1,500-m. gold medalist at Munich) returned to Helwere welcomed as national heroes and personally congratulated by Pres. Urho Kekkonen once a champion athlete himself. Both Viren and his trainer Rolf Haikkola had expected good results in 1971, but when Viren finished only seventh in the .S.OOO m. in that year's European championships they sinki, they

—

decided to intensify training. From October 1971 they carried through an exacting program that made no concessions to the rigours of the Finnish winter. On July 25, 1972, Viren won a 5,000-m. race at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium in 13 min. 19 sec— a national record and the third best time ever returned. And four days after his Olympic S,000-m. victory he set a new world record for the distance in Helsinki in the time of 13 min. 16 4 sec, beating the Australian Ron Clarke's six-year-old record by one-fifth of a second. Viren's record was short-lived, however, as 'on September 20, at Heysel, Belg., Belgian runner Emiel Puttemans clocked 13 min. 13 sec.

politician

down, a

disability doctors believed would be permanent. Nonetheless, he made an appearance at the Democratic national convention, where 377 delegates were pledged to him, and he remained an influence in U.S. politics. Asked about his plans, he told reporters, '*I do not rule out" a future candidacy, Wallace, then Democratic governor of Alabama, emerged on the national scene in 1963, when he "stood in the schoolhouse door" to prevent federal officials from enrolling a black student in the previously segregated University of .Alabama. An outspoken segregationist, he was a presidential candidate for the first time in 1964. He did .

Barry Goldwater. In 1968 Wallace, with former air force general Curtis LeMay as his running mate, was the formal candidate of the .American Independent Party, which was formed to support his bid for the presidency. By 1972 he was no longer appealing exclusively to segregationists but had emerged as the spokesman for rank-and-file voters who opposed ever increasing taxes and Topsy-like bureaucracies. Observers spoke of a "new

populism." although in his primary campaigns Wallace still leaned heavily on opposition to busing to achieve racial integration.

Wallace was born Aug. 25, 1919, in Clio, and received a law degree from the He became governor 1963 and, barred from a second term by

Ala.,

Univer.sity of .Alabama.

state law. stood aside for his wife, Lurleen, who was elected by an overwhelming plurality.

She died of cancer

Wallace,

was

who remarried

in

in

May

January

1968. 1971,

elected governor again in 1970.

(I'niup kofper)

WHITELAW, WILLIAM STEPHEN IAN When

the

Stnrmont

—

tics. Much of his life as a member of Parliament since 1955 had been spent in the invisible business of party management, culminating for him in the leadership of the House of Commons in the Heath govern-

ment

of 1970.

Minister

He had become one

Edward Heath's

closest

of

Prime

and

roost

influential confidants.

On

assuming his duties in Northern Ireland, he described his new job as "a most terrifying, difficult, and awesome task." He worked tirelessly, but the progress he made breaking

down

the prejudices of centuries

was slow and uncertain. "It really is time to start talking and stop shooting," he said in June, yet the IR.A cease-fire of June 25 lasted only until July 9.

The concessions he made to the Catholic community, such as the release of low-risk internees,

exasperated

the

Protestant

ex-

and when he placated Protestant by clearing the barricades from the Catholic "no go" areas, the IR.A Provisionals renewed and intensified the violence. With great persistence Whitelaw pressed for all parties to join in talks, but when these were held in September the Social Democratic and Labour Party refused to attend, and tremists, feeling

his attempt to steer a reasonable, fair course earned him the hostility of hard-liners in hb

own

party.

Whitelaw, born on June 28, 1918, came from a Scottish landed and army family and had some of the characteristics of a Tory squire a successful farmer enjoying coun-

—

.

well in three primaries before withdrawing in favour of conservative GOP nominee

in

—

in

who

had parlayed his appeal to blue-collar .Americans into 13.5% of the popular vote in the 1968 presidential election, Gov. George Wallace of .Mabama left his .American Independent Party in 1972 to seek the Democratic presidential nomination. "That effort ended on May 15, in a shopping centre in the Washington. D.C., suburb of Laurel, Md., when Wallace, campaigning for primary voles, was shot and seriously wounded by a drifter named .Arthur Bremer. Bremer's diary revealed that he had previously stalked another target: Pres. Richard M. Nixon. Wallace was left paralyzed from the waist

.

reconcile the warring Protestants and Catholics of Ulster. Reasonable, good tempered,

and relaxed charming, yet shrewd Whilelaw had the reputation of being one of the most skillful of conciliators in British poli-

government

of

the

United Kingdom's troubled Ulster province w.as displaced by direct rule from Westminster in March 1972, William Whitelaw w.is chosen to be secretary of stale for Northern Ireland. He seemed to have the patience, tact, and courage that would be needed to

try

recreations,

a burly, bluff, John and a courageous soldier who the Military Cross in Normandy.

figure,

Bull

won

(HARFORD THOMAS)

WHITLAM, (EDWARD) GOUGH On Dec. 5, 1972, Gough Whitlam was sworn in as .Australia's first Labor prime minister since 1949, following a 3.57r swing to the Australian Labor Party in the general elecDecember 2. From his father, who had been crown solicitor from 1936 to 1948 and had helped draft the UN Univers.al Declaration of Human Rights, Whitlam had tion of

inherited a humanitarian passion for international justice. Radical changes were expected from a foreign ministry that was to be directly under his control. His tours of Papua New Guinea had already forced the long-ruling Liberal-Country Party to accept self-government for the dependency in 1973, and his 1971 visit to Peking had thrown the ruling coalition's foreign policy into confusion. .At his first press conference as prime minister, Whitlam expressed the desire for "an .Australia which will be less militarily oriented and not open to suggestions of racism." Changes to be made included transfer of recognition from Taiwan to Peking; reduc-

tion of Australia's role in the South E.-ist Asia Treaty Organization to observer status; a revision of the five-power defense agreement with New Zealand, Britain, Malaysia,

and Singapore; unequivocal support for UN resolutions against apartheid; and withdrawal of .Australia's remaining 140 military advisers from Vietnam. .At the press conference he announced an end to conscription and the release of jailed draft resisters. Whitlam's first major foreign policy challenge was to stop French nuclear tests in the Pacific, initially by seeking an injunction at the International Court of Justice. He was expected to visit Peking, Jakarta, and Tokyo in 1973. In internal matters the government would no longer be inhibited by states' rights

from dealing with education, health, land costs, and transport. Gough Whitlam was born in Kew, Victoria, on July 11, 1916. He was a good classics scholar, was admitted to the bar in 1947, and became a queen's counsel in 1962. He was a member of the House of Representatives for the New South Wales seat of Werriwa from 1952 and deputy leader of the ALP from 1960. His most significant party triumph came in 1970 when he secured replacement of the vote-losing management of the Victoria branch of the party, curbed the power of its socialist -left leadership, and went on to revive the party after 15 years of dissension and defeatism. (r. j. m. dennerstein)

YEH CHIEN-YING One

of the

most prestigious "old marshals"

companions eked out a living in the jungle interior of the 209-sq.mi. island. Separating from the others to afford a greater chance for survival, he maintained contact with two of them until one day he found that they had died. For eight years Yokoi was alone, an

who inhabited a subterranean cave lit with coconut-oil lamps. A tailor in peacetime, he made clothes from bark and lived on what the jungle provided: mangoes, nuts, shellfish, rats. From airborne leaflets he had learned that peace had come, but he stayed in hiding until he was finally caught by two native fishermen as he tended his fish trap. Flown back to a vastly changed Japan, he was given a hero's welcome. It did not include an audience with the emperor, who had been considered divine when the 25year-old Y^okoi left home for the service in Oriental Robinson Crusoe

summer of 1940. He did visit the Imperial Palace, however, and left a message:

of Chinese Communism, Yeh Chien-ying became the de facto defense minister of China soon after the apparent death of Lin Piao,

the

Chairman Mao Tse-tung's heir apparent. There was some question of Yeh's tenure

deeply regret that

when

His back pay came to $129 and he was due an annual pension of $432, but this was handsomely augmented by $80,000 in contributions and by gifts that flowed in, along with numerous marriage proposals. Still, "I'm ashamed," the 57-year-old ex-soldier said. "We Japanese soldiers were told to

formal appointment as defense minister failed to materialize, either on Aug. 1, 1972, People's Liberation Army Day, or on October 1, China's National Day. Nevertheless, Marshal Yeh appeared to be top man in the Chinese Army, functioning as both his

spokesman and representative for

it.

He

ranked third in the party hierarchy after Mao and Chou En-lai, and continued to hold the post of vice-chairman of the Central Committee's Military Affairs Commission. in 1899 in the province of KwangYeh joined the Yunnan Military Inwhen he was 20, and then worked briefly as a magistrate. It was Sun Yatsen's Nationalist movement that attracted him to politics. In 1924 he was in the Whampoa Military Academy, where he joined the Communist Party. For two years

Born

tung,

stitute

he actively participated in various military campaigns, commanding units of the Nationalist Revolutionary Army. In 1927 he fled to Hong Kong, where he cared for a sick comrade, Chou En-lai. A year later he was in Moscow studying military tactics and also during this period spent a full year studying drama and the training of actors. After his return to China in 1930, while actively engaged in the development of the Red Army, Yeh took a leading role in organizing Communist dramatic troupes. Yeh drafted the military plan for the famous Long March of 1934-35, the retreat

of the Communists to northwest China. During the Sino-Japanese War he achieved outstanding success in infiltrating the ranks of the Nationalist Chinese Army of Chiang Kai-shek. After the Communist victory over the Nationalists, he headed the Military Con-

Commission for Peking and simultaneously was mayor of Peking. He became trol

marshal in 1955, member of the party Presidium in 1956, and member of the Politburo in 1969. In the post-Lin Piao military hierarchy Yeh was one of the few officers who had past connections with the Soviet Union. (t. j. s. george)

Sgt. Shoichi

Yokoi was believed

along with thousands of other Imperial Japanese soldiers who had sworn to die defending Guam rather than surrender the largest of the Mariana group to the Allies. But early in 1972 he was found very much alive on the tiny Pacific island, one of a handful of unrelenting World War IT troops who still survived. Following the month-long battle for Guam in 1944 and Japan's ultimate surrender the following year, Yokoi and nine to be dead, killed

Majesties, I have returned home. I I could not serve you

well."

prefer death to the disgrace of getting captured alive." Many were still taking that option. Later in the year, on the remote Philippine island of Lubang, Pfc. Kinshichi Kozuka was killed while raiding a village for food. His companion, Lieut. Hiro Onoda, escaped back into the jungle. The search party sent to find him included his former officer, who went to counterthe order never to surrender. Yokoi's private war was over. He

commanding

mand But

his family tombstone, which bore name, and wept when he learned of his mother's death years earlier. By year's end he had married Mihoko Hatashin, and the couple had settled in Yokoi's old hometown of Nagoya. (philip kopper)

visited his

matic of a negative consensus that had been noticed around the country since the popular decline of the

Lyndon Johnson admin-

public disillusionment with the panacea of centralized action. Young was born March 12, 1932, in New Orleans, La. He attended Dillard University, then transferred to Howard, the nation's preeminent black educational institution, where he graduated in 1951. He received a theological degree at Hartford Seminary four years later and was ordained in the Congregational Church. For two years he served a parish in Thomasville, Ga., and then joined the National Council of Churches as associate director of its youth

istration:

division. In 1961 he became executive secretary of the SCLC, the organization through

which King coalesced national concern for civil rights and equal opportunity in the (PHILIP kopper) U.S.

ZAID IBN SULTAN

AN-NAHAYAN Dec. 2, 1971, Sheikh Zaid, ruler of Abu Dhabi, was elected president of the newly formed United Arab Emirates by the heads of the six Trucial States that then comprised Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, the union al-Qaiwain Fujairah, Sharjah, and (Ras al-Khaimah, the seventh Trucial State, joined in 1972). With the help of the immense oil wealth of his tiny state and his own forceful personality, Zaid had already

On

—

Umm

established himself as a figure of political importance in the Arab world. Sheikh Zaid was born in 1918. In 1946 his elder brother Shakhbut, who had become ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1928, appointed him wait (governor) of al-Ain in the Buraimi region of the interior. With few resources he did what was possible to develop the oasis. In 1954-55 during the dispute

over

Buraimi between Saudi Arabia and

which was the protecting power in the Trucial Coast, it was alleged that the Saudis attempted to bribe Zaid with offers that included a guarantee of his personal status, £30 million in cash, and 50% of future oil profits if he prevented the British company, Petroleum Concessions Ltd., from Britain,

YOUNG, ANDREW

JR. Rev. Andrew J. Young, J.,

The election of the Jr. (Dem., Ga.) as the first black U.S. representative from the South since Reconstruction was as much an individual success as it was a reflection of the continued emergence of black political strength in the South. ,

Young, who

first gained prominence as a Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) aide of the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., had run for Congress in 1970 and lost to incumbent Fletcher Thompson (who in turn lost a Senate bid in 1972 to Sam Nunn) In 1972 Young was one of some 400 .

black candidates for state and local offices in Confederate territory. "Far more ran than won." the Washington Post summarized. "But more won this time than two years ago." Their greater success seemed the aggregate result of similar conditions and strategies in many localities rather than the product of a cohesive nationwide moveold

ment.

Young

YOKOI, SHOICHI For 28 years

"Your

149

Biography

typified his peers in

some

respects.

"I'm not concentrating on national goals or national problems," he told columnist Joseph Kraft during the campaign. "I want to concentrate on the special problems of this city. I believe we can create here in Atlanta [heart of Georgia's 5th congressional district] a school system that is integrated and offers quality education. When that other cities are going to follow. I see myself in the Congress getting federal funds for Atlanta so we can work ... on the problems we do not know how to solve nationally." This sentiment was sympto-

we do

operating in Abu Dhabi and allowed the U.S. company, Aramco, to do so. Zaid refused the bribe; it was said he had promised his

mother

to respect his brother's life

rule. However, when Abu Dhabi's oil revenues began to increase rapidly in the 1960s and his eccentric and suspiciousminded brother refused to allocate funds for development, Zaid was persuaded, with British encouragement, to overthrow Shakhbut and establish himself as ruler. He at once embarked on an extensive program of development; a new port and airport, roads,

and

schools,

and

Abu Dhabi's

hospitals were all speedily built. first five-year development plan

was launched in 1968. The huge increase in spending would have caused serious problems if it had not been matched by the rise in oil revenues, which reached about $337.5 million in 1971 and were substantially higher in 1972, giving Abu Dhabi probably the highest per capita income in the world. Sheikh Zaid made substantial loans and gifts to various Arab states and individuals and to further the Arab cause, but the dominant position he gained for Abu Dhabi in the Trucial Coast caused some resentment among other rulers in the area. (peter mansfield) See also Nobel Prizes.

:

participated in the People's Assembly in 1971, was expelled as vice-president of the and was re-

t

MNR

placed by Guillermo Bedregal. Siles later revealed that had written to him offering support at

Bolivia

his successor

A

the time of Banzer's coup in August 1971.

livia is

lation succeeded in alienating the

landlocked republic in central South America, Bobordered by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Area: 424,162 sq.mi. (1,098,581 sq.km.).

Pop. 1971 est.) 5,062,500, of whom more than 50% were Indian. Language: Spanish (official). Religion: Roman Catholic. Judicial cap.: Sucre (pop., 1971 est., :

(

69,800). Administrative capital and largest city: La Paz (pop., 1971 est., 850,000). President in 1972, Col.

Hugo Banzer

Suarez.

Events in 1972 gave grounds for cautious optimism over Bolivia's future, although devaluation of the peso late

in

the year led to strikes

and the declaration

of a state of siege. There were fears at the beginning of the year that nothing had changed after

President Banzer reshuffled his Cabinet, late in 1971, and ousted the man who had been instrumental in

—

him to power Col. Andres Selich. Colonel was sent to Paraguay as ambassador but was later recalled and ordered to retire from the Army after being accused of plotting to overthrow the president. There followed a purge of the supporters of Selich and of former president Gen. Juan Jose Torres Gonzales within the armed forces, and President Ban-

bringing Selich

zer

was consequently able

to establish himself in a

strong position with the Army. The Army's ally, the Nationalist Popular Front

(FPN), was

less united.

The

traditional cleavages in

Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) manifested themselves once more at the party's conference in April. Former president Hernan Siles Zuazo,

the

whose wing of the

MNR

supported Torres and had

BOLIVIA Education. (1969) Primaiy. pupils 663,829, teachers 24.832; secondary, pupils 61,787, teachers 3,798; vocational, pupils 9,692, teachers 1.382; teacher training, students 4,765, teachers 245; higher (including 8 universities), students 27,352, leaching staff 2,727. Finance. Monetary unit; peso boliviano, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a free rate of 11.88 pesos to U.S. $1 (29.07 £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs. and foreign expesos change, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $53.4 million; (June 1971) U.S. $39 million. Budget (1969 rev. est.)

=

Boating:

Motor Sports; Rowing; Sailing

see

Bonds: see Savings and Investment; Stock Exchanges Books: see Art Sales;

Literature;

Publishing

balanced at 1,265,300,000 pesos. Gross national product: (1969) 10.822,000,000 pesos; (1968) 9,939,000,000 pesos. Money supply: (March 1972) 1,769,400,000 pesos; (March 1971) 1,449,500,000 pesos. Cost of living (La Paz; 1963 = 100): (July 1971) 158; (July 1970) 152. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports U.S. $171,283,000; exports U.S. $212,253,000. Import sources: U.S. 31%; Japan 16%; Argentina 10%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 46%; U.S. 28%,; Japan 6%; Argentina 6%. Main exports (1970): tin 39%; antimony 12%; tungsten 7%; zinc 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1971) 25,637 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger c. 19,200; commercial (including buses) c. 28.800. Railways: (1971) 3,588 km.; traffic (1969) 256 million passcnger-km., freight (1968) 316 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 108,970,000 passengerkm.; freight 1,730,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1970) 38.000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,350.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970; 1969 in parentheses) corn 283 (289); wheat S3 (45); barley 62 (61); potatoes 655 (627); cassava 221 (213); oranges 65 (57); sugar, raw value (1971-72) 93, (1970-71) 134; rubber (exports) c. 3 (c. 3). Livestock (in 000; Oct. 1970): sheep c. 6.850; cattle c. 2,400; pigs c. 950; horses c. 300; asses c. 660; goats c. 2,500; llamas c. 1,500. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): cement 80; crude oil 1.123; electricity (kw-hr.) 731,:

(82% hydroelectric); gold (troy oz.) 51; other metal ores and concentrates (exports; mclal content) tin 28, lead 26, antimony 12, zinc 47, tungsten (oxide content) 2.4, copper 8.8, silver 0.19. 000

The

reve-

Army, the Bolivian (FSB), and sections of the from Bedregal, and he went into exile. As was to be expected of two parties that had been sworn enemies up until 1971. the FSB and fre-

MNR

Socialist Falange

MNR

quently sniped at one another within the FPN coalition. This culminated in September in resignations from the Cabinet on both sides. Notwithstanding this. President Banzer appeared to have found a new and

workable formula for Bolivian politics. Problems for the regime arose after President Banzer's October 27 devaluation of the peso from approximately 12 to 20 to the U.S. dollar, an action government supporters claimed was forced by the International Monetary Fund. -Although devaluation was accompanied by the establishment of family bonuses, most of this additional income was offset by price rises. Labour unrest began almost immediately, and in November workers in La Paz called a protest strike. Claiming that the strike was part of a conspiracy to overthrow his government. Banzer declared a state of siege, which remained in effect even after the strikers returned to work and wage negotiations were begun. In handling the economy, Banzer emphasized projects that would build the nation's productive capacity and continued diversification in order to boost exports.

The

U.S.

Agency

for

International

Development

granted loans totaling $14 million, and the U.S.S.R. provided finance for a tin-volatilization plant at Potosi to convert low-grade ore into high-grade tin. A bismuth smelter was planned at Telamayo. In the longer term and of potentially greater importance to Bolivia's future export performance was the beginning

from the MuttJn deposits in August, although financing had yet to be arranged for further development. In .'^pril a gas pipeline between Santa Cruz and Yacuiba was opened, bringing an estiof iron-ore shipments

mated annual income of $13 million. The government made a conscious effort to gain the confidence of foreign investors. The International Metal Processing Corp. (IMPC) was paid $1,450,compensation for the nationalization of its by Torres, and the U.S. Steel Corp. $13.4 million in compensation for the nationalization of the Matilde zinc mine. A hydro-

000

in

installations

was

to receive

carbons law passed in March indicated that the govsought foreign investment from private sources as well as governments.

ernment

(JEREMY WILLOrCHBY")

Botswana A

landlocked

republic

of

southern Africa, Botswana, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, is bounded by South Africa, South Wc'it

and Rhodesia. Are:i 220,000 sq.mi. (570,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 667,000, almost 99% African. Capital: Gaborone (pop., 1971 est., 14,467). Largest city: Serowe (pop., 1969 est., 34,186). Language: English (official) and Tswana. Religion Christian 60% animist. President Africa,

;

:

in 1972, Sir Seretse

Khama.

and S. Mackie (Austr.), 4,672, proceeded to bowl a one-game match-play round robin against one another. For each game won, 20 bonus points were given, plus 5 bonus points for each game over 200 pins. After those 19 games the top eight bowlers were qualified for the quarterfinals. Those eight were topped by Dalkin, 4,209 (including 290 bonus points), Mackie, 4,026 (270), and Miiller, 4.023 (305). These eight quarterfinalists then proceeded to bowl another match-play round robin with the same point system. 4,733,

BOTSWANA Education. (1969) Primary, pupils 82,214, teachers 2,037; tional,

secondary, pupils 3,049, teachers 157; vocapupils 876; teacher training, students 303.

teachers

2 6.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

South African

rand, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a free rate of £1 sterling). Budget U.S. $1 (R 1.95

=

R

0.80 to

(1969-70

revenue R 21,404,000; expenditure R 20,394,Foreign trade (1969): imports R 30,833,000 (65% from South Africa in 1966); exports R 13,060,000 (18% to South Africa in 1966). Main exports (1967): meat 42%; hides and sliins 18%; meat extract 14%; other meat products 11%; live cattle 5%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): sorghum 73 (8); corn 17 (5). Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle c. 1,400; sheep 396; goats 1,055; poultry 268. est.);

000.

The four

its remarkable economic development reflected 1972-73 budget, balanced (at R 23.5 million) for the first time without British aid, Botswana gained proportionately in political importance within southern Africa during 1972. On the economic front more than 40 separate agreements (including one for a DM. 222 million credit) were completed with West Ger-

With

in the

man,

U.S.,

nickel

and other interests in the Shashi copperEconomic cooperation with South

project.

Africa continued, although the devaluation of

the

rand led to an escalation in development costs. This was exacerbated by the Shashi project, which gathered momentum despite the strike of 400 workers protesting against job preference being given to South Africans. Sir Seretse Khama officially opened the Orapa diamond mine on May 26; it was estimated that produc-

tion would represent one-third of the diamond output all southern Africa and provide Botswana with a revenue exceeding R 8 million annually. Although heavy rains brought widespread flooding and damage

of

during January, major road construction continued,

supported by British, Swedish, and International De-

velopment Association funds. President Khama opened the year with a major reshufile. Under an agreement with his native country, T. A. Aguda of Nigeria was sworn in as Botswana's chief justice in February.

government

(molly Mortimer)

Quilleurs (FIQ),

the world governing organization of bowling,

brated

its

20th anniversary in 1972.

The

cele-

additions of

Bermuda, Indonesia, and Taiwan during the year creased the

number

of

member

(145), Corona, 2,115 (180), Reyes, 2,075 (115), and Miiller 2,050 (170).

semifinals were: Dalkin, 2,143

In the final three-game series the 21-year-old Dalkin, an engineering student from Atlanta, Ga., triumphed over Corona with a total of 542 against 524. Dalkin was the third American to win the tournament. The annual invitational Tournament of the Americas drew participants from 20 North and Latin-American countries. The winners of the various events were: teams of four, U.S., 3,690; mixed doubles, U.S., 2,401; women's doubles, U.S., 3.398; men's doubles, Mexico, 3.606; women's singles, Livesay, U.S., 2,957; men's singles, Alfredo Boyd, Panama, 3,111; women's all events, Adela de Cardoze, Panama, 7,061 men's all events, Boyd, 7,411; champion division, women, Lorrie Koch, U.S., 1,717, and men, Larry Turner, U.S., (yrjo sarahete) 1,707. United States. Nelson Burton. Jr., appeared to be headed for his second bowler-of-the-year honour in three years with just a handful of tournaments remaining in the 1972 schedule. In late summer Burton captured his third Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) tournament championship of the year, at Waukegan, 111., and increased his lifetime total of PBA titles to ten. Earlier in 1972 the 30-year-old St. Louis, Mo., bowler finished first in PBA meets in Miami, Fla., and Milwaukee, Wis. The number two ;

man in the standings was Don Johnson of Akron, 0.

Bowling and Lawn Bowls The Federation Internationale des

best bowlers qualified for semifinals; they

were Dalkin, 1,538 (120), Reyes, 1,485 (110), Corona of Mexico, 1,415 (110), and Muller, 1,407 (120). Miiller thus had a chance to win this respected tournament for a second straight year. The four semifinalists continued to bowl match-play round robin, this time, however, carrying forward their scores from the quarterfinals. After the three semifinal matches there were only two bowlers left for the grand final of three games to be bowled. The scores after the

in-

countries to 48. In

more than 10 bowlers. The growth of tenpins was

Neither Burton nor Johnson were serious contendin the year's richest tournament, the $125,000 Tournament of Champions, in Akron. Mike Durbin of nearby Chagrin Falls, 0., a former tour Firestone regular

who had won

in

registered

strong-

third in the

in

Hong Kong. About 250,000 bowlers

participated in

fied

just

$310

in three prior

meets

1972, was the Firestone winner. Durbin placed

million

In 1972 the national eliminations for the World Cup, the leading amateur singles tournament, were run in 3S different countries, with international finals

bowler-of-the-year

ers

those 48 countries there were

est in Japan and other Far Eastern countries, and it was estimated that by the end of 1972 there would be as many bowling lanes in Japan alone as in the entire United States.

1971

him

4S-game qualifying

test,

but this quali-

for the five-man nationally televised final

There he totaled a spectacular 775 while scoring three consecutive victories, including a 258187 triumph over Tim Harahan, Canoga Park, Calif., in the title game. Durbin won $25,000 and Harahan, round.

$14,000. In the 69th annual American Bowling Congress

(ABC) tournament,

in

Long Beach,

Calif.,

Teata

and the national winners were invited to Hong Kong. All 35 finalists, together with the defending champion of the previous year, Klaus Miiller, a bricklayer of West Berhn, bowled

Semiz of River Edge, N.J., was the only double winner, capturing the Classic Division (for professionals)

24 qualifying games. Then, the 20 top bowlers, led by R. Dalkin (U.S.), 4,774, R. M. Reyes (Phil.),

included:

the national eliminations,

singles

title

crown with

with 754 and the nine-game all-events Other Classic Division champions

1,994.

doubles.

Carmen

Barry Asher, Costa Mesa,

Salvino,

Chicago,

Calif., 1,366;

and

team, Basch

Bowling and Lawn Bowls

152

Boxing

game

cost Scotland a

New York City, 3,099. In the Regular the winners were: singles. Bill Pointer, Pontiac. Mich., 739; doubles, Jerry Nutt and Bill Slanfield, Grand Rapids, Mich.. 1.350; team, Hamm's

the

Beer, Minneapolis, Minn., 3,101. Bill Beach of Sharon, Pa., won the Masters Tournament, also held at Long

score cards were signed.

Advertising,

Division

Beach.

The

highest three-game score in the S3-year history

Women's

the

of

International

(WIBC» tournament was

Bowling

rolled in the

Congress

1972 event

Kansas City, Mo., when Mrs. D. D. Jacobson, Playa Del Rcy, Calif., bowled 737 to win the Open Division singles title. The former record was 712, by Marie Clemensen, Chicago, in 1934. and by Betty Remmick, Denver, Colo., in 1965. The same Mrs. Remmick teamed with Judy Roberts of Denver to bowl 1,247 and win the Open doubles championship at Kansas City. Mrs. Mildred Martorella, Rochester, N.Y., had a nine-game total of 1,877 to take the allevents championship, and the Open Division team in

title

was won by .^ngeltown Creations, Placentia,

Calif.,

One winners in the tourteam.Donson Inc., Alsip, III.. 2,707;

with 2,838. Division

nament included:

Frank. Woodsidc, N.Y., 657; doubles, Evelyn Porter and Billie Caldwell. Chicago. 1.215; all-events. Janice Denning, Wilmington. Del., 1.827. In the Queens Tournament at the WIBC site, Dotty Fothergill. North .\ttleboro. Mass., gained first prize by defeating Maureen Harris, Madison, Wis., in the final four-game match, 890-841. singles, Shirley

In the National Duckpin Tournament held at Willow Bowl, Richmond, Va.. the winners in men's competition were: team, Guida's Dairy, New Britain. Conn., 2.070; doubles. Charles Creamer and W. M. Jenkins,

Richmond, 915; singles, Wally Adams, Cheshire, Conn., and Irvin Wagner, Mt. Airy, Md.. each 468; all-events, James Garton, Hagerstown, Md., 1.292. Women's champions included: team. Ports Sport Shop, Baltimore, Md., 1,902; doubles, Terry Vaccaor and Dorothy Czajka, Glastonbury, Conn.. 798; sinall-events, gles, Barbara Brown, Richmond, 461; Cathy Sanders, Baltimore, 1.203. Winners in the mixed events were: team, Swineford Florist, Richmond, 1.946; doubles, Mary Orme and Robert Marchone, Washington, D.C., 830.

(JOHN

J.

ARCHIBALD)

Lawn Bowls. The second World Bowling Championships were staged at Beach

House Park. Worthing,

Eng., from June 5 to June 17, 1972. Unlike the Australian Bowling Association in 1965. the English

fEB.\) was unable to find an overall sponsor for the championships and so the to be generated within the English £55,000 budget had game. Gate receipts, contributions from the constitu-

Bowling

.As.sociation

ent counties of the EB;\, advertising rights, .souvenir

and program sales, etc., eventually raised more than this sum and left the association with a small surplus. Tournament play reached higher levels than in Australia in 1966, especially among the participants from countries not generally considered leaders in the game. Nevertheless, the main titles were distributed without major surprises. Scotland won the Leonard Team Trophy, its bowlers scoring 8 points out of a possible 16 from the four individual events. South Africa and the United Slates each scored seven. Hong Kong and Wales six each, and England four. Scotland's victory in the event was not confirmed until the last round of matches on the final day, an example of the closeness of competition. Yet this would not have happened except that an interpretation of the laws of

match

in the triples and, in

consequence, the silver medal in that event. With the match against Fiji apparently won, the Scottish skip forfeited his last bowl, the head was broken, and the

Then an umpire ordered the end to be replayed, and Fiji won. This ruling clearly contravened Law X (3a) of the International Bowling Board but, to general surprise, the IBB failed to have the decision changed.

Individual

King,

Cliff

pairs,

fours,

Ted Hayward, Peter

Forrester,

Clive

triples,

U.S.;

events winners were:

Stroud,

Miller,

Bill

Delgado,

Cecilio

Eric

Norman

Line, Eng.;

Dick Folkins, Liddell,

Hong

Maldwyn Evans

(Wales), David Bryant of England, the 1966 singles winner, finished sixth. However. Bryant two months later won the

Kong;

singles,

English singles championship for the fourth time, thus equaling Percy Baker's record. After the world championships, changes in laws

were introduced, including the controversial one concerning the delivery or nondelivery of the last bowl of each end. The minimum depth of ditches was reduced to two inches, while a new maximum was

New

Zealand women's association: as the height of a hemline measured from the green. The reformers claimed that women were failing to take up the game because they were not allowed to wear short dresses. Indoor bowls continued to thrive in Britain, and in .Australia the comparatively new indoor green in Melbourne was to (c. M. joNEs) be supplemented by another. created by the 16

in.

instead of 14

in.

Boxing Joe Frazier (U.S.) remained world heavyweight boxing champion in 1972, and his long-awaited return fight for the title against Muhammad .\li did not materialize.

Frazier twice defended the

title,

knocking out

U.S. challengers Terry Daniels in four rounds and Ron Standcr in four rounds. .\li was more active, scoring victories on points over

Mac

Foster (U.S.) in

Tokyo

and George Chuvalo (Can.^ in Vancouver. He also knocked out U.S. opponents Jerry Quarry at Las Vegas, Nev,. .\\ "Blue" Lewis in Dublin. Ire., and Bob Foster, the world light-heavyweight champion, at Stateline, Nev. .\nd he stopped an old rival, Floyd Patterson, in New York. .\merica's other heavyweight world contender, former Olympic champion George Foreman, retained his undefeated professional record, bringing his total of victories to 38. His five victims, all knocked out in two rounds, included Clarence Boone.

Murphy Goodwin. Ted

Gullick, Miguel .\ngel

Paez, and Terry Sorrells. Despite his knockout defeat by \\\.

Bob

Foster re-

light-heavyweight division, successfully defending the World Boxing Council (WBC) championship four times: he beat Brian Burden

mained supreme

in the

Rondon (Venez.) in 2, and Chris Finnegan (Eng.) over Rondon cleared up a dispute in this division, as the World Boxing .\ssociation (WB.\) had recognized Rondon as champion. Carlos Monzon (.\rg.l continued to dominate the (U.S.) in 3 rounds, Vicente

Mike Quarry (U.S.^

in 4.

in 14. Foster's victory

world middleweights and traveled to Europe three times to defend his title successfully by beating Denny Moycr (U.S.) in 5 rounds in Rome, Jean-Claude

(France) in 12 in Paris, and Tom Bogs Copenhagen. Koichi Wajima (Jap.) retained the junior middleweight championship, beating Bouttier

(Den.)

in 5 in

Boxing

World middleweight champion Carlos Monzon scores a knockdown against challenger Tom Bogs in the fifth round of their title bout

Copenhagen, Aug. 19, 1972. Monzon retained his title on a technical in

knockout.

Domenico Tiberia (Italy) in one round and Matt Donovan (Trinidad) in three. Jose Napoles (Mex.) remained welterweight champion with knockout wins against Ralph Charles (Eng.)

championship with knockout wins against William Martinez (Nic.) in 5 rounds in Mexico City and Susumu Okabe (Jap.) in 12 rounds in Tokyo. ior

lightweight

WBA

Ben

Villaflor (Phil.) captured the junior lighttitle with a decision over defending champion Alfredo Marcano (Venez.) in Honolulu. Villaflor later

London and Adolph Pruitt (U.S.) at Monterrey. The junior welterweight crown continued to be

weight

shared: Bruno Arcari (Italy) successfully defended

retained the title when held to a draw by Victor Echegaray (Arg.), also in Honolulu. Two new world featherweight champions were

in

WBC version against Joao

Henrique (Braz.) with and against Everaldo Costa Azevedo (Arg.) with a win on points. The WBArecognized championship, however, changed hands twice after Alfonso Frazer (Pan.) had taken the title from Nicolino Loche (Arg.) with a win on points in Panama City, he lost it to Antonio Cervantes (Colom.) by a knockout in ten rounds. The world lightweight championship continued to be in dispute. Roberto Duran (Pan.) took the WBA title from Ken Buchanan (Scot.) with a 13-round win in New York. Considerable argument and confusion the

a 12th-round knockout

:

arose after

Mando Ramos

(U.S.) received a disputed

decision over Pedro Carrasco (Spain) in

contest for the vacant

Later,

WBC

Madrid

version of this

in a title.

Change Carmona (Mex.) stopped Ramos in Los Angeles, and the WBC title was when Rodolfo Gonzalez (U.S.) was ac-

eight rounds in finally settled

cepted as champion.

Ricardo Arredondo (Mex.) retained the

WBC

jun-

WBA

crowned. After retaining the version with a seventh-round knockout against Raul Martinez Mora (Mex.), Antonio Gomez (Venez.) lost the title on points to Ernesto Marcel (Pan.). The champion-

WBC

was taken over by Clemente Sanchez (Mex.) with a third-round knockout win against Kuniaki Shibata (Jap.) in Tokyo. The world bantamweight championship changed hands twice. After successfully defending it by stopping Jesus Pimental (Mex.) in 11 rounds in Los Angeles, Ruben Olivares (Mex.) was knocked out in eight rounds by Rafael Herrera (Mex.) in Mexico City. But Herrera lost the title a few months later when outpointed by Enrique Pinder (Pan.). ship

Masao Ohba

(Jap.)

retained the

WBA

flyweight

championship, defeating Susumu Hanagata (Jap.) on points and knocking out Orlando Amores (Pan.) in five rounds. Both fights took place in Tokyo. The

could become the world's major source of cellulose. The trees require eight years to mature. In mountains 300 mi. inland from the port of Sao Luis, core samples of iron ore were assayed purer than

any found in modern limes. Only the construction of a road from the mountains to the port city remained to give Brazil what could amount to a corner on iron. These promising economic developments were coupled with continuation of 197rs phenomenal growth rate of 11.3%. reported to be the highest ever attained in Brazil and one of the highest in the world. But even though promising economic developments and apparent political and social calm were the predominant facts of Brazil in 1972, the country was not without the spectre of high inflation. In addition, there was some question of how many of Brazil's 98 million people were realizing any benefits from the economic growth. The Wall Street Joiirrtal reported booming economy might not have had any impact on well over half the country's citizens. According to reports published by the Economic Research Institute of the University of Sao Paulo, the cost of living rose 9.1% from January to June 1972. It had risen 13.6% in the first half of the previous year, 30% in 1967, and 45% in 1966. The industrial sector grew the most in 1972. Exports reached an equivalent value of $2,850,0(X),000 in 1971, $1.7 billion in the first six months of 1972, and were expected to reach $3.5 billion by the end of 1972. Exports now included automobiles (there were 13 automobile-manufacturing plants in Sao Paulo that the

Heavyweight champion Joe Frazier decl'-general

animist

45%.

President

in

1972,

Michel Micombero; prime minister from July rest

An

15,

4%;

Protestant Hutu refugees

rebel leaders.

stated that the 31 -day tragedy, allegedly an attempt

Nyamoya.

was em-

ing countries decimated Burundi's population in 1972.

interior represented a shift to the left; this

Sombre developments began with the arrival of exiled King Ntare V in Uganda from West Germany on March 21. Interviewed by Burundi officials in the presence of Uganda's president. Gen. Idi Amin, he was promised safe conduct and amnesty, with written confirmation from President Micombero. On his arrival in Burundi, March 30, Ntare was taken by

phasized when a Chinese technical mission arrived in late summer. Hutu representation in the Cabinet was

the

Army

to

an undisclosed destination, and on March

31 an official broadcast

announced

his arrest for trying

invade the country with mercenaries, a statement refuted by Uganda on April 4. Further radio stateto

ments called for government support, and on ."Vpril 29 the government was dismissed by presidential decree. On April 30 an official broadcast stated that an attempted coup of April 29 had been averted but the king had been killed while his supporters were attempting to rescue him from the palace at Gitega. President Micombero later disclosed that Ntare had been tried and executed the night of the attack. A new military government under presidential control was established and public assembly prohibited. At first, confusion reigned over whether the uprising was monarchist or Maoist; it was later officially accepted as far-leftist, as Burundi had long been a centre of Chinese infiltration. But the rising was clearly the result of repression of the

Hutu (who made

up over 80% of the total population) by the dominant Tutsi and was planned and started with the simultaneous slaughter of Tutsi in Bujumbura, the Bururi region in the south, and Gitega in the centre.

With

from Zaire and Tanzania the rebellion was largely crushed within two weeks, but reprisals by the Tutsi, aid

reduced from five (out of the previous ten ministers) to four.

Many observers feared that the retaliation against educated Hutu would set the country back many years. The economic situation appeared disastrous, since coffee, the

main export, responsible

for

80%

of

came from the ravaged south and food crops lay neglected. With no railway and only 50 mi. paved out of 3.000 mi. of road, recovery could only be slow. Not able to support itself, Burundi conforeign earnings,

tinued to rely heavily upon foreign aid, mainly from Belgium but supplemented by West Germany, France, and international agencies. (molly Mortimer)

Cambodia A

republic of Southeast Asia,

Cambodia

(officially

known

as

1

Khmer Republic) is the southwest part of the Indochinese Peninsula. Area: 69.S0.S ^«_r ' sq.mi. (181,035 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 6,968,200, including il"".' l•^I K' 93%; Vietnamese 4%; Chinese 3',. Cap.: I'luiu.:. Penh (pop., 1971 est., 479,300). Language: Khmer (official) and French. Religion: Buddhist. Chiefs of state in 1972, Cheng Heng until March 10, then Gen. the

^^

Lon Nol

(also

miers, Gen.

president

Lon Nol

until

from March 141 pre18, Son Ngoc Thanh

March

;

from March 18 14,

October

until

14,

and, from October

Hang Thun Hak.

Sudden leadership changes

and a

at the top

of highly controversial elections held

string

the spotlight

most of 1972, but it was the war itself that dominated everything for the third year in succession. So hopeless was the military situation and in

Cambodia

for

so flimsy the country's own internal cohesion that the real achievement of the year appeared to be the sur-

Lon Nol government. The year dawned with rumours

vival of the

that

Lon Nol would

order a drastic reshuffle of his Cabinet; these had replaced earlier rumours that the government faced

imminent

collapse.

A movement

erupted

among

stu-

Phnom Penh for the removal of Sisowath Matak, the "premier delegate" who had been in

dents in Sirik

virtual control since

Lon

Nol's paralytic stroke the

previous year.

On March

10 Chief of State Cheng Heng announced was stepping down and handing over his post Lon Nol. The announcement coincided with Lon Nol's return to Phnom Penh from a five-week rest that he to

Kompong Som

cure in

(formerly Sihanoukville).

Two

days later Lon Nol dissolved the government. A period of confusion followed. Four days after he became chief of state, Lon Not swore himself in as president. Simultaneously, he said he would also be premier. All this was in addition to his position as

commander

Matak remained in office appeared that Lon Nol was

in chief. Sirik

as deputy premier. It

making desperate

efforts to contain student opposition

to his trusted aide.

Matak would

But widespread feeling that Sirik key position in the new system some military and

find a

kept the agitation going, with

Buddhist

circles joining the students.

On March

16 Sirik

Matak

publicly announced his

withdrawal from political life, and Lon Nol found himself president of a country without a government. After six days of governmental vacuum, the political chaos ended on March 20 with the announcement of

an 18-man Cabinet. Lon Nol became the president of the Cabinet, and the premier was Son Ngoc Thanh,

CAMBODIA Education. teachers

(1968-69) Primary, pupils 1,024,456, 21,371; secondary, pupils 104,227, teachers

(1967-68) 3,886; vocational (1967-68), pupils 5,787, teachers 464;

teacher training, students 1,769, teach(1966-67) 104; higher (including 9 universities), students 11,094, teaching staff 1,200. ers

Finance. Monetary unit; a free rate of 186.26 sterling).

with (June 30, 1972) U.S. $1 (455 riels £1 balanced at 9,820,000,000

riel,

riels to

Budget (1970

est.)

=

riels.

Foreign Trade. (1970) Imports U.S. $76.7 million; exports U.S. $63.1 million. Import sources (1969): Japan 27%; France 24%; U.S. 11%; China 9%; Singapore 7%. Export destinations (1968); France 23%; South Vietnam 17%; Hong Kong 11%; China 10%; Singapore 8%. Main exports: rice 70%; rubber

22%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1970)

c.

11,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 27,500; commercial (including buses) 11,200. Railways: (1971) 649 km.; traffic (1970) 109 million passenger-km., freight 83 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 30.8 million passenger-km.; freight 516,000 net ton-km. Inland waterway (Mekong River; 1970) c. 1,400 km. Telephones (Jan. 1971) 8,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 1 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) 50,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): rice 2,732 (3,814); corn 121 (137); rubber c. 35 (13); bananas (1969) 141, (1968) 136; dry beans (1970) c. 37, (1969) 37; jute c. 8 (8). Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1970): cattle c. 2,460; buffalo c. 900; pigs c. 1,2 50.

Cambodian

soldier fires

into a bunker

where North

minister and minister of foreign Vietnamese soldiers affairs. Thanh, 64, was a veteran nationalist leader and Viet Cong guerrillas were entrenched during with a militant following, but he was suspected by a battle near the ancient students and intellectuals of being too close to the temple of Angkor Wat officially called first

United States undercover estabhshment. Lon Nol's attempts to legitimize the political organization of his country continued. On April 30 a referendum was held to approve a newly drafted republican

early in 1972.

spokesmen said that 97.45% of had voted in favour and that the new constitution would come into force on May 12. This was followed by another election on June 4 to choose the country's president. Opposing Lon Nol were In Tarn, a former minister and popular leader, and Keo An, dean of the law faculty of Phnom Penh University. Lon Nol obtained 55% of the votes. In Tam 26%, and Keo An 19%. Both the losing candidates alleged "gross irregularities" in the election. Lon Nol was officially sworn in on July 3. Elections for the lower house of the National Assembly took place on September 3, and to the upper house on September 17. A month before the lower house elections In Tam's Democratic Party and Sirik Matak's Republican Party withdrew from the race, alleging unconstitutional ground rules and gerrymandering which all but guaranteed a government victory. This left only the progovernment Socio-Republican Party and a dummy organization called the People's Party, both organized by Lon Nol's influential younger brother. Col. Lon Non. The Socio-Republican Party won all 26 lower house seats. All 40 upper house seats also went to government candidates. Popular apathy toward the elections and alienation from government were obvious. The elections focused attention on the disunity among Cambodia's top leaders. An unsuccessful assassination attempt on Premier Son Ngoc Thanh in August was also attributed to internal disunity, rather than to Communist terrorism. On October 14 Son Ngoc Thanh resigned. Lon Nol appointed Hang Thun Hak, secretary-general of the Socio-Republican Party, Business Review: to form a new government. Hang Thun Hak's Cabi- see Economy, World net included Col. Lon Non. Butter: The Communists were holding their own on the see Agriculture constitution. Official

the electorate

what one

National Assembly in Yaounde that the people of Cameroon were to be consulted by means of a referen-

the

dum

military front.

As government troops were locked

in

Army spokesman called "a battle in which Khmer Republic has all to lose and nothing to win." Communist forces held effective control of much of the countryside. Six of the seven highways linking

Phnom Penh with the provinces remained cut for most of the year. These included the "rice road" from Battambang in the northwest; by September, rice was selling in the capital at prices 500% higher than .a the beginning of the war. Revealing light was thrown on the scarcity of essential items as well as on the calibre and morale of government troops when bands of uniformed soldiers joined civilians in ransacking the central market in Phnom Penh in early September. The looting lasted a whole day, but the government did not inter\'ene. The Communists seemed able to mount major offensives at will, including rocket attacks on Phnom Penh. Repeated attempts by the Cambodian Army to launch counteroffensives and eject the guerrillas from their strongholds either ended in routs or were stalled. In .\ugust government spokesmen said that the guerrillas were using tanks for the first time in Cambodia. In September the government announced that one entire battalion of up to 400 men was missing after the abandonment of rear garrisons along the main highway from Phnom Penh to Saigon. There was apparently no lack of military aid from outside. The U.S. was reportedly sending in supplies at the rate of 5,000 tons a month, half of them ammunition. Also, some 50,000 Cambodian troops were South Vietnam. Thailand, the U.S., Indonesia, Malaysia, and elsewhere by mid-1972. The total strength of the Cambodian armed forces was placed officially at 200,000, while governsaid to

A Cambodian father transports his daughter away from the perils of combat near Phnom Penh. The fighting between

Cambodian and North Vietnamese troops occurred on the outskirts of the Cambodian capital city. The six-week struggle

ended

in

January 1972.

have received training

in

ment sources reported the presence in Cambodia of 50,000 North Vietnamese troops and 15,000 to 20,000 Khmer Rouge fighters. Unconfirmed reports during the year spoke of Prince Sihanouk losing his grip over his exile government in Peking. But in .\ugust he won a major diplomatic victory when the conference of nonaligned nations, meeting at Georgetown,

Guyana, voted

to ac-

cord membership to the exile government as the right-

government of Cambodia, the Phnom Penh regime being ousted. This produced fears in Phnom Penh that China would now lead a campaign in the UN to get the Lon Nol government expelled and the Sihanouk government admitted in its place. As Sihanouk kept himself in the news by traveling to Eastern Europe and North America, the Cambodian government issued an official declaration in September calling him a false neutralist and describing as wishful thinking any hopes he might have of returning to (t. j. s. George) power in Phnom Penh. ful

on the immediate establishment of a unitary be called the United Republic of Cameroon, with a single National Assembly of 120 members. Previously there had been separate administrations in East and West Cameroon as well as a federal administration in Yaounde. Ahidjo added that the official status of the French language in the East and of English in the West would be formally guaranteed. The referendum, in which about three million people were entitled to vote, was held May 21. Accordstate, to

ing to official figures,

99.97%

ministers, including 8 English-speakers

•»

republic of west equatorial Africa on the Gulf of Guinea, Cameroon borders on Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, the Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. Area; 179,557 sq.mi. (465,054 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 5,836.000. Cap.: Yaounde (pop., 1970 est., 178,000). Largest city: Douala (pop., 1970 est., 250,000). Language: English and French (official), Bantu, Sudanic. Religion: mainly animist; some

Christian and Muslim. President in 1972, Ahidjo.

On May

6,

Ahmadou

1972, President Ahidjo announced to the

from the

for-

mer West Cameroon. Major portfolios went to Charles Onana .\wana (finance), Vincent Efon (forSimon Achidi .Achu (justice). Cameroonian foreign policy was characterized by a

eign affairs), and

certain coolness toward the French-speaking .\frican

together with diplomatic rapprochement with

bloc,

the countries of the East. Thus, in pursuing the inte-

gration of the two former federated states, President

Ahidjo was a somewhat halfhearted partner in the Francophone Common Organization of .Africa. Malagasy, and Mauritius (^OC.\M). Cameroon Airlines

came

into service late in 1971.

While maintaining a steadfastly conservative policy home. President .\hidjo followed a far more radical line abroad. In February Cameroon and Guinea jointly introduced a motion on Rhodesia and Namibia (South West .Africa) for discussion by the Council of at

Ministers of the Organization of .\frican Unity. Moreover, in September

Cameroon and North Vietnam

agreed to establish diplomatic relations at the embassy (PHILIPPE decrae.se) level.

CAMEROON Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 888,435, teach(including prcprimary) 18,972: secondary, pupils 48,131, teachers 1,964; vocational, pupils 15.782. teachers 913; teacher training, students 2,030, teaching staff 210. Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, nith (Sept. 18. 1972) a parity of CFA Fr. SO to the French franc and CFA Fr. 255.79 to U.S. $1 (free rate of CFA Fr. 612.37 £1 sterlinu). Federal budget (1971-72 est.) balanced al CFA Fr. 45.3 billion. Foreign Trade. (1970) Imports CFA Fr. 67,160.000,000; exports CFA Fr. 62.780.000,000. Import sources: France 50%; West Germany 8' exceptions to these principles and the transitional

before

periods

application

full

of

the

common

No

policies.

were provided for Britain's accession to the European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom. The EEC is a customs union that provides for free trade transitional periods

EEC's two

ancillary groups, the

among members

and, in

common

its

relationships with

nonmember coun-

tariff on industrial goods and a on agricultural imports. Britain is to abolish completely tariffs on industrial imports from the Community in five equal steps of 20% each between April 1, 1973, and July 1, 1977, and to move toward the common external tariff in four steps, beginning with a 40% cut on Jan. 1, 1974, and ending on July 1, 1977, with the last of three 20% steps. The tariff adjustments will be sizable since Britain presently charges an arithmetic average duty of 10.2% on imports coming from outside the sterling area but only 1.2% on goods originating within the sterling area; the arithmetic average duty under the

tries,

for a

system of variable

external

levies

Community's common external tariff is 7.6%. The transitional period for agricultural imports is to be five years, with the U.K. making its sixth and last move toward the Community's price levels at the end of 1977. Under the Community's common agricultural policy, market prices for the main farm products are maintained with regard to imports through variable levies and with regard to domestic products through support programs. Prices in the six Common Market countries

which

in

will,

1972

were considerably higher than

therefore,

incur sizable increases

in

in

the

Britain,

cost

of

Fisheries are a the

major exception

Community's principle of

to the five-year rule,

since

free access to the waters of other

states will not be applied for at least ten years. Special

were provided for New Zealand's butter and the Commonwealth's sugar. Finally, Britain accepted an "orderly and

rules

gradual rundown" of the sterling balances; and the progressive alignment of "the external characteristics" of sterling to those of other

the

Another concrete benefit

to Britain

was the broadening scope

for the financial activities of the City of London. .Also, a vital

consideration for Britain was the expected

EEC

help in

re-

developed regions, such as Wales and Scotland. To finance development in the U.K., as well as in less developed parts of other Common Market countries, the Community set up in 1972 a regional development fund. The U.K. expected that membership would help reinvigorate its economy after many years of balance of payments difficulties, a disappointing record of industrial investments, and a low rate of economic growth. While it is not possible to attribute Britain's relatively weak economic performance 2.8% annual entirely to its absence rate of growth between 1958 and 1971 from the EEC, its accession was justified by the government on the ground that it would help the nation achieve a record comparable to that of the Six, which for the same period worked out to 5.8%. Britain's accelerated growth would, it was hoped, enable it to meet the balance of payments costs of its membership its contribution to the Community's budget and the effects of agricultural integration on British food prices resulting from Britain's acceptance of the EEC agricultural policy. For the Six, Britain's accession represented the most important event in the process of European integration since totaling over 250 million peo1957. The enlarged Community accounts for two-fifths of world trade, compared with oneple eighth for the U.S. Thus, it finds itself in a position to develop an identity of its own with greater authority than heretofore. In fact, its development as a regional group will tend to confer upon it a single bargaining power in international monetary and the Soviet trade negotiations with other economic powers Union, China, Japan, and the U.S. The Enlarged Community and the U.S. In Washington, structuring

its less

—

—

—

—

—

—

official

support of Britain's decision to join the

EEC

lacked

the fervour that had been displayed in 1961 and 1967, the years

of Britain's two previous attempts to get into the Community.

In 1972 the U.S. was concerned about the Community's reAmerican suggestion for a phased elimination of

jection of an all

among developed countries and about the Market's actual or planned arrangements for preferMediterranean and African countries. But

industrial tariffs

Common

ential treatment of

it was in the field of agricultural trade that the U.S. pressure was greatest for reviewing the Common Market's arrangements; evidently, the U.S. would also be pressed to review some of its

own

agricultural arrangements.

Other issues revolved around Europe and

the fundamental differences of viewpoints between

food.

member

entry into

entry,

ing partner.

the U.K., together with Ireland

—

the

for industrial goods.

however, implied long-term evolution rather than sudden change: the Six already were Britain's largest tradBritain's

Community

currencies.

the U.S. regarding international monetary reform, as

summed

in the Book of the Year. the year's end the Community, as well as the U.S, its intent to maintain a constructive dialogue l#

up elsewhere

Toward reiterated

garding the progressive liberalization of barriers to trade

tariffs and nontaJW on a comprehensive basis during the mul 1973 for a more equitable and open woi

lateral negotiations in

economic order.

;

continued from page 257

indeed,

consumers in

lermo all

countries importing food,

such as the U.K., in effect, subsidized the backwardness and inefficiency of Soviet agriculture and of its economic organization. Industry, the privileged sector of the Soviet econ-

Rodriguez Lara

pointed president.

The

{see

Biography)

was ap-

general elections scheduled for

June 4 were canceled. The new Cabinet included two civilians, in charge of finance and foreign affairs. The new government's program aimed at a basic reorganization of economic, social, and administrative

had a poor year. Economic growth was and productivity improved less, than stipulated plan (1971-76). Output of consumer goods, which only recently was given priority over heavy industry, was cut back. Premier Aleksei N. Ko-

structures, to include raising the standard of living,

sygin revealed that the Soviet Union's long-standing

dent Rodriguez also stated that he would revise for-

economic difficulties had been barely touched by the reform program of the mid-1960s that called for "market socialism." He strongly urged the importance of

eign oil contracts "if necessary," defend Ecuador's claim to a 200-mi. territorial waters limit, and permit absolute freedom of expression for news media.

what the Soviets call "intensification" a drive for intensifying growth based on new management methods and scientific and technological advances in industry. The renewed Soxaet interest in importing capital goods and technology from the U.S. and Japan, on top of its established trade relationships with Western Europe, was thus linked to the performance of its domestic economy. Enter China. The sudden reappearance on the world's diplomatic stage of a country with a population of 800 million and, potentially, an industrial and military superpower was a momentous event in 1972. Official Chinese news bulletins drew attention to the further increase in industrial output, an increase that, judging from newspaper reports, was accompanied by many difficulties. The country experienced critical shortages of equipment and essential raw materials; and policies aimed at regional self-sufficiency and decentralization gave rise to bottlenecks. Costs were high and productivity low. To modernize agriculture and industry. China wanted trade with the U.S. and Japan. While China avoided long-term borrowing as a matter of policy, preferring to scale down imports to the amounts of foreign exchange available from export earnings, its increased participa-

On the question of agrarian reform, he said that those with legitimate rights who worked the land had no cause for alarm and that it was government policy to

omy,

also

lower,

streamlining the public service, improving education,

in the five-year

developing natural resources, reestablishing the "prin-

—

tion in international trade

1972, as a

new

appeared, at the close of

fact of international

economic

life.

(miroslav a. kriz) Economics; Employment, Wages, and Hours; Income, National; Industrial Review; Labour Unions; Payments and Reserves, International; Prices; Profits; Savings and Investment; Trade, International. See also

Ecuador A

republic on the west coast of South America, Ecuador is bounded by Colombia, Peru, and the Pacific Ocean. Area:

109,483

sq.mi.

(283,561

sq.km.), including

t

the Galapagos Islands (3,075 sq.mi.). Pop. (1972 est.): 6,598,300. Cap.: Quito (pop., 1972

575,116). Largest city: Guayaquil (pop., 1972 est., 879,016). Language: Spanish, but Indians speak Quechuan and Jivaroan. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1972, Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra and, from February 16, Brig. Gen. Guillermo est.,

Rodriguez Lara.

On Feb. 15, 1972, Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra, five times president of Ecuador, was deposed for the fourth time in his career by the armed forces. A new

—

—

government, described as "nationalist and revolutionary," was proclaimed by the commanders-in-chief of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, and Brig. Gen. Guil-

ciple

of

rights,

authority,"

and

increasing

fulfilling international

respect

for

human

commitments. Presi-

guarantee legally acquired property. Plans for tackling the large unfinanced deficit inherited from the previ-

ous administration included an austerity program involving a revision of basic taxes, tight control of pubexpenditure, extreme caution in the handling of

lic

public credit, and the channeling of bank loans toward diversification

and development

in agriculture.

In August Ecuador became an oil-exporting coun-

when

try

the

Lago Agrio-Esmeraldas pipeline went

into operation with

an

initial

output of 150,000 bbl.

a day, to be increased later to 250,000 bbl. a day. It

was hoped that the ally

would eventube raised to 400,000 bbl. a day. It was announced had been drilled in the Oriente region pipeline's capacity

that 94 oil wells

ECUADOR Education. (1968-69) Primary, pupils 928,687, teachers 24,426; secondary, pupils 105,362, teachers 8,147; vocational, pupils 50,998, teachers 3,300: teacher training, students 17,254. teachers 987; higher (including

10 universities), students (1969-70) 33,562, teaching

(1968-69) 2,256. Finance. Monetary unit; sucre, with (Sept. 18, 1972) an official rate of 2 5 sucres to U.S. $1 (free rate of 62.44 sucres = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank; (June 1972) U.S. $93.2 million; (June 1971) U.S. $64.8 million. Budget (excluding development budget; 1970 est.) revenue 5,142,000,000 sucres; expenditure 5.061.000.000 sucres. National income: (1970) 29.7 billion sucres; (1969) 2S.9 billion sucres. Money supply: (May 1972) 5.915,000.000 sucres; (May 1971) 5,351,000,000 sucres. Cost of living (Quito; 1965 = 100): (May 1972) 144; (May 1971) 135. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports U.S. $303 million; exports U.S. $237.8 million. Import sources (1970): U.S. 42%; Japan 10%; West Germany 9%; Colombia 7%: U.K. 6%. Export destinations (1970): U.S. 36%; Japan 25%: West Germany 10%. Main exports; bananas 51%; coffee 15%; cocoa 11%. Transport and Communications: Roads (1970) 17,200 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 39.600; commercial (including buses) 51,200. Railways (1970): 990 km.; traffic 85 million passengerkm., freight 56 million net ton-km. .^ir traffic (1970): 255.323,000 passenger-km.; freight 10,687,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 130,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 1.7 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 150,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971 1970 in parentheses); corn c. 230 (221); barley c. 110 (107): potatoes c. 350 (c. 370); rice c. ISO (184); cassava (1970) c. 410, (1969) o. 400; dry beans 0. 30 (c. 30); bananas (1970) c. 3,000, (1969) c. 2,800; coffee c. 11 (c. 78); cocoa (1971-72) 55, (1970-71) 60; oranges (1970) c. 195, (1969) 196; sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 313, (1970-71) c. 293; cotton, lint c. 13 (c. 4). Livestock (in 000; 197071); cattle c. 2,500; sheep c. 1,900; pigs c. 1,360; horses c. 250; chickens c. 5,450. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): petroleum products 1,175; crude oil (1971) 174; electricity (kw-hr.) 949,000; cement 458; gold (troy staff

:

oz.) 8.5; silver (troy oz.) 71.

259

Ecuador

— 260

Education

with an additional 64 expected in 1972.

in 1967-71,

The Texaco-Gulf consortium estimated

that

its

daily

output would reach 250,000 bbl, a day by 1973, rising to 325.000 bbl. a day by 1974. Total exportable production, including Texaco-Gulf, was expected to ex-

ceed 400,000 bbl. a day by 1976. Shortly after taking

office, the

celed a contract granted to

new government

Marubeni

lida of

the construction of a $50 million state

oil

can-

Japan for

refinery at

Puerto Balao (near Esmeraldas) on the ground that it had been signed "without due consideration," and new bids were asked for. Foreign-owned oil companies

were requested to sign new contracts with the government by the end of 1972. Additionally, the govern-

ment

reser\'ed the right to transport

up

to 509J: of the

exports. It was decided that a tanker fleet should be organized by a new company, the Flota Petrolera Nacional (Transnave). Despite uncertainty as to government intentions, most of the oil companies anoil

nounced increased investments for 1972. Other sectors of the economy showed encouraging signs in the early part of 1972.

The

net international

monetary reserves of the Banco Central rose from $17.4 million at the end of 1971 to $21.4 million on April 30; with the addition of a $40 million loan from a U.S. bank, the total rose to $66.1 million on May 26. The economic improvement stemmed also from a significant reduction in the trade deficit, from $19 million in the

in the first

quarter of 1971 to $15 million

Petroleum developments apart, there seemed to be good possibilities for diversifying the economy away from bananas, coffee, and cocoa, which in 1971 had accounted for more than 75% of total export exchange. Fish products replaced sugar as Ecuador's fourth main export commodity in 1971, the principal

types being shrimp, lobster, and especially tuna. fish

The

exports rose spectacularly from $7 mil-

$15 million in 1971, and it was estidevelopment of marine resources could produce additional exchange earnings of up to $30 million a year from tuna alone. There were also promising developments in vegetable oils, particularly cottonseed and .\frican palm, and the emergence of nontraditional export commodities such as tea, mushlion in

mated

1970

to

that the

rooms, and abaca suggested that Ecuador had by no means reached the limits of its agricultural diversification potential. Moreover, a meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency concluded that uranium deposits in the Loja area could become as important as petroleum. (R. B. lewry)

Education About 650 million people in the world were in some form of institutionalized education in 1972. In the remaining years of the 20th century the number of people of school and university age would, it was predicted, increase by more than 1,000,000.000, representing an average annual increase of 36 million potential pupils and students. Despite doubts in the early 1960s of matching the educational explosion with an adequate supply of teachers, there were indications

that the current

demand

for teachers

was being met.

Global estimates of growth, however, ought not to conceal the fact that in the less developed countries,

Ecumenical Movementi sec Religion

most of them African, progress was much less than satisfactory. Although the world rate of illiteracy was continuing to decline

—

to

an estimated

40 million adult illiterates in Latin America, 50 million in the Arab states, 140 million in .Xfrica, and more than 500 million in Asia. It was expected that the illiteracy rate would continue to decline to about 29% in 1980, but this would still leave 820 million adult illiterates in the world.

World spending on education was estimated at about $200 billion in 1972. The proportion of national budgets allocated to education averaged 16%, although the number of big spenders fover 20% of national budgets on education) had gone down compared with the mid-1960s. The average worldwide public spending on education was increasing more rapidly than the average worldwide gross national product (GNP). .-Vgain, however, there were substantial differences between regions. There was also continued evidence of serious waste in the less developed countries through high dropout rates at the primary stage. As a result of a study of these and other statistics conducted for UNESCO and described as the most comprehensive of its kind, a special international committee on the development of education recommended that universal primary education become a top educational priority in the 1970s. The commission warned, however, that efforts to combat illiteracy would have to move outside the realm of formal education toward "more immediate, more practical, more massive, and also

same period of 1972.

value of

absolute numbers were still increasing simply because of the enormous population growth. There were some

ii''/c in

1972

more

In the

lively nontraditional educational patterns."

more developed countries

the chief concern

of governments about education was with

its

steeply

was manifest in the Netherlands, for example, where the government expressed its de-

escalating cost. This

termination to contain the rising cost of education,

which reached the level of 7.5% of its GNP in 1972. Sweden, however, spent 8.5% of GNP in 1972, and, understandably, the government vigorously tried to contain educational expenditures. .Ml the developed countries were anxious to get better value for their money in higher education. It was there that costs escalated most during the 1960s the period of the great "pupil explosion." In the U.K. the annual percentage increase in expenditure during the 1960s on schools was 8.5%; on universities it was 15%. Ways of improving higher education and especially of applying selective entrance policies were much in evidence. Attempts to better balance educational expenditures between national and local governments were also being made. The local school board in the U.S. or the canton or half-canton in Switzerland, for example, was found inadequate to cope with the burden of education. In addition, the trend toward comprehensive secondary education, initiated on a large scale in Sweden in the late 1950s and largely modeled on the U.S. example, continued in most countries on a seemingly inexorable course. There also was evidence of a sharply increased enthusiasm for providing nurserv education, notably in those countries where it had been undcrprovided in the past, like Sweden, West Germany, and Great Britain. Nursery and Primary Education. In Great Britain, by either custom or law. over the past century children had started to school at age five, which was a year or two younger than in most countries in Europe. There had, nonetheless, been a long-standing demand for nursery schools starting at age three, partly from middle-class parents but also increasingly from working-class areas, where it was realized that preschool education confers considerable advantages on children.

—

>

;

This view was dramatically confirmed in June 1972 with the publication of a report titled From Birth to

The

report was based on a study undertaken Bureau of 17,000 children one week in March 1958 and charting their progress to the seventh birthday. It showed that the difference in educational standard measured by read-

Seven.

by

the National Children's

born

ing

in

age

—among

—

the

children of

unskilled

families

compared with professional families was on the average two years. The gap between the least advantaged children growing up in large families and with bad housing compared with the most advantaged professional-class children was as much as four years. The disadvantages even extended to physical development the difference in height between children of unskilled families and professional families at the age of seven averaged 1.3 in. Subsequently, the British secretary of state for education and science, Margaret Thatcher, announced that there would be increased investment in nursery education.

A

White Paper published December 6

stated that current expenditure on the under-fives in

England and Wales would rise from about £42 million 1971-72 to £65 million in 1976-77. Another inquiry that had far-reaching effects in Britain emerged from an experiment comparable to the compensatory education programs in the U.S. The in

study of five "educational priority areas" in four big cities

—London.

—and

Liverpool, Birmingham, and

Dundee

on a summer prohomes, faced the possibility of a curtailed calendar. Los Angeles contemplated a cutback in days or the holding of double sessions if additional funds were not found, and Chicago warned of extra-long holiday periods. The problem generally was one of education budgets caught between rising costs and voter resistance to proposed tax levies and bond

year. Philadelphia, after carrying

gram

in students'

issues. Salaries in particular sent

budgets soaring; the average teacher's pay has jumped from $5,500 to over $9,000 a year in ten years. Strikes

marred the opening of the new school year

more districts than in 1971, but tended to affect smaller districts. Philadelphia was the only major city in

which teachers refused to report for several weeks. Both the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association were turning more toward political action than walkouts, seeking the elecin

tion of candidates favourable to their goals,

which

in-

cluded increased federal funding in the face of local state fiscal problems. The two teacher organi-

and

zations leaned toward the presidential candidacy of Sen. George S. McGovern, though the remained

NEA

officially neutral.

Pres. Richard

the Health, Education,

M. Nixon's veto

of

and Welfare appropriations

which included $4.1 billion for public schooling, brought forth a charge of "callous disregard" for schools from the NEA. It was the third straight year bill,

of presidential vetoes of

HEW

appropriations, but

run-down area of the county of Yorkshire (West Riding) highlighted, as From Birth to Seven

time two months after the veto Congress enacted similar legislation with an added measure giving the

had done, the significance of the preschool years. Perhaps its most important finding was the value of a

president authority to cut the authorized amount by $1.2 million (13%). Even with these potential cuts the appropriation was far above the level requested by

in a

new type of teacher, the visitor" who had in one area

peripatetic

"educational

visited parents

and

their

children in the preschool years. In other words, parental tion

—

involvement

— was

for that matter parental educa-

essential to the success of

any compensa-

tory program.

In Sweden children started to school at age seven, and there had long been strong parental opposition to starting any younger. But it was clear by mid-1972 that a move to get the statutory age reduced was well under way and was influenced, more than in Britain,

by pedagogical researchers. Official figures suggested that by the fall of 1972 nearly half of six-year-olds in Sweden were attending school and that within three to four years most children were likely to be in school by the age of five. In Sweden, unlike Britain, fees were charged for nursery schooling. In the Netherlands, on the other hand, where nursery schooling was well developed, fees for four- and five-year-olds attending schools were actually removed, and instead a meanstested fees program was introduced in secondary schools, together with higher fees and a loan system for higher education ("see Higher Education, below). In the U.S. an estimated 40% of all children aged 3-5 received some type of formal education in the fall of 1971, an increase of \S% over 1964. Although a considerable portion of this steady growth could be attributed to efforts to provide early educational opportunities

for

underprivileged

youngsters,

enroll-

ments remained highest (47%) among children of white-collar workers.

U.S. schools admitted 35.9 million students at the elementary level (and 15.5 million at the high-school

how

long the school

some

financially hard-

level) in the fall of 1972. Just

year would run was in doubt in

pressed

cities.

Detroit had enough funds

operate for 117 days, 63 days short of the

this

to

award James M. Rogers,

Jr.,

of Durham, N.C.,

a ceremony at the White House on April 24, 1972. Also in

the photograph are (from left) Elliott Richardson, secretary

in

of health, education,

A. Craig Phillips, North

to state financing of education as the

and Warren

thrust of the

immediate future. The governor of Michigan proposed that a state income tax should produce the necessary revenue. The governor of New Jersey advocated a combination of income tax and statewide property tax. Officials in

other states studied a variety of means on the local property tax as the

to replace reliance

principal source of school

funds.

But the decisive

factor in the search for state revenues for education

was a 1971 decision of the California Supreme Court. It held that children in poorer districts were entitled to as good an education as children in more affluent ones. Other cases moving through the courts, including a key one brought against the schools of San Antonio, Tex., appeared certain

to

strengthen the principle.

Side by side with the effort to cut costs were

programs and other needs that seemed

new

essential to

schoolmen. In New York City a stepped-up bilingual curriculum was designed to aid the 250,000 Puerto Rican youngsters in the city schools. In Massachusetts a new state law required instruction by a bilingual teacher

when

a

certain

number

speaking youngsters were enrolled.

On

of Spanishthe

federal

"Right to Read" program was launched with the awarding of $4 million to 68 school districts. Federal aid was promised, too, to parochial schools, predominantly Roman Catholic, by President Ni.xon, to sustain them in a time of financial crisis. Senator McGovern espoused a similar view. The principal avenue for aid appeared to be legislation granting tax level a

credits to parents for a portion of private

and church-

related school tuition. Several bills were introduced in

mandated

Congress to grant credits up to several hundred dol-

view

presents the 1972 National Teacher of the Year

Nixon and on October 27 he once again vetoed the bill. Although no clear solution to U.S. school fiscal problems surfaced, the year witnessed a definite turning

to

in

Julie Nixon Eisenhower

and welfare, Carolina superintendent of public instruction, E, Preece, general editor of "Encyclopedia Britannica." The award sponsored is by "Encyclopsedia

Britannica," the "Ladies' Home Journal,"

and the Council of Chief State School Officers.

262

Education

lars

per child.

Deepening

financial

problems were

moved

Bureau reported that enrollment in Roman Catholic and secondary, had declined 30% between 1967 and 1971, a decline of 1.7 million

system.

first

The National Association of Laity noted 36.9% of Catholic children at-

that in 1970-71 only

tended church schools. An October ruling in which, without explanation, the U.S. Supreme Court held unconstitutional an Ohio law calling for payments of $90 to parents for each parochial school child would ultimately affect seven other states with similar laws and

two states considering them. The Canadian provinces continued to experience imbalances in regional funding under the dual educational structure that entitled public and Roman Catholic school boards to municipal and industrial taxes

into the

ruling affecting a city that never

On

schools, both elementary

students.

Denver schools Supreme Court and would provide the

while, a desegregation case involving

forcing the closing of Catholic schools at an estimated rate of one a day in 1972. In March the Census

had a dual school

the state level, too, school districts faced chal-

The Buffalo, N.Y., school board defied an order from the state education commissioner to submit a busing plan to achieve integration. Illinois districts were chastised by state officials for noncompliance with a desegregation ruling and were ordered to submit desegregation plans within lenges over segregation.

90 days. In 1971-72 Boston

lost

$14 million

in state aid for

comply with a 1965

state law, the first of

type, which required that

no school enrollment

failing to its

be more than

50%

nonwhite, the penalty being loss of

state funds to the district.

The Boston school com-

mittee tried to compromise with the state board of

method was available The board cited a study pur-

according to the religious identity or choice of the taxpayer. In 1970. in a move to level such differences,

education, arguing that no viable

Ontario had estabhshed a complex system of weighting factors by which funds for each of the province's

porting to show that the redrawing of district lines

school districts would be established. Simultaneously,

sults,

the Ontario Ministry of Education established ceilings

face of

on educational expenditures. By 1972 most school boards were operating within their limits with relative ease, and despite the anxiety of many teachers and parents, the plan was working with no change in pupil/

judge ordered the release of $54 million in aid being withheld from Boston for 1972-73 and provided a

for achieving integration.

plus small-scale busing would produce the desired re-

but the committee rejected this approach in the

community

hostility. Later, a

Superior Court

timetable for the city and state to resolve their impasse.

The Boston school system was

teacher ratios or reductions in special services. In

also charged with

on con-

violating the 1964 Civil Rights Act in the first action

new schools and the Manitoba legislature turned down proposals to study further financial aid

taken by the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare against a major school district outside the

1972 the Ontario government ordered

a freeze

struction of

and parochial schools. Desegregation. Public opposition

South, At issue was $12 million-$15 million in federal

to private

ing" reached a

new

to "forced bus-

high in the U.S. in 1972. In

a Gallup Poll reported that

69%

March

of those polled op-

funds. While avoiding charges of deliberate school segregation,

HEW

officials

claimed segregation

sulted from committee policy, the effects of which

retlie

surprised by the antibusing fervour. They had not it as a major campaign issue. President Nixon took up the cudgel against large-scale busing,

committee should have foreseen and prevented. Secondary Education. It was Sweden, the first European country to "go comprehensive" on the lines of the U.S. high school, that recorded the most dramatic progress in secondary education in 1972. Following the establishment of the nine-year compulsory comprehensive school (for ages 7-16) Sweden had developed a further "comprehensive" three-year tier, called the upper secondary school. By the fall of 1972 it was clear that well over 80% of Swedish children were staying in school up to the age of 17 or 18 an unheard-of proportion in European countries. It bfr

decried court decisions that decreed massive trans-

came

porting of students, and urged Congress to put a stop

to a very

by constitutional amendment if necessary. Congress responded by enacting one of two restrictions the president wanted passed. This, a provision of the Higher Education Amendments Act, prohibited im-

curriculum and teaching method that needed radical

ages 13-16) over to "project work" where children

plementation of court-ordered busing, pending appeal,

spent

posed compulsory busing to achieve school desegregation and 20% favoured it. That same month Florida voters, in the first statewide referendum on busing, rejected the idea by an even higher percentage. The intensity of feeling became evident when, in the spring, a group of women from Pontiac, Mich., marched to Washington in protest, gathering adherents along the way, and a motorcade from Richmond, Va., snarled traffic in the capital city. Some politicians were anticipated

to

it

until Jan.

I,

1974.

A

second measure that would have

—

increasingly clear, too, that schools that catered

wide range of ability presented problems of

solution. Part of the

much

answer seemed

to lie in turning

of the secondary school curriculum

much

(

at least for

of the time in discovering knowledge for

themselves. Further,

it

was necessary to step up the The wide ability range

required judges to consider alternative methods for

in-service training of teachers.

achieving desegregation before resorting to busing

also caused difficulties in giving final gradings to stu-

passed the House, but was dropped after a filibuster by liberal senators could not be broken.

dents,

A minimum

final

grade of 2.i out of a possible

reversed in 1972, but both cases were appealed to the

was required for entn,' to higher education; fol it was as high as 4,8, The fact that SO many of wide ability were remaining in school meant that many more failed to achieve qualifying grades. The other countries of Scandinavia, whose secondary education systems had been modeled to some oxtent on that of Sweden, also recorded achievemenl.'i

Supreme Court. Opposition to the Detroit decision, which affected the city and 53 suburban communities, was particularly strong; all school-board members supporting the plan were voted out of office. Mean-

Denmark made nine years of schooling compulsory, although the majority of children already remained in school that long. In Norway, following a law passed in 1969 making nine years of schooling compulsory,

Contributing to the aroused passions were court decisions affecting Detroit and Richmond, Va., schools. In both cases black city schools would have to ex-

change students with white suburban schools to break the walls of segregation.

The Richmond

verdict was

5

medical schools

T

1971-72 school year was the

the

first

in

263

which the

age for leaving school was 16. In Finland by the fall of 1972 the nine-year comprehensive school was estab-

one region and would eventually be estabthroughout the country. In Britain the policy of the Conservative government elected in 1970, which, unlike its Labour predecessor, did not encourage comprehensive schools, belished in

Lesson

We

0;

Ckdman

Are

Education

Moo's

Rd

OuarJs

lished

gan

itself. It was doubtful if by the end more than 25-30% of secondary school chil-

manifest

to

of 1972

dren were in genuine comprehensive schools. It was hardly possible, therefore, to draw any firm conclu-

I

Civairman

You

Mao,

Chairman

Mw'

are'''aminour/»tarb.

»t

You OT

omnuuiier.

sions about the educational merits of these schools,

although such evidence as there was suggested that they did not compare at all unfavourably with the previous system of a grammar school or gymnasium for a selected group at age 1 1 and a general second-

ary education for the remaining

70-75%

W'e an*

of children.

Standards of hteracy among those leaving school, however, gave rise to concern, and in the summer Mrs.

Thatcher

set

up

a

A

ing of reading.

committee of inquiry into the teachsurvey published in March 1972

showed that reading standards were static

if

Veneration of Mao Tse-tung is evident in this English-language class in a Peking secondary school. Poems about Chairman Mao and the Red Guards are used as study material

not ac-

compared with 1964. Despite a good deal of hostility from the Conservative rank and file and from the teaching profession notably in Scotland Mrs. Thatcher stuck to her resolve to raise the age tually declining,

—

—

for first-year classes.

for leaving school to 16 in the fall of 1972.

In July the heads of the

1 1

West German Lander

(states) and the federal government agreed on an overplan by which educational development in the Lander could proceed more or less in step. It emerged that the general intention of most of the Lander was to make the tenth year compulsory; that is, set the

all

age for leaving school at 16.

The more conservative

Bavarians, the last to raise the compulsory age from 14 to IS two years previously, were evidently disinclined to see

it

raised further.

In Israel a reform proposed as long ago as 1958

would create a form of middle school for ages 12 to 15 continued to cause controversy. There was

that

seemed

to

extraction. to

controversy about inequalities that favour Jews of European and American Many educationalists were also anxious

persistent

also

do more to integrate the Arabs into the Israeli and to encourage more teaching of Arabic and

state

put less insistence on Arab children learning Hebrew.

Some

of the virtues of having specialist education few children were displayed by East Germany and to a lesser extent the Soviet Union, through their remarkable successes in the Olympic Games at Munich in August-September. The East Germans, in particular, had established special sports schools. Following the Olympic Games, in several countries notably in for a

—

Britain

— the demand went up for the introduction of

sharpened when publication in September of the national education appropriation accounts for 1970-71 showed that a considerable proportion of sums granted for specific purposes was returned unspent. In Australia educational provision in general was subject to severe criticism, despite the fact that the federal

—

—

and primary and higher as well continued to draw severe criticism. The situation was so acute that of 1972 both the president and the minister of education. Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, published messages to the nation's schoolchildren openly recognizing the many defects of the system but calling on pupils to do all they could to cooperate and exercise a sense of responsibihty. In Ireland, too, although small rural schools were amalgamated and a few "community" schools established in 1972, progress was far from remarkable. Critics maintained that the highly centralized and rather rigid nature of Irish educational administration was largely to blame. Criticism was in the fall

education budget by

Much of the blame was put on the fact that each state its own education system, and that there were wide differences between them. In Canada Ontario's previously experimental ungraded secondary school system became universal in September 1972. Each student was to concentrate his major subject areas science, communications, including languages; social and environmental studies, including and would receive a high school law; and the arts certificate upon completion of an established number of credit hours in his major concentration and mini-

—

studies in one of four

pure and applied;

—

mum requirements in the other three areas. A free correspondence school that would make

it

a high school certificate equivalent

by mail was

in operation in Ontario with

possible to gain also

an enrollment of 50,000

in 1972.

In the U.S. on

In Italy, unhappily, the state of secondary educa-

its

administered

such schools. tion

government increased

some 20%. Critics complained that an absurdly small proportion of children of semiskilled and unskilled workers ever got beyond the secondary school stage.

May

15 the

Supreme Court ruled

that

a Wisconsin law requiring school attendance until age

Amish reThe Amish believed secondary education way

15 violated the constitutional rights of the ligious sect.

taught worldly values at odds with their simple

The

which the court exfrom compulsory school attendance laws, was broad enough to apply to other of

life.

empted

ruling, the. first in

a religious group

states with similar laws but could not be automatically

applied to other groups or sects.

Higher Education. If there was an all-pervading theme to European higher education in 1972, it was that of the numerus clausus, the principle of restricted entry to higher education. It was traditional to allow all who qualified free and open access to the univer-

sity. It had been obvious that this policy could not go on unchecked, and in 1972 the restraints were

264

Education

firmly applied. In

West Germany

the

Humerus dausus

was actually put to the legal test. In July the Federal Constitutional Court in Karlsruhe decided that a Humerus dausus as a temporary measure was permissible and that it did not involve a deliberate violation of the law that "all Germans have the right to choose and their place of their trade or profession training." The court, however, rejected the two cases before it as being based on arbitrary procedures and charged the Lander legislatures with the duty of making decisions about the kind of criteria that ought to .

.

.

.

.

.

spondence, the use of television and other audiovisual aids,

and short courses.)

lower age limit was 21; would be recruited. By 1972 the pressure for university places within the arts

and

to leave

many

built

—

—

—rather

up on a modular system

as they

were

in

the U.S.

In Britain, both main political parties favoured development of higher education along "binary" lines, that is, with universities on the one hand and the polytechnics and other institutions like colleges of education on the other. Supporters of the binary system

argued that the nonuniversity side offered a more and indeed radical alternative to the university; critics contended that the nonuniversity side

flexible

The

was cheaper, and that this was a shabby December White Paper announced a new nonunivervirtue.

sity ain's

two-year diploma course of higher education. Britmost interesting and unusual departure in higher continued to flourthe Open University

education ish.

—

—

(This involved university-level study by corre-

D«f*nM Expandilum

lal

was no longer so great

as

science and technology places unfilled.

manpower planning

authority

announced that there was a chronic shortage of scientists and engineers and stricter control of university manities, and law.

Hungary where

budget expenditures

of Soloctod Counlriot, 1971

The same trend was evident

was

in

there were five applicants for every

place in the arts faculty in Budapest University.

It

Netherlands that the most draconian meato be introduced. University fees were trebled (even so, they were ver>' much less than the economic cost), and courses were reduced from seven years to four. A means-tested loans scheme was also introduced. These measures were not altogether surin the

prising:

some 20%

of the current university popula-

had been there for nine or more years and there was. moreover, a 40% dropout rate. There was also evidence in many countries in 1972 that it was growing difficult for quite highly qualified chemists and chemical engineers to get jobs fresh from the university and that elsewhere, in Japan and Nigeria, for example, there was acute concern over higher education's failure to match the real needs of industry' and commerce. Debate about the need to improve teacher training was endemic in Western Europe. In Britain, a radical tion

set of proposals

man

known

as the

James report

(

of the government-appointed committee

the chair-

was Lord

James) argued that would-be teachers should either get a university degree or a "diploma in higher education" after two years of work at a college of education, followed in either case by two years of professional and a third "cycle" of in-service training conone term's sabbatical training in every seven report in France argued that teacher training should be widened so as to break down barriers between specialities and to introduce more techniques such as team teaching. Reactions from teachers' unions to both reports were, on balance, hostile. Some of the James report's proposals were accepted in the December White Paper, however. Financial problems predominated at many U.S. colleges and universities during 1972, affecting even some training

sisting of

years. \

social sciences

In Israel, however, the

sures had

integrated within a regional university system. Courses would have to be career-oriented from the start and

r

January

announced during the year that as an experiment 500 students between the ages of 18-21 (at present the

population had increased fivefold, and costs eightfold (at current prices). It was announced in 1972

number of full-time students currently in 150,000 would be increased to no more than 170,000 by the 19SOs and that higher edu"comprehensive" and in effect made cation would be

of

that 17.000

their studies in

entry was, therefore, applied chiefly to the arts, hu-

higher education

Education v
'; (3) a population in which recruitment would equal loss; and (4) a social system in which the individual could enjoy rather than feel restricted

by the

first

three conditions.

The

au-

thors, all professionally engaged in the study of environmental problems, envisaged the replacement of conurbations by decentralized settlements that would

be as self-sufficient and self-regulating as possible, de-

—

veloping, for example

in the

long term

—

their

own

ar-

rangements for food production and waste disposal. News of less glamorous but in many respects more

fundamental research was issued pleted for the

by

UN

in

a

report com-

Economic Commission

the Centre for Environmental Studies,

for Europe London, re-

viewing investigations into urban and regional planning problems in 13 countries. The report showed an equal interest in the processes of urbanization, regional growth, and urban obsolescence and in the adminis-

and planning techniques devised to cope with them. Studies of population movements in rural and peripheral regions were carpredominantly ried out in Cyprus, Finland, Ireland, and Norway, and trative policies

research into the administrative and political aspects of planning was undertaken in Sweden, the U.S., Finland, France,

and

were processes and

Britain. Studies of this kind

increasingly concerned

with political

public involvement.

Studies of the urban environment published in 1972 included an important examination of residents' attitudes to public housing in

England and two

re-

ate cause for alarm. It indicated, however, thai the

guidelines set

up by the federal government might

be too lenient and pointed out that to the

natural radiation level

artificial additions

would need constant

monitoring.

THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT In a statement to the Stockholm conference, the International

Union of Local

.\uthorities emphasized

that environmental problems were concentrated in the

large cities.

They claimed

that, to

cope with current

trends of urbanization, the equivalent of twice the existing

number of

cities

would have

be constructed

to

within the next 30 years. The quality of these developments was therefore of the utmost importance. Unfortunately, the pace of change in

countries

was such

many

less

not being achieved. It was estimated that by 1980 Accra and Dakar would have to house one millioa people, representing 8.5'^r and 22'", of Ghana's and Senegal's respective populations, whereas by that time industry would be able to provide only 5*^ of all em-

One of London's

chief

planning

officers,

decay and the development of an "urban underclass" to

unsupported families, the

He

pointed

old. the unskilled,

and

those with problems of chronic illness or disability

out young children were happy to live above ground level, even in high-rise buildings, but families with

or a prison record as the categories of poor citizens

especially because

it

above ground

inhibited children's play.

level,

A

yet

unpublished work indicated that residents preferred bright, colourful buildings with plenty of greenery and

and large blocks with an Tabata of Tokyo University had studied the effects of urban growth on open land around Tokyo over the past 40 years: in 1932, 51 '.c of the urban area consisted of greenery, but by 1969 this had been reduced to 29%. He also showed that the incidence of respiratory diseases was proportional to population density and inversely proportional to the amount of open land. He concluded that to improve the city's environment it would be necessary to maintain 25''',- open space or a per capita disliked gray, drab buildings

"institutional" appearance. Sadatoshi

allocation of at least 25 sq.m.

During 1972 the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development lOECD) initiated an ambitious three-year study of air pollution in conjunc-

member countries. The work would be concerned with the degree to which sulfur and strong acids in the atmosphere originated locally or were transmitted considerable distances. Concentrations of these pollutants would be measured daily by 80 tion with ten

ground stations

The

results

by the Norwegian Institute for ler, near Oslo, and evaluated by countries

concerned,

together

who tended

to

be concentrated

in areas of rapid de-

These people could not compete for better housing and services, nor could they find local jobs. The British government had a continuing urban aid program for such areas, and the secretary of state for the environment had announced six experimental studies of needy towns. The Greater London Council announced in September that it would delay part of its £2.000 million urban expressway program the construction of considerable stretches of its proposed system, including a section through fashionable Hampstead, was to be put back by 20 years. There was also concern about tratfic conditions in Paris, and about the means being adopted to ameliorate them. Over 7.000 new parking places wei* being provided each year, and a new inner ring road would be completed by the end of 1972, but residents were unhappy about the cost and disruption involved. France's development plan for 1971-75 contained cline.

proposals for better public transport, possibly induding minibuses and collective taxis. In Paris three

tall office

buildings being constructed

Defense across the Seine from Neuilly became Arc de Triomphe and in a view from the Champs-6lysees, thus interrupting the famous perspective. This appar-

at the

visible to the west of the

direct line with the

ently unforeseen intrusion resulted in high-level dis-

Mr

cussions during the late

a

Pollution at Kjel-

committee from the

with

representatives

from the European Economic Community (EEC) and the World Meteorological Organization. A 469-page report on radiation levels issued by a special committee of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council gave no immedi-

i

:

and by aircraft at would be coordinated

in the ten states

various altitudes.

i

Eversley, warned of the mounting dangers of urban

U.K. Department of the Environment. The

living

i

David

gators concluded that two-thirds of households with-

disliked

'

off the land.

in the inner parts of older British cities.

young children

'

ployment. A not unt>pical illustration of the hardship involved was a building worker employed in Medellin, Colombia, who traveled for nearly eight hours each day on foot and by bus from his rural home where the rest of his family was trying to scratch a livinj

search projects relating to the landscape in and around cities. The attitude survey was carried out by the investi-

developed

that the requisite standards were

summer, and it was thought that the towers would be lowered by official decree. However, in early October it was announced that the cost (some Fr. 400 million in compensation was too high and that the government would adhere to its I

original approval of the scheme.

In Tokyo the most critical environmental problem was the recurrent photochemical smog, caused prin-

'

I

by nitrogen oxides from motor-vehicle ex-

ipally

The

hausts.

city

was again seriously affected

in

May,

and the number of people suffering from the effects of smog in 1972 might well exceed the figure of 48,000 for the previous year. The metropolitan government increased its efforts to counter pollution of all kinds.

Loans were made available to induce firms to install and over $1 million was to be spent on research into the smog problem. Tokyo's 1972 budget for environmental improvement was 40% more than that in 1971, as compared with an increase of 15% for roads. In addition to atmospheric pollution, the prosperous Japanese economy raised formidable problems of waste disposal, with 35 million tons of garbage, including such cumbersome items as discarded television sets, to be disposed of annually. Air pollution, together with vibrations from heavy traffic and a nearby underground railway, was causing alarming decay of the 1,900-year-old Colosseum in Rome. Traffic in Bern, Switz., was to be reduced after a six-month experiment during which motor vehicles were banned from most of the historic town centre. In England the principal experiment in this field was a government-subsidized "pedestrianization" scheme in Leeds, where special small buses were used for travel between parking lots and shops. The outcome of these and other measures was likely to be discussed iduring the Council of Europe's Architectural Heritage 'Year 1975. {See Historic Buildings.) (david l. smith) pollution-control devices,

I

'natural environment 'secretary-general to the

UN

mills. Pollutants

conference, declared that

year 2000 world food supplies would have to doubled to feed the predicted population of 7,000,-

000,000 people. In the less developed countries, the [pressures on land resources were forcing crop farmregions of low rainfall, harsh climate, steep

ling into

poor

consequences were loss of natural plant cover, wind and water erosion, disturbance of the hydrologic cycle, and the topography,

or

soil.

into this almost tideless sea

charge of industrial wastes along

home

the

of

the use of

its

its Atlantic seaboard, economically vital fishing industry;

mercury was terminated

Inevitable

in all

Norwegian

pulp and paper mills.

At Stockholm a number of biologists from various word "ecocide" to describe the dehberate destruction of effective human environments in the course of warfare. They claimed that U.S. strategy in Vietnam was being directed against crops rather than people. Herbicides that killed off all plant life were being reinforced by giant plows deliberately employed to scrape off irreplaceable topcountries used the

soil. It

was further asserted that U.S. attacks on the dike system close to Tonkin were aimed

Red River

at creating disastrous floods to disrupt the vital rice

crop.

The U.S. denied

that

it

was deliberately bomb-

ing the dikes, though witnesses claimed to have seen

bomb damage

far from military targets. During April there were reports of similar military

attacks on the environment thorities in

tion

by the Portuguese auMozambique. The Mozambique Libera-

Front guerrillas, active in the north, were sus-

tained by crops of corn, cassava, beans, peanuts, and bananas, cultivated in small jungle clearings. The

from the air, and it was by aerial spray-

thus possible to eliminate the crops

ing of defoliants, though only at a very high cost.

Land Conservation. Throughout

jby the jbe

dumped

dispersed very slowly, and oil dumped at the northern end might take 20 years to reach the southern exit. Norway took strong measures to regulate the dis-

clearings were easily located

Stockholm Maurice F. Strong (see Biography),

jAt

This theme was followed up by the other countries bordering the Baltic, especially Finland and the U.S.S.R., which also operated huge chemical pulp

conference,

the

the Stockholm government came under its enormous The reasoning behind this was

Brazilian

strong international pressure to conserve tropical rain forests.

not entirely disinterested. Brazil held roughly onesixth of the world's forest area,

some 600

million ha.

out of a world total of 3,712,000,000 ha. Tropical for-

sures to put recommendations into practice. Major problems were soil degradation, long-term pollution

carbon element of atmospheric carbon dioxide in solid form, and the loss of large forest areas could lead to an ever increasing and harmful level of carbon dioxide in the world's atmosphere. Brazil, however, regarded the problem as an internal matter. Under pressure of ever increasing population, migrant settlers were moving into the forest, felling and burning tall timber trees, and cultivating the clearings, enriched with wood ash, for two or three seasons only. As they moved on to make new clearings, the land was taken over

hy

by

jsilting

up of

rivers, irrigation channels,

and

reservoirs.

were expanding, and the southern Sahara was advancing over grazing

In arid zones deserts

edge

of

the

grounds at a rate of 1^ mi. yearly. Governments, said Strong, should

incorporate

environmental considerations into all agricultural developments. Research into basic needs must be followed up by legislation, education, and financial mea-

persistent

agriculture.

pesticides,

and overintensification of

In the more developed countries, the

ests are particularly effective in fixing the

cattle ranchers.

pling permanently

water-absorbent forest

led to an exodus of country dwellers to the towns,

resistant.

social problems. Political as well as measures were essential to protect the biojsphere, the thin layer of matter enveloping the earth upon which all life depends. International cooperation was essential, since natural and economic forces take little heed of man-made frontiers. On the conference's home ground, the Swedish

scientific

South American forest policies attracted further ternational attention in October at the seventh

Forestry Congress of the

UN

in-

World

Food and Agriculture The congress

Organization, held in Buenos Aires, Arg.

enormous pulp and paper mills, which were discharging vast quantities of chemical waste

reviewed the consequences of agricultural reforms on the management of forests and the maintenance of economic wood-using industries. Delegates visited Argentina's impressive plantations of newly introduced fast-growing timber trees, notably species of Eucalyptus from Australia, pines from the southern U.S., and hybrid poplars originating in Europe. Also in October, the American Forestry Association convened a National Tree Planting Conference in

almost landlocked Baltic Sea.

continued on page 284

I

porest Industry's Foundation for Water and Air Proitection announced an antipollution research program jcosting

24 million kronor per year, to be directed

[mainly toward the problems of eflSuent disposal at ithe

country's

into rivers feeding the

a smoggy sunset. Despite improved air cleanliness statistics cited by officials,

The resultant grazing and tram- many environmental and damaged the land, as once-porous, citizens' groups were demanding more stringent soil became hard and waterantipollution efforts.

jmechanization and concentration of food raising had |With resultant

Evening-rush-hour traffic heads west on the Santa Monica Freeway from downtown Los Angeles into

SPECIAL REPORT

animals died of an allergic reaction to the tranquilizing drugi used to sedate them. Since then, there have been no confirmed sightings. Two of the three sanctuaries were occupied by the Viel Cong, whose favourite food is said to be beef; the third sanctuary was the scene of prolonged fighting in late 1970. Even ii a few scared kouprey do still survive deep in the Indochina forests, they are unlikely ever to meet up and breed. Barring a miracle, another wild species has gone to join the dodo in total

THE KOUPREY: ONE MORE INEXCUSABLE LOSS TO MAN

extinction.

To most

people, in comparison with the bloodshed

of the Vietnam war, the loss of the kouprey

is

and misery

totally insignifi-

But by the year 2000 we may be regretting an easy dismissal of the Cambodian wild cow. For the kouprey represents an inexcusable loss of genetic material, which could have played a key role in Asian agriculture. It is thought to have been one of the wild ancestors of the humped zebu cattle of India, and crossbreeding between the kouprey and zebu could have helped to improve this and other domestic strains. Over the next few decades, bioengineering is likely to be aa vital and as fast growing a scientific field as electronics has been in the past two. Geneticists are probably within a few years of being able to manipulate chromosomes in a test tube in order to accentuate desired characteristics, of being able to cross one species with another at will and produce fertile offspring. The animals grazing in our fields in 1990 may well contain the bloodlines of half a dozen of today's wild or domestic species. If are to grow enough food for a world population that even at the most optimistic forecast will continue to increase until well into the next century, we shall need new and improved crops and domestic animals. The "miracle rice" whose yields have recently had such a dramatic effect on Far Eastern food supplies is merely the beginning. But tomorrow's bioengineers will be as dependent on genes for their raw material as today's engineers are on the chemical elements. To have thrown away the kouprey will seem as big a crime as it would today to abandon titanium, the key element in the high-temperature steels of the aerospace age. Ecological Mismanagement. .Agricultural man is remarkably conservative. We are still content with the same animals and plants that the Babylonians domesticated, despite all evidence of their inefficiency. Consider the history of livestock farming cant.

By Jon Tinker

.he Xhe

wildlife of today," said

dispose of as

come

we

please.

after," Pres.

John

We F.

King George VI,

have

to

account for

Kennedy put

it

"is it

not ours to

to those

differently:

who

"We must

expand the concept of conservation to meet the imperious problems of the new age. We must recover the relationship between man and nature," But does this relationship have any relevance in a technological, urban age? Is it not mere sentimentalism to wonder whether our children's children will grow up to ask; "What was a rhino?" Why set up a nature reserve for the hairynosed wombat when a billion people do not have enough to eat, when the great cities of Latin America and Asia are ringed by squalid slums, when malaria and leprosy still stalk the globe, when wars and rumours of war daily bring fear to half the homes of mankind?

At best, wildlife conservation seems to many people a sentimental hankering after a bygone pastoral life, a romantic attachment to the days when men were men and buffalo still roamed the Great Plains. At worst, giving money to save the fur seal or to protect the white rhino seems to demonstrate a callous indifference to human suffering. Nevertheless, although such attitudes may still prevail, today the consers^ation of wild animals and plants must be regarded as a matter of global good housekeeping. Far from being sentimental, it is only hard realism to retain living resources that mankind may one day desperately need.

The Kouprey: War Casualty. To

the outsider, the conserva-

often does seem

tionist to have an odd set of priorities. Consider, for example, his perverse behaviour toward the end of 1970. While the rest of the world was debating the rights and wrongs of the U.S. thrust into Cambodia, wildlife conservationists were worrying over the fate of the kouprey, a rare Indochinese wild cow, which this sudden shift in the war zone had probably driven

into extinction.

The kouprey is such a shy animal, grazing in open glades and if disturbed, that it was only discovered by scientists just before World War II. It has been dodging Japanese, French, Viet Minh, U.S., and Viet Cong bullets ever since. A large blackish-brown beast, the bull kouprey stands over six feet tall at the shoulders, with prominent white legs and a chestnut face pattern. It was probably once distributed throughout Indochina, but by 1964 the total was down to 200, concenretreating into the thick forest

—

—

Africa, a depressing tale of ecological parallels in

many

mismanagement

that has

parts of the world.

Cattle are not indigenous to Africa, but there are

now more

cows there than in Europe. Compared with the sleek cattle of England or Denmark, they are hopelessly nonproductive. .A complex community of wild herbivores has been steadily exterminated in favour of a European cow that is totally unsuited to the climate and the food. After two centuries of cattle farming in Africa, yields are still low compared with wild game. A mixed antelope community on marginal scrub can produce four times as much meat per square mile as cows on neighbouring well-managed grassland. The quality of the meat, too, is strongly in the wild game's favour: the dressed carcasses of domestic .African cattk contain up to SO'Jc fat and only 50^c lean meat, while the carcasses of game of similar weight contain less than 5'^ fat and as much as 80% lean. The reason is simple: the wild game are adapted to the local environment, and the European cattle are

trated in three kouprey reserves specially established

not.

Norodom Sihanouk

the frontier

The supreme illogicality of farming the WTong species in the wrong places appeared in the great tsetse-fly campaigns of East

Cambodia, and unauthorized kouprey-hunting was

Africa, an attempt to exterminate the disease of sleeping sick-

near the Vietnam border.

the kouprey full legal protection, but he also villages of

by Prince Sihanouk gave

armed

widespread.

ness.

In 1968 the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C., was concerned enough about the fate of the kouprey to send out a special expedition, in the hope of capturing some and estab-

gives

lishing a breeding herd in captivity.

They found

four, but the

Jon Tinker is environment consultant to the New Scientist and former editor of Wildlife and the Countryside.

Wild game are not bothered by the flies, and the disease them the equivalent of a slight cold, but the alien cattle

can tolerate neither. So animals that did not object to being bitten were slaughtered in order to introduce those that did. Mfllions of pounds of international aid were spent in Rhodesia and elsewhere in East .Africa to create a habitat for cows that are incapable of producing a quarter as much meat as the species

they have replaced. Local wildlife, to ever smaller

game

reserves.

in the meantime, is confined Europeans tend to make fun of

—

VANISHING

PMIMI

visiting Chicago's Lincoln Park Zoo studies the symbol used by zoos throughout the U.S. to emphasize species in danger of becoming extinct in their natural homes.

voirs like Kariba

CKMd

the

way Indians allow cows

city streets.

to eat crops

Western man's devotion to

and wander through the been far more

cattle has

absurd.

In Africa the tide ing,

is

at last turning. First, there is

game ranch-

where mixed communities of wild game are confined

many

enclosures

gether able to graze

all

game

are to-

browse the shrubs wide variety of vegetation without de-

the grasses as well as

and low

trees, utilizing a

stroying

it.

By

in

miles square. Cattle will only eat the soft, sweet

herbage, but a dozen species of antelope and other

carefully controlled shooting, killing exactly the

numbers of each sex and each species, a high crop of meat can be taken every year and the community kept in perfect bal-

right

ance with the habitat.

game

stocks

may

from red deer that were originally introduced from Scotland. African eland provide milk in the

be replaced by fully

all improved breeds careAlready some wild species are

being domesticated and farmed like cattle.

ox are being domesticated for their wool in CanMalaya and the Caribbean are being farmed for impossible to forecast what animals the bioengineers of the 21st century will use as their raw genetic matheir eggs

We

The

eland, largest of

been successfully tamed and bred in and is being used in Kenya and South Africa for both milk and meat production. It can withstand poor water supplies

for meat, wool, skins, or other prod-

much

variety as possible.

much

better than the cow, so

it is

far better

Thomson's gazelle, a much smaller antemost familiar mammals, has also been domesticated. Eventually, perhaps by crossing several exist-

suited to arid scrubland.

among East

Africa's

it should prove possible to breed special strains of antelope that are well suited physiologically to the African en-

ing species,

—and that give ten times the meat

yield of the cattle

being reared there now.

There are hundreds of varieties of large herbivorous animals in different parts of the world. The animal breeder of the future will regard them all as potential raw material. He will not be confined, as we are today, to the goat, sheep, pig, and cow. But he will not be able to breed from species that have become extinct. In different parts of the world, a surprising variety of animals are being considered for domestication. Manatees, large freshwater sea cows, have been used to keep navigation channels free from waterweed, but they could also be reared in ponds for meat. Hippos especially, perhaps, the pygmy hippo of West Africa might provide a meat crop from the fringes of huge African reser-

more

now

fac-

serious than that of the threat-

ened animals.

As vegetarians are always ready

to explain, the conversion of

plant protein into animal tissue must involve an energy loss; it

takes around ten tons of grass to produce one ton of meat.

self.

—

new breeds

can only preserve for them as

ing extinction could be far

process

vironment

shells. It is

Plant Conservation. Mammal and bird conservation has always tended to receive the most attention from wildlife enthusiasts, with plants coming a long way behind. But it should

captivity,

is

and

fashion

terial to

ucts.

the African antelopes, has

lope that

Musk

Ukraine.

ada. Turtles in

antelope plus zebra and wildebeeste, fully suited to the local habitat.

ex-

million of venison a year, shot

not be forgotten that the loss of the 20,000 plant species

Eventually, truly wild

domesticated strains, mixed herds of half a dozen species of

and extremes of heat

and Volta. Saiga antelopes, on the verge of

now provide 6,000 tons of meat a year from Kazakhstan, where cattle cannot cope with the steep hills and sandstorms. New Zealand exports some U.S. $4 tinction in Soviet Asia 50 years ago,

is

The

only worthwhile because pressures of

human

man

The

cannot digest grass him-

population are likely to force

many

countries to concentrate increasingly on vegetable food, and, as the case with animals, new species will have to be cultivated. In the future, agricultural research will probably concentrate less on making existing crops grow where conditions for them are not is

grow environment and that contain a high proportion of These he will try to improve, so as to make the protein digestible by man. suitable. Instead, the bioengineer will search for plants that

fast in each

protein.

Already, agricultural breeding stations are cooperating with wildlife conservationists in preserving wild species that are closely

related to existing food plants, for only

from wild or primitive

new genes be introduced. Like Simenon's Inspector Maigret, the plant geneticist always directs his attention to the strains can

close relatives of the subject

under investigation. Tomatoes, for

example, originally came from Mexico in the 16th century: the Italians called them pomi d'oro or golden apples. Subsequent breeding has changed the colour to red, as well as removing most and (more importantly, perhaps) nearly all the

of the flavour

vitamin C. In the hope of coming up with high-yield strains that modern tomatoes but that recapture the taste

retain the size of

283

.

and nutritional value of their wild ancestors, plant breeders have gone back to the high Andes for the tiny yellow fruits that the conquistadores knew. Fortunately, these have not been exterminated in the meantime. Many other wild plants, though, have already disappeared. Wc cannot say that any particular one among those currently threatened with extinction should be saved because it will one day prove of use to man, but among 20,000 it is a matter of statistical certainty that there will be hundreds of potential new foods, fodder plants, timbers, garden flowers, or drugs. Can we easily consign these plants to the botanical history books? Do we think

conlinurd Iron page 2S1

synthetics will supply alt our future needs? Forecasting the future

servation, wildlife preservation, public recreation, and

is

a perilous business, but most scientists are agreed that the

forms of energy production is a severe longterm problem for mankind. The manufacture of man-made substitutes for natural products requires large amounts of energy, and it is at least possible that in the 21st century we shall want to return to plants, which derive their energy from the sun. The need for plant conservation is nowhere more obvious than heat produced

by

all

when we consider medicinal

drugs.

A

large proportion of our

many are now The pharmaceutical industry

drugs originally derived from plants, although

manufactured

in

the laboratory.

spends millions of dollars a year trying to locate new plantbased drugs, not least by picking the brains of traditional witch doctors and herbalists from India to Latin America. Recent drugs still

from plants include a tumour-suppressive agent from the West Indies, reserpine from the Indian new snail-killing compound from the .\frican soapwort, which may allow control of the spreading snail-borne isolated

rosy periwinkle in the

snakeroot, and a

disease bilharziasis.

As

is

the case with food plants, the standard trick of the

drug-hunters

is

to search

among

the close relatives of a plant

that contains promising pharmacological properties.

The Maigret

approach, for instance, was employed by the U.S. Department of .Agriculture in the 1950s, as they examined agaves, yuccas, and

yams from

and jungles

over the world

in the hope of major therapy And although today cortisone comes mainly from cattle bile, it has in the past been manufactured from sisal leaves and vines. Examining close relatives may allow doctors to as'oid dangerous side effects of some drugs. For instance, the heart stimulant digitalis, derived from the common English foxglove, has only a narrow gap between the effective and the fatal dose; if he takes too much, a patient will die. But the ver>- similar drug digoxin, which is extracted from the Span-

deserts

finding a better plant source

all

for cortisone, a

against rheumatoid arthritis.

ish foxglove, has a far larger safety

margin.

We

do not know

there are any foxgloves in danger of extinction, but

it would them go without making sure they do not offer the heart specialist an even better tool. One of the main groups of plant-based drugs is the alkaloids,

if

be a pity to

let

complex molecules that often have medicinal properties. Only 2% of the planet's estimated two million wild-flower species have ever been screened for alkaloids, and from them about a thousand different plant alkaloids have been isolated. On that basis it seems likely that among the wild flowers currently threatened with extinction, there are around 50,000 new alkaloids to be identified. Can medicine afford to dismiss them all? The appalling improvidence of letting potentially useful plants vanish each year has at last begun to receive ofiicial recognition. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN already has a detailed program for collecting and preserving primitive strains and races of existing food plants, and it is hoped that this will soon be extended to potential new crops. Here again the Maigret

Xew

Orleans. La., to launch a campaign for planting

75 million ac. during the "Environmental Seventies."

William E. Towell, executive vice-president, declared that plantings could be increased on 5 million ac. of national forest lands, besides 70 million ac. of private

lands that lay

needed.

The

association reaffirmed

its

would be

belief in "bal-

forage for livestock. In September an international conference, attended by 700 delegates from 100 countries, met at Yellowstone National Park. Wyoming, to celebrate the centenary of .America's first wilderness reserves. Despite its vast extent of more than two million .: set aside by Congress "as a public park or leiground for the benefit and enjoyment of the peii; Yellowstone Park suffered serious problems of overcrowding when visitors poured in during the summer season. Every year 800.000 cars traversed its fine macadam roads, on their way to parking places well equipped with restaurants and souvenir shops. While elk, moose, and bison fled from the influx, grizzly and black bears would hang around campsites, scavenging for food from garbage bins. The conser\'ationists' main problem, a worldwide one, was how to attract people to a natural environment without, in the process, ruining the wilderness they had come to enjoy. In a critical review of .African national parks, now totaling 150, Jeremy Swift found that their financial returns exceeded those from agricultural production on comparable land, since they attracted foreign tour-

eager to see elephants, giraffes, lions, and ante-

ists

lopes in natural surroundings.

established

.All

the parks had been

by European administrations

in

colonial

times but, despite demands by African farmers for new land, the countries found it profitable to maintain the parks

D.

P.

and

Ackerman

to

check poaching.

of the South .African Department

Forestry outlined proposals for

of

new

wilderness

areas to be demarcated on state forest lands. The objectives were scientific

(

to preserve

natural eco-

systems), scenic, and recreational. Management would involve minimum interference with nature, though

would be conserved and the soil protected. powered vehicles would be excluded, thou^

wildlife .All

horses would be allowed, and to prevent overuse tors

visi-

would only be admitted by permit. Over 600.000 mainly on mountain rainwater catchments,

ac. of land,

were being considered for demarcation.

Water Conservation. political

In the Near East a confused

surrounded

situation

construction

of

the

enormous dam across the Euphrates at Tabi short supply internationally) were at in the North Sea. Throughout the yen liminary exploration was carried oui a wide area of virgin territory. BesitK North Sea, attention focused on parts Irish Sea, the Western Approaches, an

LNG

stipulations:

—

I

portation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) under circumstances it believed fair in the U.S. domestic market. While several comfrom Algeria panies lined up to import and Australia— 1,000,000,000 cu.ft. daily for 25 years from .\lgeria alone— the FPC ran into difficulty nationally and internationally

FPC

J. ACI'.

The British part of the North Sea nental shelf, particularly off the Sc coast and the Orkneys and Shetland.one of the busiest exploration areas i; world in 1972 as major internation.ii companies continued their highly such

exploration expenses. Efforts by the FPC to stimulate exploration by allowing regulated monopolies and near monopolies to set higher prices in situations of public convenience and necessity ran into stiff opposition from purists among regulatory experts and from the U.S. Congress. Some indicated that pricing difficulties

accounting

the outlook

Canadian proved reserves climbed Tcf in 1971 to 55.5 Tcf, and annual pn.i tion stood at 2 Tcf. Reserves were estin to be SO Tcf for the next 25 years, with thirds to be used at home and one" earmarked for export. Discoveries in Canadian .\rctic were to be added later. 10 Tcf already earmarked for export !• Wisconsin-Michigan area over two dii beginning in the mid-1970s. Current e\i

Bristol and English channels. In a of the total, and that of the Eastern Hemisphere, 554,600,000,000 bbl., also unchanged at

86.6%. The Middle East accounted for the largest share of the world reserves, 366,800,000,000

bbl., increased to 57.6%>, while the U.S.S.R., Eastern Europe, and China decreased to 15.4%, and the U.S. to 6.8%..

Production. During 1971 world crude oil production increased by 5.6% to 50.370.000 bbl. a day. The increase in 1970 had been 9.6%. The Middle East dominated production with an increased share of 32.4%, 16,156,000 bbl. a day, with considerable increases from Saudi Arabia, 4.5 milHon bbl., 13.5%, and 4,540,000 bbl., 16.5%, from Iran.

The U.S. produced 9,530,000

bbl.

a

dav,

19.1% of the world total, a drop of 1.1% from 1970. Venezuelan production was 3,610,000 bbl. a day in 1971, 1 .S% of the total and a 4% decrease from 1970. During 1971 Nigeria continued

its

spectacular in-

crease, production being 1,525,000 bbl. a day,

40.2% increase over 1970. World crude oil production totaled 49,678,000 bbl. a day during January-June 1972, an increase of 1.9% over the corresponding period of 1971. The Middle East a

accounted for 17,266,000 bbl. a day, an increase of 7.6%, and the Soviet Union produced 8.1.^8,000 bbl. a day. up 5.4%. Consumption, World consumption of petroleum in 1971 was 48,770.000 bbl. a day, an increase of 5.4% over 1970. Japanese demand fell from 17.7% of the world total in 1970 to 10.5% in 1971 to 4,440,000 bbl. a day, 9%, in 1972. The U.S. remained the

consuming nation, 14,780.000 day in 1971, a 3% increase over 1970 and 30%-- of the world total. Western European consumption in 1971 was 13,180,000 largest single bbl. a

bbl. a day, an increase of 4.2% over 1970 and 27% of the world total. Approximately

86%

of European imports came from the Middle East and North Africa. Japan took 83% of its requirements from the Middle East. Two-thirds of Caribbean exports went to the U.S. Analyzing consumption by sectors of industry, in the U.S. transport con-

sumed

the most oil followed by domestic and commercial usage and manufacturing. In Western Europe the three sectors were about the same in their requirements, but

320

Fuel and Power

Japan manufacturing took most, followed by transport and domestic and commercial in

usage. Refining. World refining capacity in 1971 was 55.6 million bbl. a day, an increase of over 1970. The capacity of the Western Hemisphere was 20.930.000, Western Europe 15.850,000, the Middle East 2.370,-

9%

000, and the U.S.S.R., Eastern Europe,

and

China 8,720,000 bbl. a day. The U.S. accounted for 23.7% of the world total and Japan for 6.8%. In Western Europe, Italy had the larf;est share at 6.2%, while the region as a whole had 28.5%. Transportation. The world tanker fleet at the betanninu of 1972 totaled 175.3 million tons deadweight (dw.), a sizable increase

of 19.6% over 1970. Of this tonnage almost one-third was owned by the oil companies, nearly two-thirds were in private owner-

and the rest were government owned. Nearly a quarter of the tonnage was made up by vessels of 205,000 tons dw. and over. ship,

Petrochemicals.

mained

difficult

The J971-72 for

the

periii

flower tissues. Diet drinks were not effective bci.ui-.

they lacked sugar.

A new

type of seed-propagated geranium, the midi-

geranium or semidwarf, was developed at Pennsylvania State University and by commercial plant breeders. In 1965 three dwarf geraniums had resulted from a breeding project at Penn State. These were crossed with tall varieties and the resulting Fj hybrids were

all

.>;ulted in

intermediate in

characteristics of the tall

The

size.

Continued crossing

USDA

and dwarf parents.

commercial nurserymen and These plants were collected in 1970

flowering herb annuals, to

by Harold F. Winters and lands of

New

J. J.

Higgins

in the high-

Guinea and Java and represented

a

wealth of genetic characters not seen previously in

commercial varieties grown

in the U.S. Lilies,

dendrons, junipers, and birches were plant collections gathered

among

by John R. Creech,

rhodo-

the 290

USDA

plant explorer, in the first botanical exploration of

Siberia since

the

1930s.

Many

of these collections

would be used to expand the range of adaption of ornamental plants in the U.S. Air pollution injury to vegetation increased across

an example of the mounting problem, Seibert, director of Longwood Gardens,

the U.S. Citing

Russell J.

bear Kennett Square, Pa., said "we have not been able jco grow or fruit a papaya (Carica papaya) in the usual

months since 1965, and now we can't find one that will survive, much less mature even in five years." peibert noted, however, that some newer cultivars pf poinsettia, chrysanthemum, and petunias were re!14

probably because their were taking place in areas were on the increase.

sistant to air pollution injury,

breeding and

where

selection

air pollutants

Diana, a unique

new

cultivar of rose of Sharon,

Hibiscus syriacus, was developed at the U.S. National

by research horticulturist Donald The pure-white, heavy-textured blooms

(Arboretum pgolf.

R. re-

British seed firm raised a lupine that flowered at

in.,

strains,

sclioltzia that did not close

To meet the demand means of increasing the stocks of narcissus, Dutch technique of dissecting out and rooting the scales was being perfected in Britain. By this means, a hundredfold increase from one bulb was possible. throated, golden-yellow petals. for a rapid

a

In the Netherlands, the 1971 edition of the Classi-

and Interywtional Register of Tulip Names was published by the Royal General Bulbgrowers'

fied List

Some 150 new varieties registered since the 1969 edition were included and some 400 varieties considered to be extinct were omitted.

Society.

Compounds

that influence

and control the growth of

plants were obviously going to be used increasingly in the future.

Bayers in West Germany had a com-

that, when applied to green crotons just prior marketing stage, turned the leaves bright scarlet. Other plants were stopped with another chemical and produced a circle of shoots with one spray, and yet

pound to the

another chemical produced growth from the the leaves all the

way up

the stem.

Groningen, Neth., introduced bring carnations cut in

any

bud

vase

loss of quality or

a

into full flower without

life.

(j. G.

poler weather, the plant produced a display of flowers far greater than that of any other cultivar. Since plana was a triploid, little or no seed was produced. (In eight years, Diana developed into a dense, upright shrub. The plant was expected to thrive in the greater part of the U.S. and southern Canada. Three hybrid teas won 1973 All-America rose selecion awards: Electron, bright rose-pink; Gypsy, range-red; and Medallion, apricot-pink. Electron, ybridized by Sam McGredy IV, of Portadown, Ire., already had won nine awards in Europe under he name of Mullard Jubilee. Gypsy was hybridized ly 0. L. Weeks; Medallion was the result of a cross lade ten years before by William Warriner. In honour

See also Agriculture; Life Sciences,

first

Trophy

for the best

new

seedling

was won by Topsi, a floribunda raised by M. West Germany. The bloom is semidouble,

jPantau, of

glowing orange-scarlet with 12 petals per flower. The iHenry Edland Memorial Medal for the most fragrant li

trial went to Mala Rubinstein, a hybrid tea by A. Dickson & Sons Ltd., N.Ire. The most spectacular event in Europe was the Floriade, held in Amsterdam from April to September. Gardening and recreational exhibits staged in 175 ac. 3f parks and 259,200 sq.ft. of greenhouses attracted

on

social

concerns,

international

interrelated, part of the relationship having been

onstrated by the Satellite

dem-

Earth Resources Technology

first

(ERTS-O

being launched into a near-polar

opportunities for amassing regional data for resource

ent's International

raised

environment,

events, and advanced technology characterized geography in the United States in 1972. Essentially all are

stevenson)

(tom tiodern roses. In Britain, the Royal National Rose Society's Presi-

)rose

Geography The

who hybridized the probably one of the most famous of all

wife of the late Francis Meilland,

irose

SCOTT MARSHALL)

above the earth. For geographers unparalleled opportunity to study a variety of regional growth and change characteristics such as crop production, urban growth and development, and the nature and extent of pollution. In addition, the satellite was expected to provide

lady, a dark-red, velvety floribunda rose

named Pat Nixon by C. W. Stuart & Co., Newark, p.V. The rose was created by Mme Louise Meilland, Iwas

jPeace Rose,

axils of

AAgrunol Ltd. of

chemical that would

hiained fully open, even in hot weather, and during

pf the

Geography

an Antirrhinum that was resistant to all known and a double-flowered form of Eschup when the sun went in. Marigolds were being grown on an increasing scale in Europe to provide a long season of bloom during the summer months. A new variety raised by crossing the African and French types was to be released in Britain. Called Sunrise, it was an Fj hybrid with red24

rust

released 23 collections of Impatiens,

plant breeders.

A

re-

midi-geraniums, believed to combine the best

323

arrangement contest, 26 nations competed for a world cup. The largest Garden Centre Congress ever assembled was held in Paris; 220 delegates represented at least ten European countries.

4.5 million people. In the flower

orbit about 560 mi.

ERTS-1 presented an

development inventories on

a scale

never before pos-

sible.

Because geographers themselves spend a great deal maps and aerial photographs, an abundance of trained people to process the ERTS-1 data was available. Tremendous advances in computer cartography were expected to assist considerably in mapping the massive data from the satellite. Not only would crude printouts be available quickly but of time interpreting

these could also be translated effectively into a variety

,,,,,,..

of readable thematic maps.

The Commission on

College Geography of the Asso-

''5^^pu"e'l"and'"power

_

Genetics: j^^ Ljfg Sciences;

Medicine

— 324

Geology

On Dana Butte in the heart of Grand Canyon National Parle, Arizona, explorer-cartographer Bradford Washburn and an associate use a laser beam to make

measurements

for a

map

of the area. Use of the laser would result in the most precise map

ever made of the magnificent canyon.

ciation of American Geographers (AAG) produced number of resource papers on environmental themes

a

man and environment, permafrost and was on a comprehensive compendium of resource essays by environmental specialists. These seminal essays were to review the state of the art, cite pertinent literature, and suggest appropriate research themes and problems. The authors were expected to address such topics as biogeochemical cycles and energy flows, climatic modification, man's impact on stream regimen and quality, deforestation, human impact on animals, accelerated soil erosion, the environmental impact of urbanization, food production problems, energy crises, and recreation and land use. The National Geographic Society fNGS) enhanced its long and continuing interest in ecology and environmental problems with the publication of Great American Deserts, a book portraying the fragile balair

pollution, perception of environment,

nature,

man and

—

at worl;

ance of nature in those regions. A recent article in National Geographic on mercury perils provided a

example of chemical pollutants in a chemicalwhile a recent film emphasized the conflict between man and wildlife on Africa's Serengeti Plain. The urban environment was the special focus of a research project sponsored by the AAG. The first phase asked about progress in meeting needs in such national urban public policy arenas as employment and poverty, land use and transportation, recreation and open space, and modification of the physical environment. Urban geographers were working to pre-

and several hundred secondary school and cci teachers from black institutions attended its n shops and leadership conferences. Two geograp: journals featured black America in special !-"Contributions to an Understanding of Black .\ icti." Economic Geography (January 1972). and' graphic Aspects of Black America," The Southea-

Geographer (November 1971).

than 60 blacks in

its

graduate fellowship programs,

received a National Science Foi: on black enclavr

the suburbs of large metropolitan areas. These

were

to

'.

be studied as ports of entry to the suburl

enhanced economic opportunities, as aitt and as models for truly inu

sites for

five residential areas,

grated suburban communities in the future. Almost 2,500 geographers from 74 countries con

vened

at

the University of Montreal

for the

International Geographical Congress in August Moscow was named host of the next full meetir^: ':

the congress, scheduled for 1975.

(SALVATORE

classic

and also an atlas of urban America. Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography, founded in 1970, continued to flourish with articles, reports, and statements on such social issues as American poverty, epistemology and social engineering, advocacy planning, access to public services, and social geography. Planned were special issues on ecology, urban problems, and the status of women in geography. Considerable progress toward bringing minority groups into the mainstream of U.S. geography was evident in 1972. The AAG Commission on Geography and Afro-America reported the participation of more

AAG also

The

tion grant to conduct research

J.

NATOLl

See aha Antarctica; Oceanography.

filled age,

pare more than 20 studies of U.S. metropolitan areas

'

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Earth (1967); Earth: Man's

Home

//

You Could

See

th

(1970).

Geology scientists gathered in Houston, lr\ January 1972 for the third Lunar Science Coiiui ence to review the findings of Apollos 11, 12, 14. an 15. One of the obvious outcomes of these missioDJ was the clear demonstration that geologic method

More than 700

in

can be applied to the moon. They showed that th moon is heterogeneously layered, with a crust, mantli

The ages of rocks collected on .\polh>^ and 15 ranged between 3.1 and 4.1 l However, the lunar soil presented the enign

and

core.

12,

14,

'

'

years.

appearing to be even older, 4.6 billion years. In April, during the 71 hours spent on the moon b Apollo 16, astronauts John Young and Charles Duk steered their lunar rover to a variety of features cha acteristic of the Descartes highlands. Their rock CO lection

surpassed in size and variety the sampli on previous missions. Perhaps the most into

collected

rock type consisted of white anorthosite

lesting

(a

plagioclase feldspar rock). It appears to

have been formed by the crushing of older and more primitive crustal rocks. Perhaps the moon at one time melted to a

great depth, allowing the low-density plagioclase

to float to

the surface.

Harvard-trained geologist Harrison Schmitt became the 12th

man and

the

geologist to set foot on the

first

moon when, together with Eugene Cernan, he landed at

on the southeastern rim Sea of Serenity, during the Apollo 17 mission

the Taurus-Littrow site,

of the

in December. The geology of complex of any Apollo landing

rate,

was the most During three sepa-

this area site.

seven-hour excursions outside the lunar lander, Cernan and Schmitt collected

ond America' in the very real sense that we will mine, pump, manufacture, and build as much by the year 2000 as we did in all previous American histor>'." In underlining some of the problems that will challenge earth scientists during the coming decades, McKelvey pointed to increased population, urbanization, and road construction, and burgeoning demands for fuel minerals, water, and underground space. He also stressed that natural geologic hazards will become increasingly important. Annually, the actual and potential losses from earthquakes, landslides, and possibly volcanoes in the U.S. were estimated by the Survey to average several tens to several hundreds of and hundreds of millions to billions of dollars and indirect costs. According to McKelvey, the problem of earthquakes particularly in the western U.S. had become more acute as the pressure of

lives,

asing the roving vehicle,

in direct

more samples than the Apollo 16 crew. Their most exciting find was orange-coloured soil. All other materials previously seen on the moon had been gray

increasing population

;ven

jr

appeared

black. This orange soil

ast

stages of volcanism

relatively itudies,

recently

in

to represent the

could have occurred moon's history. Seismic

that

the

aided by the detonation of explosive charges,

revised earlier estimates of the thickness of the lunar :rust

from an apparent thickness of 36 mi.

to only

15 mi.

Remarkable insight into the geologj' of Ihe planet Mars began when Mariner 9 was successfully inserted into orbit around the planet in NovemMariner

9.

storm that obscured when viewed by television. During the third week, however, the atmosphere began to clear, revealing details of the surface over the next several months. Though earlier studies of the Martian surface in the Klariner 4, 6, and 7 missions seemed to depict a heavily cratered surface similar to the moon, Mariner 9 ber 1971. It arrived during a dust

ihe surface features of the planet

:

revealed that

Mars has

5een on either the

moon

features quite unlike anything

or the earth.

Mars

is

an active

on which fracturing, collapse, huge volcanic and other features of internal origin are seen. For instance, Nix Olympica is a volcanic cone at least lour miles high, much higher than any comparable Kolcanic cone on the earth. A branching set of huge chasms about 2,500 mi. long and 75 mi. wide dwarfs my canyons on the earth. It seems unlikely that these hhasms could have formed by erosion; instead, they probably formed along lines of weakness and collapse

—

—

into

was forcing urban expansion

areas highly susceptible to severe earthquake

damage.

Energy

Crisis.

One

of the most actively debated

topics among geologists during the year was undoubtedly energy and the "energy crisis." Early in 1972, the U.S. Bureau of Mines estimated that the energy

consumed in the U.S. during I97I was 6.9 X 10'* BTUs, which was more than a third of the world's consumption. This figure was 2.i% greater than in 1970. Energy consumption in the U.S. had doubled since 1950. Most of that increased demand was met by increased domestic production of and by increased imports of crude

oil oil.

and natural gas As an example,

the desire for clean energy increased the

demand for 3.2% over the 1970 figure. In annual growth of demand for petroleum

natural gas in 1971 by April the

through 1975 was projected to be 5% for the U.S. and 7.5% in the rest of the Western world. Furthermore, estimates of future electricity demand in the U.S. suggested that demand would double every ten

jlanet

years for the rest of the century.

:ones,

The consensus of speakers at meetings of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists appeared to be that the demands for increased oil and gas could only be met by higher costs and with policies that

'ii

would immediately stimulate exploration and development. They further stated that there are very few discovered but undeveloped oil reserves in the U.S. except on the North Slope of Alaska. Responding to the concern of the geologists, U.S. Pres. Richard

the planet's crust.

Crustal Resources. Geologists from more than 90 countries throughout the world participated in the

M.

I

Ni.xon sent a special message to the U.S. Congress in

S4th International Geological Congress in

March, in which, among other goals for research funded by the federal government, he included "Pro-

(luring the last

two weeks

in

Montreal

August. With more than

viding

new

sources of energy without pollution." In

with that policy

was announced

November

1,200 papers delivered, the topics covered were, as

line

usual, quite diverse.

However, an increasingly important theme in geology was sounded by the first scienplenary session of the congress, which was defific nted to "Geology and the Quality of Life." In the

that the budget of the U.S. Geological Survey

ession an international group of earth scientists exconcern about conflicting needs for vast imounts of nonrenewable mineral and energy re-

been increased from $130,979,000 in 1972 to $150,450,000 in fiscal 1973. Out of this, $4,478,000 was to be spent on offshore geologic investigations stressing oil and gas potential and $2,530,000 (up from $1,826,000) on geothermal investigations. Considerable interest was focused on geothermal

pressed

sources

and for the avoidance of environmental degra-

in

had

resources, the natural heat of the earth, during the

from the ground had been used to generate electricity at Larderello, Italy, since Exploration for geothermal resources by pri1904. year. Natural steam piped

iation.

In the U.S. a similar concern was expressed in the :eynote address, delivered by the director of the U.S. geological Survey, V. E.

McKelvey,

to

more than

1,000 geologists attending the annual meeting of the |\merican Association of Petroleum Geologists and he Society of Economic Paleontologists and Min-

Talogists in

it

Denver, Colo.,

loted that "in the next 28

in April 1972.

years

we

McKelvey

will create a 'sec-

vate industry and government agencies was being carried out in Ethiopia, Greece, Mexico, India, and the western U.S. Three types of resources were being investigated steam, hot water, and hot rock. The only operational commercial geothermal source in the U.S., the Geysers steam field north of San Francisco,

—

Chinese geolqgists scale a sheer slope in the

Kunlun Mountains, where rich mineral deposits

were discovered.

326

Germany

reached an installed capacity of 180 Mw., and plans were announced to add 1 10 Mw. of generating capacity every year for several years. Although substantial technical problems remained, it appeared that world geothermal resources are considerable and may provide more than 100,000

Mw.

of generating capacity

(w.

by the year 2000.

A.

elders)

and Power; MinOceanography; Seismology; Speleology. Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films. How Solid Is Rock? (1968); Rejections on Time (1969); Heartbeat oj a Volcano See also Antarctica; Astronautics; Fuel

ing;

(1970); Hoiv Level Is Sea Level? (1970); Controversy over Moon (1971); Earthquakes— Lesson of a Disaster (1971); Ceyser Valley (1972); Ecology ol a Hot Spring (1972).

the

1969) of the vote and 230 seats (224), the FDP a remarkable 8.4% (5.8%) and 41 seats (30). The opposition Christlich- Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union, or CDU) and its Bavarian sister

Union

party, the Christlich-Soziale

(

Christian Social

Union, or CSU), obtained 44.8% (46.1%) and 225 seats (242). The Communists took 0.3% (0.6%) and remained without representation. In all, extremists gained less than 1% of the vote.

Domestic

Affairs.

An

attempt to elect opposition

leader Rainer Barzel as chancellor had been made (and had failed by two votes) on April 27, after Willy

Brandt's majority had been reduced to two by the defection of SPD deputy Herbert Hupka in Februar)'

FDP deputy Wilhelm Helms in April. The subsequent defection of Giinther Miiller from the SPD to the CSU effectively paralyzed the work of the Bundestag. It was this deadlock that made a federal election and of

Germany A

Germany was partiWorld War 11 into the Federal Republic Bundesrepublik Deutschland; West of Germany Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East Germany), country of central Europe,

tioned after

(

with a special provisional regime for Berlin.

Germany

promote cellor

However, the

political

difficult to

was

arrange.

constitution,

designed

made midterm The only course open to

stability,

to ask the

Bundestag for a vote of

fidence and, in the event he did not achieve

mi. (248,587 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 61,280,600.

of confidence

Bonn Hamburg

Provisional cap.:

Largest city:

(West

Berlin,

which

is

(pop.,

1971

est.,

277,135).

(pop., 1971 est., 1,788,599).

an enclave within East Ger-

many, had a population of 2,097,840 in 1971.) Language: German. Religion (1970): Protestant 49%; Roman Catholic 44.6%; Jewish 0.05%. President in 1972, Gustav

By

giving

raphy) and

Heinemann;

chancellor, Willy Brandt.

Brandt (see Biogan overwhelming vote of

Chancellor Willy his Ostpolitik

confidence in the federal election of Nov. 19, 1972, the majority of West Germans finally showed that

they were willing to accept the consequences of their defeat in

World War IL In

a record turnout of

91.2%,

the coalition of the Sozialdemokratische Partei Deut-

schlands (Social Democratic Party, or

SPD) and

the

Freie Demokratische Partei (Free Democratic Party,

or

FDP)

gained a majority of 46 seats in the 496-

seat Bundestag.

The SPD took 45.9% (42.7%

in

conit,

pupils 6,098,pupils 2,194.pupils 2,086,(including 38 teaching staff

Finance. Monetary unit: Deutsche Mark, with (Sept. 18. 1972) a par v,-ilue of DM. 3.22 to U.S.

=

£1 sterling). Gold, $1 (free rate of DM. 7.82 foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $21,S84,000,000; (June, 1971) U.S. $15,698,000,000). Budget (federal: 1971 est.): revenue DM. 96,240,000,000; expenditure DM. 100,125,000.000. Gross national product: (1971) DM. 756.1 billion; (1970) DM. 682.8 billion. Money supply: (June 1972) DM. 120.8 billion; (June 1971) DM. 105 billion. Cost ol living (1963 100): (June 1972) 133; (June 1971) 127.

SDRs, and

=

Foreign Trade. (1971) 630,000.000; exports

DM.

Imports

DM.

119.-

135.910.000,000. Im-

port sources: EEC 47% (France 13%, Netherlands 13%, Italy 11%. Belgium-Luxembourg 10%); U.S. 10%. Export destinations: EEC 40% (France 127,,, Netherlands 11%>, BelgiumLuxembourg 9%, Italy 8%); U.S. 10%; Switzerland 6%; Austria 5%. Main exports: ma-

to

dissolve Parliament and hold elections within 60 days, as provided for in the constitution.

On September

22

the Bundestag rejected Brandt's motion for a vote

by 248

ment abstained

to 2ii

;

members

to ensure failure,

of the govern'

and he was able

to

go ahead with the election.

The SPD and,

to a large extent, the

FDP

placed

the!

emphasis of their election campaign on the policy of detente, embodied in the treaties with the U.S.S.R and Poland, ratified earlier in the year, and the comprehensive treaty with East Germany, signature ol which was being held in abeyance pending the outcome

I


', James Osogo. together »nth representatives from Tanzania and Uganda, began talks in Nairobi with

members

of the

EEC

in the

hope of getting

better terms for East African exports.

Acknowledging the impartiality of the Pearce Commission Report, which had sounded out majority opinion on proposed constitutional changes in Rhodesia,

Foreign Minister Njoroge Mungai urged the British in May to hold a conference with representatives of all the people of Rhodesia in order to

Khatib, strafed the king as he was entering his helicopter. Husain was hit in the thigh and spent some

government

time in a military hospital; Khatib was shot. On July 8 King Husain's father, ex-King Talal, died in a psychiatric clinic in Istanbul, aged 61 (see Obituaries). On December 21 Husain divorced his British-born wife, Princess Muna, and five days later married a 24-

achieve majority rule. President Kenyatta celebrated Kenya's ninth anniversary of internal self-government

who became

year-old Jordanian, Alia Toukan,

queen.

(peter Mansfield)

on June 1 by defying a warning not to attend a rally in Nairobi because of plots to assassinate him. Tlie crowd responded with a vocal demonstration of loyalty and Kenyatta addressed them on proposed changes

aimed at preparing young people more employment requiring skill. On .\ugust 11 College, Nakuru, the Agricultural Egerton at brother of a man mistaken for an assassin was beaten in school curricula

for

the

Kenya A

republic and a

member

of the

Commonwealth

of

bordered on the north by Sudan and Ethiopia, east by Somalia, south by Tanzania, and west by Uganda. Area: 224,960 sq.mi. (582,646 sq.km.), including 5,172 sq.mi. of inland water. Pop. (1972 est.): 12,068,000, including (1969) African 98.1%; Asian 1.5%. Cap. and largest city: Nairobi Nations,

Kenya

is

509,000). Language: English and Swahili. Religion (1962): Christian 57.8%c; Muslim (pop.,

1969

est.,

3.8%). President in 1972,

Jomo Kenyatta.

Economics dominated Kenyan affairs in the early months of 1972. Credit restrictions had been imposed late in 1971 and on December 1 the minister of finance and economic planning, Mwai Kibaki, had announced that foreign exchange would not be made available commodities that could be produced in Kenya. This was followed in January 1972 by a total ban on some imports and further restrictions upon others, and by an exhortation to local manufacturers to produce more goods both to help the for the purchase of

country's finances and to provide greater employment opportunities. Industrialists were also urged to seek

new markets

in Ethiopia,

Zambia, and Somalia. By

the middle of the year concern felt at

was beginning

Uganda and Tanzania because of exchange introduced among the three countries. Early Journalism: sec Publishing

Judaism: tet Israel; Religion

Kashmir: see

India;

Pakistan

to be

the prospect of a serious decline in exports to

in the

controls

year assistance in the shape of a grant

some $1,350,000 spread over five years came from government and the Swedish International Development Authority to support the Special Rural Development Program in South Nyanaza. A UN Development Program mission also visited Kenya to investigate causes of unemployment and to suggest methods of overcoming it, particularly by en-

of

the Swedish

KENYA (1970-71) Primary, pupils 1.427.589. teachers 41,479; secondary, pupils 126. S55. teachers 5.881; vocational, pupils 2,136. teachers 143; teacher training, students 8.017. teachers 575; higher (at tJniversity of Nairobi), students 1,226. Education.

Finance. Monetary unit: Kenyai: shilling, with (Sept. 18. 1972) a par value of KShs, 7.14 to U.S. $1 (free rate of KShs. 17.51 = £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs. and foreign exchange (June 1971) U.S. $189.1 million. Budget (1970-71 est.): revenue KShs. 1.874.500.000; expenditure KShs. 1.62S.800.000. Gross national product: (1969) KShs. 10.228.000.000; (1968) KShs. 9.456,000.000. Cost of living (Nairobi; 1963 = 100): (June 1972) 124; (June 1971) 115. Foreign Trade. (Excluding trade with Tanzania and Uganda; 1971) Imports KShs. 3.682.000,000: exports KShs. 1,567,000,000. Import sources: U.K. 31%; Japan 11%; U.S. 9%; West Germany 9% Iran 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 20%; West Germany :

9%; 25%;

U.S. tea

7%; Zambia 7%. Main exports: colTct 15%; petroleum products 11%; meat 5%

Transport and Communications. Roads (1971 44,932 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 58.000; commercial 52.700. Railways: (1970) c. 2,300 km. (operated under East .African Railways Corp., serving Kenya, mainland Tanzania, and ITganda with a total of 5,897 km.); traffic (total East Afrifreight can; 1966) 4,529.000.000 passengcr-km.. (1970) 3,941.000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (East African Airways Corp.. including Tanzania and Uganda; 1971): 863.5 million passenger-km.: freight 31.346,000 ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 77.000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1969) 500.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 16.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971 1970 in parentheses): corn c. 1.400 (c. 1.500); wheat coffee 60 (59); tea 38 (4n; sugar, c. 210 (205); raw value c. 147 (141); sisal c. SO (48); cotton, lint c. 5 (5); fish calch (1970) 34. (1969) 32. Livestock (in 000; 1969-70): cattle 10.190; sheep c. 3.700; pigs 70; goats c 4.000; camels 516: chickens 13.586. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): 1969) 18; salt 39; soda ash 158: gold (troy oz.; cement 792; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr,; 1971) 556.000.

death by a crowd that had come to hear Kenyatta. Following Pres. Idi Amin's expulsion of the Asian community from Uganda in August, Kenya increased its border patrols to stop infiltration by Asian refugees. Loyal non-African Kenyans were assured that Kenya would not follow Amin's example, although the gradual take-over of business activity by Africans to

(kenneth ingham)

would continue.

1

Korea A

country of eastern Asia, is bounded by China,

Korea

Korea and the Yellow Sea. It divided into two parts at the

the Sea of Japan, the

>

Strait, is

38th parallel.

The impossible became possible

On

July

4, after a

in

ly^

'^jjl-

'^V,

'•c^

\4 ^'^V

Korea

in

1972.

quarter century of the most hostile

[confrontation across the 38th parallel, the South

and

sensational. However, the euphoria seemed to subside immediately after the dramatic joint declaration. South Korean leaders asked their people to continue high-school girls hold to be vigilant against Communist machinations; cardboard cards forming praising or supporting the Communist regime of the a Poi'trait of South Korea's * Pres. Park Chung Hee r, „. ,, , „ INorth remamed a punishable offense. Three days after during an Armed Forces the joint declaration the South Korean defense min- Day parade on Oct. 1, ,

.

INorth Korean governments issued a joint statement

between them had Ibeen going on for several months and that agreement jhad been reached on a wide range of concrete meaisures to achieve reunification and peace. The agreeIment stipulated that the two sides would not slander 'or defame each other or undertake armed provocaitions but would take positive measures to prevent Irevealing that secret negotiations

:

iinadvertent military incidents;

personnel exchanges

'would be undertaken in various fields;

both sides

would cooperate positively for the early success of Red Cross talks (aimed at reuniting families by the Korean War) and a direct telephone

'the

'separated

;

would be installed between Seoul and Pyongyang. new plans, the two sides agreed South-North Coordinating Committee. The agreement was signed by the men who had held {secret negotiations in the two capitals from at least iMay the director of the South Korean Central Intelligence Agency, Lee Hu Rak, and the director of North Korea's Organization and Guidance Department, Kim Yong Ju, the younger brother of North Korean leader Kim II Sung (see Biography). The idea of South and North Korean leaders thrashing out an agreement for eventual peace struck the world as 'line

iTo implement the ito establish a j

—

,

.

ister told senior military

commanders to strengthen combat capabilities

=

|(197I est.): revenue 510.7 billion won; expenditure S23.2 billion won. Gross national expendi-

(1970) 2,545,900.000.000 won; (1969) i2.047. 100.000,000 won. Money supply: (May 1972) 365.7 billion won; (May 1971) 315.7 billion won. Cost of living (1963 = 100): (June 1972) 314; (June 1971) 280. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports 827 billion iwon; exports 368,770,000,000 won. Import ^sources: Japan 39%; U.S. 28%. Export destinaitions: U.S. 50%; Japan 25%. Main exports :iure:

I

i(1969): clothing yarns and fabrics

equipment I

I

26%; plywood 13%; textile 11%; electrical machinery and and products 5%. and Communications. Roads

6%;

fish

Transport c. 34.000 km. (including 428 km. expressMotor vehicles in use (1970): passenger

(1970)

jways).

^"'^^

the defense posture and upgrade

because "though a dialogue confrontation, sults

it

is

or to engage

unification."

is open after 27 years of dangerous to look for hasty re-

in

a

sentimental argument for

The South Korean ambassador

in

Wash-

ington said that any premature attempts by friendly nations to improve relations with North Korea at this moment would weaken the position of South Korea and hamper the new agreement for reunification. Pres. Park Chung Hee himself warned South Koreans against possible infiltration of Communist

thought into their society in the course of reconciliation with the North.

In the first week of October North Korea came charging back. In an unusually bitter attack, the official

Central

News Agency accused

President Park

of being a traitor and a running dog of U.S. and Japanese imperialists. It said: "If the South Korean reactionaries depart

from the road of treachery and

return to the position of true Koreans, we will not ask about their past but discuss and settle the domestic issue of the nation with them."

KOREA:

'KORE.^: Republic lEducation. (1969-70) Primary, pupils S.622,1816. teachers 96.358; secondary, pupils 1.441.700, teachers 36,653; vocational, students 259.(including 27 higher teachers 8,425; 1601. ^universities), stutients 186,675, teaching staff 9,417. Finance. Monetary unit: won. with a free rate (Sept. IS, 1972) of 400 won to U.S. $1 (977 won £1 sterling). Gold. SDKs, and foreign exIchange, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $597.1 Imillion; (June 1971) U.S. $568.9 million. Budget

.

,

60,700; commercial (including buses) 64.700. Railways: (1970) 5,448 km.; traffic (1971) 8.246.000,000 passenger-km.. freight 8,473.000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 445.150.000 passenger-km.; freight 6.9 million net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 337; gross tonnage 940,000. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 659,000. Radi 1970) 4.012,000. Television lii 418.000. Agriculture. Production (ir 1971; 1970 in parentheses): i wheat c. 322 (357); potatoes c. 600 (605); barley c. 1.857 (1.974); sweet potatoes (1970) 2,136, (1969) 2,123; soybeans c. 230 (232); tobacco c. 72 (56); fish catch (1970) 934. (1969) 979. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1970): cattle 1.242; pigs 1,400; goats c. 98; chickens c. 24,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): coal 12,786; iron ore (50% metal contungsten content) 442; steel 472; cement 6,871 1970) 2.8; kaolin centrate (oxide content; (1970) 195; fluorite (1970) 48; limestone (1970) 9,104; gold (troy oz.; 1970) 44; silver (troy oz.; 1970) 846; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 10,539,000. ;

Democratic People's Republic Education. (1970-71) Primary, secondary, and

vocational, pupils c. 3 million, teachers c. 100,000; higher, students 214.000. teaching staff (1964-65) 9.013.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: won. with (Sept. 18. 1972) an official exchange rate of 1.11 to U.S. $1 and an effective nominal rale of 2.52 won to U.S. $1 (6.17 won £1 sterling). Budget (1971 est.) balanced at 7,277,000,000 won. Foreign trade (excluding trade with China; 1966): imports c. U.S. $126.5 million (68% from U.S.S.R., from France); exports c. U.S. $148,742,000 (62% to U.S.S.R., IS% to Japan, won

=

6%

7%

Czechoslovakia). Main exports (1964): metals 50%; minerals 12%; farm produce 11%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): rice c. 2,500 (c. 2.500); corn c. 1,800 (c. 1.800); barley c. 275 (c. 275); potatoes c. 1.000 (c. I.OOO); fish catch (1964) 770. (1963) 640. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1970): cattle c. 740; pigs c. 1,370; sheep c. 192; goats c. 173. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): coal c. 24,000; iron ore (metal content; 1969) c. 3,750; pig iron 2.359; steel (1969) c. 2.000; lead 25; zinc (1969) c. 60; magnesite (1969) 1,250; cement (1969) c. 2,798; electricity (kw-hr.; 1965) 13,300,000. to

396

Kuwait

The Red Cross talks made only limited progress. Although timetables were worked out at a snail's pace, some scheduled meetings were canceled. Finally the oflicial conference opened in Pyongyang on August round in Seoul on September 13. from either side were received with popular enthusiasm in the other. The talks ended without any agreement, following a South Korean complaint that the Northern delegation was injecting politics into what was essentially a humanitarian issue. On November 4, however, leaders of the two nations signed an agreement to establish joint machinery to promote reunification. Republic of Korea (South Korea). Area: 38,022 sq.mi. f98.477 sq.km.K Pop. (1972 est.'): 33,167.144. Cap. and largest city: Seoul (pop.. 1970. S. 536.337). Language: Korean. Religion: Buddhist; Confucian; Tonghak (ChondokyoV President in 1972, Gen. Park 30, with a second

Visiting delegates

Chung Hee; prime minister, Kim Chong Pil. The state of emergency declared in December 1971 continued into 1972 although the reason given for the proclamation the imminence of an armed invasion from the North appeared to have lost its validity

—

—

following the agreement by the two Koreas to re-

nounce force

in

the settlement of their differences.

The opposition New Democratic Party asked Park to "give up the dictatorial system" and show the people that the accord with the

North was not intended

to prolong his rule.

But in fact Park went in the opposite direction and on October 17 suddenly declared martial law, suspended the constitution, banned all political activity, and dissolved the one-house National .\ssembly. He said he would propose revisions to the constitution by October 27 and call for a national referendum one month later. He added that by the end of the year "at the latest" he would restore constitutional rule.

There was no clear-cut explanation for the decision to impose martial law. Park said that the measure was intended to reform the national structure to better meet a critical moment when the nation sought territorial

unification.

Significantly,

interests

of

third or small

between big

powers." This raised speculation as to whether the Park government was anticipating problems of inse-

'.

Korea). Area: 46,800 sq.mi. (121,200 sq.km.i. Pop. (1971 est.): 14,281,000. Cap.: Pyongyang (metro, pop.,

1967

1,364,000). Language: Korean. Re-

est.,

Confucian; Tonghak (Chondokyo). of the Korean Workers' Conjmunist) Party and chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier") in 1972, Marshal Kim II Sunepresidents, Choi Yong Kun and, from December Marshal Kim II Sung. North Korea actively extended to foreign affair? principle of strict self-reliance and independence a bid to build up international support for its polii especially on the questions of reunification and the L'.N role in Korea. During 1972 several independent journalists were alU.S. and Japanese among them lowed to go to Pyongyang and inter\'iew Kim II SuApril In about 100 people from 30 countries winvited to a conference organized by the North Kore^.. Academy of Social Science. Representatives from Communist countries were conspicuously absent. Following the July 4 declaration with the South, Pyongyang tried hard to project the idea that the initiative for the proposed detente had emanated from the North just as the South claimed the initiative as its own. In September Kim II Sung reiterated proposals put forward on .\pril 12. 1971, for a confederation of the South and the North which would keep their separate political systems intact while they worked for reunification. On December 28 North Korea adopted a new constitution apparently aimed at achieving coexistence and reunification with the South. A significant change from the old charter was a statement that Pyongyang is the capital of North Korea; previously, Seoul had been declared the capital of all ligion: Buddhist;

Secretary-general

(

i

—

Korea with Pyongyang only a temporan,- headquarters At the same time. Kim II Sung was and retained his title of premier.

until reunification.

elected president

(t. J. S.

wait

is

emirate,

Ku-

on the northwestern

tween Iraq and Saudi .'\rabia. Area; 6,880 sq,mi. (17,818 sq,km.). Pop. (1972 est."):

the U.S. that the 43,000 U.S. troops in South

Korea

would not be pulled out immediately. The chairman of the ruling Democratic Republican Party had said in July that Park would not seek term expired in 1975. The party, he said, had "absolutely no plans" to under which no man constitution change the existing his

GEORGE)

Kuwait An independent

detentes and the prospects of a Vietnam peace settlement. It had, however, received an assurance from

when

i

—

—

coast of the Persian Gulf be-

reelection

i

'

the U.S.-China and Japan-China

wake of

ousmI

seriou

possibility that

countries might be

sacrificed for the relaxation of tension

curity in the

is

he also said that

"we must guard ourselves against the the

curity or the public safety and order

threatened or anticipated to be threatened," The vember referendum approved the constitution. Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North

current

might serve as president for more than three consecutive terms. The constitution which Park subsequently announced provided for a new government body, the National Conference for Unification, which "shall be the depository of the national sovereignty." It would elect the president as well as the National .Assembly,

whose powers were drastically reduced. The president's powers were vastly increased: his term was raised from four years to six with no mention of the number of terms he could have. He also was empowered to exercise sole jurisdiction "in the whole range of state affairs" whenever "the national se-

815,000. Cap.: city:

Kuwait

V

(pop,, 1970, 80,0081, Lari:f=-

Hawalli (pop.. 1970, 106,507V Language:

bic. Religion (1970"):

Muslim

94. 7^0

:

.\

Christian 4

i

Sheikh Sabah as-Salim as-Sabah; prime minister, Crown Prince Sheikh Jabir al-.\hmad al-

Emir

in 1972,

Jabir as-Sabah. In 1972 Kuwait enjoyed a big increase in nues, which were expected to rise

by

54%

oil

reve-

to 512.5

million dinars ($1,558,000,000") in fiscal 1972-73, com-

pared with 332,7 million dinars ($1,011,000,0001 in 1971-72. However, a U.S. firm of consultants was reported to have estimated that oil reserves were much less than had previously been forecast and that they would be exhausted in 12 years at the current rate of increase in production. .Mthough a later government report was

was made

optimistic, a government decision keep production below three million

more to

barrels a day.

I

both industrial and domestic consumers were cut. emergency came into force, and the governset up a court of inquiry. The court's recommendations formed the basis of a settlement with the government that gave miners wage increases ranging up to i2%. The strike lasted seven weeks and some 1.6 million workers were laid off as a result. The end of the miners' strike coincided with the complete implementation of the Industrial Relations Act, and the government attempted to take full advantage of it. The first serious attempt to apply the act came during a railway work-to-rule in April over a to

KUWAIT

A

Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 54,418, teach-

ment

2,789; secondary, pupils 56,705, teachers 3,900; vocational, pupils 1,733, teachers 309; teacher trainhigher, students ing, students 2,547, teachers 405; 1,713, teaching staff 158. Finance. Monetary unit: Kuwaiti dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of 0.329 dinars to U.S. £i sterling). Gold $1 (free rate of 0.803 dinars and foreign exchange, official: (June 1972) U.S. $359.9 million; (June 1971) U.S. $196.5 million. Budget (1971-72 est.) balanced at 359,6 million dinars. Money supply: (June 1972) 140.4 million dinars: (June 1971) 106.6 million dinars. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports 242.3 million dinars; exports 860.3 million dinars. Import sources ers

=

15%; U.S. 13%; U.K. 12%; West 5%; France 5%. Export destinations (1970): U.K. 21%; Japan 17%; Italy 13%; Netherlands 13%; France 10%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5%. Main exports (1970) petroleum and products 95%. (1970): Japan

Germany

«%;

Italy

Industiy. Crude metric tons.

oil

production (1971) 147,019,000

In 1972 the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Deelopment provided loans for Jordan and Sudan, but le Kuwait government, with support from the Naonal Assembly, continued to withhold the aid to Drdan agreed upon after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war I

disapproval of Jordan's treatment of the Palestinian

iierrillas.

In contrast, Kuwait gave Syria $29 milKuwait of the Syrian presi-

on, following a visit to ent;

after Iraq

and

Syria's nationalization of the

Petroleum Co., Kuwait contributed 25% of the organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries ISO million loan to those two countries. (peter Mansfield) raq

state of

wage claim. There was severe disruption of railway traffic, and on April 19 the National Industrial Relations Court (NIRC) imposed a 14-day cooling-off period. The cooling-off period ended on May 8 without an agreement, so the government successfully applied to the NIRC for a compulsory ballot of all railwaymen, in the belief that the unions were not representative of the ordinary workers. The result, announced on May 31, showed that 90% of the eligible workers had voted and, of those, 85% were in favour of continuing industrial action. A settlement was eventually reached on June 12, in which the unions obtained concessions that had previously been refused. While the railway dispute was in progress, the Industrial Relations Act was being applied against the dockers and the Transport and General Workers' Union (TGWU), which organized them. On March 21 Heaton's Transport, a firm operating at Liverpool docks, complained to the NIRC that the dockers were "blacking" its trucks, refusing to unload them in a dispute over the handling of containerized cargo and that this was an unfair industrial practice under the act.

The court agreed. The Trades Union Congress had advised

aced with inflationary price movements and conseuent balance of payments

difficulties,

governments

in

972 continued to express concern over the growing

ower of unions and their ability to impose high wage sttlements. At the same time, unions, conscious of the ower they derived from relatively high levels of emloyment and the complexity and interdependence of n increasingly technological society, resisted governlent

encroachments into what they considered the

reserve of unions lly

got their

way

and employers. Governments usuinitially, but they were unable to

esolve the fundamental issues. (See Special Report.)

Industrialized Countries. Britain in 1972 provided classic case of

such a situation.

When

the year began,

was not and some industrial disputes escaped its ffect. The most important of these, the miners' strike, lOnetheless involved a confrontation between union nd government. In the late summer of 1971, the Naional Union of Mineworkers had submitted a claim or wage increases of up to 47%. This was rejected by he National Coal Board, a strike vote was held, and i9% of the miners voted in favour of a strike that tarted on January 9. The strike was characterized by letermined, large-scale picketing beyond the precincts )f mines. Coal suppliers were prevented from moving :oal, and large-scale coal users, such as power stations, vere prevented by picketing from obtaining coal sup)lies. Transport workers on the railways and roads iUpported the miners and many refused to cross picket ines. The result was that the economic effects of the ;trike began to be felt relatively early. Power supplies he British Industrial Relations Act, 1971,

uUy

in force,

its

mem-

bers to blacklist the institutions set up under the act, refused to attend the NIRC hearings so the

.abour Unions

397

Labour Unions

TGWU

and was eventually fined £55,000 with

a

threat of

its funds. The dockers also ignored but the court ruled that the union was re-

sequestration of the

NIRC,

continued on page 401

The driver of a truck loaded with coal beats off stril-wide. In the U.S. a localized system was established first, and the movement toward industry-wide bargaining was slow. Collective bargaining was a sacred cow in the 1950s. In both Britain and the U.S. it was generally regarded as the only viable

nize unions than their British counterparts,

and

after the passage of the Norris-La Guardia Act

Act

THE

CRISIS

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN

By

Victor L. Allen

c

(ollective bargaining was in crisis in 1972. After decades of tough and sometimes bloody struggle, the labour movement would not relinquish it lightly. Yet many voices were heard claiming that collective bargaining had not only failed to provide industrial peace

and equity but was rapidly bringing on economic

chaos.

The

crisis

had many

roots.

Some

lay in the very success oi

some in the delicately balanced intermodern industrial societies, some in govern-

the early 1930s that real progress

in

method

of

regulating

democracy, and

labour relations

was

consistent

with social

was advocated with missionary zeal wherever those countries had influence. Then, in the 1960s, criticism began to emerge. The governments of both countries were confronted by problems of inflation, unemployment, and foreign balances. First in Britain, then in the U.S., free collective bargaining came to be regarded more and more as an obstacle to the solution of it

the unions themselves,

those problems.

relationships within

The attempts by the Labour government after 1964 to regulate incomes through legislation acted as a catalyst for the recon-

ments' post-Keynesian assumption of the burden of regulating the economy. Under the classical concept of collective bargaining, representatives of management and labour bargain over the conditions of work. It entails the existence of labour unions and their recognition by employers, either singly or on an industry-

collective bargaining in Britain. The discussion continued unbroken through the proceedings of the Royal Com-

sideration of

mission on Trade Unions and Employers' .Associations

and the

legislative

1 1965-68) attempts to control unofficial strikes that

wide basis. Against the economic power of the employers, the workers ultimately pit their ability to withhold their labour, so the strike, or the right to strike, has evolved as an inherent part

in Britain discussion largely

of the collective bargaining process.

action.

The its

have been based on be accepted as an alternative to

criticisms of collective bargaining

failure in recent years to

and its inability, in consequence, to act as a medium for settling wage disputes in an inflationary situation. Strikes have become harsher in their impact because they now have repercussion effects far beyond their prime target. A strike of steelworkers can cause men to be laid off in the auto industry; a strike of workers in a components firm can cause the auto industry itself to close down. A dockers' strike can upset a counapart from preventing a Toyota from try's balance of payments entering an American garage. \ railroad strike can dislocate an entire economy. The issue is more sharply defined in the case of public employees. There the management may be a local authority or state legislature and the victim may be a vital social strike action

—

service.

Yet, as labour leaders point out, there tion for the retention

is

considerable justifica-

and protection of the

right to strike.

Em-

ployers have not been slow to take advantage where the right to strike has not existed.

Frequently the comparatively poorly

paid workers in public and private employment have suffered.

and the United States, a dilemma has been sought in government action.

Increasingly, in both Great Britain tion to the

Growth of Collective Bargaining.

solu-

Collective bargaining de-

veloped over different periods in the U.S. and Great Britain, and different forms have emerged. In Britain there were examples of it in the late 19th century. It received a stimulus from the recommendations of the Whitley Committee on industrial relations in 1917, but its main period of growth occurred after the general strike of 1926. By World War II it was an established means of regulating industrial relations. In the U.S. it developed much later. By and large, U.S. employers were slower to recog-

the U.S.

it

followed government initiative,

in

followed crises but preceded practical government

In both countries academic specialists and politicians,

concerned about the rising incidence of strikes, the proliferation of "intolerable strikes in the public and private sectors, and the size and extent of wage demands, made suggestions for "revamping" collective bargaining. The third annual Collective Bargaining Forum held in New York in 1971 by the Institute of Collective Bargaining and Group Relations was dominated by its perception of the crisis. Even George Meany, president of the AFL-CIO and the foremost and longest-lived advocate of "

collective bargaining, acknowledged some defects and was seeking an alternative to strike action. Unions versus Governments. The discussions were about procedures but the crisis was one of industrial relations, and the power of the unions was at the root of it. Insofar as the crisis produced a confrontation, it was between unions and governments. This was a universal issue. There was no country in the world where labour unions existed without government control of some kind. Everywhere there was a framework of legislation within which industrial relations had to be conducted. This legislation usually related to the right of workers to act collectively, to the categories of workers who could exercise the right, to the manner in which collective action could be practiced, the methods, including strike action, that could be employed, and the circumstances under which they could or could not be tolerated.

A

necessary condition for the establishment of collective bar-

gaining

is,

of

course,

the

existence and

unions. In the case of public dition

was

employment

recognition of

trade

in the U.S.. this con-

satisfied only recently. .\s of 1972, relatively strong

unions existed in various areas of government service and were able to engage in nationally significant industrial action, even

though no

formalized

procedures

for

bargaining

collectively

Many government employees, particularly at the state and local levels, had no legal right to strike. However, there had been a sharp increase in the number of illegal strikes. In an analysis of 63 strikes and strike threats by state and local government employees in 20 states between July 1965 and December existed.

Victor L. Allen, Reader in Industrial Relations at the University of Leeds, is author of several books on trade unions and a regular contributor to the Britannica Book of the Year.

1971 as the Industrial Relations Act. Whereas

crystallized in

1969, it was found that the number of strikes increased by 100% compared with the previous 27-month period. There was also a the duration of strikes. In most of the states such strikes were explicitly prohibited by law. (James E. Young and Betty L. Brewer, "Strikes by State and Local

transfer

Employees," hidustrial Relations, University of California, vol. 1969-70, pp. 356-361.) There was widespread opposition by state and local government bodies to establishing genuine forms of collective bargaining with their employees. Of the 20 states in the sample, 12 did not permit public employees to organize or engage in bargaining, 3 allowed employees to present their grievances but did not require employers to take any notice, and one recognized the right of state employees to bargain but omitted mention of other public employees. Only four states had positive legislation.

provisions for settling disputes. It was estimated that

significant increase in

Furthermore, the issue of illegal strikes was intensified by the federal government's efforts to control public expenditure as a means of countering inflation. Labour costs are the most significant variable cost

in public expenditure, so

the salaries of

government workers were under pressure. A big question for the U.S. government, then, was how to cope with the growing strength of public-sector unionism while preserving some control

over the collective activities of public servants.

Collective bargaining in Britain was founded at a time when unions were relatively weak. During the 1930s, a period of high unemployment, tight commodity markets, and consequent down-

ward pressure on wages, the unions found that centralized bargaining procedures,

by retarding

this pressure,

worked

to their

advantage. After 1945, however, economic conditions tended to strike of British coal miners caused factories lil

The attack was a reaction to Britain's reported extradition from Gibraltar of Moroccan Air Force officers, who had fled by helicopter after a second attempted coup, Qaddafi made no secret of his antipathy toward King Hassan and his regime in Morocco. In 1971 Libya fell from fifth to seventh place in the world league of oil producers in terms of tonnage.

The

loss of British

Petroleum production and

of conservation rather than of production

a policy

made

it

would top

unlikely that output for 1972

the 133 milmetric tons in 1971, when petroleum provided 99.7% of exports by value. The oil companies oplion

erated under a threat of further nationalization, while the

Libyan government remained

in a

very favourable

position.

(j. A.

ALLAN)

Human

Conference on the

Environment, "Ecology"

entered the popular vocabulary much as "evolution" had done a century earlier. An important shift in emphasis took place toward concern with the fact that the surv'ival of

any community

is

closely

dependent

its complexity and that any human activity that substitutes uniformity for complexity is a threat to survival. (See Environment.)

Science likewise depends upon its own complexity is threatened by any policies that restrict its

and

scope. Such a threat

came from the worldwide economic situation that necessitated stricter public accountability for expenditure on science and emphasis on "useful" as opposed to "academic" research. Yet the outstanding advances recorded in the following

developments

some ways in

the

important than the

less

infrastructure

of

techniques,

tween Switzerland and Austria, Liechtenstein is united

and ideas, largely of merely academic interest, upon which they are based. Examples are numerous. A new technique for staining chromosomes in 1967 and for hybridizing mouse and human cells in 1971 attracted little attention ex-

with Switzerland by a customs

cept

facts,

Liechtenstein constitutional

monarchy be-

and monetary union. Area 62 sq.mi. (160 sq.km.). Pop, (1972 est.): 23,000. Cap. and largest city: Vaduz (pop., 1972 est., 4,200). Language: German. Religion (1970) Roman Catholic 90.1%. Sovereign prince, Francis Joseph II; chief of government in 1972, Al:

fred Hilbe.

The Landtag (parliament) in May 1972 unanimously approved an amendment to the constitution increasing the size of the

and requiring

bers

all

Landtag from

1

5 to 2

1

mem-

parties, in order to

political

qualify for representation, to receive a

8%

minimum

of

of the total votes cast in the entire principality.

—

—

The amendment was defeated by 70 votes in a national referendum on July 2. The last such referendum, on women's suffrage, had been defeated by a similar margin in 1971, leaving Liechtenstein the only European state in which women could not vote. On July 22, 1972, the present and future members

EEC

of the

signed a free industrial trade pact with

the five

members

ciation

(including

of the European Free Trade Asso-

Switzerland)

not

seeking

EEC

membership. Although not an EFTA state, Liechtenstein, as a consequence of its customs union with Switzerland,

became

a

member

of the pact.

(ROBERT

D.

HODGSON)

LIECHTENSTEIN Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 2,356. teachers 82; secondary, pupils 850. teachers 76. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Swiss franc, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of SFr. 3.84 to £1 sterling). Budget U.S. $1 (free rate of SFr. 9.27

=

(1971 est.): revenue SFr. 54,091,000: expenditure SFr. 43.227,000. Exports (industrial: 1970) SFr. }3} million. Export destinations (1969): Switzerland 35%; West Germany; U.K.; Austria. Main exports: light manufactures (screws, needles) corn, vegetables, fruit, wine, livestock products. Tourism: visitors (1970) 73,600; gross receipts (1969) c. SFr. 16 million. Agriculture. Livestock (in 000; April 1971): cattle e. 7; sheep c. 1; pigs c. 7; chickens c. 42, ;

Life

Sciences

upon

sections are in

A

415

Life

Sciences

Never since the early days of Darwinism had biological matters been the object of so much public attention as in 1972, the year of the United Nations

among

specialists, but by 1972 their application mapping of human chromosomes and identifihad inaugurated what was described as perhaps the most significant development in human biology for decades. A conference on photobiology brought together botanists and zoologists linked by the fact that chloroplasts and retinal rods are related

to the

cation of gene loci

through their common ancestry among the flagellates. retinal pigment rhodopsin was also found in bac-

The

The common

and animal life was by the demonstration of actionpotentials in plants and of cyclic AMP (adenosine monophosphate) as an agent in the production of plant teria.

basis of plant

further emphasized

hormones. Studies of the actin-myosin

mechanism were no

longer confined to muscles but were applied to amoeboid and flagellate movements, nuclear and cell division,

and movements along nerve axons and in fibrils Among the slime molds, amoebulas

of slime molds.

of diverse origins assemble into aggregates with differentiated regions comparable to metazoan bodies.

This

is brought about by a chemical pheromone now shown to be cyclic and this was shown to be produced, not continuously, as previously thought, but

AMP

in bursts, a discharge

discharges from

its

from one

evoking answering neighbours. This type of cell comcell

Nobel laureate William Shockley is confronted in his Stanford University classroom by students, some in Ku Klux Klan sheets, angered over Shoclcley's public

statements of that blacks

his belief

may

be

intellectually inferior

on genetic grounds. Shockley is a physicist.

416

",,, ,

sciancM

ormunication had not been discovered in other ganisms but. if found to be at all general, could have etc., physiology, embryology, important bearings in dissociated including perhaps current work in which mouse brain cells were found to reassemble into organized aggregates showing the particular characters of the brain regions from which they were derived. Conservation and molecular biolog>' continued to major provide the dominant interests and to have the

research. influence in determining the directions of Almost equally influential were the problems of im-

munology, no longer primarily

a medical concern but

entering into almost ever>' aspect of cell activity, especially those dependent upon the cell membrane, such as the mutual interactions of cells, reactions to of nerve cells, and the Spectacular advances were

hormones and drugs, behaviour formation of cyclic

AMP.

made in studies of the brain, particularly in the roles activities of specific nucleic acids and proteins in its and right These considerably widnormal and pathological functioning of the human brain and the nature and evolution of mammalian intelligence. Important dis-

and

in the distinctive functions of the left

sides of the cerebral cortex. ened ideas concerning the

coveries of early hominid remains also encouraged activity in this field, reported in a new Journal crj Human

The European Molecular Biology Organinow supported by 13 nations, was at last housed permanently in Heidelberg, W.Ger. Meanwhile, news concerning such hitherto unorthodox matters as acupuncture, scotophobin (see Biography: Vngar, Georges), the effects of noise on plant growth, reactions of migratory birds to the earth's magnetic Evolution. zation,

field

and of migratory

fish to

very weak

electric fields

served as a reminder that traditional ideas about the ways living things live were perhaps not as complete as

(harold sandon)

was customarily believed.

BOTANY Information accumulated structure of

phloem

on the ultraand the dynamics of food

in recent years

tissue

transportation led to further additions to the dozen or so extant theories of the mechanism of translocation within this complex tissue system of higher plants.

The "slime bodies" described by were shown

to

earlier microscopists

comprise arrays of protein molecules

leaves and cycadlike

wood anatomy) produced

moti''

male gametes, as cycads do, or pollen tubes, as ci gymnosperms and angiosperms. A species of spermarion-type ovule dating from the Paleozoir contained pollen that could be assigned to the genui (

i

Some

Vesicaspora.

of these pollen grains possessed

outgrowths identified as branched pollen tubes sonM. what similar to those found in the Araucariaceae am Taxodiaceae. The finding was not conclusive evidence that fertilization was achieved by siphonogamy; tile tubes might have had a haustorial function. Studies on a species of higher plant. Tidestrotm oblongifolia, which carries out

most of

growth

its

in

the hot season in Death Valley, Calif., one of tb( most arid climates of the world, produced

hottest and

findings. The plants showed mantranspiration and photosynthesis at midday when the temperature of the leaves reached 40*50° C (104°-122° F). Most other species in similai environments tend to reduce water loss and photosynthesis. Further experiments showed that carbon

some remarkable

mum rates of

by T. oblongijolia at 20° C (68° F) was only 25-30% of that at 45° C (113° F). Tht thermal endurance of the plant was linked to the biochemical processing of the carbon compounds via its C4 dicarbox>'lic acid pathway, but its method oi stabilizing enzymes normally denatured at temperatures far below 45° C remained unknown. An extensive series of measurements on the microdioxide uptake

climate and physical characteristics of fields of coto {Zea mays) led to the development of a computet

model for simulating the soil/plant interface. Tlje model was based on energy conservation, balancing that received from the sun against that dissipated through evaporation and transpiration (40-90%), heating of the air (10-60%), heating of the soil (S10%, I, and photosynthesis (1-5%). The extreme changes in light and wind distribution and in lean area that occur from the soil to the top of the plants I could be predicted with some accuracy. Two noteworthy experiments using the giant uniJ cellular alga Acetabularia were reported during 1972.1 Soviet workers described the first successful reassem-j] bly of a plant cell after separating the nucleus, cyto-l

plasm, and

cell

wall.

The cytoplasm was

first

cen-|

trifuged out of the recipient stalks, donor cytoplasna

fragments tested foil survival. Finally, isolated nuclei were injected intol surviving stalks and the reassembled cells were fd-j

(P-protein,

or microfibrillar material) arranged in parallel strands. The callose material seen blocking the sieve tube pores in many preparations (suggesting

was then injected, and the

to some that the pores were blocked in vivo) was found, in fact, to be formed very rapidly on cutting the plant. Callose was thus seen as an efficient sealing

lowed through the reproductive phase, .\bout 75% ofl cells survived but only about 15% made reproductive! caps. Survival rates were drastically reduced if tlie| stalk or cytoplasm was kept in the dark prior to surgery, or if the recipient stalk was stored after re-, moval of its own cytoplasm. In the second set of experiments, West German investigators noted that different species of Acetabv-\

loss after mechanical injury. Experiments in which radioactive tracers were injected into individual cells in living phloem tissue of Heracleum showed that while sucrose and potassium ions traveled in both directions from the point of injection, the former appeared to be transported in discrete pulses. A bimodal theory of phloem translocation was put forward in which both the pulse- and mass-flow systems depended on a peristaltic type

mechanism preventing major sap

movement

of the P-protein strands, with the sieve

plates acting as

pumps

rather than barriers. However,

laria

showed

cell

different electrophoretic patterns of their

insoluble chloroplast

membrane

protein, carried out

interspecific nucleus implantation,

and then followed

the protein patterns of the hybrid cells. After about six

weeks,

all

chloroplasts of the hybrids

other workers continued to argue in favour of the

that donated the nucleus. This result

mass-flow theory which requires the sieve tube pores to be free of both callose and excessive P-protein.

surprising in view of

The

first

report of a structure similar to a pollen

tube in pteridosperm fossils was

made

in 1972. Pre-

was not known whether the pteridosperms (which were gymnospermous plants with fernlike

viously

it

showed

the

electrophoretic patterns characteristic of the species

was somewhat

some earlier (though circumevidence that these proteins might be coded for by chloroplast rather than nuclear material. It was still possible, however, that the implantation re-

stantial

)

sulted only in a proteins.

minor alteration

to the chloroplast

(c. L. F.

woodcock)

BIOLOGY

t/IARINE

During 1972 there was a review on in situ marine jiological studies carried out by conventional diving, emote monitoring, and saturation diving from under-

These included responses of fish to raps and nets, general behaviour of fish and other jrganisms, and the biology of coral reefs. Notable German work in the Red Sea applied ethological methvater habitats.

make

ods to

in situ studies of reef fishes, including

among the spines of sea Model urchins with many spines were visually

populations in the James River off Chesapeake Bay on the Virginia coast, where they might be expected to

show net loss from the estuary, because the pelagic swim up on the flooding tide, probably in re-

larvae

sponse to increased sahnity, and remain on the bottom during ebb. The supposedly neotenous pelagic bivalve Planktomya henseni was hibit breeding characteristics. It

shown never

is

to ex-

probably the larva

of a Leptonacean, but the link between the larva and

^iphamia, which shelters

an adult could not be established without further

jrchins.

search.

;elected in preference to models with few or no spines. Dther work showed how an inhibitory mucoprotein on

,0

anemone

on reefs permits them avoid the effects of nematocyst discharge from the

he surface of

fishes

lost tentacles.

Ecological studies

considered the sandy subtidal

;ediments of the continental shelf. Oxygenated water

md

food

driven by surface

is

wave

action through

A

re-

second specimen of Stygiomedusa fabulosa, a

viviparous bathypelagic medusa, was found at 1,300

m. (4,264 ft.) in the Bay of Biscay, and a new species of Ascothoracic barnacle (Weltneria liessleri) was found unusually deep, at 1,000 m. (3,280 ft.), off

Bermuda.

A

worms

some importance

of

study of the Spirorbinae, a group of tube in ship fouling,

strated the evolutionary importance of their

demon-

mode

of

hese sediments, which are part of the earth's largest

egg incubation. Northern and Southern hemisphere

system. In 100.000 sq.km. (38,500 sq.mi.) of A'est Atlantic shelf the pump exchanges 1,300 cu.km. ;45, 909,000 cu.ft.) of water annually. Primary pro-

but this method is less common in warmer seas where anoxia is perhaps a risk. In tropical seas opercular brooding predominates

showed that marine phytoplankton Ocean waters, as in fresh waters, normally

and presumably acts as a barrier contributing to the evolutionary divergence of the two forms. Another study proposed convergent evolution of form and function in cephalopods and fishes caused by physical demands of marine environments and by dynamic interactions between the two groups from the when each acquired locomotory Paleozoic, methods permitting increase in size. Despite the fact that many sturgeons were well known to breed in freshwater but spend most of their lives in the sea, little was known of their physiology of salt and water balance. Acipenser medirostris and A. transmontamis on the Oregon coast were now shown to have slower salt regulation than other euryhaline teleosts. Reex-

liter

Juction studies

n Indian

proportion of photosynthetic iberate a jroducts into the sea. This may be up to 20% of the substantial

otal carbon fixed and may play a significant role in nergy transfer in the ecosystem. The seaweed zone )ff eastern Canada was shown to be most dense down 20-30 m. (66-9S ft.), with intertidal seaweeds .0 :omprising less than 10% of the biomass in unit area. Estimated algal biomass over a whole bay was cal-

:ulated as 1.38 kg. per sq.m. fresh weight, giving 912 cg-cal.

Off

per sq.m. the northwest coast of Spain similar studies

ihowed annual productivity of Laminaria ochroleuca ind Succhoriza polyschides to be 1.7 and 3.9 kg. per >q.m., respectively. Highest values occurred where

was high and wave action moderate,

:urrent surge the

value for 5. polyschides being the highest reported

for naturally

culations

Nova ;otaI

occurring seaweeds. Energy budget

for Sagitta

cal-

elegans in St. Margaret Bay,

Scotia, gave uptake values of 0.7-1.1% of the energy produced by copepods. These were very

was reputedly the most imcopepod predator in the area. The extreme diversity of species in the deep sea had previously been argued to be the result of long-term itahility of the environment, which permitted each deposit-feeding benthic species to occupy an increasingly narrow niche based on increasingly specialized feeding habits. Recent work claimed that many deep benthic species are generalized feeders and suggested that high diversity is achieved through predictable ,ow figures since S. elegans

Dortant

forms brood eggs

in the tube,

amination of electrophoretic variations suggested that some previous genetic inferences concerning the possibility of two races of North Atlantic eel were statistically unjustified. Increased use of fish for culture

and biological screening in relation to pollution prompted emphasis to be placed on developing a fish pathology and hematology. Interesting historical investigations of skeletal material buried from rich herring catches in Bohuslan Province, Swed., between 1747 and 1809 indicated that the fish could not have been Norwegian winter herring but were probably another race of North Sea herring. This contradicted the hypothesis put forward on several occasions that when herrings were present in great numbers in the Bohuslan area they were absent from the west coast of Norway, and vice versa. (ERNEST NAYLOR) See also

Oceanography.

disturbance by the selective action of cropping spe-

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

would reduce competitive exclusion in and permit coexistence of many species sharing the same resources. Pollution studies on the polychaete Nereis diversicolor showed that coppertolerant forms may survive where mining pollution occurs and that copper tolerance may be genetically

In 1970 H. M. Temin and D. Baltimore established can serve as a template independently that viral for the production of DNA, and discovered the enzyme that catalyzes that flow of genetic information,

cies.

This

benthic forms

controlled.

Behavioural studies on the midge Clunio marinus,

RNA

DNA

polymerase now known as reverse tranBecause most viruses known to cause cancer had an RNA core, work based on the discovery af-

a

scriptase.

fected

many

disciplines, destroying the barriers that

|low tide at a particular

By 1972 the biophysicist and the same study belonged to the purview of each, stressing the new

havioural studies suggested that oysters maintain their

lish

eggs low on the shore, showed that jemergence times are correlated with the occurrence of (Which lays

its

time of day. Emergence and development, therefore, are controlled by a physiological "clock" of semilunar periodicity. Other be-

distinguished them.

geneticist could both insist that the

dimensions it added to the old definition of his disThus, the efforts of the past 20 years to estabmolecular disciplines had to be abandoned.

cipline.

417 Life

Sciences

';

Artist has reconstructed amphibians (left/ from footprints (above) that are 100 million years older than any

previously discovered.

sandstone

in

Biochemistry. The flowering

in

man's understand-

it was isolated independently from red blood on the basis of its catalytic activity that its iden"cuprein" was appreciated. In the cyto.sol of

cells

continued in 1972, as could be seen by considering the simple substance oxygen. Since the time of Louis

tity as a

it

was known

centrations,

is

that oxygen, at

ambient con-

toxic to certain organisms, called obli-

cukaryotic

When grow

With the advent of hyperbaric chambers, it became apparent that oxygen, at concentrations higher

different

than ambient,

is

toxic to all organisms. This exposed

Enucleated;

in

superoxide

cells

contains copper and zinc and

gate anaerobes, while being essential for the survival of others.

The prints were found embedded

eastern Victoria, Austr,

not until

ing of the intricacies of the chemical bases of life

Pasteur

in

dismuiise

blue-green in

is

mangani

containing

protein

reddish

moK

place of copper and zinc and having a

weight,

ci

dismutase from bacteria air was isolated, it proved to be a stril superoxide

amino acid composition, and

stability

the fact that

most living things that easily tolerate oxygen possess adequate defenses against its potential

lated to those of the previously studied eukai

Early attempts to explain the toxicity of oxygen revolved primarily around hydrogen peroxide, which is generated when oxygen accepts electrons and

are,

toxicity.

was known

to be the product of a

cal oxidations,

enzyme

number

of biologi-

and around the observation that the which converts hydrogen peroxide

catalase,

enzyme. The catalytic properties of these two en/ however, very similar. It appeared likeh both enzymes were evolved independently \>\ progenitors of present-day eukaryotes and pro. oles in response to the threat of atmospheric ox.\erobic eukaryotes contain intracellular orgai the mitochondria, which are primarily concerneii

widely distributed among

oxidative reactions that generate a large fraction ol

oxygen-tolerant organisms and missing from obligate

the cell's energy. Mitochondria contain DN.\ and the machinery for synthesizing a limited number of '."•-

into water plus oxygen,

is

anaerobes.

By

was established that hydrogen peroxide is only one of the aspects of oxygen toxicity. The univalent reduction of oxygen was shown to oc1972, however,

number of

teria

and

same time very

at the

in the rest of the

eukaryotic

different

These

cell.

from

'

facts su;

the theory that mitochondria originated as pro!;

to result in the generation of a reactive free radi-

otes that entered into an endocellular symbioii.

cal of

oxygen called the superoxide anion. The super-

oxide radical, well

known

to radiation

chemists but

The study

lationship with a protoeukariiOte.

of

»i

oxide dismutase provided unexpected reinforce

when

enzyme

from

previously a stranger to biochemists, would be even

for this theory

more damaging to a living cell than would hydrogen peroxide and one would expect the existence of some

mitochondria was found to be a reddish protein con-

defensive mechanism.

enzyme

A

defense, in the form of an

that catalyzes the conversion of the superoxide

oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, was indeed discovered and called superoxide dismutase. It is present in all of the oxygen-utilizing organisms surveyed and absent in a dozen species of obligate anaerobes. It thus appeared likely that superoxide radical is an agent of the toxicity of oxygen and that superoxide dismutase is an important element in the defense against oxygen toxicity. Supporting this concept was the isolation of a mutant of an oxygentolerant microorganism {Escherichia coli) that possessed a defective superoxide dismutase and had a concomitant defect in its ability to tolerate o.xygcn. Superoxide dismutase had been studied for over 30 years and described as a "cuprein" on the basis of its copper content and visible colour by numerous scientists unaware of its catalytic capability. It was radicals into

j

teins strikingly similar to their counterparts in

biological oxidation reactions

cur during a

and

it

i

the

isolated

i

manganese and totally unlike the blue-green enzyme isolated from liver cytosol. In another development promising important future findings, R. T. Schimkc and his co-workers at Stantaining

|

I

ford (Calif. ^ University used the specificity of the

I

antigen-antibody reaction to show that polypeptide chains begin

to

fold

into

while their biosynthesis

the

is still

native configuration in

progress and while

i

still associated with the messenger RN.\ and ribosomes that are carrying it out. Their results also permitted the isolation and identification of the poly-

they are

some synthesizing

a

specific protein,

that

for oval-

bumin, the predominant protein in the white of hen's eggs. Hen's oviduct was chosen for these studies because fully 60'o cells

Purified

stimulated

DN.\

or unstimulated

virus-specific

RNAs

isolated

Darnell obtained evidence that these RNAs are not simply multiple copies of the SV40 genomes, but are transcripts of both viral and cell DNA. The question

normal

DNA

polymerases, did

remained, however, where transcription of

not accept exogenous natural

RNAs

as templates, but

gins, at a cellular

lymphocytes, like

all

SV40

transformed chick embryos and stimulated lymphopolymerases cytes contained RNAase-sensitive (reverse transcriptases) that synthesized RNA-DNA

J.

RNAs. Baltimore

if

DNA

from

molecules

(hybrid

natural

jfound that the polymerase activity of reverse tranjscriptase cannot be separated from its complementary action as a

"hybridase" that attacks

RN.^-DNA

A

promoter

site or a site

RNA

be-

within the

DNA?

recent finding

by C. R. Merril, M. R. Geier, and

C. Petricciani of the National Institutes of Health,

confirmed, would augment and revise thinking on the processes of infection and integration of tumour viruses. Merril

defective

and

his

fibroblasts

co-workers used genetically

incapable of metabolizing

the

DNA

sugar galactose, and infected these cells with bacterial

polymerase, since no

viruses that carried the appropriate genes to correct

ciates

known DN.\ polymerase assowith an RNAase. Baltimore and his group also

this deficiency.

showed, by measuring the densities of the product molecules at different times of synthesis, that reverse

metabolized galactose, and in addition, that phage-

hybrids. His results suggested that this

RNA

a novel

from avian myeloblastosis requires

transcriptase small

is

a

primer molecule to initiate synthesis of on the larger template RN.\

(single-stranded

DNA

(molecule.

One


eared in Poul 0rum's detective novel Syndebuk. Here, as

0rum showed scene.

More Clem

his

skill

provincial

Sar\'igs

Den

in

stjalne ild

at depicting life


tors. In addition to the simple chronology of ev-

life.

works of a high standard Pierre Daninos'

the so-called malaise of

satirized con-

Le Pyjama

ridiculed

contemporary society and

modern tendency to weep for the criminal rather than the victim. Paul Serant's Lettre a Louis Pauwels the

sur les gens inguiets

refreshing

a

was

sharpness,

wit and wisdom and was Robert Escarpit's

full of

Handke was an empty

as

them; the individual uniqueness of his mother threatened to be swamped by the formulas invented for such occasions. Handke seemed to be moving toward more traditional narrative forms; in Der knrze Brief zum langen Abschied, published earlier in the year, an account of a journey across America, he felt himself akin to "Green Henry,"

Lettre ouverte au diable, which, nevertheless, retained a certain optimism. Despite its popularity, Le nouvel inginu, a pastiche of Voltaire's Candide by Pierre Gaxotte, failed to reach the author's usual high standard.

la

In the realm of linguistics, the Grand Larousse de langue jranQoise was a remarkable work of etymoland scientific neologisms as

yet every attempt to

ritual,

relate events tends to fictionalize

the hero of a 19th-century novel

by Gottfried

Keller.

ogy, including technical

Indeed, the strength and attraction of both works was

words and phrases. During the year the French Academy lost a number of important writers, including Montherlant, Jules Romains, and Pierre-Henri Simon (see Obituaries). Pasteur Vallery-Radot was succeeded by fitienne Wolff, and Jean-Jacques Gautier and Jean Cardinal Danielou were elected to the Academy. Poetry. Marie Noel's posthumous Chants des quatre temps contained poignant, at times macabre, laments,

the air of unselfconscious innocence pervading them.

well as archaic

while Philippe Chabaneix's Musiqiies d'avant la nuit

was moving and classical in style. Pierre Moussaric's \Chansons du temps present immediately captivated the reader, while Pierre Loubiere's

i

Mimoire

buison-

The same might be said of Walter Kempowski's very different Vns geht's ja noch gold, an extremely vivid account of the immediate post-World War II years in Rostock. As in his earlier works, Kempowski refused to

comment

brief scenes

his narrative

:

and conversations

in

was a montage of which the banality what

of people's reactions highlights the horror of

happens.

The child's perspective was also to be found in Wolfgang Georg Fischer's Moblierte Zimmer, the sequel to his Wohnungen. It described the immediate prewar years from the point of view of a

parts of

niire offered lyricism "with a scent of wild herbs."

well-to-do half-Jewish family in Vienna, which hopes

Maurice Courant's Soleil de ma mimoire was marked by severity of style and reminiscences of Val^ry, Helene Parmelin's De Songe et de silence by grace and nostalgia, Claire de Soujeole's Pas dans la rosSe by a delightful freshness, and Micheline Dupray's L'Herbe est trap douce by a pleasing harmony. Further from the style of classical prosody were the elliptical, incantatory poems of Marc Alyn's Infini au dela and the symbolism of Eugene Guillevic's En^

Hitler will "go away,"

caches.

Frisch and Grass introduced fiction into their diaries.

Poetes maudits d'aujourd'hui, a collection of essays

and

slavia,

finally

moves temporarily to Yugoup. Unlike Kempowski,

splits

Fischer gave his novel historical depth; but here too the strength lay in the period vignettes.

More directly autobiographical works included Erwin Strittmatter's Die Blaue Nachtigall, four rather bucolic sketches from his early years.

Max

Frisch's

highly successful Tagebuch 1966-1971, and Giinter

Aus dem Tagebuch

Grass's

einer

Schnecke.

Both

But where Frisch emerged as the uncompromising

I

by various authors, deplored the indifference of the public toward 12 poets, among them Artaud and de Richaud, of whom 7 took their own lives and all died in penury. In Trisor de la poisie baroque et pricieuse Andre Blanchard drew parallels between poets of the 17th century and those of contemporary times. Striking examples of the latter were Robert Mallet's \La Rose et ses remous, characterized by intelligence and preciosity, and Herve-Bazin's A la poursuite d'Iris. An excellent study of Pierre Biarn was provided by Dansel and J. L. Pierris. The title of "Prince of Poetry" went to a Belgian poet, Maurice Careme, while Patrice de la Tour du Pin received the Societe des Poetes Fran(;aise award and Jean Tardieu the French Academy's Grand Prix (annie brierre) de Poesie. I

I

.

I

I

GERMAN Literature troversy.

liberal

distrustful of political parties,

individualist,

Grass declared his commitment to the politics of gradual progress, the "snail" of the

title.

The documentary novel was represented by Hans Magnus Enzensberger's Der kurze Sommer der Anan investigation of the life and death of Buenaventura Durruti, an anarchist leader in the Spanish Civil War, and Dieter Wellershoff's Einladung an alle, the fruits of detailed research into a criminal case of the 1960s, society's persecution of an outsider. The former was the less digested and digestible of the two, a collection of often mutually contradictory documents interspersed with Enzensberger's archie,

commentaries. More conventionally written novels treated the

problem of individuality in relation to the collective. Martin Walser's best seller Die Gallistl'sche Krankheit analyzed the crisis of the liberal intellectual in

and

When

literati

could

still

create public con-

the participants at the

Olympic Games

were presented with a new anthology of German literlature (Deutsches Mosaik, edited by Dieter Hilde-

terms

reminiscent

of

Chandos and Jean-Paul

Hugo von Hofmannsthal's Sartre's

lution implied, however,

was

La Naiisee;

the so-

to reject capitalist in-

j

Ibrandt and Siegfried Unseld), strong protests were I

I

I

i

I

(

i

I

i

i

made by

the East

Germans

at

some

of the passages

provoked considerable hysteria in the right-wing press by appealing for calm, understanding, and a fair trial for the Baader-Meinhof anarchists {see Biography: Meinhoj, Ulrike). The included. Earlier Heinrich Boll

awarding of the Nobel Prize for Literature to Boll did nothing to rehabilitate

him

in these quarters.

In the novel "fiction" continued to be distrusted;

autobiographical nated. Peter

and documentary works predomipart of the dilemma in

Handke expressed

Wunschloses Ungliick, the story of his mother, who committed suicide in November 1971. Fiction for

his

dividualism and embrace the socialist collective. As usual Walser was strong on the satirical presentation of bourgeois society; his latest

work was much more

indeed schematic, than his earlier novels. Abschied von Parler, by the East German Wolfgang concise,

Joho, confronted the West German liberal individualist with the real socialist collective of the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) somewhat woodenly written, it provided an interesting ;

study of current attitudes in the East. No doubt this particular collective was not what Walser had in mind.

The narrator Knock-out rection;

of

Herbert Heckmann's Der grosse Runden took the opposite diwho emigrates to America

in sieben

the individualist

433

Literature

,

' Other works for the theatre included Rolf Hr. weak comedy Die Hebamme and colleti by Otto Jiigersberg (Cosa Nostra) and Rainer WV Fassbinder (Antiteater 2). Karlhenz Braun and I'f.i! Iden edited an anthology of contemporary short pLivs Neues deutsches Theater, a useful documentation oi

434

huth's

Literature

i

current streams.

Important collections of lyric poems included .\n Okopenko's Orte wechselnden Unbehatm Reiner Kunze's Zimmerlautstdrke Neue Gedichl' Peter Huchel, Giinter Kunert's Offener Ausgang. Beat Brechbuhl's Der geschlagene Hund pisst an n.. Sdule des Tempels. In the year of his Nobel Prize Boll produced his first volume of Gedichte, nine poem-: dreas

,

of

some

interest

and charm

if

not greatness.

poem

standing single work was a long

The


the emotions that the poems were intended to describe and the variety of content were not matched by rather uniform tone. Marino Moretti's Tre anni c giortw expressed a wholehearted acceptance of old

with

all its

disabilities

but also with

its

the iiti

:il'(

greater wis-

dom and

2014, was strictly for addicts.

life in

ITALIAN

Bericht, Al-

fred Kolleritsch's impenetrable "seismographic novel" Die Pfirsichtoter, and the inevitable, rather pernicious

mellowness. Aldo Palazzeschi's Via d..:!!,cento stelle was quietly provocative, raising emh.irrassing questions on religion, art, and morahty in a simple matter-of-fact style reminiscent of his early, works, often only narrowly avoiding banality. Torn-]

maso

Landolfi,

whose Viola

di

morte won the Fiuggi good taste, restraint.

Prize, carried into his verse the

and subdued irony

The

characteristic of his prose.

return of older writers to poetry was less

war novels: from the West, Hildegard Gartmann's Blitzmddchen and Hans Lebert's Der Feuerkreis; from the East, Fritz Hofmann's Die Erbschaft des

prising in light of the gradual dissolution of the

Generals.

left-wing protestations, of accepting both the cap-|

The

was represented in publications by Giinter Herburger (Die Eroberung der Zitadelle), short story

Gabriele

Wohmann

(Gegenangriff) Alois Brandstetter ,

Brambach iPiir sechs Tassen Kafand Ingeborg Bachmann {Simultan). The most

(Ausfdile), Rainer fee),

impressive collection was Peter Rosei's Landstriche, a set of four

Kafkaesque

allegories.

The most important plays of the year were Franz Xaver Kroetz's Stallerkoj and Thomas Bernhard's Der Ignorant und der Wahnsinnige. The former, part of the new realist tendency in the German theatre, was remarkable for its ability to imply through and beyond the naturalist dialogue and the banal inhumanity of the characters not merely social criticism but a sense of almost metaphysical pity and shame. Bernhard's play too was about inhumanity, the inhumanity of science (a large part consisted of the detailed description of an anatomical dissection) and the play centred on an opera singer who of culture had become a mere machine for producing coloratura. Bernhard also published Der Italiener, a highly dis-

—

turbing film-text.

erary avant-garde of the

1960s

—

guilty,

sur-,

despite

lit-j

its!

conception of books as consumer goods and the now discredited view that social change may bd hastened by revolutionary use of language. italist

!

Edoardo Sanguineti's Wirrwarr and Giorgio ManDei ulteriori seemed to offer little con-i tent or motivation beyond a narcissistic concern with' 1

ganelli's Agli

the process of their

own

proper that poetry and

writing. It

fiction,

is

inevitable and

whatever

their content,

also concern the act of writing, as literature first

protagonist of

just as language,

its

own

formation necessary for

is

the

creations. Nevertheless,

which implicitly conveys

own

its

all

the

in-

decoding, does not

limit itself to a metalinguistic function but explicitly

points to extralinguistic reality, literary experimentation is convincing only when it arises out of non-

Ferdinando Camon's La vita and moving book about violence, religion, poverty, and war. Traditional devices may be given a new lease on life when rooted in real emotion in Opus Franco Cordero literary experience, as in

eterna, a cruel

:

used indirect free speech to chart the exciting adventures of a human mind trying to free itself from harm-

:

beliefs; and Carlo Laurenzi adopted the wellknown conventions of the historical novel, including the "manuscript," to combine in Quell'antico amore the story of the duke of Parma's love for a Florentine gentlewoman with critical essays on the writing of fiction and fragments of his own spiritual autoful

Linguistic

biography.

experimentation appeared

al-

complex pattern of modern and and Venetian dialects woven by Neri

in the

most natural older Italian

Pozza in his stories of Renaissance artists, La putina greca (a continuation of Processo per eresia e altre stork, 1970).

Unfortunately, however, the creative use of old was rare. Alfredo Todisco's II corpo added

devices

well-worn theme of an older man's love young woman, and a sensitive portrait of the

to the

little

for a

ture and politics, literature and society in Italy since

World War

II.

Carlo Alianello's pamphlet La con-

quista del Slid, on the Piedmontese "colonization" of

southern Italy, contained some points worth pondering despite a partisan

and

Of parwas Itala streghe nelV America

superficial outlook.

ticular interest to English-speaking readers

Vivan's fascinating Caccia alle puritana,

detailed

a

investigation

17th-century

of

witch-hunts in the American colonies based on original and often little-known sources and suggesting some

uncomfortable parallels and conclusions to those with an eye for more recent forms of intolerance. (GIOVANNI CARSANIGA)

JAPANESE Beginning

in

the latter half of

1971 an extremely

Fulvio Tomizza's

progressive trend appeared in Japanese literature, an

La citta di Miriam, did not save the second from becoming a tedious catalog of a middle-aged man's banal sexual fantasies. L'odore del fieno added new details 'to Giorgio Bassani's broad fresco of Jewish Ferrara some pictures, however, look better before the finish-

attempt to destroy the tradition of the personalized "I novel" (Shishosetsu). Politically speaking, this new trend was also marked by a strong leaning toward

Miriam

gentle

in the first half of

added. Goffredo Parise's first novel, // ragazzo morto e le comete, was reissued after 11 jyears: those who, according to the author's own blurb, ing touches are

'considered

it

were probably wrong.

his best novel

The huge success of La donna della domenica indicated the extent of demand for readable and enjoyiable stories. The authors. Carlo Fruttero and Franco tucentini, apparently set out deliberately to write a ibest-selling

'fair 'di

and achieved precisely

that. Al-

between a rich

and a truck driver, La

girl

bella

more sophisticated readera book written albeit cooked and served up

Lodi, aimed at a slightly

Iship, Ito

thriller,

Arbasino's slangy, with-it account of a love af-

;berto

but the approach was the same

a well-tried

recipe,

with above-average

:

not inspired to

Baciamo le numi was evidently by The Godfather and similarities were

be regarded as accidental

Ihad something in

common

;

in

however, the two novels that both stood to profit

Ifrom current publicity about the Mafia.

To

those

who

'remembered the clarity and forcefulness of the first of books, Leonardo Sciascia's // giorno iall the Mafia della civetta

(1961), Sciascia's latest novel,

//

con-

hazy story of a murder investigation, was a disappointment, as if the author had capitulated to the very forces that, as he said in a postscript to the earlier book, had prevented his telling the whole testo, a

truth.

The 1972 Strega Prize went

to

Giuseppe Dessi's

Paese d'ombre, an undramatic but moving and per-

and a work of undeniable literary merit. Its only flaw was that Dessi seemed to have set out to try to please everyone: conservatives could approve of his adherence to traditional literary and moral values; receptive novel about social change in Sardinia

book a confirmation of their views; and revolutionaries could note the protagonist's formists could find in the

gradual alienation from his working-class background

under the corrupting influence of inherited wealth and poHtical power. Saverio Strati's Noi lazzaroni, one of the few good novels about the social evil of forced emigration, gave a far more realistic picture of working-class aspirations

and

frustrations.

In the realm of the essay, Sciascia's La corda pazza presented an interesting and critically sharp picture of the

achievements and contradictions of Sicilian culby Giulio Cattaneo, was view of the tense relationship between cul-

ture. Letteratiira e ribellione,

a personal

The most representative fictional works of 1972 were Seinen no Wa ("The Ring of Youth") by Hiroshi Noma, Leyte Senki ("Leyte War Memoirs") by Shohei Ooka, Shi no Shima ("The Isle of Death") by Takehiko Fukunaga, and Shosetsu Watanabe Kazan by Mimpei Sugiura. 5/!/ no Shima, based on the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, was artistically epoch-making. Leyte Senki, written in a documentary form, was a uniquely successful attempt to challenge the "limits of modern fiction" by adhering to facts and achieving an effect that was more vivid than what could be wrought by fiction, much as Norman Mailer did in Armies of the Night.

In contrast, several excellent books by writers in appeared Tatta Hitori no Hanran ("Revolt by Saiichi Maruya; Natsu no Yami ("Dark-

their 40s

:

of One")

skill.

Vittorio Schiraldi's

'

democracy.

ness in

Summer") by Ken Kaiko; Haikyosha Julianus

("Julianus the Apostate") by Kunio Tsuji and, under pseudonym Morio Kita, Yoidore Bune ("A

his

Drunken Boat")

;

and Kokoromi no Kishi ("The

Shore of Trial") by Kunio Ogawa. While these differed in theme and content, they could all be said to indicate a new literary trend inaugurated by a generation that came through the war. In other words, they were writing about present-day Japan with experience of war and yet with detachment from it.

Together these works marked a turning point in the history of Japanese literature, for they did not reflect the odious influence of the "I novel" but breathed the spirit of new Japanese literature. They were also on the same literary level as many works of modern fiction being produced in the United States and Europe.

Two

noteworthy creations by

women

writers were

Am Hitori no Onna no Hanashi ("Story of a Woman") by Chiyo Uno and Jnei ("Shadow of Leaves") by Ineko Sata. Jiiei, on the theme of the bombing of Nagasaki, was written in a nostalgic and beautiful style yet expressed the author's uncompromising attitude toward atomic bombs. Both authors are writers of long standing, and the two books epitomized their past works.

Sawako

Ariyoshi's

Trance") caused lay not so

much

Kokotsu no Hito ("Person in a The book's significance

a great stir.

in its literary

value as in

test against the neglect of old age.

On

its

pro-

April 16, 1972,

Nobel Prize-winning writer Yasunari Kawabata (see Obituaries) committed suicide at the age of 72. (hajime shinoda)

435

Literature

zar, a hislj recently in Israel. Israel's President Shazar, V, enrichMI torian and essayist when writing in Hebrew,

JEWISH Hebrew. Hebrew

literature

again demonstrated

its

Prevalent political tension did not impede

vitality.

the publication of

A number them one

all

genres of fiction and nonfiction.

among modern Hebrew story,

of leading authors died during 1972, of the pioneers of the

G. Schoffman, and the eminent literary critic B. Kurzweill. There was, however, uninterrupted growth, with younger schools of writing exerting influence. Among these were such novelists as A. B, Yehoshua, with Bithilat Kayitz 1970, and D. Shahar, with Masa le-Ur Kashdim. Also of interest were the novels ka-Pardes by B. Tamuz and A. Megged's ha-Hayim ha-Ketzarim. Surrealist in tone were H. Guri's ha-Sefer ha-Meshuga and Y. Oren's Etgarim. A more classic yet modern vein was evident in the distinguished volume by S. Halkin, ba-Nehar. A study of the development of the Hebrew story from its beginnings was Sippur ve-Shorsho by Sh. Wershes. H. Barzel's critical essays were entitled Shira u-Morasha, while G. Shaked's Im Tishohah aiPaam evaluated American-Jewish writing. Maitarim u-Maarahot contained A. Kariv's disquisitions. A series of critiques of prominent Hebrew authors edited by D. Miron drew attention; included was a volume on Y. H. Brenner introduced by Y. Bakon. Related to this was A. Cohen's Yetzirato ha-Sijrutit sliel Y. H. Brenner. Contemporary aspects of Western culture and Israel were the subject of E. Livnes' Yisrael Umashber haZivilizazia ha-Maaravit. Israel's Pres. Schneor Zalraan Shazar recalled figures of the past in Oral Dorot. Illuminating also were some letters, simply entitled Iggerot, by Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, and first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion. An intriguing volume of memoirs was Y. Bar-Yosef 's Bain Zejat li-Yerushalaim. Many volumes of poetry appeared. A. Shlonsky's

Ketavim represented the work of a poet considered a rebel some decades earlier. Collected by D. Pagis and edited by Y. Cohen was David Fogel's Kol ha-Shirim. One of the first "modern" Hebrew poets, Fogel still affected younger writers. E.

Zussman,

in Atzai

Tamid,

displayed virtuosity, while T. Ribner's Ain Lehashiv

and Y. Hurwitz' Narkisim le-Mallntt

Madmena

spoke

the contemporary poetic idiom, as did A. Kovner's

Lakakat ha-Katzav. Not obviously "new" were D. Chomsky's poems, Avak Huzot. Hebrew literature in the U.S. was at a standstill. However, in Israel there did appear a scholarly colrather

mystic

lection,

Hagut

Ivrit be-Amerika. Partly of a related

nature was the bilingual Sefer Yovel Lichvod Yizhak Kiev. Seminal articles of a 19th-century Hebrew author were eruditely introduced by the American-born critic E. Spicehandler in Maamarim maet Yehoshua Heschel Shorr. Also published was S. Rubinstein's Rishmai Taiar, a traveler's notebook. (GABRIEL PREIL) Yiddish. The progress of Yiddish literature, whose creators lived on all continents, could not be measured by the number of books published in 1972 but by their intrinsic value, which was considerable. The majority of the new books were printed in Tel Aviv or New York. Women were predominant in poetry: Asya's Quiver of Boughs and Beileh Schechter-Gottesman's Footpaths Between Walls introduced two newcomers. Zyameh Telesin's Cries of Memory and Rachel BaumwoU's Longed For symbolized the contributions of Soviet Yiddish poets who had settled

Yiddish verse with two books: During a Missio\ and For Myself. Collections of poetry deservin Rivkah Bassman's Bn^h special mention were Stones; Malkah Chefetz-Tuzman's Leaves Do .Xo Fall; Rachel H. Korn's On the Edge of a Monunt Joshuah Rivin's Rainbow of Song; and Saul Maliz With Joy arid Song for younger readers. In the fields of fiction and drama mention shuul' be made of Alter Katzizneh's posthumously isiuc. scenic reportage Schwartzbard ; Joseph Luden's nove Like a Sail in the Storm; Nahman Rapp's biblica tales The Beginning; Levi Papiernikov's Of To'L: and the Past; S. Tenenbaum's The Last Witni

and M. Tzanin's volume of a historical Two posthumous collei

collection of short stories;

During Storm, the

fifth

of Jewish life in Poland.

.'

ii

ranked high in the field of criticism: Jacob Glats!' In the World mith Yiddish and Samuel Niger's Yidun) Writers of the Twentieth Century. Since World War II, Yiddish hterature had consid ered books of reminiscences of great importance. Thij latest additions to this category were Menukha Al perin's Under Strange and My Own Skies; Heler Londinsky's In the Mirror of Yesterday; Jona Turkow's The End of Illusions, dealing with the er.

from the Munich pact to the gas chambers of .\iis and Shlomo Tenzer's The Story of My I

'n

witz;

New volumes Jewish

added

of collective histories of the annihil

communities in Eastern Europe were Yiddish bookshelf. Collective work

to the

a generally historical or linguistic character

inci;

volume of the Recordbook for the Res. of Yiddish Literature and Press, The Golden /' of the Jewish Settlement in Argentina, and the volume of The Great Dictionary of the Yiddish the second

i

;'

(mOSHE STARKM

gUage.

,

LATIN-AIVIERICAN Throughout the continent politics seemed to enslave Latin-American Uterature. Argentine writers, except Jorge Luis Borges and his followers, supported] and awaited the return of Juan Peron, while Mexican writers were bitterly divided in regard to Pres. Luis' Echeverria's administration. The October issue of! Octavio Paz's magazine Plural dealt with the situation.^ The magazine's readers, mostly students and middle-! class professionals, demanded that new books be political in content; works of exclusively literary content were regarded suspiciously. In agreement with Cuban' postulates, the Uruguayan Mario Benedetti defined the intellectual's mission in Latin America as "the! duty to combat the class enemy of the people, return-' ing culture to them and restoring their right to beautyi and liberty." Everything seemed to indicate that a| "compromise" notion would dominate Latin-AmericanI literature in the 1970s.

Writers with established reputations remained

ac-

none could be said to have increased or decreased their prestige. Pablo Neruda published Geogtive but

rafia infructiwsa,

and another Nobelist, Miguel Angel

Asturias, published Viernes de dolores.

Among

the'

Argentines, Julio Cortazar presented two narratives;'

El libro de Manuel and Prosas del observatorio. which, despite their dazzling style, could not be compared with Rayuela or with any other of his best stories. In Oro de los tigres Borges offered another combined volume of verse and prose. It was moving to see him undefeated either by fame or blindness.

I

sometimes with passion,

ind continuing to write

al-

ways with mastery. Jose Bianco broke three decades of silence to prechronicle of the disintegration of the Argen-

;ent his

tine bourgeoisie in

La pirdida de un

reino.

Marta

Lynch analyzed the effects of political struggle on brivate lives in El cnice del rio. Eduardo Gudiiio Kieffer's Guia de pecadores was a roguish pop novel )f present-day Buenos Aires. Mastery of colloquial anguage and an ability to literarily upgrade base maerials could be observed in La Perinola, a first novel y Julio Sexer. A few days before committing suicide lejandra Pizarnik published her last poems, El inerno musical. several notable

by Noe

rspecie

ynching of Pres. Gualberto Villaroel in by Victor Paz Estenssoro in

:alled in

Viedina

la

the

Los muertos indociles, a novel by Fernando Ferrada.

The

vilification of aspects of na-

was attacked

ional life

in verse

by Pedro Shimose

me

vhen he wrote Quiero escribir pero

espuma. In Brazil the works of Joao Guimaraes Rosa were Ave Palabra, jo'ntained in published posthumously, jrhe ambiguity of his outstanding work, Grande Sertao: Veredas, was analyzed by Walnice Nogueira palvao (As Formas do Falso). Alfredo Bosi published 1 modern Histdria Concisa da Literatura Brasileira. becio Pignatari surged as the Marshall McLuhan of Colidouescapo, pis country in Contracommunicai^ao py Haroldo de Augusto de Campos, was a poem based tin Pinnegans Wake that made for uncertain reading, sale

.

pusceptible to multiple interpretations. pilingual

An Anthology

Thanks

it received in Para leer al Pato Donald, by Ariel Dorfman and Armando Materlant, two Chilean critics. Elsewhere in Cuban writings the novelty in La huella del pulgar by Noel Navarro was

that

it

dealt with the building of socialism, not with

of the indigenous novel for his Huasipungo, returned

—from 1946 1952 — were

Bolivian history

;ake-over

of Marxist orientation

re-

among them El juego de

Jitrik.

Six years of terrible

this

to the

Argentine literary criticism, deeply structuralists, was represented by

works,

in

Cuban theme of the old regime and the revoRoberto Fernandez Retamar's militant essay about Latin-American culture, Caliban, was considered an answer and complement to Ariel, the famous 1900 work by Jose Enrique Rodo. In Retamar's interpretation, the symbol of Latin-American and all third world peoples was not Ariel, but Caliban. A Cuban exile, Severo Sarduy, gained recognition through his work Cobra, which he described as "rococo, eccentric, macaronic, extravagant, art nouveau, pornographic, and outrageous." Ecuador's Jorge Icaza, recognized as a classic writer

by the

Influenced

The image of Donald Duck narration deserved the demolishing analysis

rated humoristic elements.

to the

oj Twentieth-Century Brazil-

compiled by Elizabeth Bishop, excellent came out of undeserved obscurity. letters had yet to recover from the universal success of Gabriel Garcia Marquez, whose Cien inos de soledad was in its 32nd printing and who pubished seven interrelated stories under the endless tile La increible y triste historia de la Candida Erendira de su abuela desalmada. The stories were splendid n context and the magic of the narrative persisted. Two pirate editors published Garcia Marquez' earliest itories under different titles, Ojos de perro azul and El negro que liizo esperar a los dngeles; neither gave

the usual

lution.

to print with a powerful trilogy called Atrapados.

In Mexico, as "an antidote against the notions of author and the intellectual property, and as a criticism of self and the writer and his masks," Octavio Paz published Renga, a collective poem in four languages, written in collaboration with Jacques Rou-

baud, Edoardo Sanguineti, and Charles Tomlinson. Outstanding Mexican poets of the 1950s with new works were Rosario Castellanos (Poesia no eres tu, her complete works to date Jaime Garcia Terres (Todo lo mas por decir); Jaime Sabines (Maltiempo) Enrique Gonzales Rojo (Para deletrear el infittito) and Oscar Oliva (Estado de sitio). In contrast to the realistic narrative of such writers as Juan Garcia Ponce ( Ettcuentros) Sergio Pitol iEl taiiido de una flauta), or Roberto Paramo (La condicion de )

;

,

Hugo

Ian Poetry,

los heroes),

Prazilian verse

to create a sort of

Colombian

I

pvidence of the great writer to come.

One exception

to the rule that envy is the profeswas the 665-page study Marquez: historia de un deicidio by the great 'eruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa. Vargas Llosa's ^eme was that the novelist creates worlds of words ional ailment of novelists

jarcia

|ioveI

he refuses to accept reality as it is; each constitutes a symbolic assassination of reality.

f\ngel

Rama,

[jecause

funning

the notable

polemic with

}\{archa in

lained that these focial

Uruguayan

Vargas

critic,

Llosa,

kept up a

published

in

Montevideo and elsewhere, which mainwere archaic ideas that ignored the

perception of the author and his works. Never-

jheless,

Vargas Llosa's ability

iiovelistic

phenomenon from

to

inside

contemplate the gave him the ad-

;

;

Iriart

was a healthy anomaly trying

Lord of the Rings with his novel Galaor. Although the best critical works came from

Ramon

Xirau, Jose Luis Martinez, Sergio Fernandez,

and especially from Gabriel Zaid (Leer poesia), the best narrative prose came from Jose Emilio Pacheco in El principio del placer. Two collections of stories by Jose Luis Gonzalez gave special brilliance to the literature of Puerto Rico La galeria and Mambru se jue a la guerra. Figuraciones en el mes de Marzo by Emilio Diaz Valcarcel deserved equal mention for its humorous and critical vision of the bilingualism and the forced :

cultural schizophrenia in the island.

In Peru Alfredo Bryce Echenique established himmost outstanding post-Vargas Llosa nar-

self as the

Huerto cerrado (1968) and Muerte de Madrid. Mirko Lauer's works Santa Rosita and El pendulo ondulante were more experimental, halfway between prose and verse. The poems of Blanca Varela in Valses y otras confesiones brought forth lucidity and feeling. Uruguayan rebel poetry showed the unanimous attitude adopted by intellectuals as a result of the crisis in their country. Some excellent works showed that there was still a place for lyricism Oidor andante, by Aida Vitale; Poemas de amor, by Idea Vilariiio; Con (Salvador bareos) triste, by Hugo Achugar. rator with Sevilla en

:

r

i

Since the publication of his El siglo de las luces

had been expected to prowhat would be the epic of the Cuban revolution. (Vhile finishing it Carpentier came out with a short hovel. El derecho de asilo, in which, for the first time, he did not use the baroque prose style but incorpo-

)n

1962, Alejo Carpentier

jiuce

NORWEGIAN Min arm Min tarm

confirmed septuagenarian Johan Borgen's position as one of Norway's most modern and perhaps its most intellectually mature. Through the experiences of a 32-year-old schoolwriters

437

Literature

:

438

Literature

master, the novel approached contemporary problems with refreshing humour and sparkling use of idiom

and (luotation. Milt hundeliv provided an irresistible account of Borgen's relationships with dogs. Another contribution came from his daughter, Ane Borgcn, Evoi, a collection of short stories. Petter Mork's short their stories, Cratt og gr«nt, were remarkable for combination of stoo'telling, atmosphere, and social

Mehrens

successful

first

novel,

De

utydelige,

dealt with young people torn between contemporary fads and ideologies. More parochial in outlook and less

publication in .\ugust of the Nobel lecture he never been permitted to give created a public in

of a

convincing as fiction.

1970 described a young

Dag

Solstad's Arild Asnes,

socialist writer's

to a Maoist-Leninist ideology.

conversion

Finn AInacs' Feslningen

man

first

and spin during the year of August 1

of high principle, courage,

insight. Translations

the

involvement. Slein

which he described the atmosphere of suspicion an-: surveillance in which he lived; an outspoken Len letter to the patriarch of the Russian Orlhc Church, criticizing its timidity and time-serving;

part of his epic interpretation of the

of Russian history

from 1914

to be acclaimed as a novel in

trai;

to the 1960s, causi

which could

alread;.

seen unfolding the pattern of a work in the great dition of Russian regenerative art.

fame saved him from violent

Solzhenitsyn's

cution

:

p
sage" to all ships. Internally,

Communism and

under control, remained a threat ing operations

subversion, to security.

by security forces against

alllii

Conln

infiltraii;ir

.

ommunist

guerrillas

itablishing

permanent footholds

frustrated

attempts at In arawak, the terrorist activities conducted by the arawak Communist Organization were more proounced, as the Communist underground apparatus eared itself to prepare for armed struggle. In Febru-

compared with a surplus of M$5S million in 1970. If the allocation of Special Drawing Rights for 1971,

government issued a White Paper to highlight Malaysia and Indonesia signed a joint and more effective jntrol and action against the Communists along their jmmon border in East Malaysia. .-K similar agreement sisted between Malaysia and Thailand, whereby se-

sufficient

their

in the country.

amounting

both sides could enter five miles into during anti-Communist opera-

ich other's territory

ons.

the

the

second five-year plan (igTl-TSi. as a result of

le

hich the per capita gross national product rose only larginally

from M$l,065

in

1970 toM$1.075

in 1971.

!owever, in spite of the decline in e.\port earnings, lalaysia I

was added

443

Maldives

to the overall

enabled it to borrow on better terms in foreign capital markets and helped to encourage foreign investment.

Unemployment, although slightly better than in 1970, stood at almost 7.8%. In February Queen Elizabeth II paid a two-week state

economy in 1971 fell short average annual 6.5% growth projected under

The performance of f

million,

to hnance more than eight months of retained imports at the 1971 level. This contributed in no small way to Malaysia's creditworthiness, which

threat.

j;reement for better cooperation

jrity forces of

M$61

surplus, there was an increase of M$1SS million in the net external reserves from M$2. 589,000.000 at the end of 1970 to M$2, 774,000,000 at the end of 1971—

ry the lis

to

enjoyed another year of surplus

balance of payments, which rose by

in the over-

M$124

million,

visit to Malaysia and was installed as vicechancellor of the University of Malaya. Prime Minister Tun .\bdul Razak made a very successful tour of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union in October.

Malaysia and Indonesia agreed on a joint spelling system for the national language. The Malaysian Airlines

System (M.^S) was launched

flag carrier

as the national following the split-up of Malaysia-Singa-

pore .-Mrlines (MS.A). dressed to diplomats

A number

of letter-bombs ad-

representing Middle Eastern Europe and the U.S. were discovered to have been posted at Kuala Lumpur International .Airport in October. (mahinder singh randhava) states in

MAL.AVSI.\ Education. West Malaysia. (1969) I

I

I :

I

I

.

'

'

I '

} I

j

I

I

Primary, pupils

1,369.376. teachers 44.987; secondary, pupils 512,212, teachers 19,726; vocational, pupils 12.632. teachers 407; higher {including 2 universities; 196S). students 13.04S. teaching star! 1,160. East Malaysia: Sabah. (1969) Prinnary. pupils 114,322, teachers 4,655; secondary, pupils 29,380, teachers 1,071; vocational, pupils ISO, teachers 20; teacher training, students 730, teachers SO. East Malaysia: .Sarawak. (1970) Primary. pupils 144.007, teachers 4.404; secondary, pupils 35,459, teachers 1.424; vocational, pupils 343, teachers 28; teacher training, students 269, teachers 55; higher, students 430. Finance. Monetary unit: Malaysian dollar, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value o( MS2.82 to U.S. $1 (free rate of M$6.73 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official; (June 1971) U.S. $787 million; (June 1970) U.S. $652 million. Budget (1971 est.); revenue M$2,433,O00.000; expenditure Nf$2,463,000,000. Gross nationat product; (1970) M$ll,734,000,000; (1969) M$10,98S,000,000. Money supply: (June 19721 M$2.341 ,000.000: (June 1971)

M$2,036.000.00C.Costof

fivins (West Malav%; I'.S.S.R. 10%; Ivory Coast 9%; China S%: Sinenal S"/, lixporl destinations (1969): Ivory Coast A0%; (ihana 21'r,: France 16%; Japan 5%. Main exports: cotton 25%: peanuts 18%; Iish 6%. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric Ions: 1971; 1970 in parentheses): millet and sorithum 900 (600); rice 150 (138); corn r. 80 (c. SO); peanuts c. 170 (158): sweet potatoes c. 67 (c. 67); cassava (1970) c. 155, ( 1069) c. ISO; cotton, lint c. 25 (22): beef and veal c. SO fc. SO); mutton and lamb r. 34 (r. .tj). Livestock (In 000; 1070-71 ): cattle c. 5,500; sheep c. S,900; hones 174; asses c. 460. .

in

The U.K. government undertook to pay Malta £14 million annually for the next seven years. The Maltese government would also enter into agreements

coup of November 1968. It was said that the prisoners had been transferred to the Taoudenni salt mines in the Sahara where four had died and others were in a condition.

agreement was signed

could only be used for British and N.ATO defense purit could not be used against any .\rab couiH

approximately 50 political prisoners held since the

critical

26. an

the ten-year agreement on de-

fense and financial aid entered into by the preceding Maltese government. Henceforth, the Malta base

=

i

:

million.

Transport and Communications. Roads (19$"

1,200 km. Motor vehicles in u.se (1970): pai 41.800; commercial (includins buses) 11,300. are no railways. .Mr traflic (1971): 169,250,000 seniter-km.; (rcight 2.207,000 net ton-kn (1971): merch,int vessels 100 cross tons and over 1 Bross tonnage 34.500. Ships entered (1069) totaling 1.722.000 net recistered tons; goods lo (1970) 50.000 metric tons, unloaded 956,000 mf^ tons. Telephones (Dec. 19701 40.000. Radio (Dec. 1968) 89,000. Television licenses (Dec. 191 47,000. ]

mcM

by Britain and its NATO allies. In April Mintoff concluded an economic agreement in Peking; the Chinese government was to provide an interest-free loan of £17 million, repayable up to 1994 with commodities exported to China. Decimal currency was adopted on May 16. Following the U.K. government's decision to allow sterling to float, the Maltese government maintained its policy of steering the Maltese pound away from any automatic parity with foreign currencies under pressure.

The budget for 1972-73 was underlined by a new policy of limiting borrowing to the barest minimum and on the softest possible terms. There were increases in charges for electricity, telephone, and postal services and in income tax payable by limited liability companies, (ALBERT GANADO")

family of groups for which divisibility by 3 did not occur. In 1972 John Thompson discovered a proof that the only such groups with this property are the ones found by Suzuki.

The second algebraic discovery answered an old question on division algebras, A division algebra has two operations, written as addition and multiplication, which satisfy

the familiar rules of arithmetic except

all

that multiplication (

not assumed to be commutative

is

the product ab need not equal ba). If multiplication

commutative, the system is called a field. Previously, all known examples of division algebras had been of a type called crossed products, the name comis

ing from the fact that they are obtained by "crossing" a group with a field in a certain way. Every division algebra has a certain dimension that is known to be a square number, and up to dimension 16 it had been

M, Wedderburn and Abraham

proved by Joseph H.

A. Albert that division algebras are necessarily crossed

Mathematics

products. But

Noteworthy advances

in analysis, topology, algebra,

and algebraic geometry were achieved in 1972. In analysis, progress was made on the Bieberbach conjecture that deals with certain functions of one plex variable. Let f(z) that

analytic

is

it

com-

be such a function; assume

for

|2|




ignore the realities of both research and governmn, The research, of course, was continuing. Elfor:.

were under way to isolate and identify human cancL-r viruses. Cooperation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the form of exchanges of cancer tissues, suspected viruses, and drugs would also help. But a quick cure seemed unlikely. What was likely was the discovery of drugs that would appear to arrest certain types of cancer, lengthy experimentation and study, and, finally, the realization, perhaps five years after tests had begun, that the patients were still alive. At that point, doctors might be ready to announce a cure of sorts. Until then, cancer would remain a source of mystery, misery, and vexation. Genetics. Heredity has always been a source of pleasure and puzzlement to man. From the earliest times, parents were pleased that their offspring had their eyes, hair, or other features. But their pleasure has always been muted by heredity's balancing feature: offspring inherit bad features as well as good ones. A man's children may inherit his looks; they

may

also inherit diseases that can shorten or blight

their lives.

Ever

since he understood this,

however vaguely,

man has sought for a way to control the inheritance he passes along to his posterity. In recent years, he acquired this power.

The remarkable advances

ular biology after 1950 not only gave Reich treats a cancer patient at the Sloan-Kettering Lilian

Institute City,

in

New

Yorl(

where several

strategies suggested by basic research

were being explored to

utilize

the body's

immunologic defenses in combating cancer.

Many

moval of the cancerous mass believed that the operation, which was usually followed up by radiotherapy to prevent the spread of alone.

should be performed only on early cancers. Figures indicated that for some

stray cancer

or Stage

I

cells,

patients, at least, the operation

more

physicians

traditional

was

as

good

as the

approach. One physician took 81

women who had had

radical

mastectomies between

1955 and 1965, paired them by age and other factors with an equal number of lumpectomy patients, then

compared their survival rates. At the end of five years, 70.4% of the radical mastectomy patients and 71.6% of the lumpectomy patients were still alive. The less radical approach was likely to make women more willing to face a diagnosis of breast cancer. So would another newly developed technique in which the breast was reconstructed following surgery, using a silicone form. Most of the patients who had undergone this treatment had been so pleased by the success of the initial implant, which gives the wearer a nor-

mal appearance

in clothes, that

they had not bothered

knowledge was welcome.

This expanded program was to be adminis-

Institutes of Health. But, although the project

had

been compared with both the Manhattan and .\pollo projects, the analogy was inaccurate. The principles of nuclear fission were understood long before anyone

attempted

to

package a nuclear device; the basic

re-

search for space flight had been done long before the Soviets orbited Sputnik to start the space race. All

both projects did was utilize already acquired knowledge. In the ca.se of cancer, science had no such knowledge upon which to draw. Thus, to expect that creation

is

heir to a host of in-

from diabetes

to de-

cells, and these, along with the genes that determine whether a child will have brown hair or blue eyes, are passed along every time conception takes place. No one really knows how often these genes combine

to produce genetic disease. Nature takes care of the worst mistakes in conception; one out of every 130 conceptions ends before the mother even realizes she is pregnant because the defective egg fails to attach

of the uterus. Fully 25% of all conreach an age at which they can survive Of these, at least a third prove,

itself to the wall

ceptions

fail to

outside the uterus.

on examination, normalities.

to

Still,

have identifiable chromosomal ab-

despite this quality-control system,

one out of every 100 babies born has some genetic defect.

By

1972 scientists had succeeded in identifying defects, and the list was growing.

Some were obvious

tered by the National Cancer Institute of the National

under-

generative nerve disease. Each individual carries between five and ten potentially harmful genes in his

more than 400 such

period.

Man

herited imperfections, ranging

the restoration.

one could even guess where the next discovery would move cancer research. Pres. Richard Nixon had signed legislation authorizing $1.6 billion to be spent on cancer research and detection over a three-year

molec-

standing of the basic processes that shape his life but provided the key to their eventual management. The

with the additional operations necessary to complete

No

in

man an

deformities like mongolism, or

Down's syndrome, which occurs once in every 600 births and is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. Others, which have more subtle symptoms and are less easily spotted, result when defective fail to order the production of essential enzymes necessary to trigger or mediate various biochemical

genes

reactions. Phenylketonuria CPKU") occurs when the body lacks the enzyme necessar>' to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine; as a result, toxins accumulate in the body and eventually cause convulsions and brain damage. Cystic fibrosis, characterized by abnormal secretion of certain glands and respiratory-tract blockage that can lead to death by pneumonia, is the

most

common

inborn error of metabolism;

it

is

be-

lieved to be the product of a single defective gene.

Ever

since 1856, when an Austrian

monk named

Gregor Mendel first began experimenting with pea man has known that the odds of inheriting some genetic characteristics can be figured mathe-

plants,

Now,

matically.

at last,

man was

using this under-

standing in an attempt to avoid genetic disease.

One way he was using In

seling.

was through genetic coun-

it

simplest form, genetic counseling

its

is

lit-

more than the old Mendelian numbers game. A genetic counselor, who need not be an M.D., can merely sit down with a couple for an interview and determine whether they or any members of their families suffer from diseases known to be genetic in origin. Since the method of transmission of many such distle

eases or conditions

is

known

("colour blindness, for ex-

by females and passed on

all

pregnancies.

—

could they consider monitoring Although genetic engineering, the

problems, involved

manufacture of genes to replace those that are defective or missing and their implantation in the developing fetus, might one day be possible, it was still more fiction offer a

than science. The only thing doctors could

woman who

learned through amniocentesis that

she was about to have a baby with

some

serious ge-

defect was the opportunity to terminate

netic

Many

pregnancy.

the

found such an alternative unaccept-

able.

But

did

this

not

mean

that

wide-scale

genetic

screening and counseling were impractical. Quite the

As recent developments showed, doctors

contrary.

to their

could deliver genetic help to large segments of the

male offspring), the counselor can advise the parents on the odds of their children inheriting such a condition. If both parents carry the trait for sickle-cell

community. Physicians at the John F. Kennedy Institute at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine conducted a screening program in the BaltimoreWashington, D.C., area for Tay-Sachs disease, a fatal

ample,

is

carried

anemia, which

is

recessive, the odds are one in four

that each of their children will

have the disease;

only one parent carries the

he can pass the

trait,

if

trait,

but not the disease itself, on to his offspring. If the is dominant, however, the on are greater. Huntington's nerve disease that strikes its victims at around age 40 and is always fatal. If one

gene that carries the disease chances of passing chorea

is

it

a degenerative

parent carries

the

defective gene, there

chance that each of his children will inherit In theory, simple genetic

50%

a

is

formed parents to evaluate the risks of hereditary illness and make informed choices about childbearing. In practice,

it

often

fails.

Many

examine many fetuses before birth and determine, with almost lOC^ accuracy, whether or not they were carrying lethal legacies.

("mem-

Amniocentesis, from the Greek amnion

is performed by through the pregnant mother's abdomen and drawing off a small sample of the amniotic fluid, the liquid in which the developing fetus

brane") and kentesis ("pricking"), inserting a long needle

Fetal skin cells, which slough off into the

niotic fluid

during development, are then placed

nutrient bath,

amining

where they continue

these

cells

to grow.

microscopically

By

amin

a

ex-

and analyzing

them chemically, doctors can detect the presence of

many

genetic diseases.

Performed between the 13th and 18th weeks of pregnancy, amniocentesis was not without certain risks to both mother and baby. But in cases where family history or other factors raised the suspicion of genetic disease, the benefits

more than

justified

any

danger, for the tests were extremely accurate. In one series of tests,

mongolism was diagnosed

in

10 of 155

high-risk pregnancies; subsequent examination of the fetuses

showed that the diagnosis was correct

in all

cases.

Amniocentesis had been performed on more than

American women, and a few futurists enviwhen all individuals applying for marwould undergo screening for genetic diseases and all pregnancies would be screened via amniocentesis as a matter of routine. Such a day, if it came at all, was far distant. Doctors had neither the 10,000

sioned a day riage

skill

licenses

nor, given the state of their art, the justification

for screening all ing the cost

prospective parents.

and the

risks,

program:

it

utero,

Nor

— consider-

not to mention the social

exclusively

European ancestry. The

dis-

the requirements for a genetic screening

occurs

easily identifiable; state;

almost

occurs

that

of Eastern

all

in a it

population that

therefore

is

readily

and

can be detected in a carrier

and, equally important,

enabling

the

it

can be detected in

monitoring of preg-

nancies at risk. rabbis

program going, doctors met with local and members of religious organizations, exits effects, and the

get the

plaining the nature of the disease,

couples desperately

want children and are unwilling to forego parenthood unless they are certain their children will be adversely affected. Such certainties were increasingly obtainable, however. Using a new technique, doctors were able to

floats.

disease

ease meets

To

it.

enables in-

counseling

metabolic

among Jews

Medical Core Price Indexes (1967=100) U.S.

453

Medicine

- the trait,

which

benign but transmittable, or

is

the disease itself (which

could then bearing.

is

make informed

Many

not detectable in utero) choices concerning child-

doctors believed that

women who had

given birth to mongoloid children should also be offered the opportunity to undergo amniocentesis, and

some would

like to see the process

used. Older

women

are far

more

even more widely

likely to bear

mon-

goloid children than younger ones, and doctors believed that the incidence of this condition could be cut

went removal of a large ovarian

cyst.

They saw

an-j

other patient, anesthetized with only a tranquilizingl shot of morphine and a single needle in his fore?'™

endure an operation to remove a lobe of one to the U.S. convinced that Wtmust study and learn more about acupui:' !

They returned scientists

lure themselves.

There was much

to learn, for little was known ah. whys or the wherefores of acupuncture on the subject were more ni physical than medical. The Yellow Emperor's Ci:

ir

either the

cient Chinese texts

of Internal Medicine, a 2,300-year-old treatise on the art, postulates that the body has 12 more or less vertical channels or "meridians": along these meridians :irt365 points Tone for every day in the year) where heinsertion of a needle will have a physiological effi rt The book maintains that the forces of yang (posiii and yin ^negative) flow through the meridian,i

must be precisely balanced tained. If a patient has too

if

health

much

yin

is

needle.

to

be

m

somewhere

acupuncturist jabs a selected point with

a

gold

>

Modern Chinese acupuncturists had aband^

gold needles for stainless steel ones, which were

-t

and sometimes connected to a battery-powr device, which provides stimulation. They had alfi creased the number of points to around 800. But i: had not succeeded in explaining at least in scient, ilized

—

—

terms how a needle inserted in the corner of the eye can prevent a patient from feeling a pain in his chest or how a needle inserted in the neck can relieve the! pain of a migraine headache. j

in half if all pregnant women over 40 were screened and offered the option of therapeutic abortion if the tests showed that a fetus was mongoloid. Some doctors, however, were afraid that the "new

genetics" could be abused.

1984

in their

With

visions of Orwell's

minds, they feared that indiscriminate

or compulsory genetics programs could violate rights to privacy or, worse, establish genetic norms that would result in a society with a dangerous intolerance

for imperfection.

There was some evidence that

their

fears might be justified. New York City adopted a law requiring that applicants for marriage licenses be screened for sickle-cell anemia. Some officials, who

was unconstitutional because it would require them to determine an applicant's race, refused it. The courts, they thought, were unlikely to to obey felt

the law

insist

they do

Acupuncture. Of

all

the clinical developments in

much interest, in the U.S. at acupuncture, the ancient Chinese practice of

inserting needles into various parts of the treat a catalog of

ills

body

to

ranging from arthritis to im-

Long dismissed

West

more than superstitious folklore, acupuncture became the subject of increased scientific interest in Europe after World War II and was currently being studied and potence.

in

the

as little

used regularly, if not widely, in the Soviet Union, France, West Germany, and Britain. In 1972 it was sparking interest

current can be detected coincide with the acupuncture points and that currents appear to follow the ancient meridians. A few scientists found that the skin at the acupuncture points appears to be thinner than elsewhere on the body. But neither of these observations unraveled the mystery of acupuncture. greatest

An

explanation that did seem plausible, at least for

acupuncture's anesthetic properties, was one

proposed versity,

origin.illy

in 1965 by Ronald Melzack of McGill UniMontreal, and Patrick Wall of University

College, London.

Known

as the gate theorj',

it

sug-

what are known as A-delt,T fibres in the sensory nerves (as would logically result from the insertion and rotation of a needle) shuts a "gate" in the spinal cord. This would block pain impulses from moving up the cord and into the brain, gests that stimulation of

so.

1972, few aroused as least, as

Nor had their Western colleagues done any better French Air Force doctors measuring the body's electrical emanations observed that the points at which the

in

the U.S. as well.

The reason for this was as much political as scienThe thaw in the long frozen relationship be-

providing, of course, that the pain originated at a point

below the neck. This theor\' could explain how needles might pre-' vent patients from feeling pain in the extremities; itl does not explain how a needle placed in the toe could prevent a patient from experiencing the pain of .ihdominal surgery. A new theon,' put forward by tin-

Chinese themselves might. Physiologists at Shangh.ii's of Sciences used microelectrodes to measurt-

Academy

As a

tific.

the body's electrical impulses.

tween the U.S. and China enabled U.S. scientists, doctors, and journalists to visit the mainland for the

servations, they hypothesized that pain sensations are

first time in over 20 years. Those who witnessed acupuncture brought back enthusiastic reports not merely of its use to relieve pain and cure illness but its increasing application as an anesthetic as well. Their enthusiasm was understandable for, as they themselves observed, acupuncture works, U.S. doctors watched in am,izement as a woman, her pain apparently prevented by a few well-placed needles, under-

of

result of their ob-

—

channeled and controlled by at least four gates inj the spinal cord, the thalamus, the brain stem, and the: cerebral cortex. Thus, they believed, acupuncture! needles inserted along strategic pathways leading to

by somehow and preventing im-

these gates would suppress pain messages closing one or

more of

the gates

pulses from reaching the brain.

Whatever the explanation, LT.S. doctors were becoming increasingly curious about acupuncture. Doc-

tors at

New York

City's Albert Einstein College of

455

Medicine and the Downstate Medical Center performed operations using acupuncture as an anesthetic with moderate success. In two operations, a skin graft

Medicine

and a tonsilear biopsy, the patients experienced no pain, but in a third, a hernia repair, the patient was so uncomfortable that the doctors switched to a more conventional painkiller

midway through

the proce-

dure.

The National

Institute of General Medical Sciences

was planning to underwrite research to determine the scientific basis of acupuncture. Most U.S. doctors agreed that the needles could eventually prove a valu-

With three needles inserted in his left ear left forearm, a patient, anesthetized by acupuncture at the No. 3 Teaching

and

armamentarium, particularly as an apesthetic. since acupuncture would avoid many of the problems connected with more commonly used anesthetics. Meanwhile, many physiable addition to the physician's

New York

ficials in

acupuncture tioners in

clinic

state closed down a Manhattan and ordered unlicensed practiCity's Chinatown to put down

New York

their needles or face legal action. California also at-

regulate would-be needle-wielders, but experimentation with acupuncture. adopted legislation that specifically allowed unlicensed acupuncturists to practice, under the supervision of a doctor, if the work was being done for the purposes of scientific investigation and not for profit.

tempted without

The

to

stifling

state

PERSISTENT PROBLEMS Despite the progress and innovation that had taken

many health problems persisted. most serious was that of infectious disease. highly contagious disease caused by a

place in medicine,

Among

the

Cholera, a

microorganism that breeds in the human intestinal tract, was still endemic to some parts of Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent. In 1970 a pandemic originating in Indonesia in 1935 reached Egypt and the Soviet Black Sea port of Odessa. In 1971 a major epidemic broke out in India among refugees from the fighting in what was then East Pakistan; of 71,386 cases reported on the subcontinent, 51.000 were among those

who had

which thrives

fled the in areas

war-torn country. The disease, with contaminated water sup-

was not considered a serious public health threat Western Europe or North America. Health officials

plies,

in

however, that a serious outbreak could erupt Africa or South America. Western Europe and the U.S. did experience a brief

feared, in

thrill of fear in 1972 when smallpox, long controlled by vaccination and all but extinct in the world's industrial nations, erupted in Yugoslavia. Believed to have been brought to Serbia by some Muslims who had stopped over in Baghdad, Iraq, on their way back from pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina, the disease

spread rapidly, infecting

some 200 and killing at least program brought it

28 before a massive immunization

under control. The outbreak worried health officials elsewhere in Europe, who were concerned that tourists

Peking Medical able to remain

Hospital,

College,

were concerned about possible abuse of acupuncture. Their concern was more than theoretical. The current wave of interest had brought to the fore many Chinese-trained acupuncturists who had previously confined their practice to the Chinese community and who were not licensed under state laws. It had also attracted some medical entrepreneurs, who sought to capitalize on the American public's peculiar penchant for medical fads by opening acupuncture clinics where unlicensed practitioners worked under the putative supervision of an accredited physician. Reaction against both groups was swift. Health ofcians

fully

is

conscious

and cooperate with the physician, who is removing a tumour from his esophagus. Western doctors were undertaking extensive research to explain the

mechanism

of acupuncture, which

has been practiced in China for at least

returning from Yugoslavia's popular resort areas might

West Germany quarantined more than 600 people known to have come into contact with a Yugoslav worker who contracted the disease. U.S. officials, who no longer required proof of vaccination from Americans returning from most foreign countries, began demanding that travelers coming back from Yugoslavia show an immunization certificate or stay in touch with health agencies for at least two weeks. The world did appear to get a respite from one disease. Influenza, which had claimed more than 30 million lives in the worldwide 1918 epidemic and more than 200 in the U.S. alone in 1968, seemed to subside in 1972. This temporary armistice might enable scientists to be ready for the next outbreak, which, given the tendency of flu to erupt at ten-year intervals, was bring the disease with them. Authorities in

predicted for the latter part of the 1970s. Previous at-

guard against influenza had been largely flu virus has an apparently unlimited ability to undergo antigenic changes or mutations; thus the vaccine developed to fight one strain tempts

to

unsuccessful because the

may be of limited value against its progeny. Researchers at the Allergy and Infectious Diseases branch of the National Institutes of Health might have found a way to overcome this obstacle, however. of virus

By combining Ao Hong Kong flu viruses from the 1968 epidemic with chemically altered samples of a 1965 strain, they produced a virus strong enough to induce immunity to the disease but too weak to cause the disease itself. The virus can be grown quickly in culture and, the researchers believed, could be tailored to fight different varieties of the disease. Most important, they thought that, using live but attenuated viruses, they could have the new vaccine perfected in time for the next expected outbreak. Venereal Diseases. Unfortunately, no such pro-

was made in the fight against veneral disease, which had reached pandemic proportions and become the major public health problem in the U.S. The incidence of both syphilis and gonorrhea had dropped

gress

2,300 years.

456

Medicine

dramatically in the years following World War II and reached an all-time low during the mid-I9SOs, but in and with the 1970s the two diseases were returning

—

According to the U.S. Public Health Service's Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, Ga., 95.997 cases of syphilis and 670,268 cases of gonorrhea were reported during 1971. The figures for 1972 were

a vengeance.

expected to be even higher. Venereal disease is undiscriminating;

it

strikes all

segments of society. Bankers and businessmen have it, and the as do policemen, teachers, and even doctors

—

next door. For most of those afflicted are young. At least one out of every five persons with gonorrhea in 1972 was under 20; cases as young as 9

boy or

girl

had been reported, and some doctors believed that half the present youth population would contract VD before they turned 25. The reason was obvious: relaxed sexual mores, in large part evolving from widespread use of birth-control pills and other devices, made opportunities for infection inevitable. Spread only by sexual contact, VD passes quickly from one partner to another, and each one can infect every other person with

The its

irony

is

whom

that

VD

he or she has relations. is

easily curable, at least in

early stages. Penicillin and other antibiotics can

up primary gonorrhea or syphilis in a matter of few weeks. Unfortunately, many VD victims fail to seek treatment. The delay is dangerous. Untreated syphilis, which makes its early presence known by a chancre, or open sore, on the genitals or other mucous tissues, eventually goes underground, often leading the uneducated to believe the disease has disappeared. It has not. It has merely passed into a more deadly stage in which the spiral-shaped Treponema pallidum that causes the disease goes to work on the brain and spinal cord, where its action can result in blindness, paralysis, insanity, and death. Gonorrhea, though less clear

a

through the reproductive system and produce sterility. It is also harder to

lethal than syphilis, can spread

detect, particularly in

may

women,

in

whom

the

symptoms

pass unnoticed.

Medical researchers had been trying for years to develop vaccines against both syphilis and gonorrhea. So far,

success had eluded them. Until they found such a

was the answer, and public health across the U.S. were working on programs to

vaccine, treatment ofiScials

To combat

venereal

disease, which has reached epidemic proportions

the U.S.. health and social organizations in

launched multimedia educational campaigns, Including advertisements popular magazines, in aimed primarily at youth,

who

suffer the

drol -thinks long hair is groovy, digs now sounds, vweors t>ell t>ottoms.

educate people as to VD's dangers and cures. Their job was not easy. Many state laws prohibited doctors

from treating minors without parental permission; bemany young people were reluctant to let their know they had VD, they often put off treatment until it was too late. Social attitudes also incause

parents

hibited people in search of treatment for venereal disease. To overcome these obstacles, several states set up free clinics where people could be tested for VD and receive treatment without the embarrassment of

going to their

own family

physicians. California en-

acted legislation allowing doctors to treat minors for

VD

without parental permission.

—

Many felt this two-pronged approach education and treatment would eventually bring the venereal disease problem under control.

—

THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME There was no question that clinical and scientific developments would change the way physicians approach and treat disease. But the breakthroughs that would really revolutionize medicine, particularly in the U.S.,

were not

scientific

but

organizational.

Before

the

1970s ended, U.S. medicine was likely to undergo a dramatic mutation. The medicine of the future, it was predicted, would resemble that of today in only one important respect: the emphasis on maintaining health

would remain unchanged. The ways in which this goal was sought would be, in Yeats's words, "changed utterly."

The New Doctor. One

of these changes was already

being reflected in the attitudes of U.S. doctors. icine

is

Med-

traditionally a conservative profession

and

its members are slow to adopt and adapt to the new. But new was the only way to describe the way many doctors were thinking. Interns and residents, who were

what initiates were to old-time men, were now talking back and dreaming, not always in vain, of new, more egalitarian forms of practice. An increasing number of younger doctors no once

to senior staff

fraternity

longer aspired to careers in the research laboratory

or the plusher specialties; instead, they were looking

backward toward the old model of the general practitioner. Few of them wanted to return to the horseand-buggy medicine of an earlier generation, but a new specialty, known variously as community medicine or family practice and stressing a general and person-oriented approach to medicine, was gaining in popularity.

Such attitudes are interesting. American medicine had already undergone several mutations since Abraham Flexner published his comprehensive and highly critical

ner's

—

— report

report,

on medical education in 1910. Flexwhich revolutionized medical training

(prior to its publication, some medical schools did not even require their students to hold high school de-

highest

incidence of VD.

grees), ushered in the era of the general practitioner

with his broad, though not always deep, training in the scientific and clinical techniques of his day. For nearly a quarter of a century, this figure dominated

American medicine. But in the 1940s, as doctors realno physician could possibly be competent

ized that

in all areas of

—

medicine, a

new breed

of doctor began

emerge the specialist, who devoted his practice exclusively to one area of medicine, such as pediatrics, to

and often subspecialized in an even narrower field. In the late 1950s, the specialist's preeminence was challenged by yet another type of physician the researcher who eschewed the obstetrics, or cardiology,

and has syphilis.

—

consulting

room

for the laboratory, dealing with pa-

tients,

if

at

all,

only as a method of studying and

more about

learning

their diseases.

away with

either the specialist or the research physi-

both are essential, possibly indispensable, to the proper functioning of a sound health-care system. cian;

But many believed that the day of the old solo practitioner was drawing to an end. Some were forming group practices, joining together with others to establish what amounted to mini-medical centres where various specialists provided a complete range of medical care. A number of doctors were seeking salaried jobs

clinics

in

and

hospitals.

Others were looking

toward the large, prepaid operations like California's Kaiser Plan, which operated its own hospitals and provided complete medical service to its subscribers for a fixed annual fee. Obviously, some young doctors interested in such alternate forms of practice might

work

differently

from

their older colleagues, but the degree of difference is

not as great as

cians

is

popularly believed. Younger physi-

seemed more willing to work in shared relawere demanding and getting salaries

tionships. Interns in

excess of $10,000 a year and residents as

much

$20,000 from administrators more and more willing pay these amounts. Many younger doctors do not government involvement in medicine as much as older physicians might; most see some form of governas to

fear

ment financing

—and. hence,

influence

guaranteeing good health care for tors are indifferent and, in

some

cut

back on free subscriptions to its journals as a membership, and scrapped a large adver-

benefit of

In the 1970s medicine appeared to be entering a new phase as doctors, realizing the need for providing better clinical care to more people, sought new forms of practice. None of the new doctors proposed doing

—

all.

as essential to

Younger doc-

cases, actually hostile

medical establishment. Although the total membership of the American Medical Association had to the U.S.

increased, the proportion of eligible physicians joining the organization had, in fact, fallen in recent years.

Some younger physicians genuinely did not feel the AMA spoke for them and therefore they chose not to become members. But the AMA's problem of declining membership was more complex. Conservative

AMA

campaign. Further cutbacks, including

tising

staff re-

number of

ductions and further reductions in the

and committees, were anticipated as the organization moved to trim its budget by $1 million. Medical schools were already responding to new attitudes by changing their curricula to meet the needs of modern medicine. In some, class hours once devoted

councils

pure sciences were reduced to permit earlier and more intense exposure to clinical work. Students at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine followed pregnant women through delivery, providing pre- and postnatal care for them and their babies. M.D. candito the

new medical making hospital rounds

dates at the University of Missouri's

school at Kansas City began

on their first day of classes, an experience that shocked many into an awareness of the problems and pressures confronting anyone who wishes to practice medicine.

At

new

least 25 schools

doctor's debut

had taken steps

by lopping up

traditional four-year program.

schools to turn out

to speed

to a

year

up the off

the

The move should allow

more doctors

at less expense

and

might help combat the doctor shortage facing many areas of the country (though it was not, many believed, a per capita shortage). Postgraduate programs were also changing. Montefiore Hospital in New York City initiated a four-year residency in social medicine; participants involved themselves in such community projects as neighbourhood health clinics, maternal and child health programs, and housing and sanitation plans. Medical schools began instituting courses in sex education after it was realized that physicians in the field were not necessarily knowledgeable enough to deal with the many sexual problems of patients who required attention below the level of psychoanalysis. Programs were also under way to increase doctors' efficiency and productivity. Recognizing that much of the work that occupies a doctor's time can be handled just as easily by nonprofessionals, several medical schools were developing programs for the training and

and radical right-wing physicians attacked the for being "progressive," for sponsoring even such moderate legislation as its "Medicredit" plan for fi-

use of paramedics, highly trained semiprofessionals who can function as physicians' assistants, emergency

nancing national health care. In 1972, particularly, a members put tremendous large contingent of

Duke

AMA

pressure

on the organization over President Nixon's

wage-price freeze insofar as

it

affected health services.

The angry physicians wanted the AM.\ to do more to get government approval for higher physicians' fees. Some of these disappointed physicians were muttering about forming a doctors' union, one that would be responsive to their demands for higher fees for service. Others even banded together to form their own societies or quasi-unions. One such group even became affiliated

with a local of the

Another

AFL-CIO.

AMA problem arose

of specialty societies in

from the proliferation medicine and their growing

preeminence as the sources for continuing medical education. Besides being concerned over its membership problems, the was carefully watching de-

AMA

two traditional annual conventions, which were once not only events of national clining

attendance at

its

importance in medical education, but profitable as might be an entirely well. By the late 1970s, the

AMA

different organization in structure

pose. The first sign of November 1972, when cils

and primary pur-

significant change occurred in

the

and committees from

AMA

its

dropped nine coun-

organizational structure,

medical specialists, and the

like.

Started in 1965 at

Durham, N.C., paramedic training programs were being offered at some 40 schools around for graduates, who undergo the demand the U.S., and University,

an average of two years' training, was increasing.

One of the most successful of these programs was called Medex. Launched in 1969 at the University of Washington, the program took former armed forces medical corpsmen, already well trained, as well as a number of people from nonmilitary backgrounds, put them through intensive schooling, then paired them with doctors in the Seattle, Wash., area. The Medex took patient histories, helped give physical examinations, sutured minor wounds, applied and removed and, according to the doctors with whom they casts worked, freed physicians to concentrate on more serious problems. A Colorado program, in which pediatric

—

carried medical care to rural families who might otherwise never see a doctor, screened for disease and passed those needing a physician's attention

nurses

on

to hospitals

A

and

clinics,

was similarly

successful.

growing number of doctors saw paraprofessionals as key elements in the delivery of medical care. The was on record as favouring the expansion of training programs and the development of licensing programs to assure not only that more paramedics

AMA

457

Medicine

458

Medicine

were trained but that those who were trained were properly qualified and regulated. Most U.S. authorities envisioned such paraprofessionals as working only under the direct supervision of a physician. The World Health Organization urged even broader use. Citing the Soviet Union's use of feldsliers, nondoctors who

WHO

sugprovide basic medical care in rural areas, gested that less developed countries might turn to similar expedients to get immediate medical care out to their people.

also increasingly making its way The robot doctor described in Michael Crichton's novel The Andromeda Strain was now a

Automation was

into medicine.

Computerized multiphasic screening centres, in which patients pass from station to station while sophisticated machinery analyzes blood and urine samples, performing in minutes tests that would otherwise take hours, were operating in major cities across the country. The centres, which relied on doctors to perform many phases of the examination and to interpret test results, could perform complete annual reality.

schools and more hospital beds, although the bedil were not well or equitably distributed. It also spent

more on health than any other nation. In sheer dollar terms, health had become the second largest industry over an estimated $75

in the country, turning

—

$324 per person per year in their attempts not always successful to avoid illness. These investments did not always ensure a high level of health, however. Despite the medical profession's high standards of skill, statistics showed that people in other, less wealthy countries might be

—

healthier.

Women

than U.S.

women; men

in

10 other countries lived longer in 17 other nations outlasted

U.S. men. Eleven other nations had lower infant mortality rates

than the U.S.

The reasons

for this

gap were obvious. Most of the hospitals, schools, and

country's medical resources

—

doctors

in

— were concentrated a few large Medurban ghettOB resources rural areas — and between. There were mote as well — were few and cities.

in

ical

in

far

U.S. that had no medi-

Many believed that, by enabling more people to undergo regular checkups, they would find many more cases of disease that were still easily

in the event of serious illness or injury.

curable.

50.

physicals in an hour.

The National Health Debate. In terms

of gross

billion

a year. In terms of individual outlay, Americans spent

than 100 rural counties cal facilities at all.

some 40

in the

Many Americans saw

million people, never

saw

doctors only

One out

of

a doctor during

their lifetimes.

Nor

could those with access to doctors always af-

medical resources, no nation on earth could compare with the U.S. The country had more than 300.000 practicing physicians and more doctors per patient

ford to take advantage of their skills and services.

than most industrial nations. It had more medical

more than 50%, outstripping even

From

I960, the costs of health care had climbed by the

31%

rise in the

lonsumer price index. Physicians' fees alone had risen

day in

I

50%; hospitalization, which averaged $35 1962, now costs more than $80.

nearly

)y

effect of these increases had been enormous. A surgical procedure like hernia repair could up costing $1,000 in doctor and hospital bills;

The

j

joutine ;nd

:harges totaling $1,200 for a routine delivery followed

four-day stay in a maternity ward were not un:ommon. The costs of major, catastrophic illnesses :ould be astronomical. Hemodialysis, essential to keep victim of kidney chsease alive, could cost $25,000 a )y a

1

The expenses

.•ear.

of caring for a cancer or cardiac

were often equally high.

jatient

Insurance did not always cover these

i5% )f

of the U.S. population under 65 carried

coverage,

health

At

flawed.

least

;ion,

32%

jills,

half got

20%

Though some sort

bills.

the protection was frequently had no coverage for hospitaliza-

had no coverage for in-hospital doctor's no benefits for X rays, and 97% had Even the most generous plans their benefits, which usually ran out in vere limited ong before catastrophic illnesses were cured. As one nsurance man learned to his chagrin, not even a pohcy 10 dental

insurance.

hat provided $40,000 in benefits could cover his exjenses

when

his son's injury resulted in bills of

$6,000

Concerned about the costs of illness, Americans ried numerous ways to avoid or evade them. Elective surgery was often delayed or postponed until the con(iition could be covered under emergency plans, 111hesses were tolerated until the victim was eligible for ;overage, A few people even moved to nations like Canada, Sweden, and West Germany where medical :are was provided under national government plans. Their exodus was understandable. Ever since Bisnarck first initiated a health plan for German workers n 1883, medical care had been an important aspect Df the welfare state. Britain adopted a comprehensive lational health system in 1948; Sweden had had one iince 1955, Norway since 1956. Now, the American and, naturally, American politicians were jublic coming around to the belief that the U.S. must take he first step toward establishing a similar system, several major pieces of legislation were before Con;ress, and while action on health was in abeyance durng the 1972 election campaign, most government jfficials expected some movement toward expanded

—

—

medical care during 1973,

The

bills

before Congress covered a broad spectrum

and benefits. The AMA, which long lopposed any government involvement in medicine, bf approaches

inally

recognized the inevitable. Its Medicredit plan

expand health insurance protection by llowing tax benefits for premium payments. A prolosal offered by Sen. Jacob Javits (Rep., N.Y.) would ;radually expand Medicare to cover the entire population. The American Hospital Association's Ameri)lan would create, with federal assistance, some 400 'ould seek to

lealth-care

'ould

coverage through the existing insurance industry. Under it, employers would be required to provide their employees with a tax-deductible insurance plan that would include hospitalization and major medical and

maximum

catastrophic illness coverage with a

A

of $50,000.

benefit

separate program would be established

government would

for the self-employed, while the

finance the entire cost of coverage for famihes of four

with incomes below $3,000 a year and pay partial premiums for those with incomes of up to $5,000.

While the poor would receive less coverage than others. Medicare recipients would get a break. The government would pick up the entire $1.4 billion bill for the Plan B supplement, which covers doctors' bills.

This plan would also seek to encourage greater efficiency in medicine by setting aside $23 million for grants to groups of doctors willing to establish pre-

paid practices or health maintenance organizations

(HMOs), and would attempt

to help medical schools

more doctors by appropriating another $100

train

mil-

medical education. The total cost of the ad$3 billion a year in new federal funds, another $2 billion a year in lost tax revenues, and about $6 billion a year from business and inlion for

month.

I

(Dem., Mich.), and a coalition of liberal Democrats and labour leaders. The two bills differed considerably in both benefits and approaches. The administration plan was based on mandated

corporations

across

the

country.

Each

be responsible for assembling the personnel and meet health needs in its area, providing

'acilities to

ministration plan

:

dustry.

The Kennedy-Griffiths plan was

far

more compreby the

hensive. Based on a plan originally drafted

United Automobile Workers president Walter Reuther, the bill would have the government pay at late

50%

least

nearly

all

and, in some cases,

70%

of the cost of

health services, including dental care for

children under IS, prescription drugs, and psychiatric treatment. Basically a broadening of the Social Security system, the

would be financed by

bill

tax on employers, a smaller tax on employees, eral federal revenues. It, too,

would seek

to

a payroll

and gen-

encourage

the establishment of group practices, allocating

$600 form HMOs. It would by requiring healthcare institutions to negotiate and provide health care within annual budgets and by putting doctors on salary or paying them set fees per patient. What the bill would not do, however, was reduce million for physicians willing to

also seek to

promote

cost control

the country's total annual outlay for health. The bill's backers put the cost of their plan at around $68 billion,

much

of

it

funds already being spent on health.

in

Administration billion.

Even

critics

its

said the bill

would cost $77

supporters admitted that

its

long-

term costs would be hard to figure. Both Medicare and Medicaid were costing the government and the taxpayers far more than had been expected. The Kennedy-Griffiths bill, which would necessitate the creation of a federal bureaucracy to administer it, seemed

—

—

equally subject to cost overruns.

The U.S. medical establishment viewed both with mixed feelings.

A

bills

majority of doctors favoured

on a prepayment basis to those who could ifford them and making them available free to those Iwho could not. Other plans provided for government-

some

ifinanced coverage of catastrophic illness.

cine

But the major contest was not between these bills. was between the National Health Insurance Part;nership Act, put forward by the administration, and Ithe Health Security Act sponsored by Sen. Edward Kennedy (Dem., Mass.), Rep. Martha Griflfiths

students, interns, and younger physicians claimed that

lervices

!

,[t

federal involvement in the financing of health

but many were suspicious of any system that would give the government control over the way medi-

care,

is

practiced.

A

significant

number

of medical

they were willing to work for a salary and to involve the medical

consumer

in decisions

concerning the or-

ganization and delivery of health care. But sicians

found anything resembling

many phy-

federal

control

459

Medicine

i

,

460

Medicine

anathema. "I went into medicine so that I could be my own boss, not to work for the government," said one middle-aged orthopedic surgeon. He spoke for a large number of his colleagues, who feared that any system that made doctors employees of the government would destroy initiative and further erode the already rapidly disappearing doctor-patient relation-

taking the pill. No explanation was offered, but it was pointed out that "breast milk jaundice" was first recorded in 1963, shortly after the widespread introduction of the

pill.

• Five patients with gallstones at the

Mayo

Clinic

Rochester, Minn., were treated for up to two ye.irs with a naturally occurring bile detergent, chenodcu.xy. cholic acid; the stones diminished in size and, in

ship.

unc-

were unhappy about their country's health-care setup, which was characterized by long waits for all but emergency care, a lack of personalized treatment, and a complete absence of choice when it came to physicians. Others noted that Swedes paid more taxes than almost any other people to help support their health-

completely. This raised cautinumight be possible to avoid surgcr; the future, but the drug was costly to prepare might prove toxic. • The problem of bacterial resistance to antihi" was highlighted by reports from Mexico of an demic of typhoid fever that did not always re.-[ to chloramphenicol, hitherto the mainstay of ii

care system.

ment.

But few believed the U.S. system could long withmany doctors were moving quickly to assure their influence over any system that might adopted. Steps had been taken in some eventually be areas to include patients on hospital and physician review boards. A couple of states tried to force phy-

trimoxazole, was found to be effective in sporadic

Those familiar with European health-care systems found that these fears were realistic. Many Swedes

stand change, and

dissolved

patient,

hopes that

it

However,

a

new

combined

antibiotic,

cases in Britain.

was voiced in Brit in cases where certain areas of the were deliberately destroyed to produce more amen individuals. The treatment was being increasii • Criticism of psychosurgery

and the U.S.

sicians to keep current with modern medical developments by establishing continuing education requirements for licensure. Doctors and hospital officials in

used with violent criminals, addicts, homosexuals even overactive children. It had been outlawt-i 1950 in the Soviet Union, although the practic.

the Phoenix, Ariz., area sought to reduce inefficiency

confining political dissenters in psychiatric instituti

and duplication by combining the management and facilities of six hospitals into a regional medical com-

there

plex.

A

few doctors seemed determined to maintain the quo and some even spoke darkly of a doctors' if the government attempted to regulate the

iin

t

was growing. • .Among 600 U.S. students, habitual users of ni;ir: juana scored lower grades than abstainers, while casual users had higher grades.

The

toward "socialized medicine," had become an accepted

methadone as a substitute was criticized on the ground th.it form of dependence with another. it From Iran came news of intensive cultivation of a miniature black poppy, the seeds of which contained

part of health care in the U.S. It seemed unlikely that

thebaine, said to be a useful heroin antagonist.

status revolt

practice or shape the organization of medicine.

did not. Medicaid and Medicare, once

a European-style health-care system

damned

Most

as steps

would be adopted

U.S. for many years, if at all, but the first move toward removing the economic barriers to health care was generally recognized as a necessity. No one was sure just what form this move would take. Most, howin the

ever, did expect

it

to

be

made

in

1973.

(peter stoler)

•

increasing use of

for heroin in addicts

replaced one

•

The

British National Child

Development Study,

involving nearly 17,000 children born in

March

1958,

reported a 281^ increase in late fetal and neonatal mortality

among

babies of

women who

continued

smoking after the fourth month of pregnancy. Birth weights were lower on average and differences perage seven the children tended to be and less intelligent. Possible hope smokers came from the demonstration! that phenylmethyloxadiazole, used as a cough mixture, prevented thickening and overgrowth of mucous glands in the bronchi when added to cigarettes to which rats were exposed. Another finding from the Child Development Study was that more than half the mothers of children who died of leukemia or Hodgkin's disease had had influenza during pregnancy. • An environmental hazard that caused increasing concern was lead. High levels found in the blood of workers and people living nearby caused the closure of a large smelting works in Britain; and taxi drivers and individuals residing near new expressways were being carefully monitored. Four workers were poisoned by tetraethyl lead while sealing a tank, and the British government announced that the lead content of gasoline was to be reduced to half its current level over the next three years. The lead content of moss and .shellfish was found to be a useful indication of the degree of atmospheric pollution. Mercury in the Greenland ice sheet had doubled in 20 years; this was thought due to man's action in disturbing the earth's crust rather than to industrial processes, a view supported by the fact that there had been no general increase in the amount of mercury in tuna and swordfish sisted, so that at

j

shorter, smaller,

OTHER DEVELOPMENTS • Progress was

made

in the

|

for cigarette

management

of asthma.

A

steroid compound, beclomethasone dipropionate, administered as an aerosol, was said to have exceeded all expectations in early tests and did not cause the side effects associated with conventional steroid drugs.

The death

rate

from asthma had

fallen since

warnings

about overuse of self-administered inhalers, but attempts to desensitize asthmatic sufferers to housemite dust, thought to be one of the commonest allergens, were unsuccessful. •

A

Harvard study of nearly 4,000 women showed was related

that the risk of developing breast cancer

age at which menopau.se occurred; the earlier the onset, the lower the incidence. Production of arti-

to the

ficial

menopause

in

younger

women seemed

to delay

the onset of breast cancer indefinitely.

• Studies in Australia and the U.S. showed that women taking oral contraceptives had fewer pre-

menstrual and menstrual complaints than those not taking the pill and performed better in examinations and at work. A curious finding was reported from

Birmingham, Eng.; a form of jaundice occurring in newborn babies who were breast fed was commoner whose mothers had previously been

in those babies

I

j

i

A

working party in Britain found be below the strict safety limit by the U.S. • DDT and organochloride insecticides were reported responsible for impotence in farmers, fortunately recoverable after about a year. These compounds were deposited in the testes and prostate, but it was also possible that they stimulated production of liver enzymes that destroyed testosterone, the male the last century.

in

461

levels in foodstuffs to

Medicine

of one-half part per million set

hormone.

sex

Homosexuals were found to have about one-third normal level of blood testosterone, but it was not clear whether this was a cause or effect of homosexat least it argued that there was more than a uality •

the

—

purely psychological explanation,

and other studies

suggested that the determination of sex drive might be due to the level of testosterone in the blood at

were transplanted into a 28-yearold man in Beirut, Lebanon, who had had to give up hormone treatment because of side effects. Six weeks later he was said to be sexually active for the first

A group

time.

area face a jumbted array of medical supplies,

birth. Fetal testes

•

in

Warnings were issued about the possible dangers

demonstrated consumer

demand for better access to medical care and the desire of many

an antibacterial agent for over 20 years. For example,

young doctors to return to a more person-oriented

I

was customarily applied

to

newborn

the skin of

it

I

babies in liberal quantities; blood concentrations after

!

'

practice

repeated washing were found to reach two-thirds of

minimum

the

That it shown by the

levels in the rat experiments.

could prove dangerous was tragically

deaths of at least 28 babies in France treated with a

talcum powder containing

6%

hexachlorophene (considerably higher than the recommended upper limit of 1%); many more were believed to have suffered brain damage. •

An unexpected

health hazard was found in

some

brands of carbonless copying paper used in Japan.

These were impregnated with polychlorinated phenyls, which in 1968 caused food poisoning among more than 1,000 Japanese who had eaten contaminated rice. The hands of volunteers using the paper were appreciably tainted,

and there was fear that reprocessing of waste

paper might lead to its use for wrapping food. • Also in Japan, a drug widely used for minor gastrointestinal disorders was linked with subacute myeloptic neuropathy cases of the disease

duction of

Symptoms

(SMON).

began

clioquinol,

a

to

It

was noticed

that

appear after the intro-

artery disease. Sharp increases in heart rate, together

with "ischemic" looking tracings, were reminiscent

some years earlier same technique of telemetry. Tests were also young professional brass players with similar results; trumpeters produced more marked EKG changes while playing than horn players, while trombonists showed the fewest signs of rhythm disturbances and heart strain. • A major reorganization of the British National Health Service was heralded by the publication of no less than four government documents containing plans to integrate the health and welfare services. A tripartite structure of local authority, hospital, and general practitioner services was to be closely integrated by means of some 200 area health boards, which would coincide with the new local government areas to come into existence in 1974. The government put its faith in improved management, with members of

of those found in racing drivers

using the

carried out on 45

halogenated oxyquinolone.

local

and

fairs.

of unsteady gait, visual disturbance,

communities playing a greater part in health afAt the same time, the medical profession saw

the need for a

new

role for doctors in administration

sometimes a green discoloration of the tongue tended though to disappear when the drug was stopped sometimes there was severe disability and even death and the incidence of the disease fell after the drug was withdrawn. SMON was rare in other countries where clioquinol was available, but it had been re-

—

and public health as "community physicians." Calls for a better method of dealing with complaints within the health service were recognized by the government's intention to appoint a health service commissioner or ombudsman. A storm of protest led by medical scien-

ported from Scandinavia, Australia, and the U.K. • A London researcher believed that osteoarthritis

on the financing of research, which proposed

—

of the hip in

was caused by slipping of the femoral head

adolescence as a result of overindulgence

He questioned 250 young people about

in sport.

the attitude of

tists

followed the publication of the Rothschild report to trans-

fer part of the funds currently allocated to the various

research councils to government departments. report expressed the view that

The

more research should

toward sport and found a 24% incidence deformity of the hip in those who had been

be undertaken on a customer-contractor basis, but critics argued that it was difficult to draw a line be-

educated at schools with an emphasis on games, as opposed to 9% where games were voluntary. • Indulgence in sauna baths by middle-aged men

the customer, i.e., government departments, was a threat to the independence of research councils and

their schools

of

tilt

was found to be accompanied by electrocardiographic (EKG) changes similar to those occurring in coronary

and community

problems. The growing of such clinics

phene, a chlorinated phenol, had been widely used as

I

work

Chicago's Uptown

number

caused brain damage reminiscent of a rare disease of infants known as spongy degeneration. Hexachloro-

'

of doctors at

free neighbourhood

records,

of hexachlorophene after feeding experiments in rats

'

a

clinic in

tween basic and applied research and that dictation by

to university-based research,

nanced by the councils.

of which was fi(Alexander paton)

much

of

medicine.

— DENTISTRY Merchandising

Dental researchers during 1972 reinforced emphasis on the importance of plaque control in the prevention of tooth decay and periodontal disease. Although much

remained to be learned about these disorders, scientists had discovered that certain forms of tooth decay and periodontal disease were related to certain types of bacteria found in most mouths. These bacteria attach themselves to the teeth and multiply into increasingly

larger

bacterial

colonies

called

dental

Research findings established that once plaque is formed on the teeth, more bacteria lodge in the sticky mass and reproduce. Many of these bacteria also act on sugars to produce acids which then attack the tooth enamel. plaque, a colourless, transparent film.

Researchers were trying to identify the specific types of bacteria that cause this condition;

some

of those

were identified as threadlike, filamentshaped organisms. To step up the battle against plaque and its fellowtravelers, tooth decay and periodontal disease, the .\merican Dental Association (ADA), in consultation with top experts in the preventive field, began to map a new strategy that leaned heavily on massive health education programs. Although continuing to maintain that brushing after every meal served its purpose of cleansing the teeth, the ADA recommended as another effective means a once-a-day thorough oral cleaning implicated

light. The sealants did not have restorative value other tooth areas particularly susceptible to di for instance, the surfaces between the teeth am:

the

gum

line.

tested for

its

One adhesive

necessity to replace old

Two

sealant, however,

had been

ability to stop marginal leakage of dental

a major cause of recurrent decay

fillings,

:

and

the

fillings.

researchers from the University of Californi.T

School of Dentistry in San Francisco found that women were smoking more and developing a higher

They reported

rate of oral cancer.

that smokers had

a six times greater risk of developing oral cancer than

nonsmokers, and that the risk for times as great.

Women,

women was

nine

they noted, also had recur-

mouth more frequently

rence of cancer of the

th

men, probably because of "the greater reluctance the part of women to reduce or stop smoking." A cement with which a tiny marine animal fastens its colony permanently to shells, rocks, and the hulls of ships might help dentists set crowns, bridges, and inlays in place quickly and firmly. If the cement can be identified and reproduced chemically it undoubtedly would make a quick-setting material that would work as well in the human mouth as it does in the sea. Currently, a number of metal-based dental adhesives required dry surfaces. Freeze-dried skin grafts taken from a skin bank might one day accelerate wound healing followinc

Navy

including tooth brushing, the use of dental floss to

periodontal surgery, a

remove plaque from surface between

general session of the International .\ssociation for

teeth, the use

of a fluoride-containing dentifrice, water spray devices,

and the self-application of solutions

to search

harbour plaque. In addition, the drinking of fluoridated water and the limitation of consumption of sweets, two suggestions long advocated by the dental profession, should also be included in any realistic preventive program. It was stressed that prevention of dental disease required both the supervision of a dentist and the full and informed par-

out any areas that

still

Dental Research

showed

that healing

cal sites in

dental scientist told the

March 1972. was much more

in

Clinical

findings

rapid in the surgi-

where the freeze-dried skin was applied than

the control sites without freeze-dried skin. Freeze-

dried skin was being used frequently in the treatment of extensive burns.

Researchers at the University of California at Los .Angeles discovered that high-pressure to

treat the

"bends"

in

chambers used

deep-sea divers

may

be of

The AD.\ anticipated that numbers of U.S. dentists would incorporate "plaque control" education into their everyday prac-

osteomyelitis. In a test, the patients placed in hyper-

tice.

baric

ticipation of the patient.

value in treating patients with a severe, inflammatory,

increasing

destructive disease of the jawbone called mandibular

Fluoridation of water supplies remained the key

weapon against tooth decay. Connecticut, the

first

A

study conducted

in

state to pass a statewide fluori-

dation law, disclosed that an estimated $100 million

expenses were saved because the water supply had been fluoridated for 22 years. But, a disquieting note was injected during 1972 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which revealed that a survey of water systems in eight states showed that in dental care

only half of them were fluoridated at the recommended level. Laxity in surveillance and inadequate training of water system operators were blamed.

in

A number

was aimed

to prevention

the introduction of so-called adhesive sealants at eliminating

decay of the pits and fissures of teeth.

of sealant materials had become

cially available to dentists and, in

May

commer1972, the AD.\

announced provisional acceptance of one sealant an agent capable of "restoring or sealing cally deficient regions of the tooth."

ENcycLOP-iiDiA Bhitannica Film.s. Chromosomes of Maa (1967): TIte Eves and Seeing (1968); The Work of Ike Heart (196,1); Ears and Hearing (1969): Muscle: Chemistry of Contraction (1969); Muscle: Dynamics of Contraction (1969); Radioisotopes: Tools of Discoverv (1969): Respiration in Man (1969); The Nerve Impulse (1971): Health (Eye Care Fantasy) (1972); Venereal Disease (1972); Regulating Body Temperature (1972); Health: Toothache of the Chun (1972).

were

some water systems.

Another milestone on the road

i

See also Drugs and Narcotics; Life Sciences; Psychol ogy; Social Services; Vital Statistics.

The agency

also found procedures for bacteriological control

inadequate

chambers responded with regeneration of bone and healing of pathologic fractures in the areas of the wasting bone infection. (lou Joseph

off

The

tioned, however, that this acceptance in no

as

anatomi-

ADA

cau-

way

indi-

cated therapeutic or decay-preventing qualities of the sealant. This liquid sealant is brushed or painted on

and the material then a transparent coating under ultraviolet

Merchandising was a common problem throughout Europe and North .America in 1972. In the United States the pace of inflation slowed somewhat under the influence of Pres. Richard Nixon's wage and price control pro-, gram, but the man in the street was hard pressed tO: understand how it really worked and what effect itj was having on him. Economists in many quarters warned that a severe price spiral might resume, possibly in 1973. The prices of food especially meat Inflation

—

continued to

rise

steeply during

much

of the year.

the occlusal surfaces of teeth

Consumer anger over

hardens to

declining profit margins for retail food marketers, was)

this situation,

combined with

463

behind what some observers called the great supermarket war. One major chain, the Great Atlantic &

Merchandising

Tea Co. (A & P), which had suffered declining embarked on a nationwide operation, accompanied by heavy television and newspaper advertisements. Since food-

Pacific

profits for several years,

food-discounting

store chains traditionally operate gins

—usually

1%

of gross sales

A

— the A &

P's action

n

In addition to price-cutting and converting to discount operations, marketers were treating consumers in some cases 24to "fringes": longer store hours

—

Now this card is welcome at 27department stores on the East and

hour operation; the dropping of trading stamps in favour of apparent lower prices; and better labeling of packaged foods so that the consumer could more

Vlfest

coasts-and they're

all

Macys.

could be linked by computer to the customer's bank, and purchases could be debited from his account in

had hired Esther Peterson, the former presidential

one automatic operation.

visories, culminating in a highly controversial advertisement in the spring in which the public was advised

boycott meat products. the end of the year the supermarket battle had become so serious that major U.S. banks were being to

By

asked to reconsider their lending policies toward supermarket chains, many of which might need substantial

loans to

meet the A & P threat. Some estimates A & P was prepared to wage full-scale

indicated that

war for as long as 18 months, and many major chains would have serious difficulty surviving over that long a period. The banking community was apparently trying to decide at year's end whether to remain aloof. In the United Kingdom "hypermarkets" (retail with at least 25,000 sq.ft. of selling area) were in the news. Carrefour opened Britain's first hypermarket in September at Caerphilly in South Wales. Its 55,000 sq.ft. of space, although small by stores

comparison with some continental markets, still attracted enough customers to jam the roads leading to

and the managing director offered the local council financial help to improve the public road system around the complex. The store had 26 checkout points and parking for 960 cars. A few miles away, in Cardiff, Tesco made planning application for a 130,000-sq.ft. store. The cooperative movement, fight-

it

for miles,

ing to arrest its relative decline in total retail sales,

established

Coop Superstore Development Agencies

for the purpose of building suburban stores that would have up to 100,000 sq.ft. of selling area. The new agencies would coordinate retail societies that could

not raise sufficient capital individually.

The

first

stores

were planned at Manchester and Birmingham. Just as the elevator helped to revolutionize department store design in the early part of the century by

I

I

I

enabling stores to extend upward, so the development of glideways or moving pavements, capable of carry-

I

j

ing fully laden store-trolleys, could

have a big

effect

]

j

j

I

i

i

tachi Industries, an electronics firm, in conjunction

with the

OK

retail

organization,

the mini-markets

would display only one sample of each item. The customer would insert a magnetically coded card into a slot to purchase the item, which would then be delivered automatically at the 'checkout point. It was said that only 5,382 sq.ft., half of it stock area, would be required to handle 2.000 items. Four persons in the stockroom and two in the sales area would complete the work force. American Motors Corp. (AMC) did extremely well in 1972 automobile sales: $30.2 miUion in its fiscal 1972 year, compared with years of disappointing results and losses. Some observers believed AMC's unique "Buyer Protection Plan" had contributed to the firm's vastly improved profit position. Basically, the warranty guaranteed

AMC cars against all defects,

one year or 12,000 mi. customer had to leave his car for repair overnight dealers were required to lend him ancar included in its other car at no cost. Each price "dealer preparation costs" and every car was road-tested by dealers before customer delivery. also had an "800" free telephone hotline directly to its with the exception of

tires, for

If a

or longer,

AMC

AMC

AMC

home

office in Detroit for special problems. In 1973

the warranty

was

to include

payment

of

up

to

$150

an owner who incurred motel charges because his down 100 mi. or more from home. A big step forward in consumer protection on major household appliances in France was taken with the mtroduction of a standard maintenance contract called "X50." The contract had been devised jointly by the Association for Standardization, the National Institute on Consumption, and the National Union of to

car broke

Household Appliance Retailers. It stated the business making the sale, gave guarantees on after-sales service, and set out the rights and obligations of the parties.

computer to give an exact record of the stock and cash in each shop and could be keyed into the ordering and distribution pattern. Further into the future, the cash register

ment. The stamps were redeemable against the goods of the retailer issuing them and were said to cost 2% less than Greenshield stamps. The Sainsbury and

units. i

most stores seemed to be growJapan came up with the technology for miniaturized supermarkets. In part developed by HiParadoxically, as

ing larger,

A supermarket in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, Eng., had a unit installed on these lines. Another technical development with far-reaching imphcations was the electronic cash register. Some half dozen companies were already manufacturing these

on hypermarkets. I

The

registers could be linked to a

East and West Coast stores to charge purchases on American Express credit cards. This extension of credit followed a trend set by many smaller retailers and threatened to force other large chain stores to reassess their policies.

compare prices of competitive merchandise of varying weights. The New York Times reported in July that Giant Foods, one of the largest U.S. chains,

easily

consumer affairs, as its consumerism exand had instituted a program of consumer ad-

November 1972

for customers at their

spond with price cuts of their own.

pert

national

nvilation

caused considerable soul-searching in corporate boardrooms, and most competing chains were forced to re-

assistant for

first fof a

department store chain n the U.S. was IVIacy's

on small profit mar-

A number of developments took place in the trading-stamp and coupon-redemption fields in the U.K. Crusader Bonds announced a plan similar to the successful blue

stamp scheme of the cooperative move-

Waitrose food-store chains, renowned for their opposi-

464

up the cudgels against manufacturers' money-off coupons. They announced tion to tradini; stamps, took

Metallurgy

coupons would be redeemed against any goods they sold and not just against the product named on the coupon. Given the desire to establish common forms of taxation and social benefits throughout the EEC, the rather curious suggestion of the French that a levy should be imposed on large stores to help finance pensions and benefits for small retailers created a stir. The Self-Service Institute of France brought together major stores, voluntary chains, supermarkets, and associations of department and variety stores to oppose the suggestion by means of a joint public relations and advertising campaign. Italy once more postponed, to Jan. 1. 1973, the introduction of the value-added tax fVAT"), to the annoyance of its EEC partners. Britain announced the introduction of a flat-rate tax, probably of 10%, to go into effect in .\pril 1973. For the retailer this change was far more radical than the changeover to decimal currency in 1971, and fears were expressed that too little was being done to prepare for it. In August 1972 the prefect of Rome signed a decree aimed at regulating food prices in the city. Prices of that these

basic articles in shops could not be higher than those

There was skepticism about the success of the measure, which had no controls or penalties built into it. The basic trouble was 305 city-run street

in the

stalls.

an antiquated food-distribution system, said to be dominated by the Mafia. In Sweden the Buketten group had been raising and selling flowers for about ten years and had some 70 outlets. In 1972

it

franchise was held

shops in

The by Frampton Nurseries, with two

started to operate in Britain.

Wembley and Croydon and

outlets planned.

integration

a group of ten

The organization aimed

—growing,

distributing,

and

at

lionaire,

and

his habit of giving

away

profits in excess

made him popular with his competitors. Between 1967 and 1970 his gross sales more than doubled, to some SFr. 251 million, and sales in 1971 were thought to be up by about one-third. Schweri's giveaway in 1972 was SFr. I million worth of vitamin-C tablets in January' and February. One tube of ten capsules was given free with each purchase of SFr. 19.50. Schweri planned to sell the capsules later at about one-third the price charged by pharmacists. This exploited a loophole in the law which perof this figure to his customers, had not

mitted the unrestricted sale of tablets of 225 mg. or less, and was expected to be the start of a campaign to

wide range of medicinal products. for cheaper housing started with by Schweri's stores of the 50.000 signatu necessary for the holding of a national referendum He wanted the government to create a special fund of SFr. 15 billion to be used to finance the construeof economy-priced accommodations. He had s sell a

The campaign

collection

controversial proposals for raising the money. intJ all companies with reser\'es 8% levy on all export shipments an annual tax on employers of $125 for every fon worker on the payroll. Possibly in response to all the government began to prepare its own lowhousing program. In 1973 Pepsi-Cola was to become the first consumer product manufactured and sold in the viet Union. Donald M. Kendall, chairman of Pep;i. Inc., producers of the soft drink, announced in N"vember 1972 that an agreement to place the soft drink on the Soviet market had been concluded with the viet Ministry of Trade. (g. C. HOCKLEY; M. BERNARD SMITH

ing a special tax on

.i':

$2.5 million, an

•

i

.-^

i

•

vertical

selling flowers

and plants

at retail. It claimed to be able to provide lower prices and fresher stock, the latter by having

the plants prepacked at the nursery and delivered to store in temperature-controlled transport. The

Metallurgy

group's aim

Environmental protection and cost control continued

the

—

—

one was to shift flowers from the luxury class to the weekly shopping list. While the conference of the International Garden Centre Institute, held near Munich, W.Ger., was able a difficult

to report increasing sales and possibilities for further expansion, experience varied considerably. Syon Park Garden Centre near London had only 300,000 visitors

instead of the e.xpected million in 1971 and sustained substantial losses. The conference produced figures showing that Switzerland and the Netherlands had one garden centre for every 135,000 inhabitants; Norway one for 173,000; West Germany one for 263,000; and Britain and .Austria one for every 400,000. Marks & Spencer and Woolworth were both in the news in Britain. Marks & Spencer was trying out a line of toiletries in nine of its branches and, if successful, the range would be sold at all of its outlets. Woolworth, which had recently begun stocking furniture and consumer durable goods in its larger U.K. branches, was extending these lines to its smaller branches by mail order.

Karl Schweri, the sole owner of the Swiss Denner who could claim much of the credit for the

chain,

abandonment of see

Industrial

in

1967,

moved

the chemists

Metals: see

maintenance

in Switzerin 1972 against the monopoly of (pharmacists) and also led a national campaign for cheaper housing. His philosophy of only

land

Mining

retail price

Review;

Metallurgy; Mining

1.5%

profit

on

sales,

which had made him

a multimil-

to

be the chief concerns

in

metallurgy during 1972.

There were few new developments in methods of extracting valuable minerals from ore, possibly because the worldwide exploration effort had provided ample ore of most metals of a grade that could be treated by existing methods. Possible exceptions were hydrometallurgy and solution mining (dissolving underground materials and pumping them to the surface), since they held promise of solving such pollution problems as sulfur dioxide emission from the metallurgical treatment by heat of sulfide ores, reducing mining costs where leaching at the site could be used, and possibly treating submarginal ores ero nomically. Research was becoming more sophisticai and better financed, but few practical applicati. had appeared. Australian work showed that very inexpensive brown coal would absorb from ammoniaca! leach solutions

and

many

metals, including copper, nickel, on such coal was much more than powdered zinc for precipitating gold

zinc; zinc absorbed

eflScient

from

solution.

The metals were recovered by burning

the coal.

Combining purification with recovery was solvent in which a liquid that will selectively absorb the desired kind of metal is brought into contact with the leach solution and then separated with extraction,

the consequent recovery of the metal.

The

meth..'

was finding greater use as an increasing number of extraction liquids were discovered. As

and bring the chromium content of the surface

satisfactory

desired level.

production increased due to sulfur dioxide recovery to meet emission standards, interest

Coating with polymers was replacing painting to an appreciable extent. A short immersion of the metal at the melting temperature of the polymer in a fluidized bed of polymer particles produced a uniform coating

sulfuric acid

increased in recent

possible use as a leaching reagent.

its

A

flotation of low-grade, fine-

development of the

grained hematite ore made ton-per-year pellet plant using ore

possible a four-million-

uneconomic iron deposit

in

from a previously

Michigan.

The diminishing supplies

powdered boiler-grade

blast furnace

was

also being used,

and the

furnace which used no coke was producing eight tons

A

channel induction furnace

superheated the metal for casting. When melting clean scrap no visible emission was produced.

Use of prereduced ore pellets, which could substitute for scrap and increase steel production without requiring additional coke, was not growing as rapidly as many had expected. A prereduced pellet plant in South America did start production to supply a U.S.

i

I

steelmaker.


Tlical trends. Both men had demonstrated that active forces, not passive ones, strike economic balances when the forces cancel each other out. The foundations they had laid in arcane theory were used widely by public- and private interests to determine foreign trade, investment policies, and prices. Other aspects of their copious works have had

sec

established his reputation at Columbia in 1951 with his doctoral dissertation, "Social Choice and Individual Values." Paul A. Samuelson, winner of the prize in 1970 and pleased that the new laureates were "economists' economists," explained: "It used to be said that only 10 men understood Einstein's theory of relativity. But it is no exaggeration to say that only a score of scholars were able to follow Arrow's early research in these eso-

on Aug.

2^, 1921,

Norway A

constitutional

monarchy

of

Norway

is

northern Europe,

t

^jt

bordered by Sweden, Finland,

and the U.S.S.R.; its coastlines are on the North Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the Arctic Ocean. Area: 125,052 sq.mi. (323,886 sq.km.),

excluding

the

Svalbard Archipelago, 23,957

sq.mi.,

and Jan Mayen Island, 144 sq.mi. Pop. (1972 est.): 3,917,773. Cap. and largest city: Oslo (pop., 1972 est., 475,563). Language: Norwegian. Religion; Lutheran (96.2%). King, Olav V; prime ministers in 1972, Trygve Bratteli until October 7 and, from October 18, Lars Korvald. The Norwegian people on Sept. 25, 1972, voted

membership Of the 77.7%

EEC

against their country's

in the

national referendum.

of the electorate

in a

who voted, 53.5% (1,099,398) voted against entry and 46.5% (956,043) in favour. The referendum was but the Storting (parliament) had would respect the wishes of the people. Prime Minister Bratteli, who had signed the treaty of accession in Brussels in January, had said that in the event of a negative decision his government would resign. Even without the referendum, it seemed unlikely that a parliamentary vote on joining the EEC would

modify exports grew faster than imports, and the first half of 1972 showed a balance of payments surplus of 375 million kroner on current account, compared with a deficit of 1,350,000,000 kroner for the first half 1971. Foreign currency holdings rose to record

advisory only,

of

agreed

levels,

it

have achieved the necessary three-quarters majority. While the Labour government was strongly proEEC, a considerable minority of Labour members of the Storting opposed the Liberals

it,

as did a large minority of

and most of the Centre and Christian members. Only the Conservatives were

People's Party

united in support of accession.

The People's Movement

EEC

bership of the elements,

from

.•\gainst Norwegian Memwas a conglomerate of disparate

intellectuals to fishermen, motivated

by a variety of factors from political opposition to NATO to simple concern about job security and from ultraconservative nationalism to religious mysticism.

United on a negative level, the

movement was ably

organized, and the subsequent referendum result

I

hailed

by

its

was

leaders as an outstanding example of

popular resistance to the political and economic establishment.

507

Norway

and the krone remained strong. Despite the depressed demand abroad for alumi-

num, ferroalloys, and certain other products, full employment was maintained almost unimpaired, and industries from engineering to fishing reported good outputs and sales. There was growing concern about rising labour costs and prices; wage increases were limited to 5.6%, but built-in safeguards provided for further increases if the cost of living continued to rise. In the 12 months up to mid-August prices had

by 8%. and to counter this a price freeze was imposed from September 7. The Bratteli government's 1973 budget proposals, presented before its resignation, involved heavy inrisen

creases in state expenditure, particularly in the social

insurance sector. For the

first

time there was a sepa-

20% increase in expenditure to 14.7 billion kroner (one-third of total state expenditure), chiefly to meet the cost of lowerrate "social" budget, proposing a

from 70 to 67 as of Jan. 1, 1973. Considerable discussion in the Storting followed an

ing the retirement age

incident in

November when an unknown submarine in Sogne Fjord. The craft disappeared

was detected

after 14 days. Highly placed sources said privately

I

The highest proportion of no votes (72.7%) came from the northern fishing province of Nordland, while the highest proportion of yes votes (66.9%) came from the commercially oriented capital. However, heavily industrial districts such as Porsgrunn in the south also registered a strong no vote, suggesting that (Official trade-union support for EEC membership was by no means wholly shared by the more militant rank and file. With the Centre (formerly Agrarian) Party strongly opposed to membership, the rural communities generally voted against it. While the Movement Against Membership had succeeded in uniting divergent groups in its prereferendum campaign, it could not easily provide the basis for a new anti-EEC administration. The three nonLabour and non-Conservative parties in the Storting finally agreed on a government under the premiership

I

I '

'

that

it

was a Soviet ship and had been allowed

to

escape to avoid an international incident.

For the first time the government was able to budget royalty receipts from North Sea oil at the Ekofisk

site.

(ole

f.

knudsen)

[

I

Korvald of the Christian People's Party. The new administration, which took office on October 18, of Lars

members of the Centre Party, five from the minority (anti-EEC) wing of the Liberals, and four from the Christian People's Party. While the new government could claim the support of only 47 of the Storting's 150 members, Korx'ald expressed confidence that it would be able to count on the votes of various segments of the House on particular issues. The split in the Liberal Party became final on December 9 with the formation of the People's New included seven

Liberal Party.

The new government's most urgent negotiations to secure a

task

was

to

open

free-trade agreement with

EEC,

preferably effective from April 1973 when similar agreements with Sweden and other EFTA

the

!

countries

would come into force. Industrialists recogsuch an agreement would be much less

[nized that I

favourable than full membership, and concern was expressed about the future development of exports, par-

"sensitive" products such as ferroalloys, 'aluminum, and paper. Meanwhile, the economy showed considerable resilience despite relatively slack demand abroad. Comiticularly

!

NORWAY Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 390,046, teachers 19,448; secondary, pupils 234,449, teachers 17,493; vocational, pupils 65,875, teachers 9,805; higher (including 4 universities), students 46,715, teaching staff 4,922, Finance. Monetary unit: Norwegian lirone, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of 6.65 Itroner to U.S. $1 (tree rate of 16.09 kroner £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $1,222,100,000; (June 1971) U.S. $869.7 million. Budget (1972 est,): revenue 24,010,000.000 kroner; expenditure 2 7.343,000,000 kroner. Gross national product: (1970) 81,370,000,000 kroner; (1969) 70,280.000,000 kroner. Money supply: (June 1972) 20,250,000.000 kroner; (June I97I) 18,510,000,000 kroner. Cost of living (1963 100): (June 1972) 159; (June 1971) 148. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports 28,722,000,000 kroner; exports 17.988,000,000 kroner. Import sources: Sweden 19%; West Germany 14%; U.K. 12%; Denmark 6%; U.S. 6%; Japan 5%; Canada 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 19%; Sweden 17%; West Germany 15%; Denmark 7%; U.S. 7%,. Main exports: ships 10%; machinery 10%; aluminum 10%; fish 9%; iron and steel 8%; chemicals 8%; paper 7%; nickel 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1971) 73,112 km. (including 106 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger 806,600: commercial 153,400. Railways: (state only; 1970) 4,242 km. (including 2,440 km. electrified): traffic (state only; 1971) 1,600,000.000 passenger-km., freight 2,600,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (including Norwegian apportionment of international operations of Scandin.ivian .Airlines System; 1971): 2,134,600,000 passenger-km,; freight 75.537.000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 2,814; gross tonnage 21,720,202. Ships entered (1970) vessels totaling 15,722,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1971) 34,546,000 metric tons, unloaded 17.923,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 1.145,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1970) 1.191,000, Television licenses (Dec. 1970) 854,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): barley 569 (581); oats c. 275 (228); potatoes 70S (857): apples c. SO (48); milk c. 1,724 (1,730); butter c. 19 (19); cheese 54 (52); beef and veal c. 59 (56); pork c. 68 (65); timber (cu.m,; 1970) 8,600, (1969) 8.100; fish catch (1970) 2.980, (1969) 2,481, Livestock (in 000; June 1971): cattle 917; sheep 1,673; pigs 677; goats c, S3; chickens c. 5,900. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1971): crude oil 311; coal (Svalbard mines; Norwegian operated only) 466, (U.S.S.R. operated; exports; 1970) 443: manufactured gas (cu.m.) 29,800; electricity (kw-hr.) 62.681,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): iron ore (65% metal content) 3,910; pig iron 1.274; crude steel S63: aluminum 529; zinc 62; copper 23; cement 2.721; sulfur (1970) 340; nitrogenous fertilizers (N content; 1970-71) 370; mechanical wood pulp (1970) 1,268; chemical wood pulp (1970) 942; newsprint 530; other paper (1970) 868. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1971) 831,000 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1971)

=

=

38,000.

Bristol (1960-61), and professor of cybernetics in the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of Illinois. Urbana (1961-70), he was elected a fellow of the Royal College of

Obituaries 1972

Psychiatry

The

following

is

a selected

men and women who ALINSKY, SAUL,

list

of prominent

Eng.,

died during 1972.

111.,

1909~d.

to make concerted demands for better housing, and schools, and later used the same techniques to form The Woodlawn Organi-

bourhood jobs,

zation in a Chicago black ghetto area. His successful methods were later employed in other parts of the country. For a short time during 1965-66 he was involved in the U.S. government's "war on poverty" as a leader in the training centre at Syracuse (N.Y.) University.

ANDERSEN, LALE

(Liselotte Helen Beul), German singer (b. Bremerhaven, Ger., 1913 d. Vienna. .\us.. .Aug. 29, 1972), gained world fame by her recording of "Lili Marlene." used as the theme song of the German .\rmy radio station in occupied Belgrade during World War II.

—

ARLEN, STEPHEN,

British theatre administrator (b. Birmingham, Eng., Oct. 31, 1913— d. London, Eng., Jan. 19, 1972), managing director of Sad1966, became general ler's Wells Opera from manager of the Old Vic in 194 3 and of Sadler's Wells Theatre in 1951. In 1962 he became administrative director of the new National Theatre during its formative period, afterward returning to Sadler's Wells. He was chairman of the British Centre of the International Theatre Institute, and in 1959 advised on the formation of the Belgian national opera.

ARNSTEIN, MARGARET cator (b. New York, N.Y.,

G., U.S. nurse

Oct. 27,

and edu-

1904— d. New

Haven, Conn., Oct.

S, 1972), dean of the Yale University School of Nursing, was chief of nursing for the U.S. Public Health Service (1960-64) and nursing adviser for international health. Office

of the Surgeon General (1965).

ASGEIRSSON, ASGEIR, Icelandic statesman Iceland, 1894— d. Reykjavik, Iceland, Sept.

(b. 15,

1972), was president of Iceland from 1952 until 1968. A member of the Althing (parliament) its speaker at the 1930 mil-

from 1923, he was lennial

celebration.

He was

minister

of

finance

(1931-34)

and prime minister (1932-34). In 1944 he attended the Bretton Woods economic and monetary conference as Icelandic delegate, and was a governor of the International Monetary Fund (1946-52).

ASHBY, W(ILLIAM) ROSS,

British

cyberneti-

London, Eng., Sept. 6, 1903— d. Nov. 15. 1972), an outstanding pioneer in the study of the organization and control of complex systems was director (194 7-59) of research at Barnwood House Hospital, Gloucester. He wrote Design lor a Brain (1952) and An Introduction to Cybernetics (1956), both classics in their field Director of the Burden Vr-urolnplr-al Inniiute in cist (b.

1971.

British author (b. Petersham, 1881— d. Norwich, Eng.. Jan. IS, 1972).

The Young

U.S. social organizer (b. Chi-

Carmel, Calif.. June 12, 1972). a conlrovcrsial poverty fighter who attained prominence during World War 11 with his Chicago 'Back-of-thc-Vards" movement. He organized the predominantly lower-class white neighcago,

in

ASHFORD, DAISY,

erratically spelled "high life" as seen fri ercd by the author so

f

Visitei

Victorian English

the nursery. Rediscov-

30 years later, it was preface by Sir Ja published in 1919 wit Barrie (who was at first suspected of having writsold half a milsubsequently himself) and ten it

lion copies.

The Young

Visiters

was dramatized

in 1920 and a musical adaptation was staged in London in 1968. Daisy .Ashford wrote several other stories while still a child, some of which

appeared in Daisy Ashjord: Her Book and in Love and Marriage (1965).

ATHENAGORAS

(1920)

ecumenical patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church (b. Terraplana [Vasilikon]. Turk, [now Greece], March 25, 1886— d. Balikli. Turk., July6, 1972 ), leader of 126 million Byzantine Christians, was archbishop of Constantinople and New Rome from 1948. Until 1922 I,

he was chief secretary to the Holy Synod at -Athens, then was metropolitan of Corfu (192330). During his tenure as archbishop of North

and South America (1930-48) he became a U.S. citizen (193S), although some years later he was obliged to resume Turkish citizenship. He was deeply influenced by his long stay in the U.S., where he founded the theological college of SainteCroix, Conn., and the Saint-Basile Academy in Boston. Athenagoras was often criticized by .Athens for his efforts to reach an understanding with the Roman Catholic Church. He met Pope Paul VI in Jerusalem in 1964, in Istanbul in 1967, and again that year when he visited the Vatican.

ATLAS, CHARLES (Angelo Siciliano).

U.S.

body builder (b. Calabria, Italy. Oct. 30, 1893— d. Long Beach. N.Y., Dec. 24, 1972), was in 1922 named by Bernarr Macfadden, publisher of magazines, the "World's Most Perfectly Developed Man." In 1921 he devised a system of muscle building, called Dynamic Tension, an health

early form of isometrics, which became the basis for a mail-order course that, by 1972. was available in seven languages and sold at the rate of 70.000 courses a year.

AUSTIN, GENE (Eugene Lucas),

U.S. singer Gainesville, Tex., June 24, 1900— d. Palm Springs. Calif., Jan. 24, 1972), popular crooner of the 1920s, whose recording of "My Blue Heaven" sold more than 12 million records. (b.

ributor to Encyclopxdia

Brilannica.

BALENCIAGA, CRISTOBAL,

Spanish couturier (b. Guetaria. Spain. Jan. 21, 1895— d. Valencia. Spain. March 2i, 1972). greatly influenced fashion trends in the post-World War II era. and was called "the designer's designer." .After running his own dressmaking establishment at San Sebastian from the age of 20, he set up in Paris in 1937.

BANCROFT, DAVID ). ("Dave"), U.S. basebaU player (b. Sioux City. la.. .April 20. 1892— d. Superior. Wis.. Oct. 9. 1972). a major league shortstop for 16 years, played with the Philadelphia Phillies (1915-18) and with the New York Giants (1920-23). He later played for Boston and Brooklyn, and again for the Giants in his last season (1930). Bancroft's lifetime batting average was .279; he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1971.

BARLOW, HOWARD, U.S. conductor (b. Plain City. O.. May 1, 1892— d. Bethel. Conn.. Jan. 31, 1972). led the Firestone Orchestra on the radio and television feature "Voice of Firestone" from 1943 through 1961. He began his musical career with the Columbia Broadcasting System in 1927 as the network's top musical director: in 1943 he went to the National Broadcasting Company as conductor of the Firestone show. Later the program was taken over by the American Broadcasting Company and aired simultaneously on radio and TV.

BATES, TED (Theodoke

L.). U.S. advertising

New Haven. Conn., Sept. 11. 1901— New York. N.Y.. May 30. 1972), founder (1940) and head of Ted Bates & Co., based his

executive (b. d.

success on the hard-sell techniques he devised for early television commercials. Bates was president of his company until the late 1950s when he

assumed honorary chairmanship.

BERRYMAN, JOHN, U.S. Okla., Oct. 25, 1914 d. Jan. 7. 1972), was regents versity of Minnesota, where

—

member from 1955. He

poet (b. Mc.Alester, Minneapolis, Minn., professor at the Unihe had been a faculty won the 1965 Pulitzer

Prize in poetry for his 77 Dream Songs (1964); the National Book Award in 1969 for His Toy, His Dream. His Rest (1968), and in 1969 shared the Bollingen Prize in Poetry with Karl Shapiro. Berryman's last volume of poetry, Delusiorts, etc., was published in 1972.

BLOCKER, DAN, U.S. tele actor (b. Bowie Countv. Tex., 1929— d. In ood, Calif., May 13, 1972), starred as Hoss Ca rtwright in the "Bonanza" series from the of its inception

BALDICK, ROBERT, British scholar (b. HudNov. 9, 1927— d. April 24, 1972), a foremost British expert in French literature and culture, produced in 1955 a widely acclaimed biography of Joris-Karl Huysmans based on his 1952 doctorate. Baldick became a fellow of Pembroke College. Oxford, in 1958. Other works included The Goncourts (1960). The First Bohemian: The Lite of Henry Murger (1961). The Lije and Times of Fridlric Lemaitre (1959). The Siege ol Paris (1964), and Dinner at Magny's (1971). He was joint editor of Penguin Classics

BONNIER, JOAKIM, Swedish racing driver (b. Stockholm, Swed., Jan. 31. 1930— d. Le Mans, France. June 11, 1972), was a founder and president of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association and a leading campaigner for greater safety in motor

William Boyd

Bruce Cabot

dersfield. Eng..

in

1959.

BLYTHE, BETTY, U.S. screen 1900— d. Woodland

les, Calif,

star (b. Los AngeHills, Calif., April

1972), appeared in about 60 silent films and more than 50 talkies, including The Helen Morgan Story and Fair Lady, her last, in 1964. 7,

My

He was killed during the Le Mans 24hour race when his Lola T28CI touched a Ferrari while both were traveling at 180 mph on a right-hand curve. racing.

GT

I

BOYD, WILLIAM,

;

U.S. film actor (b. Hendrys-

—

d. South Laguna Beach, who portrayed the goodguy cowboy Hopalong Cassidy, began his career in some romantic parts of the most popular with films of the 1920s, including The Volga Boatman and King ol Kings.

burg. 0., June S, 1898 Calif., Sept. 12, 1972),

I

I

I

j

j

BRAUNTHAL, JULIUS,

I

Vienna, Aus., IS91

I

—

d.

Austrian socialist (b. Teddington, Surrey, Eng.,

28, 1972), was secretary of International (1949-56). April

the Socialist

BRIAN, (WILLIAM) HAVERGAL, British composer (b. Dresden, Staffordshire, Eng., Jan. 29, 1876— d. Shoreham, Sussex, Eng., Nov. 28, 1972), who enjoyed a high reputation in the early years of the century, was thereafter largely neglected until the 1960s brought a revival of interest in his music. By the age of 93 he had written i2 symphonies and many other works, but much of his vast output remained unplayed and unpub-

,

'

Notable among his performed works were Gothic Symphony of 1919 (No. 2), performed in London's Albert Hall in 1966. A First English Suite, the overture For Valour, the symphonic poem Hero and Leander, Variations on an Old Rhyme, Festal Dance, Doctor Merryheart, By the Waters oj Babylon, the cantata A Vision of Cleopatra, the satiric opera The Tigers, composed during World War I, and the 12 th and 26th symphonies. lished.

the

.

;

I

I

.

BRODA, WALTER ("Turk"), Canadian hockey

'.

—

(b. Brandon, Man., 1914 d. Toronto, Oct. 17. 1972), was goaltender for the Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team from 193S I9S2, with two seasons out for military until service in World War 11. Broda was signed by the Maple Leafs shortly after he turned professional in 1935. He played in 101 Stanley Cup play-offs, allowing only 211 goals (averaging 2.08 per game), and twice won (1941, 1948) the Vezina Trophy for allowing the fewest goals of any National Hockey League goalie.

player

I

Ont..

]

;

I

I

;

'

;

I

I

I

I

!

j

the early meetings of the United Nations in London and New York, and conferences in Paris during 1945-46. He left the Cabinet in 1947 and returned to private life in South Carolina, but in 1950 was elected governor of his state and served in

that office until 1955.

CABOT, BRUCE (Jacques de Bujac), U.S. screen actor (b. Carlsbad, N.M., 1903— d. Woodland Hills, Calif.. May 3. 1972), who co-starred in the original King Kong movie of 1933, later played character roles in numerous successful films including The Green Berets (1968), Big Jake (1971), and Diamonds

.ire

CARROLL, LEO G., U.S. actor 1892— d. Hollywood, Calif.,

Forever (1971).

(b.

Weedon, Eng.,

Oct.

16,

1972),

Cosmo Topper in television's "Topper" series of the 1960s, and also appeared in numerous other TV shows.

played the role of

CASADESUS,

ROBERT

MARCEL,

French

pianist and composer (b. Paris, France, April 7, 1899— d. Paris, Sept. 19, 1972), began his career as a virtuoso concert pianist in 1920, and toured

Europe,

South and North America,

.'\sia,

and

Africa. In 1958 he won the Brahms Medal. One of the latest of his symphonies. Symphony No. 7, "Israel" (Op. 68), was first performed Nov. 8, 1972, at Tully Hall.

CHANDOS, OLIVER LYTTELTON, count,

British

March

politician

—

1st

and industrialist

Vis-

CHEN

Yl, Chinese government official (b. Province, China, 1901— d. Peking, China, Jan. 6. 1972), a deputy premier and foreign minister (1958-68) of China, in 1941 be-

Szechwan

came commander in chief of the Communist New 4th .Army that waged the war with Japan.

CHEVALIER, MAURICE, French entertainer (b. 1888— d. Paris. Jan. 1,

Paris, France. Sept. 12.

1972), who popularized the songs "Louise," "Val"Mimi," was primarily a revue artist but appeared in some 40 French and U.S. films during his career of more than 60 years. Chevalier's first success came in 1909 with the FoliesBergire. In 1929 be appeared in his first American film, Innocents oj Paris, and in the same year played the irresistible lover in The Love Parade. Another popular role was that of the dashing Captain Danilo in The Merry Widow (1934), opposite Jeanette MacDonald. He again appeared in the U.S. in 1947 with his one-man show. During the 19S0S he made a film comeback in the U.S. productions Love in the Afternoon (1957) and Gigi (1958). Chevalier staged successful farewell tours in Europe and America in the 1960s and in 1970 published Les Pensies de Momo, a last volume of thoughts and memoirs. entine," and

British circumnavigator (b. Barnstable, Devon, Eng,, Sept. 17, 1901— d. Plymouth. Eng.. Aug. 26. 1972). internationally famous flyer and sailor. At 18 he emigrated to New Zealand, where his interest in fly-

Leo

ll/laurice

CHICHESTER, SIR FRANCIS,

Chevalier

ing led to his becoming in 1929 the second man to make a solo flight from England to .Australia,

covering 12.600 mi. in 180.5 hours. This was followed in 1930 by the first east-to-west 1.450-mi. solo flight across the Tasman Sea. In 1960 he won the first single-handed transatlantic yacht race, in 40 days in "Gipsy Moth III." Two years later he cut his record by almost a week. In the 1964 race he came in second, but succeeded in cutting his time to under 30 days. On Aug. 23, 1966, Chichester set forth on a round-the-world voyage in "Gipsy Moth IV," reaching Sydney and a tumultuous welcome on December 12, in 7 days more than his intended 100. He rounded Cape Horn on his return journey on March 20, 1967, and completed the 2S,500-mi. journey on May 28, 119 days out from Sydney. On July 7 Queen Elizabeth II dubbed him knight in a special ceremony in the Grand Square of the Royal Naval College. Greenwich, and he was feted by the City of London. In 1971 Chichester sailed 4,000 mi. from Portuguese Guinea to Nicaragua in just over 22 days. In July 1972, on his last singlehanded transatlantic race, he became ill and was forced to drop out. Chichester's autobiography. The Lonely Sea and Sky, was published in 1964.

H

(b.

1893 IS, d. London, Eng., Jan. 21, 1972), during World War II was a member of the British War Cabinet as minister of state in the Middle East (1941-42) and minister of production (1942-45).

BYRNES, JAMES FRANCIS, U.S. statesman (b. Charleston. S.C. May 2, 1879— d. Columbia, S.C, April 9, 1972). began his SO-year political career in 1908 as a small-town prosecutor. In 1910 he was elected to Congress and served in the House for 14 years. After losing a race for the Senate in 1924. he waged a successful campaign in 1930 and two years later was a trusted legislative supporter of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program. Alter World War II erupted in Europe, Byrnes was instrumental in obtaining revision of the Neutrality Act and passage of the Lend-Lease bill for aid to the Allies. In 1941 Roosevelt appointed Byrnes to the U.S. Supreme Court, but after serving 16 months he stepped down to head the wartime Office of Economic Stabilization and from May 1943 until April 1945 the Office of War Mobilization. After Roosevelt's death, Pres. Harry S. Truman appointed Byrnes as secretary of state, and as such he accompanied Truman to the Potsdam Conference in July 194S. .^s a delegate he also attended G. Carroll

Obituaries 1972

CHURCH, RICHARD THOMAS,

British

poet,

and novelist (b. London, Eng., March 26, Cranbrook, Kent, Eng., March 4, 1972), in 1926 with his dramatic monologue Portrait of the Abbot. His outstanding

critic,

1893— d.

gained attention

first

prose

included

the

autobiographical

sequence

Over the Bridge (1955), The Golden Sovereign (1957), and The Voyage. Home (1964). Of his novels. The Porch (1937) was the most impressive and won the Femina-Vie Heureuse prize.

CHURCHILL, PETER MORLAND,

British intel-

—

agent (b. Jan. 14, 1909 d. Cannes, France, May 1, 19 72), was a captain in the Special Operations Executive (SOE) of the British Army during World War II and played a prominent part in the organization of resistance within France to the German occupation. ligence

CLEMENTE, baseball

1934— d. was

ROBERTO, U.S.-Puerto Rican (b. Carolina, P.R., Aug. 18, San Juan, P.R., Dec. 31, 1972),

player off

killed when a cargo plane loaded with, relief for survivors of earthquake-devastated

supplies

Managua, Nicaragua, went down at sea. Clemente was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates from the Brooklyn Dodgers farm team at Montreal following the 1954 season and had just completed his 18th season with the Pirates. During that season the popular outfielder became the Uth major league player to get 3,000 hits for a career total. He won four batting championships in the 1960s, and his lifetime average was .318, the highest among active players. Clemente was chosen for 12 All-Star teams, he was named the NL's most valuable player in 1966, and in 1971, when the Pirates defeated the Baltimore Orioles in seven games, he was chosen the World Series' most valuable player.

Roberto Clemente

—

Parly.

DAY-LEWIS, CECIL, (b. pool Longford, Ire., Dec. 8, 18S1— d. Enfield, Conn., part in Jan. 11, 1972), as a young man look the Irish lilcrary renaissance and was associated with \V. B. Yeats and Lady Gregory in the early

COLUM, PADRAIC,

Irish-American

days of the .\bbey Theatre in Dublin. He wrote several plays, including Brokeu Soil (1903) and The Land (190S). but made his name as a poet and as a writer of children's stories. Poetry collections included Wild Earth (1907), Dramatic Legends (1922). Flower Pieces (\'>i9). Collecled of Departure (1968). of Irish and other folktales retold for children were The King oi Ireland's Son (1916), The Adventures of OdysTroy (1918). Orpheus, or seus and The Tale of Stories from the Mythologies of the World

Poems (1953), and Images

Among numerous volumes

(1929), and Where the Winds Sever Blew and Sever Crew (1940). A visit to Hawaii 1923 to study and record native myth and

the Cocks

British

poet

(b.

Ballin-

April 27. 1904— d. Hadley Wood. Hertfordshire, Eng.. May 22, 1972), who in 1968 succeeded John Masefield as Britain's poet laureate, was in the 1930s one of the group of socially aware, left-wing poets centred around W. H. Auden. Dedicated to poetry from his youth, Day-Lewis first attracted attention with Transitional Poems (1929). followed by From Feathers to Iron il9il). The Magnetic Mountain (1933). togher.

Ire..

A Time

to

Dance (1935). Overtures

to

Death

(\9ii). An Italian Visit {l9Si), Collected Poems (1954), and other collections. In 1946 he was Clark lecturer at Cambridge {The Poetic Image, 1947) and afterward professor of poetry at Oxford (1951-56) and Charles Eliot Norton professor at Harvard (1964-65). He made numerous verse translations from the Latin of Virgil, and as "Nicholas Blake" also wrote detective novels. He was a director of the publishing company Chatto and Windus Ltd.

in

folklore resulted in

At the Gateways of the Day

(1924) and The Bright Islands (1925). With his wife. Mary Colum, he published Our Friend James Joyce (1958).

CORRELL, CHARLES

J.,

U.S. radio entertainer

(b. Peoria, III., Feb. 3. 1890— d. Chicago, 111., Sept. 26, 1972), who, with Freeman Gosden, created the popular, long-running radio series 'n'

Andy." Correll played the

role of

Andy.

CROOKS, RICHARD, U.S. operatic tenor (b. Trenton, N.J., 1900— d. Portola Valley, Calif., Oct. 1, 1972), a star of the N'ew York Metropolitan Opera Company from 1933 until the early 1950s, was also a featured singer on the "Voice of Firestone" radio series during the 1930s and '40s.

CROWTHER, GEOFFREY CROWTHER,

Baron,

and educator (b. Leeds. Eng.. May 13. 1907 d. London. Eng.. Feb. 5. 1972). editor of The Economist (1938-56), chairman of The Economist Newspaper Ltd. and of Trust Houses Forte Ltd. (1970-72), was vice-chairman of Encyclopedia Britannica's board of editors. Crowlher joined The Economist in 1932 and became assistant editor in 1935. As editor, he widened the journal's readership and transformed it into one of the world's most inHuenlial weeklies. During World War 11 he served in the ministries of Supply. Information, and Production. He was chairman (1956-60) of the Central Advisory Council for Education (England), giving his name to its important report; chairman of the Committee on Consumer Credit (1968-71); and (from 1969) chairman of the Commission on the Constitution. In 1969 he also became first chancellor of the Open L'niversity. The most important of his business ventures was the Trust Houses hotel chain, which in 1970 merged with the catering and entertainment empire of Sir Charles Forte. British economist

—

DAVIES, Wales,

STEPHEN OWEN,

-November

1886

—

Welsh politician (b. Merthyr Tydfil,

d.

BRANDON, U.S. actor (b. Brooklyn, d. Lakewood, Colo., July N.V., .April 9, 1942 6, 1972), who began his career as a child star,

de WILDE,

—

was killed in a traffic accident. De Wilde appeared in 492 performances of the Broadway play Member of the Wedding, which opened in 1950 n* starred in the TV series "Jaimle" in 195 following his fine performance as the son i: film Shane (1953).

:

DIES, MARTIN, U.S. congressman (193! from Texas (b. Colorado City. Tex., No 1901— d. Lufkin. Tex.. Nov. 14. 1972 founder and first chairman (1938-45) •>: U.S. House Committee on Un-American .\i

ties.

DONLEVY, BRIAN, N.Ire..

April

U.S. actor (b. Porta; Hollywood, d. Feb. 9, 1903 1972), who began his career in th. on the Broadway stage in What J

—

i

5,

1920s

Glory, went to Hollywood in the mid-193 begin his film career. He played in dozii movies and was the lead in the television ;

"Dangerous Assignment."

DE BEER, SIR GAVIN (RYLANDS), Nov. I, 1899— d. June 21,

zoologist (b.

British

1972),

was professor of embryology. University College, London, from 1945 to 1950, and director of the British Museum (Natural History) from 1950 to 1960. He was president of the Linnean Society (1946-49) and was awarded both the Linnean Gold Medal and the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1958. He was a prolific writer of wide scholarship a contributor to Encyclopedia Britannica and to many scientific, military, literary, and alpine journals. .^ fellow of the Royal Society from 1940. he was knighted in 1954.

—

DELACOURT-SMITH, CHARLES GEORGE PERCY SMITH, Baron, British trade union leader (b. Windsor, Eng., April 25, 1917— d. Windsor, .\ug. 2, 1972), was general secretary of the Post Office Engineering Union from 1953, after having served as Labour for Colchester (1945-50). He became a life peer in 1967 and in 1969 was appointed minister of state in the Ministry of Technology. He returned to the union when Labour went out of office in 1970.

MP

DELL'ACQUA, ANGELO CARDINAL, Italian Roman Catholic Church (b. Milan, Italy, Dec. 9, 1903— d. Lourdes, France, Aug.

prelate of the

27, 1972), was vicar-general of Rome, and one of Pope Paul's closest collaborators and firmest supporters. He was ordained on May 9, 1926, served abroad in the Vatican diplomatic corps, and was substitute secretary of state under Pope Pius XII. He was elevated to cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1967, acted as the Vatican's minister of finance, and was an administrator during both sessions of the second Vatican Council.

DEVAL,

JACQUES

French playwright

1890— d.

(Jacques

Boularan),

(b. Paris, France, June 2 7, 19, 1972), was the author

Paris, Dec.

many long running successes of which the best known outside France was probably Tovarich, of

in Robert Sherwood's translation. .\ film version starred Charles Boyer and Claudette Colbert in

Brian Donlevy

\

|

MP

for Merthyr Tydfil Wales, Feb. 25, 1972). from 1934, was a strong advocate of Welsh home rule and a left-wing "rebel" of the British Labour

510

Obituaries 1972

"Amos

.

ELLENDER, ALLEN

JOSEPH, U.S. senam. (from 1937) from Louisiana (b. Montegut. La., 1890— d. Belhesda, Md.. July 27. 10 7.' chairman of the Senate .Appropriations Commi held the title of president pro tempore -w I

i

Lester Pearson

PATTERSON, JAMES, U.S. stage star (b. Pa., 1932— d. New York, N.V.. Aug. 19.

won

Derry, 1972),

the 1967 Tony, or Antoinette Perry. Award for the role of Stanley in Harold Pinter's Birthday Party, having received a previous Obie. or Off Broadway, .\ward for his performance as Bill in Pinter's The Collection (1965).

PAYE, LUCIEN, French

educator, politician, and

diplomat

(b. Vemoil-le-Fourrier,

1907— d.

Paris, France, April 25, 1972), was ol education (1961-62) and France's

minister

ambassador

to

France June 28

Peking (1964-69).

PEARSON, LESTER BOWLES,

Canadian states.\pril 23, 1897 Ont., Dec. 27, 1972), winner of the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize, was 14th prime minister of Canada (1963-68), head of the Liberal Party (1958-68). and president of the United Nations General Assembly (1952). Pearson, educated at the University of Toronto and at 0.xford. began his career in the Department of External Affairs in 1928. and later served as ambassador to London and to Washington (194546). He was senior adviser to the Canadian delegation when the United Nations came into being, at San Francisco in 1945. and aided in the partition of Palestine in 1947. Pearson was elected to Parliament in 1948 and on September 10 was sworn in as secretary of state for external affairs.

man

(b.

Newtonbrook, Ont.,

Ottaiva,

Always a powerful

—

515

Obituaries 1972

himself, considered one of his greatest achievements to have been the introduction of Canada's distinctive national flag, along with the adoption of an official national anthem and the creation of the Order of Canada.

first

Following his retirement from government in

1968 Pearson joined the faculty of Carleton University in Ottawa, where he lectured on international affairs. A short time later he accepted an appointment as chancellor of Carleton. He spent considerable time on his memoirs, with the volume. Mike, being published in 1972.

first

POPOVIC, VLADIMIR, Yugoslav diplomat

—

(b.

Centinje. Montenegro. Jan. 27. 1914 d. London, Eng.. April 1, 1972). was a member of the Council of the Federation of Yugoslavia.

POUND, EZRA WESTON LOOMIS, patriate poet (b. Hailey, Ida.. Oct. 30. Venice. Italy. Nov. 1, 1972), a giant

U.S.

ei-

1885— d. force

in

20th-century literature, was also a controversial figure whose activities during World War II brought charges of treason. After a brief teaching career Pound left the U.S. for Europe in 1908, and the following year published his first major book of poetry. Personae. The masterful work he produced between 1910 and 1920 included the two cycles Homage to Sexlus Properlius (1919) and Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (1920). Pound encouraged some of the greatest literary figures of his period, discovering T. S. Eliot and assuring publication of James Joyce's novel Ulysses. After in London and Paris for a time, in the mid-1920s Pound took up permanent residence

living

in Italy and subsequently espoused the economic policies of Mussolini. During the war in Europe he conducted a series of radio broadcasts on behalf of the Fascists, airing his adverse views of the U.S. ,\l war's end he was taken into custody

and. although he did not stand trial, was committed to St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, D.C.. as mentally unfit to answer indictments for treason. After Pound had been confined for 13 years (1945-58). the indictments against him were dropped, and he returned to Italy. In 1967 the Selected Cantos of Ezra Pound was published. In 1972 Pound was proposed for the EmersonThoreau Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences but, still the centre of literary controversy, was denied the award.

force in the UN. he was elected president of the General Assembly in 1952. the same year he was chairman of the North Atlantic Council. In 1953 he was instrumental in bringing about the Korean truce. When Israel attacked Egypt and the Suez Canal in 1956 Pearson went before the with a plan for keeping peace in the troubled area. For this act of diplomacy he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Liberals were defeated in 19S7 and Pearson relinquished the post of secretary for external affairs. He was chosen as leader of the Liberal Party in 1958; that same year the party suffered another bitter defeat and Pearson had to start rebuilding for a return to power in 1963. With victory Pearson became prime minister. During his administration the national pension plan and a family assistance program were introduced, the old-age security benefits broadened, and groundwork laid for the National Free Medical Service; a royal commission was established for the study of French-English bilingualism and biculturalism; and the Columbia River Treaty with the United States was completed. Pearson.

POWELL, THE REV. CLAYTON, JR., U.S. Baptist minister and congressman (194570) from New York (b. New Haven. Conn., 29. 1908— d. Miami. Fla.. April 4. 1972), a controversial public figure who was a prominent spokesman for the civil rights movement in its early days. Powell received his B.A. from Colgate University. Hamilton. N.Y.. in 1930 and his M.A. from Columbia in 1932. He was early affiliated with his father's church, the Abyssinian Baptist Church, and alternated with the elder Powell in preaching to its congregation, the largest in the U.S. Powell was elected to the New York City Council in 1941. In 1945 he became

Ezra Pound

Adam

UN

ADAM

Nov.

Clayton Powell

—

member of the U.S. House as the Democratic represenlalive from Harlem and began his long fight against segregation. During his 1 1 successive terms in the House he distinguished himself as

1

chairman of the Committee on Education and Labor (1960-67) and played a leading role in

Minimum Wage Act. the Manpower Development and Training Act, and the passage of the 1961

the antipoverty bill, as well as almost SO other pieces of major social legislation. During the early 1960s. Powell became involved in a lawsuit with t woman who claimed he had wrongly accused her of collecting police graft.

Found

guilty of civil

contempt of court and, later (1966), of criminal contempt, he left the country to avoid arrest. On 1, 1967, the House voted to exclude Powell from the 90th Congress. In 1969, having satisfied the debt imposed by the court. Powell was seated in the 91st Congress but the following year was defeated for reelection in the Democratic primaries. Powell was the author of a book of sermons, Keep the Failk, Baby!, published in 1967.

March

DENIS NOWELL,

PRITT,

British

lawyer

(b.

May

Billericay, Essex, Eng.. Sept. 22, 1887— d. 23, 1972), a confirmed Marxist, played a part in almost every left-wing cause. He was called to

the bar in 1909 and took silk in 192 7. A leading figure in the Howard League for Penal Reform, the Bentham Committee for Poor Litigants, the National Council for Civil Liberties, and the Haldane Society, he was a sponsor of the World Peace Movement and president of the Interna-

Democratic Lawyers. He tional .Association joined the Labour Party immediately after World War I. became Labour MP for Hammersmith North in 1935. in 1940 was expelled from the parly for a book defending entry of Soviet troops into Finland, and in 1945 held his constituency seat as a Labour Independent. He was presidential professor of law in the University of Ghana from 1965 until Kwame Nkrumah's deposition in 1966, and produced many books and pamphlets on political causes. He was awarded a Stalin Peace of

Prize in 1954.

RAJAGOPALACHARI, CHAKRAVARTI, Indian politician (b. Madras, India, 1878— d. Madras, 1972), was governor-general of India to 1950, when the country became a republic. A graduate of the University of Madras, he practiced as a lawyer before becoming involved in politics as a devoted follower of Mohandas Gandhi. In 1921 he became general secretary of the Indian National Congress and later a member of its working committee. After Congress' success in the 1937 elections he became chief minister (then called prime minister) of Madras. In 1939 the Congress ministries resigned and he was chosen by Gandhi to be one of the first to offer individual civil disobedience to the British authorities, for which he was jailed in 1940 one of five occasions on which he was imprisoned during the struggle for independence. After World War II, in which he opposed Gandhi by pressing for conditional support of the Allies' cause, he Dec.

25.

from 1948

became

a

member

dance

of entertainment, including parlors, and bowling alleys.

516

Obituaries 1972

of the

interim government

in

Delhi before succeeding Lord Mountbatten as governor-general. During 1952-54 he was again chief minister of Madras and in 1959 he became leader of the newly formed, right-wing Swatantra (Freedom) Party.

RAMSEY, THE RIGHT REV. IAN THOMAS, British clergyman (b. Bolton. Eng., Jan. 31, 1915 d. Oct. 6. 1972). Anglican bishop of Durham from 1966, became chairman of the Archbishops'

—

Commission on Doctrine

at its foundation in 1967.

RANK, J(OSEPH) ARTHUR RANK,

1st

Baron,

halls,

bingo

authority on Byzantine art. He took part in the British Academy expedition to Istanbul (1927il) and later traveled in the Near East studying Byzantine and Islamic art and archaeology. During 1932-38 he lectured at the Courtauld Institute in London. Among his many publications were The Birth ol Western Painting (with Robert Byron; 1930), The Icon! ol Cyprus (1937), Byzantine Painting (1948), The Art ol Byzantium (1959), Art ol the Byzantine Era (1963), and Islamic Art (1965). He was a contributor to Encyctopadia Britannica.

RIEU, EMILE VICTOR, British publisher and translator (b. London, Eng., Feb. 10, 1887—d. London. May 11, 1972), was editor of the Penguin Classics series (1944-64). In 1912 he was appointed manager of the Oxford University Press in India. In 192 3 he became educational manager of Methuen & Co. Ltd.. and held that post for ten years, becoming managing director in 1933. He resigned the directorship in 1936 to make a professional career of a long-standing hobby of translating the classics. By the end of 1945 he had completed the Odyssey, which, on publication by Sir Allen Lane's Penguin Books, became an immediate best seller in the U.K. and the U.S. The Iliad followed in 1950 and thereafter Rieu continued to edit Penguin translations for 20 years. In 1952 he produced a new translation of The Four Gospels.

ROBINSON, JACKIE ROOSEVELT,

colour line, was handpicked by Branch Rickey, manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, as the likely to succeed in surmounting the race barrier. Robinson was signed in the fall of 1945 for a $3,500 bonus and a $600-per-month contract to play for the Montreal farm club. He came up to the major league Brooklyn club in 1947 and for his entire ten-year career stayed with the Dodgers, during which time the team won ball's

man most

six National League pennants (1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956). At the end of his first season, with an average of .297, Robinson was voted the rookie of the year, and in 1949 he won the NL's most valuable player award with a .342 average. He played all three bases as well as the outfield and excelled as a base runner, chalking up a total of 197 stolen bases. Robinson ivas a member of six NL All-Star teams, 1949 through 1954, and when he retired in 1956 his lifetime average was .311, with 734 RBIs and 137 home runs. In 1962 he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. His autobiography, / Never Had It Made, was published in November 1972.

ROMAINS, JULES (Louis Farigoule), and playwright France, Aug. 26.

(b.

French Saint-Julien Chap-

1885— d. Paris, France, teuil, Aug. 14, 1972), was author of the 27-volume novel series Les Hommes de bonne volonti. and from 1946 a member

of the

Academic

Fran(;aise. de quelqu'un. a psy-

In 1911 he published Mart chological drama. This was followed in 1914 by the picaresque Les Copains. In 1923 he produced the brilliant farce Knock ou le triomphe de la midecine. Later plays included Le Mariage de M. le Trouhadec (1925), La Scintillante (1925), De-

metrios (1926). and Le Diclateur (1926). His long novel Le Dieu des corps (1928) was well received and in 1932 was followed by the first volume of Les Hommes de bonne volonti. entitled Le 6 Octobre: this vast work covered the period 1908 to 1933.

British industrialist and film magnate (b. Hull, Eng., Dec. 23, 1888— d. Winchester, Eng., March 29, 1972), founder (1937) and chairman (until 1962) of the Rank Organisation Ltd., played an influential pari in the development of the British film industry from the mid-1930s onward. On leaving school he entered the family flour milling

ROSENHEIM, MAX LEONARD ROSENHEIM,

grew into the giant Rank Hovis McDougall Ltd., whose life president he became In 1969. Rank entered the film industry through his interest in the Religious Film Society, which he founded in 1933, By the 19S0s he was in control of virtually all film production and distribu-

RUTHERFORD, DAME MARGARET (Mrs. Stringer Davis), British stage and screen actress (b. Balham, London, Eng., May 11, 1892— d.

business;

this

in Britain. The Rank Organisation ran a chain of theatres and extended into other branches

tion

Baron,

March

British

physician

(b.

London,

Eng.,

1908— d. London, Dec. 2,

1972), was emeritus professor of medicine at London UniIS,

and president of the Royal College of Physicians (1966-72).

versity,

Gcrrards Cross, Eng., May 22, 1972), specialized playing robust female eccentrics of a certain At the late age of ii she became a student player with the Old Vic Company, later understudying at the Lyric, Hammersmith. From there in

age.

in

weekly repertory and madp

'.\t

acquaintance of Tyrone Guthrie, under who rection she first caught the critics' eyes comedy by Robert Morley. Her role of Mi5> in Spring Meeting (1938) and that of Miss I: in The Importance ol Being Earnest (Wil) estab-l lished her as a star performer. Later roles included 1

Lady Bracknell, Madame Arcati, the medium. Id Noel Coward's Blithe Spirit, the White Queen In Alice in Wonderland, and Mrs. Candour in Tit School lor Scandal. Among her many film parti was Miss Marple in Murder She Said (1962). In 1963 she won an Oscar as best supportiag actress for her part in The VlPs. She was created

DBE

in

1967.

SA'ID IBN TAIMUR, former sultan of Musat and Oman (b. Oman, 1910— d. London, Eng., Oct. 19, 1972), in 1932 succeeded to the throne of the independent sultanate. Until deposed by hit son Qabus ibn Sa'id in 1970, the sultan speal most of his time shut up in his remote palace at Salaleh. Although supplied with ample funds from an oil concession to an international consortium, Sa'id ibn Taimur was opposed to their use for the benefit of his subjects, whom he ruled autocratically. In 1957 British troops crushed a Saudiand Egyptian-backed attempt to seize part of Oman. In 1965 a revolt broke out in the province of Dhofar and in 1966 the sultan narrowly escaped assassination. Following the palace coup of Jtlly 1970 he was exiled to London.

SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR JAMES GASCOYNE-CECIL, 5th Marquess, British statesman (b. Aug. 27. 1893— d. Feb. 23, 1972), regarded as the Conservative Party's leading "kingmaker," became undersecretary to Anthony Edoi

(Lord .Avon) during the latter's first term as foreign secretary (1935-38) and resigned with over the Abyssinian issue. During World War 11 he held various Cabinet posts, including that of secretary of state for the dominions (1940-42; 1943-45). Following his assumption of the barony J of Cecil of Essendon, he served as leader of the I

Um

U.S. base-

player (b. Cairo, Ga., Jan. 31. 1919— d. Stamford, Conn.. Oct. 24, 1972). who broke base-

ball

novelist

she worked

-

RICE, DAVID TALBOT, British art historian (b. July 11, 1903— d. March 12, 1972), WatsonGordon professor of the history of fine art at the University of Edinburgh from 1934 and the university's vice-principal (1967-71), was a leading

of Lords from 1942 until 194 5. When the I Conservatives returned to power in 1951, he aglin I

House

became leader

of the

House

*

of Lords and sup-

ported Eden's Suez policy during the latter'; p-" miership. When Eden resigned in 1957, Salisf own resignation soon followed in protest au' the new government's plans for accelerating ! colonization. He was chancellor of the Order ol the Garter from 1960, chancellor of the Uni\ sity of Liverpool (1951-71), and a fellow of the

Royal Society.

SAMBUU, ZHAMSARANGIBIN,

—

Mongolian head

of stale (b. Mongolia. 1895 d. Mongolia, May 20, 1972), was chairman of the Presidium of the Great People's Hural (the Mongolian national assembly) and a member of the Politburo ol the

Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.

SANDERS, GEORGE, British film actor (b. St. d. near BarcePetersburg, Russia, July 3, 1906 lona. Spain, April 25, 1972), who depicted a long succession of suave and supercilious cads, crooks,' and romantic heroes, took his own life "because I am bored." His portrait of the dramatic critic Addison de Witt in All About Eve (1950) won, him an .\cademy Award for best supporting actor.. Sanders' American film debut came in 1936 with

—

[

Lloyds ol London. .Among his later films were A Shot in the Dark (1964), The Quiller Memoran-. dum (1966), and The Kremlin Letter (1970). In[ 1960 he published Memoirs ol a Prolessional Cad.,

SCHAROUN, HANS BERNHARD,

West Germanl

architect (b. Bremen, Ger., Sept. 20, 1893— d. Berlin, Ger., Nov. 25, 1972), designed the Philharmonic concert ball in West Berlin (in-

West

augurated 1963).

SCHLUMBERGER,

I

DANIEL

THEODORE,

French archaeologist (b. Mulhouse, France, Dec. 19, 1904— d. Princeton, N.J. Oct. 20, 1972), was assistant inspector and then inspector of antiquities for the French High Commission in the Levant (1929-41), director of the French: .

archaeological delegation to Afghanistan (194S64), professor in the Faculty of Letters at the University of Strasbourg (from 19S5), and later director of the French Institute of Archaeology in Beirut, Lebanon. His excavations included the Umayyad palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in the Syrian desert, the fabled site of Balkh, capital of the Hellenistic successors of .Alexander the Great in Afghanistan, and the Mazdean fire temple »l

Sorkh Kowtal, Afghanistan.

SCHMITT, GLADYS,

and Gotha (a grandson

(b.

ried Prince

U.S. novelist and educator Pittsburgh, Pa., 1909— d. Pittsburgh, Oct. 3. 1972). Thomas S. Baker professor of literature Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh from 1970, was the author of David !he King (1946) h sold more than 900,000 copies.

at

ELISABETH WHITWORTH, British Bournemouth, Eng., 1898— d. DorEng., June 19, 1972), was designer of the Shajcespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford-uponAvon. She won the international competition of 192S for the design of a new theatre on the site of the old Gothic Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, SCOTT,

of Queen Victoria), marGustaf Adolf of Sweden, son of King Gustaf VI Adolf, in 1932. They had four daughters, known in Sweden as "the Haga princesses," from the castle where the family lived, and a son, Carl Gustaf (b. 1946), who, following his father's death in an air crash in 1947, became heir to the Swedish throne.

architect (b. set,

?hich

had been destroyed by

fire.

SEGNI, ANTONIO, Italian statesman (b. Sassari. Sardinia, Feb. 2, 1891— d. Rome. Italy. Dec. 1, 1972), was the 14th president of the Italian Republic (1962-64) and a principal representative of the right wing of the Christian Democratic Party.

A

militant

Roman

Catholic,

he became

Iknown as a "white Bolshevik" for his post-World |VVar II introduction of agrarian reform while minister of agriculture (1946-51). He was president of the Council of Ministers (premier; 195557, 19S9-6Q). minister of defense (1958), and foreign minister (1960-62). He was awarded the Icharlemagne Prize in 1964 and retired the following year.

gSHAPLEY, HARLOW,

U.S. astronomer (b. NashMo., Nov. 2, 1885— d. Boulder, Colo.. Oct. 1972), called the dean of American astronomers, was associated with Harvard University |as director of the observatory (1921-52) and as jPaine professor of astronomy (1952-56; emeritus ilrom 1956). He received his B.A. (1910) and IM.A. (1911) degrees from the University of IMissouri; in 1912 he was granted a fellowship iville,

;20.

the Princeton Observatory, and in 1913 earned Ph.D. there. For the next seven years Shapley iwas on the staff at the Mount Wilson Observatory [in California, where he studied the Cepheid varilables. After World War II Shapley became interested in public affairs and certain of his political

iat

jhis

drew fire from the U.S. House Committee Un-.'\merican Activities. The astronomer, howfaced the committee undaunted and continlued his efforts to bring about world unity. Shapworks included The Inner Metagalaxy iley's 1(1957), Oj Stars and Men (1958), and The View \JTom a Distant Star (1964).

ibeliefs

!0n

jever,

SIEFF, ISRAEL

MOSES

SIEFF, Baron. British

business executive and Zionist (b. Manchester, Eng., May 4, 1889— d. London, Eng., Feb. 14, 1972), was president (from 1967) ol Marks and Spencer Ltd., multimillion dollar department store chain. Sieff joined the company in 1915, becoming vice-chairman and joint managing director in 192 6

and chairman

worked

in

Simon Marks in Chaim Weizmann Sieff and Marks

after the death of

1964. After being influenced by at the University of

Manchester,

U.S. dancer (b. Kansas City, Mo., Oct. 21, 1891— d. Orlando, Fla., Jan. 9, 1972), called the "lather lof modern dance," founded (1915) the Denishawn School of Dance with his wife, Ruth St. Denis (d. 1968), the lamed dancer whom he married in 1914. During the 1920s the couple made many tours of the U.S. with their troupe of dancers; they also spent an 18-month period in the Orient 'dancing and gathering new material. In 1932 Shawn founded the Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival at Lee, Mass., which by the 1970s was attended by 50,000 persons during the season. Shawn was the author of a number of books including Ruth St. Denis: Pioneer and Prophet.

SIKORSKY, IGOR IVANOVICH, U.S. pioneer (b. Kiev, the Ukraine, May 25,

aviation

—

1889 d. Easton, Conn., Oct. 26. 1972), whose achievements included the building of a multiple-engine plane and the creation of a flying boat, was the prime developer of the helicopter. His first attempt at flying a helicopter, which he built in Russia in 1909, resulted in failure, but a later Americanmade model, the VS-300, got off the ground in 1939. Sikorsky designed the two-engine and fourengine planes, used as bombers in World War I, before he went to the U.S. in 1919. By 1923 he had founded the Sikorsky Aero Engineering Corp., which produced in 1924 his first successful twinengine, 14-passenger plane. This was followed in 1928 by the S-38, a ten-sealer amphibian used

by the U.S. Navy and by Pan American. In 1929 the Sikorsky company joined United Aircraft Corp. and in 1931 brought out the S-40, a fourengine, single-wing flying boat. The S-40, largest plane at that time, was flown by Pan on its Latin-American runs. The VS-300 helicopter, first displayed to the public in 1940 and later much modified, was to become the all-purpose workhorse of military flying.

Am

SILKIN, LEWIS SILKIN, 1st Baron, British politician (b. London. Eng., Nov. 14. 1889— d. London. May 11, 1972), was Labour MP for Peckham (1936-50). minister of town and country planning (194 5-50), deputy leader of the ofopposition in the House of Lords (1955-64), and chairman (1940-45) of the Town Planning Committee of the former London County Council (LCC). He was raised to the peerage in 1950.

SIMON, PIERRE-HENRI,

French literary

critic

and scholar

(b. Saint-Fort-sur-Gironde, France, Jan. 16. 1903— d. Paris, France. Sept. 20, 1972), was professor of French literature at the University of Fribourg, Switz. (1949-63).

SINGH, SANT FATEH,

Sikh leader (b. 1908— d. Amritsar, India, Oct. 30, 1972), was a central

campaign

1908— d. Stockholm, Swed., Nov. 28, 1972), daughter of Charles Edward, duke of Saxe-Coburg

Sikh-dominated Punjabi-speaking state in 1960s and took over from his leader. Master Tara Singh, the threat to fast unto death as a political weapon. He began a fast in 1965. threatening to burn himself to death if his demands were not met, but called off the threat because of the war with

Jackie Robinson

Dame Margaret

SIBYLLA, PRINCESS, Ger.,

of

Sweden

(b.

Coburg,

figure

in

the

for

—

SMITH, BETTY (Elizabeth Keoch), U.S. author (b. Brooklyn, N.Y., Dec. IS, 1896— d. ShelConn., Jan. 17, 1972), whose best-selling Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1943) was based on her own life as a child in Brooklyn. The novel, which sold six million copies, was adapted for the screen (directed by Elia Kazan and released in 1945) and later (1951) made ton.

into a

Broadway

SMITH,

play.

JOSEPH

FIELDING, U.S. religious leader (b. Salt Lake City, Utah, July 19, 1876— Lake City, July 2, 1972), the tenth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was a descendant of the prophet Joseph Smith who founded the church in the 1830s. After serving as a Mormon missionary to Britain (1904-06), Smith became a church historian. In 1910 he was named to the church's Council of the d. Salt

Twelve Apostles and

in 1951 was appointed president of the council. In 1970 Smith, then 93 years of age. was elected president of the Mormons, upon the death of David C. McKay, the ninth

president.

SNOW, EDGAR PARKS, U.S. author and expert on China (b. Kansas City, Mo., July 19, 1905— d. Eysins. Switz., Feb. 15, 1972), was the first U.S. journalist to interview Mao Tse-tung after the Chinese Red Army leader, with Chou En-Iai, had set up his headquarters in the Yenan caves in Shensi Province in 1935. Snow first went to China in 1928 and remained for 12 years, working a short time for the China Weekly Review, then as foreign correspondent for a number of big U.S. dailies and the London Daily Herald, as well as for the Saturday Evening Post, Fortune, and Look magazines. Snow's last trip to China, in 1970. was thought to have paved the way in some part for Pres. Richard Nixon's visit in 1972. Snow's authoritative book Red Star over China (1937), recounting his first visit with Mao. was revised

to include his later observations and reissued in 1968. Another book. The Other Side oj the River, concerning Snow's impressions of Communist China 11 years after the revolution,

was published in 1962; his last work. The Long Revolution, was published in 1972.

a

the early

Rutherford

Pakistan. Subsequently the Punjab was split into two states one mainly Sikh and Punjabi-speaking, In 1966 he again threatened to burn himself if the city of Chandigarh was not made capital of the Punjab. After a further threat in 1970 Chandigarh was made joint capital of both the new states. Singh resigned from politics after the defeat of his Akali Dal party in the state elections of March 1972.

book A

the Zionist cause.

ficial

iSHAWN, TED (Edwin Meyers Shawn),

517

Obituaries 1972

SPAAK, PAUL-HENRI,

Belgian statesman (b. Schaerbeek. Belg., Jan. 25, 1899— d. Brussels, Belg., July 31, 1972), was a "founding father" of the European Economic Community and played a leading part in post-World War II European politics. Throughout a long and distinguished

George Sanders

518

oreer covering three periods as prime minister and six as foreign minister, he was intimately involved in the major crises of his own country— invasion of 1940, the abdication of Leopold III, and the break with the Congo—as for well as being in the forefront of the campaign European integration. A lawyer by training, in 1932 he was elected as a Socialist deputy for Brussels: three years later he became minister ot the

German

transport, then foreign minister, and in May 1938 Belgium's first Socialist prime minister. As prime minister and again as foreign minister, he strove into keep Belgium neutral. When the Germans

vaded. Spaak escaped to England with Prime Mmister Hubert Pierlot. and during the government's exile in London he laid the foundations of Benelux. After the war came the long conflict with the king over his having decided to remain in occupied Belgium, and in 1950 Spaak forced Leopold's abdication in favour of his son Baudouin. The war bad convinced Spaak of the necessity tor a united Europe. In 1946 he became president General .•\ssembly. in 1948. while of the first Belstill prime minister and foreign minister of

UN

gium, he was elected chairman of the newly founded Organization for European Economic Cooperation: in 1949 he became president of the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, and one year later he commended the Schuman plan for a supranational coal and steel pool to the assembly. In 1954 he threw all his efforts into the creation of a European common market, helping to draft the

Rome

treaties

that established

and Euratom. In 1957 Spaak became secretary-general of N.ATO, from which he resigned in 196! to become Belgium's deputy prime minister and foreign minister in a Christian Sothe

EEC

cial-Socialist coalition.

STARK, HAROLD RAYNSFORD, admiral (ret.), U.S. Navy (b. Wilkes-Barrc. Pa., Nov. 12, 1880

TAMIROFF, AKIM, U.S. 1900— d. Palm Springs.

Washington. D.C., Aug. 21, 1972). was chief of naval operations at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. He received the rank of admiral in 1939 with the assignment to build a two-ocean navy to counterbalance the threat of Germany and Japan. He was superseded in the top

was twice nominated

—

Obituaries 1972

He

did

much

to achieve a

merger between breakaway Katanga Province and the Congo's central government, and in 1965 signed a treaty with the Congo's prime minister, Moise Tshombe. He retired from active politics in 1966. In 1957 he was awarded the Charlemagne Prize for his work toward realizing the ideal of European unity.

SPECTORSKY, A(UGUSTE) C(OMTE), U.S. publisher (b. Paris, France, Aug. 13. 1910— d. St. Croix. Virgin Islands, Jan. 17. 1972). was associate publisher and editorial director of Playboy magazine. After joining the Playboy staff in 1956, he was responsible for persuading important writers to let their work appear in the magazine. He made Playboy an enormous success by striking a balance between good centerfolds and good writing. Spectorsky was the author of The Exurbaniles, a best seller of 1955.

d.

command shortly given command of

the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor. .Admiral Stark, like many of his contemporaries, suffered the consequences of the military establishment's ineptitude in the entire disaster. He retired in

1946.

SUSINI, PIERRE, French diplomat Dec. 12,

B.,

U.S.

Claremont, N.H.. .^pril 5. 1892— Pa., Oct. 9. 1972). editor from 1919 of Witness, national weekly of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was executive secretary of the Church League for industrial Democracy, and director and trustee of the American Civil Liberties Union during the 1930s. d.

(b.

Tunkhannock,

Akim Tamiroff

1919— d.

(b. Algiers, Paris. France, Oct. 19, 1972),

was French delegate general in Hanoi, .North Vietnam, from 1970. He entered the French foreign service in 1944 and served in various capacities in San Sebastian (Spain), Ankara, Reykjavik, Belgrade, Beirut. Damascus, and Cairo before being sent to Hanoi. He received fatal injuries when the French mission buildings in Hanoi were bit during a U.S. bombing raid in October 1972.

SWINTON, PHILIP CUNLIFFE-LISTER,

1st

Earl, British politician (b. Bridlington. YorkMay 1, 1884 d. Masham, Yorkshire, Eng., July 27, 1972), was elected Conservative MP for Hendon, and retained the seat until he

—

shire. Eng..

received his peerage in 1935. He was minister resident in West Africa (1942-44), minister for civil aviation (1944-45). chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and minister of materials (1951-52). and secretary of state for Commonwealth relations (1952-55). He was also deputy leader of the House of Lords (1951-55).

SZAMUELY, TIBOR,

Hungarian-British scholar

Moscow. U.S.S.R., 1925— d. London. Eng.. December 19 72), was vice-chancellor of Budapest (b.

University (1958) and later lecturer in politics Reading (Eng.) I'niversity. He attended school in England, then returned to the U.S.S.R. and was graduated from Moscow I'niversity. In 1951 he was arrested and sent to a labour camp; on his release he went to Hungary, then to Ghana, and in 1964 to England, where he made a name for himself in political journalism and as a broadcaster. He became a British citizen in 1969. Before his death he completed a major work. Tke Russian Tradition, to be published in 1973. at

TALAL, IBN ABDULLAH, former king

of

Jordan

Mecca, Hejaz, 1909—d. Istanbul. Turk.. July 1972), was proclaimed king on Sept. 5, 1951. but abdicated the following year in favour of his son Husain. Talal. privately educated in Amman, joined the Arab Legion in 192 7 as a lieutenant, and rose to general of the Legion in (b.

8,

1948.

SPOFFORD, THE REV. WILLIAM clergyman

after Pearl Harbor but was the U.S. naval forces in Europe

until the surrender of Germany in 1945. Although officially absolved of any blame for the success of

He became

ruler

after

his

father.

King

Abdullah, was assassinated on July 20. 1951. Already suffering mental distress. Talal became increasingly ill. and on .Aug. 11. 1952, the Jordanian Parliament declared him mentally unfit and removed him from office. His son Crown Prince Husain was proclaimed successor. Talal spent the remainder of his life in a mental insti-

Eugene Cardinal Tisserant

actor (b. Baku. Russia, Calif.. Sept. 17, 1972),

for an Academy .^wa^d: 1936 for his portrayal of a Chinese general in The General Died at Dawn and in 1943 for guerrilla his role as a leader in For Wham tke Bell Tolls. In 1959 he was chosen to play the lead in

in

the long-running

Broadway play Raskomon.

TAZEWELL, CHARLES, U.S. writer Moines. la.. 1900— d. Chesterfield. N.H..

(b.

June

Da 26,

1972). was the author of the beloved Christina The Littlest Angel, written in three daya in 1939 for Coronet magazine, published in book form in 1946. and by 1972 in its 3Sth printing. Tazewell's other children's books included Tkt Littlest Snowman, winner of the Thomas A. Edison prize for the best children's book of 1956. story

THEILER, MAX, South African-US. immunologist (b. Pretoria. S.Af., Jan. 30. 1899— d. New Haven. Conn.. Aug. 11. 1972). winner of a Nobd Prize, was associated with the Rockefeller Foimdation from 1931 until 1964. when he became professor of epidemiology and microbiology at Yale University. Theiler studied at the London School of Tropical Medicine, taught at Harvard University (1922-30). then transferred to the virus laboratory of the Rockefeller Institute for

Medical Research (which later became Rocke-

feller University); he was named director of the lab in 1951. .\t the Rockefeller Institute he pursued his research into the cause of yellow fever and aided in proving that a filterable virus was the causative agent. By 1936 Theiler and his coworkers had succeeded in producing a vaccine, known as 17-D virus, which they tested on themselves to prove its effectiveness. Further successful testing led to mass production of the vaccine in the mid- 1940s. For his work in developing the yellow fever vaccine. Theiler was awarded the 1951 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicin(

THOMPSON, LLEWELLYN

E., JR.,

U.S. d

mat (b. Las Animas. Colo.. .\ug. 24, 1904 Bethesda, Md.. Feb. 6. 1972). was twice ami^a,sador to Moscow. 1957-62 and 1967-69. He served on the U.S. delegation to the strategic arms limitation talks (SALT) at both the Helsinki and Vienna sessions, 1969-71.

THORNDIKE, (ARTHUR) RUSSELL,

British

and author (b. Rochester, Eng.. Feb. 6, 1885 d. London. Eng.. Nov. 7. 1972 ). who wrote the Dr. Syn novels, was a well-known figure on the London stage for nearly 40 years. His writings include the Dr. Syn books about a smuggling parson of the Romney marshes, the first of which was published in 1915 and brought fame to its author (a film based on the stories was later made) other works were The House of JeSreys (1943). and Sybil Thorndike (1929), a biography of his sister. actor

—

;

TISSERANT, EUGENE GABRIEL GERVAIS LAURENT CARDINAL, French Roman Catholic prelate (b. Nancy, France, March 24. 1884— d. Albano. Italy. Feb. 21, 1972), dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals from 1951, was one of the greatest experts on the history of the Near East and held the title of "librarian and archivist of the Holy Roman Church." Ordained in 1907. he became curator of Oriental manuscripts in the

Helen Traubel

'

'

i

Vatican Library the following year and also professor of Assyrian at the ApoUinarian University, Rome (1908-13). Tisserant, who served under six popes, was created cardinal by Pius XI in 1936 and held the dioceses of Ostia and Porto and Sta. Rufina. In 1961 he was elected to the Academie Franijaise.

four turboprops, which when introduced in 1961 was the largest and heaviest commercial aircraft in use. Tupolev was a member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and an honorary fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. He received

numerous state prizes and in 1959 was awarded the Gold Medal of the Federation Aeronautique Internationale.

TRAUBEL, HELEN, U.S. opera and concert star (b. St. Louis, Mo.. 1903— d. Santa Monica, Calif., Juiy 28. 1972),

famed Wagnerian soprano

of the

New York Metropolitan Opera Company from 1939 until 1953, made her professional singing debut in the early 1920s with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra under the baton of Rudolph Ganz (g.v.). She first sang Sieglinde in Die Walkiire in Chicago in 1939, repeating her performance at the Met later that same year when she became a member of the company. Her appearances in nightclubs, films, ahd on radio and TV led to clashes with Rudolph Bing, the Met's general manager, over their propriety, and in 1953 Traubel left the company. For the next decade or so she worked with the popular entertainers of the

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j

ITRAYNOR, HAROLD JOSEPH ("Pie"), baseball player (b. 1900— d. Pittsburgh. I

March

I

16,

1972),

who was

U.S.

Pa., elected to the Baseball

Hall of Fame in 1948, spent his 17-year major league career with the Pittsburgh Pirates. Traynor broke in as a regular with the Pirates in 1922, playing both shortstop and third base. In 1934 be was named player-manager of the Pirates; he retired as a player in 1937 but continued to manage the club until after the 1939 season. Traynor had a lifetime batting average of .320 and a fielding average of .921. In 1969 the baseball writers named him the greatest third baseman of all time and chose him as a member of the all-time major league All-Star team.

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,

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\

TROUT, PAUL

HOWARD

("Dizzy"). U.S. baseplayer (b. 1916— d. Chicago, 111.. Feb. 28, 1972). star pitcher with the Detroit Tigers from 1939 until 1952, posted a 20-12 record in 1943 and had a 2.22 earned-run average in 1944, his peak season. In 194 5 he led the Tigers to the American League pennant and, during the World Series against the Chicago Cubs, won four games out of six that he pitched in nine days. His overall record was 1 70 won to 161 lost.

U.S. poet and teacher (b. Hope. III.. June 13, 1S94— d. Torrington. Conn.. Dec. 10, 1972), winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1940 for his Collected Poems, was the prolific writer of more than 50 books, including verse, novels, and critical essays. He graduated from the University of Illinois in 1914 and was granted his master's degree the following year. After receiving his doctorate from Columbia University

1920 Van Doren began his 39-year teaching career at that institution, where he was professor of English until retiring in 1959. Van Doren's in

was not as impressive as his other writings, but The Transients (1935), Windless Cabins (1940), and Tilda (1943) were well known. His critical works included studies on Thoreau and Dryden, as well as, Shakespeare (1939). Nathaniel Hawthorne (1949), and Introduction to Poetry, a critical anthology (1951). As a poet Van Doren received universal acclaim for his fine craftsmanship and for the lyricism and cool intellectuality of his verse. His first volume. Spring Thunder and Other Poems, was published in 1924; among his later works were Collected and New Poems (1963) and That Shining Place (1969). Van Doren also wrote The Autobiography of Mark Van Doren (1958) and a play. The Last Days of Lincoln (1959). Among his many awards, in addition to the Pulitzer Prize, was the EmersonThoreau Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1963). fiction

von BEKESY, GEORG. U.S. physicist pest,

Hung.. June

3,

1399— d.

(b.

Buda-

Honolulu, Hawaii,

13. 1972). professor of sensory sciences at the University of Hawaii from 1966. was the recipient of a Nobel Prize in 1961 while a faculty member at Harvard University. Von Bekesy received a Ph.D. in physics from the University of

ball

June

TRUMAN, HARRY

the Hungarian telephone system, where he began his research work into the mechanics of hearing. In 1 94 7 after spending several years at the Royal Caroline Institute in Stockholm. Von Bekesy went to the United States and joined the faculty at

j

:

VAN DOREN, MARK,

S.: see

page 520.

Budapest

in

1923 and became an engineer with

,

He continued his experiments with the ear and discovered how the ear distinguishes the pitch of sounds in the cochlea, that part of the inner ear shaped like a snail's shell. He demonstrated the role of the cochlea as a sort of microphone that converts the mechanical energy of sound into electrical impulses received by the brain. For this, and for pointing the way toward advances in the diagnosis and correction of damaged hearing, Von Bekesy was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Harvard.

JTUPOLEV, ANDREI NIKOLAEVICH, craft designer (b.

Soviet air-

Pustomazovo, Russia, Nov.

11,

1888— d. Moscow. U.S.S.R., Dec. 23, 1972), was responsible for the design of a wide variety of civil and military aircraft, culminating in the ,Tu-144 supersonic transport (SST), which first flew on Dec. 31, 1968. two months ahead of the Anglo-French Concorde SST. Educated at the Moscow Higher Technical School. Tupolev in

!

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became assistant director of the Central Aerohydrodynamics Institute. He designed his first aircraft in 1922. and a later model made 1918

human

Medicine.

a historic Moscow-New York flight via Siberia in 1926. His most significant designs came after the advent of jet propulsion and included the twin-jet Tu-104, and the Tu-114, powered by

WADDAMS, THE REV. CANON HERBERT MONTAGUE, British Anglican clergyman (b.

"Pie" Traynor

Mark Van Doren

Nov.

15.

1911— d. May

secretary of the Church

13. 1972), of England

was general Council on

519

Obituaries 1972

Foreign Relations (1945-59). Ordained in 193S. he was assistant missioner at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, until 1937, when he became assistant priest at the Grosvenor Chapel and chaplain of Liddon House. In the early 1940s he worked in the Religious Division of the Ministry of Information. In 1959 he went to Canada as rector of Manotick, Ont. In 1962 he was appointed canon residentiary of Canterbury Cathe-

He was chairman of the Hansard Society for Parliamentary Government from 1970. A prowriter, he was a contributor to Encyclopedia

dral. lific

Britannic a.

WATSON-JONES,

SIR

REGINALD,

British

orthopedic surgeon (b. 1902— d. London, Eng., Aug. 9, 1972), was orthopedic surgeon to King George VI (1946-52) and to Queen Elizabeth II from 1952. Outstanding contributions to orthopedic surgery were his world-famous textbook on Fractures and Joint Injuries (1940) and his founding of the British Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. He was knighted in 1945 and was a member of the council of the Royal College of Surgeons.

WEBSTER, MARGARET, British actress stage director (b. New York. N.Y., March

and 15,

1905— d. London.

Eng.. Nov. 13. 1972). who 1950s became the first woman to direct productions {Don Carlos and then A'ida) at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, began her career understudying Dame Sybil Thorndike in Saint Joan, reaching the Old Vic in 1929. She began directing plays on the London stage in 1935. She was invited to New York to direct Richard II (1937), Hamlet (1938). and Henry IV. Part I (1939). In 1943 she directed Othello. playing Emilia herself to Paul Robeson's lead. In 1946 she was elected one of the ten outstanding women of the year by the Women's National Press Club of America. She was the author of Shakespeare Today (1957) and The Same Only Different (1969), her autobiography. in

the

WEISS, GEORGE MARTIN,

U.S. baseball execu-

(b. New Haven, Conn., June 2i. 1894— d. Greenwich. Conn.. Aug. 13, 1972). general manager of the New York Yankees during the team's peak years, from 1947 through 1960, when it chalked up ten pennants and seven World Series. Weiss became the first president of the New York Mets in 1961 and remained in that post until 1966 when he retired. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in a special executive cate-

tive

gory.

WELLINGTON, GERALD WELLESLEY, 7th Duke of, British architect and iconographer (b. Aug. 21, 1885— d. Stratfield Saye, Berkshire, Eng., Jan. 4, 1972), an authority on his ancestor, the "Iron Duke," practiced for a number of years as an architect. An expert in the arts and literature of the Regency period, he was a trustee of the National Gallery (1950-57).

TRUMAN, HARRY

S., 33rd president of the U.S. (b. Lamar, Mo.. May 8, 1884— d. Kansas City. Mo., Dec. 26, 1972), led the U.S. to a new role of international leadership and kept Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal tradition at home. Son Truman, a horse-and-mule of John Anderson trader and farmer, Truman received a high school education at Independence, Mo., but did not attend college. Poor eyesight kept him from West Point, but during World War I he served in France with the Missouri National Guard, be-

coming commander

of Battery D, 129th Field 35th Division. In 1919 he returned to Kansas City where he married his high school

Artillery,

sweetheart. Bess Wallace, and, with his exsergeant, opened a haberdashery. The business failed during the depression of 192 I. and Truman, refusing to file bankruptcy proceedings, continued to pay off his debts for more than a decade. In his first attempt at elective office, Truman ran successfully in 1922 for judge of the County Court, with the support of the Kansas City Democratic machine of Thomas J. Pendergast. Subsequent elections, as presiding judge of the County Court in 1926 and. in 1934, to the U.S. Senate, were also won under Pendergast's tutelage. A more prominent political role began in 1941

when Truman proposed formation of a special Senate investigating committee. As its chairman, he helped expose graft and waste, urged more comprehensive planning of the war effort and postwar reconstruction, and won for himself an important place in the Democratic Parly. In 1944 he was picked to replace the controversial Henry A. Wallace as vice-presidential running mate for Roosevelt, who was seeking his fourth term as president. On April 12, 194S. Roosevelt died, and Truman became leader of a nation faced with staggering problems: World War II had yet to be successfully concluded and conflicts within the wartime alliance resolved a wartime economy threatened inflation or depression, Truman's record stands as the achievement of a man who did his best "according to his lights" and who himself accepted the responsibility for leadership he had not sought. Within the nearly eight years that he held office, Truman made the decisions to: Use atomic bombs on Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945) in an effort to conclude World War II immediately; authorize development of the hydrogen bomb; provide $400 million aid to Greece and Turkey, beginning in 1947, and establish the Truman Doctrine of support for nations "threatened by Communism"; establish in 1947 the postwar Marshall Plan; operate a $2 50 million airlift to West Berlin, breaking a 324-day Soviet blockade begun in June 1948 to force Western powers out of the city; begin the Point Four program of technical aid to less developed non-European nations; con;

tinue join

U.S.

NATO

leadership in creation of the U\; in 1949, the first military alliance

between European nations and the U.S.; and send U.S. troops to Korea in 1950 to defend South Korea against invasion by Communist North Korea. These foreign policy decisions overshadowed the decades that followed, initiating as they did the "cold war" and a long period of U.S. activity abroad. At home, Truman suffered from congressional opposition and the sometime support of labour. ninistrations, concern for security "

to implem entation of a stringent "loyally program" with in government; the trial of Alger

led

Hiss; passage In 1950 of the McCarran Internal Security Act, and eventual confrontation with :

Wisconsin Sen. Joseph McCarthy. 1948 over New York Gov. His upset victory Thomas E. Dewey perhaps a sign of his fluctuating popularity with the public. Forecast as an easy win for Dewey, the election instead returned Truman to office with 49.5% of the popular vote and 303 electoral votes to Dewey's 45.1% and 189 electoral votes. In 1952 President Truman announced that he would not seek reelection and, having supported Illinois Gov. Adlai E. Stevenson in an unsuccessi

ful

bid for the presidency, retired to Independence,

where he took a great interest

Truman

Library,

the

in

depository

the Harry S. for his presi-

dential papers.

After voting In the

1968

presidential election,

former president Harry S. Truman, then 84, walks briskly back to his home in Independence, Mo. During his presidency, Truman kept newsmen huffing from following the chief executive on daily morning constitutionals.

Just two months before he was to become president on the death of Fi D, Roosevelt, Vice-President Truman (above) made this appearance at the National Press Ciub in Washington with actress Lauren Bacall. Sliortly after the Democratic national convention in 1944, candidates Truman and Roosevelt (right) confer at the White House, the first such conference the two leaders had since Truman had become the surprise

nominee over incumbent Henry A. Wallace. Truman, and Stalin (below) at the Potsdam meeting in 1945. The famous picture (above right) of Truman in 1948 after his stunning upset election over Thomas E. Dewey.

vice-presidential Churchill,

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522

Obituaries 1972

WHEAT, ZACHARY DAVIS

("Zack"),

U.S.

baseball player (b. Hamilton. Mo.. May 23. 18S8 Scdalia. Mo.. March II, 1972). outfielder tor the Brooklyn Dodgers from 1909 until 1926. held a lifetime battine average of .317. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1959.

—d

WILLIAM OF GLOUCESTER, PRINCE WILLIAM HENRY ANDREW FREDERICK, ninth in succesMOn to the throne of the United Kingdom (b. Barnet. Eng.. Dec. 18. 1941— d. Halfpenny Green. Staffordshire. Eng.. Aug. 28. 1972). elder son of the duke of Gloucester (uncle of Queen Elizabeth II). was appointed a counselor of state in 1963, third secretary at the British High Commission at Lagos. Nig., in 1965, and second secretary (commercial) at the British embassy in Tokyo in 1968. He had been a page at the wedding of Princess (later Queen) Elizabeth to Lieut. Philip Mountbatten in 1947. In 1970 the prince resigned from the diplomatic service having become president of the British Light Aviation Centre in 1969. Prince William, a participant in several 1972 international air races, was killed, along with his co-pilot Vyrell Mitchell, in the seventh annual Goodyear International Air Trophy Race.

WILLIAMS, BILLY,

—

d.

Chicago.

U.S. singer (b. Texas. 191 12. 1972), entered show

III. Oct.

1938 with the Broadway hit Hellzapoppiii'. In 1950 he formed the Billy Williams Quartet, which became a regular feature on the Sid Caesar Saturday night TV "Show of Shows." Williams' hit songs included "Too Young." "Shanghai." and "I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Write Myself a Letter." business

in

WILLIAMS, SIR (ARTHUR) LEONARD,

British

politician (b. Birkenhead. Eng.. Jan. 22, 1904— d. Mauritius, Dec. 27, 1972). was general secretary of the British Labour Party (1962-68) and

from 1968 governor-general of Mauritius. In 1936 he became secretary of the Leeds Labour Party branch and later regional organizer for Yorkshire. In 1946 he transferred to Labour Party headquarters in London as assistant national agent, becoming national agent in 1951.

WILSON, EDMUND,

U.S. literary figure (b.

Red

Bank, ,\.J., May 8, 1895— d. Talcottville, N.Y., June 12, 1972), often called America's foremost critic, was also the author of dozens of books on history, literature, and economics, as well as a novel, plays, and poetry. He was a graduate of Princeton University (1916) and for a time was an editor for Vanity Fair and an associate editor for The New Republic (1926-31). In 1931 Wilson published his widely acclaimed Axel's Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1370-1930. Something of a leftist. Wilson studied in the Soviet Union under a' Guggenheim fellowship (1935) and produced Travels in Two Democracies (1936). based on his experiences of that period, and To the Finland Station (1940). Boys in the Back Room and The Wound and the Bow came out in 1941; Notebooks oj Night in 1942; and The Shock of Recognition in 1943.

Walter Winchell

. :

Heightened acclaim came with the publication in 1946 of Memoirs of Hecate County, which for a time was banned in New York state. From 1944 to 1948 Wilson was a book reviewer for The New Yorker. In 1962 he published Patriotic Gore, a study of Civil War literature on which he had spent 15 years. Among his last books were Upstate: Records and Recollections of Northern New York (1971) and A Window on Russia, on Russian literature (August 1972). Wilson was presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom, highest U.S. civilian award, in 1963; be received the National Medal for Literature in 1966 and the $30,000 Aspen Award in 1968.

WILSON, MARIE, U.S. actress (b. Anaheim. Calif., 1917— d. Hollywood. Calif., Nov. 23. 1972). who was noted for her "dumb blond" played the character of Irma in "My Friend Irma." a popular radio and TV series of the 1940s and 505. roles,

increasing interest in national affairs. In after unemployment had reached unpreced levels, he toured workingmen's clubs throuBritain and enlisted over 200.000 men and v. in occupational schemes. In 1930 the prince's friendship with Mrs, lis Warfield Simpson began. Mrs. Simpson vorced from a U.S. Navy lieutenant in married Ernest Simpson in 1928. .Members private circle of friends, the Simpsons wcr.. quently in the company of the prince and bv he was deeply in love with Mrs. Simpson. Ii at this point, before he could discuss the n; with his father, that George V died (Jan 1936) and Edward was proclaimed king. As king, Edward VIII set in motion dr: economies in the royal estates. In Novembi opened Parliament and then toured distr. areas in South Wales. Meanwhile his altemp' gain the royal family's acceptance of Mrs. S son, who had obtained a divorce Oct. 2 7. met with firm opposition, backed by the Chi of England (of which he was the head), the ticians. and later the press. Prime Minister 1

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WINCHELL, WALTER, U.S. newspaper columnist and newscaster (b. New York, N.Y., April 7, 1897— d. Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 20, 1972), whose familiar greeting, "Good evening, Mr. and Mrs. America and all the ships at sea. let's go to press!" opened each broadcast, began his working career in vaudeville at age 12. In the early 1920s he began his gossipy show-business column for the New York Evening Graphic newspaper. After 1929. he moved to Hearst's New York Mirror and introduced more political items into his "On Broadway" column, which was syndicated in about 800 newspapers by the early 1930s. The Mirror ceased publication in 1963, and Winchell's column expired with it, although he later wrote a weekly column for the New York World Journal Tribune. Winchell's weekly newscast started on network radio in 1932 and ended on TV in the early 196GS. He was the narrator for the highly successful

TV

series

"The Untouchables."

WINDSOR, DUKE Christian

OF, Prince Edward Albeht George Andrew Patrick David.

king of Great Britain and Northern Ireland froni Jan. 20. 1936. until his abdication on Dec. 11

1936 (b. White Lodge, Richmond Park, Eng June 23. 1894— d. Paris, France. May 28, 1972), was, as Edward VIII, a popular and progressive monarch whose convictions, particularly on marriage, caused him to become the only British sovereign ever voluntarily to resign the crown. In 1907 he attended the Royal Naval College Osborne, as a cadet and in 1909 passed on "to Dartmouth College. The following year King Edward VII died and the prince became duke of Cornwall and heir to the throne. He was admitted to the Order of the Garter on June 10, 1911. and wore the robes at the coronation of his father George V, on June 22. On his 16th birthday he was created prince of Wales, and was formally invested at Caernarvon Castle in July 1911. In October 1912 he went up to Magdalen College. Oxford, but it was soon decided that he should join the .Army. At the outbreak of World War I he was commissioned in the Grenadier Guards (Aug. 6. 1914) and gained a staff posting that took him to France and Italy. In the 1920s he undertook extensive goodwill tours of the empire and. after an illness his father suffered in 1928. the prince took an

The duke of Windsor

;

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ley Baldwin attempted to impress upon the the peril to the integrity of the monarchy cai by the private friendship. Discussions of a n,

ganatic marriage were pursued but on Decenit., Baldwin assured him that this was impractici therefore made his final decision

The king

abdicated on Dec, 10. 1936; the instrument abdication was endorsed by Parliament on cember 1 1 and thus the reign of Edward \ ended. The new king, George VI, created brother Edward duke of Windsor, and acco.

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him the right to the title of royal highness On June 3, 1937. Wallis Simpson and the duke were married under French law at the Chateau de Cande near Tours. No member of the royal family was present. The duke and duchess lived mainly in France and despite the couple's desire to resettle in England they spent the rest of th.ir married life in exile. The duke accepted Winsinn Churchill's offer of the governorship of the hamas during World War II. then returner France. Short visits to England followed in ceeding years to attend the funerals of

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brother King George VI (1952) and their mother Queen Mary (1953)— but it was not until 1967 that, for the first time, the duke and duchess were invited to attend an official public ceremony wH^ other members of the royal family— the unveilof a plaque to Queen Mary at Marlborough H.n: The duke of Windsor published his memu' A King's Story, in 1951; those of the duch. The Heart Has Its Reasons, were published

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YALMAN, AHMED EMIN,

Turkish journalist

Salonika. Turk, [now Greece]. May 14 18SS— d. Istanbul, Turk., Dec. 19, 1972), one of the

most courageous

political

commentators

in

ht^

country,

entered journalism shortly before the revolution of 1908; he supported of national revival under Mustafa Kemal, and was arrested by the British in lOJO and interned in Malta. In 1922 he became part proprietor and editor of Vatan ("The Fatherland"), but after four years the paper was suspended for criticism of Mustafa Kemal. In lo.io he supported the advent of parliamentary government but later became a strong critic of the dictatorial and reactionary tendencies of Pres

Young Turks' the movement

Bayar and Premier Adnan Menderes In 1960 Yalman was sentenced to IS monih imprisonment, but was released following coup of May 27. In 1961 Yalni founded Hur Vatan ("The Free Fatherland He wrote two important books: The DeveU'l'mint oj Turkcv as Measured by lis Press (1914) and Turkey in the World War (1928). Celal

May

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.

YOULOU, FULBERT, Congolese politician (b 1917— d. Madrid. Spain, May 5, 1972). vv. president of the People's Republic of the Coiu (former

French

Congo).

1960-63. Ordained

..

Roman Catholic priest in 1946. he served .i^ mayor of Brazzaville (1956-63). minister of agriculture (1957-58). and president of the Council of Ministers (1958-60) before being elected president in 1960, just after the coutitry had gained its independence from Franas the Republic of Congo. When France f off its annual aid in 1963 Youlou raised tav. food prices doubled, and unemployment soared. Ynulou intended to proclaim a single-party government but trade union opposition forced his resignation. He was imprisoned by revolutionaries but escaped into the Democratic Republic of the Congo (later Zaire) on April 1 1 965. The Spanish government granted him asylum in 1966.

I

,

.

f

^

solved constituents (such as oxygen, nitrogen, nutrients, trace elements, organic and inorganic carbon), radionuclides, and chemical properties (such as alkalinity) that would be made on all water samples. Many

Oceanography A

striking aspect of

increasing

scientific

oceanography in 1972 was the

commitment

cooperative

projects,

of research effort to very large designee)

to

investigate

vital

questions too extensive to be addressed by

any single institution or laboratory. Many of these projects were the direct result of the International

Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE), (the

decade

1970s)

a

planned

of international oceanographic

proposed by Pres. Lyndon Johnson in 1968 and endorsed by the UN in the same year. IDOE projects were divided into the three categories of environmental quahty, environmental forecasting, and seabed assessment. Research in the first category was broadly concerned with the establishment of existing concentrations of both naturally occurring substances and pollutants in the world's oceans. This knowledge would constitute a baseline against which future effects of human intervention in the sea could be measured. Possibly harmful substances under study included heavy metals (such as research

first

mercury, cadmium, and lead), chlorinated hydrocarDDT, and crude oil. A global study of

bons such as

substances in the sea was being carried by the international Geochemical Ocean Sections

dissolved out

(Geosecs) project.

The

first

part of

of a series of cruises planned as the central

Geosecs began on July

research vessel "Knorr," operated

18,

1972,

when

the

by the Woods Hole

Oceanographic Institution, started a nineit from above the .ArcThe cruise was planned to follow a major flow of bottom ocean water believed to originate in the Norwegian Sea and to traverse the entire Atlantic Ocean to the .\ntarctic Circumpolar Current. The scientific novelty of Geosecs sprang from the very complete chemical analysis for dis(Mass.)

month voyage that would take tic

Circle to Antarctica.

523

Oceanography

of the analytical operations were entirely automated and were under computer control. Environmental forecasting in the marine environment requires the development of sound theoretical understanding of the most important physical processes in the sea before successful predictive models

can be formulated.

Among

the large-scale

IDOE

proj-

aimed at improving such understanding were the Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE), the

ects

Coastal Upwelling Experiment (CUE), the Paleoceanography Study, and a program of computer modeling of ocean flow.

While Geosecs would yield much information about ocean currents by showing how they transport and mix dissolved constituents, MODE would examine the detailed structure of the flow in one particular region for a period of more than three months in 1973. The irregularly shaped experimental region, roughly 350 km. (217 mi.) across and located slightly south and west of Bermuda, was chosen to provide information about flow properties typical of mid-ocean regions. The central purpose of MODE was to evaluate the importance, for the overall circulation and mixing of the oceans, of small (perhaps 100- to 200km. [62 to 124 mi.] wide) but intense quasi-geostrophic eddies that

make

the greatest contribution to

most deepwater current records after tidal and similar currents have been subtracted. ("Geostrophic" refers to the effect of the earth's rotation.)

A program

and buoy obwas pursued vigorously

of preliminary shipboard

servation at the

MODE

site

during 1972. Simultaneously, theoretical studies of the effects of

bottom

relief,

of density stratification, and

of large-scale currents on the

sued.

eddy

field

were pur-

The preliminary observations suggested

the eddy flows have, on the average, a

much

that

simpler

of" m\''/or'"o°cean"resources

with areas of petroleum and gas exploration.

had been expected. Preliminary work emphasized the effects of bottom relief on the flow and suggested that, under some circumstances, bottom relief may enhance the eddy field. vertical profile than

524

Oceanography

theoretical

Upwelling, a process of the

common

along the west coast as well as along

Western Hemisphere continents

other long coastlines, was the subject of the CUE project. Upwelling typically occurs during local sum-

mer, when prevailing winds force warm surface waters away from the coast. Cold, deep water then rises or

"upwells" to replace the wind-displaced surface water, bringing with it rich supplies of nutrients and causing

an increase in the production of living organisms. Coastal upwelling areas support over 509o of the oceans' fish, so that a study of the subject had great practical as well as scientific interest.

CUE was initially concentrating on upwelling off the Oregon coast, both for logistic reasons and because enough was known about upwelling there to permit optimal design of the fieldwork. The major field program ended on Aug. 1, 1972. Shipboard measurements of temperature and salinity from three ships, plus measurements of water currents at various levels and of meteorological variables at the sea surface from more than ten moored buoys, made up the central part of the program of measurements, although a number of other techniques were employed. Atmospheric conditions, sea-surface temperature, and seasurface chlorophyll were monitored from an aircraft. The extent to which the presence of cold, upwelled water was reflected in satellite photographs of cloud patterns was studied, using satellite data supplied by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-

Prediction of the behaviour of the ocean would

be done by means of large compuitT models. Such ocean models were being developrd, and preliminary simulation of the flow in the world's oceans had been obtained. Computer models wire especially useful in that the importance of such faclor,-; as winds, surface heating or cooling, bottom relief. density stratification, and flow intensity could be ultimately

studied easily either singly or in combination.

The third category of IDOE studies, seabed assessment, combined economic interests with basic research in a three-part exploration of continental marmid-ocean rifts and trenches, and the deep sea floor. All current exploitation of marine mineral and petroleum resources was being carried out over continental shelves, yet few continental margins were well mapped geologically. Fieldwork for a study of the eastern Atlantic continental margins began in ri72 with a cruise of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Ingins,

H"

stitution's research vessel "Atlantis

to the .Mri-

can part of the east Atlantic continental margin. The resulting data

would resolve many questions about Ocean show whether the sedimentary pat-

the ancient opening of the southern Atlantic

and would

also

tern indicated the presence of petroleum deposits

The processes

that occur at the edges of a litho-

spheric plate were being studied in surveys of the

Nasca Plate between South America and the East Pacific Rise. The convergence zone, where the plate is forced below the South American continent, was of particular interest, not only for possible mineral

deposits but because

it

was one of the most seismically The distribution of man-

active regions on the earth.

liminary results included confirmation of the exist-

ganese on the deep sea floor was being studied in an effort to understand the conditions under which manganese nodules are formed.

ence of a deep poleward current below the Equatorward surface flow that generally prevails in upwelling

Large cooperative projects being conducted independently of IDOE included the North Pacific Experi-

Upwelling appeared to be set up rather rapidly at the beginning of the season, after which it persisted, even though the wind might reverse itself for

ment (Norpax) and the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). The purpose of Norpax was to develop

tration.

Analysis of the data was not yet completed. Pre-

areas. John Ryther, of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, examines a bay scallop culture in an experimental aquaculture-sewage treatment tank. It was hoped the system ultimately would utilize the sewage from a town of 50,000 to produce

fluctuations

in ocean conditions over hundreds or thousands of years, with the aim of learning more about climatic changes. Ocean bottom sediments would be examined to learn how current patterns and water properties in the Atlantic and Pacific changed

an understanding of the processes that control largescale fluctuations in the atmosphere and the ocean in the mid-latitudes of the North Pacific, which may have a profound effect on the weather of North .America. Attention was being focused on the possibility that the ocean and atmosphere react on one another in such a way as to enhance certain abnormal me-

900 tons

during a major glaciation.

teorological situations. Measurements of such variables as air temperature, wind speed, and temperatures in the near surface layers of the ocean were

annually.

of oyster

meat

periods of several days.

The Paleoceanography Study was concerned with

being taken, using a network of moored buoys that would ultimately span the entire North Pacific.

The

DSDP

program, managed by the Scripps InOceanography, La Jolla, Calif., with scientific guidance from a panel of universities and oceanographic institutions, continued its exploration of the sediments of the ocean floors. The specially outfitted drilling ship "Glomar Challenger" took deep-sea cores in the Coral and Tasman seas and then worked stitution of

in the

Indian Ocean and the

result of this project

had been

Red

Sea.

The

overall

to confirm the idea of

sea-floor spreading, according to

which the ocean's

crust spreads from mid-ocean rises at speeds of sevand moves toward trenches and zones of convergence where it plunges beneath eral centimetres per year

the surface.

(mvrl

c.

hendershott)

See alio Antarctica; Geology; Law; Life Sciences; Meteorology; Seismology.

Encyclopaedia Level? (1970).

Britannica Films.

How

Level

Is

Sea

The gloom in which 1971 had ended for Pakistanis was gradually dispelled in the early months of 1972. President Bhutto [see Biography) showed himself an

Oman An

independent

Oman

extremely able administrator, closely in touch with the needs and aspirations of all classes. His two main tasks were to restore confidence at home, bruised

sultanate,

occupies the southeast-

ern part of the Arabian Peninsula

and

is

bounded by

by defeat

from

it

by the United Arab Emirates. Area: 82,000 (1970 est.): 750,000.

sq.mi. (212,380 sq.km.). Pop.

Muscat

Matrah

(pop.,

1969,

(pop., 1960, 14,119).

9,973).

Oman underwent

Largest

city:

Language: Arabic. Reli-

gion: Muslim. Sultan in 1972,

Qabus ibn

Sa'id.

rapid social and economic change

was handicapped by it was announced that Taimur, who was abroad, had resigned as prime minister owing to ill health and that his functions would be taken over by the sultan's office. Tariq returned to Oman in February and was appointed foreign affairs adviser. Fighting continued against the Marxist-led Dhofari rebels in the southwest, who were receiving aid from China, the Soviet Union, and Yemen (Aden). On May 5 the Omani Air Force attacked Southern Yemeni gun sites after the Omani fort of Habrut had been fired on from in

in a

war with India and by the unconditional

surrender of East Pakistan (Bangladesh), and to con-

the

United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. A small part of the country lies to the north of the rest of Oman and is separated

Cap.:

1972, although development

vince the world outside that his country possessed in full

measure the determination and resources to maincomity of nations. his first few months of power, Bhutto re-

tain its position in the

During

minded

his people constantly that, in spite of the se-

cession of the eastern wing, the future of the nation

was bright. He announced a series of measures that were designed to secure a more just and equitable distribution of national resources among those who were creating them, while at the same time carefully preserving the international confidence necessary to en-

military spending. In January

sure the flow of foreign investment and external aid.

the sultan's uncle, Tariq ibn

In January large-scale industrial reforms were an-

across the border.

scored

The

sultan's British-officered forces

some successes against the and about half

bellion continued

rebels, but the re-

the country's $125

million oil revenues were absorbed by the military. During the year Oman's first airport capable of handling jet aircraft was opened near Muscat. Sa'id ibn Taimur, sultan of Muscat and Oman from 1932 until his deposition by his son in 1970, died in London on October 19. (See Obituaries.) (peter MANSFIELD)

OM.XN Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Saudi riyal, with riyal (Sept. IS, 1972) a tree rate of U.S. $2.60 to (0.94 riyal = £1 sterlinn). Budget (1971 est.) revenue c. SO million riyals. ForeiRn trade (1969 est.): imports 260 million riyals: exports 1,450.000,000 riyals. Import sources: France 51%; West Germany 13%: U.K. 13%: Netherlands 8%: Italy S%. Export destinations: France 16%; West Germany 15%; Japan 10%; Netherlands 5%; Sweden 5%, Main export crude oil. Industry. Crude oil production (1971) 14.312,000 I

metric tons.

nounced; ten categories of industries were nationalized, including iron and steel, heavy engineering, cement, petrochemicals, electricity, gas, and oil refineries, without affecting foreign investment and foreign credit. A Board of Industrial Management was

P.\KISTAN Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils

West Germany 11%; U.K. 11%: Japan 10%;

^

federal republic, Pakistan bordered on the south by on the west by Afghanistan and Iran, on the north by China, and on the east by India. Area: 310,915 sq.mi. (805,266 sq.km.), excluding the Pakistanicontrolled section of Jammu and Kashmir. Pop. (1972 est.'i: 60 million. Cap.: Islamabad (pop., 1972 est., 250.000). Largest city: Karachi (pop., 1972 est., the Arabian Sea,

x

Urdu and English. Religion: and Christian minorities. Presi-

2,500.000). Language:

Muslim

90% Hindu ;

dent in 1972, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Italy

5%. Export destinations: Hong Kong 12%; Japan 10%; U.K. 9%; U.S.S.R. 8%; U.S. 6%,. Main exports: cotton yarn 18%: cotton fabrics 16%; cotton 14%; rice 9%; leather 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1970) c.

Oil:

see

Fuel and Power;

Industrial

Review

150.000 km. (mainly fair-weather tracks; 20,400 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1969): 107.200;

(1969-70): 8.600 km.;

is

million;

=

km

A

c. S.l

secondary, pupils c. 530.000; vocational, pupils c. 28,000; primary, secondary, and vocational, teachers (1966-67) 131,925; teacher training, students c. 3.000; higher (including 7 universities with 14,425 students in 1966-67), students c. 97,090. Finance. Monetary unit; Pakistan rupee, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value (following devaluation of May 11, 1972) of PakRs. 11 to U.S. $1 (tree rate of PakRs. 26.61 £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs, and foreign exchange, state bank: (June 1972) U.S. $289 million; (June 1971) U.S. $215 million. Budgets (1970-71 est.): central (including Bangladesh), revenue PakRs. PakRs. 5,572,300,000; expenditure 7,161,200,000, Pakistan government (former West Pakistan only), revenue PakRs. 1,872,100,000, expenditure PakRs. 2,172,700,000. National income: (1969-70) c. PakRs. 45 billion: (1968-69) c. PakRs. 41.6 billion. Cost of 1963=100): (May 1972) 160; living (Karachi: (May 19711 142. Foreign Trade. (Excluding trade with Bangladesh; 1970-71) Imports PakRs. 3.602.000.000; exports PakRs. 2.111,000.000. Import sources: U.S. 29%;

passenger

Pakistan

525

Pakistan

.

commercial 34,900. Railways traffic 8.732.000.000 passenger-

Organization for

Economic

freight 6.S92.000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (in-

1971): 2.393,000,000 passengerkm.; freight 71,031,000 net ton-km. Shipping (including Bangladesh: 1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 177; gross tonnage 581.800. Telephones (including Bangladesh; Jan. 1971) 207.000. Radio licenses (June 1969) 1,339,000. Television receivers (including Bangladesh; Dec. 1970) c. 80,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): wheat 6,503 (7,295); barley c. 95 (c. 110): corn 717 (668): rice 2,077 (2,346); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 380, (1970-71) c. 550; tobacco 125 (123): cotton, lint c. 600 (c. 500). Livestock (including Bangladesh; in 000; 1970-71); cattle c 44 000: sheep c. 15.000: goats c. 19.000; buffalo c. 12,000; horses c. 500; asses c. 950: camels c. 900. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 196970)' cement 2,606: crude oil 480: coal and lignite 1,249; natural gas (cu.m.) c. 3.500,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.: 196566) 2.910.000; steel 175; sulfuric acid 31; soda ash 68; cotton yarn 273; woven cotton fabrics (m.) 718,-

Cooperation and

cluding Bangladesh:

000.

Development: Development,

see

Economic

Organization of sec

American States:

Inter-American

Affairs

Orthodox Churches: see

Religion

Painting: see Art Exhibitions; Art Sales; Museums and Galleries

526

Panama

up

set

much

to replace the ancient

of which

had been

managing agency system, hands of a few wealthy

in the

that India insisted on

families.

This step was quickly followed by far-reaching labour reforms that increased labour's participation at management level to 20%, freed workers from salary deductions for welfare programs, and gave them the right to appoint workers' auditors and shop stewards

and

to

"ombudsman"

appeal to an

for

redress

of

Increased security of employment and better social services, including housing, completed a package deal to enlist the solid support of labour.

grievances.

In

March

a

new land reform program was

an-

nounced, drastically reducing the ceiling on individual and family holdings and closing all the loopholes that

had reduced the effectiveness of

Some

earlier

efforts

at

landless

facilities based on the nationaland colleges and on a drive promote equality of opportunity among all classes, the extension of university education, and the ending of unemployment among educated youth. There followed the establishment of an extended health service, and a number of administrative reforms covering the police, the banking system, and the legal structure. The effect of these measures was to strengthen the hand of the president in his efforts to reconcile in

to

new democratic

constitution the wishes of the four

constituent provinces for a large measure of local autonomy with the need for an effective federal gov-

ernment. His Pakistan People's Party fPPP) had a majority in the now truncated National Assembly and in the Punjab and Sind provinces, but was poorly represented in the North West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, where the National

Awami Party and

the Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Islam were strong. There

was

a

two units that they lagged behind Punjab and Sind, and had not received their fair

feeling in the latter

the

share of attention from the development agencies. Their anxiety was temporarily allayed by assurances that both provinces would be helped to make up any past inequities and by a political agreement reached

between the

March

that

PPP and the other political groupings in was meant to quiet threats of secession.

In September there was further unrest, however, and allegation of a "London plot" by opposition leaders to

dismember the country. Pending the drafting of

new democratic

constitu-

tion by the National .Xssembly, government, both central and provincial, was to be formed on the basis of the parliamentary majority, and the relations between the central government and the provinces would be determined on the basis of a modified 1935 act. In April the National Assembly passed an overwhelming vote of confidence in the president, who found himself able to abolish in the same month the martial law

regime that had lasted since 1958. Shortly afterward, parliamentary provincial governments took office in all four provinces for the first time since 1955. Great public anxiety was manifested over the con-

Army

to the Indian

alone that they

h.i.

In November more than 600 Indian being held in Pakistan were released as a goodwill gesture. Demarcation of the truce line in Kashmir

was completed in December, and withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani forces in accordance with the new line began immediately.

A marked

feature of 1972 was an upsurge in the

national economy, caused

by the diversion

to external

countries of exports formerly taken by East Pakistan.

These rose spectacularly and were helped by a realistic (56.7%) devaluation of the rupee in May. As condi-

became

stable once more, external aid began

Early in the year, China had written $100 million loan, deferred for 20 years repayment of PakRs. 10 billion for material supplied, and made a further large investment in the great industrial complex at Taxila. The U.S. and the World Bank Aid to Pakistan Consortium, along with the International Monetary Fund, supplied extensive aid from June onward. The new budget presented in June to flow strongly.

included

record

a

sum

for

defense

expenditure

(PakRs. 4,463,000,000), relieved poorer taxpayers, and increased taxation on capital and wealth. Revenue was estimated at PakRs. 8,510,000.000 with a surplus of PakRs. 250 million on revenue account. Retaining the portfolio of foreign affairs in his President Bhutto displayed the same en-

own hands.

field as in the domestic toured the Islamic countries, strengthened

ergy in the international sphere.

He

friendship with China, reached an understanding with

Moscow, cemented good relations with Afghanistan and cooperated with Turkey and Iran in further Re Cooperation for Development activities. He withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations in January without adversely affecting everyday relations with member countries and on November S formally announced Pakistan's withdrawal from gional

SEATO.

(l. r.

rushbrook

wii,i,iams

i

Panama A

republic of Central

ica,

a

was

POWs

tions

ization of private schools

it

surrendered.

off a

extended educational

a

that

were taken over

3.5 million ac.

the state for distribution to

making Bangladesh a party tn war affair, holdiii:.

the settlement of the prisoners of

more than two million peasants. This was followed by a program of

agrarian reform.

by

over Kashmir without prejudice to the stands on principle taken up by each side. Pakistan was disappointed

bisected

by

the

AmerCanal

Zone, Panama is bounded by the Caribbean Sea, Colombia, the Pacific Ocean, and Costa Rica. Area: 29,208 sq.mi. (75.650 sq.km.). Pop. (1972 est.):

and

largest city:

Panama

1,523,500. Cap.

City (pop., 1972

est., 364,-

130). Language: Spanish. Religion (1967 est.): Ro-

man

Catholic

87%. President

in 1972,

Demetrio Lakas

Bahas.

Throughout 1972 Panama had a facade of domestic peace. Beneath the exterior was a population living

tinued detention by India of the Pakistani prisoners of

without freedom of speech and press, without independent radio and television news, without political agitation, without election choices, and even without

war and by

political parties.

the occupation of Pakistani territory

by

Indian forces. After careful preliminary exchanges, a

summit

conference

took

place

between

President

Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi at Simla, India, which laid down a step-by-step procedure for settling bilaterally the differences between their two countries, including a working agreement

Omar

Torrijos, the youthful general

who headed the National Guard, was in complete command of his nation. The loyalty and efficiency of the guardsmen were achieved by lavish rewards, which had been multiplied several times in the course of his rule since 1968. Citizens lived in fear of publicly voicing objections to the political climate or of com-

plaining about increased gasoline

and

cigarette taxes.

That there was an undertone of discontent did not go unrecognized in the ruling circles. To counter its spread Torrijos had staged a massive celebration in

Panama City

dam at Bayano, and $150 million for the last segment of road, the Darien Gap, in the Inter-American Highway. Government efforts were also directed to in-

in October 1971 of the third anniversary advent to power. There, before a crowd variously estimated at 60.000-200,000, he declared that the time had arrived for Panamanians to die to regain sovereignty over the Canal Zone. He also promised an election for August 1972, for an assembly of 500

Money continued to be available in reduced amounts for land expropriation, irrigation systems, and health and education programs. The InterAmerican Development Bank authorized a loan of

to decide the political course of his country.

cilities

of his

The

derivatives.

nearly $7 million for the benefit of the University of

delegates or "corregidores" to this assembly,

chosen

in a

Paraguay

creasing the exports of bananas, sugar, and petroleum

Panama, which was engaged in expanding its faand improving its teaching and administration. (almon r. Wright)

massive voter turnout, began their de-

September 11. They reelected the incumbent president. Demetrio Lakas. to a new six-year

liberations on

term, and in other constitutional changes resolved that national territory could not

be transferred or sold and that treaties concerning the canal must be submitted to a national plebiscite.

Most

spectacular of

pronouncements was a denial that the Canal Zone had ever been purchased or ceded or that its sovereignty had ever been transferred to the United States. It voted to refuse to accept the canal annuity from the U.S. On a temporary basis it vested the control of foreign affairs and the National Guard, and the appointment of heads of government and the Supreme Court, in the "chief of government." namely Torrijos. its

;

In June

Panama

seized the

Panamanian Light and

I

Power

owned by the Boise Cascade Corp. Compensation for the plant, w^hich was

Co., largely

of the U.S.

valued at approximately $74 million, was set at $22.5 million. !

works

I

italism.

1

for a

The

landlocked republic of South America, Paraguay is bounded by Brazil. Argentina, and Bolivia. Area: 157.047 sq.mi. (406,752 sq.km.). Pop. (1972): 2,328,790. Cap. and largest city: Asuncion (pop., 1972, 387,676). Language: Spanish (oflScial), though Guarani is the language of the majority of the people. Religion: Roman Catholic. President in 1972, Gen. .\lfredo Stroessner.

In 1972 Paraguay remained under the firm control

by the ruling Colorado Party, the .Army, and a small oligarchy of busiof President Stroessner, supported

ness leaders. Criticism was heard, however, from the

Roman

Catholic Church, which objected to the expul-

sion of two Jesuits, allegedly for "subversion." This

power

followed government criticism of the church for supporting various agrarian leagues; in retaliation the

pattern of Torrijos' state cap-

archbishop of .\sunci6n canceled the traditional Te

nationalization of the light and

fitted into the

Paraguay .\

This included the allocation of $60 million

new

airport,

$40 million for the hydroelectric P.\R.AGUAY

WAM.\

i

Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 238,593, teachsecondary, pupils 46,196, teachers 2,327; teacher 1,095; pupils 25,449, teachers 1.726, teachers 81; higher (includj 2 universities), students 7.252, teaching staff 413. Finance. >ionetary unit: balboa. at par with the s

:

niTS (Dec. 1970) 230,000. Television receivers (Dec. .0) 125,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; ro in parentheses): rice c. 135 (124); sugar, raw (1971-72) C.91, (1970-71) 90; bananas (1970) "00. (1969) 1,019; oranges (1970) c. 42, (1969) coffee c. 5.5 (5.2); cocoa (1971-72) 0.4, (19701> 0.5. Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle 1,240;

line

:

147: horses c. 157. Industry. Production (in 1969): cement 000; iptric tons) 174: manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1970) 1.000; electricity (kw-hr.) 859,000.

!L'>

Education. (1969) Primary, pupils 408,524, teachers (including preprimary) 12,951: secondary, pupils 44,514, teachers (1968) 3,596; vocational (1968), pupils 2,507. teachers 621; teacher training, students 4.115, teachers (1968) 1,021; higher (at 2 universities; 1971), students c. 8,100. teaching staff c. 880. Finance. Monetary unit: guarani, with a free rate (Sept. 18, 1972) of 126 guaranies to U.S. $1 (306 guaranies £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs. and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1972) U.S. $19,820,000; (June 1971) U.S. $14,750,000. Budget (1971 est.) balanced at 8,001,000,000 guaranies. Gross national product: (1970) 73.1 billion guaranies; (1969) 68,550.000.000 guaranies. Money supply: (May 1972) 8,039,000,000 guaranies; (May 1971) 6.966,000,000 guaranies. Cost of living (.Asuncion; 1964 100): (June 1972) 124; (June 1971) 116.

=

=

Foreign

Trade.

(197!)

Imports

8.836,600,000

guaranies; exports 8,057,300,000 guaranies. Import sources: U.S. 25%; .Argentina 14%; West Germany 12%; U.K. 10%. Export destinations: .Argentina 27 7o U.S. 16%; Netherlands 8%; U.K. 7%; West Germany ;

6%:

France

exports:

tobacco

meat

5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5%. Main 32%; timber 16%; oilseeds 13%;

7%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1970) 11,225 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 7,400; commercial (including buses) 10,100. Railways: (1970) 498 km.; traffic (1968) 28 million passengerkm., freight 22 million net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways (including Paraguay-Parana river system; 1966) c. 3,000 km. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 24,000. R.idio receivers (Dec. 1970) 169,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 18.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): corn 255 (159); cassava 1,690 (1,782); sweet potatoes (1970) 99, (1969) 94; peanuts 20 (17); dry beans 37 (35); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 61, (1970-71) 53; oranges 228 (c. 225); bananas (1970) 249, (1969) c. 250; tobacco 18 (18); cotton, lint 9 (13); beef and veal c. 116 (c. 116). Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle c. 5.800; sheep c. 320; pigs c. 560; horses c. 740; chickens c. 6,350. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): cement 63; cotton yarn (1969) 13; electricity (kw-hr.) 220,000.

Panama Canal Zone: see

Dependent States;

Panama Paper Industry: see Industrial Reviewr;

Timber

Papua New Guinea: Dependent States

see

— Deum Payments and Reserves, International

independence

Paraguayan

celebrate

to

-

(achieved in 1811). There was also trouble from the United States in

connection with a U.S. attempt to curtail drug trafficking in various parts of the world. In this context

the Paraguayan authorities arrested Auguste-Joseph Ricord, a Frenchman alleged to be a leading figure in

the international

narcotics trade, but at

illegal

first

refused to extradite him to the U.S. as requested. Following threats to cut back on aid, including suspension of a sugar quota, Ricord was eventually extradited,

and normal relations were restored. Meanwhile, Paraguay's awareness of its dependence on the U.S. perhaps led to a visit by President Stroessner to Japan in April that succeeded in establishing useful contacts

The foreign trade posishow an improvement over The returns months of 1972 showed a surplus of

for alternative sources of aid. tion for 1972

appeared

to

the previous year's deficit of $5 million. for the first six

$8.2 million, with exports ($40.4 million) already two-

imports were running at approximately the same level as the previous year. thirds of the annual figure for 1971;

"With the country's economic situation thus beginning to show signs of improvement, the government

introduced banking legislation designed to facilitate

development

credit.

in given proportions

Banks were to direct their lending toward specified sections of the

economy: 10% of the loan portfolio to agriculture, 20% to exporters, and 25% to industry. A long-term boost to the economy was also expected to result from completion of several hydroelectric projects, which were mainly designed to export electricity to Brazil and Argentina. the

Unfortunately, as the economy began to rate of inflation

increase of

6%

began

to

move

the

move with

in the cost of living

it. In 1971 an was recorded, and

j.

shifts of funds out of

some currencies

into others in

search of protection against devaluation or as outright speculation, the relief for 1972 depended vitally on confidence in monetary, fiscal, and wage conditions, and government postures and policies, in each of the major countries. In the immediate aftermath of the Smithsonian agreement, it was hoped that funds would begin t" return in massive amounts from foreign currencic; into dollars; but these hopes failed to come true. On the contrary, during most of January and into February 1972, new funds flowed out of dollars as an accelerated growth of money supply in the U.S., a bit; drop in U.S. interest rates, and a huge federal budgetary deficit made it appear as if the U.S. were treating with benign neglect the consequences of its domestic monetary and fiscal conditions and policies on

confidence in the dollar internationally. As the dollar to be heading for another crisis. West Germany, Japan, and other countries strengthened the controls they had established in 1971 to ward off unwanted dollars. Fromi early March to early June, the

appeared

exchange markets stabilized. In mid-June, however, as a sterling crisis broke out and the pound was allowed to float, funds in excess of $5 billion sought refuge out of dollars into continental and Japanese currencies.

To

repel the avalanche, the continental

countries and Japan strengthened controls

still

furthei

while making substantial purchases of dollars to hold

a comparable figure seemed likely for 1972.

(m.

—

imposed in August 1971 was the product of bargaining between the U.S. administration and other governments. In a world in which relative costs and price; among the key countries were rising unevenly, markii were quick to sense that the rates for some currencir might prove incompatible with the Smithsonian strut ture. It was not surprising that, at times, they were tense and disturbed. Markets also sensed that since the waves of currency crises stemmed principally from

spence)

down the appreciation of their currencies. The pressure on the dollar eased only after mid-July when the markets came to realize that the existing exchange rate relationships between the dollar and the

Payments and Reserves,

continental currencies would not be changed in the

foreseeable future and would,

International When

1972 began, the currency realignments agreed upon at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., in December 1971 had several immediate reFirst, they ended the chaotic conditions that arose from the rather general regime of floating exsults.

change rates from August through mid-December 1971 conditions that, it was feared, might hurt the economic well-being and the cohesion of the world outside the Soviet Union, China, and the countries in

—

their spheres of influence. Second, the reshuffling of the world's exchange rate structure the most widespread realignment since 1949, coupled with the only change in the gold content of the U.S. dollar since 1934 established a new basis for conducting inter-

—

—

if necessary, be defended through market inter\'ention by European central banks. The Federal Reserve itself exemplified the willingness of the U.S. to play its part by announcing, on July 19, that it would support the dollar for the first time since the dollar convertibility was suspended in August 1971; it reactivated its mutual credit arrangements with other central banks. Thereafter, as short-term funds began to return, the dollar firmed steadily and appreciably against the currencies of the industrial countries other than Japan (see Graph 1). The October sterling crisis had no effect on the dollar. The backflow of short-term funds

—

into dollars

enough

from European currencies was not

big

to offset the outflow of dollars into yen, which,

together with the Japanese trade surplus, accounted

national business. And, third, the simultaneous and multilateral readjustment, the first ever accomplished,

for further additions to Japan's dollar holdings. In-

was regarded as reassurance that the key governments would handle international monetary and economic matters in a spirit of cooperation and compromise. How Currencies Fared. In the nature of things,

in the dollar,

the Smithsonian package

i.e.,

the effective

11%

de-

valuation of the U.S. dollar relative to other major currencies (weighted by trade) and the upvaluation to varying degrees of most other major currencies, together with the removal of the U.S. import surcharge

deed, the backflow, however beneficial for confidence

merely, in

effect,

financed the U.S. basic

which was diminishing much more slowly than had been hoped (see Table). The strengthening of the dollar also owed something to the realization that the performance of the U.S. economy as appraised by growth and stability was better than that of other deficit,

—

—

industrial countries.

The counterpart deficit

was found

of the continuing U.S.

payments West

in surpluses of other countries.

Germany had

tributed decisively

since

monetary reserves, were reversed dramatically. Enormous amounts of sterling were dumped on the exchanges and, from June 15 to 22, official support for the pound cost the authorities the equivalent of $2.5 billion. With no end to the reserve loss in sight, the government on June 23 allowed the pound to float "as a temporary measure." While this first phase of sterling depreciation was brought about by market expectations of the float, the second phase, which took place in October, reflected a novel kind of crisis one stemming from the fear that sterling was about to be repegged at a still lower level than was indicated by the market rates. This fear arose out of a morass of fruitless efforts to intro-

it

a small current-account deficit; but experienced net inflows of long-term capital, showed an even larger surplus than

the basic balance

During the first half of the year, it also accumulated dollars that originated from the capital flight into marks motivated by the behef that West Germany would once more be obliged to upvalue, as in 1961, 1969, and 1971. From midyear on, as there in 1971.

appeared unmistakable evidence throughout continental Europe of renewed inflationary increases in prices and costs, short-term fund flows were reversed and several countries, especially West Germany and

Switzerland, experienced a sizable decline in dollar reserves.

With found

a rapid expansion in

itself

its

economy, Canada

with a current account deficit

—a

came

largely

from a decline

the

rise

Britain's

in

official

Payments and Reserves, International

—

condi-

tion contrasting with surpluses during the previous

years; the change

to

two

in the

merchandise trade surplus. But capital inflows remained the critical factor behind the exchange rate. By the year's end, the Canadian dollar, which had been floating for over two and a half years, was regarded as very unlikely to be repegged before both the international situation and Canadian-U.S. relationships achieved a higher degree of stability. The only currency that remained under heavy upward pressure during the entire year was the Japanese yen. Japan recorded in 1972 an even more masa trade surplus sive trade surplus than previously that more than offset the nation's sizable long-term capital investments abroad with the result that the basic balance on current account and long-term capital was also heavily in surplus. On top of this basic surabove all, leads and lags in payplus, capital inflows ments and speculative dollar sales from all over the world, including Japan itself were extraordinarily

Forelgn Exchange Rotes Percent deviation from central rates

in

dollars

—

—

—

large.

Not too

surprisingly, this state of affairs trig-

gered expectations of a second upvaluation of the yen.

permit any further erosion of the profitJapanese industry, which had a substantial surplus capacity, Japanese authorities wanted to buy time at least until the effects of the 1971 yen uf>valuation were clear. To hold the yen down, therefore, they bought dollars, and to minimize increases in official dollar reserves, they used the carrot and the stick in a piecemeal sequence. Thus, they agreed

Loath

to

ability of

to import over several years additional amounts of goods from the U.S.; they encouraged outflows of long-term Japanese capital and they transferred dollars out of official reserves by "recycling" them into private Japanese banks for loans to foreign borrowers ;

and into the financing of Japanese imports. At the same time, they made a number of moves to restrict exports.

The concern over the future of the Smithsonian exchange rate pattern centred not only around the possible appreciation of the Japanese yen but also around the actual depreciation of the British pound. The U.K. had become afflicted by severe wage-price inflation in the

midst of intensive monetary and

stimulation of the

economy

— stimulation

that

fiscal

meant

higher imports and a diversion of output from export

markets to a more buoyant domestic economy. The deficit in Britain's foreign trade reappeared in February and, by May, it was taken as a sign that the huge current account surplus of the previous three years would soon be eroded, as actually happened in the third quarter. Another unsettling factor in the exchange market was the large rise in export prices. Inflows of short-term funds, which in 1971 con-

Dec.

Jan.

-1971-^|

Feb.

March

April

May

June 1972

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov. >-

— duce voluntary price and wage controls

Payments and Reserves, International

—

efforts

aban-

doned early in November when the government called a halt by imposing statutory controls. At year's end, the pound's depreciation was about 9.6% on its former $2.60 parity, compared with the 14% devaluation of of several nondollar countries that purchased dollars to prevent the appreciation of their currencies expanded their international monetary reser\'es substantially. Altogether, official international

—

the holdings by governments and central liquidity banks of gold, foreign exchange. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), and reserve positions in the Interna-

(IMF)— increased during tional Monetary Fund January-September by $19 billion to somewhat over $150 billion (expressed in the devalued 1972 dollars, i.e., dollars at $38 per ounce of gold). This 1972 rise took place on top of a record increase of almost $40 billion during 1971 (including SDRs), which itself followed a year of sharp acceleration in the creation of official international liquidity.

SDRs, which were

1972 in the third year of their existence, were amount of $3 billion, which brought

allotted in the

The entire period would one of an explosion of interby 63% from January

their total to $9.5 billion.

go down

in history as

national monetary reserves

—

1970 through September 1972. Private international liquidity also continued to increase in 1972.

desire

for

reforms.

The

optimist:

hoped that the international monetary system cou be overhauled in a year or two; the skeptics doubtti; that a reformed system could spring forth full blown like Athena from the head of Zeus. The complexity

were exemtwo reports; one, "Reform of the International Monetary System," by the executive directors of the IMF to its board of governors, published in September, and the other, "Possible Perspectives for International Trade and Economic Relations," presented in August by a group of experts to the secretary-general of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Neither report made any attempt to gloss over the differences in attitude and viewpoint among governments or to minimize the diversity of national positions and interests. To prepare monetary reforms, a special committee of IMF's board of governors was established under the chairmanship of Jeremy Morse of the Bank of England. The group was composed of 20 members hence the name Group of Twenty of which 11 were

and the

November 1967. The governments

in

understandable

political sensitivity of these issues

plified in

—

from

countries;

industrial

it

replaced the more ex-

Group of Ten formed by the industrial counwhich had concluded the Smithsonian agreement first meeting before the end of the year, it had already become evident that the Twenty would find it more than twice as diflScult to reach agreement clusive tries,

But, at their

international monetary reserves during 1972

than the Ten. Return to Fixed Exchange Rates. The governments

counterpart largely in a sharp increase in U.S. mone-

of the industrialized countries returned in

tary liabilities to governments and central banks of

1971 to the so-called par value system fixed parities or central rates, but adjustable in cases of "funda-

As

in the preceding

two years, the expansion of had its

other countries; during the

first

nine months of 1972,

these rose by $9 biUion to $60 billion {see Graph 2). extent of the weakening in the U.S. liquidity posi-

The

tion stood out to

when

$60 billion of U.S. liabilities foreign governments was compared with the $13 the

billion of U.S. international reserve assets.

Gold holdings by governments, central banks, and international financial institutions remained at the $45 billion level (as computed in devalued dollars) around which they had recorded only minor fluctuations since 1968. They were, in effect, immobilized as "a lastditch reserve" with which governments were most unwilling to part. For gold had become too precious to be sold at the $3S price as the London private market price was much higher $64.90 per fine ounce at the year's end; it had reached $70 in August. The immobilization of monetary gold was fostered in 1971 by the U.S. decision to suspend what remained of the formal convertibility of the dollar into gold and thus protect the remainder of gold as a national emergency reserve. In 1972, Italy, the U.K., and other countries ,

—

also refused to

pay out gold

The explosion

to settle official debts.

of international liquidity

from 1970

—

mental disequilibrium," subject to stipulated safeguards as protection against competitive devaluations or competitive non-upvaluations. The emphasis was not on greater flexibility of exchange rates but on le'rigidity in holding onto parities that involve funda mental disequilibrium. The margins for fluctuation ni market exchange rates were widened from 1 to 2;','' on either side of par; but acceptance of these wider margins was not obligatory, although in practice they were at once adopted for all major currencies. The U.S., as Treasury Secretary George Shultz stated at the IMF meeting, was ready to accept, for the future, the basic fixity of exchange rates; but, in order to facilitate the adjustment of payments imbalances and to help moderate short-term capital flows, the permissible margins for fluctuation should be widened still further. This proposal encountered opposition, however, on the ground that wider bands might

become devices

for seeking a lower effective exchange

While opposing still wider bands governments of the nine member countoward eliminating the flue-

rate for a currency.

generally, the tries of the

EEC moved

contrasted sharply with fears of scarcity of international monetary reserves that were prevalent as recently as 1969,

embark upon

when

the governments decided to

regular allocations

of

SDRs

—

alloca-

tions that were carried out in 1971 and 1972 as if nothing had happened, but were suspended for 1973.

The inordinate expansion

of international liquidity

—

was a critical factor in the world's inflation critical, but by no means the sole force, for donr -lie factors, above all the expansion of credit to the j ivate economy and government deficit financing, were decisive in Europe and elsewhere. How International Monetary Reforms Were Approached. In the first year after the breakdown of international monetary arrangements, there was an

December

The

U.S. Balance of

Paymenlf

tuations in the exchange rates of their

own

curren-

cies.

Drawing Rights. A system of exchange rates must be supported by Special

basically fixed convertibility

reserve growth should not depend on U.S. payments deficits, as it had in the past quarter century. The U.S. itself expressed the view that the new system should

of national currencies into internationally agreed re-

neither ban nor encourage dollar holdings in international monetary reserves but it conceded that the dol-

serve assets. It requires, therefore, a reasonably regu-

lar

growth in

world reserves because the swings to be wider with and investment. To meet these aggregate needs for reserves, SDRs should increase in importance and should be periodically created in the necessary amounts. In the U.S. view, SDRs should also become the common denominator or the numeraire for national currencies. The future of SDRs gave rise to much soul-searchlar

total

in the balances of

payments are apt

the expansion of international trade, services,

ing. First, to

make SDRs

the principal

means of

During 1972, nondollar currencies became, in efpegged to an inconvertible dollar. Clearly, dollars were convertible into other currencies and could be fect,

used to settle debts, at exchange rates maintained by other countries within specified limits of parity. But, unlike other countries, the U.S. financed its deficits

not by using

its

reserves, but

U.S. Monetary Reiervei and Bonki

nancing of persistent deficits by SDRs would tend to undermine the whole SDR arrangement. Second, the

Billions of U.S. dollars

U.S. proposed that SDRs should cease to be partly repayable, that the limits beyond which the partici-

I

SDRs

in settlement

of other countries' deficits should be lifted, the gold guarantees presently attached to

and that

SDRs

be eliminated (for a description of present

should

SDRs,

see

the 1970 Book of The Year). Against this view, it was pointed out that the removal of safeguards like these

would make the donations of liquidity through

SDRs

even more inflationary. And, third, many of the less developed countries wanted to "link" the creation of

SDRs

to distribution of

Presently,

nations.

economic aid by the industrial were, for the most part,

SDRs

given to the U.S. and other industrial countries refor the maintenance of expanding world and the functioning of the international moneThe primary need of the less developed countries was long-term capital domestic as well as

sponsible trade

tary system.

—

funds obtained through capital imports. Cold.

The prevalent view

in official circles

was that

gold would be retained as an international monetary

instrument but its importance would gradually diminish. The U.S. Treasury, which saw its holdings decline

from

its

record high of $26.9 billion in August 1949

to $10.5 billion in

December 1972

(at the $38 price),

sought to deemphasize the role of gold

more rapidly

than the European countries and Japan, which almost quadrupled their gold stocks over the same period to $23 billion, or one half of the world's total monetary gold reserves.

In May 1 972 the monetary price of gold in terms of was raised to $38 per fine ounce. This was 8.6% higher than the $35 price fixed in 1934; meanwhile, however, the dollar had lost 68% of its buying power (as measured by consumer prices). In ,

the U.S. dollar

terms of what preciated

it

buys, the dollar had, therefore, de-

much more

than had thus far been recog-

nized in raising the official

monetary price of

gold.

The Bretton Woods system of 1945 had been patched up in December 1971 but since it was based on gold, it could not work without a rise in the of;

value of gold. Conceivably, the Bretton Woods system could be replaced by arrangements that would be equally systematic, such as a full-fledged SDR ficial

standard;

but

this

International

;

should not be required to play so prominent a role in the operation of the new system.

by

issuing

"lOUs." In

re-

serve growth called for a more finely tuned adjustment process than in the past. Obviously, a continuous fi-

pants are not obliged to accept

Payments and Reserves,

would be a veritable monetary

revolution.

The Dollar. The huge increase in dollar reserves during 1970-72 was a serious and disturbing development in international monetary relationships. Governments outside the U.S. generally agreed that the future

liabilities to

Fo »ign Governments ond Central

months of 1972, the U.S. actually added

the first nine

Payments and Reserves, International

little

to its reserves

(including the

SDR

allocation)

although the overall settlements deficit amounted to $8.7 billion; in 1971 as a whole it used $2.3 billion of its reserves but had a $29.8 billion deficit. Not astonishingly, therefore, other major countries re-

garded the restoration of dollar convertibility into ingold, SDKs, and reserve ternationally agreed assets as an indispensable step toward positions in the IMF

—

—

a reformed international standard. While the U.S. embraced dollar convertibility as an objective, there was no early prospect for its restoration. Improving the Processes of Balance of Payments

A

Adjustment.

deep-seated difficulty in the past was

the unwillingness of governments to

face up even

to

misunderstanding, for even though the deficits and surpluses are arithmetically equal, this gives no insight into causal relationships.

A

country that, by

its

action

its own deficit or surplus should subject itself to adjustment, but not a country that

or inaction, creates

merely finds itself in imbalance because of conditions and policies, or lack of policies, in some other countr\'. For deficit countries, the adjustment process meant until quite recently that they should

make

a stronger

domestic effort to regain stability, including domestic monetary, fiscal, and wage self-discipline, however unpopular. The shift of emphasis on the easy w-ay out through devaluation of the external value of the currency was discomforting and disquieting. Similarly, surplus countries could not be expected to accept up-

obvious situations of "fundamental disequilibrium." They delayed far too long the correction of payments perhaps even more of surpluses. This deficits and

valuation of their currencies as the simplest and most

the fault of the international institutional Charter stipulated parity arrangements, for the

ing nations, practicing at least a measure of monetary

fundamental disequilibrium. But agreement about responsibilities for the initiating the balance of payments adjustment ways and means by which countries achieve and maintain an equilibrium in their economic relationships with other countries through timely devaluations or upvaluations of exchange rates and through other steps with similar balance of payments effects. The end result was monetary instability, speculation, and even

flationary behaviour of countries that were less dis-

—

—

was not

IMF

in cases of

changes

there was no

—

political friction.

From

the start of the discussions about reforms, the

governments envisaged

—as already

— converti-

noted

bility of currencies, including the dollar, into interna-

tionally agreed reserve assets. Convertibility itself, however, was not enough. Surely, losses of reserves force a persistent deficit country to take remedial action sooner or later. But a deficit country can delay adjustment through extensive borrowing and by restricting imports and capital outflows. The discipline is even less effective in the case of a country with a balance of payments surplus, for it can accumulate re-

serves

more or

less indefinitely.

In actual experience,

the pressure on countries gaining reserves excessively

upvalue their currencies (or to take other action with a similar balance of payments effect) was in the past much smaller than the pressure to devalue on countries losing reserves heavily. In the U.S. view, to

there was a crucial

asymmetry between

—a gap that had

and

deficit

be corrected. Reliance could not be placed entirely on the discretion of governments to initiate timely or equitable adjustment policies. Similarly, no reliance could be placed on the international bodies to induce national governments to adjust domestic policies. What was needed was to devise "objective criteria" to identify surplus countries

to

serious imbalances. In the U.S. view, "the ble

and

most equita-

effective single indicator" consisted of "dis-

expedient this

and

were

way to help restore international balance. If become the international rule, hard-work-

to

fiscal discipline,

would be penalized

the world as a whole

would be increasingly prone

Encouraging Freer Trade and Capital Flows. The process of orderly balance of payments adjustment through exchange rate changes would be made more difficult if countries or groups of countries were insulated from foreign price competition. The US. sought, therefore, to approach monetary reforms along with reforms of the world's trading arrangements and practices. It wanted a "one world" solution that was nondiscriminatory and multilateral in money and trade alike.

In fact, the trading relations between the U.S., on and Europe and Japan, on the other, were

the one side,

severely strained in 1972. There were also disagree-

ments between the U.S. and some of the industrialized countries about the role and desirability of long-term capital flows and their financing. The U.S. appeared to

be inclined to

let

other countries take the dollars

or take the consequences in the guise of the apprecia-

on the other hand. Canada, Europe, Japan, and Australia seemed unwilling to acwithout limit and thus, in effect, cept U.S. investments sell factories for more U.S. merchandise exports, let alone in return for dollars accumulated on the central tion of their currencies;

bank books. Another clash centred around the rapid movements of large amounts of short-term funds through the exchanges. The U.S. put forward the view that movements of capital should be allowed to exert their full influence within the wider margins around the established central rates. The European countries and Japan, which had gradually built up controls on unwanted dollar inflows, appeared resigned to even more restrictions, including those

way

on the Eurodollar market,

as one

At some

vertible fixed-rate system could be counted

serves should lose

and should

it

fail

its

right

re-

demand conversion;

adjustment meabe permitted to protect

to take effective

sures, other countries should their interests

to

up

by such

steps as special surcharges on

imports from the chronically surplus country.

On

the

other hand, a deficit country consistently refusing to initiate

adjustment measures might be penalized by

the withdrawal of borrowing privileges or

SDR

allo-

cations.

The U.S. position encountered determined resistThe surplus countries warned against a possible

ance.

to

inflation.

proportionate gains or losses in monetary reserves." point, for instance, a country piling

for the in-

ciphned. If certain nations could inflate with impunity,

together

if

of dealing with the problem.

subjected to vast

one currency

movements

No

on

con-

to hold

of funds from

to another.

Conclusion. On the eve of 1973, the scope and the nature of international monetary reforms were nebulous.

"The brave new world of SDRs" was not around was scope for formal reform

the corner. While there

of the system, governments of

all

large

countries

freedom of action in all matters afpayments and reserves was limappeared, therefore, that there would be no

realized that their

fecting international ited. It

rash and irrevocable changes in the presently accepted

monetary rules. More than ever, the needed changes were in the behaviour of currencies under these rules. The most encouraging development on the international monetary horizon was the strengthening of the at home, since the loss of its buying power dollar or acceptable

—

slowed

down

perceptibly, as well as in

A

ships with other currencies.

its

relation-

reliably stable dollar

would help other major countries avoid inflation, for they wanted to maintain fixed dollar parities for their currencies. At the same time, a dollar that was above suspicion would restore to the international monetary structure its main pillar. (miroslav a. kriz) See also Commercial Policies; Commodities, Primary; Economy, World; Investment, International; Money and

Banking; Prices; Trade, International.

at the spring stockholders' meetings of General Elec-

Honeywell, Standard Oil of New Jersey, and the International Telephone and Telegraph Co., each of which was engaged in producing air-war and antipersonnel materials. CALC urged such proposals as cessation of the production of antipersonnel weapons and the creation, in each corporation, of committees on conversion to peacetime work. Other bodies, such as the Church of the Brethren, chose to divest themselves completely of all investments in corporations producing weapons and defense-related products. In a related development, a coalition of agencies

tric,

from

five major Protestant denominations challenged General Motors, Goodyear Tire and Rubber, and Mobil Oil to provide complete disclosure of their policies and operations in South Africa. Gulf Oil was challenged concerning its operations in Angola, while a fifth corporation, IBM, volunteered to provide a full report to its stockholders. The project marked an un-

Peace Movements

usual collaboration

The context of peace movement activities in 1972 was marked by a series of paradoxes. While peace spokes-

Christ, the

Pres. Richard Nixon's efforts to reduce

men applauded

tensions with China

and the Soviet Union, they

also

stressed the need to terminate U.S. military involve-

ment

in

Indochina. While direct troop involvement in

Indochina decreased, U.S. air and naval power continued to play a dominating role. While a significant

arms limitation treaty was signed with the Soviet Union, this act was accompanied by an administration request for increased defense spending. While mass protest as a tactic suffered a severe decline, the gatherof

ing

oppositional

currents

into

the

Democratic

Party boosted the preconvention campaign of Sen. George McGovern. While McGovern's candidacy

marked

the highwater point of the electoral peace ef-

U.S. electorate was reluctant to supmany of the movement's key assumptions. Despite the breakup of several of the more radical components of the antiwar movements of the '60s, fort, the larger

port

peace advocates were often successful in linking up with significant environmental, consumer, civil hberties, and legislative efforts. Beyond this, peace leaders continued to focus the

arms

on control and reversal of

race, the reduction of tension in crisis areas,

humanitarian and emergency

among churches;

the challengers

included the Episcopal Church, the United Church of

relief,

and the develop-

American Baptist Convention, the United Presbyterian Church, and the United Methodist Church. Although significant portions of organized labour were severely critical of peace movement strategies, over 20 unions representing over four million workers supported Labor for Peace, a voluntary organization of trade unionists aimed at mobilizing labour opposition to the Indochina war. Besides the Teamsters and the United Auto Workers (the two largest independent unions in the U.S.), Labor for Peace included representatives from IS AFL-CIO affiliates and four additional independent unions. The founding conference of 985 representatives in St. Louis, Mo., demanded immediate military withdrawal from Indochina and urged attention to the task of reconverting the economy to a full-employment, peacetime basis. Reflecting the mounting effort to organize and focus economic pressures to achieve social justice, a Boycott Center was established in Atlanta, Ga. A development of the Martin Luther King Institute for Nonviolent Change, the centre planned to develop a national network alert to respond swiftly in support of just requests for aid. The centre was already as-

United Farm Workers Organizing Commitnonunion iceberg lettuce. Other peace organizations advanced varied tactics

sisting the

tee in their boycott of

ment of structures to promote a stable peace. McGovern's difficulties in translating his convention

and

successes into a national victory could not efface the fact that, for the first time in post-World War II

Quaker-related American Friends Service Committee issued a new White Paper entitled "Indochina 1972:

politics,

the

identify

a

U.S.

peace

movement could

readily

major party contender who articulated

many of their deepest concerns. In Congress, however, the two branches persisted in their disagreement over ending U.S. involvement in Southeast .^sia. While the Brooke Amendment, cutting off funds for carrying on the war, narrowly passed the Senate, 49-47, the

House

turned down, 178-228, an end-the-war proposal recommended by its own Foreign Affairs Committee.

Further legislative attempts to end the war became entangled in election-year politics. Nevertheless, organi-

Cause, Americans for Democratic Action, SANE, and the Council for a Livable World lobbied intensively for a reassertion of congreszations such as

Common

sional initiative.

In their efforts to mobilize public opinion on the issue, peace groups targeted key U.S. corporations involved in war industry. In particular. Clergy and Laymen Concerned submitted resolutions for debate

war

strategies to build the antiwar

movement. The

Perpetual War," which condemned the U.S. role, out"automated warfare" on

lined the growing pattern of

an "electronic battlefield," and termed U.S. withdrawal a "logical, ethical necessity." The AFSC also designated an "Indochina Summer" of intensified peace education and protest. The Vietnam Veterans Against the War were highly visible in protests that followed the intensified bombardment of North Vietnam. The Committee of Liaison, which administered the flow of mail to U.S. prisoners of war in North

Vietnam, facilitated the release of three U.S. prisoners by Hanoi in September. The men were accompanied on their return trip to the U.S. by three committee

members, William Sloane Coffin, Jr., David Dellinger, and Cora Weiss. SANE focused on lobbying, electoral politics, and educational efforts during the year, while United World Federalists stressed the need for full funding of the U.S. share of UN expenses, world environmental

533

Peace Movements

Internationally, 1972 witnessed a striking convergence of the ecological and peace issues, most notabl; at the UN Conference on the Human Environment,

held in Stockholm in June. (See

Environment.) The

from unanimous, but peace activists were encouraged by the numerous nongovernmental conferences occurring deliberations of the conference were far

Stockholm venture. The most significant was the transnational Dai Dong effort, sponsored by the International Fellowship of Reconciliation (IFOR). Dai Dong participants stressed the interrelatedness of all problems threatening human survival, especially war, and drafted an "Independent Declaration on the Environment" that was presented parallel to the

to the larger

UN

conference.

The IFOR continued to sponsor the Costa Rica Conference on Revolutionary Nonviolence, which gathered leaders from labour and the church from throughout Latin America and anticipated a continentwide organization oriented toward nonviolence. IFOR also subsidized experiments in organizing nonviolent peace-keeping forces in Northern Ireland and studied possible techniques of nonviolent intervention in neocolonialist situations in Africa.

The World Council

of

Churches and the All-Africa Conference of Churches played a crucial role

in securing negotiations that re-

sulted in a cease-fire in the Sudan, where civil conAbove, Jane Fonda speaks at press conference after returning from North

Vietnam, wfiere

sfie

had

delivered a radio appeal to U.S. pilots regarding their bombing of North Vietnamese hospitals, schools, and dikes, flight,

the Rev. Daniel J. Berrigan holds a prayer service on the steps of St. Patrick's Cathedral

New York City. He charged that he had been excluded from preaching at a peace mass inside the church on June 4, 1972. in

fiicl

and forceful international action to curb air piracy. The UWF also supported former UN secretary-general U Thant's call for a "second allegiance laws,

the

to

human community" by means

of individual

declarations and enrollments as "planetary citizens."

Several groups assisted the "Unsell the

War"

effort of

mass perchallenge the war. In the House

advertising and media specialists to utilize

suasion techniques to

members introduced "World Peace Tax Fund Act," which would permit citizens opposed to war on moral and religious grounds to reroute their federal income, gift, and inheritance taxes from military to peace-related ac-

had festered since 1955.

In mid-February, 800 delegates from 80 nations parWorld Assembly for Peace held in Versailles, France. While the call for the assembly was ticipated in the

patterned after several previous Communist-initiated

world gatherings, sented.

A

a

broader range of groups was repre-

lengthy series of resolutions was adopted,

including support for an intensive six-week campaign in the U.S. against the air

war

of Representatives, a group of

rate action, the International

the

into

tivities.

Despite the failure of the U.S. government to conand the other Harrisburg

vict Father Philip Berrigan

Seven antiwar

activists on major conspiracy charges, antiwar leaders decried the pattern of surveillance of civilian political dissenters, harrassment. and politically motivated trials that they saw as a growing

strategy within the federal government. cially cited the

forthcoming

trial

They

espe-

of Daniel EUsberg

Anthony Russo, on charges of stealclassified documents, defrauding the government their custody, and violating the Espionage Act.

and ing

of

his associate,

Many anticipated that the "Pentagon papers trial" would intensify debate over the people's right to know and challenge the prevalent system of classifying sensitive documents to place them beyond the reach of public exposure and debate. A number of peace organizations operating under the aegis of the People's Coalition for Peace and Justice sponsored small nongovernmental "delegations" of Americans who met unofficially with representatives of North Vietnam, the provisional government of South Vietnam, and other nongovernmental groups. Similarly, three U.S. labour leaders, Clifton Caldwell

Amalgamated Meat Cutters, Harold Gibbons of David Livingston of the DistribuWorkers Union, visited North Vietnam at the invitation of their counterparts in the North Vietnamese labour movement.

In a sepa-

Commission

of Inquiry

focused on evidence that the U.S. dikes in the Red River Delta.

had bombed Peace spokesmen in Great Britain struggled to formulate nonviolent alternatives to the violence in Northern Ireland, debated the desirability of continued British association with NATO, and pressured the government to disengage itself more fully from U.S. policy in Vietnam. In Japan debate mounted over anticipated increases in the budget for the so-called self-defense forces and continued U.S. use of militan.bases on Japanese soil. In India peace advocates were torn between their empathy for newly emergent Bangladesh and their aversion to the violence that accompanied its birth. Their basic energies were devoted to assisting the organization of a massive emergency re-

program for the new nation. The murder of memMunich by Palessome peace leaders to question the nationalist emphasis of the Olympic Games themselves. (RICHARD 0. HATHAWAY) lief

bers of the Israeli Olympic team at tinian terrorists led

Peru A of

republic on the west coast

South

America,

Peru

is

bounded by Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, and

of the

the Pacific Ocean. Area: 496,-

the Teamsters, and

222 sq.mi. (1,285,215 sq.km.). Pop. (1972 est.): 13.6 million,

tive

in Indochina.

War Crimes

including approximately

46%

Indians. Cap.

and

52%

whites and mestizos and

largest city:

Lima

(pop., 1972

i

— 3.3 million). Language: Spanish; Indians speak Quechuan or Aymara. Religion: Roman Catholic. President of the military government in 1972, Juan est.,

Velasco Alvarado. Politically 1972 was uneventful, and the government's policy of pragmatism and consolidation continued.

On January

Gen. Edgardo Mercado Jarrin

3

resigned as minister of foreign affairs and was ap-

army put him in

chief of staff. This

pointed to

line to

was seen

as a

move

succeed President Velasco on his

retirement.

Sinamos, the government agency set up in 1971 to mobilize the people behind the government, was in-

similar to the one signed by Occidental Petroleum in June 1971. These companies were to develop and ex-

the government announced the proving of Pavayacu X-3, the third productive exploratory well in the re-

mote Amazon fields, which had been discovered by the company, Petroperu. Plans for a 400-mi., U.S. $250 million pipeline across the western Amazon jungle and over the Andes to the Pacific coast would state

now definitely proceed. The state mining company, Mineroperu,

ernment's concern over the prevailing sense of apathy.

signed a contract with a Japanese consortium in October for the construction of a copper refinery at the port of Ilo on the far south coast. On November 30 local assets

It was hoped that under the leadership of one of the more radical generals, Leonidas Rodriguez, Sinamos

eration

creasingly active during the year, reflecting the gov-

might do something

to

fill

the political

vacuum

created

of the Peruvian Corp. were auctioned in a paper op-

—

PERU Education. (1968) Primary, pupils 2,334,982, teach(including preprimary) 68,089; secondary, pupils 470,664, teachers 26,915; vocational, pupils 93,034, teachers 8.439; higher, students 101,099, teaching staff 11,649. Finance. Monetary unit: sol, with a principal official exchange rate (Sept. 18, 1972) of 38.70 soles to U.S. $1 (nominal rate of 95 soles £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (April 1972) U.S. $246.3 million; (April 197!) U.S. $292.3 million. Budget (1970 rev. est.): revenue 45 billion soles; expenditure 45,531,000,000 soles. Gross national product: (1969) 198,320.000,000 soles; (1968) 181,240,000,000 soles. Money supply: (June 1971) 31,540,000.000 soles; (June 1970) 27,250,000,000 soles. Cost of living (Lima and Callao; 1963 100): (May 1972) 233; (May 1971) 217. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports 23,323,000,000 soles; exports 34.492.000,000 soles. Import sources: U.S. 29%; West Germany 12%; Japan 10%; U.K. ers

pared with 7.7% in 1970. The trade balance for January-June 1972 was U.S. $1 12.7 million, compared with

=

half of 1971, a recovery

first

based on heavy shipments of

meal and a revival However, prospects economy diminished with the arrival and confish

flow of mineral exports.

in the

for the

=

warm El Niiio Current, which drove away the anchoveta that provided so

tinued presence of the killed or

much

by which the government formally took over main railways, (jeremv willoughby)

the country's

by the regime. Sinamos and the government talked in terms of creating a participatory and pluralistic soreciety, based on three sectors: state; private formed by the workers' communities; and social presumably something akin to cooperatives. Economically, 1971 had not been a very satisfactory year. The trade surplus fell to U.S. $141 million, and the gross national product rose by only 5.9%, com-

U.S. $48 million in the

of Peru's foreign exchange. Anchoveta supplies

to minimal levels. Most fishing was suspended, and in late September the government decreed a ban on all further shipments of fish meal and fish oil until fell

5%; Canada 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 29%; West Germany 15%; Japan 12%; Netherlands 7%. Main exports: fish meal 31%: copper 19%; sugar 8%; 7%;

5%:

5%:

5%.

further notice.

iron ore

U.S., China,

50.056 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger 230.400; commercial (including buses) 117.500. Railways (1969): 1,752 km.; traffic 254 million passenger-km., freight 591 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 788,783,000 passenger-km.; freight 25,722,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 601; gross tonnage 420.656. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 208,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 1,819,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 395.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): rice 587 (587); corn 578 (615); wheat 114 (125); barley 150 (170); potatoes 1,900 (1,929); cassava (1970) 498. (1969) 450. dry beans c. 65 (63); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 900, (197071) c. 877; grapes c. 58 (57); coffee c. 74 (65); cotton, lint c. 92 (92); fish catch (1970) 12,613, (1969) 9,244. Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle c. 4,150; sheep 17,063; pigs 1,930; goats 1,860; horses c. 600; poultry c. 22,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): cement 1,144; crude oil (1971) 3,04S; coal (1969) c. 162; iron ore (melal content) 6,119; pig iron 180; steel (1969) 194; lead (1969) 78; zinc 64; copper II; tungsten concentrates (exports: oxide content; 1969) 0.6; gold (troy oz.) 95; silver (troy oz.) 38,000; fish meal 2,253; electricity (kw-hr.) 5,324,000.

Three major buyers of fish meal, the and Cuba, did not ask for penalties, but Peru's largest customer. West Germany, demanded compensation if its orders were not filled. In December fishing was resumed on a limited basis, but the results were reported to be poor, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization predicted

that

these

would continue at least until March 1973. Worries over the probable detrimental effect on Peru's

payments position

led

about a possible devaluation of the minister of

economy denied

this.

to

sol,

speculation

although the

The government

suc-

ceeded in stabilizing internal prices after a large increase of

5.8%

in the cost of living in the first three

months of 1972. The 1972 cost of living rise was expected to be in the neighbourhood of 10-12%, and it seemed unlikely that the national growth rate would reach the

7.5%

target.

Other events in 1972 did help to ease Peru's longerterm problems. Following the refusal of Peru's creditors in try's

silver

zinc

cotton

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969)

conditions

international

and Numismatics

Philately

plore areas in the northeastern jungle region in return for a straight percentage of wellhead output. In May

1971 to agree to a rescheduling of the coun-

foreign debt, a financial mission visited Paris in

February to seek financial backing for 94 projects listed in the 1971-75 development plan. These included irrigation works, petrochemicals, copper mining, and telecommunications. The mission met with representatives of leading industrial countries, and in July these nations agreed in principle to provide loans

press information services and set out to capture

totaling U.S. $1,077,000,000.

philatelic

The trend toward foreign

participation in the petro-

leum sector continued, and several foreign companies, including the British Petroleum Co., signed contracts

Philately Philately.

effort

by

and Numismatics

Many

national post offices improved their

new

markets in 1972. One bad example of this was the lavish volume titled The Sea, issued

work some fine

the U.S. Postal Service. Priced at $300, the

contained nine

common

U.S. stamps and

Penology: Prisons and Penology

jee

Pentecostal Churclies: ''"

,7,'Filll'and"powSI; Industrial

Review

Right,

Leonard Nathanson

of Southfield,

Mich.,

examines a flawed sheet of eight-cent Eisenhower stamps purchased from his local post office. A rare preprinting paper fold running along the eighth row made the sheet a valuable collector's

item.

French medal (above) was issued to coincide.with the dedication of Charles de Gaulle's memorial at Colombey-les-Deux-Eglises on June 18, 1972. The medal was designed by Albert de Jaeger and sumped by la Monnaie de Paris.

Tom SfiNVTer

United states

J Family Planning

Far left, U.S. stamp issued in 1972 depicts a favourite scene from Mark Twain's ''Tom Sawyer." Left, stamp issued In support of family planning aroused criticism from Roman Catholic spokesmen. Above, stamp issued to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Parent-Teacher Association.

,S

seascape photography, but did not justify its official description as "the first major philatelic publication

of an end to the unnecessary speculative issues put

of the U.S. Postal Service."

States. There was a delay in producing a unified issue, however, giving private operators the chance for a final fling that put a flood of worthless stamps on an already sated philatelic market. The Olympic Games

In Great Britain the long negotiations for the amalgamation of the British Philatelic Association Ltd., the National Philatelic Society, and the Philatelic Traders Society Ltd. were finally abandoned; the three organizations pledged that they would continue to cooperate in the overall interests of philately. After

more than

a century, the parent

company

of Stanley

Gibbons Ltd. changed its name to Stanley Gibbons International Ltd. and became a holding company. The old name was retained for the stamp selling division. Gibbons also abandoned its incomplete sectional catalog and began to issue a three-part European catalog and a three-part catalog covering the rest of the world. The Great Britain and Commonwealth catalog remained as a separate volume. The major international exhibition, held in Brussels under the patronage of King Baudouin, opened at the end of June. Baudouin donated the Grand Prix d'Honneur (a large gold medal) to E. Antonini of Switzerland for his collection of French stamps. The Grand Prix International in the open competition classes went to Count A. Gerli of Italy for a fine collection of Tuscany stamps, and the Grand Prix National for the best entry of Belgian stamps was awarded to M. Zhigne of Belgium. At the exhibition, Stanley Gibbons sold a Mauritius 2d. blue "Post Office" for i20,000, a

new record

price for this stamp.

The establishment, on August 1, of a new postal Arab Emirates brought promise

service for the United

out by the separate sheikhdoms of the former Trucial

Munich, W.Ger., resulted in the biggest-ever worldwide "omnibus" issue, with stamps from countries having the smallest participating teams (or no teams at all) being the most numerous. An international sensation was caused by the disclosure that about 400 unauthorized envelopes had been carried to the moon and back by the crew of Apollo 15 and that 100 had been sold by Hermann Sieger in West Germany at about $1,500 each. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration confiscated the remaining 300. {See Astronautics.) At the Central Criminal Court, London, on September 5, James Alexander Mackay, assistant keeper at

Department of Printed Books and curator of Museum's philatelic collections, pleaded stamp proofs loaned to the museum by the Crown Agents and was fined £1,000. Just before the trial, Thomas De La Rue and Co. Ltd. announced that their S5-volume record collection of stamps would be withdrawn from loan to

in the

the British

guilty to five charges of stealing

the British for

Museum

making the

(which did not have

'

'

facilities

collection available to students) and

transferred to the National Postal

;

Museum

in

'

the

Chief Post Office in London. The 1972 signatories to the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists were Lucien Berthelot (France), Sir

1

Athelstan Caroe (U.K.), J. E. H. P. J. Crustin (Belgium), and John B. Marriott (U.K.), the keeper of

system devised especially for numismatic

Royal Philatelic Collections at Buckingham Palace. The Philatelic Congress Medal was awarded to F. P. H. Parsons of London.

eral years in the

the

(KENNETH Numismatics. Although

the U.S.

(ANA),

held in

New

issue

Orleans, La.,

August, Mint Director Mary T. Brooks announced that the cupronickel Eisenhower dollar would be inin

cluded in the 1973 proof sets. Limited numbers of these specially struck sets would be available from

Assay

the U.S.

Numismatic

Office,

Service, in San

Francisco until the limit of production capacity was

The 40%

reached. dollars

silver

proof and the uncirculated

would be struck again

Many

in 1973.

countries struck coins in

new

designs or val-

ues during the year. This was particularly true of small, new countries, some of which issued coins

and at premium prices. Somethere was an increase in the num-

primarily for collectors

what surprisingly,

seum

in

ber of silver coins being issued, especially those in-

tended to appeal to collectors. Iran, for example, put

numismatic muColorado Springs, Colo., had been developed and an aid to students.

into a tourist attraction

(glenn

b.

smedley)

See also Postal Services.

Philippines Situated in the western Pacific Ocean off the southeast coast of Asia, the Republic of the Philippines consists of an archipelago of about 7,100 islands. Area: 115,800 sq.mi. (300,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1972

Quezon City (pop., 1970, 754,452). Largest city: Manila (pop., 1970, 1,330,788). Language: Filipino (based on Tagalog), En-

est.): 39,102,000. Capital:

glish, Spanish,

Roman

and many

Catholic

Protestant

3%.

dialects. Religion

(1960):

84%; Aglipayan 5%; Muslim 5%; President

in

1972,

Ferdinand E.

Marcos.

On Jan. 12, 1972, President Marcos lifted a state of emergency imposed in August 1971 following a bomb

attack on a political rally held in Manila. The proclamation also restored the suspended rights of habeas corpus except for persons currently under detention "for the crimes of insurrection or rebellion." After the bombing President Marcos had vowed to

"impose martial law

if

necessary" to "liquidate the

Communist apparatus," which he blamed

(avoirdupois) of commercially pure silver.

tack.

Numismatists interested in history and art were offered a wide variety of medals, mostly from private firms. .Among the hundreds of issues in 1972 were medals commemorating Moses and the Ten Commandments, Sir Walter Raleigh, Walt Whitman, James Fenimore Cooper, the Baha'i House of Wor-

Marcos had repeatedly expressed alarm at what he titled the "Communist menace." Indeed active Maoist

Apollo 16

of Lincoln

moon

relating to physicians.

Jones of matic Art

mission, the 7Sth anniversary

Memorial University, and

Rome

The

.\ii.\

as the recipient of

Award

a series of four

selected Elizabeth its

annual Numisits

New

hobby continued to grow, with the ANA showing a net increase in membership of more than 1,000 for the third consecutive year. Most dealers reported good business and advancing prices. A 1 794 U.S. penny reportedly brought $15,000 at an auction sale, a new record price for a copper coin. New records were set also by the reported sales of an I894-S dime at $50,000. an 1804 silver dollar at $80,000, and Interest in the

Liberty

Head

nickel at $100,000.

Some 1972

from dies that had a double outline of the lettering and date were selling at around $100 each. Activity in all forms of paper money was also strong, and the collecting of old checks as an adjunct to paper money was gaining impetus. In spite of efforts by the ANA and other organizations, particularly the numismatic publishers, counterfeit, altered, and other specious coins were still being U.S. pennies struck

to collectors. Modern manufacturing techniques permitted the production of fakes that were very difficult to detect. The established a certi-

offered

ANA

where collectors could have their coins checked (at a modest fee) for authenticity, and this was expected to slow the sale of false coins somewhat. fication service

The

ANA

issued a

took two other major steps

catalog,

for the at-

dissidents within the country had undertaken to point out what they considered the inability of the government to focus adequately on the problems of the nation.

Unemployment,

in a

country with a population

growth rate of 3.3%; widespread corruption among government officials, some of whom employed private armies to further their political ambitions and business goals and the large number of tenant farmers in ;

for Excellence in Medallic Sculpture

and presented the gold award medal to her at Orleans convention.

a 1913

Pliilippines

stage, its

out a set of five coins containing nearly five ounces

ship, the

537

literature,

extensive library. After sev-

embryo

CHAPMAN)

F.

Mint did not

any new types or designs of coins in 1972, it did produce the first in a series of dollar-size bronze medals observing the bicentennial of the American Revolution. The series of medals were being planned and issued by the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission, established by Congress. At the annual convention of the American Numismatic Association

listing the material in its

based on a library

in 1972. It

classification

After ordering emergency security measures in

the Philippines

on Aug. 24, 1972, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos displays a rifle he claimed was furnished to Communist Hul propaganda undertakings of the year was the puMii. presentation of the Nixon administration's approach to peace in Vietnam. In essence, the administration

the meaning-

disputed the claims of racial and sex-related

differ-

made by Arthur Jensen

of the

new work contended

that

IQ

tests

were culture-loaded

in

favour of middle class wliites, leading to the unfair thousands of black and Chicano chil-

classification of

dren as retarded. Psychologist George

Mayeske

of the

U.S. OflBce of Education reported that

20-30%

of the

answers on achievement and IQ tests reflected cultural background rather than native intelligence, and that this

was enough

to account for the significant dif-

ferences in test scores of different culture groups.

strong

life

expectations,

work

ethic,

and

557

identification

with work as a means of self-respect and personal development as the middle class worker. Goodwin charged that the middle class misconception that the poor do not want to work distorted public poUcies and distracted attention

from

the real problems of

ployment.

Publishing

unem-

(PATRICE DAILY HORN)

See also Medicine.

The 1972 International Congress of Primatology brought the world's leading researchers together in

A

was

the U.S. for the

first

reported by

Gartlan of the University of Bristol,

J. S.

time.

significant finding

With an irony that

Publishing

Eng., and the Federal University of Cameroon. Social

Harassment and censorship were

structures maintained by five species of monkeys and baboons living in mountains, savannas, lake basins, and rain forests were found, contrary to previously held assumptions, to vary depending on the surround-

periences in publishing in

same surroundings, over a period of time. Changes within a structure seemed to be most affected by rapid ecological changes, especially deforestation, and by marked changes in the mode and

that scarcely one-fifth of

ings and, within the

efficiency of hunting.

many

all

too

conmion

ex-

parts of the world in

1972. In the International Press Institute's annual

December and entitled Another Year of Lost Battles, director Ernest Meyer stated

review, published in

UN

member

countries en-

joyed what could genuinely be called freedom of information. Referring to continuing governmental intimidation of journalists and manipulation of the mass media, Meyer stressed the danger in the acceptance,

The value and effectiveness of encounter groups and other forms of sensitivity training came under close scrutiny. One study, by psychologists M. A. Lieberman and M. B. Miles and psychiatrist Irvin Yalom, found that 9.6% of the participants in the groups studied experienced psychiatric breakdowns following encounter therapy. Most casualties appeared within groups with "charismatic and authoritarian" leaders; low-risk groups were those with "loving

by growing numbers of governments and individuals, of attacks on freedom of expression as justifiable. The report cited as most serious the silencing of the Philip-

leaders."

women's liberation, minorities, drugs, alcoholism, and the poor. Violence was scrutinized by a team at the University of Michigan headed by Monica Blu-

Earl Caldwell of the New York Times, had refused to testify when subpoenaed by grand juries, saying that any appearance before a secret panel would destroy their credibility among confidential news sources. Writing for the majority. Justice Byron R. White de-

menthal, which found that institutional violence, such

nied the reporters' claim to constitutional protection:

Psychological research on social unrest covered violence,

as

war or police

by nearly

all

activity,

the 1,400

was not considered violence

men

sur\'eyed.

The

report of

the U.S. surgeon general's Scientific .\dvisory

Com-

mittee on Television and Social Behavior noted a limited link between violence seen on television and the actions of the already aggressive child. Researchers

on the committee asked that some type of violence scale be established for use in regulating television programming. Many women scientists asked that research on women be done by women, advancing the same argument used by other minority groups: that research by nonmembers is done from a different viewpoint and, therefore, measures the group unfairly. The importance being assigned to drug and alcoholism studies in the U.S.

had been underscored

in 1971

the establishment of a Special Action Office for

Abuse Prevention

by

Drug

to coordinate the activities of

14

Reports done for various governments on the use and abuse of marijuana, which generally neither condemned nor condoned the drug, federal departments.

brought a rash of pro-legalization movements through-

was paid to the works of Carl Jung, Wilhelm Reich, and others as part of a general growth of interest in mysticism and mystical pheattention

nomena. Research on transcendental meditation, alternate life-styles, and religious movements such as the "Jesus people" reflected the continuing popular interest in this area.

Do

the

Poor Want

consciously"

it

"consciously or un-

favoured Communism.

before

its reporter Peter Bridge was jaited

for refusing to

reveal

to a grand jury his source in a local

bribery story.

A June 1972 Supreme Court decision declared that journalists could not be guaranteed professional

immunity from compelled testimony under the First Amendment, a ruling that

many felt would hamper

seriously

(See

Philip-

investigative

reporting.

pines.)

In the U.S. the issue centred around a 5^ ruling made on June 29 by the Supreme Court that grew out of three incidents in which reporters, most notably

First Amendment interest asserted by the newsmen was outweighed by the general obligation of a

"The

citizen to

appear before a grand jury or at a

trial,

pursuant to a subpoena, and give what information he possesses." In dissenting Justice Potter Stewart maintained that "the court's crabbed view of the First

Amendment

reflects a disturbing insensi'ivity to the

role of an independent press in our society [and] invites state and federal authorities to undermine the historic independence of the press by atcritical

tempting

to

investigative

annex the journalistic profession as an arm of government."

The first test of the decision came in October, when reporter Peter Bridge (see Biography) was jailed for 21 days after being held in contempt of court for re-

fusing to amplify in secret session

what he had

re-

ported about a New Jersey political scandal. Ironically, Bridge no longer represented a paper; the Newark Evening News, once New Jersey's largest, had been crippled by inept management and union troubles and ceased publication on August 31. In Nothe court's ruling was invoked again when Los Angeles newsman William T. Farr received an open-ended jail sentence for refusing to disclose his sources for an article on the Charles Manson murder trial. It was also used later to jail briefly the general manager of New York radio station WBAI-FM, Edwin A. Goodman, who refused to turn over tapes made during a 1970 prison riot, and John F. Lawrence, Washington, D.C., bureau chief of the Los Angeles Times. The Times refused to release tapes of an interview concerning the Watergate affair until released from its promise of secrecy by the person interviewed.

vember

out the world.

Renewed

pines press on the pretext that

plagued U.S. journalism throughout 1972, the "Newark (N.J.) Evening News" announced on Aug. 29, 1972, that it would cease publication on August 31, six weel'ment rates had fluctuated between 9.3 and 10.3% throughout I97I and 1972. While the white rate had declined from a 1971 average of

5.4%

4.6% by November 1972,

to

the black rate

held firm at 9.8%.

Part of the problem lay in the failure of federal forts.

A

ef-

ten-month probe of the Rural Manpower

Service released in April by the Department of Labor

by the women, and Chicanos. In Octofarm worker and civil rights groups followed up this probe by suing in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia to enjoin the secretary of labour from financing state rural manpower programs. In June, George Holland resigned as director of the Labor Department's Office of Federal Contract Compliance; he branded federal efforts to ensure nondiscrimination in hiring by general contractors as "inef-

disclosed widespread evidence of discrimination

Service against blacks, ber,

1

7

fective."

The U.S.

Civil Ser\'ice

Commission reported

in

July

that the percentage of minority employees in federal

had declined slightly, from 19.6 to 19.5%, largely because of deep job cuts in the Postal Service. The Federal Power Commission ruled in July that it did not have the power to enforce fair emplo\-ment civilian jobs

practices

by

This action came after 12

utilities.

had charged "rampant

civil

other East African countries and 140,000 in Malaysia

rights organizations

and Singapore).

nation" in employment by

against

blacks,

In its annual report in June the Race Relations Board called for an extension of its powers, granted under the 196S Race Relations Act, to allow the board to investigate without requiring it to suspect that any individual unlawful act had been committed. While

women, and Spanish-surname Americans. In

.August

discrimination in places offering services and accom-

building trades by using required

modations

to the public

had greatly diminished, and

discriminatory advertisements had virtually vanished, there was a lack of firm knowledge in the crucial fields of

employment and housing. Relationships between minority groups, particularly

young West Indians, and the police continued to be delicate, despite increasing initiatives by police authorities to improve training and to appoint more community liaison officers. Recruitment of coloured officers remained low, with only 41 in England and Wales out of a total of 92,925. The House of Commons Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration reported on police-immigrant relations in

September 1972. Detailed recommendations were made under a number of headings, including community liaison, work in schools, training, recruitment of

utilities

discrimi-

U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon publicly opposed job quotas, mechanism used by his own administration to

a chief

fight discrimination.

The much-heralded

"Philadelphia

Plan," a federal effort to combat discrimination in the minimum minority

job quotas, began to be quietly discarded after the president's statement. Nevertheless, the Labor De-

partment announced

in

October an agreement signed

by 15 building trades unions in Chicago with 41,000 members to employ 9,820 more minority workers by 1976. Quotas were not mentioned, but each would have specific annual hiring "goals."

The U.S. Congress

in

March passed

the 1972

trade

Em-

ployment Act, thereby strengthening the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). First, the new act expanded the commission's jurisdiction to cover the employees of private educational institutions, state and local governments, and all companies and unions with at least 15 (rather than 25) workers. Second, the act empowered the

EEOC

to

continued on page S80

I

SPECIAL REPORT

AMERICAN INDIANS: THE END OF THE FIFTH CENTURY OF CONTACT By Vine

Deloria, Jr.

T

Xhe

very stability of Indian affairs in 1972 belied important developments for American Indian people. As the fifth century of contact with European peoples drew to a close, Indian people in the continental United States could look back upon a fairly successful resistance to the powerful forces of change initiated by the multitude of non-Indians who had come to dwell on the continent with

them.

Nations Within a Nation. The background

to the

American

in itself fascinating.

From

1492 until

Indian historical outlook the

is

end of the French and Indian

War

in 1763, the tribes of the

eastern Atlantic seaboard, with rare exceptions, had compelled the intruding Europeans to treat them as sovereign nations. The

!

Iroquois, particularly, maintained their political independence as long as there were two nations competing for control of the

'

continent.

Until 1871 the tribes of the interior forced the United States with them as quasi-sovereign entities. Ignoring the U.S. purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France, the tribes of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains insisted on extinguishment

'

to deal

'

'-.

'

of their aboriginal title

by

treaty, thus placing

on the U.S.

legal

burdens and responsibilities for the future. By the end of the 19th century, however, the tribes had been

j •

forced onto reservations amounting to a fraction of their original landholdings. The large areas reserved by treaty were further

1

I

eroded by the General Allotment Act of 1887, which aimed at reducing tribal solidarity by individualizing the sources of wealth

;

and income. The

'

tribal estates

were divided, with individual

tribal

members receiving allotments generally comparable to the farms given to non-Indians under the Homestead Act. Off-reservation

'

I

boarding schools were created, designed to reduce Indian children's knowledge of their own culture and prepare them for as-

'

similation into the larger society. .\s the 19th century ended, government officials congratulated themselves on the solution of the "Indian problem." One Indian commissioner wrote in 1910 that the conclusion of Indian Affairs was now simply a matter of administration of the few property

1

remaining to the tribal members. For several decades appeared that the commissioner's prophecy was being fulfilled. American Indians served with distinction in World War

'

rights

it

j

war earned them

citizenship,

it

also served to ex-

pand their horizons to include the world and a

i

fair

knowledge

of the U.S. political structure. Indians participated in governIndian, bement to an increasing degree. Charles Curtis, a

;

Kaw

]

came vice-president of the United States under Herbert Hoover

:

in

'

:

1928.

Vine Deloria, Jr., is a Standing Rock Sioux from Martin, S.D. Congress of is a former executive director of the National American Indians and is author of the best-selling book Custer Died for Your Sins.

He

farming them, thus further reducing their income. In 1934, under the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the reservation people were given an opportunity to form quasiindependent governments for the purposes of improving their conditions and reversing the drastic erosion of the tribal land A revolving fund for land acquisition programs and eco-

base. I,

earning the gratitude of the nation and the U.S. citizenship act of 1924. If the

But things were not going well on the reservations. Schools were deteriorating. The increasing technology of American society drove the cost of living beyond the reach of the reservation people, and they were the first group to suffer from the impending depression of the 1930s. Allotment continued to reduce the Indian land base, and ownership of the lands became so fractionated that the people were forced to lease them instead of ranching or

nomic development was established, and tribes were allowed to draw up constitutions and bylaws for self-government. The Indian Reorganization Act was nearly stillborn, however. appropriations, and Its implementation required congressional practically the sudden shift from depression to World War II eliminated funds for reservation development. Following the

Deal programs came under heavy attack. The Bureau was subjected to particularly severe scrutiny, and critics of the bureau developed an ideology looking toward the federal dissolution of the traditional responsibilities borne by

war.

New

of Indian Affairs

the Indian tribes. In the 1950s this ideology surfaced in a policy of termination made to repeal of federal services to selected tribes. An effort was

government on behalf of

the self-government provisions of the Indian ReorKanization Act,

and Indian opponents of termination were harassed and investigated by senators and congressmen advocating the new policy. Several tribes lost their treaty rights by unilateral action of Congress, and a number of laws were passed attempting to push federal responsibilities upon the states. The Growth of Activism. By the beginning of the 1960s, the Indian tribes had formed a determined voting bloc advocating self-determination instead of termination and demanding a review of federal policies. The Indian people pointed out that the federal government had never invested any substantial sums in development of ordinary municipal seri'ices on the reservations and. by law and rigid administrative practice, had prevented any development of reservation resources by either tribal governments or individual Indians. As the socially progressive programs of Presidents John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson passed into law. Indian tribes were demanding that provisions be included allowing tribes a legal status comparable to that of states and municipalities. The result was to enhance the status of reser\'ation governments and make them eligible to become sponsoring agencies for a number of programs. By the mid-1960s Indian tribes were developing programs of amazing breadth. Although not directly affected by the civil rights movement of the 1960s, the Indian tribes were greatly influenced by the movement's sentiment. The Poor People's Campaign of 1968, especially, forced a reconsideration of tactics.

The

vast majority

of reservation people rejected involvement in the campaign, but

Indians living in the cities took notice of

it

and began

to organize

for action.

In 1969 the

first

of the notable Indian activist efforts began

as 89 Indians captured Alcatraz Island in San Francisco

Bay

in a stunning midnight invasion. Within the next two years nearly every large city had one or more Indian groups attempting to gain a foothold on surplus federal property near or within the city

limits.

Whether the Indian

activists recognized

it

or not, their at-

tempted captures of radar stations and military bases raised the more fundamental question of the restoration of lands illegally taken by government agencies earlier in the century. Among the most controversial problems was the restoration of religious shrines to the people of the Taos Pueblo and Yakima tribes. In the former instance the U.S. Forest Service had placed the Blue Lake area in a national forest and allowed the Taos religious leaders only temporary use of the area. In the latter case the Forest Service denied the rights of the Yakima people to ac cess altogether. By 1972 the Nixon administration had returned both areas to the tribes concerned and, in addition, had settled the long-standing claim of the Alaska natives to their lands in

As to land restoration, the administration was regarded most progressive in history. of Identity. The activist movement began to sput1971 and underwent rather extensive transformations in

that state. as the

A Question ter in

1972, perhaps indicating that the changes of the 1960s, while in general progressive, had revealed fundamental flaws in the drive for Indian unity. Many young people who had begun as daring protesters

became more interested in the resurgence of Indian and some of the best leadership left the political

tribal religions,

arena.

The federal government, especially the Bureau of Indian Affairs, continued to place its major emphasis on grants to tribal governments for economic development. This course of action had been urged repeatedly during the 1960s but had not been implemented until the Nixon administration took office. Yet the grants came too late in most instances. The action had passed from the area of economic development, and internal struggles for definition of tribal identities began to jeopardize the programs.

Chief irritant

among

reservation people was the application

of the Bill of Rights with respect to the functioning of tribal courts, an innovation required

by the 1968 Indian

civil

rights

were required to conform to constituprocedures guaranteed in the federal courts. Development

legislation. Tribal courts tional

of

new

law interpreting this requirement placed the tribal courts

on a collision course with state and federal courts as to matters

split into

the question of 20th-century Indian identity

ever,

the

when a band grew too large to support itself it two fairly equal independent groups. The treaties, howhad required the establishment of tribal rolls for the pur-

pose of distributing annuities according to the treaty articles. As time passed the tribe was regarded as being legally composed of

whose names were on these rolls or their direct descendants. By 1972 the problem had become acute for many tribes. Changes in constitutions required a positive vote of 30% of the tribal members. Some tribes had only 300 people living on the reservation but had close to 7,000 people on their rolls. Constitutional amendment was impossible, of course, under such conindividuals

ditions.

reservations had populations in excess of 10,000, with

large numbers of people coming and going in search of employment, better educational opportunities for their children, or be-

government

to

create Indian-controlled school

conflicts.

The churches had come

Many had hospitals.

j

To many

boards Indian people, Indian

to the reservations at

an early period,

received lands in exchange for providing schools and

By

the mid-1960s the national church bodies

had

cre-

and most had been successful, but by 1972 a general backlash had developed that boded ill for any future mission activity. Churches had to pull back expenditures in all areas, and this retrenchment was considered as a betrayal

ated Indian advisory councils,

'

'

I

]

\

(

1

!

j

j

.

:

I

I

i

I

'

before,

many

Indian people discovered that they had been mea-

The only Indians was the continual crum-

suring progress according to non-Indian standards.

apparent consolation to

many

bling of the institutions of non-Indian society.

how much how much had transformed itself unrecognized techniques of community survival. One

The immediate into as yet

future would probably determine

has been lost and

could only say that 1972 was a year of intense bewilderment and reflection, in

which Indians suddenly paused and poised. Where

they would go was another question. In view of their amazing

control meant that parents in the local communities could serve on school boards. To tribal officials, local control meant at least appointment by tribal councils and conceivably political patron-

j

lem, and few were able to articulate any direction for the future. On the brink of success that had seemed impossible two decades

revival

federal

,

of history undergirded every prob-

and maintaining a consistent tribal program for reservation residents became an extremely difficult task. Programs might be

produced additional

I

was being raised at

level.

cause of dissatisfaction with existing tribal programs. Developing

approved by one constituency and overturned a couple of years later by another group of constituents. The avowed policy of the

\

most elemental

The Indian understanding

tribal culture

Many

I

encompassing the Western Hemisphere, Australia, the Paand the Lapps of northern Scandinavia appeared to be in

contact times,

Tribal enrollment procedures gave rise to fundamental questions about the existence and identity of the tribe itself. In pre-

I

cific,

the making.

The fundamental religious problem of non-Western peoples, which had affected nearly all of the relationships between Indians and non-Indians, manifested itself in concern for ecology by traditional Indians. In most instances this concern was diametrically opposed to tribal council plans for reservation development. Thus

of jurisdiction.

I

pies

by many Indian people who were now weighing the relative merits of Christianity against a total return to Indian values and beliefs. Education at the college and postgraduate levels appeared to be the most solidly established program in Indian Affairs. Some 100 students were in law school under a program jointly funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Office of Economic Opportunity. Over 7,000 Indian young people were attending college, and a number of graduate programs had opened up for Indian people. New ethnic studies and Indian programs at the college and university level absorbed every graduate, and more were needed. Yet even here the calm was about to end. The development of Indian studies programs raised severe identity questions. Older people and traditional Indians felt that no one could learn about tribal customs and traditions in a classroom. Nearly educated Indians, more optimistic than

work hard

to

transform

realistic,

continued to

tribal culture into a respectable

academic

discipline.

The

had been developed in the previous two decades showed severe strains. The Nixon administration had been generally progressive and very keenly aware of Indian desires to regain cherished tribal lands. Yet the general tone of the political unity that

administration, particularly in

its

federal court appointments, cre-

ated a distinct sense of uneasiness

among

Indians. In an election

year, they indicated a reluctance to support either candidate.

At the same time, Indians were becoming increasingly aware movements. A substantial number went to Sweden to

of world

protest the treatment of aboriginal peoples.

Indians in Brazil worried

The condition

many North American

of

Indians, and

they no longer regarded the borders between nations as having any lasting significance. countermovement of aboriginal peo-

A

and determination to survive as Indians gradually reclaiming their homelands, they had at last become a group that could not be administered. Perhaps this is all that many people had wanted.

Federal aid to minority businesses rose from $200

coolinued jrom pate S76

580

Race Relations

seek federal court action against employment discrimination, though a filibuster prevented passage of an additional provision to allow the commission to issue binding cease-and-desist orders against discriminators.

of Health, Education, and Welfare followed in October with 17 pages of guidelines for minority employment directed at 2,500 colleges and universities with federal contracts. No quotas were set, though numerical "goals and timetables" would be

The Department

required.

by

The

filing suit

EEOC

used

tainer Corp. of .\merica

job

leged

its

new court powers

in

in Jacksonville, Fla., against the

and

discrimination

against

women. In .\ugust the cities and Los .\ngeles were sued for

May Con-

related unions, for al-

of

both blacks and

Montgomery,

Ala.,

racial discrimination in

hiring for public jobs.

But a January decision in New York City demonstrated that progress via the courts could be slow. A federal judge ordered steamfitters' union Local 638 upgrade 169 black and Puerto Rican apprentices to journeyman status. This small number represented the most reclassifications ever ordered in a suit brought by the federal government. By contrast, a U.S. District Court judge in San Diego, Calif., in September to

demonstrated how the courts can obtain faster Irrigation District was ordered

The Imperial

Chicanos and blacks

to

fill

two-thirds of

all

results.

to hire

new job

vacancies until the minority proportion of the district's

work

force rose to Imperial County's minority

population proportion (49.5%). Of interest, too, was a job discrimination case brought to the U.S. District Court in Montgomery, Ala., by two Air Force blacks.

Judge Frank Johnson ruled that the federal government, in invoking the doctrine of sovereign immunity, could not be sued but that Cabinet ofiicers could. Not surprisingly, black income did not close the

were

killed.

A

actual living conditions of blacks occurred during the

As

early 1970s. three

in

1970, black families were

likely to

median white family by

own

their unit.

—

—

"not specifically related" to the disease. Politics in the presidential election year of 1972 involved race relations in

in

numerous ways. U.S. Rep. Biography) for-

January her candidacy for the

Democratic presidential nomination, the first black to do so. Other blacks served in key roles. of California was cochairperson of the Democratic Party convention and became nationally known through television. Former New York state senator Basil Paterson was elected vice-chairman of the Democratic National Committee, the first black in a national leadership role in a major party. Patricia Harris, former dean of the Howard University Law School, was elected permanent chairperson of the Democratic Party's powerful Credentials Committee. Approximately 4% of the delegates at the Republican convention and 14% at the Democratic convention were black. Though President Nixon

1970, according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census. But

woman

by 1971

Yvonne Braithwaite Burke

percentage actually declined slightly to 60% black family earnings rose to $6,440 while white family earnings rose more rapidly to $10,672. These totals, however, hid the polarization of wealth within this

;

About a quarter of black fammade more than $10,000 during 1971 (compared

the black community. ilies

with about a half of white families)

;

black families received less than $3,000.

yet a fifth of

about

Americans were outraged and embarrassed to learn that in 1932, 600 poor black men participated in a Public Health Service project at Tuskegee, .'\la., that was designed to learn how untreated syphilis ravaged the body. The method was through autopsies. Of the 600 men, 400 were syphilitics who went untreated and 200 were an uninfected control group. In 1942 a cure penicillin was discovered, yet the infor syphilis fected men were not treated. At least seven of the men died of the disease and 154 more of heart failure

Shirley Chisholm of Brooklyn {see

that of the

still

times more likely than white families to be overcrowded unit and only two-thirds as

living in an

mally announced

rally

organized by members of a Black Muslim organization precipitated the confrontation.

HUD

in 1969. also guaranteed in July in land development bonds for Floyd McKissick's "Soul City," a proposed new town development in Warren County, N.C. It marked the first such guarantee for a black-owned venture and the first outside of a metropolitan area. But few changes in the

only 156,000

$14 million

wide gap with white income. After significant relative

in

sheriff's deputies

especially among blacks, remained a in the nation's vast economic Black-owned firms constituted only 2% of all system. companies and less than 0.5% of gross receipts. With black income gains minimal in a time of continuing high inflation, trends in housing and health were understandably not encouraging. Federally aided low- and medium-income housing starts did increase, with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) announcing in February a hopedfor goal of 566,000 such starts by 1973, compared with firms,

minuscule phenomenon

gains during the 1960s, the median black family in-

come reached 61% Baton Rouge, La., hold two black demonstrators following a bloody melee on Jan. 10, 1972, in which two black men and two Police

million in 1969 to $360 million in 1971. 'Vet minority,

owned

won

reelection easily, black voters continued to follow

their strong

Democratic leanings at a roughly 7-1

margin.

Blacks scored political successes in 1972. The Black Caucus of the House of Representatives swelled from 13 to 16. Mrs. Burke, a former state assemblywoman, a seat from Los Angeles; Barbara C. Jordan, a former state senator, won a seat from Houston; and the Rev. Andrew Young {see Biography), a former aid to Martin Luther King, Jr., won a seat from Atlanta. Jordan and Young were the first black representatives from the South since the post-Reconstruction era. Two young black mayors were elected in ,000 of Alabama John Ford in Tuskegee, a town of whom 80% were black; and A. J. Cooper in Prichard, a blue-collar suburb of Mobile of 41,000 of whom 52% were black. In Selma, Ala., the scene of civil

won

:

1

1

rights confrontations in the

ten-member

1960s, five blacks were

because a new state law allowed voters to choose their councilmen by wards rather than in community-wide contests. Such changes in political structures were often critical for black political gains. In January a threejudge federal court in Montgomery, Ala., ordered the adoption of a new reapportionment plan that would divide the Alabama legislature into single-member districts. This shift was believed to favour both blacks and Republicans, who had only two legislators each at the time. In similar federal court actions, a new redistricting plan in Virginia was approved and plans all in New Jersey and Connecticut were overturned elected to a

city council

Race Relations

—

with the potential effect of increasing the political voice of minorities.

The

campaigning made the controversial

political

Wounded plainclothesman dragged to safety by a colleague during a street battle in New

issue of busing to achieve the racial desegregation of

is

symbol of the year's resistance to racial change. Opponents argued that the federal courts had "gone too far" in ordering "massive" public schools the prime

York City's Harlem 14, 1972, in which five policemen and three civilians were injured. Tempers of neighbourhood residents

on April

busing at great public expense to achieve racial balance.

A March

Gallup survey found that about

70%

I

opposed busing for desegregation, though approximately 66% supported desegregation; it also found that only 3% of the parents of school-aged children were actually affected. Agreeing with the antibusing majority. President Nixon advantageously labeled it "one of the burning social is-

I

sues of the past decade."

of the nation's whites

i

I

i

i

Proponents pointed out that 43.5% of America's schoolchildren were bused regularly. Annually, about

256,000 school buses carried 19 million pupils 2,200,-

flared

billion. Clearly,

argued

in-

Americans did not object to school busand only did so when the busing was for

tegrationists,

came from

inside

Nixon's administration.

A

signed

public letter from 95 of the 148 lawyers in the Justice

Department's Civil Rights Division opposed the proposals as being of dubious constitutionality and "inconsistent with our national commitment to racial equality." Nevertheless, the department began to intervene in numerous school desegregation suits to argue for segregation.

chairman of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights,

Before turning to these new proposals, however, the Senate (63-15) and the House (218-180) passed in May and June the original Higher Education Bill with

Father Theodore Hesburgh {see Biography), "is the

three antibusing riders. These riders delayed

most phony issue in the country." "Burning" or "phony," the issue dominated the racial headlines throughout the year. President Nixon on February 10 ordered a study to determine the best means to prevent the courts from employing busing for desegregation. At issue were antibusing legislative

court busing orders until

ing per se,

desegregation.

racial

proposals that tional versus

many

an

School busing,

concluded

the

or until Jan.

1,

all

all

new

appeals were exhausted

1974; banned the use of federal funds

by local auand banned the encouragement of busing by

for desegregation busing unless requested thorities;

federal officials "unless constitutionally required."

The

political pressure for these elaborate

maneuvers

observers considered unconstitu-

derived largely from a set of significant desegregation

amend-

January the Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal by black and Chicano parents for desegregation of Denver's public schools. It marked the first Supreme Court action concerning a large city outside of the South, and a decision was due at the year's close. The Supreme Court upheld a Nashville-Davidson County desegregation plan requiring the busing of 49,000 children and refused 8-0

initiative for a constitutional

ment that would read: "No public school student shall,

because of

to or

required to attend a particular school." Father

his race, creed, or color,

be assigned

Hesburgh called the proposed amendment "fundamentally anti-black." Meanwhile, the antibusing forces staged a 3,300-car protest motorcade from Richmond, Va., to Washington, D.C., and a six-week, six-person march from Pontiac, Mich., to Washington. After stormy sessions throughout late February, the Senate passed a combined higher education and de-

rulings

to

by the federal

courts. In

review an order requiring Norfolk, Va.,

to

provide

free transportation to school for 24,000 children

under

a desegregation plan.

order busing to achieve elementary school

In Richmond, Va., U.S. District Court Judge Robert Jr., ordered in January that the city's schools black) be consolidated with those of two adjoining counties (9% black) to form one desegregated system (34% black). Merhige's order probably would not entail additional busing. The 4th Circuit Court of

desegregation; (2) to impose a moratorium on all new court-ordered busing; and (3) to begin a program to

Appeals overturned (5-1) this ruling in June. In Detroit U.S. District Court Judge Stephen Roth in June

concentrate federal educational aid in poor districts so

"cave-in" to the segregationist views of

ordered the consolidation of the public schools of Detroit (65% black) and its 52 surrounding suburbs (29 of them all white), with each school attaining at least 25% black enrollment. Roth's order would cause

Alabama Gov. George Wallace, and opposition even

310,000 children to be bused across Detroit's city

segregation

aid

bill

busing provision. But

with

a

relatively

mild

Nixon demanded more

antiin

a

nationwide evening address over television and radio on March 16. Condemning the practice in strong terms, he proposed legislation: (1) to

power

to

as to substitute

deny courts the

"equal educational opportunity" for New York's Mayor John Lindsay

racial integration.

called

it

a

entered a Black

Muslim mosque.

I

000,000 mi. at a cost of $1.7

when two white

officers

Merhige,

(70%

582

Race Relations

In December the 6th Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Roth's decision. Both the Richmond and Detroit cases were appealed to the Supreme Court. lines.

The

effects of this extensive court action

flected in federal data.

Black children

in

were

re-

completely

after

it

was discovered that considerable damage thefts had been committed in the build-

Subsequently, the commissioner and deputy commissioner of the BIA were removed from their po-! ing.

For an extended discussion of Indian

tions.

affair^

40% in 1968 to 12% in 1971-72, and those in predominantly white schools rose from 18% in 1968 to 44% in 1971-72. But resegregation was taking place in many Southern and Northern cities, making further progress increasingly dependent on a metropolitan approach. The National Education .Association announced in May that 30,000 teaching jobs for blacks had been eliminated in 17 Southern and border states since 1954. The first black teacher to be honoured, however, as "National

see Special Report.

Teacher of the Year," James Rogers, Jr., was a highschool instructor in Durham, N.C. And the Census Bureau reported that the high school dropout rate for

innocent of the 1970 slaying of a Soledad prison guar

segregated schools declined from

blacks 14 to 19 years old declined in 1971 to

from 14.6%

11.1%

in 1970.

In higher education, James C.

Bond was named

president of California State University at Sacra-

Militants

prominently

figured

also

white jury after 13 hours of deliberation. Likewise, in March, an all-white jury in Sar. '

Francisco found two of the black "Soledad Brother-

codefendants were acquitted

least

canisters.

An

official

state

inquiry

commission

concluded that the students had been killed by one shotgun blast fired from an area occupied by sheriff's deputies. In January Baton Rouge had been the scene of a wild gunfight that left two white deputy sheriffs

and two young black men dead and 31 injured when police attempted to stop a street rally in a black neighbourhood. Racial disturbances continued to flare in the military, with tensions in the Navy gaining publicity. (See Defense.) American Indians also attracted attention with a November protest at the Washington, D.C., head-

Led by American Indian Movement, 500

quarters of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs. activists

of

the

young Indians barricaded themselves in the BIA building for six days. The negotiated agreement broke

:

H. Rap Brown, a well-known black militant fron Baton Rouge, was sentenced in New Orleans in June to five years in prison and fined $2,000 for a 1968 conviction of carrying a rifle while under indictment. He faced other criminal charges in New York. In Chicago, State's Attorney Edward V. Hanrahan and 13

Rouge Parish gas

numerous

a related trial in

police. Philadelphia's police

police ordered protesting students to

in

court cases. The most publicized involved .\ngela Davis (see Biography), a young black Communist accused of murder, kidnapping, and conspiracy. Her long-delayed trial finally began in March in San Jose, Calif.; it ended in June with her acquittal by an all-

mento and thus became the first black president of a major Western college. At two overwhelmingly white universities, Louisiana State and Arkansas, the first black student presidents were elected. Black protests in general subsided on the campuses during 1972, but tensions at Southern University in Baton Rouge, La., led to tragedy in November. Two 20-year-old black students were shot and killed after East Baton leave an administration building and began firing tear-

Six hundred white parents and students in Memphis, Tenn., pelt a school bus with dirt in March 1972 during a symbolic burial ceremony protesting court-ordered busing.

down

and apparent

October of conspiring Black Panther in 1969. But when he ran for reelection the next month, Hanrahan was defeated by an aroused black electorate. In related developments, two lower federal courts in

to obstruct justice in the slaying of

leaders Fred

Hampton and Mark Clark

tackled the issue of discrimination in hiring by the

were ordered to hire at one black for every two whites, and Alabama was ordered to hire an equal number of whites and blacks until a quarter of its state police were black. None of the 644

Alabama

was then black; indeed,

state police

a check of eight Southern states found only 27 blacks

out of 5,000 state policemen.

Not

all

in

federal court rulings favoured black con-

The Supreme Court,

for example, ruled 6-3 June that Pennsylvania could grant a liquor license

tentions.

to a private club with racially restrictive guest prac-

soon afterward, the Elks voted to continue to exclude blacks from their membership. The court also unanimously rejected appeals by black voters to intices;

1971

validate Mississippi's

legislative

elections be-

cause of malapportionment and racial discrimination.

But a three-judge federal court in the District Columbia struck down some of the tax benefits

of of

segregated fraternal organizations.

The

year were dramatized

racial frustrations of the

by the actions of the

first

national black political

convention, held in Gary, Ind., in

March with

over

3,300 voting delegates and some 5,000 observers. During attempts

to

set

the

future

direction

for black

emerged between those who would reject the political system and those who would work within it. A wide variety of sometimes conflicting resolutions were passed, including support for more black community control, an Urban Homestead Act to distribute land and housing, a $5 billion black development agency, and a constitutional amendment political actions, a split

to

guarantee proportional black congressional repre-

sentation.

A

final

struck in

note that appeared ominous to

November when

the

many was

Nixon administration

forced Father Hesburgh to resign as chairman of the

Commission on

Civil Rights. Hesburgh, the president

Dame

University, had called earlier for moral

of Notre

leadership in civil rights both inside and out of govern-

(THOMAS

ment. See also Cities

and Urban

F.

Affairs; Police;

PETTIOREW)

United States.

Refugees

Refugees A refugee was in

many

fled

man who

votes with

this voiceless plebiscite

continued

once described as a

In 1972

his feet.

parts of the world as hundreds of thousands

their

homelands

in fear of persecution to seek

asylum elsewhere. By far the largest refugee problem facing the international community at the end of 1971 was solved with the repatriation between January 1 and March 25, 1972, of the East Bengali refugees (reported by the government of India to number some ten million) who had crossed from East Pakistan into India beginning in March 1971. In this emergency, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR acted as a focal point for assistance from and through the UN system, helping to mobilize funds from governments and private sources both for the relief action in India and for the repatriation movements. In all, approximately $185 million was channeled through UNHCR. The way was opened to the solution of another refugee problem when the Sudan government and the South Sudan Liberation Movement signed an agreement in February in Addis Ababa. Eth., ending 16 years of civil conflict. At that time, approximately 200,000 Sudanese refugees had been living in the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Zaire )

for as long as nine years.

To

create the necessary ec-

—

reflect the misery of

Shortly after their arrival in

in

imperial capital,

a

within their native country, as

was the case with

thousands in Vietnam and Cambodia. .^s

in

the past several years, well

over half of

regular budget, which in 1972 was $8 million, was allocated for assistance to African refugees,

UNHCR's

in

many

cases for persons

lonial administration.

more

than

UNHCR's The

250.000

from areas

still

under co-

Thus, the great majority of the persons

who

benefited

from

hostilities crossed into

who because of intertribal Tanzania, Rwanda, and Zaire in

May. In response

appeals from the countries of

largest

new emergency

UNHCR

asylum, 1972 for

in Africa to require in-

to

made

available $1.2 million during

group of refugees, and an additional $1,350,000 was provided in the 1973 budget. In October approximately 10,000 Jehovah's Witnesses fled a purge by the government in Malawi and arrived in the eastern part of Zambia. By mid-December the number had grown to 18,000, and UNHCR made an emergency allocation of $39,200 for them. this

Another situation requiring international action developed when Pres. Idi expulsion by

Ugandan

November

Amin 7

of

of all

Uganda ordered

the

Asians not holding

While the great majority of those affected held British passports and approximately 25.000 went directly to the U.K., there remained about 6,000-7,000 stateless persons for whom the UN had to take responsibility. This was done by arranging for them to receive Red Cross travel documents in Uganda and then by trying to find permanent resettlenationality.

ment opportunities. By November 9, all of the statepersons had been moved from Uganda. Approximately 2,500 were accepted on a permanent basis by Canada, Switzerland, and the U,S,, and 3,600 were admitted to temporary transit centres in Europe. By had received offers of mid-November the

UNHCR

permanent resettlement for about 1,400 of this latter group and v,'as continuing its efforts both to find places for the remaining 2,200 and to raise the funds needed to cover their care and maintenance in, transit. In Europe, the flow of persons of European origin seeking asylum elsewhere diminished. However, a gen- Radio: Television and eral slowdown in openings for migrants, caused by '.e

overseas countries, obliged refugees to wait longer in reception centres before moving on. the field of international protection conin Efforts

unemployment

Radio

in

tinued during 1972. The number of countries acceding the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, which defined the rights of refugees and to

aid were Africans.

new sanctuary.

ternational assistance concerned approximately 48,000

less

and those still in need of include people who had fled

the area of the old

and the refugees were forced to seek

founded fear of persecution") stood in 1972 at approximately 2.5 million spread over tive continents: Africa, 1 million: the Americas, 630,000; Asia, 200,000: Europe, 616,000; and Oceania, 38.000. These figures included both persons who had become self-

new nationality assistance. They did not their homes but remained

May 1972,

Communist troops attacked

refugees from Burundi,

supporting but had not yet acquired a

refugees escaping

from battles to the north.

onomic and social conditions for their return as well as that of about 500,000 persons displaced within the country who were living in the bush the Sudan government asked the UN for help. The secretary-general designated the UNHCR to coordinate immediate relief measures in the southern Sudan, much as it had done in India, and implementation of a one-year plan began in July. By mid-November about $14 million had been raised toward the $17.7 million target for the operation, which involved mounting an airlift to bring food and supplies from northern Sudan as well as providing earth-moving equipment to repair the roads and funds to rebuild schools and medical facilities destroyed during the fighting. Shortly before the end of the year approximately 220,000 displaced persons and 30,700 refugees had returned. These coordinating tasks, both in India and the Sudan, were special assignments entrusted to the L'NHCR over and above the office's normal responsibilities. The total number of refugees within the High Commissioner's competence (meaning persons who were outside their country of origin owing to well-

—

I

Frightened faces of a mother and her child in Hue, South Vietnam,

""Musitf"'

Reformed Churches: see Religion

584

Religion

established a standard of treatment for them, increased to 63. Moreover, a group of independent legal experts, brought together at the initiative of the Car-

Endowment for International Peace, drew up the draft text of a binding Convention on Asylum.

negie

It would formally prevent states from turning back persons seeking asylum at the frontier except on ex(unhcr) tremely serious grounds.

See also Migration, International.

Religion

proposed union of the United Church of Canada, the Anglicans, and the Christian Church (Disciples oi Christ) appeared to be virtually dead. (See United Church of Canada, below. J Perhaps the biggest setback to U.S. church unity occurred when the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. voted to withdraw from the Consultation on Church Union (COCU), an

attempt to unite nine Protestant denominations into a church body of some 25 million members. (See Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational, below.) The eight remaining members of COCU were the United Methodist Church, the Presbyterian Church in the Episcopal Church,

the

U.S.,

Organized religion in 1972 reflected the uneasiness in the world at large. Churches continued to agonize over the conflicts in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Bangladesh, Northern Ireland, and Uganda. Massive relief drives for clothing, food, and money were under-

The United Church of Christ had voiced some reservations about the plan of union and proposed several revisions.

united prayer services, the Irish antagonists appar-

ecumenical

ently paid

little

attention to the efforts of church

people to effect a reconciliation. Among the various movements to achieve unity

among

the churches, 1972 was a year of advance, reA drop in contribufrom member churches forced such ecumenical organizations as the World Council of Churches and, in the U.S., the National Council of Churches to cut back on staff, drop or curtail some programs, and treat, and, quite often, stalemate.

tions

generally reconsider their role in the

life

of the church.

In what amounted to a gesture of recognition toward the third world, the retary, the Rev.

WCC

chose, as

Philip Potter

(see

its

general sec-

Biography), a

Methodist from Dominica in the West Indies. The National Council of Churches also elected its first black president, the Rev. W. Sterling Cary of the United Church of Christ. One favourable ecumenical development was the Anglican-Roman Catholic agreement on the meaning of Holy Communion. (See Anglican Communion, below.) The document, released at the end of 1971 and approved by Pope Paul VI and Michael Ramsey, archbishop of Canterbury, explicitly stated that "we have reached substantial agreement." The Church Times, an Anglican newspaper published in London, expressed the hope that this might lead to eventual Vatican recognition of Anglican orders. Roman Catholic refusal to recognize priests ordained in the Anglican Communion after the Reformation as part of the Apostolic Succession had been a major source of disagreement between the two churches. Another significant breakthrough occurred when an official dialogue group of Lutheran and Roman Catholic theologians reported the possibilities of "concord" on the issue of papal primacy. (See Lutherans, below.) Still to be discussed, however, was the dogma of papal infallibility, regarding which there was sharp disagreement. Earlier the two groups found themselves in fundamental accord on the Nicene Creed and on the significance of

Holy Communion.

Less progress was reported

in the

Churchmen could the

not agree on definitive reasons for enthusiasm for merger movements

of

cooling

within Christianity.

men

Some

felt

there

was

a decline in

Others said that conservative church-

zeal.

as a whole disliked sacrificing or compromising

traditional confessions for the sake of a larger church body. There also seemed to be a general consensus that a merger of church bodies did not necessarily guarantee a more effective working church. Finally,

there was the fear that the creation of a superchurch would necessitate more elaborate bureaucracies. These

setbacks did not necessarily mean that the ecumenical movement was doomed, however. Large segments of

Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy had ecumenical relationships although they had never pursued organic unity. In late September a plan to unite five of New Zealand's Protestant denominations was approved by the membership of the churches involved, though a final vote would have to Protestantism,

be taken

in 1974.

Christianity, especially in the U.S., continued to

witness the paradox of declining membership in the

mainline churches, even as they struggled to make themselves more "relevant" to current social problems,

and growth among the

among young

evident than

fundamentalist

Nowhere was

evangelical denominations.

people,

many

this

of

and

more

whom

seemed drawn to the certainties of the "old-time reliThat the so-called Jesus Freaks were only the most visible and widely publicized fringe of the movement was apparent at Explo 72. a massive revival meeting that attracted some 75.000 people, most of them young, to the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Tex., in gion."

June. Evangelist Billy "religious

Graham

Woodstock,"

called the meeting a

in reference to the

New York

1969 rock

was one of the landyoung people at Dallas appeared predominantly neatly dressed and concert in upstate

marks of the youth middle

class.

The

that

culture, but the

fringe

still

flourished, however. Sev-

eral parents instituted legal proceedings against the

God

Children of

sect,

which demanded that

its

young

adherents leave their families and take up a rigidly structured of

area of organic

Church in England and Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England merged into the United Reformed Church with nearly 250,000 members, but the scheme for union between British Anglicans and Methodists was voted down decisively by the Anglicans in May. In Canada a union. In Britain the Congregational

Church

of Christ.

war in BanglaThe civil war in Northern Ireland continued occupy the attention of concerned Protestant and Roman Catholic churchmen. Despite conferences and taken, especially for the victims of the

Christian

African Methodist Episcopal Zion, and Christian Methodist Episcopal churches, and the United Church

desh. to

the

(Disciples of Christ), the African Methodist Episcopal,

communal way

some groups toward

of

life.

The

aggressiveness

the conversion of Jews and

the appearance of "Jewish Christian" sects aroused

some apprehension among Jewish

leaders. (See Juda-

ism, below.)

The year

also

saw continued

interest in the so-called

charismatic revival, involving the traditional Pentecostal practices of speaking in tongues, faith healing,

and "baptism

in

the Spirit."

Long confined

to the

Pentecostal churches (which were themselves growing

phenomena had appeared in the mainchurches, where they constituted a burgeoning movement. (See Special Report.) Both the growth of fundamentalism and the charismatic revival probably shared some basic social causes, and they overlapped at some points. That they were not synonymous had been demonstrated in 1971, when the singer Pat Boone was expelled from the fundamentalist Churches of rapidly), these

line

Christ for participating in charismatic experiences.

Conservative-liberal splits within

some

of the

major

denominations appeared to be widening. Such issues lay behind the struggle between the conservative president of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and the president and faculty of the denomination's largest theological seminary. (See Lutherans, belovi.) Several

Church announced formation of an independent (See Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational, below.) The Rt. Rev. John Hines, who as presiding bishop of the Episcopal church had instituted controversial social programs (and had seen membership, attendance, and giving decline), announced that he would leave his post before retirement age "to make way for a younger man." Taking all these indications together, some observers foresaw not ecumenism on the grand scale proposed by COCU, but rather a blurring of traditional denominational distinctions and a realignment, conser\'ative congregations in the Presbyterian

in the U.S.

presbytery.

possibly along liberal-socially oriented-fundamentalist-conservative lines. In a

book

that attracted con-

siderable attention during the year.

Why

Conservative

Churches Are Growing, Dean M. Kelley, a staff executive of the National Council of Churches, put forward the thesis that strict churches making heavy demands on their members were growing while tolerant, undemanding churches were either static or declining. Among his examples was the contrast between the pre- and post-Vatican II Roman Catholic Church. The 1972 Yearbook oj American Churches reported that membership in U.S. churches and synagogues stood at 131,045,953, a slight rise from the 62.4'% of the total U.S. population reported in the 1970 Yearbook. This statistic could not be considered conclusive, however, because of the addition of some denominations to the 1972 Yearbook tabulations. The Roman Catholic Church recorded an increase of only 0.7%. Losses were reported by many mainline Protestant denominations, but the Southern Baptist Convention

by 1.2% to become the nation's largest Protestant body (11,628,032 members). The 13-year downtrend rose

in

churchgoing continued, according to a Gallup Poll

released in January

among Roman tants

1972.

The

falloff

Catholics; attendance

and Jews had remained

was greatest

among

Protes-

fairly steady since 1964.

Figures released in 1972 revealed that Americans

gave more money to religion in 1971 than ever before, but they were giving a smaller share of their charitable dollars than in previous years. While giving to religion increased

$300 million

religion received only

to $8.6 billion in 1971,

40.7% of

the charitable dollar,

drop from the 42.6% given in 1970. Harlan F. Lang, editor of Giving USA, attributed the trend to inflation, the competition for the dollar, and declining church attendance. The U.S. Supreme Court's ruling that Old Order a sharp

The Right Rev. Paul Moore, Jr.,

make special allowances for Amish children. The Supreme Court clearly stated that religious freedom to

takes precedence over educational statutes on attendance.

The

New

Glarus, Wis., were charged with violating a state

case began

when

three Old

Amish

fathers in

law by removing their children from school before the age of 16. The Amish believe that to send children to high school would expose the parents to "censure of the Church community" and also "endanger their own salvation and that of their children." There was continued discussion on the ordination of women to the ministry. Most Protestant denominations already permitted the ordination of women (among major holdouts were the Episcopalians and the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod), but ordination did not always guarantee a position in a church. Pope

—

Paul VI issued a motu proprio a decree by his own hand barring women from formal participation in the Mass, although women might perform certain functions upon occasion when authorized to do so. (ALFRED p. KLAUSLER)

—

PROTESTANTS Anglican Communion. The elaborate scheme for Anglican-Methodist reunion in Britain finally collapsed in 1972. Concocted by distinguished leaders of the two churches after years of negotiations, the plan, accepted by the Methodists but rejected by the Anglicans in 1969, was brought back to the Church of England's supreme governing body, the General Synod, in May at the instigation of Archbishop Ramsey. It had been decided in advance that a favourable vote of at least 75% would be required, and the vote in favour proved to be only 65%. The archbishop, who had thrown the whole weight of his office behind the scheme, dismissed any suggestion that he should resign because of this failure of his personal policy. ("Cyril Easthaugh of Peterborough) soon afterward declared that the defeat

However, one diocesan bishop

of the scheme had been "a serious setback to bishops'

leadership"

insofar as

the

majority

of

his

fellow

Amish parents do not have to send their children to public schools was hailed by churchmen of all faiths as a victory for religious freedom. The ruling reversed

bishops (unlike himself) had espoused a cause that had proved unacceptable to a large proportion of the

lower court decisions in Wisconsin that had refused

clergy and laity of the church.

addresses

a congregation of 4,000 at the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine during an eight-hour

ceremony on Sept. 23, 1972, celebrating his enthronement as the 13th Episcopal bishop of NevK York.

Elsewhere

in the field

a historic decision in legis-

admission of

all

baptized Christians in

Baptist churches in 115 countries had a total

Communion in its own to Holy The Anglican Church in Wales favoured discussion of "a covenant for union by 1974" with Meth-

and Presbyterians. Official schemes for uniting Anglicans with other churches in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) remained uncertain. (See United Church of Canada, below.) The text of the agreement reached between Anglican and Roman Catholic theologians, announced in the preceding September but only published on the last day of 1971, revealed a "startling" consensus on vital issues that had divided the two churches for more than four centuries, including the Real Presence of Christ in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper or Eucharist. There were hopes that this agreement might pave the way to possible intercommunion, but the Vatican appeared to remain lukewarm.

as

standing

churches.

odists, Congregationalists,

In the sensitive area of race relations, Anglicans

were deeply divided over the wisdom of the World Council of Churches in making financial grants to guerrilla organizations in southern Africa, even though the grants were specifically not to be used for military purposes. But Anglican detestation of the theory and practice of white supremacy there was amply demonstrated by the expulsion of the bishop of Damaraland (Colin Winter) from his diocese by the South African government the long ordeal of the dean of the Johannesburg cathedral (Gonville A. ffrenchBeytagh), who was finally acquitted on appeal after having been sentenced to imprisonment; and by the subsequent unsuccessful prosecution of the dean of the Cape Town cathedral (Edward King) for joining in demonstrations against racial segregation. ;

The

issue of the ordination of

women

to the Angli-

can priesthood continued to simmer after the bishop of

Hong Kong's

ordination of two

women

in

November

New

Zealand the General Synod of the Anglican Church rejected a proposal to ordain women, but only by a very narrow majority. In England one diocese (Southwark) voted in favour of this innovation, but the Church of England as a whole remained undecided. In the U.S., where the 1970 General Convention of the Episcopal Church had approved the ordination of women as deacons (normally a first step toward becoming a priest), the House of Bishops voted to admit women to the priesthood. Before taking effect, the move would have to be approved by the next General Convention in 1973. In the internal affairs of the Church of England, a notable development was the initially favourable reaction of the General Synod to new proposals af1971. In

fecting the parochial clergy.

The

suggestions included

compulsory retirement at the age of 70; a leveling of

stipends;

the

abolition

of

the

right

of

private

patrons to appoint clergymen to benefices; and the erosion of the traditional "parson's freehold" by measures to allow the expulsion of a parson

parish

if

from

his

"a deterioration in pastoral relationships"

between him and his people could be proved. These and other measures during the year confirmed the impression

among many observers that Anglicanism, unmodern demand that the church be

der pressure of the

run as a professional organization on lines of businesslike efficiency, was moving away from the traditional view of the church as a supernatural body and of its priesthood as a unique vocation. (r. l. Roberts)

member-

ship of 31,432,130 in 1972. This was a gain of

over a year earlier and reflected increases continent except Asia and Europe.

good

William Johnson, an admitted homosexual and a ministerial candidate in the United Church of Christ, awaits a decision on his ordination by lay and clergy delegates of San Francisco area churches. On April 30, 1972, his application was approved by nearly a two-to-one margin.

Baptists. According to the Baptist World Alliance,

of ecumenical relations, the

Church of England took lating for the

Though

390,4'j..;

in

every

Baptists were declining in Europe as far

numbers were concerned, there was considerable Romania, where the first national conference in seven years was held in Bucha-

vitality in such nations as

rest.

The conference reported over 4,000 baptisms

in

and it was estimated that twice that number had gone unreported. The Rev. Andrew MacRae, secretary of the Scottish Baptist Union, completed his two-year term as president of the European Baptist Federation when the federation met in council in August in Yugoslavia, the first such meeting ever the preceding year,

in a Communist country. Claus Meister of Switzerland was elected to succeed him. Plans were being

held

completed for the European Baptist Federation Congress to be held in July 1973 in Zurich, Switz.

In Italy a

—^between fine

rift

—often found

social activists

church activities

in U.S. Baptist circles

and those who would con-

to traditional religious practices,

was evident. The U.S. missionaries in Italy, most of whom were afifiliated with the conservative Southern Baptist Convention, took sides against the activists.

The Rev. Jose Cardon,

Baptist minister and secre-

tary of the Evangelical Defense

Committee

in Spain,

reported that the five-year-old law on religious freedom was working more satisfactorily than had been anticipated. In 1971 evangelicals in Spain published,

with

approval, nearly 1,250,000 copies of some

official

500 different religious books and pamphlets. The Moscow Baptist Church was visited by U.S. Pres. and Mrs. Richard Nixon during the president's trip to the U.S.S.R. No head of state had ever visited the Moscow church before. In Liberia, where William Tolbert (see Biography), a former president of the Baptist World Alliance, was president. Baptists were seeking to erect dormitories and to increase faculty personnel to meet

a rapid increase in the student population. Missionaries in East Africa appealed to the Baptist

World

Alliance for financial and other aid for nearly 3,000

Baptists in Burundi, where at least 50,000 persons had been killed in an intertribal war. Burundi Baptists, most of whom were members of the Hutu tribe, appeared to have been killed because of their leadership roles rather than because of religious persecution.

The two

largest white Baptist groups in the U.S.,

the Southern Baptists their annual

and the American Baptists, held

meetings in Philadelphia and Denver. The Southern Convention defeated

Colo., respectively.

effort by ultraconservatives to recall the 12-volume Broadman Bible Commentary, pubhshed by the Convention's Sunday school board, on grounds that it was

an

overly liberal.

The American

Baptists' meeting

was

the last to be

held annually; biennial meetings would be held beginning in 1973. The decision to meet every other year

was part of a reorganization that included greater centralization

of authority,

although representative

government was ensured by a carefully balanced system of electing delegates to the biennial meetings and the General Board. Robert C. Campbell, former dean of the American Baptist Seminary of the West, Covina (Calif.) Campus, was elected to the post of genera! secretary, and the name of the denomination was changed from the American Baptist Convention to the American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A.

David Shannon of

the

American Baptists became

dean of Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, the first named by a predominantly white seminary. Another precedent was set when the American black to be so

Baptists joined with the black Progressive National Baptist Convention in a $7.5 million Fund for Renewal to provide vocational opportunities for minority

examined. a

Baptist groups entered into continent-wide program in evangelism

of predominantly conservative groups with

a strong emphasis on traditional evangelism.

among them,

groups, the American Baptists that their participation

Some

insisted

would provide an opportunity

for people of all theological persuasions to express

themselves in outreach and mission. (norman de puy;

r. w. Thomson) Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In an achieve a better understanding of growing Asian resistance to Western paternalism and what it means to the overseas work of churches, Moderator Walter D. Bingham of Louisville, Ky., led a church delegation to the Orient in October 1972 for dialogue with political and social leaders as well as church

effort to

The church's 222-member General Board urged some form of amnesty for draft law violators at the end of the Vietnam war, reiterated support of COCU, and called for an end to the U.S. embargo on trade with Cuba. Controversy surrounded

its

reversal of an

hold the church's 1975 General AsSalt Lake City, Utah. The reversal came

earlier decision to in

after blacks on the

board objected to the

racial pol-

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a dominant force in Utah, which excludes blacks of African descent from the priesthood. Three teen-agers were elected to the General Board and one of them, Miss Pat Villars of Minden, Neb., became the youngest person ever to be named to the 4S-member administrative committee. In August, Canadian Disciples, an integral part of the church's organization in North America, celeof the

brated the 50th anniversary of their All-Canada

Com-

mittee.

For the second year

2%

in a

row

the church

showed a

increase in receipts for world work, though the

membership had

fallen

by about

the

same percentage, were begun

to 1,391,210, in 1971. Feasibility studies

on a multimillion-dollar campaign for both capital and ongoing projects in 1975-79. The church closed out its Reconciliation race and poverty crisis program after four years, during which $2 million had been raised, but an annual special offering for race and poverty work was established with a first-year goal of (ROBERT L. FRIEDLY) $750,000. Christian Science. In May 1972 the board of directors of the First

Church

of Christ, Scientist, in

Boston requested that church members throughout the world give earnest consideration to prayer for the peaceful and prompt solution of troubling world conditions.

good

for

At the denomination's annual meeting in June, church members were urged to dedicate themselves to the practice of Christian healing, or healing

through prayer. This theme was stressed throughout the year in conferences, public lectures, films, period-

and radio programs. For the first time in the denomination's

icals,

director from an overseas area was

named

history, a

board of directors in April. Otto Bertschi of Zurich, Switz., succeeded Clayton Bion Craig of Boston, who retired

The chairman

to the

of the board of

for 1972 was Arthur P. Wuth, who had served on the board since 1964. In October David E. Sleeper became the first member of the denominadirectors

body

tion's top administrative

to

make an

official

tour

of Latin America. At the annual meeting George

Nay

of Boston was

named

new president

the

of the

Mother

Church. Construction neared completion on the new IS-ac. Christian Science Center in Boston. (j. BUROUGHS stokes) Churches of Christ. World evangelism, youth involvement, and media utilization were the primary concerns of the Churches of Christ in 1972. A mission centre was opened in the new World Trade Center in New York City to contact foreigners visiting the U.S. A new modern-language translation of the New Testa-

ment

into Italian was completed. Translation of the Testament into Farsi (modern Persian) was begun, and work was under way on translating teaching materials into Swahili and Japanese. As part of the

New

officials.

icies

The immense power

inherent in unselfed prayer was also emphasized at regional youth meetings held in 17 cities throughout the world.

after 2i years' service.

Many North American

sembly

prayer appeared in the Chris-

call to

tian Science Monitor.

anew

youth.

The American Baptists temporarily withdrew their endorsement of all Navy chaplains when chaplain Andrew Jensen was accused of adultery and courtmartialed for "moral turpitude." General endorsement procedures were restored after Jensen was acquitted, but not before the question of who is the final administrator of the military chaplain had been thoroughly

Key '73, made up

supporting the

were read 58 countries, and an

Announcements of

3,200 branch churches in

this

in

some

editorial

continuing effort to train indigenous leadership overseas, a

program of training

in personal

evangelism for

preachers was carried out in Japan and a series of leadership training courses was held in Africa.

Youth groups, both utilized

in

at

home and

evangelistic

efforts.

abroad, were being

Graduates

of

a

preacher training school in Mexico City were engaged in founding churches and then revisiting and encouraging the new Christians. Young people from schools in

Korea and the Philippines conducted regular evan-

gelistic

campaigns.

A new

490-ac.

campus of Pepperdine University,

a

university related to the Churches of Christ, opened

Los Angeles campus was dedicated to the needs of the urban community. The syndicated column begun by the Druid Hills Church in Atlanta. Ga., was appearing in over 325 U.S. newspapers, and the church was planning a primetime nationwide television program. The televised Amazing Grace Bible Class of the Madison, Tenn., church was accepted for showing on the 90-station Armed Forces Television Service. World Radio began into the beaming Russian-language broadcasts at Malibu, Calif.,

and

its

original

(u. NORVEL young) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

U.S.S.R.

Several important changes in the leadership of the church occurred in 1972. Pres. Joseph Fielding Smith (see Obituaries) died on July 3, and on July 7, Harold B. Lee (see Biography) became first president, with N. Eldon Tanner and Marion G. Romney as counselors. In April, Victor L. Brown was appointed presiding bishop of the church, with H. Burke

Peterson and Vaughn

J.

Featherstone as counselors.

Bruce R. McConkie became a member of the Council of Twelve Apostles in October.

587

Religion

)

588

Religion

The year

also witnessed important

developments

in

^^^ departments of the church. In January, Leonard J.

Arrington, an economic historian of the American

West, was named church historian. Following the death of Richard L. Evans in November 1971, J. Spencer Kinard was appointed as narrator for the Sunday morning broadcasts of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. All missionary services were put under the direction of the First Council of the Seventy. World membership totaled approximately 3,150,000 in 1972, comprising over 7,000 congregations throughout the world. As an indication of the church's growing international base, the second area general conference was held .Aug. 25-27. 1972, at Mexico City. The first such conference had been held in 1971 at Manchester, Eng. Two new temples were dedicated for sacred ordinance work at Provo and Ogden, Utah.

(LEONARD JAMES ARRINGTON Jehovah's Witnesses. The society of Christian ministers known as Jehovah's Witnesses was active in 208 countries and territories in 1972. This work was organized by 28,407 congregations, supervised by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses through 95 branch

offices of the

Watch Tower

Bible a'nd Tract

Society.

Some

163,123

tized during 1

,658,990.

new

ministers (members") were bap-

1972, bringing

the worldwide

total

to

During the summer 163 "Divine Rulership" were held in the U.S., Canada, the and 13 countries of Western Europe;

called upon their churches to welcome communicant from the other church and to encourage their ow members to receive the Lord's Supper in congregation of the other tradition. A similar report was issued b in the Lutheran-Episcopal dialogue i second round of talks began in the U.S between Lutheran and Reformed theologians to ej

participants the U.S.

plore the possibilities of a "consensus statement whit at affecting fuller expressions of Church fellow

aims

ship, witness

over 1,280.000 persons attended the public talk entitled "Divine Rulership the Only Hope of Man-

—

kind." Attendance at the annual celebration of the

Lord's Evening Meal totaled 3,662,407, an increase

some 210,000 over 1971. Reports late in the year indicated that approximately 18.000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Malawi had been forced to flee into Zambia as a result of governof

ment persecution. Printing presses were installed in

Watch Tower

ciety offices in Japan, the Philippines, Australia,

So-

and

The Brooklyn printing plant produced 30,449,715 Bibles and bound books and over 237 million magazines. Circulation of The WatchGhana during

tower, the

the year.

official

journal of Jehovah's Witnesses, rose

to 7.850,000 in 74 languages,

zine.

and

its

companion maga-

Awake!, attained a new record circulation of 7.5 New books released included

million in 29 languages.

Paradise Restored to

Mankind

—By Theocracy!, con-

taining a verse-by-verse discussion of the Old Testa-

ment books of Haggai and Zechariah, and a new easyto-read Bible translation. The Bible in Living English by Steven T. Bvington. (n. h. knorr^ Lutherans. Significant results of several ecumenical dialogues were reported during the year. Internationally, a Lutheran-Roman Catholic commission completed a four-year study on "The Gospel and the Church" by noting a "remarkable degree of agreement on the understanding of the ministerial office in the church" and "general agreement that the long-standing issue of justification need no longer divide our churches." Also, it was said, Lutherans and Catholics can accept the office of the papacy "as a visible sign of .

.

.

the unity of the churches

.

.

.

insofar as

it

is

sub-

ordinated to the primacy of the Gospel by theological reinterpretation and practical restructuring." In the

Lutheran and Catholic theologians prepared to issue a report in 1973 on papal primacy and the uni-

U.S.,

versal ministry.

On

a

world

level,

agree

of th

Reformation to declare altar and pulpit fellowship ani mutual recognition of ministries. Lutherans and Ro

man

Catholics in the Philippines reached formal agree

ment expressing mutual recognition of the baptisma ceremony administered by either church. The Evangelical Church of the Union (EKU), rep resenting some 19 million Christians, the large major Lutheran, was being divided administratively ini( East and West German regions. The seven regiona churches in the union dated back to the Middle ,\gcs ity

The Lutheran World Federation, in its 25th anni versary year, accepted as members the 7,500-membei Batak Christian Church of Indonesia and the 950-

member Korea Lutheran Church. The LWF now hac 86 member bodies, representing some 54 million of the world's 73.5 million Lutherans.

Lutheran Bishop Leonard .\uala of South Wesl an outspoken foe of South .Africa's apartheio

.Africa,

policies, visited the U.S.

In contrast to the stand

ol

U.S. denominations and church agencies Bishop Auala warned that withdrawal of U.S. industry's $1 billion investment in South .Africa would create serious suffering, with thousands of black .Africans losing their jobs. The Lutheran World Federation said it would withdraw its deposits from banks that pursue "policies and practices that contribute to the worsening of the non-whites' position in South .Africa." The Lutheran Church in .America's biennial conven tion approved a massive restructuring plan to streamline its operations and enable the 3.1 million-member denomination to fulfill its role more effectively in meeting the emerging needs of church and society. A leading

similar revision of in

its

national structure took place

the 2.5 million-member .American Lutheran Church,

and some saw these moves as a prelude to merger of the two bodies. The .ALC, which with the LC.A voted to ordain women in 1970, declined a request from the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod to reconsider its action as divisive of the fellowship between the two bodies. .At year's end, the LC.A had ordained four women, the .ALC only one. .A

long-simmering controversy over doctrinal orthoLutheran Church-Missouri SNTiod,

dox>' erupted in the

centred on Concordia Seminarj' largest ical

in St. Louis. Mo., the Lutheran and third largest Protestant theolog-

school in the world. Shortly after his upset

elec-

tion to the Synod's presidency in 1969, as a candidate

of conservatives, the Rev. Jacob fact-finding ical

committee

.A.

0. Preus

named

a

to investigate charges of heret-

teaching at the seminary.

The American

.Associa-

tion of Theological Schools entered the dispute by

placing Concordia's accreditation on probation for two

years because,

it

said, the

Synod does not ensure

"ade-

quate authority" of the seminary's board of control. issued a "Statement of Scriptural and

Then Preus

among

other

Synod members must believe

that

Confessional Principles" things,

Lutheran and Anglican theologians

and service." In Europe, Lutheran

Reformed churchmen concluded that enough ment existed between the two major branches

district assemblies

British Isles,

A

that

all

every word of the Bible

in

is

which he

said,

literally true.

the fact-finding committee's long-delayed rewas released, Preus said it made it "abundantly lear that some professors at the seminary hold views

When

589

ort

Religion

ontrary to the established doctrinal positions of the ynod." He demanded that Concordia's board of conrol

and "deal personally with John Tietjen, the seminary

"deal with those professors"

nd

of

first

resident.

all"

In a sharp rebuttal, sent to

all

pastors of

denounced the investigation as "unand un-Lutheran." likely to come to a head at the 2.8 was

he Synod, Tietjen

untrue, less than Scriptural,

air,

"he issue

lillion-member denomination's next biennial conven-

New

ion at

Orleans in July 1973.

For the third successive year, membership of Luchurch bodies in North America decreased, to [total of 9,120,352, with 8,815,852 baptized children Bieran

'

I

nd adults in the U.S. and 304,500 in Canada. (ERIC W. MODEAn)

of tKe General Theological

Methodists. The year's focal point for the United ilethodist Church was the Quadrennial General Conerence in Atlanta, Ga., where 1.000 delegates voted

participate an "allegorical procession" preceding

iverwhelmingly to revise the

rewrite

its

revamp

Students and faculty

Seminary (Episcopal) in

a

the organization, as well as

The greatest structural change involved combining hine national program agencies into four boards Dislipleship, Global Ministries, Church and Society, and ligher Education and Ministry. As nearly as possible, jhe boards were to consist of one-third laymen, oneihird laywomen, and one-third clergy, rather than the :raditional half lay and half clergy. Each agency was ilso to include representation from major ethnic {roups, youth (under 18), and young adults (19-30). fhe thrust toward ending all structures determined by [ace was accelerated by the General Conference, which pecreed that no more such conferences could exist

New York City on Feb. 14, 1972, in honour in

—

Vietnamese war dead. of the

•

mid-1973. Black conferences in several Southmerged with their white counterparts dur-

jifter

ern states

jng the year.

In

November

the last white conference

approve a merger plan, the North Mississippi Conference, voted to merge with the black Upper Mississippi Conference. The number of women delegates at the General in

the nation to

!

Conference increased to a new high of

Commission on

phurch established a

Role of ilian

Women, and

the

Women's

13"^.

The

the Status and

Society of Chris-

Service and the Wesleyan Service Guild were

^erged into the new United Methodist Women. For the second time the General Conference seated ten nonvoting youth, along with several seminary students. A constitutional amendment removing any age Irequirement for delegates was passed, subject to anjnual (regional) conferences' approval, and action was Icompleted on an amendment removing the age miniimum for full participation in the annual conferences. The General Conference overwhelmingly adopted a inew statement of doctrine. Instead of replacing or (revising (help

japply ja

traditional

creeds,

it

sets

up guidelines

to

church members understand their beliefs and

them

to life.

The

legislative session also

adopted

Statement of Social Principles, the latest revision

approved in 1Q08. A long-time emphasis on peace action was strengthlened by General Conference condemnation of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam war; establishment of 'a special effort known as "Call for Peace and the iSelf-Development of Peoples"; and authority for of a social-action

document

first

;

[Church agencies to use their investments to try to dis-

suade

industry

Indochina war.

from producing weaponry for the

Solemn Requiem Mass

celebrated at the Cloisters

denomination's doctrinal statements and statement of social principles.

Ecumenically, the year saw reaffirmation of United Methodist participation in COCU and in the World and National Councils of Churches; approval for the initiation of dialogue with Jewish communities; support for the evangelistic effort

known

as

Key

'73;

approval by the denomination for its churches Northern India to join a new united church; and authorization for units in Sierra Leone, Costa Rica, Panama, Taiwan, and North Africa to become autonbmous. U.S. membership dropped about 1.5% to 10,509,198, and giving for church-wide administration and final

in

benevolence

fell

1%

to $45,368,431.

Hopes of a decisive step toward union between the Anglican and Methodist churches in Britain received sharp a setback in 1972. (See Anglican Communion, above.) tinued.

Nevertheless,

A number

ecumenical

initiatives

con-

of churches were being shared with

other denominations, and plans were

made

for a

new

ecumenical centre at Skelmersdale, in the Liverpool district. In Paris the Methodist Church and St. George's Anglican Church unanimously agreed to share one building, and in Belize, British Honduras, the Roman Catholics were included in a joint ecumenical centre. The scheme for church union in Sri Lanka was confirmed by both ministerial and representative sessions of the Ceylon Methodist Conference. Six churches were involved. Officers of the World Methodist Council met for a

consultation in Tonga at the beginning of the year. A watchnight service was attended by the king of Tonga and his entourage. The first meeting of the newly constituted Executive Committee of the World Methodist Council, presided over by Bishop Prince Taylor, was

held at Wesley College, Bristol, Eng., at the end of

Hugh Sherlock, first president of the MethChurch in the Caribbean and the Americas, took appointment as one of the secretaries of the World Methodist Council in July. (WINSTON H. TAYLOR; MAX W. WOODWARD) Pentecostal Churches. The Pentecostal movement around the world continued to exhibit impressive August. odist

up

his

Religion

growth and development in 1972. Events during the year indicated a growing theological maturity within the movement and greater acceptance by other

Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational. The 1972 meeting of the Executive Committee of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Presbyterian

churches.

and Congregational), held

In contrast to membership declines in most of the traditional Protestant bodies, the Pentecostal churches in the U.S.

grew from 2,264,771 adult members

members

29,475 churches in 1971 to 2,357,514

in

in 30,-

20-25, provided the

first

in Jakarta, Indon., July opportunity to implement

decisions taken at the 1971 meeting. In order to tensify relationships within the Alliance family,

bers had agreed,

among other

in-

mem-

things, "that the agenda

035 churches in 1972. The largest Pentecostal denomination, the Assemblies of God, grew by 5%, from 645,000 to 679,000, and this rate was generally

and timetable of future Executive Committee meet-

matched by the other major bodies

member

:

Church of

the

God

(Cleveland, Tenn.), the Pentecostal Holiness Church, the International Church of the Foursquare

God

Gospel, the Church of

Open Bible

in Christ, the

Standard Churches, the Pentecostal Church of God of America, and the United Pentecostal Church, Inc. Growing maturity was indicated by the meeting in

way as to make possible consultations with representatives and experts from

ings be arranged in such a

all

and

costal scholars explored the expanding perspectives

gram

movement

in the tradi-

tional denominations. (See Special Report.)

highlight

was the meeting

in

June of the

first

Another Catholic-

Pentecostal dialogue in Zurich, Switz.

The image of Pentecostalism was enhanced by the phenomenal growth of such charismatic-oriented publishing houses as Logos and Creation House. However, the film Marjoe, concerning a preacher and healer who admitted he was motived by a desire for money rather than by faith, proved an embarrassment to the movement.

Of great

interest

to

Pentecostals were the June

meeting of Pentecostal-Catholics at the University of Notre Dame, where 11,000 gathered, and the meeting of 8,000 Pentecostal-Lutherans in Minneapolis in

Au-

The Council on Spiritual Life conducted by the Assemblies of God, also in Minneapolis, gave tentative approval to the charismatic movement in other

gust.

churches. of

Ray Hughes became general overseer of the Church God (Cleveland, Tenn.), succeeding Leonard Carwho died in January. The Church of God in

roll,

was suffermajor schism; a faction of the church had set up Evanston, 111., and efforts at reconciliation

member

20 Indonesian

churches of the Alliance,

and representatives of the Council of Churches in Indonesia. Alliance staff and committee members

November of the Society for Pentecostal Studies in Oklahoma City, where Catholic, Protestant, and Penteof the burgeoning charismatic

churches in the region."

Immediately following the Jakarta meeting, a conwas held at the ecumenical centre in Suk.ibumi, attended by WARC executives, delegates from sultation

visited nearly

all

the

member

churches in Indonesia

also participated in a coordinated visitation pro-

W.'^RC churches in 15 countries en route to and from Indonesia. Through a technical adjustment of membership criteria, the number of Indonesian churches in ihc Alliance increased from 13 to 20. One European church was admitted into membership the Conference of Reformed Ministers and Congregations in the German Democratic Republic, with an estimated memto

:

bership of 10.000.

On

Oct.

5,

1972. the Congregational

Church in England and Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England merged to form the United Reformed Church. The merger was the first union across confessional boundaries in England since the Reformation.

On the interconfessional level, talks between the Lutheran World Federation and WARC continued through the Joint Committee. (See Lutherans, above.) Dialogues continued with the Roman Catholic Church on the general theme of "the Presence of Christ in Church and World," and on the specific issue of the theology of marriage, the latter conducted jointly by WARC and the LWF. The possibilities of a theological dialogue with the Baptist World Alliance were to be

Christ, the largest black Pentecostal group,

investigated.

ing a

In what was interpreted as a severe setback to the ecumenical movement, the 184th General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. voted (411-310) to pull out of COCU. The move carried a

offices in

had

failed to restore unity at year's end.

The year 1972 proved an outstanding one for the autonomous local Assemblies of God in Great Britain and Ireland. The fellowship had grown rapidly after its inception in 1924, but progress had slowed after World War II. However, at the 1972 annual general conference, held at Minehead, Somerset, and attended by some 5,000 people, it was reported that the number of churches had increased by 14 to 549, the greatest annual addition in 15 years. There were 427 accredited ministers, 64 probationers, 49 retired ministers, and 51 church representatives.

Overseas missionary activities extended to Ireland, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South

India,

Africa, Spain, Tanzania, Uganda, Pakistan,

Home

and

Zaire.

missions also pursued a vigorous policy; seven

major crusades were held in towns and cities in 1971, and eight were planned through 1972. Regular broadcasts were made over Radio (Puerto Rico"), Radio ELWA (Liberia), IBRA Radio (Portugal), and the Far East Broadcasting Corporation (Manila). The official organ. Redemption Tidings, had a weekly

WIW

circulation of 8,800.

(AARON LINFORD; VINSON svnan)

COCU had first been proposed by Eugene Carson Blake, then stated clerk of the denomination and later general secretary of the World Counspecial irony, since

of Churches, together with the late Episcopal Bishop James Pike. The assembly approved continued efforts toward union with the Presbyterian Church in cil

the U.S.

means

to

In other

achieve

moves

it

supported busing as a

integration,

reaffirmed a liberal stand on abortion, and adopted a revision of the rules permitting laymen to assist at Communion. After a

heated debate, the assembly voted to centralize national offices in a single location in

The Presbyterian Church

in

Presbyterians) voted to remain

in

New York

its

City.

(Southern but its prin-

the U.S.

COCU.

was centred on the possibility of schism For some years the more conservative members had claimed that the church leadership was deviating from "historic Presbyterian doctrine" and had objected to its involvement with social issues and to the moves toward union with the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. In the fall of 1972 several conservative congregations joined with some cipal attention

within

its

ranks.

five independent Presbyterian churches to form a group known as the Vanguard Presbytery, a Provisional Presbytery for Southern Presbyterians and Reformed Churches Uniting. The Orthodox Presbyterian Church and the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod, moved closer toward the development of a plan of union. Approval was given to initial plans to realign

June. At the height of the disaster, the Army was feeding 5,000 people a day. An agreement for full coopera-

mission agencies, to unite presbyteries, and to centraliise control of educational institutions and publi-

tion

Women continued to play an increasingly important role in the church. Thirty of the 44 classes (which met the two-thirds requirements for an amendcations.

ment to the constitution) in the Reformed Church in America voted to approve the ordination of women as elders and deacons. During the year the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. announced that 72 women were preparing for the ministry and 103

women were

already ordained.

Membership

in the

the U.S.A. declined

United Presbyterian Church in to approximately 3.1

by 66,422

more

million, although total contributions increased

than $1

1

ing set a

million to $368,464,703

new high

and per-member

General Assembly level for the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. fabout one million members") totaled $7,510,502, 88.36'^ of the amount requested but less than the year before. The 186.500 members of the Presbyterian Church in Canada gave a record $2,634,-

000 to national and overseas benevolences. Tfrederik h. kaan; william b. miller) Religious Society of Friends. British Friends cooperated energetically with other bodies in the emergency reception of Asians expelled from Uganda by Pres. Idi Amin. Full support was given to work for reconciliation in Northern Ireland, including social

Some

£75,000 was raised during 1972 toward the establishment of a chair of peace studies at the University of Bradford, Yorkshire;

Army and

the university agreed to con-

major

by the Salvation of Emergency Preparedness,

disaster, signed

the U.S. Office

helped to speed relief efforts in the Eastern states in June when major flooding followed in the wake of Hurricane Agnes.

During the year Gen. Erik Wickberg toured SalvaArmy centres in South America, Japan, New and Australia, visited West Berlin, and Neuchatel, Switz., and inaugurated the new national headquarters in Amsterdam. In the course of Commissioner Arnold Brown's tour of European countries, a social-medical team of six Salvationists led by Major Eva den Hartog was dedicated for service in BanglaZealand,

desh.

The British Congress of Salvationists initiated its "Save Britain" campaign in July. A new wing was opened at Booth House, London, for the purpose of enabling bail to be given to young men remanded from Bow Street and Marlborough Street magistrates courts.

"Every Child Matters" was the theme of the year A new national commander, Commissioner J. Carlson, was named to succeed Commissioner

giv-

of $121.95. Benevolences at the

service projects of Ulster Friends in Belfast.

tion during a

in the U.S.

Paul

Edward Carey, who ers at

the

1972

retired. One of the featured speakconference of the American Cor-

was Commissioner Charles Pean, formerly Salvation Army territorial commander in France, who was best known for his work, done as a young man, to acquaint the world with the horrors rectional Association

(c. emil nelson; harry read) Seventh-day Adventists. Mission '72, the largest

of Devil's Island,

coordinated program of evangelism ever attempted by the church, began on March 4 and continued throughout the year. Attendance on the first night of the 2.000 three-week meetings held in North America was about 250.000. Mission '72 meetings also were held in Australia, Africa, and Latin America. In Jamaica 7,000 persons were baptized on a single day

tribute a like sum.

in

With the support of Friends in other countries, British Friends and the American Friends Service Committee undertook an emergency feeding program in Bangladesh. The .AFSC issued another White Paper on the war in Vietnam, "Indochina 1972: Perpetual War," and participated in a study of the black student

During the year nearly 190,000 members were added to the church worldwide, bringing total membership to about 2.2 million. At the autumn meeting of church administrative leaders, held in Mexico City, October 14-21, a record $59 million was appropriated for educational, evangelistic, medical-welfare, and building projects around the world. Steps were taken to consolidate the church's television and radio production facilities. The "Faith for Today" and "It Is Written" television programs moved from New York City and Washington, D.C.,

in

Southern U.S. schools, published under the

It's

Not Over

in the South.

Altogether, the

title

AFSC

spent $8,380,000 for programs in the U.S. and

other countries. In

May,

11

16

representatives of the

AFSC

visited China. More than 1,400 persons gathered for the Friends General Conference sessions at Ithaca, N.Y., June 24- July 1, to explore the theme "Where Should

Now?" The Friends United Meeting met at GreervLake, Wis., July 8-15, for business sessions combined with a conference-type experiFriends Be Pioneering

October.

respectively, to a

and

film centre at

new multimillion-dollar radio. TV, Thousand Oaks, Calif. The "Voice

of Prophecy," currently in

move

into the

A major

complex when

Glendale, Calif., would it

was completed.

reorganization was effected in the overseas

operation of the church when the Southern and Cen-

European

divisions were

merged

into the

Euro-

ence.

tral

The One Per Cent Fund set up by London Yearly Meeting financed by members who undertook to contribute 1% of their income annually made further grants to projects in less developed countries. More than £100,000 had been distributed in this way by 1972. (edwin bronner; CLirFORD hatch) Salvation Army. The Salvation Army's spirit of service was typified by the death in 1972 of Maj. G. William Medley, commanding officer in Rapid City, S.D., who perished while helping to evacuate people

Africa Division, with headquarters in Bern, Switz.

—

—

trapped during the flood that devastated the city

in

The first international congress of the International Commission for the Prevention of Alcoholism was held in Afghanistan, August 27-31. The meeting attracted delegates

from 30

countries.

A

ten-story ad-

ministrative building to house the church's headquarters in

Washington, D.C., was completed

in June.

Ckenneth

h.

wood)

Unitarians and Universalists. For the Unitarian Universalist Association, the two most dramatic incontinued on page 593

591

Religion

— SPECIAL REPORT

who have not focused their own Christian experience around baptism in the Holy Spirit. At other times adherents of lievers.

movement, impatient with those who seem to them to be halfby speaking out critically. In any case, reaction by outsiders soon inspired the tongue-speakers, the healers, and those who experienced other forms of the charisms or gifts to seek out each other. One form of association was the Blessed Trinity Society, which from 1961 to 1966 published a magazine. Trinity. A more popular form of gathering has been the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International the

believers, invite opposition

THE PENTECOSTAL PHENOMENON By Martin

Marty

E.

(FGBMFI), an organization that since 1953 has attracted thousands of small businessmen who advocate Pentecostal gifts and practices.

Jlentecostalism

a

is

form of expressing the Christian

faith;

it

accents "baptism in the Holy Spirit" and the receipt of spiritual

power. Pentecostalists have in some cases formed

new denomi-

among the fastest-growing in the many have remained inside the major denominations where they make up a "charismatic" movement, nations, church bodies that are

world.

More

named

recently,

gifts are described in the

New

early followers of Jesus Christ.

Holy

These Testament as being received by

after the "charisms" or gifts of the

They included

Spirit.

the ability to heal,

and to "speak in tongues." Speaking in tongues uttering ecstatic and unintelligible speech has done the most to draw attention to Pentecostalism, though

A Growing Phenomenon. Before long a number of denominations were reporting outbreaks of tongue-speaking or other phenomena connected with Pentecostalism. Both on the West Coast and around Minneapolis, Minn., the Lutherans were stirred or disturbed over reports of such events in their midst.

the issue of

to "discern the spirits," to prophesy,

—

not

adherents of the

all

movement make

it

the centre of their

its

pastor's involvement.

Both synods took circumspect and rather Pentecostalism.

They recognized

the Spirit in the

New

of their continuance.

critical

Testament and did not deny the possibility But they were aware that devotion to these

gifts in the

Pentecostalism as it is known today has three histories: one begins in 1960, the second in 1900, and the third at the start of the Christian era, around a.d. 30. They have much in common,

gregations, and they found in Lutheran theology

The 1960s movement drew

attention to Pentecostalism because of

its

spread into churches

Holy

and the

Spirit."

Roman

"baptism These include the Episcopal, the Lutheran,

Catholic.

An Unexpected Outpouring. The brief prehistory of "neoPentecostalism" in the mainline American churches began in the

A number

of Episcopal and other conventional Protby news that some of their had come under the influence of prayer groups in the older Pentecostal denominations. When, in 1960, Father Dennis Bennett announced to his congregation, St. Mark's Episcopal at Van Nuys, Calif., that he had experienced a new outpouring of God's spirit, the recent movement can be said to have later 1950s.

estant bodies were being stirred clerical leaders

begun.

Father Bennett's announcement was dramatic. His colleagues Mark's dissociated themselves from his activities and his

at St.

The Roman Catholic Church, through

—

—

renewal was born largely on college campuses. There had been numerous earlier attempts to start prayer cells, to engage in cursillos (brief, intense, spiritual retreats), and to encourage more lively response to the Spirit. In the mid-1960s the movement surfaced at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pa., and then most notably at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. As it spread to the University of Michigan and elsewhere,

familiar to his fellow Episcopalians through the activities of the Order of St. Luke, founded in 1947. This order, which also at-

and early

tracted

non-Episcopalians, believed that

the

New

Testament

a minor

way

modern Christians engaged in their own version of what the public called faith healing. They often held services involving prayer and "the laying on of hands" or elsewhere, these

the application of healing

oils.

While Pentecostalism aims Spirit's uniting

power,

it

to

give expression to the

Holy

has, almost everywhere, engendered mis-

and division in the churches. Sometimes the Pentecostalists are simply misunderstood by their more traditional fellow be-

long history, had

ecumenical spirit, however, permitted Catholics to acknowledge such debts, to associate with non-Catholics, and to develop a version of charismatic renewal appropriate to Catholicism. While earlier Pentecostalism had long been associated with Christians of lower economic classes, people who it was thought were often barely literate, it is interesting to note that Catholic

a

practices of "healing in the Spirit" and the biblical promises concerning such healing should remain in effect. In the order, and in

its

known outbreaks of activities similar to modern Pentecostalism, but Pentecostalism had been a Protestant movement and until the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) it would have been almost inconceivable for Catholics to identify with an expression of Christianity that derived from Protestant influences. The new

The major media picked up the story. The Episcopal Church authorized inquiries, particularly as the movement began to spread along the West Coast. Before long, "charismatic renewal" became an issue across the land. If Father Bennett was best known for advocating speaking in tongues, another element of the renewal had already become ministry.

to divisiveness within con-

some reasons The two major Presbyterian church bodies in the

United States reacted similarly, even though Pentecostalism did not spread widely there or in the American Baptist Convention, the other church touched by the movement.

that historically gave little attention to this version of in the

modern world could lead

for caution.

views of

the presence of special gifts of

activity.

but their contexts differ somewhat.

The

American Lutheran Church authorized a study in 1962, and the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod found it had to deal with the subject after one of its Minnesota congregations divided over

—

—

was recognized. A National Conference on Charismatic Renewal in the Catholic Church was soon formed, in the 1970s annual conferences held at Notre Dame could attract well over 10,000 people. Catholic and non-Catholic the need for organization

alike.

The various denominations gave

differing

flavours

to

their

expressions. While the older Pentecostalism had ordinarily down-

graded infant baptism and had given little devotion to the sacrament of the Lord's Supper or the Eucharist, the "high church" Protestants and the Roman Catholics did nothing radical to reject infant baptism. But they did believe that when Christians gathered in prayer and experienced the Pentecostal event, this was a "second baptism" in the Spirit. They also made much of the rite

trust

of confirmation.

Martin E. Marty

The older Pentecostalism, which concerns us less here, was born with the 20th century when followers of Charles Parham, an evangelist in the Holiness movement at Topeka, Kan., found one of their number, Agnes Ozman, speaking in tongues at a

is

professor of church history at the University

of Chicago, associate editor of of Protestantism.

The

Christian Century, and author

gathering on

New

Year's Eve, 1900.

The Holiness movement,

which derived from Wesleyan Methodism, stressed Christian perfection and renewal. The Pentecostal version soon spread from Topeka throughout Kansas and the Southwest and made its way to California. It began as an integrated movement, but in the course of time,

its

black and white followers tended to form

separate denominations.

Protestant nor Catholic, to the attention of the mainline churches. It was growing in the Caribbean, in Central and South America, in

North .America's urban ghettos and remote backlands. Some spokesmen, most notably one David du Plessis, were even

its

talking to leaders of the

World Council

of Churches.

Seekers After the Spirit. Both of the modern movements claim that they keep alive practices depicted in the Book of Acts, discussed in the writings of St. Paul, and recurrent in later Chrisany efforts by either symlocate them sociologically or to

tian history. Intense partisans resist

pathetic or hostile observers to

account for them psychologically. They simply experience supernatural gifts that natural man cannot explain, and these gifts can

any time. They point out that Pentecostalism has been effective among the poor in the third world nations and that it has been recognized on Ivy League and Catholic campuses. Modern-day peasants have been drawn to it, while the FGBMFI

come anywhere

testifies to the

denomination's Beacon Press and the introduction of an explicit new sex education course in the Sunday schools of

Throughout the 1950s Henry Pitney van Dusen, then president Union Theological Seminary in New York, tried to bring this "Third Force Christendom," which was neither conventionally

of

of

continued from page 591

cidents of 1972 concerned the U.S. government's reaction to publication of the Pentagon papers by the

at

participation of businessmen.

Social analysts, however, cannot rest content with these claims,

and they have

tried to account for the outbreak in various sets Some attribute Pentecostalism to the attempt of modbreak out of the boredom and emptiness of life, thus accounting for the movement's latter-day popularity among the rootless in prosperous suburbs. Some point out that witness to the Spirit has occurred again and again in times of societal upheaval;

of the 958 U.S. and Canadian Uniand fellowships. Department attempts to subpoena the UUA's bank account records were being challenged as a violation of religious freedom, association, and expression. The government action appeared to be in

Justice

retaliation for printing 7,000 pages of classified back-

ground information on U.S. involvement in Vietnam, which had already been read into a congressional subcommittee's records by Sen. Mike Gravel, an Alaska Unitarian. Prior to this, a

to

the 1960s

and 1970s certainly have been unsettling, providing and enthusiastic movements. Still others

fertile soil for ecstatic

see Pentecostalism as one itual

among many attempts

to achieve spir-

experiences in an age often described as secular.

release has

been sought

in

African religion,

in

A

similar

Asian religion, Zen which bears

Buddhism or Yoga, and in the "Jesus Movement" some resemblances to Pentecostalism.

—

Nothing fascinates the non-Pentecostal or inspires the Pente-

more than does the practice of "speaking in tongues." This phenomenon, not easily explained, permits Christians usually when gathered in conducive circumstances to utter unintelligible costal

—

—

sounds just as the early Christians were pictured as doing in the time of St. Paul. Paul was familiar with the practice and was inclined toward it himself. He was cautious about the problems it could create for communication and fellowship, however; he located it among the lesser gifts of the Spirit and asked for devotion to clear speech.

But Pentecostals today enjoy

looked gift and stress that

it

is

this

a special evidence of

over-

God's

the papers

of

After a year of testing, an audiovisual education About Your Sexuality was released for wide-

kit titled

It was reviewed by a New York law firm, and 3,000 persons were trained in the use of the

spread use. materials.

Citizen petitions to district attorneys in Wis., and Nassau County, N.Y., claimed that the kit violated obscenity laws. The denomination believed that this represented a threat to voluntary courses offered by religious movements

Waukesha County,

own institutions. The annual General Assembly

within their

Dallas, Tex.,

Lack of enthusiasm

all find

that there

is

nothing distinctive

have observed that, in tongue-speaking bears parallels to hallucinations, trances, or conjured experiences. Some relate it to the idea of cases,

release

from repression, while others

see

it

as a regression to the

4,

UUA

met

in

1972, and at-

for the

number in years. meetings was attributed to

The bylaws were to be remove such discriminatory language as "brotherhood of man" and "mankind." The delegates voted to urge the association and all its members and churches to refuse payment of the 10% telephone excise tax levied by the U.S. Congress in 1966 specifically to finance the war in Vietnam. The Board of Trustees was asked to cooperate with other introduce biennial assemblies. revised to

bodies to foster social responsibility

in the

investment

endowment funds. The annual Holmes Weatherly Award for outstanding efforts in social action was presented to the United Farm Workers, AFL-CIO. The General Assembly backed up this award with a of

resolution to boycott iceberg lettuce until a meaning-

contract was established between the

ful

the Christian version. Psychologists

of the

30 to June

absence of any key, burning issue. After years of trying, the assembly came within three votes of the twothirds majority required to change the bylaws and

growers.

Christian worlds. .Mmost

May

weariness over annual confrontations, fewer resources in local churches for sending representatives, and the

This "ecstatic speech that is usually unintelligible to the hearer" has been viewed in various ways by anthropologists and psychologists. The former have tape-recorded and analyzed tongue-speaking (glossolalia) in both the Christian and non-

some

from

tracted 678 delegates, the smallest

visitation.

in

somewhat shorter version New York

had been issued by the

Times.

of terms.

ems

many

tarian Universalist churches

UFW and the

The abrasive confrontations over black empowerment that had split the movement for several years were resolved. A $250,000 grant from the Veatch Committee and the North Shore Unitarian Society of Plandome, N.Y., was divided between the Black Affairs

Council and Black and White Action, with

smaller amounts for other, similar programs.

The

British General

Assembly met

in

London, April

preintellectualized speech of the child, expressive of a kind of innocence in the midst of modern complexity. It is not likely that

7-10, 1972; among the subjects discussed were alcoholism and "The Limits of Sexual Freedom." A reso-

debate on the subject will be resolved soon or easily. In the meantime many people are drawn to Pentecostalism as

ganization, the Non-Subscribing Presbyterian

means of renewing and spreading the Christian faith. Let others, they will say, locate them among the many movements that seek immediacy and ecstasy; their expression differs from all others in that it is a unique supernatural visitation from God and a fresh a

bestowal of his Spirit.

lution

was carried expressing sympathy

to a sister or-

Church

of Ireland, during the difficulties in Ulster. Later in the year Protestant and Roman Catholic children were

entertained at a week's holiday at the Unitarian Holi-

Home in Derbyshire. A historically significant conference was held with high-ranking representatives

day

Roman

"The Authority of be followed by a further meeting on the theme "Natural Theology and the Liberal Religious Doctrine of Man." (JOHN NICHOLLS BOOTH; BRIAN L. GOLLANd) United Church of Canada. The movement toward union with the .\nglican Church of Canada came to a standstill in 1972, and some United Church ministers of the

Religion

Catholic Church on

the Religious Conscience." It

was

to

expressed the belief that the Anglicans were backpedaling.

The second

largest diocese in the Anglican

Church of Canada rejected intercommunion with the United Church and recognition of its ministerial order. In the United Church there was disappointment, but in .August its General Council overwhelmingly rejected a motion that it should suspend negotiations and recommended that the revision of the draft Plan of Union be continued. The sharpest criticism of the Plan of Union was that it proposed nothing more than the "merger of two existing bodies," whereas the original goal had been "a new manifestation of the Church." It was suggested that, instead of the direct organizational ap-

proach

to union, the churches might better have en-

couraged united action "in relation to realizable goals addressed to

human needs." ho-hum attitude

In spite of the union, a

to

opportunities

of

many churchmen

sense of unity was arose

for

developing where cooperation. Some church

Church congreand sometimes Roman Catholic and Presbyterian congregations were involved. In many cases the work of Christian education was shared, though the congregations worshiped separately at agreed times. In one area a Lutheran pastor was serving the Anglicans, Lutherans, Mennonites, Presbyterians, and United Church people with the blessing of the buildings housed .\nglican and United gations,

churches. of the United

Church had

moderator the Rt. Rev. Norman Bruce McLeod; at 43 he was the youngest moderator in the church's history and the first to have been born after the church's formation in 1925 by a union of Congregationalists, Methodists, and Presbyterians. Four-fifths of the council's 450 members were attending for the first time and one-third were women. Dissatisfaction with the 1971 council's liberal view of abortion reits

new debate but, with the exception of some qualifying statements, the result was the same. Esquired a

sentially, the

help meet the

council had held that abortion

private matter between a

the

woman and

was a

her doctor but

it should only be used as a last resort. The counopposed the death penalty for murder but asked government to find alternatives to capital punish-

ment

as a deterrent to murder. In the

issue of

pared

all, it

crisis,

program

a

most emotional decided that the church should be pre-

respond creatively either to the continuance of Canada's present makeup or to the secession of Quebec. (Arthur g. Reynolds) to

United Church of Christ. The membership of the United Church of Christ in 1972 stood at 6,688 congregations and 1,928,674 members. When the denomination came into being in 1957, it brought together four U.S. churches, the Congregational and Christian churches, which had united in 1931, and the Evangelical Synod of North America and the Reformed Church in the United States, which had merged in 1934. During 1972 the denomination moved toward implementation of the four priorities adopted by the General Synod of 1971 meeting the faith crisis; racial justice; peace; and strengthening the local church. :

entitled

and regional levels; it was hoped that at least 30,000 members would be involved in the program during 1972-73.

The denomination embarked on

a $17 million

cam-

paign on behalf of the six black colleges related to the church, as well as a number of overseas projects in areas of

racial

conflict.

In reviewing

its

invest-

it worked particularly with the Mobil Oil Corp., which agreed to make a full disclosure of its operations in South Africa. The work of the church relating to American Indians was turned over to the newly formed Council on American Indian Ministry, with the aim of providing greater self-determination within

ments,

the Indian churches.

An interstaff peace team planned and carried out an interchange of pastors between the United Church of Christ and the Evangelical Church in East Germany, participated in the National Council of Churches' In-

War

quiry on

Crimes, and helped to fund the National

Emergency Ministry Concerning the (Vietnam) War. Two task forces were engaged in developing proposals on strengthening the local church. The Task Force on Leadership Development proposed that Council's

programs for professional and lay leadership in the church be brought together administratively and that the new national office charged with this responsibility be regionalized. The Task Force on the Status of Women in Church and Society requested moves to ensure that at least 50% of the delegates to national

meetings and of the members of national boards and councils be women. In March 1972 the Council for Christian Social Action, the national agency with responsibility in this area, dismissed its entire staff, partly for financial

The Executive Council cil

its

program.

of the church placed the Coun-

for Christian Social Action on an interim operating

made of the appropriate style for Christian social action in the church basis until a reassessment could be

A

today.

decision would be

made

at the 1973 General

Synod.

During 1972 the Executive Council raised some questions about the future of COCU and suggested that a way should be found for the Consultation to determine

its

velopments

course in the light of ecumenical de-

at the local level rather than

on the basis

of a nationally drafted plan of union. (See Presbyterian,

that cil

faith

"Faith Exploration" was developed for use at the local

reasons and partly in order to redirect

The 1972 General Council as

To

Reformed, and Congregational, above.) (ROBERT V. moss)

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Toward

the end of 1971, the third international

Synod

of the

Roman

made

the church aware of the increasing differences

between

Catholic Church, meeting in

local churches. In

many

Rome, had

places, especially in

developed countries, the important question was whether the church was a spur or a hindrance to na-

less

tional identity. Elsewhere, the issues causing tension

were mainly substantial questions concerning the church's message and the way to communicate it. The year that followed was one of fundamental questioning.

In Africa, Zaire was the setting for an inconclusive Mobutu Sese Seko

skirmish, in January, between Pres.

and Joseph-Albert Cardinal Malula, archbishop of Kinshasa. The ostensible issue was "africanization" and the particular flashpoint, the president's abolition of "Christian names." An article in Afrique Chri-

by the cardinal, opposed the return "an original African philosophy which had value The weekly publication was suppressed for six months, the cardinal ordered to abandon his residence, and the John XXIII seminary was closed down. The cardinal slipped out of Zaire secretly, but later returned with assurances of safetienne, supported

595

to

Religion

only for that past."

conduct.

By an

1972 over 30 million Catholics in Asia obtained forum to deal with local problems. In

official

February it was announced that the Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences (FABC) was almost ready to start functioning. The Asian bishops went ahead

many

with the project, jumping

of the red-tape bar-

by Rome because, they

riers set

indecision or further delay

said,

among

"any sign of

the leaders of the

would undermine the credibility of the Church Church and inflict wounds on many." The church in India was especially concerned with liturgy and minority rights. The Vatican approved a .

.

.

Pope Paul VI waves welcoming crowd

plan for adapting the liturgy to India, with the use

to a

Hindu symbols in the Mass. The Indian Bishops' Conference was concerned that relations between Christians and other Indians were being damaged because Christianity was still presented in "Western

along the Grand Canal in Venice on Sept. 16, 1972. His visit was the first by a reigning pope

of

in

garb." India's

Art.

first

convention for the rights of mi-

was organized by the Catholic bishops.

nority groups

30 of the constitution, ensuring the right of

re-

ligious minorities to educational establishments sup-

ported by government grants, had been attacked as conflicting with the socialist society

emerging

in India.

Lithuanian Catholics sent a protest with 17.000 Communist Party leader Leonid Brezhnev, complaining that "in violation of Lithu-

signatures to Soviet I.

criminal code, believers suffer discrimination

ania's

because of their faith." A copy was sent to UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, and the text was made public on

March

27.

This protest followed a number

was attended by Bishop Joseph McKinney, auxiliary bishop of Grand Rapids, Mich. The official voice of the church in the U.S. was heard in April, when the bishops at their Atlanta, Ga., spring meeting issued a statement criticizing Pres. Richard Nixon's Commission on Population Growth and the American Future, especially as regards its position on abortion; throughout the year the church was active in opposing the liberalization of abortion laws, though an effort was made to shift emphasis to a more positive "right to life." In

May

six

bishops strongly criticized the

of other appeals

U.S. mining of North Vietnamese ports and the in-

in the

tensification of the war.

by Catholics, who were often linked U.SS.R. with nationalist and separatist move-

ments. Later in the year, following reports of riots in

In Europe the recognition by the Vatican on June

Kaunas, the Catholic bishops warned their people not

28 of the Polish dioceses in the "recovered territories"

to "protest too strongly."

(former German territories annexed by Poland in 1945) put an end to a long-standing Polish complaint and helped the Polish authorities in their policy of "normalization" toward the church. The outlook was less encouraging in other Communist countries of Eastern Europe, especially in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. In June the journal of the Czechoslovak Ministry of Defense launched an attack on the Vatican, which was seen as possibly heralding a new wave

Marxism were able to more peacefully and even to cooperate. ConUN Conference on Trade and Development in April and May, the first Latin-AmeriIn Chile, Christianity and

coexist

currently with the third

can meeting of "Christians for Socialism" was held in

Santiago.

Jesuit priest olic

The

organizer. Father Correa Arroyo, a and professor of agriculture in the Cath-

University of Chile, wanted, he said in his openshow the revolutionary attitude of

ing address, "to

of persecution.

Western Europe's problems seemed

Christians in face of the injustices of world imperial-

ism."

Clerg>'

and

laity

from

all

the

Latin-Ameri-

parison.

Tensions,

slighter

misunderstandings,

and

by comconflict

can countries attended, as well as observers from the

within the church took different forms in Spain, Great

U.S., Canada, and Europe. The final document supported the socialist experiments of Cuba and Chile, had reservations about Mexico and Brazil, and denied

Britain,

that Christians

way of

could have their

own

characteristic

liberating the Latin-American peoples

from the

them

to unite

oppression of imperialism;

it

their forces with Marxists,

who were urged

invited

to take

up a new attitude to Christianity. In the U.S. the striking growth of Pentecostalism was reflected in the sixth International Conference on Charismatic Renewal held on the campus of the University of Notre Dame at the end of June. Numbers were greater than ever before. The Catholic charismatic renewal movement was still perhaps viewed rather uneasily

by

the hierarchy, but the conference

the Netherlands, and Italy. The Spanish episcopacy decided to continue the policy of the September 1971 assembly of bishops and priests, which had claimed greater independence of the church from

On the eve of the bishops' meeting in March, document from the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy was published, attacking the new approach. The Spanish bishops treated it with reserve, and went ahead with their program. The document later turned the state. a

out to be somebody's mistake. In Great Britain the resignations of the entire teach-

Corpus Christi catechetical college were to their surprise, by John Cardinal Heenan. He later stated that he had no worries about the orthodoxy of teaching there, but he had to accept

ing staff of

accepted,

much

172

years.

— On September

596

a state visit

Religion

demand

to

by

22 the pope took the opportunity of

Italy's

new

president, Giovanni Leone,

the abolition of divorce.

(See Vatican

(peter hebblethwaitei

City State.)

EASTERN CHURCHES The Orthodox Church. On July

6, 1972, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, which enjoys a traditional honorary primacy in the Orthodox world lost its incumbent. Patriarch Athenagoras I Obituaries). A prestigious personality, Athenagor.i^

im

had been projected into the limelight on the occasion of his three successive meetings with Pope Paul \'I in Jerusalem, Istanbul, and Rome. The funeral, on July 11, was attended by Christian leaders from both Eastern and Western Europe. Immediately after the patriarch's death, the Turkish government issued sev-

Russian Orthodox pilgrims worship at the monastery of Troilsa in Zagorsic,

near Moscow. "A church dictatorially directed

by atheists is a spectacle that has not been seen

eral public statements requiring that a successor be

2,000 years," mourned Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, winner of the 1970 Nobel for

elected without delay

didates

in

can-

July 16 the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate, composed mostly of titular bishops, elected Dimitrios (see Biography), metropolitan of Imbros and Ten-

to allow Sotzhenitsyn to receive the $79,000 award, thus thwarting his

dream

and barring several leading

from running.

On

Prize for Literature, Soviet authorities refused

by a 12 to 3 vote. The new patriarch was immediately enthroned. Aged 58, the new patriarch was born and raised in Istanbul. His name had never been edos,

of building a church

the U.S.S.R.

was own." Religious teaching also

that "their understanding of religious education

incompatible with

proved

my

a sensitive area in the Netherlands. After a

mentioned among possible successors

to Athenagoras. Observers explained the circumstances of the election the Turkish desire lower the by to prestige of the

controversy over the appointment of conservative Bishop J. M. Gijsen in Roermond early in the year over the strong opposition of the liberal Dutch hierarchy, the Netherlands seemed to become very quiet

Patriarchate as an international centre and as the only remaining symbol of Greek presence in Asia Minor.

June, there was news of a new "Dutch Catechism" intended for secondary pupils. Father Jean

would have to be located move would unduly enhance the prestige of the Russian Church, although the latter had never formally tried to supplant Constantinople. Undoubtedly, this issue would dominate Orthodox ecclesiastical politics in the years to come. Ephrem II, the Orthodox patriarch of Georgia an ancient autocephalous church located in the U.S.S.R. died on April 7. He was succeeded by Metropolitan David. The problem of the survival of religion in the U.S.S.R. was agitated both in the Soviet press and abroad. Soviet antireligious commentators complained about the lasting influence of the Orthodox Church,

until, in

Galot, in Civilla Cattolica,

condemned

the doctrinal

content as not representing the "authentic teaching of the Church."

In Italy

in

August there was shock over the Vati-

can decision to dismiss the whole governing body of the Benedictine monks of Cassino, apparently because they had refused to remove from

abbot of

St.

Franzoni.

system

in

office the

progressive

Paul's-Without-the-Walls, Dora Giovanni

He commented,

"In

Rome

the ecclesiastical

the pure state does not exist. It

to the political

and economic power.

is

tied

It is clear that

we have touched the nerves of this power." The year witnessed steady progress in ecumenism, hard to document but exemplified by the Anglican-

Roman

Catholic agreed statement on the Eucharist,

released Dec. 31,

above.)

A book

1971. (See Anglican

Communion,

prepared by the Vatican Council for

the Application of the Liturgy and published in Feb-

ruary outlined a procedure whereby converts could enter the church step by step over a period of years.

From

came new norms, promulgated in annulment of lawful but nonconsumthe effect of which was to speed up the procedure. On July 13 a statement was issued clarifying the circumstances in which Catholics could the Vatican

July, for the

mated marriages,

when private confeswas impossible or seriously difficult. The statement was apparently designed to discourage the grow-

obtain forgiveness of their sins sion

ing practice of granting absolution for grave sins in

communal

penitential rites. Other

Roman documents

strengthened the hand of the Holy See in the appointment of bishops, warned nuns that they should wear their religious habits, set discouraging limits

on

inter-

communion, and barred women from any formal role Some began to speak of a backlash.

in the ministry.

International commentators expressed the view that if

the

Orthodox Church was

centre of

common

action,

to establish a functioning

it

outside Turkey. Others feared that such a

—

illustrated

by

the

fact

that,

during the

1960s,

bishops below the age of 40 were consecrated.

25

How-

ever, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, the novelist, addressed a

Pimen

Nobel Prize-winning "Lenten Letter" to Patriarch

Moscow, accusing the hierarchy of unnecessary servility to the demands of the state. The session of the Pan-Orthodox Commission for of

the preparation of a "great council" of the Orthodox Church was postponed. However, the Pan-Orthodox Commission for a Dialogue with Anglicanism met with its Anglican counterpart in Geneva on September 1114. The results were described as "promising" in the official communique, and another meeting was sched-

uled for July 1973.

Much

inter-Orthodox activity took

place throughout 1972 on the level of theological edu-

conferences of Orthodox theologians were held in Athens (May), Thessaloniki cation.

International

(September), and New York City (September). Metropolitan Vladimir Nagosky, American-born primate of the autonomous Japanese Church, resigned and retired to the U.S. He was replaced on March 19 by Theodosius Nagashima, the first native Orthodox

primate. However, another American, Serafim Sigrist,

tions,

was appointed bishop of Sendai. In the U.S. the 39year-old, American-born Theodosius Lazor was elected

far

bishop of Pittsburgh, Pa. On April 11 the Orthodox Church in America accepted into its fold as an exarchate the Iglesia Orto-

doxa Catolica of Mexico (also known as the Mexican National Church). This 20,000-member body, headed by the Mexican Bishop Jose Cortes y Olmos, was the

tionaries could be trained,

was reopened.

students aged from 23 to 52, none of

It

had

whom was

six

study-

ing to be a rabbi; they attended courses in shehita

existed.

community, had been kidnapped and held in Syria. The plight of the Syrian Jews evoked protest demon-

The Ethiopian Church, a daughter church of the Egyptian Copts, showed equal interest in international relations and an even more marked concern for developing relations with the Chalcedonian Orthodox

Church. Patriarch Theophilus of Ethiopia paid visits Athenagoras (November 1971) and to

to Patriarch

the

(john mevendorff)

Church of Greece.

JUDAISM No

new data on the size and distribution world Jewish population became available in of immigration to Israel from theU.S.S.R. (an estimated 31,000 in 1971-72, as against an estimated 1,000 in 1970^ was of significance as a pointer to possible developments in the significant

of the

The increased flow

1972.

future, but did not change the existing distributional I

pattern. {See Israel: Special Report.)

Soviet Jewry remained the focus of Jewish collective concern. The promise given by Soviet Premier Aleksei N. Kosygin during his visit to

Canada

at the

beginning of 1972 was kept, and Jews were allowed to

i

the flow of Jewish emigration.

Moscow's yeshiva (rabbinical college), the only place in the U.S.S.R. where Jewish religious func-

group of Spanish-speaking Orthodox Christians. In France the Orthodox Patriarchate of Romania accepted into its jurisdiction the group previously known as figlise Orthodoxe de France, which uses a Western liturgical rite. Eastern Non-Chalcedonian Churches. In the fall of 1971 the most important of the ancient NonChalcedonian Churches, the Coptic Church of Egypt, chose a new head. Patriarch Amba Shenouda III. The new patriarch was one of the leading intellectuals of the Coptic Church, and during his earlier career had exercised marked influence among the younger generation. Upon his enthronement, he declared his readiness to develop ecumenical ties with other Christians and to improve relations with the Muslim majority. On Dec. 15, 1971, Shenouda III received a delegation of the United Evangelical Church (U.S.). He also exchanged visits with the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria, Nicholas VI. who promised to allow the Copts the use of 30 Greek Orthodox churches on the lower Nile where an Orthodox population no longer sizable

first

'

and personalities against the tax, but it was from certain whether these representations would have any influence on the Soviet authorities, and it was not yet known to what extent the tax would alter

many applicants for visas and Jews manifesting sympathy with Israel were harassed inside leave, although

the Soviet Union.

Then, on August

3,

the Presidium

Supreme Soviet issued a decree requiring "reimbursement by U.S.S.R. citizens leaving for permaof the

nent residence abroad of state expenditure on education." This meant that anyone with academic training would have to make a payment for an exit visa varying from 12,250 rubles ($15,000) for a graduate of Moscow State University to 1,700 rubles ($2,150) for a holder of the "candidate of science" degree, amounts

that

few could ever hope

to raise.

Jews in the U.S.S.R., like Jews in the rest of the world, had a disproportionately high percentage of academically educated persons, and the new regulation affected a large grate. tives

number

of families wishing to emi-

There were worldwide protests by representaof Jewish and non-Jewish organizations, institu-

(slaughtering) and liazanut (cantorial music). Shulem Royzen, the chairman of the Moscow Jewish congreit was hoped to bring the number of students to 25, but emphasized the acute shortage

gation, stated that

of teachers.

There was no appreciable change in the situation of Jewish communities in other Eastern European countries. In Czechoslovakia, Vilem Benda was dismissed

from his post as director of the Jewish Museum in Prague for resisting pressure to rearrange the museum's contents in order to impart political propaganda. The museum housed one of the richest collections of Jewish art and historical relics in the world. The position of the residual Jewish communities in the Arab world remained precarious. Reports were received from Syria that Jews were "considered to be hostages," that they "lived in constant fear of governmental measures against them," and that Jews were imprisoned and allegedly tortured. It was also reported that Albert Ella, the leader of the Lebanese Jewish

many

parts of the world. The second atKing Hassan II of Morocco, and Morocco's strong man, Muhammad Oufkir, greatly disturbed the Moroccan Jewish community, since King Hassan and Oufkir had been their main defenders against the hostility of pan-Arab nationalists. However, King Hassan promised that Jews would continue to enjoy equal rights with the rest of the Moroccan population. The massacre of passengers at Lod Airport by Japanese gunmen in May and the Olympics tragedy in Munich, W.Ger., in September, in which 1 1 Israeli sportsmen were killed, made a deep impact on the diaspora Jewish communities as well as in Israel. (See Israel; Sporting Recstrations in

tempt

the

to assassinate

death

of

ord: Special Report.) The perennially smoldering issue

brought religious

volvement

in

the

"Who

circles of all trends to a

problem and

to a

is

a

Jew?"

deeper in-

clearer realiza-

it was impossible to draw a clear distincbetween Jews inside and outside Israel. The issue, involving the problems of conversions and mixed marriages, tended to polarize attitudes of Orthodox, Reform, and Liberal Jews, especially in Great

tion that tion

Britain.

Immanuel Jacobovits,

the chief rabbi of the

United Hebrew Congregations of the British Commonwealth, admitted that "we have no special interest in swelling our numbers by conversions" and that London's Beth-Din standards were stricter than in many other countries.

Diverse local conditions could have an important bearing on the decision to admit proselytes; in Israel, where there was hardly any opportunity of becoming it was obviously (and harder to reject them) than in the diaspora. Nevertheless, the problem of conversion continued to be a political issue. The Orthodox parties were under pressure from their own extremists to insist that only "conversion accord-

integrated into non- Jewish society, far easier to accept converts

Religion

Institute of Religion in Cincinnati, 0.,

as the

first

female rabbi in the U.S. (JACOB B. AGUS

;

was ordained

PAUL GLIKSON)

BUDDHISM In the early 1950s many Buddhists in Asia were jubilant over the renewed vitality of their faith. The "resurgence of Buddhism," as it was called then, had thrusts. The first concerned Buddhism in the so-called Buddhist nafrom Ceylon to Vietnam, that had attained independence after the end of World War II. The second involved an exaggerated view on the part of Asian Buddhists concerning the spiritual bankruptcy of the West and the potential of Buddhism to fill the spiritual vacuum. In both respects, this optimism had been dampened by recent events. A Buddhist layman in Sri Lanka, N. Gunaratne, openly stated that "Buddhism as a religion has proved to be a failure in Western countries," while the Buddhist communities in Asia were facing a nimiber of external and internal

two separate but related the future of tions,

crises.

In Ladakh, India, the construction of the Srinagareffectively broken down the isolation among whom were monks (lamas) and 7,000 nuns (chomos). Internally, the Tibetan community was split by the revolt of the 25,000-strong Khanpas against the Dalai

Leh highway had

of the Tibetan refugee community,

2,000 ing to Sho-Hondo, a shrine

built

lower slopes of Mt. Fuji by devotees on

Halachah"

(i.e.,

Orthodox law and practice) be

recognized by the Israeli government as a determina-

tile

ttie Japanese Soka Gakkai sect of Buddhism, was opened in October 1972. Membership in the sect grew phenomenally

of

from 3,000

in

1945

to eight million in

1972.

tion of Jewish status, while the leftist parties in the

Lama's brother, Gyalpo Thondup, on the ground that

Knesset were pressing for restriction of the role of

he was secretly collaborating with Peking. Elsewhere

the rabbinate in public life

and the recognition of

Buddhism continued

to attract the "sched-

uled caste" people (untouchables), as was evidenced

marriage.

civil

in India,

In the U.S. the American Jewish Committee estab-

problem of Jewish identity. The Conference of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds had launched a similar project in 1971. The emergence of this issue in American Jewish life was due to two antithetical factors. On the one hand, lished a task force to study the

by several cases of mass conversion that took place 1971 in the

Of

Lucknow

the ten million refugees

East Pakistan fled to India,

who

fled their

Hills Special Division in

Burma and

Mizo

in public life

had greatly intensified in the past decade. Children and grandchildren of immigrants had be-

of the Pakistan Centre of the

come eager

soldiers; the Venerable Abhayatissa

to cultivate their historic heritage, in order

to enrich their lives

by

the feelings of rootedness in

homes

Assam. D.

15,000 in the

P. Barooah, general secretary

World Fellowship

Maha

senior Buddhist leader in Pakistan,

many

Thera, the

was mercilessly

Two

beaten, and

source of ethical values, they were skeptical of the value of established institutions in religion, education,

a leading prelate, "Ninety-five percent of those

described (and described itself) as "post-Jewish,"

new

A

phenomenon made some impact on marGrowing up in the ecumenical atmosphere in which the Jewishness of Jesus was often stressed, a number of young Jews joined a Jewish-Christian movement that turned to some Jewish customs but regarded Jesus as a saviour. Most religious

ginal Jewish youth.

older Jews regarded this as a passing fad, but

it

gained

an unexpectedly large number of adherents, however temporary and tenuous. The Encyclopedia Judaica was published during the year.

Begun

in pre-Hitler

Germany, continued

U.S., and completed in Israel,

it

in the

reflected the world-

wide distribution of Jewish scholars. Sally Priesand, who graduated from the Hebrew Union College-Jewish

of

Buddhists, and his family were killed by Pakistani

an ancient culture and to counteract the aimless turbulence of drifting youth in recent years. On the other hand, the youth rebellion of the late 1960s had placed all the customs and values of the past into question. Apart from the extremist groups, great numbers of young people had come to feel that the adult establishment had somehow gone astray. While deeply interested in religious experience as a

and philanthropy. The younger generation was uncertain about its own Jewish identity and was often

in

500,000 were Buddhists. Many but 20,000 sought refuge in the Chin

in 1971,

the importance of the "ethnic," or "heritage" factor

Hills in

in

area.

Buddha

temples were ransacked.

gold

statues in monasteries in Chittagong were cut

and taken to West Pakistan. The Theravada Buddhist nations were

into pieces

fronted by

many

as the Republic

difficulties.

of Sri

Ceylon,

Lanka

after

also con-

officially

May

known

1972, had

not yet recovered from the aftermath of the 1971

by the Peoples Liberation Front. According to who in violent activities were Buddhists," and the position of the bhikkhus (monks) and the temple had deteriorated after the revolt was suppressed. The Ceylonese government took advantage of the emergency regulations to abandon the Buddhist Poya holidays and introduce the Saturday-Sunday weekend. revolt

engaged

In

Burma Ne Win's Revolutionary Council was

urging the updating of the dhammathats (traditional law).

In Thailand, where government troops were

fighting guerrillas in the northern border area, the

Buddhist mission to the Karen minority was established in Chieng Mai Province in 1971. A new Buddhist university was to be built in Aitthaya Province, about 70 mi. from Bangkok. In December 1971 the first International Buddhist Youth Conference was held in Bangkok as a prelude to the tenth General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists. In Japan the new religions of Buddhist origin, esfirst

pecially the Nichiren

Shoshu (Soka Gakkai) and the

Rissho Koseikai, seemed to be more active than traditional Buddhist denominations. Plans were being

made to develop Lumbini, the legendary birthplace of the Buddha in Nepal the architect Kenzo Tange, who had designed Expo 70 in Osaka, Jap., was assigned to ;

Lumbini project. In the West a Centre of Zen Buddhist Studies was

the

established in Venice, Italy. Publication of an Italian Dhammapada, an important part of the Theravada Buddhist canon, was begun by the Associazione Buddhista Italiana. A new film entitled

version of the

Buddkam Saranam Gocchami

my

("I take

refuge in

Buddha") was completed in England; it featured Ceylonese paintings and sculptures up to the 12th century. (Joseph m. kitagawa) the

ISLAM As had been the case so often in recent years, political events affecting Muslims seemed to overshadow more specifically religious developments. Much of the Muslim world's interest centred around the aftermath of the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war and the formaindependent Bangladesh. {See Bangladesh;

tion of

Pakistan; Religions oj Asia, below.) In December 1971 the Muslim World League, meeting in Mecca, called for a jihad (holy war) against India, but the call had little effect. Attention of Muslims in the Middle East continued to focus on the Arab-Israeli situation and the political maneuvers among the various Arab governments. (See Middle East.) A related incident was the Saudi Arabian government's continuation of a ban against Israeli Arab Muslims attending the pilgrimage to Mecca, despite an announcement the previous November by the mayor of Hebron in Israel that an agreement had been reached allowing participation. Early in January the first Islamic conference on family planning was held in Rabat, Morocco, under the auspices of the Planned Parenthood Federation. It was announced that modern family-planning techniques are not contrary to

Muslim

tween the two countries on a political level and between Hindus and Muslims on a religious level. To comphcate the matter further, the December 1971 war found predominantly Hindu India corning to the aid of Muslim East Pakistan in its ultimately successful struggle for independence against West Pakistan. The new nation of Bangladesh faced a number of serious problems, not the least of which was the animosity existing between the Biharis, a MusHm minority of north Indian origin, and the Bengali majority, which also professed the Islamic faith.

India was beset by the widespread violent activities of bandit gangs, although the Sarvadaya Brotherhood,

by Jayaprakash Narayan, claimed a measure of some of them. Followers of the extremely nationalistic Hindu party Jan Sangh were unhappy about the Simla accord between India and Pakistan. {See India; Pakistan.) In June, following

led

success in pacifying

nationalization of the

Allahabad, and Aligarh,

Admittedly,

this

Asia, whether

in

sions of

life.

The

tion of Southeast Asian Nations stressed the need for strengthening national economies in order to increase

economic and political stability in the entire region, and in June the Asian and Pacific Council indicated its willingness to invite nations with different ideologies

and

political systems. {See Southeast Asia.) At ASPAC meeting Pres. Park Chung Hee of South Korea openly stated that "We cannot afford to cling fondly to fixed ideas and notions which contravene the emerging currents of a new era," and Park's South Korea subsequently began serious discussions with Communist North Korea.

the

Nevertheless,

religious

actions, such as interest

Catholic Church.

Pakistan

to

and the Philippines

disputes involving Muslims. In

ons were ordered to respect

the

lim

(r.

w. smith)

RELIGIONS OF ASIA

Muslims

powerful

rights,

economic development,

and

racial brotherhood. But the events of 1972 indicated that the religions of Asia were finding it ex-

tremely

difficult to

implement these resolutions. Moreseemed to intensify political, economic, national, and

over, religious enthusiasm often conflicts

between

in the Philippines,

and three Soviet Mus-

Buddhism, above.) most troublesome problem for Asia was Vietnam

for coexistence. (See

Pres.

human

Roman

Arab Muslim nations,

who visited Mindanao promised aid and Tension also remained high in Sri Lanka, where the Hindu Tamil minority and the Sinhalese Buddhist majority had not worked out a satisfactory formula

both the spiritual and the temporal needs of humanity peace,

of the

officials

autumn of 1970 delegates at the World Conference on Religion and Peace, held in Kyoto, Jap., had resolved that all religions must come to grips with e.g.,

Some

relief.

In the

—

In

notably Libya and Egypt, expressed a desire to help

mediate

dietary laws.

hard.

erating with the tacit support of the local

City pris-

to

New York

Muslim

died

Muslim minority was being persecuted by a CathMuslims claimed was op-

olic organization that the

tions

prejudices

largest island of the Philippines,

Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, decided on the founding of an Islamic bank, though questions relating to some transclari-

dimen-

toward Peking confused many Communists as well Some political leaders prepared to meet the changing situation. In April the Associa-

Mindanao, the second

on loans, were not yet

all

as religious leaders.

the

also called for sending delega-

was affecting

swift turnabout of the U.S. attitude

31

The conference

in Aligarh, a

the northern Indian

in

was a diflicult time for the peoples they were religiously oriented or

not, because rapid change

tion

fied.

all

state of Uttar Pradesh.

law, though abor-

and sterilization are. In March a conference of foreign ministers of Islamic countries meeting in

Muslim university

series of riots took place in the cities of Varanasi,

racial groups.

By

far the

the tortured situation in Indochina. In South

Nguyen Van Thieu represented the small but Roman Catholic minority in a predominantly Buddhist country. Regardless of the eventual outcome, relations between the Buddhists and Roman Catholics in Vietnam, as well as between the Buddhist maand the various non-Buddhist ethnic minorities throughout the Indochinese Peninsula, had been irjority

reparably damaged.

The unknown quantity

in Asia

was Communism,

On the Indian subcontinent Muslim-Hindu feuds were nothing new. Since the partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 resulted in the

which had always portrayed

of more than 16 million refugees who crisscrossed the border, tensions had continued to exist be-

Communists were suppressed in South Korea and Taiwan and divided in India. In Japan and elsewhere,

flight

itself as a semireligious

To be sure, the once powerIndonesian Communist Party had been smashed;

revolutionary movement. ful

599

Religion

600

Rhodesia

Efllimilael

Total Chriitian

Meinbarihip of Ihe Princlpol Religions of Iho World*

[

;

t

I

I

I

!

^

I

Britain to put to the test of public opinion the pro-

posals agreed

upon

in

601

November

foreign secretary, Sir Alec

1971 by the British Douglas-Home, and Ian

Rhodesia

Smith (see Biography) for a settlement of Rhodesia's future. The agreement provided for the African population to achieve, slowly and gradually, political parity with the whites. Almost immediately there were outbreaks of violence by Africans in Shabani, Gwelo, Fort Victoria, Salisbury, and Umtali. For a time the commission's work appeared to be in jeopardy, but the chairman stubbornly refused to be deterred from his task. Smith's government reacted harshly to the rioting; a number of Africans were killed by police and a former prime minister of Southern Rhodesia, Garfield Todd, and his daughter Judith were arrested on Smith's order, as was Josiah Chinamano, treasurergeneral of the African National Council formed in December 1971 to oppose the settlement proposals. In March the government banned the sale of ANC membership cards, and 60,000 of them were seized by security police. Both the government and the ANC

made

allegations

of

intimidation

against

A

Kariba listens as officials explain terms of a proposed settlement between Britain

ponents, and the government submitted to the com-

mission evidence of intimidation which

it

thought

would carry considerable weight in determining the commission's attitude toward the evidence it had heard. ANC sympathizers, meanwhile, compiled a body of evidence indicating persistent harassment by the government at a time when freedom of political expression was supposed to be guaranteed. In the interval before the publication of the commission's report there was a swing to the right in the political sympathies of some of the white population of Rhodesia who were critical of Smith for having taken part in any discussions which might have

and the white Rhodesian government. His face reflects the predominant black dissatisfaction with terms of the accord.

compromised the position of Europeans

in the coun-

try. This led to a strengthening of the recently formed United Front Against Surrender Party, which had pledged itself to ensure that the interests of the white population would remain paramount. Early in May another right-wing party, the Democratic Party, was

RHODESIA

formed with the goal of preserving the white man and his "civilization" in Rhodesia. Smith's Rhodesian Front Party reacted swiftly to these challenges by

Education. (1970) African: primary, pupils 677,415, teachers 16.958; secondary, pupils 24.201. leacliers 1,027; vocational and teacher training, students 2,113, teachers 121. Non-African: primary, pupils 39.504. teachers 1.588; secondary, pupils 26.462, teachers I,S39; vocational and teacher training, pupils 2.818. teachers 189. African and non-African: higher (University of Rhodesia), students 867, teaching staff 162.

sending ministers to tour the country to present the government's case to the people, but there was in fact no serious threat to the Front's domination. The right wing's criticisms of Smith and the more widely felt concern among whites that the terms of settlement might involve politically dangerous concessions were

Finance. Monetary unit: Rhodesian dollar, with 18, 1972) a free rate of R$0.70 to U.S. $1 = £I sterling). Budget (1970-71 rev. est.):

(Sept.

(R$1.60

revenue R$2O6.675.O0O; expenditure R$2 1 5.7 15.000. Gross national product: (1969) R$930 million; (1968)

R$816

million.

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports R$199.4 million; exports R$226.9 million. Import sources (1965): U.K. 30%; South Africa 23%; U.S. 7%; Japan 6%. Export destinations (1965): Zambia 29%; U.K. 20%; South Africa 11%; West Germany 8%; Malawi 6%; Japan 5%. Main exports (1965): tobacco 51%; asbestos 12%; machinery 9%; clothing 6%; chemicals

S%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 78.064 km. Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 126,600; commercial (including buses) 52,000. Railways (1971): 3,250 km.; freight traffic (including Botswana; 1969-70) 6.501,000,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1971) 132,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 145.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 50,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): corn c. 900 (c. 700); millet c. 220 (c. 220); peanuts c. 122 (c. 104); tobacco c. 62 (c. 62); tea c. 2.3 (c. 2.3); sugar, raw value (197172) c. 196. (1970-71) c. 142; beef and veal (197071) c. 72. (1969-70) c. 70. Livestock (in 000; 197071): cattle c. 4.000; sheep c. 460; goats c. 700; pigs I.

145.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): asbestos 80; coal (1969) 3.332; chrome ore (oxide content; 1965) 281; iron ore (metal content; 1966) c. 830; gold (troy oz.) c. 500; electricity (kw-hr.) 6,410.000.

Rhodesian tribesman

on the banks of Lake

op-

their

tempered by a general anxiety regarding the country's economic future and the threat to Rhodesian security arising from FRELIMO (Mozambique Liberation Front) activities along the eastern border should sanctions continue.

The commission's report, published on May 23, concluded that while the proposals appeared acceptable to the majority of whites they were rejected by the majority of Africans and that thus the people of Rhodesia as a whole could not be said to have accepted the proposals as a basis for independence. Smith claimed that the report contained many misrepresentations of the true position and expressed the view that the conclusion was a mistaken one. He informed the British government that he was still prepared to implement the settlement but would not do so unilaterally nor would he reopen negotiations with a view to amending the terms of the settlement. The British foreign secretary, meanwhile, said that the Rhodesian people should be given time to reflect on the problem in the hope that they would come to accept some compromise that would lead to orderly political change. In the meantime, the status quo

would be preserved, including sanctions. While the white population tended to rally to Smith's government in reaction to the commission's

602

Romania

report, they remained anxious about the future. It was thought that the African politicians who had led the

become more aggressive. In November the government announced removal of segregationist clauses from the 1970 Land Tenure Act. The clauses, which it had been feared would end interracial religious services and education, had been strongly opposed by church groups. campaign against the settlement might

(KENNETH INGHAM)

Romania

20,470,000, including (1968)

:

Romanian 87.8%;

Hungarian 8.4%. Cap. and largest

city:

(pop., 1970 est., 1,475,050). Religion:

Bucharest

Romanian Or-

thodox 70%; Greek Orthodox 10%. General secretary Romanian Communist Party and president of the State Council in 1972, Nicolae Ceausescu; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier). Ion of the

Gheorghe Maurer. During 1972 President Ceausescu continued to proclaim at home and abroad that the existence of national states was consistent with Marxist internationalism, and that international peace and security had to be based on the observance of every state's right to freedom, independence, and sovereignty. Between March 1 1 and April 6 Ceausescu visited eight African countries beginning with Algeria (to which Romania granted a U.S. $100 million credit for industrial equipment), followed by the Central African Republic, Congo, Zaire, Zambia, and Tanzania, and ending with Sudan and Egypt. Jeno Fock, the Hungarian premier, paid an official visit to Bucharest February 24-26, during which he and Maurer, his Romanian opposite number, signed a 20-year treaty of friendship.

On May

12 a similar

and long-postponed treaty was signed with East Germany. On May 16 Presidents Ceausescu and Tito of Yugoslavia opened the giant hydroelectric dam that the two countries had constructed on the Iron Gate stretch of the Danube. The project, which had cost some $450 million, was started in 1964. On September 27-28 Ceausescu and Maurer visited Bulgaria, and a protocol was signed concerning the joint building of the Cioara-Belene hydroelectric

dam

across the lower

Danube.

To

underline Romania's independence, Ceausescu

military delegation, headed by Gen. Emil May 4 and 7 the Romanian president was host to Prime Minister Golda Meir of Israel. In spite of this maneuvering and sent a

Bodnaras, to China. Between

—

Rice: s£f Agriculture

Roads: see Engineering Projectsi

Transportation

despite the report that Gen. Ion Serb, chief of the Bucharest military garrison, had been shot earlier in the year for passing information on Romanian defense deployments to Moscow Ceausescu was invited by Soviet party leader Leonid I. Brezhnev to the meet-

—

Communist leaders in the Crimea July 31. visit to Belgium in October was second to a Western European country (the first was to France in June 1970). Earlier it had been revealed that, in February, Romania had become the

ing of

Ceausescu's state

his

Rockets: Astronautics;

see

Defense

first

Roman

Catholic

Church: see Religion

Comecon member

to ask to join the

EEC's gen-

secretariat

and shifted

to the less

ister of education.

ROMANIA (1969-70) Primary, pupils 2.886,8SS, teachers 133,842; secondary, pupils 261,749. teachers 13,679; vocational, pupils 366,239, teachers 20.994; teacher training, students 22,494, teachers 171; higher (including 11 universities), students 151.705, teaching staff 13,166. Finance. MoneUry unit: leu, with (Sept. 18, 1972) an official exchange rate of 5.53 lei to U.S. $1 (13.39 lei £1 sterling) and a tourist rate of 16 lei to U.S. £1 sterling). Budget (1970 est.): $1 (38.74 lei revenue 133.342.000,000 lei; expenditure 130.9 billion Education.

=

=

lei.

Foreign Trade. (1970) Imports 11,761,000,000 lei; 11,105,000,000 lei. Import sources: U.S.S.R.

exports

26%; West Germany 8%; Czechoslovakia 8%; East Germany 6%; France 6%; U.K. 5%; Italy 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 29%; West Germany 9%; Czechoslovakia 7%; Italy 6%; East Germany 6%. Main exports: machinery 2i%; foodstuffs 12%; raw materials (minerals, metals, etc.) 13%; petroleum products 7%; chemicals 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1970) 75,879 km. Motor vehicles in use: passenger (1969) c. 35,000; commercial (1970) 45,100. Railways: (1970) 11,012 km.; traffic (1971) 18.800.000,000 passeiigerkm., freight 50,830,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1971): 357.5 million passenger-km.; freight 6.266.000 net ton-km. Inland waterways in regular use (l970) 1,673 km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 71; gross tonnage 363,996. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 639,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1970) 3,075,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1970) 1,484,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): wheal 5.585 (3.351); barley 665 (513); oats c. ISO (117); corn c. 7,762 (6,536); potatoes c. 3,000 (2,036); onions (1970) 223, (1969) 208; tomatoes (1970) 720, (1969) 676; sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 499, (1970-71) 374; sunflower seed c. 900 (770); dry beans c. US (73); soybeans c. 180 (91); dry peas c. 142 (155); plums (1970) 697. (1969) 962; apples c. 260 (176); wine c. 700 (c. 476); tobacco c. 30 (22); linseed c. 35 (42); hemp fibre c. 20 (c. 14). Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1971): cattle 5.215: sheep 13,818; pigs 6,359; horses c. 665; poultry 54,333. 100): (1963 Industry. Index of production (1970) 229; (1969) 201. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1971): coal 6,793; lignite 13.808; coke (1970) 1,070; crude oil 13,794; natural gas (cu.m.) 26,487; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 536,000; electricity (kw-hr.) 38.321.000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): cement 8.523: iron ore (30-35% metal content) 3.467; pig iron 4.382; crude steel 6,802; sulfuric acid 1,048; nitrogenous fertilizers (nitrogen content; 1970) 647; cotton yarn 121; cotton fabrics (sq.m.) 481,000; wool yarn 38; woolen fabrics (sq.m.) 70.000; newsprint Si; other paper (1970) 462; passenger cars

=

(units)

France opposed on the ground that Romania was not a less developed coun-

dwelling units completed (1970)

—

a

request

that

important post

was appointed minThere were reasons for believing that he had become an impediment to the improvement of Romanian relations with the U.S.S.R. and Hungary. On October 18 Corneliu Manescu, foreign minister since March 1961, was replaced by his deputy, George Macovescu. It was believed that Manescu had been dismissed as a result of pressure from Moscow. (K. M. SMOGORZEWSKi)

of deputy premier; in October he

eralized trade preference system for less developed

countries

20

manian requests were delivered by Corneliu Bogdan, the Romanian ambassador to the U.S., to Pierre-Paul Schweitzer, managing director of the IMF, and World Bank Pres. Robert McNamara. Romania signed the "instrument of acceptance" to the IMF in a ceremony in Washington on December 16.

man

on the Balkan Peninsula in southis bordered by the U.S.S.R., the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. Area: 91,700 sq.mi. (237,500 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 socialist republic

eastern Europe,

est.)

On September

Romania became the first member of Comecon to apply for membership in both the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The formal Ro-

In April Paul Niculescu-Mizil, a member of the party Presidium, was dropped from the party's seven-

Romania A

try in the usual sense of the term.

9.1;

commercial

vehicles

(units)

159.000.

38.

New

Rowing East Germany claimed the principal honours in the 1972 Olympic Games rowing competition with medals finishing with three golds, a silver, and in every race

—

The U.S.S.R. qualified for six finals and won two of them. Other Eastern European medalists were Czechoslovakia with a silver and a bronze from four finals and Romania with a bronze after three finals. West Germany appeared in five finals and colthree bronzes.

and a bronze. New Zealand reached three and distinguished itself with a gold and a silver. was the United States, which

lected a gold finals

A

third triple finalist

earned a silver in the eights.

The finest performance by East Germany was the triumph of Etuf Essen, the 1968 Olympic gold medalcoxless fours, in retaining their

ists in

title.

They

suc-

New Zealand down in the last 50 m. win by 1.37 sec, after trailing by more than a length 500 m, from the finish. The famed "Bulls of Konstanz" won the coxed fours for West Germany after leading comfortably from the halfway mark. In single sculls victory went to the 25-year-old Soviet student Yuri Malishev. The favourite, Alberto Demiddi ceeded in rowing to

(Arg.

tried in vain to unsettle

),

47 strokes in the

him by

starting with

minute, but Malishev. with a

first

more economical and effective rate of 34, had the measure of Demiddi from start to finish and lowered the 1928 record by 0.48 sec. The U.S.S.R. also won the double sculls from Norway. Both classes of pairs were won easily by East Ger-

many

to

complete their gold-medal hat event

coxless

Brietzke and

Olympic

19-year-old

the

fruits

trick.

winners,

In the

Siegfried

Wolfgang Mager, produced the first from a nationwide recruiting campaign

rowers launched

New

Zealand led the field in the eights final by a length after 750 m. Soviet oarswomen won three events and also collected a silver medal in the Women's European championships held in Brandenburg, E.Ger. The Netherlands, with a gold, silver, and bronze medal, finally broke the Eastern European domination of the meet with Romania also earning distinction by collecting a gold and a silver. The performance of the Dutch girls was the best by a Western European country since the championships were founded in 1954. France for

in

1968.

also did well with a silver and a bronze.

women

The Soviet

took the eights, double sculls, and coxed fours;

Romania triumphed

in

quadruple

Netherlands, in single sculls,

won

sculls;

and the

a European

title

for the first time.

Although East Germany was not in the forefront at Brandenburg, its athletes won three gold and two silver medals in the world youth rowing championships in

Milan,

Italy.

Czechoslovakia,

the

Netherlands,

West Germany, and the U.S.S.R. were the other gold medalists. West Germany won four silver medals and one bronze, while the Soviet Union took a silver and three bronze.

In the U.K., eight events at Henley Royal Regatta were won by overseas entries. A. Timoschinin became the first Soviet sculler to win the Diamond and his countrymen from W.M.F. Moscow and Spartak

Moscow triumphed lenge

Catherine's

in the

Poland

cups.

took

Grand and Stewards' the

Silver

Rowing Club became

the

Goblets; first

chalSt.

Canadian

winners of the Prince Philip Cup; Kent School, U.S., celebrated

its

50th season with

its first

success in the

Princess Elizabeth Cup; and Harvard University, in

Thames Cup, became the 154th overseas winner at Henley. In the 118th boat race, Cambridge recorded its 66th victory over Oxford, by 94 lengths. retaining the

(KEITH OSBORNE)

Rubber World production of natural rubber in 1971 was estimated at 3,002,000 metric tons, an increase of 105,000 metric tons over 1970. Production for the

first

six

months of 1972 was estimated at 1,432,500 metric tons, up 31,500 metric tons from the corresponding

The management committee of the Rubber Study Group (TRSG), meeting London in June 1972, estimated world production new rubber as follows natural rubber supplies, in-

period in 1971. International in

of

:

cluding delivery from governmental surplus stocks,

3,180,000 metric tons;

synthetic rubber, 5,420,000 metric tons. It was estimated that some 3,180,000 metric tons of natural rubber and 5,270,000 metric

tons of synthetic rubber would be consumed (i.e., turned into manufactured products) in 1972. (Estimates for synthetic rubber production do not include the U.S.S.R., non-IRSG countries in Eastern Europe, or China.)

The New York spot

price for no.

1

smoked

sheet

rubber was 18J cents per pound on Oct. 1, 1972, compared with 18 cents a year earlier. The price structure of natural rubber remained about the same as in 1971, with little spread between no. 1 ribbed smoked sheets and the lower grades. The increased world capacity for production of synthetic polyisoprene seemed to have had little effect on the price of the natural product, although this may have been behind the decline to 16i cents per pound earlier in the year.

The area under cultivation of plantation (natural) rubber was estimated at 5,950,000 ha. (14,700,000 ac). West Malaysian production of natural rubber in 1971 totaled 1,276,331 metric tons, and world output in the

tons

same year was estimated at 3,002,000 metric records. The U.S. remained the largest World consumption of natural rubber (dry basis) in 1971 was estimated at 265,250

—both

single buyer.

latex

The Cambridge boat crew away from Oxford at

Hammersmith Bridge

to win the University

"^' "'"' ^("^J^h.^vel"'' straight year.

604

Rwanda

metric tons. Figures for the consumption of synthetic latices were incomplete, but the U.S. alone consumed 121,217 metric tons (dry basisj of the SBR (styrenebutadiene rubber) type. World production of all types of synthetic rubbers in 1971 (excluding countries not

reporting)

was estimated at 5,136,000 metric tons,

of which the U.S. produced 2,277,024.

Production of all types of reclaimed rubber in 1971 amounted to 291,255 metric tons. Reclaimed rubber production had been decreasing since the early 1960s due to pollution problems inherent in the manufacturing method and changing trends in rubber compounding.

Research expenditure by the U.S. rubber industry was estimated at $295 million for 1972, an increase of 5% over 1971. Tire uniformity and quality were being emphasized by both tire manufacturers and automobile makers. All original equipment tires were being tested by the rubber companies, prior to shipment, for radial and lateral force variation as well as balance. X ray, an old tool, was still widely used for locating defects that could cause failure, but the development of infrared heat-detecting devices had progressed to a point where hot spots in a loaded running tire could be detected easily. The tire then was usually stopped short of failure and dissected to determine the cause of the hot spot.

Radial tires, which accounted for the majority of tires sold in Europe, were being offered as original equipment on a number of U.S. passenger cars. Formerly, they had been produced and sold on the U.S. replacement market. Both all-textile cord-reinforced tires and tires with textile radial plies and one or more steel cord belts were being manufactured. Development of an all-glass radial tire was reported. Meanwhile, rubber was being used in the bumpers under development to meet the U.S. requirement that they withstand a five-mile-per-hour impact with no damage, (j. R. beatty)

Table

Russia:

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

see

Russian sec

Literature: Literature

Sabah: see

Malaysia

1

— ord sailing time trials at Weymouth, Dorset, averaging 26.3 knots; and the Tornado catamaran was

by Great Britain as a new class for the 1976 Olympic Games. As usual, the year began with the Southern Cross Cup Series, culminating in the Sydney-Hobart race. New Zealand, represented by its highly tuned onetonners "Pathfinder," "Runaway," and "Wai-Aniwa," easily won the team series. In addition, "Pathfinder" collected the Sydney-Hobart trophy, and "WaiAniwa" was the top point scorer of the series. Britain's strong team of "Cervantes IV," "Morning Cloud," and "Prospect of Whitby" finished second, with New selected

South Wales' "Pilgrim," "Polaris," and "Ragamuffin" comfortably in third place. Also in Australia, "Quest III," sporting the most sophisticated rig the sailing world had yet seen, trampled all over its U.S. challenger, "Weathercock," to defend the International C Class catamaran challenge trophy (Little America's Cup) successfully for Australia. Bruce Proctor and Graeme Ainslie sailed a superb series; however, top honours should perhaps have gone to Lindsay Cunningham, who invented and engineered the complicated but effective rig, which took an hour and a half to set up each day. During February and March eyes were turned toward the Southern Ocean Racing Conference (SORC) series, based in Florida and the Caribbean, for any new 1972 winning designs. However, it was the much used and very secondhand-looking "Condor," a four-year-old Redline 41 Class D boat sailed by Hill Blackett of Chicago, that firmly put the bluein their places in a series marked by Second was the new aluminum S & S 49 "Aura," the Class B winner, and third the PJ-37 "Elixir," the Class E winner. During the series the overall race winners were: in the Lipton Cup, "Neat Package," Ronald Hume; the Miami-Nassau race, "Charisma," Jesse Phillips; the Nassau Cup race, "Arieto," Buzz Schofield; the Miami-Lucaya race, "Sorcery," James Baldwin; and the St. PetersburgFort Lauderdale race, "Celerity II," William Hough. The classic Newport-Bermuda race was a triumph for Britain's "Noryema," breaking the U.S. domination of this race for the first time. But it must have been a bitter disappointment for owner Ron Amey because of imminent take-over bids for his company in England, he was not aboard to celebrate the victory. First to finish was the new Class A C & C 61 "Robon," owned by Robert Grant, sailing in ahead of the giant Class A boats "Windward Passage," "Blackfin," "Baccara," "Ondine," and "Buccaneer." "Noryema," a Class C boat, won the race on corrected time. The Newport-Bermuda race concluded the Onion Patch series, which was won by the U.S. with Britain the

water experts light winds.

runner-up.

After the Bermuda event a record number of 48 yachts took part in the Discovery race to Bayona,

Winner of a slow race was Richard Nye in his "Carina" in Class B, runner-up being the Class D yacht "Prim" owned by M. Gibbons-Nefi. "Noryema" won Class C and fifth place overall. The half-ton cup series, dominated for the past three years by Peter Norlin in his Scampi for Sweden, was won by Paul Elvstr0m of Denmark in a new creation put together only hours before the first race. This new Elvstr0m half-tonner was clearly a flier in light winds, and though Bruce Banks of Britain put up a fine show in his Scampi he could not match Elvstr0m, Spain. latest

who won four of

the five races.

Some

modification of

Elvstr0m's

lowed

to

lifelines

was required before he was

al-

compete.

The quarter-ton

Sailing series

was once more a triumph for

the French in their stripped-down racing machines, the

winner being Laurent Cordelle's much-modified ficume de Mer, "Petite Fleur"; however, the Swedish Little

Scampi "Genant GT,"

sailed

by Leif Erikson,

finished

second ahead of the 1971 series winner, "Julienas 71," to break the French stranglehold. In the single-handed transatlantic race, Alain Colas triumphed in his trimaran "Pen Duick IV" over the huge 128-ft. Carter-designed prerace favourite monohull "Vendredi 13," sailed by J. Y. Terlain; third was another trimaran, "Cap 33," sailed by J. M. Vidal. The French thus finished first, second, and third. Winner on handicap was Britain's Royal Marine oflacer Mike

McMuUen

his

in

32-ft.

Contessa, "Binkie II." Sir

Francis Chichester also competed but was forced to give

up because of

later (see

health and died several weeks

ill

Obituaries).

For many international yachtsmen the year was a buildup for the Olympic Games in Kiel, W.Ger., in which six classes were involved Finn, Flying Dutch:

and Dragon. Only one class, and in some countries competition for selection was almost harder than the Olympics themselves. In the smallest class, the single-handed Finn, there was a draw for boats, which were supplied by the host nation. The winner, Serge Maury of France, had been sailing a boat similar to the supplied boat for some months and had finished third in competition at Kiel in June. However, Ilias Hatzipaulis of Greece and Victor Potapov of the U.S.S.R. pulled off somewhat of a surprise in the light winds to take the silver and bronze medals.

man, Tempest,

Star, Soling,

boat could represent each country in a

In the Flying

more

Dutchman

class

Rodney

Pattisson once

medal in the yachtsman had won every Flying Dutchman world and European title series raced, and he started out a clear favourite. The battle finished first; since winning a gold

1968 Olympics

this British

brothers from France finally defeating the 1968 silver medalist, Ulli Libor of

West Germany. For much

of

enough to win

;S?e,'i7whi;h'B™u1n's "Noryema" triumphed.

606

San Marino

the Tempest series Britain appeared likely to add a second gold medal to its tally through Allan Warren and David Hunt, but the 1968 Finn-class gold medalist, Valentin Mankin of the U.S.S.R., thought other-

wise and came back strongly to snatch the gold from the British pair

by

finishing third in the final race.

Glen Foster, the pre-series favourite, took the bronze for the U.S. Star-class winner David Forbes of Australia sailed remarkable series; after a poor season he borrowed new European-built boat from Sweden's Pelle Petterson only two weeks before the Olympics and proceeded to finish ahead of Petterson. leaving reigning

a

a

world champion Willi Kuhweide of West Germany to take the bronze medal. The big surprise in this class was the poor showing of the U.S. entry. The Soling class was completely dominated by Bud Melges of the U.S., with Stig Wennerstrom of Sweden an easy

David Miller of Canada finally won the scramble for the bronze. Most of the Dragon-class competitors never seemed to recover from the shock of seeing John Cuneo of Australia walk away with the

silver medalist;

three races

first

and

sew the

so virtually

before the others had realized

had

series

up

A monarchy

occupying fourArabian Peninsula, Saudi Arabia has an area of 865,000 sq.mi. (2,240,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 7,965,000. Cap. and largest city: Riyadh (pop., 1965 est., 225.000). Language: ,\rabic. Religion: Muslim. King and prime minister, Faisal ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd ar-Rahman .\1 Sa'ud. fifths

of

the

In 1972 King Faisal, as leader of the conservative forces in the ,\rab world, pursued a fairly unobtrusive

diplomacy except in South Arabia, where he actively supported the Northern Yemenis (Yemen [San'a']) and Southern Yemeni exiles against the Marxist regime in Yemen (Aden). In his pubhc statements the king attacked both Zionism and Communism with great vehemence; at one press conference he blamed the Jews for most of the ills in the world. On February 29 the third conference of Islamic foreign ministers in Jedda with 31 Muslim countries repreThe king provided funds for the establishment

started. Pre-series

opened

favourite and European champion Paul Borowski of

sented.

East Germany managed with a late run to take the silver medal ahead of Don Cohan of the U.S. (ADRIAN JARDINE)

of

it

^

Saudi Arabia

an international Islamic news agency based in On March 8 Pres. Anwar as-Sadat of Egypt

Jedda.

visited Faisal in

Jedda for

talks

on strengthening the

and gave details of his recent discussions Moscow. Saudi Arabia declared itself ready to continue its joint efforts with Egypt to mediate between the Jordanian government and the Palestinian guerrillas. In contrast to Libya and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

.\rab front in

San Marino A

small republic, San Marino

is an enclave in northSW of Rimini. Area: 25 sq.mi. (1972 est.): 20,000. Cap.: San Marino (metro, pop., 1971 est., 4,400). Language:

eastern Italy, 14 mi. (61

sq.km.). Pop.

Italian.

Religion:

Roman

Catholic.

San Marino

is

The country governed by two capitani reggenti, or coregents, appointed every six months by a Grand and General Council. Executive power rests with two secretaries united with Italy by a customs union.

continued

to

provide financial

was the only major Arab

aid

to

Jordan and good re-

state to maintain

lations with that country, although

it

did not publi-

cize this.

Like other Middle East oil-producing states, Saudi

is

of state: foreign fairs.

St. Lucia: see Dependent

States

Salvador, El: Salvador

and

political affairs

In 1972 the positions were

and

filled,

internal af-

respectively,

by Giancarlo Ghironzi and Gian Luigi Berti. Late in 1971 Federico Bigi announced his intention to resign as secretary of state for foreign and political affairs, a post he had held for nearly IS years. He was recognized as the major figure in San Marino's government and in the dominant Christian Democratic Party. Giancarlo Ghironzi, a physician and secretary of state for the treasury, was nominated on Jan. 10, 1972, to succeed Bigi but failed by one vote to obtain the necessary majority on the first ballot. He was elected, however, on January 17. No change in foreign policy was anticipated. In internal affairs San Marino was struggling with increased expenditures and stable revenues. Ghironzi, a liberal, might introduce more progressive measures, but his difficulty in being elected might indicate a period of instability within the government. (ROBERT D. Hodgson)

see El

Salvation Army: see Religion

Samoa: Dependent States; Western Samoa

see

Sarawak: see Malaysia Satellites, Space: see Astronautics

SAN M.\RINO Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 1.580. teachers 89; secondary, pupils 843. teachers 62. Finance. Monetary unit: Italian lira, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of S81.S0 lire to U.S. $1 (free £1 sterling). Budget (1970-71 rate of 1,423 lire est.) balanced at 6,475,000,000 lire. Tourism (1970) c. 3 million visitors.

=

SAUDI ARABIA Primary, pupils 397,153, Education. (1969-70) teachers (including preprimary) 17,245; secondary, pupils 67.817, teachers (public only) 3.820; vocational, pupils 1,777. teachers 341; teacher training, students 9,875, teachers 570; higher, students 6.942, teaching staff 573. Finance. Monetary unit: riyal. with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of 4.14 riyals to U.S. $1 (free rate £\ sterling). Gold. SDKs, and forof 10,06 riyals eign exchange, official: (June 1972) U.S. $1,915,000,000: (June 1971) U.S. $912 million. Budget (197273 est.) balanced at 13.2 billion riyals. Money supply: (Jan. 1972) 2,846.000,000 riyals; (Jan. 1971) 2,307.-

=

000.000 rivals. Foreign Trade. (1970) Imports 3,974.000,000 riyals; exports 10,906,000.000 riyals. Import sources: U.S. 14%; Lebanon 9%; Japan 8%; West Germany 8%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: Japan 21%; Italy 11%: Netherlands 9%; U.K. 8%; France 6%; Bahrain 5%. Main exports: crude oil 78%; petroleum products

16%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1971) c. 22.000 km. (including 13,120 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger 47,800; commercial 34,700. Railways (1970) 606 km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 33; gross tonnage 45,492. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 44.000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 85,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) c. 50,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): wheat c. 150 (c. 150); barley c. 35 (c. 34); millet c. 16 (c. 16); sorghum c. 52 (c. 52); dates c. 110 (c. 220). Livestock (in 000; 197071): cattle c. 320; sheep c. 3,300; goats c. 2,050; camels c. 560: asses c. 135. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): cement 675: crude oil (1971) 223,412; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 770,000.

20%

Arabia was seeking

participation in the opera-

and management of foreign oil companies. On February 1 tall4'pM«L..x^idbmite

S

Henri Duvillard (France) and Ed(Switz.) finished overall second and The men's issue was not settled race, but Miss Proell's success was

in the downhill.

mund Bruggmann

third, respectively.

until

the final

ensured a month earlier at Banff, Alta., when she gained an unassailable lead with seven races still to go. The runner-up, Frangoise Macchi of France, had been a serious rival until she badly injured a knee during

Olympic training

at

Sapporo. Another French

Britt Lafforgue, finished third

girl,

and was top scorer

in

the slalom. Miss Proell having led comfortably in the giant slalom

and downhill. With an equal number

races counting in

vided a

fair test

Nations'

all

three events, the contests pro-

of all-around abiHty. France

awarded

Cup,

for

more winter sports centres, realizing a greater following both as a recreation and as a racing sport. General public interest in skiing was intensified by the wider publicity given to World Cup and Olympic at

of the

8,500

competitors are an incredible sight at the start of the 49th Vasa race in Sweden.

The

race,

which follows the route taken by King Gustavus Vasa of Sweden in his flight from the Danes in 1519, was won by Swedish skier Lars-Arne Boiling.

The

International Ski Federation (FIS) and the

International Olympic

Committee (IOC) never com-

pletely resolved their differences concerning eligibility

and amateur

status.

The last-minute Olympic

exclu-

sion of the Austrian Alpine racer Karl Schranz

by a

28-14 vote of IOC members proved an act of brinkmanship threatening to disrupt all championship competition.

A

request from the

FIS

to

study the

IOC

evidence was rejected, and, although the FIS made it clear that Schranz was still eligible for subsequent events under

its

jurisdiction, the Austrian

champion

titles in both Alpine and Nordic disciplines were decided concurrently with those of the Winter Olympic Games. {See Sporting

Record: Special Report.) Alpine Racing. The prestige of the annual World Alpine Ski

Cup

came m(5re

significant than the

competition, in

its

sixth season, be-

22nd Alpine World Ski

Championships, the reason being that the latter depended on the outcome of one meeting, and the final

World Cup

results reflected

much

longer consistency

who were Gustavo Thoeni of Italy and Annemarie Proell of Austria won the men's and women's overall world championship titles, and both also retained their World Cup honours won in 1971. In the world championship Alpine combination results, Thoeni's runner-up was Walter Tresch of Switzerland, with the Canadian Jim Hunter third. Miss Proell owed her success to the fact that Marie-Therese Nadig, the Swiss schoolgirl who won both the downhill and giant slalom, did not finish in the slalom and thus failed to qualify. Florence Steurer of France placed second, followed by the Norwegian Thorild of form. In any case, no one could dispute

the outstanding Alpine racers of the year:

the

World Cup calendar. was scored by women

the U.S.

Norway won the Lange Cup, the major professional Alpine event, at Vail,

Lasse Harare of season's

March 31-April

but the U.S. racer

2,

Spider Sabich was again the season's most successful professional, netting a record $50,650 in prize money in nine meetings.

place

in

.Ml professional competition took

North America,

since

efforts

to

promote

events elsewhere had not succeeded. Nordic Events. Cross-country skiing, traditionally a

Scandinavian recreation, attracted increased par-

ticipation during the year.

More

cross-country courses

were provided for holiday skiers

in Switzerland

and

the U.S., with special cross-country ski packs more

more by FIS

readily available. Expansion of the

sport of ski jumping was stressed

decided to retire. The world championship

won

aggregate

Two-thirds of the French total racers. Austria finished second and Switzerland third. The second annual Canadian-American Ski Trophy Alpine competition, spread over 12 sites with rules similar to those of the World Cup, resulted in victories for Don Rowles and Cheryl Bechdolt, both of

Colo., held

events.

highest

the

points from the 42 races on the

Some

of

of 138 jumping

hills in

specialized

recognition

18 countries as suitably sanc-

tioned for competitions.

The 29th world championships

in

Nordic events

(cross-country and jumping) were determined concurrently with the Olympic results at Sapporo, and the

widening appeal of ski jumping throughout the world was further underlined by the first Japanese and Polish victories. Switzerland was the only country whose skiers at Sapporo won world championship medals in jumping and cross-country events as well as in both men's and women's Alpine races, a unique demonstration of national versatility. The next world champion-

were allocated to Falun, Swed., for the Nordic events and St. Moritz, Switz., for the Alpine ships, in 1974,

races.

The first world championship in ski flying, a technique differing from conventional ski jumping by emphasis on distance rather than style, was held on a hill at Planica, Yugos., on March 24-26. Walter Steiner of Switzerland made jumps of 508 ft. and 518 ft. for a comfortable victory over the East German Heinz Wossipivo, with Jiri Raska of Czecho-

giant 120-m.

slovakia finishing third.

(Howard

bass)

Foerland.

The World Cup races, maintaining continuity of four-month series, were based on each racer's highest score in 15 of 42 selected top international events, 21 each for men and women, at nine European and three North American sites, ending at Pra-Loup, France, on March 19. Thoeni led in the slalom and giant slalom to offset his relative weakness interest throughout a

Social Services With

at least

operating in

some form

of social security scheme

but the least developed countries, the tendency in 1972 was to make existing plans more advantageous to the recipients. Continual increases in the cost of living posed a special problem, and all

there

was a growing trend, except in the U.K., to meet by an escalating process rather than by the enactment of new legislation from year to year. The International Labour Conference called on the International Labour Office to intensify its efforts to extend

was usually

it

family. Public relief could be provided

social security protection, especially to vulnerable groups such as rural and migrant workers. Total costs necessarily increased. In Canada, for example, ex-

administered

government on health and from $3,898,500 in the year ended March 31, 1963, to an estimated $8,547,500 in the

penditure by

all

levels of

social welfare rose

March 31, 1970. The 16th International Conference on

year ended

Social Wel"Developing Social Policy in Conditions Rapid Change," was held at The Hague, Neth. Nearly 3,000 representatives from all parts of the

fare, entitled

of

world attended. Regional reports prepared for the conference showed that interest in social planning was increasing throughout Europe, but that there was

sufficient to

support the striker and his

by the

local

and might be repayable. In the Netherlands and Belgium there was no legal

authorities as a last resort

provision removing strikers from eligibility for locally relief,

but in practice the granting of

was not encouraged. In France and Italy the brevity of most strikes meant that there was usually no question of strikers being subsidized from public funds. Where this was necessary, France generally restricted relief to a continuation of family and lodging allowances. The Supplementary Benefits Commission took special action to eliminate possible abuses caused by persons who were working while drawing supplementary assistance to strikers

benefit, undisclosed cohabitation, fictitious desertion,

or false statements by a wife that her husband had

United Kingdom. British national insurance penwere payable anywhere in the world, but inawarded after a pensioner had left the U.K. or after a person living abroad had qualified were paid only where there was a reciprocal

Some 9,000 such cases were investigated durmonths ended March 31, 1972. Of these, about 25% in Scotland and about 45% in England and Wales involved fraud. The resultant gross saving totaled more than £2 million in 1971, of which about £887,000 related to cohabitation abuses. On average, the number of benefits and allowances (including supplementary benefits) being paid in any one week was about 17 million. At the end of 1971

agreement with the other country or territory

retirement pensions (including old-age pensions)

no adequate data base for most decision-making in social policy areas.

sions

creases in pensions

in-

volved. Reciprocal agreements covering payment of pension increases had been negotiated with Austria,

Belgium, Bermuda, Cyprus, France, West Germany,

Guernsey, the Isle of Man, Ireland, Israel, Italy, JerLuxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Northern

sey,

Ireland,

Switzerland, Turkey, the U.S., and Yugo-

Negotiations with Japan were in progress. The National Insurance Act, 1972, established the first annual upgrading of retirement pensions and

slavia.

other benefits, a matter previously dealt with at

ir-

The

act

regular intervals, usually of about two years.

provided for increases in flat-rate benefits, and supplementary benefits (for which the only qualification was needl were raised by regulations of the Supplementary Benefits Commission. The standard rate for a single person was increased by 12^%, from 16 to ib.lS. The benefit paid to a wife or adult dependent and to a married woman on her husband's also

insurance was increased from £3.70 to £4.15, so that the benefit for a married couple rose

from £9.70

to

£10.90. Pensioners over 80 continued to receive the

25 pence age addition.

The

rates of benefit for de-

pendent children, supplementary benefits, and attendance allowances were increased proportionately. The old persons' pension, payable to those who were too old to enter the national insurance scheme in 1948

who had reached the age of 80 and for some reason did not qualify for retirement pensions, was also raised by 12i%, from £3.60 to £4.05 a week. In the six months since the last increase, in September 1971, the general retail price index had risen by 2.8% and the special index for pensioners by 3.8%. The government believed that the 12^% increase in pension rates and benefits, which became payable in October, would be sufficient to meet further price rises. Contribution rates were raised to cover the cost of the or to people

increased benefits, but the 7.5 million people earning

than £18 a week were not affected. There was criticism in the House of Commons over

less

the policy of granting supplementary allowances to the families of fit

men on

was payable

themselves. In

strike.

In Great Britain bene-

to families but not to

the strikers

West Germany and Sweden

strike

pay

613

Social Services

left her.

ing the six

num-

bered 7,647,000 (1970, 7,525,000) and supplementary benefits nearly 3 million, slightly more than in 1970. There were about 25 million persons within the scope of the contribution provisions of the national insur-

ance scheme, of whom nearly 15 million were employed men and over 8 million were employed women. Of these, about 4.75 million men and more than one million women who were either self-employed or nonemployed paid graduated contributions at reduced rates. Of those receiving supplementary pensions and allowances, 66% were old people. Of supplementary pensioners without retirement pensions, received benefits for

more than

67.8% had So had

five years.

50.6% of sick persons below pension age who were not eligible for national insurance benefit; such persons were not required to register for employment. Of supplementary benefits being paid, 14.6% included

an exceptional circumstances addition ranging from a few pence to £3 or more.

Part of the reason elderly Italian Americans

86-year-old Mrs. Maria Ferrara get

like

little

public help

is

their reluctance, out of their

own sense

of pride, to accept "charity." Picture

was taken in her small apartment during visit from the Rev. Silvano Tomasi of the Center for Migration Studies

on Staten Island in New York. Jewish and Italian poor have been ignored by New York's antipoverty program, it was charged.

614

Social Services

With the agreement of the Department of Employment, arrangements were made for certain unemployed claimants over 55 (50 for women), who were required to register for work, to report to the employment exchange quarterly instead of weekly, and to receive their supplementary benefit by order book instead of by weekly payments from the exchange.

(JOHN MOSS) United States. On benefits (Federal

Sept.

1,

1972, Social Security

Old Age, Survivors, and Disability

Insurance) rose 20% across the board, as a result of legislation passed in June. This meant an increase of $336 a year for the average retired worker and $564 for the average retired couple. The same bill provided for automatic increases in Social Security benefits whenever the cost of living rose more than

3%

in a

Just

calendar year, beginning with 1975. before it adjourned in October, Congress

passed a $5.4 billion Social Security

and welfare

bill

that contained 144 additional changes in Social Security,

welfare, and health

benefits.

Conspicuously

missing from the measure, however, was the major overhaul of the welfare system that Pres. Richard

Old aga.

Nixon had called "White House Priority Number One" in 1971. The main provisions of the law included the following: benefits for 3.8 million widows and dependent widowers would rise from 82.5% of the amount received by the deceased spouse to 100%, starting Jan. 1, 1973. As of the same date, a Social Security retiree under 72 would be allowed to earn $2,100 a year instead of $1,680 and still receive full pension benefits; benefits would be reduced $1 for each S2 earned over $2,100. Every person who had worked in a job covered by Social Security for at least 30 years would receive minimum benefits of $170 a month (or $255 for a couple ), an increase from $84.50 effective Jan. 1, 1973. Starting Jan.

would be increased

1,

1%

1974, Social Security benefits for each year a person delayed

his retirement after age 63.

Starting July

I,

1973,

Medicare would be offered to about 1.7 million disabled Social Security beneficiaries, regardless of age, after they to

had been on

disability for 24

months, and

10,000 persons suffering from chronic kidney

ease. roll

dis-

Medicare beneficiaries would be allowed to enin a health maintenance organization providing

comprehensive prepaid health care, and the government would pay the premium if the plans provided federally approved services. Chiropractor care would be included under Medicare. The federal-state pro-

gram of aid

to the aged, blind,

and disabled would

be replaced on Jan. 1, 1974, with a new program financed and administered entirely by the federal gov-

minimum of $130 a month for aged, blind, and disabled individuals who had no outside income ($195 a month for couples). The annual expenditure for Social Security was exernment. It would guarantee a

pected to increase from $43.2 billion in 1972 to $59 billion in 1975.

To meet

the cost. Congress also raised

The maximum tax in 1973 would be $631.80 each for employees and employers, based on payroll taxes.

5.85% on the first $10,800 of salary. In 1974 it would go up to $702, based on 5.85% on the first $12,000. In 1972 the rate was 5.2% on the first $9,000, or a maximum of $468 each for employees and a rate of

employers.

of the 1967

amendments to the Social Security law money for each $1 that states

authorizing $3 of federal

and

governments spent on such services as child care and family planning and counseling. State requests for funds had leaped from $370 million in fiscal 1969 to nearly $5 billion in fiscal 1972. The Older Americans Act of 1965 was amended to local

provide grants to the states to establish nutrition pro-

grams for low-income elderly. However, President Nixon vetoed another set of amendments to the 1965 Act authorizing $2.2 billion over three years for a variety of social service programs and a measure that would have established a National Institute on Aging. The Supreme Court upheld a Texas law that paid families with dependent children 75% of their estimated need while giving aged and disabled welfare

Abraham A.

administration plan, a second, led by Sen. Ribicoff (Dem., Conn.), favoured a

more

liberal pro-

recipients 95 to

100%. In another

decision, the court

much

gram, while a third supported a more conservative bill containing a "workfare" provision. None of the ap-

declared that an illegitimate child has as

proaches could muster a majority. Meanwhile, welfare rolls continued to grow. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) reported that 15,057,000 persons were receiving public assistance payments on June 30, 1972, representing an increase of 719,000 or 5% over the previous year. Expenditures for money payments and medical assistance under federally aided programs were up 17.4% to $18,242,169,053. However, both percentage rises were lower than those recorded a year earlier. In June 1972, 10,919,000 persons, including 7,889,000 children, received money payments under

does a legitimate child. California began a test of

AFDC. The number

of recipients in the other welfare

categories were: old-age assistance 2,025,000; aid to

permanently and totally disabled 1,136,000; blind 81,000; and general assistance (no federal funds) 896,000. According to a government-sponsored study cited by Senator Ribicoff, less than 1% of persons on welfare were able-bodied, unemployed adult males. The administration announced in December that, effective Jan. 1, 1973, states whose welfare management systems were judged inadequate would be pethe

nalized

by

losing

some

to the states in fiscal

million, or

8.3%

of their federal funds.

fiscal 1974.

The

extension provided

j

handicapped children were

of the enrollment

to receive at least

opportunities in the

Head

his

right

father as its

controversial "work-or-else" welfare program, under

which able-bodied welfare recipients who could not be placed in permanent jobs or job training had to work for a government or nonprofit agency for up to 80 hours a month to be eligible for aid. A similar program in New York was halted by a court restraining order. The National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws, set up by Congress, issued a report calling for massive reforms. It said that, in most states, most payments by employers and insurance plans for work-related injuries, disabilities, and deaths were insufficient and unfairly distributed. The report did not suggest a federal take-over of the program, but urged states to move quickly to broaden coverage, liberalize benefits, and improve medical and rehabilita(david m. mazie) tion service. Canada. Under the Canada Pension Plan, the maxi-

mum ment

pensionable earnings used to calculate retireBy 1971

benefit were originally $5,000 a year.

tributors' pensionable earnings, averaged since Janu-

two-year extension of the Office of Economic Op(OEO) antipoverty programs was authorized, with funding at $2,360,000,000 in fiscal 1973 and that

by

10%

AFDC.

A

$2,390,000,000 in

Social Security benefits earned

Start

loss

1974 was expected to be $465

of the federal share of

to

had risen to $5,400, and during 1972-75 it would be adjusted in line with changes in the pension index, which was based on the consumer price index. Beginning in 1976 it would also be adjusted to reflect changes in average wage and salary levels. From 1970, retirement pensions became payable to contributors who were 65 years of age or over provided that, if under 70, they had retired from regular employment. They would become payable at the full rate from January 1976. This would be 25% of con-

The

portunity

!

after several states discovered an obscure provision

While making these important changes, Congress

pendent Children (AFDC). In 1971 the House had passed a reform measure that included President Nixon's Family Assistance Plan, guaranteeing an annual payment of $2,400 for a family of four with no outside income. In the Senate one faction backed the

i

to

could not reach agreement on reforming the basic

family welfare program. Aid to Families with De-

i

more than 900,000 retired railroad workers match the boost in Social Security benefits. Child nutrition programs were expanded and strengthened. The basic federal reimbursement rate was increased from 6 to 8 cents for every school lunch served, and more liberal eligibility guidelines were set, under which all children below the federal poverty level would receive free lunches. The nonschool food program and school breakfast program were extended for three years. Congress imposed a $2.5 billion annual ceiling on matching grants to states for social services under a public-assistance program. The action was taken

sions for

program for preschoolers and that children from families with annual incomes under $4,320 could take part in Head Start at no charge. Despite some opposition, the legal services program would be kept within OEO. Another provision established consumer action and education programs for low-income persons.

Congress overrode a presidential veto to raise pen-

this figure

ary 1966 or from age 18, whichever was The Federal Medical Care Insurance

later.

Programme

(Medicare), under which costs were shared by the federal government and the provinces, was extended to include all the provinces. Originally the Medical Care Insurance Commission had paid for approved services

on the

basis of

85%

of the fees listed in the

615

Social Services

physicians' fee schedule. This

most

for

office

and home

was changed

to

100%

visits.

The old-age security pension and the Guaranteed Income Supplement programs were amended to provide that the fiat-rate pension of $S0 per month, established in 1971, should be increased as of January 1972 to reflect the full increase in the consumer price

In 1972 sociology entered a state of heightened selfFrom the onset of the discipline, so-

consciousness. ciologists

had taught that man is a product fundamental proposition was what

of his

old-age pension thus became $82.88, and beginning in 1973 it would be increased from April 1 of each year. The provision for full escalation equivalent to the increase in the consumer price index also applied to the guaranteed income supplement. In 1972 the maximum monthly amount guaranteed became $66.12 to a single pensioner and $59.62 to each spouse for married couples who were both

culture. This

pensioners.

decade in which sociologists discovered that they, too, were products of the culture in which they laboured. From the outside this might seem trivial and

The monthly

index.

Oceania. The August 1972 Australian budget provided for increases in pensions. If the necessary legislation was passed, pensions for single people and widows would increase by about 10%. A promise was given that, within three years, pensioners earning

would be pension without any means test.

an income above full

In

New

cash

their pensions

Zealand

benefits,

total

eligible for

supplementary

assistance,

distin-

guished a sociological from a psychological interpretation of human behaviour. Yet an examination of the epistemologies of sociology

left

the distinct impres-

saw their discipline as one in which "objective detachment" freed the social scientist from the encapsulating influence of his own culture. It now appeared that the 1970s would be the sion that sociologists

esoteric, but the internal navel-gazing of sociologists

appeared pline

to be the biggest

since

the

initiation

development in the disciof government research

grants.

The

expenditure on social security

including

critical

reassessment of the sociological enterin paperback

was stimulated by the publication

prise

of two notable works, both of which were substan-

W.

increased from NZ$288,030,742 for the year ended March 31, 1971, to NZ$327,053,217 in the year ended

tially intelligible to the

March 31, 1972; 58% of cash benefits were paid without a means test. The Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of

with polemics against the sociological establishment. Robert W. Friedrichs' A Sociology of Sociology, which

Education were amalgamated to form a new Department of Social Welfare. The Royal Commission on

September 1969, made 110 recommendations in its report, 81 of which afpensions. Although the and fected payment of benefits recommendations did not represent a major recon-

Social Security, appointed in

struction of the social security system, they did include proposed changes to ensure that the scheme Mrs. Florence Bushby, 96 years old and an original member of the Orpington Nurses and Citizens Association, cheerfully pickets in favour of a new hospital for Orpington, which is in Kent, Eng.

Sociology

adequately met the needs of present-day society. Other Countries. In Austria the contribution basis for pensions generally was raised. Widows' pensions

were increased by

10%

band's entitlement, but stantial

income

it

to

60%

if

the

of the deceased hus-

widow had other

was reduced by

one-sixth.

sub-

In

Czechoslovakia the rates of allowances and pensions were raised. A national social security plan for old It included the estab-

people was introduced in Spain.

accommo-

lishment of pensioners' clubs, residential dation and geriatric centres, and provision of vaca-

and home help

tions

groups. In

in

cooperation with private

Turkey a new scheme was introduced covand survivors' insurance and

ering old-age, disability,

providing benefits for self-employed persons other than farmers.

Contribution and benefit levels were raised in Mexand coverage was extended to a larger number of independent farmers. In Japan a flat-rate social security scheme for dependent children was established. Unlike other social security schemes in Japan, this one covered all persons irrespective of their employment, but only where there were three or more dependent children under 18. A new pension plan was ico,

introduced for farmers. In Algeria a

new

social se-

The Coming

Crisis of

layman. Alvin

Gouldner's

Western Sociology was imbued

won the American Sociological Association's Sorokin Award in 1971, read as a more sober and detached Yet the two authors were in substantial agreement on a number of points: the functionalism of Talcott Parsons, which had dominated the discipline, was under heavy attack, and several new theoretical models were struggling for acceptance; the value-free posture of neutrality in sociology must be analysis.

critically

reexamined.

The source of the trauma lay in the upheavals of the 1960s. Never before had sociologists been called upon with greater frequency to interpret and propose remedies for so many social ills. But like politicians, government bureaucrats, and university administrators, sociologists had been taken by surprise by most of the significant developments of the decade. If some

were embittered because their prescriphad not been followed, others viewed this as a species of benign neglect, for they were less certain than they had been a decade earlier that they possessed any magic potions. The "new breed" of sociologists that had emerged amid the turmoil were bound together by the belief that sociology was neither liberal nor reform minded. Sociologists had sold their wares to the highest bidder, and their knowledge, far from being used for human betterment, had been used to manipulate those who

sociologists

tions

challenged the status quo. Further, sociologists could not even envisage social change because their very

consciousness had been molded by reactionary theories.

Some argued for the abandonment of "objectivity," contending that, since sociological knowledge is ultimately political rhetoric, the goal was to develop a

curity

scheme for agricultural workers and their famicovered sickness, maternity, family allowances,

political rhetoric for the oppressed. Others, less radi-

lies

cal,

and death. Pension increases were approved for collective farm and state enterprise workers in the Soviet Union. (john moss)

conscious about their underlying presuppositions and more politically astute about the potential uses and

invalidity, old age,

Education; Housing; Insurance; Race Relations; Refugees; Taxation, See

also

Medicine;

argued that sociologists must become more

self-

misuses of their knowledge. Many other disciplines were experiencing the same restlessness, paralleling the convulsions within society.

The

significance of the

!

turmoil within sociology, however, seemed to be the increasing application of sociological knowledge to the discipline itself

To

—

in a sense, the sociology of sociology.

growing number of sociologists, there was hope would lead to the attainment of deeper in-

a

Somalia in 1972 continued its three-year developplan, which had been published in 1971. Projects

ment

about society. In at least one area, the discipline was taking some long-overdue practical steps. At the 1972 annual meet-

of the plan included road building, irrigation works,

ASA, held in New Orleans, La., in late August, William J. Goode of Columbia University relinquished the presidency to Mirra Komarovsky, ing of the

Columbia, and women were represented on the new governing council in greater proportion than ever before. Even so, representatives of the ASA's Committee on the Status of Women in the Profession and also of

of Sociologists for

women that

still

even

Women

in Society pointed out that

constituted a minority on the council, and

this

advancement had not been matched in most major universities. (JEFFREY K. HADDEN)

the sociology faculties of

See also Psychology; Social Services.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Operation Bootstrap (1968): Herilase in Black (1969); The House of Man, Part Our Crowded Environment (1969); Manuel Irom Puerto il Rico (1969); Chicano Irom the Southwest (1970); Linda and Billy Ray from Appalachia (1970) Jesse from Mississippi (1971); Johnny from Fort Apache (1971); Irish Boy: The Story ol Sean (1972).

—

;

Somalia A

South Africa

Barrah.

that this sights

617

nantly Muslim. President of the Supreme Revolutionary Council in 1972, Maj. Gen. Muhammad Siyad

and the construction of a new airport. In January 1972 a fresh campaign was launched to implement the principles of "scientific socialism" in the country.

law was promulgated

forbidding government

ployees to deal in property or

A

em-

own more than one

house. Another law stopped physicians from practicing privately; instead, they were to be state.

employed by the

President Siyad openly denied that there was

any conflict between socialism and the Islamic faith. Siyad paid state visits to the U.S.S.R. and to several Arab and African countries. In June he was elected one of the vice-chairmen at the Organization of African Unity assembly of heads of state in Rabat, Morocco. A meeting was held in July at Baidoa in southern Somalia between President Siyad and Presidents Gaafar Nimeiry of the Sudan and Idi Amin of Uganda. During October, negotiations between Uganda and Tanzania were held at Mogadiscio after border clashes, with Somalia acting as mediator. The former vice-president of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, Muhammad Ainanshe Guleid, and two associates, arrested in 1971 and charged with conspiracy, were condemned to death in May. On July 3 the three men were publicly executed by firing squad. (Virginia r. luling)

republic of northeast Africa,

Somali

the

Democratic Reis bounded

public, or Somalia,

South Africa

by the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Afars and Issas. Area:

A

246,154 sq.mi. (637,541 sq.km.). Pop. (1971 est.): 2,864,000, predominantly Hamitic, with Arabic and

Rhodesia, Mozambique, and Swaziland. Lesotho forms an enclave within South African territory. Area: 471,-

other admixtures. Cap. and largest city: Mogadiscio

445 sq.mi. (1,221,037 sq.km.), excluding Walvis Bay, 372 sq.mi. Pop. (1971 est.): 22,092,000, including (1970) Bantu 70.2%; white 17.5%; Coloured 9.4%; Asian 2.9%. Executive cap.: Pretoria (metro, pop., 1970, 561,703); judicial cap.: Bloemfontein (pop.,

bic,

Language

AraEnglish, Italian; also Somali. Religion: predomi-

(pop., 1969 est., 200,000).

(official):

SOMALIA Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 31,589, teachprcprimary) 9!5; secondary, pupils 22,-

ers (including

360, teachers 872: vocational, pupils 906, teachers 79; teacher training, students 168, teachers 10; higher, students S48. teaching staff 48. Finance. Monetary unit: Somali shilling, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of 6.93 Somali shillings to U.S. £1 sterling). $1 (free rate of 18.03 Somali shillings Gold, SDKs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (March 1971) U.S. $21.7 million: (March 1970) U.S. $15 million. Budget (1971 est.): revenue 316.3 million Somali shillings; expenditure 306.3 million Somali 100): shillings. Cost of living (Mogadiscio; 1963 (May 1972) 132; (May 1971) 141. Foreign Trade. , France 9%); U.S. 9%; U.K. 7%; Austria 6%. Main exports: machinery 30%; chemicals 22%; watches and clocks 11%; textile yarns and fabrics 9%. Tourism (1970): visitors 6,839,900; gross re-

ers

The country's economy continued to be characterby boom conditions and a strong inflationary

ized

which

trend,

1972 attained 7.3%, while

in

indexes pointed to a further increase.

A

all

the constitutional article 315, the basis of the govern-

ment's powers in the

field of

economic policy, was un-

der discussion. Meanwhile, the government prohibited the investment of foreign funds in Swiss securities and in

mortgages on real estate as well as the acquisition

of Swiss real estate

by foreigners residing abroad. (melanie f. STAERK

republic

Asia

on

Sea,

Syria

in

the is

southwestern Mediterranean bordered by

Turkey, Iraq, Jordan,

Israel,

and Lebanon. Area;

71,498

$905 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1971)

59,808 km. Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger (state; 1,482,000; commercial 137,500. Railways: 1970) 2,926 km. (including 2,911 km. electrified), (private; 1969) 2,082 (including 2,070 km. electri1971) 7,921,000,000 fied); traffic (state railways; passenger-km.. freight 6,622,000,000 net ton-km.. (private railways; 1970) 1 ,1 71,000,000 passenger-km., freight 417 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1971): 5,199,000,000 passenger-km.; freight 201,033.000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 32; gross tonnage 199,591. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 3,026,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1970) 1,352,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1970) 1,274,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): wheat 441 (343); barley 170 (136); oats 29 (30); rye c. 40 (46); potatoes 950 (1,090); apples c. 430 (c. 360); pears c. 190 (c. 185); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 74. (1970-71) 58; wine 82 (118); milk c. 3.270 (3,230); butter c. 35 (32); cheese c. 88 (37); beef and veal 131 (135); pork 206 (196). Livestock (in 000; -April 1971): cattle 1,390; sheep 292; pigs 1,372; horses c. SO; chickens 6.265. Industry. Index of industrial production (1963 100): (1971) 146; (1970) 143. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971): cement 5.217; aluminum 94; rayon, etc.. yarn and fibre ( 1970) 1 2 nylon, etc.. varn and fibre (1970) 48; cigarettes (units; 1970) 29.2'29,000; watches (units; 1970) 52,607: manufactured gas (gasworks only: cu.m.; 1970) 396,000; electricity (kw-hr.) 31.594,000.

=

;

I

P

Syria A

sq.mi. (185,180 sq.km.). Pop.

(1970): 6,303,000. Cap. and largest city; Damascus (pop., 1970, 836,000). Language; Arabic tofiicial); also Kurdish, Armenian, Turkish, and Circassian. Religion; predominantly Muslim. President in 1972, Gen. Hafez al-Assad; premier, Abdul Rahman Khleyfawi.

In 1972 the modest liberalization of the Syri.m regime of the previous year was continued and relations with most Arab states improved, although tho-r with Egypt and Libya, Syria's partners in the

Arab federation, underwent some was a partial rapprochement with the tite

strain.

trip.ir-

There

rival Baathist

=

ceipts U.S.

the

revision of

SYRIA Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 845,130, teachers 23,431; secondary, pupils 281.254, teachers 10,651; vocational, pupils 10,445, teachers 892; teacher training, students 4,018. teachers 398; higher (including 2 universities), students 37,540, teaching staff 1,056. Finance. Monetary unit; Syrian pound, with (Sept. IS, 1972) an official exchange rate of S£3.32 to U.S. $1 and a free rate of S£4.32 to U.S. $1 (SflO.44 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (May 1972) U.S. $119 million; (May 1971) U.S. $61 mil1972 est.) balanced at S£3.188 lion. Budget (total; million. Money supply: (May 1972) S£2,528 million; (May 1971) S£2,387 million. Cost of living (Da-

=

mascus; 1963

=

100): (Feb. 1972) 125; (Feb. 1971)

132.

Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports S£l,677 million; exports S£743.3 million. Import sources: Lebanon 9%;

7%; U.S. 7%; West Germany 6%; U.S.S.R. 6%; Iraq 6%. Export destinations: Italy 28%; U.S.S.R. 15%; Lebanon 8%,. Main exports: cotton 42%; crude oil 24%; fruit and vegetables 5%. Italy

Transport and Communications. Roads (1971) (including 63 km. expressways). Motor

16,710 km.

vehicles in use (1971): passenger 31,700; commercial

17,500. Railways: (1970) 1.100 km.; traffic (1971) 83,750,000 passenger-km., freight 120.890,000 net tontraffic (1970): 219,932,000 passenger-km.; freight 1,238,000 net ton-km. Ships entered (1970) vessels totaling 16,544,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1971) 31,431.000 metric tons, unloaded 2,447,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 111,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 1,367,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1970) 116.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): wheat 846 (625); barley 262 (235); millet and sorghum c. 20 (14); chick-peas 24 (IS); lentils 87 (53); grapes c. 215 (206); raisins c. 9 (9); figs (1970) 44. (1969) 50; sugar, raw value

km. Air

(1971-72)

c.

37,

(1970-71)

c.

26;

olive

oil

c.

18

(16); tobacco c. 8.9 (6.7); cotton, lint r. 156 (148); wool c. 7.5 (7). Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle c. 550; sheep c. 6,200; goats c. 770; horses c. 70; asses c 230; chickens (Dec. 1970) 3,669. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): petroleum products 1,826; cement (1971) 910; cotton yarn 20; electricity (kw-hr.) 947,000.

regime in Iraq, but several major Syrian-Iraqi

differ-

legislative

powers when the National Assembly was or in times of emergency.

ences remained.

not

March President Assad gave evidence of Syria's new flexibility when he said for the first time that

Mild but significant measures of economic liberalization were pursued. Import restrictions were relaxed, private enterprise and foreign tourism encouraged, and further steps taken to attract expatriate Syrian and Arab capital. The sharp reduction of oil transit rev-

In

Syria accepted

UN

Security Council Resolution 242 as

a basis for a political settlement in the

provided

it

territories

Middle East meant a complete Israeli withdrawal from occupied in 1967 and full restitution of

Palestinian rights. During the year Syria took steps to improve relations with the more conservative Arab states. It established

diplomatic ties with the newly independent Qatar. Bahrain, and United Arab Emirates; a Syrian trade mission to Saudi Arabia settled various outstanding difficulties between the two countries; and after .Assad's visit to Kuwait in April the

Kuwaiti government agreed to provide approximately million to

-i!

augment

Syria's general reser\'es in

its

with Israel. Relations with Jordan showed no of improvement, although the partial closing of

ii!,'Kle

jii

frontier

'

The

was ended December I, war between Syrian and Iraqi

ideological

continued during the first part of the year, following Syria's nationalization of Iraq Petro-

ILiathists

hut

wake of Iraq's nationaliiion of the Western-owned company on June 1, re was a marked improvement in relations between two countries. The Iraqi foreign minister visited iiascus, and agreement was reached to increase If and to settle several outstanding problems. Howr. the new rapport was severely shaken on October when a dispute arose over the level of Syria's

Ifinn Co. installations in the .

revenues for Iraqi inn had accounted for

nsit

:ii;e

oil,

which before national-

10%

of Syria's foreign ex-

earnings.

Kriations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe lined close, and a Syrian delegation visited China May. In August Assad declared it was not Syria's iition to follow the example of Pres. Anwar aslit of Egypt by expelling the Soviet military adIS from Syria. Indeed, it was announced in Sepiiiher that the Soviet Union and Syria had agreed on a military buildup in Syria, and it was widely forecast tliit the U.S.S.R. would henceforth concentrate its military aid to the .\rab world on Syria. .Assad was, however, anxious to avoid a complete breach between ri.'\ pt and the Soviet Union. He made a secret visit to >' i-row at the end of September which prepared the imd for the partial Egyptian-Soviet rapprochement ::.ai followed. .After the massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes at Munich, W.Ger., in September, the plane hijacking in October that secured the release of Palestinian terrorists responsible for the massacre, and ill in November and December, Syria suffered re Israeli bombing raids. In December it was reU'd that the Syrian government was attempting to i'l.

Taiwan

enues following the nationalization of the Iraq Petroleum Co. were at least partly offset by the above-average 1972 grain harvest. Work on the Euphrates Dam

was reported on schedule with blocking of the main stream due for July 1973. (peter mansfield)

Taiwan Taiwan, which consists of the islands of Formosa and Quemoy and other surrounding islands, is the seat of the Republic of China (Nationalist China). It is situated north of the Philippines, southwest of Japan and Okinawa, and east of Hong Kong. The island of For-

mosa has an area of 13,087 sq.mi.; including its 77 outlying islands (14 in the Taiwan group and 63 in the Pescadores group), the area of Taiwan totals 13,892 sq.mi. (35,980 sq.km.). Pop. (1972 est.): 15,089,756. Cap. and largest city: Taipei (pop., 1972 est., 1,864,697). President in 1972, Chiang Kai-shek; premier (president of the Executive Yuan), C. K. Yen until March 21 and, from June 1, Chiang Ching-

kuo.

In 1972 the international position of Nationalist

China suffered a devastating blow from U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon's visit to mainland China in February. This came on the heels of Taiwan's ouster from the UN in late October 1971. After that, more than 20 countries shifted diplomatic ties from Taipei to Peking, reducing the Chinese Nationalist government's recognition roster from nearly 70 to less than 50 by late 1972.

President Nixon's journey to Peking

!

i'

647

in session,

marked a low

point in the diplomatic status of Taiwan. 9,

about a week before

stated:

his

"The ultimate

On February

departure for Peking, Nixon

relationship between

Taiwan

and the mainland to decide."

He

is not a matter for the United States urged the parties concerned to seek

a peaceful solution to the

problem

in

order to reduce

tensions in the Far East. Although Ni.TOn did not suggest any particular course for either party to follow, he declared that "with the Republic of (i^hina we shall maintain our friendship, our diplomatic our defense commitment."

ties,

and

The Tsengwen

reservoir

under construction

Taiwan was to be completed in March 1973. The dam's volume vi/ould be 12,560,000 cu.yd., and its annual power output 212,600,000 kw-hr. It would provide 228,000 tons of running water per day, enough to supply cities and towns in

with an aggregate population of 1.5 million.

I

I

i

'

Ruerrilla activities.

March

In

7 the long-awaited

undertaking to form a

left-wing coalition to replace the former exclusively

Baathist political control was carried out

when

a

Na-

tional Progressive Front was created. It comprised an 18-member central leadership, including President Assad, nine other Baathists, and two members from each of four non-Baathist parties. The Baathists had suffered setbacks in provincial elections in March. The powers of the Syrian president, which had been

greatly increased in February 1971 to ilar to

make them

extended by the Syrian Baathist Regional in

sim-

those of the Egyptian president, were further

May. At

that time,

amendments

to the

Command 1969 provi-

sional constitution authorized the president to

assume

-M

Despite Nixon's assurance on the maintenance of and his statement that Chou En-lai would concern only issues be-

643

Tanzania

existing diplomatic relations talks with

tween the U.S. and China, Nationalist naturally apprehensive about the

officials

summit

were

talks in Pe-

made no mention

of the mutual defense treaty of

1954 between the U.S. and Taiwan since such a reference would have been objectionable to Peking. The Nationalist government lost no time in registering its disapproval of the communique. In compari-

but their formal complaints were On February 17, the Miniscautious and try of Foreign Affairs issued a statement declaring that "it will consider null and void any agreement

son with the disapproval and protest in the press the government statement was rather mild, as the officialb fully realized the importance of the goodwill of the U.S. government to the Nationalist cause. A U.S. Department of State spokesman, Charles W. Bray, re-

involving the rights and interests of the government

affirmed

and people of the Republic of China which may be reached between the government of the United States and the Chinese Communist regime as a result of

Nationalist China.

that visit." Furthermore, the statement said that "the

dent action to normalize its relations with mainland China. Since the Sino-Japanese peace treaty of V^':!

king. to

They made no

Nixon's

secret of their strong opposition

visit,

restrained.

Chinese government trusts that the American President will live up to the solemn assurances that he has repeatedly made."

The

joint

communique

of February 27, issued

President Nixon and Chinese Premier

Chou

by

En-lai,

dealt with the question of Taiwan mainly in principle, not in terms of immediate actions. The U.S. committed itself to the proposition that there is only one

China, that, by implication, the mainland regime is the de jure as well as de facto government of all China, and that Taiwan is a part of that one China. Further-

more, the U.S. agreed not to interfere in relations between China and Taiwan, and to withdraw its military forces and installations from Taiwan as soon as

tensions

ceased in

the

area.

The communique

the

defense

commitment of

the

U.S.

to

"Nixon shocks" on China and ecoThe nomic policy pushed Japan to take early and indepenso-called

had formed the basis for all relations between the tw o countries and recognized the Nationalist regime as the government of China, the Nationalists regarded the normalization of Peking-Tokyo ties as contrary to the pledges of Japan to respect its treaty obligations. On September 29, Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka (see Biography) agreed to immediately e.-tablish diplomatic relations with Peking, and as a result Japan severed its diplomatic ties with Taiwan. Prior to Nixon's visit to Peking, Chiang Kai-shek, after 24 years as president, had made known his decision not to seek another term. Chiang reached the age of 35 on October 31. In view of the diplomatic setbacks, however, government and party officials considered Chiang's prestige essential to guide the destiny of the country. Immediately after he announced his

Primary, pupils 2,428.041, secondary, pupils 872.277, teachers 32.244; vocational, pupils 155,947, teachers 7,308; teacher training, students 528, teachers 14; higher (including 9 universities), students 184,215, teaching staff 20,515. Finance. Monetary unit: New Taiwan dollar, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a par value of NT$40 to U.S. $1 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and (free rate of NT$98 (June 1972) U.S. $606 foreign exchange, official: million; (June 1971) U.S. $504 million. Budget (197071 est.); revenue NT$ 5 1,7 5 7, 000,000; expenditure NT$50.068.000,000. Gross national product: (1970) NT$2 17,640.000,000; (1969) NT$ 190,8 10,000,000. Money supply; (June 1972) NT$50,980,000.000; (June 1971) NT$40, 530,000.000. Cost of living (1963 = too): (June 1972) 131; (June 1971) 126. Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports U.S. $1,844,000,000; exports U.S. $1,997,700,000. Import sources (1970): Japan 43%; U.S. 24%. Export destinations (1970): U.S. 40%; Japan 15%; Hong Kong 10%; West Germany 5%. Main exports (1970); clothing 15%; textile yarns and fabrics 14%; fruits and vegetables 12%; telecommunications equipment 9%; plywood 5%; small plastics manufactures 5%.

Education.

teachers

down in an address to the National Assembly on February 26, a nationwide movement was initiated to draft him. On March 21 he was reelected for a fifth six-year term with 1,308 votes, only intention to step

TAIWAN (1969-70)

57,935;

=

Transport and Communications. Roads

(1970)

15,382 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970); passenger 49,500; commercial 41,000. Railways (1970): c. 4,400 km.; traffic 6,212,000,000 passenger-km., freight 2,631,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1970): 954 million passenger-km.; freight 25,175,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1971): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 316; gross tonnage 1.321,758. Telephones (Jan. 1971) 403.000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1969) 1,428,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1968) 193,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1971; 1970 in parentheses): rice c. 2,987 (3.226); sweet potatoes (1970) 3,441, (1969) 3,702; cassava (1970) 308, (1969) 316; peanuts 140 (122); oranges (1970) c. 156, (1969) 123; tea c. 28 (28); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 750, (1970-71) 843; bananas (1970) 462. (1969) 586; tobacco 12 (21); sisal c. 11 (11); jute 14 (14); pork c. 360 (354). Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1970): cattle 75; pigs c. 3,080; goats 167; chickens 14.269. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970); coal 4,473; crude oil 90; natural gas (cu.m.) 918,000; 13,554,000; cemeivt 4.305; pig electricity (kw-hr.) iron 61; crude steel 294; salt 535; caustic soda 126; petroleum products 5,030; cotton yarn 86; paper 461.

S votes short of unanimity.

Yen

resigned as premier immediately after taking

the oath of office for a second term as vice-president;

he was replaced by Chiang Ching-kuo {see Biography). On December 23, 36 new members of the Legislative Yuan and 53 new members of the National As-

sembly were elected; most of the successful candidates were members of the Kuomintang, although several independents were also chosen. The election of the additional members of the two bodies was made possible by a revision of the constitution earlier in the year. Their terms of office would be three years for the Legislative Yuan and six years for the National Assembly; the incumbent members, most of whom had been elected before the Nationalist government left the mainland, would continue to serve indefinite terms. (hung-ti chu) St:e

China.

also

Tanzania This republic, an East African

member

of

the

Common-

wealth of Nations, consists of

two parts Tanganyika, on the Indian Ocean, bordered by Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zaire, Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique; and Zanzibar, just off the coast, including Zanzibar Island, Pemba Island, and small islets. Total area of :

the united republic: 364,943 sq.mi. (945,203 sq.km.l. Total pop. (1972 est.): 14,027,879, including (1966 est.) 98.9% Africans and 0.7% Indo-Pakistani. Cap.

;

and largest city: Dar es Salaam (pop.. 1972 est.. 396,700) in Tanganyika. Language: English and Swahili. Religion (1967): traditional beliefs 34.6%; Christian 30.6%; Muslim 30.5%. President in 1972, Julius Nyerere.

On Dec. 9, 1971, Tanzania celebrated ten years of .^t a press conference later in December President Nyerere declared that during the next decindependence, ade

government intended

the

encourage

to

ranging decentralization, although

wide-

money would

still

be voted by Parliament and the regions would not be-

come autonomous. The

president's optimism received Day when Regional CommisKlerruu was shot dead by a Hehe

a setback on Christmas

sioner Wilbert

farmer, who,

farmers

in

with

number

a

Iringa

the

region,

of

other prosperous

opposed the govern-

ment's rural reconstruction program. In January the

first

vice-president and leader of

the Revolutionary Council of Zanzibar, Sheikh

Abeid

Karume, released about 600 petty criminals from

mark

prison to tion

the eighth anniversary of the revolu-

which had brought him

Karume was

to power. In April, assassinated (see Obituaries'). Four of

his assailants, all

Of those

killed

of the former

Karume's

members

of the .\rmy, were killed.

two were said

I'mma

to

have been supporters

Party, which had merged with

.Afro-Shirazi Party after the revolution that

overthrew the sultan

in 1964.

Abdul Rahman Muham-

The

mad Babu. who had been leader of the Umma Party, was arrested by Tanzanian security police on .\pril 14. suspected of complicity in the plot. Karume's death

was not followed bv any marked change in the character of the regime, for Nyerere felt constrained to

coffin of the first

Sheikh is escorted by heavily armed soldiers during Karume's funeral in Zanzibar. vice-president,

Abeid Karume,

on Apr' 1^1972.''''

appoint as Karume's successor .\boud Jumbe. who had been a leading member of Karume's government. Relations between Britain and Tanzania showed

TAKZ.XNIA

''"•'

signs of

>n-inii™.^-i

Education. (1968) Primary, pupils 833,898, teachers I7,.S".!;

si-rontlary, pupils 34.551. teachers 1,668; vo1,064, ti'achcrs 83; teacher training,

cational, pupils

improvement received further

as a result of the cooling of Britain's relations with

students

Uganda, where Pres.

Dar

of plots against his regime

2.673, teachers 231; higher (University of c5 Salaam; 1970), students 1.194, teaching staff

123.

.

improvement after the publication of the in May. This indirect encouragement

Pearce commission report on Rhodesia

Finance. Monetary unit: T.inzanian shilling, with (Sept. 18. 1972) a par value of TShs. 7.14 to U.S. $1 (free rate of TShs. 17.50 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exchange: (June 1972) U.S. $81.1 million; (June 1971) U.S. $66.1 million. Hudget (1970-71 est.): revenue TShs. 1,654.000.000; expenditure TShs. 1.652,000,000. Money supply: (May 1972) TShs. 1.935.000,000; (May 1971) T.Shs. 1.833,000,000. Cost of living (Dares Salaam; 1963 = 100): (June 1972) 142; (June 1971) 126. Foreign Trade. (Excluding trade with Kenya and Uganda; 19711 Imports TShs. 2.414,000.000; exports TShs. 1,792,000,000. Import sources: China 25%; U.K. 20%; West Germany 7%; Japan 6%; Iran 6%; Italy 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 24%; Zambia 10%; India 8%; U.S. S%; Hong Kong 7%; China 5%. Main exports: coffee 17%; cotton 147o; diamonds 12%,: sisal 7%. transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 16.743 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passenger c. 33,300; commercial (including buses) c. 33,700. Railways (1970) c. 2,580 km. (for traffic see Kenya). Construction of a c. 1.800-km. railway linking Dar cs Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia began in 1970: completion was planned for 1976 (a first 500km. section of track had been laid at the beginning of 1972). Mi traffic: sec Kenva. Shipping lr.affic (mainland only; 1970): goods loaded 1,399,000 metric tons; unloaded 2,290,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1970) 36,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1970) 150,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1969) 4,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1971 1970 in parentheses): corn c. S41 (650); sweet potatoes (1970) .ilO. (1969) 213; millet c. 1.^8 (138); sorghum c. 107 (107); sugar, raw value (1971-72) c. 108, (1970-71) c. 99; rice c. 185 (182); cassava (1970) c. 1,500. (1969) c. 1,300; coffee c. 64 (64); cotton, lint c. 75 (71); sisal c. 181 (c. 202); timber (cu.m.: 1970) 31,500, (1969) 30,500. Livestock (in 000; 1970-71): cattle c. 13.300: sheep c. 2.800: pigs C. 22: goats c. 4.450; asses c. 160: poultry c. 20.600. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1970): cement 177; salt 42; magnesite (exports) 0.8: gold (troy oz.) 7.9; diamonds (metric carats) 708; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 396,000.

Idi ."Kmin

was making accusations

by Nyerere on behalf of Milton Obote. former president of Uganda, and by Britain in pursuit of

in

August ordered

all

its

own

interests.

When Amin

British Asians to leave

Uganda

within three months, Nyerere denounced his action as lacking humanity and Amin's criticism of the Tan-

On September 17 an armed force consisting of supporters of Obote crossed into Uganda from northwestern Tanzania. Amin at once

zanian leader increased.

accused Tanzania of sending its own soldiers against his country and launched aerial attacks on the Tanzanian lake ports of Bukoba, Mwanza, and Musoma.

Nyerere denied that Tanzanian troops had been

in

any

way involved. The invasion soon proved unsuccessful and. following the intervention of the president of Somalia, Muhammad Siyad Barrah, peace terms were 5 between the two countries though relations remained strained.

agreed on October

al-

(KENNETH INGHAm)

Taxation "Tax reform" was frequently mentioned U.S. presidential campaign, but because

in the 1972

all

candidates

favoured it, at least in abstract terms, it never became an issue. Taxpayer discontent was apparent, nonetheless, and serious consideration of a number of aspects in the tax structure was expected in the near future. In Europe most changes were related to efforts to harmonize taxation within the EEC. A drastic revision of Britain's tax structure was put forward in the 1972 budget.

United States. The year 1972 was one of much discussion and

U.S.

little

action in tax legislation in the

The Democratic

presidential

candidate,

Sen.

Tariffs:

'"poii'^Js-^'Trade International

,

650

Taxation

George McGovern, made

specific suggestions,

some

and greater economy

analysis

cal

in

government

°^ which were promptly disavowed by congressional own party. Pres. Richard Nixon with-

spending.

held any definite recommendations until after the elec-

Herriott and

tion.

Income Groups 1962-68" (Business Horizons, February 1972), showed that people with lower incomes

The second

leaders of his

Earlier in the year, the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, Wilbur D. Mills (Dem., Ark.)

sponsored legislation to repeal, effective over the three years 1974-76, more than 50 provisions of the

income and estate taxes that had become the subject of criticism and controversy. This was a temporizing action that relieved the political pressure on members of Congress to act hastily in an election year. It

was generally presumed that after committee hearings many if not most of the provisions would be reenacted in the same or a modified form. Continued reliance on property taxation as a principal source of revenue for school finance was challenged by decisions in several state and federal courts, based on the finding that differences in fiscal capacity between districts denied equal opportunity to children. A decision on the issue by the U.S. Supreme Court was expected in 1973. Early in 1972 President Nixon requested the .Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations to analyze the possibility of establishing a program of federal grants for school expenses to states and localities that renounced the use of property taxes on residences for this purpose, with the federal funds to come from a new federal value-added tax. Such a program would have brought together in one package three significant changes: a new federal tax, a form of revenue sharing for a particular purand property tax relief on resipose (education) ;

received

Herman

—

P. Miller,

substantially

larger

proportionate benefits

from government expenditures than those with middle and larger incomes. Earlier studies had reached similar conclusions but the subject had received little attention. For many years estimates had been made of the distribution of the tax burden by income classes and, though the conclusions differed somewhat, in general it appeared that the tax burden as a proportion of income is hea\'y on those with quite small incomes, becomes smaller for those in the middle income brackets, and then rises substantially for those with large incomes. It was widely, but not universally, believed that government policies should redistribute income in favour of those with smaller incomes, a goal that had been thought to require progressive taxation

— that

is,

taxation that takes a larger fraction of larger

incomes. However, an analysis of the combined effects of taxation

and government expenditures showed

there would be a redistribution of income

den of taxation was proportional

if

that

the bur-

income or even slightly regressive. Additional analysis of the combined effects of taxation and expenditures on the distribution of income would clearly be needed for rato

tional policy decisions.

Value-Added

(VAT),

first

The

Taxation.

value-added

tax

introduced in France in the 1950s, was

much discussion in the U.S. in 1972, as EEC countries moved toward universal adoption

the subject of

dences.

the

Various studies in 1972 indicated the prospect for continued large federal deficits under current programs. The administration publicly accepted the 1972-

the

73 deficits as appropriate stimulation under existing economic conditions, thereby giving bipartisan political respectability to deficit spending in conditions short of full employment. Congressional appropriations were so large, however, that it became apparent the deficit would be excessive by any standard. To forestall a manifest need for a tax increase, the House Ways and Means Committee, in conjunction with the White House, proposed legislation giving the president authority to reduce expenditures as needed to keep the total at $250 billion. This, in effect, would have established an item veto under which the president could cut back programs at his discretion. The legislation was adopted by the House but rejected by the

by Roger .\, "Tax Changes .^mong

significant publication,

of

it

by 1973

as a principal source of revenue.

name "value-added" suggested

Though

a complicated pro-

cess of addition to determine the base of the tax. in

practice the calculations were very simple.

The

tax

is

applied to a company's net sales with an offsetting credit for the tax paid on all its purchases. With a for example, a company with sales of $100,000 and purchases of $70,000 would owe a tax of $900 ($3,000 on sales less a credit of $2,100 for the tax on purchases). 39^, tax.

Unlike most other taxes, respects.

It

is

applied at

VAT

all

is

neutral in

many

levels of business, in-

cluding sales to final consumers. It can be applied to all types of business, including the service industries

— —are not necessarily more

and professional activities. It falls equally on incorporated and unincorporated business. It avoids the artificial inducement to financing with borrowed funds that is an unfortunate result of the corporate income tax. It falls equally on capital-intensive and labourintensive methods of production. It is neutral with respect to foreign trade, in contrast to income and payroll taxes, which place domestic producers at a disadvantage in comparison with foreign producers both in the home market and abroad. VAT had been discussed as an alternative to part of the corporation income tax for several years, but changed circumstances in 1972 placed it in a new con-

cial

text

Senate in the closing hours of the Congress.

An

administration commitment not to propose tax

increases in 1973

was conditioned on

a limitation of

expenditures that was widely regarded as unattainable.

Two

publications in 1972 were especially significant

background for tax policy. In the BrookThe 1973 Budget, it was recognized that larger government expenditures that is, more expensive programs in setting the

ings Institution study Setting National Priorities:

effective in dealing with soproblems; new social concerns can be satisfied

only by changing the behaviour of individuals and

as a possible source of additional

revenue, a

institutions.

source of funds for partial relief of state and local property taxes, or both. Interestingly, the positions

written by

of various people regarding the tax also changed. Prior

Their forthright recognition that a larger public expenditure will not necessarily be more effective than a smaller one could lay a base for more criti-

ness decisions favoured

Significantly, the Brookings study was some of those who had had important government positions during the 1960s and had been sympathetic to programs that, in 1972, they recognized as unsuitable.

to 1972, those

who opposed

tax because of the distortion

VAT

the corporation income it

introduced into busi-

as a partial substitute.

Like the corporation income tax, \'\T would be reflected in higher prices, but it would have the advan-

A

tage of substituting a neutral, nondistorting tax for

one that had numerous adverse effects on the domestic economy and the country's international position. Opponents argued that VAT would be regressive and that a reduction in the corporation

income tax would

second major issue

in tax policy

concerned the

appropriate allowances for depreciation

— that

is,

re-

covery of the cost of investments in machinery and buildings. In measuring income for business purposes, the cost of machinery is spread over the estimated

give windfall gains to stockholders.

useful

In 1972 many of those who had favoured V.AT also objected to large increases in government expendi-

preciable property depends on economic conditions

Since V.\T would produce something like $5 each percentage point of tax, its availabil-

with assurance, estimates of useful lives are inevitably

tures.

of the property. Since replacement of de-

life

and technological changes that cannot be predicted

billion for

inaccurate,

would reduce the pressure to limit spending. Thus some previous advocates of V.\T dropped their support for it because they feared it would be used to

payers.

A

ity

support

enlarged

spending programs.

By

contrast,

some of those who had supported various changes the

income and estate

taxes, along the lines

in

adopted

by Senator McGovern. came to believe that enactment of VAT, which would be criticized as regressive, would provide an opportunity, politically, to secure acceptance of the progressive tax changes they favoured. Accordingly, they began to recognize the possibilities of a tax

package that would give them the

changes they had not been able to secure

in separate

legislation.

Proposed Changes in Income Taxation. High on the of proposed changes in income taxation was full inclusion of capital gains in taxable income. For over 50 years, capital gains that is, the profits on the sale of capital assets such as stocks and bonds and real had been taxed at lower rates than ordinary estate income. This reflected a belief that, though capital list

—

—

gains represented a tax-paying capacity, they did not constitute income.

In distinguishing between capital and income, the tax law conformed to general corporate law. trust law, and the familiar attitudes of families in handling their personal affairs. A quite different concept had developed in tax theory whereby income was regarded as the net accretion to a person's wealth, plus his con-

For purposes of taxation, apwas deemed to be and rent. Ideally, those holding this concept favoured annual taxation of unrealized gains, offset by unrealized losses. Most of them recognized, however, that problems of annual valuations and the ab.sence of cash with which to pay the tax on assets that had merely risen in value without being sold would make this impractical. Full taxation on sale or at death was a second-best procedure. Senator McGovern, in advocating full taxation of gains, stated that "money made by money should be taxed at the same rate as money made by men." Herbert Stein, chairman of the Council of Economic Ad-

sumption during

a year.

preciation in the value of an asset similar to salaries, interest,

visers,

noted that money made by money

taxed more heavily because

it

is

is

already

also subject to the

corporation income tax, inheritance taxes, and property taxes. More fundamentally, critics of full taxation 0^ capital gains regarded a tax on a

appreciated investment to a tal

lew

mere

shift

new investment

from an

as a capi-

rather than an income tax. Ideally, they would

distinguish gains that w-ere reinvested to maintain a capital

sum

intact

from

profits

rent consumption, but this

used to finance curpractical without

was not

annual personal balance sheets. Taxation of capital gains also raised issues of economic policy on which tax experts differed. To what extent does the existence of a capital gains tax reduce the mobility of capital from one investment to another? To what extent does it

reduce the total amount of capital and the direction

of investment?

fast write-off for tax

Though

purposes

is

by taxsame re-

desired

the total deductions are the

gardless of the time over which they are spread, an earlier deduction permits taxpayers to recover their

investment sooner and reinvest the funds to earn additional income. The prospect of a faster recovery of an investment also reduces the element of risk. U.S. tax law and administration had tended to restrict tax deductions for depreciation to rates based on a presumption of relatively long useful lives. In a succession of legislative and administrative ac-

and culminating in 1971, U.S. were made more liberal, though in 1972 they were still more stringent than those in most other industrial countries. In 1972, however, Senator McGovern proposed a reversal of this trend, and it was expected that the issue would be reopened for discussion in 1973. tions starting in 1954

depreciation

allowances

Critics of rapid depreciation believed, at least im-

burden of the corporation inon the corporation and its stockholders. On this assumption, any relief from the tax, through lower rates, more rapid depreciation, or other deductions, benefits business and stockholders rather than the general body of citizens. Others believed that the corporation income tax is a cost of doing business and is ultimately reflected in the prices paid by final consumers. To the extent that the tax is shifted, lower tax rates or more generous deductions of any sort will benefit the general public. Numerous theoretical and statistical analyses had not produced conclusive answers, though the preponderance of opinion appeared to be that business income taxes are, in large part, plicitly, that the final

come

tax

is

shifted forward.

and other oil. gas. and mining industries. extractive industries had companies in the Since 1926 been permitted to take depletion for tax purposes based on percentages of gross and net income as an .\

closely related issue involved depletion

deductions for the

alternative to depletion intended to recover the cost of a property as its deposits became exhausted. The percentage depletion allowance was often many times the cost of a property. Percentage depletion was de-

fended on the grounds of high risk in the industries, importance to national defense, and the fact that

their

their assets are irreplaceable. It

mitting

some corporations and

was

criticized as per-

individuals to escape

their fair share of taxes and as giving an indirect government subsidy to an industry that may not need it. In 1972 the developing shortages of energy and of certain other natural resources were being widely discussed, but virtually no attention had been given to their tax implications.

Future discussions of the tax

treatment of extractive industries would need to include systematic consideration of current and future needs and availabilities, the importance of discoveries

new sources and forms of energy, the effect of energy imports on the balance of payments, and the relative importance and control of domestic and forof

eign sources.

651

Taxation

stockholders a credit against their individual taxes for part of the corporate tax. The U.S. allowed only $100 exemption for dividends. State and local property taxes were subject to in-

a

They had risen rapidly and had especially burdensome for elderly homeowner; on fixed incomes. Some relief from properf, taxes on residences was in prospect, possibly through creasing criticism.

become living

federal grants for education or other purposes, conditioned on reduction of property taxes on some or ail classes of residences, or through assumption by the

some expenditures currently met by localiProposals had also been made for substantial changes in the structure of property taxes, quite un-

states of ties.

related to relief for

homeowners. The large increases from the growth of popula-

in values of land, arising

tion

and urbanization,

led to revived interest in at-

tempts to tax land more heavily than improvement on land. With taxes so high, improved methods of a sessment had become urgent. Systematic planning an regional control of land use, widely recognized as nee essary, could also have a bearing on property taxation

(DAN THROOP SMITH

British purcfiase tax cuts effective

March

22,

1972,

were passed on to consumers, as

is evident in this scene at an F. W.

Woolworth chain store in

Cheapside, London.

A third major area of controversy in 1972 concerned the tax treatment of business income from subsidiary corporations located outside the U.S. The income of foreign subsidiaries was taxed abroad where and when it was earned; it was also taxed in the U.S. when it was received by the parent corporation as dividends or in some other form. Foreign governments ordinarily imposed an additional income tax on dividends as they left the country. The income taxes paid

abroad were allowed as a credit against the U.S. tax; thus if the combined foreign taxes were equal to or exceeded the U.S. tax, no net U.S. tax was due. It was proposed by, among others, the AFL-CIO the U.S. corporation income tax be applied income of all foreign subsidiaries, whether was retained abroad for business expansion or remitted to the parent corporation. Those favouring the change argued that the present law provided a tax inducement for investment abroad that was likely to be at the expense of investment and employment at home. Opponents argued that U.S. -owned subsidiaries abroad must be able to compete with local business firms and that, if foreign subsidiaries were no longer competitive, the U.S. would fail to receive the profits from them. They contended, further, that investment abroad was not made to escape U.S. taxes, nor did plants abroad fill demands that would otherwise be met by exports from the U.S. Other Areas of Possible Tax Revision. The estate tax might also be reviewed in 1973-74. Among the that

against the it

many

proposals for fundamental revision were: a combination of gift and estate taxes into a single transfer tax, with the rates applicable to transfers at death being dependent on lifetime gifts; a shift from an estate tax based on the total amount left by a decedent to an inheritance tax based on the amount received by individual heirs; a capital gains tax at death all gains were realized at that time; abolition of the tax on bequests to a surviving

on the assumption that

spouse; and higher rates of tax on bequests to grandchildren or collateral relatives than to a spouse or children.

Somewhat

The

firm intention to introduce

VAT

in April

1973

at

10% ended speculation on the form this would take. The purchase tax would then be abolished. There would be a general exemption for all businesses whose taxable turnover did not exceed £5.00l a year. In addition to VAT, new and imported cars would carry a tax of 10% of the wholesale value to offset the loss of the purchase tax. There would be a flat rate of

tax

exemptions for insurance, postal services, education, health services, newspapers, periodicals, and books, and all food other than that currently subject to the purchase

tax.

from the

tax,

New housing would be wholly relieved and rents would be exempt.

April 1973 would also see abolition of the dual system of income tax and surtax. Relatively few people

paid tax at the

full rate of 38.75%, on earned income because of an allowance of two-ninths on income up

to £4,005 and 15% of the excess over £4,005. The proposed change would abolish earned income relief and, instead, would impose a surcharge on investment income over and above the standard rate. The combined tax on income would be at the rate of 30% on the first £5,000 of taxable income (about the same as the current rate with earned income relief i. For incomes between £5,000 and £6,000, the rate would be 40%. Above that amount, rates would rise in steps of 5% until a maximum of 75%, was reached at the level of £20,000. Higher income groups would benefit most under the proposed rates, as well as from the proposal to exempt the first £2,000 of investment income from the 15% unearned income charge. The budget also made stock option schemes, approved by the Inland Revenue, exempt from tax. These concessions to the wealthy and the fact that VAT was expected to hit the poor the hardest led to considerable criticism in a

year when the government was trying to limit pay increases.

surprisingly, there

had been

little

discus-

sion about the so-called double taxation of corporations and stockholders. Most of the major European countries, Canada, and Japan provided in one way or another for partial relief. France, for example, gave

i

United Kingdom. The March 1972 budget, though gave back considerable sums to taxpayers, chiefl> by way of increased tax allowances and purchase tax reductions, made few structural changes. However, future changes of major importance were spelled out it

The budget

crystallized changes in the corporation

tax that had been proposed in a Green Paper (a Green

Paper is a governinent paper meant to project the broad outlines of change and stimulate public discussion) the previous year and considered by a select

committee. The decision was made to adopt the imputation system of tax, putting Britain in line with

France and West Germany. The existing system of company tax, introduced in 1965, made a complete separation between the company and its stockholders; company profits were taxed at 40% and dividends

were taxed at the standard rate. Under the new system, which would take effect in April 1973, a single rate of corporation tax was proposed ("probably 50^^), payable on all taxable profit, whether distributed or not. Income tax would no longer be deducted from dividends. A company paying out dividends would be required to make an advance payment of corporation tax at a rate of three-sevenths of the dividend, but this payment would be set off against its corporation tax

due for that accounting period. If a company declared a dividend of £100, a U.K. stockholder would receive and a tax credit of three-sevenths of £70, or £50. The stockholder would have no tax adjustment to make unless he could claim a refund because he was not liable to tax or unless his tax was above the basic rate of iO'"c in which case he would

a dividend of £70

,

be liable for the difference.

A

substantial concession

was proposed for small companies (defined as those whose taxable profits in the year were below £15,000). Capital gains of companies would be taxed at what would be, in effect, a rate of 30'~r, and special provisions were to be made for building societies and cooperative societies.

Two

important Green Papers were published

in

1972. The first, in March, proposed to sweep away the current system of estate duty. The existing estate duties specified rates of up to 75% on estates over

£500,000, but there were numerous loopholes and a growing number of accountants, lawyers, and tax experts spent their time searching for them. The paper

suggested that the beneficiary he taxed on the sum he received, rather than the current system, under which a tax was levied on the value of the property

by the deceased. The paper put forward a number of alternatives for discussion including the question of whether gifts as well as bequests should be

left

included in the tax base. The second Green Paper, published in October, put

forward the idea of tax credits. If carried out, it would represent the most important lax change since payas-you-earn was introduced in 1943. The principle of tax credits had long been advocated in the public finance field as a way of eliminating some of the glaring anomalies of the tax allowance system. Those whose incomes were too low to pay tax gained little or no benefit from tax allowances, while those with the highest incomes gained the most because allowances had the effect of reducing their high rates.

Under

a tax

scheme, tax would be payable on all income and have the all persons in similar circumstances would same tax credit. Those who did not earn enough to credit

exhaust the credit would receive the difference in cash. In addition to social benefits, such a system would and considerable administra-

result in simplification tive savings.

One danger inherent in these proposals was that they could not be fully implemented before the 1978 budget. Existing problems of poverty needed immescheme diate attention and, in any case, the tax credit was not intended as a wholesale attack as proposed

on poverty.

European Economic Community. One of the EEC was to harmonize taxation in countries order to avoid distortions between member stated aims of the

Toble

1

654

Telecommunications

social

security pa>Tnents together,

companies were

relatively lightly taxed, while taxes on expenditures

were high. Italy was tax system to bring

in the process of

more

it

overhauling

into line with its

standard rate proposed for the tax on added value

was 12%.

(G. C.

HOCKLEY)

its

EEC

partners (see below). Taxes on capital, mainly death

and gift taxes, are not included in the table since they were relatively minor sources of revenue for all the countries listed.

The telecommunications industry found 1972 a bewildering year. Long-range studies were forecasting al-

extended its operations in the field of fiscal harmonization in 1971 by setting up a new Committee on

most

)

tries

The increased importance of internacompanies and the increased flows of investment funds across borders lent some urgency to this matter. The OECD had been concerned mainly with the avoidance of double taxation, demand-management aspects Fiscal Affairs. tional

of fiscal policy, broader tax adjustments,

The new committee had eration of

taxation

as

its first

company

and VAT.

priority a consid-

and international

international aspects of

flows,

capital

taxation,

and the

standard classification of tax revenues.

West Germany was planning a general tax reform, probably for 1974. It was expected that the much criticized "two-rate system," whereby a corporation and

stockholders are separate legal persons subject to separate taxation, would be changed. The Scientific its

Advisory Committee of the Office of the Minister of Finance, which considered several proposals on this subject, favoured a plan whereby the total taxable profit of a company would be taxed at the highest rate of the individual income tax. The stockholder would receive any dividend paid out by the company, plus a credit for the proportion of the corporation tax paid by the company. Both would be taxable income in the

hands of the stockholder, but he could use the

own tax. The Netherlands government's 1972 budget

tax credit to offset against his

repre-

sented an effort to reduce the level of inflation being experienced by so many European countries. The excise tax on gasoline was increased, and a new excise tax on soft drinks was introduced that would harmonize with other Benelux countries. A number of

changes were

made

VAT, one

telecommunications, British telephone

costless

was reaching an all-time high growth rate, and the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) traflSc

finally

system.

made a On the

policy for a U.S. domestic satellite other hand, telephone costs increased,

was finding trouble-free calls more and commercial interest in domestic satellites

the British public difiScult,

diminished.

Common

Specialized

Carriers.

The 1971 FCC

decision allowing virtually any company, or

common

microwave transmission field as long as certain financial and technical specifications were met was taken advantage of for the first time carrier, to enter the

in 1972.

The

first

specialized

common

carrier to take

the field with actual commercial service

wave Communications,

was Micro-

(MCI), between ChiJanuary. The firm reported Inc.

cago and St. Louis, in doing a modest volume of private line business, in which a customer leases one or more links of varying bandwidth between his own premises.

As mists

MCI's lawyers and econo-

the year progressed,

were even busier than

peatedly voicing

its

its

Re-

technicians.

fear that the established

common

(such as the Bell System) would interpret the "full and fair competition" ruling of the FCC to engulf it, MCI became involved in a series of rate carriers

A direct confrontanot from the Bell System as originally

and

tariff

regulatory proceedings.

tion

came

first,

expected, but from the other, and much smaller, established nationwide carrier, the Western Union Telegraph Co, Western Union, which by 1972 obtained

appreciably less than half miliar message

its

revenue from the

fa-

telegram, filed reduced private line

instead of

FCC just for the Chicago-St. Louis route to "match" the lower charges of MCI. Since MCI first proposed specialized service a dec-

tor

ade

in

of which

was

to sub-

ject electricity to taxation at the standard rate of

14%

4%. A 60% surcharge was imposed on movehicles, which were taxed according to weight. An

automatic inflation correction devised for the income tax would be applied for the first time in 1972. After ten years of debate, Italy's tax reform bill 7, 1971. Its main aims were to

was enacted on Oct.

simplify the tax structure and to introduce VAT in accordance with the country's EEC obligations. About

18 old taxes would be replaced by three different in-

—

Agriculture

Telecommunications

The wider community of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD coun-

come taxes for the individual, for the corporation, and a local income tax and a capital gains tax on immovable property. The VAT would replace about 23 other indirect taxes, including the turnover tax, and death duties were radically changed. VAT and certain other provisions of the bill were to become effective on Jan. 1, 1973, while the individual and corporate income taxes would become effective on Jan. 1, 1974. Transitional measures with respect to VAT were designed to avoid postponement of new purchases by entrepreneurs. Modifications in income tax to help those in low income groups were to be made to offset the slight increases in prices expected from the change to VAT. Taxable income of up to 2 million lire (approximately U.S. $3,500) would be subject to a 10% tax, rising to 72% on incomes over 500 million lire. The

—

rates with the

earlier, the established

telecommunications carriers

had contended that it and others would "cream skim" business on high-volume and low-cost routes, leaving the Bell System and Western Union to serve thinly populated and, therefore, high-cost areas. Until 1972 established policy for the

common

carriers called for

nationwide averaging of interstate service costs and rates. Thus, service between two small towns in the

Rocky Mountains

cost the customer no more than for same mileage between two large cities in the East, it cost much more to provide the former. Western Union's Chicago-St. Louis private line rates marked the first departure from that policy, and the FCC immediately ordered an investigation. Authorities generally agreed that the outcome of the case would fix the rules for future price competition between the nationwide general carriers and the specialized systems. The inquiry began at the end of 1972, and was not expected to reach a decision at least

the

although

until well into 1973.

During 1972

a

number

of specialized

common

car-

rier systems were authorized, including much of the projected nationwide system of the Data Transmission

continued on page 657

SPECIAL REPORT

By 1948 television was on its way to national popularity. Production and factory-value figures indicate that from 1946 to 194S factory production of television sets incre>ised from 6,000 to 1,160,000; sales to consumers climbed from 6.000 to 977,000; and the statistics on sets in use went from 5,000 to 975,000. Television master distribution systems had been developed and were installed in multiple dwellings and hotels, such as the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City. Although the Roller Derbys, the Hopalong Cassidys, and the Milton Berles gained national acclaim over television, it is contended that the real captivating power of television lay in the medium itself rather than in the

CABLE

COMMUNICATIONSA SPRINGBOARD

TO TOMORROW

programming

it

transmitted.

Television at this point was offering only limited service in the large cities and virtually no service in rural areas or towns more than 50 mi. from the metropolitan centres with broad-

By Mary

Alice

Mayer

casting stations. Geographic factors, such as terrain or distance

Phillips

from a

television transmitter,

Hcensing of to a

new

TV

and the 1948

FCC

freeze on the

stations, threatened to restrict television

few privileged urban areas. Although equipment manufacand fringe

turers were distributing television receivers in rural

tJusl as the automobile crank and the Victrola have been relegated to museums, and washing machines, iceboxes, and stoves lin\e evolved, "cable communications" has and will continue kvelop form, function, impact, sophistication, and glamour ineivable only by today's most imaginative dreamers. Through his cable equipment a future subscriber may have available on his home screen such services as books on microfilm, news and weather data, market information, movies and sports events, shopping services, remote public utility meter readouts, currency and checking system services, mail service, central security protection against fire and burglary, automated typing, and optical I

ir.Tcter

'

recognition for such information parcels.

':ible communications can only be considered as an integrated of a comprehensive communications system and should be recognized as deriving from the CATV (community antenna television) service concept. "CATV" is the term applied by the I

p..rt

Communications Commission (FCC) to facilities from television stations, modify them, and distribute them over cable or wire to subscribing mem- of the public who pay for such service. The C.\TV industry .Iso popularly known as "cable TV," "cablecasting," or even jiuadband communications." The designation "community an-

had not tried to resolve the peculiar reception probin these areas. Consequently, local distributors had an oversupply of television sets which they could not sell until special receiving and distribution system equipment was designed, developed, and installed. Thus, both the populace and the appliance dealers wanted television to come to town. Community antenna

areas, they

lems

television

was a product of

Special note should be

demand.

this

made

regarding the 1948

In 1948. after public hearings, the

FCC

FCC

freeze.

established a television

program that proposed a distribution of 12 very-highfrequency (VHF) channels to 340 cities. The allocations were based on engineering predictions that television signals would be limited to 35 mi. It was soon found, however, that television signals carried farther than had been anticipated and that stations had been spaced too closely together. Accordingly, later allocations

commission declared a temporary freeze on

in 1948, the

and commenced The hearings continued until

all

new

U.S. Federal

television applications

further rule-making pro-

that receive signals over the air

ceedings.

the

'

tenna television" can be misleading, implying as it does that CATV is no more than an antenna owned by the community. The fact is that drastic changes in form and function, technology,

and services have made this assumption obsolete. Growth of a New Industry. The community antenna television industrj' has become a phenomenon on the .American scene. The service grew out of a need by disenfranchised members of the public rather than from any design or marketing plan of a large manufacturer. Historically, certain geographic locations, due to terrain or remote position, were particularly difficult to sorve by air transmission. Mountains could not be pierced by \\ave communications signals. Sparsely populated areas were '

.

its

of 1951,

order setting a

and

new

in

table

of television allocations. During this freeze period the demand for television increased, and thus the C.'\TV industry, with its ability to supply television service to

many

areas without local

was given impetus. No one man was solely responsible for the development of there is some question about who did what Although CATV. precisely where and when, there is no question that CATV pioneers were involved with similar concerns at about the same time. Each of these small businessmen took steps initially to stations,

solve the problems. L. E. Parsons

is

the recognized father of

cable television for having devised in Astoria, Ore., the first experimental community antenna system. He possessed technical

handyman

qualities, but did not

have the business acumen neces-

sary for sustaining his enterprise.

Unlike

many

others

who were

active in the early days of the

Shapp (later governor of Pennsylvania) possessed some degree of technical training. Furthermore, he was able to devise a situation in which he could develop a re-

fconomic reasons impractical for television station construcn, establishment, and maintenance. Ihe interest of the large manufacturer of electronic equipment - not sufficiently attracted to the needs of the people in the

industry. Milton Jerrold

vision reception fringe areas, for generally they did not apindividuals .ir to constitute a market sufficiently large. Rather,

lacked funds, with ?500 and a reciprocal association with Robert Jarlton of Lansford, Pa., they constructed and built the Panther Valley Television Co. rPVTV). For Shapp, PVTV was a field testing site which brought national attention and consequent

I

.

April 1952, the commission issued

fall

!,

ic

responsible for the practical implementation of the dream television. The personalities responsible

mmmunity antenna r

early-day

?c-rvative

CATV

were

in

— the combination

some

cases colourful, in others con-

offering a healthy blend for a

young

industry.

Mdty

Alice

Mayer

Phillips

is

a lecturer and consultant on mass

.ommunications and author of CATV: A History of Community \iUcnna Television and British Commercial Television: Advertising, Revenues, Taxes.

liable

CATV

system. Although Shapp and his associates initially

encouragement to Jerrold Electronics Corp. as a viable enterprise engaged in the construction and installation of community antenna system equipment. Shapp subsequently built Jerrold Electronics into one of the leading CATV equipment manufacturing operations in the country. Martin F. Malarkey, Jr.. of Pottsville, Pa., formerly in the music store business and without any appreciable electronic background, developed a CATV business management consultant enterprise in Washington, D.C. 655

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, although relatively unknown throughout the country, CATV was being watched carefully by

many concerned

The industry grew

parties.

numbers

rapidly in miles of

on the habits of individual subscribers, and, perhaps most importantly and impressively, in the degree of entrenchment in the life of each local community it was ser\'ing. Government Regulation. A number of important pronouncements at the federal level by the FCC and the courts warrant cable, in

of subscribers, in

its

effect

CATV. In the significant Company v. Collier, the FCC in CATV systems were not common carriers. Later,

consideration in the development of case of Frontier Broadcasting

1958 held that in the Carter

Mountain Transmission Corp. opinion, the FCC common carrier by radio the right to con-

charge only for use exceeding five minutes of line production. provisions were made for the leased channels.

No

The FCC

laid out some special use requirements for nonsuband subscription channels. Origination channels are usable for such purposes only. Commercial advertising is permitted at the beginning and end of a program and in natural breaks that are not controlled by the system operator. Outside the top 100 markets, systems cannot restrict the use of sub-

scription

stantial portions of time for controversial local issues. Public

and leased access channels must be made available on a nondiscriminatory, first-come first-served basis. On the government access channels there is to be no censorship, and no restrictions can be laid provide.

on behalf of CATV systems because of the impact thereof on an existing local television station, provided, however, that the commission would reconsider the matter if and when it could be shown that the CATV systems would carry the signal of the local TV station and would not duplicate its programming. The FCC's First Report and Order (1965) provided that, in order to protect the programming of the local station, CATV systems using microwave facilities must carry the local signals and may not within 15 days duplicate local programming. The Second Report and Order (1966) limited the time to the same day and extended these requirements to all CATV systems, regardless of whether microwave

channels.

struct facilities for carriage of signals

was used. In June 1968, two cases decided by the U.S. Supreme Court and two by the FCC were extremely important- to the CATV industry: (1) in United States v. Southwestern Cable Co., the Supreme Court held that CATV systems are engaged in inter-

commerce, and that under the Communications Act the commission has the authority to regulate the CATV industry; (2) in Fortnightly Corporation v. United Artists Television, Inc.,

state

the court stated that a cast does not

amount

and, consequently,

CATV to a

CATV

system's retransmission of a broad-

performance under the Copyright Act, operators are not liable for copyright

fees to television broadcasters; (3) in General Telephone Company of California, the FCC decided that a certificate of public necessity and convenience pursuant to the Communications Act must be obtained by a telephone company before commencing

down except

No

refused to grant to a

TV

Subscription

same

San Angeles signals (except for certain existing situations) Diego systems were allowed to furnish local programming but without advertising. ;

Finally, in the area of federal regulation, the commission's

Notice of Proposed Rule Making and Notice of Inquiry, released Dec. 13, 1968, expressed the intention to explore on a broad scale the question of how to procure most effectively, consistent with the public interest, the full benefits of CATV potential services and what regulations might be adopted to further this goal.

On June

16, 1972, the

FCC

adopted amendments

to its

CATV

rules of Feb. 2, 1972. Essentially, these rules require that systems in the top 100

markets must have

at least

20 broadcast channels

including an origination (production) or subscription

(leased)

channel for each off-air channel and nonvoice return communication capacity. At least one access channel each must be dedicated to public use, to education, and to government. Ailer fulfillment of these obligations, channels

may be

leased.

Systems

with 3.500 or more subscribers must have at least one origination channel, have nonautomated facilities for local production, and

be

a local outlet "to a significant extent."

Channel use charges for political advertising must be uniform and comparable to charges for other uses and also be nondiscriminatory and nonpreferential. No charges are to be made for at least five years for either the education or the

access channels.

656

On

government

the public-access channels, one channel

may

70%

the time for at least

—

A

(ser\'ice at least

90%

of

of the receiving locations) signal in

the system community, or within two years of the specific sports

event telecast

in the

community when

it

occurred.

No

adver-

on feature or sports programs on subscription channels is permitted except before and after the program, and it can only advertise other subscription programs. tising

General broadcasting regulations related to such concerns as fairness doctrine and sponsorship identification were extended to cablecasting. Also, a restriction was made as follows: systems in the top 100 markets operating on March 31, 1972, are "grandfathered" not required to conform to new regulations the

—

—

until

March

31, 1977. If prior to

commence

nel operations

quotas

or

if

March

31, 1977, access chan-

television signals are

added to

top 100 markets, operations shall conform to applicable requirements. Each system must add one access chan-

fill

in the

nel for each such

added signal in the following order of priority: government, leased. At the state level, the overwhelming majority of state tribunals and authorities have taken the position that essential jurisdicpublic, educational,

tion

Television, Inc., the

systems from carrying Los

—

on a regular basis on a Grade

live

general area, that

Midwest

otherwise

characters are not permitted. Feature films are not permitted until two years after their first U.S. general theatrical release. Subscription cablecasting of sports is not permitted within two years of the sports event telecast

to a CATV system; and (4) commission barred San Diego

in

may

for the educational access

cast of principal

construction of distribution facilities to provide channel service

CATV

made

permitted and divided into five categories programs with an interconnected plot

is

of consideration. Series

or the

as state or federal laws

provisions were

is

vested in the

FCC,

CATVs

systems are interstate

that the states are

are not public

in character.

that state or local authorities

permit taxes on

CATV

may

preempted and that

in this

CATV

utilities,

However,

this is not to say not levy reasonable use or

them to pay rent for the use of streets, alleys, or other public facilities. In regard facilities

or require

to municipalities, their taxes or charges are sustained

where they

are reasonable and are levied, not for the privilege of doing business or as a revenue device, but for the enforcement of appropriate local government supervision, as a rental for per-

mitting use of the public ways, or for the expense of inspection.

The Future— A Cable-Air Blend? As the residents of rural areas had felt faulted in the late 1940s by the lack of available television channels, in the late 1960s and into the 1970s the urban dweller has been disturbed by the inadequacy and/or unreliability of the communications services he is receiving. Television reception

is often disintegrating to little more than snow and ghosts with pictures sometimes obliterated and indiscernible. Telephone service likewise is breaking down where and when it is needed the most.

The present

allocations table issued in the

FCC's 1952

Sixth

Report and Order has come to be recognized as inadequate to meet communications demands. Possible and needed services for the public using the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum presently allocated to television far outstrip the cap.ability of the current assignments chart to carry such traffic. Consequently,

analysis or projection of

any aspect of communications as it might use the airwaves must relate directly to the carriage potential of the electromagnetic spectrum.

;

continued from page 654

of the

Co. (Datran). Datran, while planning to open its first commercial service by 1974, modified its original

test of that policy

plans so as to reduce the previously estimated $300

protests of the National .Association of Regulatory

FCC's "open entry" policy, a federal court remained pending. Not yet decided by the Court of Appeals in San Francisco were the

million investment to below $200 million. It planned

do

to

this

by

Utility ice

from telephone companies, instead of building them. Others getting government approval to build sysaffiliate

MCI,

of

Interdata

Com-

munications, Inc., between New York and Washington; the Nebraska Consolidated Communications

the companies' "less affluent" residential

munications, Inc., mainly a transmitter of television broadcast program material in the West. As the year

drew to a close, MCI's Chicago-St. Louis system remained the only specialized carrier in actual commercial operation. all

and small

business users.

microwave radio system for the Nebraska state government and planned to country; and Western Tele-Comthe much of cover Corp., which started with a

Although

Commissioners, representing state public serv-

commissions, and the Washington state commission. They argued that the new specialized carriers would siphon off the business service revenues of the established telephone companies to the detriment of

leasing initial local distribution facilities

tems included an

Telecommunications

concerned were proceeding on the basis

"Interconnects." Taking almost equally as long to establish itself as a going business was the "interconnect" market. This slowly burgeoning field, the product of a 1968 FCC decision in the landmark "Carterfone" case, comprised the provision by private entrepreneurs of private branch exchange switchboards, key systems, and other telephone facihties on the premises of customers, usually businesses. Although the private systems had intercommunicating,

Today the most promising answer to the channel allocations problem and the desire and requirements of the public for increasing communications service is a hybrid cable-air communications blend. The requirements of colour reception, the growth of ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) transmission, and the inability of apartment house master antenna systems to meet current demands put cable-air experimentation on exceptionally favourable footing. Furthermore, a microwave link-cable communica-

introduced or dispose of their radios with the advent of television, so it will predictably be with the broadcast service of cable communications. The media mix of the future will involve the blend of an increasing number of media and will vary to satisfy

merger concept holds significant promise of bringing required and luxury communications services to both mass and

the 1970s will continue

tions

specialized audiences.

This hybrid technological design must meet the following functional specifications: (1) it must carry multiple channels to multiple receivers in a designated area in such a way as to avoid the expensive project of tearing up the streets to lay cable (2) it must function as a system for point-to-point operation to satellite cities;

as rivers.

To

and (3)

it

must be able

this point, highly

to transcend

such barriers

successful operational experi-

at the 18-

and 40-gigaHertz

(1 giga-

ments have been conducted Hertz = 1 billion Hz) and 2,150- and 2,160-MHz regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. As a short-haul, high-volume, lownoise, high-power microwave link, such systems seem to hold promise of assuming a significant role in communications. Technological advance is exceptionally expensive and will become increasingly so in terms of financial and skill resources and technical and programming capabilities. Consequently, equipment and systems characteristics will describe patterns substandays tially modified from those of the less expensive founding outlay of community antenna television. At this time the capital only that significant for research and development is usually so the corporate giants can afford it. Mergers in a formal and fiscal sense, together with outside financing, are the current trend and

probably continue to Reasonable speculation describe a growth pattern dustry. In the 1920s and

will

occur. indicates that the

CATV

industry will

similar to that of the automobile in-

1930s there were many car manufaceventually disappeared or were absorbed by a few major companies. Similarly, by the year 2000 the CATV industry with about ten will probably bear less than a score of names, turers

who

leading the pack in general public reputation, awareness, sales,

and ser%'ice. Although studies have been prepared proposing or assummg such efthe end of over-the-air broadcasting in favour of cable, Contemporary forts seem hardly more than academic exercises. disapthe neither suggest realities economic and political, legal, pearance nor the obsolescence of other media but rather a dilution individuals. of patterns of some of the media in the consumption was did not stop buying newspapers when radio Just as people

the requirements and desires of each person. The difference will lie in the fact, however, that most of these services will be efficiently channeled through

broadband

facilities.

beyond dynamic growth and development. multinational need is for a widely available two-way communications system that can rapidly handle large amounts of information in both directions. It need not compete destructively with existing media but must complement and utilize the presently available communications services.

The

cable communications industry projected into and its

The predominant domestic and

CATV.

Consistent with the history of

tions initiated in the industry illustrate

ble

experimental innova-

what

is

technically feasi-

reflect its consistently progressive character.

and

Innovations

in technology and service will probably be witnessed primarily in systems constructed in major markets, especially as they

evolve into both

The

many

home and urban communications

potential for intervention

by

systems.

statute or regulation of so

diverse governmental and regulatory bodies and commisimpact for good or ill, war-

sions, together with the resultant

rants intelligent

and imaginative planning on the part of

in-

persons in government, politics, and communications. As the industry has become an obvious potentially effective public servant, in addition to the federal, state, and local regulatory layers discussed above, a fourth regulatory terested

and

influential

layer with a function of information and counsel has become apparent. It includes the Office of Telecommunications Policy, presidentially apthe Cable Television Information Center, and pointed study committees. These agencies of the fourth regulatory

industry in layer pose a significant danger to the activities of the idealistic that their many reports emphasize the glamorous and phases of the business rather than the basic technical, regulatory,

and and

political

problems. If adequately staffed with intellectual who are politically effective, their function

ethical persons

On the other hand, if staffed with people who might have been disheartened or disenfranchised industry, or who are either communications the in other areas of their efforts could intellectually or ethically less than eminent, seriously detrimental at best be wasted or their impact might be will result in a positive contribution.

to the public interest.

communications Finally, it is necessary at this time for the than global industry to talk and think and plan in nothing less exploited to serve terms. If hardware and technical designs are

communicaethicaUy and philosophically idealistic objectives, peace. tions media may serve as a circuitry of

658

Telecommunications

conference, and other internal features, they became ™°^' useful when they were interconnected with the general switched telephone network. In this manner, business A, with

own

its

private system, could talk

with business B, whose system was provided by the telephone company, just as though both were entirely

served by the telephone company. Following the Carterfone decision, the Bell System (the rules and rate sheets under which

filed tariffs

they did business) requiring that customer-provided devices be connected with the telephone network through "interface" devices furnished by the phone companies. These devices were intended to protect its employees, and other customers from a variety of harms, ranging from surging electrical voltages to tying up telephone central switchthe telephone system,

had no service. Frequent protests by nontelephone company supan extended study of the situation. The independent "interconnect" suppliers contended that the telephone companies' requirements were too costly and cumbersome, and gave the utilities an unfair competitive advantage over independent firms. Telephones. The growth curve for telephone traffic is fairly standard, and the U.K, in 1972 hit the steepest part of it, the same rate of growth experienced by the U,S. in the early 1960s. Investment in telecommunications by the British Post Office in 1972 ran at £500 million a year, and one in three householders owned a telephone. Unfortunately, at this very time ing offices so that other customers

pliers led to

of greatest

demand

the British public started to reap

made by the Post by 1972 everyone admitted

the rewards of a technical decision Office in the 1950s that

was wrong. Equipped

at that time with aging

Strowger

exchanges, the Post Office courageously but rashly

decided to bypass the U,S, adoption of crossbar techniques and go directly into electronic exchanges. After

some years

of experiment, this decision turned out to

be a complete failure and, having missed the boat with crossbar, the Post Office found itself having to re-

beam

to

signals into small aerials that could, for ex-

ample, be used by schools. Fairchild was already developing Applications Techsatellites F and G for the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). They were more powerful than anything previously in service, and instead of the 80-ft. ground dish aerials required by Intelsat satellites, they needed only 12-ft. dishes to collect television signals and relay them to

nology

local receivers.

Impatient at the delay in completing a U.S. satelsystem, a U.S. firm, RC.\ Global Communications, signed an agreement with Canada's domestic satellite company early in December. Subject to approval by lite

Canadian and U.S. regulatory agencies, Telesat Canada would allow RC'V to use one full-time channel of the Anik 2 satellite. This service would permit voice and television transmission between the U.S. East and West coasts and between both coasts and Alaska. It was scheduled to begin in June 1973. Two more satellites of the Intelsat 4 class went into service, and development began on the new, higher capacity Intelsat 5. The increasingly mature international satellite service not only continued to provide more telecommunications service to business

steadily

its

progress also became

to television viewers in the

more apparent

home. Television service from two of the year's major news events, U.S. Prcs. Richard Nixon's visit to China and the violence-marred Olympic Games, was brought to

throughout the world, almost routinely.

homes Cable Communications. Mostly evolution, and

jj--^i-

.i_.i telecommunications technical and administrative services in less developed countries; and (3) developing the human resources required for telecommunications. (ITU) .

and government users, but

,.

See also Industrial Review; Television

Encyclop-cdia (1967); What

!s

and Radio.

Bhitannica Films. Getting Computer? (1971).

the

News

more than two years while C.\TV operation were considered by the U.S. government, began to move again after the FCC issued a whole new set of rules for cable TV. held up for

FCC

toward attaining cable TV systems in local communities that will be "something more than an antenna service." (don bvrne; laurie john) {See Special Report.) International Telecommunication Union. During 1972 membership in the International Telecomsaid,

it

is

striving

munication Union (ITU) increased to 143 with the to the International Telecommunication Convention of Tonga, Oman, and the United Arab

accession

Emirates.

The

27th

Council was held at

May

27-June

16.

of the Administrative headquarters in Geneva,

session

ITU

The

council passed a resolution

recognizing the representatives of the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate representatives of China at the ITU. The council also agreed upon the calendar of future

ITU

conferences, the principal

ones being: World Administrative Telegraph and Telephone Conference, Geneva (.^pril 2-11, 1973); Conference, Torremolinos, Spain Plenipotentiary

and World AdministraMaritime Mobile Telecommunications, Geneva (April 22 to June 7, 1974). The council examined a report on technical cooperation during 1971. Under the ITU's various technical cooperation programs in less developed counfeltries, 255 experts were on field missions and 448 (Sept. 14 to Oct. 26, 19731; Radio Conference for

tive

lows were undergoing training abroad. The total cost

amounted to $7,714,261. The three main objectives of ITU's technical cooperation acof this assistance

continued to be: (1) promoting the development of regional telecommunications networks in Afthe rica, Asia, and Latin America; (2) strengthening

tivity

-^

demonstrated

by Lloyd Huff, who headed the team of scientists that developed the device.

Because it had an operating life of five to seven years, It would have a practical In

communications

satellites.

Television and Radio

basic rules for

Basically, the

^^^^^

application

a

not revolution, continued to be the word during the year for cable television (CATV) systems. Growth of

new systems,

OT a suniigni-powerea

More in use

than 927 million television and radio sets were

throughout the world in 1972.

Some

radio ser-

was available in almost every country, and there was some television service in every industrial nation except South Africa, whose government was considering introducing it by 1975. Television sets in the world totaled 261,750,000 and radio sets 665.5 million, according to estimates compiled by Broadcasting magazine and Broadcasting Yearbook. Approximately 95 million, or 36%, of the television sets were in the United States. The U.S.S.R. had the second largest number, about 30 million, and Japan was third with about 24 million. Other Broadcasting estimates showed the United Kingdom with 20 million. West Germany 17 million, France 12 million, Italy 10.8 million, Canada 6.S million, Spain 4.5 million, Poland 4 miUion, vice

Argentina 3.5 million, Australia 3.2 million, Czecho-

Sweden 2.7 million, Belgium 2.1 Hungary and Yugoslavia 1.8 million each,

slovakia 3.1 million, million,

Austria 1.6 million,

Denmark

1.4

million,

and Bul-

Broadcasting garia 1.2 million. At the other extreme. reported Singapore with 185,000, Syria 120,000, the Sudan and Malta 70,000, Tunisia Kuwait 110,000,

Yemen 65,000 each, Cyprus and Rhodesia 50,000 each, (Aden) 22,000, Mauritania and Zambia 20,000 each, LiEthiopia 8,000, 15,000, Uganda 18,000, Bermuda beria 6,500, Gibraltar 6.000, and Sierra Leone 3,500. About 53% of the world's radio sets, or 353.5 million,

were

No country of any size lacked of radio service, although in a few areas

in the U.S.

some form

set up in the service consisted only of loudspeakers some public places for community listening, and in relay stacases the broadcasts came from booster or

tions rather than directly

from broadcasting

stations.

the Olympics coverage, about 200 million more thr^ were believed to have seen some part of the 1'^ Mexican Olympics coverage. Extensive satellite arrays were also used to displa> worldwide the coverage of President Nixon's visit to mainland China in February and to Moscow in May. Also seen throughout the world were the Apollo 16 and 17 moon flights in April and December and the

U.S. elections in

November.

An unprecedented

event in broadcasting history

wa.i

the International Conference of Broadcasting Unions on Communication Satellites which took place in

Rome, March 6-11,

Bob

(right)

of radio

and Ray

fame

Approximately 6,385 television stations were

satirize

TV

in

coverage of roclnen by Thomas Middleton (17th-century, English), The School for Scandal hy Richard Sheridan (18th-century, English), The Lower Depths by Gorki (1902, Russian), and two recent works: U.S.A., adapted from John Dos Passos' novels by Paul Shyre, and Next Time I'll Sing to You by James Saunders. The New Phoenix Repertory Company the third such group to appear in New York under the Phoenix management presented O'Neill 's The Great God Brown (directed by Harold Prince) and Moliere's Lincoln Center.

plays,

—

—

a dream sequence from the nostalgic musical In

"Grease," a 1972

Broadway production, Marya Smail (foreground) envisions rock

'n'

roll

star

Alan Paul (top) leading a roller-crowned choir in a number entitled "Beauty School Dropout."

1

In Minneapolis the Tyrone Guthrie Theatre

674

in-

sented Sophocles' Oedipus the King

Theatre

in a new adap by Anthony Burgess, directed by Michael Lanham, with Len Cariou in the title role. The L^ Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Conn., offered U.S. premiere of The Contractor by the British pi Wright David Storey, in November 1971. and U.S. premiere of Storey's The Changing Room in N vember 1972. The Pittsburgh Playhouse gave the I premiere of Enter a Free Man by Tom Stoppard. Of the professional companies on university campuses, the most vigorous was the Yale Repert^rTheatre in New Haven, which presented the U.S. pr miere of Happy End, a musical play by Bertolt Brc. and Elisabeth Hauptmann, with music by Kurt Wo and the world premiere of Are You Now or Have 1 Ever Been, Eric Bentley's documentary play dran tized from the records of the U.S. House Commit on Un-American Activities. A new management Princeton's McCarter Theatre began its adminisir tion with two U.S. plays: the world premiere "i Agamemnon, a rather literary verse play by Har\Mni University professor William Alfred, and the U ^ premiere of The Tooth of Crime, a play about a rdi singer by 28-year-old Sam Shepard. Meanwhile, Broadway continued to exist, but an air of deep malaise hung over it. The Broadway audience deterred by crime in the streets or high ticket price; or changing habits seemed to be shrinking. Caui;i: between dwindling audiences and rising costs, pr

tion

i

i

'

:

i

One of Broadway's favourite leading ladies, Gwen Verdon, portrays

a babysitter whose charges, Ariane Munker (left), Shawn Campbell, and Johnny Doran, give her the shivers in the 1972 Jack Horrig, thriller

"Children! Children!"

Don Juan

(directed by Stephen Porter) at the Lyceum, a Broadway theatre. In Queens the Queens Playhouse opened its doors with a production of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion. And the Circle in the Square, long established off-Broadway, opened its new Broadway headquarters with O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electro, starring Colleen Dewhurst. A number of black theatres made their presence felt in New York, and two promising playwrights emerged from them. The Sty of the Blind Pig by Philip Hayes

Dean was presented by

the

Negro Ensemble Company Go to Your

near the end of 1971, and Don't Let It

Head by

J.

E.

Gaines, a presentation of the

New

Henry Street PlayThe former was heavy and sombre, and the latter comic and melodramatic by turns; both were realistic accounts of black American lives.

Federal Theatre, opened at the

house early

A

in 1972.

different sort of racially oriented theatre group, the

American Indian Theatre Ensemble, made its debut at the La Mama E.xperimental Theatre Club. Noncommercial professional theatres were by no means confined to New York; dozens of them, some long established, continued to function in other

cities.

The Arena Stage, in Washington, D.C., was represented on Broadway by its production of Moonchildren by Michael Weller; the Arena also offered, for local audiences, the U,S premiere of Uptight, a quizzical play by the West German writer Giinter Grass about the conflict between uneasy liberalism and revolutionary passion, and The Foursome, a realistic play about working-class sexuality by the British playwright E, A. Whitehead. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, also in Washington, functioned mainly as a stopping place for touring attractions; nevertheless, it managed to send three productions, all revivals, on to Broadway: The Country Girl by Clifford Odets (directed by John Houseman, with Maureen Stapleton, Jason Robards, Jr., and George Grizzard); Lost in the Stars (a musical play based on Alan Paton's novel Cry, the Beloved Country, with words by Maxwell Anderson and music by Kurt Weill); and Captain Brassbound's Conversion by

Shaw

(a star vehicle for Ingrid

Bergman).

—

—

ducers found

it

increasingly difficult to turn a proir

Even productions with well-known names attached them, plus highly favourable reviews, lost money. most notable of these was Old Times, Pinter's cl gant study of an ambiguous three-cornered relatim ship, which came to New York in November 1971, r a production under the auspices of the Royal Shakespeare Company of London. Peter Hall directed, and Rosemary Harris, Robert Shaw, and Mary Ure comprised the entire cast. Other imports from London in eluded Vivatl Vivat Reginal. Robert Bolt's hislii play, with Eileen Atkins as Elizabeth I and Clair. Bloom as Mary, queen of Scots, and Butley by Simon Gray, in which ."Man Bates had a tremendous personal '1

success as a vituperative teacher.

Aside from London imports and transfers from noncommercial theatres, Broadway had little to offer in 1972, At the end of the year there was a new Neil Simon comedy. The Sunshine Boys. And there were a few musicals. Sugar, based on Billy Wilder's movie Some Like H Hot, was mediocre but serviceable, sustained by the exuberant transvestite clowning of Robert Morse. There was a happy revival, imported from Los Angeles, of A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum with the indomitable Phil Silvers, The musical comedy success of the fall season was Pippin, an account of the imaginary travails of Charlemagne's son, staged with a great deal of razzmatazz by Bob

Fosse.

A

headline in Variety, the theatrical trade pain the off-Broadway season as "Punkeroi'

summed up

from an ofl-oliFernando and scatology, set in a prison HandPut And They in his native country, and titled cuffs on the Flowers. There was a larky double bill by Tom Stoppard, After Magritte and The Real Inspector Hound; the latter was a parody of a British mystery play, with two critics, seated out front, gradually getting caught up in the action. A new play by TenThere was

Broadway

Arrabal,

a

new

theatre,

full

play, transferred

by

the Spanish dramatist

of anguish

—

,

nessee Williams, titled Small Craft Warnings and set in a California bar, proved more successful than most

$48.4 billion,

of his recent work.

way

Off-Broadway presented several musicals, including two by Al Carmines, the amazingly prolific musical

from his off-off-Broadway base at the Judson Memorial Church: Wanted (book by David Epstein), about some notable American outlaws, and Joan (book, lyrics, and music by Carmines a highly unorthodox account of a modern Joan of Arc. Grease, a rock 'n' roll evocation of the 1950s, was so successful that it moved to Broadway, and Don't Bother Me, I Can't Cope, an all-black revue written by, and starring. Micki Grant, had a successful run at a "middle theatre," a middle-sized house that was neither Broadway nor off-Broadway. There was also an off-Broadway revue devoted to the songs of Kurt Weill and another devoted to the works of Noel Coward. In Canada the theatre was swept by a vivifying wave of cultural nationalism. Small theatres, devoted almost exclusively to presenting new Canadian work, were functioning in cities from coast to coast. Among theatres were these Pier I (Halifax), Theatre d'Aujourd'hui (Montreal), Toronto Free Theatre, Factory Theatre Lab (Toronto), Tarragon Theatre Ltd. (Toronto), Theatre Passe Muraille (Toronto), Theatre Three (Edmonton), and The Savage God (Vancouver). Two notable plays came out of these theatres: Creeps by David Freeman, from the Factory minister, transferred

)

j

I

I

.

j

i

Theatre Lab, about life among cerebral palsy victims, and Leaving Home by David French, from the Tarragon Theatre, about a family from Newfoundland

liv-

ing in Toronto.

;

I

Bishop's

billion

a

675

year

Timber

crossties,

wood producers

in 1969, with a reported total of 95,490,000 cu.m. This slightly exceeded the combined total of 95,441,000 cu.m. for the U.S. and Canada. The U.S. ranked second among individual nations with 69,764,000 cu.m.; Japan was third with 32,450,000

and Canada ranked fourth with 25.677,000 cu.m. Sweden, with 11,405,000 cu.m., was fifth in the cu.m.;

world and

first

among European

nations.

The U.S. led in output of broad-leaved sawn wood, with 18.595,000 cu.m. in 1969. The U.S.S.R. was second with 16.830,000 cu.m.; Japan produced 9,107,000 cu.m.; and China's output was estimated at 5.2 million cu.m.

Among

regions, Asia

was the largest pro-

followed by North America, Europe, South America, the Pacific area, Africa, and Central Amerducer,

ica in that order.

A new summer j

compared with $45.5

The value

of processed wood (sawn wood, railand boxboards) was $16.3 billion; pulp products (paper and paperboard) accounted for $20.7 billion; panel products (veneers, plywood, particle board, and fibreboard) for $6 billion; and all other wood products for $5.4 billion. Estimates were in terms of U.S. dollars based on constant 1960 prices. Sawlogs for lumber and veneer accounted for more than one-third of all roundwood removals and for about three-fourths of removals for industrial purposes. Sawn wood (lumber) production in 1969 totaled 408,528,000 cu.m. (1 cu.m,, lumber measure = 424 bd-ft. I. about 80% of which was coniferous. Approximately 90% of coniferous sawn wood and nearly two-thirds of broad-leaved sawn wood came from the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The U.S.S.R. ranked first among coniferous sawn earlier.

Festival

festival,

University,

Lennoxville,

Lennoxville at

Que.,

came

into

existence with a policy of doing only Canadian plays

new ones but Canadian plays that had already been produced and that deserved to be seen again. In its first season, it presented T/ie Ottawa Man not

(Mavor Moore's canadianized adaptation of Gogol's Tke Government Inspector) Captives of the Faceless Drummer by George Ryga, and Lulu Street by Ann ,

(julius novick)

Henry. See also Dance; Literature; Music.

ENCYCLOP.SDIA BsiTANNicA FiLMs. The Cherry Orchard Innovator of Modern Drama (1967); The Cherry Orchard II— Comedy or Tragedy! (1967): A Doll's House I~The Destruction oj Illusion (1967) A Doll's House 11— Ibsen's Themes (1967): Shaw vs. Shakespeare Part I: Tke Character of Caesar, Part II: The Tragedy ol Julius Caesar, Part III: Caesar and Cleopatra (1970).

Preliminary estimates of U.S. lumber production were available for 1971, based on information compiled by the National Forest Products Association. Total 1971 output was 36,639,000,000 bd-ft., including 30,283,000,000 bd-ft. of softwood lumber and 6,356,000,000 bd-ft. of hardwood lumber. The combined output was some 2,000,000,000 bd-ft. greater

than the 1970 figure but

still

below the postwar high

of 38,900,000,000 bd-ft. reached in 1950. In 1971 the of lumber and imported 7,619,300 bd-ft. The wholesale price index of lumber in June 1972 was 159 (1967 = 100), 18.3%

U.S.

ex-ported

1,096,700,000 bd-ft.

I— Chekhov:

:

A fir

seven-foot-ttiick Douglas log (in midair

to left of cables) is

lifted by a Sikorsky

S-64E Skycrane, An innovation in

logging,

the huge helicopter makes

Timber

remote timber accessible and eliminates the need

The world's

forests continued to

show

a steady in-

crease in yield in 1969, the latest year for which fig-

for road building

and clear-cutting.

ures were available. Total output

2,184,739.000 cu.m. of

was estimated at roundwood, compared with

2,149,775.000 cu.m. in 1968 and 1,908.872,000 cu.m.

1960

in

(1

cu.m.

=

35.31 cu.ft.).

1,219,428,000 cu.m. were

removed

Of

the 1969 total,

for industrial uses,

remainder being used for fuelwood, charcoal, and and nonindustrial purposes. Removals coniferous (softwood) roundwood and broadleaved (hardwood) roundwood were approximately equal in volume, but coniferous roundwood accounted the

other domestic of

for use.

70% of the total removed The estimates were made by the

about

for industrial

UN

Food and

Agriculture Organization.

The

total value of

world production

Theology: in

1969 was

see Religion

676

Tobacco

above a year earlier. U.S. timber production was slowed somewhat in 1972 by a temporary injunction against cutting on certain national forest lands considered to have possible value for designation as wilderness areas. The injunction resulted from a suit filed by the Sierra Club, a con5er\'ationist organization. The U.S. Forest Ser\'ice. meanwhile, adopted a new program for "national forest management in a quality environment." which included restrictions on clear-cutting in certain types of forest.

Canadian lumber production at 11,573,900,000 bd-ft., a gain

1969 was reported over the 11.343,700,-

in

About 95% of was softwood lumber and approximately two-thirds was exported. World production of wood pulp continued to in000

bd-ft.

(revised figure) of 196S.

the total

crease steadily, rising to 98.050,000 metric tons in

1969, compared with the revised estimate of 91.4

In recent years world tobacco production had ceeded consumption requirements, resulting in

r

world trade

tobacco was relatively steady, althoi;. had occurred in recent years.

in

significant shifts

1

example, the continuing sanctions against trade wr Rhodesia encouraged many countries to expand thi own production, both for domestic use and for expii' Also, the effect on world trade patterns of the EE(

common

agricultural policy for tobacco, adopted

1970, was already becoming apparent.

30%

vided a

The policy

pi

subsidy per pound for the purchase

Italian Burley.

With no production

controls

and

wj

the guarantee of a high support price. Italian farmt brought their Burley production up by 17 million Faced with this competitiu ;

cal pulp accounted for about 70% of world output, the remainder being mechanical or groundwood pulp used mainly for newsprint. North America accounted for more than half of the 1959 wood-pulp total.

Greek exports to the EEC suffered and Greece abandoned plans to expand Burley production. There were

Among European

ments. Of course, other countries also protected their producers, including developed countries like the U.j-

producers, Sweden led with

7.6

World

particle

board production in 1969 totaled

similar increases in production in other tries,

1968. The 1968 figure represented an increase of more than 200% over 1960. Europe continued to account for more than half of the total, with West

Germany the leading producer. The U.S. produced 3,017,500 cu.m., a substantial increase over 1968, and the U.S.S.R. ranked third with 1.722,800 cu.m. Production

in

1966, while

the U.S. had risen sixfold

Canada had increased

its

from 1958

to

production by

(CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL)

World

—

—

Tobacco World tobacco production

in 1971 was estimated at about 10,000.000,000 lb., a drop of 1% from the previous year's figure but still 12% above the 1960-64 average. During the year, production of flue-cured and Oriental tobacco remained approximately at the 1970 levels, but that of the Burley type went up by about 5% as increases in Italy, South Korea, Malawi, and some South American countries more than compensated for a decline in the United States. Among the major producing countries, output in the

to

1,790,000,000

lb.,

dose

to the

very low level of 1968. The area harvested in the U.S. fell by 5%, and yields were slightly lower than in the previous year. In Canada a record yield of flue-cured leaf in Ontario offset an overall decline in

the area harvested, resulting in a

changed

total production.

in 1971.

trade in tobacco during 1971

was probably

greater than in 1970 in spite of difliculties caused the U.S. dock strikes.

The U.S. was

still

!

the princii

tobacco exporter, but with competing countries aM to undercut on prices its share of total world trade

was

falling.

Its

i2%

share of the export market

in

1969 had declined to 25% in 1971. Among other major tobacco-exporting countries in the non-Communi-r world, India, Canada, Turkey, and the Philippines

-aW

factured tobacco in the non-Communist world weni

up by

See also Environment; Industrial Review.

ENCYCLOP.CDIA Britannica Films. Trees and Their Importance (1966); Science Conserves Forests (1967); The Coniferous Forest Biome (1969); Problems of Conservation Forest and Range (1969); Problems oj Conservation Our Natural Resources (1970).

6%

coun-

increased their shipments. Total exports of unmanu-

nearly 40%, between 1965 and 1968.

U.S. declined

EEC

almost certainly a foretaste of future develop-

where support prices rose

16.089.000 cu.m., compared with 13,690,000 cu.m. in

relatively un-

Both the area under

culti-

vation and the size of the crop increased in India in 1971, although production of flue-cured leaf de-

Titanium:

clined as a result of bad weather. In .Africa there was another strong increase in production in Malawi, particularly of Burley and flue-cured leaf, while in Zambia there was a partial recovery in the output of

see IVIining

the flue-cured variety.

Mining

The volumu

international trade.

in 1971 to 70 million lb.

million tons.

see

demands and

rent

million tons in 1968. Chemical (including semichemi)

Tin:

i

buildup of large stock reserves. This situation cauconsiderable concern in some areas, forcing govi ments to introduce policies aimed at adjusting to i .

3%

in

1971

to

1,660.000,000

Europe, the U.S., and Japan took

85%

lb.

Western

of the total

imports.

World consumption of cigarettes by unofficial estimates increased 3%. during 1971. most of the gain coming from the less developed countries. With the growth of world population and of incomes, and the increase in cigarette smoking among young people, it was a trend that seemed likely to continue. In the U.S.. despite the health warnings on cigarette packs, cigarette purchases increased by 4%. In Britain, on the other hand, there was a 10% drop in cigarette smoking following the publication of a report on smoking and health by the Royal College of Physicians early in 1971 by the end of the year, however, over half of this loss had been recovered. The report gave a tremendous boost to cigar sales, which rose from 975 million pieces in 1970 to 1,360,000,000 in 1971, and also accounted for a 3% increase in pipe;

tobacco

sales.

The development

of tobacco substitutes continued preoccupy industry scientists, but it was proving a long, slow job. In Britain the Imperial Tobacco Group, working jointly with Imperial Chemical Industries, estimated that it would possibly be four or five years before their new smoking material, a cellulose-based substance, would be ready to market. Once this stage was reached, however, the product would be offered to all tobacco companies and the process would be available under license. In the U.S. the Celanese Corporation was reported to be well advanced with its synthetic substitute, and in West Germany similar experiments were being conducted by the Bayer group. to

I

:

A

development of a West German company, Holdings, and British American Tobacco was concentrating on the application of charcoal joint

Siebe

Gorman

cloth material to cigarette filters.

The

cloth

was

origi-

nally developed as a filter for military respirators.

Tonga An

(VIVIAN raven)

Togo

independent monarchy and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Tonga is an island group in the Pacific Ocean east of Fiji. Area: 225 sq.mi, (582 sq.km.). Pop. (1972 est.): 90,000. Cap.: Nukualofa (pop., 1972 est., 20,000). Language: English and Ton-

African republic, Togo bordered by Ghana, Upper Volta, and Dahomey. Area

Religion: Christian. King, Taufa'ahau Tupou IV; prime minister in 1972, Prince Tu'ipelehake. In the second and third years of the 1970-75 development plan, the government continued its efforts

21,900 sq.mi. (56,600 sq. km.

to create

gan.

A West

is

Pop.

(1972 est.):

i.

1,960,000.

Cap. and largest city:

1970, 148,443). Language:

(pop.,

Religion: animist;

Muslim and

French

(official).

Christian minorities.

President in 1972, Gen. fitienne Eyadema.

In a referendum on Jan.

Eyadema was confirmed

9,

1972, Gen. fitienne

in his role as president

by a

867,941 votes out of 868,819 votes cast.

total of

government

December

reshuffle took place a

the Central

Committee

few days

later.

A In

of the ruling Ras-

semblement du Peuple Togolais decided that the country's labour unions should be reformed into a single union.

During the year the president directed his attention almost exclusively to strengthening cooperation between Togo and France. In February Franco-Togolese military exercises were carried out in the northern

and in May the French secretaryand Malagasy affairs, Jacques Togo. This was followed in September by a visit from Pierre Billecocq, the French secretary-general for foreign affairs with

part of the country,

general for African

Foccart, paid an

employment and

raise living standards for

fast-growing population, while family planning received high priority. Britain remained the major donor of capital aid. amounting to 500,000 pa'angas annually excluding technical assistance. Tonga joined the Asian its

Lome

official visit to

Development Bank. The government's program of controlled

tourist de-

velopment offered the greatest potential for employment and foreign exchange. Fua'amotu airport was improved to medium jet standard, and a new airstrip and international hotel were opened on Vava'u. Trade preferences were to be extended to Tonga by the EEC from Jan. 1, 1973. Tonga's minister of finance, Mahe Tupouniua, became the first director of the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation. Seven nobels' and seven peoples' representatives were elected for three-year terms in the Legislative Assembly, one of each for the first time. In June the king raised Tonga's flag on two small, artificial islands built on the Minerva reef to forestall the U.S. Ocean Life Research Foundation's plan for a sea city and tax haven republic. (mary boyd)

special responsibility for cooperation.

Finally, in November French Pres. Georges Pompidou visited Togo. During the discussions that took place General Eyadema's demand for a revaluation of the CFA franc received a somewhat dusty answer

from the French president. Nevertheless, a cordial atmosphere prevailed and the rapturous welcome given to President Pompidou by the Togolese contrasted favourably with the distinctly cooler reception that he had received in Upper Volta earlier the same week. In April the conference of heads of state of the

Common Organization of Africa, Malagasy, and Mauritius (OCAM) took place in Lome. The main events

TONGA Education. (1970) Primary, pupils 17,826, teachers 658; secondary (1968), pupils 9.421, teachers (1967) 358; teacher training, students 102, teachers 6. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: pa'anga, with a free rate (Sept. 18, 1972) of 0.85 pa'anga to U.S. $1 (2.09 pa'angas = £1 sterling). Budget (1971-72 est.): revenue 3.002.000 pa'angas; expenditure 3,218,000 pa'angas. Foreign trade (1971): imports 6.305,000 pa'angas; exports 2.2 million pa'angas. Import sources: New Zealand 37%; Australia 26%; Fiji 12%; U.K. 12%; Japan 6%. Export destinations: New Zealand 3S%; Netherlands 16%; West Germany 11%; U.K.

10%; Sweden 7%; Norway 6%; Australia 6%. Main 50%; bananas 17%; desiccated coconut 14%.

exports; copra

of the conference were the appointment of Pres. Leopold S. Senghor of Senegal as president and the with-

drawal of Zaire.

(

Philippe decraene)

Tourism International travel grew in 1971 even in the face of

This proved to be the case when

TOGO

economic

Education. (1969-70) Primary, pupils 206,283, teach-

definitive 1971 statistics of international tourism

ers 3,689; secondary, pupils 16,688. teachers 556: vocational, pupils 2,072, teachers 137; teacher training,

published

^rudents 119, teachers 13; higher, students 263, teachvn staff 21. Finance. Monetary unit: CF.\ franc, with (Sept. 18, 1972) a parity of CFA Fr. 50 to the French franc •

(CF.'^

=

CTA

Fr. U.S. $1; free rate of Fr. 255.79 £1 sterling). Budget (1971 est.) balanced at Fr. 10 billion.

612.37

CFA

=

Foreign Trade. (1971) Imports CFA Fr. 19,455,000,000; exports CFA Fr. 13,626.000.000. Import sources: France 34%; U.K. 12%; West Germany 9%; Netherlands 6%; U.S. 5%; Japan 5%. Export destinations: France 31%; Netherlands 26%; West Germany 13%; U.S.S.R. 10%; Beleium-Luxembourg 6%. Main exports: phosphates 35%; cocoa 31%; coffee

18%.

difficulties.

in

1972.

International

tourist

were

arrivals

7%

from 1970, while the growth of receipts to more than $20 billion was considerably higher at 14%. A salient feature of 1971 had been the 20% growth of tourism in the Middle East, where effective promotion and new hotel developments combined with a relatively more stable political climate to bring rapid results. Europe recorded an 8% consolidated increase in arrivals, but there were many variations among countries. reached 181 million, up

In Italy, hotel arrivals reached a total of lO.S Tornadoes: an increase of only 1.1%. A shortage of for- see Disasters; Meteorolo^ accommodation establishments was

million,

eign labour in

.

tour price

when they returned home.

such measures showed

little

Signiftcatv

sign of adversely

alT.

ing international travel. United States foreign tra

with the dollar buying up to

13%

less

abroad

•-!

during 1971, was reported going strong with depart j in the first half of 1972 up 25% over the corresp^'i ing period of the previous year.

In the

15%

first

in Spain,

Tunisia,

23%

in Italy,

10%

months of 1972, arrivals were in the United Kingdom. 42' interdiction of its supply lines to the South and the seemingly effective blockade of North Vietnam's ports. In the four years since their devastating Tet offensive, the North Vietnamese had diligently prepared for another large-scale series of attacks against South Vietnam, which they hoped would be militarily decisive or politically advantageous in any forthcoming settlement. Saigon's hopes were pinned to self-survival, as U.S. troop withdrawals proceeded apace and U.S. strength within the country was reduced to advisory status and logistical support. The 1972 North Vietnamese offensive put the U.S. program of viet-

benefit of U.S.

terminated during

namization to the

A

test of steel.

large-scale offensive

by North Vietnam

in early

1972 had been anticipated by U.S. and South Vietnamese officials months before it was actually launched, but no one foresaw its severity or the

astounding ability of the North Vietnamese to introduce vast quantities of armour and artillery through the several hundred miles of roads in mountains

and The massive invasion of South Vietnam began on March 30 with assaults across the supposedly demilitarized zone (DMZ). Units of the regular North Vietnamese Army, equivalent in strength to five infantry divisions and supported by five artillery, antiaircraft, missile, and tank regiments, easily swept southward under the cover of the seasonal monsoon, which grounded aircraft. .\n estimated total of 54,000 North Vietnamese troops moved to establish control over the northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, apparently seeking as their primary objectives the seizure of Quang Tri and of the old imperial capital of Hue. Subsequently, North Vietnam opened other jungles.

an unyielding stand

in

subsequent battles for

terri-

The performance

of government troops was significant because the North Vietnamese used armour and artillery on an unprecedented scale. While U.S. aircraft, both fi.xedwing and helicopters, were instrumental in the detorial control.

after the first setbacks

struction of hundreds of tanks, the South Vietnamese

ground troops were credited with

own in Quang Tri

their

the face of

at

least

awesome enemy

holding

firepower.

was the only provincial capital to fall to the North Vietnamese during the offensive, though others were attacked and constantly threatened. Thus, the outcome was a severe blow to the North Vietnamese because of their inability to win city

control over urban areas.

On

the other hand, Saigon's

was to a undone in the few months of intensified fighting. Official government figures revealed that 40% of the countn,- was directly affected by the offensive, resulting in widespread civilian casualties and creating another million refugees who were forced to flee pacification effort of the previous four years

great extent

the ever extended zones of combat.

Aiter five months of fighting. South Vietnam announced that its forces had killed 70,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. Inflated as the figures may have been, it was evident that Hanoi's losses were great. South Vietnam's militar>' losses were acknowledged as 14,000 killed. 5,000 missing, and 50.000 wounded. While Saigon's troops may have won the battle of attrition, their losses were not easy to absorb. Four of their divisions were so decimated as to be judged nonfunctional as combat units. South Vietnam's efforts were probably intensified by the knowledge that U.S. air and naval units were carr>'ing the war to North Vietnam again. The resumption of fwll-scale aerial attacks on the North on April 15 and the announcement on May 8 by U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon of the mining of North Vietnam's ports and the blockading of land and sea routes to the South greatly increased Saigon's capacity to resist. The stepped-up U.S. air and naval campaign also achieved

some success

in limiting the resupply

and reinforcement of North Vietnamese forces operating in the South.

In July, the Saigon government announced that had reestablished control over Quang Tri province.

it

.\

task force of 20.000 marines, paratroopers, infantrj--

its way across Chanh River to

men, and militiamen fought ern defense line at the

My

the north-

retake the

hard-fought area. This ended the incredible carnage along the 12-mi. road between Chanh and Quang

My

which had become known as the "High-

Tri

cities,

way

of Horror."

Throughout the country,

The North Vietnamese and

a stalemate

the Viet

was apparent.

Cong

controlled

South Vietnam than they did before the offensive was mounted, but they seemed incapable of pressing additional major attacks. Government forces, meanwhile, were able to exercise authority over most of the country but were unable to slightly larger portions of

Communists from pockets of territory they had dominated for long periods of time, particularly those that adjoined Laos and Cambodia, to which the North Vietnamese could withdraw and regroup without difficulty. A force of 145,000 North Vietnamese remained in South Vietnam in early November when both sides moved to reach a cease-fire and work toward a political solution. The most recent efforts to achieve peace had begun in earnest in the closing months of 1971. By Jan. 25, 1972, the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments were prepared to offer an eight-point plan for ending hostilities. The joint proposal was aimed at ending oust the

William P. Rogers on February 3 stated that Washington was "flexible" on the composition of a caretaker government. The growing distrust between the U.S. and South Vietnam persisted and was further deepened by a resumption of secret talks between White House aide Henry Kissinger (see Biography), and North Vietnamese Politburo member Le Due Tho. In October, South Vietnam learned of the imminence of a U.S.North Vietnamese breakthrough during Kissinger's visit to Saigon. Hanoi announced the terms of the agreement, which was subsequently confirmed by Kissinger who announced, "We believe peace is at hand." The main points of the plan were: a cease-fire throughout Indochina; an end to U.S. military operations against North Vietnam; the withdrawal of the remaining U.S. forces in South Vietnam (about 32,000 men) within 60 days of the signing; the concurrent release of the U.S. prisoners held by North Vietnam; acknowledgment of authority in areas respectively under government and Communist control; creation of a National Council of National Reconciliation and Concord, to be made up by equal representation of the Saigon government, the Viet Cong, and South Vietnamese neutralists; general elections

determine the nation's future political direction

to

the three-year-old impasse in the Paris negotiations.

with commissions representing the involved parties,

It consisted of the following elements: (1) total with-

military and civilian prisoners, to begin the day that

under the general supemsion of an International Control Commission, to oversee the balloting and to supervise the cease-fire; and the calling of an international conference to guarantee all provisions within 30 days

troop withdrawals were started and to be completed

of the signing of the agreement.

all U.S. and other foreign forces within months of an agreement; (2) the release of all

drawal of six

when

all

foreign troops had been removed; (3) a "free

Thieu 's opposition

to

certain points of the plan

and democratic presidential election" within six months of an agreement, with a caretaker government to assume control after the resignation of the president and vice-president one month before the nationwide balloting; (4) affirmation of the 1954 and 1962 Geneva agreements; (5) the "mutual respect for

was made known even before the terms were announced publicly. The president spoke out against a

[the] independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity

South Victna

and non-interference" of the countries of Indochina; (6) a general Indochina cease-fire to begin with the signing of the agreement; (7) international supervision of the cease-fire, troop withdrawals, and prisoner exchanges; and (8) an "international guarantee for the fundamental national rights of the Indochinese peoples."

North Vietnamese and Viet Cong delegates in Paris denounced the eight-point plan the day after it was proposed. While the talks continued for two months, there was no progress in the halting search for an end to the war. On March 23 William J. Porter, U.S. amtalks, announced an indefinite postponement of the sessions. Though the newest initiative was rebuffed, it still provided a framework for later efforts that were more productive.

bassador to the Paris

Part of the reason for Hanoi's repeated resistance peace from the U.S. was its asserted

to overtures of

Nixon administration was unwilling to support of President Thieu. Thieu, on his charged that the North Vietnamese were in-

belief that the

drop part,

its

transigent, feeling that "All the

Communists want

is

for South Vietnam to surrender unconditionally." He reiterated his oft-repeated policy of the "four no's:"

no abandonment of territory to the North Vietnamese, no coalition government, no policy of neutrality, and no Communist participation in the political affairs of South Vietnam. Thieu feared that the U.S. would drop

him

precipitately, a

concern heightened during the when U.S. Secretary of State

year's first peace drive

725

Vietnam

arrangement in the national commission, call"unacceptable." His supporters stated that Thieu he could never accept "the tripartite proposal." Foreign Minister Tran Van Lam declared that the coalition

ing

it

felt

A

child holds out his

ZZTh .^r^u^efcZ near Da Nang that houses

^^mrnwm^ium^-']

'

^^^

its second session. The keynote of Premier political report to the Assembly was "we are in a better position to initiate attacks at the enemy and advance steadily to seize bigger and bigger victories." He reiterated North Vietnam's support for the peace plan announced by the Provisional Revolutionary Government (Viet Cong) of South Vietnam and rejected President Nixon's eight-point

bly held

blockade.

Much

to Hanoi's displeasure, the Nixon visit took place on schedule in May while the

Pham Van Dong's

to

that

bombing and

counter plan as "the logic of the gangster." He stressed the military solidarity of the Vietnamese, Cambodian,

By July there was evidence that the pressure of war was beginning to tell. An editorial in the official newspaper Nhan Dan, signed by Deputy Premier Le Thanh Nghi, announced a total mobilization of labour and a crackdown on shirkers; citizens were told to put the national interest above all else, and anyone who failed to obey the regulations on working hours or failed

and Laotian peoples and pledged redoubled efforts from the socialist North to help its Indochinese brethon the economic front to help attain immediate revolutionary goals. Subsequently, the Central Committee of the ruling Vietnam Workers' Party held its 20th plenum and ren, calling for special efforts

Moscow

The plenum emphasized the need to increase party leadership of economic affairs and to improve economic management with a view to turning the economy from a small production base to large-scale socialist production.

As

it

turned out,

Pham Van Dong was

the nation for the biggest and

preparing

most surprising offenwar surprising because, usual guerrilla techniques, the North

sive of the long Indochina

—

abandoning the Vietnamese command resorted to conventional warfare with tanks and artillery columns. As April dawned, wave after wave of North Vietnamese troops stormed across the demilitarized zone and overran the South Vietnamese provincial capital of Quang Tri. In the Central Highlands and the Mekong Delta the offensive also rapidly gathered momentum. For weeks speculation raged throughout the world over the objectives of the sudden North Vietnamese onslaught. The general view was that the North was not after territorial gain but was out to destroy the U.S. vietnamization plan and facilitate renewed penetration of the countryside by the Viet Cong. It appeared that this

objective was largely

fulfilled;

only intensive

U.S. air strikes prevented a South Vietnamese rout,

although the Saigon troops later stiffened their

resist-

ance.

However, North Vietnam paid an intolerably heavy price for what it gained. On May 8 President Nixon announced he had ordered the mining of all North Vietnamese harbours and gave international shipping three days to leave the area.

He

also ordered

an esca-

bombing of North Vietnam. Targets in came under attack. Haiphong, the main harbour, was reportedly reduced to flatland. Other population centres were bombed, and Hanoi charged

lation of U.S.

Hanoi

city

the U.S. with genocide as the elaborate dike system

Red River Delta which had traditionally kept Hanoi and surrounding areas from being submerged floodwaters was severely damaged. The bombing continued until the end of September with only a fourday break in mid-June as a U.S. goodwill gesture to the Soviet Union, whose president was visiting Hanoi at in the

in

the time.

The bombing and blockade did not visibly slow down the North Vietnamese offensive in the South, which apparently had been prepared so carefully that enough supplies had already moved to concentration areas well before the U.S. retaliated. Limited supplies continued to get into North Vietnam, sometimes in Chinese junks hugging the coastline and sometimes through railway and road links, although these were bombers. However, neither China nor the Soviet Union tried to break the U.S. a prime target of U.S.

still

going on.

to obtain jobs aiding the national effort

might be ordered by the chairman of the local administrative com-

mittee to do

work

useful to society in labour

THE

passed various resolutions in support of state policy goals.

the blockade were

U,S. Military Slranglh

thousands 600

550

WAR

IN

camps

VIETNAM

727

Vietnam

728 Vital Statistics

from six months to two years; even elderly or disabled persons retired from the work force might be called back to work if necessary. Although the North Vietnamese offensive continued it soon became apparent that the U.S. bombing was intlicting crippling damage on North Vietnam. There were reports of a divergence with undiminished vigour,

of opinion

among

Hanoi on the fuaccounts, the destruction

the top leaders in

ture course of policy.

By

all

wrought by the bombing was a contributory factor behind renewal of the peace negotiations that began in Paris in September between Hanoi's Politburo member Le Due Tho and U.S. presidential adviser

Henry

Kissinger.

The

negotiations

subsequently

broke down

in December, and the U.S. began bombing Hanoi-Haiphong area on an unprecedented scale. Both cities suffered extensive damage before the bombing was again halted on December 30. Negotiations were scheduled to resume January 8. Official sources claimed that the North Vietnamese economy had progressed despite the ravages of war. The overall rice area was reportedly 10,000 ha. more

the

than in the previous year while the total value of industrial and handicrafts production was said to have increased by 5%. (t. j. s. george)

Determination of the factors accounting for the decrease awaited final tabulation of the data and 1972, plus information on attitudes and childbearing plans of women that would be provided by the new Family Growth Survey, a nationwide sample survey of married women to be inaugurated by the National Center for Health Statistics of the U.S. Public Health Sen-ice in 1973. However, data from the June 1972 Current Population Survey of the Bureau of the Census indicated that whereas in 1967 married women aged IS to 24 expected, on the average, to have 2.9 births during their childbearing years, in 1972 the corresponding group expected to have an average of only 2.3 births. For wives aged 25 to 29, the expectations were 3 and fertility

for 1970, 1971,

2.5 births, respectively. Demographers believed that increased availability and use of contraceptive ma-

abortion laws in some of the

liberal

and a change

in prevailing social attitudes

were

rate of natural increase (excess of births

over

contributing factors.

The

from

deaths)

fell

to 8 in

1971, adding 1.638,000 persons to the U.S.

8.8 per

1,000 population in 1970

population, compared with

—

to 6,

1970. The months of same period

1,797,000 in

declined further in the

rate

1972

See alio Defense.

more

terials,

states,

compared with

first

eight

7.8 for the

in 1971.

Among

For

decade or more the general trend of the birth-

a

Canada, and most European counhad been downward. After rising moderately from 1968 to 1970, it resumed its decline in 1971 and the early months of 1972. In the few countries of Africa, .\sia, and South .America that had reliable annual information, the rate had been decreasing slowly. During the same period the death rate in the U.S., Canada, the European countries, and the few other countries with useful statistics had fluctuated within a narrow range. The most signilicant effect of the birth and death rate movement was a slowing of the rate of population growth in developed countries. The countries for which there was little reliable information were also those in the less developed parts of the world, with much higher birth and death rates and higher rates of population growth. In general, available fragmentary information indicated that the rate, but not the magnitude of population growth, had also fallen moderately in many of these nations. During this same period when the birthrate had been declining, the marriage rate had risen moderately in the U.S., Canada, and most countries of Europe. rate in the U.S., tries

Birth Statistics. In the U.S. the provisional crude birthrate declined from 18.2 births per 1,000 population in

The

1970 to 17.3

in 1971, a decrease of

almost 6%.

decline continued in 1972; provisional data for

months showed a nearly 10% fall compared with the same period in 1971. The provisional number of births fell 4.3%, from 3,718,000 in 1970 the

to

first

eight

3,559,000 in 1971, while the

eight

months of 1972, 2,153,000,

number in the first was 8.6% below the

corresponding 1971 period. Estimated rates by age of mother, based on data available for less than half the states, indicated that the decline

had occurred

in all

age groups except the numerically small group under

rates

around the world had a wide range from about

13 per 1,000 population to 50 or more.

The

rate of

population growth correlates closely with the magnitude of the birthrate.

Death Statistics. The crude death per 1,000 population

)

in the U.S.

rate

(deaths

had fluctuated within

very narrow range for over a decade. Vear-to-year changes had been small and due chiefly to variations a

in the incidence of influenza

visional

number

and pneumonia. The prowas 1,921,000, the

of deaths in 1971

as in 1970. However, a 3% increase occurred in the first eight months of 1972: 1.322.000 deaths, compared with 1,284,000 in the corresponding months of 1971. The death rate fell from 9.4 in 1970 to 9.3 in 1971, but the rate for the first eight months of 1972,

same

9.5,

was

slightly higher than the corresponding 1971

rate of 9.4. Decreases in

all

of the age-specific rates,

except for a slight increase for the l-to-4-year age group, contributed to the decline in the total death rate between 1970 and 1971. The largest decreases occurred in the 45-54 and 55-64 age groups, 2.9% in both cases.

The

ten leading causes of death for the U.S. in

1971 and the estimated death rates are shown below.

Each of these causes had the same rank

in

1971 as

in

1970 except cirrhosis of the liver (9 in 1970) and arteriosclerosis (8 in 1970). Small decreases occurred in the rates for all ten causes.

The

total

death rate in most European countries

had

also changed within narrow limits during the preceding decade. In the few countries of .Vfrica, .\5ia,

aged 15-44 years) fell from 87 for the 12 in .August 1970 to 85 and 76, respecfor the corresponding periods of 1971 and 1972.

and South America that had reasonably complete statistics, the trend of the death rate had been steadily downward, reflecting some improvement in health

The general

months ended tively,

was

per 1,000

15 years.

women

the countries where birth registration

90% complete. UN tabulations indicated that 29 experienced a downward trend of the birthrate from 1965 to 1971. In six countries the rate rose somewhat during this period, and in six it remained stable. Fourteen countries had a lower rate in the early months of 1972 compared with the same period in 1971; only two countries reported higher rates, while four reported no change. As of 1972, birthat least

Vital Statistics

fertility rate (births

5

services and/or

economic conditions.

Among

the coun-

tries that had at least 90% complete registration, 10 reported slightly higher death rates in 1971 than in 1970, 12 reported slightly lower rates, and in 3 countries the rate did not change. Among the countries

for which

some 1972 data were

available, eight

had

slightly higher rates in

1972 than in 1971, four reported lower rates, and there was virtually no change in eight countries.

Cause

of deatl

All causes Diseases of the heart

Malignant neoplasms (cancer) Cerebrovascular diseases Accidents Influenza and pneumonia Certain causes of mortality in early infancy Diabetes mellitus Cirrhosis of the liver Arteriosclerosis Bronchitis, emphysema,

The crude death

Estimated death rate per 100,000 population 929.0 358.4 160.9 100.6 53.6 27.2

15.5 IS.

and asthma

14.S

not the best index of differences in the intrinsic mortality experience of different countries.

Table

rate

Some

1.

is

type of age-adjusted rate, re-

Life E

— 730

Western Samoa

Expectation of Life. The estimated average exlife for babies born in the U.S. in 1971 was 71.1 years, slightly longer than the 70.8 years for infants born in 1970. This increase was consistent with the general improvement in age-specific death

pectation of

rates noted above.

number

the average

expected to live

if

(Expectation of life at birth is of years that an infant could be the age-specific death rates ob-

ser\'ed during the year of its birth

throughout

its

were

to prevail

lifetime.)

As shown in Table I, life expectancy in Canada, New Zealand, Israel, Japan, and most European countries was similar to that in the U.S. However, the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands had the longest life expectancy in the world. In contrast, life expectancy was much lower in most countries of South .\merica, Africa, and Asia, Marriage and Divorce. The number of marriages in the U.S. rose slightly from 2.179.000 in 1970 to

above the 1970 rate of 3.5. The trend of divorces had been upward since 1962. During the period 1962-67 the rate increased about 4% per year, and from 1957 to 1970 the yearly increases averaged about lOTc- The rate for 1971 was the highest since the all-time peak of 4,4 in 1946, immediately after World War II. Some of the increase was attributed to the size of the young married population. National divorce statistics for the U.S. are estimates based on data from 42 states and the District of Columbia. Range Countries

Australia,

2,196,000 in 1971, but the crude rate (marriages per 1,000 population) fell marginally from 10.7 to 10.6. However, both the number and the rate increased in

months of 1972; the number of marriages was more than i% higher and the rate was 10.8, compared with 10.6 for the same months of 1971. Thus the steady increase in marriages that began in 1959 seemed to be continuing. The trend was due prithe

first

eight

marily to a

rise in the

number

of persons reaching

marriageable age, traceable, in turn, to the higher birthrates of the years beginning with 1946. In 1971 marriages increased in seven of the nine geographic divisions of the U.S. The largest gains, about S%, occurred in the East South Central and

Mountain

while the Middle Atlantic and

divisions,

Pacific divisions showed declines of about 4%. Approximately 21,000 fewer marriages ( — 8%) were performed in California and Pennsylvania combined, while Florida, Ohio, and Tennessee combined showed a corresponding increase.

The

rise in

Tennessee was

apparently influenced by a change in the state law that reduced the legal minimum age for marriage

without parental consent from 21

to

18

for both

parties.

In most countries with fairly complete reporting, was upward during the period

the trend of marriages

1965-71, although most of them showed a slight decrease between 1970 and 1971. However, as in the U.S., a majority of countries reported some increase in the early months of 1972. It was of interest to note

Employment, Wages, and Hours

jt'f

largely attributable, as in the U.S., to the larger

bers of persons entering the marriageable ages.

numWith

Warsaw Treaty

Weather: see Meteorology Welfare: see Social Services

West see

Indies:

Barbados; Cuba;

Dependent States; Dominican Republic; Haiti; Inter-American Affairs; Jamaica;

Trinidad and

Tobago

7

"1

Australia, Canada. Czecfioslovakia,

Denmark, Hungary,

Israel, Netherlands, Zealand, Poland, Portugal, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom, Uruguay!, Yugoslavia

New

8.5-9.9

I

(

J

10 and over

Japan, United States

•1968 data.

H 963-70. il969

data.

Source:

Among

UN

Monthly

Bullelin of Slalislics.

the countries reporting divorces, the U.S.

rate, 3.7. in 1971. The U.S.S.R. reported the second highest rate in 1971, 2.6, and Hungary reported a rate of 2.2. Countries with divorce

had the highest

rates

between

1

and

1.9

garia, Czechoslovakia,

were

.\ustralia, Austria, Bul-

Denmark, Finland, East Ger-

many, West Germany, Iceland. New Zealand, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia. All other countries had rates below 1. (ROBERT D, grove) See also Populations

and Areas.

Western Samoa \ constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Western Samoa is an island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about 1,600 mi.

E

of

New

Zealand

Religion: about

most

crude birthrate.

Defense

Less than

Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile*, Finland. France, East and West Germany, Greece. Iceland, Italy, Mexico, Norway. Romania, Spain, Switzerland

panied by a generally rising crude marriage rate

more young people, more marriages, and fewer births, age-specific birthrates declined even more than the

Organization:

of marriage rates

,000 population

technologically advanced countries had been accom-

Wales: see United Kingdom

see

1

and 2,200 mi. S of Hawaii. .\rea: 1,133 sq.mi. (2,934 sq.km.), with two major islands, Savai'i (662 sq.mi.) and Upolu (435 sq.mi.). and seven smaller islands. Pop. (1972 est.) 148,398. Cap. and largest city: Apia (pop., 1971, 30,266V Language: Samoan and English.

that the decade-long decline of the birthrate in

Wages and Hours:

per

Argentina', Costa Ricat, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mauritius, Panama, Swedea

Differences in the marriage rates of different countries are influenced by the age composition of the population, customary age at marriage, and the ratio of legally reportable marriages to common-law or "consensual" marriages, which are not formally re-

The range of reported marriage rates throughout the world is shown below. Most of the available ported.

data are for 1970, with a few countries reporting for 1971.

The

provisional estimate of the

in the U.S. in 1971

the 715,000 in 1970.

per

number

was 768,000, about

The was

1,000 population)

7%

of divorces

more than

crude divorce rate (divorces 3,7,

approximately

6%

:

80%

Protestant,

20% Roman

Cath-

Malietoa

of state (0 le Ao o le Mulo) in 1972, TanumafiU II; prime minister, Tupua

Tamasese

Lealofi IV.

olic.

Head

WESTERN SAMOA Eilucation. (1969) Primary, pupils 27,596, teachers 902: secondary, pupils 9,522. teachers 369; vocational, pupils 84, teachers 7; teacher training, students 271, teachers 17.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Western Samoan dollar (thaler), with (Sept. 18, 1972) a nominal free rale of WS$0.66 to U.S. $1 (WSS1.60 = £1 sterling). Budget (1971 est.): revenue WS$6,478,000: expenditure WS$6, SI 8,000. Foreign trade (1970): imports WS$9, 791,000; exports WS$3,391.000. Import sources: New Zealand 32%; .\ustralia 16%; U.S. 14%; Japan 10%; U.K. 8%. Export destinations: New Zealand 47%; Netherlands 18%; West Germany

13%; U.S. ports: copra

7%; U.K. 5%: Norway 5%. Main 40%; cocoa 31%; bananas 16%.

ex-

The

overall

improvement

in the

economy

contin-

ued into 1972, despite the drop in world prices for copra. Tourism, the second largest foreign exchange earner, was encouraged by more hotel construction. greatest amount of aid came from New Zealand, which continued to assist the redevelopment of Apia hospital and the creation of a ferry service linking Upolu and Savai'i. Agreement was reached with the Asian Development Bank on a soft loan of U.S. $2 million for a power project. Western Samoa joined

The

the International

Monetary Fund with

a

quota of U.S.

$2 million and took steps toward becoming a of the

member

World Bank Group.

The government decided to establish formal diplomatic relations with New Zealand and to appoint a resident high commissioner in Wellington. New Zealand's prime minister, John Marshall, attended ceremonies marking the opening of the new Legislative Assembly building and the tenth anniversary of inde(mary boyd) pendence,

disturbance of one's "biological clock" during long east-west and west-east flights on the assumption that the clock normally operates over a circadian cycle.

As computer systems became more elaborate and sophisticated, the industrj' decided on a new tripartite classification of components into mainframe, peripherals, and software. The computer industry also established a new measurement called the megabyte, equal to 2-° (1,048,576) bytes, or eight times that

number of bits or binary digits. At the summer UN Conference on

the Human Environment in Stockholm, antitechnology was acclaimed almost as a cult. Earthwatch (echoing a British television program, "Doomwatch" was the I

to

the plan of action directed against

anything that might lead to ecocide or the destruction of a whole countryside (a cacophonous neologism based on genocide). Immunobiology was proclaimed as a new counterscience. Pessimists, deliberately ignoring the fact that Thomas More's Utopia meant "nowhere," blamed technology for transforming eutopia into dystopia.

Several of the year's inventions were concerned human condition. Bioceramics, for instance, induced bone regrowth through porcelain implants that provided a natural matrix for renewed ossification. ArteriograftS, made of platinum and tantalum plastic, replaced defective or worn-out

with the betterment of the

arteries.

A

saving technique

in

difficult

greenhouses because darkens automatically when the sun shines on it. in

it

731

Words and Meanings, New

Psychosurgery, involving operations on the human brain in the treatment of mental disorders, evoked

some

on grounds of both professional Zoosemiotics was adopted as a technical term to cover all systems of communication in the animal world, especially those employed by bees and dolphins. Anthropozoology was a grandiose neo-Hellenism created to denote nothing more nor less than Desmond Morris' conception of man as naked ape. More seriously, geophysicists hostile criticism

ethics

and

public

morality.

joined with seismologists in apJ3roving the term plate

tectonics strains

to

describe

the

between rock masses

conflicting in the

stresses

and

cooling-down pe-

riod that resulted in the earth's present structural

formation. Advances were also

made

in

paleoanthro-

pology, the study of hominids and other manlike creatures more primitive than Homo sapiens. On at least one occasion a committee meeting was

members were

The echoic verb zap, used to indicate destruction of a target with a single burst of gunfire, rose in status. So, too, did the underworld fladge, denoting a violent form of masochism. Some high fidelity radio hobbyists, or audiophiles, present to constitute a quorum.

program concluding in 1972, plans were made for future collaboration between Kazakhstan and Cape Kennedy whereby the salyut-Skylab space station might be orbited by Soviet cosmonauts in conjunction with U.S. astronauts. Meantime ESRO, the European Space Research Organization, planned its system of geostationary satellites. Jet lag was the terse phrase adopted to denote that the Apollo

name given

phototropic glass, valuable

declared inquorate because too few

Words and Meanings, New With

metre, such as the branching processes of nerve cells. Rapid progress was achieved toward the perfection of

childbirth

was provided by the cardiotocograph, recording the heartbeat of the unborn baby by means of a minielectrode attached to its scalp. The optacon enabled a blind person to read print by touch; an electronic minicamera converted printed texts into tactile paterns that could be felt by the blind person's fingertips. It was not unconnected with another electronic invention named the Stereoscan, a microscope capable of resolving details as small as one-millionth of a centi-

were the proud possessors of separate loudspeakers for the reproduction of high and low frequencies which they called tweeters and WOOferS, respectively, but soon the technicians supplied them with a coaxial two-in-one, or tweeter-woofer. For a time the Yiddish verb gazump (formerly gazoomph ), '-'to swindle," was on everybody's lips in Britain when estate agents (realtors), taking unfair advantage of cost inflation, raised the prices of houses after offers had been accepted. Indeed, in this narrower sense gazumping even found its way into the law courts. Other words that rose in status in Britain, having previously gained currency in the U.S., were medic, denoting any member of the medical profession, whether physician, surgeon, specialist, or student; mugger for any lawless rough who mugS or robs with violence; and whizkid for any brilliantly clever executive or consultant. Obstreperous pre-teens, children of 12 and under, were described as stroppy. Some colourful portmanteau words also rose in status, notably snazzy, "flashy, fancy, stylish," a blend of snappy and jazzy. Certain contestants at the Olympic Games were nicknamed Shamateurs on the ground that they were sham amateurs, posing as nonprofessionals when it suited them. Television and sound radio were grouped together as teleradio. A more sinister portmanteau word was identikit, the highly specialized police identification kit, often used metaphorically. The mating of male coyotes with female dogs or bitches produced COydogS. A facetious blend of Ivy League (a sports association of eight universities of the U.S.) with ivory tower (Sainte-Beuve's tour d'ivoire) produced ivyleague tower, the dwelling place of the academic

northeastern

loner.

Counterproductive, more forcefully negative than

yy(,eat-

unproductive or nonproductive, became a vogue see Agriculture word. Sometimes the prefix non-, still hyphenated, im- wines; plied a subdued negative, as in the already well-known ice Alcoholic expression non-event.

mer

that

A non-summer meant

was no summer

at

all.

A non-answer

sumwas an

a

continued on page 733

Beverages ^^f "^J;

— ephebiotrist n

terest (as

ihs,

;

and other forms

..i

,.

adscape « a scene (as along a highway) which advertising billboards predominate

plane

:

n

the hijacking of a flying air-

:

SKYJACKING

futuriasis «

a society

:

young

of

people whose values and life-styles run counter to those of established society called also counterculture

morbid

fixation

ercial against a

the future

:

:

to

rock music with lyrics referring

:

group of clergymen

n volunteer to

work part-time with

nicipal police

department

a

:

Green Machine n

:

a

who mu-

the administrative structhe military estab-

army

ture of the U.S.

:

lishment

hatchback n a back on a closed passenger automobile (as a coupe) having an up-

heightism n people

2

:

an automobile hav-

discrimination against short

:

helicop H copter

:

patrol in a heli-

a policen

a site (as along a bicycle with camping and picnicking facili-

hiker-biker n

a mistake in judgment by a

:

cephalocide n

motion

the systematic liquidation

:

of the intellectual leaders of a

chicanismo

in

cap exhibited by Chicanos n, often

group

strong ethnic pride

:

art in which the concept more important than what is

is

performance controcting n a system of in which a private company contracts to bring the performance of a failing public school student up to an acceptable :

education

level in specified subject areas

phone freak or phone phreak n one who an electronic device to make long-distance telephone calls without paying illegally uses

them

prehumous adj

existing or occurring be-

:

.

Slrallon,

1.

King, Corleton King, Carl.ton

.

J.

S.

(D) (D|*

.

(Rl

(R)-

J.

MeEwen, Robert McEwen, Robert Mitchell, D.

S.

J.

Grohom

Robert (Rl Young. John (01

(R)

.

Morgon. Thomas

27. Conover, W.S,

.{8) (0)

4.

Monn, James

Jordon,

e.

Wit (0)

tOislricI eliminoled in 1972.

B.

tNew

C, (01

Mohon. George (D| Goniolei. Henry B, (01

on o plane

flight

in

Alotko,

Od.

16. 1972.

erected

by

death

of

George W. Collins. Dec. 8. 1971 SSworn in April 11. 1972 to succwd Chorlotte T. Reid (resigned]. SSworn in Oct. 12. 1972 to succMd

tloyd. Sherr

2.

district.

Ij

IVoconcies

Owens. Wayne (01 Vt.— Mollory. R. W. (R|* Vo— 1. Downing. Thomas N.

E. (0)t

Edwin Edwards (resignedl. °Voconcy creoted by resignotiofl off F. Brodford Morse. Moy 1, 1971. 'Vacancy creoted by death ol Wil.

(Dl

J

liom 8yon. Sept. 17. 1972.

*Chonged porty offtliotion frOltS 8 to D. Moreh 27. 1972, *Sworn in Jon. 13. 1972 to succaod 8obert

(Dl .

8. Scott.

Porris, S.

E.

I

(8)

Wompler. Will.om

9.

(R)

10

C. (81

Broyhill. Joel T. (Rl

Wosh— 1,

er E, (R)t

StolTord (resigned].

created by resignoliots of 8ichord PofI, Aug. 29, 1972.

.(81

Williom

T.

Vacancy

C. |8|

Ro

7.

Page

E.

jSworn in April 10. 1972 to succead George W. Andrews fdeceosedl. Reps, Begich ond Boggs disoppeorad

(D)

(R)*

.

(01

|R|

|R)

ll.amE.

O'Kontki, Al.in

o.— Roneolio. leoo

.Jr. (0)

111

R.

(Rl

(01*

21 Fisher, O. C. (D) 22. Casey, Robert 8. (01

R.I.— 1, SI. Germo.n. Fernond 2. TIernan, Robert O. (D) S.C— 1. Dovii, Mendel (0) 2. Spence, Floyd 0. (Rl 3. Dorn. W. J Bryon |0)

Willie

Obey. Dovid >. (01 Byrnes. John W. (Rl' Froehltch, H. V. (R) Oo.is, Glenn t. (tl

(Dl

Jr.

18. Price, Robert (R}*

24. Vigorito, J. P. (0) 25. Clork, Fronk M. (D)

E, (8)

De.roe. Samuel L. (R| Mo!her. Chorlei A. (R) Seiberling. John F., Jr. (D) Wylie, Cholmeri P. (8) .Bow, Fronk T.(R)Regula, R. S. (R)

(D)'

E-

W.

I.

C.

22. Soylor. John P. (Rl* Beltj.

'.

8.

deloGorzo,

20.

27.

W.

14.

I. (R)

20. Goydoi. Joseph (D) 21. Dent, John H. (D) .

. !.

16. White, Richord C. (D) 17. Burleson. Omor (0)

Fred 8. (0| 16. Eihlemon, Edwin D. (8) .

19.

Peyjer, Peter A. (R) 24. Bioagi, Morio (0)* Reld. Ogden R. (R) 25. Peyier, Peter A. (R)'

,

(Dl

Price,

P. |R| L.

Ro

E.

15.

Irying |R1'

leod. Wtllio

15.

.

m

(01 (01

J. J.

Pooge.

13. Pureed,

(0)

(01

Teogue.Olin

12. V/t,ohl.Jomes

(R]

.

Archer, Williom R. (Rl Eckhordt. Robert C. (01 Brooks, Jock (D)

8. 9.

McOode. Joieph M. J.

Mollohon. «. H. (D) Sloggecs. Horley O. (0) Slack. John M, Jr. (0) Hechl.r. Ken (0| . Kee, Jomes (Olt I.— 1. A.pin, l.sli. (01 Kostenme.er. Robert W. (0) .

7.

11.

10.

(0) Foley. Ihoissos S. (01 Hicks, Floyd V. (01 8. (01

.

6.

10. Pickle.

(D)

6.

Ill

Shut

ID]' (D)

(D)

I

J..

H.,

Yolron, Gui (D) Williomj.L.G. (R)

7.

Ab.ug, Bella (D)' Rongel, Charles

Williom

Ware. John

(D)

Julio Butler (D|

McCormock. Mike

Adams,

Col Roberts. Roy (D| Cobell. Eorle (Or Steelmon. Alon (R)

.

5.

Rooney, John J. |D| Corey, HoohL.(Dl Murphy, John M. ID)' Hollimon, E. (D)

ChoriM

Honsen.

^o.-l.

ID] (0)'

I

Kuykendall. Don (Rl Kuykendoll, Don (R|t '•.—]. Potmon, Wright (D) 2. Dowdy, John (D|" 3

Podell. B.

.

.

».

Jonei. Woller

Bto.co, Fronk J. |D) Chiiholm, Shirley (D) I.

Edw Edword

.

8. Jones.

'

.

.

(t|

Roy (Or

,

(«)

.

(Or

8.

t. Jr.

>(0) .

W.

,

Wyott, Ullm Green, Edilh |b| Oellenbock, John

(«)'

•f.(«)

leph I (Dl ichotd (01

(Dl

Jormon, John |0)

5.

Kemp, Jock F. |R1 Kemp. Jock F.(R)'

.

N.C.— 1.

(D) ID)'

(R)

Halting., Jomei

.

(R]

.

(R)' Ill

Conoble. B., Jr. (R)' Ouliki, Thoddcui J. (D)

.

Holpern, Seymour (R)' Wolff. L. I. (D) Addabbo, Joieoh P. (D) Roienthal, eeniamin S.[D)

.

.

(R)' F. (R|

P.

2. Jr. |R)

.

(or

I.

(tonii„„«j)

Pel

(R)'

(R)*

oyd

(01 (Dl

Major legislation passed by Congress, 1972

334-20

Jon. 19. 1972 Yeos, D. 197.8. 137

Noys; 0.9,8. Drugs (S20971— Approved the creotion of the Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention Eneculive Office of the President to co-ordinote oil federal drug progromjj ond outhorized $1 for stole ond local drug progroms through fiscal 1975.

in

the

billion

Higher Edvcalion (S659}— Authorized $1 9 billion for higher aducotion progromi through fiscol 1 975. ond $2 billion for school desegregotion oid through fiscal 1974; established new progrom of direct federal old to needy students; ond postponed implementation of court desegregotion orders requiring busing

11

366-0 Morch16. 1972 Yeas: D. 212. 8. 154

Nays: D.

63-0 Morch17. 1972 Yeos; D. 32. 8. 31

NoyS; D.

0, 8.

218-180

June 8. 1972 Yeos; 0. 129,8. 89 Noys: 0. 104,8. 76

0. 8.

63-15 Moy 24. 1972 Yeos; 0. 33. R. 30

Nays; D.

10, R. 5

Noys; D.

2, R.

of school children.

J

S10.800

in

302-35 June 30. 1972 Yeos; D. 194. 8. 108 7, 8. 28

1973,.

Nays; 0. within

60 days the Isntof ony

Noys; 0.

Wo/er Polhlion (S2770)— Authorized S24.7

366-11 Oct. Yeos; 0.223.

billio

It

discharges by 1985. ond moking

State ond Locol Govs revenues will .velof S5.3 billion, to un

t

n federal

(HR 10729)— Apprc ond sole of pasticid banned by the EPA.

figkt, (HJ 8es.

2081— Sent

until

Dec. 31. 1976.

0, R.

74-0 Oct. 4. 1972 Yeos; 0. 42. 8. 32

Noys; D.

9

2, 8.

Vetoed Od. 17, 1972

Overrode by Congrast House: 274-23. Sonote; SI-I> Oct. 18. 1972 PL 93.500

0. 8.

voU

Oct. 12. 1972

Yeos; D.86, Noys; D. 84,

f

8.

Oct. 12. 1972 Yeas; D. 139,8, 126 Noys; 0. 77, R. 33

198-99

the uses

I

Noys; D.

1972 143

4,

265-110

3

'e.l.c/dei

1

81-0 Feb. 16. 1972 Yeos; D, 42. R 39

R.

112

R.

15

305-1 Oct. 17. 1972 Yeas; D. 176. R. 129

61-0 Ocl. 17. 1972 VeoB; 0. 37, 8. 24

Noys, 0.

Nays; 0.

354-24

1,

R.O

Oct. 12. 1971 Yeos; 0. 217.8. 137 Noys.O. 12,8. 12

SignedOct. 21, 1972

0, R.

84-8 Morch22. 1972 Yeos: 0. 47. R, 37 Noys; D. 2, R. 6

Signed Morch 22, 1973

state executive

Federal moneys to state and local governments in

million dolloM

Purpose

1963

1964

1965

1969

1970

8,5?5 iei

Economic opportunil

Urban ,

Health

affairi

11,29?

Education Federal funds supporting education

Vocational education NUMBER OF STUDENTS

6,7".5'8

Vocorional Loons, lolol

•Eslimoled daio Source- US. Deport Digeit o» fdocodc

Public elementary and secondary schools Fall 1971 eil.molci

TEACHERS'

INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF

AVERAGE

ANNUAL ENROlLMENr

427.696

378.619 22,387 138,014 212,766

61.411

Dillrict of

Columbia

316.49S 24e.5e6 2,934.735 309.60J 483.836 73.887 87,629 780.189

1.776,881

254,900 183,031 61.126

55.204 649.763

701.000 102,106 93.148 1,489,500

Kenlucky

393,000 80.357 91,966 878.000 558,343

672,447 465,122 291,455 455,500

195,301

214.179 263.900 339.497 69,200

517.821 178,500

Maryland Moisochusetts

Michigan

Monlona Nebroska

529,060 685,000 1,199.257 492,115 307.631 778.184 105.711 188.500

75.920 97.345

New Mexico New York Norlh Carolina Norlh Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma Pennsylvania

1.003,556 154,295 1.921.000 821,511 97,557 1,686,650 353,436 278.685 1,244.400 106.914

570.724 2.000.299 164,363 67.236 672.257 427.401 225.210 580.296 45.855 28,069,411

Kindergarl Alldollor, •Includes

l.b

Private elementary

and secondary day schools

401.930 490,000 1

.009.852

439.950 221.735 300.015 68.046 142,500 55.475

T,och.r,

34,785 4,533 21,885 21,700 205,610 28.403 39.358 7.040 8.276 73,690 51,837 9.637 9,273 122,912 58.787 39.795 28,800 33,858 41,662

16.087 2,591

12,025 1,276 1,987

1.431

89.163 13.520 215.600 54,925 7,678 114.000 31.268 26.000 121.100

242.291 52,117 326.189 777.893

32.100

5.500 2,500 1,593 3.100

5.400 1.600 1.560 5.000

9,135

177.906 419,625 40.575 18.099,129

2,328.285

9,450 6.899

4.232 45.440

26.501 17.223

25.781 15.905

13.066 18.168 21.884 7.369

12.818 11.725 17.496 3,962

21 .903

20.647 25,465 55.270 22.500 10.237 15.007 3.604 7,950 2.450

41 .200

21,300 12,612 30,491 5.362 8,935 2,875 4,097

6.110 92.600 32.726 4.430 55,480 15.195 11,870 56,300

3.600 3.000 1.630 2.353

126,000

3J53

_

S 7.812

STUDENT. TEACHER R ATIO

26.6

22.2

t 511

1.154

11,021

9.020 9.995 10.025

1,039 1.023 1,172

8,884 7,422 10.665 7,275 10.320 9.315 9.198 8.120 7,250 8,699 8.287

10.204 9.779 11.291

9,500 6.395 8.707 8,229

7,945 10.100 8,536 10.600 8,000 11,100

16.321

8,041

2.645 49,820 13,563

6,960 8,798 7,530 9.309 9,800

4,558

9,961

15,950 5.335 21.500 67.363 5.828 3.186 29.450 17.249

12,050 2.934 14.589 59.737 5,570 3.118

7.115

1,138.418

951,205

10,423

40.104 139,610 13,296 7,224 55,000 38,830 18,946 52,886 5.189

S 7.659

5.971

10,406 74,266 12,458 14.220 3,140 2.750 31,002

4.774 3.777 67.050

26.959

66,757

516,983 131.379 1,596,000 358,473 46.862 736,400 280.424 201.805 1.128.100 83.782

17,085 1.513

29.301

5.022 3,530 2.207

12,171

47,884 59,024 103.470 48.600 25.665 50.798

14.185 9.899 111,303 12.016 19,689 3,110 3.765 33,148

SALARIES

9,824 7,795 10,028 9,046

9.420

11,200 9,820 10.067 8.385

22.2 25.4 27.0 22,3

7,631

25.1

9,036 8,925

24.2

10.737 10,029 11.866 10.900 6,670 9,006 9.187 9,027

23.7

24,2 25.4 29.1 23.1

24.4 25.5 19.7 21.1

11,025

225

8.100

22,0

17.0

7,545 8,263 8,390 8.376 8.615 8,846 9.50O 10.570

10.015

24,7

19.0

Universities and colleges, 1971-72

lABAMA

!

Slole U.

vingston U.

Universities

and colleges

(continuni)

Year found-

fd

Chorleilon

lllinoii

Weileyon U.

Sehooli ot the / Southern Illinois

Indiono Central Indiono Slote U. Indiono U.

Montheiter Purdue UtRose Pol/lecli, St.

froneis Josepli

(St.

Mory-s

St.

Inst,

Toylor U. Tri-Slole

U. of E.onsvill. U. of Notre Dame

Hays Kansas Stole Konsos Stole Konsoj Slate Teochers Konsos Slate U. U. of Konsos Fort

Woshburn

U.

Wichito Stole U.

Bellormino

Cumberland Eostern Kentucky U.

Georgetown Kentucky Slote

Morehead State Murroy Slote U.

U.

Spoldrng

Ihomos More U. of Kenluclty U. of Louisville

Western Kentucky U.

Total

Bound

llu-

library

d«nlt Faculty volumet

1817 1868 1903

35,986 3,069 4,394,555 »66.102.000 36,765 1,650 1,368,000 3,4- ("Freddie"): see Obituaries 73 Grof*. Ferdc (Ferdinand Rudolph von Grofi): see Obituaries 73

Grisewood.

Gromaire. Marcel: see Obituaries 72 Gromyko. Andrei A. 66iM; 701b France 314b Japan 393a Netherlands SUOd Groslier. Bernard (archae.) 339a Gross. Alfred O.: see Obituaries 71 Gross domestic product: ir< Income,

National

National

Group

Ten (major

of

industrial nations)

Hanrahan. Edward V.

Groves. Leslie R(ichard): aries 71

Guadeloupe, publisliing

Obitu-

Carib. 230b

isls.,

568

see

(table)

isl.. Pac.O. 236 publishing 568 (table) ntal statistics 729 (table) Yokoi. Sh'oiclii 149 737 Guaranteed income 7^

Guam.

Guatemala

73, 72, 71

power 317 (table) employment, wages, and hours 272 electric

(gov. -gen.. Australia) 104c

(table)

income, national 351 (table) inter-American affairs 373d prices 560 (table) publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) transportation 691 (table) U.S. immigration and naturalization 472 (table) vital statistics 729 (table) Guernsey, isl., Eur. 235: 613a Guerrillas Africa 61a; 187d

Argentina 89d; 562c Baader-Meinhof gang 135

Cambodia 160a; il. 159 Communist movement 189c

383d; 468d

Lebanon 4nc; il. 412 Libya 414c „, Olympic Games: set under Olympic ,

police

sec

Obltuarle>

Obltu-

arles 71

e

Guinea

Surinam French Gu

see Biography 73 s il. 12 show bus Haynes. Henry D.: see Obituaries 72 Hazardous Substances Act t96a Health. Education, and Welfare. U.S. Department of (HEW) 261c

Hayes. Isaac:

irganizatic

Health Security Act 4S9b Heart and circulatory diseases 447b Heatli. Edward Richard George:

Biography 73, 72, European unity 289b France 314a Ireland 382a music 493c

see

71

see Obituaries 72 Hefner. Hugh: see Biography 72 Hcightism (new word list) 732 Heikal. Muhammad Hassanein (editor) 268c

Germany)

(pres..

development, economic 237d Ghana 330a Ivory Coast 389c publishing 568 (table) Sierra Leone 610c social services 614 (table) Guinness. Sir Alec (actor) il. 484 Guns: see Weapons Guiither. John: see Obituaries 71 Gursky. H. 102d _,^ ., _ Gustaf VI Adolf (k., Sweden) 642b; il. 643 Guthrie, Sir (William) Tyrone: see

Obituaries 72 Gutt, Camille; see Obituaries 72 73, 72, 71

Commonwealth of Nations 188b employment, wages, and hours 271a publishing 568 (table)

614 (table) Southeast Asia 620c U.S. immigration and naturalization social services

"Hellstrom picture)

philately and numismatics 535d Hochoy, Solomon (gov.-gen., Trinidad and Tobago) 696d Hock. Winand K. (bot.) 322d

Hockey

73, 72, 71

Canada I64c Hull, Robert M.. Jr. 130

Olympic Games 627b television and radio 66Sb Hodges. Gilbert Raymond ("Gil"); see Obituaries 73 baseball U 1 b Hodges. John Cornelius; see Obituaries 71 Hodgson. James D. (U.S. sec. of labor) 400b Hofstadter, Richard: see Obituaries 71 Hog cholera 723b Hogs; see Livestock "Hold Your Peace" (horse) il. 344 Holiness movement S92d Holland: see Netherlands Holman. Libby (Elizabeth Holman Reynolds Holmes Schanker); see Obituaries 72 Holography 190d Holtzman. Ken (baseball player) 112a Holum. Dianne (athlete) 626c Holyoake. Sir Keith J. (pr.min.. New Zealand) 501b e Domestic arts and

Henderson. Paul il. 341 Hendrix. Jimi (James Marshall); see Obituaries 71 Henning. Anne (athlete) 626c Henze. Hans Werner (mus.) 493c Heos (satellite) 98 (table) Herbert. Sir Alan Patrick: see Obituaries 72 „. , Hermitage (museum. Leningrad) 89b Heroin 24Sb intelligence operations 371b Hertzog. Albert: see Biography 71 Herzberg. Gerhard: see Nobel Priies 72 HerzoB. Ya'acov (states.. Israel) 383a Hesburgh. Theodore Martin: see Biography 73 race relations 581b HEW: see Health. Education, and Wel-

Department

of

Biography

Hickenlooper. Bourke Blakemore; Obituaries 72 Hicks. Sir John R. (Nobel Prize winner)

506b Hides 18Sb

Haikkola, Rolf 148 Haile Selassie I (emp.. Ethiopia) 288b; il. 62

France 314b Haiphong. N. Vietnam 726b harbour mining 189a; 22Sc Hair styles 297a

Roads and highways

(sul-

agriculture 74a

bowling 151b disasters 243c; il. 244 income, national 353 (table) publishing 568 (UbIe)

586b

The" (Medawar)

430d

"Hopes and Fears of the American People. The" (report) 716c Hopkins. (Ellen) Miriam: see Obitu-

:

Obltu-

Horvath, Richard 349a "Hospital. The" (motion picture) 484b Hospitals and clinics computers 191c "Feedback. Fat. and Freedom 34a

Bi-

see

Biography

71

list)

732

415a

Hilgenhurst. Charles (engm.) 276c (sci.)

420a

Hillery Patrick .

and shows 294

John

:

see

Biography 71

(table)

motion pictures 486b populations and areas 552b publishing 568 (table) Romania 602b social services 614 (table) Soviet Bloc economies 622c telecommunications 658 (table) television and radio 661a transportation 692b vital statistics 729 (table) Huntington's chorea (disease) 453a Huntley, Chester Robert; see Biogra-

71

Hurricanes 243b meteorology 467a

Husain ibn Talal: see Biography 71 Middle East 383c; 393b; 469b Husak. Gustav (states., Czech.) 208d Husani, Ali Nasir

Muhammad

(pr.min.,

Yemen (Adenl) 733c Hutchinson. A(rthur) S(tuart) M(eilteth) see Obituaries 72 Hutchinson. John: see Obituaries 73 Hutu (people) 60b; 158b; 604c Hydroelectricity 317 Haiti 338c :

Paraguay 528a Romania 602b Hydrolig (new word

Hypermarkets Hypothalamus

list)

732

(retail stores)

304c

"Feedback. Fat. and Freedom

35d

medicine 448c „ ,^ Hough. The Rev. Lynn Harold: see Obituaries 72 Houphouet-Boigny. F«lix (premier. see International

lADB: r affairs 196a cooperatives 199d

IAEA

Amateur Ath-

Federation Inter-American

see

ment Bank (International

Develop-

Atomic Energy

economy, world 253a engineering projects 275c

"Israel's New Citizens" (Special Report) 385d

merchandising 464c

Hilbe. Alfred (chief of govt., Liechten-

M.

Communist movement 189d

phy

vital statistics 729 (table) Honours: see Prizes and awards Hoover. J(ohn) Edgar: see Obituaries 73. See Biography 72 Gray. L. Patrick, III 128

Turkey 698b

Hill.

tan. Malaysia) 442c

elections 715b United States 7 18d 72, 71 agriculture 71c alcoholic beverages 77 (table)

Hungary73,

income, national 351 (table) industrial review 3S9c libraries 413c

transportation 690a

United States 718c Hiker-biker (new word

489b

hockey 341c

Honduras. British: see British Honduras Honev 64b Hong Kong. Brit, colony. Asia 230d

aries 73 Horse Racing 73, 72, 71 Horses 29Sb; 345b VEE 722d Horton. Edward Everett

racer)

Season, The; Selected Poems. 1926-1972" (MacLeish) 426c

Humphrey, George M.:j«Obltuarles71 Humphrey. Hubert Horatio: see Biography 71

Germany 329c

Japan 391b

Sweden 643b; 734c

stein)

phy 73 hockey 340c Hulme. Denis (car

"Human

historic buildings 340c

environment 280a industrial review 362 insurance 370c

383d Middle East 470c

,

see

see

Hijacking 202d Alge 1 79d

Israel

Halim Mu'azzam. Tuanku Abdul

Nicaraguan airlines 502c publishing 572d Somoza Debayle. A. 144 Hughes-Hallett. John: see Obituaries 73 Hull. Robert Marvin, Jr.: see Biogra-

letic

inter-American affairs 372d

Haiti 73, 72, 71 agriculture 73 (table) development, economic 237d publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) U.S. immigration and naturalization 472 (table) .^^ , ,

HaU. Peter Reginald Frederick;

Highways:

Irving, Clifford 130

food 305d

of Progress,

see

Obituaries 72 Hughes. Howard; see Biography 72

fairs

"Hope

711

ment. U.S. Department of Huff. Lloyd il. 659 Hughes. Charles F. ("Chuck"):

lAAF:

365

il.

HUD: see Housing and Urban Develop-

power 317 (table) income, national 351 (table) inter-American affairs 373d Mohna Barraza. A. A. 137 publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) transportation 691 (table)

VmhcrTmYc

migration, international 472c refugees S83a High temperature gas-cooled reactor

(HTGR)

Huang Hua

agriculture 66a

''comm

Habash. George: see Biography 71 Habitations i Loyer lloAiel (HLM) 347d Haggard. Merle: see Biography 72 Hagri, ICadhi Abdullah al- (premier. Yemen Arab Republic) 733d

Hoveida. Emir Abbas (pr.min., Iran) 379c Hovercraft 696c Howes, Bobby: see Obituaries 73 Hsieh, Fu-chih: see Obituaries 73 HTGR (High temperature gas-cooled reactor) 365

defense 217a education 264c electric power 317 (table) employment, wages, and hours 273b

Honda Civic (automobile) 362 Honduras 73, 72, 71

472 (table)

see

ography 71 Hambro. Edvard;

(Health maintenance organiza-

tions) 459c

Hobbies

telecommunications 658 (table)

484d

Hickel. Walter Joseph; see 71

H

347d

HMOs

(motion

The'

Chronicle.

fare, U.S.

GrosssHger / Icebergs

HLM

religion

Heisman Trophy (football) 309d Helicop (new word list) 732

785

Biography 72

electric

326a

Cameroon 160c

see

Historical Studies 71 Historic Buildings 73, 72, 71 environment 281a Hjellming. R. (astronomer) 104a (Habitations il Loyer UoiM)

Homosexuality 461a; 66Sa

Hebrew literature 436a Hedging (econ.) 636b Heflin. Van (Emmet Evan Heftin, Jr.);

Heinemann. GusUv

73, 72, 71

Guyana

aries 73

United Kingdom 70Sa

>2

:

o481c

Heatter. Gabriel: see Obituaries 73

Guggenheim. Olga Hirsh British;

Mo

religion 597d Hatchback (new word list) 732 Hay: see Feed grains Hayden. Carl Trumbull: see Obitu-

(HMOs) 459c

Iran 380a

Dutch:

France 314c

Health

inter-American affairs 372d

.

Blosraphy 72

see

Africa 61a

port) 246c

dependent states 229c Germany 327b

.

Hassan U:

nd Health" (1972

defense 22Id

545d South America 202c Thailand 669c Uruguay 720b Yugoslavia 734c Gug|enheim. Harry F.i

attor-

Hasbrouck. E. P. 609b Hase. Annemarie; see Obituaries 72 Hashish (Charas) 246b Hasluck. Sir Paul Meernas Caedwalla

agriculture 66a British Honduras 228d

Israel

(state's

ney) 205c; S82c Harlan. John Marshall: see Obituaries 72 Harness racing 345b Harris. T George 6a e Obituaries Hart. Thomas Charles: 72 Hartford. Conn. 177b Hartley. Sir Harold: see Obituaries 73 Hartley. L(eslie) P(oles): see Obituaries 73 Hartnelt. Charles Leo ("Gabby"): see Obituaries 73

INDEX

Rt. Rev. John 585a

Emperor; Japan 390b

Hirohito.

159a

237bi 477a of Twenty (Committee on Reform of tlie International Monetary System and Related Issues) 237b; 530c

Group

The

Hines.

Hamre. Lasse (skier) ol2c Handball 631b Handke. Peter (wTiter) 433b Hang Thun Hak (premier. Cambodia)

Grosalnger, Jennie: s« Obltuarlet 73 Gross national product: see Income,

United"

Kingdom 708d

U.S. statistics 749 (table) universities and colleges 87b Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Department of (HUD) 348b insurance 370d Houssay. Bernardo Alberto; see Obitu-

aries 72

thority) 663a Iben. I. 102b IBM: see International

„

.

Business

Machines Corp. Ibos (people) S03c „ , ,. IBY: see International Book Year ICA (International Coffee Agreement) 187a ICA (International Cooperative Alliance) 199b ICAO; see International Civil Aviation ,

Organization

ICBMs

(Intercontinental

missiles)

ICC

baUistic

212d

(Interstate

Commerce Commia-

786

/«

INDEX /

FakisUn

IS7c;

S26b

Ice hockey: sff Hockey 73. 72, 71

iMland

and radio 661a

ches» 169a

television

commodities, primary 18Sc power 317 (table) European unity 293a 6shery limits 407d free-trade agreement 184a Income, national 351 (table) life sciences 423a publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) territorial fishing limits 299d United Kingdom 707b :ital statistics 729 (table)

tobacco 676b tourism 678b transportation 694c

electric

(International Council of

(International

Mu-

Council

of

Sites) 340c

see International Development Association (International Decade of Ocean Exploration) 523a IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations) 413c IFOR (International Fellowship of Reconciliation) 534c niich. Ivan: see Biography 72

IDOE

lUinois (state. U.S.) 84d Illiteracy

260b

Ilmenite (min.) 476b (International Federation) 667b

ILTF

(satellite)

IMF: see Fund

American 9b; 577a; 582b

Monetary

Immunology and immunization 416a cancer therapy 451a Nobel Prizes S06a Implantation 416d Imports: see Trade. International Impossibility theory (econ.) 506c 73, 72. 71

agriculture 64c defense 216d developing nations 237d

economic theory 251d economy, world 252c education 260c employment, wages, and hours 270c European unity 289a government finance 33 Id industrial review 357d insurance 370a money and banking 477d payments and reserves 528c populations and areas 556b prices 561 a profits 564d "Rise of the

Knowledge Worker" 16d

(lADB)

defense 222 (Uble)

development, economic 241a disasters 244b electric power 317 (Uble) fisheries 300 (Uble) historic buildings 338d income, national 353 (Uble) labour unions 403c

UOc

lining

474a

publishing 568 (Uble) race relations 574c religion 588c

Southeast Asia 620a Strait of Malacca 442d telecommunications 658 (Ubie) transportation 691 (Ubie) Industrial Datlgn 71 architecture 86a CATV 657a Industrial Development Organization,

UN (UNIDO)

194c Industrial Relations Act (U.K.. 1971) 122; 400c Industrial Review 73. 72. 71 advertising 56a Arctic regions 88b

commodity market 636b computers 190d employment, wages, and hours 271c fairs and shows 294c fuel and power 314c furs 321a inter-American affairs 374b lumber industry 675b metallurgy 464d mining 473b photography 539c rubber 603d

Industrial Training Decree (Nigeria)

504b Infant mortality: see Vital

ulture 66c

employment, wages, and hours 270c engineering projects 275c food prices 303b

government finance 332a

life

sciences 422a celebration

May Day

il.

189

medicine 450a mining 475a

motion pictures 486c museums and galleries 492c Nepal 499c Olympic Games 629d

362

industrial £371;

merchandising 462d

payments and reserves 529a prices S59d

publishing S68d stock exchanges 634a

"Inflation and

drugs and narcotics 245c; 246b employment, wages, and hours 271b engineering projects 275a environment 279c "Era of Conscious Action" 13a fairs and shows 294 (table) field hockey 342a fisheries 300c food 300d fuel and power 316 Germany 329b ICAO 407d

Inter-American

Panama 527c

Soviet Bloc tobacco 676b

i6S0c tobacco 676b U.S. statistics 747 (table) see also various countries "In Defence of Canada. Peacemaking and Deterrence" (Eayrs) 427b Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBAJ 663a India 73, 72, 71 advertising S7d agriculture 73b astronautics 101b Bangladesh 168a Bhutan 116d Bhutto. Zultikar Ali 120 commodities, primary I85d consumer affairs 195a cricket 201a defense 222a dependent states 231c development, economic 237b

income, national 351 (table) industrial review 359b insurance 370a

development, economic 237b

Bolivia ISOc

environment 281d food 301b fuel and power 316 metallurgy 46Sa

Colombia 181c

Immigration: see Migration, Interna-

Income, National

Argentina 90d

religion 594c

law

Lawn Tennis

98 (table)

International

dependent lUtes 228d

Brazil 155d publishing S73b

"Indochina 1972: Perpetual War" 533d Indonasia 73, 72, 71 agriculture 74d Australia 105d bowling ]5]b Cambodian troops 160a commodities, primary 185a

Unemployment" (To-

bin) 2Sld

Influenza 45Sd

Information science and technology: see Computers Ingersoll. John 371c

Inland waterways 696a Insect control: see Pest control Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers 363

Insurance

73, 72, 71

medicine 459a Norway 507c premiums 740 social services 613a Integration. Racial: see Civil rights and liberties; Race relations Intelllgenoe Operations 73. 72. 71

Czechoslovakia 208d publishing 568a Intelsat (International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium) 99a

telecommunications 659a television

and radio 660b

International League for the Rights of Man 165 b International MoneUry Fund (IMF) Algeria 7Sd

drugs and narcotics 245c economy, world 25 7a engineering projects 278a

530a

tourism 680a

Western Samoa 731a International Music Council 493c International Narcotics Control Board

245b International

Committee

Olympic

625c International Organization for SUndardizalion lOS) 194d International Organization of Consumers Unions (lOCU) 193d (

vital sUtistics 728d see also countries ,

IDA:

IMEWS

190c

peace movemenU 534c populations and areas 552a publishing S72c

theatre 674b Indochina ]72d

Monuments and

Communist movement

trade. International 685c

seums) 491c

ICOMOS

agricultural production 23Sc commodities, primary I84d

religion 5Qld tourism 678a

Schenk. Ard 142

ICOM

lntar>Anterlean Affaire 73, 72, 71

peace movements S34d Itopulations and areat 5S2a prices 560 (uble) publishing 569c refugees 108c; 583a religion S98c rubber 604 (Uble) social services 614 (table) telecommunications 658 (table)

IRBUs

Development

Bank

65c; 240d; 372c

71

Inter-American Highway 527c Inter-American Institute of Ethnomusicology and Folldore 498d Interconnects (telecommunications) 657c Intercontinental

ballistic

International Organizations 73, 72,

missiles

International Press Inatitute 567c International relations commercial policies 182c dependent sutes 228c inter- American affairs

372b

Middle East 468d Southeast Asia 619d U.S. assisunce 768 (Uble)

(ICBMs) 212d Inter-Continental Cup (soccer) 307a INTER-COOP I99d Intercosmos (sateUite) 98 (Uble) Interest 252a; 379a; 477a agriculture 64b

development, economic 240d payments and reserves 528c stock exchanges 635a U.S. mortgage rates 749 (uble) Interferometry lOld IntergovernmenUl Council of Copper Exporting Countries (CIPEC) 186d Interior. U.S. Department of the 692d Intermediate- range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) 213b International Air Transport Association (I ATA) 688d police 545b tourism 678d International Amateur Athletic Federation (lAAF) 629a, 682c International Art Festival (Reykjavik Ice.) 3S0a International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA) 214c Internationa) Bank

for

Economic Co-

International Telephone and Telegraph Corp. (ITT) 570a; 658c

Anderson newspaper column 118 Kleindienst. Richard 133 International Tin Council (ITC) 187a International trade: see Trade. Inter-

International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources (lUCN) 285b Intematiooal Union of Official Tra\'el Organizations (IUOTO)679a Interpol: see International Criminal Police OrganiiaUon Intersute Commerce Commission (ICC) 693c Intervenlurism (new word list) 732 Savings and invest* r

operation Soviet Bloc economies 622c International Bank for Reconstruction

and Development:

see

World Bank

Internationa) Book Year (IBY) publishing 572
- 624c telecommunications 658 (Uble) transporution 689d U.S. immigration and naturaliatlon 472 (table) Iraq 73. 72. 71 archaeology 83d defense 222 (Uble) fairs and shows 294 (Uble) fuel and power 315d; 319 income, national 353 (Uble) Middle East 394a; 397a; 414c; 470d: 647a prices 560 (table) publishing 568 (Uble) social services 614 (Uble) telecommunications 659 (uble) transportation 691 (uble) IRBMs (Intermediate-range ballistic

missiles)

213b

:

:

613a telecommunications 658 (table) theatre 670d tourism 679c trade, international 685b transportation 691 (table) vita! statistics 729 (table) Ireland, Northern; see United Klingdom Irish Republican Army (IRA) 381d Libya 414c MacStiofain, Sean 134

and radio 663b

^240c

education 264c employment, wages, and hours 273a engineering projects 274d "Era of Conscious Action" 6d Ethiopia 288b European unity 292c fisheries 300 (table) food 302a fuel and power 316

S30b

331b government finance 334a historic buildings 340b hockey 341c golf

(table)

Rubber Study

Group) 603d Irving, Clifford Michael: see

Biography

613a

cial

speleology 624d stock exchanges 639b

swimming 644c

Irving. Edith 205b; 573a Irwin, James B, (astronaut) 95b Iryani, Qadi Abdul Rahman al-

taxation 6S3d telecommunications 658 (table) television and radio 660c tennis 667 b theatre 672c

(pi

Republic) 733d

Isaycv. Aleksei: see Obituaries 72 ! ObltIselin. Columbus O'Donnell

tobacco 676c tourism 677d toys and games 680c trade, international

uarles 72 Ishak. Inche Yusof Bin: see Obituaries 71

"Island of the Mighty, The" (ballet-

drama) 670b (International Organization Standardization) 194d Isotopes 167c

ISO

for

687a

transportation 692b

U S.

immigration and naturalization 472 (table) vital statistics 729 (table) ITC (International Tin Council) 187a ITT: see International Telephone and Telegraph Corp.

ITU

(international tion

Telecommunica-

Union) 659b

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) 285b lUOTO (International Union of Official Travel Organizations) 679a

lUCN

Israel 73, 72, 71 agriculture 65 (table)

chaeology 83c

:87d d urban affairs 176c nist movement 190a bridge 199a

(International

Ivory Coast 73, 72, 71 agriculture 70a

social services

transportation 691 (table) "Izvestia" (newspaper) 89a

and shows 294 (table) income, national 353 (table) intelligence operations 372b fairs

Games propaganda 566b

basketball 114d al-Ahmad Jabir

publishing 568 (table)

(Alcindor,

Lew)

stock exchanges 640d

telecommunications 658 (table) tourism 678a transportation 691 (table) Uganda 60c; 699d

United Nations 711a vital statistics 730a "Israel's New Citizens" port) 385a Italian literature 434c Italy 73, 72, 71

(Special

Re-

agriculture 68c alcoholic beverages 78b art exhibitions 93c Austria 107c

Java,

as-Sabah

boxing 153a commodities, primary 186b Communist movement 190a contract bridge 198b crime 205a

Cuba 206d cycling 207b

defense 220d

development, economic 240d disasters 241c economy, world 252c education 263b employment, wages, and hours 273a engineering projects 276a environment 286b Ethiopia 288b European unity 289d

Jackson. Glenda: see Biography 72 "Elizabeth R" il. 666 Jackson. Henry Martin: see Biography 72 Jackson. Mahalia: see Obituaries 73 Jacobs. Hirsch: see Obituaries 71 Jacobsen. .\rne: see Obituaries 72 Jacobson. Mrs. D. D. (bowler) 152a Jahn. Gunnar: see Obituaries 72 Jalloud. Abdul Salam (pr.min.. Libya)

414b

Jamaica

Jarring.

73, 72, 71

baptism 591d consumer affairs 194a electric power 317 (Uble) income, national 353 (table) inter-American affairs 372d libraries 4) 3c

Manley. Michael 135 motion pictures 486d s 560 (table) "

Jancso. Miklos 486b Jan Mayen. isl.. Nor. 233 Japan 73, 72, 71 advertising 56a agriculture 74a alcoholic beverages 76c

Dauda

.

„ ^^ Poland) ,

469a; 711a

(pres..

list)

732

,,„ Jean (grand duke. Luxembourg) 440c Jehovah's Witnesses 588a ^

,

Malawi 442a refugees 583d Jenkins. Clive: see Biography 71 Jenkins. Ferguson (baseball player)

Roy

Harris: see

Biography 73

European unity 289b; 130 United Kingdom 70Sd Jersey, isl.. U.K. 613a Jesus boot (Watershoe) (new word 732 Je.sus

list)

movement He

360

Jetstream Jewish Museum (Prague. Czech.) 597c Jews 4S3c; 574d education 263b (aircraft)

Egypt 269b Israel 385a U.S.S.R. 597b; 701d U.S. elections 717a Jigme Dorji Wangchuk: see Obituaries 73

437a Jeffrey Ballet (N.Y.) 210d Jitrik.

No«

Ratu

(writer)

Johannesson. Olafur (pr.min.. Iceland)

Sir

(pr.min.,

Karjalainen. Ahti: see Biography 71 Karrer. Paul: see Obituaries 72 "Karst Geology" (Sweeting) 624d

Karting 631c Karume. Sheikh Abeid Amani Rashid: see Obituaries 73 Kato. Sawao (athlete) 629d Katz. Sir Bernard: see Biography 71 Katzir. Aharon (Aharon Katchalsky): see Obituaries 73 airport massacre 384a (arch.)

digital clock il. 86 Kaunda. Kenneth David;

raphy

Jazz496d

Jenkins.

Mara. Fiji) 298a Karate 631c

Kaufman. Melvyn

The Gambia)

322b Jay-cycling (new word

Obitu-

Hungary) 189d;

Kaiser Plan (insurance) 4S7a Kalecki. Michal: see Obituaries 71 Kallet. Arthur: see Obituaries 73

Kamisese

Indon. 323a Jacob 459b

Jawara, Sir

(states..

Kahane. Meir David: see Biography 72 Kahn. Louis: see Biography 73 Kahn. Roger (writer) 425d; il. 424

(premier,

Piotr

K Kadar. Janos 348c

675c

Gunnar V.

386

Kabis. Dorothy Andrews: see aries 72

isl.,

Javits,

al-Jabir

Kuwait) 396d Jablonski. Henryk: see Biography 73 Poland 543c Jacklin. Tony (golfer) 331a (pr.min..

614 (toble)

,^

15b

and radio 663d

Jaroszewicz 543c

police 545d prices S61c

religion S97b social services 613a;

,,

Tanaka, Kakuei 146

730a Winter Olympics 626a Japanese literature 435c

Jabbar, Kareem Abdul see Biography 72

il.

France 314b

472 (table) vital statistics

meteorology 466a Middle East 143; 268b; 393c; 411c; 468d; 647a music 494c Olympic Games: see under Olympic

(pr.min..

Jupiter (space probe) lOOd

.

Japan 393a

(table)

Jugoslavia: see Yugoslavia Juliana (q.. Netherlands) 499d

toys and games 680c trade, international 686c transportation 688b U.S.S.R. 702d U.S. immigration and naturalization

614 (table)

614

Judaism 597b U.S.S.R. synagogue Judge. W. James 84d Judo 631c

social services 613a Southeast Asia 620a stock exchanges 640c swimming 644c

timber tourism 678b

publishing 568 (table) race relations 575c

73, 72, 71

defense 224d income, national 353 (table) Middle East 383c; 397a; 468d; 606c;

Anker Henrik Denmark) 227b

611d

statistics

Jordan

Joseph. Sir Keith Sinjohn: see Biography 73 Journalism: see Publishing "Journal of Applied Meteorology" 466a Juan Carlos de Borb6n y Borb6n (prince. Spain) 623b

588b

television

Jordan. Barbara C. S80d

J0rgensen.

telecommunications 658 (table)

Guinea 337b

James Earl (actor) 139 Obituaries 71

Joplin. Janis: see

647a

"Rise of the Knowledge Worker rubber 604 (table) rugby 308b savings and investment 608a skiing

Jones.

social services

mining 475a money and banking 480d motion pictures 486c mountaineering 490d music 494c Paraguay 528a payments and reserves 528c peace movements 534d photography 539c prices S61a profits 564b publishing 568 (table) religion

Ben (actor) 484c Howard Dearing: see Obituaries 73 Johnson. Oscar: see Obituaries 71 Johnson. William il. 586 Jonas. Franz (pres.. Austria) 106d Jonathan. Leabua (pr.min.. Lesotho) 412c race relations 575c "Jonathan Livingston Seagull" (Bach) 572d Jones. Bobby (Robert Tyre Jones. Jr.): see Obituaries 72

publishing 568 (table) race relations 574c

housing 346c income, national 352c Indonesia 3S7b industrial review 357d insurance 370a investment, international 379b labour unions 402c law 410d life sciences 420c medicine 461b merchandising 463c metallurgy 465b Mexico 467c

564c publishing 569b religion 586c rowing 603b rubber 604 (table) savings and investment 607c skiing 612b

r307a

Irrigation 284d IRSG (International

citie

Olympic Games 626d payments and r philately 536b

Alvin: see Obituaries 72 B. D. (sociol.) 247c

Johnson. Johnson, Johnson. Johnson,

173c

1

Ecuador 260a

profits

Soviet Bloc economies 622a world production 186 (table) Iron ore 150c

13a

Ciiha 20fiH

prison riots S62b

mining 475c

1

Chii

merchandising 464a mining 47Sd money and banking 477c motion pictures 485b motor sports 488a museums and galleries 491b music 496b

560

baseball

787

Kenya

Ireland /

.Timercial policies 182b commodities, primary 18Sc Communist movement 190c computers 192c cooperatives 200a

sciences 419b

s

94b

1

law 411a life

art sales

bowling 151b boxing lS2d 157c

buildings 338d

police 546c

United Kingdom 202c; 709a Iron (element) 97b Iron and steel 364; 465a Austria 107a Brazil 154c investment, international 378d

Yemen Arab

(table)

hockey 341c horse racing 345a housing 346c income, national 351 (table) industrial review 357d insurance 370a intelligence operations 372a investment, international 379b labour unions 402d

religion 590b social services

television

300

fisheries

INDEX

Antarctica 81a archaeology 84c

and shows 294a fashion and dress 297d

fairs

Ireland 73, 72, 71 agriculture 68a alcoholic beverages 76c commodities, primary 186b consumer affairs 193d defense 220b education 263b electric power 317 (table) environment 28Sa European unity 184a; 289a income, national 351 (table) industrial review 359b labour law cases 407b prices 560 (table) publishing 568 (table) race relations 574d

see

Biog-

71

Kawabata. Yasunari; see Obituaries 73 Kayibanda. Gr^goire (pres.. Rwanda) 604c Mikhail Kedrov. Obituaries 73

Nikolaevich;

see

Keeler. Ruby: see Biography 72 Kekkonen. Urho Kaleva (pres., Finland) 298c Kelly. Sir Gerald Festus; see Obitu-

aries 73 Kendall. Edward Calvin: see Obituaries 73 Kennecott Copper Co. 186d; 405d Kennedy. Edward 459b; 715d Kennedy Space Center 95c Kent. Rockwell: see Obituaries 72

Kenya

73, 72, 71 Africa 60c agriculture 70c

archaeology 83c death penalty 203a disasters 244b electric power 317 (table) environment 283b field hockey 342a highway to Nigeria 187d

income, national 351 (table) law 410c prices 560 (table) publishing 572d

INDEX

788

Krag, Jens Otto (pr.min.. Denmark;

John Daniel:

Lavelle.

227b

Kra Isthmus, Thailand 621a Kreisky. Bruno: see Biography 71 Austria 106d

Kenyalta / London

track and field sports 681d transportation 691 (.table)

Obituaries 71 Kerwin, Joseph P. (astronaut) 97c Keulen-Deelstra. Atje (ice skater) 350d Keyes, Frances Parkinson (Wheeler);

Key '73 (evangelism program) 587a Khalatbari, Abbas Ali (states., Iran)

71

Krylov. Nikolai Ivanovich: see Obituaries 73 Kschessinska-Nechni. Mathilda-Maria: see Obituaries 72 Kuala Lumpur International Airport 443c Kuderks, J. M. 322d Kuhn, Bowie Kent: see Biography 71 Kulakova, Galina (athlete) 627a Kunstler, William Moses: sfe Biog-

raphy 71 Kurds (people) 380d

Kuwait

380a Khalifah, Isa ibn Sulman al- (emir, Bahrain) 107d Khalifah ibn Hamad ath-Thani, Sheikh (emir and pr.min., Qatar) 574a Khama, Sir Seretse (pres., Botswana)

73, 72. 71

income, national 353 (table) Middle East 471a; 641d; 647a

al-

nam) 723c Khleyfawi, Abdul Rahman (premier, Syria) 646c Kilmer Republic: see Cambodia Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich; see Obituaries 72

Mwai (fin. minis., Kenya) 394b Kidnapping 89c; 204c; 698a Killanin, Lord Michael John 62Sc Kim Cheng Pil (pr.min., Korea) 396a Kim II Sung: see Biography 73 Communist movement 190b Korea 396c Kim Yong Ju (states.. Korea) 395b King, Billie Jean (tennis player) 668c King, Dennis: see Obituaries 72 King, Hetty: see Obituaries 73 Kibaki,

Norman

E. (pr.min.,

New

Zea-

land) SOlb

Paul L.: see Obituaries 71 Cissinger. Henry Alfred: see Biography 73, 72 fCirk.

China I72d defense 213a Nixon, Richard M. 138 United States 718a Vietnam 725c Gassen, Elmer T. (postmaster gen.,

Cleindienst, Richard: see

Biography 73

^ Deputy Attorney General il. 407 Cnapp Commission 547d Cnatchbull-Hugessen, Sir Hughe: Obituaries 72

:jiauer, Virginia

il.

see

193

Cnighton-Hammond, Arthur Henry: see Obituaries 71 Knorr" {research vessel) S23a :jiox, E(dmund) V(alpy): see Obitu-

Olympic Games 627d [orea. 73. 72, 71 agriculture 74b

China 173a

Communist movement 190b defense 226b

development, economic 241a disasters 242b power 317 (table) employment, wages, and hours 272 electric

(table) fisheries 300 (table)

housing 346c income, national 351 (table) Japan 393a 11

Labor for Peace (peace 533c Labour: see Employment, wages, and agriculture 62c Australia 105b Boyle. W. A. 120

libraries

power 317 (table) industrial review 368 electric

4I4a

publishing 568 (table) religion 586d social services

social services 614c Somalia 617c taxation 651a television and radio 662a United Kingdom 126; 371a United States 712c

Sung 132

mountaineering 491a prices 560 (table) publishing 568 (table) race relations 5'/4c religion 587d; S99d

614 (table) telecommunications 658 (table) social services

transportation 691 (table) U.S. immigration and naturalization 472 (table)

Yemen Arab Republic 733d oroma, Sorie Ibrahim (pr.min.. Sierra Leone) 610c orvald, Lars (pr.min., Norway) 506d osygin, Aleksei N. (premier. U.S.S.R.) 189c; 700b consumer society 292b economy, world 259a Iraq 380d Jews 597b ouandit^, Maurice 2lOb fCouprey: One More Inexcusable Loss to Man, The" (Special Report) 282a

614

(table)

Tolbert, William R., Jr. 146 trans|iortation

694d

Libraries 73, 72, 71 catalog of numismatic literature 53Th educ:

Lawn bowls lS2b Lawn Tennis Association (U.S.) 667c of the Sea Conference, UN 299d Lawrence. Bill (writer) 425a Lawson, H. Blain (math.) 445b Lawzi, Ahmed al- (pr.min.. Jordan) 393b Lazareff, Pierre: see Obituaries 73 LCA (Lutheran Church in America) 5S8d Leachman. Cloris (actress) 484c Lead I85a; 366; 473b medicine 460d Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett: see Obituaries 73 Leakey. Richard (anthro.) 82d Learson. T. Vincent (board chairman, IBM) 192a 73, 72, 71

agriculture 72d

Cuba 206a Czechoslovakia 209c

-'-

Library of Congress 414a

Libya 73, 72. 71

Chad 167a defense 225a development, economic 237b disasters 244a environment 286b fairs and shows 294 (table) fuel and power 315d

income, national 353 (table) Italy 388c Middle East 269b; 470c; 641d publishing 568 (table) religion 599d social services 614 (table) trade, international 686a Uganda 187c; 699d Hart. Sir Basil Henry: Obituaries 71 Liebert, Robert M. (psych.) 13d Liechtenstein 73, 72, 71

Liddell

see

"Life" (magazine) 570c Life Sciences 73, 72. See Biologtoal

Communist movement 189c

employment, wages, and hours 270c France 313d Israel 383d Jamaica 135

see

71

Claude (anthro.) 82d

Lewis, Joe E.: see Obituaries 72 Lewis, Ted ("Kid"): jcr Obituaries 71 Lewis. Ted (Theodore Leopold Fried man): j« Obituaries 72 LHASA (Logic and Heuristics Applied to Synthetic Analysis) 168a Liberal Party (Can.) 16la Liberia 73, 72, 71

publishing 573d

Lebanon

consumer affairs 195a defense 220b fuel and power 319

Sciences; Molecular Biology 71 chemical coding of memory 147

environment 279b food research 305a medicine 446d

new words and meanings 731a i445d

^

Japan 392c

Kim

photocopying for police 545a

I--cvi -Strauss,

Law

470d Khazad-Dum (cave, Tasmania) 624d Khiem. Tran Thien (premier. S. Viet-

ECirk.

labour unions 400c "Marijuana in Perspective" (Special Report) 248b medicine 456c

U.S. statistics 765 (table) Lawless, Theodore K.; see Obituaries 72

motion pictures 486d publishing 568 (table) vital statistics 729 (table)

Biography

;

Krim. Belkacem: see Obituaries 71 Kronberger. Hans: see Obituaries 71 Krug. Julius Albert ("Cap"): set

vital statistics 729 (table) Kcnyatta. Jomo (pres.. Kenya) 394b; ii. 62 Kerekou. Mathieu 60d; 210a Kerenski, Aleksandr Fedorovich; see

ISOd Khatib, Ahmed

and urban affairs 176b computers 192b consumer affairs 193d drugs and narcotics 250a education 266b immunity of journalists 121 International Bowling Board I52c

Letter bombs: see under Bombing Leukemia 450c Levant. Oscar: see Obituaries 73 Levingston, Roberto Marcello:

migration, international 47Id peace movements 533c publishing S69a race relations S75c Reid. Jimmy 141 "Rise of the Knowledge Worker" I7a transportation 694d Trinidad and Tobago 697a United Kingdom 126 LAFTA (Latin American Free Trade Association) 374a Lakas Bahas, Demetrio (prea., Pan-

ama) 526d Lamar, Dwight (athlete) 114b Lamizana. Sangoule (pres..

Middle East 469b publishing 568d social services 614 (table) telecommunications 658 (table) United Nations 71 la vital statistics 729 (table) Le Brun, Pierre: see Obituaries 71 Ledoux, Claude Nicolas (arch.) 87d Leduc. Violette: see Obituaries 73 Le Due Tho 72Sc Kissinger.

Henry

132

Lee. Sir Frank Godbould: see Obituaries 72 Lee, Gypsy Rose (Rose Louise Hovick)see

Obituaries

71

Biography 73 (Low-energy electron diffraction) 167c Hu Rak (states., Korea) 395b Leek, Sybil: see Biography 73 Lee Kuan Yew (pr.min., Singapore) Lee, Harold B,: see

LEED

Upper

Lee

Obituaries 72 Lamorisse. Albert: see Obituaries 71 Lamrani. Muhammad Karim (pr.min., Morocco) 481c Lander. Harald: see Obituaries 72 Land reform: see Agrarian reform Lane. Sir Allen: see Obituaries 71 Languages 587c Africa 60c; 160c

Belgium llSd Canada 161a Ceyton 165d education 26 Id Indonesia 356d Lanusse, Alejandro Agustin: Biography 72 Argentina 89c inter-American affairs 374c

Laos

73, 72, 71

defense 22 Id

development, economic 237d drugs and narcotics 245c engineering projects 277b publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) Southeast Asia 620c Vietnam 725a LaPierre, Dominique (writer) 425b Lapp, Paul W.: see Obituaries 71

"La Pr^voyante"

(horse)

343b

Lark. K. G. (aci.) 420c Larsen, Aksel: see Obituaries 73 r 542c; il. 659 rtography il. 324 picture) 484d

"Last Whole Earth Catalog: Access Tools, The" (Brand) 573d America: see Inter-Americ

Latin

afifairs

Latin American Free Trade Assoc tion (LAFTA) 374a Latin- American literature 436d Latter-day Saints. Church of Jes Christ of 587d Lee, Harold B. 133

see

Legislation

Alaskan

oil industry 88c Australia 106c

CATV 6S6a consumer affairs 193c education 261d environment 285a European Economic Community 289b food additives 306a Gault rights 408d government finance 332c housing 348b industrial relations 398d insurance 370d Paraguay 528a Portugal 556d revenue sharing 178c South Africa 61 7d taxation 649d "Technology Control, of Choice" 31d

A New

:

72

LNG:

see Liquefied natural

gas

Loans 463a; 477c; 529b Costa Rica 200b development, economic 241a economy, world 2S5c

Level

toys and games 681b

United Kingdom 708d U.S. statistics 752 (table) see also Leloir, Luis Frederico see Biography 71 Lemass, Sean Francis: see Obituaries 72

Law

:

Lemberg

Center for the Study of Violence (Brandeis Univ.) 180d Lenses (phot.) 541a Leonard, Joe (car racer) 488d "Leonardo da Vinci" (TV series) 665c Leone, Giovanni; see Biography 73 Italy 387c papal audience 721b Leopold. Nathan F.: see Obituaries 72 Leahi, Haxhi (pres., Albania) 75a Leskinen, Vain6 Olavi: see Obltuari*

73

Lesotho 73, 72,

protein evolution 83a sleep cycle experiment 624d "Limits to Growth, The" (report) 7a; 237a; 279c Lim6n, Jos£ Arcadia: see Obituaries 73 Lindsay, John Xliet: see Biography 72 elections 715a police 548a race relations S8Ib Linguistics 82c Linkovesi, Leo (ice skater) 350d Lin Piao (Lin Lu-yung) see Obituaries 73 China 171b Communist movement 190b Liquefied natural gas (LNG) 318; 368 Liston, Charles ("Sonny"): see Obituaries 71 Literature 73, 72. 71 Betjeman, Sir John 119 British museum collection 9Sa Czechoslovakia 209a Nobel Prizes S06c publishing 571d U.S.S.R. 701a Lithuania 701c Livestock 63c: 185d; 284c Afghanistan 59a Canada 164b fairs and shows 295a kouprey 282c Mongolia 481b veterinary medicine 722d Living will (new word list) 732

71

development, economic 237d race relations S75c Less developed countries: see Develoi ing nations

inter- American affairs

373b

Sharp. Frank 738

Lobbying peace movements 533b Lobo Cordero, Alfonso (states.. Nicaragua) 502b Lobster 260b Local Government Act (U.K.. 1972)

414a Lochridge, Charles: see Obituaries 71 Lockheed L-10!t TriStar (aircraft) 689d Loddo, Vincenzo 204c

Lod

International Airport (Israel) hijacking 383d

Japanese terrorist massacre 46!>ci il. 203 Logic and Heuristics Applied to Synthetic Analysis (LHASA) I68a Loginov, Yevgeny: see Obituaries 71 Lombard!, Vincent Thomas ("Vince"):

loiulon, Eiig. 20Sc; 339c; 679b ait exhibitions 92c

taxation 651b United State?

Machinery and machine

or see

Francisco

(pres..

aries 71

McKay. David Oman:

:

Obituaries

71

Kathleen: see Obit(pres..

Hon-

McKelvey, V. E. (geol.) 325b McKenney, Ruth: see Obituaries 73 Sir (Edward Montague) Compton: see Obituaries 73

Mackenzie, Mackie.

ISlc

S. (bowlinii)

McLachlan. Donald Harvey:

114c

>. Joseph: see Biography 72 >tic2i. Pal (head of state. Hungary) i48c uery (gambling) 740 .-ouise. Anita (Anita Louise Fremault): see Obituaries 71 Lousma. Jack R. (astronaut) 97c Louvre (museum. Paris) 93a Louw. Nicholas Petrus Van Wyk: see Obituaries 71 Lovell. James Arthur. Jr.: see Blog-

see

Obit-

uaries 72 McLaren. Bruce:

McMahon.

William: see Biography 72 Australia 104c McMillan, Donald Baxter: see Obituaries 71

McMillen.

Tom

(athlete) 114b (writer) 424a

McMurtry, Larry

McPlierson. Sir John Stuart: see Obit-

167c

LRV

(Lunar roving vehicle) 96c LSD 2S0c LUblce, Heinrich: see Obituaries 73 Luce. Clare Booth 24a Lucentini. Franco (writer) 4.V';a Lukacs. Gyorgy: see Obituaries 72 Lukas. Paul: see Obituaries 72

Timber

(space probe) 98 (table)

Lunar geology 97a: 324d Lunar module 96b Lunar roving vehicle (LRV) 96c Luns. Joseph Marie Antoine Hubert: see Biography 72 Lutheran Church in America (LCA) 5S8d Lutherans 588b: 592c Lutheran World Federation (LWF) 588c Luvsan. Sonomyn (deputy chairman of Presidium. Mongolia) 481a

Ireland 382b television and radio 663b Madagascar: see Malagasy Republic "Madrid" (newspaper) 568d Maga, Hubert (chairman, Presidential Council, Dahomey) 209d

Magazines: see Periodicals Mager, Wolfgang (oarsman) 603b Magnelli, Alberto: see Obituaries 72 Magoon. Bob (boat racer) 490c Mahalanobi^. Praer Bowl" (horse) 345b Superconducting cables 363 Superconductors Nobel Prizes 504d "Super Fly" (motion picture) 139 Super-metal-rich (SMR) stars lOld Supersonic transport (SST) 31a; 380c "Superstores in the 70s" (report. U.K.) 304c Supreme Court of the United States, The 750 (Uble) Angela Davis decision 125

_">

-

Swimminq

Switzerland

peace movements 534c publishing 568 (tabic) refugees 583a

6l3b

services

stock exchanges 639a telecommunications 658 (Uble)

Kuwait 307a Middle East 470d

Susini, Pierre: see

4V3d Stockholders S33c Stokes. Maurice: see Obituaries 71

(South We-t African People'-" Organisation- 229a

Hotial

Sweden

food 301 income, national 353 (table)

"Susan's Giri" (horse) 343d

Cuba 206d defense 220b dependent states 229d

United Kingdom 707d U.S. docks 65a; 676c Yugoslavia 73Sa Strip mining 472d; 740 Stroessner, Alfredo (pre^..

Sudan

Olympic Games 627d Spofford.

South Dakota fstate. U.S.) 624c Southeast Asia 73, 72, 71 defense 225a peace movements 533b Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) 188a; 621b

trade, international 687b transiwrtation 690b

208d

Center) 181a Spicgclman. Sol (sci.) 419b Spingarn. Arthur B.: s^e Obituaries 72 Spingarn medal (NAACP) 139

Sporting Record 73, 72, Olympic Games 625a

Spain 623c

Strougal.

Speculation (econ.) 636b

tennis 667b trade, international 6asb transportation 691 (table) Zaire 736a South African Institute of Race Relations S75b South Arabia: ser Vemen. People's

402

environment 281a

Spectrometer 99d Spectroscopy I67b

586a Rhodesia 61c r^ibber 604 (table) nigbv 308c social services 614 (table) stock exchanges 640d Swaziland 642a telecommunications 658 (table) television and radio 6S9d

il.

)>ublishing 569c social services 613b

raphy 73

Speedway 632 c "Speedy Crown" (horse) 34Sd Speleology 73, 72, 71 Spiegel. John P. (director. Lemberg

SWAF'O

Swaziland

C

mining 475d motor sports 487d Olympic Games 626d

S[>ectorsky.

religion

Democratic Republic

ligration. international

Montagu George North:

Obituaries 72

Stratcgicarmshmitationtallcs (SALT) 212c; 292b agreement signing il. 213 insky. Igor Feodorovich:

U.S.S.R. 704a vital sUtistics 729 (table) Spanish literature 439c Spanish Sahara. Africa 61a: 229d Spanish- speaking minorities 26Id; 567a; 576c; 661d Spassky, Boris (chess player) 169a:

food 302 a furs

see

Stormfurj'. Project 467a

117b

life

Swan Mand*. Hondu

Baron: see Obituaries 72 Stopford. Sir

income, national 351 (table)

Suzuki. Mlchio (math.) 44Sb Svalbard. isl-.. Arcl.O. 233 Svedberg, Theodor H. E.: see Obltuar-

IMuIip

F-ari: s,-f

Cunliffe-Lister,

Isi

Obituaries 73

73, 72, 71 agriculture 6Rcl alcoholic beverages 77 (Uble) art sales 94c

cooperatives

1

99b

development, economic 238 (Uble) drugs and narcotics 245d education 266d engineering projects 278c environment 281a Euroi>ean unity 293a free-trade agreement 184a fuel and power 317 Germany 329b golf

331b

hockey 341b income, national 351 (Uble) review 3.S0b in-urance 370a investment, international 379b Liechtenstein 415a merchandising 464b migration, international 471c in.histrial

money and banking 477a Olympic Games 626d payments and reserves 529a philately 536b prices S60c

publishing S72c refugees S83d religion

590a '

skiing

t

telecommunications 659b theatre 671c tourism 678a transporUtion 692b Synthetic-; 3ft9; 603d; 676d Syria 73, 72, 71 agriculture 72d archaeology 83d [

movement 189c

Qtlonal 353 (Uble) Jordan 394b Kuwait 397a Middle East 469c social services 614 (Uble) telecommunications 658 (Uble) trans|K>rtation 691 (Uble)

United Nations 711b

System of national accounts (SNA) 351b Syvertsen, GeorRC: sec Obituaries 71 Szamuely. Tiber: see Obituaries 73 Szell. George: srr Obituaries 71

Tay-Sachs disease 453c Tazewell Charles: see Obituaries 73

TD-IA

(satellite)

73. 72, 71

tising 56c

5 and radio 659d U.S. statistics 767 (table) iiices

Telemedicine (new word list) 732 Telephones SS8c; 658a Telescopes 101c Television and Radio 73, 72, 71 advertising 56c "All in the Family" 121 "Cable Communications— A Spring(Special board to Tomorrow" Report) 6S5a cities and urban affairs 17Sc consumer affairs 193d

4S0d Taft-Hartley Act 400b

Taiwan

73, 72, 71 aarirulture 74c

bowling 151b

Chiang Ching-lcuo 123 Cliina 172d defense 221c disasters 244a electric

power 317

(table) (table) (table)

Cosell. Howard 125 13d i Action" of Cons.

employment 272 fisheries

300

golf 33 lb

income, national 353 (table) Japan-China relations 392c

589d publishing 568 religion

(table) social services 614 (table) telecommimications 658 (table) transportation 691 (table)

United States 713c see Obituaries 72 Tal. Wasfi at Talal. Ibn Abdullah: see ObituarU i73 :

Jordan 394a Ta'miroff.Akim: see Obituaries 73 Tamni. Igor Evgenyevich: see Obituaries 72

Tamura. I. (math.) 445b Tanaka, Kakuei: see Biography 73 China 173d commercial policies 183b defense 226a Japan 390b Southeast Asia 620a Taiwan 648c Tanganyika; see Tanzania Tanner. Chuck (baseball manager) 1 13a Tantau. M. 323b „ „ Tanzam (Tanzania-Zambia) Railway 187d .

,

Tanzania

73, 72, 71 Africa 60c agriculture 70c assassination of Karume 202d

defense 226c

development, economic 237d electric power 317 (table) employment, wages, and hours 271a fisheries 300 (table) income, national 352 (table) prices 560 (table) publishing S68d

religion 590b social services

614 (table) transporUtion 691 (table) Uganda I87c; 700a tribe) 578c (Indian Taos Pueblo Tapsichorean (new word list) 732 Tariffs 182c; 256d alcoholic beverages 76d European unity 293a industrial review 362 inter-American affairs 373d South Africa 6I9c Southeast Asia 620d telecommunications 6S4d "Tarim" (horse) 345a Tart. Charles (psych.) 247b Tasaday (tribe) 82b ., , TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) 12d Tate Gallery (London. Eng.) 92d-, 492a Taiatlon 73 advertising S6b agriculture 62c alcoholic beverages 77b CATV facilities 656d census statistics 178c commercial policies 182b economy, world 253c education 261d elections 715b employment, wages, and hours 270c French avoidance scandal 313a government finance 332c industrial review 361 medicine 4S9c merchandising 464a peace movements 534b profits 564c publishing 572a of the Knowledge Worker .

17c 3

615a

stock exchanges 639b

tourism 679b United States 738 U.S. statistics 754 (table)

"TaiTchanges Among' Income Groups 1962-68" (Herriott and Miller)

—

650c

Tax harmonization 653b Taylor. B. R. (cricket player) 201c Taylor. Richard: see Obituaries 71

Fra 313a nteg rating TV t Leek. Sybil 134 motor sports 488d music 493c

I

101c

new words and meanings 731c

New

Zealand 502a Philippines 538a police il. 545 Previn. Andri 140 propaganda 566c religion S87d

(pr.min.. Thai-

land) 669a "That Championship Season" (play) 673a Thatcher. W. Ross: see Obituaries 72 THC (Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) "Marijuana in Perspective" (Special Report) 246b

Theatre

73, 72, 71

Czechoslovakia 209a dance 210c Papp. Joseph 138 Thfitre National Populaire 671b Theft 205c

(TNP)

see

12d Theodorakis. Mikis: see Biography 71

"Theory

of

Wages. The" (Hicks) 506b

Thermoelectricity 317 Thermonuclear energy: see Nuclear energy Theroux. Alexander (wTiter) 424c; 11 426 Thieu. Nguyen Van: see Biography 72 peace talks 225b religion 599d Vietnam 723c Third Force Christendom 593a Third world: see Developing nations Thoeni. Gustavo (skier) 612b Thompson. John (math.) 445c Thompson. Llewellyn E.. Jr.: see

Thorborg. Kerstin: see Obituaries 71 see (Arthur) Russell: Thorndike.

U.S. statistics 767 (table) violence report S67b William Benton Foundation 119 Temin. Howard Martin: see Biography 72 life

I7d

i

Tennis

73, 72, 71

Evert. Chris 127 Smith. Stanley Roger 144

"Tennyson" (Ricks) 430d " Ter

Brazil 154b commodities, primary 185a Indonesia 74d; 357b Soviet Bloc economies 622a U.S. statistics 744 (table)

"Time"

(period.) 132

"Times.

Ecuador 259c Gabon 322b Iceland 349b

The"

(London

newspaper)

Obituaries 71 Tin I85a; 476b Tio Taco (new word list) 732 Tires 604a Tiselius. Arne Wilhelm Kaurin: see Obituaries 72 Eugene Gabriel Gervais Tisserant. Laurent Cardinal: ue Obituaries 73 Vatican City State 721b see

jurisdictional disputes 299d

law 410c Strait of Malacca 442d rerrorism Australia 105b crime 202c Croatian uslakhi 189d Germany 328c Ireland 709d; lis. 706. 707 Israel 383d; 393b Italy 388a Japanese at Lod Airport 384a ligration. international 471 Northern Ireland 708d

under Olympic

TiUnium metallurgy 465b

mining 476b Tito (Josip Broz): see Biography 72 Communist movement 189d Yugoslavia 734b TNP (Theatre National Populaire) •/61b

Philippine

bomb

attack 537c

religion 597c

Sarawak 443a Turkey 698a Tetrahedral city engineering projects 276c (state. U.S.) architecture 86d

Texas

and power 318 law on marijuana 248d museums and galleries 492b fuel

veterinary medicine 722c Textiles and fibres agriculture 70d industrial review 366; 368 Thailand 73, 72, 71 agriculture 74d

anthropology 82a boxing 154a Cambodian troops 160a defense 215a disasters 244b drugs and narcotics 245c electric power 317 (table) fisheries 300 (table) income, national 353 (table) Laos 404a Malaysia 443a mining 476b prices 560 (table) publishing 568 (table) religion 598d rubber 604 (table) social services 614 (table) Soutlieast Asia 621a telecommunications 658 (table) transportation 691 (table) U S. immigration and naturalization 472 (table) vital statistics 729 (table) Thang. Ton Due: see Biography 71 Vietnam 726d

Tobacco

73, 72. 71

agriculture 63a

commercial policies lS2b commodities, primary 185a taxation 738 Tobias. Charles: see Obituaries 71 Tobin. James (econ.) 251d

Tobogganing 632d Olympic Games 627b Tocchini-Valentini. G. P. (sci.) 419b Todorov. Stanko (premier. Bulgaria)

Nil a 61c publishing 568 (table) social services 614 (table) (physics) 542d Tokelau Islands. Pac.O. 233 Tokyo. Japan 280b Tolbert. William Richard. Jr.: see Biography 73 Liberia 413a religion S86d Tomas. Amirico de Deus Rodngues

Tokamak system

(pres.. Portugal)

556c

Tomatoes 283d Tombalbaye.

Francois

(pr
e Obituaries 72 Trevino, I,ee: ste Biography 71 golf 330c

Turner. G. M. (cricket player) 201 b Turtles 283c Tutsi (people. Burundi) 60b; 158b Rwanda 604c TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) 3I5a Tvardovski. Aleksandr Trifonovich:

Trepczynaki, StaniBlaw:

Phy73

Trialt

Obituaries

see

Communist movement 00a Dahomey 2I0b

72.

56c social services

wages, and hours (United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organi-

UNESCO

Tunnels 278c

la)

Albania 76b alcoholic beverages 76b

Algeria 78d

Commonwealth of NationiTlSSa Communist movement 188d

computer

il.

191

cooperatives 200a Costa Rica 200b Cuba 206a cycling 207a Czechoslovakia 208d dance 2I0c defense 216c disasters 241c

bowhng and lawn bowls 152b boxing 153a Carr, Robert 122 chess 169d

China 172c

drugs and narcotics 245c economy, world 257b Egypt 268b employment, wages, and hours 273b engineering projects 277b environment 283c; 286c Era of Conscious Action" lid European unity 292b fairs and shows 294 (tabic) Finland 299a fisheries 299d food 301 b France 314b fuel and power 316 fnrs 32lb gardening 323a Germany 157c; 326d Ghana 330c hockey 340c Hungary 348c ice skating 350b income, national 351 (table) India 354c industrial review 358a intelligence operations 371d inter-American affaire 372d Iraq 380d Israel

galleries

49ib

publishing S72c Ungar. Georges: see Biography 73 Ungaretti. Guiseppe; ire Obituaries

Ungaro. Emanuel (fashion designer) 29Sc UNHCR: see High Commi

385b

lique of tions

fUOR) 31td European Football Associa(UEFA)

Union of Soviet

iOftc

Socialist Rapubllcs

73, 72. 71

agriculture 62b Albania 76a

Sir oIoKy 83a

iircliii

1

disasters 241c

drugs and narcotics 250d economy, world 252c education 260d employment, wages, and hours 270d engineering projects 27Sa

environment 279d Ethiopia 288b European unity lS4a: 2S9a; 291a fairs and shows 204a fashion and dress 29Sd field hockey 341d fisheries 209d

Greece 335a historic buildings 339c horse racing 344c housing 346c income, national 351 (table) industrial review 357d; 360 insurance 370a intelligence operations 372a inter-American affairs 373a investment, international 378a

Ireland 381d labour unions 397b

law 405c 413d Libya 4 4c local government associations 176c Malawi 442a Maldives 443d Malta 444c marijuana research 246d medicine 459b merchandising 463b meteorology 466b Middle East 469d migration, international 471d money and banking 478c motion pictures 484d motor sports 488a mountaineering 490c museums and galleries 492a music 493b: 495b payments and reserves 529b peace movements 534d Pearce Commission 710b philately 536b photography S42b libr:

1

postal services

propaganda S6Sd 596d

rowing 603a sailing 605c Sidky. Aziz 143 soccer 306c social services 616b Southeast Asia 619d Soviet Bloc

Spain 624b Syria 647a telecommunications 658 (tabic) television and radio 660c tennis 668a theatre 672d timber sUtistics 67Sc track and field sports 682a Turkey 698d United States 716b; 717c Vietnam 726d vital statistics 730c whaling 392a Yemen (Aden) 733c Yugoslavia 735a Unions; see Labour unions Unitarian and Universalist churches

3Ub

United Arab Emirates 73. See Federation of Arab Emirates 72 dependent states 230c disasters 241c philately S36b Slieikh Zaid 149 fea 73, 72, 71

Vorsur

-...nomic 237d

Zumw