Britannica Book of the Year 1940

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[Fox Photos I. BARRAGE BALLOONS AT A ROVAL AIR FORCE CENTRE AUSTRALIAN OFFICERS WHO WILL ACT AS INSTRUCTORS OF THE AUSTRALIAN FORCES IN TRAINING iAVnlonc NATIONAL SERVICE VOLUNTEERS MARCHING PAST THE KING AND QUEEN IN HVDE PARK IN JULV I939 [A swc. Pros! Photo CANADIAN TROOPS DISEMBARKING ON THEIR ARRIVAL IN GREAT BRITAIN [Keystotir A NEUTRAL SHIP BEING HAILED BV A PATROL OF THE BRITISH CONTRABAND CONTROL OFF THE COAST OF BRITAIN [Kryilonr [Kiy^tone H.M.S. •' REPULSE," A BATTLE CRUISER OF 32,000 TONS, MOUNTING I5-INCH GUNS, LAVING A SMOKE SCREEN

SUPPLEMENT TO

1940 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR Recording developments of particular interest to Great Britain British

and the

Empire

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PUBLISHED BY

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 90

CO., LTD.

DEAN STREET, SOHO SQUARE LONDON, W.i

COPYRIGHT BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON, 1940

© MADE AND PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LTD. LONDON AND AYLESBURY BOUND BY NEVETT LIMITED COLINDALE, N.W.Q

INTRODUCTION KU

NHIS

Book of

the third year of publication of the Britannica

is

THE Year.

In

normal times

this

volume, which has

now

established

I

itself as a

much

valued source of world-wide information on a vast

range of subjects, appears in two issues, similar but different.

One

is

designed primarily for the use of readers in Great Britain and the British

Empire, the other for readers in the United the text has always been

common

States.

The greater

part of

to both issues, the balance only in each

of the two issues has laid respective emphasis

upon the more purely

domestic interests of the tsvo sections of the English-speaking peoples. This year various factors, the shortage of paper,

its

extremely high cost,

the rapidly increasing costs of labour for printing and binding, Avar-risks insurance,

would have combined

enterprise in Great Britain into a

With profound on

this

what has never yet been a profitable certain loss, had it been undertaken.

to turn

regret, therefore, the publishers had to content themselves

occasion with the publication of one issue only, that designed

primarily for the American continent.

They are conscious, hoAvever,

made the production of a separate some questions of particular and special

that the very conditions Avhich have British issue impossible raise

interest

to

information

The

British is

more

readers,

on which authoritative and dispassionate

than ever necessary'.

publishers have endeavoured to supply this need by means of a

supplement to which

this

is

the introduction.

This supplement, containing

upwards of 20,000 words, immediately follows. It has been edited and prepared in London with the collaboration of the foremost experts on the subjects discussed.

The

table of contents will shoAV the unique authority

of the contributors Ave have been fortunate enough to enlist.

The main part of this book is the Britannica Book of the Year in its American form. As in previous years a very substantial proportion of the material is the Avork of the best European minds collaborating Avith American experts. We present this volume to our readers in the sure expectation that a vieAv of the Avorld seen from a neutral but friendly standpoint

may prove

of unique A'alue at the present time.

M. D.

London,

January 1940.

LAW

LIST

OF CONTRIBUTORS AND CONTENTS

DIARY OF EVENTS THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH EMPIRE AIR RAID PRECAUTIONS By Admiral Sir E. R. G. Evans, K.C.B., D.S.O., LL.D. in command British Antarctic Expedition under Captain Scott,

Second 1917

Lord Rector of Aberdeen University, 1937-39

;

1909-13 Commanded H.M.S. " Broke Regional Commissioner London Civil Defence Area.

;

;

”,

ECONOMIC WARFARE By Thomas Balogh Honorary Lecturer, University

College,

London

;

Research Associate, The National Institute of Economic and

Social Research.

EMERGENCY LEGISLATION By John Kerr Barrister-at-Law of the Middle Temple.

EVACUATION By Dorothy Harwood Member of the Royal Institute

of International Affairs. Author of papers on Emigration from Great Britain, prepared for the International Studies Conference, 1937 on White Colotiization in the Tropics, prepared for the Committee of the International Geographical Congress, 1938. ;

FOOD SUPPLIES IN WAR By

P. Lamartine Yates, M.A. Research Worker in Agricultural Economics.

HOSPITALS By Sir Henry B. Brackenbury, M.D., LL.D., M.R.C.S. Vice-President (late Chairman of Council), British Medical Association Clinic Member of the General Medical Council.

;

Chairman of Council

of the Tavistock

;

INDUSTRY,

WAR CONTROL OF

By Claude W. Guillebaud University Lecturer in Economics, Cambridge with Supreme Economic Council in Paris, 1919-20 Secretary of Committee on Prices under Profiteering Act, 1920-21 ; member of Rubber Manufacturing and Shirt-making Trade Boards, 1939 author of The Economic Recovery of Germany 1^33-38. ;

;

;

NATIONAL SERVICE By W.

T. Wells, B.A. (Oxon) Formerly Oxford University Extension Lecturer in History and

Political Theory.

WAR AND PEACE AIMS By Ernest Barker, Litt.D., D.Litt., Hon.LL.D Professor of Political Science, Cambridge, 1927—39 ; author of Greek Political Theory from 1848

to

1914

;

;

English Political Thought

etc.

WAR FINANCE By

G. Findlay Shirras, M.A. Principal and Professor of Economics, Gujarat College, University of Bombay since 1926 ; Director of Statistics with the Government of India, 1914-21 ; Government of India Finance Department, 1910-13 ; author of The Science of Public Finance ; etc.

WAR POTENTIAL OF LEADING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES By

G. Findlay Shirras, M.A.

WELFARE AGENCIES, WAR By Dorothy

A. Cannell

Member

of the editorial staff, 14th edition, Encyclopesdia Britannica. specialist. Member of the Egj-pt Exploration Society.

WOMEN’S WAR ORGANIZATIONS By Dorothy

A. Cannell 4

English WTiter and television script

A

DIARY OF EVENTS THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH EMPIRE EXCLUDING THE COURSE OF HOSTILITIES

From January

—

—

:

the rearmament programme. Jan. 13 ; Australia. -Bush fires in Victoria swept huge areas killing 67 people and destroying much property. Great Britain. Arrangements Jan. 16 were completed for the supply of steel air-raid shelters to occupants of small houses. ^There was a new Palestine. Jan. 17 outbreak of terrorism. Great Britain. ^An auxiliary air force reserve was formed. Jan. 19 : Aden. Aden celebrated the

—

—

:

—

— — centenary of British Kenya. —An Jan. 21

rule.

:

Immigration Ad-

visory Board was set up at Nairobi to control the influx of refugees. South Africa. ^The Union government bought a tract of farming land of some 700,000 hectares in S.W. Africa against bidding by the German govern-

—

ment. Jan. 24

Canada.

:

—A Defence Purchasing

Board was

established, and the government proposed to seek authority to borrow for the defence programme. new air sersdce Jan. 25 : Hongkong. was announced, linking Yunnan with

—A

Hongkong.

—

Canada. A government inJan. 27 vestigation was ordered into allegations that Nazi propaganda was being con:

ducted by German officials. India. Jlr. Subhas Chandra Jan. 29 Bose was re-elected president of the Indian National Congress. Feb. 2 Transvaal. The value of the gold production in 1938 was stated to be £86,367,862. Feb. 3 United Kingdom. Bombs exploded in two London tube stations. A round-up of Irishmen suspected of subversive activities in connexion with the I.R.A. began. Feb. 4 Muscat. A new treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation was signed at Jluscat (Oman) between Great Britain and India, and Muscat. Feb. 6 United Kingdom. ^Mr. Chamberlain gave his pledge of immediate aid to France if her vital interests were

—

:

—

:

—

:

—

;

—

:

attacked.

—

Australia. The Federal cabinet decided to organize the country as a storehouse for the maintenance of her own people and to help the peoples of Great Britain in case of war. Feb. 7 Palestine. ^The conferences between the British government and delegations of Jews and Arabs opened

—

;

in

London.

Feb. 9

;

Palestine.

31st,

lem and inspected railway and other

^Figures of casualties I ; Palestine. in 1938 were published showing 69 British killed, 92 Jews, 4S6 Arabs, and 1,138 armed rebels. Jan. 2 : Eire. ^A new Irish Association was formed to promote mutual goodwill and co-operation betrveen the people of Eire and of Northern Ireland. Canada.—Government proJan. 12 posals were put fonvard for augmenting

:

—December

perial General Staff arrived in Jerusa-

1939 Jan.

1939

ist,

—^The Chief of the Im-

military posts. Australia. The minister for external affairs stated that owing to its position with regard to Papua and Australia New Guinea must be held at aU costs. Feb. II Australia. ^The first-line air strength was raised to 212 machines. separate department lor native affairs was created. Constitutional reforms inIndia. volving greater co-operation with representative public opinion were an-

—

—

:

A

—

nounced by H.H. the Maharaja of Kashmir. Serious rioting occurred between Hindus and Moslems at Cawnpore. Feb. 12 ; Kenya. The report of a committee appointed to consider problems

—

of land settlement was published. Feb. 13 : United Kingdom. Plans lor the construction of permanent holiday camps for evacuated children were announced by the government. Feb. 14 : India. Proposals for the enforcement of prohibition in Bombay were made by the finance minister of the Bombay government. Jamaica. ^The island was placed under a “ state of emergency ” owing to a general strike order by workers'

—

—

—

leader.

Feb. 16

was Feb.

Jamaica.

:

—^The

called off. British 19

general strike

Guiana.

:

—An

.\nglo-

to enquire into the possibility of refugee settlement in this colony.

—

Malta. Royal Letters Patent were proclaimed granting a new con:

stitution to Malta.

—

Malaya. Further steps in the efficient organization of defence were taken and arrangements were made for the fortification of Penang. Feb. 26 : Palestine. ^There were a number of bomb and gun outrages.

— Canada. —Alberta

Feb. 27 announced continuance of the default in interest :

payments.

—

Feb. 28 Australia. The Commonwealth recognized General Franco’s government. Channel Islands. ^The Jersey States adopted a Bill authorizing a loan of £100,000 for defence. India. The Budget for 1939-40 was published. A surplus was to be acquired from doubling the Customs :

—

—

on raw cotton. conference of all reprePalestine. sentatives of Palestine Jeivry, save the Revisionists, opened in Jerusalem to discuss the British government’s plan for a Palestine State. tariff

—A —

Rhodesia. A " Hands off Africa ” conference was held at Bulawayo. JIarch I Kenya. ^The Order-in-Council reserving the Kenya highlands exclusively for European settlement came :

into effect. March 3 : India.

Rajkot State, Mr. Gandhi began a

" fast unto death.” March 4 Canada. The admission in the spring of several hundred families of Sudeten German refugees was sanc-

—

tioned.

—

^In

order to secure a

5

of

—

March 7 India. ^Following intervention by the viceroy and settlement of the :

Rajkot State dispute, Mr. Gandhi ended his fast. lilarch 8 :

government

United Kingdom.

—

^Mr.

Hore-

Belisha, introducing the army estimates, reviewed in detail future plans for the British army. Government assistance was promised in the creation of a £10,000,000 Chinese exchange stabilization fund. iMarch 16 : Palestine. ^The British government’s proposals for an agreed settlement were rejected by the Jewi.sh delegation. March 17 Palestine. ^The British government’s proposals were also rejected by the Arab delegation.

—

—

:

South-West Africa.— Germany protested against immigration restrictions

South-West Africa. United Kingdom-India. new trade agreement was signed. in

March 20

;

—

—

^The National Council of Palestine. Palestine Jews called a general strike as a protest against the British government’s proposals for governing Palestine.

—

Pledges of British Empire. co-operation in maintaining the solidarity of the British Empire were given :

by Canada and

Australia. In South Africa many recruits joined the Defence Force. The Report of the British Palestine.

—

and Arab Committee on the iMcMahon Correspondence was published. March 26 India. The Punjab govern-

—

:

ment introduced a five-year programme to stamp out illiteracy in the province. March 29 United Kingdom. Large

—

:

prospective increases in the strength of the Territorial army were announced. Australia. The cabinet decided to undertake a compulsory national register of men between 15 and 64 years of

—

age, and a voluntary register of women. March 30 India. The Council of State

—

:

passed a resolution approving the IndoBritish Trade Agreement.

—

March 31 United Kingdom. Britain and France promised full support for ;

Poland in the event of violation of territorial integrity.

her

—

South Africa. In the greatest ever held in the Union, 45S native women were found guilty of murder by stoning a man to death. April 7 Anstralia. Following the sudden death of Jlr. Lyons, Sir Earle Page was appointed interim prime minister. April 8 : United Kingdom-United States. A 50-year agreement for the joint use of the Phoenix Islands was reached. April 4

:

trial

—

:

—

April 10 diers

more democratic form

—

:

March 21

American Commission was established Feb. 25

in

1939

:

—

Palestine. ^Five British solkilled by a land mine on the

were

railway near L5'dda, April 13 ; Palestine. ^The

—

Arab terrorists’

DIARY OF EVENTS

6 leader Aref Abdul Razzik surrendered to British troops. April 14 British Empire. -A conference

—

:

between Britain, New Zealand and Australia on defence in the Pacific Ocean was opened at Wellington, New Zealand. April 15 India. ^The Central Legislature rejected the Tariff bill embodying the terms of the Indo-British Trade

—

:

Agreement.

—

April 17 South-West Africa. In view' of the international situation armed police reinforcements arrived from ;

Pretoria. :

—A

—

were empowered to demand a maximum bond of £$00 from immigrants unable to return to their own

ties

countries. April 21 :

Empire.

British

—Defence

measures were announced for Southern Rhodesia, Kenya, Tanganyika, and Malaya.

—

April 22 ; New Zealand. Drastic restrictions were imposed on imports in order to conserve the government’s foreign

exchange.

—

April 24 Australia. ^Mr.Menzies, elected as Mr. Lyon’s successor, formed a cabinet of members of the United Australia Party. April 26 United Kingdom. The government’s plan for compulsory military service was announced in the House of :

—

:

Commons. April 27

Australia.

:

—The

ernment announced the creation of legations in Tokyo and Washington. May 1 United Kingdom. ^The texts of the government’s Military Training and Reserve and Auxiliary Forces bills were

—

:

published. 6 United Kingdom.

May

:

—The

Queen left England on an Canada and the United

to

May

8

King and

official visit

States. ^'^oluntary enrol-

—

South Africa. for the National

:

ment

Reserve began.

—A new- British Institute was opened. May United Kingdom. —Mr. ChamberMalta. 2

1

:

announced a pact of mutual assistance between the British and Turkish governments. May 13 United Kingdom. ^Bomb exlain

—

:

plosions, attributed to the I.R.A., occurred in London subw-ays. May 14 : United Kingdom. ^The B.B.C.’s first weekly news bulletin in Afrikaans was broadcast, and clearly heard in

—

Capetow’n. 15 : South Africa. A supplementary barter trade agreement betw'een the Union and Germany w'as signed at

—

May

Capetown. May 16 Malaya. :

—Substantial contribu-

tions to the cost of Imperial defence were made by a number of States. Transjordan. ^The British government agreed in principle to certain measures of constitutional reform.

—

—

May

17: Canada. The King and Queen arrived at Quebec. Eire. Mr. De Valera protested against the conscription of Irishmen in

—

Britain.

May

22

:

Palestine.

—^The British govern-

ment issued its own proposals for the future government of Palestine in a White Paper. New Zealand. ^The prime minister

—

less broadcasting.

undu was opened. 25

—

—

betw'een vince. July 12 :

—

:

North-West frontier. Burma. ^The cabinet resigned,

—

lowing the lead

of

the

minister

credits.

of

continued. India.

:

Anglo-French proposals of

May

to the

first re-

men

of 20-21 under the Military Training Act took place. June 5 : India. ^The Indian Naval Reserve Forces Discipline Act was promulgated wheteby four sections of reserves were created. new' sterling loan June 7 : Australia. was issued to meet part of the defence

—

—A

—

—

ploded at Tel Aviv. The report of the Mandatory Power was placed before the League Mandates Commission. June 15 Palestine. Mr. MacDonald review'ed the situation and British policy in a speech to the Mandates Com-

—

:

—

Canada. ^The King and Queen sailed from Halifax for England. June 17 Burma. A commission w'as set up to enquire into alleged Indian ;

penetration. India. Hindu-Moslem riots 19 occurred at Caw'npore. ^The disturbances conPalestine. tinued 1 8 Arabs were killed in a bomb explosion at Haifa. United Kingdom. A barter June 23 agreement was signed in London between the British and United States

—

—

;

—

:

governments. Eire.

—^The

government denounced Army as an un-

the Irish Republican

lawful organization. An Act for the registraI India. tion of foreigners came into force. July 2 : Canada. ^As from Sept. 24 the

July

:

—

—

United Kingdom.

:

—As Preven-

—

:

Malaya. Prohibition of all India. Aug. I holic liquor began in Bombay. New Zealand. A state iron and

—

:

— Africa. —The

alcosteel

industry was initiated.

Union governadministration of the eastern portion of Caprivi Zipfel. New Zealand. Trade talks Aug. 10 with Canada began. Aug. 14 India. The Congress, Bombay, decided to boycott the Legislative Assembly during the coming session. South began

ment

—

;

—

:

British Empire. ^The King and Queen arrived in the United States. June 13 ; Palestine. Ten bombs ex-

:

—

tion of Violence Act became law', expulsion orders against 19 I.R.A. suspects were signed. ^Troops were British Empire. July 31 dispatched from India to Egypt and

27.

—A Department of Supply United Kingdom. —The

June

re-

—

tiated.

July 28

subdisaster, 99

Australia. was created.

mission.

religious

explosions attributed to the I.R.A. occurred in London. New Zealand. A government conversion loan for £16 million w'as nego-

losing their lives.

expenditure.

and

:

—The

The Soviet government replied

gistration of

Political

:

— —

:

—

forms for Hyderabad were announced. July 20 New Zealand. Britain granted credits for £g million to finance imports from the mother country. United Kingdom. Further July 27

mittee rejected the White Paper.

3

—

:

bomb

United Kingdom. June I marine “ Thetis ” met with

June

—

:

fol-

Eire. Bill to suppress I.R.A. 31 activities passed. Palestine. ^The Arab Higher Com:

—

United Kingdom. The first July 15 34,000 militiamen commenced training. Jew'ish protests Palestine. July 17 against the suspension of immigration

—

May

—

immigration. United Kingdom. Agreements were signed in London whereby Greece and Rumania should make big purchases of British goods w'ith the aid of guaranteed

—

merce.

Pro-

Immigration quota Palestine. for 6 months ow'ing to

illegal

commerce, who refused to resign when asked by the prime minister to do so. May 30 Refugee Jews in Australia. Western Australia asked for protection from Nazi interference. Burma. A new cabinet was sworn in, but with the same members as before except for the minister of com:

Germany and Manitoba

was suspended

—

;

—

of the New' Democracy Movement. July 6: Canada. ^The government disapproved of a proposed barter deal

opened, and closed on the same day. United Kingdom. ^New Anglo27 French proposals for mutual defence by Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union against aggression were delivered to the Soviet government. May 29 India. Settlements were made w'ith the most influential tribes of the

May

prime minister an-

its

:

South Africa. Subscription a ^^5,000,000 defence loan were

:

for

—The

international policy Australia stood w'ith Britain, even if it w'ere a question of W'ar. Canada. ^The Social Credit July 3 Party merged with the New' Democracy Movement under the combined name

—

:

May

Australia.

nounced that in

—

;

men Federal gov-

Canadian 'Broadcasting Corporation proposed to assume control of all wire-

—

lists

—

India. The Council of State passed the Tariff bill a second time. April 19 ; South Africa. bill to incorporate police of South-West Africa with the Dominion force w'as supported by the House of Assembly. Kenya. ^The immigration authori-

April 18

stated that if Britain were involved in a general war New Zealand would not stand apart. Protests Palestine. were made against the proposed abolition of the Balfour Declaration and a permanent minority status for Jews in Palestine. ilay 23 Palestine. The new plan as set forth in the White Paper was approved by parliament. May 24 Southern Rhodesia. ^The Otto Beit bridge over the Zambesi at Chir-

—

Kenya. ^The British government promised a loan of £2.50,000 for tlie establishment of British settlers. ^The 21st Zionist Palestine. Aug. 16 Congress opened at Geneva. The Permanent Palestine. Aug. 17 Mandates Commission of the League of Nations maintained that the policy of the British White Paper was not in accordance with their interpretation of the Palestine mandate. Aug. 18 India. ^The R.A.F. bombed the headquarters of the Faquir of Ipi near Kharre. Aug. 19 South Africa. ^Thc German trade and payments agreement was renew'ed for one year as from Sept. i. Purchases W'ere fe.xcd at £0,355,000. Aug. 22 Canada. ^The air tran.sport agreement betrveen Canada and tlic U.S.A. was concluded. Kenya. Government enquiries were opened at Mombasa and at Tanga into

— —

:

:

—

:

—

•

:

—

:

—

the causes of recent native labour unrest. .\ug. 23

—

Tribal fighting conIndia. tinued on North-west frontier. .\ug. 24 : United Kingdom.; The Emergency Powers (Defence) bill was pa-ssed :

—

—

K

\

DIARY OF EVENTS all its stages, and received the royal assent. Aug. 25 : United Kingdom. ^The AngloPolish Agreement of Mutual Assistance was signed in London. United Kingdom. Sir Nevile Aug. 26 Henderson arrived from Berlin with Herr Hitler’s reply to a British

through

—

—

:

Note. Aug. 28

—

United Kingdom. Sir Nevile Henderson flew to Berlin with the reply to Herr Hitler’s Note. Aug. 30 ; Canada. A trade agreement was concluded with Turkey. The British Government purchased part to be 5 million bushels of wheat, stored in Canada. Aug. 31 United Kingdom. ^The evacuation of over 3 million children and adults from London and other crowded areas began. Air services to the continent were suspended. United Kingdom.- Following the Sept. 1 invasion of Poland by German troops, the King signed an order for complete mobilization of the army, navy and air :

—

—

:

—

:

force.

Sept. 2

Eire.

:

announced —Mr. De Valeraneutrality

in that Eire would maintain the present European conflict. Sept. 3 ; British Empire. Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Canada declared war on Germany, France having declared war on the same day. A special war cabinet was formed in

—

London. Sept. 4 zog’s of the

South Africa.

:

—General

Hert-

pronouncement of the neutrality Union in the war led to his defeat

by 80 votes to 67. The government India.

—

offered ;f34 million towards modernizing the de-

fence force. South Africa. Following GenSept. 6 eral Hertzog’s defeat. General Smuts formed a war cabinet. War was de-

—

:

clared on Germany. Australia. The entire militia Sept. 7 force was called up for training. Australia A special u-ar Sept. II cabinet was formed. Great Britain. ^The safe arrival Sept. 12 of British troops and units of the

—

:

:

—

:

R..\.F. in France was announced. Great Britain Sept. 1 5 : New Zealand. undertook the purchase of all surplus butter, cheese, meat, and wool. suspected Sept. 19 : South Africa. aliens were interned at Bavianspoort. ^The government Australia Sept. 20 offered Great Britain the complete personnel of six squadrons for overseas service in 1939. Sonthem Rhodesia. RecruitSept. 21 ing offices were closed, the supply of volunteers having exceeded the

—

—

—

:

—

:

demand. India.

—One

hundred and forty-one

Indian princes offered their services to the King-Emperor, some offering troops, others gifts of money. ^The King Sept. 22 British Empire. thanked the Sultan of Zanzibar, the Federated Malay States, and Kenya for offers of support. division was Sept. 24 New Zealand. offered for service overseas. Sept. 25 Southern Rhodesia. ^The export of live cattle was forbidden in order to make available the maximum supplies of frozen meat for Britain. " South African South Africa.

—

;

—A

:

—

;

—A

Mayors’ National to raise at least

Fund ” was launched million for the pur-

chase of foodstuffs, etc., to be presented to the Allies. Sept. 28 : Canada . war committee of the cabinet was created. Sept. 29: India. ^TheAga Khan informed his followers throughout the world that it was their duty to co-operate in the

—

—

service of the King-Emperor. Bahrein. The Sheikh of Bahrein offered ^30,000 towards the cost of the war, as he had no army to offer. Sept. 30 : Sales to Great Australia. Britain of all surplus wool, meat, dried fruit, eggs, cheese, and sugar were

—

—

arranged.

—

South Africa. ^The formation of I a South African Irish Regiment was

Oct.

:

sanctioned. Oct. 4 : New Zealand.

was

ISIaoris

—A

battalion of formed for home or overseas

sem’ice. Oct. 5 : Australia.

—The

Commonwealth

treasurer was empowered to acquire foreign securities owned by Australians

and other property abroad. New Zealand. The government was given full control over currency and credit and authorized to acquire and

Oct. 6

—

;

handle

surplus produce. Burma. A defence council was

all

— —

Oct. 10 : set up. Oct. 1 1 India. A volunteer scheme for the regular Indian army was intro:

duced. Oct. 15 ;

Canada.

—^The British

air misar-

headed by Lord Riverdale, rived in Ottawa.

sion,

—

Oct. 16 New' Zealand. ^Men enrolled in the national military reser%'e totalled over 35,000. Oct. 17 : India. The Viceroy reaffirmed British government’s view that dominion status achieved by constitutional changes was India’s natural destiny. Oct. 18 India. Congress leaders expressed dissatisfaction with the viceroy’s statement. Oct. 19 ; Great Britain. ^The AngloFrench treaty with Turkej' was signed ;

—

—

:

—

in

Ankara.

—

Oct. 24 Kenya. Austrian and German refugees volunteered in military and :

other capacities. Southern Rhodesia. The government offered to maintain three air squadrons in the field. Oct. 28 Canada. Contracts were signed for the supply to Great Britain of 420 million lb. of electrolytic copper, to be delivered within 12 months. Oct. 30 South Africa. A Foreign Legion was estabhshed following many offers by aliens to sen'e in the forces. India. Several Congress ministers

—

—

:

—

:

—

resigned. Oct. 31 British Empire. Discussions on Empire co-operation began in London between cabinet ministers and Dominion ministers. India. The creation of a permanent Indian air force volunteer reserve was authorized. Nov. I : Kenya. The governors of the East African territories and of Nyasa-

—

:

—

—

land and Northern Rhodesia, and the resident of Zanzibar, met in Nairobi to discuss their own defence and the help to be given to the Empire. Nov. 6 Canada. Delegates from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Great Britain met at Ottawa to discuss Empire air training. Burma. ^In reply to a comNov. 8 munication of Oct. 12, the British government reaffirmed its intention to :

:

—

—

7 Burma

assist

the

to attain her due place in of Nations. Zealand. ^The Centenary Ex-

Commonwealth

—

New hibition

Nov.

11

:

was opened at Wellington. h.n improvement in Palestine.

the general security of the country led to the release of a large number of Arabs in time to celebrate Id el Fitr. South African Nov. 13 South Africa . seaward defence force was created. Canada. By an order-in-council the rate of sterling for duty purposes was lowered from its parity of $4.86 to a selling rate of sterling daily declared by the Foreign Exchange Control Board ; a concession about equivalent to a 9 per cent reduction in Customs duties. Nov. 15 : India. ^The Assam ministiy resigned, thus completing the resignation of all the Congress ministries in the eight provinces of British India. Newfoundland. A verj' successful response was reported for recruiting for the Royal na\y. Nov. 17 ; India. Budshah Gul, the Mohmand leader, advised his followers to co-operate whole-heartedly with the

—

:

—

—

—

—

British.

Nov.

—

of Empire.^ Gifts Trinidad, Barbados, and Sarawak to the British

19

British

:

money were made by government. Nov. 22 Cyprus.

—

2.000 Cj'priots volunteered for service with the British forces. Canada. 65,000 troops were declared mobilized. Dec. 5 Eire. The creation of a new marine sen'ice costing ;£25o,ooo was :

—

—

•.

announced. Canada. The Royal Canadian air force announced 6,500 applications since September.

Dec. 9

—

:

—

Dec. 15 Australia offered Australia. 26.000 men for the Empire air training scheme. Dec. 17: Canada. Representatives of Great Britain, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand signed the agreement for the Empire air scheme in Ottawa. The first contingent of Canadian forces landed in Britain. Dec. 19 Aden. A contraband control base was established at Aden. Dec. 20 ; British West Indies. An orderin-council fixed Jan. i, 1940, as the date for the transfer of Dominica from the Leeward Islands group to the Windward Islands group as a separate colonj'. :

—

—

:

—

—

^The prime minister, in a Australia. national broadcast sen-ice, emphasized that Australia would only leave the war as victors. South Africa. ^The offices of several German organizations were raided and large quantities of documents seized. Dec. 22 Canada. ^The British ministry of food arranged to purchase from Canada an average weeklj' amount of 5.600.000 lb. of Canadian bacon and

—

—

:

hams.

—

India. ^The day was observed by Moslems as one of " deliverance,” and

as “ a

mark

of relief that the Congress

governments have at last ceased to function.”

—

Dec. 26 ; Australia. ^The first contingent of Australian troops arrived in England. Dec. 27 : India. ^The first Indian contingent arrived in France for service on the Western Front. Dec. 28 : Kenya. ^The war office in London assumed complete financial respon-

—

—

from Sept, i, 1939) for all military expenditure during the war sibility (as

throughout East Africa.

;

AIR RAID PRECAUTIONS AIR]

RAID PRECAUTIONS.

of civil defence in in the attacks

modem warfare,

The

vital

and commercial buildings in which more than fifty persons work, are required to provide shelters conforming to a prescribed standard. Such owmers receive a grant from public funds in respect of approved capital expenditure of an amount in the pound equal to the standard rate of income-tax for the year 1939-40. All public utility undertakers, including such services as gas, electricity, water, railways, docks and harbours, etc., have the duty of taking such measures as may be necessarj' to ensure the proper functioning of these services during air raids and of providing shelter and such special protection or equipment as may be necessary for their stags. For expenditure on such matters the undertakers %rill receive certain grants from public funds. In the case of blocks of flats, the owner must, if requested by a majority of its tenants, provide air raid shelter for them, but is entitled to recoup himself by increasing rents on a specific basis. Where, however, the majority of the tenants are of the class who would be entitled to free materials for air raid shelters {i.e. of the income class before referred to) then the local authority may construct the

importance

so vividly demonstrated

on Abyssinia, Spain, China, Poland, and

Finland, was recognized in a practical form by Britain in The 1937, by the passing of the Air Raid Precautions Act.

a ministry of events of 1938 intensified preparations civil defence was established, gas masks were issued, trenches dug, and the nucleus of an A.R.P. service enlisted. Early 1939 saw further significant developments. Shelters. A major consideration has been the provision of some adequate light-bomb, blast-, and splinter-proof shelter scheme. The compulsory provision of air raid shelters is regulated by the Civil Defence Act 1939. They are of three main categories, namely, public shelters provided by the local authorities, private shelters by the o^vners of factories, mines, and commercial buildings, and private shelters by public utility undertakings. The local authorities are under an' obligation to construct public shelters for persons who may be caught in the street during an air raid, the number for whom provision is made varying from ten to fifteen per cent of the normal population of the area. Such shelters usually take the form either of specially constructed brick or concrete chambers above or below ground, or partly both, or else of existing buildings or portions thereof, adapted and strengthened. Of the ;

shelter at the public expense. Legislation. The Civil Defence Bill referred to above was introduced by Sir John Anderson on March 23, 1939. and was intended to increase the country’s preparedness to meet air attacks. It conferred on local authorities the

public shelters good examples are to be seen in parks where light-bomb resisting trench-shelters of reinforced concrete are built below ground, use being

made

of the

right to enter private premises in order to carry out A.R.P.

tamping

work and to acquire land for shelters. It imposed upon employers the obligation of providing protection for their workpeople, and also provided for the incorporation in new buildings of structural precautions and air raid shelter. It allowed for a fifty per cent grant for public utility services towards the cost of special A.R.P. provision to It imposed ensure these services functioning in war time. camouflaging and darkening regulations, arranged for evacuation of women and children where advisable, and generally tackled A.R.P. problems to compete with large-scale and frequent air attack. The shelter and material provision has been a very costly business but a very necessary one. Personnel. The A.R.P. personnel has been made up fire-fighters rescue and decontamination mainly of air raid ambulance stag squads stretcher bearers wardens repair parties control and reporting personnel despatch riders and extra police. In addition there are

In streets where houses are of very light construction, medium sized above-ground brick shelters have been built in closely populated areas and in busy shopping centres. Where they exist basements have been utilized and strutted or otherwise strengthened where a floor above suffices to enable them to withstand a debris efiect of

the

soil.

load.

The Home Office has issued memoranda to deal with almost every reasonable situation, giving general rules and Sanitary accomspecifications that the builder can follow. modation and emergency lighting are catered for, and providing that the local authorities have tackled this responsibility seriously, reasonable shelter accommodation should be afforded for the best part of the working and shopping

:

communities.

The

;

;

local authorities are also responsible for the pro-

vision of shelters at or near their homes, for those citizens

;

;

;

;

;

numerous civil engineers and other skilled technicians who have made preparation for dealing with the possible damage to water mains, gas, and electric installations. Well over a million people are enrolled in civil defence.

whose family incomes do not exceed £250 per annum. These sometimes take the form of steel sectional shelters known as " Anderson ” shelters and so named after the minister of home security. They afford protection for six persons and are suitable for small houses or villas with

Many who

can afiord

it

are giving full-time voluntary ser-

—among them women and

who drive cars,

lorries,

gardens.

vice

Where such steel shelters are not suitable brick or concrete communal shelters are constructed or the actual

and ambulances, cater for those on guard, work telephones, serve in canteens, and so on. A great number of other women, less well placed financially, receive a salary as

houses themselves are strengthened. klany thousands of Anderson shelters have been delivered free to the poorer people who have asked for them. The shelter problem has been given a great deal of attention, but largely through inexpert choice of ground or of the most suitable kind of shelter, water and dampness have made a proportion of the shelters unsatisfactory. This is being remedied by the local authorities, though in some cases only after considerable delay. In certain specified areas, i.e. those in which air attack is likely to be most severe, the owners of all factories, mines,

girls

A.R.P. workers of £2 a week. The men employed in this great organization come from every rank and grade and also include both volunteers and paid workers, a man’s salary on A.R.P. work being £3 a week. Many of the older men are manning wardens' posts or engaged in night patrol. Senior Scouts and Rovers are likewise rendering valuable service.

Since A.R.P. has been taken in hand seriously great have been made to exercise the personnel, and in some regions these emergency services have attained a high efiorts |

ECONOMIC WARFARE standard of proficiency. The fire brigade exercises alone have reached a scale hitherto undreamed of, and it is no unusual thing to see the London Fire Brigade emplojung

hundred pumps at once.

five

The ambulance and stretcher-party workers are exercised almost daily, and their training has been well carried out. In this connexion large lorries, suitably selected, and in some cases motor-omnibuses, have been converted into what are knoum as mobile hospital units. It takes little more than five minutes from the time of arrival of one of these vehicles with a complement of a doctor and half a dozen nurses to improvise a small hospital in a hall, house, or even in the open. The staff are prepared to carry out amputations and other operations if the need should arise. The medical sers,dces have responded admirably, and enthusiasm and energj’- have been put into the training of first-aid personnel.

The

wardens have generally taken great trouble Wardens’ posts, which efficient. should be blast and splinter proof, have been built according to special standards all over the country, and rendezvous have been selected and their positions made generally known so that rescue and first-aid parties can reach them at short notice, and be conducted to the scene of the bombing without delay. The training of rescue and decontamination squads has reached a high standard. This includes rescuing people buried under heavy debris or from the topmost storeys of high buildings, cutting through steel girders, clearing roads of smashed up and overturned vehicles, and decon-

to

air raid

make themselves

taminating large areas after poison-gas raids, in addition to cleansing the personnel itself. Decontamination stations are provided where they are considered necessary. In addition to the foregoing, squads have been trained and are kept in readiness to deal with electrical, gas, and water breakdowns up to the largest imaginable scale. Sluice gates have been provided where underground railways pass below rivers, and never in any nation’s history has so much attention been given to this vital civil defence problem. Everyone in the country has been given a respirator and a serious appeal has been made to the public to carry their gas masks always. The response has not been as good as it should be. In conclusion, the control and reporting centres should certainly be mentioned. Such a network of control has been built up that it is believed that in the worst breakdown conceivable communication can be maintained, and that no air attack, however large the scale, can be carried out without all available resources being rushed to the centre of

damage See

also

in the

minimum

Evacuation

;

of time.

Welfare Agencies, War

War Organiz.A-Tions. ECONOMIC WARFARE. On

Women’s

Council (S.R. the

&

;

(E. Ev.)

Sept.

5

an order

in

O. 1939, 1188) based on the Ministers of

Crown (Emergency Appointments) Act established a

ministry of economic warfare, which, as the ofiScial statement explained, corresponded broadly to the ministry of blockade set up during the last war. Mr. R. H. Cross, the former parliamentary under-secretary to the Board of Trade, was appointed minister. Sir F. Leith Ross, the

economic adriser to the government, was made director general, and Sir G. Mounsey, of the Foreign Ofiice, secretary to the ministry.

chief

Within a few days of the outbreak of the war the ministry was at full work, staffed mainly by experts draum from

9

business life. In this field the lesson of the last war had not been forgotten. The vital task of denjdng essential supplies to the enemy was not, as at the beginning of that war, entrusted to a section of the Foreign Office ad\dsed by a committee of experts and working through various executive departments. It was recognized that this task was basically different, indeed in certain respects opposed to that of the Foreign Office, whose chief duty is to maintain friendly relations with neutral powers. Close co-operation was immediately established betiveen the ministry and its counterpart in France and all measures taken carefully

synchronized.

Contraband Control of German Imports. The proclamaspecifying the goods which would be treated as contraband was ready on Sept. 3. It followed closely the precedent established by the regulations laid down by the United States government in the last war, when the Declaration of Paris of 1856 and the London Declaration of 1909 were abandoned. This was a very important advantage, since in 1914 the self-denying acceptance of the London Declaration though it had not been ratified ^for some time prevented the Powers of the Triple Entente from impeding even vital supplies to Germany. The first list of firms deemed to be enemies under the Trading with the Enemy Act was also issued almost immediately. Further lists followed. The unrivalled facilities of the City of London as traders and bankers were placed at the government’s disposal for securing information on the operations of other firms which might be tempted by high profits to supply goods to the enemy.

tion

—

—

At Kirkwall, Weymouth, the North Foreland, Gibraltar, and Haifa control bases were set up by the Admiralty. The cargo manifests of all ships passing through to neutral ports in territories directly or indirectly contiguous to Germany are examined bj' the ministiy of economic warIf a cargo should prove suspicious the case is brought before the Contraband Committee, a semi-judicial body,

fare.

which examines whether a prinia facie case has been made out by the department justifying its detention. Finally the prize courts set up under royal patent decide whether the goods and ships are liable to seizure or not. In order to avoid the long delays, inevitable early in the war, as almost each case presented complex problems, the system of ’’ Letters of assurance ” (navicert) was reintroduced in Nov. 1939. Prospective shippers of goods to countries contiguous to Germany submit their plans in advance to British consuls overseas who then issue certiShips covered by certificates are not held up in ficates. the contraband control bases. By this means and bj' the gradual enlargement of the staff of the ministry, unnecessarj^ frictions udth neutral countries are slowly being eliminated. Contraband Control of German Exports. Early in the

war no action was taken irith respect to German exports, though an analogous policy in the beginning of the last war seriously weakened the effectiveness of economic warfare.

ingly

But

flagrant

and increasby the Nazi government of

in retaliation to the continued

disregard

international law at sea, manifested

b5'^

the sinking of

merchant ships udthout warning, air attacks on merchant vessels and the sowing of " magnetic ” mines, an Order in Council was issued (effective Dec. 4) ordering the confiscation of all German exports seized on the high seas. It appears that the Nazis are trying to evade this further blow at their capacity to acquire directly or indirectly foreign supplies. The minister of economic warfare stated in the House of Commons on Jan. 16, 1940, that the Order

—

—

ECONOMIC WARFARE

lo itself -was sufiScient to throttle

exports

ov'erseas.

It

a greater part of Germany’s

wll be applied

-w-ith

increasing

though in certain exceptional cases specified shipments essential to neutrals overseas will be permitted

efficacy,

to pass. Special measures are also being taken to prevent German3from using her financial resources for replenishing her supplies, and a special department was created for the purpose, working in close co-ordination with the powerful financial organizations in Allied countries.

Negotiations with Neutral Countries. To stop the loopby which essential war supplies are reaching Germany, information and statistical material regarding adjacent neutral countries are being accumulated. There seems to holes

be no need for the establishment of special trading organizae.g., the Netherlands Overseas Trust in Holland and the Societe de Surveillance Economiqiie in Switzerland. The foreign trade of neutral countries is to a far greater degree under direct government control than in the first period of the last -war. Thus direct agreements similar to those negotiated in 1918 with the governments concerned will probabty suffice. Factors of assistance in this collection of information are the rvidespread business organizations of Britain and its Allies. The ministry can also draw on more direct sources, among which the statistics based on ships’ manifests are perhaps the most important. As time passes these trade statistics w’ill give an increasingly accurate picture of the position of all materials imported from overseas into the " controlled area ” adjoining Germany. Thus the discontinuation of the publication of official trade statistics need not hamper the British authorities in the execution ” of their task. The production of this “ controlled area is, of course, not covered by these figures, but it wll probabh' be possible to obtain fairly accurate information about it either by agreement and/or on the basis of the import figures, as there are few products whose production or manufacture does not demand overseas supplies. The bargaining power inherent in the command over the sea routes should also be of material assistance. Negotiations with neutral countries adjacent to German}' were started soon after the outbreak of war. Agreements were concluded with several of them e.g. Italy, Sweden after long discussions. In other cases conversations stili continue. The text of these agreements has not been published. It is understood that in certain cases the agreement included a regulation of trading beriveen the neutral country and the Allies. The rate of exchange betiveen the national currency of the neutral and sterling

tions such as,

as \vell as francs was fixed. the payment for purchases counti}' partly

by gold and

Prorision W'as

by the

made

also for

Allies in the neutral

free foreign exchange, partly

expended within the confines of the British and French Empires except those parts which belong to the dollar block. It is not known whether and on what basis imports from overseas of essential warmaterials and food-stuffs likely to be of utmost use to Germany into contiguous and quasi-contiguous countries

in sterling (francs) to be

are

_

—

now regulated.

Rations imposed on these countries during the last war were usually equal to pre-war imports less exports and any increase of the production of the product as had occurred during the war. Special attention was at that time paid to commodities which were imported into the contiguous neutral countr}- not for the purpose of consumption but for processing, manufacture, and re-export.

The agreements prevented the re-exports from taking an undesired direction. It seems that at any rate in certain cases the present intention is to fix import quotas for these countries by negotiation. This procedure has serious drawbacks. Its operation is not mechanical and therefore may lead to

—

—

not only between foreign countries and the Allies, but also between the government departments entrusted with the execution of different aspects of policy. It is to be feared therefore that these agreements may err on the side of too great a leniency. There is the added complication at present that the pre-war statistics of foreign trade could hardly provide an adequate basis for the interception of essential supplies to Germany. Apart from the technical progress which shortens the time necessar}' to readjust the economic structure of a country to the loss of supplies (and friction

in

most cases decreases the is most

of a base period

loss suffered thereby) the choice difficult.

The pre-1914

figures

were characteristic for peace economics, and also gave an adequate picture of potential productive capacity, but statistics concerning the last few years are deficient in both directions. The world has gone through a period of continuous and severe economic instability, not merely since 1929 but, if the consequences of economic nationalism, or autarchy, are to be taken into account, ev'cr since 1914.

Hence some arbitrariness in fixing rations cannot be avoided. Future Policy, future

?

then are the prospects for the

'\^^lat

The most important difference as compared with in the fact that Germany has systematically

1914 lies prepared her economic structure against " economic blockade”, and accumulated very considerable stocks of essential

and

raw

and by enforced

materials, foodstuffs,

civilian supplies, partly

finished militaiy collective saving,

The Austrian and Czech gold and foreign exchange reser\,'es, which were handed over in toto or partially to the Nazis by the two Western Powers, represent merely a portion, though a partly by looting the countries she overran.

of this loot. Germany undoubtedly very much less foreign assets including gold than in 1914, but whereas Imperial Germany never used her reserves fully the Nazis have not only utilized them but are increasing them by various devious methods (repatriation of Germans, demand for payment on pre-1914

valuable

portion

possesses

etc.). They have, furthermore, introduced a draconic control of consumption and foreign trade, so that the wastage of raw materials and foreign assets which occurred in 1914 and 1915 will not be repeated. On the contrary, the Nazis have an exact knowledge of, and power over, all stocks of vital supplies now in Germany. Nor are they so cut off, as was Imperial Germany from all important sources of supply though they lack the domination of, the iron and coal supplies of France and Belgium. They have assiduously cultivated trade with the areas

loans,

which they hoped to be able to reach ev'en in case of war. The overvaluation of the Reichsmark relative to the so-called " free currencies ” in these countries, which made it profitable for them to sell to Germany, coupled with clearing agreements which forced them to expend the proceeds of their exports in Germany, has tended to adapt the productive structure At the same time in the and France, for different tive measures such as preferential

tariffs,

of these countries to Nazi needs. crucial period after 1931. Britain reasons, both indulged in prohibi-

etc.,

quotas,

against

the Ottawa system of the main e.xports of

exactly these countries.

A

diversion of supplies from the Nazis would therefore

EMERGENCY LEGISLATION involve competitive selling of manufactures

by the contiguous

nov obtained

countries in Germany, and competitive

bidding for supplies now sold to Germany. In so far as the overvaluation of the mark continues and the Nazis use their control over economic life to sell and buy in these countries regardless of cost this cannot be accomplished by private enterprise of the Allied countries, as the transactions would result in a loss to the British trader. Yet the necessity for such active economic warfare is plainly shown by the fact that almost one half of Germany’s total trade immediately prior to the war was conducted with countries to which she has direct access. If trade between the Soviet and the Nazis should regain its former importance, a possible though not on account of transport difficulties and the increased internal demands of Russia a probable contingency, the proportion of trade which the Nazis could theoretically maintain in spite of naval or militar}' measures of the Allies rises to some sixty per cent of pre-war. It is true, of course, that part of the trade which Germany has conducted -with neighbouring countries represents trans-shipments from overseas reaching the Nazis through neutrals [e.g. Holland and Belgium) which will be stopped by measures of the Allies. On the other hand the Nazis can redirect their exports to overseas countries to contiguous countries and thus obtain more of the production of these

—

—

countries.

Whilst such redirection of, the export trade could solve the import problem of Germany if she could obtain the total production of such countries, as far as food supplies are concerned (with the possible but not certain exception of fats), it cannot bridge the gap vithout overseas supplies in petrol, certain rare metals, textile fibres, and rubber. The 1938 figures of German imports include, however, very considerable supplies not needed for current consumption but for the building up of stocks, and the consumption of certain goods could be forced even below the low standard which obtained in Germany throughout the pre-war period. Moreover, there are considerable idle resources of labour in most of the neighbouring countries, and given efficient reorganization their productivity could also substantially be increased. Hence the possible alleviation of the shortage of materials suffered by the Nazis by an increase of imports from such countries may be considerable. These considerations suggest that the interception of enemy supplies from overseas must be vigorously supplemented by active economic warfare i.e. both selling against Germany and buying up supplies she needs, in neighbouring countries, if quick results are to be obtained. Furthermore, German stocks are not being exhausted and German productive power is not being encroached upon at present in a way corresponding to 1914-18. Available labour force is not being depleted by casualties, and there is no wastage of material in active hostilities. The considerable rise in German exports to neighbouring countries at favourable prices does not altogether bear out the contention that all that is possible to do in this respect has already been accomplished by the Allies. Fortunately most of these neutrals used the proceeds of German exports to reduce their earlier credits to Germany. If they do not obtain the products they need from the Allies they vill, however, soon be forced to sell to Germany. A policy of active economic warfare would inevitably involve a worsening of the Allied terms of trade already burdened by the war effort. The Allies must, therefore, if

they \vish to avoid the premature exhaustion of their gold

and other .foreign reserves, however great

thej’'

may

be.

I I

take active measures to improve their terms of trade with the rest of the world. It also implies a readiness and capacity to sell products of which Germany is a potential This in its suppl}', and often at “ uneconomic " prices. turn will depend on the successful mobilization of the potential productive capacity of the Allies and its efficient use in foreign trade (an underAmluation of the mark relative to sterling and the franc would very much facilitate It would probably also involve a limithis endeavour). tation of the Allies’ civilian consumption. Moreover, to stop German supplies the Allies must be prepared to promise effective military aid to the neutrals adjacent to the Nazis, for otherwise they will not dare to refuse German dictates. This postulates a decided superiority in striking force, which must be crushing, because the Nazis once more possess the advantages (as they suffer from the

drawbacks

i.e.

the possibility of cutting their communi-

cations with overseas) of being able to

move

their forces

along the shorter central routes. Thus the waging of a successful active economic warfare depends on the whole

system of economic war policies and their co-ordination. also W.\r Fin.\nce {See Industry, War Control of and War Potential of Leading Europe.a.n Countries.) ;

;

(T.

Ba.)

EMERGENCY LEGISLATION. When

a state of emergencjf arises in a constitutional countrj^ such as Great Britain the procedure and the powers normally vested in the executiv'e may be quite inadequate. This was so at the outbreak of the war. New laws and new powers became necessarjL and citizens, as a whole, were read}' to

up many of their cherished rights in order that the executive might be vested with full powers, so as to bring the war to a successful conclusion. On Sept. 3, 1939, His Majesty’s government was well give

A vast body of legislation, and regulations was already prepared presentation to parliament. During the

prepared in this respect. statutes, rules, orders, in draft

form for

period from Sept, i to Dec. 14, 1939. about sixty Acts were passed, and about eight hundred rules, regulations, and orders made, which have profoundly affected nearly every aspect of national life. It is almost impossible to give any

adequate description of their range and power, but some idea may be gained when it is realized that they affect agriculture, industry, commerce, ci\al defence, copyright and patents, the law courts, the administration of justice, education, customs and excise, employment, insurance, landlord and tenant, local government, finance, pensions, police and firemen, road and rail traffic, shipping, and air navigation.

His Majesty the King, with the advice of can now make Orders in Council and Proclamations which have the force of law. As it is impossible to legislate for every detail of an emergency, parliament frequently delegates its powers in certain cases Procedure.

his Privy Council,

to ministers of the Crown and to oflicials, giving the respective minister official full powers to make regulations or orders which have the power of law.

The general effect of this legislation on industry and commerce, civilians, the constitution, public authorities, and the armed forces, can be best considered by dealing with these phases separately. IndustT}’

and Commerce.

The Civil Defence Act 1939

amended the Air Raid Precautions Act 1937 and they should be read together. By these Acts local authorities are compelled to make schemes for the protection of persons and property from hostile air attack. Basements may be

I

EMERGENCY LEGISLATION

2

commandeered for use as public air raid shelters. If necessary, the Crown will supply materials for the strengthening of such basements, but the local authority must carry out the necessary fixing. Oumers of factories, mines, and public utility undertakings are under a duty to screen all lights

and to regulate flames or

glare, and,

if

necessary,

They may receive a grant but such grant must not exceed one half

to camouflage their buildings.

towards the cost

Premises or vehicles may be requisitioned be compulsorily hired for civil defence. Where orders are made for the requisition of premises or vehicles, or which relate to local authorities in London, they must be laid before parliament. The same applies to any Treasury scheme made under the Act, and if parliament resolves that such order, regulation, or scheme should be annulled, then it will be void. The Compensation (Defence) Act 1939 provides for the payment of compensation to those who omi property which has been temporarily possessed or controlled by the government in the exercise of emergency powers. No provision is made for the loss of goodwill of trade, profession, or business caused through the taking or controlling of premises or land, nor for deterioration or loss incurred where movable assets have had to be moved in pursuance of emergency powers, although a claim may be made for expenses actually incurred through carrying out orders. The Finance (No. 2) Act 1939 reintroduced the excess profits tax. The tax is chargeable on the excess of profits made over the standard profits during a chargeable accounting period. The standard profit is computed by reference to (i) a minimum amount (2) profits of a standard period ; or (3) the statutory percentage of the average amount of of the expenses.

and land

may

;

employed

in the business. The tax, which is threethe excess profits, is payable one month after assessment, and applies to all trades or businesses of any description carried on in the United Kingdom or abroad, personally or through an agent, by persons ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. The national defence con-

capital

fifths of

is a duty imposed by the Finance Act 1937 for a period of five years from April i, 1937. If chargeable on a percentage of the profits of a business, whether or not there is an excess. Whichever is the higher is payable, but if both are equal, then excess profits duty is payable. The national defence contribution is a tax of five per cent of profits in the case of a body corporate, and four per cent of the profits in any other case. The War Risks Insurance Act 1939 deals with insurance of ships and cargoes and with compulsory insurance by

tribution

goods but compulsory insurance is not necessary where the value of all the goods for the time being owned by a person in the course of business does not exceed ^1,000. The insurance is undertaken, organized, and financed b}' the Board of Trade. The Import, Export, and Customs (Defence) Act 1939 controls the inward and outward trade and the shipment of goods as ships’ stores. If goods are shipped in defiance of the Act, thej' may be forfeited as prohibited goods, and severe penalties may be imposed. The Liability for War Damage (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1939 is not limited to the present emergency. It is designed to relieve certain classes of persons from liability under contract, statute, or common law in respect of loss or damage by war. It affects bailors and bailees buyers of goods on sale or return innkeepers pawners and pawnbrokers and persons liable for custom and excise duties (including warehousemen).

sellers of certain

;

;

;

;

;

The Prices of Goods Act 1939 was passed to prevent the by the Board of Trade being raised above a basic price for those goods by more than an amount

price of goods specified

referable to increases in certain specified expenses. price

means the

Basic

price of such goods offered for sale on

Aug. 21, 1939. Many orders and regulations have now been made for setting up control committees. The Ministry of Supply Act 1939 conConstitutional. fers very wide powers on the minister of supply with regard to articles required for public services.

He may

grant

loans for augmenting stocks or improving facilities for the storage of articles required for the public service. He may regulate and control the business of anyone dealing with articles, and he is given extensive powers to insist upon production of information and returns. He may insist on priority being given over all other work and he may insist upon any person accepting a contract required

such

for the public service on reasonable terms.

The Courts (Emergency Powers) Act 1939 was designed to prevent the enforcement of any judgment or order (with certain exceptions) by way of execution or bankruptcy or, in the case of a company, by execution or winding-up b}' the court unless leave of the appropriate court is first obtained. Judgments or orders, subject to exceptions, consist of judgments and orders for the payment of money whether judgment given before or after the commencement of the Act. Exceptions are judgments for the recovery of

damages

made

in tort,

judgments on orders relating to contracts 1939, judgments or orders relating

after Sept. 2,

solely to the recovery of costs, bastardy orders, orders enforceable as affiliation orders, and orders made in criminal proceedings or for the recovery of a penalty under a statute. The Act also prevents a landlord from enforcing

judgment for possession in default of payment of rent or a mortgagee from recovering possession by reason of a default in the payment of money, except by leave of the appropriate court. The Administration of Justice (Emergency Provisions) Act 1939 provides for the removal of the supreme court and other courts. It reduces the number of jurors from twelve to seven in criminal cases and does away with the The Act also gives unreright to a jury in civil cases. stricted power to magistrates to remand with or without

twenty-one clear days. The Currency (Defence) Act 1939 allows the Treasury for certain purposes to cause the funds in the Exchange Equalization Account to be invested in the securities, bail for

currency of any country, or to be used to purchase gold or silver. The Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 is of great importance in so far as the King in Council has the power, both directly or by delegation, to override any other Act of Parliament. The Act empowers His Majesty by Order in Council to make defence regulations and such regulations may amend, suspend, or apply any Act. The Act also provides for the hearing of proceedings of every kind m camera whenever the court thinks fit. It also extends the operation of legislation and regulations outside the United Kingdom. This Act is for a period of one year, but it may be renewed for a further period of one year on an address presented to His Majesty by each House of Parliament. The Finance (No. 2 ) Act 1939 increased CirdlJans. income-tax, surtax, estate duty, and custom and excise duties. The standard rate of income-tax was increased assets, or the

5s. 6d. to js. 6d. in the £ as respects the last threequarters of the year. For 1939-40 the increase is averaged

from

EVACUATION over the whole year so as to result in a standard rate of In addition to increasing the rate of income7s. in the £. tax the Act also modifies personal allowances for the }’ear 1940-41. Surtax is increased var3'ing from one shilling and threepence for everjr £ of the first ;^5oo in excess over £2,000 to nine shillings and sixpence for everj'- £ in excess of income over £10,000 per annum. Estate duty rates are increased by one-tenth' where the estate exceeds £10,000, but does not exceed £50,000. For all estates exceeding £50,000 the rate is increased bj^ one-fifth. The Act also increased the duties on beer, spirits, wines, tobacco, sugar,

The Act also makes provision for granting relief to persons whose incomes have been reduced owing to circumstances attributable either

molasses,

glucose,

and saccharin.

directly or indirectly to the war.

The Landlord and Tenant {War Damage) Act 1939 onlj>operates when war damage occurs. It is designed to relieve tenants of the obligation to repair the damage, and under certain circumstances to relieve the tenant from pajnnent of rent for the damaged propertj’'. If premises are rendered unfit by war damage, the Act promdes for notices and counter-notices to be served. If a contract contains a provision imposing a liability to it is treated as void.

make good war damage

The Possession of Mortgaged Land {Emergency ProviAct 1939 was passed to restrict the rights of mortgagees to obtain possession of mortgaged land and to amend the Courts (Emergency Powers) Act i939The Personal Injuries {Emergency Provisions) Act 1939 operates during the present eme^genc}^ and provides for the payment of pensions or weekly injury allowances in respect of war injuries received by civilians. The Rent and Mortgage Interest Restrictions Act 1939 will continue in force until six months after the duration This Act applies the principal of the present emergency. Acts of 1920 to 1933 to approximately ninety per cent of all dwelling houses, as the previous Acts had only imposed control on houses completed before April 2, 1919, and most of these houses had been decontrolled by the operation of successive Acts. Many had become decontrolled by the sions)

landlord gaining possession, but by section 2 of the 1939 Act this mode of decontrol is abolished. The National Registration Act 1939 was passed to enable authorities to establish a national register of all persons resident in the United Kingdom at midnight on Sept. 29, Identity cards were issued to every registered per1939. son for purposes of identification in the event of death or injury arising out of an air attack. Anj’^ constable or authorized person is empowered to require production of the card on request. The Forces. The conditions of service in the armed forces, the reserve and auxiliary forces are regulated by the follorving Acts rvhich cor'er nearly every phase of service; The Reserve and Auxiliary Forces Act 1939 which provides for calling up the reserves and for their reinstatement in civil life at the end of their service. The Armed Forces {Conditions of Service) Act 1939 -which inter alia provides for compulsory se^^^ce overseas for the territorial army and the auxiliary^ air force. The National Service {Armed Forces) Act 1939, which took the place of the Military Training Act 1939, -whereby in certain cases men up to the age of 41 are liable to be called up by royal proclamation, and -which among many other things provides for conscientious objectors to military service. Public Authorities and Local Government. The important part to be played by public authorities is set out in the

13

Civil Defence Act 1939, the Air Raid Precautions Act 1937 and the regulations made thereunder. The local authorities are

made

responsible for providing public air raid

and enforcing air raid precautions in all its branches. The schemes drawn up by the responsible officers of the local authorities have been put into operation, and vast sums of money have been and are still being spent on the provision and maintenance of an effective system of protection against enemy air raids. Fire brigades and the auxiliary shelters

services, ambulances, stretcher-bearers, demolition squads, decontamination squads, first-aid posts their establishment and maintenance are all carefully regulated, but the local authority is the responsible authority to which the government looks for the efficient and smooth wmrking of the vast machinery of the Air Raid Precautions created air

—

by the

Acts.

Further powers are also given to local Housing {Emergency Provisions) Act

authorities under the

1939. fo enable them to repair any war damage to property, while under the Essential Buildings and Plant {Repair of IFar) Damage Act 1939 proffision is made for the repair of buildings, such as hospitals and schools, -which are essential to the welfare of the civil population, and for the reinstate-

ment

of the plant of essential undertakings which have been damaged by war. The Housing (Emergency Provisions) Act 1939 generally enables the authorities to meet anjf emergency which may arise by extending the powders given to local authorities by the Housing Act 1936. The above outline of the emergency legislation cannot, of course, do more than sketch the main features of the -various Acts. It would have been tedious to repeat the words " inter alia,” but these words must be frequently read into the article. It is, however, ob-vious that the emergency legislation has profoundlj' affected nearly every one in the realm and has, in effect, almost revolutionized national life. See also Air Raid Prec.\utions Food Supplies in War. ( J. Ke.) EVACUATION. The precautionary evacuation of persons from regions e.xposed to hostile action is no noveltyin war, but has become more important because of the new extension and intensity given to offence by aircraft. No part indeed of anj' belligerent country in Europe can be secure from attack, but certain areas can be distinguished as relatively secure and therefore a policy of transference and dispersal has been adopted by the countries at war and in danger of war. The term evacuation has been applied in the present connexion to this -transference and ;

dispersal of the civilian population.

Evacuation has been both compulsorj’^ and voluntaiy-. In Great Britain, except in the case of civil servants, the evacuation has been wholty voluntary. The British evacuation scheme formulated by the ministry^ of health at the beginning of 1939 was at first intended to cover schoolchildren only. The country was therefore divided into three groups 1. A limited number of large crowded areas from which evacuation was to take place, i.e. all metropolitan boroughs and most of the leading industrial, shipping, and naval centres, as well as more populous towns and boroughs in Essex and Middlesex. 2. number of areas which, though not themselves to be evacuated, were not to be used for reception areas and were described as neutral areas. 3. Areas not to be included in (i) and (2) to be reception ;

A

areas.

In these reception areas the local authorities were requested to undertake a survey of the accommodation

14

EVACUATION concerned to move to neutral areas, but could offer no assistance. Firms, however, were naturally an.xious to keep as near London as possible, and although some sought accommodation in the western half of the country, a good many endeavoured to establish their headquarters inthin fifty miles of London. With regard to civil servants, the government decided to transfer from London a limited number of departmental staffs who could perform their duties away from the centre without loss of efficiency. A billeting allowance of 21s. a week was granted. Actually, of the 80,000 civil servants working in London, only 16,000 were transferred during the first three months of war. A further 5,000 left in Jan. 1940. In order to house the staffs thus evacuated, the government, previous to the outbreak of war, provisionally commandeered a great many hotels

and school buildings

Keystone]

TWO HUNDRED CHILDREN WENT INTO RESIDENCE IN NOVEMBER AT THE NATIONAL CAMP IN THE HOME COUNTIES

in various parts of the country. Practically the whole of London University was evacuated in September and its students scattered over various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with other universities.

Evacuation under the government scheme began on i, and by the evening of the first day over half a million children and teachers had been moved from the congested and industrial areas in England and Scotland. By the following week, over 1,500,000 adults and children had been transferred to the reception areas. Owing, however, to the absence of air-raids and the dissatisfaction of the town-bred mothers with the phenomena of country life, a considerable number soon returned with their children to the cities A further attempt was then made to evacuate children between two and five years by billeting them without their mothers, mainly in large houses, under the care of nurses and welfare workers. It was estimated that 750,000 children were eventually billeted under the government scheme instead of the three million hoped for. As the return of those evacuated became the subject of much public and press comment, the minister of health asked the local authorities of the reception areas to take a census of those who had returned. The Out of the 1,500,000 figures were not as high as expected. moved, 50 per cent of the mothers and over 78 per cent of the children remained in the reception areas. There had been no outbreak of epidemics. Twelve thousand expectant mothers had been transferred and there had been 3,000 births in the first two months, with no increase in puerperal A domiciliary medical service had been arranged fever. However, for the children at the cost of ;£250,ooo a year. the fact remained that a great many children never left the cities at all, and for this reason it was decided that the government’s educational arrangements under the original These had entailed the scheme required modification. moving of each school as a unit with its teachers and the Friday, Sept,

and report by the end of January. It was decided that the main billets must be found in buildings regularly lived in rather than in empty property or camps. Experience of the holiday camps temporarily used by refugee children proved that they were quite unsuitable in rough weather. However, as a supplement to the scheme, a Camps Act was passed providing for fifty permanent camps to be built through the agency of non-profit-making companies known as the National Camps Corporation Ltd., each having accommodation for about 350 persons. Six of these camps were ready for occupation in Jan. 1940. Following upon the children’s evacuation scheme it was decided to include mothers with children under school age,

available for billeting in private houses

expectant mothers, old persons, cripples, etc., in the scheme. The policy was not to empty the big cities, but to remove that portion of the population which was not necessary to the industrial and functional life of the cities. The billeting allowance to householders was fixed at los. for the first After the outchild and 8s. 6 d. for subsequent children. break of war, this was raised to los. 6 d. for boys of sixteen years and over. The allowance for adults providing their own food was 5s. After evacuation had taken place the weekly expenditure on the children’s account was estimated at ;£450 ,ooo, or 9s. per head, and from Oct. 28 a standard charge of 6s. a week was fixed for the parents' contribution, although those who could afford to do so were expected to pay the full 9s., and those who could not pay 6s. to pay less, the local authorities assessing and recovering payments. With regard to the hospitals, it was decided that in case of war they would take both service and civilian casualties. There are in normal times about 500,000 hospital beds (including 150,000 in mental hospitals) in the country. It was reckoned that 112,000 could be freed at once by sending home patients and another 115,000 added; therefore, 250,000 beds could be made available for casualties within a short time of emergency conditions arising, and of these 200,000 would be ready within 24 hours. These arrangements were successfully accomplished in the days immediately preceding the outbreak of war. The medical schools attached to the hospitals were closed and the students were drafted to various provincial clinical centres. In the case of the evacuation of business houses from the central part of London, the government advised the firms

.

consequent closing of that school in the evacuation area. Schools in neutral areas had also been closed. Gradually this state of affairs was remedied and as many schools as possible were re-opened in the New Year. Many of the schools had been requisitioned for other purposes, and their release had to be effected and adequate air-raid protection built.

A return

of business houses also took place towards the

end of the year. About one-sixth of the firms which left London returned, but the larger concerns remained away. As a direct consequence, there was a considerable slowing

down

of all business operations. France. In France voluntary' evacuation from Paris followed much the same lines as from London. The

FOOD SUPPLIES IN WAR all those who could, and were not needed, to take refuge in the countrj’’, and officially sponsored the removal of the schoolchildren. According to the returns made by the mayors and communes, over 2,500,000 persons left Paris and the suburbs at the beginning, of the war. But the same causes that operated in England absence of air-raids and dislike of country life soon

government requested

—

—

brought back a large proportion of this number. It was estimated that not more than a third of the population remained away. Contrary to the generally accepted view, a great many of the industrialized workers in Paris have no roots in the countrJ^ As in London, it became necessary to re-open the schools for the children who had remained or returned about 10,000 out of a normal school population of 50,000. Two hundred and ten municipal schools were re-opened on Nov. 6, the distribution of the children being strictly governed by the air-raid shelter available. In the eastern frontier region, evacuation was not primarily due to fear of air-raids. Here, on the first day

—

of mobilization, the military authorities, according to a pre-arranged plan, ordered the complete evacuation of the civilian population of the towns and villages on the Rhine

to a depth of five kilometres ; Strasbourg, with a normal population of 200,000, being completely emptied. Later, the evacuation of the whole army zone, comprising the departments of Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin, and Moselle, was ordered. But, owing to the continued quiet on the Rhine front, the military authorities deferred the plans for the

removal of the civilian population of Mulhouse and Colmar. jMany of the inhabitants who had evacuated voluntarily at the outbreak of war returned later, and the schools, as in Paris, were re-opened on Nov. 6. The transference of 650,000 inhabitants from the three departments of Alsace Lorraine was accomplished within the first week of the war. They were mainly accommodated in the towms and villages of the centre and south-west. The to^vn of Perigueux received 150,000, five times its normal population. The policy of the government was to maintain the same regime in the reception areas as in the evacuation areas. M. Chautemps, vice-president of the council, was charged ^vith the afiairs of Alsace and Lorraine, and a consultative committee was appointed to consider all questions relative to the welfare of the transpopulation. Twenty-one medical centres were established as well as work bureaux for men not in the army. The refugees were at first housed in wooden shelters, but later barracks were built. Efforts to ameliorate their lot were made by many charitable organizations, including ferred

a committee of American and

British

women

resident in

sent a delegation to study conditions on the spot. The university of Strasbourg was re-opened at Clermont-Ferrand, except for the educational departments, Paris,

who

which were established at Perigueux. Germany. Information vdth regard to evacuation in Germany is necessarily slight, but there is no evidence that evacuation took place on account of the possibility of air-raids. The civilian population of Keitum, Manmarsch, and Westerland on the island of Sylt was transferred to S.W. Schleswig on Sept. 10, and the Rhine army zone would appear to have been cleared of the civilian population as on the French side. It was learned from a

Roman

source that the entire population of 130,000 of was evacuated in twenty-four hours. -According to the Frankfurter Zeitung, Saarbruecken-Stadt,

Saarbruecken

Saarbruecken-land, Ottweiler, St. Ingbert, Homburg, Zweibruecken, Bergzabem, Pirmasens, and Gemersheim

15

forbidden to the chdlian population without special From a further source, it is understood- that the ci-vilian population was. also evacuated from Karlsruhe, and from many places in Baden near the Rhine all those who were not sufficiently able-bodied to move at a moment’s notice were evacuated to the east, some going to Wurtemberg and others to villages on Lake Constance. The ofBcial- term for the evacuated parts of Western Germany is Freimaclmngsgebeit West cleared western area. At Aachen, the remains of Charlemagne were removed, probablj’- for the first time in history, and taken to the interior. Other treasures from the cathedral were also removed, but there was no general evacuation from the town. Many of the art treasures in Berlin were dis-tributed in other parts of Germany. Both the French and German authorities introduced capital punishment as a penalty

were

all

permits.

=

for looting.

Holland. In Holland preparations for evacuation from the main flood areas were made in November by the military authorities, but only a few villages were actually evacuated. Finland. In Finland, before the outbreak of hostilities with Russia, only the voluntary evacuation of civilians from Helsinki and the other cities had taken place and many returned in November after the first tension was over. With the outbreak of war the population of Helsinki was reduced from 200,000 to 50,000. In Jan. 1940, although the enemy occupied only a relatively small part of the country, one-tenth of the population were refugees. All the schools M-ere closed and education was at a complete standstill. It was estimated that 400,000 people had been evacuated and quartered largely in farmhouses and partly in public buildings.

Sweden. In Sweden plans for the evacuation of children between the ages of nine and fourteen from Stockholm, in case of emergenc}', had been prepared by the government by the end of 1939. (D. H.) FOOD SUPPLIES IN WAR. In peace time Britain imports just two-thirds of her food requirements. This high degree of dependence on external soxirces of supply, higher than in any other country, naturally creates serious problems in time of war. How far do the normal sources of supply remain open ? Can the shipping be found to transport the food ? If not, how much more can be pro-

duced at home ? Great Britain entered the present war in a more favourable position as regards food than in 1914. She has rather more cattle, 50 per cent more pigs, and twice as many poultry. She has the same amount of wheat, and an entirely new crop, sugar beet, which furnishes a quarter of all her sugar requirements. One disadvantage from a war point of view is the loss since 1914 of over 2 million acres of arable land. Less fodder cereals and fodder roots are being grown, so that she depends more than formerly on imported feedingstuffs. Nevertheless, as regards imports the situation is relatively favourable. Whereas in 1914 considerable quantities of wheat and barley came from Russia and the Danubian countries, now almost all comes

from North and South America and Australia, countries with which it is easier for Britain to keep open communications. Then the bulk of her sugar came from Germany and Austria now almost all comes from non-European countries. Furthermore, Britain undoubtedly entered the war in Sept. 1939 with substantial stocks of certain staple commodities. The policy of food storage had been in the fore;

front of public discussion for the prerious

two years and

;

FOOD SUPPLIES IN WAR

i6

Each county was allotted a certain quota based largelv on the acreage which had gone out of cultivation during the past thirty years, and the county war agricultural committees were instructed to divide this out among district committees which were to persuade their farmers to plough the requisite acreage. Judging from the progress made during the autumn it was confidently expected that the million acres would be ploughed up by the spring of Ploughing up has, of course, its critics, who urge 1940. that to tear up good pasture to produce indifferent corn crops

is

diminishing, not increasing, the productivity of the since it has been shown that with normal yields

But

land.

arable land produces

some

four times as

much

food (reck-

oned in calories) per acre as grassland,^ the crop must be a very poor one indeed before the advantages of ploughing are offset.

The ploughing-up subsidy was

reinforced by an advance guaranteed price for the 1940 cereal crop. ^Vheat was advanced from 45s. to 49s. 6d. per quarter the guaranteed price of barley remained at los. per cwt., but all growers could henceforth claim subsidy, whereas in 1938 only those not claiming under the Wheat Act might benefit. Oats were guaranteed at 27s. per quarter. This is in marked contrast to the 1917-18 position. The Corn Production Act of 1917 introduced guaranteed minimum prices, but they were always substantially below the prices prevailing in the market. It will be seen that British farmers have been given in the

Keysione\

EMPLOYEES OF THE TOTTENHAM BOROUGH CLEANSING DEPOT, WHO HAVE FORMED THE FIRST PIG CLUB OF THE WAR, INSPECTING THEIR PIGS

had received the support

of several

eminent economists.

In the spring of 1939 the British government bought large quantities of wheat, sugar, and oils, though this may have been partly offset by private traders reducing their holdings. However, the trade statistics to the end of Aug. 1939 show notably larger imports of these commodities and of eggs than in the same period of 1937 ^93^effect on Britain’s According to The Times, exports during the first two months of war fell by 42 per cent and imports by 27 per cent food imports by as much as 32 per cent. The fall in imports was only to an insignificant extent due to ships being torpedoed or mined it was principally because the available shipping was required for the trans-

The outbreak of war had an immediate

foreign trade.

—

;

port of troops, munitions, and materials necessary to the conduct of the war. In the case of some foodstuffs, however, Britain was completely cut off from certain previous sources of supply. Some 15 per cent of her butter came

from Sweden, Finland, and the Baltic States, now closed to her. The bulk of her eggs and bacon came from Denmark and the Netherlands, and though both countries continued to export after the war started, several cargoes were lost or captured, and deliveries to British ports were far less regular than usual. At the time of writing it seems unlikely that the menace of submarines or mines -will cause grave anxiety on the other hand, the experience of the last war makes it certain that the demands of troops and raw materials on shipping space will become increasingly great. For this reason alone, apart altogether from the difficulty of maintaining exports wherewith to pay for her requirements, it will be imperative for Great Britain to economize on imports of food and feedingstuffs, particularly of the bulkier commodities. This leads us to a consideration of the measures taken to meet the problem of increasing production at home. Whereas in the previous war far-reaching efforts were not made to increase cropping until 1917, and these did not have their full effect till the crop of 1918, this time a plough-up policy had already been initiated before the war began. Early in 1939 the government announced a subsidy of per acre for the ploughing up of fields which had been at least seven years under grass. When war broke out this plan was enlarged to a programme of ploughing up million acres, equivalent to 10 per cent of the grassland of England and Wales. ;

;

substantial inducement to grow

more

crops.

But

this

In the last war the food production campaign was severely curtailed by the difficulties in getting enough men, horses, and machines. The Food in itself is not enough.

Production

War

Department struggled constantly with the men for farm work, and

Office for the liberation of

with the ministry of munitions to obtain tractors and steam tackle for ploughing. It is true that in this war Britain has conscription from the beginning and that agriis a reserved occupation. It is true that there are 60,000 tractors on British farms which can accomplish ploughing far more rapidly than steam tackle or horses. But the drain on man power has not yet made itself felt there is no shortage yet of machinery, repair parts, and mechanics. If the war lasts for anything like as long, or

culture

imposes anything as the

war

like

a similar strain on Britain’s resources may ultimately prove almost

of 1914-18, then it

men and power, to increase, perhaps even to maintain, the arable acreage. Already for the 1939 harvest there was a mild labour shortage. The county councils released men from road work and from drainage schemes to help on the farms, several thousand soldiers were made available, and, in addition, there was in process of formation the Women’s Land Army, impossible, merely for lack of

which by November was 25,000 strong, working on farms.

-with 2,000 already

A further difficulty may be experienced in regard to ferBritain imported large quantities of rock phosthere may not be phates, principally from North Africa ships enough to bring it. Also much of the nitrate of soda normally used on the land is in war-time required for the manufacture of explosives. In the last war the fertilit}' of the land suffered greatly, in part oudng to shortage of fertilizer and in part to excessive cropping with wheat. In regard to livestock, Britain is, as already mentioned, tilizers.

;

better off than last time. Sir Thomas Middleton Humphrey Jlilford, 1923. *

:

But the very Food Production

fact of having in

War.

O.xford,

HOSPITALS

17

As yet

there has been no great demand, but the

more animals means that she needs to import more feeding-

plots.

In 1914-18, although the cattle population remained stable, the milk output fell 20 per cent, mainly because of the lack of imported feeds cereals and oilcake. The pig population fell 20 per cent, also mainlj' for lack of feed. This time the minister of agriculture announced that the dair};^ herd would have priority in respect of feedingstuffs, and for cows there would be no But pig and poultrj^ keepers have been told to shortage. reckon with one-third less bought feed. To some extent this may be offset bj' using more garbage and kitchen refuse, but a certain decline in numbers will be inevitable. Indeed, pigs and poultry are the most costly kinds of livestock to keep in war-time. They live almost entirely on imtogether they consume well over half the ported feeds total feedingstuffs imports. To compensate for this reduction the government are urging an expansion of the sheep population, firstly because the sheep is an animal which reaches maturity comparatively quickly, and secondly because sheep feed almost solely on home-grown grass and, moreover, mostly on the poorer mountain grass. lid. Attractive prices have been fixed as from Jan. 1940 per lb. for fat sheep and I3(f. for fat lambs. A move has further been made to encourage pig clubs and pig-keeping in back gardens, since pigs reared in this way are mainly fed on waste and refuse. By the end of the last war pig clubs were producing meat at the rate of five million tons per annum. Meat supplies from abroad axe being maintained. After a drop in imports during the first two months of the war, it was announced in parliament in December that they were again up to the pre-war level. But the needs

public attitude

stufis.

—

;

:

fighting services come first, and actually home butchers were being issued only 50 per cent of their normal supplies of imported meat. In view of the urgent need to economize feedingstuffs, it

of the

has been questioned how far any home-produced milk should in war-time be utilized in butter-making. It is pointed out that 10 lb. of concentrates are needed to produce 3 gallons of milk which makes i lb. of butter. Therefore, it would economize shipping space to import the butter rather than the feed. The prices of all concentrates have been fixed by the government at levels slightly above those of Aug. 1939 but considerably below the average of 1938. Preliminary^ control of fat stock sales was tried out in the autumn, fol.owed by de-control in December, before a scheme of complete control was launched in Jan. 1940, the government then being the sole buyer of all meat. The prices proposed for January, at the time of writing, are for fat cattle from 37s. to 55s. 6(i. per live cwt. according to quality, and for Milk prices to propigs 15s. per score (deadw'eight). ducers were improved firstly by an increase of 2^-rf. per gallon in November in the price of manufacturing milk, and secondly by a government subsidy of 3(f. per gallon Meantime, so as to avoid raising the price of liquid milk.

wages had in most counties by the end of 1939 been advanced 2s. or 2s. 6d. per week. Another line of activity for developing food production is the allotments campaign. The allotments movement which boomed in the last war had sunk back to a modest level of activity. So many times allotment land had been agricultural

taken for building, road widening,

etc.,

that allotment

holders had lost heart. But in the autumn of 1939, under the slogan " Dig for Victory ”, local authorities were urged to set about providing half a million

new

lo-rod allotment

may change if food in the shops becomes dearer or if any shortage occurs. In the sphere of price-fixing and in the control of distri-

much

bution the machinery of organization is already more highly developed than ever it was in the last wmr. Already by the end of 1939 the government had become the sole importer of all the principal feedingstuffs and the sole

buyer from the British farmer of most of his products. This should

make

it far easier

to control prices and to For several import-

regfulate the distribution of supplies.

ant commodities maximum retail prices -were introduced in the early -weeks of the war, notably for butter, sugar, and tea. Local food committees were set up by every local authority to supervise supplies and prices. Each has fifteen

members, including five representatives of the retail two of whom must be women, repre-

trades, the others,

senting

all classes of

persons in the area.

Nevertheless,

proved impossible to prevent a pronounced

rise in

it

the cost

From 155 on the index rose to 169 on Nov. i, and is still rising. In order to make possible the issue of ration cards a national registration was carried out on Sept. 29. Ration of living in the early period of the war.

Sept.

I

books were issued to all householders in November, but actually only " unofficial rationing ” was practised before Christmas, and that only in respect of butter and sugar.

At that

time, according to an announcement in parliament, only 50 per cent of normal butter supplies w’ere being issued, but considerable quantities were being put into store. From January onwards, however, official rationing came into force butter, 4 oz. per head per week; bacon and ham 4 oz., increased to 8 oz. at the beginning of Februarj' sugar 12 oz. It is too early to make any forecast as to horv the position regarding food supplies will develop. No one knows how long the war will last, what strain will be put upon Britain’s shipping and foreign exchange reserve, and what the calls on her man powder will be. There will certainlj'- not be enough ships or money to obtain from abroad all the food, and more particularly all the feedingstuffs, which Britain normally imports. As for making this good by increased production at home, much is being done. An addition of I -I million acres to the arable land means over one million tons more grain (or its equivalent in other crops), or onetenth of her feedingstuffs imports. But to ploughing up a :

;

limit is set, partly

by the

acres available of sufficiently

and partly by the number

of men which can be spared for fanning. A certain reduction on peacetime supplies there wall inevitably be, but the government has an organization in being wEich should ob-viate the

suitable land

occurrence of food queues, so t5rpical of the last w^ar, and should ensure a more equitable distribution of supplies than on the former occasion. (P. L. Y.)

HOSPITALS. The outbreak

of

wm inevitably affected

and administration of British hospitals. It -was necessarj^ to make ample provision for all possible naval, military, and air casualties requiring institutional attention, and it W'as considered desirable, also, to pro\’ide accommodation for a very large number of possible casualties among civilians following upon air-raids. Very many beds w'ere kept empty for these purposes, and medical and surgical staffs w'ere mobilized on a w'hole-time basis, or on a part-time basis with liability at a moment’s notice to be called up for w'hole-time service. In most cases, hospitals were arranged in groups so as to make their joint accommodation more fully and systematically seriously the usage

;

INDUSTRY,

i8

WAR CONTROL OF

available for different classes of patients. Actually, at all events during the first three months of war, some of these

precautions proved to be over elaborate. They resulted, in some institutions, in provision for ordinary civilian cases

being unduly restricted, in a considerable amount of expensive provision lying idle for a long period and, for a while, in many members of the medical and surgical staffs being barred from attending their private practices and having no other patients for whom they were responsible. The effect of these circumstances and arrangements on the finances of the voluntary hospitals and their staffs is not and, apart from yet ascertainable but must be serious finance, the emergency organization itself, though accepted as temporary, is not unlikely, in some directions, to affect the position and the staffing of voluntary hospitals in the post-war period and even permanently. The danger to the principles of voluntary management and of part-time or honorary staffing is not negligible. ;

train are fitted for acute mental cases, should they be

For civilian casualty evacuation there are 34 trains, each a quarter of a mile in length, consisting of nine converted fruit or milk vans. The stretchers are fixed to each wall in three tiers, each van taking thirty cases. Dressings, drugs, disinfectants, and medical comforts are provided and the crew of each train consists of one medical officer, one train officer, three sisters, and eight other necessary.

nurses, and eight St. John Ambulance orderlies. The transformation of the train from its ordinary purpose into a thoroughly efficient casualty hospital is remarkable. It should be noted that the British Red Cross Society and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem have amalgamated for the duration of the war as they did in 1914. The compulsory grouping of hospitals for emergency and war purposes is likely to accelerate progress towards that regionalization of hospitals regarded as vital by the voluntary hospitals commission. This movement has been disappointingly slow, though there is increasing co-operation in some directions and there have been a few actual amalgamations, as in Birmingham and NeAvcastle. The conversion of Poor Law hospitals into public hospitals and

the improvement in equipment and staffing have continued. The provision of “ pay-beds ’’ in voluntary hospitals has also expanded. There are now more than 2,200 such beds in the 146 hospitals of the King Edward’s Hospital Fund area. They show an average profit of some £34 a bed.

An

important event has been the publication of the

third

book Hospital Administration the most comprehensive and

edition of Captain J. Stone’s

and Management.

It

is

authoritative Avork on matters both of hospital policy and of technical details of construction

and management

;

and

noAV thoroughly up to date. An interim report has been issued by the inter-departmental committee on nursing. There has been much concern as to the supply of nurses and as to their conditions of Avork. It is estimated that 12,000 recruits are needed is

each year. The present deficiency is due not to any diminution in the number of entrants but to a rapidly increasing

demand and

to the fact that a large proportion

—from 20 to 30 per cent—of those entering the

profession

do not continue beyond their first year of training. Important recommendations as to recruiting, training, status, and conditions of AA’ork are made, and some of these have already been put into effect in some hospitals. In Nbav Zealand the government named June i as the date for the coming into effect of the hospital provisions In connexion Avith the hospitals notervorthy that the university of Queensland has noAv established a complete faculty of medicine (H- Br.) and a full-time medical school. CONTROL OF. This article INDUSTRY, deals Avith the organization and effects of governmental of the Social Security Act.

Fox

of Brisbane

Photos]

RADIUM IS STORED 280 FEET BELOW THE SURFACE IN ANCIENT CAVERNS EXPERTS DESCEND TO COLLECT RADON GAS ;

An

important development due to the war has been the provision of what may be described as rail-transport for militaiy- casualties, and (b) for civilian For the former a number of trains have been thoroughly equipped as travelling hospitals. Each consists of nine coaches, four of which have been converted into Avards, one of these for officers. There are 36 beds to each coach arranged in tiers of three. At the end of each coach there is a lavatory and cupboard accommodation and in the middle of each a drinking-water tank. The first coach of each train is reserved for the two medical officers and two nursing sisters the second is for the twenty K.C.O.’s and men avIio act as orderlies and kitchen staff the third coach is for kitchen and stores and the fourth is a dispensary’. Two small padded compartments on each hospitals,

(rt)

casualties.

;

;

it is

WAR

control of industry as exercised in time of Avar. So short a time has elapsed since the outbreak of Avar in Sept. I939> that it has not been found possible to say much about the

actual effects

;

problems rather than

effects

have been

dealt Avith.

Organization.

Already before the Avar the British governof a preparatory nature, such as

ment had taken measures

the accumulation of stocks of certain essential materials the creation of " shadoAv ” factories Avhose output could be greatly expanded if need arose ; the formation of the ministrj’ of supply, AA-hich came into legal existence on July 13, 1939 ; and the passing of the Emergency PoAvers (Defence) Act of Aug. 24, 1939.

,

INDUSTRY, With the outbreak

WAR CONTROL OF

19

war the ministry of supply put powers it had been given for the organization of the output of munitions of all kinds for the army (the na\’y and the air force maintaining their separate supply organizations), and also took over control of the supply and allocation of raw materials for all the services. In this latter respect the procedure adopted was to constitute separate control boards for each of the important raw materials, the main function of the boards being to regulate prices and the distribution of supplies with priorit)^ The for government and essential civil requirements. of the

into full operation the

chief directing personnel in the controls has been

drawn

thus giving effect to the principle that, so far as possible, industry'- should control itself. The other side of the work of the ministry' of supply ^the stimulation of the output of munitions made rapid proOn Dec. 19, gress during the first four months of the war. 1939, the minister announced that contracts to the value

from the trades

ir question,

—

—

Fox

Photos}

of £234,000,000

ASSEMBLING WORLD'S FASTEST BOMBERS IN A FACTORY IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND

of cost accountancy'

for

instituted to

had been placed, while an elaborate sy'stem and inspection of books had been ensure that the state was not paying excessive

The country has been divided into thirteen areas administered by regional commissioners, who are responsible for mobilizing all the local industrial resources available. By the latter part of Dec. 1939 the number of firms under contract to the ministry' had in fact risen from 12,810, before the war, to 15,000. In addition to the ministry of supply the Board of Trade, the ministries of food, shipping, transport and economic warfare, the departments of mines and of overseas trade and the Treasury' all these have vast and important functions to carry out in wartime, many of which impinge directly or indirectly upon the conduct and well-being of The last mentioned of these departments, industry'. the Treasury, is in a key position, through its control over expenditure invol-vdng the sale of foreign currencies, i.e. prices.

—

—

the finance of imports. But it also comes directly into contact with industry by virtue of its newly acquired power to license

all

new

capital issues.

An

illustration of the

changing conditions produced by' war can be taken from the import duties on foreign the iron and steel industry iron and steel were abolished on Dec. 5, 1939, and fourteen day's later a licensing system was introduced for the import of iron and steel, as well as many' of the raw materials ;

required

by'

industry.

the

Again,

in

agriculture,

the

marketing boards have been transformed from producercontrolled quasi-monopolies into government agencies for carry'ing out wartime control and distribution of supplies. At the same time that domestic industries were being subjected to a network of controls, steps were taken to resuscitate and expand the inter-allied economic co-operation, which played so important a role in the last year of the Great War. On Nov. 17, 1939, it was decided to form six Anglo-French committees to take executive action in the whole range of buying whatever may be needed by the two countries, both for military and civilian purposes. The sLx committees deal with the following matters aviation, munitions and raw materials, oil, food, shipping and economic warfare and in all matters of supply the two countries have agreed to draw up their import programmes jointly. The degree of co-operation extends, however, much beyond a mere arrangement to avoid competitive buying thus it involves the pooling of shipping facilities, and, by a later agreement in Dec. 1939, the pooling of the :

;

;

foreign assets of Britain

and France.

The Franco-British

exchange has also been pegged for the duration of the war.

government purposes, at 176J francs to the pound. It would be difficult to over-estimate the importance of these measures for the successful conduct of the war on its financial and economic side. Effects. The main tasks of economic organization in wartime are firstly', to maximize the total output of the labour, capital and natural resources of the country and, secondly, to divert as essential

much

war purposes.

difficulties,

as

it

as possible of this output to

The

latter task presents great involves establishing an order of priority

—

between the main competitors for output ^the war services, exports, and the minimum needs of the civilian population. All of -these are important, while, in the case of itself,

man power

there are the further claims of the fighting forces.

It

impossible to carry out these tasks without a large measure of control over the economic system. In the Great War economic controls were slow to estabis

lish themselves, and it was not until after the Germans had adopted unlimited submarine warfare in the spring of 1917, that the organization of the economic life of the country was undertaken on a comprehensive scale. By the end of the war, however, it had attained a high degree of development. In the present war, the aim has been to start off from approximately the stage of development attained at the end of the last war. At the same time, the air menace has led to the emergence of new problems which have given rise to the establishment of a great deal of administrative machinery, not all of which turned out to be immediately' needed, while some of it involved financial waste and a serious interference with the other major tasks of wartime

economy'.

The immediate effects of the outbreak of the present war were to disorganize very seriously the exporting industries of the country and also a great deal of normal domestic trade, owing partly to the direct effects of a state of war, partly to evacuation (which hit London particularly hard) and partly to the new controls themselves. Many of the difficulties and embarrassments in the economic field during the first four months of the war, arose from two main factors. Firstly, the system of controls which had been worked out in 1918 was the outcome of the accumulated experience of four years of war, and those who were administering the controls had lived -with and in the organization as it was developing. On the other hand, the present generation of ci-vil servants had to cope, for the most part v'ithout pre-vious experience, mth a system of controls which had not been evolved organically, but had

NATIONAL SERVICE—WAR AND PEACE AIMS —

sprung into life already fully mature at least on paper. It will undoubtedly take time, and the making and correction of many mistakes, before the present organization can function really efficiently. Secondly, the appearance of administrative and economic chaos in the opening stages of the war was necessarily enhanced by the fact that enough time had not elapsed to allow the new purchasing power being created by the vast government expenditure to offset the decline in individual income occasioned by the initial impact of the war upon economic life. As soon as the combined effects of government expenditure and of the TOthdrawal of labour into military service have resulted in the

full

employment

of the

man-power and

industrial

be faced with scarcity on every hand and both the scope for, and the need of, organization will become very much greater. It has been shown in the first section of this article that the wartime control of economic affairs is divided between a large number of separate ministries and government departments and, at the moment of \vriting, there is an evident lack of co-ordination between them. There is no central authority capable of imposing a common economic policy upon ministries, each of which is sovereign within its own sphere. At the same time, measures adopted by one ministry may have damaging effects upon the interests resources of the country,

it will

of others.

The war organization

economic effort is still in its very is no indication that a solution has been found for three major problems, all of which are closely inter-connected the problems of prices, wages, and the finance of the money cost of running the war. of

early stages, and, as yet, there

—

(C.

NATIONAL SERVICE.

W.

G.)

Of the many notable develop-

ments in the sphere of national service in the year 1939 the most significant was undoubtedly the passage into law during May of the Military Training Act. Although before this reached the statute book all military service in Great Britain in time of peace had, in modern times, been based on the voluntary principle, conscription had been imposed in the later stages of the Great War of 1914-18. The compulsory principle was also implicit in the militia which had been replaced by Haldane's Territorial Force, and the duty of the citizen to assist in the defence of the realm is an undoubted principle of the English common law. It is probable that to most Englishmen the passage into law of a measure compelling every young man of twenty years of age to undergo six months’ military training marked not so much an important constitutional innovation, which it was, as the first step in the transition from a state of peace to a state of war. Prior to this, the various branches of national service had expanded rapidly in the opening months of the year. A national service handbook was issued to all householders in January gmng information as to the directions in which different persons’ services could best be utilized according to their age, sex, and qualifications. Recruiting both for the fighting services and for civil defence went on steadily until the month of March, when the German government destroj'ed the Czech State in ffiolation of its preffious pledges to respect her independence. Shortly after this the British government gave guarantees to Poland, Rumania, and Greece, and to enable these to be implemented by military action it was decided to double the Territorial Army’s field force so that the latter was now to comprise fourteen diffisions. Scarcely had this decision been reached when the Military Training Bill was introduced. It was opposed

somewhat half-heartedly by the Labour party but, while some objections were raised to the compulsory principle, there was too large a measure of unanimity' on behalf of the cause which the measure was intended to further for the opposition to it ever to reach serious proportions. The public was in a mood to demand strong measures and to accept sacrifices in order to carry them out.

At the same time as Britain’s defences were being expanded both by legislative enactment and by voluntarieffort, the government showed its determination to avoid the repetition, if a state of emergency should arise, of one of the most serious mistakes of 1914. A list of reserved occupations was prepared, designed to ensure that men engaged in industrial or other work, which by reason of its nature was vital to the maintenance of the national event of war, should not leave their posts such occupations of over a specified age, which varied in each case, could not be enrolled in the armed forces or given a full-time post in any civil defence organization. This list has since been altered fi'om time to time. On the eve of the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Germany, the National Service (Armed Forces) Bill was passed into law. This made all male British subjects between the ages of 18 and 41, except ministers of recogeffort in the

men

:

in

the nized religious creeds, liable to military service minister of labour had, as before, the right to classify as :

reserved any occupation which he thought proper, and men in such occupations could, at first, be neither conscripted nor, if volunteers, accepted. At the beginning of 1940, however, the minister ruled that men in certain reserved occupations should be accepted as volunteers. By the end of 1939, the age-groups between 20 and 23 had been ordered to register, and at the beginning of 1940 authority was given to call up the age-groups between 19 and 28 without the formality of a royal proclamation.

Meanwhile numerous volunteers, both for the fighting and for civil defence, have enrolled themselves and been accepted for service since the beginning of the (W. T. We.) war. services

WAR AND

PEACE AIMS. What is

the distinction,

between its war aims and when a nation is engaged its peace aims ? Broadly speaking, one may say that the war aims of a nation consist in the end which it sets before itself, or, in other words, in the limit to which it proposes in war,

to go, in reducing the military forces of the enemy nation. But since it takes two to play at the game of war, and since either side will have its separate idea of the end or limit to be attained in the conduct of hostilities, it is obvious that the war aims of one side will be affected by those of the other, and that an extension on the one side

tend to be followed by an e.xtension on the other. In end or limit cannot be said to be fixed of it moves with the movement of the dynamic process interaction which is set in motion by war. The peace aims of a nation may also similarly move during the process of war. They always relate to three main things, and they always consist in the end or limit proposed for dealing with will

:

this sense the

first, the method of the negotiation these three things of peace (that is to say, whether the treaty of peace should be unilaterally imposed, or bilaterally agreed, or multisecondly, the settlement of the laterally determined) :

;

detailed terms of peaee, especially in regard to frontiers ; and lastly, the fixing of the general scheme or system of relations which is to be maintained after pence has been

negotiated and its detailed terms have been settled. But while peace aims always relate to these three main things.

a

WAR AND PEACE in that sense constant, they will also vaiy^ and move rnth the actual course of hostilities. The war ma}' extend and that will extend or alter the general or alter its scope scope of the peace which follows the war. We can only speak of war and peace aims, as thej'^ stand at the beginning of 1940, in terms of the general conjuncture of events, and the general state of feeling at that precise moment of time. On the other hand if the nation is convinced that the ideas of war and peace with which it has begun the war are valuable in themselves, and ought to be steadfastly followed to the utmost possible extent through all conjunctures and contingencies, there may be a steady certainty of purpose even among the uncertainties of war. War Aims. The war aim of Great Britain and France is not only, or simply, the defeat of the military'-, naval, and air forces of Germanj' b)' such methods of warfare (and

and are

;

among them the economic method) as we have at our command. It is also, as the prime minister stated in his

—

broadcast speech of Nov. 26, the defeat of a mentality’' mentality which sees in reasons of state a justification for the use of force to dominate other peoples, for the practice of persecution on inoffensive citizens, and for the repudiation of pledges and pacts whenever they are found inconvenient. A war aim which includes the defeat of a mentality may seem, at first sight, to be a vastlj^ extended war aim. It

may seem

to involve a fight against the spirit and the genius of a people. The opposite is really the case. We restrict and define our war aims when we include among them the defeat of a mentality. We restrict and define them for the simple reason that this mentality is not, in

our view, the mentality of a whole people. It is the mentality of a section which has seized the command of a whole people, ,and controls and emplo3's against us a whole people's militarj' resources. So long as that section has the control, we must emploj^ against those resources the whole of our resources. But our ultimate war aim consists in breaking the power of that section, and not in breaking the people, or the spirit and genius of the people, which is commanded, for the time being, bj>’ that section. If we are told, and if it is proved, that there is not and cannot be any division that the section is the people, and the people is the section we shall have to alter our war aims. But as the)"^ stand to-day, they are in no waj"directed to the breaking of the people. They are directed to the breaking of the military resources of a people because those resources are commanded, and so long as the}^ are commanded, bj' a section which is permeated by a particular and intolerable mentality and they are so directed because the real thing which we uish to break is that mentality. In the speech which has already been mentioned the prime minister, after declaring that it was the British war aim to defeat a mentality or a spirit, added some explanatory words which deserve to be quoted in full "If the German people can be convinced that that spirit is as bad for themselves as for the rest of the world, thej’’ vail abandon it. If we can secure that they do abandon it without bloodshed, so much the better ; but abandoned it must be.” It follows that our war aim does not involve the breaking of Germanj’^ ^unless Germany has to be broken in order to break a mentality. A war aim which can conceivablj’be satisfied “ vathout bloodshed ” is not a war aim which implies that result. If an authority arose in Geriaavy which disavowed the mentality and the methods of the last seven years, our war aim might be achieved without

—

—

;

;

—

any further prosecution

of war.

^^T^ether there is

any

AIMS

21

chance of the rise of such an authority is an issue which depends on the balance of forces and vails in Germany. But in anj'' case there is one thing to be said about the character of this war which has a \atal bearing on our immediate war aims, and which may \atally affect our ultimate peace aims. It is not clear (indeed it is far from clear) that we are engaged in what may be called a " national ” war that is to sa}'-, a war in which the nation of Germany is confronted bj^ the nations of France and Britain. On the contrary, it may be held that we are ” engaged in something which is of the nature of a " ci\dl war that is to saj% a war in which one set of ideas about the proper sj'stem and constitution of Central and Western Europe is pitted against another set of ideas. In that sense we are engaged in a war of ideologies. If we are so engaged, we have to defeat the ideologj’’ opposed to our own. But there is this difference between the ideology which we defend and the ideologj’’ which we challenge. France and Britain are united to a man in support of the It is still obscure whether ideology' which thej' defend. there is any such union on the other side. If there is, the war will become a “ national ’’ war, and the war aim will become that of a national war. If there is not, there will remain, at anj' rate on one of the two sides, the element of " ciml ” war, and the war aim will remain affected bj' that fact. That is whj’, at the beginning of 1940, there is still some obscurity about war aims. It is also perhaps the reason whj’- the war, in its initial phase, seems to us to have followed a curious and even paradoxical course. There are other riddles besides the riddle of the character of the war. There is the riddle of the possible extension of the war. An extension of the war might also extend, or at any rate modify, the nature of our war aims. Russia stands as a question mark, both in regard to the foreign policy' which she intends, or maj' be led, to pursue, and in regard to her ovTi internal stability. There maj' be further movements beyond the movement which has plunged her among the snows and ice of Finland. There may also be internal cracks which vdll have external reverberations. Italy meanwhile stands in a prepared state of non-belligerencj>^. There has seldom been a new j’^ear of which it was less possible to foresee the end. All that can safelj* be said is that war is a fire which is apt to spread. But perhaps, to-day, a contrarj'- thing can also safeh^ be said. The aversion of the masses in all countries from war is greater than it has ever been. A new factor in Europe, which may be of vast importance for its futme a factor which vivddly appeared, like a flash of lightning, at the end of Sept. 1938 is the popular passion for peace and

—

—

—

—

the popular feeling for the peace-maker. The tendencj”^ of the fire of war to spread may be met and turned back bj'

a new tendency' of general feeling among the masses. That would affect, and verj' vitalfy affect, the war aims of statesmen and governments. And it would affect them in all

countries alike.

Peace Aims.

we

In turning from war aims to peace aims enter the more congenial field o^ construction. It is,

however, a misty

field. The temper in which we shall find ourselves at the end of the war vdll largelj'^ determine our construction. But we do not know what it will be : we

onfy know the temper in which we find ourselves now. Similarly the materials with which we have to build \vill Jargefy determine u*at ue build. But we only know the materials which lie to our hands at present we do not know what they will be in the peace j'ear. (a) So far as the method of negotiating peace is concerned :

—

WAR AND PEACE

22

—and that question

of

—

method and procedure

is

the

first

question which arises our present temper, based on the experience of the last trventy years, is a temper averse from any idea of an imposed or dictated peace, even in the event of an absolute victory. An imposed peace might be we feel that it just and right in its actual provisions :

—and fundamentally wrong

would be none the less wrong in the method of its making.

own

France and Britain, in their

internal sj'stems, stand for the

method

of free discus-

the essential method of democracy. They will naturally and logically carry that method into the but they will also naturally and negotiation of peace logically claim, if they are the victorious side, and if they are thus " in a majority ”, that the other side should do

which

sion,

is

;

homage to the

and should recognize that, if there is to be give and take, it will have to do a good deal of the giving. But the general principle of the allied cause will involve something more than the inclusion of Germany as a partner in the negotiation of peace. It will involve the inclusion of other states which are not now belligerent, and may never be belligerent during the course " lATiat touches all should be approved by of the war. all.” All who are touched and concerned by the terms of peace should be drawn into the negotiation of peace. Non-belligerent powers including (it is conceivable) powers which have no " temporal ” power may aid and strengthen counsel. No aid which would help to secure a genuine and lasting agreement can be refused. its

majority-principle,

—

—

Perhaps the detailed terms of peace are a matter of fundamental importance than the method (which also

(6)

less

AIMS

are themselves a fixed quantity, which stands bevond negotiation and compromise. But whether there should be again a state which is called Czecho-Slovak, or whether

the new state should be Czech and what, in either event, should be its boundarifes, are questions which can be assigned to the area of discussion. The future of Austria raises questions somewhat different from those raised by the future of the Polish and Czech peoples. It is not clear that Austria is the home of a separate people in the same sort of sense as Poland and Bohemia are the homes of separate peoples. What is clear is that the inhabitants of Austria should be given the right of declaring, freely and independently, what it is that they want to be ^rvhat sort of state thej' wish to form, or into what sort of state they desire to enter and upon what conditions. It cannot be justly said that their case has hitherto been treated on its own merits. It has been treated almost exclusively not in itself, but in relation to the general balance and system of Europe. No state can be considered without some regard to that system but it has been the misfortune of Austria that she has been considered, from one side and the other, with an almost total regard to factors outside herself. In the making of a new treaty that error should be corrected, and Austria should have the liberty of declaring for herself, what it is that she herself desires. These are some of the main matters which belong to the sphere of the detailed terms of peace. They are not likely but, at the present time, they are to be the only matters what we regard as the crucial matters. For ourselves, and

—

;

;

no question of territorial aggrandizeFor Germany, so far as we are concerned, there is

involves the spirit) of the negotiation of peace. But there are matters which belong to the sphere of detailed terms

for our ally, there is

that are cardinal so cardinal that, whatever the method and the spirit of negotiation, they must be secured in any treaty of settlement. Foremost among them is the matter of the restoration of national liberty wherever it has been destroyed or diminished to a shadow, “We desire”, as the foreign secretary stated in a speech of Dec. 5, 1939, " that peoples that have been deprived of their independence should recover their liberties.” In the same sense Pius XII, speaking on Christmas Eve, laid donm as the first postulate for a just and honourable peace that all nations, great and small, strong and weak, have a right to life and independence, and that when this equality of rights has been destroyed or damaged or imperilled, the juridical order calls for reparation based on justice. The general principle is clear. It involves the restoration of the liberties of the Polish and Czech peoples it involves the free determination by Austria of her own future. But the details of the application of the general principle must be left to negotiation, and the give and take of negotiation and they must involve that element of compromise and that attempt to find a via media which is inherent in

no question

—

:

;

The Poland to be restored is not necessarily Poland as it stood on Aug. 3T, 1939. The old boundaries will have to be redrawn here, it may be extended, and there, again, retrenched. Whether a plebiscite should be taken and, if so, in what areas and under what auspices, will bo a matter to be settled in the negotiations w'hich negotiation.

—

precede the treaty. The essential thing is that the Polish people should recov'er its liberties the thing which is open to negotiation is the demarcation of the frontiers of the Polish State, whether that demarcation is wholly settled in the treaty itself or is partly left to be settled subsequently by the method of plebiscite. The same may be said of the restoration of the liberties of the Czech people. They ;

ment.

of territorial diminution, except such as is involved in the recovery of their liberties by peoples which have been temporarily brought under the domination of Germany. WTiether the colonial question, and especially the question of African colonies, is likely to be raised in the negotiation of peace is an issue which depends on the arbitrament of the future. It has not hitherto been

No statement of peace aims has hitherto directly raised. included any specific objects in this field. The general question may be raised at the council table round which the terms of peace are negotiated. If it is raised, its soluIt will depend tion will depend on other and larger issues. on whether a new Germany has arisen, and whether that new Germany is included in some new system of Europe. in (c) Here we come to the third main problem involved any attempt to state peace aims. Over and above the problem of the method of negotiating peace, and over and above the problem of the detailed terms of peace, there is the problem of the fixing of the general scheme or system of relations which is to be maintained after peace has been negotiated and its detailed terms have been settled. The three problems are of course intenvoven. The method of negotiating peace, and the detailed terms of peace, "ill affect, as they will also be affected by, the general scheme or system of relations which statesmen propose to fix. It is only in an analysis that the problems can be separated. Federalism. The general movement of thought, in regard to a new scheme or system of relations between the states of Europe, has lately been moving in a direction which may be called federal. JI. Daladier. in a speech delivered before the French Senate on Dec. 29, iplbreferred to a possible federal organization in the future British statesmen have not between European states. yet made so specific a reference. But the British prime

WAR AND PEACE minister,

in his broadcast speech of

Nov.

26,

vent a

considerable distance in the same direction. He did not speak of a federal European organization. But he defined

the main British peace aim as being the establishment of " a new Europe.” In that new Europe, he said, thinking

immediately of the terms of the peace to be made at the end of the war, “ such adjustments of boundaries as would be necessary would be thrashed out beBveen neighbours sitting on equal terms around a table ivith the help of disinterested third parties if it were so desired." In that new Europe, he added, looking farther into the future, there must for the sake of lasting peace be a full and in constant flow of trade between the nations concerned it, each nation must choose its own form of internal government in it, armaments would be gradually dropped, except in so far as they were needed for internal order. He went still farther. He argued that the establishment of such a new Europe would be a continuous process stretching over many years, and would need some organs capable of conducting its development. He did not specify the- machinery which would be necessary', nor did but he concluded by expressing he use the word federal his hope that a pew Germany, animated by a new spirit, might take part in the operations of such machinery. The door stands open for a policy of the gradual intro;

:

;

—

duction of some federal organization in Europe the policy sketched by Briand before the Assembly of the League of Nations in Sept. 1929. The door was not closed, though a just caution was expressed, in the speech which the foreign secretary’'. Lord Halifax, made in the House of

Lords on Dec.

5.

Any

federal

organization,

however

obviously require some measure of resignation of national sovereignty some witing of a minus against the plenitude of such sovereignty. Lord Halifax spoke of the idea that nations should surrender in some measure their national rights in order to clear the way for a more organic unit. He said that he did not know that he would go quite so far. He urged the rdew that no paper plans would endure which did not freely spring from the will of peoples. He argued that it was the economic side of

tentative,

"will

—

international collaboration which needed emphasis

and

but he also admitted that, from working together on concrete problems in finance and trade, closer political understanding might spring and develop. Here there arises an issue which arose, in much the same form, when Briand sketched his policy ten years ago. Should the union of Europe proceed on economic lines, and take the form of a European Customs Union, as the followers of Stresemann were inclined to believe ? Or should economic considerations be subordinated to politics, as Briand believed, and should some form of political union first be attempted ? Perhaps the divergence is not as great as it may prima facie appear. Any union of Europe which may follow the war, and be attempted (at any rate thought

;

some tentative form) during the negotiation of peace, have been preceded, and indeed is already being actually preceded, by measures of union measures of a federal character ^which have been adopted in connexion

in

will

—

—

with the prosecution of war. War measures may bear peace fruits. In the war measures already adopted in the interests of union, there has been no divergence of opinion about the priority of economic or political measures. Indeed there has been no question of priority both sets of measures have been adopted simultaneously. We may notice three sets of measures which have been adopted. The first has been the establishment, by France and Great ;

AIMS

23

Britain, of a common foreign policy. The second has been the establishment of a Supreme War Council, representing both countries, to direct the military’- forces of both. The third has been the establishment of an Anglo-French co-ordinating committee to gather together the financial and economic resources of both countries. These measures, touching as they do the three matters which lie at the root of any federal sj'stem, constitute the germs of a nascent federation. They are measures which are at once political and economic. If they are confined, for the time being, to France and Great Britain, that is the result of the immediate exigencies of war. The}'^ hav'e the potentialities of something more. They can develop into a magnet around which other countries may cluster. In any case the federal idea is entering, in one form or another, into the peace aims of France and Britain indeed it has even entered (perhaps by imitation) into statements of German peace aims. But the idea of federalism is not the only general idea which bears on the fixing of the scheme or system of relations in the new Europe which has to be constituted at the end of the war. Perhaps, indeed, it has the merit of being able to include, or carrr’, other ideas which, it is generalh' felt, must also enter into the fixing of that scheme ideas such as disarmament, or again the reduction of economic barriers and a movement towards the freedom of European trade. But some of these other ideas have such importance that they must also be considered in themselves. Other Considerations. Disarmament comes first among these ideas. The gradual dropping of armaments, except in so far as they are needed for internal order, has been declared by Mr. Chamberlain to be a cardinal article of a new European system. It was equally emphasized, as the second of his postulates for peace, by Pius XII in his address of Christmas Eve. The words which he used have been echoed by general opinion on the French and British side. He spoke of the danger that material forces ma}' become not the defender, but the tjTannical \dolator, of right he urged that peace must be founded upon disarmament, mutually accepted, organic and progressive, both in the practical and the spiritual order of things. A second idea concerns the provision of machinery both ;

—

:

for the just interpretation

and

for the equitable revision

of treaties, and especially of the treaty which must be concluded at the end of the present w^ar. fixed treaty

A

system, as

we have learned from the experience

of the last

twenty years, does not remain fixed. It onlj’- leads, if there is no adequate machinery for revision as well as for interpretation, to unilateral infringements. Here is matter for the reform of the League of Nations (which a federal organization between states in Europe would make no less necessaty, but perhaps even more necessary) ^for the strengthening of the Permanent Court of International Justice, and for the institution of a new " equity ” court which would be competent to consider requests for the

—

revision of treaty arrangements.

Here, too, enters the “ the constitution of juridical institutions which may seem to ensure the loyal and faithful application of agreements, and, when the need

third of Pius XII’s postulates for peace

is

recognized, to revise

—

and correct them.”

A third idea concerns the proper protection of minorities, and particularty of the great international minority of the Jews. That protection is a general problem ; but obviously it is a problem nowhere more ethnical or religious,

urgent than it is in regard to the Jews. IMinorities are bound to appear before the council table round which the

WAR FINANCE

24

savings

may

be at a maximum, the government taking

these savings either as taxation or as loans for the prosecution of the war. In Germany, for example, the production of capital goods since 1934 has increased by too per cent while the output of consumption goods has increased only fifteen per cent.

All reserves of labour and plant have been and the savings of the people

utilized in re-arming the State,

have been used for financing the huge expenditure on rearmament which Hitler in 1939 put at Rm. 90 milliards or about £6,000 millions since he came into power. Great Britain. War was declared on Sept. 3, and the first war budget was presented to the House of Commons on Sept. 27, 1939. Faced with the necessity of planning for a three years’ war which must involve great and increasing expenditure. Sir John Simon, chancellor of the exchequer, had recourse to heavy increases both in direct and indirect taxation. The direct taxpayer will pay £76,500,000 more in 1939-40, and £160,000,000 in 1940-41, mainly through an increase in the standard rate of income-tax. Indirect taxation will bring in £30,650,000 more in 1939-40, and £66,500,000 in 1940-41 on all alcoholic drinks, tobacco and sugar. This will be supplemented by an excess profits tax at the rate of sixty per cent on excess profits which is based on the principle of the armaments profits duty, but not The excess profits tax restricted to armament firms. cannot at present be estimated, and a tax on the increase of individual fortunes during the period of the war cannot Emerbe estimated until after the war. [See Budget gency Legislation Income-Tax for details.) ;

;

Fox

Photos\

A NATIONAL SAVINGS SHOP HAS BEEN OPENED AT MARGATE; THE MAYOR IS SEEN SELLING SAVINGS CERTIFICATES

new

treaty will be

made

:

in particular,

we may expect

the Jews of Europe (and not only of Europe) to put their Our peace aims are bound to include some new attempt in the settlement of the problem of minorities. Covered by the dust of war ourselves, we cannot yet clearly see all that is emerging. But we can accept, even if we have not yet stated, the fourth of the Pope’s postulates for peace that " attention must be paid to the true needs and just demands of the nations and peoples, and of the ethnical minorities”, and that these demands must receive our friendly examination, so that they may be met in a peaceful manner. This is where, so far as it is possible to see, we stand at the beginning of 1940. But the year has its movements to come and its new lessons to teach. (E. Ba case.

—

WAR

FINANCE.

)

Governments in war have to spend money which must be raised by taxation

amounts of and loans if inflation is to be avoided. By inflation is meant an increase in the general level of prices arising out of an increase in expenditures while goods available for purchase are not correspondingly increased in amount. The problems of war finance are centred round (i) those of expenditure, mainly the avoidance of waste, (2) the reduction of consumption so that saving is maximized, (3) problems of taxation, and (4) the raising of loans. As the war proceeds the economy of the belligerents turns from an uncontrolled to a controlled economy, vast expenditures take place on capital goods such as armaments, machinery, and shipping, and to a less extent on consumption goods such as food, clothing and petrol. A nation at war has to limit its consumption per head in order that goods required for the na\w, army and air

large

force

may be

available without difficu]t3' and, in order that

The total expenditure is estimated at £i,933 millions, and this will be met to the extent of £995 millions from revenue, and £938 millions from loans. The estimate of £995 millions is based on the April estimates plus additional taxation, less a reduction of about £54 millions in yield in the original estimates. The detailed figures of expenditure

and revenue are given in the article Budget. The changes in income-tax and sur-tax for a married man with three children, with an earned income at the 1940-41 on an income of £800, at the rate work out as follows rate of 2s. 5 W. in the £ on an income of £1,500 at the rate of 4s. 3(f. and on £2,000, at 5s. o\d. A standard rate :

;

;

converted into a graduated scale by a series of allowances at one end and by sur-tax at the other does not fit in verj' logically with the capacity to pay, and it is not unlikely that a new method of assessment may be introduced m the near future. The rates of estate duty are also increased. The chancellor of the exchequer has not repeated the mistake of taxing too little and borrowing too much at the outset of the war. He is, in a year which includes six months of war, raising by taxation nearly £400 millions more than was raised during 1917-18. The figures of 1939 are in striking contrast with those of 1914. There was national debt then of £650 millions while to-day it is not In 1914, pre-war expenditure, far short of £8,000 millions. apart from defence expenditure, was about £15*^ millions

about £690 millions. of a national committee on expenditure, referred to below, will be in the direction of preventing waste. Apart from this there are now anti-waste officers The in the ministry of supply and in the air ministry^. treasury has sent an economy circular to all departments, and it is intended by the war cabinet to prune services not The budget, too, is essential to the winning of the war. the proper instrument for bringing about the curtailment It is sometimes forgotten how expensive of consumption. the waging of war is. Already in Nov. J939, it was costing while to-day

it is

The appointment

WAR FINANCE Great Britain £6,000,000 a day as compared with £1,500,000 a day in 1914-15, £4,274,000 in 1915-16, £6,022,000 in 1916-17 and £7,389,000 in 1917-1S. As the present war continues, the cost mil mount up considerably. A modem aeroplane costs from three to seven times as much as a comparable type in igi8 a division of troops in the field costs nearly twice as much to equip and maintain in the the cost of a battleship is field as it did in the last war now two or three times as great as it was when the navy was last engaged. In the last war the British parliament sanctioned between Aug. 6, 1914, and Nov. 25, 1918, votes of credit to the extent of £8,742 millions, and the rvar cost Great Britain over £10,000 millions, while if allowances were made for the expenditure of the Dominions, the total ;

;

would be well over this amount. The gross national income in the j^ear 1918 can be put at £5,500 millions. The expenditure in that calendar year was £2,700 millions of which all but £200 millions can be regarded as the cost of the war. In short, about fifty per cent of the national income of the community was devoted to war purposes. At the end of 1939 the national income is at the rate of nearly £5,800 millions or £6,000 millions. In %'iew of the present rapid price changes and the great

upheaval in employment and profits, there is onty a rate of national income at the present time in, say, a particular month. '\\'hen there is no such thing as unemployment, which should vanish in the autumn of 1941, and when Great Britain reaches her maximum productive war effort, the gross national income, without any change in the value of money, should be something of the order of £7,000 millions. If we apply the same proportion as in igi8 the resulting total expenditure should be about £3,500 millions. Owing to the very great changes in productive capacity per worker, the proportion of the national income which could be afforded for war now would be much greater and without depressing the standard of consumption belorv that of 1918 it might be sixty per cent of the national income, £350 millions a month, or £4,200 millions a year. Until total national expenditure has reached some figure such as this. Great Britain will not be making her maximum national effort.

The time is approaching when existing British taxes will have passed their ma.ximum yield, and it will be necessary to look round for new sources of revenue. In the first place. Great Britain has not tried new kinds of taxation which have been successful in other countries, notably the sales-tax. Secondly the taxation of incomes on or below £i5o-£20o per annum is still light. There is no direct taxation of wages for example in the lower ranges of income as in Germany. As taxation stands to-day, there is a risk of undermining that great professional and services class which is rightly described as the backbone of this country.

About two-thirds of the national consumption of Great is by people below the income-ta.x level, and if more

Britain

money

finds its

way

into the purses of the rvage earners in

need to withdraw some of it from the market of consumable goods. The prospect of the government’s borrowing policy cannot yet be estimated -with accuracy, as it has not yet (Jan. The chancellor of the exchequer 1940) been made public. has stated that he rvill borrow as cheaply as possible and it is unlikely that he -will pay the high rates rvhich were paid in the last rvar. He has already rvisely decided to tap the small saver before announcing his larger loans, and in this at the end of 1939 had met rvith remarkable success. A w'artime, there is

new

25

issue of savings certificates with a currency of ten

years,

combined with defence bonds carrying a three per cent

rate of interest to be issued at par and repayable seven years from the date of purchase at a premium of £i per

cent were admirably adapted to appeal to the tw'O classes of investors, the wage-earners and the lower ranges of income-tax payers w'hose abstinence from consumption is so essential at the present time. The yield on savings certificates is £3 3s. 5tf. per annum free of income-tax for the whole period of ten years, as compared with £2 i8s. qff. on the present series, an increase of lod. The jield on defence bonds is £3 2s. ’]d. per annum including the premium The £500 of £i on redemption at the end of seven years. limit on individual holdings of certificates has been retained no individual will be allow’ed to hold more than £1,000 of the new^ bonds. The terms offered to the small saver are generous. It requires only organization up and ;

dowm the countryside, throughout towns and villages, in shops and industries, by means of a roaring, tearing propaganda to make these loans a great

success.

be seen that British public finance since the outbreak of war rightl}'^ commands the confidence reposed in The budget, as it has it both in Great Britain and abroad. not been in Germany since 1934, has been presented yeax in and year out. The balance between taxation and loans has been followed and borrowing has been kept within bounds. The chancellor of the exchequer has not hesitated It will

to increase taxation w’herever necessar3^

liloreover the

importance of public expenditure has not been overlooked. In December, a select committee on national expenditure,

members of the House of Commons, was appointed. The function of the select committee is to see that the nation is obtaining full value for its vast war expenditure and that there is no w'aste. The terms of reference exclude of 28

expenditure on social services from the scope of the enquirjn There was a similar select committee appointed during the That select committee delelast w'ar, but not till 1917. gated much of its work to sub-committees w’hich sat in the spending departments and it is understood that it saved many millions of pounds. Australia. In presenting the budget to the Commonwealth parliament on Sept. 8, 1939, the Rt. Hon. R. G. Menzies, prime minister and treasurer of Australia, estimated revenue for the year 1939-40, based on 1938-39 rates of ta.xation, at £96,030,000, and expenditure at £101,916,000. To meet the deficit of £5,886,000 incometax was increased bj' ten per cent on the incomes of individuals derived from personal e.xertion or property. The company-tax was raised to is. y- 8 d. in the £, and tax rebate in respect of dhddends received by absentee holding companies w'as abolished. These three proposals were estimated to produce increased direct taxation of £2,360,000. The rate of the sales-tax, leaving the exemptions as they stand, was increased from five per cent to six per cent and the method of calculating the sale value in respect of imported goods was altered. The total additional revenue thus from the sales-tax is estimated at £1,142,000. By certain increases in customs and excise duties £2,130,000 was to be raised. By these new proposals a sum of £5,910,000 was budgeted for. The prime minister said that of the defence expenditure something over £12,000,000 was to be taken from the budget, £2,000,000 from balances in the trust fund, and about £19,000,000 from loans. A supplementary’- financial statement was presented in the House of Representatives on Nov. 30, 1939, by the acting treasurer the Hon. P. C. Spender, who declared that

WAR FINANCE

26

the financial policy of the government was to finance the war effort by a balanced programme of taxation, borrowing from the public and borrowing from the banking system. The balance between these three methods would change

from time to time according to economic circumstances, and for the time being the government had decided that the balance would be weighted towards borrowing with the assistance of the banking system, rather than towards taxation. The government was of opinion that to increase taxation again would delay recovery and would interfere with the full prosecution of the war programme. The government would before the close of the financial year transfer the emphasis of its financial policy from borrowing from the banking system as economic recovery got under way, firstly to borrowing from the public and, secondly, to taxation. Part of the borrowing plan would be an issue of savings certificates Early in 1940 the government would bring forw^ard a comprehensive scheme of war taxation. If this were done, and other controls on exchange prices and capital investments maintained, Australia would avoid .

the evils of excessive credit expansion. The outstanding feature of this supplementary budget was the greatly increased estimate for defence and war services.

The

revised

estimate

was

increased

from

137,000 to ;^62, 014,000 of which ;^46,i8i,ooo was provided from the loan fund and included capital war expenditure of ;£i5,583,ooo and pre-war capital defence work ;^33.

The total estimated expenditure from revenue The estimated total receipts for the year were ;fioi,49o,ooo. Under the budget and supplementary measures, new taxation amounting to ^8,150,000 /20, 383,000.

was

;£ioi, 452,000.

to be levied during the present financial year. This includes the raising of the rate of company-tax to 2$. in the as a result of the supplementary budget. is

Canada. In the first three months of the war, orders to the value of $25,000,000 were placed for military requirements in Canada, $9,000,000 in Britain, and $10,000,000 worth of aeroplanes from the United States had been purchased. This was in addition to the $25,000,000 of railway

equipment required under the emergency conditions. The minister of finance, the Hon. A. L. Ralston, estimated at the end of November that the programme for the first year of war would cost the Dominion $315,000,000. Canada’s contribution in the first phase of the war has been mainly economic the provision for a steady flow of munitions, aeroplanes, food and supplies. For the year ended March 31, 1939, the revenue was $502,000,000 and the expenditure $557,000,000. In introducing the war budget on Sept. 12, 1939, the acting finance minister, the Hon. J. L. Ilsley, estimated the expenditure at $651,000,000 as compared with a total expenditure estimated last April of $550,000,000, and deducting the total revenue of $495,000,000 he arrived at an anticipated In order to meet this increased deficit of $156,000,000. e.xpenditure, the Canadian House of Commons passed legislation increasing import duties on wines, spirits, tea and coffee. It also passed an act to amend the Special War Revenue Act by which excise taxes were similarly increased. In addition to this the Canadian House of Commons also passed an Excess Profits Act and legislation increasing the income-tax both of individuals and of corporations. The excess profits tax was to prevent profits rising to high levels. The schedule of rates ranged from 10 per cent on profits in excess of 5 per cent but not exceeding 10 per cent of the capital employed, to 60 per cent on profits exceeding 25 per cent of the capital. The amended

—

income war tax provided for a war sur-tax of 20 per cent on individual incomes other than corporations. The corporation income-tax was raised from 15 to 18 per cent on the net income of corporations regardless of whether they came under the excess profits tax or not. In the case of corporations issuing consolidated accounts, the incometax was raised to 20 per cent. It is interesting to note there was no increase in the sales-tax, but the base of this tax was broadened by removing from the schedule of exemptions electricity and gas used for domestic purposes, salt and smoked meats, and canned fish. An act was also passed creating a department of munitions and supply. None of the self-governing Dominions has shown greater determination and greater courage in regard to its war finance than has the Dominion of Canada, and the greatest emphasis has been laid on the production of munitions in

destroying the menace of Hitlerism. Sir Wilfrid Laurier used to say that the nineteenth century^ was America’s, but the twentieth would be Canada’s. If the present war is a long one, it may well transform Canada into the industrial

and

financial citadel of the Empire.

New

Zealand. The New Zealand budget for the year 1939-40 presented by the Rt. Hon. M. J. Savage, acting minister of finance, on Aug. i, 1939, budgeted for a revenue of ;^38,26 o,ooo, and an expenditure of ^38,243,000. On Sept. 26 the Hon. W. Nash, minister of finance, brought forward a supplementary budget to raise ^9,750,000 which will be required to finance war activities for the remainder

A

substantial portion of this sum is following taxation increases 33} per cent on death duties, ^d. per gallon on beer, 15 per cent on wines and spirits, 25 per cent on tobacco, and a gold tax of 75 per cent of the difference between the prices on Aug. 24 and the date of sale, and also a surcharge of id. of the financial year.

to be obtained

by the

:

on all letters. The total of ;£9, 750,000 will be applied to expenditure in New Zealand only. The finance minister estimated that about ;^2o,ooo,ooo would be needed for the In first year of the war, and probably equal sums later. addition, all New Zealand produce available for export is to be sold to the British government. This shows the great war effort of the Dominion, with only a million and a half people, and an average annual governmental expenditure on revenue account of only £2ji millions. Union of South Africa. In the budget put forward in March 1939 by Mr. Havenga, the then minister of finance, for the year ending March 31, 1940, revenue was estimated Mr. at ;f44, 110,000 and expenditure at ^44,860,000.

Havenga referred to the cost of South Africa’s “ huge programme of armaments”. South Africa is not merely guarding, in co-operation with the British naval station at Simonstown, one of the Empire’s most important sea routes, but is pledged to assist any of her British neighbours ^the Rhodesias, Kenya, and Tanin South-East Africa ganyika ^rvhich may be threatened. The amount earmarked on the estimates for defence expenditure from

—

—

revenue funds during the year is £2,237,620, and, in addition, the intention is to spend certain sums from loan funds in accordance with' the /6,ooo,ooo development scheme outlined in 1938. In addition to this the government has decided to contribute £300,000 from revenue funds. The minister also announced that £1,300,000 would be appropriated from loan funds for defence purposes, and that the bulk of the 1938-39 surplus of ;^i, 650,000 would also be devoted to defence purposes. Mr. J. H. Hofmeyr, the new minister of finance, pointed out on Oct. 25, 1939, that the effect of the war on the

;

WAR FINANCE economic system was to provide a stimulus for increases in National prices, profits, interest rates, and so forth. interests, however, required that the greatest possible economic stability should be maintained. The Union was very favourably placed because of its strong financial The Reserve Bank held £112 in gold for every position. /loo which it owed to the public, including many deposits with it by other banks. He announced that in addition to the programme of capital expenditure begun before the war there would be the growing commitments for defence. This was, he said, not a time to borrow money in London, nor to cut down capital expenditure nor yet to substantially increase taxation. The fixing of the price of gold at a figure below the price in the open market allowed the government a sufficient margin of profit, and was the soundest policy for meeting expenditure. The Union of South Africa produces one-third of the world’s gold production, and during the calendar year 1939, the Transvaal output was 12,819,344 fine oz. against the previous record of 12,156,629 fine oz. in 1938. The value of so important a supply of gold adds greatly to the war potential of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

France.

War

finance in France goes back in reality by France's able finance minister,

to the steps taken

M. Reynaud.

The economic and

financial decrees

were

They published in the Journal Officiel of April 22, 1939. rearmament, finance and fell naturally into three groups labour, and it is with the first and second of these that we

—

are

now

concerned.

The increased rearmament expenditure during the current year (1939) under these decrees was about Fr, 15 milliards (;^83 million) over and above the amount allocated in the budgets for that year. The war ministry estimate was increased by £25 million, the navy estimate by £2'] million, and the air estimate by £^0 million. The financial decree dealt with income-tax evasion, turnover tax, death duties on farm properties, public works expenditure and with the investing of capital. The scope of the financial decrees is briefly as follows Taxable income is assessed on the visible expenditure of taxpayers where necessary in order to cope with evasion. There is no right of appeal. National defence industries have their profits limited to 30 per cent. A special tax rising progressively from 50 per cent to 100 per cent is to be paid on all profits exceeding 6 per cent. A special armaments-tax of i per cent on all payments, excluding payments for the purchase of bread, milk and newspapers, is to be paid by all dealers, factors, middlemen and shopkeepers, including importers and co-operative societies. To compensate for this the tax on business and professional premises is reduced by 20 per cent. Farms not exceeding Fr. 100,000 [£(>00) are exempted from death duties, and for those not exceeding Fr. 200,000 (;^i,20o) death duties are reduced by half. Public works expenditure, including road maintenance, is reduced by about 1,500 million francs (;£8, 500,000) during the current year. The state and the various boards dependent on it are forbidden to invest public moneys in any private enterprises. profits of the national defence industries, the

;

Existing shareholdings in trade and industry, rvith certain exceptions, are to be sold and the proceeds used for the amortization of the national debt. The public services under the labour decrees were pruned, the men dismissed being offered alternative employment or compensation. The length of the working week was raised to 45 hours, at the rate of 5 per cent above normal rates of pay. On Nov. 17, a special war-tax of 15 per cent was Ie\ded,

27

retrospective from Nov.

r,

on the incomes of

all

men,

rvith

certain exceptions, of military age (20-49) not serving with the forces, police, merchant marine or in certain zones of

The first 7,000 francs of the annual infleet. exempt and the sum exempted rises by 1,000 francs for each child up to and including the fifth. A general war-tax on all incomes of 5 per cent was levied from Jan. i,

the fishing

come

is

1940, in place of the previous 2 per cent tax. In the budget for 1940 passed on Dec. 28,

M. Reynaud

separated the civil from the military expenditure. The entire civil expenditure, amounting to 79-9 milliards francs (about £450,000,000), is collected together rvithin the present budget. The revenue, slightly more than the expenditure, is obtained from taxation. All militarj'^ expenditure is met exclusively from the proceeds of treasurj^ bonds or loans to be issued later. There is a check on the expansion of civil expenditure since any increase would have to be met by further taxation. Allowances to families of mobilized men, estimated at over 14 milliards francs The Chamber (£79,800,000) are -included in the budget. also voted extraordinary war credits amounting to 259 The milliards francs (£1,476,000,000) for the current year. total expenditure in 1940 will thus be of the order of 340 milliards francs (approximately £1,926,000,000). France has huge reserves of which only a part is represented by her stocks of gold, and there is plenty of money on the market. M. Reynaud announced that 25 milliards have been repatriated since the beginning of the war, and that xo milliards of gold or foreign currencies have been converted into francs. These sums, added to 26 milliards francs repatriated during the ten months preceding September give a total of 60 milliards of francs, excluding repatriated foreign stocks or debentures. The reasons of the return of gold in such large quantities are that with the exchange control applied last September, the exchange office and the treasury required information of all assets placed abroad by private persons and companies. The two declarations made it almost impossible to conceal holdings abroad, and these had, therefore, either to be brought back to France, or kept in the form of foreign exchange and made known to the revenue authorities. On Dec. 13, 1939, a comprehensive agreement between the British and French treasuries was announced. Both governments undertake to avoid during the war any alteration in the rate of exchange to enable each other to cover their requirements in the other’s currency to use that currency without having to find gold not to raise any foreign loan or credit except in agreement or jointly with the other government not to impose fresh restrictions on the imports from the other country during the weir for protective purposes or for exchange risks. The two governments will share certam items of expenditure, such as financial assistance to Poland and other countries. In general the French contribution will be forty per cent and the United Kingdom contribution sixty per cent of the total. There rrill be also frequent meetings between the two treasuries to settle technical questions and to examine more general problems. The agreement remains in force until six months after the signature of the treaty of peace. Germany. In the Third Reich no budget has been pub:

;

;

;

lished since 1934, and it is therefore difficult to examine German financial structure in detail. The outstanding

the

came into power in 1933 is the huge expenon rearmament, which Hitler himself just before the invasion of Poland estimated at 90 milliards of marks fact since Hitler

diture

(£6,000 million).

Since this has been achieved in the space

28

WAR POTENTIAL OF LEADING EUROPEAN

and more especially since 1937, it is important what sources the costs were met. It was not difficult during the first few years when taxes were low, and many millions unemployed, to turn over to a controlled economy. By 1937, i’^ii employment was already in existence, and there were signs of strain in the financial strucRising government expenditure year after year ture. exceeded revenue by many millions of marks. During the first few years of the Nazi regime, when the government income was low and the capital market drained of funds, the government relied primarily on short term borrowing. Contractors were permitted to draw bills against the government or its agencies, and these bills were discounted by banks which in turn could present them for re-discount with the Reichsbank. The bills were like commercial bills, except that their maturity date could be extended from time to time. They tended to inflate the circulation, but the government considered such an inflation safe so long as it was accompanied by a corresponding increase in production and employment and prices were kept under control. In the spring of 1939 tax-anticipation certificates were introduced. This plan was in fact a forced loan by the state. Under it, the government, the municipalities, the defence department, the state railways and the post office, paid cash only for sixty per cent of their supplies, and the remaining forty per cent was paid in taxation credit certificates contractors were authorized to adopt the same method in paying sub-contractors. The new finance plan never won the confidence of the public, and when the value of the certificates fell to 94 per cent of their face value, the scheme was dropped from Nov. i. The chief aim of the plan was to prevent a dangerous increase in the note circulation and its failure may be regarded as a covert admission that the efforts to avoid the normal effects of inflation have failed. The banks were already holding delivery certificates, and, of six years,

to examine from

;

with the additional tax certificates their liquid position suffered further deterioration. Since the declaration of war, the fighting forces have been empowered to meet their expenditure by issuing special bills called Wehrmachisverpflichtungsscheine, which are discounted by the banks. These bills are for not less than Rm. 10,000 and are mainly used for financing war industries. They are not re-discountable, nor can they be used as collateral for loans. They have been devised to avoid inflation, like their predecessors, but it is doubtful whether they will be any more successful because they will swell the non-liquid holdings of the banks, while the more liquid assets rvill be brought quickly to the Reichsbank for re-discounting. The amount of this secret borrowing cannot be estimated with any accuracy, but in the five years ended March 31, 1938, it -must have been at least of the order of Rm. 15 milliards. Side by side with this short-term borrowing, the Reich has been able to vote a large number of medium and longterm loans. From 1935 1938 inclusive, such loans amounted to 15-6 milliard marks. Public borrowing was greatly facilitated by the practical monopoly of the capital market by the government. Only a few private issues have been permitted. This public debt in Dec. 1939 had reached the level of Rm. 35,550,000,000 (approx. /3,ooo m.).

Rm.

During August and September

2,720,000,000 (£226,600,000).

it

increased

by

Savings in unemploy-

ment relief due to full employment, in the five years ended March 31, 1938, amounted to Rm. 7-4 milliards. To-day Germany is the heaviest taxed country in the world. The National Industrial Conference Board of New York has recently shown that taxation per head in Germany

COUNTRIES

was lowest in 1913 and highest in 1938, despite the comparatively slight increase in her public debt. The propor-

by the government by taxation was also highest in Germany. The collection of taxes has recently been made stricter, and the rates are much higher especially since war broke out. The incometax on all incomes over Rm. 2,400 (approx. £150) a year, already severe, has been increased by 50 per cent, and special taxes of 20 per cent on the retail prices were imposed over and above the existing duties on luxuries including beer and tobacco. It is interesting to compare the taxation of the lower incomes in Germany with those in Great Britain. In Great Britain, on an income of £250, an unmarried man pays £ii 13s. od. a married man (without children) £2 6 s. od. In Germany he would pay, respectively, £44 2s. od. plus 50 per cent and £24 los. od. plus 50 per cent and if married over five years and still without children £34 6s. od. plus 50 per cent. It is understood that new war-taxes and measures for special saving in war-time are to be applied early in 1940. The proceeds will help to defray the cost of the war, which is estimated at Rm. 50,000,000,000 a year as compared with Rm. 35,000,000 a year in the last war. War costs have risen all round, and are not confined to munitions. The tion of national income appropriated

;

to-day ho soldier in 1914 got 35 marks a month marks in which are included family allowances. large expenditure on armaments, which is approxi-

German

;

gets 170

The

times greater than that of the United Kingdom been paid for by keeping down consumption to the somewhat low level of 1932-33 and by sweeping away into the Reich’s coffers by means of a rigid control of capital qnd industry the savings of the people. Prices and wages

mately

five

since 1934,

have been ruthlessly clamped down, and in October were forced back to the level of 1936, although subsequently there has been some modification so that the monetary burden which was being laid disproportionately on the working classes will to some extent be improved. There are signs that the German financial machine is bearing an enormous strain inflation in the note circulation of the Reichsbank which increased 44 per cent in the twelve months previous to the outbreak of war has not passed without comment, although Dr. Funk has stated that the aims in German war finance were, no inflation, no deflation, strict control of prices and wages and the taxing away of war profits. {See also War Potential of Leading ;

European Countries.) Space precludes a discussion of the treatment

of Ger-

many's foreign creditors since the Nazis came into power in Foreigners have lost down to the beginning of 1933 Jan. 1937 Rm. 7-45 milliards. It has been calculated that -

only one-fifth of the contractually established claims for and only one-tenth of the capital were repaid in the way stipulated. The repudiation, or what has amounted to repudiation, began on the standstill front which dealt with the short-term foreign credits. This was followed by a suspension of the full interest in the medium-term loans, and this in turn was followed by a moratorium. A good interest,

•

account of the breach of faith in Nazi Germany’s foreign loans is given in Dr. Nurbert Nuhlen’s book Der Zaitberer Leben wid Anleihen des Dr. Hjalmar Horace Greeley Schacht, first published in 1938 in Switzerland and reccntlj .

translated into English.

WAR

(G. F. S.)

POTENTIAL OF LEADING EUROPEAN

To-day a war is not fought only on land, sea, and air. With the advance of industrialization, the machine and chemical processes have been brought to the

COUNTRIES.

WAR POTENTIAL OF LEADING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 29 have been brought to the worker. It means the co-ordination section of the national life, of every brain and the countty;^. Great wars are no longer decided

just as they

soldier,

To-day a war of everj’-

is

is

much

greater in certain directions,

e.g.

petrol, rubber,

and bau.xite. In some articles there may be a saving as in Germany, which can almost dispense with heavy fuel-

totalitarian.

oil requirements for her 2,328 ships now being driv'en off the seas. The productiv’e power of the country is simply’ shifted from ordinary civilian requirements to war essentials. The quantity of raw materials and food imported depends not only' on the country’s natural resources, but on its abUity' to draw, as can Great Britain, on foreign sources of supply, which in turn depends on means of transport,

nerve in on the battlefield. A country^ at war has to see that it obtains a plentiful supply of war materials as well as of It must reduce to a minimum, energetically and food. speedily, the amount of man-power and materials consumed for purposes other than war, and divert the surplus entirely to producing directly or indirectly the maximum of war effort. A belligerent must, at the same time, keep its industrial production intact so that it can not only produce munitions of war and supplies for the Services, but export goods to pay^ for imports. Otherwise it will have to use up its gold, exchange and foreign investments to pay’' for them. In the following paragraphs it will be necessary to deal

and of payment. The Federal Reserv’e Bulletin of Dec. 1939 contains a careful estimate of the Federal Reserv'e Board of the assets of v'arious belligerent and neutral countries, in forms which can be converted into dollars with reasonable certainty'. The total for the Allies is a minimum figure, being the market value and covering only United States securities.

with the industrial power of the belligerent, its power to produce armaments, chemicals, etc. This alone is only one factor. It must have also a continuous supply of raw

There are, in addition, considerable British holdings of nonAmerican securities which American investors would find attractive ; Canadian industrials, gold mines and rubber companies. The table below giv’es the details The outstanding fact from these figures is the strong position of the Allies relativ'ely to that of Germany. On the other hand, the v’alue of the dollar is lower now than in 1914, and in 1914 the Allies could purchase on credit. Great Britain. Great Britain is a rich creditor country' her navy and merchant marine are decisiv'e factors as in the last war. So long as Great Britain has command of the seas, she has the world to draw on, especially the. British Empire, for food supplies and raw materials. Unlike Germany, she is not forced to squander man-power in the production of ersatz, but can economize by importing finished goods. She is placing in the field 3,500,000 men, excluding the contingents which are arrmng, or hav'e arrived, from the Dominions, India, and other parts of the Empire. If statistics relating to man-power, merchant

especially iron, coal, petrol, rubber, copper, bauxite, lead, and manganese. There are some thirty-four raw materials which are required in war. Germany, for

materials,

:

example, has four of these in sufficient quantities. There are seven she requires to supplement by imports and twenty-three for which she relies completely on imports. Some of these are so bulky that it is not possible in anticipation of hostilities to keep large stocks. It is possible to substitute some of the materials by others, thus copper can to some extent be replaced by aluminium which is

manufactured from bauxite. Some materials are of vital strategic importance, manganese for making steel, and chromium for armour plates and projectiles, stainless steel, and high-speed cutting tools. There are other metals required for hardness and strength tungsten, molybdenum, antimony and vanadium. Mercury too is necessary as a detonator in high explosives and ammunition. Rubber is now of great importance owing to the mechanization of ;

shipping,

petrol,

cotton, wool,

armies.

coal,

iron

ore,

wheat and other

copper,

steel,

rubber,

compiled for the British Empire, France, Germany', Russia, the United States and other countries, it will be seen that neither the AlUes nor Germany can depend on their own supplies.

If we are to judge from the last war, the total national consumption in wartime is not very different from the total peace consumption, although wartime consumption

Holdings of Gold, Dollar Balances and American

Ini^'estments,

articles are

August 1939

($ millions)

Marketable securities

reserves

Dollar balances

(r)

(2)

value)

Gold

(market (

.... ...... ...... ..... ...... ....... ..... ..... .....

United Kingdom France Canada Other British and French Countries

.

Total Allies

2,000 3,000 215

735 185

500

5.755

1.265

10

Italy

190 770 590

10 160 285

U.S.S.R

Other European Countries Latin America Far East and Others Total Neutrals

....

All Foreign Countries

Total

invest-

cols.

1-3

ments

(4 )

3.330 3.500 1,070

540

150

Switzerland

Direct

cols.

540

Germany

Netherlands

3)

Total

1.420

8,440

—

160

(

5)

1,400 1,250

Comparable figs,

5

900 So 560

—

4.230 3.580 1.630

1.540

—

160

120

660 375

2.750 1,090

no

180

5.775

1,630

2,395

8,800

860

9,660

11.680

2,905

2,815

17,400

2,400

19,800

1. 000

I,

15 (gold only)

1.030-1,330

200 380 170

130 40 380

—

1

9.980

430 390 355

1,000 2,190

375

2.765-3.965 1,080-1,280

540

1.780 1,420 1,000 2.870 1,100 1,290

—

for

1914

(6)

200

470

4 and

10

660-860 .

8,100-10,100

30

WAR POTENTIAL OF LEADING EUROPEAN

and that only in the production of steel is there substantial The Allies have a much greater output of equality. domestic iron ore and coal, and are able to obtain without much difficulty raw materials necessary for the prosecution their economic strength is overwhelming. of the war ;

In industry Great Britain has considerable reserves, as the country has not been mobilized except during the last a contrast to what three years, and then only partially has been taking place in Germany. During the last fifteen In years, there has been a revolution in British industry. ;

the engineering industry, for example, the physical output per operative in the 1930-35 period has risen as compared in textiles by 37 with 1924 by not less than 52 per cent per cent in public utilities and government departments by 27 per cent, and in agriculture by the same amount. Since 1924, the productivity of employees in factories has ;

;

risen

by the

course,

surprising figure of 25 per cent. It is, of an industry to increase

possible for output in

although the amount of employment which it has given has fallen. If Great Britain hastens to employ its increasingly efficient labour power in raising the national output of goods and services, and to do away with unemployment for the duration of the war, it would have a greater war potential than any other country in the world, with the possible exception of the United States. The national income of Great Britain is somewhat greater than that of Germany, and the per capita income is very much greater. She is therefore able to turn to war production a much greater amount of the national income, goods, and services produced. At the beginning of the war. Great Britain had a gold reserve of the order of ;£50o millions and in addition a considerable amount of foreign exchange and foreign investments. At the end of 1938, according to Sir Robert Kindersley, British capital overseas in quoted securities and unquoted investments amount to ^£3,692 millions.

France, France’s economic war potential is greater to-day than before the World War. As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, the rich industrial region of AlsaceLorraine was restored to her, and in 1929 the output of iron and steel was double that of 1913. Her industrial production, which was slightly over 48 per cent of that of Germany in 1913, was over 66 per cent of that of Germany in 1929. France cannot manufacture munitions to the extent that Germany can, but can increase her output to a considerable extent, provided her industrial areas behind the Maginot Line are kept more or less intact. Secondly, while France is not completely self-sufficient in foodstuffs, the amount of agricultural land available per inhabitant is twice as great as that of Germany in this respect she is much superior to Great Britain which has to import at least two-thirds of her supplies compared with one-fifth in the case of Germany. Apart from food, France is, wth one exception, much on the same level as she was in 1913-14 as regards raw materials. Although she is deficient in coal, her own coal meeting only 60 per cent of her needs, she is now self-sufficient in iron ore, and has a ;

large

surplus for export.

Oil seeds, nickel, chromium, and phosphates, she can obtain from her colonies. So long as Great Britain and she control the seas, she is able to draw on foreign supplies as required. She has a considerable mercantile fleet, and she holds about two and a half times as much gold to-day as at the end of 1913. Germany. Germany since 1936, indeed, since the Nazis came into power in 1933, has produced armaments at a great rate, while consumption goods have not greatly in-

graphite,

COUNTRIES

Before the war, she was suffering from economic it were, in a state of siege since the second four-year plan of 1936. She has been able since the war to import food and raw materials from her eastern neighbours, and from the Baltic. In ordinaiv times she can satisfy 80 per cent of her requirements, including fodder, by home production. She is compelled to import the remaining 20 per cent but this includes some vital imports, among them fats and feeding stuffs, which if not imported will in the long run mean deterioration in the supply of milk and cattle, and this will also detrimentally affect the home food consumption. She creased.

tension,

and had been, as

;

raw materials, notably oil, although with the introduction of the second four-year plan in 1936, she has made a great effort to produce it from coal. The importance of oil in modern warfare is well known. Only 36 per cent of Germany’s total consumption can be produced from domestic raw materials, and she has to depend on Rumania, Russia, and Poland for further supplies, which, however, cannot meet her requirements, especially in warlacks too, important

time,

when she

will require at least ten million tons a year,

as compared with 7,500,000 tons, her consumption in 1938. In the last war, when Lorraine and Silesia were still in

Germany, Germany was 70 per cent

sufficient in iron ore,

but to-day only 25 per cent of her requirements are supplied by German mines, and it is doubtful if the Hermann Goering iron works can raise this above 30 per cent, although some economy might be achieved by the greater use of scrap. Her main source is Sweden. Germany is dependent upon imports for at least 50 per cent of the fats which arc required for munitions as well as for food. Germany’s gold holdings, foreign exchange, and investments abroad are dealt with above. The Reich is in a much less satisfactory position than in 1914. At the outbreak of the last war, Germany was next to Great Britain in the list of creditor countries, rivalling France for second place. She was exporting capital year after year abroad. To-day,

Germany is a debtor country. As a result of the world war, she lost her foreign assets, and to-day her indebtedness to foreign countries is very much greater than her foreign assets. She has to depend on herself, and on her immediate neighbours for supplies of food and raw materials as she has not the command of the seas. She has allowed her industrial plant to depreciate in recent years at a the condition of her railways, and indeed of rapid rate many of her factories, is far from satisfactory. By the middle of 1938, her rolling stock was actually 10 per cent Her strained finances less than at the beginning of 1929. are referred to in the article on war finance. On the other hand, she has great organizing ability, and entered the ''"ar with several years of preparation behind. WehfwirlscJiafl, the science of organizing the country’s life for war has been studied and practised since the last war, and in this respect Germany is far superior to both Great Britain and France. Italy. Italy is relatively poor as compared with Great Italy produces steel, but Britain, France, and Germany. her output is less than one-fifth of Great Britain's. Her output of motor cars, is only 16 per cent of Great Britain she is said to be capable of turning out from 250 to 300 aeroplanes a month. Her home production of foodstuffs m is about 95 per cent of her requirements if expressed She calories, but Italy is very deficient in raw materials. can only supply 19 per cent of her requirements of minerals. She has practically no coal, iron ore, copper, petroleum, or other minerals. Her position in time of war would be ;

.s

,

exceedingly vulnerable in other directions owing to the

—

WELFARE AGENCIES, WAR superior power of the British and French navies in the Mediterranean. Her gold holdings and investments abroad are also far from being able to bear the strain of a long war.

Russia. In recent years, Russia has paid considerable attention to industrial production, but she is still of little importance as a great exporter of raw materials. She requires production mainly for herself. In total value, her

export trade does not compare with any of the British Dominions or India, and she ranks behind Denmark. She cannot export, especially iron ore and oil, without overcoming great transport difficulties. The only really satisfactory route for heax'y traffic between Germany and Russia is the Baltic. The Baltic ports, however, are at the opposite comer of European Russia from the Russian It is at present impossible to take iron ore and oil fields.

Danube from the Black Sea to Germany, would mean much constmctional work on the Danube, and complicated transhipment arrangements.

oil

tankers by the

as this

The railways are unable to solve the transport problem. Immense distances are involved and gauges are different. Professor Hopper of Har\'ard university, who spent several years in Russia after the Great War, concludes^ that Russian help for Germany can become important only if German engineers have had a minimum of two years to reorganize the Soviet industrial and transport systems, and that even then it may not be decisive. He says, for example, that to transport 8,000,000 tons of oil every year from the Caucasus to Germany would require no fewer than 55,000 tank: cars, or about tvrtce as many of such cars as Russia now possesses. To haul the 2,351,000 tons of soya beans

—

from Manchuria to Germany a distance of 4,300 miles would require 325 trains containing 16,250 freight cars constantly under load, not counting the return journey. Professor Hopper concludes that the delivery to Germany of oil, soya beans, and manganese ore is an undertaking which would tax the Soviet facilities and, except in the case of manganese ore, could be executed only in part. In a short war of big offensives, Russia could not give decisive aid to Germany, but if the war lasts for two years without major engagements, Germany might be able to accumulate war stocks and reorganize Soviet industry and transport so that Russian aid might be of great value. With the exception of the United States, there is no country which enjoys such a degree of self-sufficiency as Russia to-day.

Not only does she produce her o^vn food, but can satisfy her own requirements in coal, iron ore, and petroleum. She requires only tungsten, nickel, antimony, tin, and natural rubber among raw materials. It is, however, her deficient transport that prevents the mobilization of her resources.

War

{See

also

Control of

;

Economic Warfare

War

;

Finance.)

Industry, (G. F. S.)

WELFARE AGENCIES, WAR.

In spite of months of preparation for the possibility of war, no period in the modem history of Great Britain ^vitnessed a greater upheaval in the national way of life than occurred immediately upon the outbreak of war vuth Germany on Sept. 3, To cope vdth the many problems in re-adjustment 1939 arising from both the redistribution of population and the nervous tension induced by the new technique of warfare there was an expanding need for organized welfare work. By far the largest share in this was borne by the Women’s Voluntary Services for Civil Defence. Bom in 1938, under the chairmanship of the Dowager Marchioness of Reading, the W.V.S. had grown by May 1939 to a strength of -

Foreign Affairs. New York, No. 2. can and will Russia aid Germany ? ” '

(January 1940).

“Howmuch

31

256,000, and by the first fortnight of the war to double that number. Vffien the order was given to evacuate the danger areas 200,000 members assisted in the vast movement of population. (See Ev.acuation.) In the reception areas the W.V.S. had three main tasks allocation of buildings, reception at railheads and dispersal to billets, and care after arrival. The continuing after-care entailed nine separate

—

activities

—management

of buildings, transport, feeding,

health, recreation, clothing, maternity care, infant welfare,

and general advisory

services. A.R.P. instruction was another important activity, but the biggest development in W.V.S. work was in the establishment of canteens for civil defence workers and evacuees. Another welfare agency established after the outbreak of war was a group of citizens’ advice bureaux offering help in solving wartime problems. Of special importance in a war which, in its beginnings at least, seemed to be one of attrition was the entertainment of the defence forces. In September the Navy, Army, and Air Force Institutes, which are responsible for an extensive canteen service, organized an entertainments branch knowm as the Entertainments National Service Association (E.N.S.A.), -with Mr. Basil Dean as director and Sir Se3'^mour Hicks as controller. Twelve concert parties sent to the camps on Sept. 25 provided 82 performances for 45,663 men in their first week. In October six mobile cinemas were provided, and later the amount of entertainment both living and mechanical greatly increased. The total number of performances given up to Dec. 10 was 2,973, the attendances amounting to 1,159,895. On Nov. 15 the war office gave permission for entertainment to start in France, and in the following three weeks 47 Ihdng performances and 32 cinema shows were given, providing entertain-

ment

An

for 61,490

men.

programme on behalf of the forces by the Y.M.C.A., more than 420 branches serving the men in the home field, and 24 operating with the B.E.F. For isolated units at home 47 mobile canteens were at work by the end of December. Canteens were also opened at London termini and provincial railwaj’-

was

extensive welfare

also undertaken

A

stations.

comprehensive educational scheme for troops

home and

overseas, and plans for work among prisoners war were other phases of Y.M.C.A. activity. The war servdee fund appeal under the leadership of Lord Athlone

at of

received gifts totalling ^130,000. Other organizations undertaking canteen and general welfare services both at home and abroad included the Church Army, the Salvation Army, the Youth Fellowship,

and the Y.W.C.A.

In France, Le Foyer du Soldat was providing for the French forces comforts similar to those afforded by the Y.M.C.A.

A new

scheme

called the

for the welfare of British soldiers, to

Social Welfare

Scheme

for the

Troops,

be

was

announced by klr. Hore-Belisha, minister for war, in November. The aim of this was to ensure that evers* soldier in

home

territory should be given as

many

comforts

and amenities as possible. By the end of the 3'ear the scheme had already begun to operate, with Lt.-Gen. Sir John Brown as war office adviser under the adjutantgeneral.

Many organizations receiving gifts for men in the forces or in other war service sprang into being directly the war began, and their work was centralized under Sir Alan Hutchings, director-general of voluntary organizations, Berkeley Square House, London. The collection and distribution of books and periodicals for the defence forces

WOMEN’S WAR ORGANIZATIONS

32 was co-ordinated Territorial

in

November under the City

Army and

of

London

Air Force Association.

Agencies, War.)

Twenty thousand had

Auxiliary’- Territorial Service alone since it

enrolled in the

was

constituted

In December two committees were set up in London and Paris to send gifts of materials to the wives of French soldiers in France and gifts to the British Expeditionary

in Sept. 1938 ; in Nov. 1939 began the recruitment of a further 20,000, and in the first fortnight after the war office

Force, and to assist in entertaining British soldiers on leave The gifts included 3,000,000 cigarettes to in France.

Gw5mne-Vaughan, chief controller of the A.T.S., with the rank of major-general, supported the recruiting drive by a broadcast appeal. On Dec. 14 she visited the British lines behind the Western front, vdth the object, it is understood, of determining what part the A.T.S. might carri-

France and 12,000 to home stations. Earlier, 1,000,000 had been provided for British troops through Lord Nufiield’s gift of £1,000 to the Overseas League Tobacco Fund. Lord Nuffield also gave £1,000 to the Veterans’ Association to provide at the Allenby (Services) Club entertainment and recreation for soldiers passing cigarettes

through London. For the welfare of internees and prisoners of war a joint committee was formed in Great Britain with the approval (D. A. C.) of the home office and war office. ORGANIZATIONS. During 1939 WOMEN’S the special qualities which women can bring to public service acquired an importance unprecedented even in the years 1914-18. In the early months of the year, when war was smouldering in Europe, there was a strong impulse

WAR

among

British

women

of all ages

and

classes to contribute

appeal nearly 10,000 applied for enrolment.

Dame

Helen

out with the British troops. In July 1939 the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force was constituted a separate service from the A.T.S., of which it rvas originally a branch, and on July 2 members appeared for the first time in their uniforms of R.A.F. blue at the national defence rally in Hyde Park. Miss J. Trefusis Forbes was appointed director of the W.A.A.F. at the air ministry, with the rank of senior controller. Originally formed in 1917, the Women’s Royal Naval Service was revived in April, 1939, under the directorship of Mrs. Laughton Mathews, who holds rank equivalent to that of rear-admiral. Within six weeks of the outbreak of war so many applications had been received for membership that it was necessary to suspend recruiting. By comparison, however, with other women’s organizations the Women’s Royal Naval Service is a small, though carefully selected

number

and highly trained force, at the close of 1939 the of W.R.N.S. actually at work being still well

under 5,000. Accepted candidates are posted to naval establishments rvithin the four main commands, The Nore, Devonport, Portsmouth and Rosyth. As in the Great War, the important field of activity afforded by the Women’s Land Army attracted large numbers of recruits. Follow’ing on the inclusion of the Women’s Land Army in the national service appeal in Jan. 1939, about 18,000 women had applied for enrolment by Sep-

Fox

Photos]

tember. About half of these were enrolled by the beginning of the war. By Nov. 30, 20,000 out of 29,000 applicants were enrolled as members. Between the outbreak of war and the end of November some 3,500 volunteers received training at government expense, and 2,800 had been placed in agricultural employment through the

STUDENTS IN TRAINING FOR THE WOMEN’S LAND ARMV

land army organization for England and Wales. In Scotland 1,051 volunteers were enrolled by the end of December.

when the conflict came in September it found a large force of women already members of the Service organizations. {See Welfare

Welfare (See also Air Raid Precautions ; Hospitals Agencies, War, for information about women’s work in nursing, civil defence, and voluntary services.) (D. A. C.)

to their country’s defence needs, and

;

1940

BRITANNICA BOOK OF

THE YEAR

A

Record of the March of Events of 1939

1940 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR •

Prepared Under the Editorial Direction of Walter Yust, Editor of Encyclopaedia Britannica

PUBLISHED BY

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC, CHICAGO THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY,

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF CANADA,

LONDON TORONTO

LTD.,

LTD.,

COPYRIGHT IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 194O BY

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,

INC.

COPYRIGHT COUNTRIES SUBSCRIBING TO THE BERNE CONVENTION

IN ALL

BY

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD.

Britannica Book of the Year acknowledges with gratitude the privilege of using 160 pictures from Life. Acknowledgments of the copyright ownership of all illustrations may be found on the followng three pages.

The

editor of the

The Editor

TABLE OF CONTENTS

....... ....... ..... ........

List of Illustrations

and Acknowledgment of Copyright

V • • •

Introduction Editors

Vlll

and Contributors

ix

XX

Calendar, 1940

Calendar of Events, 1939

Britannica Book of the Year

Index

.

.

I

.

.

•

19

•

733

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Acknowledgment of Copyright "Admiral Graf Spee" blown up

^

264

(International)

Advertising Air r^d precautions

Walter London)*

l^ews,

(Courtesy. A.R.P.

Hill's Publications Ltd..

22

Goggles for air raids (Courtesy, A.R.P. Neu'S, Walter Hill’s Publications Ltd., London)* Prize-winning U. S. advertisement (Courtesy. Advertising and Selling, sponsors of Annual Advertising Awards) Aeroplanes Amiot370 (Paul H. Wilkinson)* Bell XP-39 pursuit plane (Official Photograph. U. S. Army Air Corps) Boeing B-17B “flying fortress” (Courtesy. Boeing Aircraft Co.) Boeing clipper (Courtesy. Boeing Aircraft Co.) Boeing 307 Stratoliner (Courtesy, Boeing Air.

craft Co.)

Boulton Paul Defiant (International)* ... Curtiss Hawk 75A pursuit plane (Courtesy. Curtiss-Wright Corp.) Curtiss P-40 pursuit plane (Courtesy. CurtissWright Corp.) Douglas B-23 heavy bomber (Official Photograph, U. S. Army Air Corps) Douglas DC-5 (IVide \^'orM) Flight research airliner (Courtesy, United Air Lines; photo by Grignon) Heinkel 111 bomber (Paramount News from Pictures, Inc.)*

Heinkel 112 pursuit plane (International) Junkers 87 (European) Lockheed XP-38 (Official Photograph. U. S. Army Air Corps) Martin 162 flying boat (Courtesy. The Glenn .

L, Martin Co.) Messerschmitt 109

.

by

29 29 81

U.

S.

(Official

....

Architecture Johnson. S. C., & Son office building. Racine. Wis, (Torkel Korling. Pictures. Inc.)* Museum of Modern Art. New York city (Robert M, Damora photograph; courtesy. .

.

The Architectural Forum) NBC studios, Hollywood, Calif, (Maynard L. Parker photograph; courtesy. Austin Co., engineers and builders) St. Austin church, Minneapolis, Minn. (.Acme)

29

Mars, closest approach to earth (Intemation^) Nebula of Andromeda (Courtesy. The Cook

*29

29 81 81

31 31 31

29

SO 2

57 55

60

(Offidal Photograph,

29

....

60 60 73

75

(Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar;

.

American Legion convention (Wide World)* . 44 Americans leaving war zones (International) 41 , Angel, The" (Pictorial Press. London)* . . . 726 Antarctic expedition. German (Dever from Black .

270

.

«oI of Psychiatry)

537 605

Atmoundng outbreak

of w'ar (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co.. Inc.) 118 Fadiman, Clifton (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co., Inc.) 118

News

bulletin

studio

(Courtesy,

...

Armand, funeral

of (International)* Campbell, Sir Malcolm, setting water speed record (International) test (Courtesy.

Dr. Ehrenfried

.(21) ^ Capitol, Washington, D. .

.

.

Cartoons "Didn’t

.

National 118

Columbia

Broadcasting System) 118 Short-wave broadcasting (Courtesy. Columbia Broadcasting System) 118

495 11

591

463

Pfeiffer

134

^

C. (The Photograph 19

Know

His

Own

Strength"

689 167 287 454 382

"Fiddlers Three” "Giddyap” "It Must Be Something He Ate" "It’s Your Turn" "Labor Day Parade Ground” "Man on the Street Interview" "Men \Mn Be Boys" "More in Sorrow than in Anger" "No Walls of Steel in America" "Now There’s Two of ’Em " "Of Course, It’s a Little Dangerous" .

....

"Operating Room Consultation" “Reichsbank, The" "Renovating the Historical Art Galleries"

.

"Slight Difference of Opinion”

"Some Jump" "Something Wrong with

the

....

Magic”

"Speaking of Harmony" "Still United" "That Customer’s Back Again" "They Won’t Stay Buried ” "This Looks Like Serious Business. Vncle"

43 653 369 140 130 232 288 591 85 175 394 450 204 400 194 26 101

.

687

"Tortoise and the

Hare" "Tramp. Tramp, Tramp, the Boys Are

325

Marching" "Very Delicate Child" "War-Blinded" "Well. \\Tiat Are We Waiting for?"

354

"VkTiile the

Broadcasting

"Information Please” (Courtesy, Broadcasting Co.. Inc.)

^

Library)

photo by Jean Moral) 281 Barco petroleum concession. Colombia (Thomas D. McAvoy)* 527 Baseball hall of fame, living members OVide World) 90 Baseball world series (Pictures. Inc.)* .89 Beck. Josef (Wide World)* 11 Berlin balloon barrage (International) 314 Black-out fashions (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; photo by Brassai) 281 Black-out guides (\Wlliam Vandivert)* .... 331 Blockade, British (Acme) 99 Brain wave patterns (Courtesy. American Jour- '

"Bremen's" voyage to Murmansk (\Vide World)*

.

.....

/^abled photographs (Wide World)* Callnescu, Armand (John Phillips)*

Cancer 60

.

.

"Tomi Meeting of the Air” (Morse- Pix)* 118 Bronx-Whitestone bridge, New York dty (Wide World) HI Browder, Earl (Wide World)* 174 Bus, sightseeing (Courtesy, The A.C.F. Motors Co.) 464

Calinescu,

observatory)* 74 Sun spots (Courtesy, V. S. Naval observatory) 74 "Athenia" survivors (Acme) 41 Atom-smasher (Courtesy. Cornell university) 436 Autogiro air-mail route. Philadelpliia-Camden (International) 546

Dalendaga coat

Life)

.

51

,

Vickers Spitfire (Pictures. Inc.)* 31 Vickers Wellington (Pictures. Inc.)* 31 "Yankee Clipper,” compartment in (Herbert Gehr from Black Star)* 81 Agricultural research farm. Beltsville, Md. (Herbert(5ehr)* 25 Air raid on Firth of Forth (Dever from Black Stor)* 315 Albania. Italian invasion of (International)* . 36 All-American canal (Acme) 132

Star)*

Anthropology Skull of Neanderthal (Italy) (Acme) Skull of Neanderthal diild (Russia) (Sovfoto) Aranha. Oswald© (Wide World)* Archaeology Relief panel of Roman emperor (Courtesy. American Journal of Archaeology^ .... Sheshonk. tomb of (Acme)

Cook observatory, Wynnewood. Pa. (Courtesy. The Cook observatory)*

29 S,

be found in the Parentheses. Asterisks denote Illustrations from

Astronomy

Photograph.

Navy)

to

81 31

Douglas

U. S. Navy) S.

31

31

Torpedo bomber, U. U.

21

29

(Drawing

RoUe)* Patrol bombers,

23

is

Sun Shines”

231

....

"White Elephant from the South”

"Whoa — Come BackI Foul Balll" "Wthout Benefit of Trumpets" "You Haven't Seen the Bremen

496 684 245 185

401 426 .Around.

Have You, Bill?” 607 Chamberlain. Neville (Pictures. Inc.)* ] 7 Chanel dress (Courtesy. Harper's Bazaar; photo by Ho>Tungen-Huene) 281 Charts Air travel, U. S. A. . 79 Aluminium production, world ! 38 ! Belgium: industrial production 92 .

.

.

.

Building contracts. U. S. A Business activity, U. S. A

122 288 127 128 154 166 26 122

Canada: employment Canada: volume of business .

Chile: industrial production

Coal production, world Commodities, prices of, U- S. A Construction costs, U. S. A Copper production, U. S. A Cotton crop, U. S. A Denmark; industrial production Diamond production, world Europe: industrial production Exports, agricultural, U. S. A Exports and imports, U. S. A Foreign trade, U. S. A France: industrial production and prices Germany: industrial production Gold production, world Incomes over $1,000,000, U. S. A Industrial production, U. S. A. and world Italy: industrial production Japan: industrial production Lynchings, U. S. A Manufacturing production, U. S. A Netherlands: industrial production Newspaper advertising linage, U. S. A. Newsprint production, U. S. A. and Canada Norway: industrial production Petroleum production, world Railroad freight, U. S. A Railroad passengers, U. S. A Rayon and silk consumption, U. S. A. ... Receipts and expenditures, U. S. Gov’t Silver production, world Steel ingot production. U. S. A Stocks. U. S. A., 1928-39 Stocks, U. S. range in 1939 Strategic minerals, production ability of .

.

181

22 520 502 526 570 569 573 686 611 374 631 632

. .

.

.

,

634

countries^ Strategic minerals, self-sufficiency ratings Strikes and lock-outs, U. S. Sweden: industrial production Telephones per 100 population, cities Telephones per 100 population, countries

633 636 648 655 656 670 329

.

.

A

.... .

.

Trade agreements, U. S. A United Kingdom; business activity Wholesale

prices, France, Italy.

Japan Wholesale Wholesale Wholesale

prices, prices, prices.

U.

Belgium,

SSO 549

.

25

.

Germany

549 I.

du Pont de

Nemours & Co.) “Exton” bristles (Courtesy, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.; photo by Dana B. Merrill)

“Lucite" (Courtesy, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.; photo by Dana B. Merrill) “Zelan” (Courtesy, Du Pont Style News Service; photo by Gibor fider) Children's playground “court” (Herbert Gehr)* Chilean earthquake (International) Chinese riot, Shanghai (Acme)* Chungking air raid (Eigner from Black Star)* .

,

Winston (Pictures, Inc.)* San Francisco” wreck (John

Churchill,

“City of

Westinghouse Electric & 235 Manufacturing Co.) Elizabeth, Queen, and Mrs. Roosevelt (Acme)*. 681 Entomology (Courtesy,

Dust sprayer

145 145 145 145

223 213 156 158 11

Sanford)* 212 City of Tomorrow (“Futurama”) (EisenstaedtPix)* 667 Civilian air reserve training, U. S. A. (Eric 78 Schaal-Pix)* Cloud ceilings measurement (Courtesy, U. S. 444 Weather Bureau) Coachella branch. All-American canal (Courtesy, Bureau of Reclamation, U, S. Dept, of the 375 Interior) Coast Guard, U. S., plane in Atlantic (International)* 169 Coelacanth {World Copyright Strictly Reserved) 428 Collegiate fashion (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; photo by Jean Moral) 281 Colorado river aqueduct (Courtesy. Bureau of Reclamation. U. S. Dept, of the Interior) 54 “Columbus” scuttling (Copyright, .

604 67

Combine) Crime detection: typewriter type (Bob Leavitt)* Crime recorder (Acme)

605 189 187

^alai Lama (Lingerh Lamutanchu) (Rev.

F.

D. Learner-George Fitch)*

665

Dams Bartlett

dam

(Courtesy. Bureau of Reclama-

D^t. of the Conchas dam (Courtesy. U. S. War Dept.) tion.

U. S.

196 Interior) Chief of Engineers.

196 of Reclamation. U. S. Dept, of the Interior) 196 Parker dam (Acme) 196 Seminoe dam (Courtesy. Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Dept, of the Interior) 196

Friantdam (Courtesy, Bureau

Dance “Chemical Ballet” (Karger-Pix) Square dance (Martin Harris)* Toumano\'a. Tamara (Richard Tucker)* Dcau\ille. France, boardwalk (KitrosserMatch)*

Dewey, Thomas E. (Otto Hagcl)* Dickin'ion. Gov. Lureu D. (Wide World) Dutch defences (William Vandivert)*

.

.

198 197 199

302 15 .

.

.

448 487

heads (Courtesy. United Air Lines)

arida, Queen of Egypt, and Princess Feriill (Hamilton M. Wright)* 230 Farmall-A tractor (Courtesy, International Harvester Co.) 278 Federal Bureau of Investigation retraining session (Bob Leavitt, Pictures, Inc.)* 282 Feisal II, King of Iraq (Lotte Errell-Plx)* 372 Firth of Forth, German raid on (Dever from Black Star)* 254 Flood wall on Ohio river (Courtesy, Chief of Engineers, U. S. War Dept.) 583 297 Football, girls' teams (Peter Stackpole)* . .

.

.

.

10

Forster, Albert (Pictures, Inc.)* Four-bladed controllable propeller

(Courtesy, Curtiss-Wright Corp.) 78 Franco. Francisco (International)* 6 Franco's victory parade (Dever from Black 623 Star)* Frederick, Prince of Denmark, and Princess Ingrid (C. F. Cusack Advertising Agency)* 205 French troops in captured German territory (Acme) 250 Frontispiece (photomontage by Kaufmann & Fabry; photos by Kaufmann & Fabry [IS], Frontispiece The Photograph Library J4)) .

G

.

alento-Louis fight (Wide World) .

.

.

H

dcha. Emil, visit to Berlin (Interphoto)* 193 Hairdress, Edwardian (Courtesy, M. Louis, 281 director, American Hair Design Institute) Halifax, Viscount (Margaret Bourke-White, Pictures, Inc.)* 7 Hawaiian legislature (Pan Pacific Press Photo)* 337 10 Henderson. Sir Nevile (Pictures, Inc.)* Highway from Lincoln tunnel. New York city .

.

.

.

....

584

(Wide World) Himmler, Heinrich (Pictures. Inc.)* Hitler reviewing Nazi corps in Prague

15

Housing “Lakeview,” Buffalo. N. Y. (Courtesy, U. Housing Authority)

New York

Antarctic claims (Courtesy, The Ncu' York Times) British blockade Chinese-Japanese war

271 9S 159

Europe (1913) Europe (1920) Europe (end of 1939) German campaign in Poland (4) Germany, Jan. 1, 1939 Germany. Jan. 1, 1940 Maginot-Westwall fortifications Russian campaign in Finland (2)

248 248 248 258 313 313 252 266

General Electric Co.) Miaja, Jos6 (Pictures, Inc.)* Molotov, V. (Sovfoto)*

Morgenthau, Henry,

Jr.

W orld) ....

(Wide

347

city (^ourtesy.

Metropolitan Life Insurance Co.) .... “Queensbridge Houses,” New York city (Acme) “Red Hook.” New York city (Courtesy, U. S. Housing Authority) “ Willert Park,” Buffalo, N. Y. (Courtesy, U. S. Housing Authority) Hughes, Charles E. (Pictures, Inc.)* Hurban, Vladimir (Thomas D. McAvoy, Pictures, Inc.)*

Hydroponics (Berenice Abbott. Pictures, Inc.)*

.

347 347

347 347 2 192 143

(Margaret

Bourke-White.

Pic-

tures. Inc.)* Interior Decoration

,

2

"Breakfront" desk (Courtesy. American 365 Furniture Mart; photo by Grignon) Edwardian draperies (Courtesy, Marshall .

.

,

Field and Co.) 365 Regency mode (Courtesy, American Furniture 365 Mart; photo by Grignon) Tea wagon (Courtesy, American Furniture Mart; photo by Grignon) 365

Iron Guardists. execution of (International)* Italian invasion of Albania (Pictures. Inc.)* .

.

72

.

380

234 3 10 3

459 .

459

459 GoIdNvyn-Mayer) Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (Courtesy, 459 Columbia Pictures Corp.) Wizard of Oz, The (Courtesy, Metro-Goldwyn459 Mayer) Women, The (Courtesy, Metro-Goldwyn-

Mayer) Young Mr. Lincoln (Courtesy, 20th Century-

459

459 Fox) Motor Cars Bulck (Courtesy, Buick Motor Division, General Motors Corp.) Chevrolet (Courtesy. General Motors Corp.). 467 Crosley (Courtesy, The Croslejj Corp.) .

.

.

(Courtesy, Dodge Division, Chrysler Corp.) Fiat (Courtesy, Fiat, S. A.) Ford (Courtesy, Ford Motor Co.) Gearshifts on steering column (Courtesy, Nash Motors Division, Nash-Kelvinator Corp.) “Hydra-matic” drive (Courtesy, General Motors Corp.) t Lincoln-Zephyr (Courtesy, Ford Motor Co.) Packard (Courtesy, Packard Motor Car Co.). Corp.) Motor Plymouth Plymouth (Courtesy, Renault (Courtesy, Renault Selling Branch.

Dodge

.

New York

city)

•

•

(Courtesy, Hudson Motor Car Co.) A Studebaker (Courtesy, The Studebaker Corp.)

“Sealed

Munitions

^ (Official

.

.

.

.

.

.

\

Bourke-White)* French heavy machine gun (Pictures, French lS5-mm. gun (Pictures. Inc.)*

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

*

Inc.) •

467

«7 467 467 40/

460

40/

.

•

•

471 4/i

1?

light field artillery piece (Pictures,

German mortar (W'ide World)* , German railway gun (Pictures, Inc.)* German trench mortar (Pictures, Inc.)* Museum of Modern Art, New York city •

•

•

•

•

.

•

•

'

.

.

•

(Herbert Gehr)*

,0

Mussolini, Benito (International)*

N

4w

,

.

Photograph, American anti-tank gun Ordnance Dept., U. S. Army) American Garand rifle (Official Photograph, Ordnance Dept., U. S. Army) British anti-aircraft gun (British W^ar Office) British anti-tank gun (Pictures. Inc.)* British Bren light machine gun (Margaret

German

467

beam" headlamp

•

Imredy, Bela

411

6

Motion Pictures Andy Hardy Gets Spring Fever (Courtesy, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) Gone with the Wind (Courtesy, David O. Selznick; Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer release) Good-bye, Mr. Chips (Courtesy, Metro-

’

S.

602

345

Moseley, George (Victor Barron from The Atlantic Journal)*

Inc.,

316

(International)*

“ Parkchester,”

491

“Mauretania” (Ship) (Acme) Memel, German seizure of (Acme) Memorial hospital. New York city (Wide World) Mercury vapour lamp, midget (Courtesy,

.

....

2

American safety zone

Shipping zones forbidden to U. S. merchant marine (Courtesy, U. S. Dept, of Commerce) 4S9 678 U. S. S. R., Western Marble, Alice, and Sarah Fabyan (Acme) ... 660 Marshall, George C. (Pictures, Inc.)* 6

356

3 Garner, John N. (Pictures, Inc.)* 7 332 George V, sarcophagus of (Pictures, Inc.)* George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Canadian parliament (Pictures, Inc.)* 129 318 Glass, invisible (Eric Schaal-Pix)* Goering reviewing Carman veterans of Spanish 317 war (International)* Golden Gate International Exposition (International) 276 320 Gold shipment (David E. Scherman)* 14 Grew, Joseph C. (Paul Dorsey)* Gruening, Ernest H. (Acme) 35

78

290

.

106

Gandhi, Mohandas (Ameri-Candid)* Gandhi, Mohandas (Pictures. Inc.)*

421

.

,

F

....

7

!

Maps

330

(International)*

.

...

Mannerheim, Baron Carl G., and council (Bonney and Elisofon)* Manton, Martin T. (Pictures, Inc.)*

243

Inc.)*

556

(Pictures, Inc.)*

!

242 242

*

identification

MacLeish, Archibald

Evacuation of children from London

.

International)* Conscripts, British (Pictures, Inc.)* Convoy, British (Copyright, British Press

l^cDonald observatory (Acme) Maginot Line, cross-section of (International) Magna-flux system for testing aeroplane cylinder

The

for fruit trees (Courtesy,

Dow Chemical Co.) Grasshopper horde (Acme) Japanese beetle (Martin Harris, Pictures,

.

' S. A, U, S. A., effect of wars on U. S. A., Great Britain,

Chemistry, Applied “Butacite" (Courtesy, E.

^

25

273 670 300 314 319 353 286 379 381 417 685 487

.

.

“ rdinburgh” (British cruiser) damaged (Dever 315 from Black Star)* streamlined (Courtesy, Electric locomotive, Pennsylvania Railroad; photograph by 237 Robert Dudley Smith) Electric transformer for by-passing lightning

184 204 209 287

.

.

^

ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF

VI Charts— Cmi/jKHerf.

Graf Zeppelin,” German aircraft earner

King George V." British battleship (Acme) “Marat," Russian battleship (Acme)

.

•'

•

•

.

.

“Princeof Whales," British baltle.ship (Acme) Russian submarine (Acme) .

.

.

.

•

.

4H|

•

•

•

Iioio-

Keen (Acme)

Gov. J ohnson, Johnson, Gov.

Paul B. (Acme) Johnstown W^inning Kentucky Derby (Acme)

.

388 455 342

“St. Louis.” American cruiser (Official I graph. U. S. Navy') x* “&hamhorst,” German battleship (Acme) •

“Wasp.” American Photograph. U.

3 lebrun. Albert (Pictures. Inc.)* Leopold, King (Pictures, Inc.)* 14 536 Light speed measurement (Acme) ' 11 Lindbergh, Charles A. (Intemationhl)* Litvinov. Maxim (Howard Coster from Black Star)* 6 Lloyd George, Daxnd (Keystone View)* ... 14 London strike (Pictures. Inc.)* 413 415 Long. Earl K. (Wide World) 106 Louis-Galcnto fight (International)

^

.... .

•

•

*

’

js2

.

aircraft carrier (Official

S.

Navy)

.

.

.

. .

Neutrality, U. S.; Roosevelt's broadcast (Davnd E. Scherman)* .*, tNeutrality hill: congressional mail (Davnu '

j

'

•

Scherman)*

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Neutrality patrol, U. S. (bred Masters)* New York World's Fair Court of Peace (Courtesy, New \ork World Fair 1939. Inc.) orld s Italian day (Courtesy, New \ ork Fair 1939. Inc.) .

.....

.

.

W

•

•

,

.

•

.

490

276

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS —

New York

World’s Fair Continued Jewish Palestine pavilion dedication (Courtesy, New York World’s Fair 1939, Inc.) Soviet pavilion (Courtesy. World's Fair 1939, Inc.)

276

,

New York

North Beach (La Guardia)* airport,

276

New York

.

33

city (International)

Nylon sittings (Sanders from Black Star)*

O

.

359

.

ceanography: Device for exploring ocean

floors (Acme) Olaf. Prince of Norway,

508

and Princess Martha

(Wide World)*

503

Ignacy (Otto Hagel, Pictures. P aderewski. Inc.)*

475

Painting •

“Construction of the Dam” (Cropper) (Courtesy. Federal Works Agency. Section of Fine

514

Arts)

“Georgia Jungle” (Brook) (Courtesy, Carnegie

514 (Kuniyoshi) (Courtesy, 514 Carnegie Institute. Pittsburgh) “Story of Petroleum” (Britton) (Courtesy, Fed514 eral Works Agency. Section of Fine Arts) “Paris” burning at Le Ha\Te (Kitrosser, Pictures. 605 Inc.)* Pendergast, Thomas J. (\’’andivert, Pictures. 6 Inc.)* Photoelasticity (Courtesy. Westinghouse Elec418 tric & Manufacturing Co.)*

— 1938”

.

Photography Lens extension tubes (Courtesy, Eastman Ko533 dak Co.) (Courtesy, E. Leitz, Inc.) Light-polarizing Photofiash outfit (Courtesy, E. Leitz, Inc.) Precision enlarger (Courtesy, Eastman Kodak Co.) . Selectroslide (Courtesy. E. Leitz. Inc.) . filter

.

.

533 533 533 533

Spark photography (Courtesy. Research Foundation. Armour Institute of Technol533

ogy, Chicago)

New York City” (Courtesy. The Camera Club. New York city) .... 534

“Winter Morning.

Polish Invasion Air raid near Warsaw (International)* , , . 542 Bridges across Vistula blown up (Paramount 256 News from Pictures. Inc.)* Engineers repairing bridge (Paramount News 257 from Pictures, Inc.)*

German motorcycle

scouts (Paramount

News

257

from Pictures, Inc.)*

German

scouts attacking (Paramount

News

257 from Pictures. Inc.)* Nazi mechanized attack (Paramount News 256 from Pictures, Inc.)* “&hleswig-Holstein“ opening bombardment 256 , (Paramount News from Pictures. Inc.)* Warsaw apartment building bombed (Pictures. 714 Inc.)* 605 “President Roosevelt” (ship) (Acme)*. Pressure tunnel. Langley Field. Va, (Courtesy, 80 . National Committee for Aeronautics) .

....

.

R

...

.

....

..... .

Institute. Pittsburgh)

“Lay Fi^re

Radio transmitter, portable (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co., Inc.) 567 Raeder. Erich (Wide World)* 14 Railroads “Coronation Scot’* and “Royal Blue” (Courtesy, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Co.) .571 “400“ streamliner (Courtesy. Chicago and North Western Railway) 571 “Mercury” (Courtesy, New York Central System) 571 : . “Pacemaker” (Courtesy, New York Central System) 571 “Pennsylvania type** steam locomotive (Courtesy, Pennsylvania Railroad) 571 Speedometer for passengers (Courtesy. Chicago and North Western Railway) 571 Refrigeration treatment for cancer (International)* 439 Refugees, Spanish, in France (Pix)*. 575 Relief “food stamps” (Ralph Amdursky)* . 578 . Ribbenlrop. Joachim von (Pictures. Inc.)*. . 10 Roosevelt, Franklin D. (Pictures. Inc.)* ... 15 “Rose World's Fair” (Courtesy, The Massachusetts Horticultural Society and Horace McFarland Co.) 344 Rovring regatta. (California rs. Washington (Carl Bigelow and Albert Harris of The Oakland Tribune)* 589 Rublee, CJeorge (Intcmation:j)* 2 Ryti, Risto (Wide World)* IS

77 acing car (John Cobb) (International) Radio set (Courtesy, Philco Radio and Tele568 vision C^orp.)

.

••

VII 640 German submarines (Acme) “Kensington Court” (Photographic News 640 Agency. lx)ndon)* 640 “Royal Oak” (Acme) Supreme Court. U. S. (Harris and Ewing from 645 Acme) Swiss infantri’man (Egli-Pix)* 649 Synthetic fuel. Cxerman (European)* 309 .

.

.

'

’

.

Tate

Gallery,

London, exhibits stored

for safety

70

(William Vandivert)*

*

Tele\ision Mobile unit (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co.. Inc.) 657 Motion picture scanner (Courtesy. Columbia Broadcasting System) 657 Reception image in aeroplane (Courtesy. National Broadcasting Co.. Inc.) 657 Reception image of baseball game (MorsePix)* 657

......

Telecast of baseball game (Herbert Gehr)*. . 657 Telecast of football game (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co., Inc.) 657 Television set (Courtesy. National Broadcasting Co., Inc.) 657 "Tell-tale” device for aeroplane instruments (Courtesy, Curtiss- Wright Corp.) 78 Tensile machine, hydraulic (Courtesy. Y^sting-

house Electric Theatre

&

Manufacturing Co.)'.

The

(Derujinsky) (Underwood and Underwood) 599 “Guardian of Water” (Herd) (Courtesy. U'TA Federal Art Project)

599

“Le\risand Clark” (Warneke) (Courtesy. Federal Works Agency, Action of Fine Arts) 599 “Moses” (Archipenko) (Courtesy. Alexander Archipenko, sculptor) S99 Mount Rushmore memorials (Borglum) (Charles Rcyner)* S9S .

“Stabile” (Calder) (Louis

Wemer, New York 599

city)

Sewage disposal plant.

New York

city (Standard

Aerial Surveys, Inc.)

558

Slam renamed Thailand by royal decree (R. B. 609

Jackson)*

bunk room (European)* .... 66 Snood (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; photo by Hoyningen-Huene) 281 Siegfried Line

Snow

cruiser (Torkel Korling)* Soviet-Nazi non-aggression pact (Wide World) . Spanish civilian refugees (Interphoto)* “Squalus” di^ster (International) Stalin, Joseph (^t'foto)* Static suppressor for aeroplane radios (Courtesy. United Air Lines) Steelmills. Cleveland. O. (Wide World)* ... Steinbeck. John (Portrait by Bo Beskov; cour-

....

......

.

452

.

663

.

663 211 14

McAvoy,

Pic-

tures. Inc.)*

7

Trackless trolley (Courtesy. The J. G. Brill Co.. Philadelphia) 238 Tractor, lightweight (Torkel Korling, Pictures, Inc.)*

“Trafficscope” (Hansel Mieth. Pictures, Inc.)* . Truck, cab^ver-engine (Courtesy. International Harvester Co.) Truck, Diesel (Courtesy, Dodge Division, Chrysler Corp.) Tumblers, girl (Horace Bristol. Pictures. Inc.)*. Tunnel, vehicular. New York city (Carl M.

Mydans. Pictures. Inc.)* Turban by Lilly Dache (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar: photo by Louise Dahl-Wolfe) .

24 585 464 464 222

674 .

,

^ictor Emmanuel

281

3

(Pix)*

213 15

“X/Uakiva" (yacht) (Wide World) life conservation (Aurey D.

78

217

Strohpaul)* 721 Windsor, Duke and Duchess of (Pictures. Inc.)* 11 Wind tunnel (Courtesy, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) 82 Woman’s hood (Courtesy. Harper's Bazaar; photo by Louise Dahl-Wolfe) 281 strike (The Minneapolis Journal)*. . . 683

606 640

X

373

The ViWng

Mieth-Otto Hagel)* Submarine Warfare “Bosnia” (Pictures. Inc.)* Depth charge (International)

TT'/ro

Studio)* "Thetis” disaster (International) Thysseu. Fritz (Wide World)* To%vnsend, Dr. F. E. (Thomas D.

.

272

680 625

46 Press) Strike at Cleveland. O. (Pictures. Inc.)* . 636 Strip farming taught in grade school (Hansel tesy,

Man

.

.

(Vandamm Studio)* Came to Dinner (Vandamm

Philadelphia Story

Qculpture ^ “Europa**

.

.

728

Wild

WPA

.

-ray machine. 1,000.000-volt (Courtesy. Gcner^ Electric X-Ray Corp.) 727

INTRODUCTION third issue

-

the Britannica

of

Book of

y

was prepared during months of war.

IL

delayed in transmission

even

if

evidence

it

country

The manuscripts from abroad the

:

did not actually modify the text

that

it

did)

grim U-boat and affected in

to this

;

year even as

it

to

inside

mine

to

(and

and

there

of

live

and

the things they do

was no

physical

cautious ships slipped by

record of events of an

this

make an

the

Embattled Europe

reach these peaceful shores.

the gathering together

were

censor opened envelopes

has affected the events themselves in every field of

The days men month moves

hand of the

typed contributions in slow

the secret

many ways

the Tear, covering the year iggg,

exciting

interest.

Each

interesting book any year.

climax and to climax and to climax again. The characters appear to be good

or bad and the events and achievementspotentially good or bad as the readerjudges them. The

Book of

the

Tear presents

photographic impartiality. this

and

they

work with a

and

these characters

This

is

their activities., so

not an easy thing

to do.

Editors

far as possible,

with

and contributors know

conscientious endeavour to do no more than to report what

has happened.

The Britannica Book of the Tear colours so

will bring

much of

is

released with concern that the tragedy of war

the record it bears, but

news of a world

a lasting peace, as

it

in

with sincere hope

which peace

is

found

too, that

next year's volume

again, with honour

to all peoples,

should be in a world where peace between men must be

civil-

izatioTLS final justification.

The

Editor.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS WALTER YUST, EDITOR OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

LIBRARIAN CONSULTANTS ANNE FRASER LEIDENDEKER, Department Librarian, Science and Industry Department, CHARLES F. MCCOMBS, Superintendent, Main Reading Room, New Tork Public Library. WINIFRED VER NOOY, Reference Librarian, University of Chicago.

{Initials

and names of contributors written by them.

ALEXANDER ARMSTRONG.

A.Ag.

to the

Public Library, Los Angeles, Calif.

Britannica Book of the Tear with the principal articles

The arrangement

is

alphabetical by initials.)

President. National Conference of Commissioners

on Uniform State Laws.

Conference of Commissloners

on Uniform

State Laws A.B.Bu.

ALFRED BENJAMIN BUTTS,

A.B.Ca.

ARNO

CAMMERER,

Ph.D., LL.B. Chancellor and Professor of Law, University of Mississippi.

Mississippi

LL.B., M.P.L. Director. National Park Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. Wash-

National Parks and Aviation, Civil, etc.

A.B.Mo.

ARCHIBALD BLACK. Aeronautical engineer and writer on engineering subjects. Author of Transport Arialion; etc. ALBERT BURTON MOORE, M.S., Ph.D. Professor of History and Dean of the Graduate School. University of

A.C.Ch.

Alabama. Author of History of Atabatna; ARTHUR C. CHRISTIE, M.D., M.S.

B.

Monuments

ington.

A.Bt.

etc.

,

Clinical Professor of Radiology,

Georgetown University Medical School.

A.D3,

A. C. IVY, M.D. Nathan Smith Davis Professorship in Physiology and Professor of Pharmacology Northwestern University Medical &hool, Chicago. ALLISON DANZIG, A.B. Member of Sports Staff. New York Times. .Author of The Racquet Game; etc.

A.D.An.

ARTHUR

A.C.I.

A.E.GI.

ANDERSON, A.B. Editor. Boot and Shoe Recorder, Boston. A. DONKERSLOOT. Editor. Critisch BnlUtin, Amsterdam. Holland. AUGUSTUS E. GIEGENGACK. Pubhc Printer of the United States.

A.Ep.

ABRAHAM

A.Dt.

Challenge to

O.

EPSTEIN,

America

etc.

B.S.

Executive Secretarj’, American

I.

X-Ray Physiology Football (tn part)

Author of Shoe and Leather Lexicon.

Association for

Shoe Industry Dutch Literature

Government Printing Sodal Security. Author of Irtsecurily-^A

Social Security (*« part)

Editor, Social Security.

G. BRUINIER, Jr. Technical Advertising Manager. Dyestuffs du Pont de Nemours and Company. Inc.

ANSCO

A.G.Bn.

Alabama

Division. Organic Chemicals Department. E.

Dyestuffs

1

AJ.S.

ALEXANDER G. RUTHVEN, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. President. University of Michigan. MAJOR GENERAL ALBERT H. BLANDING, N.G.U.S., D.S.M. 'Chief of the National Guard Bureau. ALFRED H. STURTEVANT, Ph.D. Professor of Genetics. California Institute of Technology, Pasadena. ARTHUR JEFFREY DEMPSTER, M.A., Ph.D., Se.D. Professor of Physics. University of Chicago. ALFRED J. LIEBMANN Ph.D., Chem.E. Technical Director, Sebenley Distillers Corporation. ALFRED J. LOTKA. Assistant Statistician. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. ARTHUR J. SINNOTT. Editor, Newark Eveninq News.

A.K.B.

A. K.

A.G.R. A.H.BI. A.H.St. A.J.D.

A.J.U. A.J.Lo.

A.LeR.L.

Michigan, University of National Guard 1

Matter, Structure of Liquors, Alcoholic

Birth Statistics, etc.

New Jersey

BRYCESON. “Hotspur" of The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post. (London). Philosophy. Horvard University. Washington. ALAIN LEROY LOCKE, A.B., Ph.D. Professor ofNegro in America; The Negro

tacts

and

Interracial Relations;

The

New

Horse Racing

Author of Race Conand His Music; Negro Art; Past and

Negro; The

Heredity

1

(in part)

Negroes (American)

Present.

A.Mn. A.M.S.

A.Mu.

A.

MERTON.

Correspondent for The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post (London)

Palestine

in Egj’pt.

Egypt

Jr., B.A. Junior Fellow of Harvard University. Author of Orestes A. Brownson.

ARTHUR M. SCHLESINGER, ARTHUR MURRAY. President, National Institute of Social Dancing.

Author of Howto Become a Good Dancer;

Modem

(in Part) (in part)

Massachusetts

Dance

(in Part)

Dancing.

A.P.U.

ABBOTT PAYSON USHER,

A,R.N.

ALBERT RAY NEWSOME, Chapel

Ph.D. Professor

of Economics.

Harvard University.

Ph.D. Professor and Head of the Department of History. University of North Carolina,

ALLEN T. BURNS, B.A. Executive Vice-President of Community Chests and ALFRED T. LARSON, Ph.D. Instructor in History, University of Wyoming.

A.T.M.

A. T.

A.Wi. A.Y.A.

Carolina

Coundls, Inc.

Community Chests Wyoming

MITCHELSON. Acting-Chief, Division of Irrigation, Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. ALFONS WI LE. Technical Adviser with The Schenley Import Corporation. Author: An Introduction to Wines; etc. ABDULLAH YUSUF ALI, M.A., LL.M. (Cantab.) Formerly Revenue Minister, Hyderabad State. Author of The

Wines

BAKER BROWNELL, A.M. Former Travelling Fellow in Philosophy from Harvard University. Professor of Contemporary Thought at Northwestern University, Evanston. III.

Philosophy

Maying of India! The Message

b.b.

NoKh

Hill.

A.T.L.

a.t.b.

American Academy Arts and Sciences

of Islam.

Irrigation

Islam

of

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

X

BENJAMIN B. WALLACE, Ph.D. Adviser to U. S, Tariff Commission BEN C. BROSHEER. Associate Editor, American Machinist.

B.B.W. B.C.B.

BRYSSON CUNNINGHAM,

B.Cu.

on international trade

Tariffs

policies.

Machinery and Machine

D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S.E., M.lnst.C.E. Chartered Civil Engineer.

Editor of The Dock

Canals and Inland

Waterways

and Harbour Authority.

(i« part)

Rivers and Harbours (t« Part)

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN SHAMBAUGH,

B.F.S.

University of Iowa, Iowa City.

BERNARD

B.L.A.

ington,

L.

AUSTIN, LIEUTENANT

COMMANDER,

U.S. N.

Office of the Chief of

Naval Operations, Wash-

Iowa

Submarine Warfare

D. C.

BEATRICE McConnell.

B.Mc.

Ph.D. Professor and Head of the Department of Political Science, State Superintendent, State Historical Society of Iowa.

Director, Industrial Division, Children’s Bureau, U. S.

Department of Labor, Washington,

Child Labour

D. C.

B.S.RI.

BRUCE SMITH, B.S., M.A., LL.B, Institute of Public Administration, New York. BEATRICE SAWYER ROSSELL. Editor. A.L.A. Bulletin, American Library Association.

B.Ta.

BOOTH TARKINGTON,

Br.S.

Crime

Honorary Chairman of the National Membership Committee

Litt.D.

{in part), etc.

American Library of

The Seeing Eye.

Association Seeing Eye

Pulitzer prize winner for literature.

BUSH ROD W. ALLIN.

B.W.A.

Head, Division of State and Local Planning, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Department Washington, D. C.

of Agriculture,

BENJAMIN WERNE,

B.We.

A.B., LL.B., S.J.D. Editor, Annual Survey Economic Legislation.

Lecturer in Law,

New York

Agriculture

Law

{in Part)

(Case)

Legislation, Federal, etc.

University. ^

BARNEY YANOFSKY.

B.Y.

Editor of Foreign Service and Director of Public Relations, Veterans of Foreign

Wars

Veterans of Foreign Wars

of the

United States.

RAPPAPORT, M.D. Head

Allergy

B.Z.R.

B. 2,

C.A.L.

CARL A. LOHMAN. Secretary, Yale University. C. A. THAYER. Director, American Spice Trade Association. CHRISTOPHER B. COLEMAN, Ph.D, Director of Indiana State Historical Bureau and of the State Library. CARLYLE BURROWS. Assistant Art Critic of TJie New York Herald Tribune. CHARLES DE WITT HURD, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, Northwestern University. CHARLES E. ALLRED, M.S.A., Ph.D. Head of Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology,

C.A.T. C.B.C.

C.Bu.

C.D.Hu. C.E.A.

of Allergy Clinic, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago.

Yale University Spices

Indiana

Sculpture

Chemistry Tennessee

Uni-

versity of Tennessee, Knoxville.

CHARLES EDWARD CHAPMAN,

C.E.Ch.

LL.B., A.M., D.Ph. Professor of History. University of California.

California

Spain

EDWARD

(in Part) {in part), etc.

C.E.G.

CECIL

GOLDING, LL.D., F.C.I.I., F.S.S. Joint Secretary, Examiners’ Committee, London Chartered Insurance Institute, Author of textbooks on Insurance subjects.

Insurance, Accident

C-E-Gu.

CARL

Archaeology

C.E.K.M.

C. E.

E,

GUTHE,

A.M., Ph.D.

B.S.,

Director,

Museum

KENNETH MEES, D.Sc. Vice-President in charge of CHARLES ELY ROSE SHERRINGTON, M.Inst.T. Assistant

C.E.R.S.

London University. Secretary, Railway Research Service of the

COLSTON ESTEY WARNE, Ph.D. CHARLES F, KETTERING, E.E.,

C.E.Wa. C.F.Ke.

{in part)

Ann Arbor. Research Development. Eastman Kodak Company.

of Anthropology, University of Michigan,

Lecturer in Transport, British Railways.

London School

(t» part)

Photography Railroads

of Economics,

(i» part)

Academic Freedom Motor Vehicles

Associate Professor of Economics, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.

M.E. President and General Manager, General Motors Research Corporation;

Vice-President, General Motors Corporation. ;

C.F.Lo.

C.F.McC. C.Fo.

Camp

FRANCES LOOMIS, B.A. Editor, Department of Publications, Camp Fire Girls, Inc. CHARLES FLOWERS McCOMBS, B.A., B.L.S. Superintendent of Main Reading Room, New York Public Library. CHARLES FOX, M.A. Director of Training in the University of Cambridge, 1919-1938. Author of Educational PsyC.

Fire Girls

Libraries

{in Part)

Cambridge

University

chology: etc.

C.Gd.

ABBOT. Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. CALVIN GODDARD, A.B., M.D., LIEUTENANT COLONEL. Ordnance

C.G.Fk.

CHARLES G. FENWICK,

C.G.A.

Smithsonian

C. G.

Institution

Munitions of War Maginot Line

Reserves. U.S.A.

Siegfried Line of the United States;

C.G.-P.

Ph.D. Professor of Political Science, Bryn International Law; Cases on International Law.

CARLOS GARCIA-PRADA. Seattle,

Washington. Editor

Mawr

Author

College.

of

C.L.Ps.

C.M.An.

CARLETON M. ALLEN.

C.L.B.

Spanish-Amcrican

Professor of Spanish and Spanish-American literatures. University of Washington, Revista Iberoamericana.

Literature

in Chief:

CHARLES J. BRAND, A.B. Executive Secretary and Treasurer, The National Fertilizer Association, CLEMENT LINCOLN BOUVE, A.B. Register of Copyrights. Washington. D.C. CHARLES L. PARSONS. Secretary, American Chemical Society.

C.J.BP.

Neutrality

The Neutrality Laws

Fertilizers

Washington.

Copyright

American Chemical Society

Supervisor in Charge,

Commodity Exchange Commission, U.

S.

Department

Wool

of Agriculture,

Boston, Massachusetts.

M. BREDER, Jp. Acting

C.M.Bp.

C.

C.M.La.

C. M. LAFFOON. burgh, Pa

New York Aquarium.

Director of

C.M.Me.

CHARLES M. MORRELL,

C.N.G.

C.

C.O*D.I.

COLUMBUS

Co.J.B.

C.M.R.

CORNELIUS JAMES BROSNAN, A.B., M.A., Ph.D. Head, C. M. RITTENHOUSE. National Director. Girl Scouts. Inc.

C.P.Co.

CONWAY

C.P.S.

CLIFFORD

C.Rd.

NORMAN

GUICE, M.A.

COE,

Manufacturing Co., East

Electric

Pitts-

A.B., LL.B. U.

S.

Oceanography at the Museum

Department

of

of

Power

Generation Netherlands (m

Comparative Zoology, Harvard

American History, University

Idaho

of Idaho.

Girl Scouts

Patents

Commissioner of Patents. Washington.

Bureau of History and Records of The First Church of Christ,

I’arl)

Honduras (in fart) Hispanic America and the European War (in tn'!) Oceanography

Assistant in History, University of California.

SMITH, LL.B. Editor of CONYERS READ, A.M., Ph.D., B.LItt. P.

&

F.R.G.S. Secretary, Netherlands and Netherlands Indies Information Bureau, London.

O’D. ISELIN. Assistant Curator of University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

P.

Aquariums

Research Associate, Yale University.

Manager, A.C. Generator Engineering, Westinghouse Electric

Christian Science

Scientist.

American

Executive Secretary, American Historical Association, Philadelphia, Pa.

Historical

Association

C.R.Mp.

C.S.U

CLYDE R. MILLER, Ed.D. Secretary, Institute for Propaganda Analysis, New York. CHARLES S. LOBINGI ER, B.A., M.A., LL.M., Ph.D., D.C.L., D.Jur., J.U.D. Professor of Comparative Law and Historical Jurisprudence.

Propaganda Initiative and Referendum

American University. Washington. D.C.

Philippines,

wealth C.Sn.

CARMEL SNOW.

Editor of 11 ar per’f Bazaar.

\

Common-

of, etc.

Fashion and Dress

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

xi

Panama Canal and Canal Zone

C.S.Rf.

CLARENCE S. RIDLEY,

C.T.S.

CORNELIA TYLER SNELL,

C.V.A.

C. V. AKIN, M.D, Assistant Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Division of Sanitary Reports and Washington, D, C.

C.Was.

CARLETON WASHBURNE,

U.S.A. Governor of the Panama Canal Zone.

B.S., M.A., Ph.D. Author of many scientific and trade-journal articles. Co-author Foster D. Snell of Colorimetric Methods of Analysis^ Vols. I and II; Chemicals of Commerce.

A.B., Ed.D.

Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka,

111 .

wth

Cellulose Products

Statistics,

Public Health Services

Wice-President, Progressive

Education, Progressive

Education Association.

CHARLES W; GILMORE, B.S, CHARLES W. RAM5DELL, Jr. CARL W. STOCKS. Editor, Bxis

C.W.Gi. C. W.Ra.

c.w.s,

Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology. United States National Museum.

Palaeontology

Author

Texas

of various historical works.

Transportation,

New

Motor Transportation

York.

(f;r

CARL ZEISBERG. Former President, CYRUS MACMILLAN, P.C., Ph.D.

c.z.

Cy.M.

I

Professor of English and

Chairman

of the

D.B.S.

D.C.H.J.

D. C,

HENRIK JONES, F.L.A. Librarian and Information Officer. The Library .Association, London. DONALD C. McKAY, A.B., M.A,, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Histor>% Harvard University. Editor,

D.C.McK.

History of Modern EitroPe (Harpers. 1936) and Makers of

Modem

D.C.So.

DAVID CHURCHILL SOMERVELL. M.A.

D.D.L.

DON

D.Dp.

DOROTHY DRAPER. President of Dorothy Draper, Inc. DAVID DUNCAN WALLACE, A.M., Ph.D., Lftt.D., LL.D.

Author of The

Europe (biographical

British

Prince Edward Island

Department. McGill University.

DAVID BRUNT, M.A., B.Sc. Professor of Meteorologj', Imperial College of Sdence and Technologj', London. DAVID BARNARD STEINMAN, B.S., C.E., Ph.D. Authority on the design and construction of long-span

D. Bru.

part)

Table Tennis

United States Table Tennis Association.

England.

Meteorology

bridges.

Bridges

D.D.W.

LESCOHIER, Ph.D.

part)

Libraries {in part)

France

Essays in the

(i« Pari)

series).

Empire; The Reign of King George

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

the Fifth.

Kingdom D.

(fit

of (*« part)

and Lock-outs Unemployment, etc.

Professor of Economics. University of Wisconsin. Madison. Wis.

Strikes

Interior Decorating Professor of History

and Economics

in

South Carolina

Wofford College,

Spartanburg, South Carolina,

DAVID de SOLA POOL, D.Ph. Rabbi, DOUGLAS G. WOOLF. Editor-in-chief,

D. de S.P.

D.G.Wo.

Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue Shearith

New

Israel.

Jewish Religious Life

York.

Cotton

Textile World.

(i« Part)

Textile Industry

D.Ho.

DAN HOLLAND.

D.Ka.

D.R.G.

DANIEL KATZ, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychologj', Princeton University. DOROTHY ODENHEIMER. Assistant to the Director of Fine Arts. Art Institute. DAVID ROBERT GENT. Rugby Football Critic to The Sunday Times, London.

D.R.O.H.

DAYRELL REED OAKLEY

D.O.

Angling

Fishing Editor, Firid b" Stream.

HILL. Captain, Indian Army,

retired.

Psychology Art Exhibitions, etc.

Chicago.

Football

Albania

Lieutenant Colonel and inspector, A}banJan

{in Part)

(in part)

Gendarmerie.

DAVID SAVILLE MUZZEY, A.B., DANIEL STARCH, M.A., Ph.D.

D.S.MU.

B.D., Ph.D,

Professor of Historj% Columbia University,

New

United States

York.

D,St.

Business Consultant and Director of the Department of Research. .American Association of Advertising Agencies, New York.

D.V.

DOUGLAS VEALE, C.B.E., M.A. Registrar of O.vford D. W. ELLSWORTH. Editor, The A7tttalisi.

D.W.E.

University. !

DlON WILLIAMS, D.S.M., B.Sc. Brigadier General, United States Marine Corps. DAVID YANCEY THOMAS, Ph.D, Professor and Head of the Department of History

D.Wi, D. Y.T.

-versity of

E. A.Ash.

E.

Oxford University Financial Review Marine Corps

and

Political Science, Uni-

Arkansas

Arkansas, Fayetteville, .Ark.

ALLEN ASHWIN,

EDITH ABBOTT,

E.Ab,

{in pari)

Advertising

B.A. Sometime of the Editorial

Norway Sweden

Staff. Encyclopa:dia Brilannica.

Ph.D., LItt.D., LL.D. Professor of Social Economy and Dean. School

of Social Service

Administra-

(*« Part) {in part), etc.

Social Service

tion, University of Chicago.

EDWARD ALPHONSO GOLDMAN.

E.A.G.

Senior Biologist, Biological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washing-

ton.

EDGAR

E.A.Gd.

A.

GRUNWALD.

Editor. Variety Radio Directory.

Radio, Industrial Aspects of

EDGAR ALLISON PEERS,

E.A.P.

Panion

to

M.A. Professor of Spanish. University of Liverpool, England. .Author of Spain, Spanish Travel; Studies of the Spanish Mystics; etc.

A Com-

EDWIN BORCHARD, A.B., LL.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of International Law, Yale University, New Haven. Conn. EDWARD B. DUNFORD, LL.D. Attorney, Legal Department. The Anti-Saloon League of America. EDGAR B. LANDIS. Trust Officer, Chemical Bank & Trust Company, New York. Member of the Faculty of Colum-

E.Bd.

E.B.Du. E.B.L.

bia University Extension,

American Institute

of

EARLE B. PHELPS, B.S. Professor, Sanitary* Science, EMIL BLYTGEN-PETERSEN. London Editor of the

E.B.Rd.

E. B.

REID.

CHARLES

Director, Information

MARRIAGE,

E.C.D.M.

E.

E.Cul.

ELY CULBERTSON.

Ed. El.

EDGAR

D.

ELLIS.

Portugal

(*;:

Part), etc.

International

Law

Anti-Saloon League

Banking

Banking.

E.B.-Pn,

E.B.Ph.

Bird Refuges Wild Life Conservation

College of Physicians and Surgeons,

New

Public Heatth Engineering

York.

Denmark

Nationaltidende of Copenhagen.

and Extension, Farm Credit Administration, Washington. D. C.

B.A. Librarian, Nevada State Librarj'.

President. National Bridge Association.

(i» Part)

Federal Land Banks

Nevada

Editor, The Bridge World Magazine.

Contract Bridge

Librarian, The Sunpapers, Baltimore.

Baltimore

Maryland

EDWARD EDWARD

E.D.F. E.E.B.

D. E.

FOSTER. Director, Colorado State Planning Commission, Denver, Colorado. BENNETT, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Associate Professor of History' and Political

Colorado Science,

Montana State

Montana

University, Missoula.

EDMUND E. DAY, Ph.D., LL.D. President, Cornell Unii'eisity, Ithaca. N, Y. EDITH ELMER WOOD, Ph.D. Consultant, U. S. H. A. Autlior of The Housing of Iht Unskilled Wage-Earner; etc. EDWARD F. DOW, Ph.D. Head of the Department of History and Government, University of Maine. ERNEST FREMONT TITTLE, D,D. Minister, First ^lethodist Church, Evanston, Illinois. EDGAR G. JOHNSTON, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Secondary' Mucation and High School Visitor in the Bureau of

E.E.D.

E.E.WO. E.F.D. E.F.T. E.G.J.

Co-operation with Educational Institutions. University of Michigan.

E.Gru.

'

ERNESTGRUENING, M.D.

Governor of Alaska.

EARLE

E.H.CO.

EDWARD

H.

CLAPP, A.B. H. COLLINS.

Associate Chief. Fore*.

Presi-

Academy

of

Gynaecology and Obstetrics

Northwest Territories

R. A.

Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Rural Electrification

Washington, D.C.

R.BI.

ROY BLOUGH.

R.B.S.

RUTH

R.B.W. R.D.Hu.

Retail Sales

Chemotherapy

Dance,

PHILIP

liSH

for International

Settlements

P.P.G.

dent.

Heart and Heart Diseases

Lecturer on Medicine, Harvard University Medical School, Boston, Mass.

PATRICIA PARMELEE,

P.Pa.

Foreign Investments in the United States

A.B., Ph.D. Economic .Analyst, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. A.

R. B, !

WHITE,

Tax Research. U.

Director of

SHIPLEY.

B.

S. Treasurj’

Department. Washington.

Chief of the Passport Division of the Department of State.

President,

The Western Union Telegraph Company. New York. Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. Dean of the Graduate School and Pmfessor of Economics, Uni-

ROCKWELL D. HUNT, A.M.,

Income Tax {in part) American Citizens Abroad Telegraphy Los Angeles

versity of Southern California, Los .Angeles.

R.E.E.H.

R.F.K.

REUBEN ROBERT

E. E.

HARKNESS,

KELLEY.

F.

B.D., Ph.D. President of the American Baptist Historical Society.

Sports Writer. The

New

Baptist

Rowing R.Fs.

R.G.Ha.

R.G.Hu. R.Git.

Church

Polo

York Times.

ROBERT FOSS. Editor, University of Wisconsin News Bureau. Madison. Wisconsin. ROSWELL GRAY HAM, Ph.D., LL.D. President of Mount Holyoke College. South Hadley, Mass. RAY G. HULBURT, D.O. Editor. The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association. ROY GITTINGER, Ph.D., LL.D. Dean of Administration and Professor of English Hislorj*. University of Oklahoma.

{in Part)

Wisconsin, University of

Mount Holyoke

College

Osteopathy

Oklahoma

Norman.

LELAND, M.D.

R.G.L.

R. G,

R.G.M.

MACDONALD. Vice-President, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. ROBERT G, SPROUL, LL.D. President. University of California. REGINALD H, FIEDLER. Chief. Division of Fishery Industries. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. RALPH HAYES, B.A. Executive Director, New York Community Trust. ROBERT HALE SHIELDS, A.M. Assistant in Histoiy, Univ’ersity of California. Berkeley.

R.G.S.

R.H.F. R.Hs.

R.H.Sh.

Socialized Medicine

Director of Bureau of Medical Economics. American Medical Association. Chicago.

Paper and Pulp Industry

R. G.

California, University of

Fisheries

Community Trusts California

{in part)

Spain {in part) Argentina (m Part), etc. R.ls.

RAPHAEL ISAACS, M.D.

R.J.K.

RAYMOND

R.Kn.

ROLF KALTENBORN. Columbia Broadcasting System Producer. RUSSELL L. CECIL, M.D. Professor of Clinical Medicine, Cornell University Medical ROSS LEE FINNEY. American Composer. Pupil of Boulanger. Berg. Roger Sessions,

R.U.C.

J,

KELLY,

Anaemia

Associate Professor of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School.

National Commander,

The American

American Legion

Legion,

Broadcasting School,

New

{in pari)

Pneumonia

York.

and G. Francesco Malipiero. 1938 Pulitzer Scholarship, Guggenheim Fellowship. Professor of Music, Smith College, Northampton. Mass.

Music Stanford University

Ro.St.

RAY LYMAN WILBUR, A.M., M.D., LL.D,, Sc.D. President, Stanford University, California. RONALD MATTHEWS. On the foreign staff of the London Daily Herald; \STiter on European affairs. ROBERT STEWART, B.S., Ph.D. Dean of College of Agriculture, University of Nevada, Reno.

Ro.Sto.

ROBERT STOKES.

R.L.Fy.

R.L.W. R.Ms.

Belgium {in Pari) Floods and Flood Control (in

Book

of the

Secretary, Press

^arO

Year

Church

History of

Georgia

of the Official

of

England

Church of England.

R.P.Br.

RALPH

R.P.Bs.

ROBERT PRESTON BROOKS,

P.

and Publications Board. Church Assembly, London. Editor

BIEHER.

Associate Professor of History, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri.

Ph.D. Dean, School

of

Commerce. University

of Georgia;

Author of

Missouri

A

Georgia.

R.R.G. R.R.N.

ROY R, GRINKER, M.D. Chairman, Neuro-psychiatric Department, Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago. ROBERT R. NATHAN. Chief of National Income Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. U.

ment R.R.P.

Commerce, Washington.

of

RAYE

R.

PLATT.

Secretary,

American Geographical Society,

Nervous System S.

Depart-

National Income, etc.

New York.

American Geographical Society

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

• ••

XVIII

R.5I.

RUSSELL R. WAESCHE. Rear Admiral, Commandant, U. S. Coast Guard. KENNEDY, B.Sc. Editor-in-Chief, Family Herald and Weekly Star. Montreal, Canada. ROCK SLEYSTER. President, American Medical Association. Director of Milwaukee Sanitarium, Wauwatosa,

R.So.

RENZO SERENO,

R.R.W, R.S.K.

Coast Guard,

Canadian

R. S.

U.S., etc.

Literature

American Medical

Wis.

Association

Department

LL.D., Ph.D. Sometime Fellow of the Institute of International Education. Research Associate,

of Political Science, University of Chicago.

RICHARD W. BECKMAN. Director of Publicity, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. RALPH WYLIE FREY, B.S. Senior Chemist, hide, tanning materials, and leather investigations,

R.W.Be. R.W.F.

Chemistry and Engineering, U.

tural

Italy

S.

Iowa State College Bureau

Leather

of Agricul-

(in Part)

Department of Agriculture, Washington. Venezuela

(in part)

Germany,

etc.

S.C.Ro.

RALPH W. HASKINS, M.A, University of California, Berkeley, California. SIDNEY B. FAY, Ph.D., L.H.D. Professor of History, Harvard University and Radcliffe College, S. B. WILLIAMS, Litt.B., E.E. VAitor, Electrical World. SIDNEY CHANDLER HAYWARD, B.S., M.A. Secretary of Dartmouth College. SARAH C. ROBERT, President General, National Society Daughters of the American Revolution.

S.D.McC.

S. D.

Insurance, Marino

S.G.H.

MCCOMB. Manager, Marine Office of America, New York. STEPHEN DUGGAN, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Director, Institute of International Education, New York, SAMUEL G. HIBBEN, B.Sc., Hon. E.E. Director of Applied Lighting, Westinghouse Lamp Division, Westinghouse

SJ.McK.

S.

R.W.H. S.B.F.

S.B.Wi.

S.C.Ha.

Electrical Industries

Dartmouth Daughters

College

of the

American Revolution S.Dn.

Electric

(in Part)

Electric Lighting

and Manufacturing Company.

JUSTUS MCKINLEY, Ph.D. Professor of History and Social Science, Emerson College, Boston. SIDNEY JOHN WORSLEY, D.S.O., M.C., T.D. Academic Registrar, University of London, since 1930,

S.J.W.

Education

Boston and Acting

London

University

Canada

(in part)

Principal, 1936-37.

S.Lea.

STEPHEN LEACOCK,

S.McC.C.

SAMUEL MCCREA CAVERT,

S.McC.L.

SAMUEL MCCUNE LINDSAY,

B.A., Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

Professor Emeritus, McGill University, Montreal.

D.D. General Secretary, The Federal Council of the Churches

Federal Council of the

of Christ in America.

Churches of Christ Ph.D., LL.D. Professor Emeritus of Social Legislation, Columbia University,

International Labour

New

Organization

York.

S.M.Ha.

SHELBY M. HARRISON,

S.O.D.

SAIDIE

S.O.R.

SAMUEL 0

S.P.J.

S.

S.R.S.

SAMUEL RAY SCHOLES,

ORR DUNBAR.

Donations and Bequests Russell Sage Foundation

LL.D. General Director, Russell Sage Foundation,

President of the General Federation of

Women’s

Women's

Clubs, General Federation of

Clubs.

Cereals Livestock, etc.

. RICE, Ph.B. Formerly Director, Educational Department of the Investment Bankers Association, 1925-36. Formerly, Editor of Capper's Farmer and of the weekly Kansas City Star.

PAUL JOHNSTON, New

versity, Alfred.

Air Forces

B.S., Formerly Editor of Aviation.

Ph.D. Professor

New York

of Glass Technology,

York.

S.S.H.

S. S, HUEBNER, Ph.D., Se.D. President, American College of Life Underwriters. Professor of Insurance merce, Wharton ^hool of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

S.SI.

SIMON SEGAL. Member Poland and

the

of the staff of the International

Labour

Geneva, Switzerland. Author of The

Office,

Stock Exchanges Stocks

and Com-

New

,

M.D.

Poland

(i« Part)

Warsaw

Jews; etc.

SAMUEL SOSKIN,

S.So.

(in part)

Glass

State College of Ceramics, Alfred Uni-

Endocrinology

Assistant Professor of Physiology, School of Medicine of the Division of Biological Sciences,

1

1

University of Chicago,

S.Sp.

SIGMUND SPAETH,

st.s.

STEN SELANDER. Literary and dramatic critic for the Svensk Daghladet. SERGIUS YAKOBSON. Lecturer in Russian History, University of London,

S.Yak.

Studies,

Ph.D. President, National Association

for

American Composers and Conductors,

New

Music, Popular Scandinavian Literature

York.

(in part)

U.S.S.R.

School of Slavonic and East European

and Librarian.

T.Be.

THOMAS BEACH,

T.Bs.

TANCRED BORENIUS,

Principal, Kilburn Polytechnic,

London.

1

Education, Vocational (in part)

Ph.D., D.Lit., F.S.A, Secretary, Finnish Delegation to Economic Conference, London, 1933.

Professor of History of Art, University College,

T.C.B.

THEODORE C. BLEGEN,

London

Finland

(in part)

since 1922.

M.A., Ph.D., L.H.D. Formerly Secretary and Superintendent, Minnesota Historical So-

Minnesota

ciety.

T.C.Pe.

THEODORE C.

T.D.S.

T.H.MacD.

TOM DOUGLAS SPIES, M.D. Associate Professor of Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. THOMAS H. MACDONALD, B.C.E. Commissioner, Public Roads Administration, Federal Works Agency.

T.Hu.

TED HU5ING.

T.J.D.

THOMAS J. DEEGAN.

T,P.

THOMAS PARRAN, M.D. Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington. THOMAS PARK, S.B., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Zoology, the University of Chicago. THOMAS S. GATES, LL.D. President, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

T.Pk. T.S.G.

PEASE, Ph.B., Ph.D.

Professor of History, University of

Sports announcer for the Columbia Broadcasting System, President,

The

Fifth

Avenue Board

Illinois,

New

V.R. V.S.

VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON, auspices of the American

W.A.Br.

Museum

WILLIAM ADAMS BROWN,

Pellagra

Roads and Highways Golf

York.

of Promotion, Inc.,

VIVIAN PIERCE. Director, American League to Abolish Capital Punishment. VIOLA RIPLEY, B.Sc. Assistant Lecturer in Biology, Huddersfield Technical

V.PI.

Illinois

Urbana.

New

Air Races

York.

^ Automobile Racing,

WILLIAM

W.A.J.

WALTER ing,

New

A,

HAMOR.

,

Pennsylvania, University

College, Huddersfield, England, 1926-

A.M,, Ph.D., LL.D. Commander of the Canadian Arctic Expedition under the and the Geological Surrey of Canada, 1908-12, etc.

Zoological Gardens

Exploration and Discovery

of Natural History

M.A., Ph.D., D.D., S.T.D. Theologian. Editor, International Religions Library.

Mem-

Church Reunion Religion etc. Industrial Research,

Assistant Director of Mellon Institute of Industrial Research.

A. JESSUP, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., Lltt.D. President, Carnegie Foundation

for the

Advancement

of Teach-

Universities

and

Colleges

(in part)

York.

Surgery

w.c.

WILLIAM CROCKER,

Botanical Gardens

A.B., A.M., Ph.D. Director, Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research,

Inc.,

Yonkers.

W.D.Mn.

New

York. Associate editor of

US. Camera

Magazine.

American Publisher.

Law

Institute, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania.

Founder and partner

of firm,

Morgan and

Presbyterian Church

Botany American Law

N.Y.

WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS, LL.B., Ph.D., Director, WILLARD D. MORGAN, B.A, Writer, Photographer,

of

Capital Punishment

WALTMAN WALTERS, M.D., Sc.D. Professor of Surgery, University of Minnesota Graduate School of Medicine. WILLIAM BARROW PUGH, D.D. Stated Clerk, The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.

W.D.L.

.

Zoology

W.B.Pu.

Wa.Wal.

.

etc.

Venereal Disease Editor of Ecology.

ber Editorial Board, Religion in Life.

W.A.Ha.

.

Lester,

Institute

Photography, Miniature

Camera

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS E. GARRISON, LItt.D., B.D., versity of Chicago, Chicago.

xix

W.E.Ga.

W.

W.E.O.

WILLIAM E, OGILVIE. Press Relations. International Live Stock Exposition, Chicago. WAYNE EDSON STEVENS, M.A., D.Ph. Professor of History*, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire. WALTER F. BOGNER. Architect. Associate Professor of Architecture, School of Design. Harvard Univ’ersity. WILLIAM F. BRAASCH, M.D. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. Profe^r of UroIog>% University of Minnesota

W-E-Ss.

W.F.B. W.F.Br,

Ph.D. Associate Professor

of

Church History, Disciples Divonity House and Uni-

Disciples of Christ

Shows

(in part)

New Hampshire Architecture

Urology

Graduate School. Chairman, Editorial Committee, Journal of Urology.

WALTER

W.G.Ca.

G.

CAMPBELL,

LL.6.

Chief,

Food and Drug Administration, U.

Department

S.

of Agriculture,

Drugs and Drug Traffic

Wash-

W. GIBSON CAREY, Jp. President, Chamber of Commerce of the United States. WILLIAM HENRY CHAMBERLIN. Correspondent in France ior Christian Science

W.G.Cy. W.H.Ch.

China

Monitor. .Author of Russian Iron

Aee; The Russian Revolution, 19I7-19Z1; Japan Over Asia.

WALTON HARLOWE GREEVER,

W.H.G.

(in

part)

ington.

A.M., D.O., LL.D.

Japan, etc. Secretar>» of

The United Lutheran Church

in America.

New

Lutherans

York.

W. H. WILLSON,

W.H.Wn.

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

B.Sc. (Eicon.) Author of Markets of the Empire; Empire Trade.

Kingdom

Sweden

W, J. BRETT.

WJ.Bt. W.J.C.

'

WILLIAM

J.

Editor,

Fur Trade

Revieve,

CUNNINGHAM, A.M.

New York.

of (in Part) (in /*ar/). etc.

Furs

Professor of Transportation. Harvard University, Graduate School of Busi-

Railroads

(in part)

Manitoba Shows (in

Part)

ness Administration, Boston. ^

WJ.He. W.Ju. W.U.Be.

W. J. HEALY. WILL JUDY.

Editor of Do? n’orW.

WILLIAM

BENEDICT, M.D. The Mayo

L.

Formerly ProWndal Librarian of Manitoba. Canada.

Clinic, Rochester.

Minn. Professor

of Ophthalmology. University of

Min-

Eye, Diseases of

nesota Graduate School.

W.L.Pi.

WARREN LEE

W.L.T.

W.

PIERSON, LL.6.

President. Export-Import

Bank

Export-Import Bank of

of Washington.

Washington

W.Me.M. W.P.C. W.Pr.

TREADWAY, M.D. Assistant Surgeon General. U. S. Public Health Service. Washington. WHEELER MCMILLEN. Editor in Chief. Farm Journal and Farmer^s Wife. WILLIAM PITCHER CREAGER, C.E. Consulting Hydraulic Engineer. Author of Engineering for Masonry Dams, etc. WALTER PRICHARD, M.A. Head of the Department of History. Louisiana State University, University, l.a. Editor,

Intoxication, Alcoholic

L.

j

.

Chemurgy

Dams Louisiana

Louisiana Historical Quarterly. —

W.P.S.

W.T.M.

WALTER S. ADAMS, A.M,, D.Sc., LL.D. Director. Mount Wilson Obsei^-atory of the Carnegie Institution. WALTER S. GIFFORD, A.B., LL..O. President, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, New York. WILLIAM T. MANNING, D.C.L., LL.D. Bishop of New York.

W.T.St.

W, TETLEY STEPHENSON, M.A.

W.S.Ad.

W.S.G.

Cassel Reader in Transport at the

London School

of

Economics and

Political

Science.

Protestant Episcopal

Church Motor Transportation

(iit

part)

W.W.B.

WILLARD W. BEATTY.

W.Wh.

WALTER WHITE, ANONYMOUS.

X

Telescopes

Telephone

Director of Education, Office of Indian Aff^rs, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington.

B.A. Secretary, National .‘\ssodation for the Advancement

“QUEEN ELIZABETH,*’ largest liner afloat, was View (Wide World) shows her nearing New York

secretly fitted out in Scotland during

1939

of

Colored People,

for her surprise

New

York.

Indians, American

Lynchings

maiden voyage across the Atlantic

in

March 1940

1940

1939 S 1

JANUARV

JULY M T W T

F

91011 121314 1516171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

12

'

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

2021 22 23 2425 26 27 28 29 30 31 ....

MARCH

SEPTEMBER

;

171819 20 21 22 23

APRIL

OCTOBER 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12131415 16171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2 3 4 5 6

91011 1213

121314151617

11

4 5 6

4 5 6 7 8 910

121314151617 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30

2 9

'>•

2

2 3 4

13141516

3 4 5 6

7 8 91011 1213 1415161718 19 20

. '

21 22 23

24 25 26 27

28 29 30 " ,

OCTOBER

APRIL

.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12

.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12

13141516

1

JANUARY,

12131415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

MAY

3 6

8 10 10

1011 12 13141516 1718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

11

T

22 26

2 3 4 5 6 7

Candlemas.

14

Purification

23 23 24

25 26 of

8

91011 12 13 14

28

Ground Hog Day. Quinquagesima Sunday. Shrove Tuesday. Mardi Gras. Ash Wednesday. Beginning

Boy Scout Day, U.S.A.; 30th anniversary.

9 12 14 22 24 29

Mohammedan Year Birth of

Abraham

St. Valentine’s Day. Washington's Birthday, 1732. Feast of St. Matthias. Mi-Car6me.

St.

17 18

Palm Sunday.

20

Equinox. Beginning of spring. Maundy Thursday.

DECEMBER

1

2 3 4 5 6 7

of

Celebration of Dental Centenary begins at Baltimore.

Good Friday. Easter Sunday. Annunciation. Quarter Day. English Bank Holiday. Se\%'ard Day, Alaska.

APRIL Day.

1

All Fools’

6

Greek Independence Day.

5 7

17 18 19 23 24

Trooping the Colour in honour of King George Vi’s Birthday. His Majesty was actually born on Dec. 14. Children’s Day, U.S.A. Jewish Pentecost (Shebuoth). Flag Day. Father’s Day, U.S.A. Solstice. Beginning of summer. Longest day. St. John’s Day.

Daylight

June 3). Saving Time begins

1

3

Canada, Dominion Day. Admission of Idaho to Union; 50th anniversary.

Rogation Sunday.

May

JULY

(also

May 30,

10,

4 4 10

International Labour

Day.

11

Independence Day. Centenary, Cunard Line. Admission of Wyoming to Union; SOth anniversary. Battle of the Boyne; 250th anniversary (celebrated July 12).

Ascension Day. Cinco de Mayo, Mexican holiday. Sinking of “Lusitania”; 25th an-

14 15

Bastille Day. St. Swithin's

niversary.

21

Belgian Independence Day.

Whitsunday, S.A. English

Mother's Day. U.

Bank

Holiday. Centenary, birth of Alphonse Dau-

Norwegian Independence Day. ' Peace Day. Trinity Sunday. Feast of Corpus Christi. Italy entered

Day.

AUGUST 1

2 5 6 15 28

World War; 25th 31

Empire Day. Queen Victoria born,

29

Admission of Rhode

30

Union; 150th anniversary. Memorial or Decoration U.S.A.

Union Day, South

29 30

Island

3 6

17

Africa; 30th an-

JUNE 2

Centenary, birth of Thomas

8

Accession of Carol 11 to throne of Rumania; 10th anniversary.

Hardy.

31

2 16 17 23 23

26 27

Columbus Day. Jewish

Day

of

Atonement (^om

, /C ..V. (SucJewish Feast of Tabernacles coth). 1st day.

Trafalgar Day. Crispinian. St. Crispin and St. Navy Day, U.S.A.

Bo Bicentennial, birth of James

•

Hallowe'en.

NOVEMBER Day.

All Hallows.

All Saints'

4

Centenary, birth

5 5 9 11 11

28 30

suffrage to U.S. 19th amendment; 20th anniversary. National Air Races begin in Cleve-

beginning of

European war. Labor Day, U.S.A. Mexican Independence Day. Constitution Day. Autumnal equinox. American Legion national conven-

Aususf'

of

Rodin. National election day,

c i U.b.fl.

,T

Guy Fawkes Day. lx)rd

Mayor's Show, London.

Armistice Day. sun. Transit of Mercury across

Monet Centenary, birth of Claude st of St. Edmund. to throne -cssion of Wilhclmina .1 I-. rn*l. ^nntvrrsnrs. 1

Nov. 21). St. Andrew's Day, patron

.

/

saint, oi

Scotland.

DECEMBER 1 1

5

nin Advent. Beg car. ing of Ecclesiastical \ infinal 'ricenlennial. Portugal s epcndencc from Spain.

'irst

Sunday

Day. J.S.S.R. Constitution

8 17

mmaculatc Conception. .viation Day, U.S.A.

21

olsticc.

tion opens in Boston.

21

Beginning hortest day. orefathers’ Day.

Dominion Day, New Zealand. Society of Jesus; 400th anniver-

25

;hristmas.

26

oxing Day.

sary.

.

^

1

Assumption. Granting of

anniversary,

Total eclipse of sun. Jewish New Year (Hosh Hashanah), beginning year 5701. Summer Time ends (Great Bru-

well.

women by

First

Centenary, birth of Thomas Nast. Daylight Saving Time usually ends (U.S.A.). Michaelmas. Quarter Day. Feast of St. Jerome.

disk begins.

SEPTEMBER 1

niversary.

25 27 29

14 16 23

to

'j

ain).

12 12

land.

Day,

T——

11 12 13

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

OCTOBER 1

Swiss Independence Day, Greatest brilliancy of Venus. English Bank Holiday. Feast of the Transfiguration.

1819.

31

27 29

1

2 3 4 5 6

1

7 8 9 10

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

21

Day

anniversary.

24

21

..

8 91011 121314 151617 18 19 20 21

Mark’s Day.

Confederate Memorial

det.

Ireland.

22 24 25 25 30

St.

Festival.

13 13

^^^aIes.

Texas Independence Day. Girl Scout Day, U.S. A. St. Patrick’s Day, patron saint

21

1

12

David’s Day, patron saint of

2 12 17

24

MAY 2

1359 begins. Lincoln. 1809.

MARCH 1

vene.

of

Lent. 8

9 12 14 16

(U.S.A.).

28

9

Congress; 150th anniversary. Pan American day; SOth anniversary. founding of Pan American Union. Jewish Passover, 1st day. St. George’s Day. First conference of United Methodist Church scheduled to con-

May

the

Virgin.

2 4 6 7

JUNE

he year 1940 of the Christian Era corresponds to the year of Creation 5700-5701 of the Jewish Calendar; to the year 1358-59 of the Mohammedan Hegira; to the year 2600 of the Japanese Empire; to the 164th of

Annular eclipse of sun. First patent act passed by U.S.

5

.

1

1

7 10

FEBRUARY 2

16171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

sary.

Septuagesima Sunday. New Zealand claimed for England; 100th anniversary. Feast of St. Chrysostom. Foundation Day, Australia.

22

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

the United States; and to the 172nd year of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

May 1840. Festival of St. Veronica. Eve of St. Agnes.

21

121314151617

Jackson Day, League of Nations; 20th anniver-

in

13 20

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12 13 1415

DECEMBER 2

151617181920 21

Centennial of first penny postage, in England; stamps were first used

NOVEMBER

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910

2

1

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

1940

5 6 7 8 91011

13141516171819

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Year's Day. U.S. Congress convenes. Epiphany, or Twelfth Night.

OCTOBER

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12131415 16

New

28 29 30

17 18 19

NOVEMBER

12 13 1415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 29 30 31 .

21 22 23 24 25 26 27

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 . . .

2 3 4

5 6 7 8 91011

2 3 4 5 6

1

1415161718 1920

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

31

1

•

7 8 91011 1213

5 6 7 8

91011 12 1314 15 161718 1920 21 22

MAY

,

5 6 7 8 91011

1

'

SEPTEMBER ..

1

APRIL

..1 S.

DECEMBER

181920

7 8

18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2 3

171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

.

MARCH 1

11 12

151617181920 21

JUNE

23 24 25 26 27 28

31

...

-

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 ....

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213141516

91011 12131415 16171819 20 21 22

1213 14151617

IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

MARCH

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 121314

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4 5 6 7 8 910 11

^

1

12131415161718

11

21

1

2 3

1

.

.

AUGUST

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

V

T

FEBRUARY

AUGUST

1

^

14151617181920

1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 91011

H

13141516171819

-..'f

1

W T F S .... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112 S

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

1819 20

NOVEMBER

7 8

JULY S

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

MAY

JANUARY M T W T F

S

12131415161718

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

,

/C /I

’

3 4

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ..

S

19 20

•

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213141516

1

F

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

u''~’

5 6 7 8 91011 12131415161718

..

T

FEBRUARV “

P-

13141516171819

12

*

AUGUST

3 4 5 6 7 8 91011

W

1415161718

91011 12131415 161718 19 20 21 22

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CALENDAR OF EVENTS, 1959 For elections, disasters, and assassinations of 1939, see under those headings in the text. For obituaries of prominent persons who died during 1939, see under the entry Obituaries.

n

Chiang Kai-shek ordered arrest of approximately 200 followers of Wang Ching-wei, former premier expelled from

Chinese Gov’t for attempted peace negotiations with Japan.

Frank Murphy succeeded

2 Homer S. Cummings as

U.S.

attorney general.

Premier Daiadier began "colonial solidarity" tour with visit to Ajaccio, Corsica.

Seventy-sixth gress convened

U.S. ;

Con-

report of

Senate’s committee on campaign expenditures charged use of funds for political purposes in three States.

WPA

Adequate national de-

4 fence and preservation of democracy against encroachments of authoritarian States urged by Roosevelt in message to Congress on state of the Union.

Cabinet of Fumimaro Konoye resigned; Baron Kiichiro Hira-

numa named Japanese

newly-discovered land

Deficit

by

of

Appeals, second district, resigned after charges of accepting money from litigants in his court; he

appropriation from $875,000,000 requested by Roosevelt to S725,000,000; the Senate approved the reduction on January 27 by

47 to 46 vote. to

Japan

$3,326,000,000

against violation of Nine-Power treaty, but offered to negotiate modifications to pact.

jC

Tarragona fell to Spanish

iu

Insurgents

steady drive of Gen. Franco’s troops toward

IP BombingsinManchester, lU Liverpool, Belfast, and London attributed to terrorists of

outlawed Irish Republican Army. confirmed appointments of Felix

Catalonia.

Czech and Hungarian 6 troops clashed near Munkacevo on new Ruthenian frontier.

Thomas J. Mooney par7 doned by Gov. Culbert Ol-

surgent troops surrounded Barcelona and cut off escape of refugees.

Q| L\

files

of union.

Field

Marshal Goering

George Rublee, Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees, to resume Jewish emigration coninvited of

by dismissal

Hjalmar Schacht.

All officers of German QQ LL army ordered to join the

Reich Warrior League, political unit of the National Socialist

New Reich Chancellery law decreed in Barcelona as Insurgent Martial

Hitler in

23

FEBRUARY Roosevelt’s declaration of support for European democracies provoked bitter debate in Senate; German and Italian newspapers attacked statement as war agitation. I

00 Zu

Barcelona surrendered to Gen. Franco’s troops with-

out struggle.

French Gov’t refused to accept appointment of Masayuki Tani as Japanese Ambassador to

QT

mingham.

party.

Berlin.

Loyalist Gov’t fled to Gerona and Figueras as In-

Homer Martin

of Dr.

by Adolf

on Zu

mand to dominate the world by force,” asserted Prime Minister Chamberlain in address at Bir-

seized

putedly’ told Senate military’ affairs committee; he outlined practical measures by which

U.S.A. would help France and in war.

Reichsbank and appointed Walther Funk to succeed him. expelled 15 members of United Automobile Workers’ executive board and

Ql America’s frontier is in 01 France, Pres. Roosevelt re-

Great Britain

The democracies would QQ ZO unite in resisting any “de-

ferences interrupted

dedicated

Union; Martin resigned from the C.I.O. executive board January’

Hitler removed Dr. HjalL\j mar Schacht as president of

Repeal of taxation immunity of public em-

ing.

9

United Automobile Workers’

on

as attorney -general.

director

join Republicans.

ity.

4 C.I.O. announced it would Zt support Homer Martin’s opponents in internal strife of

January' 23.

Supreme Court and Frank

son of California after 22 years’ im;irisonment for alleged implication in San Francisco bomb-

Rooseveltin Jackson Daydinner address pleaded for unity in Democratic Party and invited dissentient Democrats to

enjoin competitiv’e activi-

Tennessee Valley’ Author-

gress.

of

IQ lu

mountain chain in surprise offensive on Estremadura front; Insurgents captured Borjas

ties to

ployees recommended by Pres. Roosevelt in message to Con-

Frankfurter as associate justice

2).

ties of

Pres. Roosevelt revealed he had authorized purchase by’ France of large number of most modern American fighting planes; Senate military affairs committee requested explanation of presence of French aviation representative aboard latesttype light bomber which crashed

If

Felix Frankfurter appointed associate justice of U.S. Supreme Court to succeed the late Ben-

Spanish Gov’t troops seized

Senate

(March

Buffalo.

France.

U.S.

later indicted

U.S. Supreme Court dismissed suit of 14 private utili-

in

Barcelona.

Murphy

jamin N. Cardozo.

was U.S. Army pursuit plane attained speed of 575 m.p.h. fastest man has ever travelled in power dive during test at

IH protested

budget message to Congress.

in

cost $850,000,000 annually, submitted by Pres. Roosevelt to Congress for study.

House of Representatives reduced relief deficiency

note

motives.”

Ant-

premier.

for fiscal year 1940 estimated Pres. Roosevelt in annual

Blancas

in

rangement or agreement.”

IT

5

Hopkins confirmed

Martin T. Manton, senior judge of U.S. Circuit Court of

10 Chamberlain concluded \L two-day visit to Mussolini with “no new commitment, ar-

British

L.

0 Sec’y of Commerce by 58 to as 27 vote of Senate after bitter debate on qualifications.

cized “warmongers” in the democracies, especially’ the U.S.A. and pledged armed help to Italy if latter were to be'come involved in war “regardless of its

National health program, to

arctica for U.S.A.

14

Harry

I2mi.

of

claimed 81,000 sq.mi.

IQ lO

troops pushed to within of Loyalist capital.

Ellsworth

Lincoln

JANUARY

3

in Ambassadors Joseph P. lU Kennedy and William C. Bullitt warned joint congressional committee on military affairs of imminent European

Z/

U.S. State Dept, an-

2 nounced

British waiver of agreement on reciprocal schedule for transatlantic air sert’ice, thus permitting .^^merican lines to begin flights at any’ time.

Premier Paul-Henri Spaak of Belgium beaten by’ mob of war veterans

who

protested his ap-

pointment to academy’ of medicine of phy’sician convicted as

German sy’mpathizer during World War. U.S.S.R. severed diplomatic

re-

lations with Hungary after latter nation had joined anti-Comintern pact.

Thomas

Roosevelt denied published reports that he had declared -American frontier to be in France; he said U.S.A. is against any foreign alliances and favours

and

disarmament, share in world trade for all nations, and “political, economic, and social inde-

3

Lord Chatfield succeeded

Sir

Inskip as British minister for co-ordination of defence; Inskip became Dominions sec’y’ Sir Reginald

Dorman-Smith

minister of agriculture.

pendence ” of every State.

Thousands of Spanish QQ Zu refugees crossed French

Dies committee investigation on un-.Mnerican activities extended for year by’ House of Representatives, 344 to 35.

border in mass trek as Franco’s army marched through northern Catalonia with scant resistance.

Germany “wants peace

William Phillips, U.S. Ambassador to Italy, protested in-

and quiet,” but is determined to regain colonial posses-

vectives in Fascist press against Pres. Roosevelt.

sions, Hitler declared in Reichstag speech; he denied religious persecution in Germany’, criti-

4

Qfl

OU

Renewed on

frontier clashes Soviet-Japanese border

9

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939

2 FEBRUARY — Continued near Manchuli reported by choukuoan Gov’t.

by House

Man-

of

Representatives,

269 to 103.

Premier Paul-Henri Spaak

of

to purchase propCommonwealth and

Southern Corporation

in

Tennes-

see for $78,000,000.

George Rublee resigned

as

Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees.

director

TVA agreed of

Sec’y of Treasury Morgenthau declared U.S. stabilization fund had made net profit of

of

Golden

$12,000,000 since 1934.

Gate InternaIP 10 tional Exposition opened at San Francisco.

in Pope Pius XI died at VatilU can City; he was buried in

IQ Peruvian troops speedily 13 subdued revolt during ab-

the crypt of St. Peter’s February

sence of Pres. Benavides; Gen. Antonio Rodriguez, leader of the attempted coup, was slain.

France opened border at

5 ist

Perthus to retreating Loyalarmy, estimated at 200,000

men.

14.

Dragisha Cvetkovic sworn in as Yugoslav premier to succeed Milan Stoyadinovid, who resigned February 4.

e

U.S. Senate rejected appointment of Floyd H. Roberts as district Judge of Virginia, 72 to 9; the action touched off a bitter verbal battle between Pres. Roosevelt and Sen. Carter Glass.

James

J.

Hines found

on 13 charges of

guilty

participation

in

“numbers”

Belgium resigned. erties

inspect fleet manoeuvres in Caribbean.

Japanese occupation

racket; he was sentenced to serve four to eight years in prison March 23.

Polish students attacked German embassy at Warsaw but

cheered Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian foreign minister

on

visit of State.

Italian

British Gov’t announced

of Hai-

nan island imperilled British and French defences of possessions in Far East. Loyalist cabinet met in Valencia to reorganize administration in central Spain; Gov’t moved to Madrid February 12.

H

citizens began mass

repatriation from France.

U.S. Navy began war

of 22,000 members of German-American Bund

to Arab- Jewish Conference in London that it proposed to relinquish mandate over Palestine and set up independent State; Jewish delegates rejected plan next day.

in New York city precipitated disorders and drew large crowds of anti-Nazis to scene.

France and Great Britain granted unconditional rec-

games

in Atlantic

and Car-

ibbean.

Mass meeting

ognition to Franco’s Gov’t.

Franco demanded unconditional surrender of Loyalists with no guarantee of plebiscite or of amrtesty for Gov’t leaders.

Foreign Minister Alvarez Vayo announced Loyalists would continue resistance to Insurgents in central and

7

dei

10 Nazi plan for systematic \L emigration of German Jews disclosed by George Rublee at meeting of Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees in London; proposal envisaged permitting Jews to earn living while waiting to emigrate.

south-eastern Spain.

D. Brandeis IQ Justice Louis 10 retired from U.S. Supreme

Palestine conference opened

Court.

in

Chamberlain pleaded for reconbetween Jewish and

Arab

delegations.

mons to pay for expenses of rearmament in 1939-40. Existence of U.S. Export-Import Bank extended to June 30, 1941

by House

tives,

280 to

French military mission

U.S. A. announced purchase of 500 additional U.S. war

It

in

Britcapital ship,

ish 35,000-ton

$150,000,000 to restore cut in original $875,000,000 deficiency appropriation.

first 35,000-ton battleship, the "Bismarck,” launched at Hamburg.

launched by King George VI at

U.S.S.R. and Italy resumed commercial relations severed

|C House of Representatives lu voted 367 to 15 to add 3,000 planes to U.S. air force;

since 1937.

Germany's

Senate increased

Gen. Jose Miaja, com8 mander of Loyalist defenders

of

Madrid,

asked

French

Gov’t for a safe conduct.

to 6,000

on March

total

Great Britain announced it would build two more battle-

of Minorca surrendered to Spanish Insurgents after peace negotiations aboard British cruiser, which later evacuated 450 Loyalists.

after admitting truth of charges that his great-grandfather was a

Alex Henshaw, British flyer, broke all speed records from England to Cape Town, making round trip in 4 days, 10 hours, 16 minutes.

Bela Imredy, anti-Semitic premier of Hungary, resigned Jew; Count Paul Teleki formed new cabinet February 16.

'1

feated

Guam

by House

de-

of Repre-

sentatives, 205 to 168.

Sec’y of Commerce Hopkins said in Des Moines address that New Deal had shifted emphasis of its economic program from reform to recovery and was determined to encourage private business and capital.

Hungarian Nazi organization |P Wayne C. Taylor resigned ID as Assistant Sec’y of Treas-

dissolved and leaders jailed.

after reported rift over (^v’t policy of extending credit

Pres. Roosevelt requested John L. Lewis and William Green to negotiate “peace with honour” between C.I.O. and A.F. of L.; Green accepted proposal same day; Lewis on Feb-

uiy'

to foreign nations.

yi No new

Taxation of all Federal, State, and municipal employees voted

to fortify

under con-

struction to 9.

Island

Unidentified ship radioed 0 . 5 . that it had been torpedoed by unknown submarine south of Azores; search for sinking vessel proved fruitless. S.

Bill

Brazilian foreign minister, arrived in U.S. A. on “good-will” tour.

9

Newcastle.

7.

ships, bringing total

0swaldo Aranha,

number

taxes contem-

plated, said Pres. Roosevelt in press conference en route to

1/

or

ZJ

ruary' 28.

Court,

republic.

MARCH Air Force consolidated under direction of I Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold. U.S.

“King George V,” new

planes.

Supreme

Manuel Azana resigned as president of the Spanish

Brit-

Hongkong, killing Indian policeman and wounding others.

Roosevelt requested additional

WPA

decision of U.S. 5 to 2.

77.

ish railroad station in

lyj

Sit-down strikes outlawed by

of Representa-

Japanese planes bombed

London; Prime Minister

ciliation

Legal borrowing limit of British Gov’t extended to £800,000,000 by House of Com-

Q| Zl

Eugenio Cardinal

2

Pacelli

elected pope on second day he

of cardinals’ conclave; lected title of Pius XII.

se-

Marshal Philippe Petain appointed French Ambassador to Franco’s Gov’t.

3

Pius XII expressed "hojx and appeal for peace” m

first

public address.

Robert E. Wood appointed adviser to Sec’y of

Gen.

Commerce Hopkins. Democratic form

4 ernment

e.xtolled

of gov-

by

Pres.

Chief Justice Hughes in addresses cclebr.^ing 150th anniversary of U.S. Con-

Roosevelt

and

gress.

The pictures on this left

page arc,

to right:

RUBLEE

Jan. 21 Jnn. 30 Feb.

IMREDY HUGHES

Fob. 15 .Mar. 4

MANTON ARANHA

.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939 MARCH — Confinved

Cochran-Warren reorganizapassed by House of Representatives, 246 to 153; Senate approved, 63 to 23, on

tion

Laurence A. Steinhardt appointed TJ.S. Ambassador to Russia.

bill

March

22.

U.S.A. refused recognition of protectorates over Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia; note of State Dep’t called occupation an act of “wanton law-

German

lessness

Japan claimed capture Haichow

of

new

intensive campaign against guerrillas in northin

Palestine Conference meetings suspended by order of British Gov’t.

ern China.

U.S.-Braziiian

Juan

5

Negrin

ousted

as

9

cial

commer-

agreements concluded

by Gen. Segismundo Casado, army chief, who formed national

at Washington; terms provided for extension of more than Sioo,000,000 in credit to Brazil.

defence council; revolt against Loyalists at Cartagena naval base suppressed.

in Premier Josef Tiso of lU Slovakia ousted by Czech

premier of Republican Spain

Gen. Jose Miaja became

6

president of Madrid’s de-

Communists berevolts against new

fence council;

gan

series of

Gov’t.

Japan announced

six-year

naval building program to cost 1,700,000,000 yen and give nation parity with U.S. and Britain.

7

Gov’t; he addressed appeal to Hitler for assistance in proclaiming complete independence of Slovakia from Prague. Stalin, in opening address before i8th Communist Party congress in Moscow, accused democracies of attempting to provoke Soviet-German war.

C.I.O. proposed formation a single federation of

American labour.

Armand

Calinescu appointed

premier of Rumania after death Miron Cristea the preceding day.

of

United Automobile Workers’ union, with Homer Martin as president, formally seceded from the C.I.O.

Spanish Repubiican

fieet of II vessels voluntarily interned at Bizerta, French naval base in Tunisia.

Mohandas Gandhi ended four-day fast in protest against autocracy of Thakore Saheb of Rajkot; British viceroy agreed to submit dispute to Chief Jus-

Nineteen divisions of 300,-

8

000 British troops would be sent to France in event of war, Leslie Hore-Belisha announced to

House

of

£ 5 ,-

000,000 credit to China to support the Chinese dollar.

The pictures on this page are, left

to right:

MIAJA GANDHI VICTOR EMMANUEL.

MORGENTHAU LEBRUN

Mar. 6 Mar. 7 Mar. 23 Mar. 24 Apr. 5

IP Dictatorial powers to rule 10 by decree granted Premier Daladier by Chamber of Deputies; French ambassador to Berlin

ordered to return to Paris.

Increase of 25% on German import duties announced by U.S. Treasuiy.

Reich concluded five-year

King Victor Emmanuel opened new Italian Chamber of Fasces and Corporations with speech in which he avoided direct mention of French-Italian con-

tin

von Neurath named Reich Bohemia and Mor-

protector of avia.

and emphasized

troversies

Rome’s desire for peace.

Postponement

protests over annexa-

tion of Czecho-Slovakia; Nazi foreign office recalled ambassador to London; Baron Constan-

in-

trade treaty with Rumania.

Germany rejected French and British

and

“political independence

tegrity” of Slovakia for 25 years.

crease

of in-

in U.S. social securi-

ty taxes and reduction of fund’s reserve recommended by Sec’y of Treasury Morgenthau.

Earl Durand, Wyoming mountaineer, shot self after eight-day man hunt during

premier of Slovakia as German troops massed on bor-

Russian recognition.

der near Bratislava.

Berlin welcomed Hitler as “aggrandizerof the Reich’’ upon his return from tour of Bohemia.

tabled resolution which sought to impeach Sec’y of Labor Frances Perkins.

Dr.

Karl

Sidor

named

Luigi Cardinal Maglione appointed papal secretary of state

by Pius XI 1

British Gov’t

.

10 Pope Pius XII crowned \L on balcony of St. Peter’s. 10 lu

German ultimatum to Prague reputedly de-

manded

division of nation into three “independent” states.

1^ Republic of Czecho-Slo14 vakiacolIapsedasSio\'akia and Ruthenia declared independence; Hungarian troops began occupation of Ruthenia after skirmishes with Czech troops; Tiso reinstated vakian premier. Josef

as

Slo-

1C Dr. Emil Hacha “reIJ quested” German protectorate over Czecho-Slovakia, which nation Hitler thereupon proclaimed non-existent; Hitler, preceded by German troops, entered Prague.

Commons.

Great Britain granted

force.”

which Germany guaranteed

which he

_

tice of India.

and arbitrary

Hungarian troops invaded eastern Slovakia shortly after treaty was signed at Berlin in

|n Soviet note to Berlin delu dared seizure of Czechoslovakia illegal and withheld

n of

3

Ip Hitler proclaimed proID tectorate over Bohemia and Moravia and assumed pro-

announced

that it was “in direct consultation with other governments” to form anti-Fascist bloc.

William O. Douglas nominated to Supreme Court by Pres. Roosevelt; he was confirmed by Senate April 4.

men.

of Representatives

Hitler declared “the Gerpeople stand shoulder to shoulder with the battleproved Italian nation.”

man

Mussolini suggested that France initiate discussions to solve "problems of Tunisia, Jibuti, and the Suez Canal.”

‘‘Yankee Clipper," with aboard, landed in Azores

21

on

Roosevelt abandoned request for increase in limitation of $45,000,000,000 on U.S. public debt, but asked Congress Pres.

to increase $30,000,000,000 limit on amount of bonds that may be outstanding at one time.

first lap of inspection flight for regular transatlantic ser\'ice.

Investigation of

by House

of

WPA

ordered Representatives,

352 to 27.

Nan-chang captured by Japanese troops.

Italian Fascist Grand Council voted approval of Germany’s territorial seizures and warned that an anti-Fascist coalition of democracies would

a

"herald war.” Pres. Albert Lebrun of France arrived in London on state visit;

both he and King George VI

re-

affirmed Franco-British identity

tection of Slovakia at invitation of Josef Tiso; Hungary formally announced annexation of

of interests.

Ruthenia.

German Empire; Reich agreed in formal treaty to give Lithuania access to city as free

Lithuania yielded Memel

Madrid surrendered to Franco’s troops without resistance after

29-month

siege.

Reduction of $250,000,000 in payments for farm price parity in 1940 voted by House of Representatives.

Spanish

civil

war ended

after 32 months of fighting; Loyalists surrendered all remaining territory in southeastern Spain.

to

ambassador to

IT

British

If

Berlin recalled for consulChamberlain condemned

port.

tation;

Germany’s disregard pledges.

House

killed four

of written

Hitler

made triumphal

entry' into

Memel.

Premier Daladier, tional

in interna-

broadcast,

declared

negotiation with Italy was impossible without knowing nature and extent of Italian demands; he reiterated his statement that

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

4

MARCH — Continued

3 years old, beunder regency following death of his father, Ghazi I, in motor car Feisal

4

France would yield neither land nor rights.

II,

came king

of Iraq

accident.

Prime Minister Chamberlain announced in House of Commons that

British

Army would 340,000

by

Territorial

be increased to voluntary enlist-

ment.

Nazi conspiracy to seize Patagonia charged by Argentina after revelation of secret document reputedly signed by counsellor of German embassy

Buenos

in

Aires.

of aggression pledged

Japan annexed Spratly

is-

China Sea, formally claimed by France in South

in

the British fleet’s anti-aircraft guns; the remark was later suppressed by order of Prime Min-

Chamberlain, but appeared

U.S. aircraft carrier “Wasp” launched at Quincy, Mass.

and German army

Italian

5 chiefs conferred at Innsbruck as Italy prepared to occupy Albania. Albert Lebrun re-elected president of France by National As-

Joint of Representatives approved additional appropriation of $100,000,000 for WPA,

administration

6 Canton islands Britain

and

established

of

Enderbury by Great

and U.S.A.

290 to no. Italy invaded Albania; Albanian troops resisted for

7 _

APRIL

brief lona.

U.S.A. recognized Gov’t of Gen. Franco and lifted arms

I

embargo against Spain. 320,000

miners

in

chian

Appalaquit work

soft coal fields after expiration of contracts be-

tween

operators and Mine Workers’ union.

time

in

Durazzo and Va-

Thomas

Pendergast, political “boss” of Kansas City, indicted on charges of evading income tax; he pleaded guilty and was sentenced on May 22 to 15 months in prison. J.

Spain announced adhesion

to

Liberal

and Catholic par-

2

ties gained heavily in Belgian national election at expense of Socialists and Rexists.

Triple damages of $711 ,932 3 against union affiliate of C.I.O. awarded to hosiery com-

pany

in Philadelphia.

Prime Minister Chamberlain invited “co-operation of any country, whatever its system of government, in resistance to aggression.”

Col.

Josef Beck,

Polish foreign minister, arrived in London to discuss military alliance with Great Britain.

German budget included

for 1939-40

1,500,000,000 marks

8

Italian troops entered Tirana King Zog fled to Greece.

eral.

Lind-

tive

make survey

of military avia-

Herbert Benjamin, secretarytreasurer of Workers’ Alliance, admitted membership in Communist party.

Emmanuel

Prime Minister Chamberlain implied in Commons debate

Germany claimed

that Great Britain would fight to preserve independence of the Netherlands, Switzerland, and

of Italy but voted to retain semblance of autonomy.

230,000

sq.

mi. in Antarctica.

Denmark.

Plan to stabilize U.S. stocks in event of war discussed by bankers at meeting in New York

noeuvres

city.

;

IQ Guarantee of armed aslu sistance to Greece and Rumania pledged simultaneously by Great Britain and France.

cas with

all its strength, declared Pres. Roosevelt in speech before Pan American Union.

In identical notes to Hit-

IJ

ler

and Mussolini,

Pres.

Roosevelt asked for assurance that neither would invade 31 in-

dependent nations

of

U.S. Fleet ordered to return to

British note to Russia reputedly asked Soviet assistance for

Rumania and Poland

Occupation of Albania completed by Italian troops; Great Britain reputedly warned Rome against invasion of Corfu.

case latter nations were attacked.

IP lu

U.S.S.R.

proposed

for-

mation of triple defensive alliance by Great Britain, France, and Russia, according to T/ie

corre-

Chicago Daily

intention

ish

encircle

to

Brit-

axis

powers.

Pres. Roosevelt urged Democratic party liberalism.

to

unified

retain

Adolf Hitler’s 50th birthday celebrated by gigantic military parade in Berlin.

Mussolini called Roosevelt’s plea for peace an absurd proposal based on “pyramidal errors of geography”; he cited preparations for Rome’s fair of s 1942 as evidence of Italy peaceful intentions.

Leslie

Burgin appointed

ish minister of

supply to

Marketing Quotas

Agricultural Adjustment Act in

1 / of 1938 held constitutional by U.S. Supreme Court in 6 to 2 decision.

Nomination of Thomas R. Amlie to Interstate Commerce Commission withdrawn by

Pres.

Roosevelt after repeated attacks in Senate. ,

Italian

and German news-

papers, after day of

nounced

silence, deRoosevelt’s plea for

peace as demagogic and insolent; Hitler summoned Reichstag to hear personal reply April 28.

Bulgaria ordered dissolution of Ratnizi, Nazi party, after exposure of reported plot to overthrow Gov’t.

Arrival of Hirosi Salto’s ashes aboard U.S. cruiser in Yokohama occasioned public demonstrations of friendship toward U.S.A.

Brit-

requisi-

of tion military supplies in case

war.

News correspondents |T

in Netherlands increased lU border battalions to full wartime strength.

H

Viscount Halifax denied

in

9

justice in distribution of world’s goods among nations.

S.S. “Paris” of French IQ lu Li ne destroyed by fire at Le Havre; police investigated

Pacific.

Boston Bruins won world’s ice hockey championship by defeating Toronto Maple Leafs, 4 games to 1.

Easter sermon of Pope Pius XII deplored violation of international pacts but urged

demobili-

zation of Spanish army.

Europe

for at least 10 years.

nounced Italian invasion of Al-

paign to retake Canton.

R. G. Menzies elected leader United Australia party to succeed Joseph A. Lyons; he was commissioned to form cabinet two days later.

possibility of sabotage. |ir

Neivs.

Chinese troops recaptured Kaoan, west of Nan-chang, and claimed wide advances in cam-

fleet sailed for maSpanish waters.

in

Gen. Franco began U.S.A. would meet attack on any of the Ameri-

spondent of

bania as "threat to the peace of the world.”

German

of

Sec’y of State Hull, in note approved by Pres. Roosevelt, de-

for subsidy of exports.

Fred H. Brown confirmed by Senate as U.S. Controller Gen-

A.

WPA

Albanian assembly ofIb fered crown to King Victor

anti-Comintern pact. fight

to avoid encirclement by allies of Britain and France stressed by Hitler in speech at Wilhelmshaven after launching of battleship "Admiral von Tirpitz.”

Charles

bergh summoned to acduty in U.S. Air Corps to

tion.

and Asia

United

Germany’s readiness to

out.

U.S. Senate passed deffciency appropriation of $100,000,000, despite Roosevelt’s appeal for $50,000,000 more.

sembly.

1933-

House

European war broke

Col.

IP 10

some newspapers.

by Great

Britain and France; British action marked historic departure from policy of non-interference in eastern European affairs.

lands

Earl .Stanhope, First Lord of the Admiralty, declared that orders had been issued to man

in

Q| Immediate military asol sistance to Poland in event

eral

10

Slovakia yielded approximately 385 sq.mi. along eastern frontier to Hungary.

ister

Roosevelt inferred in conference that U.S.A. would become involved if genPres.

press

in

revealed that Germany had asked small nations mentioned in Roosevelt’s message of April 15 if they fe.ared aggression by Reich or if they had requested Roosevelt’s medi-

Europe

tral

ation.

Franco’s victory parade in Madrid again postponed; announcement was made in Rome and interpreted as strategy to delay

withdrawal

of

Italian

troops.

01

French Gov't adopted

one per cent to help pay cost of armaments.

Al

sales tax of

House of Representatives voted to extend, until June 30. to re1941, Roosevelt’s power value dollar.

t

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939 APRIL

— Continued

U.S. War Department ordered

Polish foreign office an-

nounced

it

had received no

questionnaire from

German

571 war planes after Pres. Roosevelt signed $549,000,000 appropriation for department.

Gov’t regarding Roosevelt’s note of April 15; Switzerland publicized its answer that it had “confidence in the respect for

Swiss neutrality.”

Pres. Roosevelt asked Congress to appropriate Si,750|000,ooo for relief in

ambassadorto

Germany,

Sir Nevile Henderson, returned to post in Ber-

Gen. George C. Marshall

appointed chief of staff of U.S. Army to succeed Gen. Malin Craig.

Eamon de Valera of Eire cancelled his trip to U.S.A. apparently because of problems Premier arising

from

agreed to “faithful collaboration” with Rome-Berlin axis.

Crown Prince Olav and Crown

laws, and full dictatorial powers. all

assumed

Marquess of Lothian appointed British ambassador to the United States to succeed Sir Ronald Lindsay.

Bishop Francis Joseph Spell-

man

of Boston appointed arch-

bishop of Pius XII.

New York by

Pope

Sec’ y of State H u U.S.A. had begun negotiations with Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands to barter cotton and wheat for rubber and 1 1

a n n o u n ced

tin.

First Gov’t reorganization plan of Pres. Roosevelt requested consolidation of 21 independent bureaus and departments into three offices Federal Security Agency, Federal Works Agency, and Federal Loan Agency.

Budget of £1,322,000,000, including estimated £630,000,000 for defence, introduced in House

Commons by

Sir John Simon; schedule provided for increase in income surtaxes, death duties, of

automobile

and

miscellaneous

taxes.

Fines and imprisonment for publication of racial propaganda decreed by French Gov’t.

Princess Martha of rived in U.S.A.

Norway

ar-

sion.”

3

as foreign commissarof

Seizure of Danzig by Germany would lead to war, asserted Prime Minister Cham-

sars.

berlain.

Latvia agreed to sign nonpact with Ger-

aggression

Northern

exempted

Ireland

conscription

jected Pres. Roosevelt’s plan for peace conference; revealed that he had asked Poland for return of Danzig and for strip of land across Polish corridor: denounced naval treaty with Britain and non-aggression pact with Poland; deniedany plan to attack U.S.A.; agreed to sign reciprocal nonaggression pacts \vith European nations upon their specific request.

Soviet aviators crashed on Miscou island, New Brunswick, Canada, on flight to New York from Moscow across Arctic circle.

Toll of deaths from two-day Japanese air-raids of Chungking estimated variously at 3,000 and

Bose, opponent of Gan-

dhi, resigned as president of All-

India National Congress: he was succeeded ne.xt day by Rajendra Prasad.

New York World’s Fair opened by Pres. Roosevelt. Gen. Jose Felix Estigarribia, hero of war in Chaco, elected president of Paraguay.

First television receiving sets for sale

in

New York

city.

MAY Daniel C. Roper, former U.S. Sec’y of Commerce, ( nominated as Minister to Canada.

tions Board.

New United Methodist

fore Sejm, refused Hitler’s de320,000 mand for return of Danzig and for road across Polish corridor.

coal miners in Midwest and West joined strike of

Appalachian miners between C.I.O. and operators broke down. after negotiations

Johnstown won G5th Kentucky Derby by six lengths; Challedon was second. Heather Broom third.

Rome

reported

that Pope Pius XII had instructed papal nuncios in Germany, Poland, Great Britain, Italy, and France to initiate conferences to prevent war.

Italy

and Germany an-

7 nounced

intention to conclude formal military alliance.

Duke

8

of

Windsor broad-

cast plea for international con-

ciliation; broadcast in Great Britain and

was barred Canada.

Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua declared in address

Pres.

before U.S. Congress that an inter-ocean canal across his nation would strengthen defence of

North America. U.S. Senate added $383,485,000 to $835,119,000 appropriated by House for agricultural parity payments, conserv'ation, and purchase of surplus com-

May

8,000,000 members, voted to hold first general conference in April 1940.

modities; 12

“Cash and carry” section

9 tuminous

pired.

sion and National Emergency Council recommended by Pres.

Church, with

bill

was passed

.

Abolition of National Biof U.S. Neutrality act of 1937 ex-

and Great Britain

signed economic treaty providing for British credit extension of £5,000,000 and purchase of tons of Rumanian wheat.

Japanese marines occupied Ku-Iang Su island, international settlement in harbour of Amoy, China.

Foreign Minister Josef 130,000 5 Beck of Poland, in speech be-

Journalists in

Subhas Chandra

Rumania 200,000

British-Turkish alliance \L announced by Chamberlain.

10,000. re-

10 n

by

In lengthy speech before

Reichstag, Herr Hitler

in Constantine A. OumanlU sky appointed Soviet am-

U.S.S.R. by V. Molotov, president of the council of commis-

military British Gov’t.

preliminary' accord with Croatian minority for granting of autonomy to latter.

offered

strike.

Litvinov replaced

Yugoslavian Gov't reached

.political

Pres. Roosevelt ordered United Mine Workers and coal operators to submit new proposals for prompt settlement of national

bassador to U.S.A.

Maxim

from

William M. Leiserson nominated to succeed Donald W. Smith on National Labor Rela-

Conscription of British youths between ages of 20 and 21 announced in House of Commons by Prime Minister Chamberlain; Parliament approved the measure next day.

to enforce conscrip-

many.

Two

Leon Henderson appointed by Pres. Roosevelt to Securities and Exchange Commission.

any attempt

4

tion.

suspended

Premier de Valera of Eire warned Great Britain that

2

Roosevelt in second plan of governmental reorganization.

Puer-

to Rico.

conscrip-

British

que stated that Yugoslavia had

Pres. German Busch of Bolivia dissolved congress,

mand with headquarters in

Northern Ireland would be regarded as “an act of aggres-

lin.

Conference between Galeazzo Ciano and Yugoslav foreign minister closed at Venice; communi-

U.S.A. placed Caribbean islands under single military com-

tion in

year 1940. Brig.

British

fiscal

5

Coal

Commis-

10 Fifteen associations of 10 coal operators signed agreements to limit employment in Appalachian district to members of United Mine Workers’ union.

W

"Recourse to the sword

not necessarj'” to solve problems of Europe, declared Mussolini in conciliatory' speech at Turin. is

territorial

State troops of Kentucky

moved into Harlan county' as coal mines prepared to resume operation in defiance of United Mine Workers’ union. IE

U

Racial propaganda in U.S.A. decried by' Att’y

Gen. Frank

Murphy

in

speech

before conference of may'ors.

IP Study of methods to emlU ploy idle capital in productive enterprise

urged

by'

Pres.

Roosevelt.

IT

King George VI and

11

Queen Elizabeth

Quebec to begin tour ada and United States. in

arrived in

Can-

British Gov’t published White Paper

for settlement of

Palestine problem; it provided for limiting Jewish immigration to 75,000 until April 1944, thereby' establishing permanent population ratio of approximately' two Arabs to one Jew; state

would become independent, if conditions warranted, in ten y'ears.

Great Britain, and France landed naval forces at Ku-lang Su island; U.S. State

U.S.A.,

Dept, rejected Japanese note of May 3 which sought revision of land regulations for international concession at Shanghai.

1

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

6

MAY — Continued Carl

Backman, Swedish

tor,

lost

in

tempt to

fly

Kuhn, leader

Fritz

of

German-American avia-

Atlantic after atalone from New-

Bund, arrested after indictment on charges of embezzling $14,548 from bund.

foundland to Sweden.

Admiral Sir Dudley Pound First Sea Lord and chief of British naval staff to succeed Sir Roger Backhouse.

appointed

Sweden, Norway, and

Findeclined simultaneously to sign mutual non-aggression land

Germany; Denmark

pacts with accepted.

IQ Jews staged huge riots 10 Jerusalem and Tel- Aviv Paper 01

in

White

against

protest

in

British on Palestine.

Grover Bergdoll, U.S. draft evader in World War, arrested upon arrival in U.S.A. from Germany, where he had lived 20 years.

OQ 4U

Republican

legislators of

presented

resolution

N.

Frank elected

chairman of Securities and Exchange Commission.

IQ Gen. Franco held his longid delayed victory parade in Madrid.

to

Sen.

Arthur H. Vandenberg (Rep., Mich.) asking him to enter 1940 presidential campaign; Vandenberg accepted May 29 and recommended that Republican candidate run for one term only. 0*7 United

Jerome

and Michigan

officials

4

Mine Workersand

anthracite

coal

operators

reached new two-year agreement providing for “ union shop” in Pennsylvania fields; eightweek strike ended.

Removal

of

“irritants”

in

dianapolis; Floyd Roberts, win-

ner in 1938, was

killed.

of L., 67,000 to 3,000.

German and

Italian journals simultaneously revealed large extent of nations’ participation in Spanish Civil War; intervention

began less than two weeks outbreak of revolt.

after

U.S.S.R. would refuse to sign any pact of collective security with Great Britain and France without guarantee of all European nations along its borders, declared Premier and Foreign Minister Molotov in address before Supreme Soviet.

Maj. Gen. George Moseley, in testimony before Dies committee, asserted a communist revolution was about to break out in U.S.A., and suggested that

army should be

mobilized to drive out all “reds”; the next day he suggested that all U.S.

members

of

"world

Sir Edmund Ironside appointed British inspector general of overseas forces and Sir

U.S. taxation, including capital stock and excess profit taxes, suggested by Sec’y of Treasury

gurated regularly scheduled

Morgenthau.

of home forces; neither military position had been occupied since

Snite, Jr., young living in “iron lung” after attack of infantile paralysis, bathed in grotto waters of shrine at Lourdes, France, after

World War.

flights

between U.S.A. and Eu-

Fred B. American

German

citizen shot to

L\ death by Pole

Danzig

in

territory.

Walter Kirke named inspector

military alliance at Berlin.

of Friedrich Werner, Nazi leader of German Evangelical

ity

Italian

communique

said all Spain

Italian troops would leave before end of May.

Church.

Thomas

H. Smith, Los Ange-

disappeared in Attaking off from Maine in “baby" plane bound for Europe.

Automobile union of C.I.O.

les aviator,

declared strike

lantic

Detroit affecting 24,000 workers; almost 50,000 others became idle the next day. in

after

German diplomatic

OQ 40

Establishment of

Gov-

ernment-owned

“capital credit banks” advocated by Asst. Sec’y of State A. A. Berle, Jr., in testimony before Temporary National Economic committee.

protest

at seizure of Hamburg-Amerika liner “Sauerland” by Japanese,

May

OQ 4u

24,

of Liechtenstein.

Queen Mother Mary in

injured

automobile accident.

O Thirty-three men aboard 4 t' sunken U.S. submarine il

“Squalus” were brought to surface in rescue bell; last group was rescued early May 25 after bell

jammed.

Blue Peter won English Derby Downs; Fox Cub was

at Epsom second.

Hungarian Parliamentary

\

bill

of

President Bru of Cuba ordered German ship with 907 Jews awaiting entry to leave Cuban waters; the order was later

reconsidered

confirmed June

but

finally

I

commander

in appointed

French armed

of

all

forces.

King George and Queen Elizabeth arrived in U.S.A. and were greeted at Niagara

7

Falls Hull.

by Sec’y

of State Cordell

Estonia and Latvia signed non-aggression pacts with Ger-

many.

German

police officer slain in near Prague; Nazis jailed more than 1,000 Czechs

Kladno,

June 9 and levied fine 000 crowns on district.

of 500,-

Wang

Rumour 9 Rome

Pope Pius XII declared he had received “assurances

early in

from five nations to he had addressed plea

May.

Judge Martin T. Manton

4

of U.S. Circuit

circulated

in

that Pope Pius XII

1944 Olympic games awarded

Court

of

policeman

Germans

at

slain

Nachod

hemian-Moravian

in

by Bo-

protectorate.

of

determination to maintain peace”

of

had asked Chamberlain to call a four-power conference without

Czech

whom

at

Ching-wei for attempting

Prince Paul.

2

Washington by

in

Chinese Defence council Chungking ordered arrest

to London.

000 on June

.iV'-

Gen. Maurice Gustave Game-

Guarantee of Yugoslav borders pledged by Hitler during state dinner at Berlin for Regent

Germany.

•

brarian of Congress.

Russia.

6.

peals found guilty of charges of accepting “loans” from litigants; he was sentenced to two years in prison and fined $10,-

7

of

Puerto Rico by Pres. Roosevelt; Archibald MacLeish named li-

peace negotiations with Japan.

Nazi Elite Guard seized palace of Archbishop Waitz of Salzburg, Catholic primate of

/ .,

defeated in House Representatives, 302 to 97.

I

3

500mile automobile race at In-

D. Leahy

Pres. Roosevelt.

47 seats.

Wilbur Shaw won

Admiral William

6 nominated governor

British monarchs wel-

Townsend old-age pension

elections gave Gov’t substantial majority, but Nazis gained

30

of Jersey

City restraining him and other officials from interfering with meetings of C.I.O.

8 comed

announced.

Franz Joseph II formally confirmed as ruling prince

sus-

injunction against

Germany and Denmark

JUNE

OQ Confessional Synod of 40 Germany defied author-

Supreme Court

Mayor Frank Hague

signed non-aggression pact.

5,000-mile pilgrimage.

00 Germany and Italy LL signed ten-year treaty of

U.S.

5 tained

Jewry”

should be deprived of civil rights.

on “Yankee Clipper” of Pan AU American Airways inaurope.

Automobile Workers’ Union had voted for reaffiliation with A.F.

in Crowd of more than lU 3 ,000,000 greeted King George and Queen Elizabeth m New York upon their arrival to visit

World’s Fair.

Ap-

20.

Homer Martin announced that his branch of the United

The pictures on this page arc. left

to right:

PENDERGAST MARSHALL LITVINOV

FRANCO MOSELEY

.Apr. 7 .Apr. 27 .

..May 3

May 19 May 3t

—

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939

8

JULY

— Continued

Most of southern England

8

"blacked out”

in

huge

Henry Picard defeated Byron Nelson for U.S. professional golfers’

access to port of Trieste.

championship.

test

bombed

Export subsidy of 1.5

Manchoukuo;

cents per lb. on U.S. cotton and from i to 2.1 cents per lb. on cotton goods, effective July 27, announced by Sec’y of Agriculture Wallace.

of air-raid defences.

ID lU

in Chamberlain said in carelU fully-worded statement that

Japanese threat to retaliate in

British pledge of military assistance to Poland would become

by another raid

operative if Germany attempted to annex Danzig.

Extensive changes in antitrust laws recommended in pre-

Minneap-

liminary report of Temporary National Economic committee.

Policeman died

in

WPA

olis after riot of on strike: a second

Soviet planes Fularki

Siberia

in

was followed

day

later in

at Halunarshan.

workers

occurred July 14.

17 Seymour Weiss, one of Huey Long’s three political I /

Military rebellion at Quito, Ecuador, suppressed by Gov’t.

on charge of using U.S. mails to defraud; he was convicted September 14.

fatal

riot

heirs, indicted

Bitter opposition

Italian Foreign Minister Ciarrived in Spain on official

Tirol to repatriation of former

visit.

Austrians reported by journabsts in

Paul V. McNutt nominated as Federal Security

administrator by Pres. Roosevelt; he was confirmed by Senate next day.

U.S. Senate Foreign Relations committee voted 12 to

H

to postf)one all consideration of neutrality legislation until next session of Congress.

Italy extended order expelling foreign residents from Tirol to include tourists.

all

American League baseball

all-star

team defeated National i, at New York

League, 3 to city.

Rome.

IP 10

President Roosevelt abandoned attempt

cure revision of neutrality law after night conference with Democratic and Republican leaders of Congress.

IQ lu

Officials of Intergovern-

mental Committee on

Refugees invited by Pres. Roosevelt to confer with him on methods of speeding up emigration from Germany.

Investigation of National

Labor Relations Board ordered by House of Representatives, 254 to 134.

Mussolini announced

M

Britain

announced supple-

mentary

expenditures of £79,100,000 for national defence and credits of £7,900,000 to Rumania and Greece.

ttiat

estates of Sicily would be broken up, irrigated, and divided among peasants. large

iner killed, another fatally wounded, in battle between pickets and National Guard in Harlan, Ky., coal field.

to se-

0|

feudal

U.S. Senate passed

£.1 Hatch bill "without objection”: measure provided that no Federal employees should engage in national political cam-

paigns except the President, members of his cabinet, and congressmen; Roosevelt signed

WPA

began dismissal of strikers for failure to report for work. IQ 10

memorial at Hyde Park approved by

Roosevelt

Congress after 221 to 124 vote in House.

“You cannot

strike

against the Gov’t” declared Pres. Roosevelt as negotiations proceeded for settlement of WPA’s national walkout.

France celebrated 150th anniversary of

fall of

Bastille with

great military display in Paris.

August 2 after warning

it

bill

might

infringe civil liberties.

Refusal of Senate to adopt legislation on neutrality acted

Robert S. Hudson,

Brit-

said he

of $850,000,-

Germany and Japan initialled new commercial

treaty.

Francedecreed postponeuntil 1942.

had discussed plan with

German economic

Conscription of bodied Spanish

all able-

whereby Great Britain would grant Reich large loan and access to

to serve state 15 days each year without pay ordered by Gen.

raw materials

Franco.

official

in return for prompeace; Chamberlain denied next day that these conversations had official sanction.

labourers

ise of

Anglo-Japanese formula for negotiation of Tientsin dispute announced by Chamberlain in

House

of

Commons;

it

conceded right of Japanese to “remove such causes ... as will obstruct

them or

benefit their

Military consultations

between U.S.S.R. and Great Britain and France announced in House of Commons by Chamberlain. Strikers of United Automobile

Workers’ union

OC Au

AUGUST

Japan announced it would two stop com-

Canton river

close

weeks, apparently to

for

merce between Canton and Hongkong. Rev. Gerould Goldner, U.S. pastor, returned to Jerusalem after reported ransom of $2,500 was paid to his Arab kidnappers.

U.S. with

Senate

Panama

relationships Panama canal.

ratified treaty defining mutual with respect to

nc

U.S. A. denounced Japa£.v nese trade treaty of 1911, thus making possible application of arms embargo after expiration

House

of Representatives

killed Works Financing bill, 193 to 166; Senate had passed bill Julj; 31 after reducing appropriation finally to $1,615,000,000. (

Vladimir Matchek,

leader of

Croatian minority, threatened to secede from Yugoslavia even though "it might mean a world war,”

Enforcement of new prohibilaw in Bombay led to

tion

riots in which more than 40 were injured.

of six months’ notice.

Great Britain signed treaty

Francis B. Sayre, ass’t-Sec’y of State, appointed U.S. high commissioner to the Philippines.

of - granting Poland credit 88 Tfi’j.ono for militarv' supplies.

Army Air Corps celebrated 30th anniversary of purU.S.

Renewed bombings don, attributed to lican Army, killed jured 18 as House passed

bill

LonIrish Repubone and inin

of Commons to deport suspected

chase of

first

plane.

5800,000,000 Housing

Buenos Aires newspapers reported that Argentina intended

Sen. Robert A. Taft

Gen. Queipo de Llano, commander of Spanish Andalusian dismissed by Franco; forces,

to dispute U.S. claims of sovereignty over Antarctic regions.

Presidential nomination

new

duties.”

Anti-trust proceedings

in

for

194 ®-

National Guardsmen moved Mountain dam dis-

into Green

by trict in Colorado after rioting work strikers, who returned to

John L. Lewiscalled John N. Garner a "labour-bait-

Woman ref ugeefrom Czechochildren from 13th floor of Cni-

17-

Mars made

trality law.

Committee

to

IE British-Japanese con10 ference over Tientsin dis-

assistance to child refugees in Spain after accepting Franco’s promise that seized food supplies would be restored.

next day.

slovakia threw cago

agreed to- resume

(Rep.) of

Ohio, declared his candidacy

against American Medical Association dismissed by Federal Court of District of Columbia.

Jewish Agency for Palestine rejected Colonial Sec’y MacDonald’s appeal for acceptance of British White Paper of May

bill

killed by House of Representatives, 19T to 170.

3

bombers.

Barcelona, was “transferred to

in-

jured.

to deter business recovery and lessen hope for peace in Europe, asserted Pres. Roosevelt.

Gen. Juan Yague, conqueror of

clashed

with police in Cleveland; 46

enemy.”

American Friends Service

pute opened at Tokj’o.

proved reduction 000 July 29.

ish sec’y of overseas trade,

ing, poker-playing, whiskydrinking, evil old man.”

Roosevelt sent special plea to Congress to revise U.S. neu-

nancing bill reduced to $1,640,000,000 by U.S. Senate; the House, before killing it, ap-

ment of legislative elections

Italian

in

ano

n

Nazi officials announced that Italy had offered Germany free

earth

—

closest approach 36,000,000 miles

since Aug. 1924.

Roosevelt’s 53,000,000,000 self-liquidating

Works

Fi-

her.sclf

aod

hotel.

Settlement of C.I.O. strike die of automobile tool and workers in Detroit announc^i by U.S. conciliator: strikers rati-

4

fied

pact next day.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939 AUGUST — Continued of Commons adjourned; Chamberlain said the situation in the Far East “makes

House

my

Congress adjourned sine die; during ses-

total appropriations

sion exceeded 613,000,000,000.

from

after “correcting errors of earlier restorations” experts praised his work in restoring painting.

tax. Increase Federal contributions to States for old-

ployment

age benefits, and extend provisions of act to seamen cultural labourers.

UiS. Army manoeuvres.

and

agri-

Yugoslavia refused Axis’

demand for conscription of her economic and military facilities in event of war, according to American press dispatch from Belgrade.

Princess of Orange-Nassau, second daughter of Crown Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, born at The Hague; she was

named

Irene

Emma

Civilian advisory

Elizabeth.

Marshal Smigly-Ryd*,

in

6

speech at Cracow, said Poland would defend its integrity against any attack, direct or indirect.

committee

of six members for mobilization of U.S. economic resources in time of war announced by Departments of War and Navy.

Ramon Serrano Suner pointed

political

chief

of

the

ex-

ecution of 53 persons accused of complicity in slaying of civil

guardsman July

29.

t

Imperial Airways plane landed at Pt. Washington, L.I., to inaugurate British transatlantic mail servdce.

Danzig Senate agreed to

7

negotiate dispute with Poland over administration of customs.

Saudi Arabia granted petroleum concessions for entire kingdom to Standard Oil Company of California.

Military manoeuvres in northern Italy ended before schedule.

Federal

charges

of

dress that citizens of democracies should be ready to die for their

Territory adjacent to Hong-

jT

Proposed British settle-

i I

ment

of Palestine question

by League of Nations’ Permanent Mandates Commis-

Germany assumed

.

n

Joachim von Ribbentrop, and German foreign min-

isters,

IP 10 tary

mili-

control of Slovakia.

Great Britain refused Japanese demand that it surrender store of Chinese silver and prohibit circulation of Chinese cur-

Count Ciano and

rency

in Tientsin before consulting other interested nations.

began two-day conference

France granted Poland credit

in Berlin.

Secret meeting took place between Hitler and Dr. Karl J. Burckhardt, League of Nations high commissioner for Danzig,

of 430,000,000 francs for purchase of war materials.

Aly Maher Pasha formed new cabinet in Egypt.

at Berchtesgaden.

Mendelssohn

& Co.,

Amster-

dam bank, suspended payments

Germany and U.S.S.R. IQ Iw signed seven-year trade British sergeant in

Moe

L.

Annenberg, publisher

announced

it

would

surrender to Japan the four Chinese whose detention precipitated Tientsin incident.

Shanghai killed two and wounded six Japanese-controlled Chinese policemen

.

.

.

upon him.

1

force.”

Slovakian

and

Moravian

Japanese blockade

of British

concession in Tientsin broken

Hai

by

river flood's.

violating

jO 10

Nazi press unleashed vio8 lent attacks on Poland following address of Smigly-Rydz in Cracow August 6.

mier

Self-sacrifice

is a necessary pre-requisite to national and international peace, declared Pope Pius in a letter to French

Canadian Catholics signed by

lyl

1*1

King Farouk of Egypt accepted resignation

of Pre-

Mohamed Mahmud Pasha. Pres. Roosevelt announced he would pro-

a

Announcement

00 LL

vember

viet affect

artist who stole Watteau’s “L’Indifferent”

Young Russian

in Berlin

of lo-year non-aggression pact between U.S.S.R. and Germany caused consternation in world’s capitals.

claim Thanksgiving Day for 1939 on November 23 instead of No30.

Busch.

Nine-day milk strike York city ended by vote

in

New

of dairy

farmers’ union.

New

world’s automobile

of 368.85 m.p.h. established by John Cobb at Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah.

04

Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact signed in Moscow; it provided that each should refrain without reservation from attacking the other, that neither should join powers aimed at the other, and that both should remain in constant consultation on

aH

questions of

common

interest.

British parliament met and passed emergency powers bill for Government to rule by decree; Chamberlain declared war imminent but still hoped for “a way out”; he called Russia’s action a “very unpleasant” surprise.

Adolf Hitler returned to Berlin from Berchtesgaden and held lengthy conference with Goering, Goebbels, and military chiefs.

Roosevelt appealed to Hitler and President Moscicki of Poland to settle their controversies

by

direct

negotiation,

arbitra-

another message, he urged King Victor Emmanuel of Italy to intervene on behalf of peace. tion, or conciliation; in

France urged

on Poland shifted large faU numbers of troops to profrontiers.

“hot-oil ” act.

Bolivia

German

"the inexpressible responsibility of

tect

and French military missions began conversations with Russian staff in Moscow.

fired

appealed to European powers not to assume

\L sworn

Burgos.

who

Pope Pius XI

10 Franco’s new cabinet in at

of Pres.

agreement.

after death of director.

of The Philadelphia Inquirer and of “tip sheets” for horse racing, indicted for alleged evasion of $3,258,810 in U.S. income taxes.

presidency

suicide of

after

speed record

sion as “not in accordance” with the terms of the mandate.

form.”

conference of “Oslo group” met at Brussels; King Leopold of Belgium broadcast appeal for peace.

sumed Nazi spokesman asserted Germany would demand whole of Polish Corridor but would offer Poland free access to sea.

iir^speech after visit with Hitler

Roosevelt threatened to bolt Democratic party in 1940 if it nominated “conservative candidates on a straddlebug plat-

Sir

Nevile Henderson, that it was determined to fulfil pledges to Poland; Hitler’s reply insisted upon free hand in eastern Europe.

Gen. Carlos Quintanilla as-

ideals.

criticized

British

Richard W. Leche, ex-governor of Louisiana, indicted on

Earl

in Albert Forster, Nazi lU leader of Danzig, declared that Danzig’s “liberation” might be near at hand.

August 22 and delivered by

Seven-power

Baldwin of Bewdley declared in New York ad-

IP ID

troops.

cabinet in the Netherlands.

00 Great Britain warned Lv Germany, in message dated

Paraguay.

Dirk Jan de Geer formed coa-

Britain

Credit of about $13,750,000 to Spain for purchase of U.S. cotton announced by Export- Import Bank.

IC Jose Estigarribia inauIJ gu rated as president of

kong occupied by Japanese

Italian

Spanish Gov’t announced

it

ap-

Spanish Falange council.

lition

began two-week

the

;

F. Grady sworn In as assistant U.S. sec’y of state.

Henry

Congress passed $185,000,000 deficiency bill, including $119,000,000 for Commodity Credit Corporation; it also amended Social Security Act to maintain payroll tax at 1% until 1942, begin payment of old-age annuities in 1940, include only first $3,000 of incomes in unem-

Louvre returned

Cardinal Maglione, papal sec’y of state.

blood boil.” First session of 76th U.S.

5

9

British cabinet announced the German-Sotreaty “would in no way their obligations to

land”; Parliament

meet August

24.

Po-

summoned

to

leave

city

all Parisians to immediately unless

their presence

was indispensable.

Albert Forster elected head of Gov’t of Danzig to replace Arthur Greiser.

Japanese Foreign Minister Hachiro Arita said Japan’s rewas one of

vised foreign policy

“independence without relying upon any other power.”

Second peace message within five days broadcast by Pope Pius

XH.

Louis Lepke, object of nationwide manhunt, surrendered to Federal agents in New York city.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

10

AUGUST — Continued British railway workers called off strike scheduled for midnight

August

George

26.

L.

Carpenter elected

general of Salvation

Army

Hitler requested conference with Sir Nevile Hen-

derson and, according to British While Paper of September l,

ambassador he was "determined to abolish Mace-

in New did not sail

weapons

harbour;

it

York

30.

Rationing of food and cloth-

note expressed willingness to initiate Polish-German discussions

Germany's ministers to Switzerland and the Netherlands and its ambassador to Belgium assured these countries that the Reich would respect their neutrality in general war.

Hungary rejected Rumania’s proposal for non-aggression pact but offered to negotiate treaty guaranteeing rights of minorities in both countries; this counter-proposal was rejected by Rumania next day.

Betty Jameson won U.S. women’s national

and Great Britain signed five-year military alliance in London.

German Gov’t munications

severed combetween Berlin

and European capitals and cancelled celebration at Tannenberg scheduled for August 27.

merchant ships

British

or-

dered by Admiralty to leave Mediterranean and Baltic; Canada established national control of shipping.

golf

champion-

ship.

OT

Hitler, in reply to letter

ZI

of

August 26 from Daladier

which suggested direct negotiations between Berlin and Warsaw, demanded return of both Danzig and the Polish Corridor; German propaganda ministry accused

Daladier of misinterpreting Fuehrer’s letter.

Japanese ambassador to Berprotest with German Gov’t against signing of Nazi-Soviet pact. lin ordered to

file

French army engineers

moved

repontoon bridges across

Reichstag convened

in secret

session to be addressed

by Hitler.

Sir Nevile Henderson flew to London to present Hitler’s verbal message of August 25 at cabinet meeting.

cabinet of Dragisha Cvetkovic included Dr. Vladimir Matchek as vice-premier, and five other Croats.

earlier “it is

had declared

in telegram

unreasonable to expect that we can produce a Polish representative in Berlin today.” .

.

.

Hitler established defence

Nome, Alaska, on

council of six headed by Goering.

landed

in

first lap of world.

around the

flight

Poland speeded up

on Zu

Hitler's reply to British

message

of August 28 telephoned to London; as reported in the British While Paper of September i, it accepted British

proposal

powers” should arrive at Berlin August 30; Hitler denied this was an ultimatum. full

Chamberlain, fore

speech be-

in

Commons,

German claimed

military rule proby Premier

in Slovakia

Josef Tiso.

discussions

for direct

providing a Polish emissary "with

mobiliza-

tion to include all qualified men between 21 and 40.

criticized press

own

interpreta-

tions on German-British exchange of communications.

Q| Sixteen-point “peace

ul plan” published by

Hitler

suggested return of Danzig

to

Germany, retention of Gdynia by Poland, plebiscite in Polish Corridor to be held after a year, extraterritorial communications zone through Corridor for whichever nation lost plebiscite; Polish Gov’t, though it did not receive formal text, pronounced the terms of the proposal un-

and

acceptable.

Belgium and the Netherlands

British fleet, army, and air force placed on war footing; immediate evacuation of 3,000000 persons from London an-

op ZO

com-

British cabinet pleted

reply

to

Hitler’s

communications of August 23

and

25; as published in British

While Paper of September

offered to mediate for France, Great Britain, Germany, Poland, and Italy; Germany expressed its “deep gratitude for this generous gesture” next day.

Supreme Soviet deferred

Rationing of food and partial evacuation of larger cities or-

mistreatment of German minority as “untrue and entirely imaginary.”

German

liner

"Bremen”

tained and searched for

de-

offen-

with

Great Britain and France had been dropped because Britain had supported Poland’s objec-

U.S. liner “America” launched

for

first

time

encouraged

soil,

Slovakia demanded

Hitler

to

provoke

crisis.

Bratislava occupied by Gertroops.

proposed

Pres. Roosevelt repeated his belief that failure of Congress to modify U.S. Neutrality act

war

man

Molotov declared that

mutual assistance pact

Croatia.

out

Rome

Polish official statement conpress stories

ratified

Soviet; Premier

land return Teschen area occupied after Pact of Munich.

blacked

demned German

Soviet-German pact

by Supreme

Ivan Subovitch took office as first governor of autonomous

crisis.

troops.

'of all

in

French-German frontier up more

nounced; censorship messages ordered.

Polish tions to Soviet troops on and had insisted on a clause covering indirect aggression.

dered by Mussolini;

closed; the Netherlands mobilized; Switzerland and Belgium

rati-

fication of non-aggression pact with Germany; reinforcements ordered for garrisons on western border.

posed.

called

mili-

i,

this note requested direct negotiations between Germany and

of

Serbo-Croat accord granted Croatia separate parliament and established freedom of press and assembly in Yugoslavia; new

Nevile Henderson the te.\t of 16point proposal published in Berlin the next day; Chamberlain

Poland protested German

understanding” regarding the British Empire after the differences between Germany and Poland had been peacefully com-

op ZD

at earliest practicable date; in reply, German Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop read to Sir

tary occupation of Slovakia.

Premier Daladier declared

volt.

revealed that

Mussolini responded to Cana-

Poland and offered to discuss Hitler’s proposal for a “general

Martial law proclaimed in Chile after abortive military re-

i

dian Prime Minister King’s plea for peace that he would bend every effort to forestall war.

Rhine.

that a betrayal of Poland by France would leave France without friends or support.

September

Seven Japanese aviators

for placing its

Pres. Moscicki of Poland replied to Pres. Roosevelt that his nation stood ready to negotiate directly with Germany; Roosevelt then addressed second message to Hitler asking him to adopt pacific settlement also.

net and delivered shortly b^orc midnight; British While Paper of

not ask revision of his obliga-

Poland

to HitBritish cabi-

Japanese premier after resignation of Kiichiro Hiranuma’s cabinet; Tokyo press pointed out possibility of more amicable relations with Great Britain and the United States.

would agree to negotiate his "limited” colonial demands and

and Russia.

drafted by

ler

Gen. Nobuyuki Abeappointed

decreed throughout Germany; Nazis cancelled Nuremberg party congress.

ain

tions toward Italy

Another message

until

ing

told British

donian conditions in Poland”; but was willing "to approach England with a large and comprehensive offer” which would "guarantee the existence of the British Empire,” provided Brit-

sive

August

to

succeed Evangeline Booth.

OC Cv

British and French military missions left Moscow.

at

that Po-

Newport

The pictures on this page arc, left

to right:

FORSTER HENDERSON..

Gen. Shunroko Hata named minister of war in new Japanese cabinet; Premier Abe took over

MUSSOLINI...

portfolio of foreign affairs.

MOLOTOV

RIBBENTROP.

.Aug. ,

Aug. 25 Aug. 22 Aug. 30 Aug. 31

1

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

n

EUROPEAN WAR budget

SEPTEMBER Germany began

final

invasion

of Poland at 5:45 a.m. on four fronts after proclamation to army by Hitler; German planes raided Warsaw and other Polish I

cities.

of 69,000,000,000 francs; mobilization began.

export or transshipment to belligerents of arms, munitions,

New Zealand war with

vessels, aircraft and aircraft parts, explosives, and chemicals for chemical warfare; other proc-

war com-

lamations regulated use of Panama Canal bj' belligerents and travel abroad by Americans.

Germany, France, and Great

Australia and

Britain issued declarations of intent to refrain from inhumane

Germany.

warfare and attacks upon

announced

state of

civil-

First French

ian populations.

4 munique announced

Russian military mission

British-French ultimatums to Germany demanded suspen-

rived in Berlin.

ag^essive action in Poland and withdrawal of all forces; France decreed general mobiliza-

Eire approved

sion of

tion

where to “make our cause their own.”

declaration

ar-

of

neutrality.

and martial law.

Hitler, in address to Reichstag, said Germany had “re-

turned fire” because Poland had mobilized instead of sending emissary to discuss his proposals; declared he would wage humane war and not seek foreign help; named Goering as his successor and Rudolf Hess as next in line in case “something happens to me”; said the “Westwall is for all times the Reich frontier in the west.” .

.

.

Ernest H. Gruening appointed governor of Alaska to succeed John W. Troy, resigned.

New

perfusion

pump

to keep

different types of animal tissue alive at same time announced by Col. Charles A. Lindbergh.

Great Britain declared war

3 on Germany at 1 a.m. after setting time limit to ultimatum of September i; conflict officially

France entered si.x hours later.

that operations by land, sea, and air had begun against Germany.

British air force bombed German fleet at Wilhelmshaven and at western entrance to Kiel ca-

Removal of Polish capital from Warsaw to Lublin reported as German troops intensified drive on four fronts and announced virtual control of Upper Silesia.

nal.

Loss of Bydgoszcz (Bromberg) and Grudziadz, strategic cities of Corridor, admitted bj' Polish general staff; Germany announced that northern Corridor was completely cut off.

Ronald Hibbert Cross appointed minister of economic warfare in Chamberlain’s war ministry'; Lord MacMillan be-

came

minister

information and William S. Morrison miniof

French army came “in contact” with Germans along western front, according to nique of general staff.

commu-

Prime Minister Hertzog of South Africa resigned after parliament voted to sever diplomatic relations with Germany, 80 to 66. Stocks rose

1

heai’y trade on

to 27 points in New York Stock

exchange.

ster of food.

Danzig accepted as part of Reich after Albert Forster pro-

British liner “Athenia,” bound for Montreal with 1,418

reunion with Ger-

aboard, “torpedoed” 200 miles west of the Hebrides; it sank next day; total loss of life was announced later, October 9, as 1 12, including 30 Americans.

claimed

its

many. Italian official

communique

stated “Italy will take no initiative whatever toward the military operations.”

Chamberlain declared that “the responsibility for this tercatastrophe lies on the shoulders of one man” and thanked Mussolini for his efforts to maintain peace. rible

Britain and France con2 ferred upon expiration date for joint ultimatums to Germany; Chamberlain announced that Italy was striving to call a five-power conference.

Germany reported important advances in Polish Corridor and Upper Silesia; air raids on Warsaw and other cities continued.

French Chamber of Deputies voted

Daladier

declare

war and adopted war

authority

to

_

Hitler left Berlin to join army on eastern front after issuing reply to British ultimatum in which he blamed British cabinet for outbreak of hostilities.

Winston Churchill entered British war cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty; Anthony Eden was named secretary for the Dominions, without seat in cabinet,

and Lord Hankey minister

without portfolio; Viscount Gort appointed commander in chief of British field forces.

President Roosevelt declared in special broadcast that effort of his administration

every

Gen.

Franco

decreed

“the on the part

strictest neutrality

of Spanish subjects” Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Rumania officially ;

proclaimed their neutrality; statement of Japanese cabinet said nation “does not intend to be involved in it.” Popolo^ d’ Italia reaffirmed Italy’s intention to remain neutral unless attacked; resumption of semi-normal shipping schedules announced. British ministry of information announced that Royal Air Force planes had scattered 6,000,000 leaflets over Northwestern Germany, protesting

German people and urging them to place no friendship

for

confidence in Hitler; similar “raids” were repeated in following weeks.

urged them to discriminate between fact and rumour concerning the war, and pleaded for national unity.

U.S. State Dep't it

would

issue

announced

American pass-

ports for travel abroad only in cases of “ imperative necessity.”

left

to right:

CHURCHILL THE WINDSORS LINDBERGH beck CALINESCU

Sept. 3 Sept. 12 Sept. 15 Sept. 18 Sept. 21

British naval blockade of Ger-

many

in Baltic

and North seas

Neutrality of U.S. A. pro-

reported in Washington.

claimed in two declarations; First was issued in accordance

King George VI, in message broadcast throughout world,

with international law; second was issued under terms of Neutrality act of 1937 and prohibited

asked

British

subjects

every-

‘‘wealthy Republicans” had U.S. Communist party $250,000 in 1936 to nominate Roosevelt on its ticket.

offered

war ministry denied German submarine had

Berlin’s that

torpedoed “Athenia.”

France and Poland signed protocol to treaty of alliance which prohibited either from signing separate treaty of peace.

armistice

or

Col. Roscoe Turner won Thompson Trophy air race at Cleveland for third time; his average speed was 282.53 m.p.h.

Cracow occupied by Geralso

announced

capture of Kielce; Poland admitted German advance from north as far as Plonsk.

French troops advanced Australian tennis team won Davis cup from U.S.A., 3 to 2, at Haverford, Pa.

The pictures on this page are,

tee using false American passport; he declared a group of

6 mans, who

would

be directed toward maintaining true neutrality; he warned Americans against profiteering,

Earl Browder was said to have admitted before Dies Commit-

western

Germany

into

at several

points, according to army communique which also announced debarkation of British troops in

France.

Union of South Africa dewar against Germany; Gen. Jan Christiaan Smuts clared

formed war cabinet.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS-1939

12 SEPTEMBER — Continued Eduard Benes and other former Czech

leaders offered to

form Czech legion to

fight for

Allies.

Great Britain suspended London naval treaty of 1936 and separate naval treaties with Poland and U.S.S.R.

American naval patrols

es-

tablished

in Atlantic and Caribbean, to 'survey movements of belligerent fleets.

Liner

“Bremen”

reported by

Berlin safe in unidentified neutral port, later revealed as Mur-

mansk, U.S.S.R. Iraq requested ister to leave

German min-

Baghdad.

Polish garrison of 77 men Westerplatte fortress in Danzig harbour surrendered af-

7

at

ter six-day siege;

German army

continued “pincer” drives toward Lodz, Poznan, and suburbs

of Polish capital Lwow reported.

from Lublin to

Germans launched counterattack at extreme northern end of western front, where Berlin admitted for first time that French had crossed border.

Canada formally declared war

against Germany.

it

had

called

Poles and

n

tial occupation of city; Poles claimed Germans had stolen wave-length of Warsaw radio

announce capture.

station to

up

reservists.

Germans met Poznan at Warsaw,

in fierce battles in

and Lodz regions, and along 250-mi.

from

front

East Prussia to Slovakian border; Germans extended southern salient toward Lwow (Lemberg).

10 German counterattack checked at northern sector of

increases in enlisted strength of all U.S. armed

forces.

Contraband bases for search of vessels established by Great Britain at Gibraltar, Kirkwall in the Orkneys, Weymouth, North Foreland, and Haifa.

Report of U.S. naval attaches said "Athenia” was torpedoed. Field

Marshal Goering de-

speech that Germany wanted nothing from France and accused England of scheming to “fight till the last Frenchman”; he implied Germany would like peace, but " not another Versailles.” in Berlin

Fall of

British

China.

Canadian declaration of war did not affect U.S. pledge to help Dominion if it was invaded, said Pres. Roosevelt.

60 diplomats and members

of

their staffs fled from Poland

to

10 Daladier took over for10 eign ministry in modification of French cabinet, transferred Georges Bonnet to ministry of justice, and created new ministry of armaments headed by Raoul Dautry.

Australian Prime Minister R. G. Menzies formed war cabinet of six members and announced new taxes to meet costs of war.

Bombing of open cities threatened by German supreme command

Lodz announced by encircle-

war cabinet decided

make

military and economic preparations for war of at least three years.

Ambassa-

dor

Anthony

that

Germans had already con-

Biddle, Jr., declared in report to State Dep’t raids.

announced

in Paris.

Loring Christie appointed Canadian ambassador to U.S.A. Strike of seamen in New York city prevented sailings of American liners

U.S. Congress summoned by Pres. Roosevelt to meet in spesession September 21 to consider revision of Neutrality cial

act.

Chamberlain declared in House of Commons that France was “no less convinced than are we that there can be no

bound

high command

German

IP ID

for Europe.

issued ultimatums

that

Warsaw either surrender or evacuate its civilians; or otherwise suffer unrestricted bombardment; the command was un-

answered; fall of Bialystok and Kutno announced in Berlin.

Quotas on sugar suspended by Roosevelt to curb sharp rises

German

ish Admiralty; unofficial statisvar tics for first two weeks of placed British losses at 21 ships

in price.

Canadian parliament voted to appropriate initial war fund of $100,000,000 and defeated motion to prohibit expeditionary force to Europe.

be no lasting peace until Naziism ... is banished from the earth,” said Anthony Eden in international

“There can

broadcast.

ward outskirts

U.S. submarine “Squalus,” sunk off Atlantic coast since May 23, towed to navy yard at Portsmouth, New Hampshire; 25 of its 26 dead were removed

gion and strong German reinforcements announced by Frencn

“Great activity”

in

next two days.

Gdynia surrendered after It two-week siege; encirclement of Warsaw reported comremoval of Polish capital Zaleszczyki, on Rumanian

plete;

frontier,

Chamberlain flew to undisclosed town in northern

France to attend of Allies’

first

meeting

Supreme War Council,

announced

in Berlin.

Repeal of arms embargo in U.S. Neutrality act would con-

(Idaho, R.) in radio broadcast.

ally.”

U.S. A. warned not to violate

saw

reported by

Germans

War-

all its

belligerents rights as a

neutral.

after

they had severed Warsaw-Bialystok railroad; fall of Poznan announced; drive toward Lwow

Pope Pius XII urged ligerents to spare

of Windsor’s return to England, after

Duke and Duchess

all

bel-

non-combatant

citizens.

Hungarian Foreign Minister Csaky affirmed nation’s intent to remain neutral.

re-

headquarters.

German

official staternent Britain and 1 o-

0 land of violating principles humane warfare and thrMtenM

dIockto retaliate against British ade.

Resumption

of general

China nese offensive in central Japanese reported by Dome!, news agency.

Soviet troops invaded

stitute interv'ention in European war, said Sen. William E. Borah

possible assistance to their Polish all

army

Saar

in

accused Great

11

to

IC,

Lwow and

of 123,000 tons.

Great Britain announced Berlin.

of

to-

extended drive from East Prussia toward Brest-Litovsk.

Counter-blockade against in

pushed

troops

continued.

French occupation of most of Warndt forest, near Forbach,

Col. Charles A. Lindbergh, in first formal speech since 1931, broadcast appeal to Americans not to become involved in war.

Poles ceased

unless

civilian warfare; U.S.

ducted such

Cernauti, Rumania.

Convoy system for merchant shipping announced by Brit-

Virtual encirclement of to

of all

to outer

peace unless the menace of Hitlerism has been finally removed.”

which agreed “to give

Germans, who began ment of Warsaw.

comJapanese armies

Nishio' appointed

mander

Germans advanced

fortifications of Brest-Litovsk and continued drives east of San river; Poles claimed large numbers of troops had esca;^ from pocket around Kutno and rushed to defence of Warsaw; party of

western front; French reported advances north-east of Bitche.

who ordered

clared

Juzo

,

Limited national emergency declared by Pres. Roosevelt,

9

Japanese said

of relations with the Soviets”; Gen.

in

in Repulse of attack on lU Warsaw attributed by Germans to civilian sniping; German high command announced that two Polish armies had been trapped in pocket west of Warsaw, and near Radom; removal

for in Paris.

German army advanced to 8 outskirts of Warsaw; high command falsely reported par-

golian frontiers.

of

Manchoukuo,

Japan desired “regulation

German reinforcements

Egypt officially notified Great Britain it had severed diplomatic relations with Germany.

mander-in-chief executive offices ordered by Roosevelt “in order that the nation may not again be caught unaware.”

that

Westwall announced

Gen. Umezu, new com-

agreed upon truce, effective September 16, to end hostilities on Manchoukuoan and Mon-

forces in

of Pres.

U.S.S.R. and Japan

three-year exile, announced in

London.

Immediate reorganization

Russia disclosed officially

Warsaw.

of

Reinstatement of independent Czech republic identified by Chamberlain with aims of war against Germany.

eastern Poland along notiB'og th of frontier after ind and assuring whom it maintained dipi^ I

ic

relations that

it

neverthepohc)

intended to pursue a and eutrality; Premier Minister

b^h^ Sion was necessary bank ind had “suffered obhgeo cy” and Russia was rotect its “brother

and brother Byelo-Bus

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939 SEPTEMBER — Continued

to Hitcalled ad-

B/ue Book of secret diplomatic messages between Brit-

. blustering . lying”; official British reply called it ‘‘full of crass mis-

ish diplomats and Foreign Office from March to Sept. 1939 published in London.

French reply

Official

Danzig speech

ler’s

British aircraft carrier “Courageous” sunk by German submarine; announcement

dress a

was delayed

statements.”

until next day; official list of casualties on Septem-

ber 20 placed dead and missing at 515-

Capture of Brest-Litovsk announced after severe battle; thousands of Polish troops and refugees fled across Rumanian border.

.

.

.

‘‘

sad plea

Bobby Riggsand

Hungary resumed

Adm. Kichisaburo Nomura

Dr. Joseph Goebbels denied

ternment at Tallinn harbour; Germans issued ultimatum for

Lwow.

ister.

that Germany had any intention of violating neutrality of Belgium, the Netherlands, or Lu.x-

Heavy artillery of French and Germans opened fire

emburg.

for first time along 80-mi. Rhine front from Lauterbourg to Swiss

Premier Daladier charged Germany and Russia had signed

border.

secret pact

Aug. 23, 1939 to par-

tition Poland.

Neva river reported closed to foreign shipping by U.S.S.R.

Alice Marble

U.S. singles tennis cham-

pionships.

Massing of German troops at Aachen on Belgian border re-

Russian and German forces metat Brest-Litovsk, according to Berlin report; joint commission met to set up limits of occupation for each army; attack on Warsaw resumed; Germans announced capture of rich oil regions of Ukraine, where Russia also advanced westward to Stanislawow.

Gov’t fled country; Pres. Moscicki, Foreign Minister Beck, and Marshal SmiglyPolish

Complete elimination of Poznan-Kutno pocket after furious nine-day battle an-

nounced by German high command; Berlin also announced arrival of Gen. von Brauchitsch, commander-in-chief of army, at western front and transfer of many divisions from Poland to Westwall.

Widespread revolt of Czechs in Bohemia and Moravia, beginning September 17, reported by British ministry of information; Berlin deniw it, as did Pres.

Russian troops announced occupation of Lwow after with-

German besiegers, but Germany claimed capture of drawal of

ported in Paris.

Pres. Moscicki signed proclamation that Polish Gov’t would function ‘‘with full authority” in foreign country.

Emil Hacha September 23.

September

city

22.

Nazi-Soviet agreement on military demarcation of Poland announced in Berlin; line ran from East Prussian border south along Pissa, Narew, Bug, Vistula, and San rivers.

Half of Warsaw in flames and 1,000 civilians killed after intense 24-hour bombardment, according to Polish dispatches.

Major Japanese offensive in Kiang-si and Hunan provinces along 70-mi. front announced in Tokyo.

French planes raided Zeppelin factory at Friedrichshafen heavy bombardment ;

German

of

Frontier areas reported partially flooded by Belgium and the Netherlands as experimental precaution against Ger-

man

inr'asion.

Rhine and

fortifications along in Saar sector con-

tinued.

Soviet troops concentrated on Estonian border as Foreign Minister Karl Selter returned to

All elections in Great Britain suspended for duration of war.

Tallinn after hurried conference in

Moscow.

Two submarines

21st

mania.

Rumanian Gov't announced

closed

vention opened

sighted off North American

Alfred

Marshal Smigly-Rydz would be interned for duration of European war.

Rydz

arrived at Cernauti, Ru-

M. Landon and Frank

Republican party, invited by Pres. Roosevelt to confer with him September 20 before special ses-

Knox,

titular leaders of

sion of Congress.

British ministry of information declared Russian invasion of Poland was ‘‘not justified by the arguments put forward by the Soviet Gov’t”; the Vatican’s Osservalore Romano denounced Russian action as based on a ‘‘pretext

.

.

.

that was not cour-

ageous.”

Premiers and foreign ministers of Denmark, Finland, Nor-

way, and Sweden met at Copenhagen to outline program of neuthese nations and Iceland issued a joint declaration next day that they would cooperate intimately to preserve their peace and protect their own trality;

economic

interests.

Hitler at Danzig repeated IQ lu he had no claims against France and Great Britain, but declared Germany and Russia had agreed that "Poland will never rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty”; he said Germany would fight for seven years if necessary, and threatened to retaliate against British blockade by using "a weapon with which we cannot be attacked.”

diplomatic

relations with U.S.S.R., ruptured since February 2.

appointed Japanese foreign min-

Russian troops occupied Vijna and continued advances in White Russia and Ukraine; blockade of Estonian coast by Soviet navy reported after Polish submarine had escaped from insurrender of

won

.

and

13

coasts, said Pres. Roosevelt. Allies’

Chamberlain, in weekly report before House of Commons, asserted Hitler’s Danzig speech “did not change the situation”; he said Soviet invasion of Poland

of undisnationality had been

Supreme War Council

held second meeting in England.

Wholesale arrests

of Ukrainian

landlords announced in Moscow.

Conquest of Poland com-

was not unexpected.

pleted, declared

German

military officers ar-

rived in

Moscow

method

of partitioning Poland.

to decide

upon

Joe Louis knocked out Bob Pastor in nth round of heavyweight

championship bout at

Detroit.

Mussolini reaffirmed Italy’s neutrality, since

0| Al

Repeal of U.S. arms embargo asked by Pres.

Roosevelt in message to special session of Congress; he said he regretted having signed Neutrality act of 1937 and declared if the embargo were annulled “the United States will more probably remain at peace than If the law remains as it stands.”

German

high command; Poles continued organized resistance at Warsaw and Modlin, and on Hela peninsula; German troops began withdrawal behind military line of demarcation.

May

his first speech 20; he said that since in

the Allies had not declared war on Russia they should also face “the German fait accompli" in Poland.

Pan-American conference on neutrality convened at Panama city; Pres. Arosemena of Panama urged solidarity of American democracies in safeguarding peace.

Premier Armand Calinescu Rumania assassinated by members of pro-Nazi Iron Guard

Recapture of Kaoan claimed by Chinese.

in Bucharest; assassins were executed on the site, and new temporary' cabinet of Gen. George .>\rgesanu ordered e.xecution or

Alfred M. Landon urged Pres. Roosevelt to disclaim intention of running for third term.

of

of

War appropriations up to 15,000,000,000 marks decreed by German defence council.

of

hundreds

in

Chicago.

British fleet attacked by Nazi planes in North sea; Berlin claimed that “Ark Royal,” aircraft carrier, had been “destroyed,” but London denied that any ship had been hit.

French communist party dissolved by decree of cabinet.

Removal of all known communists from U.S. govern-' mental positions had been ordered by administration, according to Rep. Martin Dies (Dem., Tex.).

Destruction of “perhaps a third” of Germany’s active submarines announced by Winston Churchill; he said more than 2,000,000 tons of German shipping were sheltered in Reich or interned in neutral harbours.

Hitler returned to Berlin after 23-day absence on Eastern front.

Disbandment of War Resources Board announced bj’ Pres. Roosevelt.

Warsaw surrendered

un-

conditionally after 20 days German troops began occupation of city October i. of siege;

other Iron Guardists during next two days.

imprisonment

American Legion con-

Basic rate of British income tax raised to 37-5'%— highest in history— for 1940-41 fiscal year, to meet £2,000,000,000 war budget.

,

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

14

SEPTEMBER— Confini/ed German

Foreign Ministervon Ribbentrop and Estonian For-

William Z. Foster, chairman of U.S. communist party, declared

U.S.A. would withhold recognition of Polish conquest and

party would not support U.S.A. if it entered war on side of

eign Minister Selter arrived in Moscow for conferences with So-

Allies.

continue relations with new Polish Gov’t in France, declared Sec’y of State Hull.

viet Gov’t; Turkish Foreign Minister Shukru Saracoglu continued talks with V. Molotov.

Dissolved communist party of France reorganized and

Safety zone with average width of 300 mi. around all coasts

of

Workers and Peasants group.

except

those

Col. Gen. Gerd von Rundstedt named military administrator of German occupation in Poland; Hans Frank appointed civil

on ^0

adopted new name — French Philippine National Assembly declined to modify stand for independence from U.S.A. in

administrator.

1945

Constantine Argetoianu appointed Rumanian pre-

on OU

mier to succeed Gen. Argesanu, temporary head of Gov’t since assassination of Premier Calinescu September 21.

Polish fortress at Modlin, near Warsaw, surrendered unconditionally.

Foreign relations committee of U.S. Senate voted approval of Pittman resolution to repeal arms embargo, 16 to 7.

as president of Poland in

Molotov.

Lama

of

Tibet

after meeting of secret council in Lhasa. Boy later named Linergh

Tanchu.

on Russo-German frontier Lv agreement signed in Mos-

'

cow; protocol statement declared both nations would try to persuade England and France to make peace with Germany, but would consult on “necessary measures’’ if Allies refused; agreement established new border as beginning at southern tip of Lithuania, running westward north of Augustow to East Prussian frontier, along Pissa river to Ostroleka, south-east to Bug river, along Bug to Krystynopol, then westward to San river and along San to its head.

Estonia concluded treaty of “mutual assistance” with U.S. S.R. which permitted Soviets to establish naval and air bases on Dagoe (Hiiu Maa) and Oesel (Saare Maa) islands and at port maintain pact was ratified at Tallinn October 4.

of

Paldiski,

troops on

also

to

Estonian

soil;

tional years in prison.

Hitler, in address

clared Berlin.

German peace

in

have been my last”; he repeated his demand, "not backed

by force,” for return of colonies, and said new Polish state would be set up to solve Jewish problem and the problem of German

a hurry” to reject proposals;

to

for "un-

will

David Lloyd George counselled the House of Commons

“not to be

Reichstag, asked

conditionally guaranteed peace” but declared “this statement

U.S. merchant vessels must submit to halt and search, Berlin notified Washington.

3

his troops at

Grover C. Bergdoll, U.S. draft evader, sentenced to three addi-

6

British merchantmen would be treated as warships and torpedoed without warning, de-

Cham-

Permanent Pan-American

German

advisory committee of 21

moved.

minorities; he announced German casualties in Poland were 10,572 killed, 30,322 wounded, 3,404 missing.

Lithuanian Foreign Minister Juozas Urbsys joined diplomatic

to

trek to Moscow.

“We must

berlain declared that Soviet-

tablished at in

Panama

Washington

es-

J

threats left England un-

city, to sit

for duration of

OCTOBER

Gandhi.

14th Dalai

Hitler reviewed

Warsaw.

Panama.

minister of Latvia, arrived in Moscow for conference with

Armed

Independence of India at end European war demanded by

as

laration of

Ignace Moscicki resigned

favour of Wladislaw Raczkiewicz; Gen. Wladislaw Sikorski named premier of Gov’t, resident in France.

of

Acceptance of Lhamo Dhondup, five^ear-old Chinese boy,

Western hemisphere of Canada and European possessions proclaimed by 21 republics in Dec-

Vilhelms Munters, foreign

-

war.

Raymond J. Kelly of Detroit elected national commander of American Legion.

Pres. Roosevelt made public a warning from German Grand Admiral Raeder that U.S. passenger ship “Iroquois” would be sunk near American coast, presumably by Allies; the “Iroquois” docked safely at New York city October ii.

Daladier said,

Chungking

Conference of 21 American republics closed at Panama city.

Winston Churchill condoned Russia’s actions in

Poland and Baltic states as necessary to its “national interest”; he praised the “great and friendly nation of Italy,” declared menof German U-boats was throttled, and said it would not be for Hitler to determine when

Conscription Of 250,000 new troops between 21 and 22 ordered by British royal proclamation.

Japanese War office admitted casualties of 18,000 killed, wounded and sick during border conflicts with Russia between May II and September 16.

Repatriation program

bentrop; he returned to next day.

Rome

Last regular centre of Polish military resistance disappeared with surrender of troops on Hela

for

7 Germans in itiated

by

Baltic states Reich’s ministers

in-

to

Latvia and Estonia.

Premier Daladier indi-

4

cated in advance that France would reject Nazis’ peace offer; “France does not want a truce between two aggressions,” he

Finland called up additional reservists as U.S.S.R. issued invitation for conference at Mof cow; Swedish Gov’t asked Parli-

said.

ament

for additional appropriations for defence.

Turkey’s refusal to recognize

German commission

Polish partition reported.

Italian Foreign Minister Ciano arrived in Berlin for conference with Hitler and von Rib-

celebrated defeat

Japanese in vicinity of Changsha as “biggest victory of war”; Japanese later conceded defeat. of

ace

war should end.

in first reply

Reichstag speech; go on with the war.”

Hitler’s

American merchantmen warned by Sec’y of State Hull to avoid sea routes near belligerent nations.

French infantrymen occupied Borg forest east of Moselle river after tank battle.

peninsula.

Committee of British DominChinese troops captured Japanese positions along Hongkong

ion cabinet ministers to sit in London and co-ordinate war

border in surprise attack.

plans announced

by Anthony

and

ships arrived at Riga to hasfrom ten evacuation of Germans Latvia and Estonia as Russian

8

troops prepared to occupy tary bases on Baltic.

null-

Russia announced its mutual economic program with German) parwould “be realized by both and on a ties at a rapid pace I

Virginio Gayda, spokesman, assertedltalywou

Eden.

Debate on U.S. Neutrality

2

act began

Key Pittman

Senate; Sen. (Nev., D.) prein

sented administration’s arguments for revision and Sen. William E. Borah (Idaho, R.) summarized views of opponents to repeal of arms embargo.

Latvia granted U.S.S.R. right to establish naval and air bases at Liepaja (Libau) and

5

Ventspils (Windau) and to fortify Latvian coast; treaty of mutual assistance signed at Mos-

cow.

The pictures on this page

are,

left to right:

Oet3

LLOYD GEORGE. RAEDER

..OefcS

LEOPOLD THYSSEN

Nov.M

GREW

.OcL'S .No».f

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939 OCTOBER — Continued

urging U.S.S.R. not to disrupt friendly relations with Fin-

its

continue

policy of neutrality Britain and France rejected Hitler’s offer of peace.

even

Japanese entered Shekkii on delta of Canton river.

New York Yankees

Reds in fourth straight game (2-1, 4-0, 7-3, 7-4) to win baseball world’s series. Finland continued to mass 9 troops on eastern border as its representative, Juhu Paasikivi, entrained for Moscow; Sweden began construction of shelters and orfirst air-raid dered 100,000 reservists to rein service.

Italian newspaper of Ferrara attacked Russian leaders as

“sanguinary criminals” and “buffoons,” and declared Italians are “born anti-communists.”

Third Baltic pact, with Lithuania, concluded at Moscow; U.S.S.R. ceded Vilna in exchange for practically unlimited rights to establish military bases on Lithuanian soil;

Lithuania ratified pact October 14-

France would not lay down her arms until she had “certain guarantees of security which will not be put in doubt every six months,” said Daladier in formal reply to Hitler’s proposals of October 6 .

Civilian evacuation of Helsinki and Viborg and mobili^tion of fleet ordered by Finnish Gov’t.

Motion of Sen. Charles W. Tobey (N.H., R.) to separate shipping and embargo provisions of Neutrality bill defeated by U.S. Senate, 65 to 26.

Estonian cabinet resigned.

»

War Secretary HoreBelisha announced transport of 158,000 troops and 25,000 tanks and vehicles to France in first five weeks of war. British

defeated

Cincinnati

main

land.

if

Anglo-Soviet trade treaty concluded; it provided for

exchange of Russian timber for British rubber and tin.

Pres. Roosevelt dispatched personal note to Pres. Kalinin,

Finnish Foreign Minister Erkko said nation would not sign a

Russian-dictated agree-

ment.

10 Definite rejection of Hit14 ler’s peace proposals announced by Chamberlain, who repeated that “no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Gov’t.”

15

raided Brit-

IP Nazi planes lU Ish naval base at Rosyth on Firth of Forth; London admitted slight damage to cruiser and destroyer and casualties of 15 dead, but claimed four enemy planes shot down.

Germans launched major offensive along western front and drove French back across border at Apach.

Members

of

Hungarian

fective

Mayor Maury Maverick of San Antonio, Texas, indicted on charges of improper payment of Madrid restored as capital Spain.

Foreign Minister Saracoglu

unanimously for 15th consecuterm as president of A.F. of

for

Ankara October

18.

Scapa Flow raided twice by Nazi planes; London announced damage to training ship "Iron Duke” and Berlin claimed hits also

on second warship.

Dr. Otto Dietrich, Nazi party press chief, reputedly said that only U.S. intervention for peace could save Europe from the “most gruesome blood bath in history”; Pres. Roosevelt indicated U.S.A. would not act on such semi-official suggestions.

W by

British battleship “Royal

Oak” sunk

at Scapa

Flow

German submarine which

penetrated defences of bay; 810 died, 424 were rescued; Germans claimed battle cruiser “ Repulse” was torpedoed in same raid.

reaffirmed neutral-

and thanked U.S.A. for message of good-will toward four nations.

Polish Gov’t in France announced protest to Lithuaniaagainstannexation of Vilna.

Japanese flyers completed round-the-world

flight

at Tokyo.

Editorial

Pres. Kalinin’s reply of October 16 to Pres. Roosevelt’s message of October ii revealed in Washington note described Russian negotiations with Finland as entirely friendly.

in Izvestia of Q| 41 Moscow declared AlliedTurkish pact had “serious political significance” and warned against attempts to drive a wedge between Germany and U.S.S.R.

Elmer F. Andrews resigned as Wages and Hours adminis-

tack on

;

ing war.

Admiralty.

conference ended at Stockholm

left

tive

Sinking of three German submarines announced by British

sharply criticized Japanese infringements of American rights in China.

ity

William Green re-elected

dictates^ of European powers” criticized Canada for enter-

1.

U.S. Ambassador Joseph C. Grew, in speech at Tokyo,

communique

Russo-Turkish negotiations broke down; Turkish

and

November

Four-power Scandinavian of

Nazi

plan of selling only “defensive” arms to belligerents; he also said U.S. A. should “demand the freedom of this continent and its surrounding islands from the

announced in Berlin; dewas signed October 8, ef-

sailles

Nazi organization, seized after suspected attempt to assassinate legislators and seize power.

poll taxes; later acquitted.

In his second broadcast on neutrality. Col. Lindbergh advocated Pres. Hoover’s

Formal annexation of 20,000 sq. mi. of Polish territory taken from Germany by treaty of Vercree

men’s" crew revealed at Amsterdam that German liner was safe at Murmansk, U.S.S.R.;

IQ IJ

at Ankara; it provided for "collaboration” in the event of war in the Mediterranean or war resulting from Allies’ guarantees to Greece and Rumania; protocol specified that Turkey should not be obliged to fight Russia.

“Death Legion,” outlawed

Dutch member of “Bre-

British reported capture of liner “Cap Norte.”

Allied-Turkish pact of IQ lu mutual assistance signed

U.S.

trator; he was succeeded Philip Fleming.

by Col.

planes

made first at-

British convoy in North Sea; Britain claimed raid was thwarted and four planes were

shot down.

IP Kings of Sweden, Nor10 way, and Denmark and Pres. Kyosti Kallio of Finland opened four-power conference at Stockholm to consult on possible concerted action in case of Russian invasion of Finland; Pres.

Roosevelt, in message to King Gustav of Sweden, declared American nations’ support of “principles of neutrality and order Under law for which the nations represented at the Stockholm conference have . taken a consistent stand.” .

German

.

German patrol vessel "Este 701” exploded in mine field off island of Moeen, Denmark; 50 of crew killed. Withdrawal troops from

of all

French but scat-

tered posts in German territory reported in Paris.

India Congress ordered eight provincial ministries to resign as protest against Britain’s policy of postponing grant of Dominion status.

Belligerent submarines

The pictures on this page are, left

HIMMLER DEWEY ROOSEVELT

ter-

Goebbels accused Winston

waters by proclamation

Churchill of deliberately sinking “Athenia” and called at-

barred from U.S. ports and ritorial

of Pres. Roosevelt.

to right:

STALIN RYTI

Japanese air base at Hankow bombed by Chinese planes.

Nov. 21 Nov. 29 Dec. 1 Dee. 1 Dec. 23

|C Soviet warships anchored lu in Tallinn bay.

New York North

city’s $40,000,000 Beach airport opened.

Dominion status for India by gradual constitutional steps after war described by Viceroy Linlithgow as British objective.

tention to U.S. passenger’s affidavit that ship was to be outfitted as raider and was sunk September 4 by British destroyers.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1939

16 OCTOBER — Continued 00 Seizure of U.S. ship “City bO of Flint” as contraband by German crew on October 9 announced; Germans took vessel with crew of 41 to Tromsoe, Norway, October 20, then to Murmansk, U.S.S.R.; prize crew was later revealed to be from carrier

27

Repeal of arms embargo voted by U.S. Senate, 63 to

30.

Soviet rule for western Ukraine approved unanimously by assembly at Lwow.

Riots in Prague marked observance of 21st anniversary of Czechoslovakia’s founding.

to 172.

cupation of Vilna.

op ^0

2

;

charge of using false U.S. passport.

“City of

Offices of Louisiana attorney-

crew.

general and his assistant seized by State troops on orders of Gov. Earl K. Long.

on 4u

Flint”

left

Mur-

mansk, manned by German Soviet troops entered Latvia to occupy military and

American opposition

Jap-

to.

anese expansion in China scored as unjust by Japanese Institute of the Pacific in reply to Ambassador Grew’s speech of October

U.S.

Supreme Court

refused

0 4 “Germany will now fight

on OU

fcH to the finish,” asserted German Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop at Danzig; he said that no possible differences should arise between U.S.A. and Ger-

many.

;

OC German

prize crew of

fcu "City of Flint” released from internment at Murmansk.

Gov’t of Premier Duplessis of Quebec, opponent of conscription,

defeated

by

Liberals

in

landslide vote.

op

Russia notified London fcU that it would not recognize validity of British contraband list.

German pocket

battleship

“Deutschland” had eluded British blockade to raid shipping in Atlantic, Prime Minister Chamberlain disclosed in House of Commons; raiding by “Admiral Scheer” in Atlantic admitted by naval authorities ne.xt

day.

Release of “City of Flint”

demanded

of U.S.S.R.

by U.S.

State Dept.

Strike against coastwise sh pping lines called in New York city.

3

Horrors of Nazi concentration camps described in British While Paper published at London.

Molotov’s references of October 31 to U.S.A. charac-

terized by President Roosevelt as bad manners.

Mixed Claims commission awarded U.S. litigants $50,000,-

Tom

Gen.' Manuel Avila Camacho nominated as presidential candidate of Mexican Revolutionary

Britain,

Old-age pension plans defeated by decisive majorities in Ohio and California. Transfer of U.S. ships to Panamanian registry to evade proviheld

Virginio

Gayda,

Mussolini's

editorial spokesman, assailed “false accusations” of Comintern concerning war, derided Molotov’s claim that Russia was working for peace, and said “there is no definite accord beBerlin.”

Trial of Herschel Grynszpan, young Polish Jew, for slaying of German diplomat in Paris Nov. duration 7, 1938 postponed for of war.

party.

Winnie Ruth Judd, escaped murderess, captured at Phoenix,

Bill

repealing U.S.

arms

Ariz.

4 embargo

PI New foreign policy of U. 01 S.S.R. outlined by Premier-

“cash-and-carry” trade with belligerents signed by Pres. Roosevelt; proclamation forbade U.S. ships to enter waters around

Foreign Minister Molotov at extraordinary session of Supreme Soviet; he accused Allies of prolonging war, defended Russian invasion of Poland, deplored the “experience of Versailles,” berated the U.S. Gov’t for intervening in Finnish negotiations and for supporting repeal of arms embargo, conciliated Japan, and divulged Russia’s “proposals” to Finland, viz., islands in the Gulf of Finland, naval base at the entrance to the gulf, and a strip of territory on the Karelian isthmus north of Leningrad in exchange for part of Soviet Karelia. Six Italian cabinet ministers, chiefs of

army and

air force,

Party Sec’y Achille Starace

and substituting

Great Britain and Ireland, English channel. North Sea south and west of Bergen, Baltic sea,

re-

interned German prize crew for entering port of Haugesund without permission; Germany protested to Norwegian Gov’t; ship sailed to Bergen.

of talks with 5 Indian leaders over future political status of country announced by Viceroy Linlithgow.

Marshal Pietro Badoglio

re-

armed

Army

ordered by Mussolini.

New York World’s

for return of “City of Flint” release of prize crew.

as

Norway rejected Nazi demand and

25,814.953-

Josef Tiso elected first dent of Slovak republic.

Admission of Polish Western Ukraine into U.S.S.R. voted

V. Molotov’s speech

of preceding day.

leaders failed

when he

commemorated

Nazi

left Buer-

from complete independence U.S. parent organization and pledged war aid to Dominion.

A decadent capitalism 6 responsible for said V. Molotov,

was

European war,

who declared U.S.S.R. would pursue its “testunswerv'ed policy of peace ingly”; Comintern’s annual dec.

.

.

ifitnannivers.'in

witn of unsuccessful Nazi putsch Britain. a militant speech against

Unsuccessful

Breakdown

sec’y, and Marshal Rodolfo Graziani chief of staff of the army.

set forth in

to as-

sassinate Hitler and

ing 8; rew'ard of $200,000, later increased to $360,000, olferca conspirafor clews concerning had tors; before leaving, Hitler

chief of Italian forces; increase in Italian

Finland declared it would not accede to "proposals”

Apparent attempt

8

“City of Fiint” released to American crew by Norway, which

confirmed

NOVEMBER

quess of Zetland, sec’y of State for India.

gerbraeu hall, Munich, with his party shortly before time ^mh exploded, wrecking hall and kill-

of Biscay except northern Spanish coast.

moved from office by Mussolini; Ettore Muti became new party

Fair of 1939 closed with paid admissions of

Independence for India termed “impossible” by Mar-

and Bay

and

for his discovery of prontosil; deferred 1938 prize awarded to Dr. Corneille Heymans of Belgium. presi-

offer of

and France.

internal loan of 500,-

marks oversubscribed.

Canadian C.I.O. declared

1939 Nobel prize in physiological medicine awarded to Prof. Gerhard Domagk of Germany

dressed another joint mediation to Germany,

tween Moscow and

German 000,000

000 for damages in Black and Kingsland explosions.

Minimum U.S. wages in interstate industry raised to 30 cents per hour and maximum working hours per week without overtime pay lowered to 42 approximately 700,000 workers were affected.

King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina ad-

7

i

Association before trial of case by Circuit Court of Appeals.

Medical

U.S. war-

up by

Peruvian flyers began nonstop flight between New York city and Lima; they were forced down in Ecuador next day.

American

Nine of France’s

as

planes shot down 9 of 27 invading Nazi planes, announced French general headquarters.

sions of new neutrality law Pres. Roosevelt.

19-

naval posts. to review anti-trust suit against

laration next day associated war

blame with German as well French and British rulers.

oc-

House of Representatives voted repeal of arms embargo, 243 to 181 conference report was approved next day by Senate, 55 to 24, and by House, 243

pocket battleship “Deutsch-

Browder, sec’y of U.S. communist party, indicted on

Challedon became champion horse of 1939, defeating Kayak II by half length in Pimlico Special.

Lithuanian troops began

land.”

Earl

unanimously by Supreme SoviPolish White Russia was admitted next day. et;

conspiracy

to

Sepstart revolt in Afghanistan

tember

in India. 7 revealed of

Ernest O. Lawrence U.S.A. received 1939 physics; prize

e in !

awarded

>n

ohem-

jointly to Ad“'P

anandt of Germany lcRuzicka of Switzerland chemistiq in prize :d 1938 Kuhn of Gc t to Richard ;

•

VmericansadvisedbyR^

Breakdown of Finnlsh-R“*' in -''O’sian parleys announced cow. Nobel prize

for

Ecmil SiHa" led to Frans .

'.t.

.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS«T939 NOVEMBER — Confinued II

American shipping

1 1

Nonvaj' resumed.

wich, England, and sank with estimated loss of 100 lives.

Admiralty

Ten-hour working day

Sowing of parachuted magnetic mines by German seaplanes in estuarj' of Thames confirmed by British Admiralty;

with-

out additional pay announced in

guarantees against recurring Ger-

man aggression; reply of Pres. Lebrun of France declared basis of peace should be "reparation imposed . . of the injustices upon Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, .

Germany.

Unrestricted German mine warfare charged by

IQ 10

Withdrawal of British troops from North China announced in London; France announced sim-

IQ 10

German envoys

um

and

14.

to BelgiNetherlands in-

their neutrality; Dutch Premier de Geer told countrj’inen that he

believed Germany would live up to its pledge.

Shetland islands bombed twice by German planes.

mania

resigned; George Tatarescu formed cabinet next day.

Prosecution of labour unions under anti-trust laws threatened

Netherlandsand Belgiumpro-

by

tested seizure of German ex-

out

in

riots broke

Chiang Kai-shek elected tive

president of Chinese ExecuYuan to succeed H. H.

Rung, who became

vice-presi-

dent.

which struck German mine No-

vember

13; vessel

was

later re-

Fritz Thyssen, German industrialist, announced that his opposition to Nazis’ war policy had obliged him to flee to Switz-

on

first

left

Boston

leg of journey to

Ant-

arctica.

Maj. Gen. Thomas Q. Ashburni president of U.S. Inland Watenvays Corporation, ousted fjy Sec’y of Commerce Hopkins because of disagreement on pol-

Loans to small businesses promised by RFC if private banks withheld such

exports, whether Q| German L\ on Reich's or neutral ships, would be seized in retaliation for Germany’s mine laying in North Sea, announced Prime Minister Chamberlain; Japanese liner “Terukuni Maru” sunk by mine off east coast of England.

TwoBritish Intelligence Service officers and a German were said by Heinrich Himmler, chief

General Motors Corp. and IP lU 3 subsidiaries convicted of

of Nazi Gestapo, to be instigators of Buergerbraeu explosion

A1 Capone, former Chicago gangster, released from prison.

yj 1

1

Nine Czech students executed by Nazi Elite Guards

at Prague for taking part in anti-

German riots; three more Czechs were shot next day; University of Prague closed for three years.

November 8; all were arrested within a few hours and the German later confessed crime, said Himmler, who also accused Otto Strasser, headof anti-Nazi “Black Front,” as “brains” behind plot.

New Lithuanian cabinet headed by Antanas Merkys formed. Proposed

transfer

Angers,

ate Government.

Capture of Pakhoi in South China announced by Japanese.

new

radio station warned U.S.S.R. not to attempt invasion of Balkans.

Dutch liner "Simon BolIP 10 ivar” struck mine off Har-

U.S.

France, selected as capital of Poland’s expatri-

of

of British destroyer “Gipsy” by mine

damaged by torpedo or mine in Firth of Forth November 21,

long as possible."

Rumanian Foreign Minister Gafencu rejected Hungarian Foreign Minister Csaky’s suggestion that Rumania consider return of Transylvania.

Russian troops began invasion of Finland shortly after 9 A.M.; Pres. Kallio declared “state of siege”: scores killed in air raids on Helsinki, V’iipuri, and other cities: Soviets announced capture of Petsamo (Petschenga) and four islands in

Gulf of Finland.

Dino Grand! named president of Italian Chamber of Fasces and Corporations.

Admiralty announced. Berlin claimed direct hits on four British warships during air attack in North &a.

Withdrawal

of Finnish

troops 20 to 25km. behind border on Karelian isthbj: U.S.S.R. after alleged incident in which three Soviet troops and officer were killed; Finland denied clash next day and said it would agree to proposal only if Soviet troops withdrew from border also. fortified

mus demanded

Organization of Allied economic co-ordinating committee headed by Jean Monnet, Frenchborn British economist, announced in London and Paris.

Order

in council for blockade of German axports signed by King George; enforcement of order began December 5.

DECEMBER

Finnish-Soviet non-agpact denounced

by U.S.S.R.; Russians charged new provocative border inci-

next day.

armed merchant-

man “Rawalpindi” sunk by German pocket battleship “Deutschland” and another w’arship off southeast coast of Iceland in first naval battle of war;

was estimated as 259;

(Finnish Premier Cajander resigned despite vote of confidence and was succeeded by

Risto Ryti; new Soviet puppet “People’s Government” set itself up at Terijoki and was recognized by U.S.S.R.; advance of Russian Army checked in Karelian isthmus; Finns announced sinking of Russian cruiser and disabling of

Vindictive peace disclaimed by Chamberlain as Allied war

warship

Pres. Roosevelt

"Kirov.”

denounced

Soviet inv'asion as wanton and lawless: he also requested both belligerents not to bomb open cities.

Thomas campaign

E. Dewey opened for Presidenc}'.

Harold D. Jacobs appointed temporary Wage-Hour administrator.

Puppet Terijoki Gov’t

2

seventh naval loss of war.

loss of life

Joseph Stalin branded as lie statement attributed to him that European war “should last as

Nanning an-

nounced by Japanese army.

40 of crew lost; ship was Britain’s

Novem-

2 J^-5

Premier Daladier granted

ber 21 announced by Admiralty;

coast of England

to

complete power to rule by decree for duration of war; French Senate approved move next day.

Strike of C.I.O. workers at Chrysler plants in Detroit ended by agreement after 54 days; new contract was ratified by unions

off east

tenced December 5 years in prison.

national

for

dents.

Sinking

British

Rome

Capture

convicted of larhe was sen-

forgerj';

8500,000,000

gression

co-ordinate Franco-British purchasing, shipping, and blockade

Two-weekstrikeof longshoremen in New York city ended.

of

ships to Panamanian registrj^ was a “closed chapter,” announced White House.

Allied Supreme Economic council created in London to

activities.

Plan to cut 1940 deficit by more than half for 1941 fiscal year divulged by Pres. Roosevelt, who also announced likely increase of in appropriations

Kuhn

credit.

icy.

violating anti-trust act; 17 e.\ecutives of companies were acquitted.

and day.

New British cruiser “Belfast”

vealed to be “Blanche.”

Byrd expedition

Italy ne.xt

defence.

British Admiralty anloss of destroyer

ports on neutral ships; Japan lodged protests

Sukkur, India.

erland.

IT nounced

Port of London Authority offinext day that port had been closed for few hours until mines were swept up.

cials revealed

Premier Argetoianu of Ru-

Ass’t Att’y-General Arnold.

Fritz

ceny and

26.

days.

Hindu-Moslem

structed to assure two countries that Reich intended to respect

14

November

Great Britain as five more merchant ships went down off east coast of England; 9 other ships were similarly sunk in next 2

and Poland.”

move November

announcement was

delayed until

to

Reply of King George VI to Dutch-Bel^an offer of mediation in war insisted upon

ilar

17

signed compact with U.S.

S.R. ceding bases and territorj' to latter; Finns reported recapture of Petsamo and successful counter-attacks on Karelian isthmus south of Mannerbeim line.

New

Finnish cabinet de-

3

clared intention of seeking pacific settlement of war without sacrificing vital interests; strong resistance to Soviet troops reported along eastern front.

League of Nations Council to meet December

summoned

aim.

9 in response to Finland’s appeal.

U.S.S.R.

severed diplomatic relations with Finland; United States offered to mediate.

4

Moscow refused Finland’s

proposal to negotiate, and announced U.S.S.R. would not

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1939

18 DECEMBER — Continued attend League of Nations Council meeting; Finns announced capture of 1,500 Soviet troops north of Lake Ladoga; Pravda admitted Russian advance had been delayed by land mines.

Finland claimed destruction of 60 Russian planes in raid on Soviet air bases near Murmansk but admitted short retreats on Karelian isthmus and

5

in vicinity of Suojaervi.

Partial mobilization decreed territorial waters in Baltic mined.

Manuel Prado inaugurated

in Credit of SIO.OOO.OOO lU granted Finland by U.S. Export-Import Bank.

funds for Finnish refugees. Official journal of

Comin-

6 tern warned Rumania to negotiate anti-aggression pact similar to those signed by Baltic states; the article was officially repudiated December

8.

Ruin of Reich’s overseas trade admitted by German economic and colonial expert. Secretary of late in

German consu-

New York

city found

beaten to death. Col. Fulgencio Batista retired from Cuban Army to become candidate for Presidency.

7

Blockade of Finland announced by U.S.S.R.

U.S.A. protested to Great 8 Britain against seizure of German exports on American ships and warned that such action might lead to claims for damage. 4,

Admiral James O. Richardson appointed commander in chief of U.S. fleet.

Italian Fascist Grand Coundeclared Rome-Berlin axis was unimpaired, challenged Allies’ right to interfere with Italian overseas trade, and warned against aggression in Balkans;

Turkish press charged Franz von Papen, German ambassador, with stir

propaganda activities to up Russo-Turkish enmity.

Marcel Pilet-Goiaz elected President of Swiss Confedera-

Russians continued retreats on northern and eastern Finnish fronts; unofficial estimates placed Soviet casualties at 30,000 for first three weeks of war.

tion for 1940.

nied in Berlin.

Plea for active help from other nations broadcast by speaker of Finnish diet.

League

of Nations.

"Admirai Graf Spee” orIP 10 dered by Uruguayan Gov’t to leave by 8 p.M. December 17.

U.S.S.R. to suspend hostilFinland and submit dis-

pute to negotiation; reply quested within 24 hours.

re-

American

All

candidacy for President.

n

resentative at Vatican with rank of ambassador without portfolio; President also asked Pope Pius XII and U.S. Jewish and Protestant leaders to work for world peace.

John N. Garner announced

republics pro-

tested jointly to France, Great

League of Nations asked

ities in

Roosevelt named Myron C. Taylor his personal rep-

U.S.S.R. expelied from

agency, published report that Germany was shipping arms to Finland; report was officially de-

On

|T I

Hitler’s orders, “Admiral Graf Spee” was blown by her commander outside

/

up

Britain, and Germany against violation of 300-mi. “safety zone"

around hemisphere.

harbour of Montevideo. Five-point peace plan

Four companies of Soviet

First

troops annihilated near eastern

in

border, said Finnish communique; penetration of Russians as far as 60 mi. in certain sectors

IP iO

admitted.

Investigation of National Labor Relations Board opened in Washington.

Evidence in U.S. criminal triobtained by wire-tapping was barred by Supreme Court. als

|0 U.S.S.R. refused “to take 14 part in discussion of the Finnish question” with the League of Nations.

Canadian troops arrived

Great Britain.

British and planes

“Bremen” returned to home port from ing

big air battle over Heligoland Bight; Berlin claimed 34 British ships shot

down with only two German planes lost; London placed own losses at

and Nazis’ at

7

and French curren-

cies pegged together at francs to pound.

Finns claimed 2,000 Russians slain in Soviet offensive to cut nation in two.

Swedish Foreign Minister Sandler, object of Nazi and Russian criticism, dropped from new coalition cabinet, which took

IQ 10

12.

December

13.

German pocket battleship “Admiral Graf Spee”

after running battle British cruisers "Ajax,” “Achilles,” and “Exeter;” it took shelter in harbour of Montevideo, Uruguay, with 36 dead; “Exeter” was also badly damaged; British casualties later an-

disabled

with

nounced as 72 dead.

Pope Pius Xll

of

called for

guarantee of all nations’ independence, disarmament, return to

morality, and

international

meeting of "just demands tions

Irish

and

.

.

.

of na-

minorities.”

Republican Army mem-

bers raided magazine

of Dublin

fort.

QC 4u

Finnish troops

crossed

Russian border

for

Winston Churchill claimed sinking of German cruiser in mouth of the Elbe, damaging of

time

two others and destruction of U-boat by two British sub-

long-range

first

in drive to sever Murmansk railway; Viipuri suffered heaw

bombard-

artillery

ment.

marines.

Argentina announced

it would “Admiral Graf

Spee.”

British

26

announced new

mine

field along lenrth of eastern coast approximately 30-

40 mi. wide.

Murmansk after elud-

British submarine.

British

German

met in

intern crew of

office

cil

Russia named as aggressor by committee of 13 appointed by League of Nations Assembly.

Tass, official Soviet news

by Sweden;

Plan for using Finland’s war debt payment of $234,693 December 15 to aid nation in repelling invasion announced by Pres. Roosevelt; Herbert Hoover announced organization to raise

as

President of Peru.

U.S.S.R. completed occupation of Finnish corridor to Arctic ocean.

and Great Britain concluded wartime

07 Sweden 4/

trade pact.

German luxury liner“CoIQ Iw lumbus” scuttled own crew 450 mi. intercepted

off

by

by U.S. coast when

British destroyer

“Hyperion;” crew of 577 was landed by U.S. cruiser “Tuscaloosa” at Ellis island next day.

German freighter “Arauca” took refuge at Ft. Lauderdale, after pursuit cruiser “Orion.” Fla.,

by

British

on Hans Langsdorff, com4U mander of “Admiral Graf Spee,” committed suicide.

no

Pope Pius Xll

40.mal

visit to

paid for-

King

Victor

Emmanuel. Charles Edison appointed U.S. Sec’y of Navy.

Finns routed Russians in tw day battle north of Lake Nian

fishing Q| Disputes over ul grounds and kuoan railroad settled by

Russo-Japanese pacts.

n| Hospital district of Hel41 sink! destroyed by Russian bombers on Stalin’s 60th birthday.

>

report entire Russian division annihilated.

Total

German and Allied

of war French at 9,604.

ualties

(Jan.

i,

*94

Ahhntt

Pmoq

nUuUlli UiavC

(^^78-1939), American social worker, was 17 at Grand Island, Neb.,

bom November

and graduated from the

For several years

college there in 1898.

she taught in the high school at Grand Island, then

moved

to

Chicago where she became associated with the late Jane Addams as a resident at the Hull House. This experience crystallized her determination to enter social work, and to devote her career especially to the problems of children. President

Wilson appointed

her director of the child labour division of the U.S. Children’s

Bureau

in

Washington

chief of the bureau.

and from 1921

in 1917,

to 1934 she

(g.v.) had been precipitated by announcement of the Soviet-German pact of non-aggression. Abe completed his cabinet the next day and retained for himself temporarily the portfolio of foreign affairs. Almost the first action of the new cabinet was the issuance of a statement that Japan “does not intend to become involved” in the European war. Abe also indicated that his Government would pursue the Chinese “incident” to its conclusion, and would adopt a foreign policy of rigid independence. He re-

Hiranuma

signed Jan. 14, 1940.

was

In this position she exerted a powerful in-

amendment

Aberdeen and Temair, Ishbel Maria, Marchioness

articles on the training of chil-

fluence on public opinion in favour of the child labour

the Japanese Military council,

army

and acting army minister. In 1932 he was appointed commander of the Taiwan army. Though he possesses perhaps an unrivalled knowl-

OF (1857-1939) was the widow of the first Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, Governor General of Canada and twice Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, who died in 1934. With her husband she was an influential leader of English liberalism during the ministries of Gladstone and afterward. In her earlier years she was a prominent suffragist and participated frequently in Scottish political campaigns. Later she became internationally known for her philanthropic activities. When her husband became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1886 she became president of the Women’s National Health association, which established tuberculosis sanatoria throughout Ireland. 'When he was appointed Governor General of Canada she established the Victorian Order of Nurses there. For 38 years she was president of the International Council of Women. She wrote a joint autobiography with her husband. We Twa (1925) which was widely read in Great Britain and the United States. Other volumes were More Cracks with We Twa (1929) and The Musings of a Scottish Granny (1936). She died at Rubi-

edge of Japanese military

he had never held a high

slaw, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, on April 18.

and other

social legislation.

Her

dren, published in the bulletins of the Children’s

Bureau and in

current periodicals, attracted millions of readers.

In 1934 she

became professor of public welfare at the University of Chicago. Several months before her death in Chicago on June 19 she completed her two-volume The Child and the State. See also Eiicyclopcedia Britannica, vol.

i, p. 22.

),

Aho NnhilUlllfi ilUuUjUM

bom

niJuf

in

Japanese prime minister, was at Ishikawa-ken and

Nov. 1875

graduated from the Military Officer’s school in 1897. He entered military service and became successively an instructor of military tactics at, the Military

tor of the national

office

Aug.

when

academy, military attache to Austria, direc-

bureau of military

affairs,

the emperor

affairs, chief

commanded him

28, 1939, after the resignation of

secretary of

vice-minister,

to

form

a

political

cabinet

Prime Minister Kiichiro

Abyssinia:

see Italian

Colonial Empire.

19

ACADEMIC FREEDOM— ADJUSTED COMPENSATION

20

associations in

fipflripmip Froorinm nUdUbllllu riCCuUllli

the United States of a general char-

acter have established academic freedom committees.

Jan.

r,

This

list,

1940, included the American Association of University Pro-

American Federation of Teachers, the National Educaand the Progressive Education Association. On Jan. II, 1940, the Association of American Colleges at its annual meeting adopted in amended form a statement of principles concerning academic freedom and tenure which had been drafted by a joint conference of committees of the American Association of University Professors and the Association of American Colleges. Although this statement as amended represents a genuine advance over prewous formulations, it remains to be seen whether the American Association of University Professors will be satisfied fessors, the

tional Association,

made by

with the changes

The

when he managed a senatorial camHoward Taft’s campaign in Iowa, and from 1912 to 1924 he was a member of the Republican National Committee for Iowa. From June 1921 to June 1924 he was chairman of the Republican National Committee. He died at Dubuque on October 28. political career started in 190S,

paign ; four years later he managed William

Aden Colony,

including

Perim

Aden

sq.mi.; pop. (1931) 46,638.

island,

etc.,

’

area

80

Protectorate, including

Sokotra, area

112,200 sq.mi.; population (estimated) 600,000. Governor, Lt.-Col. Sir Bernard Rawdon Reilly, K.C.M.G., C.I.E..

Mohammedan.

O.B.E.; language: English and Arabic; religion:

—^Although Aden

the youngest crown colony (1937) has been a British possession since Jan. ig, 1S39. The centenarj’

History.

it

is

“full free-

was celebrated. In the Protectorate the rule of law and economic

and in the publication of results, subj'ect to the adequate performance of his other academic duties,” is recognized. Both groups, moreover, agree that the teacher should have freedom in discussing his subj'ect in the classroom and that “when he speaks or writes as a citizen he should be free from institutional censorship or discipline.” The American As-

order extended steadily, especially in the territories of the Qua’iti

dom”

the college presidents.

of the teacher “in research

sociation of University Professors has wished, however, the ac-

ceptance of the specific probationary periods outlined by the j'oint committee. Under this plan an instructor or a person of higher

rank would normally receive permanent tenure after serving a

and Kathiri Sultans. For his services in the promotion of peace and the improvement of transport, irrigation and education in the Hadrahmaut the Seiyid Bubakr was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire. The outbreak of war found the various rulers of the Protectorate in full sympathy with the Allied cause. The importance of Aden itself, as a naval and military and to some extent an air base, is likely to be accentuated. Production 1938-39: tobacco (approx, value of crop) Rs.

500.-

000; salt 262,994 tons; (export) 248,784 tons. External trade 1938 (merchandise and treasure on private account) imports, by sea

maximum of six years. Beyond this period, the termination of appointments would be for “adequate cause” or for extraordinary and proven financial exigencies. Dismissal would be only after

Rs. 6, 78,60,400; by land Rs. 29, 40,602; exports, by sea Rs.3,4i,4S,-

a hearing at which the teacher

exports Rs.72, 50,784.

is

afforded an adequate opportunity

to defend himself.

The college

although

it

define

281;

by land Rs.is, 95,929;

imports Rs. 1,23,69,439;

treasure:

Finance 1938-39: revenue £148,586; expenditure £127,963;

Association of American Colleges voted to leave to

:

“with great

care”

the

it

to

each

probationary period,

accepted the right of an aggrieved teacher to an

adequate hearing. Another disagreement has been over the refusal

currency, legal tender; rupee (Rs.i)

= ij.6d.

Communication: shipping (1938),

2,079 merchant vessels en-

tered; total tonnage 8,650,411 net tons;

(Sept. 30, 1939) 733 cars

and

taxis,

motor vehicles

registered

207 commercial vehicles.

of the Association of American Colleges to favour the provision that the individual teacher should be the sole judge of

whether

he had, outside of the classroom, used “appropriate restraint” in his utterances.

The American

Association of University Professors reported in

1939, 104 cases of alleged violation of academic freedom.

Out-

standing 1939 cases in which infringements to academic freedom or tenure were found include those at the University of Tennessee,

John B. Stetson university, St. Louis university, Montana State university, and West Chester State Teachers college. The administrations of all these institutions were placed on the censured list of the American Association of University Professors. The State Board of Higher Education of North Dakota was removed from the Association’s censured list after that board had reinstated faculty members of the North Dakota Agricultural college. (C. E. Wa.) of Arts and Letters, American: sec American Academy or Arts and Letters. Academy of Arts and Sciences, American: see American AaiDEMY OF Arts and Sciences. Academy of Political and Social Science, American: sec American Academy of Political and Social Science. Accidents: see Disasters; Insurance. Automobile: Great Brilaht; Medicine: Motor Accidents; Psychology, Applied: Accidents; Shipping, Merchant Marine; Traffic Accidents. "Achilles"; sec European War; Submarine Warfare. Actors and Acting: sec Theatre.

Academy

Adjusted Compensation. War

Adjusted Compensation Act was passed by the Congress of the United States providing for the adjustment of the pay of veterans of the World War. In substance it bestowed basic service credit of $r.oo for each day’s service in the United States and $1.25 for each day’s service overseas, ivith deduction on account of the $60 bonus previously authorized and limited to a maximum of $500 for home service and S625 for overseas service. If serrdcc credits amounted to no more than $50, veterans were paid in cash, payments numbering 176,872 and aggregating $5,337,821.91 having been paid under this provision of the statute.

In the case of deceased veterans, service credits were payable and such payments amounting to $48,448,-

to their dependents

582.53 have been made on 146,825 veterans’ cases. To living veterans whose sendee credits exceeded $50 there have been issued 3,789,783 adjusted sendee certificates, the face values of

which total $3,708,546,587.00. These certificates having loan pidvdleges 20-year

endowment insurance

Legislation enacted Jan. 27, 1936 made the face values of adjusted sendee certificates, less any outstanding loans and interest accrued prior to Oct. r, 1931, payable as of June 15, 1936. application.

a

was bom

at

Dubuque.

manufacturing business

la., on*

in

Dc-

iSSi. His

The

face values of the 3,494,607 adjusted serv-

upon which certifications have been made totalled $3,424,119,301.00, and the amount certified as payable after deducting outstanding liens was $1,911,387,215.39. ice certificates

rember aa and entered

arc, in essence, paid-up

maturity values thereof

approximating two and one-half times the sendee credit. A sum of $237,596,330.59 has been paid on 240,864 certificates because of maturity having been occasioned by the deaths of veterans.

upon

Adams, John Taylor

policies, the

ADJUSTED SERVICE BONDS— ADVERTISING Payment was prescribed by the law

to

21

be made by the issuance

of bonds of the United States in denominations of $50, odd

amounts in excess of any multiples of $50 to be paid by checks. These bonds are dated June 15, 1936 and mature on June 15, 1945, but are redeemable at the option of the veteran at any time, interest accruing at the rate of 3 per centum per annum except no interest accrued

on bonds redeemed prior to June

tlement the Treasury' Department has issued

to,

15, 1937- In set-

veterans bonds

and has redeemed $1,545,759,050.00 of these bonds. The Adjusted Compensation work has to a large extent been completed, certification haring been made on all certificates issued up to this time with the exception of 34>3i2 for which applications for settlement have not been received from totalling §1,828,653,700.00

veterans. All data herein cited are as of June 30, 1939.

(See also

(F. T. Hi.)

Veterans’ Administration.)

Adjusted Service Bonds: see Adjusted CoMPENS-rTioN. "Admiral Graf Spee": see Hispanic America and the European War; Langsdoref, Hans; Neutrality; Case oj the “Graf Spee”; Munitions of War: Sea Warfare; Submarine Warfare; Uruguay: European War. Adult Education: see Education, Adult. Adiiortipinfr nllVul llolllga graphs,

Outstanding developments in the United States during 1939 include increasing use of photo-

more coloured advertisements

in newspapers,

enforcement

Wheeler-Lea Act and the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, which have brought about drastic changes in advertising copy. In the United States, network radio advertising increased about 17% over 193S. Newspaper linage increased about 2%, magazine 2-6%, farm paper decreased 1-5%, while outdoor advertising held its own. For these five media combined, the net result was an increase in advertising volume of about 2-5%. These estimates are based upon a study made for the publication. Printers’ of the

U.S. ADVERTISEMENT of the 193S Annual Advertising Feb. 1939, stresses "Institutional” copy

THIS PRIZE-WINNING Awards, announced

made

it

in

clear that the

FCC encourages its

vertising

medium

until

enough receivers are

British advertising expenditures dropped sharply during 1939-

in use to

make

ade-

quate audiences available. British advertising has

Ink.

development beyond the

experimental stage. However, telewsion will not become an ad-

been greatly influenced by an important 5-minute shorts. Theatres W'ere eager

increase in film advertising

—

In London morning newspapers the decrease was 15-9%; in London evening newspapers, i6-6%; in national Sunday papers,

to get these commercial films because they revived audiences

15-2%; in provincial daily papers, 17-9%; in provincial and subin magazines, 7-09%; in technical urban weekly papers, journals, 13-7%; and in trade journals, 16-7%. These figures were prepared by the Legion Publishing Company, Limited. Copy and Layout. ^In the United States, copy tended to become more specific and realistic. It demonstrated more sparkle, a

commercial films shown in 1,500 theatres reaches a total audience of 13,000,000 persons per week.

—

swifter pace and

more dramatic

quality.

The

question and answer

technique, originally introduced in radio advertising, ferred to printed advertising.

was

trans-

In layout, the trend toward photo-

it was common to an advertisement, where formerly one or two were considered adequate. Photography largely replaced line drawings and special advertisements were devised for adaptation to the characteristics of various media. In spite of the European war, humour persisted to a marked degree in British advertising. Photographs were used increasingly for illustrations, the trend being away from line or wash drawings. In general, British advertising came to follow more closely American technique. Advertising Media. ^Rotogravure advertising in the United States increased 7-8% in 1939. Although no accurate figures are

graph and caption developed to a point where find several photographs in

—

available, it is estimated that spot radio broadcasting increased

over 1938. There was a reduction in the number of Hollywood-produced shows and a tendency to cut talent costs. (See

25%

also

Radio, Industrial Aspects of.)

On

April 30, 1939, television was publicly introduced by NBC. In November, the Federal Communications Commission Tele\nsion

Committee adw'sed caution

in

commercializing television, but

had

fallen off to a large extent.

It is estimated that

which

one of the

Two principal radio stations on the Continent were broadcasting commercial radio programs for British manufacturers. These were Radio Normandy and Radio Luxembourg. With the actual declarawar both stations ceased to accept commercial programs. the end of the year only Radio Normandy had resumed commercials, but would allow only identification on the part of the advertiser without any actual commercial advertising. Newspapers. ^There was an increasing willingness on the part of newspaper representatives to discuss wide differentials between local and national new'spaper rates. (See also New'spapers.) Outdoor Advertising. ^It became possible, for the first time, to buy outdoor space in nine different “intensities,” or degrees of coverage. Formerly, there were only three. This made outdoor advertising more fle-xible. Another new’ factor was guaranteeing a minimum circulation, based on traflic counts. Statistics on the circulation of outdoor advertising now’ cover tion of

Toward

—

—

65%

of all advertising space in 17,000 communities.

Legislafion.

—

^In

the United States, application of existing laws

caused more immediate apprehension

among national advertisers new measures added to Federal statute books in 1939. The WTieeier-Lea amendment to the Federal Trade Commission Act. and the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act brought about drastic curthan

tailments in copy, and the wide discretion vested in both the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration w’as the element

which advertisers found most troublesome.

ADVERTISING

22

—In

Regulation and Ethics.

the United States, the National

Association of Better Business Bureaus issued a Fair Trade Code 1928

containing

1929

edition of

1930

10 injunctions, in addition to publishing the

“A Guide

to Better Advertising,” a loose-leaf

The National

first

form

1931

designed for continuous service.

1932

Independent Tire Dealers asked the National Bureau of Standards,

Association of

1933

U.S. Department of Commerce, to establish protective standards

1934

against misleading advertising.

1935

scrutinized

1936

by

the

Liquor advertising was carefully Temporary National Economics Committee

(T.N.E.C.). Advertisers were requested to submit figures for

1937

e.\-

penditures in various media, while the Federal Alcohol Adminis-

1938

tration requested similar information

1939 MOS 1940

'll

from State control

agencies.

The Federal Cofnmunications Commission ruled that any radio program is an advertising program when it is announced that such 75

50

25

c

125

100

150

175

MILLIONS OF LINES

NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING average per month.

(total

linage in

52

Compiled by Media Records,

An amendment was

passed to the Food,

making mandatory a

cities of the

United States):

Inc.

with clients in cases involving alleged

false or misleading copy.

From an advertising standpoint, the charge by the Federal Trade Commission that the use of the Good Housekeeping “Seal of Approval” violated Federal legislation was one of the most interesting legal actions introduced during 1939. The case was described as one of the

most important

legal battles in the history

of advertising. British advertising

was

affected, in

enacted as a result of the war.

some

sponsored, even though no actual advertising be in-

lines,

by

legislation

Producers of gasoline,

tea,

and

Numerous groups and associations, includNew York Stock Exchange,

ing the American Medical Association,

New York

Drug and Cosmetic Act

six

liable

is

cluded in the program.

months’ extension of labelling provisions, to afford manufacturers ample time to comply with the law. The Federal Trade Commission announced that, thereafter, agencies

would be held jointly

program

City Better Business Bureau, and Associated Business

Papers, Inc., adopted or sponsored

new codes

of advertising ethics

and regulation. Contests and Premiums. In the United States, these two advertising adjuncts became more popular than ever during 1939. On one major radio network, about 65% of the commercially-sponsored programs featured contests or premiums. It was estimated that premiums and contest prizes, exclusive of cash awards and

—

the advertisers’

own merchandise, had a

000,000 for the year.

War

—In

and Advertising.

total value of $425,-

the United States, advertising was

by the European war. War-inspired copy took three definite trends: first, copy explaining new conditions due to the war; second, copy that merely used war interest as a background for the main message; third, copy that promoted domestic directly affected

margarine were forced to pool their products, with the result that brand names could not be used and advertising, was ineffective.

products as readily available substitutes for imported goods. “See

Later in the year, this restriction was removed in the case of

portation and resort advertising.

margarine and the British Government retained the right to apply such legislation to other products. in previous years, activities in advertising re-

The great bulk of steamship advertising was withdrawn and a marked increase in American advertising to Latin American dealers was noted. In the United Kingdom, the war has brought a

by

new copy

Research.

—As

search carried on

specialized organizations, publications,

advertisers in the United States, continued to increase.

A

and

joint

study was continued by the Bureau of Advertising of the American

Newspaper Publishers Association and the Advertising Research Foundation to determine current newspaper reader habits. Qualitative measurements of the effect of radio programs upon audiences were improved and figures on radio ownership, listening habits,

America First” took on new

significance as the

trans-

appeal based on such themes as “nerves,” “war nerves,” The British Food Ministry appointed an agency

“gas-proof,” etc.

to handle its advertising, while the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain presented a set of advertising regulations to companies subject to the Pharmacy Act. British business re-

vived

its interest in

co-operative advertising.

and location of receiving sets were made available to and advertising agencies.

advertisers

Late in September, the results of a four-year copy-testing study were issued in book-form by the Advertising Research Foundation.

Co-operative Advertising in the United States showed a marked increase, both as to scope and expenditure. Many new groups joined co-operative movements for the first time. Among the outstanding co-operative campaigns in 1939 was the “Parade of Progress,” sponsored by the Associated Grocery Manufacturers of America. State, county, and community advertising increased sharply to promote tourist, vacation, and World’s Fair trade. British co-operative advertising was extensively developed, especially in several of the dominions, where campaigns were instituted for agricultural products, salmon, fruit, butter, and cheese. Consumers. In the United States, the consumer movement developed to such proportions, in 1939, that no manufacturer could afford to ignore its influence. Consumer pressure caused greatly increased consumer actMties among Government agencies. .Advertisers tended, more and more, to tell their side of the “consumer movement” sloiy.

theme of

—

ADVERTISEMENT OF 1939

In A.Jt.P.

News. London

Newspapers were

AERONAUTICS

AGRICULTURE Trade and Communication.

23

— (1938)

23,532,212; exports, Rs. (Indian)

Imports, Rs. (Indian)

29,644,821.

Persian lambskin

one of the most important exports. Other exports are carpets, fruit, wool, and cotton. Roads: trade routes, Kabul to Peshaw'ar (India) 2iomi., and Kandahar to Chaman, 7omi.; there are is

about 2,265mi. of unmetalled roads connecting the chief towns. Agriculture. ^tVheat, rice, millet, maize, sheep, Persian lamb-

—

skin; wool (1936) 6,800 metric tons.

A. F. of L see American Federation of Labor. Africa, British East: see British East Africa. Africa, British South: see British South Africa. Africa, British West: see British West Africa. Africa: French Equatorial: see French Colonial Empire. Africa, French West: see French Colonial Empire. Africa, Italian East: see Italian Colonial Empire. Africa, Portuguese East and West: see Portuguese Co-

Has been

tpecially destgn«’, chairman of the House of Delegates; Harry’ S. Km'ght, secretary;

John H. Voorhees,

treasurer; Joseph

D. Stecher,

assistant secre-

(AI.

tary.

Dn.)

P.)

American Association of University Professors:

American Bankers Association.

Philadelphia,

William S. Elliott, Canton, Ga.; rice-president, Harrj’ A. Bryant. Parsons, Kan.; sarings dirision. president, A. George Gilman, Alalden, Alass.; rice-president. Roy A. Alarquardt, Chicago, 111.; State secretaries section, president. dir’ision, president,

of permits for public meetings.

and world importance. Its annual meeting for 1939 was held on Alarch 31 and April 1 and was the 43rd of such meetings. The subject for the two-day discussion was “Democracj- and the Americas.” During the fall of 1939 evening sessions were held as follows: on October 14, “American Foreign Policy”; on November iS, “The Roots of Totalitarianism.” A luncheon meeting was held also on December ir on the subject, “America Faces South.” The Annals, which is the bi-monthly journal of the Academy and which devotes each issue to a sjanposium on a designated

-Ac-tDEiiic

dirision, president, Alelr’in Rouff,

Andrew

denial of right to distribute printed matter

Political

attention to the discussion of questions of national

0\wiership and

N.Y.; senior deputy manager. Frank W. Simmonds, New York, N.Y.; secretary’, Richard W. Hill, New York, N.Y.; national bank

Bankers

Association in 193S-39 under the administration of Philip A.

Benson, president of The Dime Sa^•ings Bank of Brooklj-n, New York, reached the greatest percentage since records of the organization have been kept, with approximatelj’ So%, or 13,747 of the banks in the United States belonging. A new and hitherto unexplored field of banking research was entered bj’ the assocfation in 1939. Studies of the actual volume and number of loans made bj’ banks in various States were undertaken and figures shoeing the extent to which banks activelj’ ser\’e the credit requirements of their communities were made public. In addition, a compilation was made of specified amounts

American Ciiemical Society.

der a National Charter

from the 75th Congress. In 1939, the presidency pa.ssed from Dean F. C. Whitmore of the Pennsylvania State college to Dr. C. A. Kraus of Brown university, with Dean S. C. Lind of the University’ of Alinnesota as president-elect. He became president Jan. I, 1940. National meetings in Baltimore and Boston showed attendances of 4,024 and 3,924 with 499 and 547 scienactive tific pap>ers, respectively’. The 92 local sections were more

The awards of the society’: to Leroj’ S. Palmer, the Borden award in the Chemistry’ of Alilk; to George Wald, the Eli George Lilly’ and Company’ award in Biological Chemistry’; to than ever.

Hubbard Clapp, the Pittsburgh award; to Raleigh Gilchrist and Edward W’ickers, the Hillebrand award; to Joel H. Hildebrand, the Nichols medal; to Charles F. Vaughn, the Schoellkopf medal, to Donald Dexter van Slyke, the W’illard Gibbs medal. Alembcr(C. L. Ps.)

ship passed 23,000.

of credit available at all times to established regular business

borrowers. Officers of the association elected at the annual convention, at

Wash., Sept. 23-2S, 1939, for the ensuing year are: president, Robert AI. Hanes, Winston-Salem, N. C.; first rice-president, P. D. Houston, Nashrille, Tenn.; second rice-president, Heniy W. Koeneke, Ponca Citj-, Okla.; treasurer. B. Alurraj’ Pej^ton, Duluth, Minn.; e.xecutive manager. Dr. Harold Stonier. New York, Seattle,

American Citizens Abroad. American

mate of the number of

citizens liv’ing abroad, as of Jan. i, 1939, compiled

reports received from American consulates in

all

from

parts of the

world. This estimate includes only’ those whose residence abro.2d has a permanent or semi-f>ennanent character and therefore c.xcludes tourists and

all

others jvhose sojourn abroad was considered

:

to be only transitor>’- Attention

is

called to the fact that in spite

by consuls in preparing their reports, it was impossible in many cases for them to obtain exact figures as to the number of Americans residing in their respective districts. Nevertheless, this estimate, based on all available sources of inof the care exercised

may be regarded as a Americans Imng abroad.

formation,

EUROPE— Cont.

SOUTH -\MERIC.\

^lalta

1,280 2,544

Norway Portugal Lisbon

20S 2,847

15,772

.

AIEXICO .AND CENTR-AL .AMERICA British

Honduras.

Costa Rica El Salvador

Guatemala Honduras

175 S75 271 1 . 130

.

.... .... .

.

.

.

Panama

.

.

WEST INDIES Bahamas Bermuda Cuba

-

Socialist

Republics A^ugoslavia

21,515

.

354

Jamaica

702

Trinidad Total

3S4 .

.

.

,.

Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick .

.

.... .

Province.

.

.

555

30 320

Soo 2,555

Italy

.

.

....... .

Syria

23,330

.

TOT.AL

.

3.242 4.252 1,196

j:reat

many

i,oiS 1,320

Writer

Total

DESTINATION Africa

....

, 1,938 961 1,739 8,158 4,304 10,386

....

110,572

AU Countries Australia

& New Zealand

Eastern Europe Far East Latin America Near East

Western Europe

7,821

applicants inserted *‘AIl Countries” in the space provided in applica' * ..n it is ir the opinion of the Department of State that practically all who

—

—

aboard the American liner "Manhallan” Sept. 7, 1939 as returning U. S, citizens accepted any kind of accommodation in their haste to leave war zones

,So

2,398 350,797

The following summary report covering persons procuring passports and renewals during the calendar year which ended Dec. 31, 1938, is based upon actual count compiled from individual passport and renewal applications filed during that year and not computed as heretofore from a cross-sectional study. This 1938 sumis

Merchant

A TYPICAL SCENE

*1038 estimate. tipsS estimate. Not to be taken as the actual number of .American citizens residing in

report

14.791 i,S6o

597

Tradesman

gave “All Countries” as5 their t destination contemplated visiting Western Europe.

303

....

4, SoS

203

tions for destination,

2,095 .

.

1.501

* WTiile a

380

.

.

Servant Student Teacher Technician

19.304 173

Manufacturer jSIisceUan«)us Missionarj’

Spain.

mary

370

Librarian

AUSTRALASIA Australia

GRAND

131 3.257 4.SI5 1,550

Lawyer

iS

SOCIETY ISLANDS

.

Druggist Engineer

263

131

FIJI ISL.ANDS

Zealand Total

2,071

590 1,228 3, 5 1S9 352 6,720 9.000 149 613

SoS

Doctor Draftsman.

Housewife Interior Decorator .... Labourer (Common) Labourer (Skilled) ....

Total

New

.

Florist

1.405

Turkey (Including Turkey in Europe)

"

ScientiSc

.

10

H

India Iran Iraq

Straits Settlements

5,787 IS 3,014

Ireland

.

Palestine

12,964

Salesman

492

.

66

.

Estonia Finland France

Hungary

.

Japan

.

7,486

.

.

Hongkong

Siam

Restaurateur Retired

Clerk, Secretary’

Farmer-Rancher

7.707 .

Religious

1,632

.

S03 12,389 1,872 2,604 I1O4O 3.371 2,585 1.147 3.041 14,160 12,570

None Nurse

1,016

E.xecutive

ASIA

French Indo-China 463

1,383

Denmark

_

90

Indies

10,322 Bulgaria iPS Czecho-Slovakia 3,793 Danzig, Free City of 28

Greece

Tunisia Total

Netherlands East

46,584 ji.QsS 20,758

233

Gibraltar

963

.

JIusician

Banker, Broker Buyer, Exporter, Importer. Contractor

China

EUROPE

Germany

.

.

Arabia Ceylon

175,686

Albania

393 200

Natal Transvaal and South ,

774 620 116

Architect Artist

Cape

14.177

OCCUPATION— Cent.

OCCUPATION Accountant Actor

of South .Africa

Orange

Total

.

672 775 427 228 171 40S

.

.

.

Union

NEWFOUNDL.\XD ...

Belgium Great Britain and Northern Ireland

61

Morocco

12,261 28,961 2,416 3,766

British

Quebec Saskatchewan

.

MORE THAN 200 AMERICAN and Canadian survivors of the “Athenia” arrived Sept. 13, 1939, at Halifax aboard the American freighter “City of Flint,” which was captured as a contraband carrier a month later by the German pocket battle* ship “Deutschland”

AFRICA .Algeria

Liberia

NEWFOUNDLAND .... 175.223 Alberta .... 28,519

C.ANADA

.

.

Kenya

C.ANADA .AND

Ontario

2,093

.

Belgian Congo Egj’pt

1,890 22

Haiti

Nova Scotia

400

.

.

Nigeria

Indies

.

....

Total

4.976*

French West Indies

.

S 53 t 1.693 1,802

....

5 ,o8S3

.

.

Delaware Dist. of Columbia .

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

.

344

.

.

.

.

.

1,808 1,217

S87 190

.

....

Exclusive

of

Montana

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

*New York State North Carolina North Dakota

46,501

Ohio

Number

.

.

.

Oklahoma

Receiving Passports or Percent Renewals of Total 0.27 367

....

.

.

PERMANENT RESIDENCE 1938

Alaska Arizona Arkansas

.

.

New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York city

previ-

ously issued American passports

Alabama

.

Missouri

Nevada

PREVIOUS PASSPORTS Number having been

Mississippi

Nebraska

14,850 14,946

Minors

.

Massachusetts Michigan . Minnesota .

83,267 51,470 71.385 63,352

New York

0.05 0.23 0.13 8.79 0-S9 2.86 0.26

.

Oregon Pennsylvania .

.

.

.

7.59 I. IS

934

0.69

SSI S04 871

0.41 0.37 0.6s 0.40 1.22 6.72 3.28 1.26 0.17 1.26 0.22 0.43

538 1,640 9,051 4,418 1,696

235 1,700 291

574 130 488 9,283 145 31,090 9,123

590 131 S,68o 741 567 10,017

O.IO 0.36 6.89 O.II

23.07

1,857

.

.

145 134,737

100.00

Virginia

.

.

.

.

.

.

Washington West Virginia

2,534

549 262

999 1,338

464

by 3,000 surgeons and 1,500

were conducted by the CoUege

in Oct.

hospital e.\-ecutives,

1939, in Philadelphia!

U-S.A.

(M. T. M.)

American Council on Education: see Education. American Dental Association: see Dentistry.

American Economic

Association.

nomic Association (founded

in

1885)

is

to encourage economic

research, issue publications on economic subjects, and stimulate thought and discussion of current problems from an economic

point of view.

The

articles

appearing in the association’s quar-

American Economic Review, and the papers the Proceedings of the sand Annual Meeting, held in

terly publication, the

Philadelphia, Dec. 1939, fairly reflect the character of problems currently treated by economists and are indicative of the progress of economic thought of the year.

Wyoming

Utah .... Vermont

32s 124 540

ference, attended

included in

.

.

1,19s

L.

6.77

.

.

.

OF

0.44 0.10 4.22 o-SS 0.42

Wisconsin

.

0.90 0.43 0.14

10,233 I.SSS

7-43 0.89 0.24 0.09 0.40 1.88 0.41 0.19 0.74 0.99 0.34 1.38 O.II

Rhode Island

South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas ....

I.4I

or Percent Renewals of Total

F.

meetings were held in 1939 in Nashville, Tenn.; Baltimore, Jvid.; Indianapolis, Ind.; and Winnipeg, Man. The 29th Annual Clinical Congress and the 22nd Annual Hospital Standardization Con-

Officers for the year 1940 are; president, Frederick C. Mills,

Columbia university; vice-presidents, James W. Angell, Columbia university; Calvin B. Hoover, Duke university; secretary-treasurer, James Washington Belt, Northwestern university; elected

members of the executive committee, Benjamin M. Anderson, Jr., University of California at Los Angeles; Mabel Newcomer, Vassar college; Paul T. Homan, Cornell university; Ray B. WesterYale university; J. Douglas Brown, Princeton George W. Stocking, University of Texas.

field,

Membership, as

listed in the

bering approximately 3,000

City.

handbook of the

university;

association,

num-

(an additional 1,300 libraries and

other subscribers are not included), constitutes a veritable “who’s

The United

States maintains the following diplomatic

and con-

perform diplomatic as well as consular duties); 36 legations (20 perform diplomatic as well

who” of American

economists.

sular offices abroad; 20 embassies (5

as consular duties); SS consulates general; 171 consulates; 3 vice consulates. (R. B. S.)

American Ethnology, Bureau

of: see Smithsonian Insti-

tution.

American Federation of Labor

vention in Columbus,

American College of Surgeons,

Ohio, in 1881 by a small group of craft union leaders headed by

United States and Canada, under the leadership of the late Dr. Franklin H. Martin, to insure a standard of professional, ethical, and-moral requirements for every graduate in medicine who prac-

Samuel Gompers, English-born cigarmaker. Gompers was elected president and was re-elected each year except 1893 until he died

Fellowship, 1940:

The American Federation of Labor in 1920 reported a dues-paying membership of 4,078,740. In 1933 its membership dropped to 2,126,796. On Aug. 31, 1939, the Federation consisted of 105 na-

tises general

surgery or any of

its specialties.

Chairman, board of regents. Dr. Irvin Abell, Louisville, Ky.; president, 1939-40, Dr. George P. Muller, Philadelphia, Pa.; president-elect. Dr. Evarts A. Graham, St. Louis, Mo.; secretary. Dr. Frederic A. Besley, Waukegan, 111 .; associate director and chairman, administrative board. Dr. Malcolm T. MacEachem, 12,793.

Chicago, cago,

111 .;

111 .;

Bowman C. Crowell, ChiW. Williamson and Dr. Har-

associate director. Dr.

assistant directors. Dr. E.

The organization originated Hospital 111 Movement, 1918, formulating minimum stand-

old Eamhart, Chicago,

Standardization

.

ards for approval and starting periodic surveys; 2,720 hospitals in United States, Canada, and other countries are on 1939 ap-

proved list; 307 cancer clinics in hospitals were approved in 1939; and 933 medical services in industry were approved in 1939. An approved list of medical motion picture films is also issued yearly. The college maintains a medical library and literary research de-

in 1924.

tional and international unions; 1,568 local labour unions in the U.S. and Canada; 49 State federations; and 806 city central bodies, with a membership of 4,006,354. It lost a membership of

approximately 1,000,000 in 1936 'when it suspended the Committee for Industrial Organization unions, but during the following years the Federation redoubled its organization efforts and regained in new members the C.I.O. loss. The president of the American Federation of Labor is William Green, a former coal miner and

former

official

of the United

Mine Workers

of America.

He

was

elected president Dec. 19, 1924. The Federation has a threefold purpose: (j) to organize unorganized workers; (2) to promote the interests of its members

through legislative activity and publicity; and (3) to settle disamong its members. The Federation’s annual autumn convention is its final seat of authority. Between conventions the Fedputes

partment. The committee on graduate training for surgery (general surgery and the surgical specialties) was organized in 1937. Committees on cancer, archives of cancer, bone sarcoma, fractures

eration

and other traumas, and the Hall of the Art and Science of Surgery, function through a department of clinical research. Sectional

dent, secretary-treasurer, and fifteen vice-presidents. It by a per capita tax on member unions, two cents each

is

governed by an e.xecutive council made up of the is

presi-

financed

month

for

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS The

43 1939 included an addition

society’s publications during

to its Special Publications series of monographs entitled “White Settlers in the Tropics’’ (a study of the possibilities of

settlement

by white men

in the tropics,

permanent Price, an

by A. Grenfell

Australian geographer and master of St. Mark’s college. University of Adelaide)

and a

series of

maps

of Europe on a single

sheet designed for reference purposes and for use in following

present military operations in Europe, entitled “Environment and Conflict in Europe: Eighteen Basic

The

Maps.”

periodical publications of the society, the Geographical

Review,

its

quarterly journal, and Current Geographical Publica-

monthly except for July and August, mimeographed form, of the titles, with the usual catalogue information, of books, articles, and maps selected for inclusion in the society’s Research Catalogue, were continued during the tions, a classified list, issued

in

(R. R. P.)

year.

American

Association

flistarical

act of Congress in

1889 “for the promotion of historical studies . . . and for kindred purposes in the interests of American history and of history in i, 1940), a membership of about 3,500, from the teachers and writers of history in American and Canadian schools and colleges. Its national headquarters are at 740 isth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., but its

America.” It had (Jan. chiefly recruited

chief administrative officer, the executive secretary, has offices

at 226 South i6th street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. U. S. LABOUR was a modern Gulliver In 1939. according to Fitzpatrick' of The St, Louis Post^Dispatch

It is gov-

erned by a Council elected at the annual meeting and supported

by annual dues ($5) and by

the income of an

endowment fund

of

about $250,000. each a

member

month

of national and international unions and 35 cents member of directly afiiliated local unions. The

for each

financial report of the Federation beginning Sept,

i,

1938, and

Its officers for the

Huntington library;

year 1940 are: president. Max Farrand, James Westfall Thomp-

first vice-president,

son, professor emeritus of the University of California; second

M.

ending Aug. 31, 1939, showed that the balance on hand, Aug. 31, 1938, was $443,631.19; the total receipts for the twelve months

vice-president, Arthur

ending Aug. 31, 1939, were $1,800,249.70 and the total expenses for the same period were $1,697,376.53, leaving a balance on hand

Conyers Read, University of Pennsylvania. During the year 1939 it continued the publication of The American Historical Review, the leading historical journal in America,

Aug. 31, 1939, of $546,504.36. (See also Congress of Industrial Organizations; Labour Unions; Strikes and Lock-outs;

United States:

History.')

American Federation of Teachers; tutes

(L. Sta.)

see

Education:

Insti-

on Professional Relations.

American Geographical Society.

^17

mapping purposes were carried out under the sponsorship of the American Geographical Society in 1939. On the Cabot Colombian Expedition extensive field studies in geology and physiography were made in the Sierra de Santa Marta in northern Colombia, the highest peak (18,770ft.) climbed, and the Sierra mapped by aerial photography. On the Third Wood Yukon Expedition the ground-control work of the two previous expeditions of 1935 and 1937 was linked and further photography carried out. Topographic maps will be confrom the aerial photographs taken on these expeditions

structed

by a

special

method of mapping from high-oblique photographs

developed at the society. Awards of the society’s gold medals for 1939 were: the Cullum Geographical medal to Emmanuel de Martonne, professor of geography at the University of Paris and presi-

dent of the International Geographical Union

;

the Charles P. Daly

medal to Herbert J. Fleure, professor of geography at the University of Manchester; and the David Livingstone Centenary medal to John P. Rymill, leader of the British Graham Land Expedition of 1935-37.

Harvard university;

treas-

and participated in the publication of Social Education, devoted to the problem of teaching the social studies in the school. It also published in 1939 The Course of the South to Secession, by Ulrich B. Phillips, edited by E. Merton Coulter; James Kent, A Study in Conservatism, by John T. Horton; John Tyler, Champion of the Old South, by O. P. Chitwood; Writings on American History for the year 1935; and Proceedings for 1937; the two latter printed by the United States Government. (C. Rd.)

eering and aerial photography for

aerial

Schlesinger,-

Buck, the National Archives; executive secretary,

urer, Solon J.

t

American Indians: QIM LdW I

see Indians, American.

organization, the chief

inctitllto IllalilUlua work of the American

Law

In-

been a Restatement of the Law, best described as an orderly statement of the present common law. Yffiile the sections into which the Restatement is divided are written in statutory form, they are not presented to legislatures for adoption. The object of the Restatement is to clarify and simplify the common law, but not to prevent its continued development by judicial decision. Prior to 1939, 13 volumes of the Restatement were pubstitute has

lished, including the

Law

of Contracts, Conflict of Law^s, Agency,

and Restitution, besides large portions of the Law of Property and Torts. During the year, the fourth and final volume on Torts has been completed and published, while work on the Restatement of Property and Security has been continued. In 1939 two other projects of importance have been begun the drafting of 'a model Code of Evidence and a statute or statutes dealing with Trusts,

—

AMERICAN LEGION— AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION

44

the administration of the criminal law in so far as

between i6 and

it

affects

youths

work, relating to a treatment board to which such convicted youths will be sentenced, has been completed by Part of this

the editorial

last

staff,

approved by the Council and

is

ready for sub-

mission to a meeting of the Institute. The American Law Institute was organized in Feb. 1933object

is

to carry

ment of the

law.

on constructive

scientific

Aside from the

official

work

Its

for the improve-

members, who are those

holding the leading judicial, bar, and law school faculty positions, there are 719 life sional honour.

members; mernbership being a

The governing body

members meet each year

in

is

distinct profes-

a Council of 33-

Washington, D.C. All legal

The

ancl other

must be first appro%'ed by the Council and by a meeting of members. The president is George Wharton Pepper; William Draper Lewis is director and official

publications of the Institute

chief of the editorial staff.

nut

street, Philadelphia,

The

$3,737,865.27 for 442,489 needy children; a rehabilitation pro-

gram recovered grants

21 convicted of crime.

executive office

is

at

3400 Chest-

(W. D. L.)

Pennsylvania.

and their dependents; membership for the third consecutive year was the second best in the historj’ of the American Legion and its four affiliated organizations.

The 2ist annual members and their

From

nlliCI

IuhM Uttinn LCglUlli

serve

America

for

Americans’’

wit-

nessed a record-breaking progress toward the Legion’s 20-year objective of an adequate national defence, a wide extension of

Americanism, youth-training activities, and strong support for the Dies Congressional Committee investigating subversive activities,

and successful pressure to bring about the deportation trial of Harry Bridges, West Coast alien agitator; child welfare, with the long-range program,

continued seeking liberalized benefits for

needy children in the State social security programs, while the immediate program again was devoted to extending emergency financial aid from Legion and other sources amounting to

resolutions adopted

selected the following

movie

aolress,

American Legion's convention

in

was a welcome “masool” Sepl. 26, 1939Chicago

tha

by the Chicago convention, the November 23 and

(i)

major national

na24,

program:

legislative

Government protection of World War wdows and orphans,

(2) an adequate national defence, (3) continued advocacy of universal service legislation as a measure to promote defence and deprofitize war, (4) effective veterans’ preference in

ment jobs, (5) further and deportation laws.

all

Govern-

tightening of immigration, naturalization,

The 1,405 official delegates, representing 58 continental and outlying departments, and six posts not attached to any depart-

Raymond

J.

Kelly, Detroit, Mich., corporation coun-

succeed Stephen F. Chadwick, Seattle, Wash., as national commander, and chose Boston, Mass., as the 1940 convention city.

sel to

National headquarters of the American Legion, and of

its af-

American Legion Auxiliary, the Forty and Eight, and the Sons of the American Legion, remained at the War Memorial building, Indianapolis. The Eight and Forty has headquarters elsewhere in Indianapolis. Frank E. Samuel, national adjutant, and principal administrative officer of the American Legion, was re-elected by the national executive committee at its November meeting in Indianapolis. (R. J. K.) filiated organizations, the

American ANN SHERIDAN,

was attended by 250,000

national convention

families in Chicago, Sept. 25 to 28, 1939.

tional executive committee, at Indianapolis,

ment, named the militant program to “pre-

totalling $3,338,857.50 in contested benefits

for disabled veterans

liliraiy Association,

Z ttZS:!

the United States and Canada, consists of librarians, library trustees,

and others interested

in libraries.

Founded

in 1876,

it

func-

tions through a headquarters staff of over 65 persons and through

75 voluntary boards and committees. International in character from its beginning, the association had representatives from every major country in its 1939 membership which numbered over r5,ooo.

The

oldest

and

largest association of its kind,

formally or informally, with more than

it is affiliated,

fifty other library asso-

America and abroad.

ciations in

One of

the chief objectives of the association

is

complete and

adequate library coverage for the United States and Canada. In 1939 approximately 42,000,000 people in the United States 92% of them in rural areas

—were without access

—

to a public library.

Other objectives are: “to assist libraries to operate with the utmost economy and efficiency; to improve the status of librarianship; to build for the future of library service by drawing into the profession some of the best qualified young men and women; and to promote studies which will tend to establish on a solid foundation the library’s place in the governmental and social structure.”

Standards of training for librarians are set by the association free employment service is offered to libraries and individual librarians. The total income for the fiscal year was about

and a

$350,000.

The

association’s

endowment

is

(Jan.

i,

1940) approxi-

mately $2,179,000.

The

association issues

four periodicals:

A.L.A. Bullct'm, a

monthly which includes the annual reports, the conference proceedings, and the yearly handbook; the Booklist, published semimonthly as a guide to the selection and purchase of current books: the Subscription Books Bulletin, a quarterly which presents critical estimates of subscription books and sets sold currently by canvassing agents and the Joiintal of Documentary Reproduction, a

AMERICAN LITERATURE quarterly.

In addition, the association published 28 other pro-

books and pamphlets during the year, a few outstanding including American Librarianship from a European Angle,

fessional titles

by Wilhelm Munthe; Personnel Administration in Public Libraries, by Clara W. Herbert; Helping Adults to Learn, edited by John Chancellor; Helping the Reader toward Self-Education, by Chancellor, Tompkins, and Medway; Books for Self-Education, by Sigrid Edge; College and University Library Service, by A. F. Kuhlman; and Vitalizing a College Library, by B, Lamar Johnson. During the association’s 6ist annual conference, held in San Francisco, June 18-24, and attended by approximately 3,000 persons, four awards were made. The Joseph W. Lippincott award was presented to Herbert Putnam, former librarian of Congress, for the most outstanding contribution to librarianship last year; the James Terry IWiite medal, to Louis Round Wilson, dean of the Graduate Library School of the University of Chicago for his Geography of Reading; the Caldecott medal, to Thomas Hand-

Mei Li,

most distinguished in 1938; and the Elizabeth Enright, for her Thimble Summer,

forth for his illustrations in

cited as the

American picture book for children published

Newbery medal,

to

considered the most distinguished contribution to children’s literature published during 1938. Dr. John H. Finley, editor emeritus of

The

May

York Times was made an honorary member of the The 1940 conference will be held in Cincinnati, Ohio,

New

association.

26-June

Among

I.

which the A.L.A. embodied in the HarrisonThomas bill introduced in both Houses during the 76th Congress but not acted upon at the first session; State and provincial aid, granted in small amounts for public libraries in British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Arkansas, Ohio, and Vermont; more effective library co-operation between the libraries of North America and Latin America, A.L.A. efforts being furthered by a grant of $30,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation; and closer sympathy and understanding between European and American peoples, through gifts library developments of the year for

worked were Federal aid for

libraries,

of books to a selected group of popular libraries in Europe, the

made possible by a $60,000 Rockefeller Foundation The A.L.A. issued three important official pronouncements during the year; the revised National Plan for Libraries, the new Code of Ethics, and the Library’s Bill of Rights. The A.L.A. Council also adopted Classification and Pay Plans for Municipal Public Libraries, prepared by the A.L.A. Board on Salaries, Staff,

gifts

being

grant.

and Tenure.

A

generous grant from the Rockefeller Foundation

new

volumes, designed to

45 make

their readers familiar rvith the ideals

of the earlier days of the Republic.

Because of the outbreak of

war in Europe there were also many books on international affairs, and fresh treatment of the relation of the United States to the conflict between democratic and totalitarian ideals raging the

abroad.

The most popular and

at the

same time controversial novel of The Grapes of Wrath, a

the twelvemonth was John Steinbeck’s

dramatic and arousing treatment of the problem of migratory workers seeking their fortunes in California after their eviction

from the Oklahoma dust-bowl. Coming close on the heels of the Mr. Steinbeck’s novelette. Of Mice and Men, the novel was bound to attract critical attention and was hailed by the majority of reviewers as a major work. Californians denied the truth of the presentation, and the quarrel inevitably attracted more readers. The same problem was treated by Carey McWilliams in a non-fiction study. Factories in the Fields, which seemed to bear out Mr. Steinbeck’s conclusions of serious social injustices success of

in the Salinas valley.

Reviewers pathies and

less

by

artistic flaws in

impressed

by Mr.

Steinbeck’s proletarian sym-

miter of fiction, found The Grapes of Wrath and were unwilling to con-

his unquestioned skill as a

a place among the nation’s masterpieces, the principal aimed at the ending of the book, which appeared to leave the questions raised without a specific solution. Others found Mr. Steinbeck’s Biblical and prophetic passages hollow cede

it

criticism being

rather than masterful, but the novel swept the country and

was

widely read even by people who were offended at the frankness of its language.

coming at the end of the so-called proletarian which was dying even before the Hitler-Stalin pact, was a tribute to the growing reputation of its author, and to his ability to make appealing figures of his characters. The bold prophecy that it would prove the Uncle Tom’s Cabin of the times seemed hardly to be justified as the year ended, with the story on its way to the screen by way of Hollyrvood, but there is no doubt that it did arouse wide interest in a local problem, and widespread sympathy with one section of the underprivileged, although specific action did not seem to follow the waye of emotion caused by the book. While no other novel of the year equalled the Steinbeck opus Its popularity,

movement

in the nation’s fiction,

sales, Christopher Morley’s story of a working-girl, Kitty Foyle, appeared to be a serious rival as the year ended, and was

in

edition of the Unioti List of

obrnously destined to be the most popular work of fiction of this prolific writer. In contrast to the proletarian material of

The association was represented at the International Library Committee meeting at The Hague and at Amsterdam in July 1939, by Harrison W. Craver and J. Periam Danton; at the International Conference on Documentation in Zurich in August by Vernon Tate and Arthur B. Berthold; and at the meeting of the Library Association of Great Britain in Liverpool in June by Gerhard R. Lomer and Charles R. Sanderson. Ralph Munn, Pittsburgh, Pa., is the association’s 1939-40 president. Carl H. Milam is executive secretary of the A.L.A. headquarters, located at 520 North Michigan avenue, Chicago.

Mr. Steinbeck, Mr. Morley went to the great middle-classes for American girl, and with great warmth and s>'mpathy, presented her as a young person of character, facing

has assured completion of the Serials.

(B. S. Rl.)

(See also Libraries.)

I

itnrofiiro

^ 939 >

LllcralUru* held

fiction

and non-fiction

steadily to the principal dis-

few years, namely, an interest in the nation’s past. Historical novels dominated the scene, and the great figures of other years, Lincoln, Thoreau, Marshall and Taney, Hamilton, and Emerson provided subject matter for the outcernible trend of the past

standing biographies or collections of letters.

The

trend was further strengthened

by numerous

historical

his study of a typical

her problems with courage and good sense. Among books of non-fiction, none received such high praise as Carl Sandburg’s continuation of his monumental life of Abraham Lincoln,

The War Years, a four-volume work which was univer-

sally praised as a folk-story of first importance, in addition to

being an important section of what promised to be the definitive study of a great man. Henry Seidel Canby’s Thoreau was also

widely hailed as the kind of biography the Sage of Concord had long deserved, and like the Sandburg Lincoln, a book «ath its abundance of lessons for present-day Americans, a ripely scholarly achievement.

The most popular book

of non-fiction of the year, however, once more the depth and strength of this country’s interest in its small-town past. It was Bellamy Partridge’s Country Lawyer, the story of the author’s father’s career in a little upstate New York toivn. Mr. Partridge had been long knov.-n as editor, reriewer, and author of light-fiction, but was to find his illustrated

AMERICAN LITERATURE

46

notable success in dealing with intimate family material, which he handled with humour and sympathy, and which obviously touched the hearts of a great public.

The year in poetry found no conspicuously successful volume and brought forth no especially promising new voices. Edna St. Vincent Millay’s Huntsman, What Quarry?, did little to enhance its author’s standing, especially following so close upon Conversation at Midnight, regarded askance by most reviewers. Robert P. Tristram Coffin’s Collected Poems helped to establish Mr. Coffin’s place as the voice of conventional

New

England, while a similar

volume of William Carlos Williams formed an trast

because of

its originality,

interesting con-

often bordering upon obscurity.

Less was heard from the Left Wing, although Archibald MacLeish,

Muriel Rukeyser, and others continued their appeals in verse for a greater measure of social justice and a curbing of the evils which

they regarded as besetting tbe existing American system.

—

Novels. Aside from the popular successes of Messrs. Steinbeck and Morley, the most solid accomplishment in the field of historical fiction

was Elizabeth Page’s Tree of Liberty, a long novel

dealing with the early days of the nation, using characters from

with freedom and impressive

life

its full

significance for our

to

its

skill,

times.

and

telling

a story with

The work

of five years

book scored not only by

of research. Miss Page’s

and

own

its

authenticity

wide-ranging knowledge, but by the novelist’s ability

make her people

live

and to

fill

her pages with exciting

in-

cidents.

Other historical novels of importance included Chard Powers Smith’s Artillery of Time, another long book about a New York State family, marred by some artistic faults, but covering successfully a wide span of time, and well enough written to be easily and pleasurably read; Vardis Fisher’s Children of God, a saga of the Mormons, and the most extensive fiction treatment of this curious chapter in U.S. history; Francis Griswold’s Sea Island Lady, a story of a Northern woman in South Carolina during the days of the Civil War and after, by the author of The Tides of Malvern; and Bruce Lancaster’s Guns of Burgoyne, the last mentioned one of a number of novels dealing with the Revolutionary period. Others in the group were Frank 0 Hough’s thoughtfully realistic story of Westchester county. If Not Victory; John Jennings’s Next to Valour; Leland D. Baldwin’s The Delectable Coun.

a novel of Ohio in the late years of the i8th century, and one of the best of its kind; and Mary Schumann’s Strife Before Dawn, which dealt with Pontiac’s War, 1764-1782. try,

Clifford Dowdey went to Colonial Virginia for his Gamble’s Hundred, a romance with social connotations, the struggle between the great planters and the small farmers; Clyde Brion Davis dropped his familiar subject of the pathos of small lives and wrote a vigorous and entertaining frontier story, Nebraska Coast, and Holmes Alexander went back to the early days of West Virginia for his American Nabob, less successful as a novel than as a document. Well-known novelists working inside and outside the historical field who appeared on the year’s lists included James Boyd, whose Bitter Creek was one of his lesser works because of its resemblance

to the conventional “Western,” in spite of the unfailing talent its author for good fiction; John P. Marquand, whose Wickford Point was the delightfully told story of a decadent and amusing New England family, and one of the year’s most popular novels;

of

William Faulkner, whose Wild Palms was an only partly successful attempt to fuse symbolically two separate stories, one of which described a convict’s struggles during a Mississippi riv^er flood with striking success, while the other, a conventional tale of passion, failed to

tures of a

Young

find perfection

come

off;

Man was

among

and John Dos Passos, whose Adven-

its

author’s confession of his failure to

the Left

Wing

saviours of mankind, at best

After a portrait by

Bo Beskov

JOHN STEINBECK,

author of

The Grapes

one of his minor productions. Pearl for the material of her

The

o(

Wrath

S.

Buck returned

to the East

Patriot, a timely story of Japan and

China, and wrote one of her best books after the lamentable failure of This Proud Heart, and Frederic Prokosch proved his right to a place among the best of the younger novelists with his Night

of the Poor, his first novel of the American scene. The loss to our literature in the death of Thomas Wolfe was

brought freshly to mind by the publication of the first of his posthumous works. The Web and the Rock, which proved to be of a piece with his scattered and confused earlier novels, but which illustrated again his great powers of poetry and characterization, hardly equalled in his time. Another novel, You Can’t Go Home to follow, before the final contribution of this distinguished figure can be assayed; there was also published during the year The Face of the Nation, poetical passages from Wolfe’s

Again

is

which strengthened his claim to a place beside in his feeling for America and his ability to c.xrhapsodies in prose often of great power and beauty,

earlier works,

Walt Whitman press his

and

often, unfortunately, hollowly rhetorical.

Among

the better novels by newcomers were Augusta Tucker's

Miss Susie Slagle’s, a fine human story of a spinster in Baltimore and her relations with Johns Hopkins medical students; Robert Penn Warren’s powerful tale of the tobacco wars in Kentucky, Night Rider; Kenneth Fearing’s Hospital, the first venture into a fiction by a good poet; Elizabeth Marion’s The Day Will Come, remarkably mature study in family relationships by a young woman of only 22 years; and Beatrice Kelly Harris’s Purslane, a story of every-day middle class North Carolinians with a distinctly native flavour, which found large numbers of readers. Biography.

—

^In

addition to the Sandburg Lincoln, the out-

standing biography of the year, and to Dr. Canby’s Thorcau, Henry F. Pringle wrote a detailed and .sympathetic account of

AMERICAN LITERATURE The Life and Times of William Howard Taft; John Bakeless a readable and accurate study of Daniel Boone, and David Loth again studied Alexander Hamilton, his sub-title being trait

of a Prodigy.” In verse, Robin

Lamson

“The Por-

told of the achieve-

Death Closes a Pair of TFf;ig.v, while three biographies of living Americans of high quality were Alfred Lief’s Democracy’s Norris, Rixie Smith and Norman Beasley’s Carter Glass, and George Soule’s Sidney Hillman: Labor Statesman. Some lesser known Americans who found portraitists during the year included William Henry Harrison, treated in Old Tippecanoe by Freeman Cleaves; John Tyler, described by Oliver Perry' Chitwood as John Tyler, Champion of the Old South, and James Kent, the Federalist Chancellor of New York State, famous for his Commentaries, whose life by' John Theodore Horton is titled James Kent, A Study in Conservatism, 1763-1847. Other notable biographies which either broke new ground in

ments of Gorgas,

in

approach to well-known figures or re-assayed their subjects were Alphonse B. Miller’s Thaddei/s Stevens, a fair and complete

their

study' of the

man

responsible for Reconstruction; Allan Ne\'ins’s

Fremont: Pathfinder of the West, and Marshall and Taney by' Ben W. Palmer, notable for its re-evaluation of Taney, and giving in detail the profound effect these two famous jurists had on shaping the Constitution.

A

number of autobiographies of lasting importance appeared y'ear, the most popular of them William Lyon Phelps’s Autobiography With Letters, a long and leisurely book filled -with the genial quality that has made its author one of the most loved of all the living bookmen; Ida M. TarbeU’s All in the Day’s Work, during the

the reminiscences of an octogenarian journalist vigorous as ever; Daniel Beard's Hardly a Man

still

as alert

is Still

and

Alive, the

life-story' of the great Boy Scout leader and naturalist; Hutchins odern World, Flora Finch Kelly’s Hapgood’s A Victorian in the The Flowing Stream, Edna Ferber’s A Peculiar Treasure, Louis Untermey'er’s and Leonard Bacon’s Semi-Centennial: Some of the Life and Part of the Opinions of Leonard Bacon, controversial, intelligent, and highly readable comment on many matters, also Art Young, His Life and Times, edited by John Nicholas Beffel, with

M

many

of this beloved

artist’s

own

illustrations.

saw the publication of Ralph Waldo Emerson’s letters in a handsome four-volume edition, edited by Ralph Leslie Rusk, and of Gouvemeur hlorris’s A Diary of the French Revolution, which under the careful editing of Beatrix Cary Davenport became one of the most widely read of Revolutionary documents, throwing new light upon a controversial figure from his own materials. Volume I of Josephus Daniels’s A Tar Heel Editor was an important contribution to Americana, as well as an engaging picture of a man of our own times, and Edith Bolling Wilson’s My Memoir gave an intimate picture of Woodrow Wilson from the point of view of his second wife, filled with feminine frankness on many matters and on many prominent men and women in public

The year

life.

History.

also

—^Two of the most distinguished historians of the day

The Heritage of America, Henry Steele Coramager and Allan Nevins, a collection of original documents making plain what America is about. An excellent piece of editorial selection, it was as readable as significant and a permanent contribution to the subject. Marjorie Barstow Greenbie wrote a companion volume of value, American Saga: The History and Literature of the American Dream of a Better Life, and in The Living Tradition: Change and America, Simeon Strunsky surveyed the whole American story with common sense, balance, and humour, finding that there had been far less of change than most people imagined. Foreign-bom himself, but illustrating many of the best native 'virtues, Mr. Strunsky’s picture is one to reassure the frightened and to put heart into those who still believe that the U. S. is a good councollaborated on

47

in which the free and the well-meaning may live and flourish. It is a long book, 260,000 words, but a most readable and optimistic one. Another event of importance in the field of history' was try'

the publication of a 50th anniversary edition of James Bry'ce’s American Commonwealth, edited by Robert C. Brooks, and containing a number of noted re\'iews, such as those of Woodrow Wilson and Lord Acton. Gerald Johnson’s America’s Silver Age was a lively' study of the statesmanship of the Clay-Webster period, and Burton J. Hendrick’s Statesmen of the Lost Cause, the first detailed study of the

men

with

whom

Jefferson Davis surrounded himself as President

of the Confederacy'. Mr. Hendrick had very'

little

opinion of the

Dav'is aides, but acknowledged the difficulties under

Southern leader laboured in

which the

try'ing to please the States that

made

Government. Captain W. D. Puleston’s Mahan -R'as a full length biography' of the American naval officer whose theory of sea-power has influenced the course of world events, and formed an interesting companion volume to Harold and Margaret Sprout’s The Rise of American Naval Power, both timely' volumes in connection with the prevailing international situation. Tyler Bennett’s Lincoln and the Civil War was received as a contribution to the Lincoln story of lasting value, and the third volume of Charles A. and Mary- Beard’s America in MidPassage was the most important study' of recent times in the United States, although not up to the quality' of the first two monumental volumes. In their effort to cover the literature of the period, the Beards proved themseh'es often inaccurate, and their insistence upon measuring fiction by its social content alone weakened what was a significant treatment of recent times, from a Left liberal point of v'iew. Samuel Hopkins Adams retold the Harding story' in Incredible Era, omitting none of its amazing details. Gustav'us Myers added a last chapter to his classic, The History of Great American Fortunes ^'ith The Ending of American Heredi-

up

his loosely organized

tary Fortunes.

The perpetual

fascination of the frontier

was exhibited in many

books dealing with old days in the West, some of the best of them being Stanley Vestal’s The Old Santa Fe Trail; Paul Wellman’s The Tramplmg Herd; Thomas D. Clark’s The Rampaging Frontier; We Pointed Them North: The Record of a Cowpuncher, by' E. C. Abbott (Teddy Blue) and Helena Huntington Smith, and The Lion of the Vigilantes and the Life of Old San Francisco by James A. B. Scherer. In The Changing West, William Allen Vffiite, beloved editor of the Emporia (Kansas) Gazette, gave a realistic and human picture of his part of the country, which while altogether honest, was hopeful.

Cov'ering the entire country and devoting ample space, of course, to the West, Ed’win F. Embree, in his Jjidiayis of the

aborigines

Americas wrote of the 20,000 y'ears of the white civilization on two continents.

who preceded

A book of observ'ations of contemporary' life in America that seemed to be of more than passing value was RoUo Walter Brown’s I Travel by Train, friendly' and discerning observ'ations of an itinerant college professor. Other volumes bearing upon current problems were Raymond Moley'’s After Seven Years, a frank criticism of the New Deal from the inside; Ralph L. Woods’s America Reborn: A Plan for Decentralization; Felix Frankfurter's Law and Politics; the Occasional Papers from 1Q13 to igz8, edited by' Archibald MacLeish and E. F. Prichard, v\'ith a foreword by Mr. MacLeish; and Josephine Baker’s Fighting for Life, the whole story of the battle for child welfare in the U. S., told by one of the principal participants. In the field of art, several notable books appeared, among the best of them James Fle.xner’s America’s Old Masters, which told the story' of the liv'es and works of West, Copley, Peak, and Stuart. William Shack’s And He Sat Among the Ashes gave a full account of the struggles of Louis Eilshemius, an eccentric genius who

ANGLING— ANTHROPOLOGY

50 Urgel.

chief

Its

products

are

oats,

barley,

vines,

tobacco,

A

good road provides a link with Spain. Area, 191 sq.mi.; pop. 5,230; capital town, Andorra le Vieja; language, Catalan; religion, Christian (Roman Catholic); imports from United Kingdom: (1936) ii,ooo; (1937) £63; (1938) £28; currency: French and Spanish legal tender. sheep, iron and lead.

«

The outstanding catch

!•

of the 1939 salt-water season

niigling. was a new world’s record blue marlin which was caught by Mrs. Mary Sears at Cat Cay in the Bahamas. Her giant marlin, caught on June 6, weighed 730 pounds. This exceeded the former blue marlin record, held by Thomas Shevlin, by almost 100 pounds. The giant bluefin tuna world’s record was broken twice in 1939. An 868-lb. record-breaker was caught by J. Frank Johnson on August 30 at Liverpool, Nova Scotia. Less than a month later, on September 24, this record was broken by an 890-lb. bluefin tuna caught at Yarmouth, Nova Scotia. The latter fish, which holds the present world’s record, was caught by John Manning of Los Angeles, California. Many of the giant sharks are getting more and more recognition by the leading salt-water fishermen. Australia, which seems to afford some of the very best shark fishing, produced two new world’s records during the 1939 season. One of these was a 1,382-lb. tiger shark caught by Lyle Bagnard at Sydney Head, Australia. The other was a 1,384-lb. white shark landed by G. R. Cowell at Port Lincoln, Australia. Mr. Cowell exceeded his own white shark record by almost loolb., and at the same time established a record for the largest fish ever taken on rod and reel. Only one new world’s record was established in the fresh-water fishing field in 1939, but the old record was broken twice. A S9j-lb. muskellunge caught in July in Wisconsin set a

new

record,

was surpassed on October 3 when a 6o-pounder was caught By John J. Coleman at Eagle River, Ontario. This is the

but

this

largest strictly fresh-water

game

fish ever

caught in America.

Another outstanding catch was a ss-lb. Atlantic salmon landed by Esmond B. Martin in the Grand Cascapedia of Quebec. While this does

not establish a new world’s record

it is

a

much

larger

salmon than has been landed in North America for some time. As far as big fish are concerned, there was one other incident of considerable concern to fresh-water fishermen. This was a 36|-lb. brown trout found in the Logan river in Utah. Although this trout was not caught on rod and reel, it is of interest because it shows the enormous size to which these fish may grow. The largest brown trout ever before reported in North America weighed 25-Jlb., lighter by more than lolb. than this latest Logan river monster. (D. Ho.)

and propaganda disseminated to improve housing, nutrition water supplies, and public health in all its aspects. Public security remained satisfactory throughout the year.

—

Education. Intermediate schools ii, scholars 1.573; higher: secondary schools 465, post-secondar>' schools 73.

—

Banking and Finance. In 1938: revenue £7,574,000; e.xpenditure £7,293,000; public debt (Dec. 31, 1938) £13,873,800.

—

Trade and Communication. In 1938: imports £E6, 283,000; exports £E5, 490,000. Communications: roads, suitable for motor traffic,

all

weather

c.

i,ooomi.; railways i,99imi.; river

Eer\'ice

motor vehicles licensed (1937) 4,354 cars, commercial and cycles; telephone subscribers (1937) 2,383.

2,325mi.; vehicles

and

Agriculture metric tons)

cotton

—Production:

Mineral seed

Production.

(1938-39)

105,000;

ginned

(in

cotton

(1938-39) 60,000; millet (1937-38) 313,000; sesamum (1937-3S) maize (1937-38) 10,000; wheat (1937-38) 8,000; ground-nuts (1937-38) 8,500; gold (1938) 252 kilograms. 33,000;

Angola: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Animal Fats: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Annam: see French Colonial Empire. Anniversaries

and Centennials:

see

Fats.

Calendar,

1940,

page XX.

Antarctic Exploration:

see

Exploration and Discovery:

Antarctic.

Anthrnnnlnrru

nllllll is

UlJUIUgjf

steadily

science of his language,

man

in terms of his physique,

and most importantly his

culture,

differentiating into a series of separate disciplines,

as the treatment of each of its aspects becomes more complex. In the past, much attention was given to discussions of the interrelationships and virtual independence of language, race, and culture (F. Boas, Race, Language, and Culture, 1939). The em-

phasis

now

is

shifting to broadening the relationships between

the study of each of these separate branches and other related to increasing the ties between Primitive Linguistics and the Science of Language and Psychology; between Physical Anthropology and Endocrinology, with greater recognition of

sciences;

the social repercussions of physical processes such as growth and

senescence.

Cultural Anthropology

is

increasing

its relationships

with Psychology, Sociology, and Economics.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. (pop.

1938)

Khartoum

(46,676);

Omdurman

(110,959); Port

Sudan (21,773); Atbara (19,757); El Obeid (27,390). Governorgeneral: Lt.-Col. Sir Stewart Symes; languages: English and Arabic; religion:

—

Mohammedan.

contrast to 1938 the Nile flood in 1939 was abnormally low and river cultivation below Khartoum suffered in consequence. Sufficient late rain fell, however, to ensure a good

History.

^In

grain crop throughout the country. Locusts arrived in force early in the season but were attacked by disease and discouraged by

drought and did

little

damage. The outbreak of war resulted in

of trade and prices rose immediately. Emergency legislation coupled with the resumption of more normal

some disorganization

shipping services quickly checked

this.

Through a network of supervisory public health officials spread over this vast countrj-, anti-mosquito work has been intensified

dlicovered In July 1939, In Ui*>eklit«n. U.S.S.R., by Dr. A. P. Okladnikov, youna Soviet archaeoloolit. Dr. described this of the Smilhtonlan Inttitution, who was In Russia at the time, discovery as one of the utmost Importance to anthropolopy

SKULL OF A neanderthal CHILD

There has been a steady decrease in funds available for research, from the big foundations, and there also a continued drift away from the support that was once

especially in long-time grants is

given to ethnological and archaeological

work by

private collectors.

Hence, archaeology is coming to look more to Government support. In the South American countries there is a general trend to combine an interest in antiquities with national promotion programs; in the United States, both the Federal Government and an

number of State and inter-State archaeological associahave recently engaged in work of professional quality. Archaeology is also coming to depend upon an interest in primitive arts (G. C. Vaillant, Indian Arts in North America, 1939), an interest which was stimulated by the e.vhibits at the Golden Gate International Exposition, San Francisco, I939- Aside from

increasing tions

the regular Federal agencies for ethnological research (Smith-

sonian Institution and Bureau of American EthnologjOi there has

been no extensive utilization of students of culture by Government agencies, either in dealing with Indian tribes or in solving the problems of racial and cultural minorities. Physical anthropology, once confined almost entirely to the

study of racial types, is tending to combine with human biology, placing increasing emphasis on studies of growth (Brush Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio,

Grant Study of the Normal

Man

at Har-

“The Physical and Mental Growth of Girls and Boys Age Six to Nineteen in Relation to Age at Maximum Growth,” Child Development Monographs vol. 4,

vard; see also F. K. Shuttleworth,

no. 3, 1939) and the relationship between the organism and the milieu (H. L. Shapiro, Migration and Environment, 1939). The

THE MOST PERFECTLY PRESERVED

human problems with and psychological significance finds expression in a number of studies (M. F. Ashley-Montagu, “Adolescent Sterility,” Quarterly Review of Biology, vol. 14, nos. i and 2, 1939; Problems of Agmg, edited by E. V. Cowdry, 1939). Work in blood groups is continuing (see P. N. Candela, “Blood Group Tests on Stains, Mummified Tissues and Cancellous Bones,” Amer. J. Physical

Lowie); (2) the examination of social processes, in which it is possible to distinguish several methods of approach (a) that which is concerned with the way in which individual psychological processes become embodied in cultural forms, are shaped by cultural forms, and provide the dynamics for social equilibrium and social change (Bateson, Benedict, Mead) (b) that which is concerned with the study of society within which the individual acts in terms of socially defined roles and the unit of study is either the individual as a member of the group, or the group (RadcliffeBrown, Linton, Warner); (c) that which primarily attacks cultural processes diachronically in terms of widely distributed

application of endocrinological findings to social

Anthrop. 25:187-214). A third Pithecanthropus specimen was found (“Discovery of an Additional Pithecanthropus Skull,” Nature, October 15, Communication from G. H. R. von Koenigswald and F. Weidenreich), and also a new Neanderthal specimen in Central Asia

by A. Okladnikov and

his wife (note

by A. Hrd-

found in 1939 on Monte Circeo, near

Neanderlhal skull yet discovered was

Rome

—

;

groups of

common

origin or different levels of social integration

licka. Science, Sept. 29, 1939).

(Herskovits, Redfield)

In North American archaeology, of special note was the discussion on the antiquity of man in America at the Sixth Pacific Science Congress (California, July 24-Aug. 12, 1939); the finds of “women’s knives” in association with Indian artefacts characteristic of the region (J. H. Bailey, “A Ground Slate Producing Site Near Vergennes, Vermont.” Bull. Champlain Valley Archaeological Society, vol. i, no. 2, rg39) and the find by F. H. Roberts of small beads in the Lindenmeier site in association with the Folsom culture. In Central American archaeology, the most conspicuous find was the discovery of the earliest known Mayan date at Tres Zapotes. The long-time archaeological projects under the American Museum of Natural History, the Carnegie Institution, the National Geographic Institute, and Tulane university are con-

terms of the functioning of institutions assumed to be comparable from society to society because they meet the same needs (Mali-

;

tinuing.

In the study of culture, man’s non-biological inheritance, there are several marked, but not necessarily incompatible trends; (i) the continuation of the historical method, best exemplified by the American school and at present by the work of the University of California, in which emphasis is upon the establishment of sequences, the examination of problems of change and diffusion by a series of comparative studies of related cultures, and in which the unit of discussion is the trait, with a certain growing tendency "to introduce quantitative methods (Kroeber, Kluckhom.

;

(d)

that which

analyzes societies

in

nowski, Firth). These various methods of approach are of uneven age and are defective in that they employ field techniques which permit students unevenly trained or gifted to assemble usable materials. In this respiect the approach to culture as an expression of individual psychology

and its effect upon moulding the growing personality has been least happy, but recent emphasis upon the development of various techniques such as the use of

(W. Dyke, Son of Old Man Hat, rg38), of promethods (David Levy, “Sibling Rivalry Studies in Children of Primitive Groups.” Amer. J. Ortho-Psychiatry, vol. 9, the life history

jective

no.

I, p. 203, Jan. 1939), extensive use of Cine and still photographic recording of behaviour (Bateson and Mead; “Research in

Bali.” N.Y. Aca. Sciences, Trans. Ser. 2. vol. 2, no. i, Nov. 1939), and the use of the methods of experimental psychology (S. F. Nadel, Experiments on Culture Psychology, Africa, 1937) is doing much to remedy this defect. (See also The Study of Society, London, 1939.) There is ewdence of increased cross fertilization, both in methods and in concepts, between the study of culture and other social

Of especial interest are; the attempt of Kardiner, in co-operation with Linton, to re-examine and refine upon psychoanalytical concepts by testing them out upon material from

sciences.

51

ANTI-AIRCRAFT WEAPONS — ANTI-SEMITISM

52

primitive cultures (A. Kardiner,

The Individual and His Society,

1939) ; Erikson’s efforts, in co-operation with McKeel, to make a psychoanalytic approach to Sioux education (E. J. Erikson, “Observations on Sioux Education," J. Gen. Psychology, 7:101-156);

Lynd’s suggestion that the various discrete social sciences use the concept of culture as a way of defining a common field of material

upon which

their various techniques could be

brought to bear

co-operatively in the solution of selected problems (R. S. Lynd, Knowledge for What, 1939); and the co-operative attempt of a

group of social

scientists at the Institute of

Yale, to develop a hypothesis and test terials,

Human

Relations,

out on a variety of ma-

it

one of which was the records of a primitive culture {Frus-

and Aggression, 1939). The most significant development in linguistics took place in Mexico, where the Department of National Education and the tration

National Polytechnical Institute initiated a project for the study of native dialects under the direction of bines the

most Sophisticated

to practical educational

M.

Swadish, which com-

linguistic techniques

with application

problems approached from the phonemic

Formerly China supplied about 70% of the demand, Mexico 10%, and Bolivia 7%, the remaining 13% being scattered among 20 or more minor producers, but in 1938 China supplied only 26%, Bolivia 29%, Mexico 25%, and Yugoslavda 4%. The United States has no regular ore production, but several hundred slavia.

tons annually are recovered as a by-product in the smelting of lead, and since 1931 an antimony smelter has been in operation in

Texas, using imported ores. The output of this smelter exceeded 4,900 metric tons in 1937, and has been responsible for a considerable increase in the ore outputs of Mexico, Bolivia, and Peru with a corresponding decrease in the imports of ore and metal

from China. The United States is the largest consumer of antimony, taking about one-half of the world supply of new metal to satisfy two-thirds of

its

consumption demand, the other

third

being furnished by secondary metal recovered after previous use. The Chinese industry has been badly disorganized by the Sino-

Japanese

and though smelting operations

conflict,

shipments during 1938 were

much

48%. to 7,797 metric tons

clined

reduced.

continued,

Total e.xports de(G. A. Ro.)

in 1938.

point of view.

The outbreak

of the war has made it impossible to get full refrom abroad. In the totalitarian countries research continues to be centred upon questions in which controversial issues will not be raised on archaeology and linguistics in the U.S.S.R., and on various apologias of the current political theories of race in Germany. ports

—

Anti-Saloon League of America, Inc. denominational temperance organization formed in 1895. It is a the National Board of Directors being

federated movement, elected

by the Boards

of the State Leagues.

The governing

bodies

of the State Leagues are elected or appointed from the co-

is part of a comprehenfrom Palaeolithic times down to the feudal antecedents of modern Russia. This extensive and expanding program is combined with the preparation of very complete treatises on the ethnography and dialects of the various

operating religious denominations and civic groups. The work

in the

other States.

peoples of the U.S.S.R.

worked

to carry out the policies outlined

In the U.S.S.R. archaeological research

sive

program of exploring

sites

In England, institutional anthropology, in the form of associa-

and publications, are continuing, but anthropological research, which had already been suffering from curtailment of funds and from the rapid westernization of primitive peoples tion meetings

available for study, will, because of the war, undoubtedly suffer

further drastic interruption, not only in field

work but

very type of research into cultural processes which to our

is

also in the

so essential

knowledge of how to control human institutions so as to

the States

is

in charge of State superintendents elected

—

Bibliography. R. W. Firth, Primitive Polynesian Economy (London, 1939): C. G. Seligman, Races 0/ Africa (London, 1939); N. E. Nordenskiold (Henry Wassen, Ed.) An Historical and Ethnological Survey of the Cuna Indians (Goteburg, 1938); Hank (Editor), Handbook of Latin American Studies, Selective Giiide to material published in 1938 in Anthropology (1938); M. J. Herskovits, Acculturation. The Study of Culture Contact (1938): I. iiogVm, Experiments in Civilisation (London, 1939): Part 3 of the Handbook of American Indian Languages, Hoijer, Andrade, Wagner, Bunzel, and Reichard (i939): E- A. Hooton, The American Criminal. An Anthropological Shidy, vol. i (1939): R. Pearl, The Natural History of Population (1939); R. F. Barton, Philippine Pagans. The Autobiographies of 3 Ifugaos (London, 1938): A. J. Feltcamp van Bork, “Anthropological Research in the Netherlands,” Verhandel. K. Ned. Akad., 2nd Series xxxvii no. 3 (1938); D. A. E. Garrod and D. M. A. Bate, The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. Excavations at the Nady el Mughara (Oxford, 1937): C. Nimuendaju, The Apinayi, Catholic University of America, Anthropological Series, no. 8 (1939); E. C. Parsons, Pueblo Indian Religion (1939): C. S. Coon, The Races of Europe (1939): G. M. Morant, The Races of Central Europe (London, 1939): P- Kaberry, Aboriginal Woman (Sacred and Profane) (i 939 ): A. P. Elkin, “Anthro(M. Me.) pology in Australia, 1939,” Oceania (Sept. I 939 ).

Anti-Aircraft

Weapons:

see

Munitions of War.

in

the

State Leagues, of which there were 37 in 1939. A co-operating relationship was maintained with committees or temperance units

of Directors at

its

During the current year the league has by its National Board biennial meeting at Columbus, Ohio, in Dec.

1938.

The league opposed before the State legislatures, most of which met during the year, enlarged privileges for the liquor traffic; favoured restriction in hours of sale, number of licences, and the prohibition of their issuance in rural and inadequately policed territory or in the vicinity of schools; sought local option legislation where it was denied, and in other ways favoured legislation to diminish progressively the sale

prevent war.

by

and consumption

of

league advocated legislation before the 76th Congress to prohibit the advertising of alcoholic beverages

The

alcoholic beverages.

commerce, and amendments to the Liquor Law Enforcement Act of 1936 to effectively protect the States against in

interstate

the importation of liquor for use or delivery in violation of State law.

In the Senate a

bill

to prohibit the advertising of alcoholic

beverages over the radio was reported favourably by the Comarc mittee on Interstate Commerce. The national headquarters at 131

B

street S.E.,

(E. B. Du.)

Washington, D.C.

The

violent

reached

its

anti-Semitism

culmination in

which

Germany

had in the

the events of Nov. 1938 and in the ensuing legislation aiming at complete dispossession and extermination of the Jews in Germany, continued in 1939. Through Germany’s conquests of Czechoslovakia and Poland the spirit and measures of National Socialist

anti-Semitism were spread to these two countries. The number Socialist of Jews in countries directly affected by the National

Anti-Comintern Pact: see Fascism. Antigua: see West Indies, British. Anti-Lynching Legislation: see Lynchings. estimated at 30,-

may be estimated at about 4,000,000. By a tragic irony National Socialism which had wished to eliminate all Jews from Germany brought by its subsequent conquests of Austna,

000 metric tons in 1938, against 37,000 tons in 1937. Decreases of 48% in China and 25% in Mexico were only partly offset by increases of 32% in Bolivia and go% in Yugo-

Czecho-Slovakia and Poland many more Jews under its control than there had ever been in Germany. This paradoxical situation forced National Socialism into ever more ferocious and ruthless

Antimnnu

HillllllUliy«

production of antimony

is

legislation

ANTI-TRUST

L

AW— AO U ARI U M S

53 Communism

has created a

momen-

measures against the Jews. Ultimately, in the fall of 19391 the National Socialists proposed the creation of a Jewish “reservation”

of National Socialism with

in south-eastern

Poland near Lublin where, according to original Jews from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland were to be concentrated on a small and

beloved identification of “Jews” and

plans, all the millions of

of anti-Semitic National Socialism as a bulwark against both

overcrowded space, being sent there without money or

number of new ones upon a definite line. The “revelations” of Major General George Van Horn Moseley before the Dies Committee for the investigation of un-American activities clearly showed the length to which anti-Semitic prejudice can go. (See also Bohemia and Moravia; Fascism; Italy: Home Affairs; Jewish Race, Distribution of; Jewish Re-

sufficient

and inhuman treatment. By the end of 1939 a beginning with the transfer of Jews to this reservation had been made. The fate of the Jews in Poland, after the conquest of the country by National Socialist Germany, surpassed in the treatment meted out to the Jews even the worst events and measures in Nazi Germany herself. Fascist Italy started to imitate on July 14, 1938, the antiSemitic policy of National Socialist Germany. Since then antiSemitism has become as dominant an institution in Italian legislation as it is in Germany. The expression of anti-Semitism in the Italian press reaches the same depth of vulgarity as in the and exposed

clothing,

German

press.

was created for

A

to starvation

special periodical, called

this purpose.

La Difesa

della Razza,

Italy’s definition of race, was,

how-

German one. A law of Feb. 9, i939i own land with a combined taxable value of

ever, less stringent than the

forbade Jews to

more than 5,000 lire or urban buildings of a combined taxable value of more than 20,000 lire. Jewish enterprises with more than roo employees were expropriated.

A

decree on June

i,

1939,

forbade any collaboration between Jewish and non-Jewish law-

members

yers, physicians or dentists, Jewish

of the professions

being allowed to attend only to Jewish clients. All foreign Jews

had to leave Italy within six months. Ciwc equality for the Jews had been the last remnant of the liberal tradition of Fascist Italy; the Fascist alliance with National Socialist Germany resulted in the complete co-ordination of Italian with

German

In Rumania anti-Semitism continued, without, however, giving

definition as well as in the is

lation.

number

of exemptions this

Hungarian

very much milder than the corresponding German

Under

certain conditions

Jews retained the

could not be maintained any longer.

legis-

suffrage

and

Bibliooraphv.

—

^F.

R. Bienenfeld, The Germans and the Jews (London,

1939): G. Warburg, Six Tears of Sitter (London, 1939); Sufferance is the Badge (1939).

Anti-Trusf

Law:

see

Law

6%

pursuits.

12%

in the other

Appeasement

Heaider war-risk shipping charges and scarcity of cargo space, as well as import restrictions disrupted

finnlae riPpluOi

Kingdom and Europe for United States and Canadian apples. As a result, an appreciable part of the U.S. crop was left unharvested because of low prices, while in Canada the Government came to the relief of growers fay proposing to purchase 1,500, ooobbl., and possibly i,75o,ooobbl., of the Nova the market in the United

Scotia crop, estimated at, 2,i69,ooobbl., such purchases processed. It was also proposed that the

crop at ioo,3oo,ooobu., compared to 82,39S,ooobu. in 1938 and a This 1939 estimate is for fresh consumption sales and allows for diversion ten-year average (1928-37) of 96,469,000 bushels.

German model. One

of

Washington

Among

This anti-Semitic propaganda was most actively supported by the National Socialists who liked to arouse the opinion that the responsibility for the gathering war clouds in

“Christian Mobilizers.”

war was not

be attributed to National Socialist aggressiveness, but to “Jewish war mongers.” Father Coughlin used to denounce in his weekly broadcasts in the first part of the year all anti-National Socialists as war mongers and to praise National Socialism as a reaction to and as a defence against Communism. The unexpected conclusion of an alliance later for the

fifths of Sept. 1938.

I 93 !l Bushels

I93S Bushels

.

.

Michigan

.

.

lO.^OO.OOO 14,500,000 7 , 8 o 3 ,ooo 7,500,000 6,100,000 5,800,000 4,700,000 4,600,000 4,000,000 2,950,000 2,420,000 2,150,000 2,000,000 1,750,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 1,250,000 1,100,000 1,030,000

22,400,000 10,464,000 4,800,000 7,268,000 3,800,000 1,950,000 1,900,000 5,019,000 3,227,000 2,900,000 iiSSs.ooo 2,451,000 2,617,000 1,450,000 1,419,000 250,000 100,000 1,746,000

.

.

.

Pennsylvania

.

....

Illinois

.

.

.

California . West X^rginia .

New

Jersey

Massachusetts Idaho

....

Oregon Delaware

.

. .

Marj'land Missouri . Indiana . Colorado Connecticut

.

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

the most active in this

respect were various groups organized as “Christian Front” and

Europe and

.

New York

and Czechs, whom they treated similarly to the Jews as “inferior” races, and against whom they applied discriminating legislation and humiliating treatment, was the growth of greater sympathy on the part of the Czechs and the Poles for the Jews. It became clear that the anti-Jewish legislation had been only the entering wedge for a similar treatment of other races once they were put also a definite increase in anti-Semitic

purchases of fresh fruit for relief

Apple Produefton by Sfofes, 7938 ond T939

Ohio

Jews were.

in

United States apple exports in Sept. 1939. were

only about two

Virginia

agitation in the United States.

be

1939 crop in Canada was reported as 5,i35,ooobbl., as against The November i estimate of the Department of Agriculture placed the 1939 United States commercial

the results of the National Socialist attitude towards the Poles

The year 1939 saw

to

Government buy 500,000

5,222,40obbl. in 1938.

all

attempts on the part of Hungarian National Socialists to start

into a similar helpless position as the

United

Anti-Trust;

:

Policy: see European War; France; Italy:

economic

The Hungarian Government suppressed, however,

violent anti-Semitism according to the

(H- Ko.)

History; Great Britain.

number of

in other

(Case)

L. Saebar,

-A.

States.

distribution.

persons engaged in the profession, and to

Anti-Semites had to drop

try a

ligious Life; Refugees.)

by the Federal Government

civil service

of the total

the praise

without, however, being able to agree yet

Jews were to be excluded from public offices, the and the teaching profession, and to be restricted not more than

and

their previous rationalizations,

the right to be elected to national and municipal legislative bodies.

liberal professions to

“Moscow” and

boxes of British Columbia and i50,ooobbl. of Ontario apples. The

policy.

during 1939 rise to any new special legislation. In Hungary, the anti-Jewish laws went into effect on Oct. i, 1939. In their racial

law

tary difficulty for anti-Semitic propaganda in America, as the

986,000

Maine

New Hampshire

.... ....

Vermont Kansas

Arkansas North Carolina New Mexico Wisconsin .... .

.

.

,

Georgia

.

.

Montana

,

.

.

Utah Kentucky .... Iowa Nebraska .... Rhode Island .

.

Tennessee

....

iilinnesota

.

.

.

Oklahoma

.

.

.

Arizona

....

1939 Bushels

1938 Bushels

900,000 890,000 810,000 770,000 625,000 580,000 580,000 500,000 450,000 320,000 300,000 300,000 260,000 250,000 250,000 230,000 175,030 SS,ooo SSsOoo

506,000 400,000 276,000 500,000 i 7 SiOoo 480,000 400,000 310,000 420,000 310,000 345.000 130,000 340,000 350,000 308,000 120,000 145,000

32.000 (S.

O. R.)

Applied Chemistry: see Chemistry, Applied. Applied Psychology: see Psychology, Applied. Appropriations and Expenditures: see Government Expenditures.

to

aquarium situation has been relatively quiet throughout the year 1939. Much of this has been due to general unsettled world conditions. Anilliriliinc nljUdllUlllb.

With the outbreak of war in Europe in the latter part of the year, the consequent disruption of shipping has greatly hindered

;

iC-’

'i=''^^v.v-''r

'A

'"t-'J'. •

J

!*

STARTING POINT of is Parker dam on the

the world's greatest aqueduct system, completed In 1939, Colorado river near Parker, Arizona. One billion gallons of water are carried daily 242mi. to Los Angeles and 12 other cities on the Pacific

long distance transportation of aquatic animals, even between regions not intimately connected with the war zones. Consequently, until adjustments are

made

follows that aquaria gener-

it

View reservoir in Yonkers, the new project, estimated to cost $273,000,000, will increase the city’s water supply by 50%. Hill

Twenty-three of the 30 shafts required for the project were completed in 1939. To safeguard and improve Boston’s water supply an 18-mi. pressure aqueduct, consisting mainly of a large size pre-

must depend more on emphasizing the exhibition of

less

cast concrete pipe,

distant forms of life than during periods of free interchange

and

the Boston metropolitan district.

ally

commerce. Unlike zoological gardens, however, public aquaria in locations liable to attack by air feel no pressure to reactive

move animals that might become dangerous to the general public. The physical limitations of aquatic forms of life, no matter how vicious in their own environment, preclude their becoming a pub-

is

being built from the Wachusett reservoir

The

ii.3-mi.

Mono

to

Craters tun-

which will deliver an average additional 140 sec.-ft. of water from Mono Basin to the Los Angeles aqueduct to improve the water supply system of Los Angeles, was holed through in April nel,

1939.

An

ingenious 47-mi.-long gravity system of mountain tun-

menace under war hazards. Before war conditions virtually off such commerce, the collections of many aquaria were enhanced by the importation of interesting innovations. For example, two species of the African family Mormyridae have found their way to America for the first time. These fishes, closely as-

and giant pipelines has been built to provide San Francisco with a limitless supply of water and power from the O’SIiaughnessy dam in Hetch-Hetchy valley, California. Construction began the latter part of 1938 with two tunnels on a 40-mi. aqueduct which will carry stored water from Deer Creek reservoir in Provo canyon over steep and irregular mountain slopes to Salt Lake City, Utah.

sociated with Egyptian mythology, have been seen at times in

(See also Dams.)

lic

shut

European aquaria but never before in American

institutions.

nels

ally excited the imaginations

displayed in

New

The

of aquarium administrators with

smallest tarpons on record have been

York, a matter of no small interest to anglers

devoted to the pursuit of this species. (See also Zoology: Specific Contributions for picture see Marine Biology.) (C. M. Br.)

500,000;

Yemen

ni(UcUUlflOi

All-American canal, the largest irrigation ditch in the United States, being built by the

Federal Bureau of Reclamation at an estimated cost of $38,500,000, was virtually completed. It wll carry water diverted from the

Colorado river by Imperial Imperial valley, California. canal,

dam

for a distance of Somi. into the

With the i3omi. Coachella Branch

which was started in 1938, water

will

be supplied ultimately

for irrigating approximately i,ooo,oooac. of land in southern California.

The Colorado river aqueduct, now under construction by Water District of Southern California, extends

the Metropolitan

242mi. from the river near Parker, Arizona, to Cajalco reservoir, izmi. south of Riverside, California. On Jan. 7, 1939, the first

water flowed into the aqueduct when the Intake pumping plant was placed in opieration. With all major features completed, including 29 tunnels with a combined length of 92.imi., the project, estimated to cost $220,000,000,

\vill

deliver 1,000,000,000 gal. of

water per day to Los Angeles and twelve neighbouring coastal cities. Work was in progress on the Delaware river aqueduct, an 85-mi. pressure tunnel, which will carry additional water supplies from the Catskill mountains to New York city. Extending from the proposed

54

Roundout

reser\'oir at

Lackawack,

New

York, to

3,500,000;

Oman and Muscat

500,000; Kuwait

80,000; Trucial Sheikhs 80,000. Language: Arabic; religion: Mohammedan. Rulers: Saudi Arabia, King Ibn Sa’ud; Yemen, Imam Yahaya Muhammad Hamid ed Din; Oman and Muscat, Sultan Sayo'id Said bin

Subah.

Aniiorliipto

Pa.)

Total area (estimated) 1,000,000 square miles. Total pop. (estimated, 1937) 9,300,000; Saudi Arabia, 4,-

finding of a single specimen of a supposedly long extinct group

of fishes, the Coelacanths, off the east coast of Africa, has gener-

high scientific hopes.

(J. C.

The

Taimur; Kuwait, Sheikh Ahmed Ibn Jabir

—The year 1939 marked an important

History.

al

turning-point in

first time since the history of Arabia inasmuch as it became pre-Islamic days a producer and exporter of minerals. In the mountainous western district of Hejaz gold has been discovered at

for the

various points and a promising mine has been developed at Mahad Dhahab loomi. south of Medina. By the end of the year some

al

600 tons of concentrates had been exported to America for refinening. But, more important than gold, oil has been discovered in couraging commercial quantities in the eastern districts of Arabia, notably at Kuwait and Dhahran. The latter field, or rather the pipe-line connecting it with the Persian gulf port of Ras Tanura,

was opened

in April

and by the end of 1939

oil cxTiorts

were being

shipped to the tune of 20,ooobbl. (3,000 tons) a day.

meaning a steady revenue for moment the government of Saudi Arabia, comes at an opportune hitherto has which country of the slender resources the to augment Durbeen mainly dependent on a fluctuating pilgrimage to Mecca.

The production

of

oil

and

gold,

the ing the depression of 1931 the number of pilgrims visiting Hejaz fell from an average of 100,000 to 21,000. Since then there risen had been a steady recovery until in Jan. 1939, the figure had country s the darkened war of shadow the Unfortunately to 65,000.

ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL— ARCH AEOLOGY prospects and the actual outbreak of war in September realized

The number

the worst fears of the pessimists.

of pilgrims in Jan.

1940, will be below 25,000 and the consequent loss of revenue to the government as well as the effect on merchants and people may

be

(H. St.

left to the imagination.

—

Trade.

^VVith

India (1938-39):

Oman and

J.

B. P.)

Muscat, imports

£284,250; e'.’qDorts £153,750; other states of Arabia, imports £486,000; export £48,000. With the United Kingdom (1938): Saudi Arabia and Yemen, imports £94,960; exports £28,871 ; Oman and

of Alaska and the National

Museum

Denmark.

A

preliminary

Bay was made During the summer the

archaeological survey of the east coast of Hudson’s

on behalf of the University of Chicago. Museum of Canada sponsored excavations of a woodland site in the Grand River valley, near Dunnville, Ontario. Northern Mexico received additional attention in 1939. The American Museum of Natural History engaged in a reconnaissance and excavation project in northwestern Mexico. The Peabody museum of Harvard sent a reconnaissance party to the ivestern National

Muscat, Trucial Sheikhs and Kuwait, imports £40,262; exports Total trade of Oman and Muscat (1937-38): imports -£312,534; e.xports £247,426; Kuwait (1937-38): imports £410,-

part of the State of Coahuila.

812; exports £174,006.

the Pacific coast of Mexico.

£18,354.

of

55

The University

of California, in

collaboration with the Institute Nacional de Antropologia e Historia,

sponsored a surface sun'ey of archaeological sites along

In the Valley of Mexico and the southern part of the Republic,

Arbitration, International: ternational Justice.

Arhnc

F

nlUUw,

Fornanrio?

rCliluilliuL

cember 25 and received

see

Permanent Court of In-

(1863-1939), Spanish conductor and was born in Madrid De-

violinist,

his early musical training at the

Madrid

In 1883 he became concert-master of the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra, and thereafter made a notably successful tour of Europe as a violinist. In 1903 he was concert-master of the Boston Symphony orchestra, and later he was guest conductor conservatory.

of orchestras in France, Russia, England, and other countries.

The

best

known

its extensive and far-sighted program of excavation and restoration among the great ruins of the region. A joint expedition of the Departamento de Monumento of Mexico and the Carnegie Institution of Washington made field studies in the important Tu.xtla region of Vera Cruz. Near the idllage of Tres Zapotes, in the same region, another expedition sent by the National Geographic Society and the

Smithsonian Institution made some important discoveries, 'including a fragment of a stone monument bearing one of the

known dates in the Maya calendar. The Carnegie Institution of Washington

earliest

He

was appointed conductor of the Madrid S}Tnphony in 1908 and retained this position until his death.

the Mexican Government continued

of his

ern Honduras.

cuted

works of Albeniz. His death at San Sebastian, Spain, was reported in London on June 10.

excavated a

its

Guatemala. of the year.

museum

ArnhQonlnrru nlullQwUlUgy«

Mexico City, on August 5 to 15. In addition to the scientific sessions on various anthropological subjects, the program included numerous trips to the famous archaeogress of Americanists, held in

logical sites of the vicinity.

The year 1939 was marked by in the field, not only

increased archaeological activity

through further studies in well knoira areas,

but also by additional investigations in areas which until recently received

little

attention.

Additional light has been thrown upon

the important problem of the antiquity of

man

in

the

New

continued

its

The University

of Pennsylvania

museum

prose-

eighth and final season at the ruins of Piedras Negras,

compositions are a comic opera, El Centro de la Tierra (1895), the ballet En Triana, and his orchestral transcriptions of the

outstanding event of 1939 in American archaeology was the 27th International Con-

also

archaeological studies in the highlands of Guatemala and north-

A small party from

the School of American Research

southwestern Guatemala during the spring At the same time a representative of the Peabody

site in

of Harvard carried on

some excavations on

the island of

Haiti.

Although detailed information on the archaeological activities South America during 1939 is not at hand, it may be assumed that the research programs of governments and institutions in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru have been continued. An expedition from the Peabody museum of Harvard spent six in

months excavating

at Pucara, Peru.

Within the United States the continued availability of Federal relief facilities (WPA), stimulated both field and laboratorj' work. Organizations with established archaeological programs found it possible to expand their activities, and a number of

World. The Bureau of American Ethnology continued its work at the famous Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado. The study of the Oregon cave deposits was carried fonvard. Evidences of a Folsom culture and pleistocene deposits were found in a New Mexico cave by a University of New Mexico expedition. In the Great Lakes area, a field party from the University of Michigan

encountered records of

human

occupation associated with post-

glacial beaches, indicating considerable antiquity.

Well over half a hundred universities, museums, societies and organizations sponsored field expeditions in all parts

research

of the United States.

Some

of these were single season projects,

others were parts of long term programs.

known

Among

the better

Awatovi (Arizona) Expedition of the Peabody museum of Harvard completed its fifth and final field season; the Tennessee Valley Authority’s explorations of the Tennessee valley basins were continued; and the University of Chicago conducted its sixth season at the Kincaid site in southern Illinois. During the year a long term program was begun, when the Indiana Historical Society and Historical Bureau sponsored the first season’s field work at the Angel Mounds site in southern Indiana. Important discoveries were made in an ancient Eskimo village at Point Hope in Alaska by a joint expedition of the University ones, the

AN IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERY of 1939 was fho tomb of one of the Sheshonhs, Eayptian Pharaohs of the 22nd dynasty, opened in March at Sanel-Hagar on the Nile delta by Prof. Pierre Montet of Strasbourg

—

ARCHAEOLOGY

56

smaller societies were able, with the assistance of trained archaeol-

Breuil during the past

and laboratory work with the aid of the WPA facilities. For some years there has been a growing interest in the application of archaeological methods to the study of documented and historic sites. During 1939, the sponsorship of such procedures by the National Park Service served to stimulate the study of these sites. One outstanding example is the investigation by Phillips Academy of Andover, Massachusetts of the remains of an old fish weir found some 40 feet below street

valley, northern France,

undertake

ogists, to

field

level in Boston.

pheral archaeological cultures and of detailed relationships within

known

the better

groups, especially the Mogollon complex. Con-

tinued research in the northcentral States led to a clarification

many

of

detailed

cultural

relationships.

The most

noticeable

growth in knowledge occurred in the southeastern area, where many students devoted the year to determining the fundamental data upon which an outline of the cultural sequences in this area will ultimately

be

built.

The work done

in other regions of the

Abbeville in the

Somme

have yielded hand-axes of Abbevillian

type in a deposit definitely of First Interglacial age. In the Breckland region of eastern England, Dr. T. T. Paterson has established the Pleistocene stratigraphy and the age of the associated Palaeolithic industries.

tance to

all

The Breckland sequence

is

of primaiy impor-

prehistorians in western Europe.

In the Union of South Africa great progress

is being made in Age research under the supenision of ProC. van Riet Lowe, Director of the Bureau of Archaeologj’.

the field of Old Stone fessor

In the southwest, studies were made of the lesser known peri-

summer near

The Fourth Annual Report

of the Bureau, recently published

Pretoria, includes an imposing

ing the past year.

A

useful

list

summary

in

of activities undertaken durof the Stone

Age

in

Northern

Rhodesia by J. Desmond Clark of the Rhodes-Livingstone stitute demonstrates the importance of the region for relating South African sequence to that of Kenya and Uganda on

Inthe the

east coast.

An ’Akil,

important Upper Palaeolithic station, the Cave of Ksar near Antelias in Syria, is being excavated by Fathers Do-

United States, particularly on the Pacific coast, in the Great and in New England, added substantially to archaeological

herty and Ewing of Weston college. The work has revealed a

Plains,

thicker deposit of Middle Aurignacian than has been found

The improvements in field methods, and the emphasis upon laboratory work, were reflected in the growing consideration

where in the Near East. In India, E. C. Worman, Jr. of the Peabody museum. Harvard university, has discovered important

given to problems of methodology, nomenclature, and classifica-

new

knowledge.

An

far

else-

Palaeolithic sites in the extreme south of the peninsula, on

increased appreciation developed of the inter-

the east coast between Calcutta and

dependence of projects and problems, not only within archaeology, but also in relation to geology, geography, biology, physical

India north of the Narbada valley.

anthropology, ethnology, and history.

cultures

Since the full interpretation of field materials can only be accomplished through laboratory work, the increase in the number

Africa.

of expeditions was paralleled

been recognized, an extension of which reached the Soan region of Northern India during Middle Pleistocene times.

tion of data.

oratory

ment

facilities

and

by a corresponding growth in labThe year 1939 saw the develop-

activities.

of several large archaeological laboratories, particularly in

the southeastern States, where the results of excavations were

studied under careful technical supervision with the aid of facilities.

WPA

The many

organizations,

small laboratories maintained by individual and the several co-operative laboratories devoted

to particular specialties continued to operate.

In addition to the annual meetings of various associations and

concerning this material

is its

Madras as well as in Central The most outstanding fact

essential similarity to the hand-axe

(AbbeviUeo-Acheulean) of western Asia, Europe, and

—

In the Far East ^Java, Malaya, Burma, and China (Choukoutien) a Lower Palaeolithic chopping-tool complex has

—

Fossil

Man —Early .

in the year Dr. G.

H. R. von Koenigswald

of the Geological Survey of Java discovered a complete

and a portion of the

occipital region of a heav'y

ma.xilla

male Pithecan-

thropus in the Trinil beds (Middle Pleistocene) at Sangiran

The

in

(Pithecanthropus No. 3) was broken prior to death as the result of a blow, and the stone apparently

Central Java.

skull

societies a

used for this purpose was found associated with the fragments. The year 1939 witnessed the discovery' of three Neanderthals

summer, under the auspices of the University of New Mexico. About the same time a Tree-Ring Conference was held in the same area at a field station of the University of Arizona. In the late spring and the early fall two meetings were held of

one in each continent of the Old World. The first find, an eightmade by Dr. A. P. Okladnikov in the cave of Teshik-Tash near Tashkent in Russian Turkestan. The skeleton, examined by Dr. A. Hrdlicka, was associated with Moustcrian implements, prehistoric animal bones and ash layers. A few

number of conferences were held. One of the best known of these was the Chaco Conference, held in New Mexico late in the

Southeastern Archaeological Conference. In October the annual meeting of the Northeastern States Archaeological Fedthe

which is in the nature of a conference, was held in New Such meetings are of especial value because they permit the many workers in limited areas to discuss current archaeological activities and compare opinions and points of view. eration,

York

city.

—

Bibliography. ^The great majority of publications during 1939 consisted of technical reports and articles in the journals and serials of various institutions and organizations. Further information concerning them, as well as additional details upon the archaeological activities of the many organizations working in the United States in particular, may be secured by consulting vol. V of American Antiquity, the quarterly journal of the Society for American Archaeology. The outstanding publication of the year was the five volume monograph entitled The Inscriptions of the Peten by Sylvanus G. Morley, published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington with the imprint of 193S, but distributed during the early months of 1939. (C. E. Gu.)

—

year-old boj’, was

later. Dr. A. C. Blanc of the University of Pisa recovered a very' well preserved Neanderthal skull in the Guttari cave at the base of Mount Circeo south of Rome. The cave’s mouth had

weeks

been sealed in antiquity, and the skull together with the bones of an extinct fauna was found on the surface of the cave deposits, which contained Mousterian implements. The lower layers of the High cave in Tangier, where Dr. C. S. Coon of the Peabody museum, Han'ard university, excavated during the spring and summer of 1939, yielded a maxilla fragment of a child and an adult molar tooth of Neanderthal type. The site revealed an important sequence of cultures from Middle Palaeolithic to Roman times. Thus, recent finds in Asia, Europe, and North Africa strengthen the view that the Neanderthal race dominated a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere of the Old World

Eastern Hemisphere. In spite of upset conditions during 1939, important archaeological discoveries were made in many

before the

sections of the Old

World. Those dating from the Neolithic and be dealt with regionally; for the earlier periods the etidence as a whole will be discussed. The Palaeolithic Period Excavations conducted by Professor

Australian

later periods will

Harvard

.

—

maximum

of the last Pleistocene glaciation.

In Australia a joint expedition by N. B. Tindale of the South

museum and

J. B. Birdsell

university, has discovered

of the Peabody' museum, skeletons together with

human

a giant marsupial fauna in an ancient sand dune on the old shore of the now dry Lake Menindce, New South Wales. This is the

—

first

human remains have been found

time that

in direct associa-

an extinct fauna in Australia. ^In Neolithic and Later. (a) Anatolia and The Near East Turkey, Professor John Garstang excavated at Mersin, near Tarsus, on the Cilician Plain. Below a series of Iron Age, Imperial Hittite, and pre-Hittite levels, five strata (XII-XVI) were found which represent stages in the development of the Chalcolithic of tion with

—

the Near East.

nium

The lowest

—

.

of these levels (early fourth millen-

contains polychrome pottery identified

B.c.)

by the exca-

vators as Tell Halaf \vaT&(An 7 ialsof Archaeology andAnthropology of the University of Liverpool, X\T [1939] pp. 38-72). The remaining 9-oom. of culture deposit below level XVT revealed a basal Neolithic horizon containing only plain wares and stone im-

The

plements.

site

demonstrates an extremely early occupation of

the Cilician Plain, as well as a Chalcolithic culture which

had con-

nections not only with Anatolia but also with Crete, Greece, and

Danube valley. The Mersin stratigraphy as far back as level XII (c. 3000 B.c.) has been checked faj' the very extensive work the

being conducted nearby at Tarsus by Dr. Hetty Goldman. It e.xpected that sites will

when

is

the early strata at Tarsus are uncovered these

complement each other and amplify the picture of the

The wider spread of the Halaf culture has been further proved by the excavation's at Shamiramalti (Tilke Tepe) on Lake Van by Dr. Kirsopp Lake. In every respect the early periods in Cilicia.

site, which is near Van Vannic kingdom, is unquestionably related to the true Tell Halaf ware of Northern Mesopotamia

pottery from the earliest level at this

Kaleh

and

—

^the fortified

citadel of the

Syria.

In Syria, Dr. Schaeffer's fine excavations at Ras Shamra pro-

duced a specimen of Kamares ware imported from Crete in a level dating from the middle of the second millennium B.c. Its stratigraphic position at of Middle turj'.

The

Minoan

Ras Shamra

suggests that the date for the end

II should be lowered

by approximately a cen-

ONE OF A SERIES covered in

of relief panels of a Roman emperor, probably Vespasian, 193S and 1939 under the Palairo della Canceileria, Rome

dis-

Oriental Institute’s Syrian e.xpedition conducted test

digging north of Tripoli at Tabbat

al-Hammam, a

site nith an and a later occupation: first millennium b.c. to B3'zantine. Sounding trenches at the nearby site of Tell Simiri)'an revealed Middle and Late Bronze Age levels. Sir Leonard Woolley’s excavations at Alalakh. near Antioch, have produced further proofs of direct contact between Minoan Crete and the Asiatic mainland early in the second millennium b.c. During the winter of 1938-39 Lauriston Ward and D. W. Lockard of the Peabod)^ museum, Harvard university, made an archaeological reconnaissance trip to Syria and Iraq. M. E. L. Mallowan

early layer containing Tell Halaf pottery

excavated interesting Bronze Age levels at Tell Djidle, a mound near Tell Abiad in the Upper Balikh vallej' of Northern Syria. The

French excavations at Mari, an important site on the Euphrates Western Syria, were continued under the direction of Andre Parrot. Levels of the third and fourth (Jemdet Nasr period)

in

millennia b.c. were uncovered, and

more

claj'

tablets bearing

Sumerian inscriptions were found. Only the German expedition under Professor Noldeke worked in Iraq during 1939. Although their work was continued at Warka (Uruk), the most important finds were made at Tell Halat HadjiMohammed a small mound in the vicinity. Here the only preal’Ubaid level known in Southern Mesopotamia was discovered. In certain respects the pottery from this new horizon recalls the well-known Halaf ware of the north. Under the direction of Gordon Loud, the Oriental Institute’s expedition continued work at Megiddo (Armageddon) in Palestine. Excavations conducted in two areas of the mound revealed a large building of strata VIII-VII, and a group of three houses of the Megaron t>qje in stratum XV (1950-1850 b.c.). These houses, contemporary with the great Egyptian 12th Dynasty, were associated with a large circular altar of solid masonry. The ce-

ramie content of stratum "KV (jMiddle Bronze I) includes a distinctive red ware, which continues in XIV but dies out in XIII

(1800-1750

B.c.) with the

appearance of Hyksos forms. In addi-

tion to continuing his important survey of Bronze

and Iron Age Trans-Jordan, Dr. Nelson Gleuck, director of the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem, excavated at Tell

sites in

el-Kheleifi

on the Gulf of Aqabah. The 1939 work at

lieved to be Ezion-Geber referred to in the

Book

this site, be-

of Kings as

Solomon’s seaport, revealed an extensive smelting and refining In level III (late Sth century b.c.) manj’- interesting in-

plant.

and stamped pots were found in addition to Phoenician and two Egyptian amulets. (b) Egypt. On the western edge on the Delta the German Institute’s expiedition under Professor Junker continued e.xcavations on the important prehistoric site of hleiimde. At Hermopolis, in Upper Egypt, Dr. Sami Gabra of the Egj’ptian university discovered an important tomb of a high priest in the precinct of the Temple of Thoth. The Oriental Institute again worked on the splendid records of the kledinet Habu Temple and Kamak. As in scribed

glass beads

—

former years. Professor Michalowski of the University of Warsaw and Middle Kingdom cemeteries at Edfu. Dr. George A, Reisner and members of the staff of the Han’ardBoston e-xpedition spent the past year preparing the report on the Giza cemeteries for publication. At Giza, Selim Bey Hassan proe.xcavated in the Old

duced conclusive proof that the Temple of Cheops was decorated in relief with limestone carvings. This discovery

is important, and add materially to the very meagre eridence for the decoration of a royal temple before the beginning of Dynasty V. At Tanis, Professor Montet discovered two tombs of Djmasty XXII; one of them contained the electrum colSn and fine gold jewellery of Sheshonk, which are of mde interest from the point

the

new

pieces

57

ARCHAEOLOGY

58

The contents of a tomb of DyEmery at Saqqarah, give a vivid pic-

of the history of Egyptian art.

nasty

I,

found by Walter B.

ture of the really high civilization that flourished in the Nile valley at the very beginning of the Dynastic period. brilliant discovery

was the most

Emery’s

significant single event of the past

year in the Egyptian field. (c) Greece By re-examining previously excavated areas in the .

—

vicinity of the

Wace

B.

famous shaft-graves at Mycenae, Professor A.

J.

has established that the royal tombs are only part of an

bears the marks of the reign of the Emperor Anastasius I. It has been suggested that the chieftain may have been Redwald, King of the East Angles (died c. 620 a.d.), who was the first of his lineage to

become High King of England. For the past five years

(f) Poland.

—

northeast of Poznan (Travel, Oct. 1939, pp. 16-19). This extraordinarily well preserved village, which covers an area fi^ac., was

extensive prehistoric cemetery used from Middle Helladic to

surrounded by high wooden

dle

finds of the ancient Slavonic culture.

MidMycenaean times (c. 2000-1450 b.c.). Below the summit of the acropolis at Mycenae unique Late Mycenaean objects an ivory carving and the head of a plaster statuette ^were found. At Dendra in the Peloponnese, Professor Axel W. Persson discovered five Mycenaean tombs, one of which (Tomb IV) proved to be

—

—

the sepulchre of a queen containing magnificent gold objects of

c.

1400 B.c. Data secured at Athens by the American school, directed by Professor T. L. Shear, refutes the theory that Athens was a third rate settlement in the

Mycenaean

period.

On

the northern

slope of the areopagus a royal tomb, evidently that of a queen of

was found. In addition to pottery and a number of excellent gold and bronze objects, a beautifully carved cylindrical ivory toilet-box or pyxis came to light. Recent work at Pylos, in the South-West Peloponnese, by Dr. Karl Blegen and Dr. Kourouniotis has led to the discovery of a Late Mycenaean the 14th century

b.c.,

palace. This site has yielded evidence of the utmost importance,

since in the palace archives a great

mass of

tablets inscribed

with Minoan characters (Linear, Class B) was unearthed. These first to be found on the mainland of Greece and make it seem obvious that writing was more generally known in Late Bronze Age Greece than has heretofore been supposed. (d) The Balkans Reconnaissance by James H. Gaul of the Peabody museum, Harvard university, has revealed that the Early Neolithic (Koros) culture of Hungary, as well as the culture overlying the Koros levels at Vinca (which is related to the Tisza culture of Hungary) both extend eastward into the Sofia region

are the

.

—

Furthermore Tisza pottery has been found at Olynthus near Salonica in Greece, and Vinca figurines have appeared at Dikili Tash in Greek Thrace. In the Upper Struma valley of Western Bulgaria, Mr. Gaul has discovered sherds identical with the Early Neolithic of Greece. At Karanovo in Southern Bulgaria, Dr. Vasil Mikov of the National Museum, Sofia, has proved that the Early Bronze Age culture of Macedonia (described by Heurtley) occurs above the Bulgarian Tell (Gumelnita) culture, which is of the Chalcolithic period. Thus the Macedonian Early Bronze Age of Bulgaria.

forms an integral part of the Bulgarian development. ^In Northern France, Dr. R. E. M. (e) Western Europe Wheeler of the London museum excavated several Late La Tene sites in Normandy. These proved to be hasty defences thrown up .

—

by the Gauls against the Roman invasions. Professor E. E. Evans of Queen’s university, Belfast, continued his interesting excavations at Lyle Hill in Northern Ireland during 1939. This important site, a fortified hill-top camp with Windmill Hill pottery, is the

first real

By

Neolithic settlement to be excavated

in Ireland.

most spectacular discovery in Western Europe during and one of the most remarkable finds ever made in England, far the

1939, was the ship-grave of an Anglo-Sa.xon king found in the Sutton

Hoo tumulus tion directed

beside the river

by C. W.

Deben

in Suffolk.

Careful excava-

Phillips revealed not only clear traces of the

boat but also the outline of the ship

—a

itself

vessel 82ft. long

1 6ft. in the beam. The centrally located burial contained jewellery and personal belongings of barbaric splendour, which

and

makes the tomb the richest of its kind so far found in Western Europe. The most impressive feature of the Sutton Hoo treasure is

a set of provincial Byzantine plate ; one

magnificent silver dish

extensive excavations

under the direction of Professor J. Kostrzewski at the important Early Iron Age (700-400 b.c.) site of Biskupin, an island in a lake

logs,

were

fortifications;

laid out in parallel east-west

The

has yielded rich

it

paved with rows between the wooden streets,

houses, with an outer one spanning the settlement inside the ramparts, the top of which served as a walk.

—

Expeditions from the Marr Institute of the His(g) U.S.S.R. tory of Material Culture, Leningrad, have been active recently

(H. Field, and E. Prostov, Amer. Jour. Semitic Languages and Ivi, 1939, pp. 438-440). In the Crimea (Kerch Peninsula) B. F. Gaidukevich continued excavation on a settlement beLiterature,

longing to the slave-owning Bosporus kingdom (6th centurj' b.c.— 4th century a.d.). This expedition also dug near Kerch at Nym-

phaeum, the

site of

an Hellenic

century before our era.

city attributed to the 4th or 5th

Two hundred

miles northeast of Tashkent the site of Taraz has been identified by A. N. Bernstam in the

southern part of Kazakhstan. The ruins of this city of the first millennium a.d., mentioned by Byzantine, Chinese, Turkish, and

Arabian writers, were found quite unexpectedly Dzhambul, near the Uzbek frontier. (h) Afghanistan.

—

Victoria and Albert

in the centre of

reconnaissance e.\pedition sent out by the

museum and

the Royal Geographical Society under the leadership of Evert Barger to the Plain of Bactria in the Oxus valley has discovered important Greek remains at Kun-

A

duz.

large

number of mounds were mapped and much

valuable

data secured, including Greek and Sassanid seals and coins. (i)

—Although

India.

very

little

actual excavation was done

in India during the past year great significance

may

be attached

to the survey of the present state of research in that country'

conducted by Sir Leonard Woolley. Woolley’s report, which has it is hoped

just been published, contains recommendations which will give

new impetus

to the Archaeological Survey of India. In

the meantime, the India Society, London, published during the

summary covering the historical periods, The book is written by 22 authoriby Sir John Gumming, Vice-Chairman of the

past year an excellent

entitled Revealing India’s Past. ties

and

is

edited

School of Oriental Studies. (j)

Malaya.

—The

expedition of the Greater-India Research

Committee under the direction of H. G. Quaritch Wales has been doing excavations of the utmost importance in Malaya, where no systematic work has ever been done on the archaeology of the Hindu period. Over 30 sites, most of them in Kedah, were dug

and evidence was obtained suggesting that Buddhism was introduced in Southeastern Asia more than a century earlier than was hitherto suspected. In the remains of ruined Shiva temples, dating from the 4th to the 13th centuries a.d., much valuable information secured. This contributes to the problem of the cultural e.xpansion of ancient India which culminated in the flowering of

was

the Indo-Javanese and (k) China.

—

Khmer

civilizations of the

Far East.

spite of military’ activities the research work Sinica on the remains found at Any’ang has contin^In

of Academica ued at the e.xpedition’s new headquarters in Yunnan. Anyang has yielded e.xtremely important Bronze Age material dating from the Late Shang period (1300-iroo b.c.). Near the city of Ch’ang-sha. Hunan Province, John H. Cox of Yale-in-China has made starllinc discoveries in cemeteries containing burials of the Late Chou, 6th century b.c.

Han, and Six Dynasties periods (6th century

—

.

ARCHERY-ARCHITECTURE material adds enormously to archaeological knowledge

The

A.a).

and demonstrates what has long been susthe presence of a high civilization in that region at an

of the Yangtse valley

pected

—

early period.

—

Bibliography. Except where othenvise stated, further information concerning many of the most important discoveries mentioned above may be obtained by consulting the 1939 numbers of The lUusIraled London News, (H. L. Ms.) Asia, and Antiquity.

At the 59th annual tournament of the National Archery Association, which was held in St. Paul, Minn., July 17-22, 1939, Pat Chambers of Portland, Ore., successfully defended his championship title and set up a record of 1

u

nlulluiyi

134-826 in the Single York round. Mrs. Belvia Carter of Seattle, won the ladies’ title by a narrow margin over Miss Jean Tenney of Clear Spring, Md., the defending champion; but during

Wash.,

the tournament. Miss

Tenney

the Single National round.

A

set

new

up a new record

of 72-492 in

record in the Single Columbia

round of 72-552 was established by Mrs. Beatrice Hodgson of San Pedro, Calif. In the flight shooting, Curtis L. Hill of Dayton, 0 ., made a record of 51 7yd., ift., and Mrs. Millie Hill of Dayton, 0., set

up a record

of 374yd.,

2ft., 5

During 1939 there was a marked increase of interest in field Field archery as distinguished from target archerj'. associations have been organized in several States, and the organization of a national field archery association is well under way. In May 1939, the National Archery Association sponsored the loth Annual Women’s Intercollegiate Telegraphic Archery Tournament which was participated in by over 1,000 students from 99 colleges. This event was won by Team No. i from Los Angeles City college. One of the spectacular archery events of 1939 was the shooting of an arrow 896yd. by Ken Wilhelm of Yermo, Calif. This was done' in the so-called “free style,” lying on his back with the bow strapped to his feet and using both hands to draw the string. With the bow held in his hand and shooting in regular form, Mr. Wilhelm made a shot of 579-7 yards. (L. C. S.)

beginning of another war in Europe in the

fall

of 1939 arrested normal architectural

development on the Continent and in England. Up to that point conflicting social and political aims had left their stamp on architecture. In countries where the right to freedom of thought

was more pronounced than in the totalitarian States where the appearance of buildings was dictated by Government regulation or suggested through e.\amples of prevailed progress in design

Depressed economic conditions and caused the continuance of Government building programs aimed at the stimulation of employment. For this reason much of the architecture and the trend of architectural development had to be attributed to

national

style

from the restrictions and formalities of the The two principal schools of modern architectural thought, which were separated by a difference in the interpretation of this new freedom, drew closer together. Architects ture

was a

liberation

patterns of the past.

who stood

for the scientific reasoning of functionalism as a basis

of design were approaching the theories of modernists

who

set

beauty of forms as their aim. In 1939 less influence came from Le Corbusier whose writings constitute the major background of

Frank Lloyd Wright w'ho represented the other London which counteracted the influence of the functionalist on the minds of the younger men in England. The premise both schools had in common was characterized by precedence of the considerations of functionalism.

school of thought gave a series of lectures in

space over mass, open planning for a

fle.xible

use of interiors, the

absence of symmetry, a lighter appearance of construction, and

a greater use of

glass.

The

barrier which remained

was the

dif-

ference in interpretation of decoration in architectural design.

Frank Lloyd means of gi\'ing

Functionalists opposed the use of ornament, while

Wright and

his followers often resorted to

as a

it

Towards the end of the fourth

interest to architectural surfaces.

decade of the 20th century, functionalists tended to pay greater

inches.

archery

ArnhifopflirD nIullllCulUiCs

59

characteristics.

restricted the activities of private building

by the increased use of curves, and varied textures. The contributions to functional architecture by individual designers who have given their personal

attention to surface treatment breaks,

interpretation to the original theories, contributed greater aspects

of individuality and in

more personal

characteristics than

the earlier form of functionalism,

known

as

were found

International

Style.

Traditional Architecture.

—Sentiment

for the past

and long

association continued to give traditional architecture a strong hold.

Forms were

simplified to fall in line with the

modern trend

but the general characteristics remained; adherence to the basic patterns of the past, a leaning toward symmetry in plan and elevation, an effect of solidity, openings of vertical proportions, mouldings and applied decoration. While native domestic architectural styles for residences furnished the design prototypes, the

formulae deduced from classic architecture combined with the teachings of the academies, governed the design of the more

prominent buildings

in

most

a style of classic derivation.

IVherever a

countries.

country

was found expedient to use This was seen in previous years in

established a national architecture

it

Russia and Germany, and in 193S in Italy. Materials, Methods, Construction.

—

^As

labour costs rose syn-

were found as substitutes for the costlier types of materials. In residential work dry construction gained in use. This method eliminated plastering and thereby saved the time and heat necessary to dry out buildings as well as the finish which has to be installed to cover wood exposed to damage by plasterers. There was a greater awareness of the difficulties entailed in the pre-fabrication of complete houses, but the use and manufacture thetic materials

Governmental bureaus instead of to individuals. Some countries dedicated their building programs to social measures, such as housing, clinics, recreation camps, playgrounds, etc., while in other countries they gave expression to the glorification of national ideals. With the advent of the war, civic building lapsed and military architecture increased. The effect of air raids on buildings and on centres of populations became of architectural importance. The ingeniously constructed defence lines on the borders of Germany and France stood their first test. While Europe settled down to warfare, opportunity for leadership in architectural development shifted to the United States. European

Plywood underu^ent became a well established surface material and its structural uses were extended. In the field of building equipment many new devices appeared on the market. There was a tendency to recognize the value of heating systems which had

architectural influence, however,

flections.

the

work of European

still

architects

continued indirectly through

who came

to

America during

the period of social unrest preceding the war.

Modern Archiiecture.-^The motive behind modern

architec-

of pre-fabricated parts of buildings increased. further developments;

it

lower temperatures at the source of heat in the rooms. Isolated e.xperiments with panel heating by warming floors or ceilings continued in the United States.

Fluorescent lamps iound ready

acceptance in the same country and

new

types of light fixtures

were developed and manufactured for their

was

also

made

A

use. Polaroid lamp available for diminishing eye strain due to re-

—

Examples of Recent Architecture. ^Functional architecture brought to England by architects from the Continent continued to exert its influence on the architectural development of that

,

Below:

EXTERIOR OF NEW

NBC

broadcasting studios. Hoi* lywood, California

Below: MAIN STAIRWAY of the Museum of Modern Art, opened May 10, 1939, York city; Philip L. Goodwin and Edward D. Stone, architects

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ARCHITECTURE

61

country. It caused a simplification of the traditional styles which

vacation homes at Tirrenia (Paniconi and Pediconi, architects),

chosen for the larger portion of buildings. The newer

at Cesenatico (G. Vaccaro, architect), and at Bardonecchia (G.

were

still

showed the usual modem design elements: windows in horizontal bands and the predominance of openings over masonry. In functional designs there was a greater tendency to use projecting

Levi Montalcini, architect) show that architects

surfaces, as for instance, at the Highgate flats (Tecton, archi-

official buildings.

flats

The penthouse which was later completed on the second known as Highpoint No. 2 followed in the use of cur\’ed surfaces a newer modem trend. The Health Centre for the Borough of Finsbury by the same architects showed the part architecture has played in the organization of social services. The tects).

flat

building

and to fare.

to co-ordinate medical clinics and offices on subjects affecting public health and wel-

was designed

offer lectures

Many

of the larger residences followed functional architec-

The house near Halland

ture.

in Sussex

by Serge Chermayeff, and the

architect, used as its principal fagade facing the garden

sun, a concrete grid with glass in large sheets between the columns

A

house in Esher, Surrey (Patrick Gnynne and Wells first advocated by Le Corbusier; the main mass of the building was elevated on posts. An opportunity for the e-xpression of a modem social need was

and beams.

Coates, architects)' followed a principle

given to Walter Gropius and Maxwell Fry in the Impington Vfllage college of Cambridgeshire.

This building functioned as a

centre of the cultural and social life of a rural region and offered

educational facilities for young and old.

'

England preferred traditional designs as seen by the new Government building of Edinburgh (Thomas S. Tail, architect) and the Town Hall at Wolverhampton (E. D. Lyons and L. Israel, architects). The new hospital at Chichester (C. G. Stillman, architect) resorted to the rambling open plan instead of the multistoried type which supplanted open schemes elsewhere in the interest of efficiency of circulation and service. For

official architecture,

In France, the strong position of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts stifled the growth of modem architecture. The continuing influence of this

academy can be seen

in the typical official architecture as

Museum

of Public Works (A. and G. Perret, French Legation at Belgrade (R. H. Expert, architect), as well as in the French Pa\’ilion at the New York World’s Fair by the same architect. In general a fondness for motives of classic derivation and applied decoration prevailed. Modem architecture found its expression more in writings and theoretical designs than in executed buildings. To the well-known publication of Le Corbusier must be added the studies of Paul exemplified by the architects), in the

Nelson for a “Suspended House” and a science

museum

“Palais

des Decouvertes.”

The League

of Nations Building in Geneva, Snotzerland, exem-

plified the force of influence

French thought played

in its design.

In adhering to the patterns of French academic design, it stood in contrast to the functional architecture which found wide following in the

German

section of Switzerland.

Sweden and Finland, since the war of 1914-18, have held an important position in the

field

of

modem

architecture.

The

modem

freedom to express similar problems in efforts to establish

an Italian national

Germany continued

to

still had sufficient ways even though were apparent in the

different stj’le

develop gigantic projects which aimed to

An official style was showed a stamp of uniformity which resulted from Government regulations for design and work carried out by large bureaus instead of individual architects. Designs for the rebuilding of Berlin were well under way. The main avenue proposed as a new North-South axis of the city was to provide sites for ambitioiislj' conceived Government buildings at several round points located at the intersections with principal streets. A circle of huge buildings which neared completion before the beginning of the war in 1939, formed the terminating feature of the axis and an imposing gateway to the city. In Munich the Kdnigplatz was reshaped and plans completed for the rebuilding of the Odeonplatz and the construction of a new express the ideals of National Socialism. estabh'shed for this purpose; buildings

opera house seating 2,600 spectators.

Moscow (Molotov and Tchekmotaieff, most Russian architecture of the end of the 1930S a fondness for classic pomp. There has been a vogue for erecting gigantic statues on the top of buildings which started at the Palace of the Soviets (lofan, Stchovko, and Helfreich, architects) and continued on some official buildings in Moscow as well as on the Russian Pa\'ilions at the Expositions of Paris, 1937, and New York, 1939. A competition was held in Turkey for a new Parliament building at Ankara. The winning design by the Austrian architect, Clemens Holzmeister, repeated the use of simple forms seen in the palace for the President of Turkey by the same architect. It stood in contrast to a design by J. Vago in which elements of Byzantine and Moslem architecture were featured. The direction of architectural development in the United States In Russia, the Club of

architects)

still

showed

like

remained undefined at the end of 1939.

The New York

World’s Fair and the San Francisco Golden Gate International Exposition brought out the influence of business and industry on

American architecture. The profusion of commercial exhibits in the New York Fair showed the role that advertising and mass consumption played in the shaping of architecture. The foreign pa'vilions expressed the national characteristics of the countries

they represented.

The large volume of building carried on by the Government or coming under governmental control tended to perpetuate traditionalism. The Procurement Division of the Department of the Treasury was responsible for the architecture of many imposing post offices, court houses and Federal buildings throughout the United States. The Tennessee Valley Authority completed dams and power houses which combined a straight-forward simple e.xpression of functional needs with the use of classic proportions.

To

work of Sven Markelius who contributed much to the movement of modem Swedish architecture from the neo-classic style to functionalism. The Swedish Pavilion at the New York World’s Fair by the same architect held throughout its design one of the most distinguished positions among the exhi-

and group of indniduals belonged the credit aims. While the houses of Frank Lloyd Wright continued to show the characteristics of a modem architecture which has grown on American soil, the houses of William Lescaze, Richard Neutra, and Walter Gropius were in form and spirit expressions of functionalism imported from Europe. The

bition buildings.

new

Building Trades building in Stockholm e.xemplified the characteristics of the

The work of Alvar Aalto of Finland as seen House near Pori, brought modem architecture of development;

it

glorification of the State

modem

building for the

Museum

of

Modem

Art in

New York

(E.

in the Gullichsen

Stone and P. Goodwin, architects), showed the best of functional

to a higher point

theories applied to

produced the balanced combination of reason

and emotion as guiding forces to design. In Italy the aim of the Italian architecture

indiriduals

for furthering

American conditions. The work of students in and primarily the designs submitted in com-

architectural schools petitions indicated a

'was not solely the

but more the benefit of the people. The

more general acceptance of modernism by

the

younger men. The design submitted by Eliel and Eero Saarinen. J. Robert F. Swanson, associates, in a competition for the Smith-

ARCTIC EXPLORATION— ARGENTINA

62

sonian Institute at Washington in

its

very modernism stood in

contrast to the traditional architecture seen heretofore in the

Government

buildings. Likewise the winning design

Eero Saarinen,

by

Eliel

and

Robert F. Swanson, associates, for a proposed School of Fine Arts and Festival Theatre at Williamsburg, Va., indicated a growing acceptance of modernism. J.

Bibliography'.—

L. Martin, and others, Circle, international Survey ^J. of Constructive Art (London, Dec. 1937); W. C. Behrendt, Modern Building, Its Nature, Problems and Forms (1937): W. Gropius, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus (London, 1937); A. Frey, In Search of a Living Architecture (1939); Le Corbusier (C. E. Jeanneret-Gris) Le Corbusier et P. Jeanneret, oeuvre complete, vol. i, 1910—29; vol. 2, 1929—34; vol. 3, 1934-38 (Zurich, 1930, 193s, 1939); and Des Canons, des munitions? Mercil des logis (Boulogne, Fdition de V Architecture d'aujourd’hui, 1938): F. L. Wright, Modern Architecture, being the Kahn lectures for Princeton (1930—31); N. Pevsner, Pioneeri 0) the Modern Movement jrom William Morris to Walter Gropius (London, 1936); A.. Saftoris, Gli elemenli dell’architettura junzionale; sintesi panoramica dell’archiietiura moderna (Milano, 193S): F. R. S. Yorke, The Modern House (London, 1937); P. R. Hunter and W. L. Riechardt, editors, Residential Architecture in Southern California (Los Angeles, American Institute of Architects, Southern California chapter, 1939). (W. F. B.)

Arctic Exploration:

of State

Netherlands Netherlands colonial empire New Zealand Nicaragua Norway (including Svalbard)

.

.

.

.

.

.

Oman Panama

(exclusive of Canal

^ne)

(incl.

Portuguese colonial empire.

.

.

t

.

.

Rumania Salvador

Ul

Saudi Arabia South Africa, Union of Spain Spanish colonial empire

.

Sweden Switzerland

Thailand (Siam)

territories

known

figures of the area in square miles, the

popu-

and the population per square mile of the

lation in thousands

Name

of Slate

Andorra Argentina Australia,

Commomvealth

of

.

.

.

Belgian colonial empire

Belgium Bohemia-Moravia (Protectorate) as of March 1039 Bolivia Brazil British colonial empire

...

.

Bulgaria

Burma Canada Chile

China, total China Proper

.

Manchuria Mongolia Tibet

Colombia Costa Rica

Cuba

...

Danzig

(as of

Denmark

Dec. 31, 1937)

•

•

•

(exclusive of Greenland)

Dominican Republic Ecuador (excl. of uninhabited

Estonia Finland France French colonial empire (as of

March

1939).

•

•

.

.

.

of October 193S)

.

.

Guatemala Haiti

Iceland India (exclusive of Burma) Iran (Persia) Iraq Ireland

....

Italian colonial empire Italy

Japan Japanese empire Latvia

.

.

'

Liberia Liechtenstein Lithuania (exclusive of Memel).

Luxemburg Mexico

Monaco

Population per Square

Mile 27.9

1,120

103.7 26.2 12.0 2.3

18,914 So6,8i8 3,285,319 4,012,396 39,825 261,610 3.729,66s 286,396 d.480.002 2,903,47s 482,440 625,783 469,294 448,794 23,160 44,144 754 I77IIS 19,32s

6,794 3,300 44,116 71.433 6,371 15.797 11,209

5 12,958 6,930 13.937 8,386

15.

712.2

4,63s 457.836 422,708 29,328

359.2 6.5 13.4 17.8 160.0 60.4 3.0 16.2 102.2 145.6 60.8

2,078 3,722 8,72s

3 3 7.9 19.2

623 4,200 40s 3,793

26.9 95*1 537^1 221.6 82.1

1,587

175,630

2.757

9.9

383,000 i8 3 S3

16,030 1,134 3,630 41,980 70,147 78,953

41.9 61.8 24.6 197.4

,

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of Greece

Honduras Hungary (as

(ooo’s

omitted) 10,000

uninhabited tern-

(excl. of

tory)

Germany

Population

terri-

tory)

Egypt

Area Square

Miles) 250,900 10,800 191 1,079,96s 2,974,381 922,950 11,775

(in

Afghanistan Albania

.

U.S.S.R Vatican City Venezuela

147,811 212,659 4.657,359 226,196

94.633 50,184 45,452 10,204 46,332

40 »S 3 o 39,709 1.547,069 628,000 116,600 26,601 1,345.000 119,764 147,611 115.321 25,395 46,000 65 20,458 1,000

47.630 7,107 3,045 2,600 1,000 10,111 118 362,000 15.000 3.670 2,937 8,597

43,509 72,223 31.288 1,981 2,500 12

2,575

76.5,944

.59

301 19,479 24

15*1

3490 503.3 141.6 67.0 254.8 21.6 249 5 3.0 234-0 23-9 31.5 110.4 6.4 363-3 489.3 271.3 78.0 54.3 184.6 125.9 301.0 25.5 40,678.0

10.2

ISO, 820

7,100 34.774

14.7 230.6

36,802 810,200 113,884 13,176

7,460 9,405 19.852 1.704

1,604 1,134 2,922

Popuhlion per Square Mile 661.0 Ss .7 15.3 23.0 19.6 6.

"I

5-4

38

14

800,000 472,550 196,607 128,696 173,347 15,944 200,148 295,000 3,026,789

4,500 g,8Sq 25,000 6,310 4,210 14,650 16,800 .130,215

202.7 11.6 174.3 129.3 368.4 5.0 20.0 127.2 7.8 36.4 264.0 73.2 56.9 43.0

711,606 72,153 8,167,559

16,060 2,120 170,467

29.4 20.9

•1,005

.17

Yemen Yugoslavia

World Totals

different countries of the world.

500 548 950

(ooo's

and pos-

Uruguay

table that follows gives the latest

liUllUi

IIIC

^,000

San Marino

sessions

nf tho Ufnrld

omitted) S ,727 67,666

Azores and Madeira

Isis.)

United States United States

Areas and Populations of the Countries

Popufa/toK

28,500 176,788 482,258

Paraguay Peru (revised areas) Poland Portugal

Area Square

Miles) 13.203 789,962 >04,751 49,200 148,850

(in

Turkey

Exploration and Discovery.

see

Name

22.6

I

5,882.4

352,051 75,000 95.558

3.530 3,500 15.630

10.0 46.7 163.6

1,258,710

2,161,629

41.6

second largest country in South America, a reArffOnfinO nlgulilllld, public on the Atlantic coast of Southern South America; language, Spanish; capital, Buenos Aires; president, Dr. Roberto M. Ortiz.

—

Area and Population. ^The area is 1,079,965 sq.mi., slightly over a third of that of the United States. No official census has been taken since 1914, but the population was officially estimated (Dec. 31, 1938) as 12,958,217 (an increase of 196,708 in the which 20% was by immigration). Native-born of European stock total 76-9%, mixed blood 3-2%; foreign-bom (practiyear, of

cally entirely Europeans), 19-9%.

The percentage

of white popu-

greater than in any other American country except Canada. The bulk of the population is of Spanish blood, with an im-

lation

is

portant Italian element estimated at one-third. persons are of officially

German

birth or parentage.

estimated populations)

are;

The

Buenos

Nearly 250,000 chief cities (Yvith Aires,

2,345,221

(3,666,585 with its suburbs); Rosario, 511,411; Avellaneda (a suburb of Buenos Aires), 233,950; Cordoba, 213,208; La Plata,

192,225; Tucuman, 146,641; Santa Fe, 145,758; Bahia Blanca, 109,660; Mendoza, 82,277; Parana, 72,288. Twenty-seven other cities have populations in excess of 25,000.

—^The Government

History.

is

Federal in form, with

legislative

powers vested in a congress. During 1939, the administration of President Ortiz continued its strong stand for democracy and against non-American entanglements, and carried out a program emphasizing public Yvorks, social betterment (especially education), and the development of a greater national self-sufficiency. Some recovery Yvas made from the depression of 1938, due to larger agricultural production and, late in the year, to the in-

creased

demand and somewhat higher

prices for

raw materials

as

a result of European Yvar. International relations Yvere conducted Yugorously by Foreign

Minister Jose Maria Cantilo. After declaring neutrality in the European war, Argentina participated in the Panama Conference, and assumed leadership in the expulsion of Russia from the League of Nations in December. The engagement of the German pocketof battleship “Graf Spec” Yvith three British cruisers off the coast

Uruguay and the subsequent flight of its crcYV to Argentina Yvaters had scuttled the ship, involved her in diplomatic interchanges YYith Germany, who protested the internment of the after they

ARGENTINA

63

“Spee’s” men. (See Hispanic Aaierica and the European War.) Early in April, publication of documents purporting to reveal German designs on scantily populated Argentine Patagonia led to a Government investigation of the Argentine Nazi party and other German-influenced groups. The Government then issued a decree

naval

(May

pean war the

15) outlawing

all

organizations with foreign political leader-

ship or financial support.

Italian fascist organizations

Spanish Falangists, as well as the Nazis, were affected.

and the .

Foreign trade problems were one of Argentina’s major concerns in 1939.

As a

result of the large excess of imports over e.xports in

1938, a rigid import control policy

signed especially to limit imports

was adopted in Feb. 1939, defrom countries selling more in

Argentina than they bought. Despite lateral trade

ofiicial

espousal of a multi-

system as Argentina’s ultimate goal, the Ortiz admin-

istration continued its previous policy of bilateral trade treaties.

During the year’s course, barter agreements with Germany and Italy, an exchange agreement with Brazil, commercial treaties with Denmark and Spain, and “most-favoured-nation” agreements with France and Norway were made. In November formal negotiations were begun with the United States for a reciprocal trade agreement to end the long period of chaotic trade relations between the two countries, and were still in course at the close of the year.

The

highly competitive nature of Argentina’s leading

exports, coupled with the

the United States,

made

imminence of

presidential elections in

the outcome quite doubtful, however.

Meanwhile, exchange and import restrictions against United States 40% in February, were mate-

products, whose quota had been cut rially relaxed in

some

respects

when European war threatened

cut off Argentina’s normal sources of supply. Nevertheless,

to

Gov-

ernment emphasis was placed on purchases from Great Britain and France. Politically, the feature of the year was President Ortiz’s campaign for clean elections, which brought him into sharp conflict with the conservative political factions which had elected him. Federal intervention (a presidential prerogative) in San Juan and Santiago del Estero provinces earlier in the year was followed in

December by President Ortiz’s demand that the governor of Catamarca annul fraudulent provincial elections which the conservatives had won. A major political crisis loomed when the vicepresident and three members of the Ortiz cabinet supported the governor. The crisis was expected to reach its peak with the convening of the Catamarca legislature on Jan.

The

national public works

3, 1940.

program was continued through

ser\'ice is

compulsory.

Naval personnel

America.

The

The Navy totals

is

the largest in South

20,265, including

5,000 con-

air strength is in excess of

250 planes. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, valued (Dec. 1939) at 22.7j5 U.S. (Unofficial rate.) Until the outbreak of the Euro-

scripts.

—

was maintained at 17 pesos to the popnd. pound in terms of dollars, the rate was readjusted (September 12). The 1939 budget, which provided expenditures of 1,094,000,000 pesos and estimated income at 726,000,000 pesos (actual revenues: 876,512,000 pesos), was continued for 1940. Profits from exchange control and bond issues were

With the

official

rate

decline of the

e.xpected to cover the deficit.

Trade and Communication.

—In 1937 Argentina’s exports

talled 2,310,997,802 pesos (agricultural products,

mostly

to-

cereals,

64-5%; livestock products, largely meat, 31-4%; forest products, 2%). In 1938 e.xports were 39% less, or 1,400,294,000 pesos (agricultural products,

47-44%;

livestock,

45-6%;

forest products.

2-95%), taken principally by Great Britain, 32-8% (29-1% in 1937)) Germany, 11-7% (6-8% in 1937), and the United States. 8-5% (i 2-8% in 1937). The Netherlands and Belgium took 7-5% and 7-2%, respectively. Imports (principally te.xtiles, petroleum

and miscellaneous manufactured goods), were 1,419,438,441 pesos, a 6-3% decline, and came chiefly from Great Britain (18-3%), United States (17-7%), Germany (10-1%), Italy (5-S%), Belgium (s-2%), and France (4-3%)In the first ii months of 1939, imports were 9-8% less, totalling 1,195,828,656 pesos (Great Britain, 20-1%; United States, 16-4%; Germany, 9-9%; Belgium, 6-7%; Brazil, 6-3%; France 6-o%), Exports aggregated 1,417,543,467 pesos, an 11% increase (Great Britain, 34-0%; United States, ii-3%; Netherlands, 7-2%; Belgium, 6-4%; Germany, 6-3%). After September, German trade products, machinery,

w'as all but non-e-xistent.

By

commerce is hanby numerous steam-

far the greater part of Argentine external

dled through Buenos Aires, which ship lines and

is

the

is

served

hub of the country’s

intricate railway system.

Bahia Blanca to the south and Rosario on the Parana are also important.

Comodoro Rivadaxda,

centre of the growing

in southern Patagonia, is the

industrjc

oil

Railway connections link the

country with Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

Excellent

communication provides transport to all parts of America. Regular service w'as maintained with Germany until Sept. 1939. In 1937 there were 377,473 telephones in the country (over half of them in Buenos Aires) 47-49% of the grand total for all South .America. The Government-owned telegraph lines are i40,ooomi. in length. Over 40 radio stations, including one short-wave, are in air

,

1939, with an authorized expenditure of 200,000,000 p>esos in addition to the extensive highway-construction program (financed by

the imposition of

new and

the increase of old automotive fuel

Purchase of the Cordoba Central and the TransAndine railways by the Government was consummated during 1939 after taxes).

several years of negotiations.

The

prices

were £10,000,000 and

£750,000, respectively.

—

,

Education. Culturally, Argentina is one of the most advanced of all Hispanic American countries. Education, gratuitous and obligatory between the ages of 6 and 14, is in the hands of the national and provincial Governments. There are over 12.000 elementary schools, with over 1,750,000 pupils (5,100, with over 830,000 enrolment, are nationally supported). Public secondary schools number 258, -with 106,000 enrolment. In addition there are numerous private schools (elementary and secondary). Their curriculum is under Federal supervision. There are six national universities, including the University of Cu3n, established in March 1939, and one private university, with a grand total of over 25,000 students. The national universities of Buenos Aires and La Plata have high international standing. Army and Navy. ^The Argentine Army includes an active

—

force of 30,713

men and

a trained reserve of 448,383. Militaiy or

operation.

Argentina has appro.ximately

43%

of South

American railroad

mileage and ranks sixth in the world, with 45,651km. in 1939. The highway system totals 3oS,24Skm.. of which 16,565km. is

paved road. Over 55.000km. is under national control. The national highway program of 1932 was rapidly pushed during 1939.

By

late 1939. the principal highwax's constructed or

struction were:

under conBuenos Aires to southern Argentina, i,92omi.

(practically complete as far as Bahia Blanca, 397mi.); Buenos Aires-Mar del Plata, 24omi.; Buenos Aires-Mendoza, 66omi. (approximately txvo-thirds complete) Buenos Aires-La Quiaca (the Bolhdan frontier), i,26omi. (72omi. completed); and the North;

South highway (the most ambitious of all the road projects, extending from Los Andes in the extreme north to Santa Cruz in the far south, and paralleling the base of the Andes), 2,8iimi. (i,428mi. completed). This network, when completed, will connect with the Inter-American highway system. An annual e.xpenditure of 100,000,000 pesos, half of xvhich is derived from gasoline taxes, is being made for national and promncial highway systems.

—

ARIZONA— ARKANSAS

64

—

Agriculture and Livestock. Argentina’s resources are primarily agricultural and pastoral, with io-8% (74,i3o,oooac.) and

44-4% (306,404,00030.)

respectively of the entire area of the

country devoted to them.

The

and

—

(L.

linseed.

were 4,000,000 tons, against a ten-year average of 6.245.000 tons, and with good crops elsewhere, Argentina was expected to rank seventh. Linseed, in whose production Argentina 40, however,

leads the world,

1938-39

Industrial activity is largely in foodstuffs and in the rapidly growing textile industry. Bibliography. ^A. Weddell, Itifrodiiction to Argentina (1939)

chief agricultural products are

Except for maize (5,400,000 metric tons), production in 1938-39 was generally good. Wheat (9,150,000 metric tons) was second to the all-time high of 1929, and Argentina ranked fourth in world production. Crop estimates for 1939cereals

pesos).

was estimated at 1,250,000

tons,

11-4%

less

than

(1929-39 average, 1,714,000 tons). Other important 1939-40 estimated tonnage (1929-39 average in paren-

Arizona, one ot

Arizona.

rye, 360,000 (210,000); birdseed, 32,000 (30,000). Cereal exports during 1939 exceeded those of 1938 by an excess of 70% in volume, but low prices held the value increase to less than 20%.

Wheat,

selling at the lowest price in three centuries,

was heavily

exported, with a total of nearly 5,000,000 metric tons in the 12-

month period ending Nov.

30, 1939.

Other important agricultural products are cotton, sugar, winegrapes, and peanuts. In 1938-39, 412,000 hectares were in cotton, with a production of 70,891 tons. Sugarcane production, largely in

Tucuman

and

was 5,321,979 metric tons. Fruits are extenMendoza, along the eastern slope of the Andes,

province,

sively produced in

Be.; R. H.’Sii.)

the two youngest of the United

was admitted with

New

Mexico

in

1912; area,

113,956 sq.mi.; population according to the U.S. census of 1930, 435 , 573 After an intermediate decline the development of agri-

culture and renewed activity in mining have produced a conservative estimate of 450,000 in 1939. The capital is Phoeni.x, 48,118.

Of the population 264,378 were

native and foreign-born white,

10,749 coloured, and 160,446 other races, chiefly Mexican and Indian.

crops, with

thesis) are: oats, 900,000 (842,000); barley, 750,000 (514,000);

States,

w.

History.

—^The

State

officials,

1939,. were chief justice, A. G.

McAlister; governor, Robert T. Jones; secretary of State, Hariy M. Moore; attorney general, Joe Conway; treasurer, William

The

Peterson.

governor’s promise of an efficient administration,

together with his message advocating a revision of the taxing

system to be devised by an impartial and out-of-State agency, roused favourable comment. The new administration, however, soon effected control of the political machine by gaining complete

mastery of the highway department through a new organization over w'hich the governor had absolute command. The governor's highway bill became a law mainlj' through support of the mining interests who feared the tax reform proposal of the administration.

The

latter

never became a law. The governor gained more power

In 1938, 32,924 tons of fruits were exported, pears constituting over half. In the first ten months of 1939,

through his proposed measure to remove control of liquor from

fresh fruit exports rose sharply, to 52,568 tons (pears

The change was favoured by

in Patagonia.

53%,

apples

22%).

The

livestock census of 1937

showed a

95%

of the ex-

total of 43,790,166

sheep, 33,100,152 beef cattle, 8,327,181 horses, 4,875,990 goats, 3 97 S, 7 i 6 hogs, 905,041 mules and asses, along with 43,285,211 >

poultry, 414,296 rabbits, and 262,322 beehives. Beef and mutton,

canned and demands caused

in

chilled form, constitute a leading export.

a

heavy increase in exportation in the

of 1939, with a single British

Government contract

last

War

months

calling for

200.000 tons of beef.

The

liquor advocates

bj' the governor.

who

feared that

further ineffective control might induce prohibition.

Agriculture and livestock together account for ports.

named

the tax commission to a superintendent

still

—

small,

is

rapidly expanding.

Mineral and Forest Products. ^Timber is very limited except where quebracho, source of tannin, has been extensively developed. Argentina produces two-thirds of the world’s tannin supply. There are approximately 50,000 hectares of in the subtropical north,

valuable timber, principally quebracho. Argentina produces 60,000 metric tons annually of mate (Paraguay tea), 60% of the world supply, chiefly for domestic consumption, with 63.000 hectares under cultivation. There is very little mineral industrially

wealth other than petroleum. Argentina

is

nth in world petroleum

production, with a record output of 2,714,824 metric tons in 1938, in the first half of 1939

(8-46% increase). The

principal fields are in southern Patagonia (near Comodoro Rivadawa), in Salta and Jujuj' in the extreme northwest, and in Neuquen fields account for slightly over half of

owned all production, and all new fields are reserved by law for Government exploitation. Manufacturing.—Manufacturing, although rapidly developing, is in no way adequate for the countrj'’s needs. In 1936 domestic Territory.

State

bill,

consumption of goods reached 4,817,000,000 pesos value, of which 23-2% was imported, compared with 40% importation in the period 1910-13. The 1937 industrial census showed increases of 20 to 30% over 1935, with 50,689 industrial establishments, 733 ," 651 employees, and an annual payroll of 1,001,113,000 pesos. Value of raw material used was 40% greater than in 1935 (2,880,523.000 pesos), the finished product 36% greater (4,708.379,000

The

civil

carefully prepared and ardently supported by advo-

was again defeated. Also the

cates of the merit system,

strongly

supported measure providing for retirement of public school teachers was defeated. The legislature provided for conditional ratification of the Santa Fe compact allocating the water of the

To become

Colorado river. proved by the as

effective this

legislatures of California

agreement must be apand of Nevada as well

by Congress. Charities.

fishing industry, although

and 1,430,178 tons

service

receiving

^In

Oct. 1939 there were 37,977 cases or families of public aid with a total monthly expendi-

some form

ture of $667,253.79 W’hich

was

27%

less

than 1938.

—

Agriculture and Mining. Citrus fruit, cotton, lettuce, and beef cattle comprise three-fourths of the value of agricultural products of Arizona. Arizona is sole producer of AmericanEgj'ptian or long staple cotton. In 1939 there were i8S,oooac. of short staple and 4i,oooac. of long staple cotton, a total increase of io,oooac. over 1938. Arizona is the largest producer of sugar beet

seed with 4,25030. harvested in 1939. The grapefruit han'est was estimated at 2,500,000 boxes. Lettuce was produced from a total of 31,000 acres. Copper production for the last quarter of 1939 full capacity resulting in increased dividends and further expansion and totalling an excess over the 420,351,31016. of 1938-

was at

The Magma Copper Company dirddends increased $1.25 in 1939. The Phelps Dodge Corporation had by Nov. moved from the Morenci open-pit mine over 15,000,000 planned total of 37,000,000 tons of overburden.

per share 1939, retons of a

(H. A. H.)

twenty-fifth State of the United States, popularly

niKSnSoS, known population

(U.S.

1937), 2,048,000.

as the “Bear State"; area, 53,335 sq.mi., i, 1930), 1,854,482; (estimate July

census,

Capital, Little Rock, 81,679; the next largest Hot Springs, a well knowm health

city is Fort Smith, 31,429. resort, has 20,238.

The

"'2® rural population of the Stale (1930)

Of the total population 478,463 were 1,471,604, or 79-4%. Negroes, 10,173 foreign born. The State officials serx’ing 1937-39

ARMENIAN S.S.R.— AR MIES OF THE WORLD were Te-elected in 1938 for another term of two years. They are;

Bob

governor, Carl E. Bailey; lieutenant-governor,

Bailey; secre-

201,000 as compared with $122,105,000 for 1938.

development

in industrj' occurred in 1939,

tary of State, C. G. Hall; attorney-general. Jack Holt.

being developed.

In 193"^ Governor Bailey persuaded the legislature History. to pass a civil service law which was the first in the South and

extraction plant

—

which was regarded as an excellent law. The administration of the law the first year was good and this brought out vociferous opposition from the advocates of the old system with the result that

was

the act

repealed.

But

fate

was against the

repealers, for the

Federal administration of the securitj' board compelled the selec-

employees by the merit system. The auto test law was also The sales tax, which was enacted in 1935 as an emer-

tion of

repealed. gencj'

The

measure for the public schools, was now made permanent.

larger part

devoted to the public schools.

is

An

appropriation

was made for a large annex to the State sanitarium for tubercu-

The amendment

losis patients.

authorizing the legislature to pass

a workmen’s compensation act was adopted in Nov. 1938. Such

and was opposed by many law’yers. The law provides an "insurance plan” and abolishes the common law of “con-

65

the Magnolia

The owned

field.

A

noteworthy

about 100 new’ plants

largest of these 'was a $750,000 gasoline

by several producing companies in new oil W’ells were brought in and the

jointly

Several

was well over 1938’s output. An increase in more lumber and several new mills were opened in addition to the re-opening of many which had been closed. The demand for cedar posts w’as greater than the supplj’. Numerous quick-freeze and dehj’drating plants responded to agriculture’s demand for the preserx^ation of its foodstuffs and feedstuffs. The outbreak of war in Europe stimulated the mining industry in several fields, notably zinc, manganese, and cinnabar. In the case of the latter the war simply caused imports virtually to cease, in consequence of which the price more than doubled. A total production

building activity called for

production of 10 to 12 pounds of mercurj’ to the ton is expected. The best fields are in Montgomery and Clark counties.

(D. Y. T.)

a law passed the legislature with the approval of employers emploj'ees, but for

Armenian

S.S.R.: see

Uxiox of Sovcet Socialist Republics.

tributory negligence,” “assumption of risk,” and “fellow servants’ negligence.”

A new

election law provides for duplicate ballots

and

duplicate ballot boxes. Also a presidential preferential primary

authorized but

vention

is

is

The governor program.

not

to be used because the national con-

likelj'

usually held before the State primary. suffered only one

He championed

schools (such a law

a

bill

major defeat

was already

in effect for the grades),

rallied to the opposition

schoolmen of the State

in his legislative

to provide free text books for high

but the

and defeated

it.

In 1938 an amendment w'as adopted which prohibits any one appointed to fill a vacant office from becoming a candidate to The attorney-general fill that office at the next general election. has ruled that one cannot evade this protasion by resigning from the office to which he has been appointed.

The w'orkmen’s com-

pensation act, the Refunding Act, and the act fixing the place of

growing out of suits for personal damages were all the referendum. They are to be voted on Nov. rg4o.

trial in cases

held up

b}’'

—

Education.

^The enrolment in the public schools for 1938-39

was 478,324 or 13,052 higher than that of the preceding 3’ear. Most of this increase was in the grades, but NYA benefits helped to increase the high school enrolment also. Better tax collection

gave a slightly larger sum to the schools, something over $13,000,000. Three new buildings were erected at the University of Arkansas and some at several of the other State institutions. The future of the medical school, a part of the university, was assured

by

a

contract with the city of Little

Rock

for the use of its

hospital.

—

The capitalization of the 50 nabanks was unimpaired and their resources showed a healthy condition. The increase in bank clearings was notably large toward

to liquidations, not to failures. tional

slightly.

Tax

The

State debt of $153,279,204.89

collections

were better and there

crease in assessed valuation.

Agriculture, Manufacturing, to be the leading crop.

The

type of army. The

first

in

second was the German campaign in Poland. In both, skilful use of aviation, mechanization, and motorization in combination witli the older type of infantry, field

artillery’,

cavalry,

and transport

enabled swift and powerful blows to be given in such rapid succession that decisive x’ictoiy for Franco and the

Germans and

defeat for the Catalonians and the Poles was the result.

Both campaigns proved that the power of axiation, mechanizaand motorization is not at its highest except when supporting

tion,

the older arms.

In other xvords, the nexv methods based on the

gas engine do not replace the old but must be used in conjunction

with them.

Lessons learned by the Germans in Spain were put into practice on a greatly increased scale in Poland. This because in battle on land and in the air in Spain, Germany was able to test tactical theories and armament evolved in peace and therefore possibly not correct' in war.

The

lessons learned in Spain

by the

the reorganization of their armx’.

Italians xvere the basis of

The quick conquest

of Albania

was possible because of these lessons. On a much smaller w’as the same tj’pe of campaign as the subsequent German

bj’ Italy

scale

it

one in Poland.

The French Army,

xvhile full}' axvare of aU these changes, conmain problem for its home or Metropolitan army that of attack and defence on their limited, highly fortified on both sides, German frontier. The problem of xvar on the Italian frontier only differs in that the fighting would be in the Alps. It w’ould still be a w-ar on a narroxv front along a frontier fortified on both sides, each backed up by a densely populated modem nation. The

siders the

Banking and Finance. The banking situation is sound. There was a slight decline in the number of State banks, which was due

the close of 1939.

highly successful campaigns ig29 definitely set the latest was Franco’s Catalonian campaign. The

Ufnrifl llUllll.

is

was reduced

w’as a small in-

—Cotton continued

and Mining.

estimated production for 1939 was

Alpine troops of various kinds maintained on this frontier are equipped, and armed to handle the special problems

trained,

from mountain warfare both in summer and winter. is that the French Metropolitan army is trained, equipped, armed, and led to fight the heaviest kind of determined

resulting

The consequence

slightly higher than in 1938, 1,410,000 bales,

worth $62,040,000;

combat.

cottonseed, 627,000 tons, worth $13,418,000;

com, 32,3i8,ooobu.,

The Colonial army and the Army Corps of the Metropolitan army which comes from Algeria are trained, armed, and equipped

worth $21,330,000; hay, t,o8o,ooo tons, W'orth $8,332,000; rice, 8,72i,ooobu., worth $6,628,000; potatoes (Irish and sweet), 5,683,ooobu., w'orth $4,580,000. There was a large increase in fruits, especially peaches, apples, and grapes, with a correspondmg increase in value. The pecan crop w'as 3.343,0001b., wmrth $315,000.

The estimated farm value

of 32 important crops

was $129.-

to fight anywhere, xvith special emphasis on xvhat fight the natives of Africa

and the

Italian

Army

is

necessary to

in Libya.

The British Regular Army is organized primarily to furnish a system of reliefs for the garrisons maintained ox’erseas. Its equipment, armament, and training has been x’aried to suit the t}’pe

an army well trained in modem combat, well led by officers, and fairly well equipped and armed. The plans are to give it the most modern equipmei^ and armament. Its figure, it is

experienced

leaders fully appreciate the strategical importance of the Spanish peninsula in all land, sea, and air military' problems of Europe. After considerable experimentation, the United States in 1939

decided upon a new type of infantry division for the Regular Army. Instead of the four infantry- regiment division formerly

standard the

new

division has three infantry regiments. The old two infantry and one artillery brigade is abolished, there now being no brigade organization. The National Guard Divisions are to keep the old organization of two brigades of infantry and one of artillery-, each infantry brigade consisting of two regiments of infantry-. The number of infantry support

division into

weapons, such as mortars, guns,

increased.

is

semi-automatic

rifle

light

machine guns, and anti-tank be armed witli the 30 calibre

infantry- is to

instead of the old non-automatic

machine guns have been added

calibre

The

The

to the

rifle;

30

armament.

total personnel of this division being smaller than that of

the old,

it

can be transported more readily

by-

motor

transport.

Despite this reduction in personnel, its total fire power of per infantry soldier is greater than the fire power per

all

types

infantry-

soldier of the old division.

The Japanese Army-, as a result made two important changes in its States Regular

Army,

it

of

its

campaign

in China, has

organization. Like the United

has changed

infantry division from

its

a four-regiment one to a three-regiment one. It has considerably

amount of horsed cavalry. Aeroplanes and Tanks. ^During the World War the best type of weapons to be used against aeroplanes and tanks was not developed. Above all the necessary- type of range finding and sighting apparatus did not exist. The backbone of the new German Army is the infantry. Each infantry- division has, however, a far increased the

GERMAN TROOPS

in

hunkroom

Siegfried

of

line

of war in which the greater part of it was engaged in at any time or expected to be engaged in next. Since the war of 1914-18 the belief in mechanization and motorization as the best means of meeting

its

varied problems has steadily grown.

Army, made up

The

Terri-

—

greater proportion of anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons of

types as well as artillery than has ever before

all

e.xisted for the

and quite similar in many was originally intended as a home defence force. However, in the war of 1914-18, it was used anywhere abroad needed. In 1939, it

same number of infantry. It might be said that the infantry of a German division marches and fights surrounded on the ground and in the air by a hemisphere of fire. In fact, the development of fire by modern, well equipped, well trained, and well led

furnished the greater part of the anti-aircraft defence within

infantry and artillery

torial

of volunteers

respects to the National

Britain.

Guard

It also is organized into

of the United States,

a number

of infantry di%'isions.

Just before the outbreak of the European war doubled.

Up to

the end of 1939

The

its

its

strength

was

infantry diwsions had not been

war continues they In the World War, 1914-18, a third force called Kitchener’s New Army was raised, at first by volunteering. Numerous new infantry divisions were organized from this force. They were available for service anywhere the Regulars could be used. In the World War Britain gradually came to conscription. Shortly before the European war broke out, conscription was adopted in Britain. However, due to lack of training facilities, sent abroad.

will

probabilities are that as the

be used anywhere British troops

may

be

sent.

the majority of those registered were not called for servdce.

The

is

so great that tanks need the assistance of

this fire if they- are to attack successfully.

—

In general the mission of aviation on land is; first, when the opposing nations are close enough to make air raids, to delay mobilization and concentration of the enemy’s army, and to destroy war factories

and supply centres; and second,

of surprise attack to aid

its

own army on

to use

its

great powers

the ground. While de-

liberate attacks on civilian population with the intent of breaking a nation’s morale are possible, such use of an air force is generallyconsidered, aside from humanitarian grounds, of far less military-

value than the two purposes given above. Besides aviation and tanks, the motor has caused three other changes in armies. One is the partial substitution in the cavalo’ of armoured cars and light speedy tanks for horses for reconnais-

slightly

sance and cavalry screen (to check enemy’s reconnaissance groups from getting information concerning main body of the army) work. Two is the substitution of tractors for horse teams to haul

these conscripts.

the hea\aer field artillery. Three is the transport of not only- ammunition and supplies, but whole divisions complete by motor transportation. This motorization w-ill permit even more drastic

plan was to

and

service.

20,000 every' two months for six months’ training Since the outbreak of war the calling up has been

call

speeded up. However, the majority are still (Jan. i, 1940) only being registered, but not called for service. Up to the end of 1939 no new infantry diwsions were organized from

The Spanish Civil War produced one more army and air force which must be taken into consideration in making any estimate of the European military situation. The Nationalist side came out of the war with a first class army of from 900,000 to 1,000,000 Spaniards and an air force of appro.ximately 600 Spanish awators. While the peace-time army of Spain is considerably below this

66

changes in strategy than those produced by the use of the railways large scale first in the American Ci\-il War of rSfii-fiy and

on a

secondly by Von Moltke in 1870.

motor of such importance that she has appointed a dictator for the motor vehicle industry' and decided the that all motor vehicles manufactured will be built from

Germany

considers the

ARMIES OF THE WORLD war Chemical Warfare. Gas remains as during the World War a weapon of secondary importance. Up to the present there is nothpoint of view of their usefulness for

purposes.

—

ing to justify the fear of

its

use to cause widespread destruction.

—The constantly increased proportion

Specialists.

weapons, of guns of

all tj^pes,

of automatic

of mechanization and motorization

and the considerable number of men on the ground needed to maintain planes in the air have greatly increased the proportion of specialists in all armies. In some countries the shortening of the term of service to i8 months or one year has had to be compen-

number of career or professional was not to deteriorate. Military Service. ^In all countries of any importance except the United States, the British Empire, and China, the army is raised by universal service. In the United States the armed forces are raised by voluntarj' enlistment. While Britain has adopted conscription, up to the end of 1939 the majority of her forces was raised from volunteers. In China the different generals raise their own forces. For some years General Chiang Kaishek has been trying to insure uniformity of training and equipment and to bring all generals under control of the Central Gov-

sated for

by an

increase in the

soldiers, if the training

—

ernment.

The

He

has been, however, only partially successful.

length of active service in the universal service armies

from 65 days for Swiss infantry, engineers, and foot artiland but one month’s training for probably 25% of the Rusarmy, to an average for most armies of two continuous years

varies lery

sian

67

followed by various short periods from time to time while in the

As

reserve.

number of young men physically fit for military most countries exceeds the number which can

the

service each year in

be trained

in the standing or active

army,

this excess is generally

given short periods of training from time to time. This

number

of trained reserves than those possessed

On

countrj'.

—

units

ice.

The

made up

I,

by any other

army

to

war strength; two,

to mobilize

of reserxists; and three, to replace casualties.

Army service includes both active and reserve servArmy has begun to raise a reserve. Its strength is

British

(Jan.

U.S.

1940) but 25.000 (approx.) and therefore insufficient Army much less the National Guard to war

to raise the Regular strength.

It has

an

Ofiicers’

Reserve Corps of 100,000 (approxi-

mately).

Germany’s available trained reserves were considerably init was four years after she restored

creased in 1939. First, because

Second, because the annexation of Austria

conscription.

available such

men

xvith

called

supplies at Surrey barracks, Kingston

up July 15, 1939, gel Ihelr clothing

made

militarj' training as lix'ed in Austria.

Third, because the annexation of Czecho-Slovakia

made

available

the reservists in those regions xvho had done their active service in the Czecho-Slovakian army.

In Italy, Germany, and Japan boys and j'oung men are given a amount of training before they reach the age of military service. In the United States besides private and State military certain

schools, there are limited courses of militaiy training in a

THE FIRST BRITISH CONSCRIPTS,

particu-

the outbreak of war the trained resert'es are used:

one, to bring the standing

new The

is

It is their basis for claiming a far larger

larly true in Russia.

number num-

of colleges and each year camps at which a relatively small

ber of boys receive one month’s training without obligation of service. In Britain there are Reserve OfiBcers’ Training Corps in a

number

of schools. In the U.S. the National Guard, a volun-

armed and equipped and partially by the National Government. In Great Britain there is a

teer civilian military force, is

trained

similar force called the Territorials.

In Germany, besides the professional army, there are partially (12,000 are well trained and equipped), Browm Shirts, Technical Emergency Help Corps, and a number of other Nazi-uniformed bodies. In Italy the Fascist militia which is

trained Black Shirts

partially trained has part of its force

on active duty. In addition

there are railway, port, forestry, highway, anti-aircraft, coast defence, and other militias.

Infantry.

—The infantry division remains as during the war of

1914-18 the basic unit of

all

armies today.

When

that xvar broke

out the standard type of infantry division consisted of two infantrj' brigades, each of two infantry regiments in turn composed of three battalions

made up what, 36

—

of four field

of

rifle

from 800-1,000 men. Each battalion was companies. While the number varied some-

guns to 10,000-12,000 infantry or 1-33 guns per

1,000 infantrj' could be taken as an average proportion.

During

that xvar increasing difficulties in finding sufficient replacements for e.xisting infantry units, coupled xvith the necessity of finding the personnel for the great increase in the proportion of machine

guns to

rifles, the introduction of automatic rifles, trench morand anti-tank guns, all led to a reduction in the number of infantry soldiers in most of the infantry divisions of the French, British, and German armies. This was generally accomplished by reducing the division from four to three regiments and each regiment from three battalions of four companies each to three of three companies each. Thus instead of 48 companies of infantry a division had 27 companies a net loss of 21. As a rule the artiller}' per division of infantry was not decreased, with the

tars,

—

result that the proportion of artillery to infantry increased.

As

amount of Army Corps (two or more infantry divisions to an Army Corps) and army (two or more Army Corps to an army) the

artillery steadily increased, as did the artiller3’^ directly

under the

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

68

commanding general of each national army, the proportion of artillery to infantry was greatly increased.

it.

The

Post-war developments have steadily tended to increase the proportion of automatic weapons and guns of all types which now include all types of mortars, anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons

tactical organization

and howitzers. Thus to prevent the infantry division from becoming too cumbersome to be handled as a unit by the commanding general, a reduction in the number of infantry riflemen had to be made. The U.S. army has begun to arm every rifleman with a shoulder automatic. This increase in soldier permits a reduction in

a unit without reducing the fire

move

use of motor transport to

power of the

brigade which

Where

it is

methods of reduction have been advocated. A continuation of the war division of three regiments of infantry each of three battalions of three companies each is one method.

try division, the hea\’y howitzers being with the

its

Regular

Army

brigade.

It is

four.

day.

a colonel with the temporary rank Three of these brigades constitute an infanExperiments as to infantry organization are being

is

is

3-in. in close

support of the

infantrj'; that

Worid as of November

'

1,

1939

Armies

Total

Air Forces

and

Air Force Separate or in

Air

Army

Land Trained Reserves

Active

Trained Reserves

Total

Active

332,208 842.000 106,900 370,638

2,023 7,500 411 2,700 188,600 3,000 3.000 180.000 1.000

1,100

400 500 700

200 200 200

Total

armies the infantry regiment

now

of three battalions.

In

and Russian armies there

ian,

are three

rifle

Argentina

Belgium

,

.

.

.

.

.... ....

Bolivia Brazil British Empire Australia

Canada

companies to a

.

.

.

.

Great Britain

battalion. In the British, Jap-

anese,

and Spanish armies there

are four.

A

division of 10,500

is

the strength in most countries.

Germany has but The Artillery.

—

8,400.

India Ireland

.

.

.

.

.

.

New

Zealand South Africa Bulgaria .

Chile

China Colombia Costa Rica .

proportion

and

light

and heavy

machine guns per 1,000 infantry soldiers varies. Japan has the highest

number of

rifles,

and France the lowest,

Germany

the highest

num-

277; ber of light machine guns, 38-6;

Russia the highest number of

heavy machine guns, is-S, and Japan the lowest, 6-5. Germany leads with by far the greatest number of close support weapons for the infantry; such as mortars,

small

calibre

light

Per infantry division the total is around 231. Most other countries average under 100. Russia has but 39. However, each Russian infantry regiment has 6-76-mm. field guns assigned to

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

El Salvador Estonia Finland .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.... France .... Germany Greece .... Guatemala Haiti .... Honduras Hungar>’ Italy

Japan

,

Mexico

3.370 16.500 301,300

708 100.000

43,931 100.000 13,212 45.450 4,078 116,500

000

1.263.000 3.350.000

.

.

.

.

400.000

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Portugal

.

.

Rumania

.

*.

.

.

.

R.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Spain

Turkey .... Uruguay .

29,389 89.000 10.000 40.000

588

2,715 2,380

.

Switzerland

14,542 11.000 3,212 5,450

000 14,749

.

.

Sweden

350.000 23,600 18.000 18,900 670.000 252,915 3,000,000 114,754 588

.

.

.

Venezuela Yugoslavia United JILCU States

.

.

.

.

.

1,510,000 81.000 70.000 950.000

150.000 16.200 10.000 15.200 510.000 212.000 1,000,000 100,005

3.500.000 140.000 6.000

Netherlands Nicaragua

s. S.

43.000 30.000 950.000 200.000 7,400 8,000 4.000. 3,700 160.000 40,915

,

Norway Paraguay Peru

112,320 1.241.000

.

.... .... ....

Latvia Lithuania

282,503 242.000 82,187 258,318 269.000 38.000 40.000

49.70s 600.000

24 i 7 i 3 2.000.

'

Dominican Rep. Ecuador

U.

guns, howitzers, anti-tank guns.

.

Cuba .... Denmark

.

628,

.

.... ....

.

rifles

of to-

the number of'guns and howitzers of a greater calibre which lend more distant support than the range of those around 3-in. calibre

each of

the U.S., French, German, Ital-

of

of light weapons

guns, and light howitzers. This, while at the same time increasing

Military Forces of Nations of the

In practically

four battalions.

is

armament

number

anti-tank guns, anti-aircraft guns, trench mortars, mountain

Nation all

artillery

a tendency to increase the

three groups, generally

demi-brigades,

called

ar-

In Spain

the usual organization for a division

One

of less calibre than the is,

commanded by

carried on in Britain,

Corps

3in. in calibre

to 3-49 in the German army. There are two new tendencies in the

of brigadier general.

try division.

Army

to have the hea\y

army

Great Britain from the days of the Cardwell reorganization has used a battalion instead of a regiment as the tactical unit. Four battalions grouped together constitute a

have

dmsions when needed, or

artillerj-. The light and the hea\y from 4in. to 4-5 inches. The light howtzers are around 4in. or 4iin. in calibre and the heavy around 6 inches. The number of artillery pieces per 1,000 men in the division varies from 2-46 in the Japanese

fantry to the division, except the U.S. National Guard Divisions still

to the

howitzers an integral part of the divisional

but not for the National Guard. Each has three regiments of in-

which

and sent

guns are around

France, Germany, Russia, and Japan have suppressed the infanStates has done so for

is

the three battalions being organized into a the equivalent of a regiment in other armies. more than one regiment the artillerj- is organized

is

divisional artillery consists of both guns and howitzers. the questions under discussion in various armies is whether better to have only guns and light howitzers with the infan-

tillery

Infantry battalions of four companies each but with a lesser number of men per regiment is another.

The United

there

—

one or more regiments of there is no regimental

army where

The One of

in

The increasing made a reduction

advisable. Various

try brigade.

or a

The regiments are of two to four battalions of two or three batteries each. Batteries are of three, four, or si.x guns, four being the more usual number.

unit.

the division also

artillerj-,

into a brigade.

fire

numbers

divisional artillery consists of

artillery except in the British

as well as field guns

power of the individual

This makes 18 guns in addition to the divisional

total of 57.

455.000 27,660 ssif 2,602

5.175.000 4.771.000 200.000 287.000 63,407

2.240.000 1.500.000 22,350 25,775 48,647

160, ODO

500.000 2.500 15,000 12,170 12,203 55.800 800.000 3.110.000 350.000 100.000 480.000 510.000 7,916 13,700 500.000 227.000 - » V

600

f

120.000 87.934 20,000 460.000 1 ,000,000 4.040.000 600.000 525.000 100.000 200,000 24,000 3,000 1.340.000 360,000* r

2,962 1,000

600 700 900 3.200 3,062 1.500 957

314 975 3X

13,212

450

450 98 500

45,450 4.O7S 116,500 301,300 5.480.000 7.188.000 601,200 33,660 3,266 4,982 700.000 7.633.000 6.271.000 322.350 312,775 112,054 660.000 3,100 135.000 100,104 33.960 515,800

500 1,300 82.000 317,000 1,660 100

75 4,500 116.000 37,000

1,300

135,000 21,000 4,500

102,000 16,000

.

2x7,000 338.000 6.200 100 75 4.500 218.000 53,000

350

350

775 646

775 646

44

600 44

1,000

1,000

600

I

332,208 842.000 106,900 370.638 1,699,700 84,500 73.000 1.130.000 351.000 23,600 18,700 18,900 670.000 255,977 3,001,500 114,754 SS8 43,931 100.000

205 975 3X

78

3,266 4,982

.

100

500

2,700 189,700 3.500 3.000 180.000 1.000

2

3.3,660

-

500

957

301,300 5.263.000 6.850.000 595.000

1.800.000 7.150.000 950.000 625.000 580.000 710.000 31,9x0 16,700 1.840.000 587.000 _

411

3,200

700.000 7.415.000 6.271.000 322.350 312,775 112,054 660.000 3,100 135.000 100,104 32,203 515,800

300.000

2,023 7.500

170

170

1,677

1,757

986

986

15,472 110.000 40,000 1,000 5,000 3.500 318 200 6.500 22,508

500 5.748

IS.472 150.000 40,000 1,000 5,000 3.500 3x8 290 7,000 28,256

1.800.000 7,150,000

990.000 626.000 580.000 710.000 31,910 16,700 ,840,000

615,256

In In In In

Army Army Army Army

As below Separate Separate Separate Separate In Army Separate In Army

In

Army

Separate Separate In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army Separate Separate Separate In Army

in Army In Army Separate

Army Army Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In Army In In

In

Separate In Army In Army In

Army A Navy

Separate Separate In Army In Army In Army In Army In In

Army

Amy

—

I

strict sense consist otUy ot Nitionai Guard has a strength of M5.000. Trained reserves in the the^c figures because there included .Ss (b^th fiKurcs approximate). 1 he R.OXC. and C.M.T.C. are not rban police

m

'"

is

7 no obligation to cr ,

.

ARMS EMBARGO -ART EXHIBITIONS will permit.

In other words, to put in close support of the infantry

weapons which ofier a smaller target than do the ordinary field guns of around 3-in. in calibre, while at the same time having the benefit of the greater fire power of calibres which offer too much of a target to be used in as close as those around 3-in. in artillery

calibre.

The other tendency

is

to evolve guns with

mounts which

permit them to be used for more than one purpose. That

will

is,

to

69

pendent mobile divisions, 12 mechanized and

The Japanese Kwantung army

regiments.

2 is

horsed cavalry

motorized and

mechanized, but the details are secret.

Army and Navy Air

—

and Japan, In other countries the air forces are independent of the army and navy except that in Russia the land forces, air force, and sea forces are all parts of the same organization. The tendency is toward the U.S. and the

Forces.

army and navy each have

^In

their

the United States

owm

air forces.

have anti-tank guns which can also fire on aeroplanes and infantry, and to have anti-aircraft guns of greater than 3 -in. calibre which can be used for ground targets as well. Germany is leading in both of these tendencies. The 77-mm.

Japanese system as more and more the pilots of independent air forces assigned for duty ivith the navy remain with the navy. (See Maginot Line; Siegfried Line.) The Fortified Lines.

gun which was formerly the main artillery armament of her infantry divisions has disappeared from these divisions. They are still used, however, in the armoured motor divisions. The artillery of a German infantry division today is armed with los-mm. how-

There are numerous reports that Russia is engaged in constructing fortified lines along her western or European frontier and her eastern Amur river frontier. It is reported that Rumania has built on her Russian and Hungarian frontiers fortified lines, knmvn as the King Carol Line. The various sections of the fortified line on the former Czecho-SIovakian frontier with Germany are now in German hands as a result of the annexation of that country. (See also Ant Forces; Chemical Warfare; European War; Strategy OF THE European War; Tactics in the European War; Marine Corps; Munitions of War; National Guard; Naioes of the World; Spain, Civil War in.)

itzers,

for close support of the infantry with

its

trench mortars

and light anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns, and iso-mm. howitzers and 100-mm. guns for more distant support. Germany has today an 88-mm. anti-aircraft gun which can be used not only against aviation but also for

fire

against trenches

on the ground. Mechanized Forces and Cavalry. Since the war of 1914-18 there has been a great deal of discussion and experimentation with respect to the organization and armament of mechanized forces and whether or not they could replace horsed cavalry and the old type of infantry division on foot with its accompanying horsed artillery. While the organization of the mechanized forces varies considerably in different armies and is still being changed in some of them, the Sino-Japanese War, the Civil War in Spain, and Germany’s quick suppression of Poland indicate three funda-

and

batteries

—

—

Swiss have built a fortified line from Basle to Lake Constance.

—

Bibhographv. Comte Carrias, L’Annie alleinande (Paris, 193S): La Nouvelle guerre allcmande; Col. T. H. Makhine, VArmie rouge 1938); Golovine, “The Red Army,” US. In/antry Jour.; Gen.

Klotz,

(Paris,

Frederic Culmann, TacliQue d’artillerie (Paris, 1914): C. Rougeron,

UAvia-

dc bombardement (Paris, 1937): von Eimannsberger, La Guerre des eltars; the American, British, French, and German Service Journals; Statesman’s Year Book. (H. J. Re.) tion

Arms Embargo:

see International Law; Legislation, Federal; Neutrality; United States; Republican Party.

mental principles: (1) Mechanized forces are not independent forces, but are primarily for use in conjunction with motorized infantry and artillery and horsed cavalry, all supported by aviation. (2) Horsed cavalry cannot be replaced by mechanized forces. The limitations of mechanized forces very often correspond with the powers of cavalo' and vice versa. In other words, the best resuits are gotten by a combination of horsed cavalry and mechanized forces. (3) The infantry on foot with its accompanying horse-drawn field artillery is still the backbone of any force to be used in heavy combat. This is not changed by transporting it in motor trucks when they are available any more than it was changed when railways were first used for transport purposes.

The Germans have two

types of mechanized division

Light Division and the Panzer or Armoured Division. ians also have two: the Celeri or Light Division

zata or

Armoured

Division.

The

—the Ital-

and the Corraz-

In each case the Light Division

in-

Arosemena, Juan Demostenes

manian statesman. Aftworked with a railroad construction company in Ecuador and upon his return to Panama was a departmental chief in the ministry of war and navy, and in the ministry of public instruction and justice. In 1906 he was secretary of the National Assembly and two years later high court judge of the republic. He became governor of Colon province in 1922 and thereafter held several portfolios in Panamanian cabinets. He was elected president of Panama in 1936 and served in this office until his death. President Arosemena died December 15 at Penonome, Panama. er completing his education he

cludes the lighter mechanized troops, such as motorcycle infantry

and machine guns, light tanks, and motorized infantry, while the mechanized division consists of tanks, artillery, and various auxiliary arms and services (see Lightning War). In the French Army there are two t3T3es of cavalry divisions. The first is the Cavalry Division and the second the Light Mechanized Division. The Cavalry Division consists of two brigades of horsed cavalry, a regiment of artillery and various motorized units including anti-tank guns. The Light Mechanized Division is made up of a regiment of armoured reconnaissance cars, two light mechanized brigades, motorcycle troop, motorized anti-tank guns, motorized artillery regiment, and various motorized services. Japan in her war in China and Franco during the Spanish Civil War, found it necessary to considerably increase the number of horsed cavalry regiments. The Germans have recently decided to increase their horsed cavalry. The Italians have at all times maintained their horsed cavalry.

The

Polish cavalry failed in the

campaign against Germany because it was not equipped with modem armament nor supported by mechanized forces and aviation. Russia has about 23 horsed cavalry divisions. She is also reported to have 6 mechanized divisions. Great Britain has 2 inde-

see American Literature; Architecture; Painting; Sculpture; Fairs and Exhibitions; etc.

Art;

United states art events at the two Aft pYhihitinne fill tAIIIUIllUllo. fairs created widespread interest. San Fran-

Golden Gate Exposition featured Pacific Cultures, Contemporary Art, and Masterworks of Five Centuries. Among the latter, the Royal Italian Government loans were later seen at the Art Institute of Chicago. The New York World’s Fair presented cisco’s

Masterpieces of Art and American Art Today.

Many Eight

attractive

exhibitions

centred about a general topic.

New England -museums,

comprising Andover’s Addison Gallery of American Art, Boston’s Museum of Fine Arts and Institute of Modem Art, New Haven’s Yale Gallery of Fine Arts, Cam-

Fogg Art Museum, and the museums of Worcester, New London and Providence joined in showing various aspects of New bridge’s

England tute of

art.

the Metropolitan

Day came

Modem Art were revealed at the InstiBoston. Life in America was illustrated at

Sources of

Modem Art in

Museum

into their

ovm

of Art. Artists Unappreciated in Their

at the Toledo

Museum

of Art. Hunting

ART GALLERIES AND ART MUSEUMS

70

and racing subjects were viewed at the Baltimore Museum of Art. Mention should also be made of Classics of the Nude and Views of Paris at Knoedler’s, French Sculptors of the 17th, i8th, and 19th Centuries at Seligmann, Rey and Company. Particular periods were emphasized in the Whitney Museum of

American Art’s 20th Century

Liege arranged an exhibition built about water as shown nese

art, in

and countries. Germany showed ancient JapaBerlin; Old German Art in the Danube Region, in

Vienna; Hans Thoma, in Karlsruhe.

(D.

Art Galleries and Art Museums.

Art of Mexico, Central America, and Peru; in the Metroixilitan’s Augustan Art; in the Schaeffer Galleries’ 17 Masterpieces of the

nificent

among the usual annuals and

biennials were

Pittsburgh’s Carnegie International, perhaps the last for

some 46th Annual of

American section; Cincinnati’s American Art, one of the largest in its history, and the Chicago Art Institute’s Half a Century of American Art. The work of William Blake was celebrated at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Despiau and Maillol shared honours at Boston’s years, with a fine

Modern Art. New York’s Museum of commemorated Forty Years of Pablo Picasso (in

Institute of

Modem

Art

collaboration

with the Art Institute of Chicago). Notable 19th and 20th century painters displayed by dealers included Jongkind at Carroll Carstairs’,

Newman

and Ryder at Knoedler’s, Renoir at Durand-

Ruel, lacovleff at the

Grand

0 .)

Artists; in the Worcester-Philadel-

phia Exhibition of Flemish Painting; in Detroit’s Pre-Columbian

17 th Century. Deserving attention

in the

art of all periods

Central, Eilshemius at the

Kleemann

Gallery.

Europe was the scene of many important art events, from the Prado Masterpieces at Geneva to Scottish Art at Burlington House. Swiss art through the centuries appeared at the Kunsthaus, Zurich. In Holland the Art of the Early Middle Ages was shown at Utrecht, French sculpture of the 19th century in the Stedelijk museum, and the Bible in Dutch Art in the Rijks museum, Amsterdam. France observed the isoth anniversary of the French Revolution with exhibitions at the Musee Carnavalet and at the Orangerie in Paris, and at Versailles. Other worthwhile Paris

from the Salon of Contemporary Sculptors, de la Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Cezanne at Paul Rosenberg’s, Georges Michel at Guy Stein’s, to the Masterpieces of the Museum of Montpellier at the Orangerie and the

manner

for art galleries and

STSStS

museums and

for those of

the United States of America in particular. For the first time a number of the most universally celebrated masterpieces of art

from Europe crossed the water and were enjoyed by millions of Americans in their own country. Important new museum buildings were in the process of construction and others were dedicated. Political conditions in Europe made it possible for the superb

and unique masterpieces from the Prado Museum in Madrid be seen in Geneva, Switzerland, before their return to Spain. spite of the dread of

to

In

war since Munich of 1938, very significant Europe in 1939, notably the exhibition of

exhibits were put on in

Veronese in Venice, the exhibition of the Medici in Florence, and the superb exhibit of Leonardo da Vinci’s works in Milan—in

which were displayed fascinating full-sized working models of his inventions made from his drawings. The war clouds which settled over Europe early in September saw the nations rushing frantically to save the priceless essence of their past civilizations, their wealth of art treasures.

brought forcefully to the minds of everyone great value of art to mankind.

Museums

in the

This

world the

the world over are

bombing from the air, and museum architecture of the future must provide means to protect works of art from attack. pitifully vulnerable to

The

citizens of the

United States of America were particularly

fortunate in that great masterpieces from Europe were on view

two World’s

Fairs.

The New York

in

Fair showed two significant art

from Europe,

exhibitions ranged

exhibits; one, Masterpieces of Art, including loans

James Ensor

two, a regional exhibition of contemporary American art in which

at the Galerie

Ballets Russes de Diaghilev at the

Italy staged

Musee

des Arts Decoratifs.

numerous outstanding shows; Leonardo,

in Milan;

the Medici exhibition, in Florence; Pordenone and Renaissance Painting in Friuli, in Udine; Brescian Renaissance Painting, in Brescia; Gothic and Renaissance Art in Piedmont, in Turin; isth Century Sienese Sculpture in Siena. Belgium rendered homage to Hans Memlinc, in Bruges, and in

Veronese, in Venice;

of the Tate Gallery, London, were securely packed and shipped to undisclosed centres, safe from air raids. In the last week of Aug. 1939

ALL EXHIBITS

the attempt was juries of artists.

made to select representative examples by regional The San Francisco Fair held several outstand-

ing exhibits; an old master exhibition for which most important examples of painting and sculpture were allowed to leave Italy for the

first

time: Botticelli’s “Birth of Venus,” Raphael’s “Maoriginal work by Michelangelo, and

donna of the Chair,” an

was shown at the Art Institute met wth great popular acclaim. Work by North American Indians at the E.xhibit of Pacific Cultures at San Francisco proved for all time the depth of feeling and unusual ability of that race. The Half a Century of American Art Exhibition at The Art Institute of Chicago made a valuable contribution to American art in a survey comprising examples it had exhibited from 1888 to 1938. A remarkable loan exhibition of Flemish art was held at the Worcester Art museum and at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. A memorial exhibition of the work of the important American artist and teacher, Kimon Nicolai'des, was held in New York in March. Modem art was dignified by the new building of the Museum of Modem Art in New York which opened on May 10, giving inothers. This remarkable collection •

of Chicago after the close of the Fair and

creased quarters for the very important ser\'ice which this organization has rendered for a decade to the public of the United

About the same time, on June 20, Hitler was branding modem art as “degenerate” by selling the modem masterpieces from German museums at auction in Lucerne, from which sale many significant works passed into museums and collections in the United States and Europe. The Fogg Art museum. Harvard uniStates.

$2,000 fellowship for research in modern art. Forty Years of His Art was The shown at the Museum of Modern Art and will be on view at the versity, gave a

—

largest exhibition of Picasso

Art Institute of Chicago in 1940. The architectural competition for the new Smithsonian Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., was

won by

Eliel Saarinen,

Eero Saarinen and

J.

Robert F. Swanson.

Samuel H. Kress gave his collection of 37s Italian paintings and sculptures to the United States, to be installed with the Mellon collection in the National Gallery of Art (the building for which will be completed in 1940). The new Allerton Wing, a handsome gift of Robert Allerton, provided the Art Institute of Chicago with ten new galleries in the Decorative Arts Department, allowing a rearrangement of objects.

The

State Department of the United States held a conference on

Inter-American Relations in October in which .the

field

of art

was discussed and closer co-operation between the North and South American republics encouraged. In the British Isles the new gallery of art at Southampton forms part of the civic centre. The Drapers’ Wing at the Ashmolean museum at Oxford was opened. The Scottish Royal museum dedicated a new gallery of Oriental Art in modern museum design. Roman antiquities were displayed in the new museum at Cirencester. In Grahamstown, South Africa, a new museum was opened. In France, the town of Chartres inaugurated the new museum in the old episcopal palace. At Besanqon a committee was formed to acquire the birthplace of Gustave Courbet at Ornans to convert it into a museum. At Dortmund, Germany, the collections of the popular art of Westphalia were rearranged. In May the Nationalgalerie in Berlin organized an exhibition of art and artistic life in the territories newly acquired by Germany. The art world suffered a distinct loss with the death of

Academy

Professor of the

The Materials of

Max

Doerner,

of Fine Art in Munich, the author of

the Artist, a classic in the study

and technique

of picture making.

GLASS FACADE

of the

Museum

of

Modern Art, opened May 10, 1939, at New

York city

The

ubiquitous streptococcus and its possible relation to arthritis continued to engage attention, especially by Cecil and Angevine, and by Gibson.

The

and joint

tissues have received additional study tendency to differentiate more between different stages of the same process, between the same process in

joint fluid

during the past year.

A

In Greece, the Zygomalas museum at Salessi, a village of Attica, showed peasant embroideries. In Moscow two e.xhibitions were held that of Socialist Industry in April and in the State Museum for Modem Western Art an exhibition of modem French landscape painting. In Japan the new Imperial museum of Tokyo was installed in a recently constructed cement building in oriental one of the style. In Sweden, the Linkoping museum was opened most modern museum buildings in Sweden; and the new Zorn museum in Mora, containing a reproduction of Zorn’s Stockholm studio, was completed. El Museo de Indies in Madrid was created to take care of American antiquities in Spain, stressing literary and artistic documentation of the colonial epoch. In South America the National Museum of Peru at Lima published one of a series of unusual notebooks on Peruvian art. The Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes at Buenos Aires re-opened at the end of (L. B. Br.) May.

and between the membranes of the same joint in become evident. Environmental factors as they affect the clinical course of rheumatoid arthritis have been studied by Cobb. By listing in parallel columns the exacerbations and remissions of the arthritic sjmaptoms and the social data, a relationship was shown between environmental stress, especially poverty, grief, and family worry, and the onset and e.xacerbations of rheumatoid arthritis. This is

discovery of a spontaneous infectious poly-

by the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association, with the conclusion that it may have some value in

:

;

—

Arthritic* nlllillllo.

arthritis in the rats of Java, presenting exceptional

features of parallelism with chronic rheumatoid arthritis in

by

Collier

and

tion of practical importance.

ferred to normal rats

eased animals.

The

by

injecting arthritic exudates

hampered

certain aspects of research.

liferative polyarthritis, bearing a clinical

blance to

human rheumatoid

perimentally in mice

from the

dis-

lack heretofore of an experimental animal

with a natural disease similar enough to that severely

man,

promise of yielding informaIndeed, the disease can be trans-

his colleagues, offers

by

e.xisting in

man

has

A progressive pro-

and pathologic resem-

has also been produced expleuropneumonia-like micro-

arthritis

filterable,

organisms recently isolated from the brain of a normal mouse by Sabin and co-workers which may also contribute to experimental observation.

Other studies on ^^ruses in fibrositis and arthritis in man and animals have been reported by Gordon, by Dyson, and by Eagles.

different joints,

different locations has

apparently the

first really controlled factual study of the subject. Vaccines again have been rather convincingly condemned as

routine instruments of treatment, especially

by

the report of Sidel

and Abrams. The value of sulphanilamide in gonorrhoeal arthritis and its uselessness, in rheumatoid arthritis has been confirmed by CoggeshaU and Bauer’s careful study. Abrams and Bauer evaluated the effect of massive doses of Vitamin D on iS patients vdth rheumatoid arthritis, concluding that this method of treatment is of little or no value in altering the course of the disease. Colloidal sulphur in the treatment of the disease has been rejected

some form of arthritis and contraindications are not colleagues studied sulphur metabolism

affording temporary symptomatic relief in

but that

its

toxicity, indications,

Freyberg and his and the effect of sulphur in rheumatoid arthritis, concluding that there was no biochemical or metabolic need for or benefit from sulphur medication in rheumatoid arthritis. Additional studies of gold therapy have indicated its effectiveness in some instances but have continued to disclose high to.xicity. There have been some promising papers on the local treatment of certain joint disdefined,

by infiltration with a local anaesthetic, as has been princirecommended bj' Leriche and his associates in France. Bibi-iography. ^NT. R. Abrams and W. Bauer, “The Treatment of Rheu-

orders pally

—

matoid Arthritis nith Large Doses of Vitamin D,” vol. c.-si (Oct. 29 . 193S); S. Cobb, W. Bauer, and I. 'Vt'hiting, “Environmental Factors in Rheumatoid Arthritis,” JA.M.A. vol. cxiii (.Aug. ig, 1939); tV. .A. Collier,

71

ARTILLERY—AI SASSINATIONS

72

&

“Infectious Polyarthritis of Rats,” J. Path. Pact. vol. 4S (hlay i939): Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, “Colloidal Sulfur in the Treatment of Chronic Arthritis,” vol. cxi (E. P. J.) (Oct. A., 29, 1938).

JAM.

Preliminary estimates for 1939 are 300,000 tons for Canada,

000 tons for Southern Rhodesia, and South Africa 22,000

53..

tons.

(G. A. Ro.)

Artillery: see Armies of the World; Artillery; Lightning War; Munitions of War; Artillery; Strategy of the European War; Tactics in the European War.

Art

Institute of

Chicago:

see

Ascension: see British West Africa. Asia: see Afghanistan; China; India,

Museums.

world supply of native asphalt

A^nhult nd|JII(llU Among American

etc.

Art Galleries and Art

sales, that

of the property of

Goodall and Hepburn, at the American Art Association-Anderson galleries, realized $51,755. Stuart’s “Portrait of

comes from the famous asphalt lake of Trinidad; the bulk of the remainder is divided between Egypt and the United States, with possibly

A

ducers.

10%

distributed

among

several minor pro-

number

Commodore Barry” was purchased

of countries, with the United States in the lead, produce considerable quantities of asphaltic or bituminous

galleries.

rock, carrying usually less than

for $30,000 by the Macbeth At Parke-Bernet’s, the fourth Hearst auction reached

a total of $227,000; Gustave Oberlaender’s collection produced a total of $98,940.

a

summary

With the

close of the

1938-39 auction season

of the activities at these galleries showed total pur-

chases amounting to $2,417,330. livan’s collection

was

The

also dispersed

late

Mrs. Cornelius

J. Sul-

by Parke-Bernet and a

of $148,730 was reached in the two night sessions.

The top

total price,

$27,300, was paid by Walter P, Chrysler for Cezanne’s portrait of his wife. Van Gogh’s “Portrait of Mile. Ravoux” attained the

second highest of $19,000. Despite the war's outbreak and the uncertainty preceding it, the London season was lively. At Christie’s further art treasures of Hearst reached a total of £11,497. The Christie sale in aid

item, however,

is

10%

The

of true asphalt.

largest

petroleum asphalt, of which there was produced

United States in 1938 some 5,794,000 short from domestic petroleum, and 27% from foreign.

in the

tons,

73%

As com-

pared with

this, the domestic production of bituminous rock was 483,500 tons, and native asphalts only 28,650 tons. Production in Trinidad declined by more than half in the past decade, to iii,-

965 long tons

in 1936, recovering to 145,900 tons in 1937.

(G. A. Ro.)

sale’s

of

Lord Baldwin’s Fund for Refugees resulted

Accoccinotinnc

in. A first portion of Dr. Pringsheim’s renowned was auctioned at Sotheby’s. Two days produced £12,061, although prices were often disappointing. The highest was £370 for a 15th century Florentine “oak-leaf” jar. At Christie’s, Whistler’s “At the Piano” from Sir Edmund Davis’s collection went to Stevenson Scott for £6,405, the highest price for Whistler in a London auction. The first owner had obtained it in i860 for £30. Exhibited, after the London auction, at Scott and

assassins in Shanghai.

the 386 lots sent

Fowles in

New

American

collector.

was Christie’s work by Pieter Brueghel, from the late Mrs. Frank Holbrooke’s collection. Bought by Holbrooke for £700, it went to Colnaghi for £8,190 (the highest price paid in an English auction for Brueghel). At Sotheby’s, Goya’s “Portrait of Dona Zarate” was acquired by Knoedler for £6,800, a record sensation of the season

Mosul, Iraq.

Sept. 21

King Ghazi, killed in a motor car accident, had been assassinated by Britons. Bucharest, Rumania. Premier Armand Calinescu slain by six members of Fascist Iron Guard. The new Rumanian Gov’t, headed by Gen. George Argesanu, ordered

Nov. 8

ment of others in reprisal. Munich, Germany. Apparent attempt to assassinate Adolf Hitler and high Nazi leaders failed when they left

slain

Clarence Mackay’s arms, armour, and works of art totalled

£21,936 at Christie’s. An event of the summer was the sale by the Fischer gallery in Lucerne, Switzerland, of paintings and sculptures by modern masters

from German museums.

In Paris a Cezanne landscape, “Le Pilon du Roi Vu de Bellevue,” drew 542,000 francs. “Les Deux Soeurs” of Renoir brought 330,000 francs.

Two

landscapes by Bonnard were knocked down (H. 0-)

for 75,000 and 46,000 francs.

.

World production of asbestos increased

to a

new

dsclined high record of about 600,000 tons in 1937 of sharply in 1938, but rose again in 1939. Asbestos is largely that oi and output 77% British origin, since 90% of the 1929 supof 1937 was mined in the British Empire. In 1937 Canada South Rhodesia 9%, plied 61% of the world total. Southern the Africa 4% and Cyprus 2%; the only large producer outside intota, Empire was the Soviet Union, with 20% of the 1937 out a consumes States creased from 7% in 1929. The United whic , one-half of the world supply but has only a minor output, >ears, past few however, has increased nearly four-fold during the

nSucSlOSi

)

in reaching 12^600 tons in 1937. United States imports increased in 19381937 to 249,000 metric tons, but dropped to 14.300 tons

by mob

consul,

after report that

execution of hundreds of Iron Guardists' and imprison-

auction of a newly discovered

price.

George E. Monck-Mason, British

April 4

York, the picture was snapped up by a prominent

The

minister in Japanese

puppet Gov’t at Nanking, shot to death by 20 Chinese

in £15,647 for

Italian majolica

assassinations, actual or attempted,

nbbddbllldllUlld. during 1939 includes; Feb. 20 Tcheng Loh (Ch’en Lu), foreign

Buergerbraeu

were

In

time

bomb

exploded; 8

of Premier Armand Callnesou were executed on the site of their Bucharest Sept. 21, 1939, and left lying In the street for 24 hours

THE ASSASSINS crime

hall shortly before

killed.

Asthma:

see Allergy.

dedication of the

Aotrnnnmir

ndUUIIUIliy.

McDonald

Texas contributed much

to

observatorj’ in

the

progress

of

astronomy in 1939. The 82-inch reflector, attested by experts to be one of the finest, has in the first few months of its operation made possible notable discoveries and contributions in the field of spectrographic astronomy, of particular interest being the dis-

covery by Kuiper of several new white dwarf tion in

May was

stars.

The

dedica-

celebrated with a seminar on galactic and extra-

galactic structure in which a considerable number of the foremost astronomers and physicists of North America and Europe

participated.

—

Solar System. The Sun. An investigation of the complexity form and motion of solar prominences by McMath, based on the great wealth of material obtained by him with the spectroof

heliokinematograph, appears to prove conclusively that the observed motions are actually motions of material, and that the

sudden accelerations obser\'ed by Pettit and others are real. No satisfactory theory has yet been offered to explain these complex motions. The projected e.xpansion of the observational procedure to give simultaneous observations in three dimensions will add

much to this study. The influence of the tion

absorption of water vapour on solar radia-

was investigated by Adel

13-40/:.

The

in

the spectral region 8-34

11

to

absorption co-efficient, which describes the degree of

opacity produced by water vapour in this spectral region, was

then applied to determine the form of the solar energy cur%’e in

when

unaffected by water vapour absorption. Adel agreement between the experimentally derived form of the energy curve and the black body curve for 6.000°

this region

finds satisfactory

or 7,000° K.

Planetary System

.

—An

unusual number of comets was under

observation during 1939, 13 being discovered. Of this number seven were previously known comets which were re-discovered, is kno^vn, new comets. The planetary phenomenon which occasioned most interest among astronomers was the close approach of Mars at the opposition of July 28. Though poorly situated for northern observers,

LARGEST OF tory,

ITS

Wynnewood,

KIND In the world, this camera Is being used at Cook observ Pa.» to photograph a complete atlas of the heavens

whereas the remaining six were, so far as

many

and photographic observations were made. Prelimby Wright indicate a number of changes in surface features since previous oppositions, and the series of photographs obtained by Slipher at Bloemfontein show features which have previously defied observation by photography. A possible explanation of the vivid and varied colouration observed on Jupiter has been suggested by Wildt. It would be an visual

inary reports by Slipher and

obvious advantage

if

the various colours could be ascribed to a

single chemical principle.

The

reaction betw^een metallic sodium

and both gaseous and condensed ammonia offers such a chemical principle and supplies highly coloured systems, both liquid and solid. Changes in temperature produce changes in colour, and a range of colours adequate to produce the varied colouration observed is produced. The absence of wvid colouration from Saturn’s atmosphere

is

explained by the lower temperature of that planet.

sodium involved is unknown, but it may come from interplanetary space. A hypothetical model for the constitution of the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn has been proposed by Wildt to explain the low mean density of these planets. The proposed model consists of

The

origin of the

three

homogeneous

layers, namely, (i) a dense core similar in

structure to the terrestrial planets, (2) a thick layer of ice sur-

for Jupiter, 0.S2 and 0.43 of the equatorial radius, and for Satun

The abundance of hydrogen an oxygen relative to the metals required by this model is not inconsistent with the relative abundance of these elements in the solar atmosphere as determined by Russell. Of interest in connection 0.66 and 0.26 of the radius.

with Wildt’s hypothesis

on Jupiter

is

is

the suggestion of

Peek that the red spot

a huge berg, perhaps of ice and nitrogen, floating

in a liquid outer layer of the planet.

Several observatories which participated in the international program for the observation of Eros in 1930-31 have completed reductions of their observations. These thousands of observations are now turned over to Jones for use in making new determinations of the solar parallax and the mass of- the moon. Stars. Special Stars and Stellar Structure. Studies of the spectra of Arcturus by Miss Da\’is and of a selected list of A and B stars by Struve have added new identifications of many lines. An investigation of the spectra of M-type supergiant stars by Spitzer seems to indicate that the atmospheres of these stars are characterized by almost complete lack of thermodynamic equilibrium. Bowen and Wyse have discovered recently predicted forbidden lines of several of the more common metals in the spectra of three planetary nebulae. This discovery removes the chief qualitative differences in chemical composition between these nebulae and the

—

A photographic atlas of spectra of Nova Herculis 1934, compiled by Stratton and Manning, gives an unusually complete

stars.

rounding the core, and (3) a layer of highly compressed condensed gases, chiefly solid hydrogen, on top of the ice. Appropriate values of the densities of the three layers make possible the determina-

Eclipsing stars have received considerable attention during 1939. Kron’s photoelectric observations of YZ Cassiopeiae have jdelded

tion of the radii of the surfaces of discontinuity, the values being

a

record of the spectral changes.

more accurate determination

of the degree of limb darken-

73

The “photometric

ellipticity” determined from the light curve depends on the geometrical form of the bodies, on limb darkening,

and on the variation of surface brightness with grawty. The

may be studied in this way, but not the figure or the internal constitution.

gravity effect

Eclipsing stars with variable periods have been investigated by 28 stars studied with the aid of the Harvard observatory plate collection, 21 have periods surely

Dugan and Miss Wright. Of

or

probably variable, while the remaining seven probably have constant periods.

The Harvard

plates

made

possible the e.\tension of

the study over a period of nearly 50 years, which is important in view of the slowness of the changes. It was previously thought that most observed changes of period of these stars could he attributed either to apsidal motion or to light-time across the orbit around a third body. The present work demonstrates that

many

of these changes are irregular and at present inexplicable,

and points the way

The

to a promising

eclipsing star

W

new

field

of investigation.

Cephei, similar to but

much

larger than

f Autigae, consists of a supergiant star of spectral type M2 and a B-type primary star. Goedicke has made a spectrographic study of this star during its emergence from eclipse, which gave an opportunity for a detailed study of the e.xtensive atmosphere of the

M

star through the effect

through

it.

The

on the

radius of the

the sun, the masses of the

light

M star

M and

B

is

of the

B

star shining

about 1,200 times that

stars are 47

M

and 33 times

of

the

sun respectively, and the density of the star is 3x10"®. Many theories have been proposed to account for the source

of

Whatever process supplies the requisite energy must involve a transformation of mass into energy', probably by a change of one kind of atoms into another with release of energy stellar energy.

corresponding to the change in the total mass. Bethe has explored the possible transformations which can occur under conditions existing in the interiors of ordinary dwarfs, and finds the follow-

GREAT NEBULA OF ANDROMEDA, which

is

photoflraphed al the Cook observatory, oompiiing a compiete atias of the sky

ing than has hitherto been

made

for

ening co-efficient for the larger star

any eclipsing star. The darkis 0-491 ±0-038 as compared

with Pannekoek’s theoretical value for this Russell has

made

A3

star of 0-65.

a theoretical investigation of the ellipsoidal

and suggests that, in cases where the masses known, a theoretical ellipticity factor should be substituted for that obtained from the light curve in making the solution

figures of close pairs

are

for orbital

elements.

He

concludes that the light curve does

not permit differentiation between ellipsoids of different figure and ellipsoids of similar figure but of different dimensions.

SUN SPOTS ington, D.C.

pholographed Sepl. 11, 1939, al Ihe U.S. Naval observatory, Wash-

C'^ plus a proton gives N“ N'® then loses a positive electron and changes into C’® which, upon addition of a proton changes into N'* with emission of energy. Addition of another proton trans-

ing chain of reactions possible.

with radiation of energy.

forms

this into 0'^

with further energy emission, the 0*® subse-

quently losing a positive electron and changing into N‘®. N'® plus a proton might form ordinary oxygen O’®, but Bethe calculates that

it is

would

several thousand times

split,

more probable that the nucleus Thus carbon acts as a

giving He’ and the original C’®.

catalyst for the transformation of hydrogen into helium.

process will continue at an ever increasing rate until

all

This

of the

hydrogen has been used. Bethe calculates that this process will supply sufficient energy for the sun at central temperatures of 18 to 21 million degrees, depending on the percentages of hydrogen and nitrogen available. These temperatures, computed from nuclear theory, are in good agreement with the central solar temperature determined from astrophysical data. It appears that the principal source of energy for the main-sequence stars has

been found, though the very rapid radiation of the

giants cannot

be thus explained. A recent investigation, by Greenstein, of the spectrum of v Sagittarii indicates a higher percentage of helium than hydrogen in this star’s atmosphere, which may indicate that outlined this star is already well advanced in the “life history”

by Bethe.

—Noteworthy’ contributions

Stellar System.

to the study of the

I'”® structure of our galaxy' have been made during 1939. Joy near investigated the velocities of 156 Cepheid variables situated

Disthe plane of the galaxy’ and well distributed in longitude. for corrected law were period-luminosity from the tances obtained the Solutions by Oort's method give for rotathe for and 325?3±i°3. of rotation, longitude of the centre

interstellar absorption.

km/sec. tion effect at a distance of one kiloparsec, 20.9^0.8

74

The

distance of the centre

is

estimated to be lo kiloparsecs and the

circular orbital velocity of the sun is determined as 296

km/sec

with a period of 207,000,000 years.

One outstanding

problem of galactic structure, by clouds of obscuring matter, has been investigated by Stebbins, Huffer, and Whitford. These observers have measured the colours of 1,332 B-tj'pe stars with a difficulty in the

the absorption of starlight

photoelectric photometer.

From

photoelectric measures of various

regions of the spectra of a selected group of stars they have deteras the wave-lengtli. This law of selective absorption leads to values for total absorption in visual and photographic light of seven and nine times the

mined that the absorption varies inversely

The strongly reddened B stars are found near the plane of the Milky Way, in the zone in which no extragalactic nebulae are observed. A limit to the absorbing material is found in the direction of the anticentre, where no star shows a colour excess greater than 0-3 magnitude, whereas no such colour excess, respectively. all

limit

indicated in the direction of the galactic centre.

is

studies of three bright regions in the

these regions are only half as bright as

Special

Way

show that even they would appear if no

Milky

PHOTOGRAPH OF MARS taken on July 27, 1939, with an “occulting disk** at the U.S. Naval observatory, Washington, D, C., as the planet made its closest approach

to

the earth

in

15 years

absorbing clouds intervened.

—Many photographs are now

number and structural form of extragalactic nebulae. However, as Hubble has pointed out, dynamical investigations of these objects are hampered by the scarcity of spectrographic data concerning internal motions. Of particular in-

cised an important influence upon the course of political developments during 1939. The death of Mr. Lyons on April 7, after seven continuous years of office, left the coalition Government of the United Australia Party and the United Country Party without a leader capable of uniting the discordant elements and of assuag-

terest, therefore, is the spectrographic investigation of the rotation

ing the latent personal antagonisms within

External Galaxies.

available for

the determination of the

of the

Andromeda Nebula by Babcock. His

results

show a nearly

constant angular velocity for the outer spiral arms, and an angular velocity indistinguishable

from zero

in the region of eight to 10

minutes of arc from the nucleus. The core exhibits a period of rotation of about i-ixio^ years, whereas the period for the outer arms is about 9-2x10'' years. It would appear that a large proportion of the mass of the nebula

is in

the outer regions beyond

Government’s decision to postpone the scheme for national insurance; and other resignations were threatening. In the face of this new emergency the governor-general commissioned Sir Earle Page, leader of the United Country Party, to carry on as prime minister until the

have many features

coalition

(See also Photography: Applica-

tions; Telescopes.)

—

S. Chandrasekhar, An lutraduclion to the Study of ^ (1939); A. S. Eddington, The Philosophy of Physical Science (Cambridge, 1939); C. Payne-Gaposchkin and S. Gapos^kin, Variable Stars (1938); O. J. Lee, Beyond Yonder (1939). (N. L. P.)

Bibliography.

Stellar Structure

Increasing

March

tralia Party, folloiving the

introduction of

elect a

tion apparent in our Galaxy.

ranks.

of R. G. Menzies, attorney-general and deputy leader of the United Aus-

20 minutes of arc from the nucleus. The near zero velocity closer to the nucleus may indicate a non-uniform distribution of mass along the radius vector. The Andromeda Nebula and the Galaxy in common, the chief difference previously known being their diameters. A new discrepancy now appears when the nearly constant angular velocity of the outer parts of the Andromeda Nebula is compared with the planetary type of rota-

its

disruption had already led to the resignation in

its

United Australia Party (the senior partner in the coalition) could new leader. When the United Australia Party showed its confidence in Mr. Menzies by asking him to lead the party the

broke doivn, and Mr. Menzies formed a Government chosen entirely from the United Australia Party. Despite frequent

embarrassments the Government was able to continue in office adjournment of parliament in June. Mr. Menzies himself took over the Treasury, and entrusted the new' Department of Supply and Development to R. G. Casey, until the

Before parliament assembled again war had broken out. parties recognized the need for a national united front,

All

and the

Government was able to proceed with its defence plans without Henry Gullett w'as placed in charge of the ministry of information, and the defence portfolio was subdivided, the prime minister becoming minister for co-ordination of deserious hindrance. Sir

"Athenia":

see Shipping,

Merchant Marine; Submarine

Warpare; European War. Afhlefics: see Track and Field Sports. Atom: see Matter, Structure of; Physics. Audiometer: see Deafness.

fence; G. A. Street, minister for the armj'; Sir Frederick Stewart, minister for the na\y; and J. V. Fairbaim, minister for air; P. C.

Spender

w’as

appointed acting treasurer.

A w’ar cabinet was set up,

consisting of the prime minister, the ministers for the three serv-

the minister for information, W. M. Hughes (attorneygeneral and minister for external affairs), and Senator H. S. Foie (minister for the interior). ices,

Australia,

Gommonwealth

31, 1938) 6,929,691.

of,

population

(est.

Dec.

Chief toivns (pop. Dec. 31, 1938): Sydney

Melbourne (1,036,000), Adelaide (321,410), Brisbane (325,890), Perth (220,330), Hobart (63,150); capital, Canberra. Ruler, King George VI; governor-general, the Rt. Hon. Lord Gowrie, V.C.; premier, R. G. Menzies; language, English; (1,288,720),

religion,

Christian

(census

1933: Anglican, 2,565,118;

Roman

Foreign Affairs

.

ment

—Complete identity of inews with the Govern-

Kingdom w’as emphasized by the Commonwealth Government at the time of the Czecho-Slovakian crisis in March, and Mr. Lyons expressed his Government’s readiness to of the United

co-operate with the United

Kingdom Government in its efforts to With the approach of the

Catholic, 1,161,455; Presbyterians, 713,229; Methodists 684,022;

deal with the international situation.

other Christians, 603,914). History. ^Two events, the death of the

Polish crisis Mr. Menzies reiterated in August Australia’s determination to stand by Britain should she be forced into w'ar. On the evening of September 3 the prime minister announced that

—

minister, J. A. Lyons,

and the

Commonwealth prime outbreak of war in Europe, exer-

75

AUSTRALIA,

76

COMMONWEALTH

was at war with Germany. The Defence Act was immediately proclaimed the over-riding law of the Commonwealth, and special measures for national security were brought into operation. Military Measures and War-Thne Precautions. ^As a result of the war the Commonwealth’s expenditure on defence during the fiscal year wOl amount to over £62,000,000. The year 1938’s corresponding figure was £14,000,000. Naval personnel increased from 5,000 to 10,000, all ships of the Royal Australian Navy W’ere immediately brought into commission, and a number of fast merchant ships were armed to undertake patrol duties. By November the Australian Army had about 100,000 men undergoing training, of whom 20,000 formed a special force to be Australia

—

sent overseas for service early in 1940.

home defence were

The

district

commands

reorganized, and steps were taken to

nize the entire army.

A

most

significant event

for

mecha-

was the reintroduc-

compulsory military training for home defence for men between the ages of 20 and 21. Compulsory training was suspended in 1929, but has since remained on the statute book, ready tion of

to be brought into operation

by proclamation. Mr. Menzies has

stated that there will be no conscription for overseas service.

was announced in September that an air expeditionary force of 3,200 men, consisting of officers, air crews, and ground personnel sufficient to man six squadrons, would be sent abroad for service with the Royal Air Force. Early in November, however, the It

prime minister stated that, after consultation with the United Kingdom Government, it had been decided to cancel the original plan and instead to send about 200 officers and men to Great Britain immediately to

man

aircraft already ordered

by the Royal

Australian Air Force, and to serve as a general reconnaissance

squadron with the Royal Air Force.

The new Department

and Development immediately armaments and war materials by

of Supply

accelerated the manufacture of

adapting the existing industrial organization to war-time purposes.

Government munition factories have been enlarged and annexes up in a number of private engineering works and railway

set

workshops throughout the country. Plans for aircraft manufacture on a large scale were drawn up even before the war, and the

Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation’s new factory has already shown itself capable of producing several aeroplanes each week. In addition orders for training aircraft were placed in America.

—

Public Finance. The fiscal year ended June 1939 produced a budget surplus of £627,000, revenue showing an increase of £5,500,000 on 1937-38, and expenditure an increase of £8,500,000. Mr. Menzies’ budget, introduced a few days after the outbreak of

—

war the first £100,000,000 budget in the history of Australia announced substantial increases in income tax, sales tax, and customs and excise duties, necessitated by greatly increased estimates of defence expenditure. On November 30 Mr. Spender, the acting

export prices

value of e.xports

fell heavily, however, the financial year 1938-39 closed with a favourable balance of £8,800,000. There was some reduction in the volume of London funds, which were particularly high in June 1938, but the investment of capital in Australia from

overseas continued. Contracts entered into with the United Kingdom Government for the purchase of Australian e.xport commodities may be expected to have a stabilizing effect on primar>-

Most important was the United Kingdom Government’s acquisition of the wool clip for the term of the war and for one season following the cessation of hostilities. Butter, eggs, industries.

meat, and wheat also came within the scope of these negotiations. The disposal of surplus stocks of wheat and flour was particularly satisfactory, as the industry suffered severely not only from depressed price levels but also from severe drought conditions expe-

rienced at the beginning of the year.

ment acquired

The value

Two internal loans, May, both

of £8,500,000 in

for public works, were

February and £4,750,000 in floated on undersubscribed, as was the £6,000,000 defence loan the London market in June. Economic Affairs. Primary industries continued to suffer from and the decline in e.xport prices which began in the middle of i937> Average balance. trade Australia’s which inevitably reacted upon

—

to

of flourishing manufacturing industries as a contribu-

was particularly apparent in a year of As a result of recent industrial development Australia has achieved a national economy more balanced and less vulnerable to fluctuating market conditions. Though factory employment fell slightly during 1938-39 it still easily exceeded the 1936-37 average, and the demand for skilled workmen remained high. Plans for the establishment of the motor-car industry have proceeded despite the intervention of war, and proposals for the manufacture of tin-plate, aluminium, and bakclite have been put fonvard. A not unimportant stimulus to industrial development was provided by refugee immigrants, a considerable number of whom were admitted into Australia up to September. The outbreak of war, and with it the Government’s growing demands for war material and equipment, naturally gave a decided impetus to secondary industry. By December 8,000 men and women were employed in the manufacture of munitions alone. falling

commodity

prices.

(L. R.

Education.

Me.)

—In

ance,

1936; State schools, 10,307; average attendprivate schools, 1,873; average attendance,

792,148; 206,026; technical education, net enrolments, 92,949; business colleges, average attendance, 18.505; universities, number of students, 10,657.

(See also Education: British Empire.)

Banking and Finance,

—^Revenue

(actual 1938-39), £A95,o64.-

000, (est. 1939-40) £Aioi,94o,ooo; expenditure (actual 1938-39), £A94,437 ,ooo; ordinary (est. 1939-40), £A68,779,ooo; defence,

£A33, 137,000; public debt (June 30, 1939), £Ai, 295,022,972; notes issued (Aug. 28, 1939), £A48,525,ooo; gold and sterling reserve (Aug. 28, 1939), £Ai6,029,ooo; exchange rate,

lion

loan operations early in 1939.

Govern-

tion to economic stability

further immediate increases in taxation in view of the extra burdens already announced in September. Instead, Mr. Spender

when economic circumstances justified it. Loan expenditure for 1939—40 was estimated at £48,000,000. affected Unsettled political and economic conditions adversely

The Commonwealth

the whole of the 1939-40 crop and arranged

finance the growers pending the disposal of the wheat.

£100

borro\ving and taxation

OF

by i6-6% from the level of 193S, and the sterling from £122,900,000 to £108,300,000. Since im-

ports also

treasurer, introduced a supplementary financial statement, as a result of which estimated defence expenditure for the fiscal year was almost doubled. It was not considered expedient to impose

stated that the Government’s -financial policy would be weighted public for the time being towards bank borrowing, with a return to

fell

£Ai25=

sterling.

—

Trade and Communication. Overseas trade i938~39 (•nf^’'" chandise): imports, £Ai24,484,ooo; exports, £Ai20,75o,ooo; (buland specie): imports, £A3, 562,000; exports, £Ai8,963,ooo. Communications and transport: 1938, roads, total mileage, c. 495''

ooomi.; metalled,

c.

20o,ooomi.;

railways open to

traffic,

aTv

897mi.; airways, distance flown, 7,035, 526mi.; passengers carried. ship76,041; goods carried, 806,1851b.; mails carried, 378,o381b.;

ping with cargo and in ballast, in net tons, entered (monthl) average 1937-38), 594,000, (monthly average 1938-39) 558,oo°’ cleared (monthly average 1937-38), 591,000, (monthly average

1938-39) 553,000; motor vehicle registrations (Aug. 31, I939)commercial vehicles, 253,819; cycles, 76,284; wire-

cars, 555,381;

less receiving set licences, 1,134,048; telephones,

number

of

line.'-.

491,468. ProducAgriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. (193SL gold tion (in metric tons): wheat (193S-39), 4,109,600;

49)500 kilograms; wool (1938), 426,400; cane sugar (1938-39), 783,200; coal (1937), 12,286,000; lignite (1937), 1, 527, 000; iron ore (metal content) (1937), 1,255,000; pig iron and ferro-alloys (1938), 979,000; steel (1938), 1,157,000; wne (1937-38), 948,-

000 hectolitres;

oats

(1937-38),

barley

312,000;

(1937-38),

278,000; maize (1937-38), 173,200; potatoes (1937-38), 351,000; butter (1937-38), 195,700; lead (smelter production) (1938),

(1937), 70,900; copper (1937), 17,700; superphosphates of lime bauxite 1,247,000; (1937), 7,900; tungsten ore (1937), (1938), 488; antimony ore (1937), 576; silver (1938), 380. Labour and 227,300;

zinc

(smelter

production)

(smelter production)

emploj'ment in factories (1928-29=100) (Aug. number (average Aug. 1939), 519,250; unemployment, Trade Union returns (May 1939), 9-7%; recorded material (W. H. Wn.). production (1937-38), £A4ii,3o8,o70.

employment:

1939), 120-2;

Australia, South: see South Australia. Autobiography: see Alierican Literature; English Literature; French Literature.

Autogiro: see Aviation, Civil: Technical Development. Automobile: see Motor Vehicles; Motor Transportation. Automobile Accidents: see Disasters; Insurance, Automobile; Motor Vehicles; Psychology, Applied: Accidents; Traeeic Accidents.

Aiitnmnhilo Doninfr nlilUniOullC Kaliinga made another

^

dealer,

successful assault

upon

the world’s land speed record to highlight 1939 auto racing activities. He streaked through a measured mile on the Bonneville Salt Flats in

Utah

at 368-8smi. per hour.

By

travelling

more than

minute Cobb vaulted back to the world’s straightaway speed throne where he had reigned last year for the brief span of 24 hours. At that time Captain George E. T. Eyston sur-

six miles a

mark of 357-5. Cobb’s latest figure of made Aug. 23, 1939, was the first to eclipse the existing record made by Captain Eyston. Cobb was driving a 2,600 horsepower 24-cylinder aluminium Railton Red Lion. As usual, the outstanding feature of the year was the annual Memorial Day 500-mile Indianapolis classic won by Wilbur Shaw of Indianapolis. Shaw was a winner in 1937 and raced home first

passed him by attaining a 368-85,

this

year by maintaining an average speed of ii5-035mi. per hour

over the a^mi. brick and asphalt oval course.

He

completed the

Soomi. in 4 hours 2omin. and 47-41 seconds. Jimmy Snyder of Chicago was second and Cliff Bergere of Hollj’wood, third.

The

race

was marred by the death

THE WORLD’S LAND SPEED RECORD fell again in over the course of Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, August

of Floyd Roberts, 39-year-old

Alflotlnn

Pluil

nVidUUii, uiVIl.

1939 as John Cobb sped 23 at 36S.S5 m.p.h.

—

Transport. ^Airlines of the United States, Canada, and certain other countries con-

tinued their growth through 1939 but the outbreak of war in Europe caused drastic changes in many of the services operated over that continent. Plans for crossing the North Atlantic to the United States and Canada were also affected. Pan American began its regular transatlantic sendee in hlay of 1939 and has continued this operation, but Imperial Ainvays operated a service over this route for only a short time before the war caused its suspension. Deutsche Lufthansa, which had also planned a North Atlantic sendee and made extensive sun'ey flights in 1936-1938, was forced to suspend its South Atlantic and many of its other foreign services as soon as the war began. Pan American still has the greatest route mileage of any organization (62,889101. in Oct. 1939) and, as the new European war began, Lufthansa was operating in Germany what was the most complete internal network of airlines existing under one head in any countrj’. The Russian lines claim the greatest volume of freight while the

United States domestic routes handle the largest number of pas-

The plan of mail by air without extra charge began in Europe several years ago and was growing with surprising rapidity

sengers and, so far, the greatest volume of mail.

pilot

from Van Nuys, Calif., and the winner at Indianapolis in 1938. Roberts, who had planned to retire from the sport after the

sending

race, lost his life in the event’s first fatal accident since 1935.

until the war interrupted. By far the most ambitious of the plans along these lines was the British “Empire Air Mail Scheme,”

In the loomi. A.A.A. dirt-track championship event contested

New York State

Fair in Syracuse, Mauri Rose flashed home Lemuel Ladd of Boston triumphed in the inaugural running of the Montauk Grand Prix road race over a two-mile course at Montauk, L.I., in July. Midget automobile racing continued to flourish. A 150-mile national championship contest was held in August at the revamped Roosevelt Raceway in Westbury, L.I., and attracted S5,ooo fans. Morris (Babe) Bower of Philadelphia was the victor, leading Joe at the

in front.

Garson of Great Neck by 11 seconds. Accidents in midget events claimed the lives of several drivers, Snyder being the most prominent among them. He was killed less than a month after his fine second-place performance in the Indianapolis big-car classic.

Cohokis

( 111 .)

The

fatal accident

track on June 29.

occurred at the (T.

J.

D.)

which provided for linking of the entire empire with air routes carrying first class mail at ordinary rates. Formulated several years ago by the British Govermnent in co-operation with the colonial governments, the first stage of this plan w’ent into operation in June 1937 with servdee between England and South Africa. Services between England. India, and Malaya followed in Feb. 1938; e.xtension to Australia and New Zealand came later in the year. Transatlantic sendee to Canada ida the United States followed in 1939 but, as noted above, was later suspended by Imperial Airways on account of the war. About the same time the whole plan of carrying “all first class mail by air without surcharge” ivas shelved for the present. A change of economic importance took place in 1938-1939, when the growth of traffic

put most the

Automotive Safety Foundation:

see Traeeic Accidents,

all first class

first

airlines of the

United States on a profitable basis for

time.

Flying equipment of most airlines has shown a pronounced

77

Left

circle:

THE FIRST FOUR-BLADED CONTROLLABLE PROPELLER

for

American transport and military planes was announced July IS, 1939 Riflht circle: THIS STATIC SUPPRESSOR, announced Jan. 14, 1939, permits normal reception of directive-beam and voice-radio signals during flight, regardless of

the Intensity of static

"TELL-TALE” DEVICE announced in Feb. 1939 for a new U. S. stratoliner automatically checks the operation of all instruments and vital parts Above:

A

of the plane

Below,

left:

MAQNA-FLUX SYSTEM

motors, perfected in

Below, right: U.S. courses begun In

for testing

cylinder heads

of

aeroplane

1939

COLLEGE STUDENTS

1939 by the

studying a wind tunnel as part of the U.S. Gov’t to create a civilian air reserve

AVIATION. CIVIL tendency toward increased size in the past few years. Before the war began, Lufthansa was flying a number of 40-42 passenger Junkers airliners on its routes; the German firm of Blohn & Voss was reported to be constructing a 100, 000-lb. long-range flying boat and the Russian Government had completed a 64-passenger landplane of about the same weight. Short Brothers had built 74,000-lb. flying boats for Imperial Ainvays’ ocean routes and Air France Transatlantique had on order two 132,000-lb. flying boats. In the United States in 1938 Douglas produced the first of the series, a 42-passenger land type and Boeing completed the

79

barred by prohibitive cost of operation, and higher speeds are

be attained by the use of higher altitudes of operanow building such transports for operation at 15,000 to 20,000 feet. These have cabins braced for internal pressure so that the air writhin can be maintained at the pressure normally encountered at lower heights. Boeing and

more tion.

likely to

Constructors are

Curtiss-Wright have already produced their

first

of this type, and

the former was started into production in 1939. Much was accomplished in the way of making air travel

more

DC-4

comfortable for the passenger during the past few years. Almost

No. 314, a 74-passenger flying boat for ocean use. Several countries have been giving consideration to the so-called “substratosphere” or high-altitude flying and craft designed for such use have been put into production in the United States. Advantages claimed for high-altitude operation are mainly those of encountering better flying weather, and of attaining higher speeds

airliners

first

supercharged engines are used.

if

—Although

General Commercial Development.

dwarfed by

the rapid growth of air transport, other civil a%'iation continued to

grow

now

Aeroplanes in the hands of individual onmers are as some enthusiasts had expected, but they are

steadily.

not yet as

common

increasing,

Control of

more

cml

In 1938,

particularly in the United States.

aviation in the United States

was transferred Aeronautics Au-

from the Department of Commerce to the Civil thority, a new body created for this purpose. Among its plans to foster chnl aviation, this body put an ambitious pilot training plan

This plan provides for payment by the Gov-

into effect in 1939.

ernment of

all flight

training cost while the student pays

most of

now have

all

sound-insulated walls, controllable ventilation,

and adjustable seats in the case of long United States now have sleeping berths, but this plan has not been followed elsewhere, on account of the lesser distances in%'olved. In a few cases, oxj'gen supply has been provided for passengers and crew when crossing high mountain ranges, but this still remains exceptional. Engine Development. ^Progress in engines was mainly along the lines of greater reliability and larger unit size, but progress was also made in fuels with higher anti-knock properties which permit the use of higher compression ratios and some consequent increase in engine efficiency. Diesels have been disappointing to date and, with the improved fuel efficiency obtainable with satisfactory heating,

flights.

Numerous

airliners in the

—

higher compression in gasoline engines, the advantage of the diesel

has been distinctly lessened.

Germany remained

practically alone

in continuing aviation diesel development and, even there, the

away from this tj’pe. Lufthansa has had a number of diesel-engined transports in service and

recent trend has been considerable

of this plan,

found that maintenance costs ran high; original cost as well as

increased rapidly and by Nov. 1939 there were 29,513 licensed pilots in the United States. About the same time, the new European war brought large-scale construction of air-

weight exceeded that of the gasoline engine, and local overheating troubles were encountered. Just before the war disrupted tech-

the cost of the ground schooling.

Under the impetus

flight instruction

nical

news sources,

interest in mili-

practically solved.

tary aviation in the United States. All of these factors combined

sufficient to offset

produce a very distinct “boom” in aircraft construction in the United States as well as in the countries at war. Technical Development. ^Rapid progress continued through

sizes

craft in the warring countries

and caused renewed

to

—

1939 in most branches of aeronautics.

The renewed

interest in ro-

tating ning aircraft (which began several years ago) continued,

and the U.S. Post

Office

awarded a contract for e.xperimental use

of autogiros to carry mail between the roof of Philadelphia Post

and Camden airport. Service under this contract began in summer of 1939 and has been operated successfully to date. Aeroplanes stUl increase in size, and among the large transport

Office

the

types recently built are the Douglas, Boeing, Junkers, and Short

When the war began in 1939, Latecoere was developing for transoceanic use a tremendous flyBrothers craft already mentioned. ing boat, which

was reported

to weigh 143,0001b.,

firms have investigated the possibilities of

1938, tin,

still

and several

larger types.

In

Pan American obtained from Douglas, Consolidated, Mar-

and Sikorsky, bids on long-range

fljring

boats to carry roo

passengers but, to Jan. 1940, had not yet placed any orders for these.

Consolidated carried

its

studies even farther,

by

investigat-

ing possible size limits, and its engineers reported as possible a

12,000 h.p. aeroplane to carry 300 passengers, a crew of 30, and weigh about 400,000 pounds. Others made studies of possible

to

speed limits, which seem to indicate that present racing speeds are close to the theoretically possible limits without

ary advances in aerodynamics.

The

some

revolution-

U.S. National Advisory

mittee for Aeronautics, in particular,

Com-

working up>on the problem of developing a wing form that would increase present theoretically possible speeds.

Military craft are already being built

for which speeds of as

much

sorship prevents

detailed

being available.

more

is

as 435 m.p.h. are claimed, but cenand authentic information from

In transport, however, such performance

is

was claimed that these problems had been Fuel economies of the diesel have not been

it

other objections and lack of diesels in large has been another factor contributing to their decline in

Aircooled gasoline engines have now reached 2,000 h.p. and have thus far surpassed what was believed to be the practical limit a few years ago. In the past few years, a twospeed supercharger was produced by the Wright Corporation, the primary intent being to provide moderate supercharging for takeoff and full supercharging for high altitudes. favour.

in size

—^Aluminium

Components and Accessories.

alloy, steel-and-

aluminium alloy, and all-steel, have almost completely superseded wood-and-metal in aeroplane construction, excepting for small craft and some special cases of larger ones. Retractable landing gears have become practically standard in transport types and

AVIATION, CIVIL

80 Domesfic and Foreign Air Transporf Traffic

Traffic Statistics

of U.S.A. Air Routes

of the Two Leading International Air Transport Systems Passenger miles flown in year

Passenger-miles

Passenger-miles Foreign (U.S.A.) Routes

Domestic Routes Monthly Arerage

Monthly Average

Pan American

1,644,806 1,127,183 i,626#149 2, 108^997 3,284^078 3,888,660 4,666,983 6,085,437 6,486,409

27,500,000 41,009,280 53,265,844 66,661,462 85,776,389 87,636,601 105,400,000!

7,001,216 8,870,200 10,586,566 16,124,343 15,654,886 26,158,792 36,311,688 39,716,930 46,493,272 57,167,000* •

Airways*

7,97S,o^>o*

Last few months of year estimated.

some recent designs provide a nosing over

when too much

third wheel in the front to prevent

is applied to the brakes. “Feathering” propellers have been developed by Ratier in France,

pressure

and by Hamilton and Curtiss in the United States the Hamilton propellers have been installed on some United Air Lines trans;

ports, being thus the first to find their ice.

way

into commercial serv-

These propellers have several advantages. By adjustment of

the blade angle to suit the operating condition, climbing rate

improved and economy

is

bettered

at

nearly

all

speeds.

is

In

multiple-engined craft flying with one engine “dead,” performance is

improved, as the blades of the “dead” propeller can be set to

the “no thrust” position and

its

resistance decreased.

Some

of

the latest propellers can be turned to “reverse” position, per-

mitting use of the engine power to

make

a short stop after

20.228.000 22.411.000 30.825.000 27.921.000 35.396.000 40,000, oooj See note

AU Pan American figures recalculated since last year. Estimated on basis of first nine months. J tPiehminary calculation. Note:-~Imperial Airways flew 8,743.856 passenger-miles in first three months of loio. Drastic changes resuUmg from war effects preclude estimate of total for entire year. causing the reflection.

Demonstrations made

in the latter part

of 1938 showed the sensitivity and accuracy of the device to be almost uncanny. Every change in terrain below, is faithfully

shown, even to the extent of indicating clearance over passed in the flight.

structures

De-icing equipment, which was developed in the United States a few years ago, and which has been regulation equipment on airliners there for some time, is now receiving world-wide acceptance. For a time, experiments with ice-preventive pastes were conducted in England and on some continental European airlines, but these have not proved as efficient as the mechanical de-icers. Icing of wings is serious, because it destroys lift by adding dead weight and affecting the aerodynamic efficiency of the wing, as well as interfering with the free operation of control surfaces.

landing.

A new

bi-

type of homing compass was produced by Sperry in

Many

expedients have been tried but none has been so successful

1938. This has an index finger which points directly toward any

as the

method

radio station

upon which the apparatus

is

tuned, thus leaving the

pilot free to use his earphones for other messages.

does not require radiobeacons as

it

The

device

can be arranged for tuning in

on a broadcasting station. Probably the most important ment development of recent years is the “terrain clearance

instru-

indica-

on the radio reflection principle, and which has been under development for several years. Its perfection was announced during 1938 by the Bell Telephone Laboratories and United Air Lines. The apparatus emits a radio wave and measures tor,” operating

the time required for

its reflection,

indicate directly the

number

the dial being calibrated to from the object

of feet distant

Normally, these bags

surface and, being treated with an

of ice particles in the

first place.

oil,

lie flat

upon

they retard the

If the formation

the wing collection

is persistent,

the pilot brings into operation' an apparatus which automatically inflates and deflates the bags at intervals, thus breaking loose any ice particles as rapidly as formed. For use on propellers, other apparatus has been devised to throw a liquid out on the blades

to prevent ice

Records.'

from adhering.

—^The year

1939 witnessed several new

speed record for aeroplanes was moved to a new

records.

The

high in April,

Wendel flew for a short distance at the rate of 469 Germany. Wes Carroll and Clyde Schlieper moved the maximum time in flight up to 726 hours, picking up fuel in cans,

when

m.p.h.

NINETEEN-FOOT PRESSURE TUNNEL of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at Langley Field, Va,, shown for the first time May 2 , 1939, to a visiting group of scientists

of applying inflatable rubber coverings to the lead-

ing edge of wings.

Fritz in-

Above: NEWEST DOUGLAS AIRLINER, the DC-5 on a with one motor cut out Right:

COMPARTMENT

in the

test flight In

“Yankee Clipper/’ transatlantic

March 1939

flying

boat of

Pan American Airways Below:

BOEING CLIPPER,

the plane used on Pan American Airways' transat-

lantic passenger service, inaugurated June 28,

1939

;

AVIATION, MILITARY — BACTERIOLOGY

82

vice-admiral in 1929, and admiral in 1934; in Feb. 193S he was named first sea lord and chief of naval staff. Illness forced

him

to retire

May

17,

1939 and he died

shortly

thereafter, on July 1 5.

Bucon uuuuii.

on North America during the war one Both will be draivn largely, if not

is

other wheat.

bacon; the

entirely,

from

Canada. Soon after the outbreak of war the British Food Ministiy asked the Canadian Government to provide for definitive de-

bacon weekly, and production of bacon was at once increased greatly in the Dominion. September i prices of Canadian Wiltshire sides were Sis. per cwt. in England, but this price was later advanced to gss. to cover a rise of 33% in cargo rates, liveries of

in insurance

and the depreciation of the pound

sterling in terms

of Canadian currency.

Whether the United the United

States

may

Kingdom depends on

be drawn on to ship bacon

to

the ability of the Scandinavian

countries and Holland to maintain shipments. The Grocer, London, printed an unconfirmed report early in the war that Germany had agreed with Denmark not to interfere with shipments to the

United Kingdom

if,

in return, certain supplies

were provided

the

Reich. These are contingencies which affect possible rationing

of

bacon and hams in Britain, where food control was established immediately on the declaration of war and all bacon stocks requisitioned by the Government. In the World War (1914-18) governmental food control was not established until the middle of the

Under the Ottawa agreement

third year of the war.

of seven

years ago Canada was allowed an export quota to Britain equivalent to 50,000 hogs a year, but the nearest approach to that

quota was 35,000 in 1937, with shipments steadily through 1938 and until the beginning of war in 1939.

The

declining

highest monthly production of sliced bacon in the United

was recorded Aug. 1939, when 27,289,03slb. were proThe second highest monthly production was 24,928, 6651b. Sept. 1939, according to the United States meat inspection

States

duced.

SPHERICAL FREE-FLIGHT WIND TUNNEL tee for Aeronautics,

first

of the National Advisory 2, 1939

Commit-

shown publicly on May

in

Production in the United States of

service.

during their flight near Long Beach, highest altitude ever attained in 193s

when

by man

Calif., in Oct.

1939-

The

the one established

is still

Capts. Orvil Anderson and Albert Stevens of the

II

sliced

bacon

for the

241,011,9691b. in 1939 and Passing of the amendment to the United

months ending September 30 was

215,065,2961b. in 1938. States Neutrality act interfered with shipments of meat to the

ascended to 72,395ft. in a special stratosphere balloon. Gliders, or motorless aeroplanes, have continued to provide surprises in recent years. A non-stop glide of 5ohr. and 26min. was

United Kingdom since other than American ships had to be (S. 0 R.) found to carry the shipments. (See also Hogs.)

made by A. Bodecker and K. H. Zander in a two-seater glider in Germany in 1938 and O. Klepikova, a Russian woman, established

Dantorinlnmi DdClCrlUlOgyi

a record of 46smi. in one flight in 1939.

types of disease germs.

U.S.

Army

(See also Air Forces; Airports; Public

ing; Aviation and Mosquitoes

Health Engineer-

Gasoline; Railroads; United (A. Bl.)

States: Aviation.)

.

scribed

which

Aviation, Military:

Air Forces; Blockade; European

see

Aircraft; see also ' under various

countries.

Azerbaijan S.S.R.:

see

Union of Soviet

Socialist Repub-

lics.

Azores, The:

see

Portuguese Colonial Empire.

Backhouse, Sir Roger Roland Charles ^939!

^^

of ish sea lord, was born November 24, the fourth son (a twin) the at Navy British the joined Sir Jonathan E. Backhouse. He age of 12 and while still a youth became an expert in gunne^.

He

served throughout the World

commanded

a battle cruiser.

of naval ordnance.

War and

From 1920

He was promoted

at the end of hostilities was director

to 1922 he

to rear admiral in 1925?

in the soil

which

is

capable of killing certain

The micro-organism which he

has de-

a Gram-positive staining, spore-bearing, aerobic

bacillus

capable of disintegrating the living

positive microbial species.

may War; Munitions of War:

is

is

Recently Dubos has discovered a bacterium

cells of

many Gram-

Several of the Gram-positive species

be seen to disintegrate

when incubated with

the killing

White mice are protected with this agent against infection with large numbers of virulent pneumococci. The bactericidal agent can be obtained in an active form free of protein. Mutation among strains of the virus of tobacco-mosaic disease has been brought about by plating out on the leaves of Nicotiam glutinosa. This method of isolating strains has brought further agent.

evidence of the high degree of variability of tobacco-mosaic virus. Cultivable filterable micro-organisms have been isolated which many of the properties of bacteria and in addition some

have

These organisms have been isolated from sesamples of London sewage by fractional ultrafiltration and properties of viruses.

lected colony sub-culture.

The

particles,

oculated into a suitable medium, can a typical culture.

when separated and

initiate

in-

the development of

found to be Infantile paralysis (poliomyelitis) virus has been

BADMINTON — BALANCE OF TRADE more

readily isolated

A

the nasopharynx.

from the

stools of

human

patients than

from

common may excrete

carrier state appears to exist in the

mild abortive cases. In convalescence these patients

the virus in the stools for three weeks after their brief illness,

which practically puts them in the

class of “healthy carriers.”

Several strains of a virus present in the lungs of apparently nor-

mal three

to four

weeks old Swiss mice have been

when

causes a fatal pneumonia in mice

isolated.

It

inoculated intranasally

under light ether anaesthesia, but does not produce an apparent infection when injected by other routes. Some normal human sera possess the capacity to neutralize the \drus. This work is of great importance in that one

when studying occurring mouse virus

must be very

other viruses in the mouse, that natural

sure,

Bacteria-like bodies found in the alimentary canal of insects

Certain of these Rickettsiae

called Rickettsiae.

are responsible for cosmopolitan diseases such as typhus fever.

A

by Davis and Cox in Montana, U.S., from the Rocky Mountain wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni. It was found that this agent survives in and is transmitted by nymphal and adult D. andersoni which have ingested the virus in the larval stage; it survives through the eggs deposited by infected females and is transmitted by the progeny. A description of this Rickettsia-like infectious agent is given by Cox. This agent was found capable of causing an infection in a laboratory worker which resembled “Q” fever of Australia. The filter

passing agent was recovered

Australian disease

is

an acute

and Mrs. Dalsgard and Miss Olsen in the women’s doubles title went to T. H. Boyle and J. L. Rankin of Ireland. In the ladies’ singles, Mrs. W. R. Walton, of Toronto, won the title. That Canada is making rapid strides in the game was shown in the Canadian Open (amateur and professional) when George Goodwin (pro) of Ottawa won the singles title, and Paul and Jim Snyder (amateurs) of Waterloo, Ont., won

men’s

singles,

The men’s

doubles.

the doubles crown.

Dohomac Ddlldllldaf

(J.

illness

with a febrile period of from

24 days and occurs chiefly among workers in abattoirs and among dairy farmers. More recent evidence indicates that the Montana, U.S., disease and Australian “Q” fever are closely 7 to

related infections.

—

Bibliography. Rene J. Dubos, “Studies on a Bactericidal Agent Extracted from a Soil Bacillus,” Jour. Expcr. Med. (July 1939 ): L- 0 Kunkel, “Virus Slutations,” Third International Congress for Jlicrobiology, New York, Abstracts of Communications (1939); W. J. Elford, “Cultivable Filterable Jlicro-Organisms from London Sewage,” Ibid.; John R. Paul, Alfred J. Vegnec, and James D. Trask, “The Clinical Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis,” Ibid.; G. E. Davis and H. R. Cox, “A Fiiter-Passing Infectious Agent Isolated from Ticks. Isolation from D. andersoni. Reactions in Animals and Filtration Experiments,” Pub. Health Repts. (Dec. 30, 1938); H. R. Cox, “A Filter-Passing Infectious Agent Isolated from Ticks. Description .

of the Organism and Cultivation Experiments,” Pub. Health Repts. (Dec. 30, 193S); R. R. Parker and G. E. Davis, “A Filter-Passing Infectious Agent Isolated from Ticks. Transmission by D. andersoni,” Pub. Health Repts. (Dec. 30, 193S): R. E. Dyer, “A Filter-Passing Infectious Agent Isolated from Ticks. Human Infection,” Pub. Health Repts. (Dec. 30, 1938); R. E. Dyer, “Similarity of Australian ‘Q’ Fever and a Disease Caused by an Infectious Agent Isolated from Ticks in Montana,” Pub. Health Repts. (July 7, 1939). (G. M. Da.)

^ British colony and island group east and south-east of

Florida;

language,

English;

UdUllliniUn.

capital,

Nassau

(pop. 19,756); governor. Sir C. C. F. Dundas; area 4,375 square miles. The population (1931 census: 59,828) was officially estiat 67,720 in 1939. The Government is administered by an appointed governor and legislative council and an elected assembly.

Outbreak of the European war

Bahamas by

in Sept.

Badminton not only attracted more general

in-

but it also brought together more spectators for exhibition games, as well as 200 ranking players from all parts of the United States for the third annual na-

1939 was met in the

on a war footing, imposing a censorship, and appointing a food control committee to legislative action putting the colony

regulate prices and food distributing.

The colony has

cable and

In 1939 a modem dialtelephone system (costing nearty £70,000) was completed at Nassau. Tri-weekly air communication (daily in winter) is maintained with Miami. Normally, five steamship lines call regularly, but 23owing to disruption by war conditions, the Government was comradio communication with the outside.

Nov. 1939, to subsidize a United States

line to maintain In a further effort to encourage tourist trade, passport regulations were waived. The tourist trade, valued at £1,000,000 annually, is the most important factor in the

pelled, in 24-

service

through the winter.

colony’s economy, and, with increasing real estate investments, offsets the unbalance of trade. In 1938 imports were £1,138,839 and exports (including £64,688 re-exports), £213,135. Imports were derived: from the British Empire, 42-32% (Great Britain, 8%; Canada, 11-48%); United States, 44-76%. The British Empire took 57-74% of e.xports (Great Britain, 28-29%; Canada, 38%), the United States, 23-12%, the Netherlands, 9-37%. Imports are flour, meats, and other foodstuffs, and miscellaneous manufactured goods. In 1938 sponges comprised 60% of domestic exports, tomatoes (exclusively to Canada), 17%; lumber, 6%; crawfish, 4-5%. Hemp production was less than 1% in 1938 (4% in 1937). These products, along with fish for local consumption, constitute the chief products. The monetary unit is the pound sterling. Education is compulsory. In 1938 there were 119 elementary schools (including 57 Government-aided private schools),

with an enrolment of 12,896. Education

Dorimintnn

B. P.)

mated

strains are eliminated.

and arachnids are

83

5%

is allotted

of the colony’s budget (£30,037 in 1938).

appro.rimately (L.

W.

Be.)

terest during igjg

badminton championships, held in New York for the first Markham, a young American professional of New York, took the measure of Jack Purcell, of Canada, the long-standing star of the English-speaking badminton world. Following in the footsteps of many stellar California netmen, young Dave Freeman, of Pasadena (the ig38 national junior tennis champion in both singles and doubles) survived a three-day barrage of shuttlecocks to win the final round of the men’s singles national championship. In doing so he dethroned Walter Kramer, of Detroit, who has held the championship since its inception in ig37. Hamilton Law and Richard Yeager were the best among the

Bahrein Islands:

see British Empire.

tional

time.

Bill

doubles contenders for the national doubles

title.

Among women

badminton experts, Miss Mary YTiittemore, of Boston, succeeded Mrs. Del Barkhuff as the national titleholder. Europe.

—^The

All-England

championship, unoflncially repre-

senting world ranking, sponsored

its

36th annual competition in

iQSg, with the Danish entrants top winners

—

^Tage

Madsen

in the

Baker,

Thomas Stookham

at Aberdeen, Md.,

and was educated at Johns Hopkins university and the University of Leipzig. He was associate professor of German at Johns Hopkins from 1S95 to igoo and lecturer on German literature there from 1900 to 1908. During this time also he was music critic of The Baltimore Sun. From igog to 1919 he was director of the Jacob Tome institute at Point Deposit, Maryland. In 1919 he became secretary of the Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh, and was president from 1922 to 1935. An authority on scientific methods of coal production and research, he was interested also in international affairs and lectured mdely in the U.S. and Europe. He died at Pittsburgh April 7.

Baker Island: see South Sea axd Equatorial Islands. Balance of Trade: see Exports and Imports; International Trade.

BALKAN ENTENTE — BANK FOR INTERNAT. SETTLEMENTS Ddindll PntontD LlllClIlCi

Balkan Entente

Rsilifiin

is

an instrument of

co-operation of Greece, Rumania, Turkey,

and Yugoslavia for the maintenance of peace in the Balkan penIt was primarily aimed against the revisionist claims of Bulgaria which demanded the return of territory lost to Rumania, Greece, and Yugoslavia. With the rapid deterioration of the in-

insula.

ternational situation since 1938, efforts were made to turn the Balkan Entente into a closer alliance of the four Balkan countries,

so as to oppose a united front to Italy into the

Balkan peninsula.

any expansion of Germany or this end the co-operation of

To

Bulgaria was sought. The Italian occupation of Albania in the spring of 1939 increased the fears of the Balkan countries lest Italy might use the newly acquired foothold in the peninsula for exercising strong pressure upon Greece and Yugoslavia. The conclusion of a firm alliance was, however, hindered

by the mutual jealousies among the Balkan countries themselves, by their unwillingness to meet at least some of Bulgaria’s demands, and by their inability to face courageously by common action a possible future danger to the security and existence of

all

of them.

To

become effective, the Balkan Entente would have to be transformed into a bloc of countries committed to promises of mutual and automatic assistance. Whereas Rumania, feeling herself most threatened by German pressure and by territorial demands on the part of the Soviet Union, of Hungary, and of Bulgaria, favoured such a development, Yugoslavia, although bound to Rumania by a defensive pact in case of attack on the part of Hungary or Bulgaria, was opposed to any tightening of her obligations. The latter part of 1939 saw an easing of the tension between Italy and Greece by the exchange of formal letters between the two Governments on November 2, confirming friendly relations and their desire to contribute to the preservation of peace in the southern Balkans.

On

the other hand, the active entrance of the

Union into European politics on the side of Germany inRumania and in Turkey, both of which feared possible Soviet demands on their territories. Bulgaria, where many of the younger elements have Communist and many of the older politicians Pan-Slav sympathies, both centring on Soviet Russia, felt herself encouraged by Russian designs upon the Balkans. Hungary, which pressed her demands for Transylvania upon Rumania with increased insistence, was restrained, however, by her fear of any Soviet advance along the Carpathian mountains and sought Italy’s assistance, both in her claims against Rumania and in her protective measures against the Soviet Union. Italy and Hungary tried to win Yugoslavia to their side and to disintegrate, by an Italo-Hungarian-Yugoslav alliance, the Balkan Entente. Count Ciano, the Italian foreign minister, expressed in his speech of December 16 Italy’s opposition to the formation of a Balkan bloc. Great Britain, France, and Turkey Soviet

creased the tension in

favoured the formation of a Balkan bloc with a stabilizing influence on the peace in southeastern Europe, but at the end of i939 the Balkan Entente seemed no nearer to this goal than in 1938

and was

in danger of undergoing the

same

fate as her counterpart,

the Little Entente.

Ballet: see Dance.

Ballroom Dancing:

see

Dance.

miles. metropolis of Maryland. Area 91-93 square DdiliniOrCy Population (1939) 868,990 of which 173,482 were eighth Negroes. Total population 1938, 862,059. The city ranks thouper rate Birth in population among cities of the U.S. rate Death 15-3. months) (12 months) (ii 14-6, 1938 sand 1939

p uj

12-3. 1939 (11 months) i2-i, 1938 (12 months) R. WalHistory. Mayor Howard W. Jackson and comptroller O’Connell was ter Graham were re-elected to office; Richard C.

—

elected president of the City Council. All terms expire May 1943. A loan of $2,000,000 for Schools and one of $1,000,000 for completing the municipal airport were approved by the electorate but

proposed loans for the extension of sewers and paving failed of indorsement. A system of permanent registration of city voters

was inaugurated. Education,—-Enrolment in public elementary and high (1939) was 112,050 of which 22,190 were Negroes; for

schools

1938 the

were 116,234 and 3°, 3 7° respectively. Roman Catholic elementary and high schools had 35,248 pupils, an increase of

figures

2,204.

The number Finances.

of students in private schools was 3,258. indebtedness (Nov. 1939) $184,263,579,

—Bonded

(Nov. 1938) $182,081,579. Appropriation for 1940 from the tax is $51,018,936, an increase of $2,208,579. Approved expenditures for special purposes from existing and tentative loans raised the total amount for 1940 to $61,759,097. Taxable basis 1940 levy

$2,225,091,796, a decrease of $408,561. Tax rate 1940 $2.80 per $100, an increase of 15 cents; $1.10 represents debt service; 79% of the city’s debt has been created since May 1919 during the

terms of two mayors.

Funds available for public works $5,500,000. Trade and Manufactures. Foreign trade for the first nine months of 1939 amounted to exports $62,857,959, (same period

— —

1938, $63,051,924); imports $46,245,131, (1938, $50,123,501). value of manufactured products in the Baltimore industrial

The

area in 1937 in 1,835 plants was $925,760,636. Disruption of ocean

DdlldlldOi

tion of

in

the

consequent to the declara1939 interfere with banana

traffic

war did not

shipments as severely as

(Ed. El.)

in

World War

or to the extent

banana growers had anticipated. The Swedish fruit market was without bananas for two weeks, but the authorities then arranged for two Norwegian steamers to bring in shipments every 14 days to Gothenburg. In Jamaica banana growers early in the war suspended spraying for

leaf spot, under the misapprehension that

war would so greatly curtail the market the expense of spraying was useless. Spraying, however, was resumed as shipping continued to be fairly regular. More disastrous than war, to Jamaica banana plantations, was the violent wind and rain storm of Nov. 3> 1939)

trees

Official reports said 75% of the Unofficial estimates, through consular re-

fbe worst since 1903.

were damaged.

were destroyed and between 18,000,000 and 20,000,000 plants blown down. Banana shipments from Jamaica from Jan. i to Oct. 21, 1939, were 17,254,091 stems, compared to 20,361,708 stems for the full calendar year of 1938. Shipments from Guatemala the first nine months of 1939 period m 7,702,741 stems, compared to 7,598,756 in the same ports, said 2,000,000 stems

eight 1938. Costa Rican shipments were 2,345,714 stems the first Haiti 1938in months of 1939 and, correspondingly, 1,879,324

shipped 2,029,767 stems the year ending Sept. 30, 1939, first six 1,363,176 the preceding year. Panama shipments the storms from damage Heavy months of 1939 were 2,949,738 stems. of the in August curtailed subsequent shipments. The 1939 crop consular in stems Dominican Republic was placed at 1,000,000 B.)

reports.

Bankers Association, American:

see

American Bankers

Association.

Bank

for International Settlements.

tension in Eu-

the autumn of i939

rope culminating in the outbreak of war in the mam naturally affected the^bank’s activities and provided shcc balance explanation for the reduction in the total of the

BANKING

85

from 606,500,000 Swiss gold francs at the end of the fiscal year on March 31, 1939, to 459,600,000 Swiss gold francs at the end Nov. 1939. As central banks for security reasons proceeded to

of

convert exchange balances into gold or had to employ these balances for payments abroad, the amounts which could be entrusted to the

Bank

for International Settlements

on deposit ac-

count necessarily shrank. The volume of transactions handled by

—^mostly purchases and

bank

the

sales of gold for central

same degree have continued

has, however, not diminished in the

The

sheet total.

by

especially

bank’s services

central banks in smaller countries,

banks

as the balance to be utilized

who from time

to

time must procure currencies to meet foreign payments or wish to convert currency balances into gold or request the bank to transfer gold for their account from one centre to another. of

its

Bank

statutes the

Under

Art. 37

for International Settlements can only

bank

in the

market con-

cerned does not object, which ensures that the

Bank

for Interna-

carry out transactions to which the central

tional Settlements

must act

in

conformity with the central bank

policy pursued in the different countries.

The outbreak of war naturally brought to an end business between belligerent countries as well as other operations prohibited by Trading with the Enemy Acts and similar war restrictions. Although the meetings of the board of the bank were suspended in autumn of 1939, the president, as the chief executive at the seat of office in Basle, kept in touch with the various members of the

the board individually as to the main lines for the conduct of the bank while the war lasts. In the early spring of 1939 Dr. J. W. Beyen intimated to the board his intention to resign as president and in June Mr. McKittrick, a United States citizen with long experience of banking in various European countries, was appointed his successor, beginning his term of office on Jan. i, 1940.

The result of business operations for the financial year ending March 31, 1939 showed a profit of 8,544,000 Swiss gold francs compared with 9,012,000 Swiss gold francs

A 6%

cial year.

in the preceding finan-

dividend in gold has again been distributed and

made to reserves, which on March were 24,300,000 Swiss gold francs compared with a paid

the usual allocation has been 31, 1939

up

capital of 125,000,000 Swiss gold francs.

(P. Jn.)

Continued growth in deposits occurred during 1939 banking system of the United States, chiefly due to further large imports of gold to the U.S. from war-tom Europe, and to continued financing of the Government which again operated at a substantial deficit. The number of banks in opera-

Donlrinir

DallMllg>

in the

from the previous year, standing at 15,082 on 1939, the latest date for which complete figures are as against 15,287 on June 30, 1938. Deposits, however,

tion varied slightly

June 30, available,

THE REICHSBANK

after

Hiller's

June 16, 1939, as seen by Russell

assumption of complete financial authority of

The Los Angeles Times

Loans and investments increased during the first half of 1939 but the rates of interest earned on them decreased. This trend was reversed temporarily during the second half, with the growth in volume of commercial loans in August and the outbreak of the European war in September. Considerable selling of Government obligations occurred in September, resulting in lower prices and higher yields, but such holdings were replaced later in the year when total holdings of Governments by member banks again stood at or near record levels. While most of these holdings were of short maturities, there was a tendency to lengthen the average maturity as reinvestments were made. The relative proportion of shorter term obligations was greater in New York city banks than in reserve city banks and greater in reserve city banks than in country banks. Taking direct and fully guaranteed obligations together, the proportion of those with maturities of 5 years or was 56% at New York city banks, 36% at reserve city banks, including Chicago, and 32% at country banks.

less to the total

Earnings of

member banks

of the Federal Reserve System

stood at $55,992,000,000 an increase of $3,797,000,000 over the

showed an increase for the year ended on June

shown a year earlier. The most important of the total number of banks are those which are members of the Federal Reserve System, whether National or State banks or trust companies. These numbered 6,330 \vith deposits of $38,027,000,000 and constitute the backbone of

sharp

The growth in deposits referred above occurred primarily in this system, which accounted for a gain of $3,281,000,000. Reserves of member banks with the Federal Reserve banks reached an all-time high during the year, excess reserves on Oct. 18, 1939 standing at $5,509,000,000. At the same time gold stock in this country had accumulated to the recordbreaking figure of $17,000,000,000. (For activities of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Treasury in the field of money and credit control, see Federal Reserve System.)

exceeded total losses and depreciation for the first time since 1936. Trust department earnings, commissions, and service charges on deposit accounts continued to be considerable factors, amounting

figure of $52,195,000,000

the commercial banking system. to

The

rate of business activity as reflected in the turnover of

bank deposits did not keep pace with the increase in

deposits.

lift

30, 1939, due to the in earnings for the last half of the period. An analysis of

these earnings shows that current operating earnings and expenses were relatively stable and that the increase resulted primarily from larger profits on sales of securities and smaller charge-offs on loans. Recoveries, profits on securities sold, and similar items

to about

14%

of total current earnings.

be somewhat increased by an amendment Act which provides that all member banks wiU be subject to the Act after Jan. i, 1940. Following the outbreak of the European war in September, President Roosevelt proclaimed, under the Neutrality Act of 1937, that a state of war existed between France, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom and associated Commonwealths, thus prohibiting

Future expenses

will

to the Social Security

the extension of certain credits to these nations.

However, the

BANK OF ENGLAND

86

President authorized the exemption of ordinary commercial credits of a character customarily employed in peace time commerce. The

Federal Reserve Board authorized advances to non-member banks

on Government obligations at par at the rates prevailing for member banks. The banks did not experience any drain of funds and no demand developed for such advances. Legislation affecting banking included the extension of the period during which direct obligations of the United States may be used as collateral security for Federal Reserve notes to June

ments, banks in European countries generally showed increases deposits. The Bank of France increased its gold holdings due

in

to

repatriation of foreign funds of French citizens under the war act

further easing credit. tion increased in

The

(See

Bank of France.) The

most European

note

circula-

countries.

neutral countries feared the effect of blockades.

Scandi-

navian countries ended the year threatened by Russia’s war on Finland. The Central European countries were concerned with the British blockade of both exports and imports of Germany. Germany placed the Reichsbank under the unrestricted sovereignty of

30, 1941. Congress also repealed the requirement that all State banks having average deposits of $1,000,000 or more in 1941, or thereafter, must become members of the Federal Reserve System in order to have their deposits insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. This Governmental institution now in-

increased from

sures 13,569 banks.

flationary tendencies were evident in the use of “tax certificates”

The Trust Indenture Act

of 1939, approved August 3, con-

tains far-reaching requirements, limitations,

and

the Reich and passed numerous special measures to e.xtend to industry to prosecute the war.

Rm.

It is

under which certain securities are issued and foreign commerce and through the mails. not yet known to what extent the banks and trust companies

who

customarily act as trustee of bond issues under such inden-

000,000 in 1937 to

Rm.

20,000,000,000 to

Rm.

money in

Exchange Rates; Financial Review; tual.)

from Rm.

(E. B. L.)

wholly as a

result of the

undoubtedly will be required to meet the increased duties placed on such trustees which will in turn require the imposition of in-

shows, the year opened with the fiduciary issue at £230

quent requests for congressional action to provide stabilization of monetary control, the Federal Reserve Board concluded that prices cannot be controlled by changes in the supply

Land Banks.) new development affecting the British banking system in 1939 was the outbreak of war in September, the shock of which was lessened by preparations induced by the failure of the Munich Pact. After some recession in mid(See also Bonds; Federal

—^The

sponding contraction in the total note

was written up to 1485.51!. per ounce, and its total value from £126 to £226 millions. This last increase permitted the fiduciaiy issue to be fixed at £300 millions, but the old power of varying the fiduciary issue by administrative action was retained. On September 3 war broke out, and it was necessary to con-

proved industrial conditions only partly due to the outbreak of war in September. The Bank of Canada continued its cheap money policy, which was affected temporarily by the shock of war. The first operation of the Government in war finance was under-

centrate

instances. Deposits increased

were still preponderantly in investments, which increased during the year from $1,409,000,000 to $1,507,000,000 while com-

assets

fell off

from $986,000,000 to $957,000,000

in August,

recovering later.

—

the British gold reserves in the hands of the Exchange Legislation

passed, and since then the

to

this

Bank has only

effect

issue

was

from £300

raised

to

£580

ending of capital in 1939, gold reserves decreasing in the year With 1,120,000,000. gl. Oct. 31, 1939, from gl. 1,461,000,000 to requireincreased activity of business and the financing of war

quickly,

The

fiduciaiy

millions.

•

Bank of England (£ million)

Mar.

Aug. 30

Sept. 6

DctC

563

5S0 549

580

Jan. 4

Jan. 11

.

SS6 488

526 473

326 230

126

226

263

....

400

300

300

.... ....

19 18

12

31

15

47

136 37

no

90 39

41

40

I

Issue dept.

Note Note

issue circulation

Gold Fidudar>' issue

Banking dept.

Public deposits Bankers’ deposits Other deposits

.

.

.

.

.

21 1

526 47S

529

Govt, securities. Discounts &: advances Other securities. .

.

.

,

37

71

96

99

113

124

115

.

49

6 22

35

35

33

49

34

3a-S

21.3

18.3

27-9

Rescr\’e

69

“Ptopottioiv”

35.6

19.5

22

.

\’alu3tion (per oz.

fine)

sS°

.

22 22 51

Gold

*

sSo

36

to affect

Europe. International movements of funds continued outbreak banking in 1939, particularly just before and after the an experienced had which of war in September. The Netherlands, suffer a flight to countries the of was one influx of funds in 1938,

was

held a nominal amount

of gold to obviate a reduction in the note issue.

from $2,480,000,-

000 to $2,524,000,000 during the year ended Aug. 3r, 1939. with Earning further increases indicated during autumn war activity.

mercial loans

all

Equalization Account.

the form of a loan of $200,000,000 from the chartered banks on two-year Treasury Notes at 2%. The balances of the chartered banks with the Bank of Canada rose from $211,-

November in

some

London market gold price of the March i, when the Bank’s gold

at a price approximating the

day. This change took place on

—

earnings in

raised

statutory valuation of 845.1 id. per fine ounce of gold. Instead the Bank and the Treasury were empowered to value the Bank’s gold

bank deposits showed a gain for the 12 months ended October 31, from £2,256,000,000 to £2,327,000,000. Loans and securities showed an increase. (See Bank of England.) Canada. ^The forces of recovery at work in the previous year continued throughout 1939, aided by exceptional crops and im-

000,000 to $22r,ooo,ooo during the year ended Sept. 30, r939, while the gold reserve increased from $181,000,000 to $225,000,000. Note circulation rose from $175,000,000 to $212,000,000. The ten chartered banks reported a successful year with improved

issue, the fiduciary issue

from £230 to £400 millions. The ne.xt change came two months later. A new Currency and Bank Notes Act was passed, which inter alia abolished the old

was

principal

year, commercial

taken in

millions,

and with the Bank’s gold valued at 84x.ii«f. an ounce fine, a statutory price which had been in force for over a centurj’. During 1938, however, the British Exchange Equalization Account had sustained heavy gold losses, and so in the first week of 1939 it had to take over £200 millions of the Bank’s gold. This reduced the Bank’s gold from £326 to £126 millions. To prevent a corre-

to Feb. i,

prices through

Britain.

nf Ul Fnclnnil LllglallUi

war, 1939 witnessed several fundamental changes in the structure of the Bank of England. As the table

1940, the operation of the Clayton Act of 1935 prohibiting interlocking bank directorates. In a study presented in answer to fre-

Great

6,686.-

Savings Banks, Mu-

Rsnk DdllK

of money.

In-

(See also

tures will have to revise their practices, but considerable changes

The Federal Reserve Board postponed

deht

30,000,000,000.

circulation

and sold

creased fees.

credits

deficit of the

10,583,000,000 in Nov. 1939.

lating to trust indentures in interstate

yearly

Reich increased to a rate of about Rm. 15,000,000,000. Total

as currency, and increase in

restrictions re-

The average

84.5.

I id. 84J.

iiSj. ot ltd- 14SJ. 5d. 1581. 6d. i6Si. od.

Only £100,000

to £200,000.

_

BANK OF FRANCE- BAPTIST CHURCH The war naturally brought several other changes. On August 24 Bank rate was raised from 2% to 4%, this being the first change since 1932. The increase was a precautionary measure, designed to check war speculation and to force the City to put its affairs in order. The war also brought with it control over all foreign exchange transactions, and the Bank of England W'as made the

responsible for the administrative side of this work.

When

war emergency budget appeared at the end of Sepitself was a sufficient deterrent against any desire to speculate, and so the Bank rate was reduced to 3%, on September 27. A further reduction to 2% was made on October 25. It had been e.xpecfed that this second reduction would be delayed until the first war loan appeared, to provide a stimulus to the the

tember, this in

The authorities, however, desired to restore a regime of cheap and plentiful money, both to promote confidence and to keep down the cost of Government borrowing.

investor.

The war has

led to

some expansion

in the note circulation, espe-

Fear of the dislocation of business due to both the commercial banks and the public to hold more currency than usual. Evacuation and the payment of cially in the early days.

air-raids induced

As

reorganization.

in other

87

bankruptcy reorganization statutes,

the machinery of composition

is

utilized to

by

Commerce Commission and

the Interstate

Federal court,

it

is

found in Chapter

(the corporate reorganization section) and

Section 77 (the railroad reorganization section) of the Act. The latter section, under which progress was made toward completion

of long-pending proceedings, would in the so-called

itself

be extensively revised

Wheeler-Truman “Railroad Reorganization”

(S. 1869, 76th Congress, ist Session) -with

pediting sound railroad plans; the

bill

was passed by the Senate

May

1939, and at the turn of the year awaited further Congressional action. in

In the courts the more significant developments in bankruptc>' concerned themselves also with reorganizations. Thus, in Case

v.

Los Angeles Lumber Products Co., Ltd., decided Nov. 6, 1939, a new landmark in the law, Mr. Justice Douglas expressed the decision of the United States Supreme Court that “fair and equitable” reorganization plans under the bankruptcy statutes must

maintain an adequate reserve of notes in the banking department, while the banking department is also holding sufficient securities

Electric Co., 306 U.S. 307, the

latter,

Bill

an eye to further ex-

adhere to the historic equity doctrines of the

The

some scrutiny

the approval of the

lacking in other reorganization safeguards

X

the armed forces also increased the demand for currency. By November some of these influences had ceased and the circulation was back to £528 millions. The December growth was the normal seasonal movement. The fiduciary issue has been fixed enough to

to keep bankers’ deposits at a reasonably high level.

bind minorities to

acquiescence, but while the chapter subjects plans to

Boyd

case,

228 U.S.

482, and must exclude valueless interests except upon the basis of a contribution in

money

or money’s worth reasonably equivalent

&

Gas Supreme Court, by Mr. Justice

to the participation accorded them. In Taylor v. Standard

Roberts, held that a parent corporation’s claim against a wholly

owned subsidiary should be allowed

to participate in the latter’s

however, are subject to wide fluctuations, owing to the lack of complete synchronization between the heavy Treasury Bill pay-

plan of reorganization only in subordination to the publicly held

ments and maturities necessitated by war finance; still on the whole the Bank is maintaining an abundant supply of credit.

tion,

nf Frnnpp Ul ridlluCi

outbreak of war, the French financial

position

undera'ent a distinct

improvement during 1939. Confidence had been restored by the financial reforms of the autumn of 1938, and there was a marked repatriation of French funds and gold. The Bank of France benefited accordingly. In April and again in August 3,ooo,ooo,ooofrs. of gold were transferred from the reinforced resources of the French Exchange Fund to the gold reser\'’es of the Bank of France, making a total accretion of ro, 000, 000,000 francs. By August the

Bank

of France held 97,266,ooo,ooofrs. (£550,000,000 ster-

ling) of gold.

The war brought with

it

new problems. On

the outbreak of

mismanagement, and

faithless stewardship of the affairs of

the subsidiary by the parent. Again, in Pepper v. Litton, decided

Dec. 4, 1939, Mr. Justice Douglas implemented the powers of the bankruptcy courts as an instrument in the enforcement of fiduci-

(N. E. C.)

M

preferred stock of the subsidiary, because of the history of spolia-

war

general uncertainty and other causes were responsible for a growth

and also in additional borrowing by the from the bank. This last is shown by the growth in bills discounted and 30-day loans. As the war progressed, the French Government had to borrow from the bank, and a fresh class of provisional advances made its appearance, rising to i4,750,ooo,ooofrs. (£85,000,000 sterling) by the end of the

ary standards for corporate directors and dominant stockholders, in sustaining the

broad jurisdiction of such courts to examine the and to set aside claims violative of such

validity of all claims,

standards.

In the administrative sphere, too, the aspect of reorganization predominated, for in the year the Securities and Exchange Commission became a participant in more than a hundred corporate reorganizations under Chapter X, a function inaugurated under the amendatory Bankruptcy Act of 2938 in order to provide the courts and investors rsith impartial and expert advisory assistance, '\\ffiile the Commission’s concern was primarily with the fairness and feasibility of reorganization proposals, it

was

in addition a salutarj'

force in securing the compliance of parties with the law’s pro-

in the note circulation,

cedural requirements, and in affording a repository of informa-

public and financial circles

tion relating to the law’s operations.

year.

War

expenditure equally caused a further expansion in the

note circulation to i52,969,ooo,ooofrs. (£870,000,000 sterling)

by

the end of the year.

The

ratio of gold to sight liabilities

level of

remained at the adequate

58-0%.

In the

field of

bankruptcy proper the only notable development by the Attorney General of a

of the year was the appointment

committee to investigate the administration of the Bankruptcy’ Act, with Solicitor General Jackson as chairman and a ship representative of the Federal bench.

memberGovernment depart-

ments, and the law schools. This committee has undertaken the study of the operation and effect of the numerous procedural and substantive innovations

made

in the amendatory’

Bankruptcy Act

of 1938, with particular regard to the compensation of referees and other officers, to the lack of co-ordinated governmental super-

business failures on the wane in 1939, DalllVlU|Jluj« legislative activity in this field likewise subsided, and the year saw but one new chapter added to the Bankruptcy Act (Chapter XV; Public No. 242, 76th Congress, rst Session).

RsnltriinfPU

and commercial frauds genand to the burdens on the Federal judiciary entailed in the

vision of bankruptcy administration erally,

administration of insolvent estates.

{See also Railroads.) CJ.

N. F.)

Reflecting the continued plight of railroads, the chapter, which is

bond maturity e.xtensions and deemed not in need of thoroughgoing

to expire within a year, sanctions

interest reductions for roads

Baptists of America, totalling 10,548,are divided into two main

Rontict ua|juai Fhlirph unUIUIU 673 members,

BAR ASSOCIATION. AM ERIC AN — BASED ALL

88 bodies; the

first, three groups with 10,008,673 members; the second, fifteen miscellaneous^ groups with 540,000 members. In the first division the Southern Convention has 24,932 churches with

4,770,185 members; the National (coloured) 24,000 churches and 3,796,645 members; the Northern 7,569 churches and 1,471,788

members. The Southern

Convention (May 1939 ) concerning Interna“In view of the present confused and disturbed International Relations we pledge ourselves anew to the spirit of peace and to the cultivation of that spirit among our people and in our relation to all (Baptist)

tional Relations resolved:

other peoples.” They also declared: “Believing religious liberty to be not only an inalienable human right, but indispensable to human welfare, a Baptist must exercise himself to the utmost in the maintenance of absolute religious liberty for his Jewish neighbour, his Catholic neighbour, his Protestant neighbour,

and for everybody else.” The Northern (Baptist) Convention (June 1939 ) passed the following resolutions: “Whereas, war is utterly contradictory to the spirit and ideals of Christianity, carries with it destruction of spiritual and moral values . .

therefore, be

.

it

“Resolved, that we declare our emphatic opposition to the whole war system and all things related thereunto, furthermore, be it “Resolved, that we give our support to pacific means for settling international disputes and that as fundamental to this we work, for the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth based on righteousness and justice.”

One of the most significant gatherings was the meeting of the Congress of the Baptist World Alliance in Atlanta, Georgia, in July, attended by some 60,000 Baptists. Concerning peace and war the Congress, among other

resolutions, adopted the following:,

“It seems to us to be an important task for

all

the friends of

peace in the world to try to keep, strengthen, and guard the League of Nations, and to work for making the League a better instrument for the fellowship and co-operation between nations than it is at present. This should be done through needed reforms in a

human and

Christian spirit.

For

this

of utmost importance that, if possible,

purpose nations

all

bers of the League.”

evidently

it is

become mem-

(R. E. E. H.)

Bar Association, American: .see American Bar Association. Barbados: see West Indies, British. prices received by United States farmers for DdriCjf. barley advanced from 34.5 cents a bushel August 15 to

Dorlou

42.8 cents a bushel Sept. 15, 1939, as a result of the outbreak of war. The barley crop in 1939 in 22 leading countries was esti-

the International Institute of Agriculture as 1,135,-

mated by

^938. U.S.S.R. and China 332,ooobu., and 1,049, 9ii,ooobu. are omitted. Unofficial estimates placed the Russian crop at 340,-

(gaekwarsirsayajiraoiii)(j 8631939), Indkn pnnce and gaekwar of Baroda, was born on March lo of parents who were members of

Rarnria DdlUUd, Maharaia IVianaraja,

the less affluent branch of the State’s royal family.

In 1S74

Malhar Rao, was deposed after being tried for poisoning a British resident. The widow of Malhar Rao’s predecessor was asked to choose an heir from amohg the descendants of the original gaekwar, and her choice fell upon Sayaji Rao, then a lad of 12. He became maharaja in 1875 and was invested with full his predecessor,

in 1881. An enlightened ruler, he instituted many reforms in his small state such as the forbidding of infant marriages,

powers

the readjustment of the old systems of taxation, and the building of hospitals and industrial schools. He favoured British rule in

India and during the World

War made

gifts of approximately

3,300,000 rupees to Great Britain for war purposes. In iSSi Queen Victoria made him a Knight Grand Commander of the

Star of India and in 1919 he was awarded the Grand Cross of the order of the Indian Empire. He died at Bombay on Februaiy 6.

Barton, Oonald Clinton and was educated at Harvard, where he received his doctorate in 1914. After two years of teaching he was employed as a field geologist for an oil company. He became one of the nation’s leading geophysicists and authorities on the geology of petroleum. In 1939 he was elected president of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

He

Coll/Qtnro uuiLllul) OflIialUlC

died July 8 at Houston, Texas.

Italian patriot and

RQr7il

Among

BUREAU OF

Some of the other vitamins which had been knorni only by their physiologic effects in preventing certain specific pathologic changes, but which had not been obtained in pure form have now been purified and in part synthesized. Adermin, the rat antidermatitis

factor,

Be,

has been synthesized.

It

is

2-methyl-

3-hydroxy-4,s-bis (hydroxy-methyl) pyridine. Pantothenic acid, long recognized as a widely distributed yeast-growth stimulant,

has been found to be the chick antidermatitis factor. Vitamin K, the anti-haemorrhagic factor, has been found to be a naphtho-

K.: see California.

Polysaccharides.

U. S.

found to be catalytic agents and hence should be included under enzymes.

units.

the most widely distributed and best studied are starches,

glycogens, dextrines, and celluloses.

and yet they have different Hence these differences must complexity and structure of these giant

All of these are polymers of glucose

quinone derivative. A synthetic form, 2-methyl-i,4-naphthoquinone, is very effective in preventing haemorrhage in chicks kept on a deficient diet.

—

Metabolism, In the field of carbohydrate metabolism the importance of the interrelations between pituitary, pancreas, and adrenals

appreciated

is

more than ever and we

are no doubt on

physical and chemical properties.

the verge of some very important discoveries which

be due to differences in

profound bearing on the treatment of diabetes mellitus. The discovery that liver tissue contains an enzyme other than amylase which synthesizes glycogen from glucose or levulose and phos-

molecules.

Lignins are also large molecules which are polymers of small

The

units.

They

lignins are the non-cellulose constituents

are distinguished from the celluloses

sistance to solution

by strong

by

of wood.

their greater re-

and by the difference in the

acids

character of the units. Proteins.

—^X-ray

more accurate chemical

analyses,

and other physical measurements

confirm the view that protein molecules are very large poly-

mers of numerous amino acid units united by peptide It

is

linkings.

of particular interest to note that the earlier chemical

analysis of proteins in terms of

amino acid

concept that protein molecules are

units supports the

made up of larger units and made up of 288 amino acid

that these larger units are in general

molecules occurring in definite frequencies and orders.

This

is

also in part confirmatory of the cyclol theory.

—Enzymes have always been

Enzymes and Vitamins.

ered and found to be catalytic reagents which have the remarkable

manner

at

body temperatures. Inasmuch

produce profound

a

new

milestone in our progress in this

field.

use of labelled atoms in metabolism studies has been veiy

productive in confirming older views and in introducing new

shown that

six

hours after radioactive phosphorus in the form

of inorganic salts

is

fed to chickens

we

find radioactive phos-

The

phorus very widely distributed in the

tissues.

centration of this active phosphorus

found in the

and

heart,

some

in the

is

highest conliver, kidney,

bones and muscle, and least in the brain. is an exchange of phos-

This indicates the extent to which there

phorus between tissues and blood and thus indicates which tissues are most active. It is surprising to find bone more active than brain tissue. is the observation that tumour tissue appears same order of phosphorus metabolism activity as

Equally interesting consid-

property of speeding up certain chemical reactions in a very specific

is

The

have a

aspects. Space permits reference to only two aspects. It has been

analysis,

studies on protein surface films, all

phate

may

as vitamins also

effects in exceedingly small quantities it is sus-

to be of the liver

and kidney.

The

studies with

heavy nitrogen have shown that

teins are in constant chemical change; that

is,

tissue pro-

they are continually

being partially hydrolyzed, deaminized, and reaminized. The

c.x-

was

pected that they might also act as catalytic agents. This has now been established for at least three of the vitamins. When these

particularly surprising.

vitamins are combined with pyrophosphoric acid or with one or more nucleotide groups and/or with specific proteins they yield

This new method of study has also confirmed earlier conclusions as to the ability of the albino rat to synthesize certain

very specific enzymes of great importance in oxidation-reduction processes in living systems. Thus thiamin, or vitamin B, as it is

amino acids and Physiology.)

commonly called, when combined with pyrophosphoric acid, yields the enzyme cocarboxylase which is necessary in the removal of carbon dioxide from certain acids by the enzyme carboxylase. This thiamin pyrophosphate is the same as the cocarboxylase

Bibliockapiiy. Annual Review of Biochemistry (1939); Cold Sprint Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology (1938) contains articles on

tent to which reaminization takes place in

its

inability

mammalian

to synthesize others.

tissues

(Sec also

—

Endocrinology (1940) contains four papers on carbohydrate metabolism presented at a symposium sponsored by the American Physiological Society at Toronto, April 20, 1939: Current biochemical Jour-

proteins;

(F. C. K.)

nals.

obtained from natural sources.

The presence tial

of this

form of vitamin

in

nerve tissue

is

essen-

to prevent the accumulation of pyruvic acid and the destrucwhich the symptoms of beri-beri

see American Literature; English Literature; Children’s Books; Motion Pictures.

Biography:

tion of nerve fibres as a result of

develop.

Riboflavin or vitamin B2,

when combined with pyrophosphoric

enzyme” which carries out one step in the transfer of hydrogen from certain food stuffs

acid and protein constitutes the “yellow

Biological Survey, U. S. Bureau of, came a part July

I,

Department of the Interior on accordance with President Roosevelt’s Reorgan-

of the United States

1939, in

Order No.

Established to study relations of birds to

or intermediate products of metabolism to be finally oxidized to water by other enzymes. Nicotinic acid or its amide or the anti-

ization

pellagra vitamin, when combined with protein and pyrophosphoric acid, constitutes coenzjmes i and 2 which are essential for the action of certain dehydrogenases in some of the many transfers

grew from sectional to bureau status, this agency is now in the Federal Department that more than any other is concerned with the conservation of natural resources. Under Dr. Ira N. Gabriel-

of hydrogen from molecule to molecule until finally oxidized to water. It is very probable that other vitamins will also be

son, Chief, the bureau includes diwsions of wild life research, Federal aid in irild life restoration, land acquisition, wild life refuges.

2.

agriculture in 1885 in the

Department of Agriculture, where

it

BIOLOGY— BIRTH CONTROL construction and Civilian Conser\’ation Corps operations, game management, and predator and rodent control. Outstanding in the bureau’s work in 1939 was the success in initiating a Federal program to aid States in restoring %wld life, by paying 75% of the cost of approved projects. This program, authorized by Congress in 1937, went into effect on July i, 193S, with an appropriation of $1,000,000. By the end of the first year 43 States had become eligible for participation and 37 had sub-

mitted a total of .87 projects

ment of natural

—

^30

involvung research; 28; develop-

conditions; 28, acquisition of lands; and i, a comAn increased appropriation

bination of research and development.

of $1,500,000 became available on July

There were 5r new refuges added

i,

For the fourth consecutive year the bureau’s mid-

winter waterfowl inventory, in Jan. 1939, showed a steady increase, and investigators found encouraging conditions on the breeding grounds during the summer. Federal regulations governing migratory-bird hunting remained

Among

was the Piedmont Wild Life Refuge,

these

refuges

much

the

the year.

in Jones

Jasper counties, Georgia, embracing 58,400 acres.

and

It provides

sanctuary for wild turkeys, of which larger breeding stocks are urgently needed, and bob-white quails.

The

Wild Life Refuge,

South Carolina, contain-

in Chesterfield county,

Carolina Sandhills

ing 5o,oooac., will afford protection to wild turkeys, bob-white

and other wild life in that State. Another important acwas the Necedah Migratory Waterfowl Refuge, containing 4o,3ooac., in Juneau county, Wisconsin. (See also Biological Survey, U. S. Bureau of; Wild Life Conservation.) quails,

quisition

(E. A. G.)

to the Federal

refuges for waterfowl, 63 for other migratory birds, iS for wild life in general, 29 for nongame birds chiefly, and 12 for bigspecies.

life

1939.

system in 1939 and acreage increases in 25 others, bringing the total to 266 with 13,620,128 acres, including 16 with 4,094,200 acres in Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. On December 31 there were 144 Federal

game

95 by Executive order during

Federal wild

same

Reports from the sale of Federal stamps required of

as in 1938.

all

waterfowl

M

Pnntrnl Constant pressure for higher birth rates conuUllirUL tinued in Germany, Italy, France, and Engduring 1939. New types of decoration are now bestowed ofifl-

land

cially

on mothers of large families in Germanj', and Italy rewards mothers with medals. Tax exemptions, family grants

its fertile

and other

privileges are accorded fathers of large families in

Germany and and

Italy ; bachelors

pay higher

discussion of birth control

all

is

taxes than married

taboo.

Many

both

men

population ex-

perts believe, however, that the population problem, including its

many

aspects of differential growth, distribution in relation to

natural resources,

etc.,

must have serious consideration

to be achieved following the w’ar

now

if lasting

hunters over 16 showed that 1,002,715 were purchased in 1938, as

peace

compared vith 783,039 in T937, 603,623 in 1936, 448,204 in 1935, and 603,001 in 1934, first year of the stamp sales. On June 3, 1939, a national wild life research refuge on the Patuxent river, within a short distance of the national capital, was

England. ^The National Birth Control Association at a general meeting in May 1939, officially changed its name to the Family

dedicated

—the

eral nature.

first

national wild life experiment station of a gen-

(See also Bird Refuges;

Weld Life Conservation.)

Publications in 1939 included the following, in series of the Department of Agriculture: Technical Bulletins 634 and 643, Food oj game ducks in the United States and Canada and Food habits of North American diving ducks, and Circulars so 4 , sao, and S29, Early uiinter food of ruffed^ grouse in the George Washington National Forest, Wiidlife of the Atlantic coast (H. Z.) salt marshes, and Food habits of prairie dogs.

is

—

Planning Association, which

Board believes “describes more ac-

curately our functions and the increasing scope of our actiwties.”

Lord Horder continues to head the Association. A new chemical contraceptive, the result of research under the Medical Subcommittee, was announced in January. The British Ministry of Health’s Interdepartmental Committee’s Report on Abortion was issued in June. It stated that "available facilities for giving contraceptive adrice’’ to

danger to

Biology: see Botany; Marine Biology; Zoology.

its

in progress.

need’’

life

women when

further pregnancy

means

or health “are seriously inadequate to satisfy the

and urged that

this

matter be brought forcibly to the at-

tention of local authorities, both as a health measure

and as a problem of abortion. Canada. ^The Parents’ Information Bureau of Kitchener, Ontario announced that up to 1939 it had adxnsed 100,000 Canadian mothers on contraception, and that 18,000 were adrdsed during partial solution of the

DIIU ilClUguOi forms logical Survey, in the

of wild

life,

administered

by

the Bio-

United States, covering 9,525,926 acres.

Of these 239 (4,o73,43oac.) are primarily for

birds

and

ii (3,452,-

496ac.) are primarily for big-game animals, but accord incidental

development work during 1939 was continued through the medium of CCC, WPA, and NYA labour. The rehabilitation of land and water areas for birds has included such in previous years

measures as the stabilization of water

levels, the planting of

aqua-

and food-bearing shrubs and trees, and the construction of nesting islands and upland game bird shelters. Reports from refuges from coast to coast indicated increased breeding or larger tic

plants

concentrations of waterfowl during migration than for

many years.

Three additional bird refuges were acquired by easement in furtherance of the program begun in North Dakota in 1935, under which land owners give to the Federal Government perpetual use of their land for wild life conser\'ation purposes. This program

now provides The

for

84 refuges

1938.

Bermuda.

protection to birds.

As

—

in five States, totalling 145,064 acres.

refuges of this type are small. However, owing to location in

—Government

grants in support of

birth

control

were continued during 1939. Egypt. ^The Egi^ptian Birth Control Association was organized

clinics

— India.—^Work continues under the Family Planning Associanew services continue to be Jamaica. —^The Jamaica Birth Control League was formed

in Cairo early in 1939.

tion;

clinical

established.

in

March

1939, with Dr. Charles

Lery

as president

and Dr. W. E.

McCulIogh (Hon. secretary, Jamaica Medical Ass’n) as chairman. Contraceptive seiAuce is now available in a number of towns on the island and under the Government Medical Department in one parish.

—

Scotland. The Scottish Advisory Committee of the Family Planning Association sent a delegation in June to the Parliamentary under-secretary of State, the secretary of health and

the middle western prairie States, which have always contained the

the chief medical

most favoured breeding grounds for many kinds of waterfowl in

under local authorities, as a health measure and as aid in reducing the incidence of induced abortion.

the United States, they are proving very valuable in supplementing the large nesting refuges in these States. Several areas, purchased

by the Resettlement Administration in connection with its submarginal land-retirement program and transferred to the Biological Survey for administration, were made

South Africa. letter

officer,

—

^The

urging extension of contraceptive ad\dce,

Department of Health addressed a circular recommending the establishment of

to local authorities

mothers’

clinics, ser\dce to

struction to married

include contraceptive ad\nce and inin cases wffiere pregnancy would be

women,

BIRTH STATISTICS

96 detrimental to health.

such service and

is

The department

is

strongly in favour of

pro\ading a grant-in-aid to the South Africa

National Coundl for Maternal and Family Welfare, which has organized a

—

number of

law relating to mailing of contraceptive articles and literature was introduced in the U.S. Congress, but failed to be reported out of committee.

State legislation continued to centre on placing

prescription and sale of contraceptives in the hands of doctors

birth control centres.

and

The Government through

China. Despite the war the Hongkong Kowloon Maternity and Child Welfare Center reports opening a birth control clinic. Another clinic was established at the Tsan Yuk Maternity hospital. The centre is on Government premises, and is recognized by the

and making

Colonial Office.

ing of contraceptives.

—

France. Stringent laws against birth control continue in force and the recently drafted code of the French family provides family grants, Government bounties for every child bom, aid for mothers not working outside the home and loans to peasants who stay for 15 years on the land. More drastic penalties for abortion are to be part of the code. Japan. Japan’s birth rale, owing to the Sino-Japanese war has dropped to the lowest level in 10 years. The information bureau of the War Office has issued a pamphlet denouncing birth control and late marriage and stressing the need for increasing population, as a means of conducting successfully a long range war.

—

—

Mexico. ^Birth control, sponsored by the Me.rican Eugenics Sodety, was on the agenda of the Me.rican Population Congress, held in Feb. 1939, under the auspices of the Ministrj’ of Gobernacion. Me.xican officials at the Congress opposed any reduction

and suggested a joint study of the population

in the birth rate

problem by the Public Ministry’, penal courts, health departments, and Ministry of Education.

—

Puerto Rico.

druggists.

the

Food and Drugs Ad-

mim'stration and the Federal Trade Commission proceeded against a large number of firms charged with adulteration, misbranding, false therapeutic claims, or circulating false advertis-

Legislation in effect Jan.

of contraceptive

jellies,

i,

1940

creams,

will require that the

etc., in

common

formula

with other pro-

prietary articles, be printed on the package in which they are sold.

Legal Action

—

.

^In

June the Waterbury, Conn. Maternal Health

Center, a birth control clinic occupying rooms in the Chase

Memorial Dispensary was raided by the police, and two physicians and a trained nurse were arrested, charged with \iolation of the Connecticut law relating to the practice of contraception. Materials and case records were also seized. In .August Judge Ken-

Wynne of the Superior Court of the State upheld the demurrer of the defendants’ counsel, agreeing that the State law was defective on constitutional grounds, in that it denied a phyneth

•

sician the right to prescribe

and well being of

what he considered

his patients.

The

best for the health

case concerning the disposition

of materials seized at the clinic was heard before Judge Frank P.

McEvoy, who ordered them

destroyed. Appeal was taken and the pending before Judge John A. Cornell. The U.S. District Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit

case

is still

^The case against the defendants in the case of

affirmed the decision of the lower court in the case of U.S. vs.

the Puerto Rico birth control clinics was presented to the grand

N. E. Himes, that contraceptive articles, books and pamphlets have lawful uses and are lawful in the hands of those who would not abuse the information they contain. The Customs Bureau in New York was therefore ordered to release to Dr. Himes the magazines seized, on which the suit was based. Books sent later from abroad and seized by the Customs Bureau in New York, were (M. Sr.) also released under this decision.

jury in Dec. 1938, and demand was made, by the defendants, that indictments be returned in order that it might be determined

whether contraceptive ad\ice, under medical direction, was legal under the statutes passed in 1937. By stipulation the case was presented to U.S. District Judge Robert A. Cooper. In Jan. 1939, he handed down a decision in favour of the defendants, who were

found not guilty of the charges against them. The Asociacion pro Salud Maternal e Infantil de Puerto Rico announced establish-

ment of 28 centres

for birth control service with 3,851 cases ad-

ni,

ij

Birth statistics,

xj

ulallOlluSi with death

Russia .

—The Medical Worker, Moscow,

in

a special article in

January, criticized severely the type of birth control work being done in Russia and urged prosecution of factory officials responsible for the inferior contraceptive materials being

U.S.S.R.

The

article

manufactured pointed out that birth control was

“one of the basic measures in the struggle against illegal abortion.” It demanded wider education in birth control and blamed the Commissariat of Health for not supplying clinics with posters, e.vlubits and literature on the subject. United States. Merger of the two national birth control organizations, the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau, Margaret Sanger, director, and the American Birth Control League, Richard N. Pierson, M.D., president, was effected in Feb., 1939. Mrs. Sanger became honoraiy chairman of the board and Dr. Pierson,

—

chairman. The movement has been strengthened materially' by the amalgamation. The new organization is called the Birth Control Federation of America, Inc., and includes not only the two major organizations with their Stale affiliates, but the New York City

Committee of Mother's Health Centers, heretofore an independent

The growth of clinics throughout the country has continued and there are (1939) 525 centres. Of these, in October, 203 were supported in whole or in part by public funds, and 141 were located in city or county health departments. During 1939 two body.

southern States established contraceptive serr-icc work of their State departments of health. Lci;isIat!oit

.

—One

bill

to

amend and

.as

part of the

further tighten the Federal

when used

statistics,

which to measure the natural increase

\ised.

in the

m

in conjunction

provide a basis by

in the population of a

com-

munity. In order to compare communities with different numbers of population, birth statistics are commonly e.xpressed in the form of birth rates per 1,000 of population. For example, there were recorded 2,287,980 births in the United States during t938; with an estimated population of i30,2t5,ooo in that year, the birth rate is found to be 17-6 per t,ooo.

England and Wales had a birth

Coloured persons in the United States e.xpcrience birth rates much higher than do white persons, the rates per t,ooo in 1937 being 20-6 and t6-6 rerate of

r5.i

per 1,000 during 193S.

spectively’.

Most countries of Western Europe now have a birth rate of less than 20 per t,ooo a rate which was considered low not many years ago. Thus, the Scandinavian countries, the countries of the

—

British Isles, Belgium, France,

Germany, and Switzerland, among

had birth rates of 20 per 1,000, or less, during the period t936 to 193S. Countries with the highest birth rates were principally in South .America or .Asia. The following countries had birth rates of 30 per t,ooo, or greater, in the period 1935 to 193S: Chile, 33-9; Colombia, 30-6; Egypt, 43-1; India, 34-9: Japan, others,

30-6,• Venezuela, 30-7; Mexico, 40-4; Palestine, 42-1; Rumania, also eii)crience 33.4. Most of these countries with high birth rates high death rates (see Death Statistics) and high infant mcir-

the foretalitv (sec I.vfa.vt MoRTAi.nA’). Birth rates .as hieh as going would undoubtedly be found in many populous countries which at present have no adequate .system for recording births.

Table on page 97 shows birth

rate.-;

for a

number of

countric-S.

•

. ,

BLEDSOE. SAMUEL per 1,000 fofo/ popufafion in cerfom counfnes for period 1936 to 7938 and for eoch year in Ifie Unifed Sfafes from 7915 Jo 7938 ond in Cngfand and Woles from 1900 fo 1938

Average Annuol ^^le

Birfh flofes

T.

— BLOCKADE May

Albany, Ky., on

12.

97

After studying law for a year at the

University of Texas he was admitted to the bar in 1890 and

began practice at Ardmore, in the Indian Territory which Birth Bates per 1,000 1936 to 1938

Countrj’

North America United States

Canada

17.1 20.1

Iklexico

404

South America Argentina

Colombia

Uruguay

30-6 20.0(a)

\^enezuda

334

Europe Austria

154

Bulgaria

....

France

18.0 19.4 14.9 16.2 19.6(a) 14.8

Germany

191

Eire

England and Wales

.

.

Estonia Finland

. .

igos

27-3

1909

=6:7 2S.S

Match

24.1 43.8

xgi4

2 I.S

1920

237

25 -S

23.0

1921 1922 zgrs

1924

22.4 20.4 zg.r 18.8

Poland

15.2 25.2

24.2 22.3 22.2 22.4

Portugal

274

Rumania

30.6 17.8 2 S. 9 (b)

192s 1926 1927 192S 1929

21.S 20.7 20.6 19.S XS.Q

18.3 17-8 16.7 16.7 16.3

I 93 «a

18.9 XS.Q 47.4 16.5 17.1

I6.S IS.8 15.3

16.9 16.7 17.0 17.6

14.7 14.8 14.9 IS.I

27.6(a)

Hungary Ireland, Northern Italy

.

,

.

20.0 20.0 23.0 18.1

......

Norway

Scotland Spain

Sweden

India, British

34.9(a) 30.7(a) 42.1

Japan Falestme Other Countries Australia

17.3 43.1(a)

.....

Zealand of South Africa

17.3

Union

(Whites)

21.0 17.8

•

17-7 1S.5

24,6 (a)

1931 1932 1933 1934

*

I 93 S

1936 1937 1938

X

44

14.8

Average for 1935 to 1937. Average for 1934 and 1935. Official data begin with 1915. For years prior to 1933, the birth rates relate to an expanding area within the United States.

Birth rates have been declining rapidly since the beginning of the century in practically

all

important countries of the world.

Thus, England and Wales experienced a decline in the birth rate from a level of 287 per 1,000 in 1900 to a point half that, namely, 14-4; by 1933; since then there has been a slight upward movement. The birth rate in the United States

fell

in 1915, the earliest year of official record, to

from 23-1 per 1,000 a low point of 16-5

however, by 1938 the rate had risen to a point higher than that for any year since 1931. A long time view of the trend

in 1933;

may

be gleaned from the record for Sweden. Birth were common there in the middle of the i8th century. Rates as high as 33 were found even as late as 1861-65. The decline which set in thereafter has been par-

in birth rates

rates as high as 35 per 1,000

marked since 1920, when the rate was 23-6, the rate was only 14-9 per 1,000.

ticularly

Birth rates can also be computed per 1,000

women

by 1938

of a given

age in the population ; they are then known as age-specific fertility rates. Such figures vary widely with the age of the mother w’ithin the reproductive period of

effective

by

must be

effective.

force.

In short, a blockade in order to be binding

The

rights of visit and search, and contraband cargo are doselj’ associated with the practice of blockade. Prohibition is enforced by a confiscation in the blockaded zone or near all ships and cargoes that attempt to sail from the prohibited ports or coast in violation of standing orders and declarations of the blockader. “Command of the sea” gives the naval power that holds it the force to blockade an enemy and control his trade. Thereby may a superior naval

the area of operations of

14.S 15.3 2S.8(a)

Switzerland

Yugoslavia Asia

maintenance of an effective sea blockade by Great Britain of Germany from 1914 to 191S contributed in a great degree to the Allied victorj'. Blockade, by international law, cannot be recognized as legal unless it is rendered Dlnnlrnflri

DlUbndUCi 25.1 25.0 24.7 24.6 22.3

New

8.

Blitzkrieg: see Lightning War.

23-1

• •

X912 19x3

1915 1916 1917 19x8 19x9

Greece

(c)

28.7 2S.5 28.5 a8.s 2S.O

and Oklahoma City. In 1908 he became a solicitor for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railway. He was appointed general counsel for the railroad in 1918 and chairman of its executive committee in 1930. In 1933 he became president. Mr. Bledsoe, who was author of a volume on Indian land laws, died at his Chicago home on

244

174

Denmark

(b)

United States England and W^es (0

1910

24.0

Cze^oslovakia

Latvia Lithuania Netherlands

a

t 3-3

Belgium

(a)

Year

24.2

339

now

part of Oklahoma. Later he tvas an attorney in Guthrie, Okla.,

1900 15^1 1902 1903 1904

Chile

is

Birth Rates per i,ooo

life.

Thus, in the United States during 1937, the fertility rates per 1,000 white females w'ithin successive five-year age groups were: 15 to 19 years, 41-3; 20 to 24 years, 118-3; 25 to 29 years, 107.7; 30 to 34 years, 73-4; 35 to 39 years, 43-8; 40 to 44 years, 14-9; and 45 to 49 years, 1.5.

—

to or depart

power not only deny an enemy the use of the sea but also deny enemy ports, and by withholding commodities and strategic raw materials reduce materially the fighting strength of a state. In the World War, 1914-18, Great Britain never formally declared a blockade of Germany. This was because it was impossible for the British fleet to blockade Baltic German ports and prevent trade by Scandinavian countries neutrals carrjdng contraband ingress to

with Germany.*

and blockade squadrons went on stations Sept. much the same lines as in 1914. Great Britain did not declare a formal blockade, but issued on Sept. 3, 1939 a Britain’s patrol

3, 1939,

following

proclamation of

military-naval forces were classed as absolute contraband. All goods that might be eventually used for war purposes such as

food, fodder, clothing, and so forth, were classed as conditional

contraband. Thus British sea power at the outset of the present war commenced to exert an economic pressure by blockade that has been defined as “an act of war carried out by the warships of a belligerent, detailed to prevent access to or departure from a defined part of the enemy’s coast.” The British Isles occupy an

unusually favourable strategic position to permit her superior sea power to control the line of sea communications bordering on the North sea.

Blockade in the early days of the close blockade and reached

^ter and are not

neai

its

exercise

was maintained by

perfection in the wars of Great Britain against the French Revolution and the French Empire.

Bledsoe, Samuel

bom

all

9, the British Government stated that “to prevent contraband from reaching the enemy His Majesty’s Government will use their belligerent rights to the full.” Guns, ammunition, equipment, food, and all that aids directly

The blockade

road president, was

of contraband that covered practically

On September

Bibliogkaphy. .Alfred J. Lotka, “Modem Trends in the Birth Rate,” Annals 0} the American Academy of Political and Social Science, i88;i (Xov. 1936); “Population Index,” Population itssociation of America (published quarterly at Princeton, N.J.). (A. J. Lo.)

Thomas

lists

imports to Germany. The term ‘‘blockade’’ as used in both wars is technically incorrect in the legal sense, but suggests the machinery used to bring economic pressure on the enemy of the Allies.

its

of the South by the Northern Naiy in the American Chil War was a determining factor in the outcome of that war. But by this time new weapons had begun to challenge the close /A!! assertions or opiniot^ contained in the above article are the p7i\-ate ones of the to be construed as oSdal or reflecting the dews of the Departof the Xaval service at large.

ment or

BLOCKADE

98 blockade, that

is,

the mine, the submarine, and the torpedo.

tactical or close blockade

was

The

seriously questioned as to its effec-

tiveness by naval experts after the Russo-Japanese War, when Admiral Togo, the Japanese admiral before Port Arthur, lost two battleships by mines. This was one-third of his major force, and

Heligoland bight and the approach to the Skagerrak. Because of the attacks by shore-based German aircraft this is e.\tremely

dangerous duty. The British Grand Fleet

is

concentrated mainly

at

Scapa Flow and the Firth of Forth, ready for instant action with the German fleet. The straits of Dover arc blockaded by mine fields and patrolling squadrons. The British have planted mine fields off Heligoland and from 5° E. Longitude eastward to near the mouths of the Elbe-Weser. The Germans e.xtcnded this field

for that reason Togo had to relinquish his tight grip on the port. The long range naval blockade came into effect at the outbreak of the World AVar 1914-18, and now exists in the present conflict. Prior to 1914, German naval strategy had been based, in the event of a conflict with Great Britain, upon a general conception that the British Grand Fleet would maintain a close blockade of the Heligoland bight and the German coast on the North sea. This would provide opportunity for German counter-attacks by submarines and highly trained and efficient torpedo flotillas. Thus by

vessels called auxiliary cruisers is maintained south of Iceland to the Norwegian sea in a general northwest and southwest line. This

attrition of a superior fleet could the

patrol utilizes a base in the Shetland islands.

near parity be reached that would permit the German High Seas Fleet to engage the British Grand Fleet with reasonable chance of success. The British fleet

to the westward.

At the year’s end, 1939, the British commenced to lay a defensive protective belt of mines to the eastward of England and Scotland from 8 to 10 miles off shore, stretching from Moray Firth to the Thames. A patrol of large armed merchant

The Royal Air Force makes reconnaissance North sea with regularity and has made several

raids

did not maintain a close tactical blockade, but instead maintained

fended island of Heligoland. The blockade in

entirety has bad

along range strategical blockade with small craft reporting on movements of the German High Seas Fleet. This form of long range blockade with the British Grand Fleet in a favourable position at Scapa Flow, Scotland, had then as now the following ad-

the general effect of cutting

vantages; (a)

it

does not unduly hazard the British capital ships

sources of supply.

ping in order to

ultimate purpose of which

emerge

in the

North sea;

provides greater control of the ingress and egress of shipping to the neutral countries. The disadvantages are; (a) the German fleet may emerge to make (c)

it

sporadic raids on the British east coast and, with luck, return to German bases; (b) such a remote concentration of British forces gives greater

freedom of action to German naval units cruising in

the North sea. British blockade (Jan. 1940)

maintained by a patrol or recon-

naissance force of submarines, destroyers, and planes, close in to

BLOCKADE

BRITISH lines and conUol ports. of control for suspected contraband

Gibraltar and Haifa are also ports

effect

an economic stranglehold on Germany: the is to undermine the national morale

and hasten the decision. To date, air power has not shown the success that many experts predicted for it in attack on surface vessels. It is perhaps too early in the present struggle to evaluate correctly the capability of air

power are

The potentialities and known because direct air attacks

to maintain or dispute a sea blockade.

possibilities of the air

now

date hits is

overseas

vast organization of air and sea patrols, and a “fleet in being’’ ready to meet the inferior force of German sea power, propose to maintain for a sufficient length of time an effectual grip and control on ship-

aircraft; (b)

vessels, submarines, or shore-based permits the British main body to remain concentrated in order to engage in force the German fleet should it

over the

on the de-

Germany off from nearly all Thus does modern blockade, with a

by attack from enemy surface it

its

flights

arm

made on

are

by shore-based planes, although to have been few and damage slight. The aeroplane renders

being

ships

great assistance in controlling sea communications by extending the area of vision of surface vessels. Aeroplanes

may

also attack

submerged and surface vessels hundreds of miles from carriers. Blockading vessels must now be ever ready to resist air attack.

.

BLOCKADE

SUSPECTED CARGO

being examined by naval and customs

British contraband controi eariy in Oct.

officers

for the

1939

Naval bases wherein large ships or fleets are concentrated must, in the present war, be provided with air security. Blockades and counter blockades now utilize surface vessels, submarines, and Although aircraft has not revolutionized blockade, aircraft. it has caused air security for blockader and blockaded to become a vital defence requirement. The control of neutral shipping to

enemy

ports or contiguous

areas requires a highly complicated organization in the

modem

ac-

Before the World War, 1914-18, ships in a blockading squadron searched neutral vessels at sea and there examined the cargoes for contraband. Because under cepted version of “economic warfare.”

modem

conditions, with hostile submarines at sea,

it

was found

practically impossible to search ships at sea, vessels suspected in the

World War of carrying contraband

many were

to neutrals or to Ger-

sent into British ports for inspection.

Search at sea

was considered inadequate and dangerous because of the hazard to ships stopped of being torpedoed by hostile submarines. The ports destined for such insjaections are called control ports.

All

bound for Germany or contiguous neutral countries have been advised to call at these control bases. For example, 48 neuships

tral ships

were being held on Dec.

26, 1939, in three

contraband

Kingdom. The Ministry of Information announced Sept. 8, 1939 that the British Government had established contraband control bases at Kirkwall, Weymouth, and the Downs (North Foreland) in the United Kingdom, and abroad at Gibfaltar and Haifa. Before the end of 1939, the French and British Governments established fur-

control bases in the United

ther control bases at Oran, Marseilles, Malta, Port Said, Aden, Dunkirk, and Le Havre. To assist the blockade, the British de-

creed that: “Vessels bound for countries

enemy

99

territory or ports in neutral

from which goods can conveniently be forwarded to

This important control of cargo inextricably associated with is regulated in Great Britain by a Ministrj' of Eco-

sea blockade

nomic Warfare, which corresponds closely to the Ministry of Blockade as set up in 1915. This %ital offensive arm of economic w'arfare and blockade had a complete staff drawm from Civil Service and ready to function in the first week of European war. Sea power took the first step by establishing a blockade of the German North sea, coast. The Ministry of Economic Warfare was prepared to inspect in port

all

vessels detained.

On

Oct. 25, 1939,

Ronald Hibbert Cross, the British Minister of Economic Warfare, stated that in the first six weeks of the w'ar, 338,000 tons of goods had been intercepted or detained. All contraband comes under the Admiralty Marshal until a prize court sits and decides the ultimate disposition.

Sea power distributed over stations far from the North sea is for the purpose of maintaining an effective blockade. Three days after Great Britain declared war against Germany, the machinery for operating the contraband control at the strait of utilized

commenced to function, for British destroyers began a few days before a state of war existed to patrol the strait, as they had in Sept. 1938. This patrol stopped 30 or 40 vessels of all nationalities passing through the strait each day to examine papers and determine whether or not the ships carried contraband. Sea blockade has usually led to expedient measures of interpretation of international law^ on the part of the blockader and retaliatory measures on the part of the blockaded. The Declaration of London of Feb. 26, 1909 (never ratified by the powers) w'as, nevertheless, prior to the World War, 1914-18, the basis for inGibraltar

structions relative to contraband as given bj' the principal

to their navies in the event of war.

at the outbreak of the

adopt

its stipulations

World War

The United

powers

States suggested

of 1914-18 that the belligerents

as well recognized provisions of international

enemy

territory are urgently advised to call voluntarily at one of the control bases, in the United Kingdom, preferably at Wey-

law. Great Britain at that time received accurate information that Germany was receiving large cargoes of grain that w’ere being un-

mouth.

loaded in Rotterdam, Holland, and shipped to Germany by way of the Rhine. The Allies then answered the United States by the British Order in Council of Aug. 20, 1914, and the French Declara-

“If they do so and it is established that they carry no contraband, they may be given a pass to facilitate their onward journey.”

:

BLOOD BANK — BOHEMiA AND MORAVIA

100

tion of Aug. IS, ^9^4, that- the Allied

powers would apply the

Declaration of London, but pointed out a marked departure from contraband.

its stipulations as regards conditional

Aug.

The decree of

1914 modified the Declaration in order to give the Allies positive facilities for stopping conditional contraband destined to 25,

the various neutral ports of the Baltic and northern Europe. Britain exported considerably to these countries throughout the

World War.

Restrictions were increased

by the Allies in an Order incumbent on the owners of captured conditional contraband cargoes to prove that the goods were not destined to the enemy country, although shipped to a neutral state. This Order in Council also set forth a voluminous list of contraband goods, with many items which the Decin

Council of October 30 that

made

it

London stipulated should never be called contraband. The United States Government in a long note strongly protested

laration of

and concluded that American trade to the neutral states near Germany was suffering by such illegal restrictions. The British Government replied on Jan. 7, 1915, by forwarding a table of the relative exports from New York to the neutral states and pointed out that exports to Denmark for Nov. 1913 amounted to $558,000 but were more than $7,000,000 for Nov. 1914. Great Britain, in this note, also stated that in the American Civil War the United States for the

first

time applied the doctrine that goods were liable an enemy port even though transshipped

to capture destined to

from an intervening neutral

port.

was

It

also recalled that Prince

comparable to those of air bombing in their effect on the civil population; (2) that the system of controlling neutral merchant ships violated elementary’ principles of freedom of neutral shipping in wartime; and (3) that the Soviet Government resen’ed the right to claim compensation for injuries due to these measures. British authorities replied that their methods of economic blockade were legal under international law, and admitted that damages arising from loss of Soriet ships were complicated because of Government ownership of ships and cargoes.

The World War (1914-18) demonstrated the ability of the submarine to act as a powerful counter-blockade weapon. Great Britain was reaching a critical shortage of food because of her merchant ship losses by “U” boats when the United States entered

the

war

trade.

The adoption of “U”

with the addition of the laying of anchored, and possibly drifting, “magnetic” mines by German submarines and aircraft. (Sec Sub-

marine Warfare.) The convoy and

The

mine sweeping; and the laying of a defensive mine on the east coast of England and Scotland by the British had, by the end of 1939, greatly reduced the sinkings of Allied and utilized for

In any consideration of the 1939 blockade, two points arc imis based upon keeping the seas

portant. First, Allied sea strategy'

neutral ships.”

exercise of the right of search in port

escort system; numerous

patrol units, surface and air; searching for submarines; trawlers

neutral ships.

all

boats, and the entrance of the United

In the 1939 conflict, Germany’s methods of attack, as in 1915-18, on seaborne commerce has been rather closely followed

“The measure in question has for its object the shortening of the war by increasing the difficulties of the enemy, and is a justifiable uniformly enforced against

the convoy and escort system, the or-

States in the struggle saved the day.

field

if

strifa’ng at

ganized search for

Bismarck, in 1885, when asked whether or not foodstuffs which were not destined for the enemy forces could be seized, replied:

step

German Na\’y was going behind the maritime “sinews of war,” Allied overseas

in 1917. In short, the

blockade and

was strongly

dis-

puted by some neutrals in the World War, 1914-18, but an effective organization comparable to the present Allied “economic warfare” control was finally effected. This Allied blockade or-

clear of

enemy

ships in order to protect Allied and neutral ship-

ping by controlling France.

sea communications to the British Isles and

all

Second, by means of the blockade, ingress and egress to

the Baltic

controlled with the hope of achieving the economic

is

augmented by assistance from the United States after her entry in the war. The main work comprised a study and control of exports and imports of the northern neutrals, as well as negotiation and administration of agreements with these northern states; while throughout, as in the 1939 war, sea power

The main German fleet is contained and every attempt would be made by the British to bring it to action if it emerged. Thus is the e.xisting blockade both of the offensive and defensive type. Mahan defined this function of the strategy of the stronger sea power in blockade when he wrote

provided the effective control of

Whatever the number of ships needed to watch those in an enemy's port, they arc fewer by far than those that would be required to protect the scattered interests imperilled by the enemy’s escape. Whatever the difu* culty of compelling the enemy to fight near the port, it is less than that of finding him and bringing him to action when he has got far away.

ganization

was

later

all

shipping.

In 1915, the economic blockade enforced by superior sea power began to tell on Germany. This was one of the main reasons for the

first

German

declaration of submarine warfare which stated

that from February 18

onward

as a retaliatory measure, all hostile

merchant ships met in British or Irish waters would be sunk without regard for the crew or passengers. The economic pressure on Germany became so great and the need of commodities and strategic war materials so pressing that the Emperor of Germany, on Jan. 19, 1917, signed the following order: “I hereby order unrestricted submarine warfare to be commenced on February’ i and to be prosecuted with the utmost energy.” This led to the torpedoing of American ships flying the American flag, leading to an incensed American public opinion that caused President Wilson to

strangulation of Germany.

In the past loo years the technique, and the means of maintaining a blockade have changed considerably, but the classical conception of

"command

of the sea” remains the essential condition

upon which the success of any blockade rests. (See also EuROPE^tN War; International Law; Shipping, Merchant Marine.)

—

BinuoGRAPiiY. Louis Guichard, T/zc A^ava/ Blockade, (i9Jo); ^^ 3 urJCc Parmelec, Blockade and Sea Power, (1924); Ellery C. Slowell, International Law, (1931); James Wilfred Garner, Intcrnathnal Law and the lf^f“ War, (1920); and Prize Law During the If’orW War, (1927)^ Thursficld, “Command of the Sea and Others,” Brasscy*s Xaval Annual, (i 939 )* P. L.)

see Gynaecology and Obstetrics. Blowfly: see Entomology.

Blood Bonk:

announce to the Senate on Feb. 3, 1917, that diplomatic relations had been broken with Germany. Three more American steamers were torpedoed and on April 6, 1917, the President of the United States declared that a state of war existed. Thus did the United

n-u...:. ....I Boneniia and Moravia,

States enter the war, mainly' as a result of Gcrmany’’s counter

since

blockade measures. The United States then co-operated with the Allies by’ assisting in the blockade of the Central Powers and by furnishing troops, money, and supplies. The strongest open attack

sq.mi. for

on the 1939 sea blockade by Great Britain of Germany was made by the Sowet Government in a note of Oct. 25, 1939. It declared: (i) that the British contraband

lists

tional law, injured legitimate neutral trade,

raolated interna-

and led to

results

March

i6, 1939, a

German

Bohemia and 6,533

These two former provinces of form czecho-siovaku (’ to 18,000 in

(less

952.

its

from 25,000

fell

The Boston Housing Authority has

United States,

schools)

part of

employment

cember.

facturing

at the

Dnctnn

DUolun,

WPA

of nine housing units in various sections.

Tajudin.

North Borneo: c. 29,500 sq.mi.; pop. 302,174 (Chinese 53,000); capital, Sandakan governor and commander-in-chief, C. R. Smith. Sarawak: c. 50,000 sq.mi.; pop. c. 450,000 (Malays, Dyaks, etc., c. 350,000; Chinese c. 100,000); capital, Kuching; ruler, H.H. Sir Charles Vyner Brooke, G.C.M.G. (Rajah); language (official),

were: dependent aid 14,729; dependent children 3,663; old age assistance 14,262. Welfare cases averaged 4,000 above 1938 while

The 1939 Community Fund

institutions in the metropolitan area reached a net

total of $4,327,577.68. The overseers of the public welfare (i939) expended $13,837,815.53. Cases for week ending December 23

Dean Clay Osborne memorial, an

at a cost of $30,000 the

architectural feature covering

over three acres and consisting of a fountain, water basins, scats, and columns. This was made possible by a gift of Mrs. Sade Elizabeth Osborne. Botanical Garden, St. Louis, reports more than 275 lo-month period Jan. to Oct., 1939- director Moore also points out the great enlargement of various

The Shaw

000

visitors during the

—

BOTANY—BOULDER DAM units of the garden during his incumbency, beginning in

1912.

105

logical section covered in addition: toxic

compounds and antago-

There are now more than 100,000 sq.ft, of greenhouse space, 430,000 sq.ft, of outdoor gardens, 130,000 volumes in the library,

nism between them, synthesis of glucosides, distribution of vitamins, respiration and protoplasmic streaming, germination of

and 1,100,000 specimens in the herbarium. Europe and Asia. ^During 1939 the Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, issued eight numbers, nearly 500 pages, of its Bulletin of

spores and seeds, drought resistance, temperature as a factor in various plant processes, light quality effects, and growth sub-

Miscellaneous Information dealing largely with floras of various tropical countries, other systematic studies, and numerous notes

amount

—

on horticultural topics. Brussels and Samuel H.

W. Robyns of State Botanical Garden of Lamb of Hawaii National Park published

a preliminary ecological survey of the island of Hawaii in the Bulletin of the former institution. K. W. Hammerman, Directeur des Instituts de Buitenzorg,

Lands Plantentuin, which includes the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg, the mountain gardens at Tjibodas, the herbarium and the botanical laboratories, should devote their attention to botanical science as such and leave the technical appliAnn. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, Feb. cations to other institutions (W. C.) 1939. {See also Botany; Horticulture.) maintains that

’s

Perhaps one can best get a picture of the actiwties

uOldiiy. in the field for the year 1939 by discussing the holiday program of the largest group of plant science workers in the world, the botanical groups of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (A.A.A.S.) supplemented by the mention of some outstanding contributions from elsewhere. The programs of the groups appear in the program of the A.A.A.S. 27, 1939 to January 2, 1940, Columbus, Ohio. This good idea of the scope of the subject and the problems most emphasized during 1939, but it will not give a measure of the volume of research and publications in the field during the year. In this program we find the following societies dealing with

December

wall give a

botanical sciences entirely: Botanical Society of America,

Amer-

ican Phytopathological Society, American Society of Plant Physiology, Mycological Society of America,

American Society of Plant

their pests.

with the A.A.A.S., deals with soil

many

plant problems along with

problems, also the American Society of Bacteriologists, like-

wise not affiliated with the A.A.A.S., has the low’est order of plants

as

its

subject

of

study,

although

interests

its

largely in food preservation, soils studies, medicine, etc.

are

The

fruiting bodies of fossil plants,

An

many

fields

examination of the organization and programs of two soci-

America and American indicate scope of work and more

knowledge of plant

and to past climatic and

strati-

opment of nomenclatures, floras as effected by physiographic and variations within species. The American Phytopathological Society covered the following general topics defence mechanism and disease resistance, ph3^sio:

reactions to disease organisms, physiological strains of

organisms,

disease

soil

deficiency

diseases,

and reaction on

effect of soil nutrients

bacterial

diseases,

disease, varieties of plants

resistant to diseases, seed treatment for disease control,

injury, silver salts as fungicides,

and virus

nematode

diseases.

A

great

amount of attention is now being given to virus diseases. Other Confributions. Another excellent source of knowledge of contributions made to botany during 1939 is an article by F. E. Denny entitled “Advances in Botany” {News Edition, Industrial Engineering Chem. v. 18, No. 2, 1940). Among the discoveries cited in this review are the following: Kramer (Duke uni-

—

&

versity) shows that drops of water on a leaf do not focus the it, but far beyond the leaf. showed that cut carnations keep better in longer after removal when they are wrapped

sunlight within the leaf so as to injure

Neff (low'a State

coll.)

cold storage and last

up

than when kept in cold storage with stems in Lochow (Germany) has found 250 alkaloid free lupine

partlj' wilted

out of many million studied. All were white-seeded. Groner (Bucknell) found that w'ater of guttation from Impatiens is almost pure sucrose solution. Moewus (Germany) found crocin effective in inducing the motility of Chlamydomonas

sultani leaves

in dilutions of

minimum

one part in 250,000,000,000,000 of

concentration of a chemical

known

to

w'ater.

This

is

modify plant

behaviour. White (Rockefeller Inst.) has showm that plant tissue cultures on the surface of semi-fluid nutrients give no differentia-

when cultured in fluid nutrients 8mm. below the surface the tissue differentiates into stems and leaves but no tion of tissues but

Amon and Stout (Univ. of Calif.) found extreme dilution an essential element for nutrition of tomato plants. Raleigh (Cornell university’) found silicon essential for growth of the beet plant. Oat plants (Gilbert and roots are formed.

lines of greatest activity.

to the

features,

molybdenum

show the

much

local floras, relationships within various families of plants, devel-

countries or the organization of the departments of agriculture of

of botanical study and

great

In systematics, contributions were made to

graphic conditions.

examination of the organization of scientific societies of other the U.S. or other countries would likewise indicate the

a

In the Palaeobotanical section were contributions to plants of

plants

and

received

topic

various geological strata, the evolution of plants, structure of

under agriculture but deals exclusively with plants Besides these groups that are interested entirely in plants, there are other societies that cover both botany and zoology; the Ecological Society of America and Genetics Society of America. The American Society of Agronomy, not aSUiated

latter is listed

last

attention during

other countries. It has also added

water.

of Horticultural Science.

of

processes and promises great contributions in the future.

The

Taxonomy, and American Society

The

1939, occupying the attention of dozens of investigators in U.S.A. and the attention of many in

logical

D

or plant hormones.

stances

Bradley,

in

Wyo. Agr. Sta.) may accumulate enough potassium nimake the hay fatal to animals. Evans (Pretoria, Africa)

eties of the A.A.A.S., Botanical Society of

trate to

Phytopathological Society, will

found that a single plant of a star grass may cover 8, 000 sq.ft, its ramifying underground stem sj'stem. Resistance of plants of grains to heat injury (Laude, Kans. Agr. Sta.) shows a diurnal curve; low’est in early morning and highest at mid-day. New' yeast hybrids for breadmaking (Winge and Laustsen, Copenhagen) have appeared. Burrell and Miller (Ohio State university) find leaves of milkweeds very high in vitamin C. Denny’s article reports many other interesting and important botanical

important contributions for the year.

The Botanical Society

of land due to

of America consists of the following

sections: General section. Systematic section, Physiological section,

and Palaeobotanical

The General

section.

section covered the following topics about plants:

morphology, cytology, physiology, sexuality, evolution, production of mutants by use of X-ray, colchicine and acenaphthene, biochemical changes, and nutrient solutions.

Two

outstanding con-

programs were the production of mutants wn'th colchicine by Blakeslee and others, and the discovery of plastids tributions in these

in plant cells that

make

cellulose particles.

The

latter

the outstanding botanical contribution of the year.

may be

The Physio-

{See also Botanical Gardens; Horticul-

discoveries for 1939.

ture.)

(W. C.)

Boulder Dam: tribution;

see

Water

Dams; Electric Transmission and Dis-

Pow'Er.

Louis, despite his knockdown, was bo.xing’s outstanding figure. stood pre-eminently as he has for the

The famed Brown Bomber

past several years, lord of

heavyiveight

he

all

by knocking

Louis defended his

sur\’eys.

John Henrj’ Lewis, Jack Roper, Tony Galento, and Bob Pastor. His scene of action extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. His reign was title

out, in order,

questioned only in the struggle against Galento when the despised “Two-ton” Tony, accorded no chance at all by ring followers and critics,

staggered the title-holder under a fiery fusillade in the first mth a boulder-like left hook to the jaw in

round, dropped Louis

the third, before succumbing himself to the influence of the Louis in the fourth round. Louis knocked out Lewis in 2 min. 29 sec. of the first round of a bout in New York in January'. He

punch

JOE LOUIS GOES DOWN their

under a blow from Tony Galento in the third round of heavyweight championship bout June 28, 1939, at New York city

game has

Rnil/linfr

DUlillll5i

number of players

increased in the

to

12,000,000, using 160,000 regulation alleys. During

was host to more than 23,000 bowlers American Bowling Congress, the scores were as follows; winner of individual title, Jim Danek, of Forest Park, 111 ., with 730; doubles championship, Murray Fowler and Phil Icuss, with the winning total of 1,405; 5-man championship team, Fife Electhe 55 days that Cleveland

in the

tric

Supply Co. of Detroit, Mich., with a score of 3,151.

In women’s bowling, the Women’s International Bowling Congress champions were Helen Hengstler, of Detroit, individual :

Komitz

winner; 5-woman team,

woman Mich.;

The team.

Milwaukee, Wis.;

Oil Co.,

2-

team, Connie Powers and Bobby Reus, Grand Rapids, all

Ruth Troy, of Dayton, Ohio. was won by the Syracuse university

events winner,

Intercollegiate title

Barney Evans and

world’s doubles

mark

DUAIIIgi

in boxing.

Hofner, of Rochester, N.Y. set a (J- B.

of 1,517-

Twenty-five

Dnvmtr

Bill

title

The

defences

made 1939

P.)

a notable year

spectacle of Joe Louis, world heavy-

weight champion, on the floor under a blow, provided the year’s

journeyed to California and there knocked out Roper in 2 min. 20 sec. of the first round in a bout held in April. The Galento battle followed, a June attraction in New York which saw “Two-ton” Tony a helpless human hulk in 2 min. 29 sec. of the fourth round, after providing boxing’s biggest thrill of the year. And, in Sep-

tember Louis knocked out Pastor in 3S sec. of the nth round of a bout in Detroit, the first heavy'weight title match scheduled for 20 rounds in modern times and the first heavy'weight championship ever waged in Detroit. Louis grossed $283,986 for his year’s labour, boosting to $1,669,722 his ring earnings since the day

when he discarded his labourer’s overalls in the Ford Rouge to take up boxing as a profession. Only Jack Dempsey and Gene Tunney have e.\'celled Louis in ring earnings. The champion’s largest purse came from the Pastor battle, back

in 1934

plant at River

which also drew the year’s largest gate

receipts.

Louis received

$118,400 for disposing of Pastor. The receipts amounted to $347,870, a far cry from the million-dollar gates of another year and era, yet sufficient to provide a

handsome

profit for

Michael Strauss Jacobs of the Twentieth Century directed the affair as boxing’s current monopolist.

Promoter S.C.,

who

Louis’s bout

with Galento attracted receipts of $282,303, a tremendous figure for a title match in which the challenger admittedly had scant

chance entering the

ring.

The Lewis and Roper bouts were

indoor

attractions, limited in capacity, neither a sell-out.

Billy

Conn, scoring two victories over Fred Apostoli and ending

characteristic

the light-heavynveight reign of Mclio Bettina of Beacon, N.Y.,

activity in all standard ring divisions save the flyweight class.

gained attention as one of the outstanding performers of the year. He won the 175-pound title from Bettina in July and repeated the

greatest

thrill.

Generally the sport experienced

Notwithstanding, the sport experienced

its

abuses.

It

was

in-

New

York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, and as enormous as in former years. The receipts records at no time were menaced. The year ended with no prospect worthy of comparison with Louis in the heavyweight class, and few, if any, in the lighter divisions. vestigated in California.

The crowds were not

TONY GALENTO COLLAPSES and

is

in the fourth round of his match with Joe Louis defeated by a technical knockout

when Bettina challenged. Henry Armstrong, world weltenveight champion, was

victory in September

the year’s

most active champion, with ii title defences. Naturally not all of these were against first-class challengers. Armstrong, known as “Hammering Henry” because of his tireless style, simply took on all comers on a basis of first-come-first-serv'cd. He conquered Baby Arizmendi, Bobby Pacho (twice). Lew Feldman, Davey' Day, Ernie Roderick (in London, Eng.), A 1 Manfredo, Howard Scott, Ritchie Fontaine, and Jimmy Garrison (twice). The one upset to Armstrong’s string of victories came in August when he

Lou Ambers, Herkimer, N.Y., and relinquished the lightweight title. The decision was roundly disputed, but it was official lost to

it one of the three titles which at one time gained Armstrong the distinction of being the only bo.xer ever to hold three championships at one time. Armstrong had long since forsaken the world fcathenveight title. The middleweight championship was a disputed possession. T\vo

nevertheless and carried with

..4-

/

champions provided three bouts. A 1 Hostak, National Bo.xing Association champion, knocked out Solly Krieger early in the year and in December knocked out Eric Scelig to maintain his N.B.A. position. Ceferino Garcia, Californian, knocked out Fred Apostoli

'

in seven of the

most spectacular rounds of the year in New York, New York and California as title-holder.

to gain recognition in

Joey Archibald. s

106

Providence.

R.I..

retained

the

featherweight

BOY SCOUTS— BRAUCHITSCH, WALTHER VON crown, winning decisions over Leo Kodak, Chicago, and Henry Jeffra,

Baltimore.

made one deKayo Morgan, in

Sixto Escobar, Puerto Rican,

of' the world bantamweight title against an unimpressive battle in San Juan, P.R. in April, and surrendered the title because of inability longer to make the ii 8-pound weight prescribed as the class maximum. This left the bantamweight championship unclaimed, a condition which also surrounded the flyweight championship in which there has been little

fence

107

which has absorbed the majority of members in the Boy Scouts of Japan (315,776 of this increase represents membership reported by China, for which country no membership appeared in the 1937

versity of Wisconsin, winning four individual

World Rover Moot was held at Monzies Castle near Crieff, Scotland, from July 16-26. Three thousand, six hundred boys from 42 lands took part in it. Early in the year, Jan. 1939, the Australasian Jamboree took place near Bradfield, Australia. Some 11,000 Scouts were encamped at the Jamboree, most of them from the British possessions, including 25 from England itself, one dozen from South Africa, three or four from Ceylon and India, 40 from Noumea, a dozen from Nauru, and one lone Scout from Canada. Australasia, New Zealand, Victoria, South and Western Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales were also represented. In 1939, Dr. James E. West, chief Scout executive of the Boy Scouts of America, was elected to the International Committee during the Tenth International Scout Conference. This is a com-

valid claim to a mythical

mittee which handles the affairs of world scouting in the intervals

or

no action for the past

Amateur

several years.

—^Amateur

Boxing.

and

collegiate boxing attracted

wider popularity and additional recruits. Amateur Athletic Union sectional. State,

and national championships were conducted on a

larger scale than ever before. In collegiate boxing

West Point

tained the Eastern Intercollegiate Association

championships;

Bucknell

won

re-

the Eastern Conference title; Louisiana State cap-

tured the Southeastern Conference championship, and the Unititles, created a team championship in the National Collegiate A. A., where no actual team title is awarded. Abroad. The clouds of war cast their spell over boxing in foreign countries. The sport was practically abandoned in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. lyhat activity continued was on a smaller scale than ever before in Australia where a number of American boxers of ordinary rank made tours before war broke out and made ocean travel hazardous. (J. P. D.)

—

statement). Previous to this conference, the

between Biennial International Conferences. are at London.-

headquarters (J.

Alipo

Rrariu

Its

DldUjfi nllliu

E. W.)

(^892-1939), U.S. actress, was bom November 2 at New York city, the daughter of a

Broadway producer and a Parisian singer and danseuse. She was reared in convents at New York city and Madison, N. J., then studied for an operatic career at the Boston Conservatory of

increase in membership of the ^939 n_., Qnniito DUj uGUlilSi Boy Scouts of America was 66,188 for the first nine months, bringing the total up to 1,340,950. During the first nine months of the year there were 1,684,469 boys and men participating in the Scout program. Since the Boy Scouts of America was first founded in 1910 through Sept. 1939, 8,808,338 persons have been associated with it. Outstanding events of the year were Boy Scout participation at the World’s Fair Camp in New York and at the Golden Gate Exposition in San Francisco. Scouts maintained a service camp on the World’s Fair grounds in which 3,258 Scouts and Leaders took part. The annual meeting of the National Council was held in part at the World’s Fair grounds on Boy Scout Day. In San Francisco a Boy Scout camp was not maintained but Scouts were given an opportunity to camp nearby. About 600,000 boys went to camp some time during the year. Scouts camp by troop and patrols and camping activities include

a wide scope of outdoor experience.

Under the leadership of a strong reading program committee, of which Colonel Theodore Roosevelt is chairman, a new reading program was launched. The Seventh National Training Conference of Scout Executives, the professional leaders of the movement, was held in September at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Over one thousand professional Scout leaders attended. Abroad. During 1939 several international scouting events of importance took place. Foremost among these was the Tenth International Scout Conference which took place in Edinburgh, Scotland from July 26-28 and which, in spite of the gathering clouds on the European political horizon, was well attended, -with representatives of most of the Scout Associations of the world

—

registered with the International Bureau.

During

Music. After singing several principal roles in Gilbert and

Sulli-

van operettas she forsook a musical career for the legitimate stage and won her first success in 1912 as Meg in Little Women. Probably her most successful stage appearance was as Pennie in Forever After, which she played for two years (1918-20). She also starred in such silent motion pictures as Bought and Paid For and The Gilded Cage. But her greatest fame as a motion picture actress was reserved for her semi-middle-aged roles in sound pictures, such as My Man Godfrey (1936) and In Old Chicago (1938). For her portrayal of Mrs. O’Leary in the latter picture she received the 1937 Academy award as the best supporting actress. Other motion pictures in which she appeared were Stage Mother (1933), Mind Your Own Business (1936), One Hundred Men and a Girl (1937), Mania Steps Out (1937), Joy of Living (1938) and Goodbye Broadway (1938). Her last motion picture appearance was with Henry Fonda in Young Mr. Lincoln (1939). During this time she continued to appear on Broadway and played a leading role in Mourning Becomes Electro (1931). She died at

New York Brandy:

city

on October

see Liquors,

28.

Alcoholic.

Brauchitscli, Walther October

4,

Von

bilTelT.

the son of a general of cavalry, and was educated in

the German capital. He entered a military academy and. became a lieutenant in 1900. In 1912 he became an officer of the German general staff and he seri^ed in this position during the World War.

He was

appointed inspector of artillery in 1932, and the following year he succeeded Marshal von Blomberg as commander of the East Prussian army district, which in 1935 was transformed

Army corps. In 1937 he became commander of the group, and in Feb. 1938 after the “army purge’’ he suc-

Wilson, honorary director of the

into the 1st

International Bureau, presented the Scout

membership figures of active membership has risen from

4th

the world. Since 1937 the total 2,812,074 to a new high mark of 3,305,149

ceeded Gen. von Fritsch (,q.v.) as commander-in-chief of the German Army, being promoted at the same time to the rank of

—

this conference J. S.

—an increase of 493,075

disbandment of the Scout Association in what was Czechoslovakia, the disafihliation of the Boy Scouts Nationaux d’Haiti, and the formation of a Japanese National Youth Organization this in spite of the

Austria, the reduction of effective Scouting in

Army

Brauchitsch, whose decorations include the Iron and second grades, and the House Order of the Hohenzollems, arrived at the eastern front on the morning of September colonel-general.

Cross,

first

I to direct

the

German

invasion of Poland.

BRAZIL

108 ^ republic

South America and largest inRrilTil Olutllj dependent country in the Western Hemisphere; language, Portuguese; capital, Rio de Janeiro; president-dictator,

completion of the Rio de Janeiro-Bahia highway, and enlargement of the nationally-owned Lloyd Brasileiro steamship line.

Getulio Vargas.

simplifying and cheapening litigation and a decree (May i) transferring all labour questions from the regular courts to a special

Area and

in eastern

Population.

—The

area

is

3,291,416 sq.mi.,

7^%

The population was officially estimated as 43,246,931 in 1937. The great bulk of the population lives on the coastal strip. The north is largely negroid, especially around Bahia, with Indian elements in the Amazon greater than that of the United States.

German, and Japanese imminamed, has been especially heavy in the southern States. The principal cities are: Rio de Janeiro, 1,871,S30; Sao Paulo, 1,167,862; Recife (Pernambuco), 491,078; Juiz de Fora 382,857; Sao Salvador (Bahia), 369,692; Porto Alegre, 336,504; Belem (Para), 298,340; Santos, 203,126; Bello Horibasin.

Italian, Portuguese, Spanish,

gration, in the order

zonte, 193,706.

History.

—

Politically, Brazil

was quiet in 1939. Ruling by de-

cree, President-Dictator Vargas continued his policy of nationalism and centralization, with emphasis on the development of na-

and industry and improvement of communications. Local powers were further reduced. All State flags were abolished by presidential decree in April, and an administrative department set up in each State to serve as a check upon the tional resources

Among

groups, notably the

Germans

in

Santa Catharina State.

The

made emphatic denunciation of foreign ideologies and took steps against evaders of the 1938 decree requiring instrucpresident

tion in Portuguese

and the teaching of Brazilian history in all which had resulted in the closing of many private institu-

In 1939 over 200 children of German parentage left Brazil Germany; consequently, a decree was issued forbidding children under 18 years to attend schools abroad unless

civil

code

Serious drought affected especially the northern and central sections of the country early in 1939, necessitating transfer of a large part of the population of some areas to the south. Even in the south, the drought effect was such that a material reduction in the

1939-40 coffee crop was anticipated. Rio de Janeiro itself faced a water shortage in November, but timely completion of a new aqueduct relieved the situation. Tourist

traffic to

Brazil

was augmented during 1939. In Februbank of the Alto

ary, President Vargas set aside the Brazilian

Parana river immediately adjacent to the great Iguassu Falls (the in America) as the first national park. On November 10, second anniversary of the “New State” (accession of Presidentlar^st

Dictator Vargas to absolute power in 1937), there began a nationwide series of celebrations culminating on November 15, the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Brazilian republic. A feature of the elaborate program was the visit of seven “Flying Fortresses” of the United States

Army

The year was marked

Internal difficulties were primarily with unassimilated immigrant

new

tribunal.

governor.

schools,

the legal reforms effected in 1939 was a

air force.

in international relations

by the continua-

tion of cordial relations with neighbouring republics.

A

militar)’

mission was exchanged with Uruguay, and a trade treaty concluded with that country.

met with those

In August Brazilian representatives

of Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay to discuss

customs and exchange problems. Following the disastrous Chilean 24, aid was rushed to the stricken area by

earthquake of January

tions.

plane and by steamer. (See Chile.)

to study in

Until the outbreak of the European war in Sept. 1939, Italy, Germany, and the United States carried on a vigorous rivalr>' for

accompanied by

their parents.

It

was further required that

all

dominating positions in Brazilian trade and friendship. Italian Rome to Rio de Janeiro

schools other than religious were to be directed by Brazilians.

plans to inaugurate air service from

i, 1940, textbooks in all Brazilian schools are required to be in accordance with the national program. The Vargas

neared completion. In May, Countess Ciano, influential daughter of Benito Mussolini, visited Brazil briefly on a good-will mission. Meanwhile, Italy was attempting to arrange a barter agreement

Effective Jan.

program was supported by the Roman Catholic Church in Brazil with an order that all church services in southern Brazil be conducted in- Portuguese. In July, a further decree, aimed at subversive propaganda, provided that

all

future periodicals published

must include a Portuguese translation. Encouragement of immigration was likewise used to combat the problem of unassimilated Germans in the southern States. There in a foreign language

the governor of Santa Catharina opened his State to unlimited

Portuguese and North American immigration. Special inducements to North American families to migrate to the cattle, wheat,

and cotton regions of southern

Brazil were held out, and in

March

similar to that with

weeks

in a tour of Brazilian military establishments.

chief of

as an encouragement.

he

further evidence of the nationalistic program was noted in the requirement made in April 1939 that all insurance companies operating in the country re-insure their policies with the still

Government. The eventual objective of

this

was the

nationaliza-

tion of insurance.

A

second feature of the year was the inauguration of President Vargas’ “Five Year Plan,” an economical!)' important program calling for the outlay of $50,000,000 annually to dev’elop basic industries and public works, particularly communications, and to improve national defence. Financing of the plan is to be through

by the emisand by gold exportation. Among the projects given immediate consideration were: development of a Brazilian iron and steel industry, e.vploitation of the nickel mines of Goyaz, fostcrinc of agriculture in the Sao Francisco ^•allcy,

taxes on exchange transactions and banking profits, sion of treasur)’ notes,

ex-

United States was accepted, instead, however, and outbreak of European war precluded a subsequent visit to Europe. In May the United States Army chief of staff visited Brazil and spent two

the National Immigration Council voted gift grants of 50 to 75ac.

A

Germany. In June, ambassadors were

changed by Brazil and Germany after a year of strained relations. In March a formal invitation was issued by Germany asking the Brazilian chief of staff to visit Germany and view the German war machine. This was followed by similar invitations from Italy and other European countries. A subsequent invitation from the

staff

The

Brazilian

then accompanied him to the United States, where

in his turn inspected military units throughout the countr)'. the press of both countries as a

The exchange was acclaimed by

step toward American solidarity. The most significant event of 1939 in Brazilian relations with the United States was the journey of Foreign Minister 0 .swaldo Aranha to the United States at the special invitation of President

The object of his visit was the strengthening of the general trade and financial relations of inadethe two countries, which had suffered as a result of Brazil's quate exchange supply, unwillingness of United States e.xporters Roosevelt in Februar)’ and March.

and the inroads on Brazilian trade The defaulted Brazilian debt of barter system. Germany’s due to likewise $357,000,000 (held principally in the United States) was di.'closed was it conversations, weeks of four discussed. After United through an exchange of notes between Sefior .Aranha and loaned be would ,coo ,cx 30 20 that: States Secretary of State Hull $ to concede long-term credits,

BRAZIL United States Export-Import Bank would finance future exports through grant of credits; the United States Congress -would be asked to approve a to Brazil to provide adequate exchange; the

Bank

loan of $50,000,000 to the Central Reserve technical aid

would be given

vast resources.

zil’s

of Brazil;

to facilitate the development of Bra-

Brazil on her part agreed to free exchange,

North American investors equality with

to guarantee

and

Brazilians,

to develop her rubber industry, and to resume ser\ace on her bonded indebtedness. The accord, acclaimed enthusiastically in

both countries, was regarded as a precedent for similar agreements with other Hispanic American nations. In April a Brazilian repre-

went to the United States to -work out the details of arrangements and to enlarge the United States market for noncompetitive Brazilian products. On April 8, President Vargas sentative

109 in project and construction

is Asuncion (Paraguay) to Santos, is scheduled to begin in 1940. There are 207,700km. of highway, of

which 87% is unpaved. The 1,867km. Rio de Janeiro-Bahia highway, and a superhigh-way from Santos to Sao Paulo were under construction during 1939. Communication in the Amazon basin is almost entirely by water, supplemented by air transport. Ocean-going steamers are the chief means of communication between the northern and the southern ports. In 193S Brazilian foreign trade declined 12-9%. Imports and exports were almost exactly balanced at $295,388,599 and $295,558,058, respective!}', declines of io-g% and 14-5%. Germany led the import trade -with 25-5%. The United States (25-2%), Argen-

trol,

and Great Britain (10-4%), followed. Foodstuffs manufactured goods (principally machinery, automobiles, and railway equipment), and fuel (coal, oil, and gasoline) are the most important imports.

generally unfulfilled at the close of the year.

The United States led exports in 1938 (34-3%), with Germany (19-1%), and Great Britain (8-8%) following. Coffee exports ascended to a record volume of 17,208,088 bags, a 41% increase over 1937. Cotton exports advanced 13-7% in volume, but de-

two years of Government conand in July a pajnnent of $1,000,000 was made on Brazilian bonds, pending a general readjustment. Conversations on this latter were interrupted by the outbreak of war in September. In other respects the terms of the Aranha-HuU understanding were

liberated exchange operations after

On September 6, Brazil proclaimed her neutrality in the European war. In October, President Vargas reaffirmed neutrality, declaring Brazil lacked both economic and political justification for participating in the conflict. Army officers were ordered to reserve any personal opinions. Meanwhile, the Government assumed control of food prices

and forbade

profiteering.

No

rents might

be raised -without prior permission of Government authority. Brazil’s external communications were curtailed by the war, to the extent that shortage of coal necessitated the temporary suspension of some railway service in September.

To

tina (ii-8%),

(especially wheat),

clined

22-2%

in value.

eight months of 1939, exports rose 4-4% in value, while imports declined 10-2%, -with the United States leading in

In the

first

and Argentine trade with Brazil showed increases

British

both.

while that of

Germany

were

felt in

vegetable

—

THE European War.) Education and Religion.

rigid crop control

1935 there were 36,661 schools with a total enrolment of 2,862,666. Progress in education has not kept up

\vith

the material progress of the country in recent years.

—

Arm-y and Na-vy. ^The Brazilian regular army numbers So,ooo, and is supplemented by 30,000 State troops. Military service is compulsory.

The navy, second

rapidly expanded.

in Hispanic America, is being Six destroyers under construction in England

at the outbreak of -war in Sept. 1939 ish

Government. na-vy was active

The

were taken over by the Brit-

late in 1939 in patrolling the Brazilian

coast to protect Brazilian neutrality.

Finance.

—The

monetary unit

5.15;' U.S.), ordinarily

is

the milreis (value: approx.

expressed in contos of 1,000 milreis each

for large transactions.

Trade and Communication.

—Under normal conditions

enjoys excellent external communication.

owned Lloyd

Brasileiro line enlarged its

Brazil

In 1939 the nationally fleet by the purchase of

10 freighters and four passenger vessels in the United States. Air transport by Pan American Airways connects Brazil -with all parts of the Americas. Until Sept. 1939 German, French, and Italian transatlantic service

German adequate

service rail

-v\'as

gave connection with Europe, but the suspended at the outbreak of war. Lack of

and highway

facilities

-within the

country

is

an

outstanding weakness.

Under the “Five Year Plan” $62,500,000 be spent on development of communications. There are 34,321km. of railway, -n'hich will be supplemented by railroads now in project or under construction connecting the Bolivian oil

is

to

fields

with the Brazilian port of Santos.

Another railway, from

effects of

German

European war

and an increased demand

oils.

AgricoH-ore and Mining. nantly agricultural.

^In

The

a decline of coffee exports,

were purchased in the United States. The battle of Punta del Este and the subsequent flight of the German pocket battleship “Graf Spec” to Montevideo aroused considerable interest and concern in Brazil, and assurances -were assertedly given Uruguay that Brazil would assist her in maintenance of her neutrality. (See Hispanic America and

—

After outbreak of war

for cotton, manganese, fats, hides and skins, frozen meats, and

facilitate ex-

ternal trade several cargo ships

declined.

trade practically was non-existent.

Brazil

is

The most important

primarily and predomisingle crop is coffee, of

which she produces appro-ximately three-fourths of the world’s supply, chiefly in the state of Sao Paulo. Brazilian coffee is, however, generally regarded as inferior to that of Central

and Colombia, with which

it is

America

usually blended after export.

creasing foreign competition and the

now abandoned

In-

policy of

have seriously handicapped the industry. Cof75% of all exports, but by 1937 the total had fallen to 42-06%. The 1939-40 crop was estimated at 21,861,000 bags. Cotton, second among exports, confee exports in 1933 aggregated nearly

tinued

its

sensational rise during the first nine

months of 1939,

with exports approaching the 300,000 metric ton mark, a 50% advance over 1938. Brazil is the world’s fifth heaviest producer of cotton, and

is

second only to the United States in the produc-

whose crop value approaches that of coffee and cotton. Domestic demand takes practically the entire maize crop. Cacao is also of high importance, and Brazil is second only to the Gold Coast of Africa in its production. Other important agricultural products and the estimated value of their 1937 pro-

tion of maize,

duction are: rice, 703,000 contos; sugar, 664,000 contos; oranges, 331,000 contos; beans, 338,000 contos; manioc flour, 317,000 contos. Mate, or Paraguay tea (called Brazilian tea in Brazil) also produced

on a large scale, although Argentina, once Branow grows practically all of her o-rni needs. Cultivation of wheat, which constitutes 13% of all imports into Brazil, is being encouraged by the Government. A large export

is

zil’s

best customer,

trade in castanha, or Brazil, nuts from the Amazon valley exists. There, too, are produced considerable quantities of vegetable oils and of camauba -n'ax. Production of carnauba -n-ax, primarily for export to the United States, rose to 15,000 metric

tons in 1937, a

92% increase over the average production from 1925 to 1935- The States of Para and Amazonas possess an estimated 5,000,000,000,000 board feet of hardwood timber. The estimated .value of Brazilian forest production in 1937 was 609,000 contos.

BREAD AND BAKERY PRODUCTS— BREWING AND BEER

110 The

livestock industry

Rio Grande do

is

important, especially in Minas Geraes,

and Bahia

Sul,

States,

and

in addition to taking

care of domestic needs accounts for almost

io%

of

all

exports.

Brazil ranks third in the world in swine-breeding, fourth in oxen,

fourth in horses, and ninth in sheep.

An

40%

estimated

of the world’s iron deposits are in Brazil,

mechanical equipment. Louis, with the assistance of Jacques, designed the first practical helicopter in 1909. At the outbreak of the World War (1914-18), Jacques Breguet served for six months in the front-line trenches before

he was recalled bj' the French Gov’t to manufacture military planes. After the war he founded the Maison Breguet near Paris, a factory which produced some of

known

but lack of coal and inadequacy of transportation have hindered

the nation’s best

development. Until 1939 there was practically no petroleum field of importance known to exist in Brazil, and the country was

plane in which Costes and Bellonte flew from Paris to 1930. Breguet died in Paris on March 21.

obliged to import

all

of

its

To make available a ready made with Bolivia in 1938 under

which a railroad tapping the Bolivian oil fields would be jointly constructed by the two countries. Oil of good quality but as yet uncertain extent was discovered in Bahia State in Jan. 1939. Land within a lookm. radius was set aside as a Government preserve, and machinery and technical assistance brought from the United

To

and military

aircraft, including the

New York in

needs.

supply, an arrangement was

States.

civil

reduce hea\'y gasoline imports, the construction of

"Bremen":

see

European War: The War at

Rrpwinir allU anil Roor UlCVilllg Duel,

Sea.

fermented malt beverages by breweries in the United States in the

1939 calendar year were 2-7% greater than in 1938 but less than peak post-prohibition year of 1937. The following figures show sales of fermented malt beverages in the United States by in the

three refineries at Nictheroy (across the bay from Rio de Janeiro)

calendar years since the relegalization of beer on April

at a cost of $2,500,000 is planned.

barrels (31 U.S. gals.):

Other undeveloped mineral

7,

1933, in

1933 (nine months), 20,469,370; 1934,

resources of Brazil include manganese, gold, and nickel.

39,860,979:

no sense adequate for domestic needs, manufacturing is being encouraged by the Government and its development is one of the cardinal points of the “Five Year Plan.” A third of all Brazilian manufacturing activity is carried on within the State of Sao Paulo. During 1938 and 1939, efforts

614; 1938, 51,360,340; 1939, 52,723,082. There is one predominant reason for beer sales in the post-prohibition era being less than in the pre-prohibition era; the tre-

Manufacturing.

—Although

in

mendous

1935, 44,907,715;

1936, 52,942,739:

increase in excise tax rates.

Prior to prohibition the

Federal tax on beer was $i per barrel and no States imposed a tax. In 1939 the Federal tax was $5 per barrel and every State in the

were made to locate steel mills at Nictheroy. The proposed mills would utilize Brazilian iron resources, but lack of capital, of

Union imposed additional taxes ranging from 5o(

adequate fuel supply, and of

rel.

sufficient

transportation facilities

precluded the project from being brought to a

—

BinriooRAPHy. Marlin (1939).

J. P.

final stage in 1939.

CaWgeras, The History 0/ Brazil, trans. by P. A. (L. W. Be.; J. S. Cu.)

standard

methods

of

bread making have included the greater use of mechanical equipment and the adoption of formulas that produce more nourishing

and satisfactory loaves. Mechanical ovens have been rapidly displacing the older peel ovens. There has been a considerable increase in the use of dry milk solids containing less than i^% fat, particularly by bakers in the United States. The incorporation of milk solids in bread, together with the use of dough conditioners comprised of calcium salts, has greatly increased the calcium content of modern white bread. Some bakers are also augmenting the vitamin Bi content of white bread by means of special yeast, or in

other ways. Both the sponge and straight dough processes con-

employed for bread-making, at least in the U.S., is a tendency toward greater adoption of the straight dough method in Great Britain. (J. A. To.) The latest available figures in 1939 for the baking industry were tinue to be

although there

contained in the 1937 biennial census of manufactures. In the were 17,193 baking establishments in the United States w'ith 239,388 wage earners. The total cost of supplies was

latter year there

$727,021,811 and the wages paid were $293,994,425. Value of product manufactured was $1,426,162,859, of which $796,708,801 represented bread and other 3’east-raised products. In 1939 the

was estimated as 350,000, and approximately 100,000 motor vehicles were employed in the distribution

number

of retail outlets

to $6.62 per bar-

It will be seen, therefore, that beer sales in 1939 were only

6-3%

less

than in the peak pre-prohibition year of 1913 although

tax rates on the product were from

450% to 1,062% higher. However, due to the increase in population from 1913 to J939 there was a greater difference in per capita beer consumption than indicated

Bread and Bakery Products.

1937, 55,614,-

by the

difference in total sales. Per capita consumption

for the two years was as follows: 1913, 22-6 gallons; 1939, 13'3 gallons. In 1939 the breweries of 13 Stales accounted for 88% of

the nation’s total sales, five other States accounted for an addi7-1 %, while 25 other States and territories (including Alaska, Hawaii, and District of Columbia) accounted for only

tional

4-9%. No breweries were operated in eight States. Beer production in the United States is likewise being gradually concentrated in fewer breweries. In the

final

month

of 1939 there

were 585 breweries in operation, compared with 627 at the end of 1938 and 667 at the end of 1937. In the peak pre-prohibition year there were 1,413 breweries operated in the United States. The volume and percentage of beer sold in bottles and cans has increased consistently in the last few years. In 1939, 49'3% of total beer sales was in bottles and cans, compared with 46-2% in in 1938, 43-9% in 1937, 38-2% in 1936, 29-5% in 1935, and 25-2% 1934. This indicates more beer is being consumed in the home. World Produc+ion and Consumption. World-wide producdue to tion and consumption of fermented mall beverages, which

—

—

—

the World War (1914-18) and prohibition suffered a sharp drop from approximately 285,000,000 hectolitres in 1913 to appro.ximately 125,000,000 hectolitres in 1920, has shown consistent im-

provement in more recent years. World beer production of fermented malt beverages for 1933 to 1938, calculated for international purposes in hectolitres (a hectolitre

is

equal to 26-418

was 1933, 146,500,000; 1934, 184.300,000; 193s,

197,800.-

of bread and bakery products.

gals.)

Breguet, Jacques Eugene

and nianu-

0 000 000 000; 1936, 209,200,000; 1937, 228,000,000; 1938, 2 ^ The United States, Germany and the United Kingdom in the consumers order named were in 1938 the leading producers and

on April 23, the great-grandson of Abraham Breguet, famous French watchmaker. He and his

in 1913. of fermented malt beverages, this same rank prevailing These three nations combined accounted for approximately 66'r^

.

,

,

—

facturer,

was

bom

plane

designer

in Paris

brother Louis entered the Breguet establishment as youths .and e.xpandcd its business to include the manufacture of electrical and

—

of total world beer production in 1938 and approximately 71 C, 19:3.

in

The revival demand for

of the building industry all

increasing the

is

types of building materials to such an

extent that brick production in the United States has

more

Brick Production in the United States

(In millions)

Type of Brick

Common Face Hollow

1934

1935

1936

1937

I,OoS .7 305.3

1,811.3

472.6

2,966.5 848.8

3,252-6 937.6

6.1

9.1

8.4

5.3

51-0 90.2 138.3 728.4 220.1 22.8

Vitrified

1 I 3 -S

76.9

Sand-lime

41.4 305-9 103.5

61,8 494.9 149.6

48.6 88.9 103.2 626.6 229.3

10.6

I 2 .I

20.4

Salt-glazed

?

Fireclay Silica

Magnesite and Chromite

?

than trebled since 1934; preliminary reports indicate a decrease of about 10% in 1938 and a recovery in 1939 to above the 1937 level.

Production in Canada

is

chiefly

common and

only small amounts of other types, and

is

face brick, with

mainly from imported

was 102,670,000 in 1934 and 150,275,000 compared with 463,923,000 in 1929.

clays; total production in 1938, as

(G. A. Ro.)

Bridge, Contract: see Contract Bridge.

Bridge,

James Howard

was bom in Manchester, Engat the Grand Lycee in Mareducated and was 8, seilles. He went to the United States in 1884, where he was editor of the Overland Monthly (1896-1900) and Commerce and Industry (1902-03). From 1914 to 1928 he was curator of the

land on

May

He

Frick art collection.

water purification by

also invented an 3 patented a system of

electricity.

Among

his

works are

A

Fort-

Heaven (1886), Uncle Sam at Home (1888), Millionaires and Grub Street (1931) and several volumes on the treatment

night in

of water supplies.

He

died

May

28 in

New York

city.

THE BRONX-WHITESTONE BRIDGE bridge in the worid, was opened to

in

traffic

New York April

oily, fifth longest suspension

29 1939 ,

was completed over the Danube. The historic Menai Suspension bridge in Wales, 580ft. span, built bjTelford in 1826, was reconstructed (1939) at a cost of £200,000. A wider roadway for modern traffic was provided with the replacement of the four old wrought iron chains by two chains of high-tensile steel eyebars. The Sullivan-Hutsonville bridge over the Wabash river, between Indiana and Illinois, completed 1939, is the fifth self-anchored suspension bridge in the U.S. The main span is 350ft,, and each cable consists of nine ij^-in. galvanized rope strands arranged in open formation. The Howrah bridge over the Hooghly river, India, under construction 1938 to 1940, is a cantilever bridge costing £1,750,000. The Story bridge over the Brisbane river, Queensland, under construction 1935 to 1940 at a cost of £r,6oo,ooo, with a cantilever span of 924ft., is a Government-owned toll bridge and the second longest bridge in Australia. Four new bridges over the Mississippi river, under construction 1939 to 1940, are; at Baton Rouge, La., (cantilever $8,500,000 S48-ft. span); at Natchez, Miss., (cantilever $3,000,000 two S75-ft. spans); at Greenville, Sliss., (cantilever—$4,430,000 840-ft. span); and at Rock Island, III., ($2,500,000 five tied-arch steel spans, two at 539 feet.). All but the last are toll bridges. The first bridge of the Wichert continuous type was the PittsburghHomestead bridge over the Monongahela river, completed 1937, of 10 arched truss spans including two spans of 533 JX feet. Since then seven more Wichert tjTie bridges have been built (1938 to 1940) including one over the Susquehanna river at Havre de Grace, Md., 7,618ft. long, with 36 Wichert truss and girder spans (longest truss spans 456ft.); and ’one over the Potomac river at Dahlgren, Va., two miles long, including an 800ft. span,

to

The Tacoma Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, under construction 1938 1940 by the State of Washington Toll Bridge Authority at a cost of

$6,000,000,

is

a suspension toll bridge of 2,800ft. span, the third longest

span in the world. The Bronx-Whitestone bridge spanning Long Island Sound, costing $18,000,000 and opened April 29, 1939, in time for the New York World’s Fair,

is

a suspension

toll

bridge of 2.300ft. main span, the fifth longest

span in the world. (The Transbay bridge at San Francisco, completed in 1936, has two suspension spans of 2,310 feet.) The construction of the “Tor der Welt” over the Elbe at Hamburg, to involve 500,000 tons of steel and to include a 2,296ft. suspension span and an 8s4ft. plate girder span, was suspended at the outbreak of the war in 1939. The largest suspension bridge in the British Empire is the First Narrows bridge at Vancouver, B.C., opened to traffic Nov. 1938, and fully completed 1939. It has a main span of i,s5oft., and cost $6,000,000. This is a toll bridge, financed with British capital. The Deer Isle bridge on the coast of Maine, opened June T939, is a

May

suspension toil bridge of i, 080ft. span. A difficult deep-water foundation problem w-as solved by lowering completely assembled sheet-pile cofferdams pre-fabricated to fit the rock contours. The Beit bridge over the Zambezi river at Churundu, Southern Rhodesia, a suspension bridge of 1,050ft. span, was completed in Jlay 1939. In Vienna, the “Reichsbruecke,” a new eyebar suspension bridge of 792ft.

—

—

— — —

—

m

:

.

briquettes, fuel— BRITISH COLUMBIA

112

cantilever span and 25 Wichert spans (longest truss span 3soft., longest girder span 162 feet). Near Paris, a highway bridge with a record-breaking concrete girder span of 2s6ft. has been built over the Seine at Villeneuve. The Raritan river bridge at Perth Amboy, N.J., under construction 1939 to 1940 at a cost of $4,000,000, is of continuous plate girder construction, including 8 spans of 200ft. and one span of 250 feet. Also under construction 1939 to 1940, one of the approaches to the new Main Avenue bridge in Cleveland has a steel girder span of 271ft. (the longest plate girder span in the U.S.). A concrete pontoon bridge across Lake Washington in Seattle, under construction 1938 to 1940 by the State of Washington Toll Bridge Authority at a total cost of $8,850,000, has the pontoon portion 6,560ft. long made up of 24 precast cellular reinforced concrete pontoons, 117 to 378ft. long. 59ft. wide and i 4 ^fl. deep, floating seven feel out of water, with a central 200-ft. opening for ships, provided by a sliding indrawn floating span. second concrete pontoon bridge is under construction at Hobart, Tasmania. At Istanbul, Turkey, the Golden Horn is now spanned by a steel pontoon bridge 1,300ft. long. The 24 pontoons, of steel box construction, 82ft. wide, 30ft. long and 12 ft. deep, spaced 30ft. apart, support a rigid-frame steel superstructure carrying the concrete deck S2ft. wide. A centre section of four pontoons, moved by tugs, swings open like a gate for passage of

Constantinople as U.S. High Commissioner to Turkey, where he successfully guarded the interests of the Allies and won the friendship of the rising Nationalist party and its leader, Mustafa Kemal Pasha. His

skill in diplomacy during his tenure as high commissioner from 1919 to 1927 brought him a special citation from Sec’y of State Hughes. From 1927 until 1929 he was commander-

in-chief of the U.S. Asiatic fleet, with the rank of admiral. retired in 1932

and died at Washington, D.C., on

May

He

13.

British Borneo: see Borneo.

A

vessels.

The Sando bridge over the Angerman river, Sweden, which was to be the world’s longest concrete arch span (866ft.). collapsed Aug. 31, 1939, with the loss of 18 lives, due to failure of the falsework centring during pouring of the concrete. The present list of the world’s longest spans is as follows: Type

Bridge

II

M

II

II

Location

Golden Gate San Francisco George Washington New York

Suspension (Cable)

Narrows Transbay

Tacoma

Whitestone

New York

Ambassador Delaware River

Detroit Philadelphia

California

Suspension (Eyebar) Florianopolis Elizabeth Cantilever »»

,

.

.

.

,

.

.

.... .... ....

„ II II

Steel

.

Arch

,

,

.

,

....

II

Continuous Truss

.

Canada

Forth

Scotland

Transbay Longview Queensboro

California

Quebec New York

Sydney Harbour Hell Gate Henry Hudson

Australia

1931

New York New York

Duisburg

Germany

1916 1936 1935 1917 1935 1929 1928 1937

Chain ,

,

.

1889 1936 1927 1909 1927 1929 1931

Goering

,

of

Rocks

California

Ohio River Neuwied, Germany Mississippi River

Cincinnati

Ohio River

Homestead

Pittsburgh Darching,

Mangfall

Germany

igi 7

336 310

190S 1906

295 279

•

•

La Roche-Guyon

France

Westinghouse .

.

.

Pittsburgh Massachusetts

II

II

.

.

.

II

II

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Swing Span II II

II

Cape Cod Canal Marine Parkway Burlington Fort Madison Portland

Omaha

11

Sault Ste. Marie

Bascule

Masonry Arch

.

,

Chattanooga Plauen Salcano

New York New Jersey Mississippi River

Austria

by Dominion Combines Commissioner

K

was

bom

6I 2 593 528

battle of Santiago

entered the

McGregor during

the

oil

companies obtained an injunction restraining the Proand Petroleum Commission from enforcing an order

imposing a three-cent cut in the wholesale price of gasoline. At the close of 1939, the case which has attracted Dominion-wide attention ^was still before the Supreme Court of Canada. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities in September, Premier

—

—

T. D. Pattullo informed the Dominion Government that Brithsh Columbia would extend full co-operation in advancing war measDeures. Presenting his budget to the Legislative Assembly in

cember, Finance Minister Hon. John Hart stated that the national income should be reserved as much as possible for the prosecution were of the war and, accordingly, no new provincial tax measures challenge to be introduced, nor would the Provincial Government dothe Federal incursions into tax fields considered a Provincial main at this time. While rejecting a plea that the Province should absorb the whole cost of education, the Finance Minister promi-sed

at Glassboro, N.J.,

on

April 17. He graduated from the U.S. Naval academy in 1887. Appointed ensign two years later, he rose through the ranks to rear admiral in 1918. During the Spanish-American war he was

stationed aboard the U.S.S. “Texas” and

F. A.

vincial Coal

Briquettes, Fuel: see Fuel Briquettes.

Mark Lambert

fruit agencies, charged

summer months. In December, Provincial Attorney-General G. S, Wismer announced legal proceedings would be instituted against several firms named in the commissioner’s report. In August, leading

(D.B.S.)

Bristol,

Marketing methods of certain wholesale

with malpractices by Okanagan fruit growers, were investigated

7 75

Saxony

II

Vertical Lift

800 839

Tennessee

II

beth, visited the Province in the course of their nation-wide tour.

m'A 700 699 675 533

San Francisco; the appointment of two ProCanadian section of the Interna-

tional Commission studying the proposed British Columbia-Alaska Highway; and the official opening of the new Vancouver hotel in Vancouver under the joint management of the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railways in May. The most colourful and arresting event of the year came in June, when His Gracious Majesty, King George VI, and His Gracious Consort, Queen Eliza-

1,182 1,100 I |097 1,652 1,650

Oregon Nebraska Michigan

Sweden

Paducah

1,114 951 1,800 1,700 1,400 1,200

544 540 534 525 521 520

Stockholm

Metropolis

•

—

History. Prominent events occurring in this most westerly Canadian Province during the early months of the year included the opening of a Provincial exhibit at the Golden Gate Internavincial representatives to the

460

Plougastel

•

.

•

New Westminster. Of about 47,900 are orientals, 26,300 being Japanese and 21,600 being Chinese. About 90% of the Japanese and 60% of the Chinese in Canada reside in this province. this population

tional Exposition at

1931

.

•

Concrete Arch

.

concentrated in the south-western part of the Province, mainly

in the cities of Vancouver, Victoria, and

ii 7 So

i

1935 1937 1930 1927 1908 1893 1914

,

II

II

4,200ft.

is

3 500 2,800 2,310 2,300 1,850

354 720 716

II

II

Span

1935 1916 1929 1929 1935 1937

Ohio River Ohio River Brest, France

Simple Truss

1937 1932

1940 1936 1939 1929 1926 1926 1903 1917

Columbia River New York

Carquinez Strait Montreal Harbour Kiil Van Kuil

Sciotoville

Wichert Truss Continuous Girder

Brazil

Budapest

Quebec

Date

western Province of the Dominion of Rritich Pnllimhia bUIUIIIUIdi Canada, covers an area of 366,255 sq.mi., being equivalent in size to the United Kingdom, France, Holland, Belgium, and Denmark combined. The population of the Province (1938) is approximately 761,000. About 50% of the population

Dlllloll

saw active service at the

and other engagements. A\Ticn the United States first commanded a convoy warship, then

World War he

was placed in command of the “Oklahoma,” in European waters. In Oct. 1918, he was appointed commander of the U.S. naval base at Plymouth. After the war he was sent to battleship division 6,

a comprehensive study of municipal finances after the recommenReladation of the Rowell Commission on Dominion-Provincial revenues Provincial that known. Estimating made been tions had

would reach $29,300,141, and ordinao’ c.xpcnditurcs $29,268,790, compared with an estimated revenue of $28,820,641 and expendiforecast a ture of $28,765,457 in the preceding year, Mr, Hart revenue surplus of $31,350 in the fiscal year ending .'farch river area 1941. Favourable geological reports from the Peace appropriation for an prompted the Provincial Government to ask Other to enable oil-drilling operations to be carried on in 1940.

—

1

BRITISH EAST AFRICA measures passed by the legislature included: several statutes safeguarding property rights and other privileges for persons serving in

His Majesty’s forces; provision for the regulation of motor and their tariffs by the Public Utilities Commission; the

113 and con-

stock, and, in spite of schemes for water development

servation and for the improvement of stock and of pastures, already in progress, the severe drought early in 1939 did consid-

carriers

erable damage, the losses in cattle being estimated at not less than

appointment of Justice D. A. MacDonald as commissioner to investigate Doukhobor lands, under mortgage foreclosure action,

relief

acquired by the Provincial Government. In December, Hon. C. S. Leary succeeded Hon. Frank McPher-

son as Provincial Minister of Public Works; and sentation on the Dominion War Supply Board came with the appointment of W. C. Woodward, Vancouver merchant.

western repre-

Indostries—Lumber shipments to the United Kingdom surpassed

all

previous records in 1939, in spite of shipping

which followed upon the outbreak of

hostilities.

difficulties

All basic indus-

tries, according to preliminary estimates, registered gains over the preceding year. The gross value of production amounted to $50,500,000 in agriculture (1938, $47,782,012); $18,725,000 in fish-

(1938, $18,723,591); $75,000,000 in forestry (1938, $67,122,000); and $64,939,000 in mining (1938, $64,485,351). (G. N. P.)

eries

Rritich Fact nlllwiii flfripa Dlllldll Lddl

heading British

colonial

grouped

are

territories

on the

which certain essential statistics are given in the table below. See British Empire for population, capital {See. also separate heading, towns, status, and governors. east coast of Africa, of

Rhodesia.)

Kenya, Nyasaland, Uganda and Tanganyika

History.

terri-

Earlier events in East Africa have been overshadowed

tory.

The

the outbreak of war.

by

neutrality of other colonial powers

be in the economic field. The governor of Nyasaland was appointed liaison officer to the East African Command at Nairobi. In Tanganyika Nazi elements

indicates that East Africa’s role

among

the

iidll

Germans (who number about

many

for next season’s sowing.

Zanzibar Protectorate. The outbreak of war found the Zanzibar w^ell prepared to increase self-sufficiency in foodstuffs. Extensive work had already been done by the experimental Protectorate

failure of the 1938 clove crop

portunity to encourage food planting, large quantities of maize, rice and bean-seeds being issued free to producers. Attention is

improvement of the quality of stock and Owing to growing competition in the clove industrj', new export crops must be found; and the development of the castoroil plant and of pineapple canning is under reidew. also being paid to the

poultry.

Maurithis. The drought of 1938-39 in Mauritius caused a fall of over 75,000 tons in the colony’s sugar crop and a loss in wealth of more than i 750,000. Concentration on sugar production has

had grave economic consequences; for the prosperity of the colony depends on world sugar prices, the cultivation of the crop does not provide work throughout the year, and go% of food and other requirements have to be imported. Labour unrest at the beginning of 1939, which led to the suppression of the Mauritius Labour Party, was quieted when the Government took steps to ameliorate conditions generally. Seychelles. Early in 1939 the SeycheUes Government purchased about 4,000 acres of land on Mahe (almost a fifth of the mainland). These estates offer a field of investment for the colony’s

estation of

of land settlement; in war-time they give opportunity for the planting of essential food crops for local consumption.

of British Somaliland

is

in its Briiish Ensi

Territoo' and Area in sqjni.

J938

(m metric

tons)

maize, 82,400; coffee, 17,000

224,960

oil

crops were fortunately

ivell

Afnca

Imports and Exports 1938 (in thousand £)

Road, Rail and Shipping

imp. 9,039* exp. 10,749*

(Dec. 1937) ids. arterial, 3,i6omi.;

1938

Revenue and Elxpenditure 193S (in thousand £)

Education: Elementary and Secondary 1938

rev. 3,776;

(Dec. 1937) Europ.: schls.,

exp. 3,649

47.949

sugar, 321,373; copra, 1,482

imp. Rs. 33.S30 exp. Rs. 38,928

tobacco, 6,109 lea, 4,640

imp. 794.0 exp. 974-7

rds. 7oomi.; rly.

i4imi.

schlrs., 4,593; Indian schlrs., 7,635: mission sdils. 100 (est.

1939-19^0)

rev. Rs. 17.330 esp. Rs. 17,374

(1937) j,

rds.

mam, rly.

i,S52ini.;

aSpmi.

35, schlrs., 2,091;

African; schls., 52,

i,29omi., sbpg. cleared 2,158,767 net tons

Nyasaland

de-

advanced before the war broke out.

rlj-s.

^iAinilTIDS 720 {dependencies, Sp)

Road

velopment, the entomological control of coco-nut pests, and the completion of a central distiUerj' for the processing of essential

The wealth

Principal Products

Kenya

Government direct control over the afformountain reserves, and provide the basis for a scheme

surplus funds, give the

left the country.

British Somaliland.

and the had given the Government an op-

station in search of suitable crops for local planting,

one-third of the Euro-

pean population) were active before the outbreak of war. The internment of Nazi men was carried out without incident. Women and children were allowed to remain free and many Germans

goats, sheep and camels suffered less. Government measures were introduced. Agriculture also suffered and cultivators were compelled to eat the seed grain required

50%, though

rev, 842; e.xp.

81

schls., 126; schlrs., 39,952

(1937) elem.: Europ.: schls., 4, schlrs., 91; African: schls., 4,112, schlrs.,

196,325

Seychelles 156

export: copra, 4,7551 cinnamon

imp. Rs. 1,137; e.xp. Rs. 944

46 nu. of

ist class cart rd.

(est. 1939)

rev. Rs. SiS;

exp. Rs. 784

leaf, \’alue,

elem. schls., 26; schlrs., 3,ooS

Rs. 179,206

British Somaliland

export:

gums and

resins, 594; skins,

6S,ooo

imp. 72S; exp, 207

rds. for

Tanganyika 360,000

rds. 2,78301!.;

exp. 3,7oS

rly- i.377 nii.; sbpg. cleared 3,077,951 net tons

rev. 2,162;

exp. 2,436

schls., 67, schlrs., 5,128; African: schls., 1.014, schlrs., 76,360

rds. 7,48Smi.;

rev. 2,864;

elem.: schls., 300, schlrs., 34,232; sec.: schls., 22, sch&s., 1,250

imp. 2,993;

cotton, 72,541

exp. 4,669

cloves, 7.985; copra, 21,886

imp. 994; exp. 663

^Including Uganda.

elem,: (Jovt. schls., 2; schlrs., 121; privateaided schls., 14; schlrs., 514

imp. 3 , 537 ;

coffee, 14,232;

(3S0)

exp. 227

cotton, 8,600

93.981

Pemba

rev. 236;

exp.: coffee, 15,000;

Ug.anda

ZAN^IBAR (640) and

wheeled

c.2,000 mi.

traffic,

number, 1,699,883

rly.

332mi.

rds. (Z.) i7Snii.; (P.) 73 nii.

(est.

1939)

exp. 2,020

rev. 46s;

exp. 464

elem.: Europ.; schls., 19; schlrs.,

934; Indian:

elem.: schlrs., ((jovt. schls.) 2,428, (pm-ate schls.) 2,930

BRITISH EMPIRE

114 British Empire. The Governments

follows:

Popula-

Area

Country

Empire and the Governors and Premiers are as

of the British

Sq. miles (approx.)

tion* (ooo’s

Capital

Status

Governors and Premiers

omitted)

Euro pe Great Britain and Northern Ireland

93,991

47,387

Kingdom

London

George VI, King-Emperor. of Great Britain: Neville Chamberlain. Governor of Northern Ireland: The Duke of Abercom. Prime Minister of Nortl^cm Ireland:

Prime ilinistn

Viscount Craigavon.

Channel Islands Eire

75

96

26,601

2.941

2

227

20 49

Z22

26s

Kingdom of Great N. Ireland

/St. Helier \St.

Peter Port

Dublin

Dominion

Gibraltar

Colony

Douglas

Kingdom

Valletta

Colony

Britain anc

Jersey: Maj.-Gen. J. JI. R. Harrison. Guernsey: Maj.-Gen. A. P. D. TclferSmollett. President: Dr. Douglas Hyde.

Prime Minister: Eamon de Valera. Gibraltar

Man

Isle of

N. Malta

.

,

Lt.-Gen. Sir Clive Liddell,

of Great Britain anc Ireland

...........

Vice-Adra. Lord Granville. Gen. Sir C. Bonham Carter.

Asia

80

65

Aden

Colony

112,000

600 120

Manama

Protectorate Protectorate

299

Sandakan

36 600

Brunei

Aden, Perim, etc

Aden Protectorate Bahrein Islands

2 T3

\

Lt.-Col. Sir B. R. Reillj’.

.......

.j

Ruler: H. H. Shaikh Sir Tsa al Khalifah.

Hamad

bin

Borneo: State of North Borneo

Burma

29.500 2,226 50,000 261,000

Ceylon Cyprus

25.332 3,572

.

.

,

Brunei

Sarawak

HonRkonc Indian Empire

391 1.575,185

15.797

5.780 373 1,010 362,000

Kuching Rangoon

.

.

,

^

Protectorate Protectorate Protectorate Member of the British wealth of Nations

.

Colombo Victoria

Colony Colony Colony

Delhi

Member of

Nicosia

the British

C. R. Smith, Gov. T. F. Carey (Brit. Res.) Rajah: H. H. Sir Charles Vyncr Brooke.

CommonA. A. W. D. Sir G.

Sir Sir

Common-

D. Cochrane. Caldecott. BattershiU.

A. S. Northcote, Gov. Emperor of India: II.I.M. George VI.

Secretary 0/ Slate; Marquess of Zetland. MarVicerey and Covcrnor-Generai: quess of Linlithgow.

wealth of Nations

Malaya:

The

Straits Settlements.

.

.

1,357

.

.

27,700

1,311 2.053

.

24.347

1,795

1,400

...

10,100 34.740

Federated Malay States.

Unfederated Malay States Palestine

Trans-Jordan

...

300

Colony

Singapore

:

.

T.

S. \V.

Thomas, Gov.

of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang. The Rulers of Johorc, Kedah, Perils, Kclantan, Brunei, and Trengg.inu. Sirll.A.MacMichael, High Commissioner Emir H. H. Abdullah ibn Hussein.

Protectorates

Amman

Mandated Mandated

Nairobi

Colony and protectorate

.

.

.

Entebbe

Protectorate Colony and protectorate

«

.

.

Jerusalem

Sir

The Rulers

Protectorates

territoo' territory

Africa

Kenya Colony and Protectorate Uganda Protectorate Zanzibar

Nyasaland St. Helena and Ascension

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Bechuanaland Protectorate

.

.

Seychelles

Somaliland Protectorate Basutoland Protectorate

224, g6o

3.334

93.981 1,020

3i7 ii

809 47,949 81 156 68,000 11,716 275,000

243 413 1,639

Zanzibar Port Louis Blantyre

Colony

Sir Henry Monck-Mason Sir P. Euen Mitchell. H. Hall (Brit. Res.). Sir Bede Clifford.

Protectorate

Sir

31

Victoria

Colony Colony

350 570 270

Berbera

Protectorate

4

Jamestown

Donald Mackenzic-Kcnncdy. Henry Guy Pilling. Sir A. F. Grimble. V. G. Glenday. Sir Edward Harding.

Colony

Maseru Mafeking, in Cape Province

Moore.

J.

Sir

Ed^Yard Harding.

Southern Rhodesia

150,333

1,320

Salisbury

Protectorate Self-governing colony

Northern Rhodesia

290,323 6,70s

1,400

Lusaka

Colony

Sir H. J. Stanley. Prime Minister: Hon. G. M. Huggins. Sir J. A. Maybin.

Protectorate

Sir

Swaziland

160

Mbabane /Seat of

Union

South Africa

of

....

South-West Africa eroons

Gambia Coast,

including

9,889

317.72s

365

372.599

19,646

4,069

200 3,387 1.950 6,187 5,220

Bahamas

4.375

Barbados

1

67 igi 31

Leone and Protectorate

Tanganyika Territory

,

....

Bermudas British British

Capetonm Windhoek

i

......

Mandated

Dr. D. G. Conradic. Administrator.

territoiy

Colony and protectorate (mandated territorj’)

Bathurst

Colon>'

.\ccra

Colony and protectorate Colony and protectorate

Guiana Honduras

Canada •Estimates, Dec, 31, 1937.

66

19 Sg.soo 8,598 3.729,663

337 57 11,165

tDieel Feb. 11. 1940.

Khartoum

......

Dar-cs-Salaam

....

Condominium Mandated territory

Nassau Bridgetown Hamilton Georgetown

Colony Colony Colony

Belize

Colony Dominion

Ottawa

Duncan.

Pr^miVr: General J. C. Smuts.

Lagos

Freetown

Edward Harding.

Sir P.

Dominion

Seat of legislature.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Sir B. Sir

British

91,843 27,92s 967,500 360,000

Sierra

]

Cam-

Nigeria, including British

Gold

472,550

Government,

....

IL Bourdillon.

W. T. Southom.

A. \V. no

.

Canberra

Suva

Colony

Wellington

Dominion

....

Port Moresby

Part of

Commonwealth

of

Aus-

tralia

New New

Hebrides Guinea, Territory of

.

.

.

Western Samoa

...

Nauru

93,000

60 670

1,133

ss

8

3

Sir

Colonies and protectorate.

162

11,911 5.700

Pacific Islands

Condominium Mandated territory Mandated territory Mandated territory'

Vila

Rabaul Apia

.

. .

.....

Sir Sir

H. Murray. H. C. Luke. H. C. Luke.

Brig.-Gen. W. Ramsay McNicoH. J. Savage. Lt. Col. F. R. Chalmers.

M.

•Estimates, Dec, 31, XQ37.

DriHch PiiiQiiq DlluSn UUlalluj

^ British colony in north-eastern South Americajlanguage, English; capital, George-

town; governor, Sir Wilfred E. F. Jackson. The area population, 310,933

sq.mi.;

1938, 337,521), of which

The

42%

(census,

1931);

(official

are East Indians, and

chief cities are Georgetown, 67,584;

39%

89,480

is

ony’s boundaries have been long regarded as settled under a treaty

with Guatemala in 1859; however, agitation in that country for the treaty’s nullification and the eventual annexation of British

estimate,

Honduras was strong throughout 1939, although

Negroes.

Honduras. The colony has direct steamship communication with New Orleans, Jamaica, Liverpool, and other points. Air service to the outside is maintained by a Mexican line to

New Amsterdam

9,514.

it

had

little effect

in British

Late in Feb. 1939, the colony experienced serious rioting, the outgrowth of a strike of sugar workers. Three persons were killed. At the outbreak of the European war, British Guiana, in

system. Domestic air service connects Belize with several interior

common

points.

with other parts of the British Empire, took steps to

strengthen

its

The most

defences.

significant event of the year,

of the British Guiana Refugee

however, was the report

Committee named

in

1938 to study

the possibilities of large scale colonization of political refugees

In April, after studying an area of 25,000 sq.mi. in extent, the Commission recommended that, although the territory was not “ideal” for Middle Europeans and was not suitable for “immediate large-scale settlement,” nevertheless, trial settlements involving 3,000 to 5,000 settlers should be started, and the supervision of adequate technicians and specialists be accorded. Cost for two years was roughly estimated at $3,000,000. Outbreak of war in Europe, however, precluded immediate action. There are 79mi. of railway, 3Z2mi. of main highways, and several

in the colony.

Merida (Yucatan), connecting with the Pan American Airn’ays There are 25mi. of railway and over 20omi. of motor highway, but rivers are the chief means of internal transport. British Honduras is an important trade intermediary between southern Yucatan and the United States, with re-exports valued at ?i,557.iio in 1938. Total imports in 1938 were $4,004,091, from the United States (30.8%), Mexico, including re-exports (24.6%),

and Great Britain (19-1%); exports totalled $3,263,384, to the United States (72.9%) and Great Britain (12.7%). Principal exports are mahogany and other logwood, chicle, and bananas. These commodities, rice, sugar, and citrus fruits, are the principal products. The monetary unit is the British Honduras dollar (value:

The colony has 106 elementary schools (78 maintained with Government aid), with a total enrolment of approx. $i U.S.).

10,021 in 1938, and five secondary schools with 456 enrolment.

In 1938 imports, comprising foodstuffs, manufactured goods, and lumber, totalled $10,620,972, largely from

navigable rivers.

Great Britain (50%), Canada (15%), and the United States (11%) exports, largely sugar products (61.6%), bau.xite (15.1%), ;

(4.3%), with some diamonds, aggregating went to Canada (53%). Great Britain (34%), other parts of the Empire (s%), and the United States (4%). The gold

(7.7%), rice

?i3>327,30i,

export commodities are the principal products. Sugar production provides direct employment for 33% of the wage earners. The

monetary unit States dollar.

is the dollar, approximately equal to the United There were 239 primary schools (1938 enrolment:

S3.373) and seven secondary Government of $508,894.

nUIIUUldai

(L.

W.

Be.)

colony in northern Central Amer-

Rritich Untlriliroc Dlllloll

schools, maintained at a cost to the

ica;

language, English;

capital, Belize (pop. 16,687 in 1931) ; governor. Sir Alan C. Maxwell Bums. The area is 8,598 square miles. The population (1931 census; 51,347)

was

officially

estimated at 57,767 as of Dec. 31, 1938.

The

col-

(L.

W.

Be.)

The legion, founded in 1921 by the late British legion. Field Marshal Earl Haig, has a membership of over 500,000, now organized in 4,412 branches, with a women’s section of 1,800 branches. Through its 4,000 local benevolent committees it cares for all e-x-Ser^dce men, and proposes to include those from the European war of 1939. The various centrally controlled organizations continued their work during the year; 200 pensioners w'ere added to the 2,000 already receiving los. a week from the Pension Fund; and in many districts branches gave personal support to the National Defence Companies, the Auxiliary Fire Service, etc., and undertook Air Raid Precautions organiNearly 400 disabled men are perzation with much success. manently employed at Richmond in the making of the 44,000,000

—or

poppies annually required for Armistice

Remembrance

Day, and it was announced in October that the collection on that day in 1938, namely £578,188, was a record and that nearly ^7, 63 2.500 had been collected in this way since the start in 1921.

'

ASS'N— BRITISH WEST AFRICA

BRITISH MEDICAL

116

At the beginning of August at the invitation of the

ernment

a partj' of nearly i,ioo visited Paris

French ex-Service organization and Gov-

commemoration of the asth anniversary of

in

Britain’s

entry into the World War.

—

History. The High Commission territories of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland are governed by resident commissioners under the direction of the High Commissioner for Soutli Africa. During 1939 Sir E. Harding was appointed High Commissioner to succeed Sir H. Clarke.

“ST„”

British Meilicai Association. trition

was held

in

London

April 27-29.

The

discussion centred

problem of those who can feed themselves adequately, but choose the wrong foods and cook them badly. In addition to medical men the conference was attended by representatives of agriculture, at home and overseas, industry, and education. also touched on the wider

The Basutoland expenditure on education amounts

21%

of South

to about

main occupations

of the total expenditure, and as the

people are agriculture and animal husbandry, attention the training of demonstrators in these subjects.

widespread

is

A

of £160,233 for anti-erosion measures.

of the

paid to

Soil erosion

Fund has granted

the Colonial Development

:

is

a loan

geological survey

be-

is

by the Colonial Development Fund in to take the place of cattle manure as fuel

ing undertaken, financed

the hope of finding coal and so benefit agriculture.

British Pacific Islands: see Pacific Islands, British.

Union

Africa: large numbers of the adult male population work in the Rand gold mines.

mainly on the section of the population whose wages are insufficient to provide the necessary supply of vitamins and calories, but it

All those territories are

largely dependent on the economic system of the

The

people of Bechuanaland are

largely pastoral.

Gold and

British

Possessions

in

the Mediterranean.

These comprise Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Maltese islands of which the table below gives certain essential statistics. Sir Richard Palmer, whose term of office as Governor of Cyprus was extended until April 20, 1939, was succeeded by W. D. Battershill, who arrived in Cyprus on August 10. The demand of the Cypriots for self-government continued unabated; but their loyalty to the Empire was proved by the thousands of recruits who, after the outbreak of war, volunteered for service in the British Army.

A

was brought into operation to bring ore from the Kalavaso mine to the coast; and schemes were put in hand by the newly established Irrigation Department. Sir

Edmund

Ironside resigned the governorship of Gibraltar in

He was

succeeded by Lieut.-Gen. Sir Clive Liddell. The Spanish situation necessitated certain military precautions and led to table incidents;

some

in the Tati district.

regret-

The output of The Bechuana

people show enthusiasm for education and in 1939 set aside more than 40% of the revenue of their Native Treasury for tliis purpose.

Basutoland

.

—Principal products, 193S

23,384; maize,

791,352.

(in metric tons)

Imports and

e-xports,

;

wheat,

imports,

1938:

£749,000; exports, £402,000. Roads, 502 miles. Revenue and e.x1938-39: revenue, £421,000; e.xpenditure, £381,000.

penditure,

Education (elementary and secondary), 1937: elementary 7S2; other schools, 59; total schools, 78,658. Principal products, 1938: Bechuanaland

light railway

June to become Inspector-General of Oversea Forces.

produced

silver are

191,111 oz. of gold in 1938 constitutes a record.

.

—

gold,

schools,

19,111

oz.;

Imports and exports, 1938: imports, £361,000; exports, £376,000. Roads, 2,048mi.; railways, 396 miles. Revenue and expenditure, '1938-39: revenue, £190,000; e.xpcnditure, £203,000. Education (elementary and secondary), 1937 silver, 1,127 ounces.

'

schools: European, 12; coloured, 2; native, 117.

Swaziland

but on September 28 the governor received a

.

—Principal products,

193S: gold, 1,246 oz.;

tin,

174

friendly official visit

from the Governor of Algeciras. The new Maltese constitution was promulgated on February 25. It provides for a Council of Government with 10 elected members, 8 official members, and 2 nominated by the governor. Business

Roads, 654 miles. Revenue and c.xpenditure, 1938-39: revenue, £115,000; expenditure, £161,000. Education (elementary and secondary) 1937; European schools,

be conducted in English, but at the governor’s discretion Maltese may be used. The Council opened on July 31, with 6 Constitutionals, 3 Opposition Nationalists, and one Labour member elected. On September 20 a bill was passed providing for a

I

is

to

territorial force for

Exports, £116,000.

tons.

7; pupils, 354," pupils at native schools, 4,975 ;

;

(J. L.

Under

British

West

Africa.

British

this

K.)

heading arc grouped the territories on the

colonial

west coast of Africa, for which certain essential

Malta.

coloured: schools,

pupils, 38.

statistics are given

Briihh Possessions in Mediterranean Territoo’ and Area in sq.

rai.

Principal Products 1938 (in metric tons)

....

Gibraltar,

Imports and Exports 1938 (in thousand X)

Road, Rail and Shipping

no

shpg. cleared, 13.748,978 tons net

free port;

statistics

kept

Malta, 122

imp. 3 866 exp. 2x9

potatoes, 28,400 wheat, 8,100

rds.

i

rc-exp.

Cyprus, 3,572

wines, 226,801 hectolitres pyrites 501,484

1938

Malta

Revenue and Expenditure

Education, Elemental^’ and

S^ondary

1938

clem, schools 13; scholars schools 4; scholars 450-

rev. 2 o 3

exp. 200

“

X 939 4 o) rev. 1,524 exp. x.si;

267^ mi.

(esl.

Gozo 68 mi.

468

1938

thousand X)

(in

imp. 2,267

rds, 862 mi.

rev. 1,023

exp. 2,391

rlys. 71 mi.

exp, 90S

2,71-t*.

elcm. schools 82; scholars 29.x 18; sec. schools 3; scholars 1,244

clem, schools: Christian 402; lem 212: scholars; Christian 37.* 6.j6;

Moslem

7.493;

$cho^U

34; sdiolars 4,463.

in the table

British Somaliland: see British East Afri&\. heading arc grouped the British protectorates in the south See British Empire for population, capital towns,

Rrltich ^nilth nlllud. ifrina DllUoil OUUUI of Africa.

Under

this

status and governors.

For other Africa sec

territories

of the British

South Africa, The Unio.n

Empire or.

in the

south of

on

p. 117.

See British Empirf. for population, capi-

towns, status and governors. tcrritoric.';. History. ^In the political sphere the four principal Gambia, have vh., Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and the governors which been brought closer together by a conference of a wide variety of discussed and during meeting first 1939 held its tal

—

subjects of

common

interest,

economic and administrative. Tlic

revenue; conditions of world markets reacted unfavourably on

BROADCASTING Bnifsh

Prindpal Products exports 193S

&

Territorj’ Area in sq. mi.

(in tons)

Nigeria

Imports

British Mandateof Cameroons) 372,-

& Ex-

ports 193S (in

palm kernels 312,048;

(including

Wesf

thousand £)

ground nuts 180,136

e.xp.

&

Shipping 1933

Revenue

who spoke on

& ^1

Education: Elementary’ & Secondary' 193S

penditure (in

thousand £)

shpg. deared 2,012,498 net tons

9,461

674

(esL 1940) rev. 6,221 esp. 6,477

(1937) clem, schools 543; scholars 24,630.

(193S-39)

cocoa 263,229; gold 677,480 fine 02.

ing Ashanti,

rds. 2,286 mi. rly. 500 im.

imp. 10,380 exp. iijoSo

Northern Terriand

tories,

shpg. (1937) cleared 2,6x4,021 net tons

British'

^landate of Togoland) 91,843.

.

Ascension lands

Gambia

.

.

.

3,999

-

.

.

imp. 38

flax fibre 2S4; ton* 199

Is-

(34)

rds.

4S mi.

exp. 7

3,489

(est.

1939)

812 scholars.

rc\'.

16

exp. 15

ground nuts

rds. 869 mi. shpg. (1937) cleared

imp. 406 e.Tp. 256

(total)

46,204; kernels 6S1

palm Sierra Leone

e,vp.

elem. schools 927, scholars 83,824; sec. and higher educ. scholars 2,078

rev. 3.780

.

Helena (47) and

diamonds

27,-

925

651,525 net tons

(total)

imp. 1,500

689,62 a carats; iron ore 861,955

exp. 2,389

rds. 922 mi.; rly. 310 mi. shpg. entered 5,725.7^3 tons

West Coast depends largely on the cocoa The Gold Coast cocoa crop is estimated at 250,000 tons and

the prosperity of the

that of Nigeria at over 100,000 tons

—these two

territories,

which

1914 produced a negligible quantity, now supply the needs of Great Britain and account for more than half the world’s supply.

in

The

social services in the fields of health, education,

and

agri-

show continued expansion. In Nigeria a scheme for the control of sleeping sickness is financed from the Colonial Development Fund and it is estimated that some 200,000 people will' be protected by these measures from attacks by the disease. About culture,

30 Africans are at present undergoing advanced medical training at Yaba college. Some labour unrest took place in Sierra Leone,

The labour departments

of Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and Sierra Leone have been strengthened and the Labour Adviser to the

Colonial Ofiice

is

touring

West Africa

to survey labour conditions.

Legislation for the regulation of trades unions has been intro-

that day.

tion of war hours before the news reached the German people. At 6 A.M., New York time,

Chamberlain few moments later radio networks switched to Berlin. There it was learned that the German people and the news commentator himself were unaware that war had been declared and the broadcast told of German hopes for a last minute

(1937) elem. schools 14; scholars 2,198; sec. schools S, scholars 201

{1938) rev. 167 exp. 263 (est.

rev.

elem. schools 253; scholars 20,851

1939)

809

declared war.

Today, actual warfare is broadcast.

The U.S. heard

The

and war. wrought a tremendous change in the whole The end of 1939 found American radio adjusted to broadcasting war. At one time commercial shows were ruthlessly interrupted and cancelled at frequent intervals for news reports. Now', there are daily pickups from foreign countries and special periods are set aside for talks crises

by leading

w'orld figures.

Radio has evolved order out of the

chaos produced by crises and

w’ar.

Radio advertisers were the first to realize that America’s dependence on radio for news made air time more valuable. Despite temporary losses during crisis periods radio has had the most successful financial year in its history. The three major networks show’ed an increase in profits of 13% over last year. Proof of

public have

In the Gambia native administrations are also developing. In the

Gold Coast the system of

local

government has been described as rule, with a bias towards the

a mixture of direct and indirect

Except

in the

Northern Territories, the chiefs are unwill-

ing to accept a system which implies a control of native treasuries,

no

and there

is

financed.

The

from which these treasuries can be government depends largely on a duty on

direct taxation

central

cocoa exports.

Rrn{lrir!) (i939) 333.8oo; rye 188,023, (1939) 245,700; potatoes 148,332; lignite 1,941,000; coal 145,000; oats 88,591,

(1939) 127,900; tobacco 17,153; beet sugar 21,000; rice 19,100; cotton, ginned 6,900; rape seed 20,600; hemp

wool 11,200; (fibre) 4,100.

lowing the depression. If

censed (Dec. 31,

123

1937); cars 3,020;

(

W. H. Wn.)

close con-

tact with the responsible authority during the implementation of

the rearmament program or at the outbreak of war, the resultant

Bureau of Standards, National: Bureau of.

see Standards,

National

disruption might have been avoided.

The adequate

organization

supply, classification of

of

demands

building programs,

materials

in order of urgency, elimination

of inter-departmental competition, and the investigation of substitute materials,

would make available a greater margin of

country.

{See also

re-

work spread fairly throughout the Housing; United States; Housing.)

sources for utilization in

civil

(N. Ke.)

261,610 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec, 31, 1936) 15,600,DUIIIIda 000. Chief towns; Rangoon (cap., 400,415), Mandalay (147,932), Moulmein (65,506). Governor; The Rt. Hon. Sir A. D. Cochrane; prime minister; The Hon, U. Pu; languages; Burmese and English; religion; Buddhist (84%).

Diirmo

History.

—The year 1939 commenced with

strikes at schools and and industrial concerns. Settlement, how-

colleges, in transport

ever, soon followed. Dr.

Bulb Flowers: see Horticulture.

DUigdIldi

6,360,300.

June 30, 1938)

Chief towns; Sofia (cap. inch suburbs,

April 1938; 335,000); Plovdiv (1937; 106,000); Varna (1934; 73,759); Rousse (1934; 49,447)- Ruler, King Boris III; language,

Bulgarian; religion, Christian, mainly Orthodox

(Mohammedan

1934, 821,298). History. ^The early

—

of

Rangoon port. The legislature passed

months of 1939 passed quietly in Bulgaria. Her relations with Turkey and Yugoslavia continued good, but ill-feeling against Rumania was kept alive by the shooting of 22 Bulgars in the Southern Dobruja (May 22). The Rumanian question, in particular, kept Bulgaria from joining the Balkan

w'ith the

Entente. Relations with the U.S.S.R. also improved remarkably,

prise

and there were negotiations for increasing the trade between the two countries. On the outbreak of war, Bulgaria declared a policy

tries in

of strict neutrality, but public opinion clearly felt the time ap-

set

proaching

when

Bulgaria’s claims against

Rumania

in the Southern

Dobruja could be pressed, and unlike her neighbours, she hailed with some enthusiasm the return of the U.S.S.R. to an active policy resembling that of pre-1914 Russia. It was Bulgaria’s attitude

which formed the chief obstacle to the formation of a neutral “Balkan Bloc.” On October ig the Government resigned. A reconstruction on a more parliamentary basis was e.xpected, there having been general complaints that the Government did not work with parliament; but when M. Kiusseivanoff reconstituted his cabinet on October 23, only one member of it was drawn from parliament. It was stated that policy would be unchanged. Elections were announced (N. Mac.) end of the year. Education. In 1937-3S; primary schools 7,263; scholars 955,-

for the

—

number of schools 8,013; scholars 1,098,986. Banking and Finance. ^Revenue, ordinary (actual 1938),

292; total

—

7.686.600.000 levs; (est. 1939), 7,037,100,000 levs; expenditure, ordinary (actual 193S) 7,207,000,000 levs; (est. 1939)- 71626,-

300.000 levs; public debt (Dec. 31, 193S) 21,778,880,000 levs; notes in circulation (monthly average 1938), 2,628,000,000 levs; gold reserve (Dec, 31, 1938), 2,006.000,000 levs; rate of exchange

360 levs=£i,

sterling.

Trade and Communication.

—

^Foreign trade 1938,

merchan-

dise; imports 4,934,193,000 levs; e.xports 5,378.341,000 levs.

munications (Jan. 1939)

;

traffic

i,8i8mi.;

Com-

motor traffic motor vehicles li-

roads, national, suitable for

ii,866mi.; railways open to

ministry, defeated in the legis-

—

sq.mi.; population (est.

Rlllffitrn

Ba Maw’s

was succeeded by a new administration with U. Pu as premier. New institutions were a State Polytechnic; a State Translation Bureau, to make available in Burmese latest scientific and arts treatises; a lo-kw. station at Rangoon broadcasting daily, news, talks, music and light entertainment. An enlarged and reconstructed wharf was added to the amenities lature,

in 1939 a Land Tenancy Act which deals problems of stable tenancies and a determination of fair

rents in agriculture. establishing

at

a

The

regulation of agricultural tenancies aims

and

progressive

Burman

self-supporting

peasantry.

A

State Aid to Industries Act, designed to foster local enter-

On

by providing government help to new and nascent indusBurma, received the Royal assent in November. October

10, the

governor with the support of the ministry

up a Burma Defence Council the country’s war effort.

to facilitate the

development of

Considerable trade expansion may be expected from the new Burma-China motor road, 770116. long, from Lashio to Kunming in the province of Yunnan. The road was completed early in 1939. On. Feb. 6, 1939 the King approved of a new national flag for

Burma

in recognition of its position as a unit of the Empire. Education. ^In 1938 total number of schools 26,073 scholars 778,682; primary schools 5,123; scholars 330,036; middle 1,005;

—

;

;

scholars 131,883; high 363; scholars 85,611; special 1,142; scholars 18,257; unrecognized institutions 18,436; scholars 212,-

975; university, Rangoon, 2,121 students; arts college, Mandalay,

109 students.

—

Finance. Revenue (est. 1939-40) Rs.15,43,23,000; expenditure (est. 1939-40) Rs.is, 42,08, 000; public debt (to India, to be

funded in 43 years by an annuity of Rs.2,24, 55,964) Rs.49,72,86,558; exchange rate Rupee (Rs.i)=is.6d.

—

Trade and Communication. Overseas trade (merchandise) 1938; imports Rs.20,77,79,000; exports Rs.47,80, 96,000; re-e.tports Rs. 69,27,000. Communications 1939; roads, suitable for motor traffic, all-weather 6,263mi.; seasonal 6,2Somi.; Railways, open to traffic 2,o6omi.; inland waterways (approx.) 1,300 miles. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. Production 1938-39 (in metric tons); rice 6,072,696; petroleum, crude (1938) 1,096,000; ground nuts 183,000; sesamum 53,000; maize

—

47,000; cotton, ginned 19,000; tobacco 43,000; silver (1938) 184.

BUSCH. GERMAN — CABOT, RICHARD

124 Rlicph Carman UUoulli ubiilluu

He

of Santa Cruz.

(^904-1939), Bolivian statesman and soldier, was bom March 23 in the department

30 cents

La Paz and was

through

attended militarj' school at

commissioned second lieutenant in 1922. As a captain of cavalry during the early part of the Gran Chaco war, he was cited several times for distinguished braver}' under fire, and later he was advanced to commander of the cavalry and finally chief of the Bolivian general staff. When David Toro, the provisional president, resigned at the demand of the army July 13, 1937, Busch,

to

in 1938,

but

Commodity Corporation

the Federal Surplus

authorized a $6,000,000 loan

On November

DPMA

the

i

from Januaiy

i

to

earmarks of being unusually liberal. He abolished censorship and promised early national elections, though he refused to rescind the order of his predecessor which had nationalized the petroleum

203i773lb.

New

the

DPMA,

to

and the

FSCC

buy up the

9,

to 25,000,-

DPMA

In Canada stocks of creamer}’ butter November 1939 and 62,829,6041b. in

in

in 1939 and

were

i

Jersey in south-

War and

56,-

Production

1938.

Canada from Jan. to Oct. 1939, was 239,399,9391b., a of 0-7% from the same period in 1938.

In 1938 he brought the long controversy with Paraguay over the Chaco region to a peaceful conclusion. On April 24, 1939 he suddenly dismissed congress, suspended the

ac-

had 2i,22S,ooolb.

September 30 was 1,406,388,0001b.

i,4io,S37.ooolb. in 1938.

of

to'

to distribute

1939, the Government

26,

Production of creamery butter in the United States

in storage.

then 33 years old and a national hero, assumed the provisional presidency. His administration at first had all the

company

July

000 pounds. Between July 29 and September cumulated 12,117,705 pounds.

who was

concessions of the Standard Oil

On

channels.

relief

C.

and the accumulation was transferred

failed,

in

decrease

Peacetime Butter Exports of the United States

eastern Bolivia.

constitution

and

later,

on August

gun-shot wound which, according

propaganda, was

Lb.

Average Yearly

Lb.

i 9 io~X 4

4,277,000 17,943,000 26,561,000 7,193,000

191S 1919 1934-38

26,194,000 34 ,SSC.o«J

19x5 1916 19x7

the courts, and took over dictatorial control

Four months

of the country.

Paz of a

all

Average Yearly

23,

he died in

La (S.

O. R.)

to the ministry of

following

Pohinat Momhorc

self-inflicted.

udUlllCl mClIlUClOa Roosevelt’s

Buses, Motor; see Electric Transportation; portation Motor Vehicles.

Motor Trans-

I,

members of

President

cabinet held office on Jan.

1940:

Name

Post

Stale

;

Business Cycles:

see

Financial Review.

(i866-i939)>American jurist, was bom near Rlltlor Piorno DUlibI; riClUC St, Paul, Minn, on March 17 and received his bachelor’s degree in 1887 from Carleton college, Northfield, Minnesota. He was admitted to the Minnesota bar in i888 and practised law in St. Paul until 1923. President Harding nominated him associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Nov. 23, 1922; he was confirmed by the Senate the next month and took his

He

was an outstanding conservative on the Supreme Court bench and although a Democrat voted con-

seat Jan.

2,

1923.

sistently to annul legislation of the

died at Washington, D.C. on

Dlittar

New

November

Deal.

on the Chicago Mercantile exchange advanced from an inactive level of about 23-J- cents a pound in August to 30^- cents in the first 11

weeks of the war. The advance caused cessation of Government operations to peg butter around 24 cents by means of loans to the co-operatives’ Dairy Products Marketing Association. United States foreign trade in butter has always been negligible. Even the greatly expanded e.xports of 1918 were only about 2% of production. The British Food Ministry on September 25 announced a maximum price of 27-3 cents a pound that importers might charge

Kingdom for butter. Later it was announced that a butter ration of 40Z. per person per week would wholesalers in the United

that

had been United Kingdom

in effect in

same butter

ration

Germany some months. Butter

stocks

effect.

This

is

the

war were 65,S79,oooIb., to 74,125,0001b. compared and approximatelya three-weeks’ supply the a year earlier. Nevertheless, United Kingdom imports from in the

at the outbreak of

Continent were further reduced. The United Kingdom imported 663,073,0001b. 634,518,0001b, the first seven months of 1939; for the like period in 1938. the Stocks of creamer}’ butter in the United States October i, 1,peak of the storage season, were 155,000,0001b. in 1939, ^fd 21 to owing accumulations ooo.ooolb. in 1938, a record in storage

DPMA

storing ii5,ooo,ooolb.

about $32,000,000. The

by means of

DPMA

a

.

.

.

.

.

.

Henry Morgenthau, Harry H. Woodring Frank Murphy* James A. Farley

... New York

Jr.

Kansas Michigan New York

New

Charles Edison** Harold L. Ickcs

Jersey

Illinois

Iowa Wallace I?"’'*,. Harry L. Hopkins Newiork Frances Perkins •Succeeded by Robert H. Jackson of New York, who was nominated Jan. 4, 1940.

••Sworn in Jan.

Great

2,

Henry

.A.

1940.

Britain.

—

^The following changes

ish Cabinet during 1939,

up

were made war

to the outbreak of

in the Britin

Septem-

ber;

On January

28 Sir

Thomas Inskip bewme Dominions

Sec-

on September 3 by Mr. Anthony Eden, special access to the War Cabinet. Lord Chatficld, who had Minister for Co-ordination of Defence; Sir Reginald DormanSmith, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries; and Mr. W. S. retary, being succeeded

16.

indirect result of war, prices for spot butter

subsequently be put into

Tennessee

Cordell Hull

.... .... ....

Justice Butler

^ direct result of increased industrial activity and

DUllur> an

Secretary of State Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of War Attorney-General Postmaster General Secretary of the Navy Secretary of the Interior Secretarj' of Agriculture Secretary of Commerce Secretary of Labor

Government loan of

attempted to fix prices at around

Morrison, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, On April 20 Mr. Leslie Burgin was created Minister of Supply, and was suc-

ceeded as Minister of Transport on April 21 by Capt. Euan Wallace.

Immediately upon the declaration of war against Germany on September 3, a War Cabinet was constituted as follows: First Lord efiht rrfajiiry, Mr. NtvUIc Chonccihr of the Exchequer, Sir John Simon; Secretary of Slate for ForeiKK Adairs, Wscouniyiwiisx', Minister for the Co-ordination of Defence, Admiral of the Fleet I^rd ChatfieJa; First Lord of the Admiralty, Mr. Winston S. Churchill; Secretary of State for War, ?»tr. L. Hort-BcUsha*; Secretary of Stale for Air, Sir Kingsley W’ood; Lord privy Seal, Sir Samuel Ifoarc;

Trimr Minisfer and

Minister unlhoul Portfolio, Lord Hantey.

•Resigned Jan.

5, lo-p;

succeeded by Mr. Oliver Stanley.

(1S68-1939),

labot,,

Clarke Richard --

and

21 and was educated at Noble's school university, where he received his M.D. degree in

rookline. Mass., on

id at Harvard

cian

American physiwas bom in

author,

May

In 1894 he established his medical practice in Boston, of here he lived the rest of his life. In 1S99 he joined the staff clinic.il of professor he was le Han’ard Medical school, where 592.

student icdidne from 1919 until 1933. Dr. Cabot was a lifelong lectured he and In 1903 1904 f philosophy and social ethics. professor Prof, josiah Roycc's seminar in logic, and he was :forc I

social ethics at

Harvard from 1920

to 1934.

He

early brought

CALDECOTT MEDAL— CALIFORNIA his interest in social

ized medicine,

problems to bear upon the question of social-

and he was one of the

first in

the United States to

Frequently

argue the practicabilit3' of group medical service.

censured, he in his turn criticized the medical profession as reac-

From

tionary and expensive for the ordinar}^ patient.

1921 he was chief of

staff of the

igrz to

Massachusetts General hospital,

where he established a procedure for treatment of needy patients that was later adopted by hospitals all over the nation. Besides several volumes on diagnosis and medical case teachmg, he was the author of What Men Live By (1914), Adventures on the Borderlands oj Ethics (1926) and The Meaning of Right and Wrong (1933). He died at Boston on May 8.

Caldecott Medal:

see

American Library AssoaAxioN;

Children’s Books.

Calendar of Events, 1939: Polif nrniQ

UalllOriilu) popularly

see pages 1-18.

Pacific coast State of the United States, first

known

as

State to enter the Union (Sept.

“The Golden

and

9,

thirty-

1850),

is

State”; area, 155,632 sq.mi.,

population (U.S. census, 1930) 5,677,251, California Taxpayers Association estimate, Jan. i, 1940, 7,100,000. Capital, Sacra-

mento, 93,750. Cities larger than Sacramento (1930) were; Los Angeles, 1,238,048; San .Francisco, 634,394; Oakland, 248,063;

San Diego, 147,995; Long Beach, 142,032. Of the State’s population, 4,160,596 were urban, or 73-3%; 5,040,247 whites; 97,456 Japanese; 81,048 Negro; 37,361 Chinese; bom; 1,073,964 foreign bom.

4,603,287 native

—

History. Culbert L. Olson, California’s first Democratic governor in 44 years, was inaugurated Jan. 2, 1939. Five daj’s later he suffered a collapse, brought on by the strain of a hectic campaign and inaugural ceremonies, and for some w'eeks was unable actively to prosecute the duties of his office.

Governor Olson faced a

Upon

his recovery.

hostile legislature, which, throughout a

record-breaking session of 133

daj’s, consistently

balked his

lib-

arid an Assembly with a some $91,000,000 from the Olson budget, including a $71,000,000 relief item, for which was

eral

program.

The Republican Senate

scant Democratic majority slashed

125

the repercussions anticipated, the Los Angeles

failed to bring

reform movement continued, and, in hlarch, Joseph Shaw, brother and secretary of former majmr Frank L. Shaw, w’as conwcted, along with Civil Sendee Commissioner William Cormack, on 63 counts of selling

cml

Graft allegations brought the

service jobs.

indictment of William G. Bonelli,

member

of the State

Board of

Equalization, while formal charges were filed against the State

Prison board for alleged mass floggings at San Quentin prison.

Labour troubles were most pronounced in the maritime indusand especially in San Francisco, where, in November, earlier

try’,

culminated in a general longshoremen’s

sporadic disturbances

which ended after 53 days with an agreement to negotiate differences. Cru.x of the difficulties on San Francisco’s waterfront (according to the city’s business leaders) w’as Pacific Coast Longshoremen leader Harry Bridges; in the summer he was the central figure in a nine-weeks’ hearing on Angel island, in which the Government, enthusiastically supported by employer and other

strike,

conservative interests, vainly sought his deportation as a

munist and undesirable

alien.

Com-

Another development with labour

was the pardon, early’ in January, of Thomas J. Mooney, who had served 22 years for the San Francisco Preparedness Day bombing of 1916; Warren K. Billings, Mooney co-defendant, was released later in the year. Government construction projects made rapid headway. On November 5, ground was broken for the $14,000,000 Friant dam, on the upper San Joaquin river, while the pouring of concrete for Shasta dam was expected to begin early in 1940. Friant dam, the second major unit of the $170,000,000 Central valley project, will be the fifth largest masonry dam in the world. Interurban railway service across the San Francisco bay bridge began in Jan. 1939, implications

and the $50,000,000 Golden Gate International Exposition, open 254 days, drew 10,496,203 wsitors. The fair, although it closed with a $4,600,000 deficit, was to re-open for four months in 1940. Education. tion.

—

^In

education, California maintained

The University

of California continued to

its

Harvard and Columbia as one of the country’s leading

With a

high posi-

be rated with universities.

physical plant valued at over $50,000,000, assets exceed-

ing $70,000,000, and an

until early 1940.

operating budget of $12,938,736 for i939~40 (63-1% received from the State), the university led the nation in full-time enrolment (26,004 in the fall semester 1939).

the

The

well-developed public school system, buttressing the univer-

sity,

was

later substituted a $35,525,000

temporary appropriation, to

last

The revised budget, totalling $468,071,624 for 1939-41 biennium, was still the largest in State history. Despite the mounting treasury deficit and the unbalanced budget, the legislature rejected the governor’s entire

gram, except for a tax on

gifts.

new

taxation pro-

Also repudiated was a pet Olson

project involving a grant of $170,000,000 to municipalities for distribution of electric

power

to be generated at Shasta

dam.

During the latter part of the session. State police were employed to round up missing representatives and barricade the halls against utility lobbyists. With the defeat of his recommendations by the 1939 legislature. Governor Olson called a special session for Jan. 29, 1940. The political scene was further enlivened by the special election of November 7. A revised “Thirty Dollars Every Thurs-

day” pension scheme, again on the ballot after

its

5"to-4 defeat

was this time repudiated 2-to-i, after a hot campaign. A measure for petroleum conservation, passed by the legislature and endorsed by the United States Navy, the C.I.O., and Democratic and Republican leaders, also was defeated, with a large negative vote in the oil-producing south serving to overcome the in 1938,

Two measures limiting interest on small loans were the only ones approved. As regards municipal elections, Los Angeles voters carried on the purge of city politics begun by reform Mayor Fletcher Bowron in 1938, and, in San Francisco, conservative Mayor Angelo J. Rossi retained his office by a scant margin over liberal Congressman Franck R. Havenner. Although the 1938 probe of lobbying in the State legislature affirmative majority in the north.

allotted nearly $77,000,000

Charities.

—

by the State for 1939-41. and the new

^Despite large Federal contributions

unemploy’ment reseu'es benefits, State direct relief expenditures rapidly mounted, and in late 1939 were running at about $4,000,000 monthly, with additional county expenditures of approximately $6,000,000. Largely responsible for the increase

migratory workers, of

was the

influx of

whom

332,526 entered the State between Jan. I, 1936 and Sept. 30, 1939. During 1938-39 the expenditure for unemploj’ment rehef, exclusive of unemployment reserves

and county relief, was $119,802,769 ($42,047,590 State, $77,755,179 Federal). The case load on June 30, 1939 (again omitting counties) was 174,930 (about 24% Mexican), representing some 575,000 indh’iduals (appro.ximately of the State’s benefits

S%

population). In November, there were 134,010 aged, 6,796 blind,

and 39,123 children receiving categorical aids. Relief innovations during the j’ear were the adoption in San Francisco of the Federal food-stamp plan, whereby surplus commodities are sold at reduced prices, and the inauguration in Los Angeles of the first unit of Governor Olson’s “production-for-use” relief program. Finance and Banking. State Government costs for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1939 reached a record high of $279,284,297, 7-6% greater than the i93S,_and more than double the 1933 figure. Primary factors in this increase were the State’s assumption of additional educational burdens and the skyrocketing of relief needs.

—

OF— CAMP

CALIFORNIA. UNIVERSITY

126 The cumulative

general fund deficit as of June 30

was $76,328,-

from previous biennia. Unless revenues increased, the State finance department predicted a deficit of over $100,000,000 by June 30, 1941. Bank debits from 13 cities regularly submitting Federal Reserve reports were $25.558,925,000, as compared wdth $24,904,593,000 in 193S. On Oct. 2, 1939, there were 228 banks (128 State, 100 national), with a S 54 > including a $44,746,926 carrj’-over

capital stock of $202,722,000, capital funds of $429,453,000, de-

FIRE GIRLS

Berkeley, a poultrj’ disease laboratory at

Gifts to the seven campuses of the university for the year end-

June 30, 1939, totalled $1,881,872.62. A greater number of distinguished scholars were added to the faculty than in any ye.ar of the past decade.

(R. G. S.)

PolinOCPIl Armonri UulIIICabUi nlllldllU Son

The

landholder, he was

year’s

occurred

when

the State took over

management

of the $50,000,000

and Loan Company, whose president, Robert S. Odell, was indicted on charges of conspiracy and mail fraud. Agriculture, Manufactures. Business acthnty showed a marked advance in Nov.-Dee. 1939, spurred by the European war and the repudiation of the “Ham and Eggs” pension bill at the Pacific States Saving

—

polls.

The production value

in basic industries for the

whole, however, remained appro.ximately the the figure

was $1,930,000,000 (16%

facturing accounted for about

44%

less

same

year as a

when than 1937); manuas in 193S,

(value added), agriculture

29%, mining 16%, motion pictures 8% (cost of production), lumbering 2%, and fisheries 1%. Gross farm income (including Federal

payments, which increased

r938 figure of $540,000,000.

1939) approximated the Manufacturing was sharply accel-

75%

in

erated in the latter half of the year, showing at least a

7%

in-

monthly average employment and aggregate payroll. Production values in mining advanced moderately, except for petroleum, which declined 11%, largely because of the voluntary curtailment of output by producers. Imports were$ii7, 129,000 for the first II months (compared with $96,640,931 in 1938) exports aggregated $253,216,671 (compared with $259,807,439 in 1938). (C. E. Ch.; R. H. Sh.) crease in

;

most important event of iiu nf wiiiiwiuliy 0 [> the year at the University of California was the granting of an increased budget by the State Legislature for the biennium 1939-41. This budget, w’hile below the minimum asked for, amounted to $8,165,540, and has relieved some of the financial difficulties of the institution. This State i]

budget represents 63-1% of the total budget of the university.

from the problems of a steadily increasing student registration, which mounted to 27,511 in the year closing June 30, 1939, was afforded by PWA grants from the Federal Government for the first wing ofa Life Sciences building on the Los Angeles campus of the university, and for a new library and administration building on the Davis campus. PWA funds were also secured Further

relief

to help in the construction of a

new home

California Press at Berkeley. These

by

for the University of

buildings will all

be occupied

the spring of 1940.

Various major administrative and curricular changes have been consummated during the year 1939, including the splitting of the Teachers college into a School of Education and a College of Applied Arts, and the addition of three new fields of study for the Doctor of Philosophy degree on the Los Angeles campus; the establishing of a separate department of social welfare, and a department of journalism on the Berkeley campus; and the concentrating of various technical courses in nutrition, etc., into a divi-

sion of

home

bom May

of a

Rumanian Rumanian army

statesman. officer

and

22 at Pitesti, and was educated at

the University of Bucharest, where he received his law degree, and at Paris,

where he received a doctorate

in political science.

He

established a legal practice in his native town and shortly entered

county and as an organizer for the Nawhich had been established in 1926. A close

politics as a prefect of his

tional Peasant party,

student of agricultural economics, he was appointed secretary gen-

and later was under secretary In Dec. 1937, Calinescu became minister of interior in the cabinet of Octavian Goga, and he retained this portfolio in era! of the ministry of agriculture

of interior.

Miron

Cristea’s cabinet in Feb. 1938,

Goga’s resignation.

when King Carol demanded

\\Tien Cristea’s health failed, Calinescu was

appointed vice-premier, and upon Cristea’s death he became pre-

mier March

7,

1939.

He was

a bitter

enemy

of the pro-Nazi “All

waged a relentless war was assassinated September 21 by Iron

for Fatherland” party (Iron Guard) and

on

its

members.

He

Guardists while driving through the streets of Bucharest. His successor as premier, Gen. George Argesanu, e.xacted a speedy revenge for the crime and executed not only the actual assassins and their co-plotters, but several hundred other Iron Guard leaders

and sympathizers as

Cambodia:

see

well.

French Colonial Empire.

Cambridge University.

matriculants was 1,936, the largest

The masterships of Christs and vacant by retirement, and of Peterhouse by death. The chairs of ancient philosophy, political science, philosophy, and archaeology fell vacant and the last named has been filled by ever recorded e.\xept in 1919. Clare

fell

Miss D. A. E. Garrod, the first woman professor in the university. Generous benefactions have been received by the Library. Fitzwilliam museum, an additional amount to the chair of naval history,

and further endowments for

The University

scientific research.

Press has published the last volume of Ancient

History, thus completing the various series dealing with the tory of the Western world, suggested by Lord Acton.

A

his-

voluntary register of the qualifications and c.xpericnce of its members was compiled by the university, so that on the

senior

outbreak of war the services of scientific and other specialists could be immediately used. Also a University Recruiting Board has been set up to select members for such war service for which equipped. The following colleges and departments of university have been ev’acuatcd to different Cambridge Bedford college. Queen Mar>’’s college, St. Bartholocolleges:

each

is

London

—

school, London Hospital Medical school, London School of Economics, Bartlett School of Architecture and the (C. Fo.) School of Oriental and African Studies.

mew’s Medical

economics, functioning both at Berkeley and on the

Davis campus. The e.xperiment of offering a general course on family relarions was also started on the Berkeley campus in the fall of 1939. .The College of Pharmacy at the Medical Center in

San Francisco completed

its first

quiring four years of college

year under the new plan of refor a degree, and of offering

work

graduate instruction for those desiring tories

plague

ing

posits of $4,215,023,000,

and total resources of $4,702,828,000. most sensational development in California banking

Daws, a bubonic

laboratory’ at the Medical Center, etc.

were completed, including

the

it.

A number

radiation

of labora-

laboratory

at

Cameroons:

sec British

West

Africa.

Fonnulated in 1911 by Dr. and Mrs. Luther Gulick and a group of other educators as a prograln of leisure time activities for girls, the Camp

Pomn

CIro Pirip UfllUP rile bins.

Fire Girls organization was incorporated in 1912. The reviser! program of the Camp Fire Girls, made

in

1936 in

CANADA order to provide for a wider age range and to include current interests of the- modem girl, continues to win and hold the in-

127

tober 21) in ivhich the National Union Government of Mr. Duplessis, advocating extreme provincial autonomy, was utterly de-

terest of ’teen age girts.

feated, the Liberal

There continues to be an increase in Blue Bird membership (the junior organization for girls eight and nine years old) both girls and leaders seeming to appreciate the program of creative play

lative Assembly.

under Adelard Godbout.

Brunswick returned to

On November

office

20,

elections in

New

the Liberal administration of A. A.

Dysart, with 2S seats in the legislature Liberal and 20 Conserv'a-,

'

activities revised in 1938.

As a

Party obtaining 68 of the 86 seats in the Legisadministration of that party was formed

An

special project for 1939 the

Camp

Fire Girls explored

tive.

—A unique and

Americana. They found out about the historical backgrounds of

Tour of the King and Queen

their communities, interviewing pioneers, visiting historical sites

the history of the year was the

and collecting relics for e.xhibits. There was a Camp Fire Girls’ Day at each of the World’s Fairs. At the New York World’s Fair the girls challenged the Boy Scouts to a pancake baking contest which they won. At the Golden Gate Exposition over 5,000 Camp Fire Girls gathered from nearby cities for an all day program. There was an increase in all types of camping enjoyed by Camp

King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, the first -visit ever made to America by any reigning British sovereign. Their tour covered the breadth of the Dominion from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The -visit, made directly by arrangement with His Majesty’s ministers in Canada, inaugurated, both constitutionally and in the popular mind, the now accepted status of Canada as one of the equal associates in the British Commonwealth. Landing from the “Empress of Australia” at Quebec on May 17 their Majesties were received by the Prime Minister of Canada (the Rt. Hon. William Lyon Mackenzie King) and tendered a reception in the name of the Province of Quebec by the Legislative Assembly, with an official luncheon at the Chateau Frontenac. At Montreal their Majesties occupied a royal suite specially prepared at the Windsor hotel, where a ci-vic banquet was offered in their honour (May 18). At Ottawa they were the guests of the governor general at Rideau Hail and received a welcome from the two Houses of Parliament. During the entire tour the entertainment of the King and Queen was official only, but the cheering crowds which everywhere thronged to greet them, and the gracious moments of unofficial intercourse given by the King and Queen, made the tour partake of the appearance of a vast personal welcome. At Toronto the Dionne quintuplets were presented to their Majesties and the

—

Fire Girls : the

summer

sessions at the large organized camps, the

camping trips of individual groups and the holiday and -week-end camping throughout the year. At II camps national training courses were well attended by group leaders, and in addition leaders received training in courses given by local

Camp

Fire executives in 145

The Honourable Franklin D. Roosevelt the organization, and Mrs. Roosevelt

advisory committee.

The

is

is

cities.

honorary president of

honorary chairman of the

following national officers -were re-

elected at the meeting of the National Council, held in Berkeley, Calif., in Oct. 1939: Mrs. Elbert Williams, president; Edgar Webb, treasurer; Lester F. Scott, secretary and national executive. Her Highness Princess Marie Louise is patroness of the British Camp Fire Girls, and Lady (Walter) Hearn is president.

(C. F.Lo.)

.

-visit

to

striking feature of

Canada of

their Majesties

Canada, a self-governing British dominion of North udlldUd> America; capital, Ottawa; governor general. Lord Tweedsmuir*; prime minister, W. L. Mackenzie King; area, 3 729 >-

Queen, as honorary Colonel, gave colours to the Toronto Highland regiment. Proceeding west from Toronto their Slajesties stopped at Port Arthur and Fort William, Winnipeg, and Regina where

665 sq.mi.; pop. (census of 1931) 10,376,786, estimated (Jan.

they inspected the headquarters of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. After seeing Moose Jaw and Calgary and spending a day

J-

.

i,

1940) 11.367,000. History. ^The Dominion continued under the administration of the Liberal Party with Mr. Mackenzie King as prime minister,

—

elected to

ment

power Oct.

14, 1935.

expires in five years

be held

in 1940.

Unless sooner dissolved, parlia-

and consequently general

elections will

The term of the governor general also expires in The press has already spoken freely of Lord

the current year.

Elgin, grandson of a former governor general of

Canada as

his

probable successor.

Among

the important

official

and diplomatic changes of the

may

be mentioned the retirement of the Hon. Philippe Roy, Canadian minister to France, succeeded by Col. George P. Venier. On September 15 Loring C. Christie was appointed Canadian minister to Washington. Jean Desy, the first Federal Government,

Canadian minister to Belgium and Holland, was received by King Leopold of Belgium (February 4). L. W. Brockington, retiring from the chairmanship of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (December 21), was appointed Canadian official War Recorder. Inside the ministry itself Norman A. McLarty of Windsor, Ont. succeeded John C. Elliott as Post Master General (January 23).

An

in the

couver

mountains at Banff, the royal sovereigns, reached Van29) and Victoria (May 30). The return journey was

(May

made

via Edmonton, Saskatoon, and Sudbury where the King and Queen made a descent into a nickel mine. Reaching Niagara on June 7 their Majesties entered the United States for a brief tour. (See Roosevelt, Franklin Delano; United States.) Returning to Canada (June 12) they passed -via the eastern townships of Quebec to Fredericton, N.B. Lea-ving New Brunswick on the Canadian destroyer “Skena” they crossed to Charlotteto-wn, P.E.I., and thence to Halifax. Leamng Halifax on the “Empress of Britain” their Majesties touched at Newfoundland and reached Southampton on June 22. Outbreak of War. (See Europe.4n War.) In Canada there was no doubt from the first that the Dominion would participate in

—

t30

120

MO

important reorganization of the cabinet, as indicated below,

100

1926=100

was made after the outbreak of war. Among the parliamentary references and reports, great prominence attached to that of Justice H. N. Davis on the Bren Gun contract, tabled in the House of

Commons. In the Canadian

90 80

^

proinnces, general elections were held

Ed-ward Island (May 18) where the Liberal administration under Thane Campbell was overwhelmingly returned to office

ro O)

fo f*>

0>

70

tfti£>r«*coo>o

n

to

T*>

ro

^

1939

in Prince

(27 seats to 3 Conserv'ative). Elections -were held in Quebec (Oc*Died Feb. ii, 1940.

EMPLOYMENT

IN CANADA: index as of firsl of month, adjusted for seasonal variation. Complied by Dominion Bureau of Statistics from reports from representative establishments, including construction and maintenance, manufacturing, ’ mining, service, trade, and transportation

CANADA

128 any war involving

The

ministrj’ took

no

began for

Ottawa, show that Canadian agriculture was in a better position at the close of the year 1939 than it has been for several years. The gross value of field crops is placed at ?635, 764,000.

Britain on September 3, for Canada it did not legally begin till September 10. When the King’s declaration of war was proclaimed

more than §91,000,000 over the figures of 193S and constituting the record since 1930. Wheat especially shows an advance, with a

Dominion Executive Government at once expressed its adherence to British policy but could not declare war without a

crop of 478.965,ooobu., second only to the banner crop of 566,726,ooobu. in 192S.

summons

The war session The overivhelming vote in approval of

The livestock industiy has also showed a forward movement. The estimates made by the Department of Agriculture (Ottawa)

Throne (September 9) warranted a declarawar which was issued as a royal proclamation by the gov-

indicate that the cessation of the great drought and the hca\y crops of 1938 had brought an increasing supply of livestock, as

ernor general in the following terms: “Now therefore we do hereby declare and proclaim that a state of war with the German Reich exists and has e.xisted in our Dominion of Canada as from

calculated in the summer of 1939 for autumn and winter slaughter. Stock thus due for market showed in 1939, 2,209,000 hogs as

gotiations with

Britain.

Germany but

direct part in ne-

expressed, at the height of the crisis,

their entire acquiescence in the British attitude.

War

the

of parliament, not then in session.

began on September

7.

the Speech from the tion of

the tenth day of

September 1939.”

ture,

against 1,779,000 in 1938, and 1,496,000 cattle as against 1,362,The closing of the vast war contracts for meat supplies will

Qoo.

Even before the parliament met, the Government had adopted war measures by reviving under Order in Council the War Measures Act of 1914 which clothes the Executive Government with dictatorial power to do anything immediately necessitated by the state of war. During the ensuing war session, a series of Acts of Parliament supplemented these emergency powers. A WarTime Prices and Trade Board was set-up, composed of three persons appointed during the pleasure of the Crown with power to

carry this

special

and stocks of goods; to assign maximum and to punish hoarding and monopoly. The Act carries penalties of $SiOOo or two years in jail or both. Special war taxes were enacted by amendment of the Customs, Excise and Income Tax Acts, Snd a special excess profits tax. A further act estabinvestigate prices, costs, prices

lished a

department of munitions and supply. The Cabinet was

reorganized by a shift of portfolios on September 19.

Norman M.

Labour department to become minister of National Defence, Norman McLarty moving to Labour from the Post Ofifice which was taken over by C. G. Power. The Hon. Ian Mackenzie, formerlyminister of National Defence, became minister of Pensions, and Colonel J. L. Ralston succeeded C. A. Dunning whose condition of health necessitated his relinquishing the portRogers

left the

folio of Finance.

The opening of on all movements

the

war

down

closed

of troops and of

all

a veil of

arrivals

official

secrecy

and departures of

ships at the Canadian seaports. Parliament authorized (September

19) a Canadian active service force to be initiated with two diviand placed at the head of it Brigadier General Andrew

sions,

A

was to proceed overseas by was made of its personnel or of the time of its departure. It was understood that the major part of the force had reached England at the end of the year. Meantime the Permanent Militia (standing armj' of Canada) was

McNaughton contingents.

(g-v.).

No

first

division

public announcement

recruited to full strength

and expanded by new enlistment, with an

Canada.—

^The economic life of the

Do-

Economic Life of minion of Canada was so profoundly affected by the outbreak of war with Germany in the beginning of September that the first eight months of the year 1939 must be entirely differentiated from the period that follows. Any economic statistics computed for the year as an annual total or as a monthly average over 12 months, necessarily contains a misleading element. necessary to remember that

pened since September 3

is

it

It is also

information of what has hapofficially withheld, and that a large

much

part of the financial life of the country has passed under the restriction of e.xchange control.

Of the first eight months of the year it may be said that the period represents in genera! the further continuance of the constant, if arduous, emergence from the great depression of the opening decade. The estimates for field crops, volume and value, as analyzed by the Hon. James C. Gardiner, minister of .Agricul-

into 1940.

the first half of 1939 showed a certain, but not great recession. In the steel industiy this decline represented as much as 14(0

below 1938, but was counterbalanced by the rapid

The month

e.xpansion that

December showed a wide margin of advance over the two previous years. The automotive industry may be said to have held its own. Motor vehicles followed the opening of the war.

of

purchased in September (6,755, value §7,626,227) were in advance of the preceding year (5,710). The great advance in the aircraft industry

is

discussed in the section

War

Finance and Industry. In

cotton industry opened to what seemed a lean year.

textiles, the

Mills were on short time for the opening months.

Two

companies, Canadian Cottons and Dominion Textiles, closed fiscal

years on

States

was

March 31 with

common

their

dividend

restricting production, Lancashire,

home demand,

exporting

U.S. premium) gave a eral terms

earnings short of

large

After June the situation improved. The United owing to a brisk

requirements.

it

may

less.

new

War

conditions (transport and the

stimulus to Canadian mills.

In gen-

be said that manufacture in Canada (Jan. i-

Sept. 1, 1939) was at best holding its own, but the war has greatly speeded up the steel, paper, and metal industries and aided most (S. Lea.)

others.

—

War

Finance and Industry. In Canadian financial circles the outbreak of the war in September was taken calmly. There was no closing of stock exchanges, no public hysteria, no wholesale liquidation of securities, and no strain on the banks or other financial institutions.

This quiet confidence continued to mani-

fest itself throughout the year.

Canada, as other nations, had already abandoned the gold standard so there was no need to take this step, but to protect the external value of the dollar an Exchange Control Board was set up.

obligation to go overseas as required.

movement forward

In regard to the manufacturing industries of Canada of 1939, may be said that the total industrial production of Canada in

By

order of this board no more than §100

sent out of Canada

by any person

in

may

be taken or

any one month without a

spe-

cial licence. The purpose of this is to retain capital in Canada and to prevent speculation in foreign exchange, but the order is in no way intended to restrict international trade. At the special session of Parliament (September 7-13) to meet

the extraordinary expenditures necessarily arising

when a country

was introduced to secure additional revenue. The ordinary budget of April 1939 had anticipated a revenue of $490,000,000 and an expenditure of $550,000,000, involving thus a deficit of some $60,000,000. This was for the fiscal year (March 31, 1939-April 1, 1940), exclusive of cerat war, a supplementary budget

is

tain defence expenditures, capitalized

plan,

and of any

under a special sinking fund

losses arising out of the guarantee of ^o0 53.286.000 34.732.000 20.406.000 14.930.000 4.365.000 2.716.000 3.642.000 3.384.000 3.660.000 2.262.000

787.000 507.000 2.004.000

500.000 309.000 110.000

could literally lay

down

“tons” of chemicals to “pounds”

by the Poles. Germany did not use chemicals because they are unnecessaiy’ in a one-sided war where one powerful force quickly overe'helms a In a lightning-like advance, similar to that of the Germans, the use of persistent chemicals of the mustard gas type is unnecessary and might be of considerable detriment

vastly inferior force.

to a force advancing over a broad front.

The non-use of chemicals in bombing raids may be ascribed in part to the fact that during 1939 the war has been largely limited by diplomacy. Both sides disclaim any desire for war and have tended from the beginning to refrain from any act which would as the aggressor and thus subject them to the oppro-

mark them

brium of the world. IVhile the feeling that chemical warfare is more inhumane than other methods of war is illogical and not supported by facts, that sentiment undoubtedly exists. There may also be the fear of retaliation which would bring real war to the home population before other methods of achieving victory have failed. Again, good strategy does not invite retaliatory attacks prior to ability to make an overwhelming attack on the enemy. Preparations for gas defence have been quite thorough. The mask to each individual soldier and training of

issue of a gas

all modem armies. With the development of long-range bombing aeroplanes, it became

troops in chemical defence are normal to

CHEMISTRY

142

apparent that the threat of death and destruction was no longer confined to the fonvard areas of the battle zone.

Certain foreign

military writers stressed the importance of concentrated attacks

by long-range bombers upon

cities,

manufacturing, supply, or

transportation centres well within the zone of the interior.

attacks could be

made by chemical bombs and

by high-explosive and incendiary bombs. This

—the heart

home

civilian population at

new

threat.

of an

Such

spray, as well as

real

army

danger to the

—presented

a

Consequently, long before the outbreak of the Euro-

pean war

in 1939, all of the leading nations of Europe were devoting considerable money, technical skill, and manufacturing effort

other fire. Incendiary bombs were used effectively against Poland and Finland much as they were used in Ethiopia and Spain. A special thermit mixture in an electron metal container was especially effective. Other developments reported from Europe are

a flame-throwing tank and a fast-moving light tank for projection of chemicals. This tank has not been operated under war conditions, but discharges its chemical content upon reaching the %dcinity of its target on or near the enemy front lines and is a development from the cylinder which depended entirely upon the wind to carry its contents on to the enemy.

—

and bomb-proof inclosures and thorough education of the public

Chemical Defence. ^The black-out of cities to prevent accubombing at night received actual test under war conditions in Europe late in 1939. The greatest protection to the civil population was assured by education of the public, by the provision

in protection against chemicals.

of individual gas masks and the erection in

became front-page news during the latter half of 1939. The gas mask was no longer limited to the soldier. Almost every periodical pictured European civilians in all walks of

bomb-proofs and gas shelters. As a result, civilians of Great Britain, France, and Germany remain quite calm to this threat. While no gas attacks were made on any city, this equipment and education have gone far towards eliminating the hysterical fear

toward adequate defence preparations for the civilian population. These included the provision of a gas mask for every citizen, gas

Civilian defence

wearing or carrj'ing a gas mask. The threat of gas warfare being particularly serious to Great Britain, defence preparations life

were most thorough

and photographs from that country included the King and Queen, other royalty, and factory workers carrying gas masks. The gas mask has become essential for street wear, and dress designers have fashioned gas mask carriers to harmonize with street apparel. These preparations for defence against chemical warfare arc in the British Isles,

While nations remain secreabout and are reluctant to admit their plans for use of chemicals, it is a fact that all European nations have excellent systems clearly indicative of a real danger. tive

for securing information.

None

of

them would spend the money

or effort on gas defence unless they were sure that the potential threat might suddenly develop into a vital surprise attack against them. Probably no single factor is better insurance against enemy

rate

canisters

comfort. The

have a reduced breathing resistance and,

in addition

war chemicals, are provided with filters for the efficient removal of irritant smoke particles. Air purifiers for collective protection operate like giant gas mask canisters to purify the air, after which it is pumped into bomb-proofs and to neutralizing the toxic

other shelters to provide ventilation and gasproofing. Mustardproof clothing and methods of decontamination are necessary

means

for gas protection.

In the United States, efforts have been

continued toward providing adequate protection to

army. (See

its

Armies of the World: Chemical Warfare; European War; (Ha. Sh.) Mu.s’Itions of War: Gas.) also

Boron Hydrides.

hesitation to use chemicals will continue,

of convenient

and panic which otherwise could be expected. Gas masks have been much improved as to fit and

attack than complete defensive equipment and training.

Whether or not the

cities

a

is

trivalent

—Boron

has been regarded as its common com-

element because

B(OH)3; boron

Heretofore chemicals have always been used as a last resort when other means have failed. If a quick

pounds reveal

decision can be gained

but actually the simplest known hydride is diborane, BsH?. Schlesinger and Burg of the University of Chicago have given ex-

a matter of conjecture.

by their use, before effective retaliation by the enemy, there appears to be no doubt but that they will be used. Necessary factors for use are availability and the means to lay them down in quantity on the desired target. All of the leading powers in Europe are believed to have them. Most effective use requires that, chemicals be laid dorvn in quantity against unprotected individuals or as a surprise attack against those with defensive equipment. From reports of war operations in general, it is

doubtful that humanitarian reasons have been, or will prove

any deterrent. Chemical warfare is a weapon for industrial nations. The leading nations of Europe are probably well prepared for use of chemicals in war, either offensively or defensively. When and if they are used, it should be expected they will be used in quantities unheard of during the World War. Targets will be literally delto be,

uged with chemicals

in order to achieve immobilization of

troops, aeroplanes, transportation,

and centres of supply,

enemy manu-

Wholesale destruction of life cannot be secured when effective defensive equipment is available. Even under heavy gas attack, loss of life should be small, and the greatand est advantage would be from the resultant confusion, panic, facture, or other activity.

movement and supply. Chemical Offence. ^The trend of development continued

disorganization of

—

to

be toward use of chemical and incendiary bombs, and spray apparatus for liquid chemicals. often

oped

Medium

calibre, rapid-firing mortars,

in a track-laying vehicle or truck, are being develfor ground troops. These mortars are essential for establish-

mounted

ment of smoke screens

to protect infantry

from machine gun or

BFj].

it

in this light [boric acid,

Its simplest hydride,

on

this basis, should

tensive study to the problem- of boron hydrides.

fluoride,

be borine, BH3,

One

reason for

the electron structure of these compounds. six valence electrons, three from the boron and there are In borine three from the hydrogens. In diborane the 12 valence electrons are insufficient to permit a pair of electrons to hold each hydrogen interest in this field

to a boron

is

atom and yet leave any

for the borons to bind each

bond is the one commonly encountered in other compounds, it is a question of wide interest to study substances which must deviate from this general plan. Schlesinger has demonstrated that borine may have a transitory other. Since the electron-pair type of

existence in certain reactions.

With carbon monoxide

at 100° C.,

diborane changes to borine carbonyl, BH3CO, a gas which decomposes easily to diborane and carbon monoxide. Trimethylaraine

room temperature to yield borine stable solid. BH3N(CH3)3, a trimethylamine, The reaction of diborane with ammonia at —120° C. is another of the reaction wherein the boron atoms separate at some stage (B2H6.2NH31 process. Two molecules of ammonia are absorbed probut the evidence seems well established that the compound NH4*(BH3-NH2structure, this ammonium salt of an is duced reacts with borine carbonyl at

BHs) — wherein the boron atoms no longer hold each —80°) salt reacts with sodium (in liquid ammonia at ,

other.

The

to produce It

involved. one equivalent of hydrogen per mole of diborane liquid, volatile a form itself to reacts also with diborane hydroNH2-BH3. The latter reacts with acids to form boric acid,

gen and

ammonium

ion.

'

Another reaction where the borine fragments from diborane apwith aldehydes, ketones or esters. With acetone, the simplest ketone, the final product is diisopropoxyborine, probably as follows: Acetone, (CH3)2C = 0 adds to one

pear as intermediates

is

,

equivalent of borine (from BaHe) and forms

The

(CH3)2C=0-BH3.

atoms to give isopropoxyborine, (CHsja

latter readjusts its

This substance adds and readjusts itself to a second molecule as before, to produce diisopropoxyborine,

CH-O-BHj. acetone

Water

[(CH3)2CH-0-]2BH.

hydrolyzes

compound

this

to

isopropyl alcohol.

In other reactions, Schlesinger prepared dimethyldiborane and proved that its structure was symmetrical since it reacted with water to produce methylboric acid and hydrogen.

—

Sodium and Acyl Chlorides. In the familiar Wurtz reaction, sodium withdraws the chlorine from an alkyl chloride such as butyl chloride, C4H9CI, and tw’o butyl radicals unite to form octane, CsHis. An acyl chloride (R-CO-Cl), if treated with sodium, might be expected to yield diketones, (R-CO-)2, but it has not been found easy to control acyl chlorides wherein the

Working with larger CuH23 to

this process.

R

RCOCl

in

represents

and Selby of Armour and Company found that

C17H35, Ralston

diketones were indeed formed in the initial stages but that continued reaction with sodium yielded a disodium derivative,

CR=CR-ONa,

yield diacyl derivatives,

RCOO-CR— CR-OCOR.

—^Two

Carbohydrafe Configuration.

new

relatively

were applied frequently in 1939. One

of sugars

NaO-

which reacted with more of the acyl chloride to reactions

the oxidation

is

with lead tetra-acetate. This reagent cuts the carbon-carbon bond of a glycol structure (-CHOH-CHOH-). If the other hydroxjd groups of carbohydrates are protected against such cleavage, as

by changing them to ethers or acetals, controlled scission occurs. In this way, H. 0 L. Fischer prepared acetone-L-glycerose and acetone-D-glycerose from the i, 2, s, 6-diacetone derivatives of .

L-mannitol and D-mannitol, respectively.

Similarly,

Hockett has

severed the 4-carbon chain of methyl erythroside into 2-carbon units,

and the 6-carbon chain of methyl L-fucoside into 3-carbon

units.

Periodic acid cleaves the glycol portion of a carbohydrate in

much

the same way. In the hands of C.

Hudson

proved and asymmetric configuration. Mannose, trehalose, levoglucosan and higher carbohydrates have been investigated in this manner. Oesper and Deasy have improved the preparation of lead tetraS.

this ha’s

to be a powerful tool for the determination of ring size

acetate.

They passed

lead, acetic acid

lead diacetate the latter

is

chlorine into the reacting mi.xture of red

and acetic anhydride. Without the chlorine more formed than lead tetra-acetate, but with chlorine

was the

—

sively of glucose units, but the question is:

by

purpose resin-free wood flour

how many such

units?

phuric acid or fuming

As the

sulphur-containing compound, namely, ethanethiol.

acid

the starch or cellulose molecules into smaller units, the

ethanethiol attached itself at the point of rupture.

Then, at

was determined, more

defi-

sul-

phur being found with experiments of longer duration. By plotting the results and extrapolating back to zero time these investigators calculated that the starch was composed of 16-24 glucose units and the cellulose of 330-470 such units. is

paper, cellulose

is

After removal,

it is

made up

In

which these

is one of great economic significance. broad approaches to the separation of lignin from cellulose have been in vogue. One method depends on the removal of the

For

with cold, fuming hydrochloric acid in the presence of a reactive

—-Wood

“soil”

waste material

cellulose

problem. They treated potato starch or methylated cellulose

Lignin.

synlhellc

exclu-

built

Wolfrom, Sowden and Lassettre have given a fresh approach to

nite time intervals the sulphur content

Ihe

up

mained mostly conjectural. Both are known to be

split

Is

nasturtiums are crown; by means of hydroponics or aquaculture, the lack of boron in the flowers’ food can be carefully studied

Two

chief product.

Sfarch and Cellulose. In spite of repeated attacks on the problem, the bigness of starch and cellulose molecules has re-

this

CHEMICALLY TREATED WATER

chiefly of cellulose

and

the desirable component and lignin

lignin.

For

removed. usually discarded, hence the study of this is

this

hydrolysis, leaving the lignin as an insoluble residue.

(42%)

may

depends on the removal of lignin from the reaction, for e.xample. is ture.

Delignification is

be

left

hydrochloric acid.

with

The

cellulose.

commonly employed

70%

sul-

other

method

The

sulphite

in paper

manufacinduced by heating the wood under pres-

sure with acid sulphites.

Water-soluble ligninsulphonic acids are Extraction 4vith alkali, or phenol, or alcoholic hydrochloric acid are other schemes for extracting the lignin.

formed.

Hibbert and co-workers at McGill university reported in 1939 on their e.xtensive studies on lignin. Their method of extraction was “ethanolysis,” or boiling with ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and 3 hydrochloric acid. Lignin and phenolic substances were in the

%

alcohol solution.

was shown

The

phenolic substance from soft w-ood (spruce)

to be para lactylguaiacol,

OH. This phenol was found (maple) but

it

CH3CHOHCO-C6H3(OCH3)-

also in the extract

was accompanied by

a related

from hard wood

compound

w'hich

143

—

,

CHEMISTRY APPLIED

T44 differed only in having another

CgH2(OCH3)2-OH, on may be referred to as

methoxyl group,

first

of these

the “guaiacyl” building unit of lignin

the second as the “syringyl” building unit.

and

Syringaldebyde and

HCOCH2CO-C6H2(OCH3)2-OH,

syringoylacetaldehyde,

among

CHsCHOHCO-

The

the aromatic nucleus.

were

the other products identified in experiments with maple

wood. E.xperiments with jute led to the isolation of these

rye straw and corn stalks also compounds containing the syringyl

fibre,

Hibbert concludes that these results indicate the presence

radical.

of syringy’l derivatives in the lignin constituents of

angio-

all

phytyl group, which

found also

is

Curiously enough,

H-[CH2CH

in chlorophyll, is

'(CH3)CH2CH2]3-CH2C(CH3)=CHCH2-,

or simply C20H39-.

was shown that the phytyl group was nonBoth 2-methylnaphtho-

it

essential for the efficiency of the vitamin.

quinone

and

z-methyl-g-hydroxynaphthoquinone

(known

germ

oil,

ent in

its

corn-germ

oil

or lettuce

structure also. L.

I.

oil.

The phytyl group

Smith and co-workers

have shown recently that here again the phytyl group

or maple as

specific factor, for a

CH3COCHO,

Hibbert regards pyruvic aldehyde

key substance

as the

nins and plant pigments. guaiacol, guaiacol,

in the synthesis of lignins, tan-

Reaction of pyruvic aldehyde with

CgHi(OCH3)OH, for example, yields CHjCOCHOH-CeHsCOCHjj-OH.

hydroxyacetonyl-

In alkaline surroundings this rearranges to lactylguaiacol, men-

form

lignin.

Vitamin

Bg.

—Another vitamin, associated with Bi

in rice chaff,

was revealed in 1939. Vitamin Bg represents that factor of the vitamin B complex which prevents or cures an acrodynia-like dermatitis in young rats. Also, severe microcytic hypochromic anaemia develops in puppies when the rat antidermatitis factor is apparently the only missing component of Bg.

Its identity

the diet.

A

number

also display vitamin

E

specificity with vitamins

substitutes for the other fied chemically.

tioned above, which in turn condenses with like molecules to

is

E

than vitamin

considerable

and

K

is

E

is

pres-

at Minnesota

sperms, for example in corn or rye as monocotyledons and in jute dicotyledons.

as

“phthiocol”) possess activities comparable to vitamin K. Vitamin E. This anti-sterility factor (as tested with female rats) occurs especially in the unsaponifiable portion of wheat-

is

not a

of substances other

This lack

activity.

of

striking since there are no

known vitamins which have been

identi-

(See also Vitamins.)

—

Nobel Prizes. The 1938 prize in chemistry was awarded in 1939 to Richard Kuhn of Berlin. The 1939 prize was divided between Butenandt of Berlin and Ruzicka of Zurich. Kuhn isolated vitamin B2 or riboflavin. Butenandt isolated androsterone and Ruzicka medicine his

synthesized this male hormone.

first is

of interest to chemists also.

work on

It

The 1939

prize in

went to Domagk

for

“prontosil,” forerunner of sulphanilamide. (C. D. Hu.)

Phomictn;

ullclllloiryy

AnnlloH

chemical accomplishments

of

group of chemists from the laboratories of Merck and Company (Harris, Folkers, Stiller, Keresztesy and Stevens) have not

nP[]llcU> 1939 parade before us many merited applause. The most spectacular are those in the

field of

only established the structure of this vitamin but also have syn-

pharmaceutical or medicinal chemistry and in the broad

field of

thesized

it.

The vitamin

methyl)pyridine,

CH2OH

2-methyl-3-hydroxy-4,5-bis(hydroxy-

is

CH3(H0)C5HN(CH20H)2.

groups to

COOH

Oxidation of the

groups, yielding 2-methyl-3-hydroxy-

was important evidence in sohdng was effected, starting with etho.xyacetylacetone and cyanoacetamide. Kuhn and co-workers in Germany announced the same structure in independent work. Eakin and R. J. Williams and also Schultz, Atkin and Frey have shown 4>S‘Pyridinedicarboxylic acid,

the structure.

Its synthesis

that crystalline vitamin Be

Vitamin K.

—Since 1930

is

a growth-promoting factor for yeast.

investigators have reported a bleeding

tendency in chickens reared on

artificial diets.

In 1935, Henrik

Dam

and Fritz Schonheyder of Copenhagen reported that the deficiency factor causing the haemorrhages was a fat-soluble substance.

Dam named

it

K

vitamin

assay methods were developed

(Koagulations-vitamm').

by Dam, by Almquist

Bio-

in Califor-

by Doisy in St. Louis. Dried alfalfa leaf meal and putremeal proved to be satisfactory sources of K. By Almquist had perfected a process for extracting the anti1937, haemorrhagic vitamin from dried alfalfa with hexane. The use of vitamin K in obstructive jaundice was proposed by Quick of Milwaukee in 1937 on theoretical grounds. Since then it nia and

fied sardine

has been established that the bleeding tendency or lack of blood clotting so often seen in patients having biliary fistulas or obstructive jaundice is due to abnormal lowering of the plasma prothrombin level and that usually the bleeding tendency can be

relieved

by vitamin

K

therapy.

In 1939 several groups of investigators attacked the chemical side of the problem. Besides Doisy, Almquist and Dam, the groups included Riegel and co-workers of Northwestern university and elsewhere, Fernholz of the Squibb Laboratories, Kuhn of

Germany and Anderson of Yale. It was Daisy’s group that announced the isolation of crystalline vitamin K from alfalfa extract. By chemical reactions and ultra-violet absorption spectra they established

it

as a derivative of naphthoquinone.

Oxida-

showed that it was probably 2-methyl-3'Phytyl1 ,4-naphthoquinone and this was confirmed by synthesis. The

tion experiments

receive

There have been some notable advances in metals, in glass, and equipment for their manufacture, in e.xplorator)' work in pure chemistry, and in a number of important miscellaneous items. resins.

in chemicals

Research with derivatives of sulphanilamide goes forward at an accelerated pace stimulated by the success already achieved in the better control if not the cure of many diseases. Sulphapyridine and sulphaihiazole have come to the aid of the physician in the treatment of the many types of pneumonia, for some of which we have had no serum. Hundreds of derivatives of sulphanilamide have been made and tried, with only a few offering improvements, but those are of vital interest and the search con-

—

—

tinues. Sj'nthetic vitamins

•

.

.

_

and hormones have been added to a growing list with synthesized very soon after the determination of its structure. vitamin Indeed, several groups were engaged in a friendly race in this work. The vitamin is the one responsible for coagulation of the blood, and while inis efficient in haemophilia is important in many operative cases. Threonine one of the proteins essential to the maintenance of life. It can^ now be synthesized simply and economically, the basic raw materials being coke and water. Its availability promises to be of much importance in nutritional Crystalline insulin was patented during the year, and it was studies. learned that aluminium oxide in very small amounts can prevent silicosis. Further tests in factories where colour matching must be made with precision demonstrated the necessity of vitamin A in maintaining an adequate supply of visual purple to prevent fatigue. It was also learned that a diet proof corn sugar or molasses prevents ketosis, a disease which cuts milk duction and inflicts economic loss in dairy herds. , ^ Tender the Among advances in preparation and preservation of foods, be can meat which one in This mentioned. is Rayed” process should be stored at a temperature sufficient to promote the tendering of connective in rays tissues by enzymes while spoilage is prevented by ultraviolet carbon dioxide atmosphere. n ^ , Cryovac is a designation for a new technique in enclosing meats in

K

.

thin rubber pouch which is shrunk under


ndon, March 1937. •

and her young people.

to Childhood series

Books of information were many and covered widely diverse added greatly to their attractiveness and accuracy. Representative titles were: Machines and the Men Who Made the World of Industry, by Gertrude Hartman; America’s Treasures (underground resources), by W. Maxwell Reed; Here Comes the Mail, by Robert Disraeli; Boys’ Book of Insects and Boys’ Book of Photography, by Edwin Teale; Heroes on Your Stamps, by John Gregory. Fair Play, by Munro Leaf, is intended to suggest ideals of good citizenship to little children by means of comical pictures and brief arresting text.

1939. This bill

Kay

subjects. Increased use of photographic illustrations

are to be reduced to 44 a week, subject only to averaging of hours during the Christmas fortnight. The Education Act (1936),

of all parties in view of the evacuation of school children

time. Stein’s

and inspirational reading. This volume includes a reand comments on children’s books and read-

16 and 17 years of age in factories to 48 a week, and for those under 16 to 44 a week. The Yoimg Persons (Emplojanent) Act

places of amusement,

first

Camel was well reviewed. Gertrude

The World is Round aroused considerable discussion as a new form of writing for children. Somerset Maugham’s Princess September and the Nightingale was a reprint of a Siamese fairy tale from an earlier volume of travel sketches. Illustrations by Richard C. Jones, brilliant in colour and delicately humorous in design, make it one of the most decorative picture books of the year. My Roads to Childhood, by Anne Carroll Moore was important as literary Boyle’s Youngest

The John

Newberj'^

Medal was awarded in June to Elizabeth The Randolph Caldecott Medal

was won by Thomas Handforth, artist-author, with his Mei Li. {See also Literary Prizes; Publishing.) (E. L. P.)

Children’s Bureau, Unifed States: see Child Labour; Child Welfare; Juvenile Delinquency. Philf) U/olfaro ulillU llClIdrCi

disturbed political situation in Europe

mark on

work war and the war itself brought about a diversion to other uses of resources which in normal times would have been devoted to the improvement of the situation of children. Most of the European child-welfare legislation in 1939 was aimed at increasing the population. in

many

in 1939 left its

parts of the world.

The

child-welfare

expectation of

Various measures to this end were prescribed. In France, under the decree of July 29, 1939, premiums of not less than 2,000 francs wiU be paid under specified conditions to the mother on the birth of the the family.

first

viable and legitimate child in

Supervusion will be maintained to assure the use of

the premium for the child’s benefit. Family allowances for dependent children, previously paid to limited categories of work-

CHILD WELFARE

152

were extended to practically all persons working for a living, including employers. Persons not receiving family allowances who have permanent charge of one or more children and ers,

who

lack the necessary resources are entitled to “family aid”

varying from 25 to 50 francs monthly for each child. Loans from 5,000 to 20,000 francs are to be made to young persons who intend

and to settle in rural districts. The debt is to be cancelled gradually upon the birth of children. The departments (territorial subdivisions of France) were ordered to take measto be married

ures for the prevention of infant mortality; regulations in regard to

maternity homes, abortions, and the care of children

bom

out

of wedlock are also prescribed in the decree.

In

Denmark

a

new law

requires the establishment throughout

the country of offices where expectant mothers and recently con-

may

fined mothers

receive medical treatment and economic

and

legal aid.

In Italy the system of compulsory maternity insurance in existence since 1910, under which employed women with a monthly

income below 800

were insured

own

and were was replaced in 1939 by compulsory insurance “for the promotion of marriage and an increase in the birth rate.” Under the new law, which aplire

recehing a specified

plies

sum

in their

right

at the lime of childbirth,

only to Italian citizens

who

are Aryans, insurance

is

re-

quired of all workers with a monthly income below 1,500 lire and the insured persons are paid at the time of their marriage a pre-

mium

varying from 400 to 1,000

pation, provided they are

ing from 150 to 400

and the order of the

below a

lire,

lire

according to sex and occu-

Premiums vary-

specified age.

according to the parents’ occupation

child’s birth," are also paid at the

time of a

child’s birth.

Teaching of child care was introduced by law in Italy in high normal schools, and various vocational schools, including conservatories of music and art schools. The teachers, who must be physicians, are to be paid by the National Government. The Advisory Committee on Social Questions of the League_of

schools,

annual meeting in Geneva from June ig to July 1939. Twenty nations, including the United States, were rep-

Nations held 1,

resented.

its

Among the special subjects for discussion were the folnow being made by the committee; Training of

homes, particularly

in

England and France. The work for hampered by insufficient funds.

refugee

children has been greatly

The situation of children in Europe was affected also by the outbreak of war in Europe in Sept. 1939. The shortage of labour due to the military service of large numbers of men and the resulting

demand

for child workers brought about a suspension of some countries. In Germany the

the child-protection laws in

National Defence Council issued an order on Sept. 1, 1939, permitting the suspension of labour laws including those relating to the

minimum

age of admission to employment, hours of work,

and night work. In France a decree, also of Sept, i, 1939, permits the employment of children 14 years of age for 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week, instead of 40 hours as previously; these hours may be prolonged upon permission from a labour inspector. In Belgium the suspension of specified provisions of the childlabour law was permitted by decree of Aug. 26, 1939, in case of re-enforcement or mobilization of the army. In Great Britain

the

school-leaving age was' to have been raised from 14 to 15 years on Sept. I, 1939, in accordance with a law passed in 1936. Be-

cause of war conditions the coming was postponed indefinitely.

into effect of these provisions

Among the important developments in Latin America in 1939 were the enactment of a general labour law in Bolivia, prescribing a minimum age of 14 years for employment; prohibiting night work and dangerous, unhealthful, or strenuous work for children under 18; and prescribing a 40-hour week for children under 18. In Colombia regulations were issued defining the functions of the Bureau of Maternal and Child Welfare to be created under the National Department of Labour, Health, and Social Welfare. In Venezuela a children’s code was promulgated and the National Child Welfare Council, the social agency in charge of child-welfare work established in 1936, was reorganized for the purpose of making its work more effective. The Eighth Pan American Child Congress, which was to have been held in Costa Rica in October,

was

indefinitely postponed because of the war in Europe. In Argentina the National Committee on Aid to School Children completed tlie first year of its functioning; 670,000 articles of clothing were distributed and school feedings were introduced in localities.

A

daily average of 74,600 children thus received

lowing studies

594

persons engaged in social work; social position of the unmarried mother and her child; principles adopted in the administration

aid in food and clothing.

and the problems

In the United States, the Federal-State programs for maternal services, crippled children’s services, and childwelfare services administered by the Children’s Bureau, U.S. De-

A new problem in work for children was presented by the large number of refugees. About 500,000 Spaniards ^men, women, and

partment of Labor, under the Social Security Act were expanded in 1939. Amendments to the Social Security Act increased the

into France early in 1939 following the surrender Government. Some of the refugees later

amounts authorized for annual Federal grants-in-aid to the States for all three programs and made Puerto Rico eligible to receive this aid beginning Jan. i, 1940. For maternal and child-health services, the amount authorized for annual grants to the States was increased from $3,800,000 to $5,820,000. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1940, the amount appropriated was $4,800,-

and organization of welfare work for children

;

involved in family desertion.

children

—

^fled

—

of the Spanish Loyalist

went to various Latin-American countries; some returned to Spain; but about 250,000 Spaniards were still in France in July 1939. The responsibility for their care was placed by the Government on the Ministry of the Interior and the departments. The funds granted by the French Government were insufficient and were being supplemented by private gifts of money, clothing, and other necessities. Most of the refugees stayed in camps maintained either by the Government or by private national and international French organizations. Some of the children were absorbed in families.

There were also large numbers of refugee children from Germany and the territories annexed by (Germany. These children have been admitted to other European countries, particularly Engcounland, France, Holland, and Switzerland. In some of these numtries admission is temporary, pending re-emigration. Large bers of these children have been cared for by private agencies in special institutions or camps with a .varying amount of Govern-

ment

supervision.

Many

children have been taken into private

and child-health

000, part of which will be used for extending, on an experimental

programs for medical care for mothers and children. During the year. State and local health agencies, with this Federal basis,

pro-

extended and improved their maternal and child-health grams, especially in rural areas. For crippled children’s services, the amount authorized for annual grants to the States was inaid,

crippled

creased from $2,850,000 to $3,870,000. The additional basis of children’s funds are to be allotted to the States on the do not have to be matched by the States. Approximately

need and

approhalf the increase authorized was included in the amount additiona the of Part priated for the year ending June 30, 1940. agencies or funds will be used by the State crippled children’s disease-— heart rheumatic the care of children suffering from reached by the children who, for the most part, have not been

CHILE

153 The

The

program heretofore. For child-welfare services, the amount authorized for annual grants to the States was increased from $1,500,000 to $1,510,000 to cover, in part, the grant for Puerto Rico. Under

sections.

the administration of State welfare agencies a total of 459 childwelfare workers were employed during the year with Federal,

53,591; Vina del Mar, resort and suburb to Valparaiso, 49,488; Iquique, 46i45S; Taka, 45,020; Chilian, 39,511; Temuco, 35,748; Valdivia, 34,296; Talcahuano, 27,594; and Punta Arenas, south-

State,

and

local funds in covering

478 rural counties and local and 690 local

areas with intensive case-work services for children

more scattered service. Other amendments to the Social Security Act increased the Fed-

areas with

Indian population

chief cities (Jan.

i,

the principal port,

1939

is

estimated at 100,000.

est.) are; Santiago,

263,228;

Concepcion,

859,830; Valparaiso, 77,589; Antofagasta,

ernmost city in the world, 24,307. History. The year 1939 was marked initially by the attempts at reform undertaken by the new Popular Front administration of

—

the Social Security Board under the Social Security

President Aguirre Cerda (inaugurated on Dec. 24, 1938) and bitter conservative resistance. On Januar}^ 12 the Government an-

Act, and provided sur\dvors’ benefits for children of deceased

nounced a vast nationwide public -works program to cost 500,000,-

persons covered under the old-age insurance prowsions of the act.

000 pesos (approximately $20,000,000) annually, including housing, social security, increase of production, and improvement of education. Political considerations were temporarily shelved, however, when on the evening of January 24, an earthquake regarded as the most devastating ever recorded in America, shook the country from Iquique to Puerto Montt. The region to the south of Santiago, especially an area of nearly 50,000 sq.mi. around Chilian, and Concepcion, with around 1,600,000 inhabitants, was the hardest hit. The death toll alone was estimated by competent observers to be in the neighbourhood of 50,000, with the most conservative figures 30,000. At least an equal number were injured. The city of Chilian was practically razed, and a majority of the buildings in Concepci6n, Talcahuano, Cauquenes, and other important cities

eral contribution

istered

by

toward aid to needj' dependent children, admin-

{See SociAi. Security.)

The

Children’s Bureau of the United States

Labor continued

its activities in research, in

child-welfare statistics,

and

Department of

assembling current

in the dissemination of technical

and

popular information relating to the health and welfare of children.

Advisory service given to State health, welfare, and labour agencies, is an important part of the administration of Federal grants to the States for maternal and child-welfare services under the

Act and of the administration of the child-labour

Social Security

provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act.

The widespread

attention being given to better care for mothers

improved mortality rates. The mawas 44 deaths of mothers per 10,000 live births, showing a 10% decrease from the rate of the preceding year (49). The infant mortality rate was 51 deaths of infants per i.ooo live births as compared with 54 in 1937. The 1938 birth rate for the United States was 17-6 per 1,000 populaand babies was

reflected in

ternal mortality rate for 1938

tion, the highest rate

The

recorded since 1931.

national health program including proposals for an e.vpand-

ing Federal-State program for medical care for mothers and chil-

dren was submitted to Congress by the President in Jan. 1939. A bill based on the proposed health program was introduced in the

was held over for further consideration during the nest regular session of Congress beginning in Jan. 1940. During 1939 several of the States in the United States improved their laws relating to child adop-

Senate, committee hearings were held, and the

tion, to children

bom

bill

out of wedlock, to administrative organiza-

and to the supervision of and child-placing agencies.

tion of services for children, institutions

children’s

growing in the United States that, despite advances made, many children cannot be given adequate food and care because of family poverty and many commimity services for children are available in only a limited number of communities. Realization

is

On April 26, 1939, the first session of the fourth national conference on child welfare called under Presidential auspices was held in Washington, D.C. The earlier conferences were held in 1909, 1919, and 1930.

The

fourth conference, the 'White

House

Conference on Children in a Democracy, held its second session 1 8-20, 1940. It considered a report summarizing child-welfare gains made since 1930, outlining objectives to be sought for

Jan.

children in a democracy,

and proposing advances to be made durChild Labour; Infant Mortal-

ing the next 10 years. {See also ity; Social Security.)

(K. F. L.)

a republic on the west coast of South America ; language,

Spanish; capital, Santiago; president, Pedro Aguirre Cerda; area, 289,776 square nules. The country itself is 2,Soomi. in length (from the tropical north to the sub-arctic south) and is I

nowhere more than 2oomi. in breadth. The population

is officially

estimated at 4,634,839 (Dec. 31, 193S). Chile has more North European elements in its population than any other Hispanic-

American country, with German-Chileans preponderant in some

destroyed, with a property loss of hundreds of millions of dollars.

was rushed from all parts of America. United States Army bombers brought medical supplies, while the British cruisers “Ajax” and “Exeter,” then at Valparaiso, converted themselves into transports to carry supplies, as all rail communication was disrupted. The Government conscripted all able-bodied men between 18 and 45 in the stricken area to clear the debris. Over 300,000 persons were inoculated against t>q)hoid to prevent the spread of disease, and in March 700,000 persons were reported

Relief

still

homeless.

President Aguirre, after a personal inspection of

the stricken area, asked congressional authorization for creation of

a 2,500,000,000 peso (about $80,000,000) fund for the joint purpose of relief and rehabilitation and for general reconstruction of the country economically. This sum, one and one-half times the annual budget, was to be raised by foreign loans and increased taxes. After protracted debate and bitter consen^ative opposition.

Congress approved the measure (April 29). Throughout the year the Aguirre Cerda administration was faced with opposition to its program from some of the component parties of the Popular Front as well as

ments.

On January

from the conservative

ele-

13 retail bakers in Santiago organized a public

demonstration against Government action in cutting the price of That this and other early measures met approval -was mani-

bread.

fested,

however, in the support given in by-elections in the same

month. In April, Army officers were forbidden to support or join any political group. Meanwhile, in March, the Popular Socialist Vanguard (the renovated “Nacista” party of 193S) and a new Fusion party under former dictator-president General Carlos Ibanez announced support of the Government. During May action of the minister of the interior in temporarily barring a Consen-ative

newspaper from the mails attracted wide attention and

brought about his suspension from office. Exposure of an alleged revolutionary plot to overthrow the Government through a boycott system late in the same month, was followed in August by an

attempted coup d’etat led by General Ariosto Herrera and Carlos Ibanez, who had been regarded as a supporter of the Government. The attempt failed. Political feeling continued to run high throughout the year, and, in December, when former President Alessandri (a political opponent of Aguirre Cerda) was returning to the country after an absence of several months, he was threat-

CHILE

154 ened by a

mob

Late in December, dissension

in Antofagasta.

within the ranks of the Popular Front over

fiscal policies brought about the resignation of the Finance Minister Roberto Wacholtz.

Actual concrete achievement of the Aguirre Cerda administra-

was slight, for the economic dislocation caused by the January earthquake disaster and, later, by war and threat of war in Europe, coupled with internal political opposition, mation during 1939

terially

slowed down progress.

The

greatest specific achievements

were in the realm of improved housing, where 393 new houses were completed, 2,501 were under construction at the close of the year, and construction of 1,383 more was planned for the immediate future. Cost of the housing program was 25,000,000 pesos. Another feature of the year was the inauguration of a “back to the land” movement. Plans were made for large scale colonization in agricultural regions, particularly the sparsely settled far south,

with the settlement of 40,000 families the goal. Several small groups of European political refugees were accepted during 1939, and, late in December, approximately 1,000 mid-European Jewish

and other refugees who arrived on the Italian motorship “Augustus” were tentatively accepted despite irregularity of papers, provided they settled in the southern agricultural region. Chilean foreign relations in 1939 were concerned, early in the Government in Spain over

year, with a dispute with the Franco

the right of asylum in the Chilean legation in Madrid, a right which was tacitly conceded in October. Chile promptly declared her neutrality in the European War and participated in the Pan-

ama Conference

in September.

Nevertheless, she failed to join

with other nations of the Americas in unqualified denunciation of

Russian aggression against Finland. in

December by

Some excitement was caused German steamer “Dus-

the British capture of the

seldorf" i2mi. off the Chilean coast, but on the whole Chilean official

and public opinion was pronouncedly

anti-Hitler.

Late in

the year negotiations with the United States for a reciprocal trade

agreement were reported to be on the point of consummation. Arbitration of the Beagle Channel islands dispute with Argentina

made no

progress during 1939. Education. Primary education

—

is free,

non-sectarian, and

com-

CHILE:

Industrial production, adjusted for seasonal variation

(The Annalist)

are three railway routes to Argentina, available in combination line by

with other connections. Freight service on the Transandine

way

its interruption

by

Railways connect the northern ports

of

of Uspallata pass has been suspended since

landslides in Jan. 1934.

Arica and Antofagasta with Peru and Bolivia. Internal communication is by railway, coastwise shipping, air, and highway. The Government-owned railway system extends to Puerto Montt in the south. Total railway mileage is 8,352km.

(Aug. 1939). In 1938 orders for new railway equipment were placed in Germany and paid for, but delivery had not been effected at the outbreak of war. In Dec. 1939 arrangements were report-

made for special permission to bring this equipment through the Franco-British blockade of Germany. Meanwhile, other needed

pulsory. In 1938 there were 3,504 public primary schools (enrolment, 460,715); 820 private primary schools (enrolment, 97,177);

edly

85 secondary, including the military and naval school (enrolment, 28,177), and 119 special schools (1937 enrolment, 25,296). There

equipment had been ordered in the United States. Communication with the far south is by boat and aeroplane. Internal air transport service is well developed under Government ownership, with routes totalling nearly 5,000km. in length. A highway system of over 23,ooomi. in length, including 9,5oomi. of improved roads, is

are four universities, the National university at Santiago (4,504 Maria Technical uni-

students), two parochial, one private (Santa

versity at Valparaiso), with a total enrolment of nearly 7,000 in

1938.

The summer

school of the National university, held at

Santiago each January, has attracted wide attention and

mecca for students from

all

is

a

parts of America.

—Chile has an Army of approximately 30,000

Army and Navy.

men, and a reserve of around 175,000. A military mission from the United States was arranged in July 1939. The Navy was formerly the most up-to-date in South America, but has declined. Finances. ^The monetary unit is the peso (controlled value;

—

U.S.). The gold peso 5.17^ U.S.; uncontrolled, approximately (“peso de 6(f.”) valued at (>d. gold, or 20^ U.S., is used in foreign ,

trade transactions.

Dec. 31, 1938. The

The

public debt was $382,151,000 U.S. on

budget for 1939 called for expenditures of

1,666,800,000 pesos.

—

Trade and Communication. Chile has direct steamship servEcuador, and Panama, and, by way of the Panama canal, to the United States and to Europe. Service to the east

being rapidly developed and extended under a comprehensive program adopted in 1936. The Chilean merchant marine is one of the

under the Chilean flag is regumaintained to Buenos Aires, to Guayaquil, and to New York. Chilean foreign trade in 1938 declined 13-7% from that of ig 37

largest in Hispanic America. Service larly

>

but was

25%

greater than in 1936.

Exports (682,200,000 gold

were less, imports (502,000,000 gold pesos) Imports came principally from the United States Germany (25-0%), Great Britain (io-6%), Fc™

pesos) were 26-9%

16%

greater.

(26-7%), Exports went (5-8%), Denmark (4-4%), Argentina (4-3%) chiefly to Great Britain (21-8%), United States (i 5 7 %)) many (10-0%), Belgium (7-8%), France (4-4%), Italy ( 4 0 %)> Sweden (3-1%). Copper and nitrates together account for 80% 0 reall exports. A 28% decline in the price of copper was largely •

-

'

The

increased import

ice to Peru,

sponsible for the export decline in 1938.

is maintained through the Strait of MagelRegular frequent air transport service northward to Panama and New York, and eastward to Buenos Aires connects the country with all parts of America. Air transport to Europe by German (in peace time) and French lines is effected in four days’ time. There

purvalue Was due largely to heavy aeroplane and merchant ship especially chases. The bulk of imports is in manufactured goods, iuiports machinery and textiles. In the first ii months of ig 39 were 372,190,494 gold pesos, a heavy decline, exports 608,507, 4°? gold pesos. Imports were from the United States ( 3 o%)> Argentina many (24%), Great Britain (8-3%), Peru

coast of South America lan.

>

CHINA (4-4%), Italy (4%), Japan (3-4%). France (2-4%). In Novemfrom the United States, from Germany -were

ber imports

38%. Exports

mos.)

(xi

were taken by the United States

(28-3%), Great Britain (13-4%), Germany (9-2%), Sweden (S-0%), Bolivia (4-9h%)> France (4-8%), Italy (3-S%)Agriculture and Mining. Mineral production is chiefly of

—

copper and nitrates, with totals dependent upon foreign demand

and consequently shifting violently from year to year. Copper production in 1938 (308,928,979kg.) was 25% less than the all time record figure attained in 1937. The 1937 total represented i8-8% of all world consumption, highest proportion ever attained single exception of 1934, when it was 18-85%. Nitrates are second in importance, but production and export

by Chile with the bear

little

Other mineral production in

relation to each other.

1938 included gold, 9,144kg.; iron, 1,607,000 tons; coal, 2,061,409 tons; silver, 43,984kg. The average monthly employment in the

mining industry during 1938 was 65,365 persons, a 3,442 decline from 1937. Nitrate workers totalled 20,147; copper miners, 19,394; coal miners, 13,822. Although minerals are the chief exagriculture is the principal industry, with its products

ports,

For the season 1939-40, which wheat was the Fruits are likewise grown extensively, as are

domestic

for

largely

consumption.

1,060,908 hectares were

most important.

Chilean wine

grapes.

made

sown

is

in cereals, of

The

important.

notable progress in recent

j’ears,

pastoral industry has

and centres

in the far

155 The

Government and Judicial Yuans are concerned respectively with the drafting of laws and the administration of justice. The Examination Yuan is in charge of Government personnel matters and the Control Yuan e.xercises functions of general supervision and auditing. There is also a cabinet of ministers. The leading figure in the National Government throughout the last decade has been Marshal Chiang Kai-shek. Education and Religion. Estimates of illiteracy in China vary from 60-80%. Substantial progress in the educational field has, however, been registered since the establishment of the republic. There were 11,667,888 pupils in elementary schools in 1935, as against 2,793,633 in 19x2 and the number of universities and colleges during the same period increased from four to 82. There has been a special effort to spread adult literacy in the larger cities and in some selected rural districts. of the Government.

president of the National

possesses only titular powers.

The

Legislative

—

Normal educational activitj'- has been seriously affected by the war and the movement of vast numbers of refugees from one part of the. country to another. There has been a transfer of higher educational institutions from such occupied cities as Peking, Nanking, Shanghai, and Tientsin to towns in the remote interior, such as Chengtu, in Szechuen, and Kunming, in Yunnan. China’s main religions are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. There are between 3,000,000 and xo,ooo,ooo Mohammedans, mostly in the north-western and far western provinces of the country. There

5,749,069 sheep, 810,206 goats, 571,495 swine, 527,927 horses in the country. Wool (9,746 metric tons in 1938) and fresh meats (10,465 tons) were exported in 1938, the greater part from the port of Punta

were 2,8x8,839 Catholics and 512,873 Protestants

Arenas.

armies, (the route armies are larger military units) consisted of

There are an estimated 2,634,499

south.

cattle,

—

Manufacturing. Manufacturing is insufficient for domestic demands, but is rapidly increasing. Public utility services, foodstuffs, paper manufacturing, and metal work are the most important from the point of view of employment. Bibliography. G. M. McBride, Chile: Land and Society (1936). (L. W. Be.)

—

f

a republic in East Asia, bounded on the north-east by Manchoukuo, on the north and west by Outer Mon-

golia, Siberia,

and Tibet, on the south by India, Burma and French

Indo-China, on the east by the Pacific ocean.

Capital,

Nanking

(temporarily removed to Chungking); president, Lin Sen.

Ex-

cluding those areas over which no effective Chinese sovereignty

has been exercised for

many

years (Manchoukuo, Outer

Army.

China at the

—On the eve of the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war

the Chinese

armed

2,271,330 men, of

forces, organized in x6 route armies

whom

and 5x

1,996,920 were under the direct control

of the National Government, the remainder constituting provincial

There are no

forces.

reliable reports of the forces

casualties in the present hostilities.

engaged or of

Chiang Kai-shek

is

believed to

have maintained fairly intact a force of 150,000-200,000 picked troops, and soldiers from Kwangsi Province, in the south-west, have given a good account of themselves in the war, probably because Kwangsi had one of the most efficient provincial systems of conscription and military training. Finances and Banking. ^The unit of currency is the yuan, or dollar, which was worth 29-63 American cents at the end of X937, but had fallen to less than eight cents by Oct. X939.

—

The

Mon-

Tibet) China has an area of 2,903,475 sq.mi. and a population of 422,707,868, according to the estimate of the Ministry of the Interior in 1936. No comprehensive census has ever been

golia,

in

beginning of X935.

general position of the Chinese currency

accurately indicated

by

this severe decline.

is

The

not altogether chief effect of

taken.

fall of the Chinese dollar has been felt in Shanghai, where a system of free exchange prevails. Official support for the Chinese dollar was withdrax\’n in the summer of X939, because it

Canton, 861,024; Hankow, 777,993; Tsingtao, 440,135. There were about 185,000 foreigners in China, including 74,000 Japanese, 64,500 Russians, 13,344 British, 8,637 Americans, and 3,444 Ger-

was believed that Japanese interests in Shanghai were benefiting from the ability to buy foreign exchange with Chinese dollars and because the Shanghai money market was threatened with an influx of Chinese currency from the North, collected by the Japanese. In the interior of the country the purchasing power of the

mans. The number of Japanese has now substantially increased especially in the cities and tomis of North China.

much

Population of larger cities; Nanking (estimated, 1937), 1,000,000; Shanghai (foreign and Chinese administrative areas reckoned together, census of 193s); 3,49°)762; Peking, 1,487,289;

— (For the Chinese-Japanese War, see that heading.)

History.

The Kuomintang is the sole legal political party in China and the National Government derives its authority from the Kuomintang. There are no general elections; and the nearest approach to a representative

body

in

China

is

the annual plenary session

and central supercomposed of five yuans or departments, the functions of which are indicated by their titles: the executive, legislative, judicial, examination, and control }Tians. The Executive Yuan exercises general supervdsion over the ministries and commissions and its president is realty the acting head

of the

Kuomintang

visory committee.

the

Chinese dollar, except in relation to foreign imports, has been very less affected

would

indicate.

sequent budget has been published. According to the budget of 1937-3S, the chief items of revenue were supposed to be customs

(36-9%); the salt tax (22-85%) and the consolidated tax, on trade and industry, (17.55%). All these sources of revenue have been gravely impaired by the Japanese occupation of

central executive committee

receipts

The Government

a

is

than the present low exchange value of the

The budget for 1937-38 was supposed to be balanced at 1,000,649,496 dollars; but the outbreak of the war unquestionably affected both income and appropriations. No subdollar

IcA'y

China’s main ports and industrial centres, and of some of the chief salt producing areas.

The war has been

by loans and by a policy of

drastic retrenchment in

financed largely

Government

CHINA

156

expenses, while munitions and supplies from abroad have been paid for largely with exports of silver and by drawing on reserves

most important banks Bank of China, and the Bank of Communications. There are also 14 Japanese and 19 other foreign banks which carry on business in China. Trade and Communications. China’s imports amounted to

in foreign banks.

The

three largest and

in China are the Central

Bank

of China, the

—

The war with Japan had a varied effect on China’s economic development. It brought great misery to a large part of the population as a result of acts of devastation carried out by both sides.

By

the end of 1938,

work was

much

the greatest part of China’s railway net-

in the possession of the Japanese

Army. Japan had

(For some of these new routes see

941.545.000 Chinese dollars and exports to 705,741,000 dollars in 1936. Exports were stimulated by the abandonment of the silver basis of the currency in 1935 and the depreciation of the Chinese

south-west was stimulated.

dollar.

China’s exports during 1937 amounted to 838,255,703 Chinese dollars, imports being 953,386,007 dollars. The year 1938

often serve as a substitute for non-existent

did not reveal any very great change, with exports at 762,600,000

National Aviation

dollars

and imports

at 886,200,000 dollars.

real quantity of trade

But of course the

diminished because of the lower value of

Reckoned on the more stable basis of pounds sterling (with the pound then worth 4.68 American dollars) China’s imports during the first six months of 1939 were £43,545,the Chinese dollar.

Exports, on from £16,464,357 in the first half of 1938 to £13,394,596 in the same period of 1939. China had between 6,000 and 7,ooomi. of railways at the end of 1936 and a five-year plan for the construction of 5,300 additional miles after 1936. Highway construction, which had in-

also

taken over the communication systems in occupied territory. On the other hand railway and road construction in the unoccupied

Chinese- Japanese War.)

The

chief cities of China are linked

Commercial aviation

is in

up by

air routes,

which

connections.

rail

the hands of the Sino-American China

Corporation and the

Sino-German Eurasia

Aviation Corporation. Agriculture, Manufactures,

and Mining.

whelmingly agricultural country and small-scale farming.

As many

i-5ac. in size, while

62%

as

is

36%

— China

is

an over-

predominantly a land of of

its

farms are Rice

are less than 4-3ac.

is

less

than

the

main

095, as against £23,403,602 in the first half of 1938.

crop and the main food in the southern and central part of the

the other hand, revealed a decline,

country, while wheat, millet, kaoliang, and other grain crops are

creased substantially during recent years, reached the figure of

56,ooomi. in 1935.

According to a report of the ministry of

communications in 1931, China had 2,986 registered ships, with a tonnage of 431,892. China has no trans-oceanic shipping lines

and much of the coastal shipping

is in

the hands of British and

A

total of 87,755 ocean vessels entered and cleared at Chinese ports in 1936. British ships represented 16,-

Japanese firms.

000,000 tons; Japanese 9,300,000 and Chinese 7,300,000. The Government telephone system in 1933 served 21 cities and 62 others were served by private and provincial systems. About 250.000 telephones were in use. China has 33,000 miles of tele-

graph

and several high-power radio installations. The effect of the war has been to wipe out Chinese coastal and river shipping. Japanese shipping enjoys preferential posi-

tion,

lines

although British established lines are

still

maintaining serv-

China and have extended these to IndoChina, now an important country of transit trade with the

ices along the coast of

interior of China.

raised in

there

in

mob

rioting for food in

1939

little

practised, as

China has

fallen behind

and

is

silk

standardization and grading; efforts have been

because of lack of

made

recently to

improve quality and increase output of tea, silk and cotton. Japan has extensive plans for the reconstruction of industry in those parts of China which have passed under its military control.

Two

semi-governmental corporations, the North China Development Company, capitalized at 350,000,000 yen, and the Central China Development Company, capitalized at 100,000,000 yen,

have been established for the exploitation of these two parts of China. No large enterprises have yet been undertaken, partly because of lack of capital, partly because of unsettled conditions

off

the railway lines. Japan hopes in time to obtain iron ore from the

Lungyen fields (north-west of Peking) and the Tayeh deposits (near Hankow), cotton from several provinces of North China, and coal from Shansi. A certain amount of industrial salt is already being obtained in the neighbourhood of Tientsin. The Japanese cotton mills which were destroyed by the Chinese before they abandoned Tsingtao are being slowly rebuilt. Bibliography. Country and

of this Chinese

Animal husbandry

spare land for pasturing.

in the production of its traditional tea

—Annual

issues of the China Year Book; Lin Yu-tang, People; R. H, Tawney, Land and Labour in China; series of publications under the title China in Reconstruction, edited by

My HATE SHOWED ON THE FACES

the North.

is little

My

the Internationai Settlement of Shanghai

j

CHINESE. JAPANESE Tang Leang.H; Freda Utley, Chma at War (London, 1939) Agrarian China, published by Institute of Pacific Relations (London, 1959). J

(W. H. Ch.)

Cliinese-Japanese War. which

when Japanese Marco Polo bridge,

began

troops clashed with a Chinese garrison at the

near Peking, continued throughout 1939. However, a substantial change in the character of the war became evident after the

Japanese had occupied Canton on Oct. 21, 193S, and few days later, on October 27. This

left the

Japanese in military control of what were formerly

China’s seven largest tao,

go% in

Nanking,

cities',

Hankow and

Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Tsing-

Canton.

of China’s network of railways.

Tokyo

that

Hankow a

by the end

They It

also held

was

officially

So%

or

claimed

of 1938 the Japanese controlled areas

amounting to 1,505,700 sq.km., with a population of 170,000,000, while the war fronts were 3,400km. in length. As against this, it was a matter of common knowledge that the Japanese hold on regions off the railway lines was e.vtremely loose and imperfect and the two local Chinese Governments which had been set up under Japanese auspices in Peking and Nanking were definitely lacking in independent prestige and authority. The capture of Canton and Hankow left the Japanese with few-

no

there were

As a

campaigns

—

it

made

a further thrust to the south, seizing the

Spratly islands, which are between French Indo-China and British

North Borneo and had hitherto been claimed by France. The Spratly group is of negligible territorial and economic significance, including only 247 acres; but represents a useful advanced submarine base for naval operations in the South Pacific,

The

first

on March

drive against

Changsha, which had been precipitately burned down by the Chinese themselves not long after the capture of Hankow, in the autumn of 1939, but this drive fell short of its objective. The Japanese objective of isolating China from sea-borne supplies was pushed ahead by the occupation of the minor ports of

Haichow, on hlarch

4,

and of Wenchow

later in the year,

Swatow,

a fairly large port in South China, was occupied on June 21.

China was thus made more dependent on roundabout and expensive routes of overland communication, of which three

-n’ere

of primary importance. These -were as follows:

(1) Indo-China.

from Hanoi,

A

narron’-gauge mountain railway leads

in Indo-China, to

Kunming, the

capital of

up Yunnan

Province. It has also proved possible to ship supplies into Kw'angsi

Province by road from Indo-China.

Haiphong, the normally

rather sleepy port of northern Indo-China,

became glutted with

foreign supplies, purchased for Chinese account.

(2)

The Burma-Yunnan highway. This 700-mi.

road,

much

of

washouts, especially in the rainy season, reduces the effectiveness

repetitions, during 1939, of the large

Canton and Hankow. Japanese military operations during 1939 fell into three main categories: limited drives for local objectives, air raids, designed to destroy military supplies and to demoralize the civilian population, and naval landing expeditions. The amount of new territory which was even nominally added to the Japanese sphere of conquest during 1939 was very' small. Japanese Military Operations. The first major Japanese military move of 1939 was the landing on Hainan island on February 10. This is a large and potentially rich territory, about the size of Formosa. It consists of a coastal fringe which has been settled by the Chinese, and of a little-known, wild interior, inhabited by primitive aborigines. The Japanese Navy had long coveted Hainan as a most promising base of operations in the South Pacific. It lies squarely athwart the British line of communications between Hongkong and Singapore and is within easy bombing distance of Haiphong and Hanoi, the chief northern port and the capital of French Indo-China. Under normal conditions British and French objections might have prevented the occupation of Hainan. But both Great Britain and France were gravely preoccupied with the crisis which was looming up in the Mediterranean area in connection with the concluding phase of the Spanish Civil War. So the Japanese landing, which encountered only weak Chinese resistance, passed off unchallenged. The Japanese Navy had still earlier taken over some small islands off the southwestern coast of China. 31

The Japanese launched a

far north of Canton.

railways and with

-^s'ithout

which, in 1937, had led to the occupation of Shanghai and Nanking, and, in 1938, to the conquest first of Hsuchow-fu, later of

On March

incidentally, was the only important inland town which the Japanese added to their possessions during the year. The Chinese continued to hold a considerable stretch of the Canton-Hankow railway, from Changsha, the capital of Hunan, to a point not very

result of this change in the situation,

mountainous interior

only a few good roads.

157

mountainous country, was opened up for traffic during the latter part of 193S. It had been pressed to completion by the conscripted labour of over 100,000 coolies. Liability to

definite objectives to strike at, except at the price of difficult

e.xpeditions into a

WAR

land campaign of any consequence led to the capture,

27, of Nanchang, the capital of Kiangsi Prorince. This,

*Tbere have been important alterations in the ^pulation of Chinese dties as a result of the war. Nanking:, the former Nationalist capital, has shrunk from about 1,000,000 inhabitants to a little over 300,000 and Hankow and Canton have also_ greatly diromished. On the other hand such dties of the interior as Chungking, Kunming, and Chengtu have greatly increased in size.

it

over

difficult

of this route as a channel of supplies, and a road can never be an

adequate substitute for a railroad. However, a truck service of increasing proportions has been inaugurated

way

and the Burma high-

possesses one distinct advantage over the routes of supply

through Indo-China. Munitions can be imported without

let

or

hindrance, whereas the French authorities in Indo-China, appre-

hensive of Japanese reprisals, have forbidden the transportation of munitions to China through this colony. (3) The “Red route’’ from Urumchi, in Chinese Turkestan via Lanchow to Sian, capital of Shensi Pro-vince. The huge distance

from the nearest Sotdet

rail-head to Sian

and the rough character

of the former caravan trail which constitutes the basis of this

route impose limitations on the amount of munitions and other supplies which China can import, largely on a barter basis,

from

the Soviet Union.

The Japanese made no effort to penetrate into of China. They did, however, let loose

terior

the remote in-

a

number of

sporadic, but sometimes very destructive, air raids against the

new Chinese

military and industrial centres, such as Chungking,

the Nationalist capital, i,ooomi. up the Yangtze river from the coast,

Kweiyang,

capital

of

Kweichow Prownce, Kweilin and

other towns in Kwangsi Province.

While the Japanese failed to advance appreciably during 1939, the Chinese also e-xperienced no success in recapturing tovTis which were under Japanese occupation. The -war tended more and more to assume an irregular guerrilla character, which is always difficult to follow and describe with even approximate accuracy. All that is certain is that a good deal of destruction was inflicted on the unfortunate peasant population, both by the guerrillas in their raids and by the Japanese in their

The

reprisals.

effectiveness of the irregular resistance, assisted

by mobile

of the regular Chinese forces varied from proednee to province, depending on the character of the terrain and the units

capacity of the leadership. Mountainous Shansi Province, where there were considerable forces of Chinese Communist troops, veterans of long guerrilla campaigns against the Nationalist Government in the decade before the outbreak of the Chinese-Japanese War, proved ex-

serve in the Japanese-sponsored local administrations. Neither side can reasonably hope to achieve decisive or spectacular victory in

any short period of time by such tactics. At the same time the struggle is more than a war.

Its economic,

and diplomatic aspects tend to overshadow the purely military aspects. When Japan is able to buy Chinese foodstuffs and raw materials for yen or for the new currencies which are sponfinancial

sored in the occupied regions or to destroy of

oil,

some Chinese

imported for precious foreign currency,

reserve

this is the equiva-

The reverse is the case when the Chinese some Japanese rolling-stock, to tear up Japanese

lent of a military victory.

are able to wreck rails,

to find

new avenues

of export for their products.

Both China and Japan are digging in for a protracted test of endurance. A very significant and probably permanent result of the war has been a remarkable shift of Chinese industry, education, and even population to the hitherto undeveloped provinces of the west and south-west, to Szechuen, Shensi, Kweichow, Yunnan.

New

and, at a

factories are being built, universities established, roads

much

slower pace, railways are being inaugurated. While

exposed to air attack, these regions are reasonably safe against overland invasion

and

;

it is

Chiang Kai-shek’s policy to husband

China’s national strength and resources there until circumstances

make possible a return to the temporarily lost coastal provinces. As for the Japanese, they give every indication of having come to stay in the occupied areas, especially in North China. Various industrial

and trading monopolies have been established and there

has been a remarkable influx of Japanese merchants, traders, handicraftsmen, restaurant keepers and others not only into such large cities as Peking and Tientsin, but into the smaller provincial

towns along the railway

lines.

A war of banknotes has been A TWO-DAY RAID

of ChungkltiB

by Japanese bombers on May 3 and 4' 1939,

killed thousands of Chinese

tremely

dififtcult

for the Japanese invaders.

On the other hand, there were times when large towh® like Tsingtao were held without difficulty by extremely small Japanese garrisons,

and foreign observers sometimes expressed surprise at

the lack of initiative of the guerrillas in neglecting opportunities to blow up ammunition dumps and destroy supplies in places

where there were only small Japanese forces. A fairly regular train service, interrupted now and then, to be sure, by wrecks, was operated by the Japanese over the railways which they occu-

bombs and

shells.

going on side

At

first

sight

by

side with the

Japan

may

war

appear to

have come off better in this currency war. The Japanese yen, worth between 28 and 29 cents when the war broke out was quoted at a value of 23.65 cents late in Oct. 1939. The Chinese dollar, formerly worth almost 30 American cents, was (Dec. 31, 1939) quoted at It

less

than eight cents.

must be remembered, however, that the yen

is rigidly

and

German mark. The Chinese dollar, on the other hand, has been left to find its own level and, unlike the yen, has been interchangeable for foreign currency. The down-

artificially controlled, like

ward

slide of the

the

Chinese dollar on the Shanghai market during

summer of 1939 was deliberately left unchecked because the Japanese, who had acquired large quantities of Chinese notes in the

pied.

Quarrels, personal and political, among the guerrilla leaders themselves not infrequently hampered their effectiveness. While fhe the Chinese Communists were supposed to be included united national anti-Japanese front, some of the Communist news-

papers complained that local Chinese “reactionaries” occasionally hardattacked the Communist guerrillas. It is difficult to draw and-fast line between irregular warfare and banditry. This

fS

espe-

China, where banditry has long been an inevitable outgrowth of poverty, maladministration and overpopulation. Not a few guerrillas are more interested in living off the countfT than cially true in

in fighting the Japanese.

War

—^With the period of big

Becomes Endurance Contest.

campaigns and drives for definite objectives apparently ended, the war between Japan and China tended to become more and more a contest in national endurance. It is both less than a war and more than a war. It is less than a war because of the small scale

On

the Japanese side these are largely restricted to short drives for limited objectives, frequent mop-up caihpaigns of the operations.

against guerrillas behind the lines cities

of bullets,

and periodic and routes of communication.

The Chinese

reply .is largely in the

air raids

on Chinese

who

consent to

to transform these into foreign currency

—an

operation which would, of course, have been disadvantageous to

China. In free markets, such as Shanghai, the Japanese yen has

been far below

its official

rate of foreign exchange and at times

has even fallen below the Chinese dollar.

Japan has endeavoured to install its own currencies in occupied Chinese territory, rvith the idea of buying up Chinese foodstuffs and raw materials which may then either be used in Japan or sold for badly needed foreign exchange in other markets. "The largest of these in

new

issues

is

the Federated Reserve

Bank

notes, put out

North China. Although these notes are supposed to be on a par

with the Japanese yen, they have been at a persistent discount in relation to the Nationalist Chinese dollar, a discount which was at one time as high as 40% and later fell to 18%. The circulation is restricted to cities and districts under direct Japanese control. Guerrillas have made a practice of executing Chinese found in possession of large quantities of this money.

of these notes

So-called military yen, officially valued as worth

two Chinese have been used for the payment of Japanese troops in Central and South China and have achieved limited acceptance as currency in regions where there are considerable numbers of Japanese dollars

form of partisan warfare and

well organized terrorism against those Chinese

North China, hoped

WAR

CHINESE. JAPANESE troops.

The Hua

Japanese-sponsored currency which, rather curiously,

is

supposed

to be equal in value to the Chinese Nationalist dollar, although

the Japanese have frequently predicted that the latter

is

doomed

to collapse.

The war has been enormously

costly to both countries. China’s have been the most obvious. Apart from a great amount of outright physical destruction, especially in the Chinese part of Shanghai, a very large amount of Chinese State and private property has been expropriated by the Japanese Armj’ and by Japanese business firms. Millions of refugees have been uprooted and losses

thrown from one end of the country to another. The main centres of trade and industry are in enemy hands; customs revenue, always an important item in the Chinese budget, has almost entirely disappeared; and valuable natural resources such as the iron, coal, and salt of North China have passed into Japanese hands. The war has been fought off Japanese soil and Japan’s losses are not so visible to the eye. But these are also far from light. Unproductive war expenditures have depleted the country’s slender gold reserves and cut deeply into its standard of living. Although the yen has been held at an artificial rate, the wholesale price index had risen by 32% and the retail price index by 30% during the two years after the outbreak of the war a clear symptom

—

of inflation.

These

ofiflcial

indices, incidentally, understate the actual rise in

because they are partly based on theoretical controlled which do not prevail in the markets. Higher prices mean a higher cost of li\dng, for which there has been no compensating increase in wages and salaries. At the same time Japan’s national income from shipping and foreign trade has been heavily reduced, because of the necessity of employing

^It

than once. taken the initiative in

is

a curious and sig-

the conflict with China. Its

trj'ing to

more

first offers,

promote a settlement of

put for^vard through the

agency of Dr. Oskar P. Trautmann, German ambassador to China, in Nov. and Dec. 1937, were not considered acceptable by the Chinese Nationalist Government. Japan’s next “peace offensive” was launched on Dec. 22, 1938. It was not addressed to any regime in China, because in Jan. 1938, the Japanese wth Chiang Kai-

specific

Government had renounced the idea of dealing shek and the Nationalist Government.

The Japanese premier

at that time. Prince

Fumimaro Konoye,

simply outlined the Japanese conception of satisfactory terms of settlement.

Anne.xations and indemnities rvere renounced; but

Konoye proposed

that special facilities for Japanese development

of natural resources should be granted, especially in the north, that Japanese troops should

be stationed

at specified places in

China, while China was to associate itself with the anti-Comintem

pact and to recognize the independence of Manchoukuo.

Konoye’s terms were repudiated by the Nationalist regime at Chungking. During 1939 Japan’s soldiers and statesmen tried to find a Chinese, more representative than the heads of the dependent Chinese Governments which have been set up in Peking and

Nanking, to head a new administration with which Japan might peace. The two names most often mentioned in this connec-

make

were those of

prices,

tion

Central China

war purposes, because of difficulty in obtaining raw materials when the country’s stocks of gold and foreign exchange are constantly becoming less.

Settlement.—

nificant fact that Japan, despite its military victories, has

prices

ships for

159

Japanese Hopes for

Hsing Bank, of Shanghai, has put out another

of

Wang

Wu

living in retirement in Peking,

and

Ching-wei, the sole prominent figure in the Kuomintang

who openly seceded from self in

Pei-fu, a formerly powerful warlord in

who had been

the Nationalist

camp and

e.xpressed

him-

favour of peace on the basis of Prince Konoye’s terms.

Wu Pei-fu late fall

(g.v.) could not

Wang

be coaxed out of retirement and up to

Ching-wei, despite several rumours of impending

action on his part, had taken no positive steps toward the formation of a government.

CHINESE TURK STAN — CHOSEN

160

—

The European War. ^The outbreak Europe is bound to have the strongest Japanese struggle.

of a

new

great

war

in

on the Chinese-

effects

might have been more prompt the European war had broken out a few

These

effects

and more spectacular if months earlier. For the “anti-Comintern” policy of close association with Germany and Italy had strong advocates in Japan. But this policy received a mortal blow when Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact on Aug. 24, 1939. This pact paved the way for the outbreak of war in Europe. But in

gulf between Japan’s claim, advanced under various formulas, for

what amounts

to a position of

hegemony

in

China and the Chinese

Government’s demand for respect of China’s administrative and territorial integrity and sovereignty seems as wide as ever. Certain results of the war may, however, be assessed, and cejrtain prospects for the future suggested.

The Japanese

state that up to the end of April 1939 their losses were 59,998, while the Chinese losses had been 936,345. The Chinese, on the other hand, offering no estimate of their

in killed

May

made for moderation because it left the Japanese exwho had taken Germany’s anti-Communist professions seriously and envisaged common action with Germany against the Soviet Union crestfallen and disillusioned. The cabinet of Baron

own

losses,

1939

-

Kiichiro Hiranuma, which had been in office at the time of the

figure. There is no way of accurately calculating Probably the losses among civilians who have perished as a result of famine, floods, exposure, disease and other accompaniments of war are even greater than among the troops.

Asia

it

tremists

conclusion of the German-Soviet Pact, resigned and

new

made way

headed by an elderly general with a reputation Nobuyuki Abe. This cabinet issued a statement to the effect that “Japan does not intend to become involved in the European, war and will concentrate its efforts on the settlement of the China affair.” The Japanese press started a campaign for the withdrawal of the troops and warships of the Western Powers from Chinese cities and waters, but this, up to late fall, had not been followed by for a

cabinet,

for moderation,

any positive action

calculated

to

aggravate

Japan’s

already

strained relations with Great Britain and America.

There were two important differences between the Far East in 1939 and the Far East at the time of the World War (1914-18). At that time Japan was an ally of Great Britain and entered the

war on the Allied side. It seized the German possessions in the Orient and helped to keep open British sea lanes of communication.

No

such co-operation

is

to be anticipated today.

Indeed,

developments of the last few years Great Britain and France are probably glad to be able to rely on at least a provisional Japanese neutrality. in the light of the political

The World War (1914-18) was

a windfall to Japan, especially

Market openings for Japanese goods sprang up all over the world because of the war preoccupations of the leading industrial European Powers. Remainto its trading

and shipping

interests.

ing on the outer fringes of the world conflict and not forced to

put forward any great national enrich

itself,

effort,

Japan was

in a position to

has already mortgaged

economic resources so heavily in the war with China. The lack of foreign exchange hinders the purchase of the raw materials. Much the greatest part of Japan’s merchant marine is engaged either in direct war auxiliary service its

or in the transportation of goods and materials between Japan, Manchoukuo, and China. The chances of profiting directly from the European

15,

While the Japanese estimate of their own losses is probably an understatement it is almost certainly much closer to the truth than the Chinese

Chinese

losses.

Because of inferior equipment and training the latter have tainly lost

much more than

cer-

the Japanese.

Events have shown that the Japanese cannot conquer all China and that the Chinese cannot drive the Japanese from the ports, large towns and strategic areas which the latter- hold. Both countries have suffered severely economically and financially; the standard of living has fallen in both, as a result of war

sacrifices.

China has, of course, sustained a good deal of human and material destruction for which there is no parallel in Japan. It would be rash, however, to say that either Japan or China is on the eve of collapse. All that seems certain is that the longer the

war goes on the

less

decisive

become the purely

military

aspects of the struggle.

On

the other

hand the element of morale, the economic and the possible effects of the European

considerations,

financial

war and of the

policies of outside

powers tend to bulk larger

as factors which will finally decide the issue of the Chinese-

Japanese War. (See also Armies of the World; Foreign Missions; Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of; International Law; League of Nations: China;

Neutrality; United States: Foreign Relations.) (W. H. Ch.) Chinese Turkestan: see Sin Kiang.

or at least those classes which benefited from the

war trade boom and to lay the foundation of its subsequent industrial and commercial expansion. No such possibility is open to the Island Empire now, because it

placed the Japanese figures at 864,500 up to

war are therefore much more

limited than

was the

^ PRif of the Japanese Empire, is a peninsouthward from the north-eastern part

Phneon bliUdCll

sula extending

of the continent of Asia. Its eastern coast faces the Sea of Japan,

western coast the Yellow sea; and it borders Manchoukuo and the maritime province of Siberia on the north. Area 85,206 its

sq.mi., including 1,018 islands.

Population (Dec. 31, 1936)

22,-

047,836, including 608,959 Japanese and 65,275 Chinese and other foreigners. The capital is Seoul (Keizyo), population (1933)

Other cities: Fusan, 139,538 (1931); Phyong-yang (Heizyo), 144,215; Taikyu, 102,180. Governor-general, General

382,491.

case 25 years ago.

Jiro

Japan took advantage of the World War to press its program of expansion in China; it was no accident that the famous Twentyone Demands were presented to China in 1915, when no European Powers could give China effective support. The present situation is different, because Japan is already engaged in war for the purpose of imposing its will on China. The actual state of war, of course, makes England and France more helpless in the Far East, although the acute threat of war which existed during the last years had much the same effect. On the other hand, Japan must still reckon with the United States, still quite fresh and un-

in 1910, after a preliminary period of Japanese protectorate. It is administered by the Government-General, which has eight ad-

involved in Europe. Results quarter of

—

and Prospects. ^This Far Eastern war, affecting onethe human race, has (1940) entered its third year. The

Minami

ministrative sultative

(since 1936).

offices.

body known

Chosen (Korea) was annexed

The governor-general

is assisted

to Japan

by a con-

as the central council, consisting of a chair-

man and

vice-chairman, five advisors and 65 councillors. Education and Religion. Chosen in 1936 had 4,440 schools of all kinds, with 1,087,387 students. There are a number of Christian mission schools in the country. Prevalent forms of religion among the Koreans are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. There were 441,419 Christians in Chosen in 1934. Finances and Banking. -The unit of currency is the Japanese yen (worth 23.65 American cents at the end of 1939). The Bank

—

—

of Chosen

is

the central banking institution and there are ten

CHRISTIAN FRONT— CHURCHILL. WINSTON other banks, with deposits totalling 686,igi,ooo yen.

was 643,217,000 3'en. and Communications.

for 1939-40

Trade

—Chosen’s

The budget trade

foreign

is

Christmas Island:

Phrnmlta World

see Straits

161

Settlements.

production of chromite has more than quad-

mainly with Japan. Exports in 1937 were valued at 685,542,752 yen and imports at 863,552,502 yen. Of the exports, 518,047,000 j'en worth were sent to Japan, and 647,918,000 worth of imports

ulliUiiniC> rupled since the low point of 1932, expanding in 1937 by 36% to an estimated total of 1,300,000 metric tons but declining to 1,050,000 tons in 193 8. Information on the trend

were purchased from Japan. Exports to foreign countries in 1937 were 113,098 yen and imports from foreign countries were 126,032 yen. There were 3,i29mi. of railways and i7,244mi. of roads in i937- There were 1,134 steamers with a tonnage of 70,184, and ii,730 sailing-boats with a tonnage of 150,473. There are three airports, at Seoul, Phyong-yang and Urusan and regular air communication is main-

of operations during 1939

tained with Japan and Manchoukuo.

The

total length of telephone

9,531km. and 8,758km. respectively. Agriculture, Manufactures, Minerals. Chosen is overwhelmingly an agricultural country and over 80% of its population is

and telegraph

lines is

—

engaged in farming. Rice

is

Christian Front: see Anti-Semitism; Propaganda.

movement

Science

Christian

much

1939 could

e.xceed 900,000 tons.

World Production of Chromite (^letric tons)

1929

Cuba Greece India

Japan

New

Caledonia

Philippines South Africa So. Rhodesia .

its

branches throughout the w'orld), 1939 was another period This was the case, not only in the United

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Turkey U.S. S. R.

.

.

.

Yugoslavia

.

.

.

Ohrlction Qoionno Ullllulidll uuivlluui (w’hich includes The Mother Church, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, Massachusetts, and

is

leading countries, wnth the possible exception of Turkey and Cuba. These obsen'ations are confirmed by the rate of importation bj' consuming countries, which, so far as available, seems to be about 10% below that of 1938. There was a decided upturn in the third quarter in some areas, and unless the fourth quarter shows still greater demand, it would seem unlikely that the world total for

reaching the figure of 97,000, ooobu. of which a little less than half was exported to Japan. Other agricultural products include

gold production have been issued since the summer of 1937. (W. H. Ch.)

unusually scarce, but such as

production was at an even lower rate than in 193S in most of the

the main crop, production in 1936

wheat, barley, soj'a beans, apples, cotton, sugar-beets and silk. Gold is the most valuable mineral resource; its output in 1936 was valued at 49,909,000 yen (about $14,000,000). No figures of

is

available seems to indicate that during the first half of the year

Total

The United

.

1932

500

53.799 24,214 50.361 9.163 52.594

t. 55 S

18,190 12,492 69.429

—

—

63.974 265,909 16,178 52.889 43.022

635.200

19.371 15.692 55.196 62,100

43.923

1936

1937

71,086 47.400 50,276 36.309 47.S39 11,890 175.700 183.39s 163,880 220,000 54,044

94,592 52,600 63.300

1938 40,200 35.000? 39,100

p

?

48,022 69,856 i6S,6oo 275,617 192,508

52,200 66,900 183,600

iS^ooo 208,400

?

p

59.932

58,500

298,500 1,068,000 1,300,000? 1,030,000?

States produces only a few hundred tons of chro-

of steady progress.

mite, but in 1937 imported 562,800 tons; in 1938 imports dropped

but also in other countries. Even in Germany, the growth movement has not been stopped by the efforts of National Socialism to make itself an e.xclusive interest, and by official re-

to 357,700 tons, and in 1939 to 230,400 tons for the first 10 months. Germany seems to be the only one who was increasing

States,

of this

strictions

on the

Mary Baker Eddy founded

the original Church of Christ, Scien-

Now

the Christian Science denomination

tist,

in Boston, in 1879.

has spread to countries on

all all

countries where English

of the continents.

is

German, Netherlandic, and Scandinavian languages; also, in Braille and Moon types. In the United States and Canada, and to some extent in other countries, Christian Scientists have continued to make an increased use of radio as a means of making Christian Science corto the public. This broadcasting has included church

sendees, the Columbia Church of the Air, lectures, devotional pro-

grams, and transcriptions by qualified speakers.

Likewise,

Christian Science Monitor has continued to develop

its

The

broadcast,

“The Monitor Views the News,” which consists of editorial comments on important news of general interest. The Monitor has also continued to develop as a newspaper.

The

Christian Science denomination (Dec.

2,851 churches

and

societies, besides

many

i,

1939) includes

Christian Scientists

There and societies in the United States, 317 in Great Britain, 87 in Germany, and 272 in other countries, including those most distant from Boston (Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). There are 70 Christian Science Organizations at colleges or universities, and 11,232 practitioners engaged e.xclu-

living

where

(G. A. Ro.)

local congregations are not yet organized.

are 2,175 churches

sively in Christian Science practice.

Christian Unity:

see

Chronology: see Calendar of Events. 1939, pages 1-18. Churches, World Council of: see Church Reunion.

spoken and to other

ing periodicals in English, French,

known

first half.

Authorized Christian Science

literature is published, to different extents, in 17 languages, includ-

rectly

imports during the

activities of religious bodies.

Church Reunion;

(C. P. S.)

Religion.

Churchill, Winston Leonarii Spencer British statesman, was born on November 30, the elder son of Lord Randolph Churchill and Jennie, daughter of Leonard Jerome of New York city. For liis biography and his political career during the World War, see Eiwyclopmdia Britannica, vol. 5, pp. 6S6-7. Particularly after the union of Austria and Germany in JIarch 193S did Churchill become an outspoken opponent in Parliament of Prime Minister Chamberlain’s conciliatorj^ dealings with Germany and Italy. He was singled out by the German press and by Nazi

officials

for vitriolic attacks, and Hitler in several public

speeches has called him “apostle of war” and “warmonger.” When Britain took a firmer stand with Germany', Churchill pledged Chamberlain his political co-operation and praised the latter’s

form an anti-aggression bloc. In July' and Aug. 1939 was an increasing demand in the London press for his appointment to the cabinet. On September 3, a few hours after Britain’s declaration of war, he entered the war cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty, the same office he had held at the beginning of the World War. His first statement was a denunciation of the torpedoing of the “Athenia” as inhuman; whereupon Germany retorted that Churchill had probably secreted a bomb in the liner to sink it and thus influence American public opinion. Churchill did not bother to refute these charges, later repeated by Goebbels, efforts to

there

but confined his public observations to the progress of Britain’s

CHURCH MEMBERSHIP— CHURCH OF ENGLAND

162

blockade and warfare on submarines.

On October

i

he

made a

bid for Russia’s friendship or neutrality, and praised Italy as a “great and friendly nation.”

In the last Federal census, taken in

Church Membership. tinct religious bodies

were

some 212 separate and

1926,

listed in the

dis-

United States. 'Since that

time some few new groups have been organized, but there have been many dropped from the roll, and there have also been several

mergers of the larger bodies. The

roll for

1939 shows a reduction

number to 200 recognized bodies. Economic and cultural pressure has accounted for some of the disappearances, while at the same time producing certain new “protest” churches or groups seeking an escape from the realities of the depression years. Under this head might be grouped such organizations as Father Divine’s Peace Mission and The Church in

of the Firstborn of the United Sons of the Almighty.

Cults with

Oriental philosophies or theologies have had a slight increase; is being made at the moment between and the Protestant Episcopalians, and the United Brethren and Evangelical Churches. All signs point to the joining of these several bodies, though perhaps not in the near

Progress toward merger

the Presbyterians

future.

reports of the religious groups

with memberships of 50,000 or over are as follows Inclusive

Denominations African African

Churches

M, E M. E. Zion

.HS 7 ... 4.205 4»20S 2,662 6,ooi 6,001 8o iSSo 3 ,s

American Baptist Assoc American Lutheran Conf Assemblies of God Brethren (Conservative Dunkers)

1.025

Christian Refonned Christian Scientist Churches of Christ

Church Church

of of

God God

290 2,130 6,226 I. 1,351 3 SI

in Christ

1,200 4.258 4,258 6,109 6.109 1.096 8,056 1,890 2 , 9*5 2,915

Colored M. E Congregational & Christian Cumberland Presbyterian Dlsdples Evangelical Evangelical & Reformed Four-Square Gospel Free Will Baptist Friends Latter Day Saints Methodist Episcopal Methodist Episcopal South Methodist Protestant National Baptist (Col.)

Nazarene Northern Baptist Presbyterian, U. S.

367 397 678 1 5*9 i.SXQ ,

.

24,295 24,29s 16,320 2 , III 24,000 2 , 34 * 7.569 8,700 3.493 2,700 7,364

.

in

America

Reorganized Latter Salvation

Day

Army

2,823

Armenian Apostolic Greek Orthodox Jewish Congregations Polish National Catholic

Roman

•

Totals Reported (Table by courtesy of Rev. S.

.

M.

,

>

-

aspect of the

and work

Phiirnh nf rnirlQnri E'^ery unUlulI ul LllgldllD. the Church of England, as indeed of the Anglican Communion as a whole, was affected by the outbreak of the war. The first nine months of 1939 had been a period of quiet, steady consolidation at home and of enterprising advance in new spheres abroad. The preparations which had been going forward to make 1940 a great missionary year had to be cancelled owing to the postponement of the Lambeth Conference of 1940. The church was confronted with new social, moral, and spiritual and special

life

of

were devoted to the and to the providing of spiritual ministrations for the innumerable small groups of antiaircraft and other troops scattered all over the country. Apart from other war action, such as the postponement of all controversial business in the Church Assembly, other notable events and developments included good progress with the building of the new Church House, Westminster, and of the great new cathedrals of Guildford, Liverpool, and Blackburn while large extensions were added to the cathedrals of Sheffield and Portsmouth. The £50,000 Church of England Appeal on behalf of refugees, which had been authorized by the Church Assembly at the autumn session of 1938, met with a generous response which resulted in problems on a huge

scale,

efforts

the course of 1939 in a total of over £65,000. After 38 years as Bishop of London, the Rt.

nington-Ingram

retired.

He was

Rev.Dr.A.F.Win-

succeeded by Dr. G. F. Fisher,

Bishop of Chester. In the wider field of the Anglican Communion as a whole, mention must be made of the publication of Partners, the seventh unified statement of the work and needs of the church overseas, in which the new relationship of partnership which has grown up between the Church of England and its daughter provinces and dioceses overseas, was reviewed; of the historic decision of the Assembly of the Church of India to choose East Africa as its first field of foreign missionary work; and of the acceptance by the Convocations of Canterbury and York of agreements reached with the Lutheran Churches of Estonia and Latvia whereby “by econ-

omy” Anglican

bishops

may

take part in the consecration of Esto-

nian and Latvian bishops and Estonians and Latvians unable to receive the ministrations of their own clergy, may resort to the clergy of the Church of England.

Important recommendations were made by the theological

fac-

ulty of the University of Athens to the Archbishop of Athens, and have been referred to the General Assembly of the Church of

Greece. These recommendations included acceptance “by econ-

69

62,527,068 1,629,827

248,4x0 248,410

64,156,89s

238 35

Major Bodies as above Other Minor Bodies

833,790 257.63s 79,650 85.257 690,401 4,364.342

228,955 * 19, 9,455 455

,

18,428

Russian Orthodox Serbian Orthodox Syrian Orthodox

1,030,914 70,539 *, 597,779 224,457

108,000 305,000 4,081,242 189,620 21,322,688 526,000 100,000 61,043

260 4.150 4 *50 146

Catholic

433 , 7*4 82,990 200,470 333.600

35.833,47s

377

Universalist

h

52

24,844 5, *53

Total Protestant, Etc

1,441,348 197,228 164,784 8,973 , 202,098

205,577 205.577

1,646 2,362

Seventh Day Adventists Southern Baptist Synodical Lutheran Conf Unitarian United Brethren United Lutheran United Presbyterian

650,000 597,785 263.484

3.7i3 3 . 7*3 861 536

724 575

Saints

Membership

2,822,516 198,780 3,796,64s 140,291 1,471.788 1,903,747 497,816 *03,125 1,942,322 * 59,343 101,122 240,258 136,20s 4,595,602 *,538,148 38,951 411,674 1,541,84* 180,065 51,998

.

A

Presbyterian, U. S. (South) Primitive Baptist Protestant Episcopal

Reformed

The largest

religious education of evacuated children,

humanistic groups have slightly declined.

The church and membership

50 bodies having a membership of 50,000 each or more. single movement toward church union is to be found in the merging of the Methodist Episcopal Church (4,364,342 members), the Methodist Episcopal Church, South (2,822,516 members) and the Methodist Protestant Church (198,780 members) into a new Methodist Church having a membership of also Church Reunion.) 7 385 638 in

Cavert, Editor, Year book of American Churches.)

The overwhelming majority of religious people and church members in the United States, however, have shown a tendency toward fewer and stronger churches. Over 97% of the reported church and synagogue membership of the country is to be found

of the validity of the Anglican Ordinations and that no Anglican minister should be reordained by the Church of Greece.

omy”

These recommendations illustrate the new spirit of friendly rapprochement which has increasingly and happily animated the Anglican and Orthodox Churches in their relations with each other. This

spirit is itself significant of the great longing for the further-

ance of reunion which dioceses; which

is

evident throughout

was very evident

at the

all

the provinces and of

World Conference

Christian Youth held at Amsterdam from July 24 to August 2 under the presidency of the Archbishop of York; and which is inspiring everywhere an increasing enthusiasm, especially in India

and the other missionary churches union.)

overseas.

{Sec

Church Re(Ro. Sto.)

CHURCH REUNiON—CIViL Christian Unity, the

Phlirph Doiininn

most

uliUlbll fiCUiltUlt* the decision to call

important development during 1939 was the first meeting of the World Council of

Churches in 1941 and to hold it in the United States. {See Religion.) This decision, made at Zeist in July 1939, now requires reconsideration in view of the outbreak of the European war.

a meeting of the North American Committee (see below),

decided that while

it

At was

churches could be represented,

it

the

all

was thought equally unwise to

contemplate indefinite postponement. It

was therefore voted to approve the holding of the

meet-

first

ing of the Council in the United States in 1941 or as soon thereafter as

would be

163

1939, Mussolini appointed

him president of the new Chamber of

Fasces and Corporations.

From

the very

first

stages of Fascist

was an intimate adviser of H Duce, w’ho tvas reported in 1930 to have selected the admiral as his political successor. Count Ciano was the father of Galeazzo Ciano, Italian foreign rule in Italy he

who married

minister,

He

Mussolini’s eldest daughter, Edda, in 1930.

died at Ponte a Mariano, near Lucca, on June 26.

would not be wise to attempt to hold the

meeting of the Council until the war was over, and

first

it

LIBERTIES

practicable.

In preparation for the World Council there was formed in Great Britain, a British Council of Churches which brings to-

Cigars and Cigarettes; see Tobacco. Cinema industry; see Motion Pictures. C.I.O.; see Congress of Industrial Organizations; Detroit. Citrus Fruits; see Grapefruit; Lemons and Limes; Oranges. City and Town Planning: see Town and City Planning.

City Government: see Municipal Government. •City of Flint"; see Neutrality; Shipping, Merchant Marine.

gether under a single leadership the Church of England, the

Church of Scotland and the Free Churches. In the United States, the Faith and Order and the Life and Work Movements are cooperating under a joint executive committee. A North American committee brings together for the purposes of consultation, the churches of Canada and of the United States.

all

In the United States the movement for organic unity between Church, the Methodist Episcopal Church South and the Meth-

was

finally

Conference held at Kansas City on

consummated

May

10.

at the Uniting

The year 1939

^ transitional one for civil liberties;

many

old scores were settled

The

while the outlines of future struggles began to take shape. State of Caliform'a followed the release of

Tom Mooney with

the

Warren K. Billings, who had been imprisoned on the same charge. The Supreme Court of the United States, in the case of the Committee for Industrial Organization and the American Civil Liberties Union against Mayor Frank Hague and his freeing of

the three leading Methodist Churches, the Methodist Protestant odist Episcopal Church,

PIull I iharflBC uifll LIUBI IICO.

also

fellow

officials

of Jersey City, infused

rights statutes passed after the Civil

new

life

into the old ciril

War, opened the door of

witnessed the completion of the union of the Evangelical and

the Federal courts to cases involving deprivations of citil rights

Reformed Churches which,

by State authorities, and made clear that the guarantees of free speech and free press included a right to use public places for speaking purposes and for the circulation of written matter. In the Sirecker case, the same court held that previous membership in the Communist Party was not a ground for deportation under existing law. The court left open the more fundamental question of whether the fact that a person is a member of the Communist

in principle,

was agreed upon some

years ago.

more important, because having to do with the relation was a resolution adopted by the Protestant Episcopal Church at its convention in 1937, pledging Still

of churches of different polity,

it

to seek organic unity with the

Northern Presbyterian Church.

Since then commissions of both churches have been studying the possibility of

some intermediate Concordat which would permit

ministers of each to serve congregations of the other on the ap-

proval of the local authority, Bishop or Presbytery as the case

may

be.

1936,

A

tentative draft, following lines originally suggested in

was provisionally approved for discussion by a

joint

com-

mittee of both churches.

Party at the time of the deportation proceeding

is

a ground for

deporting him.

In the birth control

field,

the

Supreme Court refused

the Massachusetts decision closing the clinics there.

to review

New

cases

hoped will persuade the Massachusetts courts and the Supreme Court that medically regulated

are being planned, which

it

is

The proposals were warmly received by many in both churches but have been opposed by a small minority of the Presbyterian

contraception should not be interfered with.

Church

partment, permitting the free circulation of birth control infor-

as well as by groups of Anglo-Catholics in the Episcopal Church. Bishop Parsons of San Francisco, the Chairman of the Episcopal Committee and Professor Robbins of the General

Theological Seminary, have been the Concordat

among

among

the chief advocates of

the Episcopalians, while Bishop

New York has been its most Church of England.)

of

prominent opponent.

Manning (See also

(W. A. Br.)

Massachusetts defeat was the

mation and supplies

new

Countervailing the

ruling of the Post Office de-

to druggists, as well as doctors; also, the

launching by the State of North Carolina of a well-thought-out

program of State supervised

birth control.

of censorship, the anti-censorship forces won a victory in New York when the Board of Regents reversed the action of the Board of Censors in banning the entirely unoffensive

In the

field

Other films were less fortunate. The Puritan, based on Liam O’Flaherty’s novel of the same name, was one of those which remained suppressed because of the action of the New York State board. Many others, including Yes, My Darling picture Harvest.

Piunn 7n UlullUy rnctQn uUolaii£U

Italian

statesman and ad-

miral, was born of a noble family in Leghorn on August 30. He entered the Naval academy in iSgi, graduated in 1896, and was promoted through the grades to ad-

miral in 1923.

War and was

He commanded

several warships during the

World

decorated nine times for distinguished service. His

most notable naval exploit was at Buccari on Feb. 10 and ii, 1918, when he ran an entire squadron of torpedo boats through an enemy fleet, invaded the mined harbour and sank six Austrian vessels a. feat which made him a national hero. Count Ciano was first elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1921 and the next year joined Mussolini in the march on Rome. From 1924 to 1934 he was minister of communications, resigning in the latter year to

become president of the Chamber of Deputies. On March

11,

Daughter, were ordered cut by the censors as a prerequisite of their showing.

In the radio field, the code of the National Association of Broadcasters indicated at least an attempt to prevent propaganda being controlled by those who could buy most time. At the end of 1939, indications are that the emergent ci\dl liberties

problem

vill

be the protection of minority groups. The

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People has brought a test case to determine whether the State of Maryland may legally pay to Negro teachers salaries lower than those paid to whites.

Test cases as to the legality of poll taxes as a con-

CIVIL POPULATION,

164

dition of voting are in the courts.

As yet the

aroused at the increasing deprivations of a fair

The Dies Committee

prosecuting authorities.

PROTECTION OF—CIVIL SERVICE

public

is

by

trial

not local

continues to investi-

gate so-called subversive activities and has brought to the attention of the public

manner of

in the

much its

Technical defects

information of value.

procedure, however, have created a divided

public opinion as to whether

them.

liberties or destructive of

work so

its

Much

far

is

in aid of civil

legislation to prevent libel

racial groups is being framed by those incensed anonymous propaganda issued by organizations stemming at least in philosophy from alien sources. (See also New Jersey: (M. L. E.) History.)

on religious and at

Civil Population, Protection of: see Chemical Warfare.

M by

its

concern over the abuse of patronage and politics in administra-

tion

by passing the Hatch Act,

importance. that

it is

losses in the States of

adopted Island,

civil service

Arkansas and Michigan. Three States first time, Minnesota, Rhode

laws for the

Alabama; and

New

Mexico enacted

service.

The number

legislation,

not yet

a substantial part of the State

effective at the close of the year, for

of States with state-wide merit legislation at

Among

made unlawful

trative position

in principle a declaration of first

other prohibitions of the act for

any person employed

by the United States

ever to

solicit political

we may

in

note

any adminis-

to use his official authority

to interfere with or affect national elections; for

any person what-

contributions from persons receiving relief

or work relief; and no officer or employee of the Federal Government is allowed to take an active part in political management or in political campaigns. Provisions for

enforcement are inadequate.

In the administration of the Federal service the year 1939 was one of unusual activity. The newly formed Council of Personnel Administration rapidly developed its work of co-ordination, stimulation,

merit system were reConrino Important gains for the uCl VIbC, corded during the year 1939, balanced in part

Government. Congress, however, again expressed

in the Federal

guidance and advice. Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed a

distinguished career man. Dr. William

H. McReynolds,

to act in

the dual capacity of Administrative Assistant to the President and

The

Liaison Officer for Personnel.

Council, the Liaison Officer, a

reinvigorated Civil Service Commission and about 30 recently established departmental personnel officers

now form

the solid

foundation on which progress in personnel management in the Federal service seems assured.

the close of 1939 was sixteen. Massachusetts reorganized its Civil Service Commission; Vermont and Virginia established study com-

On Feb. i, 1939, the President appointed a special Committee of Inquiry whose principal task was to make recommendations

missions to investigate the desirability of State-wide merit laws.

concerning the professional, scientific and higher administrative

While these improvements

in the public service

State of Arkansas repealed outright

took place, the

officials

of the Federal Government.

In view of the special im-

service act of 1937,

portance of the lawyers as a professional group, the President

Michigan excluded from its merit system about one third of those who had originally been included, and Tennessee amended its civil service law to give the governor power, during 1939, to exclude specific positions from the classified service. These events indicate that the battle to extend the merit system in the States is likely to be marked by defeats as well as victories, although the tide is steadily moving toward the reduction of patronage. Perhaps the most important extension of the merit system in the States will grow out of the amendments to the Social Security

requested Mr. Justice Stanley Reed of the Supreme Court to act

Act.

Upon

amended

its civil

President Roosevelt’s recommendation, this act was

in 1939 to require the merit system in all State agencies

co-operating in the administration of the law, in the following

terms

:

A

state plan

must provide such methods

of administration,

including the establishment and maintenance of personnel stand-

ards on a merit basis, as the Board

Board may tenure of

exercise

office

may

prescribe, except that the

no authority with respect to the

selection,

or compensation of any individual employed in

accordance with such methods.

This provision Board,

now

is

effective Jan.

i,

accept.

The

Social Security

a part of the Federal Security Agency, has already

minimum

issued the basic requirements and will

1940.

standards which

it

Practice by other agencies administering Federal

grants has varied widely; the Bureau of Public

Roads and the

Children’s Bureau illustrate Federal agencies which have refrained

from requiring minimum personnel standards, while the U.S. formal, competitive examination for admission to State co-operating agencies. It seems prob-

Employment Service has required a

able that in future co-operative administration involving a Federal grant, the requirement of

States will

become

minimum

personnel standards within the

established practice.

There were extensions of the merit system in county and city government during 1939, but not on a scale different from that of recent years. Among the more important local jurisdictions adopting civil service ordinances

we

Alabama; and Atlantic City,

New

note Atlanta, Georgia; Mobile, Jersey.

In this connection the

spectacular rehabilitation of the Los Angeles City Civil Service

Commission represents an important advance. During 1939 there were no large extensions of the merit system

as chairman of the committee, to report early in 1940.

Two

developments running through Federal, State, summarizing the principal trends of 1939. The first of these is the rapid emergence

and

significant

local jurisdictions deserve special notice in

of nationwide career opportunities in the field of personnel administration.

by

During the year, nationwide examinations were held

the U.S. Civil Service Commission for director and assistant

director of personnel at salaries ranging from $4,600 to $6,500;

by Minnesota, Rhode Island and Wisconsin for director of civil by Seattle, Washington, for secretary and chief examiner at $4,200 to $4,620; by Los Angeles for five technical grades ranging from $2,400 to $4,620; by Buffalo, New

service at salaries of $6,000;

York, and Portland, Oregon, for personnel

officers

of different

grades.

The

case of Portland

is significant.

There were 154

qualified

applicants for junior personnel technician; the five States contributing the largest numbers were, in order. New York (37); Oregon (23); California (21); Washington, D.C. (12); and Michigan (9). These figures reveal a nationwide interest and also a national reservoir of competent technicians. The second principal emphasis of the year was continued expansion of interest in and facilities for in-service training. The program of the George-Deen Act for Federal aid to local public service training was put in motion the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed a comprehensive and forward-looking plan for the nearly 100,000 men and women in its ranks; the U.S. Civil Service Commission appointed a Director and Co-ordinator of ;

Training to advise with the various Federal agencies; Mayor La Guardia organized in New York city a Council on Public Service Training. These are examples merely of a rapid evolution of training opportunities which are an integral part of the formation of a

career service.

The concept

of a career service continued to attract wide atten-

tion during 1939 and to

make

substantial gains within the protect-

One aspect which was especially noteworthy was the number of career men in municipal and State administration who were attracted to the Federal Government.

ing walls of the merit system.

WAR

CIVIL The

flow of talent

IN

SPAIN— CLEVELAND

almost entirely upward, thus creating the

is

a serious drain upon the administrative resources of and local governments. Another aspect in 1939 was the rapidly increasing number of public employee retirement systems, stimulated in part by the general provision of old-age security under the Social Security Act. Increased emphasis is being placed upon State-wide retirement systems which also cover, either optionally or otherwise, the

possibility of

the State

employees of the local subdivisions. This is probably the solution of the problem of public employee retirement systems for small communities. (L. D. W.)

Civil

War in

Spain:

Clairvoyance: The •

see

see Spain, Civil

War

in.

Psychical Research.

clays of chief commercial importance include kaolin

or china clay, ball clay, fireclay, bentonite,

and a number

of others of minor importance

in the production of a

and stoneware,

tile;

;

fuller’s earth,

these are consumed

wide variety of products, such as pottery

terra cotta, refractories (firebrick, crucibles,

glass pots, etc.), building brick

and

tile,

and a host of others; in

addition, clays are utilized in the manufacture of paper, rubber,

linoleum, paints, cement, chemicals, plaster, and asbestos products, as well as in the filtering and decolourizing of

oils,

and in a num-

ber of other ways. Clay production in the United States totalled 4,464,000 short tons in 1937, and imports exceeded exports by 36,500 tons, but the 1938 output dropped to 2,902,000 tons, a decrease of 35%. Refractories of various kinds usually take 45-60%

12-20%, paper 10-13%, filtering and bleaching oils and fats 7-8%, rotary-drilling mud 4-5%, and rubber and linoleum 2-3%. The production of clays of all kinds in Canada is so small as to be negligible, but there is a well established clay products industry which consumes something like 200,of the supply, ceramics

000 tons of imported

Kingdom

is

clays.

The

clay industry of the United

quite extensive, the output of low grade clays

and

shales amounting to 25,670,000 long tons in

1937; the higher grades included 2,739,000 tons of fireclay, 1,117,000 tons of china

and ball clay. For further details on bleaching

clay

clays see

Fuller’s Earth. (G. A. Ro.)

PlaifDlontl

North-east Ohio, occupies 73-74 sq.mi.

^

ulCVClallUi with a population (1930) of 900,429, of which 597,603 were native whites, 229,487 foreign-bom whites, and 71,899 Negroes. Estimated population in 1939, 948,730. History. In the non-partisan primary election October 3 two Republicans, Mayor Harold H. Burton and John E. O’Donnell, a

—

member

165

was the police department’s two-way radio telephone system. In the first year it was in operation felonies were reduced about 20% and all major crime nearly 50%. sible for this record

Many

of the problems that faced the municipal administration

in 1939 centred

to handle

it.

November and fused to tion

call

about the

(See Ohio)

.

relief situation

When

and the shortage of funds

the problem

early in December, and Gov.

became acute late in John W. Bricker re-

a special session of the General Assembly, the situa-

was met by cutting

relief rolls

by one-quarter; reducing food

allowances of the remainder by one-third ; transferring funds that

had been earmarked for other purposes issuing bonds against delinquent taxes; and by action of the Federal Government in providing more Works Projects Administration jobs and carloads of food through the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation. ;

Cleveland’s city council throughout 1939 struggled with utility problems. Efforts to reach an agreement with the Cleveland Rail-

way Co. on

a new traction franchise failed, and under terms of the Tayler grant the company in January entered a 15-year liquidation period. Council’s battle with the East Ohio Gas Co. for lower gas rates dragged on, but pending appeals and hearings the com-

pany won in the courts the land by about $1,500,000 a

right to increase its charges in Cleve-

year. Another rate battle is that between the council and the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Com-

pany. Council demanded a decrease in rates amounting to $1,385,000 a year. The company refused to grant this and appealed to the State Utilities Commission.

Bishop Joseph Schrembs, head of the Cleveland Catholic diocese for 18 years, was elevated to the rank of archbishop

Pius XII,

March

—

by Pope

30, 1939.

Education. ^After restoring to teachers salary reductions that had been in effect through most of the depression, the Cleveland board of education in November found it had insufficient funds for the year. To prevent the schools from closing, the board delayed until 1940 payment of salaries of all its employees for the last six weeks of 1939.

—

Banking and Finance. ^A development in Cleveland finance which attracted national attention was the fight waged by Otis and Co., Cleveland financial house, to establish the Middle West as an effective competitor of the East in financial underwriting. Leading a syndicate of banking houses, Otis and Co. bid for new issues of stocks and bonds of the Consumers Power Co., a Michigan subsidiary of Commonwealth and Southern Corp., and carried the fight to the Securities and Kxchange Commission. Trading on the Cleveland stock exchange was increased by two changes. On February i the daily trading period was lengthened one-quarter of an hour to 3:15 p.m. so the market was open later than eastern markets. In December, the Securities and Exchange

Commission granted the request of the Cleveland exchange for

of the Cleveland Board of Education, were nominated to oppose each other in the mayoralty election. Two Democrats, William C. Dixon and Adam J. Damm, and a Communist, Mrs.

unlisted trading privileges in 17 leading stocks.

Yetta Land, were defeated in the primary.

the highest since the all-time peak was established in 1930.

re-elected

on November

7,

Mayor Burton was

polling 141,858 votes to O’Donnell’s

104, SSI-

Under the Burton administration Cleveland in the spring of 1939 was awarded a plaque by the United States Chamber of Commerce and the American Public Health Association for having the most effective program to meet health problems, and shared with Milwaukee the honours awarded by the National Safety Council for the “safest big city.’’

record for

fire

The

city in

1939 was

prevention, the loss for the

the year being only a

trifle

first

setting a

new

eleven months of

over $500,000 as compared with $1,-

998,000 for the same period in 1938 and the record, set in 1933, of $846,644. The police department, in addition to its traffic safety campaign, reduced the city’s major crime in 1939 to the lowest point in the 30 years the records have been kept. Partly respon-

Deposits in Cleveland banks on October 2 were $819,977,066,

Two

December. Depositors in the old Union Trust Co. received $5,250,000, which was equal to 5% of deposits and brought the total paid to 85%. Depositors of the Standard Trust Co. also received 05% payment, which amounted to $370,000 and brought the total payment to closed banks

made

liquidating dividend distributions in

37i%Construction continued at a brisk pace in Cleveland through 1939. Erected with great speed, the $7,000,000 Main avenue bridge across the Cuyahoga river was dedicated October 6 with ceremonies which were attended by a throng of 110,000. Work was begun on the $3,300,000 Valley View housing project in May and on the $3,000,000 Woodhill project in June, and the Cleveland Metropolitan Housing Authority announced that another housing group to cost $1,000,000 would be built in Euclid, a suburb. Ground was

CLIMATE-COAL INDUSTRY

166

city’s new $6,500,000 generating station August 28, and the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co. announced it would erect a $6,300,000 power plant. On September 15 the cornerstone was laid for the new Central High school which will cost

changed British firms into primarily military uniform manu-

$1,300,000.

M

broken for the

—

Labour. ^There were three outstanding strikes in Cleveland in 1939. Chain drug store clerks, pharmacists, warehouse and service employees walked out March 1 5 and this dispute was not settled until

May

12.

The Fisher Body plant was affected by the strike Workers against the General Motors

of the United Automobile

Corp., and a riot there July 31 sent nearly 50 persons to hospitals. Another U.A.W. strike took place in October at the Midland Steel (P. By.)

Products Co., but lasted only a week.

(H. Sn.)

facturers.

Cloves:

see Spices.

^ world total coal production estimated at InHiictrii IlluUiSUjf. 1,439,000,000 metric tons in 1938, 74% was concentrated in four countries: Germany 25%, United States

24%, United Kingdom 16%, and U.S.S.R. 9%. The comparative major countries is shown in the accompanying graph. The second rank producers, ii in number, controlled a total of 19%; France and Japan each had 3%, while Manchoustatus of these

kuo, which

under Japanese control, adds

is

1%

to the latter;

Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Belgium, and India, ranging from 2-4%

Climate:

see

land will

rinthinir UiUllllllg InrillQtrU IllUUollJfa

clothing industry in 1939 recov-

ered somewhat from the serious losses

of 1938; production increased considerably.

Spectacularly suc-

was sportswear with tremendous emphasis being placed on slack and shirt ensembles made of cottons, rayons, and worsteds. The trend toward comfort and ease in men’s clothing continues unabated both in regular and sport clothing. New machines appeared on the market including a new drilling machine for chalk marking, a high speed blind stitch machine, a newer and faster sewing machine and numerous special machines, all of which save hours of labour and turn out a neater, stronger product. Indications are for increased co-operation between textile mills, clothing manufacturers and retailers in an effort to supply the consumer with exactly what he desires. Synthetic fabrics are moving into the field with great rapidity. Reported are new laminated fabrics that require no weaving. Competition between various types of closures has become intense; metal snap fasteners have entered the field to a rather cessful

generous extent, slide fasteners continue to drive ahead, button

manufacturers are debating a campaign to educate the consumer. Regular clothing manufacturers joined shirt and pants manufacturers in the slack

and

shirt

ensemble business; work clothing

houses likewise entered the sportwear

The European war has had an

field.

on the industry in many much of their importance and

effect

respects.

Foreign textiles have lost

American

mills

have decided to produce finer woollens. Importation of cotton has been curtailed and thread houses are unable to find the necessary Egyptian cotton. Foreign design influence is gone since foreign factories and designers have turned to military clothing. No volume of export business is reported.

Government

2%

to 1-7%, averaged

Meteorology.

regulation of the industry increased in 1939. Great

wage minimums, particularly in the cotton garment trade, where the Southern manufacturers have vigorously protested. Differentials between cotton and woollen discussion centres about proposed

now

each, although Czecho-Slovakia and Po-

disappear as independent producers. South Africa,

Netherlands, Canada, and Australia each had approximately 1%. 4% to be distributed among no less than 34 minor

This leaves producers.

the

Empire production is largely Empire total being 21%, with 16%

2%

in India,

British

about

is

in Great Britain, nearly

each in South Africa, Canada, and Aus-

only o-6% remaining for other British territory;

tralia, there is

half of this

1%

in Great Britain itself;

supplied

by

New

Zealand, one-quarter

by Southern

Rhodesia, and the remainder by Malaya, Nigeria, Eire, and British

Borneo. Conditions are such (Jan. i, 1940) that only, a partial summary can be given on European producers during 1939, as statistics have been withheld in most cases since the outbreak of war. Coal Produclion of (he World (Millions of metric tons

United States Belgium Czecho-Slovakia .... France

Germany Netherlands Poland United Kingdom

U. S. S. China

.

.

.

R

1937

X0.82

326.19

13*21

443*29 27.87 28.18 46.17 318.1s 12.89 29.76 232.12 123.70 27*05 23.SS 45.67 14.84 16.82

14 37 447.38 29.86 34.67 45*33

1,124.00

1 , 445*00

South Africa Australasia Total

World

21.42 26.82

57*70 227.39 12.88 28.87 212.08 S3.6o 28.00 20.48 28.22 9.92

22.50 36.14 13.02 14.88

Japan

1 , 559*00

Reserves.

—^The

worked at a profit, known

grades)

1936

1932

15.87 552*31 26.93 29.08 68.49 348.61 11.74 46.31 262.05 38.42 ?

India

all

10.65

1929

Canada

—

,

reserves of coal,

in the

1938 '

12.93

*

351*50 29.58 26.60 47.56 384.92

372.70 14.46 36.24 244*27 127.00

13.66 38.11 223*29 131.89

•

?

?

29.48

26.09

?

?

18.03

16.28 16.70

1,540.00

1 , 439*00

15*49

i.e.

coal that can be

world are approximately as under: 600,000 million tons

Anthracite

Bituminous

4,000,000

Lignite

3,000,000

“

“

“

“

In the larger coal-producing countries, the coal seams are mostly

operations are also bothersome.

Government research has been directed at the standardization of sizes for clothing, although no real practical formulae have yet been presented. A hip girth sizing system was proposed. Up to and including Nov. 4, 1939, with about 60% (based on value) of the clothing industry reporting, total garments cut (including suits of wool, cotton, linen, mohair, trousers and knickers, overcoats, topcoats and separate coats, but not including dress

work

pajamas, and very young men’s and boys’ industries totalled 26,461,375; a gain of more than 30% over 1938’s period figure of 20,099,368 and comparing favourably with 1938’s cor-

pants,

clothes, shirts, leather garments,

heavy coats)

in the men’s,

rected full year figure.

English manufacturers had a good year as indicated by the rise of

employment

in

the

British

industry.

War

activities

have

COAL PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD compiled by

The Mineral Industry

and the major producing countries, as

COAL INDUSTRY

167

duce more than half of the total bituminous output of the United States.

Distributed by fields, about 70% of the bituminous output comes from the Appalachian region (Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Eastern Kentucky and Tennessee), 20% from the Central region (Indiana, Illinois, low'a, Missouri and Kansas), 6% from the Rocky Mountain and Western States, and 3% from the Southern field (Alabama). Although there is some international trade in coal, the amounts are so small that the United States industry

is

practically self-

contained; imports are usually under 1,000,000 tons and exports

have ranged from a high of 24,000,000 tons in 1929 to a low of 10,000,000 tons in 1932, including bunker coal and the coal equiv015,000 alent of coke exported. (See also Fuel Briquettes.)

Great

Britain.

—Coal production

long tons,

"THE FIDDLERS THREE/*

Efderman*s view In

The Washington Post

of the

May 1939

national coal strike In April and

of carboniferous age, but vast quantities of lower-grade coal,

such as

lignite

and brown

coal, are available in

Germany, Russia,

Central Europe and Asia,

The

superficial extent of the coal areas of the

estimated at 605,000 sq.mi., or in the ratio of

i to

world has been no of the land

surface of the globe, about one-third belonging to formations

newer than carboniferous. Coal is found in all latitudes between Spitzbergen and the Antarctic continent, and is of better quality as a whole in the Old World than in the New, and coal of the Northern Hemisphere is superior to that of the Southern. United States. ^A period of uncertainty over wage agreements during April and May cut bituminous coal production to one-quarter the usual weekly rate for six weeks, but most of this loss of output was offset by an increase of over one-quarter above

—

the average rate during the last quarter, as a result of generally

increased industrial activity. Bituminous production for the year

was 389,025,000 short

tons,

an increase of

13%

over 344,630.000

tons in 1938.

Anthracite production improved

by only 10%, from 46,099,000

tons in 1938 to 50,807,000 tons in 1939. This gives a grand total of 439,832,000 tons for 1939, increase of 12-5% over 390,729,-

000 tons in 1938. Bituminous production averaged 9,550,000 tons 26,185,000 weekly during the last quarter, against an average of 7,500,000 tons for the year; weekly anthracite output in the last quarter was just on a par with the annual average, but from mid-April to mid-

May was

nearly

above the annual average. consumption of bituminous coal dropped from tons in January to 20,518,000 tons in May, with im-

provement to 30,246,000 tons

in

November.

Considering coal as a whole, Pennsylvania is the foremost producing State, but eliminating anthracite and comparing only on a

bituminous basis, Pennsylvania has lost the leading position, and West Virginia has taken its place. These two States alone pro-

in 1938

dropped

6%

to 227,-

of w'hich was anthracite and

97% bitumin15% of the bitu-

ous. E.xports took 57% of the anthracite and minous output, with bunker coal taking another 5%. All told, including the coal in coke and manufactured fuels, about 22% of the output was exported. 015,000 Production to Aug. 5, 1939 totalled 144,021,000 long tons, an increase of 3% over the same period of 1938; this is at a rate of appro.ximately 247,000,000 tons annually, as compared with 227,tons in 1938. Since it is probable that war has increased the demand, it is likely that the j’ear’s total may exceed the above estimate; in fact it is possible that it may approach or even exceed the 1929 high of 257,907,000 tons, although it must be remembered that losses in export and bunker trade may offset some of the gains in domestic consumption. Through Aug. 1939 exports had declined 5% from the 1938 monthly average, bunkers had increased by 2%, and exports of coke and manufactured fuels had dropped 30% ; the total decrease was 5%. The chief loss in British exports will be that to Germany, which took 10% of the

1938 exports. In spite of the increased output, employment in the industry continued to decline, and on Aug. less

5, 1939 was 765,200, or 1-2% than a year previous, which w’ould indicate some improvement

in output per man-shift, W’hich

Due

averaged 22-g6cwt. in 193S.

to the open character of man)’ collier)’ structures, required

by the work being

carried on in them, the control of lighting under Air Raid Precautions regulations presented some difficult problems, and some of the schemes to overcome the difficulties are novel and interesting. For outside lighting, ultra-violet light

was adapted by painting nearby objects with a fluorescent paint; the light itself is invisible to the eye, and while the fluorescence renders the painted

objects

clearly

visible

in

the immediate

they are indistinguishable at a distance. For indoor lighting, to avoid the necessity of blocking windows

Xficinity,

and using artificial light in daytime, yellow’ sodium light may be used for illumination, w'ith the w’indows treated w’ith a blue varnish; the complementary character of the two colours prevents the yellow light from penetrating the blue varnish, and being x’isible from the outside, while the varnish still has a sufficient United States Production of Coat (trillions of Short Tons)

Alabama Colorado Illinois

50%

Industrial

3%

Indiana

Kentucky Ohio Pennsylvania Tennessee

.

.

.

.

1932

1936

1937

17.9 9.9 60.7 18.3 60.5 23.7 143-5 5.4

7-9 5.6

12.2 6.8

12.4

33.5 13-3 35*3 13.9 74.8 3-5

50-0

51-6 17.8 47.1 25.2 III.O

Virginia .

-

.

.

Wyoming Others Total Bituminous. Anthracite Grand Total .

.

.

193S

5-1

5-2

tl.O 5-7 40.7 14-r 38.S 17.9 77.0 4-4

3-8 13-8 118.6

92-9

4.2 21-5

3-2 II.7 II7.9 5.8 26.2

25-9

5-2 20.1

309-7

439.1

445-5

344-6

12-7

2.9 7.7

138.5

85.6

6.7

32.1

535-0

S-i

Utah

West Mrginia

1929

17-8

47-5 24.1

109.9 '

7-2

59

2.9

12.2

73.8

499

54-6

51.9

46.1

60S.8

359-6

493.7

497-4

390.7

COAST GUARD.

168

transparency for sunlight to give a reasonable degree of illumination in daytime.

—

Germany. German production in 1938 included 186,405,000 metric tons of bituminous coal and 198,511,000 tons of brown coal, a total of 384,916,000 tons, of which 366,764,000 tons were from Germany proper, 3,759,000 tons from the former Austria, and 14,393,000 tons from the Saar. Data available for 1939 are limited to bituminous coal for the first half, which was 94,062,000 tons, an increase of 2% over the same period of 1938. It is not clear whether this figure applies to the former area of the Reich, or to the current boundaries, but presumably the latter. Final figures for 1939 output may be expected to increase considerably above those for 1938, since they will include the former outputs

of Czecho-Slovakia and Poland,

which

in 1938

were respectively and

26.600.000 tons (about evenly divided between bituminous

brown

and 38,114,000 tons (practically all bituminous). The area now comprised in the new Reich had a total output of 449.630.000 tons in 1938, but this level can hardly have been coal),

maintained in 1939, for several reasons. It is a question as to what extent adverse effects on general consumption and export trade (which alone has been taking nearly

10%

of the output)

will be offset by increased demand by the war industries, but much more important is the extent to which sabotage and other

have reduced the outputs in the former Czech and Polish mines. Export trade is bound to suffer materially, as one-sixth of the past exports have been going to France. Another factor that will related factors will

affect exports statistically is the extent of the trade that

has in

U. S.

10% over the same period of 1938. Consumption remained practically unchanged, imports declining by about the same tonnage difference. In 1938 France imported 5,538,000 tons of coal, 985,000 tons of coke, and 242,000 tons of briquettes from Germany, and 1,570,000 tons of coal from Poland. This is equivalent to 8,825,000 tons of coal during the year from sources which are no longer available, and which must be made up from elseincrease of

where.

—^Production

Belgium.

in 1938 was 29,575,000 metric tons, a from 1937. The 1939 output seems to have been little affected by the war, as the October output was reported at 2,513,000 tons. Since 1936 imports have somewhat exceeded exports, but imports have been decreasing, and the import surplus for 1939 through August had shrunk to about 600,000 tons, from

fractional decrease

4.200.000 tons in 1937.

Netherlands.

—In

1938 the Dutch production dropped 5% to 99% of which was bituminous coal. Al-

13.659.000 metric tons,

though Netherlands maintained imports in 1938 equalling production, exports were at a

still

higher rate, giving a

22% was

ports surplus, in addition to which a further

bunker

40% of 12% exused as

coal.

—Preliminary

Canada.

figures for

coal output to 15,507,000 short tons, as

1939 show an increase in compared with 14,295,000

tons in 1938, a rise of 8%. Imports amount to almost as much as production, increasing in 1939 in a somewhat smaller proportion.

—Production 1938 rose by about 10% 29,000,000 South Africa.—Production in 1938 increased 5% over India.

to

in

long tons.

Poland, most of which will

Germany, Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, and now disappear from the export record, even though the trade itself still remains; this has amounted to

17.950.000 short tons.

were 13,697,000 tons, or at the rate of 18,263,000 tons for the

a total only slightly less than the exports to France so that the

year.

the past existed between

total loss in

Lack

recorded exports will reach considerable magnitude.

on the open seas will not seriously affect German exports, since the bulk of these has gone by land to European countries, or if by sea, to the Baltic countries. Less of ability to ship

1937, to

Australasia.

—^The

Sales for the first three quarters of 1939

coal output of Australasia totalled 17,578,-

000 long tons in 1938, a decrease of 1% from 1937; of this, 88% was from Australia and 12% from New Zealand; the total included 72% of bituminous coal, and 28% of brown coal.

10% of the 1938 exports went outside the continent of Europe. In this connection it might also be well to mention that than

Germany

off from imports from France, so from imports from Great Britain, which the past has supplied large amounts of coal of grades lacking Germany.

just as

will

(G. A. Ro.)

The

be cut

also will she be barred

Coast Guard, U.S.

in

saving of

in

In the

54%

first

partition Czecho-Slovakia lost to

Germany about

of her former productive areas, including practically

all

of

and another 21% was later lost to Poland; eventually, however, this latter went also to Germany, as well as the 25% still remaining at the final absorption of Moravia and Bohemia. U.S.S.R. (Russia). ^Russian production is estimated to have been 132,900,000 metric tons in 1938, 97,700,000 tons from European and 35,200,000 tons from Asiatic Russia. This was an increase of 5% over 1937. The division into types of coal has not been reported for several years, but is about 22% anthracite, 64% bituminous, and 14% brown coal. No data whatever are available on production in 1939. The Russian industry is practically selfcontained, there being practically no imports, and very little the

brown

coal,

—

surplus for export.

—

France. French coal production is so far short of demand that imports amount to about one-half of production. The 1938 output included 46,502,000 metric tons of bituminous and 1,057,000 tons

life

activities

of

the

United States

Coast Guard in 1939 dealing with the and property may be summarized by stating that

there were 9,383 instances of lives saved and vessels assisted, this being 658 more instances than during 1938; the total value of

the vessels assisted, including cargoes, was $63,723,566, and the number of persons on board the vessels assisted was 32,645. There

were 10,615 instances of lives being saved or persons being rescued from peril, and an additional 4,858 instances where assistance of one form or another was rendered. In carrying out its functions as the Federal maritime police agency and its duties of law enforcement, the Coast Guard boarded and examined the papers of 32,655 vessels, and it seized 6 vessels. The fines and penalties incurred by vessels reported amounted to $470,081. Coast Guard vessels removed or destroyed 266 derelicts; they patrolled 443 marine parades and regattas and Coast Guard officers examined 3,495 persons for certificates as life-boat men. ;

In the hurricane which struck the New England coast in Sept. 1938 the Coast Guard rendered assistance with all equipment available, rescuing 1,01 1 persons from positions of peril, and aiding 509 vessels. Emergency radio communication was provided, mail was transported, vessels and automobiles were recovered, and

of brown coal, a total of 47,559,000 tons, and an increase of 5% over 1937; this was supplemented by imports of 18,705,000 tons of coal, 2,262,000 tons of coke and 1,034,000 tons of briquettes, equivalent to a total of about 23,000,000 tons of coal. During

detail for the guarding

and

supervision of the transfer of approximately 77,000,0001b. of

sil-

the

ver bullion by the Treasury Department from

first

half of

1939 production rose to 26,014,000 tons, an

aerial surveys

made.

Three members

of the service lost their

lives incident to rescue activities.

The Coast Guard provided an armed

New York

city to

-

’’

:

.V'

time by 36

creased at that Coast of the year, the thea.ckman. •

t>

at the depository

,

Sf^dets

3


* Janesville

Rep. Rep.

Horicon

Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.

Milwaukee Milwaukee Oshkosh

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Pro. Pro.

Black River Falls Mellen

.

.

Rep.

Saddlestring

Waupaca Algoma

Pittston

Mahanoy City

Dem.

Douglassville

Honesdale Woolrich

Congress of Industrial Organizations,

Ambler Huntingdon

a federation of labour unions in the United States and Canada,

Harrisburg

of which John L. Lewis, president of the United

Mne

Workers,

president.

Farrell

is

Rep. Rep.

Easton Manchester Altoona

Formed on Nov. 9, 1935, as the Committee for Industrial Organization, the committee held its 6rst constitutional convention

Dem. Dem.

Waynesburg

Dem.

L

Wash.

.

Residence

Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.

Rep. Rep.

G

Rodgers, Robert

Darden, Colgate W.,

Dave

.

.

.

.

‘Satterfidd,

Dem.

H

Van ^ndt, James

‘South, Charles L *Miirdock, Abe *Robinsoa, J. Will ^'Pliimley, Charles A. ‘Bland, Schuyler 0

.

.

....

4

Rep.

M

H

3

Dem. Dem.

‘Jarrett, Benjamin ‘AValter, Francis

r

6

‘Thomason, R. Ewing ‘Garrett, Clyde L ‘Jones, Marvin ‘Alahon, George H. Kilday, Paul J

Canton

Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.

D

I

5

‘West, Milton

St. Clairsville

Rep.

‘Flannery, J. Harold Fenton, Ivor ‘Moser, Guy L ‘Rutherford, .Albert G ‘Rich, Robert F ‘Bitter, J. William ‘Simpson, Richard Kunkel, John C.

R. I.

3 4

IS

16 17 18 19

M

Rep.

Dem.

Gerlach, Charles L ‘Kinzer, J. Roland ‘Boland, Patrick J

S. C.

2

‘Kleberg, Richard

Rep.

Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem.

‘WoUenden, James

‘.Allen,

14

U

2

Rep.

Darrow, George P

7

•JLanhajn, tntz Gossett, Ed

21

Va.

WDliam R.

II 12 13

20

Utah

‘Poage,

Party

Caldwell

Dem.

D

Angell, Homer ‘Sacks, Leon

3

179 Name

Dist.

Xen-town

Dem.

Rep.

‘Mott, James ‘Pierce, Walter il

I

2

Tex,

Rep. Rep.

Stale

9

‘Rogers, WiU ‘Disney, Wesley E ‘Nichols, Jack. ‘Cartwright, Wilburn ‘Boren, Lyle

1

Tenn.

Highland

Euclid

NNECTICUT

Vacant

22

Okla.

S.D.

Dem.

Dem. Dem.

‘Secrest,

17 18

Dayton Lima Bryan

Rep.

*Claypool, Harold K.

—

Residence

Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep, Rep.

Dem.

11 12

16

Pa.

Party

H

1

Ore

Name

Diet.

Perryopolis

Beaver Ebensburg Greensburg

Rep. Rep. Rep.

Wilkinsburg

Dem. Dem. Dem.

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Mount Oliver

Rep. Rep.

Saylesville

Dem, Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.

Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem.

Erie Bellevue

Cranston Charleston Orangeburg Saluda Greenrille

in Pittsburgh

on Nov. 14-18, 1938, changed

its

constitution,

named Mr. Lewis

Philip

president,

name, adopted a hlurray and

Sidney Hillman vice-presidents, and James E. Carey secretary. At the 1939 convention four additional vice-presidents were named.

The

was formed by representatives of eight international with the American Federation of Labor to promote the development of industrial unions within the American Federation of Labor. They announced their purpose to encourage and promote organization of workers in the mass-production and C.I.O.

unions

afiSliated

unorganized industries of the nation. The 1939 convention reported 45 national and international

Lancaster Florence hladiran Custer Johnson City Enorville

unions.

Chattanooga Carthage

membership of the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers had grown from approximately 10,000 to more than 525,000; the United Automobile Workers from 30,000 to 381,000, and the textile union from 25,000 to 450,000. In 1939 the C.I.O.

Nashville Franklin

Jackson

Dyersburg Texarkana Orange Gilmer

Bonham Dallas Corsicana Crockett

Houston Columbus Austin

The in the

The reported membership was (1938) first

3 787 >ooo>

objective of the C.I.O. was to organize the employees

mass-production industries, such as steel, automobiles and In 1938 the C.I.O. reported the

textiles, into industrial unions.

ventured into new

fields,

notably the building construction

field

which had hitherto been the monopoly of the A.F. of L. (See also American Federation of Labor; California: History; Labour Unions ; Strikes and Lock-outs United States.) (L. Sta.) ;

PnnnQntiPIlt

original States of the

United States,

uUnncClllrlll) popularly known as the “Nutmeg State” and

CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS— CONTRACT BRIDGE

180 “Land

the

of Steady Habits”; land area, 4,820 sq.mi.; population (U.S. census, 1930), 1,606,903, estimated by the Bureau of Vital

Statistics,

Other

July

i, 1939, 1,811,097. Capital, Hartford, 164,072. of over 50,000 population in 1930; New Haven,

cities

162,655; Bridgeport, 146,716; Waterbury, 99,902; New Britain, Of the State’s population 1,131,770 were urban, or

68,128.

70-4%; 1,576,673 whites; 29,354 Negroes; 1,222,267 native born; 384,636 foreign born.

—^The principal State

History.

increase for the year. Hartford is the headquarters of most of the 25 large insurance companies operating under Connecticut charters. The admitted assets of the five life companies of Connecticut have grown to $2,253,594,633, with 2,045,157 policies in force. In all companies there were 1,760,003 life policies in force in the State.

—

Highways. ^The practical completion of the Merritt parkway and the beginning of work on the Wilbur Cross highway, which

officers for 1939-40 are; goverE. Baldwin (Republican, elected 1938, with 230,237 votes to 227,549 fof Cross, Democrat, and 166,253 for McLevy, Socialist); lieutenant-governor, James L. McConaughy; secretary

will continue the route through

Mrs. Sara B. Crawford; chief justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, William M. Maltbie (term 1930-46).

cut at Hartford and across the Thames at New London. The system of State roads has nearly reached the point where it will no

Raymond

nor,

of State,

The

general assembly of 1939

Democrats,

(Senate:

16 Republicans, 17

House: 202 Republicans, 63 Democrats, 2 Socialists) was unusual for the leadership of young men with little previous experience and for freedom from the undesirable influences of lobbyists and bosses. In spite of severe cuts in departmental and institutional appropriations, unusual mandatory expenses produced the largest recorded biennial budget, $106,206,2 Socialists;

The only

491.

additional taxation, an increase in the liquor tax,

and the transfer of part of the cost of the State police to the highway account were, however, expected to provide a balanced budget for the

New

first

time in several years.

legislation included

reform of the minor court system,

together with a proposed constitutional

amendment

to alter the

appointment of the judges for those courts; revision of statutes concerning foods, drugs, and cosmetics to harmonize with Federal

line,

Hartford to the Massachusetts have been the notable achievements of the year in highway

development. Special commissions' have also been established to arrange for the construction of new bridges across the Connecti-

longer be necessary to develop

new routes but rather to carry forward reconstruction of the existing ones on a more modem

The number of car registrations on Oct. i, 1939 (468,312) and of licensed operators (549,259) exceed the record for any basis.

full year. The ratio of accidents to highway use reached the lowest point recorded in 1938. Apparently this low record

preceding

be approximately equalled campaign to promote highway

will

in 1939, thanks to the extensive

safety.

Agriculture, Manufacturing.

—Agricultural production of

the

State in 1939 showed increases for some crops but for others the yield was somewhat reduced by the prolonged dry weather in the

summer.

Both

in acreage

and

in value the principal crops are

tobacco, hay, potatoes, and corn.

Fruit growing, gardening, and

poultry raising are also conducted extensively.

In number of

chickens, turkeys, and cattle, especially milch cows, there has

social security, labour,

been some increase over previous records. Connecticut is, however, pre-eminently a manufacturing State. In 1937 the 2,892 factories employed 262,620 hands and produced goods valued at $1,261,788,693, an increase of 40% over 1935. There was a similar

failed to pass because funds

increase in wages paid.

and municipal

most important. In recent years the manufacture of aeroplanes and their parts has grown rapidly and the State now ranks third in the field. Industrial activity during 1938 was below the 1937 level but in 1939 there was considerable improvement. Time lost (G. M. Du.) because of strikes was small.

and criminal town and municipal ac-

regulations; permission for alternate jurors in civil cases; requirement of uniform audit of

counts; an anti-injunction law; and significant modifications of

and liquor laws. Some desirable measures were not available for their administration. The current expenditures for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, were $65,250,000. The State operated on a balanced budget and contemplates doing so in the current fiscal year. No obvious change in political trends was revealed by the town elections of 1939, the only ones held during the Inglis presiding at one of the longest

year.

With Judge Ernest A.

trials

in the history of

Connecticut’s superior court, most of

those under indictment for the Waterbury scandal were convicted. Various convictions were also obtained in connection with the

Merritt parkway cases.

The

victions have been salutary.

effects of these exposures

and con-

—

The name University The Connecticut State college,

inaugurated.

of Connecticut replaces that

located at Storrs, where a $3,000,000 building program is in progress. The State, in cooperation with the Federal Public Works Administration, is also

of

buildings at various State institutions, espenew cially those for the care of mental cases, and is establishing a school for the feeble-minded at South Britain and a new veterans’

erecting several

home

at

Rocky

new

Hill.

—

Banking and Finance. On Sept. 30, 1939, the 72 mutual savings banks in the State had total deposits of $720,499,318 previtotal assets of $812,565,097, being a slight increase over the

The number

nearly

of accounts increased to 977,993was 2j%. The 65 State banks and trust companies had total assets of $358,767,197, a considerable

ous year. all

cases the dividend rate

brass,

were the

Conscientious Objectors: see Pacifism. Conscription: see Armies of the World: Military Service. Conservation, Soil: see Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation.

Contests:

Education and Charities. In the year 1938-39 there were 211,503 pupils enrolled in public elementary schools, and 84,926 in public high schools. A thorough reorganization of the State department of education was completed during the year; standards for the certification of teachers were improved; and a comprehensive study of the history of education in the State was

Metal industries, notably

see Advertising; Contests; Radio, Industrial As-

pects OF.

Pnntropt DriHrro

uDIIlldwl DllUgCi

Contract

^989 brought no changes in Paradoxically, how-

Bridge.

ever, it enjoyed one of its most successful years. Its continued popularity was attributed to three major causes: (i) the laws, prepared in 1935 by the Whist Club of New York, the Portland

Club of London and the Commission Frangaise du Bridge of Paris, acting as a body, remained in force unchanged; (2) increased standardization in bidding methods, and (3) the bickering beto tween rival factions in America and Great Britain was reduced almost nothing. three When the present code of laws was adopted in i935i collaborating committees promised there would be no material until changes until 1940. This promise was kept and it wasn’t purpose of late 1939 that negotiations were entered into for the

Meetings of the American Co-operating Comsummer of 1939 and the new code will apBridge pear late in 1940. A new code governing Tournament CommisLaws National American prepared by the being is also revising the laws.

mittee

started

1

CO-OPERATIVES — COPPER and

sion

this

Co-operatives:

code will also be published in 1940.

Committee was the “Equalizing of the suits,” that is, placing the minor suits (diamonds and clubs) on a par with the major suits (spades and hearts). Thus, four-odd in the minors would make game, as in the majors. This would leave the five-odd zone open. To fill this two or void, a “sub-slam” has been suggested with a small bonus

One

see

181

Farmers’ Co-operatives; Marketing.

of the major changes suggested to the

three hundred points

—

—

for the successful fulfilment of a five-odd

The Association of Playing Card Manufacturers and the Bridge World magazine sent out a questionnaire to thousands of contract.

players on these two proposals, and the vote was overwhelmingly in favour of them.

The Culbertson system, used by over go%

of the estimated

15,000,000 followers of the game, remained virtually the same except for two minor changes.

The

first

was grafting to the sys-

tem the Blackwood convention of slam-bidding. This convention caught the public’s fancy and was made an auxiliary to the Culbertson 4-5 Notrump convention. The second change was the dropping of the Two-Way Three Bid and substituting for it a “strong” three bid. With a few variations, the three-bid now calls

Pnnnor

uU|i|Jwi>

90%

Nine copper-producing countries with outputs, present or past, in excess of 50,000 tons, accounted for

of the world total in 1929,

and

86%

in 1938,

which

is

only

a comparatively small change, but in the meantime there has been a radical change in the status of

many

of the individual

The United States proportion of the total has defrom 49% to 25%, Belgian Congo from 7% to 6%, Mex-

producers. creased

from 4% to 2% and Peru from 3% to 2%; on the other hand, Canada has risen from 6% to 13%, Chile from 16% to 18%, the Soviet Union from 1-3% to 5%, and Rhodesia from a fraction to 11%; Japan has remained approximately unchanged. All major

ico

countries except the United States, Mexico, Peru, and the Congo, and many of the minor ones, were stUl well above the 1929 level in 1938. Canada alone showed a material increase over 1937-

10%, while

the United States declined

34%,

Belgian Congo

18%

and Chile 15%. World

Proc/ucffon of

Copper

(In thousands of metric tons)

for a solid suit (at least six cards long) in the minors, a within-

one-trick of solid suit in the majors, and no trick outside the suit.

The hand,

tween 6 and 7^ playing-tricks. Both these changes added power and flexibility to the system and did much to bind the Culbertson adherents into a more compact group. The wars going on throughout the world did not affect contract bridge to any

was held

extent.

as usual in

The Eighth Annual World Bridge Olympic 1939 and among the warring nations compet-

ing were England, France, China, Japan, Finland, Russia,

Germany.

and

In the latter country, the date was changed to the

night following the regularly scheduled one because of a conflict

with Hitler’s birthday. The World Bridge Olympic Committee granted this change. In all, 52 countries took part in the Olympic .

and over 180,000 players competed. An interesting sidelight on the effect of war on contract bridge was the report from England that the black-outs have caused a decided swing from club to home play. Fear of air raids has taken a secondary position to fear of

home

accidents,

traffic

play has been given a great stimulus

creased sales of playing cards and

Maginot Line have come hurry

all

—

and as a

result

by

in-

From

the

as proved

bridge accessories.

calls for

1929

more than one honour-

in general, should contain be-

more cards and bridge World

scores, thus attesting to the popularity of bridge over the

—

Belgian Congo

Canada

13 S-S 109.9

Chile

316.8

.

.

Japan Mexico Peru

7 S-S

78.7

54-4

Rhodesia U. S. S. R United States World Total Ex. U. S

5-9

25.8 .

Statistics for

for nearly

all

.

.

93 I-I

.

.

1,921.6

990-5

1932 54-0 113-7 103.2 71.9 34.1 21.4 73-0 30.7 231.8 905-5 673-7

1936

1937

1938

95-7 191-3 256.2 73-8 32.6

150.6 238.1 412.9 75-9 46.8

33-4 140.0 83.0

35-7 212.7 92-5 757-4 2,271.6

124.0 263-3 351-4 77-0 41.4 36.3

1,981.6

1,514-2

1479-5

557-9 1,677.9 1 , 120.0

2 J 5-3

98.0 502.

1939 are very incomplete since data are lacking war in Europe.

countries since the beginning of

Such information as is available indicates a material improvement in United States output, probably about 30% for mine output, 33% for smelter output, and 26% for refinery output; sales to domestic consumers were up much more, pointing toward heavy withdrawals from stocks, which hy mid-year had doubled since 1936. Canadian production rose 6% to 275,000 metric tons. During the first three quarters of 1939 output in Chile was at the rate of 298,000 metric tons; Mexico 43,500 tons; Peru 33,500 tons; and all of Africa 325,000 tons. Total world output should be somewhat greater than in 1938. During 1938, the international

War’s favourite games poker, blackjack, and red dog. The American Contract Bridge League (an amalgamation of the American Bridge League and the United States Bridge Association) reported

more

interest

and greater attendance than ever

before at tournaments. Records of long standing were broken at the annual national championships at

Asbury Park,

N.J.,

and

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The League

instituted

an annual nation-wide card party on

St.

Valentine’s Day, the proceeds of which are for the relief of crip-

pled and undernourished children. Over 50 cities held games, and in each case, the money taken in was used for some worthy charity

A

newspaper usually collaborated and the slo^Take a Hand” was popularized in bridge circles all over the United States. Plans are under

for children.

local

—

gan of the card party, “Have a Heart

way

to tie this

movement up with

the charitable activities of the

American Legion. Ely Culbertson went into temporary retirement for eight months during which time he wrote his autobiography, The Strange Lives of One Man. This book, he announces, will tell the full inside story of bridge from its original idea to the paste-

—

board empire •

it is

today. In addition,

early life in Russia, Mexico, Canada,

Mr. Culbertson

and France.

tells

of his

(E. Cui..)

copper produced

in

(including Alaskan) ores

the

United States:

smelter

output from

domestic

COPRA— CORN

182

copper cartel made three changes in production quotas; on Jan.

i,

1938, the operating rate was set at

and on August about

16, at

100%; on March i, at 95%; 105%. The members of the cartel supply

question before the Supreme Court w’as “Can A, after having deposited and registered, sue the infringer for infringement which occurred before such deposit and registration?” The answer of

and the percentage figures on which quotas are based refer to the operating rate at the time the cartel

the

was formed, and not to the actual capacity of the plants, which about 50% greater.

quent depositor could not bring suit unless he registered promptly, but did provide that he could not bring suit until he registered.

75%

of the world total,

is

All of the countries listed in the table, with the exception of

the United States, Japan, and the Soviet Union, are comparatively

small consumers of copper, and hence produce mainly for export.

The

consuming countries,

chief copper

in order of

im-

portance, are the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom,

Japan, the Soviet Union, and France, which cover 8o-go% of the total consumption. The United States is the only major con-

sumer with an

e.\-port

surplus; all others are dependent on im-

ports for a large proportion of their supply. that on the average

22%

of the output

is

In spite of the fact

exported, consumption of

copper in the United States far exceeds the new copper supply, the remainder coming from secondary metal recovered from previous use, a source w'hich yielded a larger

amount of copper during

the

depression years than was obtained from the primary production.

Supreme Court was that the action would lie; and the point was emphasized that Section 12 did not provide that the delin-

Under

made

the Copyright Act the existence of the copyright to depend

ter does not constitute

10%

between rough copper and electrolytic. In 1938 Germany took second place as a consumer of copper, replacing the United Kingdom, while in 1937 Japan had replaced the Soviet Union in fourth place. Germany in 1938 consumed about 447,000 tons, 37% of which came from crude imports, 30% from refined imports, 9% from imported ore, 7% from domestic ore, and 18% from secondary recovery; e.xports are negligibly small. Russian production supplies about two-thirds of the demand, and imports one-third, w’hile in Japan production is slightly less and imports proportionately higher. France has practically no domestic out-

and imports almost the entire supply. (See also Metallurgy; Mineral and Metal Prices and Production; Strategic

put,

(G. A. Ro.)

Mineral Supplies.)

Copra:

all-time high records of

see Coco-Nuts.

Table

I.

Corn Production by States

(Reported by U.

S.

uOpyrignL print and Label Law, over these types of copyrightable material from the Patent Office to the Copyright Office effective July i, 1940, no change has occurred in the provisions of the American Copyright Act. w'hich transfers jurisdiction

bu.

Iowa

^04.2.36.000

Illinois

416,790,000 211,344,000 204,570,000 167,825,000 114,520,000 83,509,000 77,920,000 76,388,000 70,400,000 S 7 , 54 S,ooo 54,741.000 51,620,000 47,151.000 41,456,000 38,574.000 37 , 275,000 36,412,000 36,166,000 34,364,000 32,487,000 28,232,000 25 , 443,000 24,540,000 23,485,000 18,216,000 15,856,000 7,215,000 6,868,000 6,158,000 4,176,000 3,040,000 2,916,000 2,260,000 2,zoS,ooo 1,920,000 1,771,000 1,767,000 1,482,000 1,190,000 1,089,000 600,000 520,000 450,000 390,000 351,000 60,000

Indiana Minnesota Ohio Missouri

Wbconsin Texas Nebraska Kentucky Pennsyh'ania Michigan Tennessee

North Carolina South Dakota Georgia

Alabama Mississippi Virginia

Arl^nsas Kansas

Oklahoma South Carolina Louisiana

New York Maryland North Dakota

On January 30 a decision was handed down by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of The Washingtonian Publishing Co. Inc., Publishers, v. Drew Pearson, Robert S. Allen, and Van Rees Press, Inc., et al. Under Section 12 of the Copyright Act the mandatory duty is imposed upon him who publishes with copyright notice and thereby secures copyright, of promptly work thereafter filing with the Copyright Office two copies of the accompanied by application for registration of claim of copyright shall therein. The section provides that “no action or proceeding be maintained for infringement of copyright in any work until the and provisions of this Act with respect to the deposit of copies The with. registration of such work shall have been complied a book facts before the Supreme Court were that A had published and deposit to promptly failed with copyright notice but had that before such deposit and register as required by Section 1 2

;

registration B infringed the copyright, whereupon A deposited and registered and brought suit for infringement against B. The

Delaware

Vermont New Mexico

Wyoming California

Connecticut

Montana Oregon Massachusetts Washington

1938 and 1939

•

New

Hampshire Maine Utah

.

Arizona

Rhode Nevada

Island

i,

1939)

1938 bu.

1939

Florida

HnnurSfrht

in

Department of Agriculture, Nov.

Olorado

exception of the

yields were

age of corn since 1934 the higher yields are attributed to the planting of more productive hybrid varieties of com and the restric-

New Jersey

^“”"8

com

Minnesota while for the entire United States the yield was the highest in 19 years, 28-6bu. to the acre, compared to 27-7bu. in 1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of 23 bushels. Although the United States Government has been encouraging reduced acre-

amount of which is re-exported. About 55% of from Empire sources, 35% from the United States, from Chile. Ore and matte make up only about 2% of

tions

(C. L. B.)

established in 1939 in Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Indiana, a^d

is

the imports, the remainder being divided in about equal propor-

not

registration.

one of these ways.

New,

rnm uUlli

imports, a growing

and

is

Once secured by publication with notice, copyright can only be lost in the ways designated in the statute, and failure promptly to deposit or regis-

The United Kingdom, now third largest consumer, has only a nominal output, and secures practically its entire supply from the imports

upon deposit or

468,923,000 379 , 350.000 173,389,000 157,535,000 156,992,000 106,500,000 90,5x4.000 75,648,000 107 , 735,000 74 , 547,000 50,508,000 58,035,000 68,.57 0,000 46,398.000 35 , 688,000 53,164,000 49,700,000 48,544,000 34 , 775,000 36,218,000 45,200,000 35.080.000 26,767,000 26,730,000 25 , 345,000 i8,537.ocx>

16,186,000 7,486,000 11,319,000 8,452,000 4,147,000 3,120,000 2,606,000 2,880,000 2,077,000 1,764,000 2,340,000 1 , 595,000 1,482,000 1,015,000 1,184,000 656,000 440,000 500,000 495,000 400,000 62,000

Average 1928-37 bu.

393,143,000 307,592,000 151,195,000 136,346,000 132,297,000 113,655,000 71,042,000 75,962,000 I39,>76,ooo 62,688,000 51,087,000 43,167,000 60,308,000 41 , 355,000 54 , 933.000 38,902,000 39,427.000 36,262,000 32,225,000 20,0.?6,000

80,736,000 35,912,000 21 ,335,000 20,098,000 21,221,000 15,617,060 16,305,000 7,186,000 IS.771,000 6,733,000 3,861,000 2,803,000 2,928,000 2,071,000 2,386,000 2,005,000 1 , 259.000 1,904,000 1,606,000 1,168,000 1,225,000 599,000 489,000 457,000 502,000 347,000 49,000

more productive land. The 1939 crop in the United States was estimated by the Department of Agriculture tion of acreage to

Table

II.

Corn Production for Cerfoin Countries, 1938 and 1939 (Reported by International Institute of Agriculture)

Rumania

.

.

Yugoslavia

.

Italy

....

Hungao’^ Greece Argentina .

United

.

.

.

.

1939

1938

bu.

bu.

245.636.000 145 434.000 90,500,000* 88,552,000 6,791,000 191,485,000*

201.462.000 187.232.000 115 . 599.000 104.801.000 7,853,000 327.671.000

.

States foreign sei^’ice reports.

1939 bu.

Union

South Africa 101,411,000

Chile

bu.

of

Uruguay Madagascar

New

1938

.

.

.

.

.

.

Zealand

6.476.000 3 937.000 2.211.000 269,000 .

74,284.000 5.246.000 3.684.000 2.464.000 333,000

CORNELL UNIVERSITY— COST OF LIVING November

i

as 2,59i,o63,ooobu.,

compared to 2,542,238,ooobu.

in

1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of 2,309,674,000 bushels. In Canada, October estimates by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics

The

Institute reported the

com

Germany in 1939 when i4,944,ooobu.

acreage of

in 1938 when the crop was 1939 estimates for Russia were available, but the 1938 crop was reported as io8,592,ooobu. while that of

23.759.000 bushels.

No

Egypt 6i,834,ooobu., and Turkey

(See also Cereals.)

PfirnoII llniirorcitu

uOrncll UniVcrSliy>

^

(S.

0

.

R.)

non-sectarian, co-educational institu-

tion

m

Ithaca, N.Y., founded in 1865

under the Morrill Act of endowed schools and colleges of arts and sciences, engineering, architecture, law, and medicine (located in New York and operated in conjunction with the New York Hospital), and the State-supported colleges of agriculture, home economics, and veterinary medicine. Two experiment stations, at Geneva and Farmingdale, are operated in connection with

and incorporated as a land-grant 1862.

The

to occupy Cocos to prevent

its

college

university comprises the

the college of agriculture. Degrees for advanced study other than

Costa Rica has external communication by sea and by Pan American Ainvays, supplemented by the partially complete InterAmerican highway. Internal communication is by several domestic airlines, 45omi. of railway, and an i,8oomi. highway system. In 1938, imports (principally foodstuffs and manufactured slightly, to $12,620,721 (United States, 49-1%; Germany, 19-8%); exports declined 12^%, $10,143,614, going largely to the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. Coffee and bananas, supplying 48-7% and 27-6% of exports, are the mainstay of Costa Rican economy, although cacao is also important. Banana production rose during 1938 and 1939 due to development of plantations on the disease-free Pacific coast. Gold production in 1938 was in excess of $500,000 value. The monetary unit is the colon (value: U.S.). In 1939 the national expenditures were estimated at 31,299,000 colones, but unexpected decline in revenues compelled downward revision. Education was allotted 17%. Costa Rica, cultural centre of Cen-

goods) increased

tral

America, has 606 public elementary schools, with an enrolof 54,750 in 1937. (L. W. Be.)

ment

During the

professional are awarded through a graduate school.

academic year 1938-39, there were 7,055 students, of whom 1,597 were women. The faculty, which had 1,691 members, included 50

Costigan, Edward Prentiss

emeritus professors, 318 professors, 273 assistant professors, 23

bom

and associates, 464 instructors, and 563 assistants. An important development on the campus during the spring of 1939 was the establishment of a Federal nutrition research laboratory, the program of which will be co-ordinated with the programs of the related departments of the university. Productive funds on June 30, 1939, amounted to $30,872,433. Land and buildings were valued at $19,692,679, and equipment at $7,841,343. The library contained 1,036,404 volumes. President, Edmund Ezra Day, Ph.D., LL.D. (E. E. D.)

lecturers

United States has no production of corundum, Pnninfllini uUIUIIUUIIIa the natural oxide of aluminium, and depends entirely on imports, which vary from 2,000 to 4,000 long tons annually, mainly from South Africa. Extensive deposits are known in the Zoutpansberg, Pietersburg, and Leydsdorp district of Northern Transvaal, and these now furnish the bulk of the world supply; the 1938 sales were 1,549 short tons, against 4,851 tons in 1936. From 1905 to 1921 Canada was the leading producer. (G. A. Ro.)

Cosmetics: see Drugs and Drug Traffic; AND Cosmetics. Cosmic Rays: see Physics.

uUdld Rina nlUd)

PflQtJl

Leon Cortes;

Soap,

Perfumery

^ Central American republic; language, Spanish; capital,

San

Jose

(pop.

63,436);

area, 23,000 sq.mi.; population

president,

(1936 estimate),

606,581.

Costa Rican activity during 1939 was largely in connection with relations. Throughout the year efforts to adjust the country’s foreign debt were made, but without success. In March, Congress levied a 100% duty on goods from countries whose sales

foreign

to Costa

Rica exceeded their purchases by 50%. Japan was the Early in the year proposals in the United States Congress that Cocos island, uninhabited Costa Rican terrichief nation affected.

tory in the Pacific, soomi.

was sent

use by belligerents during the

protested Russian aggression against Finland.

was 1,527,000 as against i,73i,oooac.

98,8i4,ooobu.,

able attention, and, in September, a military detachment

as

a 1939 acreage of 814,000 compared to 84i,oooac. in 1938 when the crop was 22,779,000 bushels. In Bulgaria the 1939 acreage

Manchoukuo was

183

canal defences, attracted consider-

of

corn was harvested, including Austria and the Sudeten ; in France

20.955.000 bushels.

Panama

European war. Efforts by Nicaragua to induce Costa Rica to sign a treaty for the canalization of the San Juan river were made in October, but without result. 'In December, Costa Rica vigorously

placed the 1939 crop for husking at 7,s66,ooobu., as against

7,69o,ooobu. in 1938.

2S5,oooac. compared to 347,oooac. in 1938

chased as part of the

from the mainland, be leased or pur-

in King William county, Virginia, on July i. After graduatfrom Harvard in 1899 he established law practice in Denver. He was a founder of the Progressive or “Bull Moose’’ party which nominated Theodore Roosevelt for President in Aug. 1912. Costigan ran for governor of Colorado on the same political ticket but was defeated. Later he made his peace with President Wilson, who appointed him to the U.S. Tariff Commission in 1917. His espousal of the flexible tariff met with constant criticism from the Republican administrations of 1920 and 1924, and he resigned in 1928. He was in the Senate from 1931 until his retirement in 1937, and sponsored such legislation as a sugar-quota bill and the famous Costigan-Wagner anti-lynching bill which was a political football in the Senate for several years. Costigan died in Denver January 17.

ing

Pnct nf uUbl Ul

I

iiriniT

LIVlIlg.

upward trend of the

cost of living

characteristic of almost the entire world

after 1933 continued into 1937-38, but only in France and Norway (excluding war areas) did 1937-38 indexes of food prices go higher

than in 1929. In most nations 1937-38 food prices were higher than 1936 and higher again in 1939. The outbreak of the European war was stimulating the upward movement of prices during the last half of the year. Great Britain, Finland, Belgium, Norway, and Switzerland experienced almost a 10% increase in food prices in 1937-38 but during the first half of 1938 cost of living stabilized at approximately the 1937 levels in most of the nations.

In 1939 there was a slight increase during the early part of the year and a more substantial upward movement during the late summer and fall. The inclusion of rent, clothing, fuel and sundries in a cost of living index tends to increase its stability as compared with an index based upon food prices only. The latter fluctuate faster and

sharply. This is apparent when the British, Canadian, and American indexes are examined. The accompanying table includes a varied assortment of items and not merely food costs.

more

The

detailed figures of the United States,

Canada and the

COTTON

184

Indexes of Cost of Living for Specified Periods for the United States and Certain Foreign Countries (Series recalculated by International Labour Office on base 1920=100; a=food; b=heating and lighting; c=clothing; d=rent; e=misceiraneous)* Aus-

Country

Canada

tralia

France

Ger-

many

oooac. in

Gr. Brit.

& N. Ire-

oooac. harvested after abandonment of 3-6% of the 24,832,-

Italy

land

New

Zealand Norway

Sweden

So. Africa

U.S.

1939.

60

localities

30

Original

1923-

base= loo

27

1926

a-e

a-e

Paris

45

72

S09

50

4-25

31

49

1930

July 1914

June

1914

19131914

1928

19261930

July 1914

July 1914

1914

25

a-e

a-e

a-e

a-e

a-e

a-c

a-e

.n-e

a-c

a-c

100

100

89 97 100

91 95

100 88 90

000

32-SI

9

1938

100 78 82 83 84 84 84 84 84

100 78 .

.

Sept.

.

.

Dec.

.

,

June Dec. 1939 March

June

8s

86 86 88 88 88 Sg 90

. .

.

Sept.

84 Ss

.

March .

,

.

.

.

.

100 94 100 109 1

100 87 97 99 104 zio 113

13

118 124 124 124 130

83

US 117 Z20 122 123

83 S3

77 8z 8z 81 81 81 82 8z 81

82 82

100 83 92 95 96 97 94 97 95 95 93

100 80 87 92 95 gS 08

95

102

100 79 90 91 93 95 94 94 95 96 96 98

97 99 99

95 97 97 97 88 98 98 99 99

102 103 103 104 102 102 102 104

91 91

93

94 94

the

ten-year

governmental control

over cotton and cotton goods

was established by practically all European nations ivith the

8s 8s 85 83 84 83 83 82

94 94 93

and

bales.

^84

outbreak of war in Sept. 1939. Belligerents

declared cotton a

conditional contraband, subject to

Non-combatants

seizure.

adopted

,

Table from International Labour Review, July 193S (p. 140) and Oct. 1939 (p. 567). Quarterly averages for 1937 computed February’, May, August and November, Australian and French figures arc for February, May, August and November instead months

bales

Close

of index

June

i,

(1928-37) average 13,800,000

1923-

Composition

March

July

States crop

harvested in 1938 was 11,943,-

Towns and

192Q 1933 1937

cultivation

The United

control

to

conserve

supplies and to avoid violation

in of

of neutrality.

listed in the table.

Germany had had

increasingly comprehensive cot-

United Kingdom reveal that the trends of prices of different foods varied considerably, 1937-39. national

The

figures appear in the Inter-

Labour Review.

The accompanying

table shows the relative trends of cost of from 1929 through June 1939. The figures have been recalculated by the International Labour Office on a 1929 base and this table cannot be compared directly with the table published for 1937 and prewous years. {See also Financial Review; Prices; Wealth and Income, Distribution of.) living in II countries

II, 1916,

Readers interested in additional information are reto current issues of the Monthly Labor Review (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), the Ministry of Labour Gazette (British Ministry of Labour), and The Labour Gazette (Department of Labour, Canada). Cf. (D. D. L.) also International Labour Review.

“cotton year” begins August

i

and ends July

31.

llUllUII.

Thus, in the year 1939-40 the cotton crop in the northern hemisphere is harvested in 1939 and the southern hemisphere crop in 1940. World supply of all growths of cotton for the year 1939-40, ending July 31, 1940, was estimated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture on Nov. 27, 1939, as about 49,300,000

This is only slightly less than the record supplies of 50,046,000 bales in 1937-38, and 50,550,000 in 1938-39. It includes world production in 1939-40 of 27,800,000 bales and a world carry-over Aug. I, 1939, of 21,500,000 bales. World production in 1938—39 bales.

during the World War, and which provides for

certifica-

tion of neutral export cotton at ports of shipment, thus avoiding

or expediting inspection for contraband at sea.

France and Great Britain both instituted complete Government control of imports and trade in cotton and cotton goods, British control being under the Board of Trade, with a cotton board set

up

—

Bibliography.

ferred

Pnttnn

ton control since 1933, including compulsory use of substitutes, chiefly rayon, as a part of cotton fabrics. On Dec. i, 1939, Great Britain, revived the “Navi Cert” plan which was adopted March

to administer control, including the primary duty of providing

for governmental needs

and,

if

;

also, to

promote

e.xports of cotton goods

necessary, to allocate supplies.

In the United States during the first three months of the European war the average farm price for cotton was 8.85^ per pound, about 7% higher than a year earlier, but 2.2^? below the ten-year (1928-37) average. In support of an e.xport market the Federal Government on July 27, 1939, adopted a plan to pay an export subsidy of i.5fi per pound. This, with the subsequent war de-

mand, greatly increased exports. On Dec. 6, 1939, the Government reduced payments on ex-port cotton to 0.75^ per pound. Two days later payments were reduced to 0-40^ per pound, and on December II to o.20j? per pound. On June 23, 1939, the United States arranged to exchange more than 600,000 bales of Government

was 27,407,000 bales and the world carry-over 22,639,000 bales. In 1937-38 world production was 36,784,000 bales and world carry-over 13,766,000 bales.

World

mill

consumption in the period 1939-40

is

expected to

be about the same as the year’s production, increased consumption in the United States offsetting decreased mill activity in parts of Europe. in the period 1938-39 was 28,500,000 record year in world mill consumption was 30,600,000

World miU consumption bales.

The

bales in 1936-37.

The world supply

of United States cotton in 1939-40

was

esti-

only slightly below the peak a world carry-over of includes of 26,224,000 bales in 1932-33. It which is United States cotton of 14,030,000 bales of 4781b. net,

mated

at 25,700,000 bales.

This

is

was a new high. World supply of United States cotton in 1938-39 in carry-over, the in bales 25,377,000 bales, with 13,712,000 bales, 1937-38 world supply of United States cotton, 24,647,000 crop States United with a carry-over of 6,235,000 bales. The Department harvested in 1939 was estimated Dec. i, i939i an bales of 50olb. gross each, with

of Agriculture as 11,792,000

indicated yield of 235.91b. of lint cotton

per acre from 23,928,-

COTTON CROP in the United States. Agriculture's December estimate

The

figure for

1939

is

the Department of

COTTON

185

complex competitive impulses such as (i) synthetic fibres, (2) new industries in hitherto agricultural countries and sections of countries, (3) new technique, and (4) new forms of governmental

new impact

participation, experienced a in Europe.

The importance

in 1939: that of the

war

of this as a factor contributing toward

further dislocation in both combatant and neutral countries obvious.

Its influence

may

is

not be as permanent or far-reaching,

as that of a long-term trend such as the expansion of synthetic fibres for example,

but for 1940 at least the war

Problem No. War’s first

on the cotton-textile industrj^ of the United

is

Industry

i.

effect

States can best be described as that of a shot in the arm. Prior to

the outbreak of hostilities, mill activity had been proceeding at a

higher rate than thaf of the depressed year 1938, in the face of a rather listless demand with resultant inventory accumulation and profitless

prices.

The war changed

all

Sudden demand,

that.

largely speculative in character, forced prices up, restored profit

margins, and impelled capacity operations of

The

net result was a

all

cotton mills.

higher rate of mill activity in 1939 than in 1938 and one which e.xceeded the pre\nous record rate of

25%

1937. The year 1939 closed with the industry' optimistic, and with apparent prospects for a lasting return of profits in cotton manu-

Coupled with improved conditions within the United was expectation of expanded export markets. However there were so many imponderables in the situation that it was difficult to see much beyond three months at a time. Wage-Hour Legislation. Second only to the war abroad as facture.

States

—

a factor in the development of the United States cotton-textile industry in 1939 was what threatened to be another War Between the States, at least so far as this industry was concerned. The

COTTON Elderman

was “the white elephant from the south” The Washington Post

owned cotton with Great to

in

1939, according to

of

Britain for rubber.

As a further

effort

broaden foreign markets for United States cotton the Depart-

ment

of Agriculture subsidized a one-variety

program of exports

to counteract complaints of foreign spinners that United States

cotton lacked uniformity and was badly packaged.

In 1938-39, program, 3,800 bales of especially-prepared cotton were exported. This, the department announced, is to be increased to

under

this

30,000 bales in 1939-40. From August i to November 24 United States cotton exports of 2,200,000 bales were almost 50% larger than the unusually low exports for the same period in 1938, ex-

cause was the recommendation of a minimum wage of 32i(i. under the wage-hour law, for the cotton, rayon, and silk divisions of the textile industry. The law, which became effective Oct. 24, 1938, set a mandatory minimum of 25^? for all industries covered, commencing with that date, and a minimum of 30;? to take effect Oct. 24, 1939. The first industry committee appointed by the wage-hour administration was the textile committee. Its recommendation, in March, of a flat 3225; wage aroused a storm of protest from the cotton-textile industry of the South, on the basis that it was entitled to a differential below the rate for the North.

Prolonged hearings were held before the administrator, and much heat was engendered on both sides.

Finally,

on September

13,

ports to Great Britain being nearly four times larger and to other

the wage-hour administrator announced the acceptance of the

European countries, other than German controlled, 15% to 70% Japan were 16% smaller. Cotton mill operations in Japan in 1939 were curtailed by Government restrictions on electric current and fuel. Chinese cotton imports, however, for the year ending Sept. 30, 1939, were 1,020,546 bales, the highest since 1931-32 and 25 times more than in 1938. The Japanese effort to produce cotton in Taiwan had its third succes-

recommendation, to take effect Oct. 24, 1939, instead of wage mandatory under the law. What had threatened to be a major explosion, however, turned out to be only a little firecracker, since by that time the industry was in the first stages of activity induced by the war in Europe, and the minimum wage advance became a minor issue. However, the controversy

sive unsatisfactory year, the 1939 crop being estimated at 5,000 bales from 28,764 acres. The 1939 Chinese crop was estimated at

facture.

larger, while exports to

more than 20 years. Government held in late November more

2,000,000 bales, the smallest in

The United

States

than 10,100,000 bales of cotton (excluding cotton in the rubber barter with Great Britain). Of this, 6,100,000 bales were owned

by the Government and 4,000,000 bales were held as collateral for Government loans to farmers. On Dec. 9, 1939, United States farmers voted for the third consecutive year in favour of the Department of Agriculture marketing program. Preliminary returns showed that 812,420 farmers voted for, and 78,047 voted against, marketing quotas for the 1940 crop. (S. O. R.)

Cotton Manufacture.

—The

cotton-textile

industry

of

the

United States and the world, which in recent years has suffered

from the disturbing and, to some

extent, contracting effects of

32^{1

the 30(i

promises to

rise again

when

slack times return in cotton

manu-

In addition, the importance of the minimum wage

is its

potential stabilizing effect as a factor to prevent wage-chiselling and subsequent market collapse during times of depression.

Another activity of Government affecting the American cotton manufacturing industry during 1939 was the imposition of an export subsidy of liff per pound, effective July 27. This represented an attempt to win back the export market for cotton. So sharp

was the increase

in export sales during the succeeding

months,

however, due largely to the outbreak of the war and to the removal of the uncertainty which had preceded the decision on the subsidy, that subsidy fimds were quickly exhausted and in the late fall a series of cuts reduced

and practically eliminated sub-

sidy payments.

Of major importance

in the outlook for 1940

was the question

of revival of a processing tax to finance farm payments. Although

COTTONSEED OIL- CRAWFORD MEDAL

186

•

known, as the Certificate Plan, the proposed scheme the

same

is

essentially

as the processing tax.

Prospects for and against adoption were about even as Congress convened early in 1940.

—

The Battle for the Markets. war on cotton consumption

of the

its

^Despite the stimulating effect

in 1939, cotton continued to

on the defensive during that year. It

still

had

be

to fight desperately

the employees, not only to eliminate these disadvantages but also to encourage home-ownership. At the same time, consideration was being given to the possibility, in those mills where the villages

were not to be sold, of separating the finances of the village from the mill, and placing the differential in the pay envelope. This promises to progress and to eliminate one of the difficult

to hold its markets not only against the competition of the old-

phases of industrial relations in the South.

but against the encroachment from new synthetics as well as from products of other industries such as paper, etc. Of

have been taken to inform both the general public and the employees concerning the actual status of working and living con-

the new fibres the best publicized was Nylon, but its initial threat was directed largely against silk, in full-fashioned hosiery. Vinyon, which also came into fruition in 1939, was more directly a cotton

paigns such as those conducted by the Cotton Manufacturers Association of Georgia, and the Cotton Manufacturers Associa-

line fibres

competitor in that

much

of the early experimentation was in the where cotton has held sway. More important than either of these, however, was the growing use of staple fibre, which differs from the ordinary or continuous-filament

industrial-fabric field,

rayon, in that

it is

supplied in cut lengths to be spun on standard

Consumption of staple fibre in the United from less than i,ooo,ooolb. in 1930 to approximately loOjOOOjOoolb. in 1939. The latter year showed nearly textile

equipment.

States alone grew

100%

increase over 193S.

The competition from

outside products

such as paper continues to be most serious from the standpoint of the cotton manufacturer. Excellent merchandising on the part of

In addition, steps

ditions in southern cotton mills, with excellent results.

Cam-

tion of South Carolina, as well as 'the publication of the book

We See by Mildred G. Barnwell of the Southern Comhed Yarn Spinners Association a photographic record of mill life Faces

in the plants of

— —and

that group

the release of an industryfinanced moving picture have been constructive influences.

—

Conclusion. From the above it will be recognized that, although the cotton industry has faced and is facing a strenuous fight, it has been organizing on several fronts for the successful waging of that fight. Through promotion, co-ordination, technical

advance, and industrial relations structive and

positive program.

effort,

it

has launched a con-

{See also

Linen and Flax;

manufacturers of paper products, particularly those intended for the home, has been a threat to manufacturers of towels, table

Rayon; Textile Industry; Wool;

linen, etc.

Cottonseed Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Coulter Shoals Project: see Tennessee Valley Authority. Countries of the World, Areas and Populations of the: see Areas and Populations of the Countries of the World. "Courageous": see European War; Submarine Warfare.

However, the cotton industry has accepted the challenge from these various sources and is putting up a good fight for its markets. Active programs launched by the cotton manufacturers themselves, by groups of interests allied with the raw cotton trade, by large retailers who have been pushing the use of cotton bags, and by Government departments, have been co-ordinated gradually into an aggressive movement. New uses such as employment of cotton fabric for covering cotton bales, for erosion control, for lining of irrigation ditches, etc., hold promise for the

cotton industry.

The

projection of four regional research labora-

under the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to be located at Peoria, 111 New Orleans, La., Philadelphia, Pa., and San Francisco, Calif., is an important potential in the fight. National Cotton Week in 1939 set a new record. Technological Developments. ^The trend toward increased efficiency, higher speeds, and more completely automatic operation tories

.,

—

in textile

equipment has continued unabated. In

fact, that trend

has been accelerated by the increases in mill costs arising from Federal wage-hour legislation. By reducing the possibilities for price-cutting through wage-cutting, the minimum wage has forced

manufacturers to adopt modern equipment if they are to continue to exist. Most of these improvements had their start earlier than 1939, but one interesting development belonging to that year was the introduction of paper bobbins for use on cotton spinning frames. This practice, which had already been adopted quite widely in Europe, had for its purpose the elimination of vibration resulting from operation of the frames at increasingly

In addition to the expanded use of more efficient equipment, new and versatile finishes such as pre-shrunk finishes, the crease-resisting finishes, etc., are playing an important part in

high speeds.

technological progress of the cotton industry. Employer-Employee Relations.—One of the interesting devel-

opments in 1939 in industrial relations in the cotton-textile inin dustry was the start of the movement te put the mill village more rational basis. These villages

southern cotton mills on a have been carried at a loss, representing a financial burden on the operation of the mill, and also inviting unfair wage comparisons with other sections of the country. A number of mills

took steps in 1939 to arrange for the sale of their villages to

Cowles, Henry Chandler

(D. G. Wo.)

etc.)

and educator, was born

at

Kensington, Conn, on February 27 and was educated at Oberlin college (A.B., 1893) and at the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1898).

After teaching in Nebraska and acting as a special

field

assistant for the U.S. Geological Survey, he joined the faculty

of the University of Chicago in 1902, later advancing to a professorship.

man

From

1925 until his retirement in 1934 he was

of the university’s department of botany.

plants of the Chicago area and

do research

in plant ecology.

He

chair-

specialized in

was one of the first botanists to In 1918 he was president of the

Ecological Society of America, in 1922 president of the Botanical Society of America, and in 1930 president of the ecology section of the International Botany Congress. He died at Chicago Sep-

tember

12.

Crane, Charles Richard on August 7. From

in Chicago

trialist

and diplomat, was born he was first vice

1894 to 1912

Crane company, manufacturers of plumbing equipment; he was president from 1912 to 1914. President William Howard Taft appointed him minister to China in 1909, but the Japanese Gov’t strongly protested his nomination on the president of the

grounds that he was anti-Japanese. At the instance of Sec’y of State Philander Knox, Crane was recalled before he had left the country to take his post. He then broke with the Republicans and .vice chairman of the finance committee for Woodrow Wilson’s campaign in 1912. President Wilson appointed him a member of a special diplomatic commission to Russia in 1917- He was American commissioner on mandates in Turkey in 1919 and

became

U.S. minister to China from 1920 to 1921. at

Palm

Springs, Calif.

Crawford Medal:

see Philately.

He

died February 15

CRICKET — CRIME Prinl^ot

ulluMiu

^939 cricket season in Great Britain was interrupted by plentiful rain and finally cut short by

was made most enjoyable by the visit of a West Indian side, captained by R. S. Grant and including such heroes of the past as Headley and Constantine. There were three test matches. The first, played at Lord’s, was won by England, by eight wickets, with half an hour to spare. Hutton and Compton batted finely, but the feature of the match was a century in each innings by George Headley. The second test match at Manchester was drawn, largely owing But

the outbreak of war.

it

to Manchester’s proverbial rain. in a draw, after high scoring

for England,

The

on both

third, at the Oval, also sides.

Weekes and Constantine

Hutton and

West

for the

ended

Hammond Indies, all

giving splendid exhibitions of batting. All through their tour the

West Indians endeared themselves and that

fielding, free batting

to the crowds

air of jollity

by

their brilliant

with which they always

seem able to invest their cricket. Grant led them just as such happy cricketers should be led, and every lover of the game was glad to see them give an excellent account of thema side of

187

n

The Unijorm Crime Reports, which have been

unillCi

ously published since 1930, continue to

scope and in completeness. As of Dec. tion,

In addition, crime reports are compiled for a large number some rural areas. Using these sources

ties.

of small municipalities, and

as an index for the countrj’ as a whole, the Federal Bureau of In-

fences” (comprising eight selected types of crimes) were com-

mitted in the United States during 1938. This represented an increase of 1-3% over the total of a similar estimate for 1937.

Crime

in Cities,

mth

Towns and

their op-

of

resources

this

cricketing

great

county.

first

half of the decade,

time since igo8.

Towards the end of the year came news of the ShefiBeld Shield matches in Australia. Don Bradman was in his usual terrific form and began scoring century after century for South Australia. O’Reilly seemed to be bowling as craftily as ever, and Grimmett showed what a grave mistake was made when he was omitted

War

last Australian side to visit

England.

was due to end, and haste to offer their services to their

started just before the cricket season

made

leading cricketers country.

It will

be good to hear the sound of bat and ball again

on village greens and county grounds. Final posifions in ihe counfy championship (iq.^8 positions shOT\Ti in

parentheses) First innings lead in

P.

w.

L.

D.

Tie

Pts.

Matches Matches lost drawn 1. 2.

Points awarded Yorkshire (i) Middlesex (2) .

.

.

.

.

3. Gloucestershire 4.

Essex

5

Kent

.

....

Lancashire Worcestershire 8. Surrey 9. Derbyshire 10. Sussex 6.

.

.

7.

.... .... .

p. Warwic^hire 12.

(10) (6) (0) (4)

(II) (3)

.

.

(

8)

(13)

Nottinghamshir e(i2)

13. Glamorgan . 14. Somerset . . IS* Hampshire . 16. Northants . 17- Leicestershire

.

(16)

.

(7)

.

(14) (17) (IS)

.

.

28 22 26 24 26 21 27 24 25 29 22 23 24 27 26 22 20

12 20 T 4*

IS 12 14 10 11 II

10 10 7

6

6 6 3 I I

Average

6

4

4

0

2

6

2

3

I

7

4

10 9 6 10

2

0 0 0 0 0 I

2

0 0 0 0 0 0

0

2

I

5

3 5

7

s 6

8

7

12 8 8 8 11 17 12 14

7 7

10 9 6 S

I

0 0 0

Includes one win in one-day match (8 points! tincludes two points for tie on first innings in match

1

3

4

2

2

I

196 i 7 ot

2

I

I 2 I 2

162 14a 144 140

s

qSf 100 96

4

102

2 s

8

84 3

I

lost.

0

16

is

unbroken

Auto and reached a

as yet uncertain. decline,

are based upon returns from 1,964 towns and villages in 1939; from 1,894 such communities in 1938 and 1,759 ^937: cities,

Offence* Known fo the Po//ce Januarj'-September, Inclusive; 1937-1939; Rate per roo.ooo of Population Offence

Sutcliffe

showed much of his old form and finished with an average of over 54. Hutton batted in great style while Verity and Bowes finished first and second in the bowling averages. The Oxford and Cambridge match was won by Oxford, by 45 runs, but only after Cambridge had made a most gallant second innings effort, totalling 384 runs, Dickinson making 100 and Webster (the side’s fast bowler) a very brave 60. The Eton and Harrow match was perhaps the match of the year. It was won by Harrow for the first

from the

^For the ten-year period

these recent changes foreshadow a return to the higher levels

recorded in the

test

limitless

—

1930, there

Even

matches made heavy calls on their front line players, a second line of “unknowns” appeared and made one wonder at the

when

Villages.

was a gradual decline in all classes of reportable crimes, except for rape and larceny, which increased perceptibly. In addition, aggravated assaults and burglaries increased in 1939, as compared with their 1938 levels. Whether

beginning

new low. The follo^ving comparisons

win which were too much for most of

1,433,812 “reportable of-

vestigation estimates that a total of

The county championship was again won by Yorkshire, with Middlesex second and Gloucestershire third. Yorkshire, as so often in past years, brought into the field an aU-round excellence will to

8.18 7-53 7.08 6.92 6.66 6.00

583 5.76 4.S2 4*34 4.00 3-77 3*23 1.63 0.80

in

of all cities and towns in the U.S. TOth over 10,000 populaand 98-0% of the total population of this group of communi-

thefts continued their almost

ponents, though they were twice beaten by Gloucestershire.

grow both

1939, these reports cover

i,

93-6%

selves.

and a

continu-

1037

ipsS

1939

Murder and Nonnegligent slaughter

Negligence

4.6

3-9

4.0

Aggravated Assault Burglary— Breaking

4.1 6-5

3.1 6.3

2.9 6,8

Auto Iheft

by

Manslaughter

Rape

Robberj’

Man-

.... .

.

.

Offence

or Entering.

Larceny

—^Theft

.

.

.

.

....

1937

1938

1939

40.0 35-5

42.4 32,8

40.7 34.3

237.4 559.9 157.9

243.0 259.4 584.9 652.1 134.8 128.8

CRIME

188

was again demonstrated in 1939 that there are fairly welldefined areas of both low and high crime frequency. The New England and Middle Atlantic States continue to have the lowest It

urban, crime rates, with the South Atlantic, East South Central

and

Pacific Coast States reaching the highest levels.

With

respect to the broad generalization that the larger the city,

the higher the crime rate, 1939 showed an impressive consistency in the application of the rule. With all cities grouped according to size, the largest cities

had the highest

rates,

and the others

Group I cities and Group II population between 100,000 and 250,000),

followed in regular order of descending scale.

(those having in excess of 230,000 population) cities

(those having a

were as usual so nearly equal that a very

Thus

fect their relative standing.

Group II

the lead; in 1938,

cities

in

went

generaliza-

tion that rural crime rates are lower than those of urban communities. Thus the direct relationship between population density and crime frequency, as noted above for urban places, is extended to rural areas as well.

But although

all

crimes are generally less frequent in rural than

urban areas, crimes against the person are relatively more frequent in the country. The relative standings for each class of

in

reportable offence in 1938 are given below in terms of average groups of 100 urban and 100 rural crimes:

change would af-

slight

Group

1937,

—

Rural Crime. Although the rural crime reporting area is much developed than that for cities, towns, and villages, current data are collected in sufficient volume to justify the

less

I cities held

into first place

row margin; and now in 1939, a slight shift has again placed Group I cities in the highest crime bracket. The other four groups followed in their usual order.

Per Cent

Offences against

Property

by a nar-

Larceny Burglary

Auto theft Robbery

Urban

Rural

56.6 22.7

47.6 29.9 8.6 3 .S

12.S

4.0

Per Cent

Offences against the Person

Aggravated assault

.

.

Urban

Rural

3.0 •3

5-6 2.3 1.4

3

1.

Rape Murder

.6

Manslaughter

....

In 1939, the relative frequency of reportable offences showed the following crimes in a leading position; larceny, 57-7%; bur-

States,

glaries 23%; auto thefts ii-4%; robbery 3-6%. As compared with 1938, larcenies increased in relative frequency from SS- 7 %; the others listed above showed small declines. All of these, repre-

manslaughters, and rapes, as shown in the foregoing table, is especially pronounced. (See also Chicago; Crime Detection; Fed-

senting

crimes against property involving

eral

rather small residue of

Police.)

95-7% of the

total, are

unlawful gain as a motive. resents attacks

The

upon persons,

viz.,

1939, in 1,964

cities,

rep-

homicides, rapes, and aggra-

The following table presents the per known to the police, for the first three

vated assaults. of offences

4-3%

capita rate

quarters of

towns, and villages having a total population

Similar urban-rural ratios are recorded annually in the United and have repeatedly been observed by commentators upon relative preponderance of rural murders,

Bureau of Investigation;

—

Uniform Crime Reports (quarterly) for 1938, and for three quarters of 1939 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, Wash“Prisoners in State and Federal Prisons and Reformatories, 1937” (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1939): “Judicial Criminal Statistics, (Br. S.) 1937” (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1939). :

Britain.'

—In

1937, the latest year for which complete

{000 omilled)

;

V

VI

10-25

under xo

.

4.3

3-0

2.7

2.5

4,0

gence

2.1

i-S 5-6

23-3 30.1

6.6 16.4 17.3

2-9 6.8

32.3 46.2

1.4 5.0 18.9 26.3

1.5

s.i

Robbery Agffravated Assault Burglary Breaking or Entering Larceny-Theft Auto Theft .

—

.

268.1 674-3 122.

253.2 692-3

195.9 547-9 82.6

377.4 61.0

to

11,086). 3 2 S -7 39-2 40.1

4.0 8.2

Rape

rise

and offences against by-laws and police regulaThe daily average prison population was 10,562 (in 1938,

52,425), betting, tions.

4-5

4-5

crimes), the remainder being

Total

Murder and Non^Negli.

(f.e.,

non-indictable cases, including drunkenness (showing a

IV 25-so

III

Over 250 100-250 50-100 Rent Manslaughter Manslaughter by Negli-

guilty of

all

respect of indictable offences

Population Groups of Cities II

number of persons found

kinds in Great Britain rose to 805,336, of which no fewer than 60% were for traffic offences under 10% were in offences of

Januarj’-Septemberj Inclusive, 1939

I

Delinquency;

first

statistics are available, the

Crime Rates per 100,000 Population

Juvenile

Bibliography.

the

ington)

Great

of 62,271,928:

The

crime in Europe.

’

56.S 36-2

.

324.2 7 SI -2

281.S 713-6 157.7

I'jb.i

114.1

Of the 77,529 persons found guilty of indictable offences, about one-half were adults (over 21); in the great majority of cases

259-4 652.1 128.8

the charge was theft or fraud, 77% of these being in respect of property valued at under £5 and only 1% at over £100.' Only 5

172,2

40.7 34.3

%

of the total were guilty of sexual offences or acts of violence

The prominent table,

and

position occupied

by larceny

in the foregoing

the gradual rise in the frequency of this crime during

the past decade, invite a further breakdown of the total figures. The following brief tabulation shows a distribution of the value of property involved in larcenies, (not including auto thefts), during the first three quarters of 1939, as compared with the cor-

responding period of 1938:

Per Cent of Total Larcenies Value of Property Stolen 1939

Over $50.00 $5.00 and under $50,00

193S

1 1.

13

64-9 23.3

65

among the latter being 78 cases of murder of 87 persons the lowest since 1930. In 27 of these the murderer or suspect committed suicide, in one, he died through injuries reagainst the person,

—

ceived at the time of the murder, in two, he escaped, and in the remaining 48, arrests were made. Nine thousand, eight hundred and eighty-one persons were found guilty of “breaking and entering;” of these 39% were children under 14 and over 75% were under 21. Juvenile crime generally was on the increase; but most persons found guilty of indictable offences are casual offenders, and the “old lag,” for whom crime is a livelihood, is becoming scarce. In 1939, though figures are not complete, there was a considerable increase of indictable crime of a serious nature, attributable

partly to the activities of the I.R.A. (Irish Republican Army),

The proportion of stolen property which was subsequently recovered, showed an increase during iqSQ- During the first three quarters of that year, 67-2% of the stolen property (in value) was recovered, as compared with 63-6% in the corresponding period of 1938, and 64-6% in 1937- A similar rise was shown with recovrespect to the recovery of stolen cars. The number of cars stolen. number the of ered in 1937 and 1938 represented 93-3%

In 1939 the figure reached 96-0%.

whose bomb outrages, in many proidncial centres as well as m London, were met by the Prevention of Violence (Temporary Procall visions) Act, passed in July. The “black-out” and the heavy on the police to provide personnel for other essential services, as ocin air raid precautions, did not, as might have been expected, of casion any marked increase in petty crime in the early months crimes the war. In Sept, and Oct. 1939 the total number of as (mostly small thefts) in the Metropolitan area was 12,283

a -

against 16,023 in 1938, cases of “breaking and entering” falling from 2,171 to 1,503 and of bag-snatching from 66 to 53. In the

rat»of lehc,hAS

from the person rose from 90 to 99 and thefts of bicycles by some 35%, house break(L. H. D.) ing and burglaries fell from 1,461 to 1,153. three months, Sept.-Nov., while larcenies

to ycriu I* xijBtarl vn ever to hftTc njiy dee

Yoa are^eo rush o*

the

JTtrS'.tlso h

’lat

the co** yoM cc=e the poorect. t;uRiity_;^ch*ridloe

’^7

In -Iowa 5

fonpard-cTe:

no aensllyle

criminal investigation can be aided

by

scientific

many law-enforcement

agencies.

Among

methods,

now em-

groups of technicians equipped with laboratories are

ployed by

ar.

tbe

L'

ifl

Primp Rptoptinn ullIIIC UClubllUlli

Ti&vr

.

the technicians

employed are those who apply the science of physics to such problems as the identification of firearms and the determination of trajectory and force of projectiles. Like most of the technicians in the field of crime detection, they find the microscope and

Vi}-

camera indispensable.

The chemist

or toxicologist

called

is

upon for such things as

identifying poisons and stains, detecting unburned nitrates on

hand of an individual suspected of firing a gun, restoring numbers effaced from automobiles or firearms, and identifying and comparing innumerable substances that may assist in the

serial

apprehending a criminal. The examiner of questioned documents studies a variety of

and other

features of handwritings, typewritings, inks, papers,

types and materials of writings for the purpose of solving problems of identification, sequence, and age.

In examining wills, notes,

checks, ballots, letters, and various documents, this technician

employs microscopy, photography, and chemistry, as well as infrared and ultra-violet lamps and other scientific devices and procedures.

and metallurgists furnish invaluable aid in identifying or comparing substances discovered at Biologists,

botanists, geologists

the scene of a crime with material incriminatingly associated with a suspect.

Physicians and pathologists are essential artisans in

crime detection, for

they

it is

deaths, the nature of injuries ogists

who determine and suspicious

and psychiatrists are consulted

causes and times of illnesses.

rvlth increasing

Psychol-

frequency

for the purpose of determining the mental conditions of suspects

and witnesses. Prior to 1930 only the Police Department of Berkeley, Calif., employed a Polygraph (lie-detector). In 1939, 37 law enforcement agencies were given deception tests with an accompanying decrease in third-degree brutality. Banks, department and chain stores, and many other business institutions are employing the services of Polygraph operators to detect and prevent losses. Some organizations have all applicants examined as a means of de-

termining their integrity.

and application of scientific methods of conand preventing accidents constitute one of the

Traffic studies trolling

traffic

most important of 1939 police-science contributions. Police are gathering evidence at accident scenes by the use of photography and the application of other scientific procedures. Chemical tests to determine intoxication were adopted by more than a score of departments during the year. The assignment of traffic patrolmen on the basis of accident records rather than by guesswork gained wide acceptance. Through pioneering efforts of outstanding police executives and university authorities, scientific pro-

cedures in

advanced.

all

branches of police service have been adopted and

(See

also

Federal

Bureau of Investigation.) (L.

PrictOQ Mirnn ullolcdi lYlirUlt was

bom

on July

Ke.)

(^^^^-1939), Rumanian patriarch and, at the time of his death, premier of Rumania,

20, the

son of a Transylvanian farmer.

After

his consecration as bishop of Caransebes in 1899 he rose rapidly in the hierarchy of the Rumanian Greek Orthodox church until

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER TYPE demonstrated at the annual training session of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in July 1939

re-

he became Metropolitan primate in 1919. As patriarch after Feb. 1923, he was the spiritual ruler of the church’s 13,000,000 communicants and a powerful influence in the nation’s politics.

Upon the death of King Ferdinand in July 1927, he became one of the triumvirate which ruled the country during the minority of Michael, until Carol returned from exile and seized the throne

was strongly opposed

Cristea

in 1930.

Roman 'Catholic

to a concordat with the

church, but as one of the regents he was obliged

Rumanian senate had approved it he publicly deplored all anti-Semitic activities an attitude which he reversed ten years later when he became premier. Octavian Goga, his nephew, resigned as premier on Feb. ii, 1938, and Cristea ivas asked by King Carol to succeed him. to sign the agreement after the

During

in 1929.

this period

—

Cristea continued his predecessor’s harsh measures against the

Jews, though in considerably more diluted form; also under his

Government the

fascists led

by Codreanu were

ruthlessly sup-

pressed.

Cristea died

March

Crop Control:

6 at Cannes, on the French Riviera.

United States: The Farm Problem.

see

estimated production of 64,ooo,ooobu,

rrnn Inciironoa uiUP llloUlQlluCa

of

wheat on 6,6oo,oooac. was insured

in

1939 by the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation in the first governmental wheat crop insurance. Wheat growers in 30 States paid premiums in wheat or cash equivalent totalling 6,769,i2obu. of wheat for 108,500 policies on winter wheat and 47,300 policies on spring wheat. Applications for policies were made by 205,000 grow'ers in 22 winter wheat States and 100,000 growers in eight

were issued, however, only on the wheat or cash equivalent. Policies did not insure the price a farmer would receive, but insured only that he w'ould receive in wheat 75% of an average crop. Payment of indemnities was in wheat or cash equivalent and amounted to spring wheat States.

Policies

payment of premiums

in

2,69i,6iobu. or cash equivalent of about 9,461, 73obu., a loss of $1,800,000 for the Government insurance corporation. Ninetynine per cent of the farmers buying policies paid premiums in cash, which the insurance corporation converted into a reserve of wheat.

For the 1940 wheat insurance program a more decenis contemplated and effort was made to

tralized administration

189

.

CROSLEY, WALTER

190 make

the basis of averages

more accurate,

especially for States

that recently suffered from recurrent droughts.

Research

is

now

being made by the Department of Agriculture, with a view of extending crop insurance to cotton, as suggested by the Federal Crop Insurance Act. The department’s Bureau of Agricultural

Economics has submitted a cotton crop insurance plan similar to (See House Document No. 277 of the 76th Congress, first session, which contains the bureau’s report.) In its Aug. 26, 1939, number Wallace’s Farmer and Iowa Homestead reported the results of an Iowa survey made by that farm magazine on the that for wheat.

subject of crop insurance for corn.

ing

com

Farm owner-operators

crop insurance amounted to

1938. Renters to the extent of

48%

1939 while

favoured

it

59%

51% in 1939 and 46% in favoured such insurance in

in 1938.

(S.

0

.

R.)

jX":

Crosley, Walter Selwyn on October 30.

favour-

He was

appointed to the U.S. Naval academy in 1889, received his commission as ensign in 1893. For bravery in action during the battle of Nipa Bay, Cuba, in 1S98, he was

advanced two numbers in rank. zilian

revolution of

He saw

service also in the Bra-

1893, the Philippine insurrection of igoo,

West Indian campaign, the Haitian occupation of 1915, and the Dominican occupation of 1916. From 1910 to 1912 he was naval attache at Constantinople and during the World War was attache first at Petrograd, then at Madrid. In Nov. 1925 he was the

Navy

appointed U.S.

hydrographer, in which position he directed

important surveys of Caribbean and other

Baltimore January

Cruisers:

W'aters.

He

died at

CUBA

S

tion of the Constituent Assembly, which

new

drafting a

constitution.

of the 76 delegates, while the opposition elected 41. NevertheColonel Batista gained prestige from one feature of the election, for general praise was given him, even by his opponents, for the honesty and fairness with which the Assembly election

less,

was

The

conducted.

status- of the

the World.

15%

known commercial is

Government adherents insisted that it had power only to approve a new constitution, while the opposition claimed that

it

represented the will of the people and should be power in the nation in the period of its

the sovereign and supreme

functioning. Further indications that Colonel Batista was losing popularity were seen by some in the reception accorded him upon his return from a good-will tour made to Mexico in February.

There was a marked difference between the reception upon this occasion and the enthusiastic reception accorded him upon returning from his trip to the United States in 1938. Uncertainties over the presidential elections in Feb. 1940, and the part Colonel Batista would play in them, were set at rest early in December, when he resigned as Minister of War and formally announced his candidacy for the presidency. He was

nominated by as

“The

five political parties,

deposit of cryolite in the

at Ivigtut, Greenland.

from 1937 to 44,000 metric

Shipments

in

1938

tons, 23,000 tons to

21,000 tons to the United States. In some years shipments have been made direct to Canada, but in general the Canadian demand is supplied by re-export from the United States,

Denmark

President Laredo Bru, on January 25, asked Congress to draft

mortgage moratorium and to scale drawn up, and kno\vn as the Mortgage Revalorization Law, provided that indebtedness contracted prior to 193X should be reduced by 50% and debts contracted be-

down

all

indebtedness.

supplies the rest of the world.

Since cryolite

is

the destruction of

bill

(G. A. Ro.)

a republic occupying the largest of the West Indian islands; language, Spanish; capital, Havana; president,

its

passage would result in

credit, emigration of capital, paralysis

return for most-favoured-nation treatment with the exception of

the United States.

by the Government,

place of the natural product.

charging that

of business, and the stoppage of further investments in Cuba. With such strong opposition evident, the President vetoed the bill. Two trade treaties were ratified by the Senate in January. A treaty with Italy gave advantages to certain Cuban products in

with the United States heading the list. Cryolite is also used in the manufacture of opaque glass, and small amounts are used in enamels, glazes, and insecticides. During recent years some manufactured cryolite has been used in the cryolite,

bill,

Cuban

made with

»

The

support of Colonel Batista, but various groups made vigorous

a necessary ingredient in the electrolytic bath for the production of aluminium, countries producing this metal are the chief con-

sumers of

which united for the purpose

Social Democratic Coalition.”

legislation to terminate the

full

Denmark and

while

legal stand-

point was vague.

protests against the

dropped

Assembly from the

tween that date and Jan. i, 1933 should be reduced by 20%, and granted long repayment periods at low interest. The bill had the

6.

see Na\'ies of

Prunlita UiyUlllui world

met in December to begin The Government parties elected 35

A

similar “most-favoured-nation” treaty was

Portugal.

Following the general plan of social improvement formulated legislation

was passed which provided

regulation and control of rentals of dwelling houses.

for the

To compen-

new tax exemptions were laid down by the law. In March, a day apart, died ex-President General Gerardo Machado and his successor, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. Machado died in e.xile in the United States while Cespedes died in Havana. sate the landlords,

The comic weekly Zigzag and

the newspaper

La Prensa were

suppressed for causing the displeasure of Government

officials.

Federico Laredo Bru; area, 41,634 sq.mi. excluding small neighbouring islands. Population (census, 1931) 3,962,344; (estimate.

President Laredo Bru, however, signed a decree annulling the suppressions after the Supreme Court had held the action to be un-

The chief cities 1936) 4,108,650, including about 68% whites. (with 1930 populations) are: Havana, 542,522; Santiago, 103,525; Cienfuegos, 87,699. The United States has a leased naval base at

constitutional.

strategic

Guantanamo

bay.

under constitutional Government, with an elected president and bicameral congress. Since i 933 > however, the personal prestige and political power of Colonel Fulgencio of Cuba, has Batista, Chief of Staff of the Constitutional Army History

—Cuba

is

been such that he has dominated the country, ruling it extraconstitutionally through the regularly elected ofiicials. Growing dissatisfaction over the policies of the present adrninistrasituation, however, augmented by the badly depressed economic

caused the power of Colonel Batista to wane. He suffered the worst defeat of his political career in the November 15 election,

When

the

German steamship

“St. Louis” arrived in

May

and attempted to discharge 907 Jewish refugees from Germany, the boat was refused permission to land its passengers on the ground their papers were not in order. President Laredo Bru ordered the ship to leave immediately, but fear

Cuban waters in

the despairing refugees caused the President to permission to land the hapless people on the grant conditional

of suicides

among

where they might stay in a temporary concentration camp. The decision came too late, however, as the ship had already begun the return trip to Germany, having found no other place at which it could discharge its passengers. Upon the outbreak of the European war. President Laredo Bru issued a proclamation declaring that Cuba would maintain strict any neutrality. The Government declared itself favourable to Isle of Pines,

CURACAO plan for collective neutrality of the Western Hemisphere. Later, the President asked Congress to grant ers to cope with the

Upon

Europe.

him

special

emergency pow-

problems resulting from the

hostilities in

the Russian invasion of Finland in December,

Cuba formally protested and expressed her sympathy

A new

tax law providing for the

of Cuba, and increasing a

number

first

income tax

of other taxes,

for Finland.

in the history

was passed by

191

most of the sugar-producing regions of the British Empire,

in-

Presumptive increase in demand for gave rise to great optimism in Cuba, with

cluding the Lesser Antilles.

Cuban sugar

initially

expectation of strong advances in price in the event of prolonged

war.

So, too, did the sugar panic of Sept. 1939 in the United

States.

Although seemingly of benefit to Cuba, the

lifting of

quotas by the United States in September had an adverse

sugar effect,

both houses of Congress and sent to the President for considera-

for under the reciprocal trade agreement between the United

Charges of profiteering by raising the prices of prime neceswere filed against a number of Spanish, Cuban, and Chinese

30,000 breakfasts were served daily to needy children by the de-

and Cuba, the United States import duty was automatically from qofl to $1.50 per 100 poimds. Consequently, such shortage as existed in the United States was filled largely from United States possessions and territories, as Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Hawaii, and Cuban sugar producers began to lose their principal market. Throughout the last months of 1939, the Cuban Government sought to reach some modus vivendi under which the lower tariff rate of the United States could be restored. Tobacco is the export of second importance. Imports are foodstuffs, textiles, machinery, and other manufactured items. Tourist traffic to Cuba in 1938 comprised 158,013 tourists and excursion-

partment of education. Reorganization of the 211-year-old Uni-

ists,

Havana continued during 1939. Army and Navy. ^The Cuban Army numbers 15.000 men and officers, the rural guard 6,000. The navy includes 16 ships. Both army and navy have air services. Finances and Banking. The monetary unit is the peso, theo-

1937, but greater than the

tion. sities

merchants.

To

forestall

any recurrences of such attempts, Presi-

dent Laredo Bru signed a decree September

9,

setting

maximum

prices for certain essential foodstuffs.

—^During

Education.

the 1937-38 school year 4,115 school-

more than 8,300 classrooms, were in use as primary schools. The total enrolment was 423,420. It was estimated, however, that 4,000 more classrooms were needed to meet the educational demands of the country. Approximately 40,000 lunches and

houses, with

versity of

—

—

retically equivalent to the

United States

proxiniately

dollar.

December it was selling at 10%. The budget for 1940 calls

value declined and in

During 1939

for $75,992,000.

The public debt as of Feb. 28, 1939, was $141,278,000. Trade and Communication. Cuba has numerous good

—

and

its

a discount of ap-

ports

communication by steamship, with daily service from Key West, Florida. It is on the main route of the Pan American Airways, and enjoys excellent external as regular, frequent external

well as internal air transport facilities.

Land communication

is

States raised

number than the record high of 178,396, set in number arriving in 1936. Agriculture and Mineral Production. Cuba is primarily agria smaller

cultural,

with sugar, above

—

all,

and tobacco the outstanding crops,

but intensive efforts at further diversification are being

made by

Overproduction of sugar resulted in an international agreement to restrict its production and the quota granted Cuba for 1939 was 2,696,517 long tons (2,2401b.), that the Government.

for 1938 was 2,950,000 long tons. All but 150,000 tons for local consumption were for export. The quota granted to Cuba by the United States for 1939 was 1,720,607 long tons, an increase over

the 1,663,554 tons allowed in 1938. Coffee is increasing in importance, with i52,46oac. planted, and an estimated production of

over 71,000,000 pounds. To permit Cuban coffee to compete in foreign markets on equal terms with that of other countries an

provided by a railway system (3,8somi., including 250 mi. electric), based on an east-west trunk line, and by a highway network

export subsidy

(2,soomi. of improved roads), dominated by the 706-mi. Central

than for the 1937-38 shipping season.

highway, which runs the length of the island from Havana to

1939, 62,039,5461b. of fresh vegetables were shipped to the United States via the port of Havana. Cuba has valuable but undevel-

Santiago. Telephone and telegraph facilities, wth 52,740 telephones and io,939mi. of telegraph lines, are superior to those of any other Hispanic American country. There are 54 radio broadcasting stations in Cuba. In 1938, imports totalled $106,007,000, while exports totalled

$142,678,000, a favourable balance of $36,671,000, and represented declines of 18-2% and 23-3% respectively. Approximately

76%

of the exports were to the United States which, in turn, pro-

vided 70-9% of the imports. Great Britain was second in Cuban trade, providing 4-2% of the imports, and taking 13-8% of the exports. For the first time in many years Germany replaced Great Britain as the second largest source of

The

principal characteristic of

Cuban imports. Cuban exports in 1938, when

compared with 1937, was a severe decrease in value but only a slight decline in volume. This was true, not only for the leading export commodity, sugar, but for virtually all the leading exports. In 1938, the shipments of raw sugar dropped only 2-3% in volume, but fell 21-4% in value; refined sugar exports declined 4-2%

volume and 22-6% in value. Raw sugar was exported to the extent of 2,587,945 tons valued at $104,845,000, while 358,011 tons of refined sugar valued at $22,441,000 were exported. The out-

in

is

given.

The

etables, principally tomatoes,

exportation of fresh fruits and veg-

was almost

21%

less for

From Nov.

1938-39

1938, to

May

iron, oil, gold, and other mineral resources. Cuba produced $136,126 in gold in 1938 as compared to $37,660 in 1937, an increase of 262%. Further increases are not expected as the Con-

oped

gress failed to pass favourable mining laws.

{See also

West

Indies.)

—Foreign

Bibliography. (193s).

PlirQPQfi

uUrQCQO} off

Policy Association, Problems of the Neu) Cuba (L. W. Be.; M. H. B.)

^ colony of the Netherlands, including the islands of Curasao, Aruba, and Bonaire in the Leeward group,

the coast of Venezuela, and Saba, St. Eustatius, and St. Martin Windwards. Language; officially Dutch. Capital: Willem-

in the

stad (pop. 27,231). entire colony

The

436 square

area of Curasao is 212 sq.mi.; of the miles. Population (1937 official esti-

mate), 94,945, with 60,883 on Curasao, and 23,719 on Aruba. The colony is administered by an appointed governor and partially elected council. Upon the outbreak of Europiean war in Sept. ^

number of German vessels. 939 Curasao became the haven of a protect the colony, the Netherlands Government took exten»

To

break of the European war was momentarily cheering in some re-

sive precautions to insure safety against air raids, appropriating 2,000,000 florins for anti-aircraft defences. In 1937, the latest

spects as

year for which

sugar requires less time in transit to Great Britain than that from

309 florins in value, a 50-8% increase (Venezuela, 75-4%; the United 'States, 12-8%; Colombia, 3-4%; and the Netherlands, 3%). Crude oil (principally from Venezuela) represented over 90%. Exports (1937) aggregated 269,943,953 florins, of which

it was felt that the result would be an increase in the exportation of sugar and an increase in its value, inasmuch as a large portion of European consumption is derived, normally, from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, Cuban

statistics are public,

imports aggregated 297,286,-

CURRENCY — CZECH O-SLOV A Kl A

192 petroleum and

its

derivatives represented 99:^%, chiefly to Great

Britain (32-8%), the Netherlands (10-2%),

(i2-i%), with Oil-refining

is

s, 088, 886

florins

value in

and the United States oil

products to ships.

the chief industry, although Willemstad

is

assum-

ing increasing importance as a transshipment point for cargoes

bound for shallow ports

in Venezuela.

Phosphate production

is

likewise important, with exports valued at 873,404 florins in 1937. The monetary unit is the Netherlands florin (value: approx. 53.5}“ U.S.). The colony (1937) had 49 schools, mostly parochial, with total enrolment of 13,457. The population is over 75% Roman Catholic. (See also West Indies.) (L. W. Be.)

Francisco took the national A.A.U. senior crown, and Eddie Carafagnini became the National Cycling Association senior champion. Despite the fact that the war situation curtailed certain international cycling events, there was an obvious upswing in cycling in the United States during 1939. The leading bicycle manufacturers reported tremendous advances in sales and predicted

for cycling a return to

its

halcyon days around the turn of the

century.

New

In

States, city

York, and in other progressive cities in the United governments appropriated a total of well over several

million dollars to be used to construct bicycle paths along popuhighways and in the city parks. Several leading hotels opened

lar

Currency:

Exchange Rates.

see

bicycle

bars

to

meet the growing popularity of the (T.

PlIchiniT uUolllllgy

Han/OV ndlVdj

(^®® 9 -i 939 )> American surgeon and neu-

was born

rologist,

in Cleveland,

Ohio on

He graduated from Yale in 1891 then went to Harvard, where he received his master’s degree and his medical degree in 1895. In that year also he began the practice of surgery, and in 1902 he was appointed associate professor of surgery at Johns Hopkins medical school in Baltimore. Ten years later he was

J.

sport.

D.)

Cyclotron: see Medicine: Medical Apparatus; Physics. Cyprus: see British Possessions in Mediterranean.

April 8.

named

professor

of

surgery

at

Harvard medical school and Brigham hospital in Boston,

surgeon-in-chief of the Peter Bent

both of which positions he occupied until his retirement in 1932. In the early days of the World War (1914-18) he joined an ambulance service in France, served later with the British Expeditionary Force, and directed U.S.A.

®

rTPOhn.QInUQlia UcCUIIU~OIUVul\l(l| miles.

The population

republic of Central Europe, had on

Jan.

i,

1939, an area of 38,189 square

amounted according to the census of Dec. 1930 to 9,807,096. The area was divided into three parts. The most western part, inhabited by a very large Czech in this area

Germans living nowhere in compact settlements, consisted of Bohemia with an area of 12,525 sq.mi. and a population (always according to the census of 1930) of 4,472,354, and of Moravia with an area of 6,533 sq.mi. and a majority, with a negligible minority of

these services he received the American Distinguished Service

population of 3,332,522. Farther to the east, less densely populated and backward in its economic, social, and cultural life, was

In 1923 he was president of the American Neurological In 1933

small minorities of Hungarians and Germans.’ Its area amounted

medal.

Base hospital No.

5.

For

Association and of the American College of Surgeons.

he became the

first

Sterling professor of Neurology at Yale’s

school of medicine. Dr. Cushing was the world’s foremost authority

on surgery of the brain.

He

developed the technique of operatto recognize the

ing with local anaesthesia, was one of the first importance of the X-ray in medical treatment, pioneered the

study of the basal metabolic

and was the first to employ the United States (1901). He

rate,

blood pressure determinations in

was likewise internationally known for his studies in endocrinology, and his monograph. The Pituitary Body and Its Disorders (1912)

is

a classic in the literature of Sir William Osier, published in

His 1925, was awarded

clinical

The Life of

medicine.

Slovakia, with a very large majority of Slovak inhabitants and

to 14,848 sq.mi.,

its

population to 2,450,096.

The most

eastern

part of the republic, at the same time the least densely populated

and most backward one, was Carpatho-Ukraine or Ruthenia, the large majority of whose inhabitants were Ukrainians, sometimes called Ruthenians. Its area was 4,283 sq.mi., its population 552,124.

The

three peoples, the Czechs, the Slovaks, and the Ruthen-

ians,

were

all

the Czechs and the Slovaks most and speaking and writing languages not more dif-

three Slav peoples

closely related

ferentiated than dialects.

of

The

;

capital of the

whole republic and

Bohemia and Moravia was Prague (Praha), the

largest city.

the Pulitzer prize as the best American biography of that year.

Dr. velt,

Cushing,

whose daughter Betsey married James Rooseof President Roosevelt, died at New Haven,

eldest son

Conn, on October

7.

See also Encyclopaedia Britannica,

vol. 6,

p. 902.

H

Arie

Ij

Van

Vliet

of

the Netherlands was the only

world champion to retain his title in cycling during his world professional sprint championship by kept He 1939. default after he and Josef Scherens of Belgium had reached the

uyCllllg.

final

of the competition at Milan, Italy.

In the heat to decide the championship, Scherens was injured and thus the title stayed with Van Vliet automatically.

War events,

activities

compelled the abandonment of many cycling those designed to produce the professional professional road champions. Thus the above-

among them

motor-paced and chammentioned sprint crown was the only world professional amateur sprint pionship contested for during the year. The world succeeded honours went to Jan Derkens of the Netherlands, who Shipman of Brookhis countryman, Jan van der Vyver. George Tino Reboli, lyn took the national professional sprint crown, and chammotor-paced professional national retained the Newark, Howpionship. The national amateur sprint laurels were won by San of Stauffacher Robert ard Rupprecht of Maplewood, N.J.,

minister to the U.S.A., refused to relinauish on Mar. gallon to Nazi diplomats after Germany had absorbed his country id 16, 1939

LADIMtR HURBAN, Czech

his

situated in the centre of Bohemia.

The

Bratislava, the capital of Ruthenia

was Hust. Brno, the

of Moravia,

was the second

capital of Slovakia

was

capital

largest city of the republic.

Czechoslovakia, as founded in igi8 as the result of a long

and the Slovak peoples, and of the victory of the democratic nations over the Central European empires, had undergone a profound change in the fall of 1938 as the result of the Pact of Munich and ensuing events. struggle for independence of the Czech

Czechoslovakia lost 16,056 sq.mi. of her

territorj'

with a popula-

Of this area 11,071 sq.mi. with a population of Germany; 4,566 sq.mi. with a population of went to 81653,292 1,027,450 to Hungary, and finally 419 sq.mi. with a population of 24r,698 to Poland. The name of the republic was changed to Czecho-Slovakia, and its constitution was re-written so that it now consisted of three autonomous parts (Bohemia and Mora\na, Slovakia, Carpatho-Ukraine), gi\’ing each of the three component peoples a large measure of autonomy. At the same time, under pressure of National Socialist Germany and as the result of the abandonment by the western democracies, the constitution of tion of 4,922,440.

Czecho-Slovakia lost Czechs,

who had been

its

formerly

democratic

character.

The

the outstanding democratic people in Cen-

and Eastern Europe, the only people there with a long-lasting vital intellectual democratic tradition, were forced to accept a semi-Fascist regime and to curtail many of the democratic liberties which they had previously enjoyed. These Fascist tendencies became even more pronounced in more backward Slovakia where the peasant masses had not been trained for a democracy prewous tral

and

By

to 1918.

the force of circumstances the

new Czecho-Slovakia

found herself following by the end of 1938 in the political, economic and cultural orbit of National Socialist Germany. At the beginning of t939 the Czecho-Slovak Government was headed by Dr. Emil Hacha who had been elected president of the Republic on Nov. 30, 1938, and by a cabinet rvith Rudolf Beran as prime minister and Dr. Frantisek Chvalkovsky as foreign secretarj'. The cabinet. represented the party of National Unity which had been formed in the fall of 1938 as a party uniting all the rightist and centre parties of the former regime in a strong semiFascist organization. The former Social Democratic Party was allowed to organize itself into an opposition group called National Workers Party, joined by progressive liberals and moderate social democrats, the Communist Party having been dissolved and outlawed immediately at the beginning of the new regime. The Government was faced by the difficult task of economic adaptation to the new situation. The country had lost about one-third of her industries, and more than two-thirds of her coal mines. By the amputation of her frontiers, her system of communications had been entirely dislocated. Railway lines and' motor roads had to be rebuilt according to the

Soon

new geographic

conditions.

became clear that the solution found at Munich had been in reality no solution at all. The Czechs had expected that after cession of all the territory inhabited by Germans, and in addition to that a very large number of Czechs had been transferred to Germany, they would find themselves in a homogeneous and consolidated state. But the German Government continued to interfere in the Czech internal affairs. It did it after Munich much more than before, and Czecho-Slovakia was helpless against this it

EMIL HACHA»

ex-president of Czecho-Slovakia, inspected a guard of honour in Berlin Mar. 15, 1939, during his visit to Hitler which resulted in his natIon*s extinction

National Socialist Germany.

and economically, the Bohemia and Mora'via by the Treaty of Versailles became completely vindicated by the events and experiences after the Pact of Munich. The so-called Sudetenland had not only formed a historical and geographic unity with the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia, but had been proven to be entirely indispensable economically and strategically to Bohemia and Moravia if the 7,300.000 Czechs W’ere to lead an independent existence and not to be subjected to German domination. Soon it became apparent that the compromise established in Munich to Germany’s advantage W'as not to last, as German demands were growing fast in their insistence upon the complete

wisdom

of the frontiers laid

Strategically

down

for

subjugation of Czecho-Slovakia.

For that purpose the Germans promised their support to some extreme elements in Slovakia who wished to achieve the complete independence of Slov'akia and to sever all connections with the Czechs. This group of pro-National Socialist Slovak extremists under the leadership of men like Dr. Bela Tuka, Sano Mach, and Dr. Ferdinand Durcansky, W'ould hav'e had no chance of success without the direct support of Germany. In a similar way Germany had promoted the pan-Ukrainian movement in Ruthenia. In face of these treasonable plots the Prague Gov'emment decided to

take a strong stand, to dismiss some of the ministers w'ho w'ere guilty of plotting with Germany and to name in their place other

ready to work for the new constitution of Federal CzechoThe efforts of the Prague Government seemed successful at the beginning, but were soon thwarted by the open support

men

slovakia.

continuously growing pressure.

Germany to the extremists in Slovakia. The German Gov'emment seized upon this opportunity to declare that Czechoslovakia had entered into a state of disintegration. At the same time the German radio broadcasted again, as in Sept. 1938, com-

li'ving in

pletely

The tiny German minority, sUll Czecho-Slovakia, demanded not only special privileges

and the constitution of a

practically independent state within the

but also a decisive influence upon Czech cultural, economic, and political life. The German Government demanded more and more the complete subordination of the still nominally independ-

state,

ent Czecho-Slovakia to the economic and strategic needs of Germany and a complete co-ordination of the cultural and political

outlook of the Czechs with the principles regulating the

life

of

given by

unfounded reports about Czech aggressive intentions

Germany and described alleged disorders and brutalities against Germans in Bohemia and Moravia; The president of Czecho-Slovakia was summoned to Berlin. There Dr. Hacha signed in the night of March 14 a document according to which he requested the establishment of a German Protectorate over Bohemia and Moravda. Of course Dr. Hacha was in no way authorized by the Czecho-Slovak constitution to sign such a document, even against

193

DAHOMEY— DAIRYING

194 if

the signature had not been obtained under pressure.

15

German

troops

moved with

great rapidity into

On March

Bohemia and

Moravia and occupied the whole country. Chancellor Hitler himcame to Prague on March i s and spent the night in the ancient castle of the Bohemian kings, the famous Hradcany. On March

self

1 6 Chancellor Hitler issued a lengthy proclamation according to which Czecho-Slovakia had ceased to exist. He asserted that by reason of their greatness and their qualities, the Germans alone were fitted to maintain peace in the lands of Czecho-Slovakia, a

peace which, by the way, had not been threatened nor disturbed by anybody but the Germans. By this annexation of Czecho-Slovakia Chancellor Hitler broke all the promises and guarantees which he had given at Munich. Bohemia and Moravia were incorporated as a nominally autonomous Protectorate into the

Reich.

Only the inhabitants of German race became, however,

citizens of the

German

Reich.

The

others remained subjects of

and were regarded as inferior in their status to German citizens. The Czech army was disbanded, German troops remained in occupation of Bohemia and Moravia. The foreign affairs of the Czechs were to be conducted exclusively by Germany. Bohemia and Moravia became a part of the German customs territory, and Germany took also complete charge of all means of communication -and transportation and of the postal, telegraph and telephone services. The German Government reserved the right to take over any part of the administration and to put into effect any measures which it deemed necessary for its own interests. At the head of the Protectorate was to remain an official, approved by the Reich, with the title Head of the State. Dr. Emil Hacha was allowed to continue in this position. He has at his side a cabinet whose members, however, can occupy the office only with the agreement of the Reich. The real power is in the hands of the Reichsprotector, appointed by Chancellor Hitler, and his staff. In the middle of March the other constituent parts the Protectorate

of Czecho-Slovakia changed also their status.

Slovakia had proclaimed her independence as a republic on March 14, 1939. The new state signed on March 18, 1939, in Vienna a treaty with Ger-

many

according to which

Germany guaranteed

for a period of 25

years the independence and the boundaries of Slovakia. For that

purpose Germany received the right to construct military works

and to garrison German troops in certain strategic portions of Slovakia. Slovakia was declared at liberty to join the German customs union. At the same time Ruthenia, which on March 14 had made an ephemeral- effort at proclaiming its independence, was occupied by Hungarian troops and incorporated into Hungary, where the new province was granted a certain limited auton-

omy. Thus Czecho-Slovakia ceased to exist. Her conquest was, however, not recognized by the democratic powers, among them the United States, Great Britain and France. The diplomatic and consular representatives of Czecho-Slovakia continued to function in these countries. The occupation of Bohemia and Moravia by the German troops was also a turning point in the

war.

The Czechs and Slovaks

Those circles in the democratic countries which so far had believed in the possibility of an appeasement of Germany and had been responsible for the conclusion of the Pact of Munich, now

was apparently no limit to Germany’s and that she was bent upon the subjugation of nonGermanic peoples. The conquest of Czecho-Slovakia became thus realize that there

aspirations

aggression. the point of departure for a policy of checking further as the result of this effort the Czechs and in the Slovaks the expectation that the

The European war which broke out aroused in

again, and that Czecho-

hour of liberation may come for them slovak democracy and indep>endence may be revived. At the be-

ginning of 1940 the fate of Czecho-Slovakia, as the fate of the whole of western civilization, depended upon the outcome of the

in the

of Czecho-Slovaltia in

democratic nations organized

themselves under a Czechoslovak National Committee headed by

Dr. Edward Benes, to co-operate with the democracies fight for freedom.

in their

(See also Bohemia and Moravia; European War; Financial Review: Abroad) Little Entente; Minorities; Ruthenia;

Slovakia.)

—

Bibliography. Hubert Riplca, Before and After Munich (London, 1939): Philip Paneth, Czechs against Germans (London, 1939): R. Birley, Czechoslovakia (London, 1939). (H. Ko.)

Dahomey: nQiruinir

Udlljflilgi

see

French Colonial Empire. trend in dairy production and herds accelerated

by Jan. i, 1940, number of heifers being saved for milk cows reached 5,800,000, a new peak and about 3% larger than on Jan. i, 1939. This is a much larger number than needed to such an extent in 1939- that

preliminar>' estimates of the

for normal replacements in dairy herds in 1940 and 1941, and

in-

further increase in production of dairy products. The size of herds will depend on the rate of culling old cows, which dicates

general history of 1939.

began to

"STILL UNITED.” A grim footnote to the disappearance Mar. 1939; by Elderman of The Washington Post

still

rate was high in 1939 since the price for beef was high as compared with prices for butterfat. The prices for manufactured dairy products were lower in the summer of 1939 than for any time since 1933. Widespread drought in the autumn months reduced the milk flow considerably. Abundance of feed grains, forage and feed by-products, together with more favourable weather in late autumn, reversed this situation so that 1939 milk

production was reported at somewhat higher than the 107,000,of ooo,ooolb. production of 1938, which was 4% higher than that

1937 -

With

^ September prices lor commodiother with the rise in .

the outbreak of

war

in

dairy products advanced in line

Europe

in

.

DAKAR— DAMS ties

and the increased

industrial activity.

and butterfat are the dairy products most creases or decreases in urban prosperity.

for data on

Government loans

to the

Ice cream, fluid mflk directly affected

(See

by

in-

Milk and Butter

Dairy Products Marketing

Association to support the price of butter in July, 1939, and for

The peak in Owing to the droughts of 1934 and 1936 and to low prices the trend was downward until 1938, which year marked an upturn that was continued through 1939 to the extent of possibly making a new peak activities of control

the

boards in urban milk sheds.)

number of milk cows on farms was

in 1934.

Stocks of dairy products in 1939 w'ere considerably smaller than in 1938 so that a generally more favourable -situain

1940.

tion for production prevailed at the outbreak of war.

Regardless of a possibly increased war demand for dairy exthe World War (1914-18) demonstrated that war in Europe lessened imports of dairy products, principally cheese and ports,

butter, very materially.

Imports of dairy products, in terms of

milk, were 780,000,0001b. in 1914 but were only one-fifth of that amount in 1918. During the World War, the U.S. Department of

Agriculture reports, “with this decline in imports and the rapid

expansion in exports the United States shifted from a net import of dairy products amounting to about 40o,ooo,ooolb. per year in the period 1910-14 to a net export of 2,ioo,ooo,ooolb., milk equivalent, in 1918.”

1940,”

See E. E. Vial, “The Dairy Outlook for Situation, Nov., 1939, U.S. Dept, of Agri-

The Agricultural

culture, pp. 22-24.

slso

Butter; Cheese;. Milk.) (S. O.

Dakar:

see

195

voted Daladier the implied right to declare war, which he did after Berlin refused to British ultimatums.

comply with the terms qf the French13 he formed a war cabinet

On September

and took over the portfolio of foreign

affairs.

the Fuehrer’s speech of October 6 before the Reichstag

Dalai Lama:

^

An

see Tibet.

Governments throughout and use of water is evidenced by the table on p. 197, which was condensed from a list of over 75 important dams recently completed or under construction increase of the activity of

the world in the regulation

in 1939.

The United

some of the largest is more than complete. The year’s (1939) construction saw new concrete75 placing records set as 20,684 cu.yd. went into the dam on May 25, to surpass the 15,844 cu.yd. set by the contractor for a 24-hr. period on the base of the dam in 1937. A new monthly record of 397,994 cu.yd. was established in August, only to be increased in States leads in this field with

dams. Grand Coulee, world’s largest concrete dam,

%

September

The

to 449,689 cubic yards. Central Valley project in California, with

Daladier, Edouard

whom

),

of

been temporarily routed through

Minister of war in 1925, president of the Radical Party since 1927, he formed in 1933 a minis-

for this project,

chamber as a

two large

biographical

Radical-Socialist.

The

28-ft. diversion

tunnel has been completed and the Southern Pacific railroad has

notice will be found in the Encyclopmdia Britannica, vol. 6, p. 985. The son of a baker, he was educated at Lyons, was a school-teacher until the World War (1914-18), in which he served, retiring as a captain (Croix de Guerre, Legion d’Honneur). In 1919, he entered the

a

its

Shasta dam, second largest

concrete dam in the world, was (Dec. 31, 1939) nearly ready for concrete pouring to commence, following extensive foundation

R.)

politician,

declar-

antees of security.

excavation of over 3,000,000 cubic yards.

French

by

ing that France would continue the war until she had certain guar-

dams, was the centre of attention.

French Colonial Empire. (1884-

Daladier paid scant

attention to Hitler’s proposals for peace and formally replied to

it.

The

final relocation of the

railroad outside of the reservoir area requires 3omi. of

involving nearly

5,000,000 cu.yd.

of grading,

new

line,

of which about

1,500,000 has been completed.

Construction of Friant dam, another large concrete structure

was

also started in 1939.

try which lasted ten months,

Investigations early in 1939 of the slide which occurred at Fort Peck dam Sept. 22, 1938, indicated that the weathered shale and

and

bentonite seams in the foundation were too iveak to hold up trader

Chautemps.

In

1934

and then served under Sarraut he formed another Government

which, as a result of the riots following the Stavisky scandal,

the tremendous shearing force exerted by the dam.

few days. Minister of war since 1936 in various Front Populaire Governments, in April 1938 he became prime

was remedied by

lasted only a

minister.

began the year 1939 with a tour of Corsica and the French North African colonies, calculated to show Italy that France had not the slightest thought of yielding to her neighbour’s “justified demands.” On March 18, after Germany’s final dismemberment Czecho-Slovakia, the chamber of deputies granted Daladier

powers to rule by decree. After Mussolini’s in which he vaguely recommended that France should invite Italy to discuss the “problems” that divided the two nations (Tunisia, Jibuti and the Suez canal), Daladier called upon II Duce, in an international broadcast, to declare his hand and clarify his demands; he repeated that France intended to yield semi-dictatorial

speech of

March 26

not a square inch of her colonial empire. This speech was roundly

applauded in France but drew no public answer from Mussolini. During the “war of nerves” that preceded the beginning of war in September, Daladier showed no signs of retreating from the strong position France

and Britain had taken after the events of March. march to the aid of Poland if that country were attacked, and on August 25 he reminded his countrymen that another surrender to force would leave France without friends and surrounded by enemies. Then he addressed an

He merely

reiterated his promise to

appeal, to Hitler, as “an old front-fighter,” not to resort to war.

The day

this

The

situation

upstream slope of the dam.

-Al-

change increased the total volume of earth required

embankment by 22%, the placing of the hydraulic earth was completed. The remaining 25ft. of height w'Ul be buUt of rolled fill, taking the material needed from the downstream slope for the

He

of

though

flattening the

after

Germany invaded Poland,

the

chamber of deputies

fill

dam itself. The Kingsley dam, second in size to Fort Peck, also being built by the hydraulic fill method, was in 1939 approximately 30% complete. The core pool was formed and the work proceeded at of the

the average rate of about 300,000 cu.yd. of earth per week. On the same river, the North Platte, the Seminoe dam

already in service.

At

this site faulted areas

is

were encountered

under the dam and construction procedure necessitated cleaning out two large seams after the dam was partly built. Mining methods involving shafts, tunnels and drifts were used and the excavated material was replaced with concrete. In Mexico, considerable progress was made on several large Hamc being built by the National Commission of Irrigation. A

newly created body, the Federal Electric Power Commission of Mexico, has also started construction of a few small dams. Conditions in Europe placed some restraint on dam building. In France, however, war needs lent impetus to hydro-electric developments such as the Genissiat project with its 33o-ft.-high dam. This dam, under construction in 1939, is Europe’s largest. In its proposal stage it attracted wade interest due to its similarity of

DANCE

197

Chief Dorns Comp/efeci or Under Cons/roc/ion During

Maxi-

Name of Dam

....

Bartlett

Verde

.... ....

Arizona, U.S.

Heigh t, Feet

Concrete, multiple arch*^ Concrete, straight gravity Earthhll

Volume

I 165,000 647,380 F, W,

.

Mexico

Earthfill

....

Mexico

EarthfiU

20s

1,005

6,632,348

242

9,000 3.430 2,730

122,178,000

So. Canaiiian

El Palmito Fort Peck

.

.

San Juan

.

.

.

Nazas

.

,

.

.

.

.

New

Mexico, U.S. Texas, U.S

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

Purpose*

(cu. yds.)

270 220 16s 142

Conchas .... Denison .... El Azucar .

Red

Crest Length, Feet

mum

Type

Place

River

1939

750 1.250 14,000 18,900

15 , 475,000 5,677,031

V

Built

Prog-

by

ress*

U.S. Reclamation Bureau . . U.S. Army Engineers Army Engineers Mexican National Commission .

P

....

U.S.

of Irrigation

p

Mexican National Commission

E^P

U.S. Army Engineers U.S. Reclamation Bureau . Yalu River Hydro-Electric Co. Compagnie Nationale de Rhone U.S. Reclamation Bureau . U.S. Reclamation Bureau . . . U.S. Army Engineers Manchester Corporation . Central Nebr. Public Power and

I,

of Irrigation

Missouri

.... ....

Friant

Fuihodo

Genissiat.

.

.

.

.

.

Concrete, straight gravity

.

.

.

France Washington. U.S.

,

Colorado, U.S. California, U.S.

Haweswater North Platte

.

Earthfill, hydraulic

Manchoukuo

Big Tijunga

....

.

.

Rhone

.

.

Montana, U.S. California, U.S.

.... Columbia Blue ....

.

.

.

.

Grand Coulee. Green Mountain Hansen .... Haweswater Kingsley

.

San Joaquin Yalu ....

. .

.

.

.

.

Earth and

.

.

Earthfill

.

.

300 298

Concrete, straight gravity Concrete, straight gravity

Westmoreland. Eng. Nebraska, U.S. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

rockfill

Concrete, hollow buttressed Earthfill, hydraulic

.

.

1. 000 .000

.

P

3,530,000

650

330 550 270 110 120

10,200,000 4,400,000 13,300,000 120,000 26,000,000

4,300 1,300 9,050 1,550 11,000

162

P

N, I,

F,

P

ij*

F

W I,

F

.

.

.

.

.

Irrigation District

La Angostura

.

Bavispe

.

.

.

Mexico

Concrete Arch

Marshall Ford

.

Colorado

.

.

.

Texas, U.S

Concrete, straight gravity Concrete Arch Concrete, straight gravity

291

SIS

175,871

2,623

1,868,700 170,853

I,

P

Mexican National Commission of Irrigation

.... .... ....

Seminoe Shasta Stevens

Winsor

* 1 *= Irrigation,

North Platte Sacramento White .... .

Wyoming, U.S.

.

.

.

California, U.S.

.

.

Swift

Massachusetts, U.S.

F=Flood

....

control,

Washington, U.S.

.

.

.

600 .

.

2,640

III supply, C=Coinpleted in 1939,

F, P I, F, P I, F, P

5 , 400,000 3,000,000 4,000,000

3,500

.

700

Earthfill** Earthfill

P=Power, N=Navigation, W=Water

.

U=Under

U.S. Reclamation Bureau . . . U.S. Reclamation Bureau . U.S. Reclamation Bureau . U.S. Army Engineers Metropolitan Water District (Mass.)

W

construction,

,

.

.

.

....

F

^Highest

were opened to accommodate large crowds of dancers and

It appeared to

York witnessed

n____

ilduuui markedly to defined

Cuban

forces

are

international

discernible;

influences.

waned

Three

well-

namely, English importations,

importations, and the European war

popularity of the 1938,

1939, responded

Social dancing in America, during

crisis.

The widespread

Lambeth Walk, which reached its peak late in months of the new year; but such was

in the early

were imported In quick succession followed the Palais Glide, the Chestnut Tree, and the Boomps-a-Daisy, none of which enjoyed the popularity of the Lambeth Walk. The Chestnut Tree is a “game dance,” calling for pantomime on the part of the participants. It is danced (performed would be a more descriptive word) to a syncopated version of the widely known English nursery rhyme. Since the dance depended upon the tune, a decline in

its

success, if short-lived, that other English dances

in its

wake.

popularity of the tune pre-determined a similar fate for the dance. In the summer of 1939, Arthur Murray imported still another

English dance, the Boomps-a-Daisy. Unlike

was danced to a single

ments

its

predecessors, this

was similar in that it was danced tune and performers were called on to act out moveto waltz time ; but

it

called for in the lyric.

new dances caused no diminution in widetrot. Nor was there any diminudancing among the younger set. The Big Apple,

Introduction of these

spread use of the waltz and fox tion of “jitterbug”

or more correctly, the various acrobatic steps which comprised the Big Apple, were no longer being danced; but lively steps, similar in spirit

terbugs”

and vigour, were popular among the avowed

—ardent

“jit-

enthusiasts of “swing” music.

As the year went into its third quarter and war crisis bulletins began to pour into the U.S., there was a noticeable increase in dancing. It was the first manifestation of the country’s jittery nerves and vividly recalled the dance craze which flourished immediately before and immediately after the outbreak of the World War. Open air public dances were particularly popular in 1939 and, some weeks before the New York World’s Fair closed, they were staged daily, proving a successful attraction. New ballrooms

its

first

c

c

in world.

location and arrangement to Boulder

dam in the United States. be almost an exact replica on a smaller scale. Some changes were made in the plans, such as placing the power houses across the river at the base of the dam instead of parallel to the river along the base of the canyon walls' as at Boulder, but the resemblance is still remarkable. The accompanying table gives data on 20 of the more important dams completed or under construction during 1939. (See also Irrigation; 'Water Power.) (W. P. C.)

c

u u u u u u u u u u u u u u c u u

New

“danceteria” in operation, three floors

devoted to dancing and located at 42nd st. and Broadway. The opening of the fall social season quickly revealed a definite trend toward such dances of Cuban origin as the rhumba and the conga.

The rhumba was by no means a new dance but whereas

heretofore

it

had been confined

to higher

economic groups simply

because only the more expensive night clubs could afford to hire a rhumba band, it had by the fall of 1939 broken out of its confines. Virtually a newcomer to America, la conga became an overnight dance sensation. It was accepted eagerly by dancers every^vhere because it is simpler than the rhumba in execution and requires less dexterity.

Moreover,

it is

a group participation dance

—the

performers forming a “line,” one arm outstretched and hand rest-

THE OLD-FASHIONED SQUARE DANCE States in

1939

returned to popularity

In

the United

Poland. Important annual national festivals are heldfor r,

Ltr? Zagreb,

ri,,

for the

month'of May in Bucharest, Rumania- on A., :? Athens, Greece; and for a week in August Aueusfin

Croatia; during

4 at the stadium in the mountains in south Poland.

Since 1921, Denmark, Finland united annually in a Nordic erent countnes.

thje

countries

Nnrwav

c

j

festival held alternatelyTn societies guiding the

The

dance

are as

follows:

for

The

dT

moveme„tt

Denmark, ForeningT

J

Suomen KansantanhSitS TT’ Svenska Folkdansring for the

and, also, Finland

s

Swedish snpai

'7 Svenska Ungdomsnngen sin'r?,'

for Bygdekultur.

London every January which,

holds a festival in

in

included groups from E“>-°Pean countries. Scotland has its faLus (High^ ° iTndi land) Braemar gathenng in August. The fostering folk societies in other 1939,

?

European countries are as Noorsoo Uhendus; in Lithuania, a group at the University of Kaunas; in Italy, Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro; in France, the Society of the Friends of Popu ar Arts and the Musee National des Arts et Traditions Populates Pans; in Germany, Reichs Gemeinschaft follows:_ in

Estonia,

Ulemaaline

Eesti

der Deutschen Volksforschung Abteilung Deutsche Volkskunde; and in Switzerland,, the Federation Suisse des Costumes Nationaux The greatest of all Swiss dance festivals took place in August at the National Exposition in Zurich.

Turning from Europe to the United States, 1939

finds a greater of people folk dancing than ever before in the history of the country, and everywhere signs indicate continued increase. This nation of many transplanted peoples is steadily growing more appreciative of its folk inheritance. Organizations of wide scope contributing Xo this expansion are of greatly diversified character. Among them may be listed:

number

American Folk Dance Society, with headquarters in the Folk Arts pnter. New York, N.Y.; The English Folk Dance and Song Society of America, with headquarters in New York, with affiliated centres in 12 cities, ii additional affiliated groups, an annual spring festival in New York and a summer school camp in Massachusetts; National Folk Festival Association, holding its

pallet,” produced by chemlsls of Johns Hopkins university April 4, 1939, before the annual meeting of the American Chemical Society at Baltimore

—

ing on shoulder of the person in front which adds to the merriment. The increasing popularity of the conga led to the creation by Arthur Murray of a new dance, the “Americonga,” a combination of the Virginia reel

and the conga, designed

can flavour to the Cuban dance.

an AmeriBefore the year was out, the to give

Americonga was already experiencing a vogue. (A. Mu.) Folk Dancing. ^The year 1939 marked a high point in the still rising tide of interest and activity in the realm of folk dancing

—

Annual National Folk Festival Council in

festival in

New York

United States, sent either dance groups,

speakers, or both.

These great onstrated

how

International

festivals

in

Europe have

dem-

large a part the social type of folk dance is playing

European country there an organization or movement devoted to nurturing the folk tradition. Important among them, in eastern and central Europe, are: Gyongyds Bokreta or Pearly Bouquet in Hungary; Hrvatski Seljacki Pokret (Croatian Peasant Movement) and Sklad in Yugoslavia; Lyceon ton Hellenidon (Lyceum of Greek Women) in Greece; Strajeri in Rumania: and the Theatres Populaires in in the life of each nation. In nearly every

is

198

eighth annual course

ice in Delaware,

Ohio; Co-operative Society for Recreational Education, conducting its Fourth Annual National School in Milltown, Wisconsin; Recreation Division of the Works Projects AdStates;

aations, including the

its

throughout the country; Recreation Service of the Conference of Southern Mountain Workers, holding its Fourth Annual Mountain Folk festival in Berea, Kentucky; Co-operative Recreation Serv-

ministration, co-ordinating

Fifteen

holding

colleges; National Recreation Association, conducting Institutes

Congress held in Stockholm, Sweden, from August

to 6.

city,

“Folk Dances and Songs of Many Peoples” at The New School for Social Research; American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, guiding the activity in schools and

throughout the western world. The outstanding event of the year was the Third International Folk Dance Festival and Scientific i

Sixth

Washington, D.C. in 1939; Folk

Farm

and developing folk activity in many Bureaus, Granges, and 4-H Clubs; International

Institutes of the Y.W.C.A. and the National Institute of Immigrant Welfare, holding seasonal festivals and folk dance courses in leading cities; International Houses of Berkeley, Calif., Chicago, and New York; the American, Southeastern, and Texas Folklore Societies; Camp Fire Girls; Girl Scouts of America;

Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, with a department of cultural activities serving a membership of nearly a quarter million; and the Youth Hosteling movement with its chain of hostels connecting 19 countries.

Additional noteworthy 1939 dance events include the Fifth Festival of Nations of the International Institute, St. Paul, Minn.,

—

:

DANCE the Fourth Annual

Dauphin County

festival in Harrisburg, Pa.,

the Golden Gate Exposition festival in San Francisco, Calif., the

New York World’s Fair, the Seventh Vancouver, Canada, the Ninth Annual festival at the Traipsin’ Woman’s cabin, Kentucky, the Eighth Annual WTiite Top festival on White Top mountain, Virginia, the

Daily Mirror festival at the

Annual Folk

festival in

I2th Annual Mountain festival in Asheville, North Carolina, and the 1 8th Annual Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial in Gallup, New Mexico; also, the year-round early American dance movement in the Detroit area conducted from Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. During the fall months of 1939, ground work w’as laid

199

Tudor, Howard (dancers and chorethe English ographers), Laiing and Michael. For Americans,' De Mille, Loring (on leave of absence from Kirstein’s American Ballet Caravan) visitors, Dolin,

both dancers and choreographers, Gollner, Golden, Lyon, among others. Nijinska and Shabelevsky were later engaged. An elabo-

program of new' works, novelties and revivals, for the season 4, 1940, was announced. The American Ballet Caravan started westward in October on

rate

opening Jan, its

second transcontinental tour, with the new City Portrait

(Loring) and Charade (Lew Christensen).

for the great Coronado Cuarto Centennial celebration of 1940 in

The San Francisco Opera Ballet, directed by William Christensen, started eastward in November, playing engagements en route to Chicago. The

New

Philadelphia Ballet returned for a second season at the Chicago

(P. Pa.)

Mexico. classic

Balief,

dance form and popular theatre

art,

felt the

gathering war clouds of 1939 and sufiered an almost complete black-out in Europe, its ancestral home, at the formal declaration in September,

when many

of its chief practitioners migrated to

neutral United States, where receptivity has increased rapidly in

the last few years, and a tendency to nationalize the art has steadily

grown.

City Opera. The Graff Ballet of Chicago Polish Ballet, xmder

In October, Massine’s Ballet Russe arrived in New difiiculty, only in time to begin its fall season at

York with some

the Metropolitan Opera

House

several weeks late.

Premieres intended for the cancelled London season took place in New York: Massine’s Rouge et Noir (Shostakovitch) ; Dali’s surrealist

Bacchanale (Wagner’s “Venusberg” music); and Ashand score by Tommasini, on themes

ton’s Devil’s Holiday, scenario

from Paganini. Massine’s Capriccio Espagnol (Rimsky-Korsakoff) had its premiere in the spring season at Monte Carlo, with the Spanish dancer, Argentinita, collaborating in the choreography and creating the principal feminine role. The all-American Ghost Town, by Marc Platoff, was intended for American premiere in any case. After a brilliant month in New York, this company began a five months’ transcontinental tour. Massine, and other members, seeing no future for ballet in Europe for some time to come, took out citizenship papers, it is said. American dancers were added the

to

corps.

Personnel of principals,

wth

the exception

of

by Eglevsky, remained as of previous season, i.e. Danilova, Markova, Slavenska, Krassovska, Theilade, Roudenko, Rostova, Youskevitch, Franklin, Zoritch, and the Panaieff at war, replaced

Americans, Platoff and Guerard. Lichine of the former De Basil Ballet Russe, toured Australia with the division kno^vn as Educational Ballets, Ltd., then settled

Los Angeles, announcing that he was within one year of becomAmerican citizen. Educational Ballets became known as the Covent Garden Russian Ballet during the London spring season.

in

ing an

Colonel de Basil rejoining them as director.

known

The company, now

as the Original Russian Ballet, Ltd., TOth almost the

personnel as last year and TOth sailed for Australia in

De

same

Basil as sole artistic director,

December.

Living and working in California at least part of the year were Riabouchinska, Osato, Denisova, with Lichine; Baronova, making

motion picture sequence for M.G.M.; Verchinina, who rejoined Basil’s company for the London season; and Toumanova, who appeared in the stage musical. Stars in Your Eyes, in New York a

De

during the winter.

An

new project of the fall season was the founding of the Ballet Theater, an organization combining most of the big names outside of the active Russian companies.

in

ambitious

New York

Three famous expatriates, long resident in the United States Fokine, Bolm, and Mordkin ^headed the list of choreographers. Added to a nucleus of Mordkin’s company Bowman, Conrad, Essen, Chase, Varkas and Romanoff, among the principals ^were

—

—

TAMARA TOUMANOVA,

—

formerly of Ihe Ballet Russe, starred In the musical in New York city Feb. 9, 1939

comedy Stars In Your Eyes which opened

made

its first

eastern tour.

Leon Woicikovsky, made a brief visit to the New York World’s Fair, where the prospective dance season was otherwise voided by competing attractions and disturbed conditions in Europe. Thus the engagement of the Soviet Song and Dance Ensemble was cancelled.

The

'

f'

-

DANISH LITERATURE — D.

200

In London, the Ballet Rambert carried on at the Mfercury theater, in spite of war. The Vic-Wells Ballet, disbanding on the

day war was declared, soon reassembled for a provincial tour, with tentative plans to carry on on a co-operative basis. The first performance of the Irish Ballet Production Society took place in Dublin in October. The Ballets Jooss, intact as far as war was concerned, toured the British Isles in summer and early fall, with the new Chronica and A Sprmg Tale, reviving The Green Table by request after war began, and sailed for their fourth United States tour in December. Trudi Schoop’s Comic Ballet disbanded in the United States at the close of their tour in the spring, Trudi returning to Switzerland for a year’s retirement, and several members of the

company

remaining in the United States. Still

the outstanding motion picture was Ballerina, starring

made in France and widely circulated in the United States in 1939. On Your Toes, with ballet background, and other Hollywood musicals, included ballet sequences. Experiments with ballet shorts and Slavenska, Jean Benoit-Levy, director, which was

in 1938

television

continued without radical advancement.

Ice ballets,

on rink and screen, remained popular. Bibliography.

—The

Book

of Ballets, Classic

and Modern, edited by

Gerald Goode, and profusely illustrated (1939): Arnold L. Haskell’s Balletomane's Album (mostly pictures) (1939): Lincoln Kirstein’s Ballet Alphabet (1939): and John Martin’s Introduction to the Dance (1939).

(M.

Danish Literature:

see

L.)

Scandinavmn Literature.

important port on the Vistula river near the Baltic

Uallcigf

was taken from Germany after the World War and created a free city sovereign in some respects, controlled by Poland in others, and supervised by a high commissioner appointed by the League of Nations. Its area is 754 sq.mi. and its sea,

—

population 407,000, of whom 291,000 live in Danzig itself, the remainder in the surrounding rural districts. As Danzig had been

under the Teutonic Knights from 1308 to 1454, under Poland from 1454 to 1793, and a part of Prussia from 1793 to 1919, it was furiously coveted by both Germany and Poland even after establishment as a free city. Centuries-long emotional hatreds caused bitter German-Polish friction and constant appeals to the League of Nations for fifteen years after its separation from Gerits

A. R.

I, 1939, and to announce that henceforth Danzig and the Polish Corridor were reunited with the Reich. Albert Forster head of the Danzig Nazis, became District Leader (Gauleiter)

Sept.

of

the city and the surrounding territory. {See also European War.) See article Danzig in Encyclopedia Britaimica; and Ian F. D Morrow The Peace Settlement tn the German-Polish Borderlands

(Oxford Univ’ (S. B. F.)

Press, 1936).

l^nlnmAn IVUIUIIKIII

^^^^^’‘939), Hungarian statesman, was born at Budapest on March 22 and stud-

ied at Budapest university before joining the Imperial and Royal 13th Hussars as an officer during the World War. After the war

he occupied various local

and in 1928 was apIn Julius Goemboes’ cabinet he was minister of agriculture (1934-36). Four days after Goemboes’ death on Oct. 6, 1936 Daranyi became premier. His ministry was often caught in the political crossfire between pro- and anti-Nazi political offices

pointed secretary of State.

influences.

He

Hungary’s

first

tried to placate the Nazis, notably

anti-Semitic law in

tion successfully secured his resignation

Dardanelles:

nartmmith UdIllllUllUl

see

PnllPirD liUllCgC.

This customs dispute became on one of the factors which determined Hitler to invade Poland

1938, on the

new plan

for regulating at-

tendance of undergraduates at classes was given its first trial. There is now no allowance of “cuts” and the penalty for excessive

absence from classes is

recognized that the

cipline

by the

is

discretionary with each instructor.

new

in the

which encourage

It

self-dis-

student, need longer experience before they can

be truly evaluated, but the

Constant

regulations,

efforts are

new survey

first

made by

year

is

judged successful.

the faculty to effect improvements

course required of

all

freshmen, known as Social

and 2. The objective is to give the student in his first year a thorough acquaintance with the social sciences and a background of the world in which he lives. It is followed by a second year required of those students who do not plan to major in any of the social sciences. (S. C. Ha.) Science

i

Daughters of the American Revolution.

independence. Membership Dec.

increased her customs inspectors.

13,

academic year the faculty’s

German-Polish ten-year treaty of friendship of Jan. 26, 1934, agreeing that neither country would use force against the other averted open war until 1939. Meanwhile Poland’s new port of

March 21, Corridor to connect East Prussia and the Reich. On the annihilation of Czechocompleted had he after weeka 1939, demand. The slovakia by annexing Bohemia, Hitler repeated his mean the first simply would compliance Poles refused, fearing that April 28 Hitler step in the dismemberment of their republic. On Danzig denounced the German-Polish treaty of 1934- Nazis in preparation began to smuggle troops and arms into the city as if in weapons Poland for an armed revolt. To prevent this smuggling of

May

Turkey.

The National

Sudeten Germans, and declared that he had no more territorial ambitions in Europe. Yet on October 24 he secretly demanded from Poland both Danzig and a strip of territory across the Polish

by approving

1938, but the opposi-

grounds that his Government had not proved its ability to withstand Nazi propaganda. Daranyi died at Budapest November i.

many. With Hitler’s coming into power in Germany in 1933 the conflict between the Nazis and the anti-Nazis in Danzig increased, but the

Gdynia, founded soon after the World War, connected by railway with Warsaw, and favoured with Polish capital and railway rates, grew with such mushroom rapidity that it threatened economic disaster to the old Hanseatic city. In Sept. 1938 Hitler signed the Munich Agreement, annexed the

March

Society, Daughters of the

American Revolution,

or-

ganized Oct. II, 1890, makes eligibility for membership dependent upon direct descent from a patriot who'^aided in securing American r, 1939, approximated 143,000 in 2,500 chapters in every State and in many countries. Activities of 1939 included: publication in 18 languages and

distribution of 304,000

manuals for

citizenship, to aid in natural-

ization; instruction in right use of leisure

and respect for

rights

of others of 117,000 children in Junior American Citizens clubs;

$86,000 for r6 approved schools for foreign-born, and Southern mountaineers. Improvements for these schools included a laundry, health house, completely furnished and endowed room; gifts of

from the National Society of $1,000 each to the two mountain schools on approved list entirely supported by D.A.R. funds. Loans were made to 721 students. Millions of Penny Pines were planted in all States of the Union in commemoalso annual gifts

ration of the national society’s 50th anniversary in 1940. Three workers were maintained on Ellis Island. A high school girl

social

from every

State,

winner as good

citizen,

was given a

Wash-

trip to

50,000 copies of National Defense News, designed to promote confidence in fundamentals of American democracy, ington.

Some

were distributed and 3,000 medals for good awarded.

The Society

citizenship

publishes the National Historical

were

Maga-

JOHN

DAVIES. A

zine.

genealogical library and early

V

— DEATH

American museum are open Memorial Continental (S. C. Ro.)

compare death

STATISTICS

201

form of death

statistics in the

rates per i,ooo of

there were

to the public in the Society’s headquarters,

population. According to

Hall, Washington, D.C.

deaths in the United States during 1938; since the population for that year was estimated to have been 130,215,000, the death rate

Davies,

John Vipond

neer,

was born

in Swansea,"

South

Wales on October 13 and was educated at Wesleyan college in Taunton, England, and at the University of London. In 1889 he moved to New York city, where he was employed as an engineer,

official

reports,

1,380,986

was 10-6 per 1,000 of population. In England and Wales, the death rate in 1938 was ii-6 per 1,000. These death rates compare very favourably with those for most countries of the world.

Among

the few countries with death rates lower than those for

the United States and England and Wales during the period 1936-

Denmark,

and five years later he established his own engineering firm of Jacobs and Davies. During his career as a consulting engineer, he designed and .constructed four tunnels connecting New York city

38 are; Canada, with a death rate of

and Jersey City and Hoboken for the Hudson and Manhattan He was also construction engineer for 26 aqueduct tunnels in Mexico and was one of the board of three which designed and built the Moffat tunnel near Denver, Colo. Davies died at Flushing, L.I., N.Y. on October 4.

experienced death rates of 20 per 1,000, or more: Mexico, 23-0;

railway.

Davis Cup:

see Tennis.

fSL”™

Dawson-Watson, Dawson

9-8 per 1,000;

10-7;

The Netherlands, 8-7; Norway, 10-3; Australia, 9-5; and New Zealand, 9-2. The following countries, among others, recently and Egypt,

Chile, 24-6; British India, 22-9;

these countries, there are

many

In addition to

27-5.

others with very poor health con-

which do not compile their death statistics. The death and those for several other countries, are shown in the accompanying table. Death rates vary according to race, sex, age and marital status. ditions

rates here cited,

Thus, among white persons in the United States during 1937, the latest year for which data by colour are available, the death rate

was

10-8 per 1,000, while

among

coloured persons,

it

was appreci-

July 21 and went to the United States in 1893 to become art director of the Hartford (Conn.) Art Society. Later he taught at

ably higher, namely, 14-7 per' 1,000.

N.Y. and, for ii years, at the St. Louis School of Fine Arts. Aside from his paintings in oil and water colours, he designed textiles and costumes and was a wood carver, mezzotint engraver, and scenic artist. He died at San Antonio, Tex. on September 3.

most countries of the Western world. For example, white males in the United States had a death rate of 12-0 per 1,000 in 1937, while the figure for white females was 9-6 per 1,000. The corresponding death rates for England and Wales were 13-2 per 1,000

Byrdcliffe colony, Woodstock,

otologist’s service for a

noofnacc

UuullicbOi

.

tient has

hard of hearing pa-

sex, the death rate

among males

Average Annual Death Rates per 7,000 Total Population In Certain Countries for the Period 7936 to 7938 and for Bach Year In the United States and in England and Wales from 7900 to 7938.

been greatly enhanced by the advent of Formerly,

the audiometer, an instrument to measure deafness.

Death Rates per i.ooo Death

the physician employed voice and whisper tests, tuning forks,

reeds or similar devices, but in

now

Country

physician to diagnose hearing defects

much

better.

Recently

audiometers have appeared on the market that meet the require-

ments for acceptable audiometers adopted by the Council on Physical Therapy of the American Medical Association. Hearing aids were improved considerably during the year

The thermionic tube hearing

aid

is

a

new product and

it

North America United States

Canada

ZX.I 9,8

Mexico

23.0 (a)

South America Argentina

Chde Colombia Venezuela

Europe Austria

It is a miniature radio receiving set

from the conventional hearing aid of the carbon granule microphone and the telephone circuit. For some conditions of deafness the carbon granule microphone hearing aid probably not be replaced, at least for the present. The thermionic tube hearing aid is new and has not been tried very

will

long.

It

may

contain defects which are not discernible at the

present time but

may come

to light in the future.

The carbon

granule microphone hearing aid, on the other hand, has been tried for

many

possible.

years and

To

is

perfected probably to the highest degree

the normal ear the amplifying and intelligibility

characteristics are superior for the thermionic tube hearing aid.

Battery cost to energize the thermionic tube hearing aid at the present time is somewhat higher than that of the carbon granule microphone hearing aid. (H. A. C.)

13.7 13-4 10.7

Denmark Eire

14.4

England and Wales

.

.

Z 2.0

,

Estonia Finland

Germany

14.9 13-3 IS -2 11.7

Greece

IS- I (a)

France

Hungary Ireland, Northern Italy

14-3 14.4 13.9 Z4.0 13-0 8.7 10.3 14.0 16.0 19.4 13-3 13-7 (b) II.8 11.4 16.2 (a)

....

Latvia Lithuania Netherlands

Norway Poland Portugal

(of prominent persons in 1939)

........

Rumania Scotland Spain Switzerland

Yu^slavia

22.9 (a) 17-1 (a) 16.7

:

Other Countries

see Obituaries.

Australia Egj'pt

27-S (a) 9.2

New Zealand

riDQth QtatietlPe UCdlll uldlloUuOi

Since sickness

statistics

are far

from

complete, it is common to use death stagauge health conditions in communities. Because communities vary in numbers of population, it is the practice to tistics to

Union

of

South

Africa (Whites) Ca) (b) (c)

1900

17.6

i 9 or

16.S 15-9 16.0

1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909

16.S

18.2 16.9 16.3

15-S 16.3

16.0 15-7

153

16.0

15.1 14.8 14.6

14.8 14.4

iS -5

130 .

Japan^

Deaths

United States England and (c) Wales

13-5

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia

differing

II.9 24.6 16.0 10.2 (a) 18.1

Uruguay

Belgium

microphone

Year •

bids fair to surpass the performance of other types of instruments.

equipped with a small crystal

rates

per 1,000 1936 to 1938

the multiple tone audiometer,

which frequency and intensity are controlled, enables the

1939.

is

Considered in relation to higher than among females in

....

lo.i (a)

1911 19x2 1913 1914

15.0 X4.2 13.9 14.I 13-6

13-5 13*4 13-8 14.0

iS -7

191s Z916 1917 1918 1919

13.6 14.0 14.3 18.1 12.9

14-3 14.2 17-3 14.0

130

12.4

II.

I 2 .Z

1924

11.7 12.2 11.7

12.7 11.6 12.2

192s 1926 1927 1928 1929

ii.S 12.3 11.4

12.1 11.6 12.3 11.7 13-4

1930

II -3

1931 1932 1933 1934

II.

1935 1Q36 1937 1938

12.

11.9

11.4 12.3

12.0 10.7

X 2.3

JI.8 10.9 II.S 11.2 10.6

11.7 12.1

12.4 11.6

Average for 193S to ^ 937 Average for 1934 and 1935 For years prior to 1933, the death rates relate to an expanding area within the United States. -

.

DEBTS.

202

GOVERNMENT — DELAWARE Average Length of

males and 11.7 per 1,000 females. There is a striking variation in the death rate ivith age. According to the experience of the total population of the United States during 1937, the death rate

was just over 50 per 1,000 babies in the first year of life, but fell rapidly at successive ages to a minimum of practically one

Average Length of Life,

Country

to 2-73 at age 20, to 3-85 at age 30, to 12-04

it is

When

marital status

is

a.t

age 50, and to

among

in between.

An

exception

found at the early child-bearing ages, of maternity among married women are sufficient

to this general situation W'here the risks

fall

is

to bring their death rates to a level higher than that for the single,

widowed or divorced women of the same There

is

ages.

a distinct gradation in the death rates in passing from

the lowest to the highest social-economic classes of a community.

In a study based upon the United States census of 1930 and death statistics for 10 States during that year, it was found that the death rates per 1,000 males between the ages of 15 to 64 in the several social-economic classes were as follows: unskilled workers 13-1; semi-skilled workers, 9-9; skilled workers, S-i; clerks, proprietors, managers,

and

7-4; professional

officials,

men,

7-0;

The low figure for agricullow death rates in rural areas of the United States as compared with the urban communities; in 1930, white persons residing in rural areas had a death rate of 9-8 per 1,000, while those li\’ing in urban centres experienced a workers

calls attention to the

rate of ii-6 per 1,000.

Death

statistics

may

also be analyzed according to the cause of

death. Thus, the death rates

from the ten leading causes of death

per 100,000 total persons in the United States during 1937 were, in order of rank: heart disease, 268-0; influenza and pneumonia, 114-S; cancer, 112-0; cerebral haemorrhage, 86-5; accidents, 81-5; nephritis, 79-6; tuberculosis, 53-6; diseases of early infancy

congenital

malformations,

49-0;

diabetes

mellitus,

23-7;

and and

These ten causes of death accounted for 78-9% of the deaths from all causes. There has been a steady decrease in the death rate in most Western countries since about the middle of the 19th century; the improvement has been particularly marked since 1900. Thus, in England and Wales, the death rate fell from 18-2 per 1,000 in 1900 arteriosclerosis,

to a

17-1.

1937,

it

of 11-4 in 1930; following a slight rise to 12-4 in dropped to 11-6 in 1938. In the United States, the death

1938.

from 17-6

in

1900 to a record low of 10-6 in

However, current reports indicate that there may be a Figures for the years from

slight rise in the death rate for 1939.

1900 to 1938 are shown in the table on p. 201. Aside from any other factors, the distribution of the population of a community according to age influences its death rate. Two communities may have identical death rates at each age of life, but the number of deaths of persons of all ages, per head of total population, may differ appreciably between the two communities, simply because one of them may happen to have a larger proportion of aged persons than the other. To overcome this difficulty, death rates may either be “standardized” to allow for the effect of variations in age distribution, or comparisons may be based

upon the average length of

life,

which

tation of life at birth. This figure is

is

also

known

as the expec-

obtained from a computation

based upon death rates at each age of life without being by the age distribution of the community. Sweden has the longest series of figures for the average length of of life. Whereas males in that country had an average length

which

is

influenced

of only 33-20 years in 1755-76, the figure increased steadily to 6 s- 22 years in 1931-35.

life

Males

Europe

Females

(cont.)

United States, whites

.

xpoi X910

.

1919-20 1929^31 T^egro

Canada Europe

.

.

.

.

Austria

.

.

Belgium

.

.

1937 1929-31 1930-32

58.53 59-79 46.64

1929-32

51-92 62,0 58.20

ss-is 63.8 59.62

40.19 48.53 58.74 60. x8

42-18 52.38 62.88 64.40 S5.6o 58.69 59-02 62.81 50,89 SI -34

.

.

.

.

Denmark

.

I 93 I-3 S

.

X 93 S -37

.

.

England and Wales .

Estonia Finland France.

1841 1901-10 1930-32 1937 * 932-34 1931-3S 1528-33 1932-34 1928 *930-31

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Germany.

.

Greece-

.

.

Hungary

.

.

Iceland

51-08 53.62 57-52 62.67 65.08 49-51 60.73

54-47 56.02 45-92

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Eire.

48.23 S0.23 SS.33 59-12 60.75 47-55 58.56

1930-33 1518-32 1925-28

The average States

is

much

53-12

53-94 54-30 55-86 49.09 48.27

.

.

1901-10

48.3

53.1

1925-27 1930-32 1934-36 1931-35 1921-31 1931-32 1926-27 1930-32 1755-76 1816-40 1901-10 I 93 I-3 S 1929-32

SS.42 53.76

$6.11 56.00 60.93 66.4 63.S4 SI -4 46.79

Ireland,

Northern. Italy

.

.

.

Latvia Netherlands .

Norway Poland Russia

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Scotland

.

.

Sweden

.

.

SuTtzerland Asia

China

(rural)

SS -39 65.1

60.08 48.2 41.93 56.0 33.20 39.50 54-55 63.22 59-25

S 9 -S

35-70 43.56 57-00 65.33 63.05

1929-31

34.63

India, British.

Japan

.

.

.

.

Australia.

.

1931 1926-30

26.91 44-82

26.56 46.54

1932-34 193 *

63.48 65,04

67.14 67.88

1936

60.01

64.00

Others

New Zealand Union

of So. Africa,

whiles

.

length of the

same

for white persons in the United

life

as that for

England and Wales. In

white males in the United States had an average length of

1937,

life of

60-75 years and white females of 65-08 years, while the corres-

ponding figures in England and Wales in 1937 were 60-18 years for males and 64-40 years for females. Figures for the average length of life in other countries are shown in the accompanying table.

—

Bibliogkaphy. Louis I. Dublin and Alfred J. Lotka, . Leii£t/i oj Life (1936); Louis I. Dublin and Alfred J. Lotka, Twenty-Five Years of Health Progress, Jletropolitan Life Insurance Co, (1937); Walter F. Wilcox, Introduction To The Vital Statistics of the United States, Bureau of Census J(1933)-

Debts, Government: see National Debts. Declaration of Panama: see Hispanic America and the European War; International Law; Neutrality; United States.

Defence, National: Guard; United States;

see

Democratic

Party;

UBIdVidrCi

National

see also under various countries.

one of the 13 original States, popularly

minimum

rates per 1,000 fell

Period

and

agricultural workers, 6-2 per 1,000. tural

Country

Norlb America

taken into consideration,

the married and highest for the widowed and

divorced, while those for the single

Life,

FeMales males

usual to find, in Western countries, that the death rates are

lowest

Average Length of Years

Years

Period

per 1,000 children at age 10. The death rates per 1,000 then rose 53-29 at age 70.

Life in Certain Countries

“Diamond

State.”

Area,

2,399-2

called the (land,

sq.mi.

Delaware Notes, 12th ser., p. m)Population (1930), 238,380. Capital, Dover, 4,800. The only larger city is Wilmington, 106,597. Public school attendance 1,961-7; water, 437-5)

(see

(Sept. 1939), 42,454-

History.

—

^The

1939 legislative session, continuing intermitwas marked by dissension between a Repub-

tently until August, lican

legislature

and the holdover Democratic administration.

•‘Ripper” legislation, passed over Democratic Governor

McMul-

gave the Republicans control of the New Castle county election machinery, and, after a contest in the courts, of the politically-important State Highway Department. The Democrats

len’s veto,

could do

little in reprisal

The veto

except hold up

in April of a bill enabling

Sunday movies

some appropriation Wilmington to

bills.

legalize

inspired agitation for the repeal or enforcement

Surveys by Wilmington police during the suthmer disclosed technical violations by the hundreds every Sunday even the investigators were law-breakers in driving their cars on the Sabbath. Charges were brought against two merchants in December. State taxes on admissions and pariof Delaware’s old “blue laws.”

—

mutuel betting at Delaware Park race track during years of operation (1937-39) yielded $818,000.

its first

three

DELAWARE RIVER AQUEDUCT — DEMOCRATIC PARTY Business

and

—

Industry.

^At the year's close

203

Babson estimated

of co-operation of the democratic powers had led, through a

better than in 1938 (national

policy of neutrality and non-interv'ention, to the triumph of fascist

average,

20%). For November New Castle county industrial employment was up 19%, payrolls 28%, above Nov. 1938. In the first nine months of 1939, passenger automobile sales increased

aggression and to the collapse of the League of Nations. The year 1939 saw a fundamental change in the attitude of British and French democracy. The two nations abandoned the policy of isola-

39%, refrigerators 43%, life insurance 27%, electricity output 19%, over a like period in 1938. Building in Wilmington totalled

which they had pursued for the last years. Their effort to check fascist aggression involved them in the w’ar which broke out in- Sept. 1939. Thus they started to establish a close co-operation

current Wilmington business as

25%

$5,470,000, the best year since 1929 and almost double 1938’s figure. Suburban residential construction flourished. From 1935 to

Nov. 1939 3,838

families

mostly to the suburbs. (still

moved

Wilmington area, era for southern Delaware

into the

A new industrial

largely agricultural) began with the opening

December 15

Company’s $8,500,000 nylon plant near Seaford, employ about 850 workers. (The Company applies the generic term “nylon” to a group of new synthetic polyamides which can be drawn into fibres, bristles, and other forms of great strength and elasticity.) Nylon “intermediates” are brought from a duPont

of the duPont to

West

plant in

Virginia to Seaford for processing into commercial

forms, chiefly, at present,

yam

for hosiery knitters.

Delaware agriculture registered a modest advance; 1939 cash income was expected to exceed 1938 by 5% to 10%, but to fall short of 1937. For the fiscal year ending June 30 Delaware received $9,716,000 from the Federal Government for relief, pensions, agriculture,

highways,

possible a construction

project was a

new

etc.

PWA grants

of $1,185,000

made

program costing nearly $3,000,000. Largest

building and additions to the library of the

December. Improvement of the year was The changeover from rails to rubber began in August 1939, was planned for completion in Jan.

university, finished in

trackless trolleys for Wilmington.

1940. Castle, text by Anthony Higgins, Bibliogkaphy. Books of 1939: photographs by Bayard Wootten; Jessie Harrington, Silversmiths of Delaware; William S. Taber, Delaware Trees (State Forestry Department); (H. C. Rd.) H. C, Bounds, A Postal History of Delaware (1938).

—

Delaware River Aqueduct: see Aqueducts; Tunnels. Dementia Praecox: see Nervous System; Psychiatry.

nomnoraPU LIClIlUulduj

freely

elected

representative institutions

and upon an executive responsible to the people; the fundamental assumption of the equality of of their

equal right to

life,

liberty

all

it is

of this equality

and individual liberty

and

(including the liberty of

is

The

denial

characteristic of fascism,

which has risen during the last years as a conscious and aggressive opponent of democracy. The victories which the resolute and ruthless policies of fascism accomplished, especially in the field

of international relations, resulted in a revitalization of in the

democratic countries.

not only in the internal

field.

This

As

new

democracy and for the checkby Great Britain and France in the European war, would have lasting results only if it would lead to soine organized and permanent form of international co-operation. The well advanced and growing co-operation between Great Britain and France promised to develop into the nucleus of such a future organization. It may be a rejuvenated League of Nations, this time backed by the will of the peoples to establish collective security and to abandon isolation. At the beginning of Dec. 1939 the League of Nations assembled for the that the effort for the protection of

ing of aggression, which was undertaken

purpose of taking a stand against the aggression of the Soviet Union against Finland. In 1939 an American journalist, Clarence Streit,

proposed in his

democracy

strength expressed itself

far as elections were held during

Now,

the

the democracies,

Bibliography. Hans Kobn, Revolutions and Dictatorships (1939); Charles E. Jlerriam, Prologue to Politics (1939); Eduard Benes, Democracy Today and Tomorrow (1939): Alfred Zimmern, Spiritual Values And World Affairs (1939)(H. Ko.)

As 1939 opened, the Democratic party

Democratic Party. and

legislative

November, however, had reduced its huge House and Senate. When the 76th Congress convened on January 3, the Democrats held 69 Senate and 262 House seats, as compared with 75 and 333 respectively in the 7Sth Congress. Postmaster General James A. Farley remained as chairmajorities in

man

of the Democratic National Committee. In the House, Wil-

liam B. Bankhead of Alabama held sentative

issues the

non-aggression between the Soviet Union and National Socialist Germany, against democracy. Their sudden turn-face cost, how-

ing

the field of in-

Until 1939 the irresoluteness and the lack

Sam Rayburn

office as

Speaker, with Repre-

of Texas as floor leader.

Senator Alben

Barkley of Kentucky continued as Democratic Senate leader. Reflecting the conservative trend of the 1938 elections, many Democrats in Congress evidenced a more critical attitude toward

racies against fascism turned, after the conclusion of the pact of

ever, the sympathy of many democratic and liberal circles who had supported the idea of a common popular front of progressive and radical elements. On the whole, fascist and communist attacks upon democracy led to a reappraisal and a reassertion of the fundamental attitudes and truth inherent in the democratic

continued in control of the executive

branches of the National Government. The elec-

tions of the preceding

spite the

itself also in

among

grew up to apply democracy to the international field and thus to make democracy secure internally. An International Congress of American Democracies opened at Montevideo in March for the purpose of forming an inter-American organization to combat fascism and race hatred in all their ramifications. The Argentine government issued a decree according to which all organizations must be organized on a democratic basb and are forbidden to wear uniforms or insignia. {See also Communism; FAsasM; France; Great Britain; Pacifism.)

munist parties and fellow-travellers who until the middle of 1939 had emphasized their ^villingness for co-operation with the democ-

This new strength expressed

discussed book. Union

following the example of the 13 North American States at the end of the 1 8th century. Generally it may be said that a new will

W.

ternational relations.

much

establishment of a federated government

1939 in democratic countries, they increased everywhere the strength of the democratic and liberal parties. The small and often rivalling fascist groups in the democratic countries were reduced to complete insignificance. On the other hand the com-

position.

make

a democratic world safe for democracy. It was generally realized

based upon

individuals

thought and expression), and the pursuit of happiness.

of the democracies in international affairs which alone can

—

^ technique of government, based

upon

tion

the

New

Deal. It soon became apparent that the President, deDemocratic majorities in Congress, would have trouble

enactment of his legislative proposals. On many Democrats were sharply divided.

in securing the

Though Administration leaders in Congress succeeded in blockamendments to the Wage-Hour and Labor Relations Acts, they failed to defeat a House Resolution, offered by Representative Howard W. Smith, Democrat of Virginia, to investigate the NaLabor Relations Board, and they were unable to prevent the enactment of the Hatch bill to prohibit “pernicious political activities” by Federal office-holders. Many Democrats joined with tional

the Republican minority in voting for the the

Hatch

bill.

NLRB investigation and

DENMARK

204

In a letter to Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina, on 21, 1939, President Roosevelt proposed a $3,000,000,000 “spend-lend” program, to include self-liquidating loans by Federal

June

agencies over periods ranging from two to seven years. his

new “pump-priming”

As part of

plan, the President also asked Congress

to increase by $800,000,000 the borrowing-lending power of the United States Housing Authority. As finally passed by the Senate on July 31, by a vote of 52 -to 28, the spend-lend bill had been whittled down to an authoriza-

On August I, a coalition of House Repuband independent Democrats caused the rejection of a resolution calling for immediate consideration of the bill. The vote was 193 to 167. This action killed the spend-lend measure for the tion of $1,615,000,000.

licans

session. Though the Senate approved a bill to increase the lending power of the USHA, the House on August 3, refused to take it up before adjournment, another major reverse for the Administration. On January 17, in letters to the Chairmen of Senate and House

committees, the President asked legislation to construct the Florida

Ship Canal and complete the Passamaquoddy tidal power

work on which had been halted by Congress

in 1936. The when the Senate, on May 17, rejected a Florida Ship Canal bill by a vote of 45 to 36. Neither House considered the Passamaquoddy bill. Though Congress voted $2,539,805,000 for relief, only $50,000,000 less than the amount requested by the President, it eliminated

project,

Administration met defeat again

the theatre and art projects, and wrote into the tions.

Following charges that

political purposes, the

WPA

WRONG

“SOMETHING WITH THE MAGIC.’* A reference by Thomas In The News lo Roosevelt’s Jackson Day speech Jan. 7, 1939, In which he invited dissatisfied Democrats to leave the party

Detroit bill

drastic restric-

funds had been used for

House Appropriations Committee made an

renomination.

On December

30,

Chairman Farley issued a

call for

investigation of the administration of Federal relief.

the Democratic National Committee to meet in Washington on

In the acceptance by Congress of the large National defence program submitted by the President, the Administration won its most important single victory of the session. Congress, however,

liminary arrangements for the National convention.

rejected a proposal to spend $5,000,000 in developing the harbour at the island of

Guam

in the

western Pacific. Early in the session.

Feb.

5,

1940 to select a

city, fix the time,

and make other

On

pre-

the same

it was revealed that several Republican leaders in Congress, with the approval of the President, had been invited to attend

day,

the Democratic Jackson

Among

Day Dinner

in

Washington on Jan.

8,

McNary

of

Congress approved a modified Government reorganization meas-

1940.

ure. In 1938, in a major set-back for the Administration, Congress had rejected a more comprehensive Government reorganization bill. Many Democrats joined with the Republicans in opposing the extension of the President’s monetary powers. After a series of defeats for the President, Congress adjourned on August 5. Following the outbreak of the European war, the President on September 13, called Congress to meet in extra session to revise the Neutrality Act. After an extended debate, it repealed the arms embargo and approved a “cash-and-carry” Neutrality Act. Many Democrats who had opposed other Administration meas-

Oregon and Warren R. Austin of Vermont, Republican leader and assistant leader in the Senate, and Representative Joseph W.

ures, supported its neutrality proposals.

On October

Smith, Democratic candidate for president in

New

i,

Alfred E.

1928,

who had

Martin,

Jr. of

those invited were Senators Charles L.

Massachusetts, House Republican Chief. (

^^>575 sq.mi.; population

(est.

0 McK.) .

June 1937)

Hpirninrlf UClIllldlA. 3,749,000. Chief towns (pop. 1935 census): Copen-

1936, called on the Nation to stand behind the President in his fight to repeal the arms ban. As the

opposed the

Deal

in

special session ended on November 3, the President had done much to regain control over his party in Congress. Though the President remained silent as to his 1940 intentions, the third term question was much discussed during the year by

Democratic leaders. Secretaries Ickes, Wallace, Attorney General Murphy, and several high Administration officials, and many party leaders urged the President’s renomination. On August 17, Senator Frederick Van Nuys, Democrat of Indiana, declared that 15 Democratic Senators would oppose a third term for the President. On August 23, Speaker Bankhead declared his willingness to run for the presidential nomination, if hacked by his own State. On December 16, Vice President Gamer, from his home in Texas, formally announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential

nomination. Paul V. McNutt, Federal Security Administrator, was also an active candidate for the nomination. He let it be known, however, that he would support the President, if the latter sought

DENMARK: variation

Industrial production.

{The Annalist)

Monthly index, partly adjusted

for seasonal

DENTAL ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN — DENTISTRY hagen (843,168), Aarhus (90,898), Odense (78,403), Aalborg (48,132). Ruler, King Christian X; language, Danish; religion,

initiate trade negotiations

205

with the British government. (E. B.-Pn.)

TOth the other northern countries and the Oslo powers were to this effect. The Socialist and Radical Stauning-Munch govern-

—^Primary schools 4,104; scholars 407,877; secondary schools 368; Defence 1939 —^Army—compulsory — 14,000; navy— coast defence; 8 submarines; aeroplanes Banking and Finance. —^Revenue, ordinary (1938-39)

ment

796.000 kroner;

Christian (Lutheran).

EcJucation

—

History. Denmark endeavoured throughout 1939 to maintain and consolidate her policy of strict neutrality and all deliberations

celebrated

its

ten years of power after a

new

election vic-

tory on April 3 which gave the two parties together 52-4% of total votes as compared with 55-3% in 1935. Proposal for a constitution involving abolition of the Landsting and lowering of the franchise age from 25 to 23 was rejected

by

a referendum on

23 which gave slightly less than the necessary

45%

May

of the elec-

The government expressed readiness to conclude a nonaggression pact with Germany and the pact was signed on May 31 in Berlin. It was agreed upon in a protocol that Denmark was entitled to maintain normal trade relations with a country at war with Germany and this was on the other side recognized in principle by the Allies after the outbreak of war. Crown Prince Frederick and Crown Princess Ingrid toured the United States torate.

before opening the Danish and Icelandic pavilion at the

New

York World’s Fair. They passed through London on their outward journey on March 13, and on their way home on May 16. In August Germany and Great Britain had declared that they would respect Denmark’s neutrality. In the first six months of the year production and trade increased, but the war hit Denmark’s

economy hard. The index of prices for imported goods went up from 113 in August to 156 in November while the corresponding index for exported goods only increased from

December

no

a delegation headed by Prince Axel visited

to

125.

London

1938 .

scholars 72,028.

service

.

^national militia

2

65.

531,-

(est.

1939-40) 535,400,000 kroner; expenditure,

ordinary (1938-39) 525,403,000 kroner; (est. 1939-40) 531,200,000 kroner; public debt (March 31, 1938) 1,255,067,000 kroner; notes in circulation (July 31, 1939) 424,519,000 kroner; gold reserve (July 31, 1939) 117,450,000 kroner; exchange rate (average 1938-39) 22-40 kroner=£i sterling.

—

Trade and Communication. External trade (merchandise): imports (1938) 1,623,900,000 kroner; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 1,128,900.000 kroner; exports (1938) 1,533,900,000 kroner; (Jan.-Aug. 1,031,600,000

1939)

kroner.

motor

Communications and transport:

(April i, 1938) 4,871 mi.; rail(1938): state 1,491 mi.; private 1,553 mi.; airways (1938): passengers 42,843, freight carried 314 metric tons; mail 231 metric tons; shipping tonnage (Jan. i, 1939) roads, suitable for

ways, open to

traffic

traffic

1,232,667 gross tons; tonnage launched (Jan.-June 1939) 61,800 gross tons; motor vehicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1938): cars and commercial 150,778; cycles 29,324; ivireless receiving set licences

(1938-39) 713,215; telephone subscribers (Dec. 31, 1938) 366,559 Agriculture and Industry. -

—Production 193S

number

of pigs

slaughtered 3,915,000;

wheat 469,800;

(in metric tons):

barley

1,383,700; rye potatoes 1,455,600;

In

1,163,600;

to

butter 189,400; beet sugar 182,600; margarine 81,252. Industry and labour: industrial production (1929=100) (average 1938)

oats

287,600;

135-0; (Aug. 1939) 148-0; aggregate number of hours worked 100) (av. 1938) 132-0; (Aug. 31, 1939) 148-4; number (1931 of applicants for work (average 1938) 112,241 (21-4%) ;, (Aug. (W. H. Wn.) 31, 1939) 72,328 (12-6%).

=

Denial Association, American:

w

/

~

I'

k

.

:

riontipinf

''0

k '

'

see Dentistry.

i

"''k

k'k

Activity was notable particularly in

the

work

UUilllbll y> of the National Health Program Committee of the American Dental Association; in the acceleration of the Dental Health Education programs throughout the country; in the vigorous discussions of new plans of dental education; and in the accomplishments in dental research. The American Dental Association has adopted certain principles for the participation of organized dentistry in any national health program. They are :

all conferences that may lead to the formation of a plan relative to a national health program, there must he participation by authorized representatives of the American Dental Association. (2) The plan should give careful consideration to: first, the needs of the people; second, the obligation to the taxpayer; third, the service to be rendered, and fourth, the interests of the profession.

(1) In

'ij

-»s

//:,

(3) The plan should be flexible so as to be adaptable to local conditions. profit seeking (4) There must be complete exclusion of non-professional, agencies.

dental phase of a national health program should be approached on a basis of prevention of dental disease. (6) The plan should provide for an extensive program of dental health

(5)

Ir

-Ay

(7)

lyy-

The

education for the control of dental disease. The plan should include provisions for rendering the highest quality of dental service to those of the population whose economic status, in the opinion of their local authorities, will not permit them to provide such service for themselves, to the extent of providing prenatal care, the detection and correction of dental defects in children, and such other service as is necessary to health and the rehabilitation of both children and adults.

•

(8) For the protection of the public, the plan shall provide that the dental profession shall assume responsibility for determining the quality and method of any service to be rendered.

'A A-!-

AAAT'

THE DANISH CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK

and Crown Princess Ingrid at a reception In Denver during their tour of the United States in 1939

— DEPTH BOMBS--DERMATOLOGY

206

constant and striking symptoms of a vitamin

In an effort to be constructive, the committee offered the following proposals by which a national health act can be made beneficial to the people of the nation: (1) All Federal health activities, with the exception of military services, should first be combined in one asency. (2) A national health bill should consider and make use of the principles established by the House of Delegates of the American Dental Associ-

A

that frequently are difficult to heal

title

Dental Health Education Programs.

Most

laity.

The

(a)

Sinclair’s

Association’s

A

work has been undertaken

—

in limited areas.

—

New

Plans of Dental Education. The tremendous prevalence of dental disease has been repeatedly pointed out. Surveys by varied and numerous agencies have

indicated this.

all

ment

that

of

U.S. adults have pyorrhoea has become almost

all

g&%

of

The

1937): R. R- Williams and T. D. Spies, Vitamin Bi (Thiamin) and Its Use in Medicine, (1938); W. H. Sebrell and R. E. Butler, “Riboflavin Deficiency, Preliminary Note,” Pub. Health Kept. (Dec. 30, 1938); J. A. Sinclair, “Vitamin A and B Deficiency An Etiologic Factor in Acute, Subacute and Chronic Vincent’s Infection and Other Dental Conditions,’’ Jour, oj the Amer. Dental Ass’n (Oct. 1939); Ira T. Nathanson and David Weisberger, “The Treatment of Leukoplakia Buccalis and Related Lesions with Estrogenic Hormone,” New Eng. Jour, oj Med., vol. 221, pp. ssbsbo (L. M. S. M.) (1939).

—

state-

U.S. children have dental caries and

all

trite.

75% Mill-

new plan in dental education the training of skilled technicians who will be a responsibility of the fully trained licensed dentist. One new development in dental education, that of training dental men in public health, has received general apberry suggests as a

proval.

At

outlook

is

least

Depth Bombs:

two universities are offering such courses, and the

very bright.

Accomplishments

Dental Research.

in

—The Research Com-

phonse, on Aug.

investi-

gators in 25 countries, with 75 educational, scientific, or health service institutions represented. There is rather general agreethat the cause of dental caries

is no specific cause. Vitamin Research. ^Vitamin

there •

—

is

not really

B and

known and

that

Bi attracted especial at-

The treatment of certain types of neuralgia by large doses of vitamin Bi has met with sufficient success to warrant the hope that along this road may be found the means of tention during 1939.

putting to rout that devastating pain in the trigeminal nerve, called tic douloureux. Experiments in rats, carried on by Lee and Sure,

which there was a vitamin Bi deficiency, discovered a most marked degeneration of myelin in the trigeminal and sciatic nerves. Williams and Spies contend that “the most

in

regular and

3,

Submarine Warfare. important in dermatology

is

the an-

nouncement of Saenz, Grau Triana, and Al1938, that they have found the causative organ-

ism of pinta, thus disproving definitely, the theory of a fungous origin. The organism was a spirochaete, morphologically identical with that of syphilis. The discovery was made in Havana and was

—

ment

see

narmotnlnnu Ucl IlldlUIUgya

mission of the American Dental Association has just published a book on “Dental Caries Findings and Conclusions on its Causes

and Control.” It contains summaries of the work of 19s

of

is

Evidence is presented which suggests that leukoplakia buccalis and similar lesions arc associated with alterations in the menstrual cycle in women and with a deficiency or disturbed metabolism of the sex hormones in both sexes. Treatment with oestrogen based on this evidence has resulted in the complete disappearance of the lesions in 42%, marked improvement in 39% and no improvement in the remaining 19% of 38 patients. In general, the women responded more satisfactorily to the treatment than did the men. Although further observation is needed, it is suggested that this type of therapy in combination with other well-recognized procedures may prove of value in the treatment of leukoplakia buccalis. In view of the fact that leukoplakia buccalis is regarded as a precancerous lesion, the implications of this report are far-reaching. Bibliockaphy. Report of the National Health Program Committee, American Dental Ass’n (1939 session): Lon Morrey, Report Bur. Pub. Relations, Jour, oj Amer. Dental Ass'n (July 1939); Hearings on U.S. Senate Bill 1620, p. 775, Part 3 (July 1939); Guy S. Millberry, “Possibilities and Means of improving Dental Conditions in the United States," Amer. Jour. 0/ Pub. Health (April 1939); Dental Caries (pub. by American Dental Ass’n) ; Jack Lee and Barnett Sure, “Nerve Degeneration in Albino Rats as Studied by Freezing Method and Polarized Light with Deficiency of Vitamin A or of Vitamin B,” Archives of Pathology (Oct.

it has been done by program of dental service to children has been begun in 40 States. Twenty-nine States employ dentists on the staff of the State health department, and 22 States pay local dentists for service in the maternal and child health programs. ’With a few exceptions, the programs have been limited to educational and prophylactic activities. In 13 States,

corrective

also of

clusions are of interest;

elementary and

associations. State departments

titles.

and thermal changes, and

—

In Massachusetts

in this field.

“In administer-

—

of health, and private agencies have been conducting enlarged pictures with brief but telling

:

no special clinical test available for determining a vitamin B complex deficiency. In the dietary history and symptomatology, the lesions of the mouth and oral mucosa are outstanding.” This suggests the need of active investigations in this area. (See also Vitamins.) Hormones. ^Nathanson and Weisberger reported on “The Treatment of Leukoplakia Buccalis and Related Lesions with Estrogenic Hormone.” The oestrogens were administered to patients in two forms oestradiol benzoate which was used parenterally, and alpha oestradiol which was given by mouth. Their con-

the dental health education activities of the American Dental

numerous State dental

riboflavin

further statements should attract the attention

the dentist; “There

high schools, (b) radio, (c) newspapers and magazines, (d) the lecture platform, and (e) the private dental office. In addition to Association,

a

B

to the dentin to instrumentation

of the Association’s efforts are

directed at the prevention of dental decay.

to

soft parts to instrumentation and to the hypodermic needle.”

—The American Dental

educational activities embrace five fields:

be due

complex, which contains Bi, I have noted regularly the disappearance of the extreme hypersensitivity

Association for the past 20 years has conducted a program of

education for the

may

this interesting observation

ing large doses of vitamin

legislation in order to:

programs

made

Sinclair has

should be devoted to dentistry in any national health (a) make provision for the essential differences between dentistry and other health services, and (b) augment with a comprehensive research program the efforts of the organized dental profession to determine the cause of dental diseases. (4) The following dental program should be carried on until the discovery of the cause of dental diseases enables a more informed attack on the problem; (a) A program of preventive dentistry for children that would be based on the present knowledge of the subject, in order to decrease the future accumulation of dental disease. This would include a development of the educational program, initiated by the American Dental Association, to preserve the natural teeth and to teach both children and parents the importance of preventive dentistry during the prenatal, infant, pre-school, and school periods. (b) A program of education for dentists to make available to them the latest advances in preventive dentistry as they are revealed through clinical e.xperience and research. separate

deficiency arise

deficiency.

ation.

(3)

B

from degeneration in the nervous system.” Riboflavin (vitamin B2 or G) also must not be disregarded by the dentist. Sebrel and Butler have pointed out that lesions in the corners of the lips

later confirmed

by observations

in

Mexico. In the treatment

skin diseases, the use of sulphanilamide ,

is

significant.

of

Nelson,

and Kelsey compared results of treatment by this drug of 344 cases of erysipelas, with a series of 4,473 cases treated from 1930-36, by other methods. In the series treated by sulphanilamide, the mortality was 2-62% in the control group. Apparent

Rinzler,

cures have been obtained in several cases of actinomycosis, in England and America. Astonishing results have been noted in obstinate cases of chancroid. Kornblith, Jacoby, and Wishengrad treated 65 cases of chancroid without failures or recurrences. In every case, complete healing took place at the end of two weeks.

Sulphanilamide has shown encouraging results in lymphogranurectal involvement. Results of treatment of

loma venereum with

DESTROYERS— DETROIT lupus erythematosus of the fixed

tj’pe,

by sulphanilamide, have not

been uniform. However, a spectacular cure was reported by Anderson of the acute disseminated type, the patient being moribund

(H. Fx.)

1938).

see Na\tes of

at the time of the treatment.

Destroyers:

which have been observed include purpura, scarlatiniform and morbilliform eruptions, erj’thema, urticaria and exfoliative derma-

(1866-1939), Dutch

titis.

to 1936 of the

Favourable results -were also recorded by Weiner, Wollenberg and Ingels in cases of the disseminated type. The cutaneous ill-effects of sulphanilamide therapy

207

Etiologique des Dermatoses,” Ann. dc dermat. et syph., 9:929-960 (Nov.

the World.

Deterding, Sir Henri Wiitieim August oil executive and director-general from 1902 Royal Dutch Oil compan}’, .was bom in Amsterdam

ingredients of coal tar having different fluorescent spectrums

on April 19. He left school at the age of 16 to join the staff of the Twentsche bank in Amsterdam, but after six years of drudgery as a clerk he decided to seek his fortune in the East Indies. In 1888 he ivas a bookkeeper at Belawan, in North Sumatra, for the Nederlandsche Handels Mij; the next year he was an agent for the trading company at Medan, and the year following at Penang. In May 1896 he joined the Royal Dutch Oil company, then a comparatively small' organization which had been founded six years before. Deterding advanced rapidly and expanded the company until it had storage outlets in' many important Asiatic ports. A year after he became director-general he formed the Asiatic Petroleum company, which immediately challenged Standard Oil company for control of the rich oil markets in the Far East. Deterding then extended his operations to Rumam'a, Russia, Egypt, South America and, in 1908, to the United States. The company he originally founded in Oklahoma became the Roxana company and later the Shell Union company. He retired in 1936 from active

those which cause cancer.

direction of his far-flung oil empire.

Recent knowledge of vitamin deficiency in diseases of the skin has been reviewed by Goodman. In general, the results of treatment are unsatisfactory. A number of articles, however, report

published his autobiography.

Good

results

have been obtained by Jacobson

in coccidioidal

granuloma, by vaccine therapy. In 20-odd cases of systemic and cutaneous types, results compared favourably with all other

methods, including injections of colloidal copper. Dermatitis has become an important problem in industrial medicine.

It

is

40-60%

of

generally admitted that such cases are responsible for all

claims for compensation in the United States.

The

shown by excellent symposiums at the recent meetings of the American Dermatological Association and the American Medical Associa-

activity of dermatologists in this branch of medicine

tion.

An

is

excellent text-book on Occupational Diseases of the Skin,

by Schwartz and Tulipan, has

just appeared.

It is the first

book

on this subject, to have been published since that of Prosser White. According to Foerster and Schwartz, tar and pitch constitute important occupational hazards and often produce derin English,

matitis

and melanosis. These are due to photosensitization by from

favourable therapeutic action of nicotinic acid in pellagra. striking effect

is

shown

in stomatitis

and

glossitis,

A

branes becoming normal as a rule, after 24 hours, or at most, The intestinal and psychic symptoms later disappear and the skin finally becomes normal.

The use

of vita-

two cases of acrodynia was reported by Durand, Spickard and Burgess to have been followed by dramatic improvement in

within three days after the beginning of intramuscular injections.

A

Two

years before he had

International Oilman, a

work

which served to dispel the public notion of him as a legendarj' giant of international finance. Deterding, who was a Knight of the British Empire, died Februaiy 4 at St. Moritz, Switzerland.

mucous mem-

three or four days.

min Bi

An

nafrnif Ubll Ull,

Wayne

county, in South-eastern Michigan, and on

the Detroit river, the metropolis of the State, and the

fourth city in the United States; area, 139-6 sq.mi.; population (U.S.

census,

1930)

1,568,662;

(estimate,

1939)

1,600,000.

Foreign-bom, 399,281. Canadian and British predominate, greatly exceeding in numbers the Polish group, which is second in im-

ports on psoriasis

Assessed value, $2,471,597,680; gross bonded debt. $371,913,460 which includes $99,718,739 of self supporting utility debt; gross city appropriation, $133,909,438 including utilities;

comparative frequency, in certain parts of Brazil, of a disease

tax levy, $67,637,742; tax rate for city purposes, $27.37.

few favourable reports on acne have been published. The reshow conflicting opinions. {See also Vitamins.) Attention has been called by Vieira and by Lindenberg to the

whose clinical features are those of pemphigus foliaceus. Facts are mentioned which favour an infectious causation. From extensive animal experiments, Lindenberg claims that this form of pemphigus, and also psoriasis, and probably lupus erythematosus and alopecia areata are due to filtrable viruses, circulating in the blood. From his work, he claims to have established a new conception of disease, that of a chronic viraemia.

—

Bibliography. B. Saenz, J. Grau Triana, and J. Alphonso, “Demonstracion de un espiroqueta en el borde active de un caso de Pinto de las manos y pies en la linfa de ganglios superficiales. Reporte Preliminar,” Arch, de Med. Int., 14, Xo. i, Habana (1938); J. Nelson, H, Rinzier and M. P. Kelsey, “Sulfanilamide Treatment of Erysipelas,” JA.MA., 112:1044 (March 18, 1939); B. A. Kornblith, A. Jacoby and M. Wishengrad, “Sulfanilamide in the Treatment of Chancroid,” New York State J. Med.f 39:364—368 (Feb. 15, 1939); H. F. Anderson, “Fulminating Acute Lupus Erythematosus Cured by Sulfanilamide,” Arch. Dermal, Syph., 38:621—622 (Oct. 1938); A. L. Weiner, “Disseminated Lupus Erythematosus Treated by Sulfanilamide,” Ibid. (Feb. 1940): R. A. C. Wollenberg, “Lupus Erythematosus Disseminatus,” Ibid. 3 ^’^ 95 ~~ 9 ^ ^ (Aug. 1938); A. E. Ingels, “Lupus Erythematosus Treated with Sulfanilamide,” Ibid. 37:879*’884 (May 1938); H. P. Jacobson, “Immunotherapy for Coccidioidal Granuloma,” Ibid. (Oct. 1939); L. Schwartz and L. Tulipan, Occupational Diseases of the Skhi (1939); H. R. Foerster and L. Schwartz, “Industrial Dermatitis and ^lelanosis due to Pholosensitization/' Arch. Dermat. Syph., 39:55—68 (Jan. 1939); “Zum Problem der Atiologie und Pathogenese der Pellagra,” Dermatologica, 79:43“45 1939); J. I. Durand, V. W. Spickard and E. Burgess, “.Acrodynia treated with Intramuscular Injections of Vitamin Bi,” /. Pediat., i4:74”78 (Jan. 1939): J* P. Vieira, Contribuicao ao Estudo do pemphigo no Estado de Sao Paulo (1937): A. Lindenberg, “Un Nouveau Point de Vue dans Petude

&

portance.

The economic, and Detroit

The

is

first

to

some extent, the governmental life of by the production of automobiles.

largely determined

of the large cities to go into the depression in 1929,

Detroit experienced an unusual economic recovery in 1937, due to the renewed buying of automobiles. This recovery w'as marked

by a decided regression

in the latter part of the year

which was

continued throughout 1938 and 1939. Full benefit of the national upturn in 1939 was negated by numerous strikes, the largest of which affected an estimated 80,000 -n'age earners employed by the its suppliers, and lasted for 54 calendar Settlement was finally effected through interv'ention of national C.I.O. officials. In this strike the new technique of the

Chrysler Corporation and days.

“slow do-im” was introduced, compelling the management to take the initiative in closing

its

plants and resulting in charges

by the

union that the cessation was a “lockout.” However, unemployment compensation benefits were denied to the groups primarily affected and the distinction between a “strike” and a “slow down,” if

-will be settled by the courts. During 1939 the produced about 3,725,000 cars as compared -with 2,656,-

any, doubtless

industr>'

000 in 1938. At the close of 1939 there

W’ere 19,000 families on relief and 30,000 IVPA relief workers in Wayne county, Detroit representing more than four-fifths of the total.

1

DEUTERIUM

208

One immediate result of the erratic economic situation in the been marked fluctuations in total population. There are indications that the total is now only slightly more than at the

— DIABETES rwltlrS

city has

Dewey, Thomas Edmund 'Tin.

beginning of the decade.

at about

24 at Owosso, Mich., graduated from the University of Michigan in 1923, and received his law degree at Columbia in 1925. He was

burden, decreased property values, a continu-

admitted to the bar of New York in 1926 and was engaged in private practice for the next five years, until his appointment in

Assessed valuations are

still

the 1924 level, a reduction of one-third.

The heavy

relief

ing current deficit of about $15,000,000,

and large tax budget

necessary because of fixed charges complicate the problem of city

government.

Much

needed maintenance of capital improvements continues

to be deferred

and highly desirable improvements and services

The financial difficulties of the city are furby gradually increasing debt charges which rerefunding of the municipal debt. Detroit was the

cannot be supplied. ther aggravated

from the American city to default, the debt being refunded at a heavy cost in deferred interest. The recognition of the United Automobile Workers by the automotive companies (except the Ford Motor Company) was followed by discord within the higher management of the union, trials of officers, purges, and finally an open break as to whether the union would affiliate with C.I.O. or A.F. of L. The C.I.O. faction appears to have definitely won, but for some time employers were uncertain as to which group should be dealt with. As might be expected, the unions have been active in politics and in 1937 presented labour candidates for the ofiices of mayor and council. All new labour representatives were decisively sult

largest

defeated. In the election of

support candidates

allegedly anti-labour, but charges

campaign against the labour endorsed candidate. The candidate so endorsed was elected by a substantial majority, but there were no significant changes in the council. This victory has been given much publicity as a seizing of the administration of the. city by radical labour. Such is by no means the case. The newly inducted mayor has repeatedly affirmed his independence of any faction and no labour leaders have been appointed to important positions. During the year the administration of the city was affected by charges of corruption within the police department, under investigation by a grand jury, the placing of the police under a separate merit system by charter amendment, extension of civil service to all employees except those of the department of health, altercation with the State authorities concerning the distribution of State

and the creation of Detroit as a separate county for the pur-

pose of

relief administration.

to present

City-State relationships continued

problems of under-representation of the populous De-

was made more tense by the increased reliance of the local governments upon State subsidies for education, highways, and relief, and questions as to the equity of the formulae employed in such distribution. An interesting development in the centre of motor production has been the rapid introduction of buses by the municipally owned street railway. New lines are being served entirely by light, inexpensive buses, and after rush hours and on holidays these have been substituted for street cars on many of the rail lines. Under certain conditions the buses have proven cheaper to operate than street cars, but the resulting decreased use of electric power has complicated the operation of the municipally owned power troit area in the legislature, a situation that

The system

is

also experimenting with the operation of parking

outside the business area, serving these with buses in an

effort to relieve

downtown

From

1935

to

1937 Dewey was a special prosecutor for the Investigation of Organized Crime in New York city, and in Nov. 1937 he was elected district attorney of New York county. Within the short space of a few months his successful prosecution of New York racketeers

had made him a figure of national promitrial was that of James J. Hines, Tammany “boss” for alleged protection of leaders in the “policy number” lotteries of New York city. A mistrial was declared Sept. 12, and

political leaders

nence. His most famous

1938, but Dewey brought Hines to trial again in Jan. 1939 and secured a conviction on February 25. In Nov. 1938, Dewey ran on the Republican ticket against Gov. Herbert H.

New York

nor of

Lehman

for gover-

but was defeated by the slight margin of

2,383,584 to 2,316,078 votes. Despite this defeat he is a prominent candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1940.

He

formally announced his candidacy Dec.

1939, and

i,

inaugurated his campaign immediately.

congestion.

(L.

D. U.)

peaks of diabetic incidence are

niohotoo

UldUclCO.

most

In the United States, where mortality

easily available, the State with the highest figures

Rhode

;

rate held in

centrated effort to explain the high rates in

York and Massachusetts

Rhode

Island,

New

indicated.

is

Possibilities to be considered in explaining these very high and very low death rates are differences in sex, longevity, race, occu-

pation, social status, individual income, or variations in

methods

statistical

For the entire United 1937 was the same as in 1936,

in evaluating death certificates.

States, the diabetic mortality in

namely, 23-7 per 100,000. In New York city in 1938, diabetes ranked eighth as a cause of death and for females alone, sixth. The number of living diabetics undoubtedly is growing in all countries.

The per

cent of hospital admissions in Helsinki, Fin-

land, according to Ponteva,

whose monograph- is rich in statistics, from 2-1% before the discovery of insulin to iO'8% in the midst of the depression in 1931, and this experience appears to rose

prevail in the hospitals of

all

countries.

The

diabetic population

augmented also because the duration of the disease is lengthening and so much so that it is probably safe to say that the average is

diabetic acquiring the disease in 1940 irrespective of age at onset

In fact it is known that 12% of a group of 61 seen in one clinic between 1898 and 1914 achieved

will live 20 years. first

that duration after onset of diabetes.

To

the subject of heredity and diabetes, Rathery has

valuable contribution and presented a sane discussion. in his hospital statistics only ity, in his

ture

clinics

Devil's Island: see French Guiana.

is

and Massachusetts for the same year with 33-7 the latter New Hampshire for 1938. Only once between 1933 and 1937 did any other State except those mentioned exceed 33-7 and that was Vermont in 1934 in which there was an exceptional value of 37-2. The lowest rates in 1937 were in New Mexico 8-i, Arkansas 9^2, Arizona 10, and Alabama I0'6 per 100,000. A con36'9

Deuterium: see Isotopes, Separation op the; Matter, Strucor.

discernible. statistics are

Island where for 1937 and 1938 the death rates per 100,000 were 42 and 41-9 respectively. New York for 1937 stands next with

patients

plants.

lots

the tax proceedings against Charles E. Mitchell.

Nov. 1939, the unions were content to

who were not

of C.I.O. domination were used extensively in the

aid,

1931 as chief assistant U.S. attorney for the southern district of York. In 1934 he returned for a year to private practice, but also became a special assistant to the U.S. attorney general in

New

i6-g% of the

private practice he found

made

a

Whereas

patients showed hered-

49%. The

statistics of

most

heredity, but Rathery believes be the higher percentage disclosed among his private patients to

show approximately 25%

;

DIAMONDS nearer the true value.

In general he concludes that heredity

is

209

pregnancy, abortion, miscarriage, premature delivery, toxaemia,

greater in Jews and in children, in the milder than in the severer

still-birth,

but the evidence shows no definite conclusion as to predominance of maternal or paternal transmission. Rathery cites

it

cases,

Rondelet, a physician of Montpellier at the opening of the i6th century, as the

The

to note the influence of heredity in diabetes.

first

well-being of the diabetic taking protamine zinc insulin

what is best so far in the treatment of diabetics. It can be measured concretely (i) by the disappearance of hepatomegaly already existing or the lack of appearance of an enlarged liver in new patients; (2) by the fall in deaths due to coma from 64% in a large group of patients prior to 1914 to 3-6% during the year 1937; (3) by the change in appearance, disposition, and

represents

character of

the patients, particularly the children.

all

The working

capacity of the

modem

diabetic has been investi-

and neonatal death. It has now been demonstrated that

can be corrected by substitutional therapy. In a small series of patients so treated foetal mortality approached the low incidence of normal mothers. (See also Gynaecology and Obstetrics.)

—

Bibliogsaphy. E. Ponteva, “Uber die Resultate der Diabetes Behandlung in Finland,” Acta med. Scand., Supp. 88, p. 26 (1938); F. Rathery, Le Diabete Sucre, Le(ons Clinigues (1938); V. Thomsen, “Studies of Trauma and Carbohydrate Metabolism with Special Reference to the Existence of Traumatic .Diabetes,” Acta. Med. Scajid., Supp. 91 (1938); A.

Marble and

I. Vartiainen, “Crystalline Insulin,” 113:1303-1309 (Sept. 30, 1939): P. White, R. S. Titus, E, P. Joslin, and H. Hunt, “Prediction and Prevention of Late Pregnancy Accidents in Diabetes,” Am. Jour. Med. Sciences, igS-.ijSa (1939). (E. P. Jo.)

in 1938 made another high record of 11,600,000 carats, and an in-

n»

World output of diamonds

UldlllUIIUOi

new

that diabetics today not only

21% over 1937, almost all of which came from the Belgian Congo, where production was raised by nearly one-half

can, but do, in large degree maintain themselves. Fully two- thirds

the only other material increase was in South Africa; Gold Coast

work

and Sierra Leone both declined.

gated in England, Finland, and in two of the larger clinics of the

United States. like

The

studies

show

normal individuals and another sixth do nearly

full

time

reached

work.

The

crease of

monograph wholly devoted

first

to studies of

trauma in

carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes, appeared in 1938 by Viggo Thomsen of Aarhus, Denmark; it is printed in English. Thomsen’s detailed clinical investigation of hospital patients admitted with

trauma, his experimental studies and his review of the literature, afforded him no evidence to support the contention that trauma

caused the disease. In Aug. 1938 a new type of insulin was released for general sale under the name of “insulin specially pre-

pared as a solution of zinc insulin crystals.” insulin, this

crystalline preparation

Like “regular”

(containing o-2-o-4 mg. of

zinc per 1,000 units) is clear, acid,

and has a quick,

relatively

shortlived action. It seems to act longer than the regular insulin,

though the difference clinically.

is

minor importance be used in any situation in

so slight as to be of

Crystalline insulin

may

which regular insulin has been employed. In addition to the three preparations of insulin now generally accepted and used (“regular,” crystalline, and protamine zinc), there are several other types which have been proposed. Among these are hexamine insulin, histone insulin,

and globin

Further studies will be

insulin.

necessary to determine the place of these newer preparations in treatment. So far implants of insulin preparations subcutaneously

have not been successful. Although the number of cases of tuberculosis in diabetic patients does not show the reduction which might be expected from the falling rate of tuberculosis in the community as a whole, neverthless, the

number of

diabetic patients

cases of tuberculosis developing in

in proportion

to the long duration

of their

diabetes has definitely decreased since the use of insulin. great susceptibility to tuberculosis patients in

whom

notably the cases

shown

The

particularly in those

control of the diabetes has been least perfect,

who have had

children, will remain.

diabetic

coma and

However, among a

also in diabetic

series of

396 cases of

diabetics with tuberculosis encountered at one hospital, it is con-

spicuous that since 1936 no cases have been discovered before the 20th year of age of the patient.

The effects of a disturbance of an endocrine gland are not always localized in that one gland, but are also found in others. This is strikingly illustrated in many diabetic pregnancies. During pregnancy the ovaries, thyroid, and pituitary have altered structure or function and the placenta also assumes the role of an endocrine gland. It secretes the hormones ordinarily formed in the ovary, estrin and progestin, and a pituitary-like hormone, choriogonadotropin (prolan). In diabetes the normal balance of

hormones is often altered. This disturbance of hormonal balance appears to be associated with the accidents of these placental

62%

In bulk, the Congo output

of the total, but because of the high percentage of

by value was reduced to probably The British Empire produced better than 30% of the total by weight, and nearly 70% by value. In addition to the producers shown in the production graph, only Brazil and British Guiana had outputs of material size. Producers of minor importance include French Equatorial Africa, French West Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Tanganyika, Borneo, India, and New South Wales. In 1939, only one mine was in active operation in South Africa, though washing of blue ground stocks was being carried on at two industrial stones, the proportion little

more than half

this figure.

others, ivith recoveries during the first half of the year

10%

above the average rate for 1937, while alluvial recoveries showed an average decline of 27%. Gold Coast during the first half of 1939 was about 20% behind the same period of 1937. No other specific operating data have yet become available. The Diamond Corporation, the central selling agency that handles the sales for

all

important producers, reported sales in

1938 valued at about £4,000,000, as compared with £10,000,000 in i937> a peak value of £12,000,000 in pre-depression years, and a

minimum of £1,500,000 in 1932. In 1938, the United States imported 1,818,700 carats of diamonds, valued at $28,307,000; on a weight basis this is i5-7% of the world output for the year, but on a value basis, the percentage would be much higher. This total included 91,500 carats of rough depression

DIATOMiTE -DISASTERS

210

and 76-8 for industrial

by Belser as from 70 to over loomg. daily. Kellie is “saturated” between 30 and 4omg. per day. For pregnant women the intake should not fall below 7Smg. and for lactation loomg.

by value were 25-0%, 6o-i%, and 14-9%. The increased demand for diamonds in industry has 'been phenomenal, expanding more than forty fold since

daily. Increased use of vitamin C has also been noted in diseases which are accompanied by increased oxidation or proliferation as malignant tumour, hyperthyroidism and leukaemia.

1929; incidentally, the rapidly rising sales of stones of this class has been an important item in helping producers to weather the

Food sources some vegetable

stones, 330,900 carats of cut stones,

stones;

dustrial

by weight was

in-

although the percentage distribution of these

5-0 for rough, 18-2 for cut,

corresponding percentages

the

stones,

and 1,396,200 carats of

(G. A. Ro.)

depression, which bore heavily on the industry.

are reported

of vitamin

the liver adequate to

part of this process

accumulated siliceous remains of multitudiriiQtnmita UldlUlllllCi nous numbers of microscopic organisms known as diatoms have found so many industrial uses that the product is

now mined

in large tonnages,

and goes to the market as the min-

eral formerly called kieselguhr,

now

but

usually

known

in English-

From

of chemical industry, a

heat insulator, a filter-aid in filler in

many

types

paints, varnishes, enamels,

and

may

so increase blood clotting time as to per-

calcium and phosphorus balance studies the requirements

of 'older adults appear to be

rubber, an abrasive, as an admixture in concrete, and as a carrier

are able to restore pletion.

This

is

much

the same as those of younger, by reduced requirements and they calcium and phosphorus to the body after de-

reduced intakes are not

for insect poisons. Roughly, production is of the order of 100,000

Denmark, 50,and smaller amounts

are the green parts of plants and

mit haemorrhage. Two forms of vitamin K, Ki from plants and Kz formed by bacterial action, have been identified. Both forms of the vitamin have been prepared and most details of their structure as derivatives of 1,4-naphthoquinone agreed upon.

speaking countries as diat'omite. Its chief uses are as a

K

must be present for its absorption and form prothrombin. Interference with any

Bile

oils.

offset

significant in

view of

senile osteoporosis due to

tons annually in the United States, 80,000 tons in

long-continued deficiency of calcium and vitamin D.

000 tons in Germany, 12,000 tons

rachitic tendency of cereals

in Algeria,

may

That

the

be counteracted by adding

cal-

Spain; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

cium lactate to the diet is further evidence of favourable supplementary relations between cereals and milk. Duckworth’s summary on magnesium in nutrition calls attention to its roles in metabolism. The importance of magnesium in

Diesel Engines: see Aviation, Civil: Engine Development; Electric Transportation; Motor Vehicles: Commercial

human nutrition should receive consideration since deficiencies may occur more frequently than has previously been suspected.

Vehicles.

Recent evidence of fluorosis comes from England, Denmark, North Africa, as well as the United States. In three regions after eight to ten years’ change in the water supply the production of mottled tooth enamel has been halted. Of interest also is the

in a

number

(G. A. Ro.)

of other countries.

Dictatorships:

see

Communism; Fascism; Germany;

Dies Investigating Committee: Civil

American Legion; Bund; Propaganda;

see

Geeman-American

Liberties;

Italy;

Youth Movements.

India,

unexplained coincidence of lower incidence of carious teeth where

niatotiop UlClClIubi

spectacular as the discovery in 1938 of the

recent evidence of

may

deficiency

human

of

nicotinic

'

acid

pellagra

in

requirements for riboflavin and vitamin

That a pellagra problem still exists is indicated by recent reports. Pellagra symptoms may be cured by Be

be as

significant.

poor diets are continued, other dietary deficiencies become apparent. Neuritis cured by vitamin Bi may be the first, then riboflavin deficiency characterized by skin lesions particularly about the mouth and nose. A number of patients whose diets remain poor while they receive these synthetic vitamin supplements are still nervous and weak. They are nicotinic acid but,

if

by synthetic vitamin Be. Adaptation of the eye to dark was used extensively

minimum

A

requirements for vitamin

in 1939

as well as

and nursing women, in patients with cirrhosis of the liver and thyroid disease. Twentyfive per cent of night-blind Africans had Bitot’s spots which to indicate its deficiencies in pregnant

A healed.

Similar spots were found in the eyes of children in Ceylon along with toad skin. Mellanby’s production of deafness in young animals on vitamin A deficient diets through over-

vitamin

growth of cranial bone

Much of

may have

significant

the current research on vitamin Bi

human is

implications.

devoted to chem-

methods for its determination. Vitamin Bi treatment conperitinues for a wide range of toxic and neuritic conditions, as pheral neuritis, herpes zoster, delirium tremens, insomnia and the ical

early cardiopathies of alcohol addicts.

It is

used successfully in

the pre-operative treatment of hyperthyroid patients. Suggestions of metabolic interdependence between manganese and vitamin Bi and observations of zinc deficiency in beri-beri patients open new fields for speculation

Widespread mild the oDtimum

human

and research.

deficiencies of vitamin

intake

is

C

Widdowson

finds that administering iron in therapeutic doses

of haemoglobin in pregnancy to a

rise,

the iron be discontinued, falls again at the previous

rate.

converts the usual

which,

if

are reported, but

not agreed upon. Saturation levels

fall

She does not conclude which level is the optimum state. Bethell recognizes haemoglobin below lomg. per cent as undesirable in the pregnant woman and prescribes iron in addition to at least 50 grams of animal protein and other protective foods to prevent the macrocytic anaemia which he observed. Almost 200 dietary studies were reported in 1939, practically twice as

many

Nations.

A

as in 1938.

sored or inspired

relieved dramatically

to determine

drinking water contains fluorine.

the

large proportion of these are spon-

by the Nutrition Committee

of the League of

{See also Vitamins.)

—

Bibliography. E. Mellanby, “The experimental production of deafness young animals by diet,” J. Physiol., Dec. 1938; Y. L. Wang and L. J. Harris, “Methods for assessing the level of nutrition of the human subject. Estimation of vitamin Bj in urine by the thiochrome test,” Biochem. J.. Aug. 1939; L. F. Fieser, W. P. Campbell and E. M. Fry, “Synthesis 01 quinones related to vitamins Ki and Kz,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., Aug. I 939 (M. C. H. B.) in

’

Diodrast: see X-Ray. Diphtheria: see Epidemics and Public Health Control; Public Health Services Serum Therapy. Diplomatic Services: see Ambassadors and Envoys. ;

nicOCtOI'C

UloaolurS.

and

following

list

disasters

of

includes outstanding accidents 1939.

Disasters

that resulted

from purely military or naval action will be found by date in the Calendar of Events, p. i #. A list of the merchant ships sunk by submarines, mines, and surface craft during the year is included in the article Submarine Warfare. Warships sunk by naval action during the year are also listed chronologically by date of sinking in the

Calendar of Events.

DISASTERS Aviation Jan. 7 Near

Senlis,

injured

France.

Zurich-Paris passenger plane crash killed 3»

6.

Jan. 13 Near Miles City, ^lont. Crash of airliner killed 4. Jan. 14 Near Rio Bonito, Brazil. Passenger plane hit side of mountain; 10 killed.

Jan. 18 Near Darwin, Australia. Mail-plane crash killed 4. Jan. 21 British flying boat “Cavalier’* forced down and sank in Atlantic enroute from New York to Bermuda; 2 passengers and steward drowned; 10 survivors were rescued after 10 hours in sea by tanker “Esso Bay-

town.” Jan. 23 Near Los Angeles, Calif. Experimental light bomber of U. S. Army crashed, killing test pilot and injiiring representative of French Air Ministry, whose presence in plane precipitated inquiry’ into charges that Gov’t had revealed a^^ation secrets to foreign power. Feb. 20 Near Pensacola, Fla. Eight U. S. Navy training planes crashed in heavy fog; tw'o pilots, including Brazilian Navy officer, were killed; six others leaped to safety in parachutes. Feb. 24 Near Nice, France. German plane with 12 Nazi army officers aboard crashed in Alps; all were killed. Mar. 18 Near Alder, Wash. Experimental substratosphere transport liner broke apart during test flight; 10 killed, including two members of Dutch aviation mission. Mar. 26 Oklahoma City, Okla. Eight killed, 4 injured when airliner crashed and burned. April 4 East BrainVtee, Mass. Youi \3 S. Navy ftiws killed In collision ol two planes during launching ceremonies of aircraft carrier. May 8 Guayaquil, Ecuador, Crash of militarj' plane in crowded street set fire to surrounding buildings; at least 25 killed, including pilot. July IS Atlantic ocean, 150 miles south-east of New Y^ork city. Coast guard plane bringing sick seaman to shore crashed; two pilots and patient .

killed.

S. Anny bomber crashed and burned; entire crew of g killed. Aug. 13 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Fourteen killed, including Prof. James Harvey Rogers, when “baby clipper” plane plunged into harbour and struck

Aug. II Langley Field, Va. U.

killed.

May

Ottumwa, la. Father and five children died in fire. g Near Tokyo, Japan. Eight factories destroyed by series of explosions; at least ii killed, 260 injured; 30 missing. II Chicago, III. Dust explosion and fire destroyed five grain elevators;

May

9 dead, 23 injured. 31 Barberton, Ohio. Gas explosion in school bouse injured 40 children,

April 22 ?klay

4 adults. 10 Penaranda de Bracamonte, Spain. Approximately 100 killed, 1,500 injured in explosion of munitions factorj”; town was virtuallj’’ demolished. July 14 Providence, Ky. Twenty-eight coal miners died in explosion. July 29 Santa Rosa mountains, Nevada. Four members of Civib'an Conservation Corps trapped by forest fire and killed; another missing. Aug. 13 Ft. Knox, Ky. Six National Guardsmen Mled by explosion of shell they believed to be “dud.” Sept. 12 (?) Off Casablanca, French Morocco. French warship “Pluton” exploded; at least 100 killed. Oct. 27 Dunfermline, Scotland. At least 35 miners killed in colliery explosion. Oct- 29 Rock Springs, Wyo. Five schoolboys killed by blast caused by rifle July

bullet.

Nov. Dec.

13 Lagunillas, Venezuela. dead or missing.

13

Calif. Navy bomber with crew of 6 struck antenna of radio station; all killed. Oct. 19 Near San Diego, Calif. FourU. S. Navy fliers killed in mid-air collision of two dive bombers. Dec. 24 Mogador, Morocco. Italian plane inaugurating Rio de Janeiro-Rome air route crashed; 7 killed.

Fires

7

Near San Diego,

and Explosions

Jan. 9-14 Australia. At least 31 killed in brush

A FLEETING HOPE FOR 99 MEN

fires

throughout Victoria.

trapped In the sunken British submarine “Thetis” spurred rescuers June 1, 1939, while the stern projected ISft. above the surface of Liverpool bay, but a strong tide swept the craft to the bottom

Town destroyed by oil

Near Brachto, Rumania. Explosion than

dry dock. Sept.

211

21 Jaunchito, Colombia. Explosion in power storehouse killed 10 outright, injured many others. Feb3 S>Tacuse, N. Y. Collapse of wall in burning building killed 8 firemen. Feb. 5 Springfield, N. J. Four sleeping children burned to death in home. Mar. I Hirakata, Japan. Approximately 200 killed, 200 injured in explosion of army arsenal. Mar. 2 Halifax, Nova Scotia. More than 30 died in hotel fire. Mar. 28 Herstal, Belgium. Explosion in munitions factor>' killed 8 outright, wounded 40 others. April 12 Chicago, 111. Seven Negroes burned to death in apartment building fire, allegedly set by discharged janitor; tw’o others died later. April 19 Le Havre, France. S.S. “Paris” of French line burned and sank; 2

Jan.

fire;

approximately 200

in cellulose factory killed

more

60.

Marine Bungo strait, Japan.Japanese submarine “I-63,**withcrewof 87aboard, sank after coUision, 6 were rescued. Feb. 8 Atlantic ocean, 1,500 miles east of New York. British freighter “Maria de Larrinaga” sank with 37 aboard. May 23 Off Hampton Beach, N. H. U.S submarine “Squalus” sank in Atlantic with 59 men aboard; 33. including Lieut. O. F. Naquin, the commander, were rescued May 24 and 25, and brought to surface in rescue bell; 26 were trapped and drowned. June I Liverpool bay. British submarine “Thetis” sank with 103 men aboard; 4 escaped through hatch; rescue attempts failed after protruding stem of submarine sank to bottom before it could be cut open or held fast Feb.

2

WRECKAGE

of the streamliner "City of San Francisco," were killed near Elko, Nev., Aug. 12, 1939

in

which 24 persons

Nov. 10 Near Morioka, Japan. More than 200 trapped

known dead; 60

June 15

July

18

July

22

Aug.

23

Dec.

12

Dec.

12

Dec.

2$

at surface; toll of gg dead was greatest of any submarine disaster. Cam-Ranh bay, French Indo-China. French submarine “Phenix'* disappeared after dive, with 71 aboard. No trace of craft, except oil slick on surface, was found. Pacific ocean, 1,100 miles east of Yokohama. Japanese ship “Bokuyo Maru” exploded and sank; 3 died; 209 rescued. St. Lawrence river, near Deschaillons, Que. Schooner cut in half by freighter; 4 missing. Off Ilh6os, Bahia, Brazil. Coastwise steamer “Itacar6” foundered near port; at least 30 drowned. La Perouse (Soya) strait, Japan. Soviet steamer “Indigirka” wrecked in storm; 700 believed killed; approximately 400 rescued. (?) North sea (?) British destroyer “Duchess” sank after collision with another warship; more than 100 believed drowned. (?) Black Sea. Turkish ship “Kilzilirmak” sank in storm with entire crew of 20; Greek steamer “Astrea” lost with crew of 14 aboard.

Motor Traffic Mar. 29 Near Jackson,

Fourteen died when ii motor cars plunged into swollen creek through gap in highway caused by washout of bridge. {See also traffic accipents.) Jkliss.

Miscellaneous 22 Mount Baker, Wash. Snowslide engulfed climbers; three men and three girls killed.

July

Aug. Oct.

710

s

Near Somerset, Pa.

Giant boulder

college party of

killed four

tunnel. 23 Perth Amboy, N.J. Five babies killed

mountain

workers in highway in hospital.

in collision between tug-

Natural Disasters 24 South Central Chile. Earthquake devastated area of approximately SO,OTO square niiles. Estimated death toll was 30,000, mostly in ConChilian. Razed cities were evacuated by survivors. r* u reb. 2-s Ohio river valley. Five dead in floods; approximately 11,000 homeless. Mar. 25 Dawson Creek, B.C., Canada. Eight persons drowned in flood. Alar. 25 Near Bareges, France. Avalanches in Pyrenees killed 28; others Jan.

missing.

Apr. 15-16 Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma. Tornadoes killed at least 40* June 18 Anol^, Minn, and vicinity. Tornado killed 10, injured 63. July 5 North-eastern Kentucky, U.S.A. At least 75 drowned, others missing 1^^ floods from swollen mountain streams. X? August Northern China. Vast areas under flood waters; approximately *

10,000,000 persons homeless, starved, or drowned. Sept. 22 Vicinity of Smyrna, Turkey. At least 300 killed in earthquake. Sept, 24 Southern California coast. At least 18 killed, 57 missing in tropical storm. Dec, 27 Northern Turkey. Earthquakes devastated wide regions in Eastern and Northern Anatolia; casualties estimated at more than 100,000 killed or injured; city of Erzingan completely destroyed, with more than 15,000 deaths; floods later increased toll of dead.

Railroads II Near Barcelona. Runaway

Feb.

by escaping steam

in sulphur mine; 34

missing.

Nov. 17 Near Beaufort, N. C. At least ten drowned boat and fishing vessel on inland waterway.

more than 100

injured.

express crashed into local train; 35

killed,

ROMAN

DISCIPLES OF CHRIST— DMOWSKI.

2T3

19 Near Tennant, la. Runaway locomotive collided head-on with passenger train; 2 killed; 23 injured. Feb. 24 Near San Luis Potosi, Mex. Train wreck killed 6. Feb. 28 Boston, Mass. Trolley car jumped tracks; 6 killed, 25 injured. ^lar. 30 New York city. More than 200 injured in collision of subway trains. April 13 Near Queretaro, Mex. Train wreck killed 28 outright: others died

Feb.

later;

more than 50

seriously injured.

May

25 Near Newington, Conn. Cab of work car sideswiped Montreal-Washington express; i killed, more than 20 injured. Aug. 12 Near Elko, Nev. Streamliner “City of San Francisco** wrecked after passing over rail that had been bent in and spiked down; 24 killed, 1 13 injured. Sept. 4 Chicago. Six persons standing on track killed by suburban train. Sept. II Near Warroad, ^linn. Three killed, s injured in head-on collision of two Canadian National trains. Aug. 12 Denver, Colo. Collision of two passenger trains killed one, injured

V

more than 50. 8 Berlin, Germany. Twenty-two killed in collision of trains. Nov. 13 Near Oppeln, Germany. Train wreck killed 43, injured 60. Dec. 12 Near Hagen, Germany. At least 17 dead in train collision. Dec. 22 Near Magdeburg, Germany. At least 132 killed, 109 injured, in collision of two express trains; 99 killed, 40 injured in another wreck near Oct.

Friedrichshafen.

Dec. 30 Near Naples, Italy. Frozen swntch cai:^ed train wreck in which at least 29 were killed, 100 injured.

nicrinloc nf Phrict UlOuipiCo Ul Ullllol, Canada, which received

^

its

body having

religious

strength initial

separate existence from 1830, and

in

the

impulse in its

its

chief

United States and 1809, dates its

nationally organized

work

from 1849. If is also well represented in Great Britain, Australia and many mission fields. Local churches are generally known as Christian Churches or as Churches of Christ. The headquarters of its United Christian Missionary Society and other promotional and educational agencies are at Indianapolis, Ind. Its National Benevolent Association has headquarters at

St. Louis.

national convention (United States and Canada)

is

Its Inter-

held annually

(Richmond, 1939, Roger T. Nooe, president; H. B. McCormick, president for 1940). The quadrennial world convention, set for Toronto, Aug. 6-12, 1940, was postponed on account of the war. Disciples of Christ are participating in the arrangements looking

toward the organization of the World Council of Churches. F. H. Groom was visiting American delegate to the convention of British Churches of Christ. Stephen J. Corey, former president of the United Christian Missionary Society, became president of the

THE CITY OF CONCEPCION was almost totally destroyed by the Chilean earthquake of Jan. 24, 1939, which took an estimated total of 30,000 lives College of the Bible, Lexington, Kentucky. D. S. Robinson suc-

ceeded olis,

J.

Ind.

the year.

members

W. Putnam

as president of Butler university, Indianap-

World membership

is 1,818,163, a gain of 28,872 for In the United States and Canada there are 1,657,426 (gain 27,033), 8,071 churches (loss 39), 7,466 ministers

(gain 159). For the year ending June 30, 1939, total receipts of national and State agencies reporting to the International con-

vention were $4,110,241. Receipts for local church maintenance were $10,875,048. There are many independent missionary agencies

not reporting.

(

W.

E. Ga.)

District of Columbia: see Washington, D.C. Divorce: see Marriage and Dh'orce.

nmnurelii

UillUnwM,

Domon nUllldll

(1864-1939), Polish statesman and pa-

was bom in Warsaw. He studied up to work for the cause of Polish work was in the open, as leader of the

triot,

for the law but soon gave

independence. Part of his Polish party in the Russian

it

Duma. Most

of

it

w’as secret.

Several

times he was jailed by the Russian police, and he travelled extensively in Europe, Asia, and the United States to hold conven-

He founded the Polish National DemoDuring the World War he became president of the Polish National committee in Paris. With Ignace Paderewski he was delegate to the Versailles conference in 1919 and signed tions of Polish separatists.

cratic party in 1893.

the treaty for the

new

Polish Republic.

was a member of the Polish minister of foreign

and died A RESCUE BELL

brought 33 survivors to the surface from the sunken U. S. submarine **Squalus” off Hampton Beach, N. H., May 24 and 25, 1939. Twentysix men were lost

at

affairs.

From 1919

to 1922 he

and in 1923 he was appointed He retired from active politics in 1924 diet

Warsaw on January

2.

vol. 18, p. 148 fol. for the role of

struggle for Polish independence.

See E?icyclopcEdja Britannica,

Dmowski and

others in the

DODECANESE, THE — DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS

214

however, prevented any immediate action.

Dodecanese, The: see Italian Colonial Empire. Dog Shows: see Shows: Dogs.

—In Finances.— Education.

mary

schools, with

^The

Doherty, Henry Latham

and petroleum executive, was born May 15 at Columbus, Ohio, where he was educated in public schools and began his career as a newsboy and as office boy in a public utility company. Between 1890 and 1905 he was an executive of public utilities in St. Paul, Denver, San Antonio, and 26 other cities; then he organized his own company to finance and operate various utilities. In 1910 he organized Cities Service Company, a gigantic holding

ities"

company which

controlled almost 200 petroleum

more than

assets of real

and

$1,000,000,000.

estate holdings in

New York

at the time of his death

utility corporations

Doherty city,

had extensive Florida and elsewhere.

Especially in his later years he was actively identified with several

philanthropic enterprises.

He

died

December 26

at Philadelphia.

monetary unit

U.S. dollar. Fiscal control

is in

Rnlan Franpk UUidil, riallulo ton, lege,

lidlllCu

Mass, on July 14. He received his education at Boston colat St. Andrew-on-Hudson, a Jesuit novitiate, and at Wood-

stock college, Woodstock,

Md. He was

professor of classics at

Loyola college, Baltimore, from 1919 to 1921 and at Holy Cross college, Worcester, Mass., from 1921 to 1923. He was ordained to the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church June 14, 1926.

the peso, equivalent to the

the hands of a financial adviser

—

sugar estates.

In 1938 imports totalled $11,342,000 in value (principally

machinery and structural materials)

tiles,

1937

,

a decline of

Exports declined 9-8% over

1937,

and

totalled $14,347,000, going chiefly to Great Britain (42 %, against in 1937), the United States (32%), and France (8%,

against

31% 14%

Indies

(3%). Exports

in 1937),

Germany (3%), and

the Netherlands West

for the first seven

months of 1939 were

valued at $14,743,769, a 28-8% increase over the corresponding period of 1938. The Dominican Republic is primarily agricultural in its production, with sugar the in

which

it

most important

crop,

and

cacao,

ranks fourth in the world production, second. These

commodities, with coffee, hides, tobacco and lignum prise the bulk of the exports.

On July 15, 1933 he was selected as president of Holy Cross and remained in this position until his death September 6,

tex-

from

-

of natural theology at Boston college and, after two years of

in 1931.

3%

The United States (54%)> Japan (11%), Germany (8%), British West Indies (5%), and Great Britain (4%) were the

The next year he was appointed dean of freshmen and professor graduate study in England, he became dean of Holy Cross college

of

Trade and Communication. ^The Dominican Republic has good external communication by sea and by air. There are 268km. of government-owned railway and a highway network of over 1,500 kilometres. An additional 982km. of railroad is in use on

principal sources of imports.

Ti.S. rear admiral and educator, was born May 3 in Worcester, Mass., and graduated from the U.S. Naval academy in 1896. He was ap-

level before operation. Investigations

pointed ensign in 1898,

be obtained by making a new “window” (fenesbony capsule of the labyrinth. Later Holmgren and Sourdille performed a number of operations, using certain techniques that they themselves developed and perfected with concluin hearing could

sions of vast importance.

and researches brought out

new “window” (fenestra) did not remain open close because of bony regeneration. How to keep

Dolnh

l\(il|JII

I

the fact that the

Sept. 1930.

but began to

known

“window” (fenestra) open remains the important problem, for closure of the fenestra by bony regeneration will lead to ultimate failure of the operation. Julius Lempert of New York had undertaken the study of the surgery of the temporal bone. He developed and perfected a surgical approach and technique for instituting drainage in cases of acute and chronic mastoiditis. The approach differed from all others. He created a mobile window in the membranous and extracartilaginous portion of the external auditory which gave him an approach to any part of the temporal bone. It is technically the

termed the endaural, antauricular surgical approach to the temporal bone.

He continued his studies on otosclerosis with the view to developing certain fundamentals that might lessen the time factor in the fistula

complete operation as well as obtain a permanently open of the labyrinth by mechanically preventing regeneration

of bone. He set out, in his anatomic studies, and later in his operations on patients, to carry out the steps as he had created them. The result is his one-stage endaural plastic reconstruction

many

He

commander in 1915, and mine field across

originated the

in

the North Sea

as the Northern Barrage, plans for depth charges, and

other naval ordnance

mander

rear admiral

of the

In 1925 he retired as comNewport, R.I., to become

proj’ects.

Naval torpedo

station in

president of Worcester Polytechnic institute.

He

died February

13 after an attack suffered while addressing Worcester kudents at

chapel exercises.

Earthquakes:

see Disasters; Seismology.

Easley, Ralph

Montgomery

economist and reformer, on February 25. In igoo he organized, in New York city, the National Civic Federation, of which he was executive chairman until his death. During his career he pro-

was born

at Frederick, lU.

moted conferences on a wide variety

of topics, including taxation,

the reform of primary elections, immigration, trusts, and the

He

for-

League for National Unity in 1917 and was author of numerous 3vorks on public questions. He died at Rye, N.Y., on September 7. eign policy of the U.S.A.

also organized the

incorporating the following principles; i. The decompression and mobilization of the fluid beneath the bony capsule (the perilymph) by surgically constructing a trough-shaped fenestra (“window”)

East Africa, British: see British East Africa. Economic Association, American: see American Economic Association.

bony capsule of the external semicircular canal. 2. The preservation of this surgically created mobility of the labyrinthine perilymph by replacing the removed area of bony labyrinthine

Economic Geology:

in the

capsule with a suitable and durable into the fenestra

membrane which

and maintained permanently

is

inserted

in direct contact

with the perilymph. 3. The arrest of the progressive labyrinthine venous stasis by decompression of the dura of the temporal lobe in the region of the epitympanic recess. This one-stage operation takes anywhere from three and a half to seven hours to perform

and requires the utmost skill and finesse. Of the 23 cases operated on, practical improvement in hearing was obtained in ig, none in the remaining 4 cases. Of the 23 cases, the newly created fistula of the external semicircular canal remained open in 22.

—

Bibliography. C. Jackson and C. L. Jackson, The Larynx and its Diseases (1937); C. L. Jackson. “The Voice After Direct Laryngoscopic Operations, Laryngofissure and Laryngectomy,” Archives of Otolaryngology. Hygiene of Swimming: H. Marshall Taylor, “The Causes and Prevention

see Geology.

South American republic situated astride the Equator on the Pacific; language, Spanish; capital, Quito; provisional president. Dr. Carlos Arroyo del Rio (resigned Dec. II, 1939), A. F. CoYdova. The area, including the Galapagos

rPlIQfInr

^

LwUduUr,

Islands (2,400 sq.mi.),

is

337,392 sq.mi., according to Ecuadorean is disputed with Peru. Population

claims, but over 100,000 sq.mi.

(193s est.) is 3,414,106. The chief cities are: Quito, 140,000; Guayaquil, 120,000; Cuenca, 42,000; Riobamba, 21,200.

—

History. ^Throughout 1939 internal disorder threatened in Ecuador. In January and in March minor disturbances attributed to leftist elements and accompanied by strikes were suppressed. Again in July, a revolutionary outbreak was thwarted when the

Government arrested several prominent political and military figures. Moderate tension continued through the year. Meanwhile,

EDEN.

ANTHONY— EDUCATION

on January 15, under the constitution of Dec. 1938, congressional elections were held. In them women voted for .the first time. The new congress convened February 2 and confirmed Dr. Aurelio Mosquera Narvaez in the presidential office to which the subsequently dissolved constituent assembly of 1938 had named him on December 2, but rejected the constitution approved by that body. In March, when it was proposed in the United States Congress that the United States purchase or lease the Galapagos islands for use as part of the

Panama

canal defences and to pre-

vent their seizure by any European power, there was great indignation throughout Ecuador, and in May the Government formally

221

for League of Nations Affairs, holding this post until the follow-

when he succeeded Sir Samuel Hoare at the forHis tenure was marked by an ardent championship of the League of Nations and by progressive loss of confidence in the German and Italian Governments. Disagreement with the prime minister on the latter score led to his resignation on Feb. 20, 1938. Eden, however, refrained for the most part from attacking the

ing December, eign

office.

Government for not seeing eye-to-eye with him on the best methods of negotiating with Hitler and Mussolini.

Late in 1938 Eden made a

\isit to

the United States, w'here he

New York

received a friendly welcome in

December 9 that

and absolutely disavowed the proposal. Upon the outbreak of the European war, Ecuador declared her neutrality and, on October 20, in general accord with the Declaration of Panama (See His-

address there on

panic America and the European War), proclaimed the neutrality of a zone extending 50omi. westward from her shores and including the Galapagos islands. War conditions caused a sharp retail price rise of 10% to 20% in Ecuador, and at the same time a decline in agricultural prices, ivith consequent economic iU effects. On November 17, President Mosquera Narvaez died, and Dr. Carlos Arroyo del Rio, president of the Senate, succeeded as provisional president. In conformity with constitutional requirement, he called a presidential election for Jan. ii, 1940, and subsequently announced his own candidacy. Other candidates included Dr. Jacinto Jijon y Caamano, leader of the Conservative party, who left Los Angeles, Calif., in December to take part in the campaign, and former president Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra.

that he would re-enter the cabinet, and

—

Education. ^Ecuador has 2,239 elementary schools (enrolment over 180,000), 21 secondary schools, and four universities (at Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, and Loja).

—

Army and Navy. ^Ecuador has an army of around 7,500 men, and a national police force of 3,500 for maintenance of internal order.

Military service

is

U.S.).

compulsory.

—The monetary

Finances,

The 1940 budget

unit

calls for

is

the sucre (value; approx. 6

113,050,000 sucres, a

20%

^

re-

duction in spite of the decline of the sucre.

Trade and Communication.

—External

communication

is

sea (almost entirely through Guayaquil) and north and south

by by

its

city

and declared

in

an

Britain W'ould never surrender

democratic ideals and W’ould not ask the help of other nations

were persistent rumours on September 3 he was appointed secretary for the Dominions, without a seat in the war cabinet but presumably with intimate access to its deliberations. He w'as then chosen to deliver the British reply to Germany’s efforts (voiced especially in a speech by Goering on September 9) in protecting them. After July 1939 there

make a separate peace after the conquest of In an international broadcast on September ii Eden declared that “there can be no lasting peace imtil Naziism ... is to persuade France to

Poland.

banished.

.

.

Priicnn rhorloc LUIoUily ullallCo

),

was

bom

U.S. Secretary of the Navy,

at Llewellyn Park,

West Orange,

N.J. on August 3, the son of Thomas A. Edison. He W'as educated at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 1913 joined his

As president of Thomas A. Ediset up to manufacture and distribute the products invented by the elder Edison. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy by President Roosevelt Nov. 17, 1936, and became Acting Secretary upon the death of Secretary Claude A. Swanson July 7, 1939. Previously he had father in business and research.

son, Inc.

he directed the many corporations

been assistant to the administrator of the NRA and regional director of the Federal Housing Administration. Roosevelt appointed him Secretary of the Navy on Dec. 30, 1939.

air.

Railway mileage totals over 600 miles. There are approximately 3,ooomi. of highways, with around a third of the 1,090km. Inter-American highway link through Ecuador still under con-

educational literature of the year 1939 was rHllPoflnn LUUUallUlla marked by an unusually vigorous emphasis upon

struction.

sponsibility of education for defending

Imports and exports in 1938 rose in terms of the sucre, due to its fall in international exchange, but fell in volume and in dollar value to $11,064,000 and $12,614,000 respectively ($11,980,000 and $14,928,000 in 1937). Imports (foodstuffs, machinery, tex-

of American democracy.

the place of education in American democracy and on the re-

program

in

New York

ideals

more

went chiefly to the United States (37-5%), Germany (17-5%). France (8%), and Great Britain (4-6%). Cacao is the principal export commodity. Oil is also important. In 1939 Ecuador produced 2,265,ooobbl. (est.) of oil (2,249,74obbl. in 1938 and i,6i7,ooobbl. in 1934). (L. W. Be.)

“Which

creasing

demands

showed a tendency to under the pressure of in-

State, other States

encroach on the public school social security, roads

coffee)

and advancing the

contest for public taxes grew

intense than formerly. In addition to the drastic cut in the school

and other manufactured goods) came largely from the United States (34-6%), Germany (24-1%), Great Britain (7-7%), Japan (7-4%), and France (4-4%). Exports (cacao, gold, oil, and tiles,

The

dollar,

for appropriations for relief, old-age pensions,

and other public services. Educational leadwere frightened at these demands, as worthy as they may be, and were afraid that the schools would be crippled. The question that agitated some of them was: ers throughout the U.S.

is

more important, the care

of the old people or the edu-

cation of the children?” Attracting notice also were the continued decline in elementary school enrolments, increased enrolments in

secondary schools and in higher educational institutions, continued interest in the revisions of curricula, the growth of the junior

Eden, (Roliett) Anthony

college

cated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford. After service in the World War (1915-18), he contested the Spennymoor division of

adult education and the increase in the

Durham in 1922, and in the following year he was elected for Wanvick and Leamington, which he thereafter continued to represent. From 1926 to 1929 he was parliamentary private secretary to Sir Austen Chamberlain. He then became under-secretary for foreign affairs and, in 1934, lord privy seal

and a privy councillor. In June 1935 he entered the cabinet as minister without portfolio

movement, the expansion of vocational education and of

number of adult forums, a decline in the pressures for loyalty oaths for teachers, an increase in the strength of opinion in regard to the tenure and retirement of teachers, and the creation in the Office of Education in Washington of a Guidance Division and the placement of that division in the Federal Security Agency.

—

Congress on Education for Democracy This unique .convenwas held at Teachers college, Columbia university. New York .

tion

EDUCATION

222

dent Roosevelt’s Advisory Committee on Education had served to arouse wide interest in and support of Federal aid for educaInteresting also were resolutions of the organization urging freedom of teachers to present and discuss “relevant materials of a controversial nature” and the freedom of the teacher “to live his personal life and conduct himself in private with the freedom action.

corded other citizens.” Professor George A. Counts, of Teachers college,

Columbia university, was elected the new president

of

the Federation.

During the summer of 1939 several “Workshops” in the field of secondary education were conducted in a number of institutions in various parts of the U.S. All of these enterprises, except the workshop of the Southern Association of Colleges and Sec-

ondary Schools, conducted at the University of North Carolina, were carried on in co-operation with the Committee on Workshops and Field Service of the Progressive Education Association. School and Society.

—Early

brought together educators and laymen, who were representative of many phases of American life, to consider and discuss the

announcement was most important American educational magazines since the early 20th century, was to be published by the Society for the Advancement of Education, a non-profit organization formed to maintain and promote that journal and to “foster other related enterprises designed to advance the interests of education.” Distinguished American educators were named as trustees of that organization. The general editorial policy of School and Society, founded in 1915 and edited since that time by J. McKeen Cattell, will not be changed. But the magazine is now to be edited by William C. Bagley, who in August retired from a long and distinguished service as professor of education in Columbia university. The Regents’ Inquiry. ^The completion of the Regents’ Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Public Education in the State of New York, and the publication of numerous studies by the

question of the responsibility of education “for the defense and

inquiry attracted considerable attention throughout the U.S. This

advance of democracy.” There were many general meetings and about a score of seminars. A report on the discussions and recommendations of the seminars was made at the closing meeting of

survey constituted a most comprehensive examination of educa-

made

GIRL TUMBLERS

of the Oakdale, Calif,, Union high school successful lour of the Pacific coast In the spring of 1939

city,

August

IS, i6, 17, 1939,

made

a lengthy and

and attracted considerable

notice.

It

the congress.

ment of

One

of the recommendations called for the appoint-

a “Continuation

Committee

to consider the results of the

present Congress and to prepare specific plans for further activities.”

It

was

also

recommended

that such a committee should

how to “collect the crucial problems of American democ"racy and how to get adequate information in relation to them.” Institutes on Projessionai Relations. During the summer of consider

—

1939 more than 30 higher educational institutions from the Carolinas to Oregon co-operated with the National Education Associa-

and their respective State education associations in “instion professional relations. A representative of the National Education Association worked with these institutions and associations in the organization of the institutes, which were attended

tion

tutes”

large number of people engaged in educational work. The National Education Association also sponsored several radio programs over, national networks. President Amy Hinrichs, of the National Education Association, announced the appointment of a

by a

committee of that organization to co-operate with the American Legion on educational matters. At the San Francisco convention of the National Education Association the name of the “Department of Secondary Education” was changed to “Department of Secondary Teachers.” Three new departments were created: the

Garden Education, National Association of Journalism Directors, and National Association of Teachers of

Department

of

Speech.

Federation of Teachers, at a meeting at Buffalo Aug. 1939, adopted a unanimous resolution which endorsed the

The American in

“progressive policies of the national administration in regard to education and labor.” It also asserted that the report of Presi-

that School

in Sept. 1939

and Society, one

of the

—

tion in that State. Owen D. Young was chairman of the special committee of the inquiry, which began several years ago. Luther H. Gulick was director and Samuel P. Capen was associate director. Staff members were drawn from many institutions throughout the U.S. During 1939 there was wide discussion of the findings, in which the regents hoped that “The State of New York and its

independent school communities

may

thus continue to

make

their

contribution to the advancement of education for American life.” Each of the “Studies,” which the inquiry published, contained

and made specific recommendations in the It was found that there were in the State of New York 8,000 school districts, some of which had the same metes and bounds as were given them under an act of 1812, findings

significant

respective fields treated.

nearly 19,000 school

officers,

about 82,000 teachers, about

2,000,-

more than 5,700 one-teacher schools, expenditures for 000 schools (193s) more than $277,900, school properties valued at $1,000,000,000, State educational aid in the amount of $120,000,pupils,

000, 18 subjects in the elementary school and 63 in the secondary among the 1,700 or more higher educational institutions in the United States were schools. In the light of increasing competition

two interesting recommendations of the

amend

inquiry.

One was

to

the law so as to limit “very rigorously incorporation of

further independent general arts colleges and universities.” The other was to extend the secondary school program beyond the twelfth grade, in the direction of the establishment of junior colleges at public expense.

The Educational

Policies

Commission

continued and issued valuable publications. Among these was Social Services and the Schools, which defined the sphere its activities

of educational service and proposed policies with regard to schools, public health, public welfare, recreation and libraries. Important m also was an activity of the commission which was inaugurated

EDUCATION

223

July 1939, to study ways in which the school can develop in young people intelligent and active loyalty to democratic ideals. In Sep-

of this division are under the general superwsion of the under-

tember the commission issued its report on Federal Activities in Education, the most comprehensive statement made since the National Advisory Committee on Education made its report in 1932. Federal Aid. The hope of many educational leaders that the

graphical divisions of the United States.

—

make

congress would

and considerable progress toward carrydng into effect the recommendations of the President’s Advisory Committee on Education in regard to Federal aid for education was not as lively at the end as at the beginning of 1939. The Harrison-Thomas bill (S.1305) and the Larrabee bill (H.R. early

3517) carried over into the third session of the 76th Congress with the exact status that they had when the first session adjourned

The Senate bill was ready for a vote by the Senate, having been favourably reported in the first session by the Senate committee on education and labour. The House bill awaited a

in August.

by the House committee on education. The Commission on Teacher Education of the American Coun-

hearing

on Education began a “cooperative study of teacher educawhich involved 20 higher educational institutions and 14 school systems and groups of school teachers. This commission was formed in 1938 to conduct a study of this subject for a period of five years. Carl W. Bigelow was made director of the study,

cil

tion,”

is to encourage the rapid passage into pracknowledge available concerning the education of teachers in the United States. The commission also seeks to stimulate experimentation with programs of the education of teachers and the growth of teachers in service. The commission held a

the purpose of which tice of the best

conference at Bennington col-

Vermont, in Aug. 1939,

lege,

attended by more than loo people

who represented many who are engaged in the

groups

work of the education of teachers. The Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards completed its work during 1939 and offered its publications to secondary schools, to libraries, to teachers of courses in sec-

ondary education, and to State, regional, and national groups interested in materials for the

improvement of the work

in

secondary schools. The

of

sum

approximately $200,000 was ex-

pended by

study during

this

the years 1936-39 “in the de-

velopment and refinement of these materials,” which were carefully tested in 200 second-

ary schools types

of

all

sizes

and

throughout the United

States.

Division

—

of

Cultural

Rela-

was estabthe Department of

tions .

^This di\’ision

lished

in

State Under a departmental order issued by Secretary Cordell

Hull in

July

purpose

of

for

“the

encouraging

and

1938,

strengthening cultural relations

and intellectual co-operation between the United States and other countries.”

The

functions

secretary of State and in very close co-operation with the geo-

was appointed

chief of this division.

Ben M. Cherrington The National Committee on

Science Teaching, sponsored by the National Education Association through its

Department of Science Instruction, w'ith other work of improving instruction in science in the schools of the United States. Broad participation of the science teachers of the nation, working in co-operation, was sought. Two district meetings W’ere held during the summer of 1939, one in San Francisco and one in New York, and another meeting was held in Chicago in October. The Committee on Salaries of Teachers of the National Education Association held several meetings during 1939. A major activity of the committee was the preparation of a preliminary work on a handbook of principles on teachers’ salaries and salary scheduling, and a summary report of opinions of the adwsory committee in regard to policies of salaries was issued in June. This summary reveals wide differences of opinion on certain issues on that subject, but it is believed that these differences can be eliminated by connational bodies co-operating, began its

ference.

A two-year study of College and University Education for Negroes was undertaken, to be conducted by the United States Office of Education. Fred J. Kelly, chief of the Higher Education Division of that office, and Ambrose Cliver, specialist in the education of Negroes, were named director and assistant director, respectively. For this study Congress had appropriated $40,000. The GRADE-SCHOOU CHILDREN of Justice” in the spring of

of

Dallas, Tex., eslablished their own "court to try violations of playground rules

West

1939

EDUCATION

224 first

meeting of the advisory committee, which consists of a score

was held in Sept. 1939- The emphasized by the decision of the was study importance of the Supreme Court of the United States in the Missouri Case in 1938. In this case the court held that a Negro citizen of Missouri or

more

specialists in the subject,

to the law school of its university, unless facili-

must be admitted

equal to those in that institution were provided for him elsewhere in Missouri. This decision affected 17 Southern States ties

which, under their constitutions and laws, have long followed a

Some

policy of separation of the whites and Negroes in schools.

make

a beginning during 1939 to meet the demands of that decision, one of the most significant of those States undertook to

decisions affecting education in the United States in

A

many

qualifications as the lay schools.

In Nova

Edward

Prince

Island, compulsory age

was raised from

13 to 15

In Manitoba, the special commission on revision of programs continued its work. More emphasis would be laid on “activity” methods. In Alberta, approximately 90% of all rural

years.

schools have

now been

reorganized into 44 school divisions. In

British Columbia, the revised programs for high school grades

were introduced Australia

.

in 1938-39.

—The Commonwealth Government has departed from

of the faculty

North Carolina, located 12 miles away, began North Carolina ColNegroes, and this co-operative work will continue until

istered by the States. Pre-school child development centres have been established in the six capital cities. In New South Wales, many reforms are under consideration. In technical education in-

North Carolina College is

located.

the faculty of that university and several

for

Several

members

Negroes at

members of

of the University of

September

offering graduate courses in the

that institution is able to provide its own graduate staff. {See Academic Freedom; Universities and Colleges.)

Bibliography.

also

National —Journal(monthly except

Education Association of the June, July and August); School

of the

(E.

British

Empire.

the British

W.

K.)

—^The tendency towards educational reform

Commonwealth

increasingly evident.

is

in

In those Do-

minions where education was traditionally looked upon as a matter of local or provincial interest a national outlook "has

been grad-

by reorganization of administration and finance within the provinces or states, and centralization of supervision on a national basis. In New Zealand, on the contrary, the same aim led to the strengthening of the local authorities. The diverging systems of the four Dominions, Canada, Australia', New Zealand and South Africa, aim at a balance of central and local control which was achieved in England after a long historical process. This community of ideas is noticed in other aspects of ually formed, followed

education as well.

The

differentiation of post-primary education

with adaptation to local needs, the development of new “activity” methods, the promotion of physical culture, the introduction of broadcasting services into the school and the growth of medical service are typical features of recent advances common to Great Britain and

all

—

Dominions.

Canada ^The opinion of provincial departments is definitely moving towards national conception of Canadian education and Federal grants as means to the end. The Royal Commission on .

Dominion-Provincial Relations report soon.

The

is

expected to publish a relevant

Federal-Provincial youth-training project, in

1939 had over 15,000 young people in courses for rehabilitation. (Canadian 'Council for Educational Research was founded by the provincial departments, the Canadian Teachers’ Federation

The

with assistance from the Carnegie Corporation,

New

In Ontario, the consolidation of small rural schools Number of Population 5-20 years in 000

Country

England & Wales Scotland

Northern Ireland Canada*

New Zealand South Africa (Europeans) Eire (Ireland)* British India* 1936-37.

.

400 590 860 97,740

bourne. In South Australia, a consolidated central school has been dren.

A

considerable advance was

made

chil-

in the use of visual edu-

cation.

In Tasmania, the development of “area schools” continues. In 1939 four more were added. New Zealand ^The bill introduced in 1938, the main purpose of which was to strengthen the local education authorities, is still .

—

committee stage but the restrictions on the employment of women have been repealed, the Council of Adult Education established, and grants to education boards increased. The

in the

married

consolidation of rural schools agricultural clubs

number

is

now

going on more rapidly; and

well over 13,000.

—

Union 0} South AJrica In 1939 the National Bureau of Eduand Social Research published the first issue of the “Bulletin of Educational Statistics.” A national. Union outlook in education is now transcending the provincial differences. The education of abnormal children has become compulsory, the responsibility being divided between the Union and the provinces. In the Cape province medical service and physical culture training have been extended. At three agricultural schools handed over by the Union Government courses were especially adapted to farming needs and in ii primary schools curricula have been changed to .

cational

suit the rural or industrial occupations of respective communities.

In Transvaal, the centralization of rural schools around one farm school continued, resulting in the elimination of about 100 small schools. The number of pupils continuing their studies beyond the

primary stage increased to 63%. In the Orange Free State, the first Teport of the vocational 1937—38 guidance officer emphasized the

in

In

In

Percentage

universities

schools

schools

of total scholars to pop.

1,361,310 174,151 22,368 81,976 87,604 25,517 32,378 72,521 268,532

400,000 14,000 3,000 108,77s 240,146 34,114 26,288

828,648 211,708 321,199 481,599 11,276,527

similar

established as an experimental rural school for post-primary

private schools

1,799.833

building of several

New

In

13,683 307,651 102,170 25,708 59,975 3S>8go 1,456,420

by the

South Wales has been organized. A new technical school was opened at Preston and a new Food Trades school with accommodation for 1,350 students is under construction in West Melto

vocational schools

470,003 156,645

available

In Victoria, a reform movement

In

629.315 196,839

3.250 1,866

Australia*

made

secondary

5,091.975

340

technical colleges.

In elementary

5 io

,

creased facilities were

continued.

Commonwealth Scholars

1,200

9

....

British

York.

is

its

new

United States for 1939 and Society (weekly); The Educational Record (quarterly).

For

same

require the

Scotia, various types of school administration were examined. In

previous policy of non-intervention in education. It is now awarding grants in aid of rehabilitation and training schemes for unemployed youth. All six States submitted schemes which were approved by the Commonwealth Government and are now admin-

in the

Durham, where Duke university

lege for

now

years.

unique effort to provide graduate and professional work for

Negroes was made

in

In 1938-39, 27 more schools, and 68 rural schools were united into 14 districts. In Quebec, the French Canadians completed the reform of normal schools. The Catholic religious normal schools

and colleges

2,034 701,072

91,258 19.037 1,609

92,798 10,781 5,707 9,492 5,745 1x5,224

78 83 70 73 69 76 76 69 14

necessity of differentiated post-

primary education. The necessity of academic education for all European children was emphasized.

Eire

.

—A

consultative

coun-

of education has long been desired by the Irish National In Organization. Teachers’ cil

1939 the Commission on Voca-

EDUCATION tional

Organization was appointed, which

is

investigating the

establishment of “functional organization” and the “rights and

by the

Government continued

to

make

progress, especially

In 1938 about 10,000 pupils earned the

in the secondary schools.

home. A new Gaelic hostel for children was opened in county Meath. The Institute of Mathematical Research was inaugurated by the prime min-

who speak

grant given to pupils

ister in

from 14

1939.

The experiment

Irish at

of raising the school-leaving age

showed good results. British India ^An improvement in educational services has been noticeable during the past two years in an increase of enrolment in the upper forms and considerable increase in female enrolment. In Bombay the revised syllabus of primary schools, which is more practical and child-centred, W'as adopted by the provincial committee. The Committee on the Training of Primary Teachers recommended the raising of standards and the to 16 years

—

.

carry on activaties dis-

State, or private organizations

trusted by the State.

The

powers” which should be conferred on such a body. The language policy of the

225

great

enemy

of democracy,

Germany, has continued to em-

phasize the doctrines of Ary^an superiority and race solidarity.

Aryan superiority and race

Germany

solidarity

mean the exclusion from who are now excluded

of aU alien elements like the Jews

from aU education except what they can supply themselves. Recent regulations of the ministry of education provide that the

Nazi Party alone

The

determine

will

who may

attend the universities.

regulations also reduce the length of vacation, insist

upon the

importance of practical and technical subjects, and in every way emphasize that university education is not to be determined

by the preference of the indi\ddual but by the

The German view

wU

of the State.

of the place of education in the State has

had

a profound influence upon education in every other totahtarian country' with modifications determined

by

Japan does

conditions.

not hold to Aryan supremacy but she does, as do aU other

totali-

establishment of special vernacular three years’ secondary schools

tarian countries, hold to race solidarity.

(after seven years of primary education), the so called Lokashala, which should serve as preliminary stage for training colleges. In Madras decentralization was marked. Lower classes of secondary schools were abolished in 1938-39. One-teacher schools were reduced in number by 3,000. In Punjab some districts have abolished small schools altogether. Compulsor3' attendance under the present conditions has so far failed to produce the desired result. In the United Provinces a provincial committee is considering the reorganization of the school system to incorporate the

\dews on subject matter, old-fashioned methods of teaching and rigid discipline have almost everyTvhere accompanied the appear-

ance of totahtarianism in any' country, \\Tiere%'er

German

Moreover,

e.g.,

anti-Semitism in the schools has accompanied long time, they'

if ever,

have hitherto held in the

countries. In Italy' the

new Charter

intellectual life

^It would be difficult to overemphaEuropean war has already had upon probability continue to have during the

of the School providing for a complete reorganiza-

tion of education.

and continues education

is

emphasized.

Compulsory school attendance begins at four

to 14.

The

The implementation

An

The need

of evacuating schools in big

London and Paris because of fear of air raids and in possible combat areas like Alsace and the Rhineland resulted in the movement of millions of children to rural districts, causing profound changes in educational methods and community life that will probably be emphasized during 1940. With the exception of London and Strasbourg, the universities of Great Britain and France opened their doors as usual. Germany closed all the universities save

five.

In

all

Students were

guard them. This attitude has been reflected in the school. Criti-

cism of most aspects of the school, its organization, curriculum, disciphne, examinations, has been prevalent. The demand is that the school must be made a more efficient instrument for preparation for life in a democracy. But the ideal everywhere emphasized is

the individual student as a future citizen ha\'ing definite duties

toward the State.

Nursery Schools.

made

—

(S.

minimum

In the countries where mass fighting has taken place, Poland and China, education has been practically destroyed. The aggressor countries, Germany

51%

are in full-day, and

courses of a

more

limited nature ofi'ered.

and Japan, have reduced to ruins schools and universities, and neither Germany in Poland nor Japan in China has any 'desire to reconstitute education. In the parts of China still controlled by the National Government makeshift schools and universities have been established. Obscurantism and regressive policies which flourished in the totalitarian countries during

probability flourish during 1940. implies that the State

is

1939 will in

The very word

to decide in

all

things:

all

“totalitarian”

what

its

people

newspapers and hear over the radio, whether its authors shall be permitted to publish books containing views not favoured by the State, or cinema companies show pictures disliked shall read in the

ported by tuition, organizations and is

permanent

in 1936, hsts 285 of the is

a

two

figure since

49%

27% by

4%

Dx.)

^The latest U.S. Office of Education survey,

This

upon for particular kinds of

the events

of 1939. In every democratic country there has been a resurgence of faith in democratic institutions and a determination to safe-

service,

mobilized, professors called

fact that

every'where

of the Charter of the School

made in 1940. The democracies have not remained unaffected by

these countries, however, university

education was conducted upon a reduced scale.

is

increased emphasis upon nationalism and patri-

otism will undoubtedly be

cities like

The

instead of socialism as necessary for the defence of the “Socialist

Fatherland.”

non-belligerent countries.

less.

was postponed because of the European war. In Soriet Russia there has been a great emphasis upon nationalism and patriotism

education and will in

year 1940. It has disrupted education in the belligerent countries and has profoundly influenced the attitude towards education in

practical subjects are to receive in-

exclusively for purposes of the State

size the influence that the all

of totalitarian

Grand Council of Fascism has promulgated

creased attention and the classical subjects

—

and Japan,

resulting usually

and scholars. It will be a before Jews will regain the place of eminence

but decrease in numbers of aboriginal hill tribes. The prevalent unemployment among educated classes is being studied. Bibliography. ^The Year Book of Education (1939); Annuaire Inter-

General World Trends.

it,

in the expulsion of Jewish teachers

a

—

Spain.

influence has extended, as in Italy

middle schools into the elementary stage thus providing complete non-academic education. In the Central Provinces and Berar there is a noticeable increase of enrolment of depressed classes,

national de I’education (1939): Annual Reports of all the Dominions, Provinces, and States of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, (N. Ha.) Eire, British India, also reports mentioned in the article.

anti-liberal

many

ty’pe of

nursery schools.

fail to report.

in half-day session;

universities,

by public

schools.

to five years. In addition to the

19% by The

Of

50%

these,

are sup-

philanthropic

typical age range

primary service given

chil-

dren, schools function as centres for research, teacher training,

parent education, and, in public high schools, as centres and laboratories for pre-parental training in child care and family rela-

The high professional training of nursery school workers is shown by the fact that 31% have bachelor’s and 41% master’s. or tions.

doctor’s degrees.

In 1939 both housing authorities and welfare agencies were the type of service they gave young children and in some instances included nursery facilities in their planning. In recent years many day nurseries have been converted into

much concerned with

EDUCATION. ADULT-EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

226

nursery schools with trained staffs. The outstanding program of the Works Progress Administration has continued at the level of 1,500 emergency nursery schools with 45,000 children enrolled. State and local contributions to their maintenance are increasing.

{See also Education, Adult; Education,

Elementary; Educa-

under the leadership of the Canadian Association for Adult Education, has made itself a potent force in each of the nine Provinces of the Dominion. In the United States, the movement has redoubled

its efforts to

tion, Progressive; Education, Secondary; Education, Vocational.) (J. E. A.)

protect the freedom of adult education institutions in a difficult time of official neutrality. The American association has brought to a pause its series of studies on the social significance of adult

the greatest progress in

education, a score of volumes having been issued with some seven or eight remaining to complete the series. The Congress

Paradoxically,

,

Education,

recognition

by the public

of the close

interdependence of adult education and democratic processes has occurred in a year in which open armed warfare against democratic ideologies has

broken out. During the

eight months of mature persons to

first

1939, the high importance of the education of

the functioning of democratic self-government in the nations

still

adhering to such systems has been emphasized again and again by

statesmen and educators.

Two weeks

before the outbreak of war,

Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, speaking before a world Congress on

Education for Democracy assembled by Teachers college, Columbia university in New York, affirmed that a democracy could only be as strong in

its faith

citizenry afforded.

many

as the education

and understanding of

its

This view was also stoutly expressed by the

educators and laymen participating,

all

of

whom

evidenced

failed

to pass legislation introduced for a Federal subsidy

Curtailments in the amount spent by the Government for relief have induced severe cuts in the program of the

adult education division of the

diminution of the amount of free public adult education.

Cor-

demands made on the private voluntary agencies have increased. A steady growth in the number of adult education councils is noted, together with an increase in the number of regional conferences sponsored by the national association. Adult education sessions are included now in most of the convention programs of national organizations whose work includes educa-

A

tional activity.

first

lishers are concentrating

force gives

way

to

war

In addi-

activities, the strong

movements

in

Czecho-

sys-

respondingly, the

upon adult education for the protection of their institutions, their culture, and their way of life. By and large; the world movement which educational activity per-

Administration.

in a

Negro, held at Hampton

tion to the belligerent nations, in

Works Progress

Certain of this work has been absorbed by the local school tems, but on the whole the Government action has resulted

the increasing extent to which the democratic peoples were relying

for adult education has suffered serious losses in 1939.

to

adult education.

ity

among members

conference on Adult Education and institute,

has resulted in increased

Educators, librarians, and pubon problems surrounding the preparation

of this race.

and distribution of simple, readable materials for adult

The

tional purposes. its

appearance

the

activ-

first

instruc-

large scale effort of this nature

made

1939 under the name of the Peoples* Library. series were prepared in the Readability Laboratory

in

slovakia and Poland, like that in Austria in the preceding year,

Volumes

have been laid waste by the invader. Their replacement by the propaganda agencies of the conqueror reduces their scope to less than the avowed adult education activities of the totalitarian states, Germany, Italy and Russia, in which party propaganda for “solidarity” masquerades under the name of adult education.

at Teachers college, under the sponsorship of a committee of the

in this

American

association.

—

Bibliography. Lyman Bryson, Adiill Education (1936); Mary L. Ely, Adult Education in Action (1936). (M. A. C.)

ed..

In the Scandinavian countries including Finland, adult education continues to function with extraordinary effectiveness, though

Education, Elementary.

imminent danger of engulfment by the exigencies of war nearby. Evidence is at hand that the Chinese mass movement for

This emphasis

in

trend in elementary education is the growing tendency to view education as a social process. purposes, nor

is

not simply a stress upon education for

literacy has proceeded effectively in those portions of the country not occupied by Japan. In Japan itself, the necessities of a war program have cut down both the funds and the time formerly devoted to a growing adult education movement. In India, steady

merely a recognition of the the culture to individual development. It is not lation of school to community. Rather it is all of against the background of a philosophy which

progress in the fields of health education and literacy is reported, although the enormous size of the problem indicates that only the

integral character of

surface has been scratched. Some advances are also noted in South Africa, though little has been done for the native populations. In the British Commonwealth of Nations, adult education ex-

that the significance of the

panded and improved during the year, although the effect of the war declarations undoubtedly will be to reduce the emphasis and perhaps to suspend many of the activities. In England the British Institute of Adult Education has served as consultant for a numstudy has ber of social organizations planning their programs.

A

been made of

social settlements, the result of

which

will

be to

place these agencies definitely in the educational field. In cooperation with the American Association for Adult Education, the study of is participating in an international British

Institute

A

correspondence instruction service for attractive title of British sailors has been devised under the

radio listening groups.

the **College of the Sea.**

Australia

is in

the process of setting

one sees

all

is

it

life,

education, and society.

social

contribution of

merely the

re-

these combined

emphasizes the It

is

only as

phases of education in relation to this integration

movement becomes apparent. citizenship is no new emphasis. But

For example, education for

it has been conceived in the past, education for citizenship one thing and citizenship itself is another. Under the emerging trend this dualism is eliminated. The child is a citizen now. His education is the practice of good citizenship. It is life itself.

as

is

Thus the

criteria for activities educational are the criteria for the

We can have no effective education for citizenship without opportunity to practice that citizenship now. In fact, we secure no meaningful education at all unless citizenship is good

life.

involved or

is

practiced.

Similarly

it

is

not

new

to emphasize the contribution of the

racial heritage to the educative process.

Moreover,

it is

educational

It is in fact

very old

to a misconstruction of this contribution that

ills

can be

traced.

Older

concepts

of

many

education

United up a system of agricultural extension similar to that of the movement. The AusStates. The war may well accelerate this

held the mastery of the racial heritage to be the aim of educa-

a flourtralian Workers* Educational Association has established their ishing system of discussion groups for working men and families. In Canada, a well organized adult education movement.

means. If the individual is subordinated to the culture, enslavement ensues and creative potentialities are destroyed. Simultaneously uniqueness

tion.

In the present trend the aim

development with the culture

is

individual and

in the position of a

social

;

EDUCATION. PROGRESSIVE and individuality flower through vital interaction between a developing personality and the culture. There is thus no conflict between the aims of individual development and the contributions of the culture when they are viewed in the integral relationship here assumed.

Also the

artificiality characteristic

new

relationships disappears in the

of school and

school.

Here

is

community no thought

of selling the school to the community; nor of school domination

by the community. The school

is

not using the community merely

mentary schools have still deficient premises. The war brought speedy changes. The raising of the schoolleaving age to 15, due three years after the Act of 1936, has been suspended, and thus a reform urged for over 20 years has perished at the moment of its realization. Over 1,000,000 school children were evacuated from vulnerable to safe areas with remarkable speed and efficiency, but at least 750,000 remained in the cities, where schools can only be re-opened when they have satisfactorj' air-raid shelters.

The

as a tool or device, nor does the school lend itself to this or that

Individual growth and

design on the part of the community.

community development

are merely different phases of an integral

227

study, and the improvisation of classes

Conceived in the above terms the elementary school avoids the sterility of the old school. Simultaneously it finds an appropriate place for the three R’s, for knowledge and skill. Such knowledges

tary workers have

skills

are important in the degree to which they increase the

individual’s potentialities for individual growth

When

tiveness.

and

social effec-

the three R’s are so viewed they are secondary

rather than primary,

means rather than

ends.

Since, however,

they are important instrumentalities they are not overlooked.

The

more

realism into school

life.

communities, participating here and

children, has pro-

teaching of small

met with

by

the clergy and volun-

a ready response.

eral that if there is less teaching there is

more

The claim learning.

gen-

is

And

children evacuated to the countryside there are the gains of a

for

new

environment and healthier conditions. In one instance boys showed an average increase in weight in one month of zjlb. and girls of 3-^

pounds.

—

A. H. Whipple, Education, up to 15 years; M. Jlorris, The People’s Schools; R. Ford, Children in the Cinema; A. E. Morgan, Needs oj Youth; The 0 A. Wheeler and I. G. Earl, Nursery School Education and the Re-organization of the Infant School; M. Jacks, God in

Bibliography.

.

present tendency to view education as a social process

bringing

Home

groups by peripatetic teachers, the organization of independent

process.

and

many

situation, deplorable as it is for

duced some interesting experiments.

is

Education.

(Fr. S.)

Pupils are studying their

now

in the

improvement of

both within the school and in the larger community. Since the hfe of the school is so important it is being subjected to careful scrutiny wth regard to teacher-pupil relationships, and its fidelity life

Education, Progressive. markedly

influenced American

educational theory and practice toward broadening the concept

of the role of the school from one of primarily training children

and activities. Finally the administrative structure is being examined critically both as to its underlying philosophy and its practical operation in order that it may become an agency which

one of considering the whole development of member of society. This concept lays increased emphasis on the fine arts and other forms of self-expression, on mental hygiene and family relationships, and on a study of our changing civilization and the part each

furthers rather than hinders the educative process.

member

to the

American way of

life.

in for careful analysis as

it

Similarly the

community

life

comes

impinges upon educational problems

in the three R’s to

the child as an individual and as a

the promise of giving us an elementary school with a balanced

must play in guiding that change. and ideas of progressive education have affected schools generally, the organized movement is represented by the

emphasis and marked effectiveness both for social and individual

Progressive Education Association.

The

present emphasis upon education as a social process holds

growth.

Great

—

Britain.

(E. ^It is

0 M.)

the non-spectacular and detailed

This association, which

.

work

of

the schools which constitute their most important contribution to national

life.

As the President

stated: “There

is

of the Board of Education has no sphere of our national life in which greater

changes have taken place during the last ten years than in educaand I can think of none other in which the actual change has been less realized by the average member of the public.” tion,

These changes comprise a wider choice of activities, more varied methods of teaching, a greater care of health and a better sense

community needs. And because of these things the cost of education rises though the number of school children diminishes. The

of

is now £l 6 .l^s.ld., an increase of lo^. The campaign for improving national health continued during 1939- The estimates included ii,ooo,ooo for free meals, an in-

average cost per head

crease of £250,000; £1,000,000

was provided for the erection of SO country camps, each to accommodate about 350 pupils; the National Fitness Council expended upwards of £1,500,000 on various schemes, and school buildings of lighter construction are now approved for loans for periods from 30 to 40 years, thus reducing annual redemption charges and avoiding the future burden of outof-date buildings. One result of this health service was seen in the fact that of the militiamen called up for compulsory training only 2.6% were totally unfit, and 83% were completely fit. Yet still serious: inquiries into, malnutrition show that of school children are either “slightly sub-normal” or “bad,” and a Ministry of Health Report on Health Services in Wales described some of the schools in terms as lurid as those used two

deficiences are

11%

or three generations ago.

Seven hundred and ninety-seven

of a democratic society

WTiile the spirit

ele-

is

the United States section of the

New

Education Fellowship, had a membership in Aug. 1939, of 9,711. During the year 1939 it held a national conference in Detroit, attended by 4,500 persons, and 28 regional conferences in various parts of the United States and Canada, attended by 29,600 persons.

The

association has fostered scientific research

preparation of curricular materials through

its

and the

various national

commissions and committees. The work of the Commission on Secondary School Curriculum, begun in 1932, reached completion

commission has been responsible for the following H. Conrad); Science in General Education; Reorganizing Secondary Education; Language in General Education. Additional publications of the association were, during 1939, Catalogue and 26 Study Guides in 1939. This

publications: Teaching Creative Writing (Laurence

Human Relations and Summer Secondary Education (W. Carson Ryan and Ralph

for Films of the Commission on

Workshops

in

Tyler).

The

association last year assimilated, as a commission, the

John on the relation of social change to education, and it also took over and reorganized the magazine. Social Frontiers, now called Frontiers of Democracy, and edited by William H. Kilpatrick, a monthly journal on social, economic, and political problems which bear upon education. This journal supplements the official monthly magazine of the association. Progressive Education (edited by W. Carson Ryan) which deals with new movements in education, educational philosophy and classroom practice. During 1939 the association sponsored ten “workshops” in edu-

Dewey

Society, w'hich publishes yearbooks

cational

institutions

over the United States.

These consisted

228 of six-week

EDUCATION. SECONDARY— EDUCATION, VOCATIONAL other agencies ministering development, the needs of youth—the NYA, gatherings where specialists

child

in

to

mental hygiene, curriculum, and evaluation, were available to

them work out

the 1,000 teachers enrolled, to help ods,

The

and materials.

meth-

courses,

Progressive Education Association in

1939 joined with the National Education Association in establishing a commission to study the ways in which schools can help to

human and

develop the

material resources of their regions.

—

Bibliography. Boyd H. Bode, Progressive Education at the Crossroads; John Dewey, Experience and Education; \V. Carson Ryan, Menial Health through Education; Carleton Washburne, A Living Philosophy of (C. Was.)

Education.

the rapidly expanding adult education movement. A special phase of this responsibility has been recognized in the organization of guidance for pupils of secondary school age.

Education, Secondary.

marked

threat of

war have had

A

broadened concept- of guidance involves conscious participation a larger proportion of the teaching personnel.

The wave

economy

of

of

and Federal expenditures has impact on school budgets and

in State

been particularly pronounced

in its

has prevented carrying out reforms the desirability of which has Limitation by constitutional amend-

been- generally recognized.

ment

War and

the

CCC, and

of tax on real estate

and

failure

to provide alternative

sources of revenue have accentuated the problem in some

States.

on secondary education in Europe and Asia in 1939 and have not been without effect in the Americas, In some areas there has been widespread

This situation was dramatically signalized by closure of the schools of Toledo, Ohio, for two months near the close of 1939.

dislocation of civilian pursuits as a result of hostilities, evacua-

ficant

influence

tion, or

change of sovereignty. The result has been the interrup-

tion of

some trends

others.

A

slovakia

seen publication of committee reports with

implications

for

secondary

education.

The

signi-

President’s

secondary education and accentuation of

Advisory Committee on Education presents recommendations for legislation which would provide greatly increased Federal support

reviewer of a recent book on education in Czecho-

of education with a view to reducing inequalities in educational

in

makes the comment;

much

very few years

“It

is

to be feared that within a

book wilt seem like Both France and England have projected not-

ancient history.”

of the material in this

reforms in secondary education, providing for a higher “leaving age,” closer articulation with elementary and higher

able

schools,

The year has

some weakening of

secondary school, increased Federal support, plan of teacher preparation.

Some

among types of and a more unified

distinction

class

of the proposed reforms were

opportunity, while leaving the determination of educational cies to the several States.

The Regents’ Inquiry

poli-

into the Char-

acter and Cost of Public Education in the State of

New

York,

published in eleven volumes, presented findings in various areas of the educational program.

The volume

dealing with secondary edu-

cation

raised serious doubts as to the efficiency of the tradi-

tional

secondary school in achieving either vocational fitness The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-

or social competence.

France under laws passed in 1938. In Great Britain Committee on Education the

ment of Teaching published in 1938 a report on a ten-year study of secondary education in Pennsylvania. This served to point

“Spens Report”

^was presented to the Board of Education early There seems little likelihood that its significant recommendations will receive serious attention before the close of hostilities. In neutral countries the economic dislocation attendant upon the war has already affected education budgets and has retarded or suspended planned reforms. The emphasis on national characteristics and development of attitudes appropriate to

out the notable differences in individual ability of secondary

in 1939.

school pupils and the wide disparity of achievement among the

initiated in

—

the report of the Consultative

—

the support of national policies

This tendency

is,

naturally,

“Totalitarian regimes

states.

.

every manifestation of national self.

... In

sense of the

all

is

unabated or has Increased.

more pronounced .

in the totalitarian

are out not only to control

.

life,

but also to change

man him-

totalitarian countries education in the broadest

word has become the

chief tool for the accomplish-

Consideration of secondary education in these countries must include organizations not technically part of the school system in Italy, the Balilla; in Germany, the Hitler Jugend and the Dienst-Arbeits; in Russia, the Young Pioneers. In practically all countries there has been a growing recogni-

ment

of these ends.”

—

tion of the need for equivalent opportunity for youth in rural areas and for secondary education adapted to rural life. The ex-

1938 yearbook of the International Institute presents the developments in the various countries. Developments for the year in the United States, in the main, continued already discernible trends. Attacks on problems of curriculum by State and regional organizations continued, with selected secondary schools of in California, Michigan, Ohio, and the Southern Association encourageColleges and Secondary Schools given freedom and cellent

ment to experiment with revised curriculums. moIncreased attention has been given to the use of radio and coCloser excursions. planned to tion pictures in the school and both operation of the school with its community has been stressed, parin interpretation of the educational program and in definite There is a ticipation of the school in community improvement.

growing awareness of the responsibility of the secondary school toward all youth, illustrated in the effort to hold in school pupils who would ordinarily drop out, and in conscious co-operation with

secondary schools of the State. Publications of the Educational

Commission focus attention on the principles basic to “education for American democracy,” and the General Report of Policies

the Co-operative Study of Secondary School Standards, appearing in September, culminated seven years of study.

With the assumption of enlarged responsibilities and the dependence on outmoded forms of taxation, the problem of financing secondary education has assumed major importance. Through emergency grants, the Federal Government has contributed costs of school building construction.

to

It is generally recognized

that further Federal aid and reorganization of State and local tax structures will be necessary to provide equal educational opportunities to children in rural districts,

and

to those of less prosper-

ous States.

—

Bibliography. Advisory Committee on Education, Report of the Cotty mittce (Washington, 1938); Annuaire International de VEducation et dc PEnseignement (Bureau International d'Education, Geneva, 1939)! Evaluation of Secondary Schools, General Report (Co-operative Study of Secondary School Standards, Washington, 1939); The Journal of Education, (London); I. L. Kandel (Ed.) Educational Yearbook of the Internationa Institute of Teachers College (1938); William S. Learned and Ben D. Wood, The Student and His Knowledge (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, (1938); The Purposes of Education in American Democracy (Educational Policies Commission, Washington, 193S); Francis T. Spaulding, High School and Life, Report of the Regents’ Inquiry, (1939); Severin K. Turosienki, “Education in Yugoslavia” (U.S. Office (E. G. J.) of Education Bulletin 1939, No. 6).

continued to expand in the

FdllPntinn VnPfltinnul LllUbdUUll, VUbdUUIIdl, United

States during 1939, m enrolment of students as well as in extent and diversity of courses. Federal funds available under the George-Deen Act have con-

tinued to stimulate vocational education in agriculture, home economics, trades and industry, and distributive occupations. Some local

budget retrenchments have temporarily curtailed certain

aspects of the vocational school program, particularly evening classes,

but in general there has been definite growth.

For many years the emphasis

of industrial education has been on

EDUCATIONAL POLICIES COMMISSION — EGGS the preparation of persons for the skilled trades. This emphasis is

continuing, but

it is

worthy of note that more attention

is

being

229

lacking the help of experts, the Spens committee failed to find a

unifying principle.

The number

given to educational service for preparing the lesser intellectual

of full-time students attending technical institu-

youth for entrance into semi-skilled occupations, and the development of technical education programs of less than college level.

England and Wales in 1939 was 42,763, as compared with 40,016; and the number of part-time students 1,281,766 an in-

National defence needs have received considerable attention dur-

crease of 137,386.

Definite shortages of skilled workers in the

ing the year 1939.

tions in

to the

—

Mr. Keimeth Lindsay, parliamentary secretary

Board of Education, referred to these part-time students as

He

metal trades, and the rapid expansion of aircraft manufacturing,

“the cream of the whole educational system.”

have been of concern to industrial educators. that at least one industrial school is operating an

16.000 boys were undergoing technical training in the armed

It is significant all-night shift

machine industries. There appears to be considerable activity in the development of plant training programs for breaking in new workers. Co-operative efforts by various governmental agencies concerned rvith the planning and carrying out of vocational education programs seem to have taken on increased significance during the past year. Conferences of representatives of the American Vocational Association and the National Youth Administration have in training workers for the

worked toward mutual understanding of problems and joint planning of programs. Similar conferences were held by the representaand the public educational authorities dealing with agriculture and home economics. These co-operative efforts seem to indicate a desire to avoid untives of the Agricultural Extension Service

In Scotland, the enrolment of 161,938 students in contin-

forces.

uation classes showed a substantial increase, and opportunities for advanced studies were greatly developed. In Eire a vocational

commission was appointed to investigate the practicability of developing functional or vocational organizations.

academic type of school.

Recent studies of the youth situation have revealed a problem of the first magnitude, and vocational educators have begun to realize the necessity for a large expansion of educational services for unemployed young persons. Cooperative efforts of the NYA and the public schools have been

and the

CCC

has provided some

induction of young persons into employment seems to be

more

attention in the fields of industrial

and

agricul-

appear to be more concerned about vocational guidance needs, and to realize the necessity of School

National Educa-

tion Association.

•

wartime rise of other comby the middle of the month price trends reversed and November egg futures on the Chicago Mercantile ExSept. 1939 in line with the

modities, but

by

late

change reached the lowest November price in six years. Increase

farm flocks during 1939 and heavier autumn and early winter egg production, because of mild weather, caused heavier receipts in

that brought prices down, and speculators lost heavily.

training for its enrollees.

tural education.

see Education. see

Prices of eggs in the United States advanced in early

ceived considerable attention.

receiving

(T. Be.)

Educational Policies Commission: Education Association, National:

Vocational training for out-of-school unemployed youth has re-

The

—

Dominions and Colonies Overseas. Attempts were to improve technical training and to avoid the error of placing “unhealthy and exaggerated emphasis” on the British

made everywhere

necessary duplication of service.

partially meeting this need,

also stated that

officials

The number

who had farm

of laying birds in

stored eggs

flocks

Nov.

i,

1939 averaged 75-6, the largest for that date since 1930, comparing with an average of 72-5 in 1938 and a ten-year average of 73-8 layers per flock. The average number of pullets under laying age in

farm

flocks

Nov.

i,

was 34-6 compared with 33-8 a year

1939,

—New

carrying through with students until they are satisfactorily placed

earlier.

on jobs and are adjusted to work

York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston from January i to September 30 in 1939 were reported by the Department of Agri-

life.

Organized labour appears to be taking a more active interest in vocational education in the public schools, and labour relations are receiving more attention in industrial education programs. Interest in the ing,

development of apprentice training seems to be growits growth has been retarded somewhat by certain

although

provisions of the Federal

Wages and Hours

Act.

Continuing interest in the recent reports of the Regents’ Inquiry in

New York

on Education

is

State and the President’s Advisory

noted.

Soon

Committee

after the appearance of these studies,

there was considerable criticism

from vocational educators with

respect to certain findings of these reports

and recommendations. Careful study seems to indicate that unfortunate use of terminol-

ogy had caused misunderstanding, and recently the criticism ap(L. A. E.)

pears to be less caustic.

—

British Isles. ^The publication of the Spens Report heralded a wider conception of technical training as a factor in social progress. The main recommendation was that there be estab-

new post-primary schools known as “TechHigh Schools,” similar to those established in New Zealand. The duties of these schools would be (i) to provide a good intellectual discipline apart from its technical value, and (2) to have a

lished in Great Britain nical

technical value in relation not to a single occupation, but to a

group of occupations. The curriculum provides a liberal education “with science and its applications as the core and inspiration.” The academic is no longer to be ranked as superior to the technor intellectual growth to be nourished on dead subjects docketed and classified in text-books. In commercial education,

nical,

Receipts of eggs in the four principal markets

—

culture as 11,880,961 cases

compared

(30 dozen eggs to the case).

to 10,918,408 cases in 1938 Storage stocks Oct. i, 1939, were

5.429.000 cases of shell eggs and 121,469,0001b. of frozen eggs, and 4,765,000 cases of shell eggs and 110,244,0001b. of frozen eggs on the same date in 1938. On Nov. i, 1939, the Umer-Barry reports showed 3,528,000 cases of shell eggs in storage, as against 3.244.000 cases in 1938 and a five-year average (1934-38) of

4.292.000 cases.

By November

25 storage holdings of shell eggs

had declined to 1,929,000 cases, as against 1,853,000 cases on the same date in 1938 and a five-year average of 2,636,000 cases. Dealers who had stored eggs in the spring at i8jf? a dozen, when the Federal Surplus Commodity Corporation was buying eggs for a relief distribution, sold in late November at as low as dozen, the Surplus Commodity Corporation having withdrawn its support in September. Exports of shell eggs from the United States the first nine months of 1939 were 1,887,380 dozen, compared to 1,603,938 dozen in the same period in 1938. Exports of eggs from the United States during the World War (1914-18) were not of significant quantity and at the peak never Imports of Eggs into the U.

First

Nine Months of 1938 and 7939 X 939

"Eggs in shell Whole eggs, dried WTiole eggs, frozen Yolks, dried Yolks, frozen Egg albumen, dried

224,042doz. 40,5ooIb. 42olb.

1938 162,41 idoz. I 37 ,iislb.

447 .i 7 Slb. 2 S, 33 olb387,2831b.

467.8311b.

:

EGYPT— EIRE

230 represented

more than 2-51%

money

of the egg

received

Area

c.

by farm-

0

(S.

(See also Poultry.)

ers.

(arable land

383,000 sq.mi.

.

R.)

13,600 sq.mi.);

Dec. 31, 1937)' 16,030,000. Chief towns (pop. 1937): Cairo (cap., 1,307,422) Alexandria (682,101) ;Tanta pop.

•

(est.

;

Mansura (68,637); Ruler, King Farouk

(94,421);

(59,925). language, Arabic; religion,

History.

—

Damanhur I;

Asyut

(61,791);

premier, Aly

Maher Pasha;

Mohammedan 91%; Copt 7%. The Liberal-Saadist cabinet under Mohamed Mahmud

throughout 1938, continued in 1939 until August 12 when Mohamed Mahmud Pasha resigned on grounds of Pasha, which held

Aly Maher Pasha, political adviser to the King, formed the new cabinet on August 18. It was composed of nine Inde-

pendents and five Saadists, a satisfied

The

new

portfolio being created for

Liberals were dropped because they were dis-

with the portfolios offered them.

Ahmed Maher

The

remained outside, elected president of the chamber. Pasha,

Saadist leader, Dr. and was eventually

8),

proceeded actively.

A

new

Territorial

army had been

decreed.

Viscount Gort had visited Egypt in February to confer with the Egyptian and British military chiefs. Joint Anglo-Egyptian ma-

noeuvres had been held.

An

by

the approval

Bank

the National

of

A.R.P. organization had been created

Egypt shareholders

Egyptian Government’s proposal to transform that

of the

institution

Bank; the re-establishment of close relations between Turkey and Egypt by the dispatch in June of an Egyptian diplomatic mission under Abdel Fattah Yehia Pasha, minister for into a Central

foreign affairs.

—Elementary

1936-37.

Education,

ment schools scholars

6;

(A. Mn.) and secondary: Govern-

4,79S; scholars 930,248; high schools: Government 1,123;

Fuad

I university:

scholars 8,150;

foreign

schools 410; scholars 76,750.

—

Banking and Finance.

^Revenue (est. 1939-40) ££.40,247,1939-40) ££.41,847,000; public debt (May I, 1938) ££.95,208,720; reserve from budget surpluses ££.33,062,569; notes in circulation (Aug. 31, 1939) ££.22,200,000; gold re-

000; expenditure

(est.

serve ££.6,500,000; exchange rate (£E.i

—

The War ^The outbreak of the war found Egypt well prepared. Ever since Munich the organization of the Eg>'ptian Army had .

the Sheshank kings of the 22nd dynasty, mentioned in the Bible; the visits of Dr. Goebbels (April 6) and Marshal Balbo (May

office

ill-health.

social affairs.

the eldest sister of King Farouk, to the Shahpur of Iran (March is); the discovery at Tanis, in the Delta of the tomb of one of

tres

=£1

= 100

piastres)

:

97-J pias-

sterling.

—

Trade and Communications. External trade (merchandise): imports (1938) ££.36,934,373; imports (Jan.-June 1939) £E.i6,558,000; exports (1938) ££.29,342,486; exports (Jan.-June 1939) ££.16,470,000; re-e.\ports (1938) ££.782,528. Communications and transport, 1938: roads, main i,24omi.; secondary

3,43omi.;

Indian troops had begun to arrive in

railways. State 3,537mi.; agricultural 876mi.; shipping 60,495 tons

August and soon after the commencement of hostilities further reinforcements reached Egypt, while British troops were with-

gross; entered ports 35,390,325 tons gross; passed through Suez

drawn from Palestine

1938): cars 29,382; commercial 4,074; cycles 2,051; wireless receiving set licences (Dec. 31, 1938) 78,823; telephone instruments

the principal towns.

in

In

lieu of declaring

to reinforce the western desert defences.

war Egypt severed her diplomatic

Germany in September. German community were

relations

with

All steps necessary for dealing with

the

taken.

ceived

A

all

The

British

Government

liament in special .session ap-

proved of these measures on

October 12. In September public opinion became exercised over the dis-

new cotton

crop.

Egypt could no longer export to Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Austria, who nor-

25%

mally took

of the total

crop or some 1,700,000 cantars. After

Aerial hiavigafion

Misr Airways

Company Passengers Freight and baggage (Kg.) Mails (Kg.) Miles flown Regularity of service

.

.

.

(

7938 )

:,M.”

Imperial

[>yal

Airways

ih

Ltd. 6,056 114,189

i8,ssp 63,828 i6,43S 1,011,104

1,482,130 6,967,935

98.1%

99.9%

Air nes 2,459 e.iAO

—

Agriculture and Minerals. Production 1938 (in metric tons) cotton, ginned 494,500; maize 1,570,700; wheat 1,250,200, (1939) 1,333,800; rice 725,200; petroleum- 225,700; phosphate rock 458,400; cane sugar, refined 209,000; barley 232,700, (1939) 238,200; ground-nuts 15,600. (W. H. Wn.) 26,601 sq.mi.; pop. (est. June 30, 1939) 2,934,000. Chief towns (pop., census 1936): Dublin (capital, est. 1939; 482,300); Cork (80,765); Limerick (41,061); Dun Laogh-

Tiro

CIICi

aire

1939; 40,600); Waterford (27,968). President: Dr. h-Ide)', languages: Irish and English; religion:

(est.

Douglas Hyde (de Christian

discussion

considerable

31,

1938) 59,922.

it.

was declared with the premier as supreme governor. Military courts and a censorship were instituted and a strict control of supplies and exchange was established. Par-

posal of the

in use (April 30,

re-

the assistance to which the Treaty of Alliance entitled

state of siege

canal 25,827,977 tons gross; motor vehicles licensed (Dec.

(Roman

History.

—

Catholic

^Following

93%).

on a pronouncement by the Catholic

bish-

both in parliament and in the press and protracted negotiabetween London and tions Cairo it was announced on No-

ops of Ulster against the extension of conscription to the Six Counties, Eamon de Valera stated on May 2 that he had made strong representations to the British Government, which were

vember 17 Government

scription of citizens of Eire resident in Great Britain.

that

the

would

British

purchase

effective.

On

Later in the same month he protested against the con-

the outbreak of

wav he declared

his policy to be one of ab-

German Government, through

min-

this quantity.

solute neutrality, which the

Other important events during the year were the departure

had promised to respect. A British representative Sir John Maffey was sent to Dublin to supplement the existing system of communications. Following on the establishment of a ministry of supplies, a general cabinet reshuffle was announced on September 10. Mr. de Valera added education to his other departments; Mr. O’Kelly

of the heir presumptive. Prince

Mohamed pilgrimage

Ali,

for the

(February

Mecca 7)

the

wedding of Princess Fawzieh,

QUEEN FARIDA

of

Egypt and her

daughter. Princess Ferial

its

ister in Dublin,

—

—

became minister for finance; Mr. Lemass, minister for supplies; Mr. McEntee took over industry and commerce; Mr. Rutledge,

ELECTIONS Industrial Production

Census

in

1,743,206 7,883,959 3,431,244 6.652,123 417,207 1,101,211 2,201,237 8,962,345 3,046,639

Brewing Sugar and confectionery Bacon curing Shirt

Net output

£

Trade Boots and shoes

making

Hosiery Textiles

Tobacco Vehicles

7938

Eire (preliminary Figures)

Gross output

Industry* or

£

employed 6,508 3,830 4,741 2,381 2,097 4.887 5,937 2,399 3,595

1,102,175

850.350 185,138 559.445 804,348 1,382,409 892,002

government; Mr. Boland, justice; Mr. Traynor, defence; Mr. Little, posts and telegraphs; Mr. Derrig, lands; while Dr. Ryan remained in charge of agriculture and Mr. Aiken became

local

minister for the co-ordination of defence.

An Emergency Powers Act (September

2) gave the Governeconomic activities, powers of

ment extensive control over all arrest and internment, and power to impose censorship. The Army Reserve was mobilized, and a temporary black-out imposed. On November 18 Mr. O’Kelly in an emergency budget, increased income tax by u. and imposed -^d. per pound on sugar, 2s.8d. per pound on tobacco, i2j. per barrel on beer, and lo^. per gallon on .£603,000, to

spirits,

estimating for an increased

revenue of

be supplemented by a saving of £400,000 and a new

April

i

LlCbllUilOa

local issues, reflected

political situation as it

was observed

in 1938;

signs or portents appeared to indicate

what

is

and few dependable going to happen at

the polls in 1940.

The Republicans showed unusual test

strength in the Chicago con-

of April, when, although the Democratic incumbent

Edward Joseph Kelly was again elected by a Republican candidate, Dwight Green, received 068

citizens

—a larger percentage of the

a Treason Act became law, and on

May

31 the

Mayor

safe majority, the

the votes of 638,-

total vote cast

than had

been given to his party by the city in the presidential elections of 1932 and 1936. In November the party also extending particularly

made

its legislative

Pennsylvania; and in Cleveland

it

visible

headway

in the East,

New

Jersey and

control in

re-elected its candidate.

Mayor

Harold H. Burton, without serious opposition from the disorganized Democrats. But on the whole the balance between the major parties was not definitely shifted from where it stood at the end of 1938.

Within the Democratic fold the trend of developments was no more certaih. In the April primaries of Mississippi (consummated by a run-off primary in August) Paul B. Johnson, with the backing of the strongly pro-Roosevelt Senator Bilbo,

loan of £7,000,000.

On

off-year elections of 1939, turning mainly on no broad or deep change in the

Eioptinno

Persons

825,984 6.620.000

231

cratic

nomination for Governor over

M.

S.

won

the

Demo-

Conner, whose chief

Offences Against the State Act gave powers of arrest on suspicion.

support came from the more conservative followers of Senator

A proclamation

Harrison. With similar implication, in San Antonio’s spring elec-

June 23 suppressing the I.R.A. was followed by numerous arrests and by a series of hunger-strikes. An application on behalf of a prisoner for a writ of habeas corpus was granted, by Justice Gavand Duffy, on December 2, in a judgment which declared the Offences Against the State Act unconstitutional. This led to the release of 58 prisoners, and an appeal to the Supreme Court, which was refused. On December 23 the Magazine Fort in Phoenix Park, Dublin, was raided by an armed band who occupied it for 3^ hours and carried off 1,250,000 rounds of rifle and machine-gun ammunition. Intense police and military activity had resulted by January i in the recovery of about one-third of the amount carried off. Meanwhile the Dail was specially summoned for January 3 to pass fresh emergency legislation. (M. T.) Education. In 1937-38: elementary schools, 5,166; scholars of

tion,

former Representative Maury Maverick, running on a promayor-

gressive “Fusionist” platform, succeeded in capturing the alty

from the regular Democrat Charles Kennon Quin, who had

helped to defeat his re-election to the House in the preceding year.

Regulars and machine Democrats of

New York

county, on

—

469,925; secondary schools 336; scholars 36,092; universities: National 4,422 students; Trinity college, Dublin 1,489. {See also

Education: British Empire.) Banking and Finance. Revenue, ordinary (1938-39) £31,884,000; (est. 1939-40) £32,522,000; expenditure, ordinary (193839) £33.110,000; (est. 1939-40) £35,716,000; public debt (March

—

31, 1939) £44,860,000; notes in circulation (Aug. 12, 1939) £16,058,921; gold bullion (March 31, 1939) £1,991,682; reserve, Brit-

bank securities (March 31, 1939) £8,173,000. Trade and Communication. Foreign trade (merchandise):

ish

—

imports (1938) £41,414,000; (Jan.-July, 1939) £24,978,000; exports (1938) £23,877,000; (Jan.-July, 1939) £13,242,000; reexports (1938) £363,000. Communications: roads, main (1937-38) io,ooomi.; secondary 38,ooomi.; railways, total track mileage

(1938) 2,55imi.; shipping (1938): vessels 594; net tonnage 116,145; motor vehicles licensed (Aug. 1938); private cars 48,599; other vehicles 20,997; wireless receiving set licences (1937-38) 140,487; telephones, installations (1937-38) 26,190. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production.

—^Produc-

tion 1937, (in metric tons): oats 568,000; wheat 201,300; potatoes 2,500,200; barley 111,900; beet sugar 54,400; coal 120,000;

wool 8,100. Agriculture and fisheries, net output (1937) £42,000,000; industry, net output (1937) £39,800,000. Labour 1937-38:

number

of insured workers, average 433,865;

ployed, average 88,714.

number of unem(W. H. Wn.)

THE MIDDLE OF THE ROAD observes

Ray

in

Is

favoured by most

The Kansas City Star

1940

presidential candidates,

ELECTORAL VOTE — ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES

232

the other hand, met only an apathetic resistance in November and were consequently able to carry their entire ticket while in Memphis, Tenn., the redoubtable boss, Edward Crump, easily had him;

chosen as mayor for the avowed purpose of resigning on 1, 1940, and securing the appointment of Representative

self

Jan.

W. Chandler

to

fill

the office until the next regular election day.

In the August primaries of Kentucky Governor Albert Benjamin (Happy) Chandler scored a victory over Senator Alben Bark-

by having his supporter. Lieutenant Governor Keen Johnson, nominated for Governor on the Democratic ticket. Johnson was subsequently elected without great difficulty over the Republican nominee Judge King Swope. But between these two events, on October 9, Chandler resigned from office, turning the governorship ley

over to Johnson immediately; and in turn Johnson appointed him to complete the unexpired senatorial term of the late Marvel Mills Logan.

Radical successes were registered in a small

Conn, where the Socialist mayor Jasper

way at Bridgeport, McLevy was re-elected

and in Detroit where Edward supported by C.I.O., managed in a non-partisan contest to unseat Mayor Richard W. Reading, who had won the for the fourth consecutive time,

Jeffries, actively

last election partly

and

on the strength of

his opposition to C.I.O.

to radicalism.

Of more general interest than these scattered local elections was the defeat in two areas of the movement for greater old age pensions. In California the proposed “Ham and Eggs” amendment, providing for payments of $30 a week in scrip to the “senior unemployed,” was strenuously opposed by Governor Olson and by Dr. Townsend, the well known exponent of generous pensions. The plan was defeated by a vote of approximately 2 to i. In Ohio at the same time the less fanciful “Bigelow Plan” for pensions in regular currency of $30 to single persons and $80 to couples over 60 was rejected by a vote of more than 3 to i. Schedule of Elections. Presidential elections in the United States are uniformly held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November in years designated by multiples of four. Congressional elections are held on the same or corresponding day in even years by all States except Maine, which adheres to its old custom of holding elections on the second Monday in September. Governors are elected in even years on the same day as members of

—

Congress in 22 States; Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne-

New

Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont and Wisconsin. They are elected quadrennially at the same time as the president in 10 States: Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Utah, Washington and sota,

West

Nebraska,

Virginia; quadrennially at the congressional elections be-

tween presidential years in 10 States; Alabama, California, Maryland, Nevada, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina and Wyoming; quadrennially on the corresponding day in the years immediately preceding presidential elections in

2

Kentucky and Mississippi; quadrennially oh the corresponding day in the years immediately following presidential elections in I State: Virginia; triennially on the corresponding day States:

Nov. 2, 1937) in i State: New Jersey. Louisiana governor quadrennially in presidential years on the third Thursday in April; and Maine, biennially at the same time as she selects her Congressmen. (See also Democratic Party; Republican Party.) For elections in other countries see under (latest election

chooses

the

its

name

of the country.

(G. P. Ba.)

"NOW THERE’S TWO OF

’EM," Ihe riddle of the sphinxes, by Russell of The Roosevelt did not clarify his presidential Intentions (n but Garner 1939, announced his candidacy December 16

Los Angeles Times.

making the

tors,

Ll 6 Cl 0 r 3 l

lUlc«

Following the census of 1910 the member-

ship of the House was fixed at 43S Rnd it has remained at that number since then, thus with the 96 sena-

Under the reapportionment of 1932 among the States was changed be-

cause of changes in population. Eleven States gained one or more representatives in Congress

and thus gained

electoral votes, and

21 lost a representative thus losing an electoral vote. This appor-

tionment became effective in the presidential election of 1932 it will be effective in 1940.

and

Disfribution Ala.

,

.

Ariz.

.

.

Ark.

.

•

Cal.

.

.

Colo.

.

.

XI

111.

.

.

3 9 22 6 8 3

Ind.

.

.

Iowa

.

.

Kan. Ky.

.

.

.

Conn.

.

.

Del. FJa.

.

.

•

7

Ga.

.

.

.

12

•

4

•

Ida.

La.

.

Minn.

Mo.

.

IZ

.

10

Mont. Neb. Nev.

Me.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

II

.

.

15

Miss. ZI

Md. Mass. Mich.

of Electors among the States

29

5

8 17 19

.

. .

4

Tenn. Texas

.

.

26

Utah

.

II

.

.

s

Ore.

Pa.

.

N.H.

.

.

.

N.J.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

N.Y.

. .

Ohio Okla.

.

N.M.

N.C.

N.D.

4 16 3 47

R.I. S.C.

S.D.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

13

36 4 8 4

.

11

.

*3

4

.

,

Vt.

.

.

3

Va.

.

.

II

8

Wash. W.Va. Wis

. .

8 12

Wyo.

.

3

.

.

(G.

W.

Do.)

Output of electricity took the sharpest rise on record in 1939, just as in 1938 it took the sharpest dip. The two years together are an example of the economic buoyancy of the electric utility business. The 1939 output was 123,000,000,000 kw.hr., an increase of some 13% over 1938 and some 7% over 1937, the previous record year. In addition, 5,300,000,000 kw.hr. were purchased, some from Canada (a quarter), some from Government hydro plants, and some from inter-connected industry. During 1939 i,28s,oookw. of new generating capacity was added, bringing the total up to

Floptripnl InrlllCtrlDe LICvll Iwul IllUUdll ICda

37)500,000 kilowatts. In ten years capacity has increased 26'8%, while output has gone up 36-4 per cent. The growth of load was so unusually swift during the last half of 1939 that commitments were made for new capacity in excess of anything in the last ten

The 1940 program

calls for 2,ooo,oookw. additional capossible that 1941 steam capacity additions might hit a new all-time high. Sales of electricity exceeded a hundred billion kilowatt hours

years.

pacity and

riaptfirol Uflto

total 531.

the distribution of the electors

in

it is

1939 for the

first

time. Industrial usage due to the business up-

— ELECTRIC LIGHTING turn which was further stimulated by the European war was responsible for the greatest growth.

Revenues increased 6

%

to

Expenses were $1,025,000,000, including the tax of $345,000,000. Approximately 900,000 new customers were

vate

The matter mil be brought up

utilities.

I\Tiat

bill

ship.

few cases were up went almost This situation

added during the year, bringing the total up to 28,750,000. Although financing involved a total of $992,000,000 in 1939, the new capital with the exception of the two bottom years of the depression was the lowest ever. It amounted to but $16,000,000. The yield on utility bonds hit a new low, some issues going below

for this purpose.

3%

law'.

to

Improved business was responsible for the

maturity.

It is

$605,000,000. Electrical manufacturers felt the good business conditions. Production was up 25% to $2,143,000,000. This was still below 1937. By the end of 1939 REA had allotted $267,000,000 to 687 systems. Of these 488 had been energized and had 400,000 consumers. Construction accounted for i8o,ooomi. of lines, costs of which had been reduced to $754 per mile. Government hydro projects added 488,45okw. in 1939, bringing the total in operation to i,4i8,oookw. out of an ultimate capacity of 6,762,000 kilowatts. Capacity to be added in 1940 will be approximately the same as for 1939. Because of the European war statistics

on foreign operations have not been available.

Considerable spurt was given to higher-pressure, higher-temperature turbine and boiler installations during the year.

Circuit

swung' noticeably toward oilless designs. Industrial plants reflected a strong trend toward metal-clad switchgear. Late in 1939 a movement to standardize upon a universal interchangeable arrangement of distribution transformers as to tank, mountbreakers

and bushings was nearing fruition. Use of capaciwas quickened both by the power industry and industrial

ing, terminals,

tors

plants to secure the ultimate capacity out of distribution facilities.

Reliance upon

wood

for impulse insulation gathered

momentum

as an adjunct to superior proofing of transmission lines against lightning,

and with

this

went

installation of expulsion tubes

gaps as well as extensive counterpoise installations.

More

and

inten-

d.c.

came of the

Little

filing

all

against public owner-

stoppage of Govermnent subsidies

of integration intention in December,

Reorganizations and widespread change in personnel re-

1938.

little activity until late in 1939, when it was stated that the commission was ready to go ahead with enforcement of the

sulted in

The most startling action of the commission was to deny Consumers Power permission to seU new mortgage securities, but insisted that the money come from the sale of common stock. The National Defense Pow'er Committee was dissolved and the work taken over by the National Power Policy Committee. Its principal effort has been to secure acceptance of the grid plan for

which the Government would appropriate several hundred million dollars.

There was

The

little

attack by the Administration during the year.

President declared that the Government would not extend

its

power development program, although negotiations have been under way with Canada over the St. Lawence seaway. The most important event of the year in the public power field was the settlement of the TVA controversy whereby Tennessee Electric Power and Memphis Pow'er & Light sold out to TVA and cities in the

system. In addition

TVA

purchased other properties

Government projects also purchased some private properties in Texas, Nebraska, and Oregon. While the Government appears to be starting no new hydro projects. State authorities are springing up in Arkansas, New York, Illinois, and elsewhere. Outside of the purchase of the Tennessee properties TVA’s achievement of the year was receiving a clean bill of health from the Congressional investigating committee. Greater evidence of desire of public power to dispose of its energy over private lines was shown in contracts in Georgia, and Mississippi.

in Tennessee

Alabama, Texas, Nebraska, and Oregon.

—

Electrical World; Publications of Edison Eiectric InstiEiectrical Manufacturers Association, RE.A, and Federal Commission. (S. B. Wi.)

Nationai

tute,

High-voltage

reflects the

Bibliography.

were also common.

sive studies of grounding

in Congress in 1940.

Elections on municipal ownership were especially quiet in 1939.

$2,304,000,000.

largest construction budget in 1940 in the past ten years.

233

transmission received a boost from the late

D. Ross of Bonneville as a means for bringing Columbia river power to the East. It was demonstrated, however, at A.I.E.E.

Power

J.

meeting that

Two new

d.c. is

not a competitor of

a.c.

radio channels were opened

for long distances.

by

FCC

to utilities

Sources.—Tungsten coiled filaFloptrip LiCblllu litrhtiniT LIgllulIg. ment lamps, w'ith the majority of bulbs containing an inert atmosphere averaging 90% argon and 10%

and San Francisco fairs. More than 1,000,000 tubes had been produced by the end of the year, with 36-in. and 48-in. predominating. Two State commissions, Kentucky and Oklahoma, ruled against low power factor. The mo-

constitute the chief illuminants throughout the consumption in the United States in 1939 was approximately 785,000.000 units of which 535,000,000 were large lamps, the remainder, miniature types. This total exceeds the previous year’s use by some 10%. General quality improvements

mentum

of incandescent sales, however, continues. Nearly 1,000,000,000 were produced in 1939. Some far-reaching legal decisions came down during the year, the most important being that of the 14 utilities v. T'VA, in which

included the double coiling of filaments to reduce effective heat

was held by the United States Supreme Court that utilities had no monopoly and that competition, whether by Government or private utility, was legal, that TVA operations were not illegal Government regulation and that sales of Government property in

the aluminized interior neck coatings on paraboloidal bulbs or re-

2,292 and 4,637-5 kilocycles.

ahead by the

Fluorescent lighting was pushed

New York

it

competition with others

is

not unconstitutional.

The same court in the Edison Light & Power case by upholding Smyth V. Ames declined to accept the prudent investment theory. FPC was refused jurisdiction by the Appellate Court over hydro development that does not involve navigation. The loss of taxes to State and local governments when public power succeeds private ownership stirred up action in several places. Alabama and Georgia produced bills restoring to their

Government taken over.

units all tax revenues lost

when

private

power was

Tennessee taxpayers started a campaign to secure from T\^A enough to cover tax losses resulting from sale of pri-

nitrogen gas,

world.

still

Lamp

radiation surface; higher gas pressures,

and a tendency toward

smaller bulb sizes in North America, plus extending uses of kryp-

ton gas

by European manufacturers. New

filament types included

lamps in 150 and 300 watt sizes, together with coloured lamps chiefly for show ivindow lighting. Side silvered tubular showcase lamps advanced in 23 and 40 watt sizes, and bowl-silvered indirect lighting lamps grew in

flector

glass lenses that adapt these

popularity. World-wide Country U.S,S.R

Electric

Consumption* hv. per Person 235

Italy

Japan France

Gr»t

350 379 436 509

;

Britain

Germany U.S,A.

Sweden

.

Switzerland

Canada

Norway •Includes about

.

40%

for lighting.

717 1235 1169 1643 2464 2760

A MIDGET MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP, of Stanford

developed In 1936.39 by Cornells Bol can clearly illumine an automobile at 500 feet. The only 2/25 of an inch

university,

lamp’s diameter

is

Lighting Applications.

European

The average

size of filament

lamp sold

United States was

in the

order of

—Black-outs or

capitals led to street lighting

1%

air raid precautions in

recommendations on

62 watts, the average lumen output approximating Sgo. The assortment of six-hour-life photoflood lamps expanded for coloured

emitting practically no visible but considerable long-wave

motion pictures and several new wire photoflash lamps appeared

violet

with longer duration of

more powerful

flash, chiefly for press

photography. For

projection, especially of coloured light, there

was

introduced the 2,500 watt, 65 volt concentrated filament lamp.

Tungsten filament lamps designed to emit chiefly sub-visible Angstroms were offered in 150 watt and 250 watt sizes in the reflector bulb, arid up to 1,000 watts with the medium bipost base. Such lamps found increasing possiinfra-red radiation at 1,200

bilities in

connection with

many

drying operations of lacquers,

and for spot heating. Heavy tungsten coils in heat resisting glass bulbs were developed in 1,000 and 2,000 watt sizes for the purpose of generating steam and vapourizing liquids. The “sealed beam” or large evacuated reflector lamp for automopaints, glued labels,

bile headlight service

was standardized

in the United States, giving

the motorist better road lighting with reduced glare, and a device

from ordinary

Yellow headlamps were

the

of moonlight (-0002 ft.-cs.) and gave incentive to the

use of fluorescent paints and of screened mercury vapour lamps energies

for

The San Francisco

excitation.

ultra-

Exposition

demonstrated colour harmonies with fluorescent and mercury lamps, while the

New York

mercury and filament

World’s Fair incited

interest in

and massive fountain sprays; the wide variety of usage of fluorescent lamps both high and low voltage; the application of translucent plastics in advertising signs, and black light in fluorescence. The 16th meeting of the International Commission on Illumination in Holland led to lighting of waterfalls

further inter-country lighting standardization, and recorded desirability of higher illumination intensities.

(See also Electrical H.)

Industries.)

(S. G.

Electric Power Generation. tained in the manner from fuel and water power resources. Most

of the avail-

conventional

favoured in Europe.

power sites which are economically important from the standpoint of electric power production and disposition alone

About 1,000,000 commercial fluorescent tubular lamps were which the rated life increased from 1,500 to 2,000 hours. Improvements in coatings increased the light output from 20% to

have been developed. The majority of the hydro-electric developments that are being undertaken at the present time are justified economically for the production of electrical energy only when

50% over the records of the introductory year of 1938. A bluer white colour was added to the former seven tints represented by an increase in the equivalent colour temperature from 2,8oo‘’K to

considered in connection with irrigation, flood control, and naviga-

free

deterioration.

still

sold, of

3 ,Soo°K; also a four-foot length of tube was added together with a six-inch, four watt, and a nine-inch six watt instrument type of flattened fluorescent lamp.

The automatic glow

relay control

was

developed to give instantaneous restarting of fluorescent lamps. True colour discrimination caused approximately half of the de-

be for the daylight white lamps. Some fluorescent lamp appeared in Western Europe and elsewhere, but high and neon filled tubing with fluorescent coatings mercury voltage still remained much in evidence in Western Europe. For decora-

mand

to

installations

tive

and

special forms, chiefly electrical advertising, these latter

able water

combination of these factors. Undertakings of such broad scope are necessarily of a public nature and consequently have been carried on as complete or partial public or governmental enterprises. tion, or a

The most recent hydro-electric projects of this type are Boulder and Parker dams on the Colorado river; Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams on the Columbia river; Norris, Gunters ville, Pickwick, Chickamauga and Hiwassee dams on the Tennessee river and its tributaries; Shasta, Grand river, Santee Cooper, Fort Peck, Lower Colorado on other important rivers. Water wheel driven generators with a total aggregate capacity of approximately 2,soo,oookw. are either in service or under construction for these

illuminants were extensively employed in North American and some South American countries. Electric discharge or metallic

projects.

vapour lamps continue to expand gradually, chiefly the 1 0,000 lumen sodium vapour lamp applied to areas of traffic concentration or dangerous roadways, docks and piers, while the high intensity quartz capillary mercury lamps extended for suburban street lighting were most popular in Western Europe.

electric generating stations is relatively large, the greater portion is produced from steam driven prime-movers in fuel-fired gen-

234

Additional projects are

Although the amount of

now under

electrical

consideration.

energy obtained from hydro-

The steam turbine has completely supplanted the steam driven reciprocating engine as the prime-mover for driv-

erating stations.

ing electric generators.

Most

of the steam driven turbines in op-

:

ELECTRIC TRANSMISSI ON AND DISTRIBUTION moderate temperatures and pressures. Large increases in the output and radical improvements in efficiency of steam turbines have been obtained by materially increasing the temperature and pressure of the inlet steam. Inlet steam pressures and temperatures of

oped rapidly during the past few years and

and 950° F. respectively are used most of the steam turbines now going into

to 2,000 kva. capacity.

now

The

applications of generating units of this

and mobile power

few projects are under construction using inlet presThese increased pressure and temperature requirements have made it desirable and essential that highest possible rotational speeds be used to keep the

plants.

Water Power.)

(See also

sures as high as 2,4001b. per square inch.

(C.

Electric Transmission

weights and dimensions of the stator and rotor elements as small

portions was under

use of higher temperatures and pressures has greatly in-

by 1,800

r.p.m. units or

principal items of progress in turbine generators during

A

material increase in the output of the 2-pole generator has

in 1939.

Construction

from 500

to 25,000 kilovolt-amperes.

Government projects

'

During the

in service.

additional output rating of the 2-pole, 60-cycle generator

was obtained by using hydrogen as the cooling medium. As compared to air, hydrogen has a density of 7%, heat transfer coeffi-

135%, thermal conductivity of 700%, and specific heat of approximately roo%. With these properties, the use of hydrogen cient of

as the cooling gas

makes

of approximately

15%

it

possible to obtain an increase in rating

over that obtainable with air cooling, on the basis of maintaining given rating and performance characteristics.

Since the windage-friction and ventilation losses are directly

proportional to the density of the cooling gas, they are practically

when hydrogen

is used as the coolant. The increase on the order of o-6 to 0-9%, depending on the rating. A similar increase in rating and improvement in efficiency performance without any explosion hazard can be obtained by using helium as the cooling gas. At the present time, however, the use of helium gas for this application is less desirable on account

eliminated

in efficiency

of

its

is

higher cost.

The advantages

of

hydrogen as a cooling medium for turbine

generators are: (1) Reduced windage, friction, and ventilating losses, because of the low density of the hydrogen gas. The ventilating losses are proportional to the gas density. Full, load efficiency of the generator may be 0.6% or more higher than for the corresponding air cooled machine. (2) Increased output per unit volume of active material, because of the high heat storage capacity, thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficients of hydrogen. This advantage of hydrogen cooling makes it possible to build turbine generators for higher ratings than are possible with air cooling.

(3) Reduced maintenance expense, and moisture.

because

of

the

freedom

from

dirt

(4) Increased life of the insulation on the stator winding, because of the absence of o.xygen and moisture in the presence of corona. (5) Reduced windage noise, because of the low density of the gas.

LIGHTNING which

strikes transmission lines is by-passed to the ground by de-ion gaps on a self-protected* transformer, demonstrated In 1939 with artificial bolts

be

The

engineering

analyzer (miniature power system) was purchased in 1939 to aid in the solution of the network problems which will be constantly

1938-39, approximately 750,000 kva. capacity of 3,600 r.p.m. generators ranging in rating from 20,000 to 50,000 kva.

The

will

studies associated with this project are so extensive that a network

years

have been placed

on

Studies and plans are being

the expectation that these

cooling for ratings up to 50.00° kilovolt-amperes. The most economical range of ratings for air cooled, 3,600 r.p.m., 60-cycle is

in progress

made with

and magnetic properties of materials, more effective ventilation and improved design proportions and better utilization of materials. When using the best materials and design proportions available, it is possible to build the 2-pole, 60-cycle generators with air

generators

is

several substations of the system.

region to form a high-voltage network or grid.

r.p.m. unit for ratings required

been obtained from the summation of several incremental increases resulting from improved mechanical, electrical, thermal,

way

interconnected with the private and municipal enterprises of the

the past few years are (a) the development of the 2-pole, 3,600

by the Central Station industry, and (b) the application of hydrogen as the cooling medium.

Northwest section of the United power development of tremendous pro-

the Bonneville and the Grand Coulee power stations and the

even of 1,200

r.p.m. units.

The two

and

high-tension transmission lines of various lengths tying together

creased the range of capacities of the higher speed units into the field formerly held

M. La.)

pacific

Ili^trihlltinn uio u u •

as possible.

The

a reliable and

type are for auxiliary power on ships, small generating stations

A

service.

is

economical prime-mover for slower speed generators of ratings up

i,20olb. per sq.in.

quite generally for

235

Approximately 2,250,000 kva. of hydrogen cooled turbine generators were either in service or in manufacture in 1939. The fuel oil type of internal combustion engine has been devel-

eralion at the present time have been designed to utilize steam at

’

i-*'

ELECTRIC TRANSPORTATION

236 arising.

appears possible that the

It

mission line in the U.S.A.

A new

may

first

long direct-current trans-

be built as a part of

this

system.

single-circuit line to operate in conjunction

Boulder

original 266-mi. double-circuit

struction and

is

Dam

with the

Line was under con-

scheduled to be put into operation early in 1940.

Every available technical consideration has been incorporated in the design and operation of these lines and their associated stations to give them a high degree of reliability because they form a major source for the system into which they deliver power. Another single-circuit line, 233mi. in length and operating at 220 kilovolts, was put into service in July 1939. This line runs from

dam

Boulder

fornia Edison station,

to Chino, Calif., substation of the

Company, and

now under

is

Southern Cali-

to be extended 27mi. to Barre sub-

construction near Stanton.

In contrast with

the other lines, this newest line is of less expensive construction and, although provided with ground-fault neutralizers (Petersen coils) to suppress line-to-ground faults,

can be put out of service

temporarily by line-to-line faults.

These interruptions can be tolerated in this case because of the adequacy of the other base stations of the Southern California Edison system. In the U.S.S.R. the carefully planned program of power development and utilization has materialized phenomenally during the past ten years.

(Power System Stability) (McGraw-Hill Book Co.. 1938)- hUrm twnal Conference on Large High-Tension Systems, (Paris, 1937)Trans mission and Distribution of Electrical Energy (English University Press 1937). Harold Michener, “The Edison Line From Boulder Dam” Electrical Engineering (Nov. 1939). (K. L. W.) cuits

High-voltage transmission

is

standardized at

no

and 220 kilovolts and the new equipment is getting to be more largely of Soviet manufacture. A very high proportion of the power transmitted is used in industry and an increasing proportion in agriculture. The general plan has been the development of centres of power production, and the more recent development of the plan has been the integration of these centres into an

Electric Transportation. bracmg only

that they can best be classified under five separate headings: (i) electric surface railways, (2) electrically operated subways and

elevated railway lines, (3) electric trackless trolleys or trolley buses, (4) electrified trunk-line railroads and (5) buses and trains operated electrically from self-contained generating units. All

of the

first four classifications receive their power from more or remote electric generating stations of sizable capacity, while the last mentioned have their own power plants on the individual

less

vehicles, using gasoline engines or diesel engines to drive

elevated railways, the electric trackless trolleys, and the trically driven buses are operated, in the main, in

urban

elec-

transpor-

tation service. The electrified trunk-line railroads and the trains with self-contained electric generating units are operated, in the main, in long distance transportation service.

Electric Surface Railways. and interurban railways were

passenger areas.

Notable advances have recently been made in reducing the cost

electric

generators which supply energy to the traction motors. The electric surface railways, the electrically operated subways and

The 220-kilovolt cable line in Paris, the 132-kilovolt lines in New York and Chicago, and the 125-kilovolt line in Germany have continued their satisfactory operation and four 150-kilovoIt mono-

dam and The Hague.

track-

and diesel-electric buses. All types of electric transportation have certain points in common, but their most recent developments have followed such divergent lines less trolleys, gas-electric

interconnected unitary system.

phase cables (one standby) have been installed between Rotter-

electric railways, the fact is that it includes also some

thousands of electrically opierated highway vehicles such as

transportation

At the present

in

—For many years

the electric

means urban communities and virtually the only

time, however, that

not true.

is

street

of public adjacent

On

the one

hand the development of rapid transit subways and elevated railways has absorbed a part of the traffic formerly carried by the surface railways in the larger cities. On the other hand the development of automotive vehicles, both private and commoncarrier, has absorbed another part of the traffic formerly handled

To measure

of the production and distribution of electric power. These econ-

by

omies begin at the power house where topping, or superimposed, turbines utilizing steam at high pressures have made possible the production of 25% to 50% more power with the same fuel con-

influences is extremely difficult. In the United States the total num-

sumption.

The newer and more

efficient stations

and

electric railways.

ber of passengers carried by

all forms of local transit service in 1939 was substantially greater than the number carried before the

their asso-

ciated transmission facilities are operated at high load factors

and close to unity power factor, with the less efficient stations taking up the peak increments and the reactive power. In distribution systems, economies have been effected in several ways. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these is the almost universal application in Great Britain of the tap-changing transformer to increase the utility of existing branches of the secondary and distribution grids. Practically all of the large transformers have been

fitted ivith

tap-changing gear.

The extension of this idea is now taking place rapidly.

to smaller distribution transformers In these cases, a simple design of tap-changing gear with

switches

New

is

mercury

placed on the tops of the existing transformer tanks.

designs of induction regulators with increased voltage ranges

and kilovolt-ampere ratings have been developed

in

Germany and

are being applied in several countries for purposes similar to that of the tap-changing transformer. Similar economies are seen in the United States in the application of tap-changing transformers also of phase-shifting transformers.

and induction regulators and Better power factors in both high- and low-tension

lines

have

from the further application of shunt static capacitors, thus reducing the power losses. (Sec also Rural Electrifica-

Cities

tion.)

—

Bibliography. L. F. Woodruff, Electric Power Transmission and Dis(John Wiley & Sons, 1938); O. G. C. Dahl, Electric Power Cir-

With

New Streamlined Street (As of Jan.

1,

Cars

1940)

Number In Atlantic City, Baltimore,

the United Stales

N. J

I

68

Boston, Mass Chicago, 111

I

83

Cincinnati, O Los Angeles, Calif

New

3

York, N. Y. (Brooklyn)

95 100

....

Philadelphia, Pa Pittsburgh, Pa St. Louis, San Diego, Calif San Francisco, Calif

23 301 100 28

Mo

Washington, D.

5

C

187

In Canada 140

Toronto Vancouver

r

1136

Total Cifies W/f/j

New Sfreom/inec/

Rapid Transit Cars

-3

New

York, N. Y. (Brooklyn) Oakland, Calif Philadelphia,

Total

of

Streamlined Cars

Md

resulted

tribution,

the exact effect of these several

t^6

Pa

^ :

.

.

.

2SS

ELECTRIC TRANSPORTATION advent of the automobile and was approximately industrial activity in 1939

1929, the inference

in

8o%

is

also about

20%

lower than

diminished the need for public transportation service.

which

this service is rendered,

Miles

Place

Barcelona*

.

Berlin

.

.

.

.

Cleveland. Elberfeld

.

.

Glasgow

.

.

Hamburg

.

.

Liverpool

.

.

less

London

.

.

interesting to note that an appreciable proportion of

the buses are equipped with electric drive, so that likely that as

on

many

as

80%

it is

not un-

of all transit passengers are carried

electric transportation vehicles.

Canada have taken the lead

in this activity.

Since 1937

more

modem, streamlined street cars have been purchased companies in 13 cities in the United States and two in Canada. The great majority of these new cars are of the so-called “Electric Railway Presidents’ Conference Committee” design,

2023^

1,640

29 8 13 50

34 67 50

1940)

492

Miles

Place

of

Madrid Moscow. Munich New Yorkf

.

Osaka

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Sydney Tokyo

.

.

.

57

.

.

.

3,629

Vienna

.

.

.

no

540 Under co nstruction 2K No data 10 20 87 483

•Total for three systems. fTotal for five systems.

has been held up since the outbreak of the European War, partly diflSculty of obtaining fuel for

partly because of the diflSculty in securing

Some transit systems are reported have withdrawn bus service and restored street railway service

kind from the manufacturers. to

on certain routes because of the fuel problem.

Rapid

— Growth of rapid

Transit.

transit facilities,

number

greater progress would undoubtedly have been

1936 as the result of an extensive program of renew type of light-weight, fast, silent street

subways and

elevated railways, has progressed slowly but steadily during recent

years in a

in

motor buses and vehicles of any

new

by

brought out

2,781

73K

than 1,100 transit

8,408

No data

.... .

328

1,006

Paris Philadelphia. .

Cars

Track

12 144 128 33 Under co nstruction

.

Prague

13K

because of the

While the relative importance of the surface electric railway has undoubtedly diminished, this form of transit service remains the largest single element in local transportation service. Recent years, indeed, have witnessed an energetic endeavour to modernize and improve electric surface railways. The United States and

528 204

.

.

2,372

55 22>^

.

riding.

it is

i,

Cars 92

37 276

Boston Buenos Aires* Chicago .

Subways and elevated railways carry about 20%, tracktroUeys about 5% and motor buses about 25%. In this con-

Track

of

.

however, has

undergone far-reaching changes. Whereas the electric surface railways once enjoyed a virtual monopoly of public passenger transportation in urban areas, they now handle only about 50% of such

nection

Sysfems of fhe World

it

the increase in the use of private automobiles has not greatly

in

Trar>si#

(As of Jan.

was that general business conditions have was

been the major factor influencing transit riding. In other words,

The manner

Rapid

of that

In view of the fact that general business and

carried in 1929.

237

of large cities throughout the world.

made

if

Even

the cost

of providing such facilities had not been extremely high. This

had

tended to confine the construction of both subways and elevated railways to territory where the

trafific is

unusually dense. In 1939 hawng extensive under-

search to develop a

there were only 12 cities in the world

Rubber springing and improved control and braking equipment are features of the design. At the same time that modernization of street railway equipment has been going forward in U.S. and Canadian cities there has been similar activity in numerous cities in other countries. For example, the transit companies in Genoa, MUan, Oslo, Moscow, Brisbane and Buenos Aires have all installed new types of

ground rapid transit facilities. These were Barcelona, Berlin, Boston, Buenos Aires, Glasgow, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, Paris, Philadelphia and Tokyo. Construction was under

car.

fast,

streamlined cars with unusually attractive passenger accom-

modations.

way, however, on a subway project in Chicago. Extensive elevated railway systems exist in Chicago, Hamburg, Liverpool, New York and Philadelphia. Besides these there are ^rv'ices which are essentially of a rapid transit character in a

number

of other places, including Cleveland, Vienna,

Elsewhere the developments with respect to railways have shown mixed trends.

electric

surface

Paris has replaced its entire

The

last

mentioned, which commenced, operation in Jan. 1939,

connects the City of San Francisco with Oakland and nearby

system with motor buses. London and Manchester have plans for eliminating all street cars and using a combination of motor buses and trolley buses. On the other hand, Glasgow and Liverpool continue to rely mainly on electric railways. In some cities where substitutions have been planned, their execution

cities via the

A STREAMLINED ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

double, parallel tunnels through the heart of the

street railway

8j-mi. San Francisco-Oakland bay bridge and saves commuters 20 to 3omin. per trip in comparison to the time formerly required to cross the bay by ferry. From the standpoint of size the subway under construction in Chicago is by far the most important new development in the

rapid transit train

put In service

Chicago

Warsaw, and

the San Francisco bay region.

In

1939, for part of

its

pulls the "Trail Blazer,” all-coach run between New York city and

field.

When

completed

it

will

provide 7-7mi. of

downtown

district

of the city, connecting with existing elevated railway lines at out-

ELECTRIC TRANSPORTATION

238 lying points.

The estimated

total cost of constructing this

subway,

$46,000,000, of which $28,000,000 is to be paid by the city of Chicago and $18,000,000 through a grant from

without equipment,

is

the United States Government.

Had

not been for this grant the

it

would not have been undertaken when it was. New York, Philadelphia, London, Paris and Buenos Aires have all extended their underground systems recently but none of these extensions has as much significance to local transportation in the territory served as the new subway will have to probability

is

that the project

Chicago.

Most outstanding

of the recent events in the field of rapid tran-

equipment has been the placing in service of a new type,

sit

streamlined, three-body articulated car

New York Rapid

by the

Transit Corporation in the early part of 1939. This vehicle incorporates the latest types of aviation structural design in the use

and assembly of aluminium alloys and the most recent developments in springing and mounting contributed by the rubber inIn

dustry.

its

design air conditioning

is

used for the

first

time in

rapid transit equipment.

Trackless Trolleys. field

—^Although

it is

a relative

made

astonishing progress in recent years.

the latest available figures there were

to

newcomer

placed in operation

in Sept.

1939

at

in the

of electric transportation, the trackless trolley, or trolley

bus, has

LATE MODEL ‘‘TRACKLESS TROLLEY,” Wilmington, Delaware

According

more than 6,000 of

these vehicles in use in 1939 in a score of countries throughout the world. Great Britain and the United States were the leaders in

trolley buses.

installations

In

and

cities

in

under 100,000 population there were

26

those over 500,000 population there were

Among the cities which decided to enter the field of trolley bus operation during the year 1939 were Denver, Ft. Wayne, Wilmington and Seattle. In the last mentioned city it was planned to eight.

former having some 2,600 such vehicles in opera2,400. Elsewhere there were about 1,300 additional trolley buses in operation, the largest system being that of Moscow, which was reported to have more

more

than

loomi. of trolley bus route with 235 vehicles, using also a siderable number of motor buses on feeder routes.

con-

than soo vehicles.

field of electrified trunk-line railroad

this field, the

tion

and the

latter approximately

Establishment of extensive trolley bus operations in Great Britain antedated that in the United States

by a few years, starting in the reconstruction period following the World War (1914-18), when there was great need for improvement in transit facilities. At that time trolley buses were substituted in place of worn out tracks and tram cars in a number of British cities. This trend has continued steadily until the trolley bus has become one of the most important elements in local transportation in Britain. Trolley bus growth in the United States may be said to have

commenced in 1928 with the establishment of a sizable system at Salt Lake City. Prior to that there had been a number of small installations elsewhere but none of them was particularly successful. The improved vehicles operated at Salt Lake City, however, demonstrated the possibilities of this new form of transportation and

its

expansion has been continuous since that time. In 1939

1932were 64 cities in the United States having trolley bus service there 1933 and two in Canada.

The greatest use was made of this type of vehicle in the cities medium size. A total of 30 U.S. cities between 100,000 and 500,000 population were in 1939 served in whole or in part by

of

Growth of Trolley Bus Operation

Number

Year

As

of Jan.

i

Vehicles

1928 1929 1930

29 41 62

1931

174 258 285 395 448 64S

1934 193S 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940

of

it6i

1699 2051 2255

in U.S.

of

Route

Cities

Served

31

3

38

4

61 142 187

276

378 467 592 855 1203 1503 1730

street railway operation entirely

Electrified Trunk-Line Railroads.

tively

few

in recent years.

and

install

—^New developments

in the

operation have been

rela-

While there are more than 6,ooomi,

electrified trunk-line track in operation in the

United States

of

there

have been no important extensions since the Pennsylvania railroad completed the electrification of its main line between New York and Harrisburg. This lack of activity has been due to the high cost of constructing facilities for electric operation and to the

new trains operated by diesel-electric power Europe there has been somewhat more interest in railroad electrification due to the availability of hydro-electric power and the desire to cut down the use of fuels which have 'to popularity of the (see below). In

be imported. Even there, however, the use of diesel power has tended to retard expansion of railroad electrification.

Self-contained Electric Units.

—

power generated within the vehicle

by electric have been increasing in

^Vehicles operated

itself

The first step in this direction was the development of the gas-electric bus about 1930, designed to eliminate the frequent gear shifting required in the operation of mechanically driven buses. While the early gas-electric buses were popularity in recent years.

successful in accomplishing this purpose they had some serious disadvantages due to the fact that the generator output was not sufficient at the most economical speed of the gasoline engine. With the development of the diesel engine, however, it became possible to accomplish the desired result more satisfactorily and

and Canada

Miles

abandon

5

9 18 18

20 23

25

48 59 63

the use of diesel-electric buses has been growing rapidly. In 1939 there were about 1,700 gas-electric buses in operation in the

United States and Canada and another 300 diesel-electric buses. The same principle is also widely employed on trunk-line steam railroads.

Many

switching engines have been built with the diesel is then trans-

engines driving generators, the power of which

mitted to electric motors to propel the vehicle. More recently the same type of power has also been used to haul many highspeed passenger trains such as the “Zephyrs” operated by the Burlington, the “Rockets” of the Rock Island, the “Super Chief” of the Santa' Fe, the “Streamliners” of the Union Pacific and the “Capital Limited” of the Baltimore & Ohio. A recent innovation in

ELECTRIFICATION, RURAL— ENDOCRINOLOGY vehicles with self-contained generating plants

was a steam-electric

locomotive put in service in 1939 by the Union Pacific. In this design an oil-fired, steam boiler drives a turbo-generator which furnishes electric

power for the

traction motors.

(J.

A. Ml.)

Electrification, Rural: see Rural Electrification. Electron: see Matter, Structure of; Physics.

Elementary Education:

animals causes-protracted and

labour at parturition.

which the posterior pituitary gland is influenced in its regulation of water metabolism. He found that the urine of experimentally dehydrated animals contained an antidiuretic substance similar in its

action to extracts of the posterior hypophysis.

The few and poorly ever, there

(Henry) Havelock

defined nervmus pathways to the anterior

Australia.

2 at

Here, as a lad of

19,

should be the study of sex.

he determined that his lifework returned to England, studied

He

Thomas’s hospital and after a short time in private practice became completely absorbed in literary and psychological work. He began his monumental Studies in the Psychology of Sex, but the book was without honour in his own country and was published only in Germany and the United States (for a partial list of his works see Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 8, p. 374)Recognition of Ellis’s work was belated, but scientists and laymen alike ultimately conceded that he had established a true scientific approach to a subject whose mere mention was often taboo in the early 20th century. In his later years Ellis led a secluded life in a poor quarter of London. He continued writing in his advanced age and published George Chapimn (1934), My Conjessiotial (1934), Questions of Our Day (1936), and Sex in Relation to Society (1937). His life story. My Life, appeared in 1939, He died at Hendlesham, near Ipswich, on July 8. medicine at

is

now’

some evidence

of these nervous connections. It

Croydon, Surrey. Descended from sea-faring families, he spent much of his youth on the Pacific and for four years taught school in various parts of New South Wales, (1875-79)

February

St.

hormone of the

Salvador: see Salvador, El. Embassies, Great Britain: see Ambassadors and Envoys: To and from Great Britain. Embassies, United States: see Ambassadors and Envoys: To and from the United States.

El

Cmonr

LIIICI j,

of the

magnetite, though in

corundum

is

a mixture of

some of the

corundum and

inferior grades

much

replaced by spinel and other minerals.

Al-

though a heavy producer of emery during the World War, the

possible that the gonadotropic

may, under certain circumbe released as a result of a reflex nen’ous mechanism. Thus, section of the pituitary stalk has been show’n to prevent the ovulation which normally follows coitus or mechanical stimustances,

lation of the cervix in rabbits.

Similarly the hyperplasia of the

thyroid gland which foUow’s exposure to cold, and w’hich

is

pre-

sumably due to secretion of thyrotropic hormone, is absent in animals in w’hich the pituitary stalk has previously been sectioned. However, the mediation of the central nervous system in the activity of the anterior hypophysis

is

apparently confined to those

by stimulation of nervous receptors. The maintenance of functions such as growth and the trophic reactions which are initiated

influences of the anterior pituitary on other endocrine glands, are not affected by sectioning the nervous connections in the pituitary stalk (c/. Evans-Uotila).

The importance of the hypothalamus in relation to phenomena which were formerly considered to depend primarily upon the endocrine activity of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, also illustrated

is

by the observations of Hetherington and Ranson

upon experimental

obesity.

the incidental occurrence of

marked obesity

in

and a monkey, following experimental injuries to the hypothalamus in the course of studies on diabetes insipidus. More recently they have been able to produce marked obesity in rats at will, by punctate injury to the supra-optic nuclei of the cats, guinea-pigs,

hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary Gland. is

is

by Rasmussen. How-

for the functional importance

anterior hypophysis

They observed

Properly speaking, emery

Section of the

pituitary stalk prevented the appearance of this substance.

lobe of the hypophysis, have been described

Ellis,

The

very recent work of Ingram has indicated a possible mechanism by

Education, Elementary.

see

difficult

239

—Previous work has indicated that

the various hormones of the anterior hypophysis resemble proteins

A beginning has now been made towards the knowledge of their actual structure. Fraenkel-Courant

in their chemical composition.

advances in the knowledge of the interrelationship between the endocrine glands and the central nervous system. The nervous pathways which link the hypothalamus to

and Evans have shown that incubation with cysteine potentiates the effect of the growth hormone, and inactivates preparations of gonadotropic hormone. It therefore seems likely that the activity of these hormones is associated with — SH and — SS groupings in their molecules. This makes them comparable to the growing list of active proteins, including insulin and various tissue enzymes, which also depend upon these same groupings for their activity. The diabetogenic and anti-insulin effects of extracts of the anterior lobe of the hypophysis have been explained in one of two ways: (i) An inhibition of the utilization of carbohydrate, or (2) an increased formation of sugar from non-carbohydrate sources. The recent work of Soskin, Le\’ine et al. has substantiated the latter view. They have also found that the thyroid gland plays a significant role in the metabolic disturbance which follows hypophysectomy. The decreased formation of blood sugar

the hypophysis through the pituitary stalk, have long been recog-

W’hich accounts for the h>'poglycemia of fasting in these animals,

United States now has no output, and imports the entire require-

ment, which dropped to^426 long tons in 1938. The best emery comes from Greece and Turkey, each of which exports about 15,000 tons annually. The Greek (Naxos) emery is considered best for grinding wheels, while Turkish

is

used for general polish-

work and emery cloth. Grecian emery goes mainly to Germany and Netherlands, and Turkish to England. (G. A. Ro.) ing

Emigration:

see

Refugees.

Enderbury Island:

see

South Sea and Equatorial Islands.

Fnilnprinnlnffu LIIUUuI lllUIUgji

marked by further

son have investigated the functional activity of these nervous connections and have shown that they are chiefly concerned with

partly due to the secondary atrophy of the thyroid. This leads to a diminution in the rate of endogenous protein catabolism to amino-acids, thus limiting the available raw material for sugar

certain actions of the posterior lobe of the gland. Discrete destruc-

formation.

from which the fibres originate, leads to atrophy of the posterior pituitary accompanied by permanent diabetes insipidus. The same procedure in pregnant

of thyroxine.

nized anatomically. Within recent years Fisher, Ingram and

tion of the hypothalamic nuclei

Ran-

is

The

—

Thyroid.

^It

difficulty

has been

can be obviated by the administration

known

for

some time that all the activity by the amount of

of thyroid extract cannot be accounted for

ENGLAND — ENGLISH LITERATURE

240

been found to be more ac-

siderable experimental clinical trial during the year 1939. They

curate to assay the potency of thyroid extract on the simple basis of total iodine content. The work of Salter, Lerman and Haring-

have been found to be very effective in reproducing all the physiological and therapeutic effects of the naturally occurring hormones. However, the question of toxicity has arisen and is not

thyroxine which

It has

contains.

it

ton indicated that the active portion of thyroid extract consisted of thyroglobulin associated with diiodotyrosine and thyroxine.

yet settled.

At the present time extreme caution must be

exer-

Very recently, these same authors have shown that simple iodination of a serum proteins results in the formation of a complex having thyroid activity. This may mean that thyroid activity is not exclusively confined to one specific iodine compound. However, it is possible that the activity obtained in the above manner

cised in the use of these and other synthetic products, for pur-

may have been due

and neoplastic growth has long been recognized clinically. The removal of the ovaries following excision of a carcinoma was found

to the in vitro formation of thyroxine.

Lud-

wig and Mutzenbecher (confirmed by Harington) have demonstrated the formation of thyroxine crystals by incubating casein

poses other than experimental clinical Testis.

trials.

—Within recent years the study of the chemical

structure

of the sex hormones has shown them to be closely related to the carcinogenic steroids. The relationship between the oestrogens

to rriinimize the possibility of metastasis or recurrence.

Lacas-

with a compound solution of iodine.

sagne has, more recently, demonstrated that the administration

Adrenal Cortex. It has been generally supposed that the disturbance in sodium and potassium metabolism which follows

large

—

amounts of oestrogenic substance

of

to susceptible strains of

mice, significantly increased the incidence of breast carcinoma in the females. The males of the same strain, which ordinarily were

due to a change in the permeability of all tissue cells to these ions. This view has been modified by the recent work of Harrow, who showed that the primary effect of lack of adrenal cortical hormone is on the kidney tubules. This leads to

work which attempts

an abnormal excretion of sodium and a retention of potassium,

munity of the male animals to tumour growth. They found

which

administration of crude extracts of urine containing the various

adrenalectomy,

is

mineral balance of the body as a whole. also becoming more apparent that the disturbed mineral in turn alters the

It is

equilibrium does not account for a large proportion of the abnor-

mal phenomena associated with the metabolism of the foodstuffs. Nor is there any direct relationship between the degree of mineral imbalance and the symptomatology of Addison’s disease. Desoxycorticosterone, first synthesized and later isolated from adrenal cortical extracts by Reichstein, has been submitted to considerable clinical trial during 1939. It has been found to be quite potent in the correction of the mineral disturbance of Addison’s disease

and

in the alleviation of

the present time, however,

some of the symptoms. At

seems likely that

it

it

will

not be able

to substitute completely for the adrenal cortex.

—As

Ovary. ploratory

regards the oestrogenic hormones, the initial ex-

work concerning the chemical

structure of the naturally

body disposes of these hormones not only by excreby destruction in the liver. A striking

tion into the urine, but also

illustration of the potential

cycle

may

be found

in the

importance of the liver in the sex

work

of Talbot.

He showed

that the

production of a functional deficiency of the liver by carbon tetrachloride poisoning in immature rats precipitated a persistent oestrus, presumably by permitting an accumulation of the subthreshold amounts being secreted by the immature ovaries. In addition to excretion and destruction of the oestrogenic substances, it has also been demonstrated that the more potent forms of

the hormone may be transformed

to

weak oestrogens

in the

body. Pincus found that oestrone is converted to oestriol by the non-involuted uterus of the rabbit. The presence of progesterone from the corpus luteum catalyzes this reaction. He has suggested play an important role in the normal It may be supposed that when the parturition. sex cycle and in corpus luteum is functioning, the rapid conversion of oestrone to that these processes

oestriol does

may

not allow the building up of sufficient oestrogenic

But activity in the blood to stimulate the uterine musculature. diminution in oestrone as the corpus luteum regresses, the sudden oestrogenic acto oestriol transformation may raise the level of contraction is initivity in the blood to a point at which uterine tiated.

preparation of synthetic oestrogens continues. Dodds and co-workers have recently announced the synthesis of hexoestriol, a compound even more potent than the stilboestrols reported in

The

1938.

As regards the

latter,

from cancers of the

breast, did develop such neoplasms after al.,

have now

reported

to discover the reason for the relative imthat the

androgens and the injection of testosterone propionate into male rabbits implanted with Brown-Pearce carcinoma, significantly inhibited the growth and metastatic spread of the implants. Testosterone, androsterone

hibitory effect.

and oestrone gave no evidence

of any

in-

{See also Physiology.)

—

^W. R. Ingram, L. Ladd and J. T. Benbovj, “The ExcreAntidiuretic substance and its Relation to the HypothalamicoHypophyseal System in Cats,” Am. J. Physiol. (Oct. 1939); H. M. Evans, “Endocrine Glands: Gonads, Pituitary and Adrenals,” Ann. Rev. oj Physiol. (1939): U- U. Uotila, “On the Role of the Pituitary Stalk in the Regulation of the Anterior Pituitary, With Special Reference to the Thyrotropic Hormone,” Endocrinology (Oct. 1939); A. W. Hetherington and S. W. Ranson, “Experimental Hypothalamico-Hypophyseal Obesity in the Rat," Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med. (June 1939); H. Fraenkel-Courant, M. E. Simpson and H. M. Evans, “The Effect of Cysteine on Gonadotropic Hormones,” /. Biol. Chem. (Sept. 1939); S. Soskin, R. Levine and R. E. Heller, “Role of the Thyroid in the Carbohydrate Disturbance Which Follows Hypophysectomy,” Am. 3 Physiol. (Feb. 1939); S. Soskin, R. Levine and W. Lehmann, “Influence of the Hypophysis on Carbohydrate Metabolism,” Am. 3 . Physiol. (Oct. 1939); J. Lerman, and W. T. Salter, “The Relief of Myxoedema With Proteins of Extrathyroidal Origin,” Endocrinology (Nov. 1939); C. R. Harington, “The Production of Crystalline Thyroxine by lodination of Casein,” Nature (July 1939); D. C. Darrow, H. E. Harrison and M. Taffel, “Tissue Electrolytes in Adrenal Insufficiency,” 3 Biol. Chem. (Oct. 1939); N. B. Talbot, “The Inactivation of Endogenous Estrogen by the Liver,” Endocrinology (Oct. 1939); J. R. Murlin, C. D. Kochakian, C. L. Spurr and R. A. Harvey, “Androgens and Tumour Growth,” Science (Sept. 1939). (S. So.)

Bibliography.

tion

of

.

occurring substances has begun to give place to studies of their metabolism after they are secreted into the bloodstream. It appears that the

free

treatment with the oestrogens-. Murlin, et

they have been subjected to con-

.

'

England: see Great Britain and Northern Kingdom of.

Ireland, United

biogfaphy for 1939 the accent has remained on the late i8th and early 19th centuries. Coleridge has found, after many years, two new

Fnirlich

Lllglloll

I

itomtliro

LllClallllCa

biographers: Sir E. K. Chambers, whose Samuel Taylor Coleridge

might be described as a definitive precis of its subject, and Lawrence Hanson, whose Life of S. T. Coleridge: the Early Years is

volume of what promises to be the first full study of and complex hero. Mr. Hanson’s judgment is, perhaps, occasionally a trifle suspect, but the voluminous and diligent documentation of his book will probably assure its place as a standard authority. The concluding volume of Ernest de Selincourt’s Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth is a welcome contribution to the same field, as is Lord David Cecil’s polished and the initial

its

subtle

scholarly study of The Young Melbourne. Other periods have not proved so fruitful, and apart from Sir Kenneth Clark’s Leonardo da Vinci and Francis Steegmuller’s penetrating analysis of Flaubert and Madame Bovary one can remember little of more than ephemeral interest.

ENTOM OLOGY Little

perhaps

noteworthy history appeared during the year 1939, because it was being made with such unpleasant

Karl Brandi’s long-anticipated Charles V made its English debut; and Henri Pirenne, whose death has still further diminished the declining body of humane scholarship, published rapidity.

for the

first

time in England his

Mohammed and

Charlemagne and

XVIth Century. History of Europe from English historians produced nothing of outstanding importance, the Invasions to the

but in English Scholars David C. Douglas has given a useful and entertaining account of Restoration historical research; while in The Englishman’s Food Professor Drummond and Anne Wilbra-

ham have

compiled a random, amusing and often valuable hotchpotch of dietary anecdote and information. The History of the Times, too, still like a wounded snake drags its slow length along,

and has now reached 1889. Besides lettres make a comparatively poor showing. Force Stead’s welcome edition of Christopher Smart’s Rejoice

Belles

W.

in the

Lamb, and a number

of additions to the

Nonesuch Library,

have been noticeable principally by their absence. Among the moderns, Ronald Knox {Let Dons Delight) has written one of his happiest parodies, Robert Lynd the classics

and near

classics

and Nightingales) has collected some felicitous and W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood {Journey to a War) have given a slight but admirable kestrel’s-eye-view of the {Searchlights

essays,

But, as a whole, the more progressive conflict. movements have slowed down considerably, and the appearance of Cyril Conolly’s new monthly Horizon hardly compensates for the disappearance of the London Mercury and the

Sino-Japanese

literary

suspension of

The death

New

Writing.

of Yeats set the tone of the poetic year.

English

poetry remains becalmed in a Sargasso, and Stephen Spender {The Centre), Dylan Thomas {The Map of Love), and W. H. Auden have done little but repeat, modify and embellish their

Still

former

originalities.

Roy

Campbell’s

Flowering Rifle, which

rhapsodizes naively over the slaughter of the Spanish republicans

and vents some dubious economics, is full-blooded and makes a nice change whatever else may be thought of it. Only T. S. Eliot’s Family Reunion showed a variation of its author’s previous technique, and suggested that any of our popular poets still possesses a capacity for development.

Autobiography is still in full cry, but only I Knock at the Door, Sean O’Casey’s purple but moving account of sordid youth in viceregal Dublin, provided the ruthless autovivisection that lovers of other people’s self-analyses have vein,

we had

come

to expect.

In milder

a second taste of Oliver St. John Gogarty’s ribald

anecdotes {Tumbling in the

Hay) and a

further instalment of {Rain Upon Godshill). The usual crop of foreign correspondents gave their under-table views of current history and threw the usual slanderous sidelights on the J.

B. Priestley’s

random

reflections

private lives of tyrants; but Pierre van Paassen’s

Years, though written in the lurid tradition of

its

Days

of

Our

kind, contains

enough good new stories to make it worth remembering. The year proved a bad year for philosophy and general science, though connoisseurs of metaphysical and anthropological curiosa will no doubt have enjoyed Gerald Heard’s Pain, Sex and Time, and Verrier Elwin’s study of The Baiga, an India people whose Freud’s Moses and Monotheism has a melancholy interest as the last work of a great man, but cannot be regarded, even by his greatest admirers, as an essay of any major importance. Not unnaturally, politics have been in the forefront of publishers’ lists, and amidst aU the chaff there appeared a small quantity of grain. Notable in the theoretical field was Hermann Rauschning’s Germany’s Revolution of Nihilism, a startling exposition of the nihilistic tendencies in Nazism. The same writer

habits rival those of the Trobriand islanders.

was

241

also responsible for Hitler Speaks, a sensational but allegedly

first-hand account of the Fuehrer’s machiavellian

on

his social

Hitler,

I

W.

and

political

policy.

pronouncements

What Rauschning

G. Krivitski does for the Russian ruling

Was Stalin’s Agent,

does for

class,

and in

a bitter, lurid, but fundamentally convincing expose of the facts behind the recent Soviet purges. In the sphere of reportage' there was little outstanding, save Fallen offers

Bastions, G. E. R. Gedye’s able analysis of the causes and effects

of Munich; and Behind the Battle, T. C. Worsley’s sensitive and amusing story of his adventures in the Spanish Civil War. Max

Werner’s Military Strength of the Powers attracted considerable attention when it appeared, but though his praise of Germany’s

mechanized forces and criticisms of the Polish army have been fully justified, his confidence in the Red Army’s invincibility has so far been falsified by events. Most of the more prominent novelists published characteristic work during 1939. Aldous Huxley, slightly to the surprise of

some of

his readers,

made

a reappearance in fiction, and in After the cynical wit of his earher novels

Many A Summer combined

and the philosophic mysticism of Ends and Means into an entertaining but unsatisfactory synthesis. James Joyce has at last completed Work In Progress and published it under the title of Finnegans Wake. The whole, fortunately, is greater than the parts, and the rambling brilliances of the isolated sections have merged into a work of art. Christmas Holiday, Somerset Maugham’s new novel, proved disappointing, probably because its author was

To Step Aside, Noel showed that one popular writer at least has not exhausted his phenomenal vitality. Sir Hugh Walpole {The Sea Tower) and H. G. Wells {The Holy Terror) demonstrate that they have not lost their former skill, but neither book represents its author’s best work. The younger writers have been equally active. Christopher Isherwood {Goodbye to Berlin) concludes, one imagines, his saga of republican Germany; George Orwell {Coming Up For Air) makes another pleasant excursion into his lower-middle-class inferno; Graham Greene {The Confidential Agent) offers an intellectual thriller; and Ralph Bates {The Miracidous Horde) collects a volume of short stories in his best manner. {See also American Literature.) (J, Mr.) unfaithful to his familiar environment; but

Coward’s

first

volume of short

stories,

“most dangerous member of a dangerous of mosquitoes. Anopheles gambiae, now menaces the Western Hemisphere, This notorious vector of malaria was discovered within the city limits of Natal on the east

Pnfnmnlnrru

LlllUIIIUIUgj*

family’’

coast of Brazil in

mosquito

is

March

1930.

in tropical Africa

and

The it

principal

Atlantic in a fast boat or in an aeroplane.

Fosdick writes, “It

is

a serious and often

fatal type of malaria,

the

In

its

native home,

sometimes complicated find conditions in the

development and that it might be the contrary, an outbreak of malaria due to

region of Natal suitable to

On

of

the scourge of Central Africa, a carrier of

by the so-called ‘black-water’ fever.’’ It was hoped that the mosquito would not exterminated.

home

probably came across the

its

the activities of the mosquito, of a severity

unknown

to the city,

took place during 1930 and 1931; and by 1931 the mosquito had spread northward along the coast for a distance of iij miles. By 1938 it had gone over zoomi. north and west of Natal nearly to the source of the Jaguaribe river. The virulent type of malaria

which it carried to this extended territory developed an epidemic which afficted nearly 60,000 people in a population of about 70,000, of whom more than S,ooo succumbed to the ravages of the disease. So far, the mosquito does not seem to have met any adverse conditions in Brazil that have shown a. tendency to check its spread.

h

ENTOMOLOGY

242

The Potato Beetle

in

Europe.

—Although

the Colorado potato

beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is

an insignificant creature was the subject of a good deal of attention in Europe during especially in

Germany when

yet

it

1939,

going to war. Potatoes constitute an

important food crop of peoples in northern Europe, a crop easily grown, harvested, and stored. Anything that tends to lower its production seriously becomes a source of considerable anxiety.

made

Special effort was, therefore,

control the ravages of this pest.

trouble

from

from a phase of

its

in

Germany

during 1939

In Spain, the beetle

to

caused

presence in that country entirely

apart

injury to the potato plant. Northern Spain, during past years, produced potatoes as an export crop to the British Isles. its direct

During the late civil war the beetle entered Spain, probably from France, and now the growers find themselves greatly handicapped

by a quarantine

against their crop because of the danger of introducing the beetle with the export shipments of potatoes. Early in 1939 while Poland still existed as a nation, an inquiry was made

by an EVEN THE PAINT

official

of the Polish department of agriculture regarding

by the

of grasshoppers

which

the severity of the injuries caused

destroyed crops along a 50mi. front in San Joaquin valley, Calif., in April

1939

States and the effectiveness of the spray program in holding

of farmers'

homes was eaten by a horde

The

insect in check.

official

stated that he had lately been

Anopheles gambiae like Aedes aegypti, is a domestic mosquito which haunts the dwellings of man. It passes through its life cycle in 7 or 8 days, which enables it to increase rapidly and in

presence of this insect in Europe

great numbers.

problem.

the

All of the evidence indicates that A.

gambiae

is

most dangerous vector of malaria in the hemisphere. Moreit seems likely, unless some method of checking its spread

over, is

devised, that

in the

it

will eventually reach the southern

United States

north and Argentina in the south.

“Should this occur, it would create a public health problem that would outrank all others in tropical America," Fosdick writes.

—

reEntomological Control of Cactus in South Africa. markable effort is in progress in South Africa in an attempt to destroy the prickly pear, Opuntia megacantha, which densely infests well

over 2,ooo,oooac. in the Union, by the introduction

and distribution of a moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, native America. The caterpillars of

this

moth

live within the

to

South

segments

beetle in the United the in

Holland and Belgium meeting with a committee for the study and control of the Colorado potato beetle. It is evident that the is

looked upon as a most

serious

—

A

Miscellany. ^The white-fringed beetle, Pantomorus leucoloma, formerly placed in the genus Nanpactus, is a native insect of South America. It was first found in the United States in Ala-

bama and

Florida in 1936.

It

had already

in 1939 spread into

Mississippi and Louisiana and will probably go to other States.

Although it appears to be an inhabitant of warm countries it may prove capable of living in colder regions, in which event the beetle

may

spread

much

farther north.

The

adult beetle

is

about one-

half inch in length, grayish in colour and with a whitish stripe or, fringe along each side of the body. It is a stout beetle with a short broad snout. It cannot fly but is active in crawling over the ground often in groups of considerable numbers. It is carried

of the cactus plants eating out the soft interiors often leaving only

the empty, thin, papery skins. Plants thus attacked collapse and are easily cleared from the land. During 193S, the entomologist in charge, Dr. F.

W.

Pettey, with his assistants, distributed 12,-

000,000 eggs of the moth on farms in the infested districts. To date, about 200,000,000 eggs, obtained from moths reared in three large breeding stations, have been distributed in lots of 200,000

on farms over-run with the cactus plants. The earliest established colonies of the moths have increased enormously and have spread over many hundreds of square miles. The destruction of the prickly pear plants by the caterpillars has been so extensive that there is reason to hope that the insect “will fulfil the purpose for which it was introduced.” There are, however, forces inimical to the increase of the moths. Probably the worst enemy of the caterpillars is the baboons which are numerous in many localities. Curiously enough, these animals tear the leaf pads of the cacti open, pick out the caterpillars and devour them. Before distributing eggs of the moth on farms where baboons are present, the farmers are required to trap and destroy them. It is not uncommon for a farmer to trap over 300 baboons in six months of the time. Monkeys and flesh-eating ants are also enemies

The mucilaginous sap of the destroy many of the larvae when young. caterpillars.

cacti also

catch and

work against have prickly pear is being carried on in Australia where the cacti work The Africa. South in than invaded a much greater area began earlier in Australia. The Cactoblastis moth was introduced in 192s and appears to breed rather more freely and rapidly

A NEW DUST,

than in South Africa.

controlled the ravages of the citrus red mite In California In

Similar

sprayed on citrus fruit and walnut trees by a fish-tailed machine,

1939

to distant regions through the channels of

commerce.

The beetle does most of its injuries in the larval or grub stage. The grubs often exist in the soil in great numbers, sometimes as many as 200 to the square yard. They -eat off the roots of the plants on which they feed and they attack practically

all field

and

The grubs have caused

garden crops and ornamental plants.

notable injury to such important crops as cotton, peanuts, beans, The beetle is now so widely distributed

potatoes and sugar cane.

seem to be any possibility of exterminating it. Thorough and extended study of its life history and habits is in progress with the hope of finding practicable methods of checking there does not

its injuries.

,

The Japanese

beetle, Popillia japonica, has gradually

but re-

lentlessly extended its area of distribution in the eastern

States until

now present from Maine

it is

United

to the Carolinas through

the coastal States and has crossed the Mississippi river in

its

westward march. Its principal concentration is stUl in a few of the middle Atlantic States, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. During the past summer (1939), some perturbation among the inhabitants of New York city was caused by the sudden appearance of considerable numbers of the beetle within the confines of the city, an awesome visitation of a strange, alarming creature.

Much

careful

work has been done in importing and distributing upon the Japanese beetle but the full effect of forms will probably not be apparent for some

parasites to prey

these parasitic

On

years to come.

grubs

known

the other hand, a bacterial disease of the

as the “milky disease,” has developed in

which has proved to be surprisingly

Many

population of the beetle.

New

Jersey

effective in reducing the

millions of the milky disease

spores develop in the body of a single grub and the spores are

capable of remaining dormant for several years yet retaining their

The

viability during this period.

spores have been recovered from

JAPANESE BEETLES ern States and to Ohio

(maonified approximately three times) spread to 16 eastIn 1939. They destroy trees, vepetables. prain and flowers

chickens and starlings and

it is believed that they are distributed This disease seems to be the most hopeful natural agent that has been discovered for checking the increase of the

by

birds.

beetle

too

and

much

a balance in

'for striking

its relations

to

mankind. Not

confidence, however, should be placed in

the

work

of the disease because in other regions and under other climatic conditions

it

may

not prove so virulent. It may be several years value of the disease can be measured.

before the full

The blowfly {Liicilia cuprina, et al.) problem in connection with the production of sheep and wool in Australia is still a serious one. Intensive investigation of the habits, life history, and ecological

relations of the flies is in progress.

One

of the

work is an ample and regular supply of the larvae for the laboratory and field experiments. To fulfil this demand, the larvae must be reared artificially on some sort of synthetic medium. Yeast in combination with sodium chloride essential requirements of this

with enough agar added to give the right consistency, has proved satisfactory.

The

white of egg

is

medium,

it is

larvae grow more rapidly, however, if the used in place of the agar. In case of the yeast

believed that

no previous record of the successful

rearing of “flesh-fly larvae” in the absence of animal protein is

known.

This

is

an interesting by-product of the investiga-

tion.

—

Insects of the Air.

of 200ft. a total of 13,389 specimens were taken, all of which, except 653 spiders and mites, were true insects (Hexapoda). At

an altitude of i, 000ft., 4,376 insects were collected, while at a height of 2,000ft., 2,127 insects were caught in the traps. 'Varying, but lesser, numbers were taken at other altitudes and 10 insects were caught at a height of 14,000 feet. Specimens were taken in every month of the year but most, per ten minutes of daylight

were collected in May while the least number in was taken in December and January. It is rather surprising that numbers of ivingless adult insects as well as nymphs and larvae were collected from the air even up to alti-

flying time,

the

same

flying time

tudes of 14,000 feet.

Temperature proved to be the most important factor governing number of insects in the air at any given time. A surface temperature of 75° to 79° F. appeared to be the most favourable for insects to take to the air. The velocity of wind currents influences greatly the distribution of insects through the air. YTien the velocity of the wind at the surface was 5 to 6mi. per hour the largest number of insects at the lower altitudes was taken. In speaking of the wingless specimens taken at altitudes above 5,000ft., P. A. Click says it is likely that these forms were “carthe

ried in the upper air currents, perhaps for hundreds of miles. ^A

summary

of an extraordinary series of

By means

of these avenues of travel insects have been distributed

collections of wind-drift insects in the air at altitudes varjdng

to far countries, to remote islands, over

from

across stretches of hot, barren deserts and waste lands.”

20ft. to IS, 000ft.

has been published.

The

insects

were

col-

lected in specially constructed traps fitted to the wings of various types of monoplanes and biplanes. The work was performed

mostly in the United States in the State of Louisiana, but a limited amount of collecting was done in northern Mexico. In all, 30,033 specimens of insects, spiders and mites were collected at the various altitudes. It

is

of interest to note that in Louisiana at altitudes

and Grasshoppers.

—

Grasshoppers and locusts are the most destructive crop insects in the world. Huge of locusts were reported during the year in Argentina

Locusts still

mountain barriers and

among

swarms

South America. The Government ordered naiy aeroplanes equipped with tanks containing special toxic chemicals, to spray the swarming insects.

243

EPIDEMICS AND PUBLIC HEALTH CONTROL — ESTONIA

244

i-rc= iarre zrsss iz the Trestera Laired States carts

earij' re-

01 loii.

Shone

pigs with

swme

ontmon Lunswurm larvae from harbour swine influenza virus throuahout their development both in their intermediaiy host, the earth-

wotm. and

or tee

is

influenza,

d efini tive host, the swine. The virus aimarenilv within the itmgwoim after the parasite has finally migrated to the swine respiratory tract and is only libeiated or activated to canse infection when a provccarive stimulus is ai>their

lies latent

AH of rrs area of tfcs Great Flairs reaioa frorr Jlcrtsra to Tesas ard easrrard to Vrisccrsis arc ilissGrn srrered fro~ tits ravaras of grasshoppers- The Pacirc Coast States also arere sti>fscted to severe irfrries ir taricrs lo-raliries. Colorado “etcren-

phed." In his hands multfele intramuscular injections with liviss Haemophilus infiusmae ruis cultures or a single mtraperitoneal injection

rah

calcium chloride solution -were equally enective as

erced tra vrorst ortbreak of Dissosiebrc lor.z:i>eTs:is in the artiadte. ertnracrr an estmarec mrestaticn os over u-ccc-cccac. of rtadve sod Land.” It is estimated that the

serve as the source of

value of the crops and range destroyed exceeded So.vcc.con.

(For

In North Dakota the locust, JFclcjruiJns rzcjzccrtiis. rns the predominant species. On the whole, the damage to crops in the State was less than in lotS due largely to the enectivc methods of controL .A survev- has shown mat throughout the northeastern part o: the

Smte the

depositfon of eggs has been abnormally large,

a cnnfitiGn which presages a severe

infestarioti of grasshoppers

If these facts are so, then hogs and earthworms

may conceivably

some future human epidemic of

influenza.

syphilis control sec VsncEsstvi. Dissttsss.)

—

3i=zroG3nmr. Ferrie K. Lezz zed Esmer A. B!£s, ClA-cd ced £rVic cf SsIJcrS-cnidc. S-jl' cCyridhic crji AU:'£ Ccmfcirzdi (}?•?);J. V. SRic. G. C. Ihrrh-—. ~Ihi— ticz cz Tz-— "i ty izz TyVbaid

yirirrsv-'-sI

AJJ’£. (Feb. ic;c>; r. etowitt, “Virzies of Ettzize cz _Ea Ixzis Ezcspfzditfi iz ReZztfczsbip to Hzztzz Izfectfcts iz Czliiorziz.' AJS'JI. (Ort. roeg); FrtretvfTi cl “rszzziz ezcepbsiitii ditiec fcv vims of ettsterz vzrfstv o: eczizs ezcepbzltzivelitis,“ tVezr VtiIczmzA cf AZcdicirzc (Sept, zz, 1535), ‘"Westem egzfzs ezeepzzicztvElius iz a latotatom wetirez," JAAIA. (Jziv le, ic;c): Esmiaz X. Bzzzesez. tVEiam I. Fiszzeiz aze jezz L. Wiz'-e. ‘-Bizhtbe.-c. Iz:izzzi^ iz Cizmm.C^Iav 13. I030>; /..^ar-4._(Oca Vaceize,~

E^=tc^

(Fezzz Eeali Repcm

S^a

zz.'rcec); EdzZczid eztihed. ~Esr±yrci^ lAJUU. Qalv az, teeo). (E. Be.)

as Carr:e.-s c; S-zize Izzzezza,”

Epidemics and Public Health Control. One great advance in ±e control of communicable disease was the development and use of sulpbanilamide and rulphapyridine, especially in pnetmtoco-ccus pneumonias. Siler and Dunham have shown that ‘bevaccination against typhoid fever of previously immunized persons with one intracumneous dose of c-icc. of typhoid vaccine produces an immunologic resthonse which

is

com-

parable to char following original vuednation with three sub-

cutaneous infecrions of vaccine." ission of tbs %nrt5cs of the Eastern

and Western

of eqt±is encepralortyeiisis to

can

Fron

seems likely that the

is

epiderriolosic evidence

transmitted to

man

it

strains

appears to he a probability.

throrgh some vector,

eqtrine vinis

Xeatraliziag sub-

stances of the Yrestem strain have been found in sera of 52 oat of

S 5 ercethalidc cases diagnosed in 1957 and 195S. Bmdesen, Fishbein and Tithe point out chat the results obtained in cmhtheria prevention with toroid inoculations did not approximate ejpectations. By emnloving anritosin determinations of the blood in chUdren previously inoculated with various types of antigens, they indicate that three coses of the plain tosoid at monthly intervals seemed to give the best results. There seems to be a gradual loss in the anthcnin content of the blood with

the passage of time. They recommend, therefore, the revtaccination of children with one cose of some antigen at intervals of from three to five years in order to mainrain a sumciently high level of andbodies to ward o 5 the disease. Sarcessfu! transmission of the Lansing strain of poliomyelids Eastern cotton rat was reportec Dy -Armstrong from vims to the Xadonal Insdtute of He^hb The strain has been carried in throng seven cotton rat transfers, and anim als or the eiahth transfer had bemn to develop symptoms at the time 01

series

Paralysis of the fiacdd tvpe developed in alL This animal is not vicious, mnldnlies readily in capdvity, and. in vie*-* of the probable interference with the imixjitation or monkeys during the European war, may prove invaluable in contiatnng

reporting.

esperimenml investigations of infandle paralysis. Some invesdgators are inclined to deduce from serologic uvicence that the vims of swine influenza is a surviving prototype of the agent primarily responsible for the great human pandemic

Epilepsy: see Xssvoxts SvsrEit. Episcopal Church: see P?.oIBST.A^-T Episcof.vl CEtmes. Equaforial Islands; see Sours: Ssv .unu EQr.ti02i.«, Islustk. Eriirea: sec Itauaa Colost-vi. Eimss. area 1S..37X

Estonia 1 Chief

sqmL:

to-wns:

pop.

TaHhin

(est.

Jan.

1.

1030) i,sS3,9A3-

(cap., 145.020).

Tartu (6q.-

Scc); Xarva (24,020); Xomme (21.9-20): Pamu (2r.S2c). Presicent: Konstantin Pats; language: Estonian: religion: Christian (Lutheran Greek Orthodox igTJ).

—

DTnle the -Angio-Russian negotiations were in progEstonian opinion was more favourable to the -Ansio-Freach proposals for limited assistance if such assistance should be reqtdred bv- Estonia, rh~n to the Russian proposals to guarantee her Hisfory.

ress.

eiier vritb or against her own consent. -After the conclusion of the Russo-German pact in .AtEtst. ho'wever. Estonia saw no choice but to accede to the Soviet demands for the lease of naval and air bases in the islands of Osel and Dago and the town of PaldiskL and on September 20 she conduced with Russia a pact to that enect, ratified on October 2. This was followed on October S by the resignation of the Government, and on October 10 M. Uluots formed a new government, with iL Fup as foreign minister. The incideat of the escape from Tallinn on September iS of the interned Polish Euhmarine ‘T)rzel“ led to the dismissal of the commander-in-chief of the navy and the chief of the naval stafiOn October rS tdephone and wireless communicaaon with places abroad was prohibited, and a censorship of pcfital and telegraphic communications abroad and of telephonic communications at home was instituted. Repatriation to the Reich oi German Balts in Estonia began on October 20 and was completed on Xovember 14. Of the 15.020 eligible. 12,020 are said to have emigrated, and 3.0CC to have chosen to remain in Estonia. .A Government bill provided for the compulsory liquidation of the possessfons of repatriated Germans, the esrimated value of German property in Estonia being 5cc.ccc.ccc kroons. EriucoHon. ^Schools: elementaiy 1,224; secondary 132; uni-

—

versities a.

Banking and Rnance. kroons: espendicure

—Revenue

(est.

(est. 1039-40). 103.S7S.1S7 1059-40). 1c5.S16.637 kroons; pubh'c

debt (March 51. 1939) 127.292.630 kroons; notes in circulalion

.

:

ETCHING

245

Cami, Goerg, Grandgerard, Guastalla, Laurencin, Legrand, Levy, Maillol, L.-A,

Moreau, Myr, Orovida, Picasso, Possoz, Rouault,

Rouviere, Segonzac, Villon and VuiUa'rd are carrying on the great tradition of French etching in all its phases.

Neither in Italy nor in war-tom Spain have any significance arisen during 1939.

new

etchers of

In the former country the tra-

ditional style has been carried on by Barriviera, Bellotti, Boglione, Lulhmann, Mainini, Mauroner, Petrucci, Pietra and MazzoniZarini, while the Spaniard Dali, working in the United States, has produced some prints noteworthy for the beauty of their linear

quality. Little of importance has

come from Germany,

the existing

form

of government being uns5mipathetic to original artistic expres-

The greatest living German etcher, Kaethe Kollwitz, is now an aged woman, and contemporary work on copper is being carried on by Jansen, Luiko, Mayer, Richter, Schultheiss and Sintenis. Polish print makers of today have devoted themselves largely to the block-print, but Konstanty, Bernard, Maria, Ignacy, Zofia, Ludwik and Wladyslaw have worked upon copper and were represion.

New York World’s Fair Hungary and Czechoslovakia,

sented in the Polish Pavilion at the (1939).

Among

the etchers of

Komyati and J. C. Vondrous, the former trained and the latter in the United States, have produced Julius

in

England

fine figure

and architectural plates. Other contempoHungarians Poharnok, Szonyi, Weil and Zador.

subjects, landscapes raries are the

Tennessean was drawn after Russia signed the Baltic pacts—with Estonia on Sept. 29, 1939

first

of

Us

series of dictated

(Aug. 31, 1939) 57,000,000 kroons; gold reserve (Aug. 31, 1939) 40,900,000 kroons; exchange rate (1939) i8-ii-i8-35 kroons

(Ekr.)=£i sterling. Trade and Communication.

—Foreign trade

(merchandise)

imports (1938) 107,198,000 kroons; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 73,446,000 kroons; exports (1938) 103,928,000; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 77,847,000 kroons. Communications and transport 1939: roads, suitable for trafihc i2,343mi.; railways SSgmi.; shipping (June 30) 177,200 gross tons; motor vehicles licensed (Jan. i, 1939) 8,896. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. Produc-

motor

—

1938 (in metric tons): shale oil 140,000; wood pulp 90,800; potatoes 997,600; milk 975,500; rye 188,000; (1939)

tion in

204,300; wheat 85,400; (1939) 80,700; butter (export) 14,730; 7,600; paper and paper boards 19,300. Industry and

flax (fibre)

(1929=100) (average 1938) 145-5; (July 1939) 162.6; index of employment (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 146.8; (July 31, 1939) 155-6; applicants for work (aver-

labour; industrial production

age 1938) 1,233; (July 31, 1939) 460. etching, as practiced throughout the world Llulllllga in 1939, continues to grow in favour among both artists and laymen, both nationally and internationally. With the increased tempo of modem life, the wider distribution of wealth,

ffnhintr

and the trend towards smaller homes with consequently less wall space for the accommodation of pictures, the etching, which is

Arabia continues to be represented by Barada; Argentina by Bemado, Castagna, Lasansky and Villafane; Belgium by Danse and Heymans; Bulgaria by Nenoff and Staikoff; Canada by Taylor; Finland by Tandefelt and Segerstrale; Holland by Ykelenstam; India by Dey; Me.xico by Avila; Palestine by Wittenberg; Sweden by Johanson, Sparre and Veslen; and Switzerland by Lieven.

Due, probably, to the firm roots of conservative art in England and the many excellent schools where the traditional spirit is fostered, British etching has been less affected by the so-called “modem” influence than has that of any other countiy. A large section of the annual exhibition of the Royal Academy is devoted to prints, and the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, now headed by Malcolm Osborne, holds a comprehensive annual London exhibition of the work of its members. The famous triumvirate of Scottish etchers. Bone, master of the dry-point medium, McBey and Cameron, the last named now inactive in etching, head any list of contemporary British etchers. Others who have published and exhibited work during 1939 are Aspden, Austen, Brammer, Briscoe, Buckton, Burridge, Cowern, Currey, Delleany, Dent, Drury, Earthrowl, Fisher, Freeth, Gibbs, Gill, Hardie, Hayes, Hope, Hudson, Janes, Josset, Kemp-Welch, Moody, Osborne, Robins, Smart, Spence, SquirreU, I. Strang, Taylor, Thompson, Van Abbe, Warlow and WooUard. Brockhurst, famous for the extreme refinement of his technique, has visited the United States and held two large exhibitions of his etchings in New

York

city.

Etching in the United States is probably more active than in any of the major centres in Europe, due to the unsettled conditions existing

in

the latter.

The

three leading print societies,

the

by the inherent

Society of American Etchers, the Chicago Society of Etchers

nature of the process capable of multiplication, susceptible to wide distribution, is steadily gaining in popularity as a means of

and the Print Makers’ Society of California, together with numerous other similar organizations all over the country, held their regular annual and travelling exhibitions, while under Government administration an extensive program was continued in the field of prints, the work so produced being assigned to various public institutions, such as museums, libraries and schools. Although Benson, the famous etcher of wildfowl, is no longer active,

smaller, easier to handle, less costly, and, since

original graphic expression.

we know

it

today, in

First practiced, in the sense in

Germany and

i6th and 17th centuries, etching had

which

the

Low

its

great period in Italian

Countries in the

Golden Age in France in the 19th, and today finds its broadest outlet in England and the U.S.A. Since the death of Forain, France has had no great leader in the field of etching, yet Achener, Adam, Berg, Bonnard, Boullaire, art in the iSth, its

E. Allen, Bacon, Berdanier, I. Bishop, R. E. Bishop, Bobleter, Borne, Botke, Botts, Butler, Cadmus, Chamberlain, Cook, Costigan,

J.

MOVEMENT— EUROPEAN WAR

ETHICAL CULTURE

246

Daniel, Detwiller, Eby, Frame, Ganso, Grant, Handforth, Heintzel-

man, Higgins, Hoffman, Hutty, Kappel, Kloss, Kupferman, Landeck, A. Lewis, M. Lewis, Loggie, Lucioni, Margulies, Marsh, H. Miller, K. H. Miller, McNulty, Nisbet, Osk, Ostrowsky, O’Toole, Partridge,

Petersen,

Price,

Reynard, Rosenberg, Roth, Ryder,

Tittle, Vargish, Washburn, S. M. Weber, Williams, Winkler, Woiceske, C. H. Woodbury, G. Wright, R. S. Wright, M. Young and H. Webster, the last named living in Paris, all produced new work in 1939. During 1939 American etching lost two significant figures, L. Easton and the veteran G. E. Burr. The most comprehensive and representative exhibition of contemporary American prints ever brought together, consisting of 408 examples, was assembled by an elaborate jury system for the New York World’s Fair. Another occurrence of importance in the print field was the organization of a National Committee

Schaldach,

Sloan,

Sterner,

of Engraving, along lines similar to those followed

by correspond-

ing bodies in France and England, for the purpose of promoting the interests of prints both nationally

by the interchange of

and

internationally, chiefly

exhibitions between the countries of the

world.

(J.

T. Ar.)

The World War (1914-18) no victorious nations and filled men with a loathing for war and the conduct of war. Through the period 1920 to 1928, the world community adopted agreements in politics and economics designed to more closely approach a more permanent peace based upon democratic forms, seeking social justice for all creeds, all classes and all men in all societies. Democracies saw responsible Governments waver and fall before the onslaughts of depression and dictatorship. Democracies failed to find a solution for internal problems, and looked across troubled frontiers toward the character of a great tragedy.

raised

neighbours faced with similar problems and joined in common apprehension. The progress and the optimism of the ’20s gave

way

to the paralysis

realized that a crisis

and the disillusionment of the ’30s. Millions was at hand, yet all hoped that war might be

rejected as a solution. .

Germany and

Italy were implicated, the Sino-Japanese military

conflict blandly classified as

Ethical Culture Movement. York in 1876 by Felix Adler, and in London Instead of agreement on a

Coit.

common

an incident, British experiments in

European diplomacy without in

1886 by Stanton

theological creed, the

basis is “dedication to the ever-increasing knowledge, love

practice of the Right.” Extension of ethical knowledge

is

and

consid-

benefit

of

final victory. Early in 1936, England and France were unable to reach agreement on the adoption of sanctions against

Italy engaged in the conquest of Ethiopia.

major

Movement

represented by active societies in

New

York, Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Brooklyn and by groups in West Chester and elsewhere. These are united in the American Ethical Union (secretary, George E. O’Dell headquarters, 2 West is

;

.64th lishes

The

New

York), which holds annual conferences and puba monthly magazine {The Standard) and other literature.

st..

settlement house in America was established by the Ethical Movement, which also pioneered in establishing disfirst social

of the

toward the

ered equally important with

ican

the blessings

League, the proposals for reform or revision of the Covenant of the League, and the German annexation of Austria, all were steps

social, political, national

improvement of practice in personal, and international relations. The Amer-

—

(a) Europe Prior to the Munich Agreement The period between Jan. 1936 and the Munich Agreement in Sept. 1938 records the triumph of totalitarian government over the system of collective security adopted after the World War (1914-18). The list of triumphs is impressive. The Spanish Civil War in which Russia,

states to find a

common

collective security procedure

The

failure of these

framework of opened the door to prompt and solution within the

vigorous action by the totalitarian states in pursuit of wider advantages. Concurrently, the weaker states regarded the failure as

ill

omen

for future security of the system in which they had

placed their collective faith.

In March 1936, Germany announced that the Treaty of Locarno was considered non-effectual and the Reichswehr occupied the Rhineland.

The French and

British

Governments again

failed

new

trict

to rally to the support of proposals of condemnation of this

York and Brooklyn

breach in the system of treaty agreements. The nations of Europe accepted the growing disintegration of leadership with increased concern for their own safety and with rapidly rising fear and sus-

nursing and legal aid to the poor, housing reform, and improved methods of education. (Schools are conducted by the New Societies; also social settlements

by the

New

York, Chicago and Philadelphia Societies.) In 1939 much work was done in aiding refugees from German persecution. The New

York Society organized the Good Neighbor Committee

(inter-

denominational) for this and other co-operative purposes. The English Ethical Societies are organized in an Ethical Union (chairman. Lord Snell, 12 Palmer

st., London, S.W.i.). Bibliography. Fijtieth Anniversary History of the Ethical Culture Movement (ed. H. I. Golding, New York, 1926); G. SpiUer, The Ethical Movement in Great Britain (London, 1934). An extensive literature has been produced by Felix Adler, W. M. Salter, Stanton Coit, Walter Sheldon ’ A. W. Martin, H. J. Bridges, Percival Chubb, and others. (Ho. J. B.)

—

Ethiopia:

see Italian

Plirnnpan LUI U|IC0ll war

War 11 (II

in history,

Colonial Empire.

Contributory Causes.— On Sept, i, 1939 the European war, the most unpopular

began with the German invasion of Poland. The

duration and consequences of this war lay far beyond the horizon of reasonable predictions. The basic causes appear quite clear. the last year of the fourth decade of the 20th century opened, approximately two-thirds of the world population were engaged in war. In Western Europe six nations were actively engaged in

As

men on land and sea and in the air, under arms; while hundreds of millions of nationals turned away from peaceful pursuits to face the precarious existence of the civilian in war time. The 23 years between 1914 and 1939 had conflict

with nearly 13,000,000

picion of the complete failure of the post-war system. Proposals and counter-proposals for remodelling the Covenant of the League

were the subject of heated debate, but found cold reception during the balance of the year of 1936. In England, Neville Chamberlain succeeded Stanley Baldwin as prime minister in May 1937. In June, Monsieur Chautemps rose to power in France. British foreign policy abruptly changed from adherence to the methods of collective agreement to the pursuit of solutions best for the British alone, and the result of direct negotiations. Domestic disturbances in France and the consequent insecurity

Government shook the confidence of her allies. Poland apBelpeared to accept the growing control of Germany in Danzig. of the

gium adopted a neutral attitude as a national policy. Yugoslavia drew closer to Italy, and Rumania became preoccupied with the republican Czechoextensions of a more rigid monarchical rule. In fiercely under German more burned question Sudeten slovakia the Government leaders. In Russia a blasts against the independent and military figures resulted in political among series of purges The Little Entente lay practical isolation from Western Europe. dying.

The Franco-Soviet pact appeared

dead.

The Nov. 1937 agreement between England and France signalled the formal adoption by Mr. Chamberlain, with French approval, of his experiment in appeasement. The former leaders in the establishment and maintenance of the post-war system of collec-

EUROPEAN WAR live security, in joint negotiation,

announced the desire of their

governments to co-operate with all countries in the common task of promoting international appeasement by methods of free and peaceful negotiation. It is significant that the League was not mentioned. This announcement followed by a few days the pubnotification by Germany, Italy and Japan of a common antiCommunist protocol. Far from seeking a solution to joint problems by negotiation, the protocol pointed a warning finger toward lic

the creation of a world order in which the really vigorous nations

could live together.

In Dec. 1937, the Rome-Berlin Axis became a reality when Italy %vithdrew from the League of Nations and Germany announced that her return to

Geneva would never be considered.

In Feb. 1938, Anthony Eden resigned from the Government in England and Mr. Chamberlain rejected the imp>osition of sanctions

and use of force in the solutions of European problems. Within a month Germany annexed Austria without fear of French or British interference and in disregard of Treaty restriction or League guarantees. (See also League of Nations.) In April Mr. Chamberlain concluded an Anglo-Italian agreement directly with Premier Mussolini in pursuance of his announced intention for free negotiation. The smaller states in Europe swung sharply away from the closely co-operative postwar commitments and sought refuge in the bravely defiant announcement of neutrality in the event of the future hostilities they sensed just beyond the horizon. The chmax in the conflict between force and free agreement approached ominously and with devastating speed. August' was filled with alarms and intense excitement, the result of the Czech crisis. The demands of Germany were clear and the intentions obvious to all observers.

Above all other events during the period since Jan. 1936, the question of the defence or the desertion of the Central European paramount above all others. The definite repulse methods or the rejection of collective security and post-war agreements remained a decision for Great Britain and France. Britain continued the pursuit of free negotiations, and Mr. Chamberlain opened direct negotiations with Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden and Godesberg. On Sept. 29, 1938, before a paralyzed and bewildered world, France and England joined Germany and Italy at Munich. The policy of conciliation to the dominant power politics of the totalitarian states resulted in abandonment of the post-war system of collective security and the rule of law, and in the victory of power politics and the rule of force. (b) The Munich Agreement and Appeasement The terms of the agreement accepted at Munich may be summarized as follows:

republic stood of totalitarian

.

—

(1) The Czechoslovakian Government to withdraw from the frontiers Bohemia and in the adjoining territories claimed by Germany; withdrawal to be made between October i and October 7. (2) The conditions governing the evacuation of additional territory and the determination of additional areas of predominantly German character to be decided by an international commission, with members from Germany, Italy, France, and Great Britain, allowing occupation of these areas not later than October 10. (3) The Czech Government to be held responsible for the maintenance of

of all existing installations. (4) The international commission to determine areas in which plebiscites were to be held not later than November 30. (5) The final delimitation of the new frontiers to be determined by the international commission.

These agreements were presented to the Czechoslovakian Government representatives, M. Jan Masaryk and M. Mastny, on Friday, September 30, by Mr. Chamberlain and M. Daladier. It is reported that the Czech representatives were not allowed to participate in the preliminary discussions which led to the final agreement, and further that they were advised to accept the decisions promptly and without protest. M. Masaryk has been quoted in comment on these circumstances substantially as follows: “It was a matter of condemnation rvithout appeal and without possible modification.” sight

for Czechoslovakia.

War

was in combat phase had been

The end in its

of independence

247

However, the conclusion of the Munich Agreement marked one more phase in the “white war” or war of nerves. Mr. Hitler and Mr. Chamberlain reached another agreement at Munich which requires examination. This agreement took the form of a statement of three clauses expressing their joint opinion on the future relations between Britain and Germany. In effect

averted.

the clauses were; (1) That the question of Anglo-German relations was of the first importance for the two countries and for Europe. (2) That the Slunich Agreement and the -Anglo-German Naval Agreement were symbolic of the desire of the two peoples never to go to war with one another again. (3) That the manner of consultation should be the method adopted to deal with in every question concerning the two countries, and that efforts should be continued to remove possible sources of difficulty and thus contribute to assure the peace of Europe.

This agreement appears to be no more than an expression of opinion by the two individuals the desire of

who

signed

Mr. Chamberlain to pursue

it.

It indicates clearly

direct negotiations out-

It was not conby the German Government, although it appears

side the field of collective security procedure.

sidered a treaty

to have been accepted

by

the British prime minister as a charter

Mr, Chamberlain stated Munich Agreement would give Czechosecurity than she had ever enjoyed in the

for continuing the policy of appeasement. that he considered that the slovakia “a greater past.”

And

it is

equally true that he considered his agreement

with Adolf Hitler on Anglo-German relations to give ples of

all

the peo-

Europe a greater security than had been possible up to

that date.

The Munich Agreement marked

the beginning of the close of

by England and France topower of Europie Germany. It is true that as late as March 1939 the British Government assured journalists that the policy of appeasement had never shown greater success in ensuring an era of peace in Europe, but this assurance was based upon wishful thinking rather than a record of practical the policy of appeasement practised

ward the

—

central

accomplishment in the direction of attaining peace. The policy of appeasement had been adopted in an attempt to placate those nations who challenged the post-war system of collective security.

An

analysis of the policy indicates that

Germany and

it

resulted in frequent

promised and occaarmaments and finally in the acquiescence and conquest of weaker states. Opponents of the policy of appeasement considered it evidence of political intransigence, fear of a major European upheaval, and shabby irresponsibility toward the destiny of the weaker states of Europe and Africa. Those in favour of the policy offered evidence that it resulted from a growing concern for the stability and preservation of moral, political and economic values in modem Europe. financial assistance to

Italy, the

sional reduction of

It is quite probable that historians will consider the policy to

have been a natural development of the post-war demoralization which for 20 years permitted apathy and indifference to be everpresent at European conference tables. Leaders avoided the duties and responsibilities of high office. Integrity was the exception rather than the rule. Standards were lowered in the conduct of interstate relations. Defeatism and cynicism captured the weak, and defiantly proclaimed the “aggression” to be “pacification.” ^The march of the German Army (c) The March to Prague into Prague closed the period of the independent rule of law in Czechoslovakia, shocked Britain into a realization of the practical dangers facing the Empire, aroused Western Europe to the imminent horrors of war, and sivimg world opinion sharply away from tolerance toward totalitarian methods to abrupt protests

—

.

against further aggression.

The important steps in the actual March 1939. On March 10 a

invasion and capture occurred in

revolt against the Prague Government was organized in the Province of Slovakia. On March 13 the German Army troops in

Bavaria and Austria

moved up

to the

Czech

frontier.

On March

EUROPEAN WAR

248 14,

M. Hacha,

the President of the Republic, was

demand was presented

Berlin, It appears that a

to

summoned to him for agree-

ment which would result in the final disappearance of any independent government in the remaining territory under Czech rule. Whether the agreement was presented as a demand or arrived at freely by mutual consent is not known to this writer. However, the following statement was issued on the morning of March 15, “The Czechoslovak President has declared that in order he would place the fate of the Czech people and their country confidently in the hands of the Fuehrer of the German Reich.” The action of the German army was 1939-

to reach a final pacification,

and overwhelming. Within three hours following the announcement quoted above, the German armies occupied Bohemia and Moravia. Adolf Hitler entered the city of Prague at 7:15 p.m. that evening. Without a single armed conflict of any serious importance and with the incredible speed which had become standard practice in the “white war” of nerves, Germany had captured the last remaining stronghold of Czechoslovakian independence. Another victory for power politics had been secured. The reaction in England was a prompt and complete reversal of the Government policy of appeasement. On the 17th of March, i939> speaking at Birmingham, the prime minister is quoted as saying; “Is this the end of an old adventure or the beginning of a new? Is this the last attack upon a small state or is it to be followed by others? Is this in fact a step in the direction of an attempt to dominate the whole world by force?” swift

The dangers that had. been feared in September prior to Munich gave way to the empty victory resulting in “peace with honour.” The swing from appeasement began gradually after Munich and continued slowly until the middle of March. The German march into the city of Prague killed the policy of appeasement

and

Allied public opinion rallied to the support of measures looking

toward security based upon the strength of arms. England and France were determined to meet force with equal or greater force. (d) German Racialism Gives Way to Imperialism It is important to consider not only the reasons which supported Allied .

—

acceptance of German methods prior to the march on Prague, but to consider as well the Allied opposition to German methods after March 15, 1939. It is clear that England and France agreed

and accepted the principle that Germany sought to establish the rights of self-determination for all

Germans

living outside the

This was the constant claim of the Nazi Party and the consistent appeal of the German Government. It has been expressed in the slogan, “One people, one Reich.” The social revoluReich.

tion in

Germany was

demand

for the reincorporation of

ders of the

German

German

considered to be a result of a growing

State.

German people within the borThe methods of regimentation of the

nationals, the frequently terroristic

methods of control

of minorities within the State, the adoption of repressive measures to control the franchise

and the

press, the arbitrary

demands for

expansion of State boundaries at the expense of neighbouring nations; these were not approved by the Allies as polite means or

procedures in a modern world familiar with the system of collective security and joint negotiations. However, through the chain of disagreeable incidents there were links which supported the

Germany had a morally acceptable right to deGermans belong within one German State. So long

Allied view that

mand

that

all

as the creed of racialism supported the claims of the Nazi Party

and the demands of the German State, the result was to set up a favourable, if rather luke-warm co-operation by England and in turn by France.

The reoccupation of the Rhineland, the remilitarization program, the acquisition of the Saar, the annexation of Austria and the German victory at Munich; all were acceptable only because

—one creed

the doctrine of racialism

for all citizens, one people,

C. S.

Hammond & Cc., N. Y.

EUROPEAN WAR —

249

one Reich ^was continually advanced as support for the German demands. The denunciation of the Treaty of Locarno and the march to Prague were startling examples of the change from a

across the polished surface of international conference tables.

the

modem

German policy of racialism to a German state policy of imperialThe march to Prague was a march out of the pages of Mein Kampf and away from the dogma of the Nazi Party in the direction of conquest in the grand manner. The era of Pan-Nazism had ended. The era of demands, supported by morally acceptable and reasonably intelligent claims, was succeeded by violent excursions into the field of invasion by armed force over the territory of weaker nations. Until March 15, 1939, Germany had taught Western Europe how to hang an olive branch on a bayonet. After

few

years.

ism.

Yet

world has seen the development of a new technique in the application of this inrdsible but potent force during the last

The

deliberate use

by

totalitarian states of the threats

of force, the practice of launching violent verbal and press attacks,

and abusive criticisms against the Governments of neighbouring states, the promotion of civil disorders within and among minority groups in adjacent

territories, the vociferous claims of

wounded

pride and dignity due to alleged denials or delays in the immediate rectification of so-called “just” claims; these distinguish the

meth-

ods employed in the “white war” of nerr^es.

At no time has

this

new technique been more evident than

in

symbol of peace with a sharp blade of distrust forged in the hate of an aroused resentment. Shortly after (e) Appeasement Succeeded by Rearmament the Munich Agreement, England and France began preparation for rearmament. In England plans were announced for raising approximately 19 divisions totalling 300,000 men, and estimates were drawn for mechanization for as many of these divisions as possible. Naval construction was increased and provisions were made for extended training of naval reserves. Limited conscription was adopted without serious protest in Parliament or throughout the country. Plane construction was speeded up, and the air industry received substantial subsidies from the Government. Preferred treatment for labour and management assistance was

Europe during the period 1936-39. The final pre-war phase of “white war” began after the march to Prague in March 1939, and ended in Sept. 1939. On March 24, 1939, Ger(1) German Demands on Poland many presented a series of demands to the Polish Government in Warsaw. The date of these demands gains added sigm'ficance when it is realized that they were made one week following the establishment of a German protectorate over Bohemia and Moravia. The demands included the following:

provided in order to assure efficiency in British industry. Orders were placed in the United States for aircraft and for some essential items of aeroplane equipment. A national program for A.R.P.

permanent.

Prague the

Allies severed the

.

—

the conduct of interstate relations in Western

.

The

return to

a free zone

The

in

Germany

—

of the Free City of

Danzig. Poland to be assured

Danzig by Germany.

German motor highway and railway across the Polish Corridor between Germany and the Province of East Prussia. The suggestion that Germany might offer to conclude a Z5-year nonright to construct a

aggression pact with Poland and accept the altered Polish boundaries as

Impartial observers consider these partially justified. Poland,

when

German demands

reconstituted

at least

by the Paris Peace

(Air Raid Precautions) received wide publicity throughout the

Conference in 1919, included nearly 11,000,000 non-Poles repre-

Every British citizen was made aware of the dangers to be expected from the sky and all were instructed in self-protection and assistance in the protection of others in the event of air bombardment. Complicated plans were drawn up for the evacuation of children from metropolitan centres, and in turn residents in the less populated districts were asked to provide shelter and care for the thousands of youngsters removed from the city. All

senting

30%

000 of

this total

nation.

these activities were evidence of a determined view to be prepared

They do not appear

for adequate defence.

to

have been evidence

of a nation-wide desire to engage in war.

In France similar

activities

were undertaken with the speed would permit. French reserves

that a mixed political situation

were given warning notice of a probable call to the colours in the near future. Labour was persuaded to accept a modification of recent provisions allowing a 40-hour week. Pending disputes between labour and industry were partially settled by Government intervention. French manufacturers were requested to speed up production of essential war materials, and the aviation industry received special attention of the Government. Extensive renovations had to be made in plant equipment in order to bring the level of plane production up to a comfortable margin of security. In all departments of the armed forces, in labour, in industry and throughout the civilian population, France began to prepare for the war to come. Throughout Europe nations, large and small, turned away from the vanishing prospects of peace and with feverish haste began to look to their defences for war. Conciliation had resulted in capitulation, force had finished the fight for freedom. Racialism had given way to imperialism, and appeasement was followed by the race to rearm and defend. (See als'o Air Forces; Armies of THE World; Cheihcal Warfare; Navies of the World.) (f) The “White War” or War of Nerves It is clear that the

—

.

pursuit of state policy,

by

tiations, as distinguished

the use of threats of force during nego-

from the familiar use of force on the

new t5q)e of state warfare. It has always been recognized that the smooth road of conquest runs field

of battle, has introduced a

living in

of the total population of the

new

state.

Over

1,000,-

were Germans. These former German nationals,

former German territory in the provinces of Poznan,

Pomorze and

Silesia,

considered Polish rule intolerable.

They new

constituted a small but determined minority opposed to the

Polish Government, and supported in this opposition

—

by

willing

encouragement from the powerful Fatherland Germany. In Danzig (q.v.), which was a predominantly German city in 1919, an international commission, under League of Nations control, administered the Free City by means of a local legislative

The city was a great asset to the economic welfare of Poland despite the recent construction of the new Polish port of Gdynia. The further possibility that Germany might acquire the body.

city as the first step in a general reoccupation of the Corridor

made Poland defiant in her refusal to accept the German demands. The Government of Poland had many internal flaws and was considered a military dictatorship. Minorities were allowed a

minimum

of freedom in respect to

the franchise or the exercise of other national rights accorded citizens in democracies. It remains true, however, that the Ger-

man methods

of presenting their

demands and the technique of

the “white war,” plus the British and French offers of assistance

made to Poland, combined to prevent calm examination of demands which might have had considerable merit. On May 5, Foreign Minister Beck firmly refused to consider any German demands on the Polish state. During the last week of Aug. 1939 a set of German demands on Poland was the subject of last minute consideration prior to the outbreak of the combat phase of the war. (2) British and French Attempts to Create a Non-Aggression

Front

—

.

Britain reversed an historic policy of no alliances with

Western Europe when it exchanged pledges of mutual assistance with Poland and Turkey and made formal guarantees to Greece and Rumania in 1939. France already had a treaty of assistance with Poland and followed Britain’s lead in states outside of

making new pledges to Greece, Rumam'a and Turkey.

EUROPEAN WAR

250 Both countries were determined to create

common

as promptly as pos-

rendition of French and British military aid to those countries,

resistance to further

Russia refused

for the methods of “negotiation” in the German-Polish dispute. Britain felt bound to lend support to Poland if any action oc-

this offer because it contained no guarantee of and French assistance to the Soviet Union, and further no guarantee was made concerning the status of the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. In May, negotiations were reopened when England offered a draft of a treaty of mutual assistance for consideration by France and Russia. This pact was to be subject to the terms of the League of Nations Covenant, and did not include any guarantees to the Baltic states. In the light of later events it is important

curred which “clearly threatened Polish independence,” and which the Poles “considered it vital to resist with all their national

luctant to reject guarantees against Nazi aggression and also were

sible a bloc of small nations joined in

German expansion by

British

a continuation of the technique of a “white

war.”

A non-aggression

Their

efforts

front was the objective of the two states, were taken swiftly and in complete agreement that the hope for peace could be supported by such guarantees. On March 3r, Britain announced that the Government saw

“no”

justification for the substitution of force or threats of force

forces.”

France was already pledged to

assist

to consider that Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland were re-

made by the Soviet Union. These were interested primarily in maintaining neutrality. Russia did not accept the second British offer, and new pro-

Poland with respect

reluctant to accept guarantees

to the support of the independence of that state.

On April 13 — — Britain pledged

^shortly after Italy

had assumed control in Albania

support to Greece and

all its

states

Rumania

in the

event the independence of either was threatened and that resistance

was made by the armed forces of these nations. France

confirmed these pledges and joined England in the expansion of the non-aggression front. of assistance to

On May

12 England offered a pledge

Turkey in the event of an act

of aggression leading

war in the Mediterranean area. And on June 23 France and Turkey exchanged identical agreements, and the Republic of Hatay (the Sanjak of Alexandretta) was ceded to Turkey by France. As an example of the distance travelled by France away from the state of collective security, the disposal of the Republic of Hatay was a direct violation of the terms of the French mandate over Syria received in 1920 from the League of Nations. The countries of Poland, Rumania, Greece and Turkey were now in common agreement with England and France that further to

be resisted with force. A formidable nonaggression front had been created. In an effort to overcome stra-

aggression should

tegic difficulties preventing the

prompt

realization

of practical

»

posals were drafted in June for consideration by the Soviets, These new proposals were presented by William Strang, Eastern European expert of the British Foreign Office. In August, England and France sent a joint military mission to Moscow to discuss the extent of Russian aid available for use in Poland and Rumania. The conclusion of a Soviet-German pact on August 23 nullified all Allied efforts in this direction, and further negotiations were rendered impossible. The British (and French) have justified their failure to conelude a pact with Russia on several grounds. It has been said that Poland refused to accept Russian military aid, that the Russian military aid would in fact prove to be a liability, that the Allies could not join Russia in

and

finally that

true that Russia

power

domination of the Baltic states, Allies. It remains

Russia had no desire to help the is

a totalitarian state, familiar with the rules of

and concerned primarily with the welfare of the Soviet Union. England and France have equal concern for their individual welfare, but were pursuing the policy of defending politics,

military aid, England undertook negotiations for a mutual assist-

the rights of small nations against the technique of “white war.”

ance pact with the Soviet Union.

Again, Russia had been excluded in the negotiations at Munich,

—

Britain opened negotia(3) Allied Negotiations with Russia Union for a mutual assistance pact in April .

tions with the Soviet

1939. France already

had a mutual assistance pact but not a

mili-

The first promade by England were considered unsatisfactory by Russia,

tary alliance which Russia had accepted in 1933. posals

It appears that England sought an agreement whereby Russia would aid Poland and Rumania, subject to Polish and Rumanian decisions on time and method; and further subject to the actual

and the Soviet statesmen suspected the sincerity of British and French proposals for either diplomatic or military agreements. The Allied negotiations with Russia proved to be a failure insofar as an attempt to extend the non-aggression front was concemed. The conclusion of a Soviet-German pact appears to have been the final action which prevented any agreement between the Allies first

and Russia. And

German

this

agreement further appears to be the

victory in the diplomatic counter-offensive aimed

against the Allied efforts for a non-aggression front.

FRENCH TROOPS Oct.

1939

movino up

to a

posiUon in oaplured German territory early in

(4 )

The Sovkt-German Pact

.

—^The Soviet-German non-aggres-

EUROPEAN WAR sion pact

was concluded on Aug.

It appears that nego-

23, 1939.

agreement were begun in the early spring. The first indication in ofiicial documents appears in a report made on August 16 by Sir Nevile Henderson, British ambassador to Germany, of a conference held with Baron tiations leading to the final acceptance of this

von Weizaecker, German secretary' of State, who “seemed confident and professed to believe that Russian assistance to the Poles would not only be entirely negligible but that the U.S.S.R. would even, in the end, join in sharing in the Polish spoils.” It

is

proba-

were under consideration at the same time that Allied proposals were being discussed in Moscow. A trade agreement betw'een Russia and Germany had been signed on Aug. 19, 1939. By this agreement the Soviet Union contracted to supply Germany for tw’o years wath raw materials valued at 180,000,000 marks. Germany, in turn, promised to supply machines and manufactured goods valued at 200,000,000

ble that the Soviet-German negotiations

marks.

On Aug. 24, 1939, provisions of the made public. The essential elements

non-aggression pact were of the pact include: an

agreement covering a period of 10 years, that each country refrain

from

will

acts of aggression against the other, either alone

or in combination with other nations; that they toU consult regarding common interests; and that they will adjust by peaceful conflicts which might arise betw’een them. Whether any other provisions of the pact exist is unknown. The announcement of this agreement caused widespread confusion, particularly in Western Europe, and generally throughout the world. Conservatives had expected that Nazism was a defence

means any

and a bulwark against the spreading of Communism. Left-%ving groups everywhere had believed that the U.S.S.R. would never withdraw its opposition to Nazism. The separate ideologies of these two totalitarian states had convinced the majority that the

aims of each lay in opposite directions. For 20 years observers lines of distinction separated the party

had claimed that sharp principles of the Nazi

Hitler

had informed

and the Communist.

his party followers that

German

Since 1920, Adolf the

Communism was

251

common agreement. In the light of the developments of the “white war” during the early months of 1939, it appears today that the Soviet leaders discounted any help which had been promised to them by France and Britain in the event of a Russia could find

German attack on Russia. Red Army to be no match

It is possible that

German forces. Germany would at least postpone any attack by Germany and divert German expansion away from Russia in the direction of the Western powers. The historians will speculate on the real basis for rapprochement between Germany and Russia. The similarity between their common opposition to

A non-aggression

pact with

the principles of democracy, the joint needs in the fields of eco-

nomic and military security, are not alone the only support to be found for their agreement. Each held a deep resentment against the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Each had a common hostility to the British Empire which limits their individual aspirations. in many parts of the world, and, if destroyed, would provide considerable profits for Germany and Russia. In the considerations which led to the opening of the combat phase of the European war of 1939, the conclusion of the SovietGerman non-aggression pact appears to have been the final diplomatic action which immediately preceded the

—

the substitution of direct negotiation leading to agreements outside the provisions of post-war treaties. (The Munich Agreement.) (3) The development of a German policy of imperialism, based upon territorial e.xpansion. (The march to Prague.) (4) The reversal of the policy of appeasement and the creation of a non-aggression front, coupled with rearmament. (s) The failure of non-aggression and the failure of the major powers to accept peaceful negotiation.

Germany.

—Organization for National Defence.— Germany

assistant. Colonel General Keitel, for the

mon

services.

of the

State. In his book,

cause or reach diplomatic agreement.

Disregarding the

consideration

of

political

philosophy, and

speculative examinations of party ideologies, there were

many

which led to the conclusion of the Soviet-German pact. In the first place, each was opposed to the policies of western democracy. Russia, in the early stages of industrial organization, required the technical experience available in Germany which could make full use of the vast supplies of man-power and raw material available in the Soviet Union. The developments of Russian raw materials might result in finding a large market in

practical reasons

the highly industrialized

German

State.

For the practical contwo countries had a

sideration of economic interdependence the

common

interest.

been evident that officers of the convenient to train in Russia when the

It has always

German Army found it Reichswehr was still under restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. The disarmament provisions of that treaty long ago led to practhe construction of

armament

factories in

Germany has always considered

that in a

major war

tical considerations for

Russia.

security on the East flank

would be

essential to gain victory in

the West. For both economic and military reasons,

Germany and

conflict.

Summation. ^The real causes of any war remain obscure during the combat phase, appear in bewildering dress immediately following the war, and provide endless speculation until the approach of the next war. Moral judgments appear suspended during conflict. Prompt and continuous examination of facts suggest that this suspension might not run the risk of becoming extinction. An examination of the preceding account indicates that the following were contributory causes to the 1939 European war: (1) The acceptance by England and France of German demands, based upon racialism and the theory of self-determination for German minorities. (The policy of appeasement.) (2) The drift away from the post-war system of collective security and

Mein Kampf, he stated that an agreement between Russia and Germany would mean the end of his country. Since 1933 he had exhorted the German people to join in a crusade against the “criminals” of Moscow. Germans had fought in Spain against the Russians in a campaign to support Fascism and prevent the spread of Communism. Germany had concluded with Italy and Japan an anti-communist protocol. These, and many other factors, supported the view widely adopted that Germany and Russia would never make comenemy

they considered the

for the highly efficient

tion for national defence in

command and

is

controlled

^The organiza-

by a supreme

officer. The Reichscommander of all armed

co-ordinated by a defence

fuehrer Adolf Hitler

is

the supreme

forces (Wefirmacht) of the

German

nation.

He

has a principal

supreme command, and exercises control through the separate commanders of the army (Heer'), the navy (Kriegsmaritte) and the air force {Luftwaffe). The defence office operates under the supreme commander and is responsible for co-ordination of Industrial mobilization

all policies

common

to the three

and counter-espionage are func-

tions of this department.

The German

State

is

divided into several territorial areas, each

consisting of complete facilities for mobilization, replacement

and

The organized units within territorial areas are assigned to one of the six army groups which cover the nation. The ist Army group faces Poland (or Russia). The

general military administration.

2nd

Army

group faces Holland, Belgium, France and Switzerland.

The 3rd Army group faces south towards the former provinces of Czecho-Slovakia. The 4th Army- group faces north towards the seacoast. The sth Army group is in Austria and faces Italy. The

Army

group has no territorial assignment and exercises conof training for mechanized and anti-mechanized units. The National Defence Law of 1938 renders all male citizens liable for 6th

trol

military services between the ages of 19 and 45 years. In war-time these provisions may be extended beyond the 4S-year limit, and

men and women may be obligated for service other than military on order of the minister of war. In effect, all male and female citizens may be called for national service, military or further, both

otherwise, under this total mobilization plan.

EUROPEAN WAR

252

ti

W 'W\

ZURICH

Lucaine^^

MAGINOT-WESTWALL FORTIFICATIONS 0

20

10

JO

’- forces

police,

state

components

army

customs

service),

65,000;

a

total

of

1,925,000.

Poland could organize 30-35 divisions in peace-time and with ample time in a prolonged conflict might raise and equip another 20-30 divisions. The bulk of reserves would be used as replacements and the estimated additional manpower available was 2,000,000, or an assumed effective manpower of close to 4,000,000.

—

Navy, Personnel: commissioned, 500; enlisted, 5,600; a total of 6,100. Ships: commissioned, 5, tonnage 6,000; building, 2, tonnage 3,000. About 25 small craft, including 10 river monitors and river gunboats, as well as a number of motor boats made up the small navy.

Total

Air Forces:

Commissioned Pilots All others

7.500 5,800

Enlisted

Enlisted

Pilots

All others

TOTALS

2,400 44,000

5,000 150,000

7,400 194,000

50,200

164,500

2x4,700

Planes: pursuit, x.roo; observation, 330; bombardment, 1,250; training, 500; transport and service, 25; a total of 3,205 (many of these obsolete). Plane production rate (Sept, r, 1939) was 250 (monthly).

Theory of Combat. The theory of combat for all arms in France is an initial defence followed by co-ordinated land and air attack, combined with naval blockade of enemy coastal posiforces of France represent a large, well organized,

modem

modem

equipment, in position behind appear to be less modem than potential opponents, but combined with potential allies able force, with

well defended frontiers.

The

air forces

Reserve

Total

800

220

1.020

4,Soo

500

5,cw

3,300

720

6,02c

Active

Personnel

Comirussioned

The land

officials

army and the navy

co

32-41 ——

a.

The

70,000

War-time number of divisions 120-150 Including reserves in France beyond legal age, and adding untrained or partiaily trained natives from North Africa, France could add another 2,000,000

............

of ministers, the minister of military affairs and other the Government.

Peace-time number of ^visions

well led,

the natural ob-

the defensive.

chief, the president of the republic.

Reserves (French) Reserves (Native)

tions.

made

included the president of the republic, the president of the council

ized forces in the various components:

men

geographical position of the

stacles useful in this

In times

the responsibility for these activities passes to the indi-

vidual unit or organization commander.

Army

—The

Strategical Considerations.

country permits the adoption of defence on nearly every frontier.

are considerations accepted

research.

The

favourable advantage.

system of defence. It appears unhkely that any enemy naval attack could be launched against the mainland, and without the reduction of France as a political area, the African empire and other positions could be defended. Politically, the nation has adopted the pwlicy of seeking world peace as a basis for retaining national security. Present weaknesses in securing adequate manpower and political commitments in -western Europe and other parts of the world place France primarily on

war department headquarters. The balof the army includes a secretariat, four principal bureaus for personnel, intelligence operations and supply, a technical research bureau, and four sections in charge of affairs for general administration, codes, overseas forces and historical the

ance of the general

and other possesand appear to adopt the theory of defence for essential communications (notably those with north and west Africa) combined with limited attack when odds offer forces are able to patrol colonial

The completion

sponsible to his chief for the conduct of the affairs of the general staff of

The naval

sions of the French empire

and

The

duties of the commander-in-chief of the armies in the field.

to engage in major aerial combat.

The

directly responsible to his chief for all matters pertaining to

is

255

Planes: bombers, 465; fighters, no; observation, 80; training, 90; transport and service, 55; a total of 800. Peace-time squadrons approximately 40 to 45; war-time squadrons approximately 60. Plane production rate (Sept. 1939) 30 (monthly); (Dec. 31, 1939) none.

—

Theory of Combat. No definite theory of combat is offered an analysis of Poland. The alliance -^vith France appears to have established a similar theory of international defence, followed by counter-attack when opportunity offered. The limitations in numbers and in equipment, as -n-ell as considerations of in

potential opposition, resulted in the adoption of defence as of

paramount importance

in combat.

EUROPEAN WAR

256

INCIDENTS at

Tozew

in

IN THE CONQUEST OF POLAND. Left; Bridges across the Vistula the Corridor blown up by retreating Poles early In Sept. 1939 to rolling out to an attack

German advance. Centre; Nazi medium tanks

delay the

—

Geographically Poland had no natwhich offered any considerable security against invasion. A limited coast line was open to attack by more powerful naval forces on either side. In the west, no natural obstacles and Strategical Considerations.

ural frontiers

limited artificial barriers existed against

armed

attack. In the east,

the frontier was divided

by extensive marshlands but offered easy avenues of approach north and south of the marshland area. Politically, changes had resulted in the loss of favourable natural frontier obstacles in the south and southwest; the nation was committed to continuous efforts to secure favourable alliances with other and more important European powers. Internally, inadequate economic system resulted in poor lines of communication

and inadequate sources of procurement and maintenance of war materials. The entire central area of the nation appeared to be a potential manoeuvre ground in the event of conflict between Germany and Russia, or a probable area of expansion in the event of German and Russian alliance. Russia. Organisation for National Defence. ^The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is organized with a supreme council or Soviet, which exercises supreme control of the Government of the separate Soviet Socialist Republics. This supreme council delegates most of its authority for control of the military forces to the People’s Commissariat for Defence. This commissariat is in reality a department of national defence and is headed by a commissar. The commissar for defence controls a military council which consists of political commissars for all territorial districts, who, in company with the military commanders, exercise the administration of the armed forces. Military orders are required to be the unanimous decision of the military commander, the political commissar and the chief of staff or superior commander of the particular organization involved. As a matter of administration,

—

—

the supreme council or Soviet of the Republics operates with a

body known as praesidium, consisting of 37 members, charged with control of appointments, removals and mobilization

similar

orders for the military forces of the nation.

—Regular

Army.

army;

active,

660,000;

reserve.

380,000;

total,

1,040,000. Mobilization of territorial or reserve organizations (partially trained) could result in an additional strength of 1,300,000 men. Accepting limitations requiring adequate equipment for available manpower, it is estimated divisions (of all types) in the field on that Russia could place 100 to opening of hostilities and so to 60 additional divisions in the field within

no

three months of mobilization. However, only 25—30 of this total can be described as first-line divisions. The forces are widely scattered, including European Russia, the Caucasus, central Asia, Siberia, and the Far East. The Navy. Estimate of Russian naval strength is subject to the limita-

—

tions

imposed by secrecy and censorship.

Personnel: Commissioned, 5,000; enlisted, 68,000; total, 73,000.

“somewhere

man

In

training

harbour early

Poland.” Right; The first shot of the war was fired by the Gership “Sohleswig-Holslein” at Westerplatte peninsula in Danzig the morning of Sept. 1, 1939

in

Naval reserves are considered adequate for surface craft commissioned after mobilization, but considered inadequate for undersea craft. Ships: In commission, 239; tonnage, 228,000; building, 200 (mostly undersea craft) tonnage not estimated. Co-operative air squadrons are known to operate with the air force, numbers and strength unknown. ;

—

The Air Force.

Personnel: pilots, active, 8,500; reserve, unknown; All others, active, 55,000; reserve, unknown; total, 55,000; grand total, active, 63,500. Planes: Bombardment, 1,500; observation, 1,200; fighter, 3,000; transport and service, 2,000; total, 7,700 (including reserves). Of these, about 3,500 are first-line. total 8,500.

The estimates on personnel do not

include semi-military organizations civilian organizations which include large numbers of partially trained pilots and mechanics. The estimates on planes do not include production capacities for large bombardment aviation. Reserves in the air force are considered adequate in personnel for replacements up to 50% of anticipated losses. Reserves for ships are considered adequate in numbers but inadequate in efficiency for replacement up to include 25% of antici-

and extensive

pated losses

in

combat.

—^The theory of combat of

Theory of Combat.

all

arms of the

Russian forces includes the adoption of modern technique involving the use of mechanized forces in conjunction with large scale

ground movements in

original attack

on weaker States or delayed

defence against equal or superior opposition. Within the several services the offensive is emphasized and the theory of carrying the combat to enemy soil is laid down as Whenever defence is employed, the adoption

a cardinal principle. of an active defence

including the use of mechanized forces for sharp counter-attack within the defence zone, is accepted as a modem part of the

general theory of combat. Russian forces appear to include in any general theory of combat favourable consideration for the use

of propaganda and widespread expansion of subversive activities as component parts of an active offensive against an opponent. Strategical Considerations.

—

^The political policy of the U.S.S.R.

was publicly announced during the period 1920-30 as a policy emphasizing the stimulation of world revolution. The more recent public announcements of the policy of the predominant political party have emphasized the maintenance of world peace. Geographically, the nation faced potential enemies on two frontiers until after September 1939, when the pacts were completed It appears that the basic policy with Germany and Japan. of the military forces included defence of the frontiers and re-

jected excursions into the field of military conflict outside the The acquisition of Finland, the Baltic States

national borders.

and eastern Poland,

as well as the recovery of Bessarabia in the

south-west are considerations which lead to the conclusion that the strategy of opportunism affords Russia more incentive for engaging in wars of conquest. The Sino-Japanese conflict in the

Far East and the preservation of

rich, natural resources in

south

'

EUROPEAN WAR

GERMANY’S MOTORIZED COLUMNS

257

meet a Polish attack. Right: Pioneers

advanced on lime-table schedules as Poland collapsed in Sept) 1939. Lett: German motorcycle scouts pass rapidly through a town near Bydgoszcz. Centre; The scouts abandon their motorcycles and rush

lo

and central Asia indicate the maintenance of an international defence policy in these areas. Subject to the opinions and decisions of a closely-knit political organization, dominated by a single in-

staff. The Pomeranian Army of group was commanded by Artillery General Guenther von Kluge. The East Prussian Army of this group was commanded by General von Keuchler. The centre between the two groups was held lightly by frontier detachments. See map: Sketch No. i, p. 258 (Dispositions of German-Polish forces on Aug. 31, 1939). In the air forces, Germany had organized 4 air fleets, each responsible for a territorial area of Germany. Air fleet No. i centred around Berlin and faced Poland. Air fleet No. 2 covered the northwest and faced the Netherlands, Belgium and England.. Air fleet No. 3 in the west and south pointed toward France and Switzerland. Air fleet No. 4, recently organized in former Austrian and Czech territory, faced to the southeast. Two special air com-

dividual, the actual operations of the military forces of the nation

become unpredictable. The best estimate seems Russia has practically inexhaustible resources in

and could afford to accept or

to indicate that

men and

material

reject opportunities for conquest

or adopt delaying defensives against opponents with equal impunity over the short period of time. In the long view the stability of the political system and the maintenance of an internal econ-

omy and

system of transport which guarantees food, shelter and would determine the

clothing for the majority of the Russians, final result of

Finland.

any policy adopted.

—Organization

for

National

forces of the nation are under the

Defence.

command

—

^All

armed

of the president of

the republic under the constitution of the State.

The

administra-

armed forces is controlled by a minister of defence, an army commander and a commander of the civic guard. The conduct of military operations is administered by a general staff, including departments of personnel, intelligence, opteraUons and supply and inspectorate. (See Finnish Armed Forces, page 266.) German Campaign in Poland. Germany. ^In Aug. 1939 the German Army had an estimated strength of 90 infantry divisions, each consisting of approximately 14,000 men; 6 mechanized divisions, each composed of approximately 11,000 men; 3 light tion of the

—

mechanized at

divisions, 1 horse cavalry division, 2 or 3

and a reserve of Landwehr

divisions

—

20 divisions.

mountain

(fortress troops) estimated

Exclusive of fortress troops, Germany, could

mobilize slightly more than

100 divisions of all types, fully equipped with modem weapons and adequately organized for a campaign in Poland. It must be remembered that the tense situation in August included mobilization on a large scale and that

(enflineers) of the

German army carry

a section to repair a bridge; the efficiency and speed of their work was an imporlant factor in the army’s rapid advance

General Salmuth as chief of

this

mands

existed in addition to the air fleet organization.

One was

centred in East Prussia, the other in the industrial area between the Rhine and the Weser. Marshal Goering was commander-in-

Major General Jeschonneck

chief of the air force, with

of

as chief

staff.

Air fleet No. i w’as commanded by General Kisserlring. Air fleet No. 4 was commanded by General Loehr. These two air fleets

conducted the bulk of the air operations in the German-Polish campaign. Each air fleet was estimated in Aug. 1939, to have consisted of about 1,700-1,800 combat planes, including 1,200-

1,500 (approximately f) bombers. The East Prussian air comexpected to reach a total of 800 planes and the indus-

mand was

trial area air command in the west was estimated to have the same number. The grand total of planes for the four air fleets and the two air commands was expected to reach a minimum of 8,400 first-line planes. A composite estimate places the actual number of

first-line craft available in

August at a

maximum

of 6,500. Re-

serves for the Polish' campaign were considered adequate up to 100% replacement of aU anticipated losses. On the sea, Germany

comparison with the Polish naval strength. The

these estimates allow for pre-war rather than peace-time totals.

W’as invincible in

The

small seacoast and the proximity to German bases afforded Germany a predominant advantage for the projected campaign.

total

manpower

of these forces is estimated at close to 1,350-

000 men.

The

forces for the campaign

chitsch.

The

—In Aug. 1939 the Polish Army

Poland.

were divided into two army groups

of Colonel-General Walther von Brausouthern group was commanded by Colonel-General

under the high

command

Karl Rudolf Gerd von Rundstedt, with Lieutenant-General Mausein as chief of staff. The right wing or south army of this group was commanded by General List. The centre army of this group

was commanded by Artillery General Hans von Reichenau. The left wing or north army of this group was commanded by Infantry General Johannes Blaskonntz. The northern group was commanded by Colonel-General Fedor von Bock, with Lieutenant-

consisted of 30 infantry

and ir independent cavalry brigades; 12 regiments of hea\y artillery for corps and army use, and a partially organized mechanized division w’hich more closely approximated 2 independent and poorly equipped mechanized brigades. The reserve strength was estimated at a maximum of 30 divisions. The Polish Army was w’eak in heavy artilleiy’, antitank and anti-mechanized guns, and there were severe shortages in anti-aircraft guns and in air defence organization. Poland placed divisions; i cavalry division

a

maximum

of 500,000

men

in the field during the early stages

EUROPEAN WAR

258 The Polish Army was under the command of Marshal Edward SmiglyRydz. Under his command the of the campaign.

Polish three

Army was diwded into main groups as follows:

the Corridor army, along the Vistula river, south and south-

com-

east of Thorn, under the

mand

of General Bortnowski;

the centre army, in the area

under

Lodz-Piotrkow-Kielce, the

command

trzeba and

and

the

the

Nida

KuRommel;

of General

General

army,

southern

centring

river,

on on

Cracow, under the command of General Sosnkowski. In

these

addition to

main

groups there were subordinate concentrations in the east along the

Narew

river,

north of War-

saw near Pultusk; and south

Tamow tered

in the

border near

along the

and Jaroslaw.

Polish

cavalry

Scat-

defence

supported by reserve in-

units,

fantry, occupied delaying positions along the East Prussian

around

frontier

Ciechanow,

north of Warsaw; on the western

border of

the

Corridor,

west of Posen, south of Kalisz, along the Polish-Silesian border,

and through the mountain

frontier passes along the Slo-

vak border. See map: Sketch No.

I

(dispositions

man-Polish forces on

of

Ger-

Aug

31,

1939)-

In the

Poland had organized two aviation groups of six regiments comprising an estimated total of approximately goo1, 000 planes. No more than 25% were bombers. Reserves were air forces,

considered inadequate for replacements of more than anticipated losses.

The

Polish

Navy was

German naval strength. The Scheme of Manoeuvre: German German Army was the destruction of

to the

.

far inferior

10%

of

compared

—^The primary goal of the the Polish

Army. The

secondary goal was to destroy that force so swiftly that Poland would be eliminated as a military factor in Eastern Europe before Allied pressure in the west

became dangerous. This scheme was

decided upon after examination of political, economic and military factors, which led the German High Command to the following

prolonged Polish resist(9) The only risk involved was une.Npectedly ance and the high command of the German Army provided a scheme of tliis danger. manoeuvre considered capable of overcoming

The German Army scheme of manoeuvre was a simple double envelopment, including a powerful drive from southwest toward Warsaw, and a second from Pomerania and East Prussia (in the north and northwest) toward Warsaw. The southern group, consisting of three armies, had the mission the centre army. of moving northeast with the main effort made by flank, south army (right wing) was to protect the southern

The

move to the east toward the San The north army (left wing) was to protect the north capture of Warsaw. flank and assist the centre army in the The northern group, consisting of two armies, was to move to Prussian Army (on the the southwest upon Warsaw. The East and Bug rivers and join the left flank) was to cross the Narew (on centre army of the southern group. The Pomeranian Army river valley.

fight.

(2) Poland over-rated her ability to prolong the campaign. German Army and air force. (3) Poland under-rated the strength of the

along the (4) Poland counted on strong Allied pressure

German west

front at an early date.

East Prussia, delay (5) Poland would attempt to occupy Danzig, attack the Posen area, and fall back slowly along the Vistula, defend the cavalry attacks horse southern -frontier, and launch vigorous and frequent against the fianks of the northern and southern German Army corps. (6) England and France might support Poland by declaring war, but would be unable to join Poland on the battlefield. (7) France could not mobilize and launch a serious attack on the ground in the west before at least 15 days. This attack would not be launched without tangible evidence of British participation which would delay the in

targets.

force the Jablunka pass, and

conclusions: (1) Poland would

opening date at least another 15 days, a postponement to 30 days after the opening date of the German campaign in Poland. (8) No independent or joint French or British air attacks would be launched against Germany for fear of reprisals against Allied mobilization

the right flank) was to drive across the Corridor, join the East Prussian Army, and advance toward Warsaw to join the north army (left wing) of the southern group. This basic scheme of manoeuvre included at least six separate

and subordinate manoeuvres which contributed

to the general plan.

EUROPEAN WAR In the southern group: (1) The southern army (right wing) to advance across the Carpathian

Tamow

railroad.

(2) The centre army to envelop the industrial district in Silesia and capture Cracow. (3) The northern army (left wing) to drive past Lodz and advance to

Warsaw.

In the northern group: (4) Simultaneous invasions of the Corridor from the north and from the east by the Pomeranian Army (right flank) and by the East Prussian

Army

(left flank).

Army

A drive from southern East Prussia by the East Prussian wing) to the Narew river via Mlawa and Przasnysz. In Danzig: (5)

(left

The defence

(6)

the

of

by organized defence corps volunteers,

city,

charged with the capture of municipal buildings (post offices, etc.), rail and water facilities, power and light outlets and communications (radio

and telephone). The goal of the

German Navy was the destruction of the Polish naval forces, the capture of Polish naval bases, and the rapid establishment of

German

control over the Polish coast line.

The

naval scheme of manoeuvre included: (1) Capture and destruction of Polish naval forces. (2) Close the bay of Danzig. (3) Bombardment of Gdynia-Hela and Westerplatte. (4) Construction of mine barriers and expansion of

German seacoasl

patrols.

The

goal of the

German

air forces w'as

twofold

destruction of the Polish air force, and destruction of Polish communications (highways, etc.) essential to mobilization.

The The

(1) (2)

von Kluge, crossed the Polish frontier Chelmno and the Vistula river. The German troops reached the Netze river and approached the banks of the Brahe, where determined Polish resistance was encountered. On September 3, the Brahe was crossed and East Prussian detachments approached Graudenz and attempted a junction with the right flank forces in preparation for a crossing of the Vistula. Polish forces, under General Bortnowski, were holding positions along the Vistula between Graudenz and Blomberg. Resistance in the vicinity of Graudenz was offered in an attempt to prevent envelopment of the Polish right wing by the swiftly moving columns of the East Prussian detachments. On September 5, the Polish forces retired under the heavy German pressure, and the Pomeranian Army crossed the Vistula near Graudenz and at Chelmno. (See map Sketch No. 2, p. 258.) In the meanwhile the East Prussian detachments captured Graudenz and the junction of the two forces was effected on September 7. General Bortnowski withdrew south of the Vistula- in the direction of Warsav; and his forces began to receive large numbers of Polish troops retreating from the province of Posen. German frontier troops in the west began a systematic advance through open approaches in the Posen prorrince, and rapidly closed in on Polish forces retreating to the east in the direction of Warsaw. On the left flank of the northern group, the East Prussian Army, under General von Keuchler, advanced on September r, across the (right wing) under General

These manoeuvres were as follows: mountains to the

259

railroads,

Subordinate missions included the support of mechanized and motorized attacks, the systematic bombing of naval bases, naval craft, ammunition and other supply bases and industrial centres.

Air fleet No. i and air fleet No. 4, augmented by reinforcements from the remaining two air fleets, were constituted with an estimated strength representing appro.-dmately 85% to go% of all available first-line combat planes. ^The German high command co-ordinated Summation 0} German Plan

—

at Chojnice and advanced in the direction of

:

Polish frontier, overcoming early resistance. This

came

to a halt before strong Polish forces

Narew

river and Plonsk on the Saldau river.

the area between

Mlawa and Lomza,

army eventually

between Pultusk on the Polish forces in

luider General Przedrzmirski,

had accomplished the difficult task of bringing the German Army attack to an abrupt, if temporary, halt. It is estimated that these

.

political,

Polish forces were only partially organized and included large

fronts:

numbers of

economic, and military estimates of both the Eastern and Western and made analysis of the plans open to Poland; carefully evaluated the time factor, assigned specific missions to the ground, air, and naval forces; , adopted a simple scheme of manoeuvre; and concentrated force behind the main effort. The Scheme of Manoeuvre: Polish. ^The goal of the Polish

—

Army tions

appears to have been based upon the following considera-

:

(1) (2)

A

reduction of Polish coastal defences. general defence of the Western border, with

The gradual evacuation

minimum

of frontier areas, keeping the

force.

bulk of the

army

intact for position defence and counter-attack. (3) The delivery of sharp, sudden counter-attacks, mainly by independent cavalry units against exposed flanks. final position defence 'around Warsaw, based upon the Vistula(4) Narew, Bug, and San river valleys; supported by reserves drawn from the east, and by Allied pressure against Germany in the west along the Rhine and in the north by naval blockade.

A

The

Polish air forces had the mission of attack against

aircraft, distant observation of

enemy ground

forces

enemy

and continu-

ous bombing of enemy communications and troop concentrations. The Polish navy followed no plan looking for engagement tvith the

German

fleet.

If preparations for escape

may

be

classified

as long range defence measures for the future, then the Polish

command may be credited with the adoption of some naval defence measures in the Baltic. Coastal defences, including garrison forces at Westerplatte, were prepared to resist landing parties. naval

No

reserves. Like other Polish troop concentrations, this group suffered severely from shortages of adequate artillery and other essential equipment. Along the coastline, German detachments, assisted by naval vessels, had opened an attack on Gdynia and were, engaged in the

extensive preparations, including mines, or long range coast

defence guns, appear to have existed. Summation of the Polish Plan. ^The Polish high command, well aware of the general nature of the German plan and dispositions, and realizing

—

During the first week of the campaign, the Pomeranian Army and the East Prussian Army of the northern group, operating as three independent units (including East Prussian detachments of the right wing) had succeeded in penetrating the Corridor and isolating Danzig, the seacoast; and the mouth of the Vistula had pushed large Polish forces south and east along the Vistula, and directly south from the East Prussian frontier in the direction of the outer defences of Warsaw. It appears that General Bortnowski made a serious error by delaying his movement to the south and east. Prompt retirement -with the bulk of his force to the vicinity of Warsaw would have afforded him the opportunity to dig in and prepare a determined defence, wth the majority of his troops intact. His stubborn resistance and deliberate retirement resulted in hea\'y casualties and the loss of valuable time ;

needed for the preparation of a proper position of defence. ^The southern group, under Southern Group: September 1-7 General von Runstedt, crossed the Polish frontier on Sept, i, 1939. The south army (right wing) imder General List, forced the Jab-

—

.

that the impossibility of early Allied aid prevented adoption of a strong offensive action, determined upon a general delaying defensive over a wide front followed by gradual retirement to interior defensive positions. Two important considerations appear to have been neglected by the Polish

lunka pass, in the West Beskids, and on September 2 arrived in the vicinity of Teschen. The centre army, under General von Reichenau, crossed the lower branches of the Prosna river and the

leaders:

valley of Wartche, captured the city of Czestochowa and pushed on rapidly in the direction of Radom. On September 5, the city

(1) (2)

The strength and extent of German The extent of German mobilization

The Opening of

many

first

—

^At 5:45 A.M. Sept, i, i939> Gerorganized offensive across the Polish

Hostilities.

launched the

air force activities, and prior to Sept, i, i 939 *

frontier.

Northern Group: September

i-y

—The

.

Pomeranian

Army

of Kattowitz, on the left flank of the southern army,

the

fell

before

German advance. Within 24 hours, the principal southern

city,

Cracow, was open to attack from three sides, and on September 6 the German forces occupied the town. Mechanized units of the

-

EUROPEAN WAR

260 centre

army advanced

far ahead of the ground units.

Disregard-

ing the traditional rigid requirements of continuous lines of

com-

munication to front and rear and constant liaison with adjacent elements, and dispensing with considerations for flank protection, these mechanized forces operated independently, far ahead of the main elements of raiding missions, accomplished their purpose with amazing speed. Elements of the swiftly moving mechanized troops, were reported at Kielce on September s, at Piotrkow on September 6, and north and west of Lodz on September 7. The north army (left wing) under General Blaskowitz, had advanced abreast of the centre army and rendered assistance in the reduction of the primary objective for the southern army group, namely the destruction of the main Polish forces and the capture of the industrial area centred around Cracow. Not later than September 3, General Blaskowitz began to accelerate the movement of his forces in the direction of Lodz and the main effort of the southern half of the double envelopment began to be developed. By September 7, the north army (left wing) had centred its main effort in the direction of Sieradz-Lodz-Warsaw, with advance elements far to the north operating against retreating Polish forces from Posen and against elements of the left flank of the retreating Corridor army as it moved to the east and the south along the Vistula. Mountain troops from positions east of the right wing of the southern group, and operating independently, crossed the East Beskids pass and captured Nowy Sacz, driving scattered Polish forces back towards Tamow. During the first week of operations, the three armies of the southern group had penetrated the Polish resistance, captured the

important industrial areas in the south, disorganized the elements of Polish concentrations, released speedy mechanized columns

on raiding missions far to the front, and launched a strong main effort in the direction of Warsaw, with the objective of closing the gap between the two groups of German forces. The Polish forces had withdrawn hastily from southern frontier stations, failed to maintain contact between elements, fought and lost engagements on open ground without resort to position defence, and neglected opportunities to withdraw to the Vistula river in numbers and with equipment suitable to support a determined resistance in conjunction with the remaining forces in the north and west. Air Operations: September 1-7

.

—

German

communications, both

rail

and road, and the systematic reduction of Polish air forces and air installations. The attacks on the Polish railway net centred along the main north-south lines. These included the BialystokBrest-Kowel-Lwow sector; the Mlawa-Warsaw-Lublin-Przemysl Junction sector and the Gdynia-Bromberg-Kattowice sector. points where control stations and equipment were concentrated were the initial targets. The few main highways converged on these rail junctions in most cases and these were included in the air attacks. The air force mission, directed toward the destruction of Polish air bases, was accomplished with speed and preForty-eight hours after the opening of hostilities, the Ger.that the Polish air forces had been destroyed or

mans claimed

rendered inoperative. In in the

tions

many

cases Polish planes were

bombed

open on Polish airfields. Hangars and other ground installawere destroyed, airfields were rendered useless by severe

concentrated

bomb

raids, while scattered Polish air forces, en-

gaged in brief aerial combat, were overwhelmed by superior numand driven to the ground. It is significant that by the 4th of September German aerial attacks were directed against industrial aviation targets indicating that the primary missions had been accomplished and active Polish air resistance considered non-

,bers

existent.

—

German forces on the land and ol Operations: September 1-7 advanced rapidly, overcoming all Polish resistance. In the north

Summary in the air

.

ever, that frontier forces in many instances had been destroyed or dispersed while rear elements of main forces were still menaced by sudden attacks

by independent mechanized columns. The primary missions scheme

of the

German

of manoeuvre had been accomplished on schedule and with remarkable efficiency. The most serious disadvantages suffered by the Poles had been the devastating effectiveness of the German air attack which accomplished widespread destruction of Polish air strength and disrupted mobilization of several front line units and prevented concentration of reinforce-

ments.

Northern and Southern Groups: September 8-16

—During

.

this

period the operations of the separate armies comprising these two groups resulted in joint activities. Mechanized elements of

army in the southern group continued to advance and September 8 raiding parties entered the outskirts of Warsaw. The southern army (right wing) under General List, entered the town of Sandomierz at the junction of the San and Vistula rivers and faced an open approach to the north along the valley of the Vistula in the direction of Warsaw. Under General Blaskowitz, the north army (left wing) had continued to exert pressure against Polish forces north and west of Warsaw in the vicinity of Kutno. the centre

oi\

On

the 14th of September, Polish reports indicated that the

first

had been launched against the left flank of the southern army group between Kutno and Lodz. It appears that this attack was a combined effort of General Kutrzeba and General Bortnowski to gain time for the completion of adequate position defences west of Warsaw. This counter-attack temporarily halted the advance of large German forces, but offered serious Polish counter-attack

resistance to the continued operations of the independent mechanized columns. North of Warsaw the East Prussian Army, under General von Keuchler, had determined the extent and strength of the Polish position with the aid of efficient and uninlittle

terrupted aerial observation. Realizing that the Polish concentrations

were poorly organized and without any apparent

artillery

support, von Keuchler decided to contain the bulk of the Polish

concentration along the line Pultusk-PIonsk, with small holding

he shifted the main German effort to the east (left) with the mission of crossing the Narew river and enveloping the Polish right. {See map: Sketch No. 3, p. 258.) On September 10 advance German columns of the East Prusforces, while

^The missions of the

air forces included; the destruction of

cision.

German drive slowed down in the vicinity of Warsaw, and Polish forces began a delayed but definite concentration of strength along interior defence lines north, west and south of Warsaw. Dry weather and the disorganization of preliminary troop concentrations favoured the advance of swiftly moving German mechanized troops. Destruction of communications had hampered co-ordinated action of Polish forces and prevented adoption of systematic delaying measures against mechanized columns. Large numbers of Polish forces were still intact and apparently no extensive capture of Polish troops had been accomplished despite early reports of wholesale surrender and destruction of large concentrations. It remained true, howthe

flank,

sian

Army

crossed the

Narew and by

the 14th of September the

main Polish concentrations had been forced to retire to the south along the Bug and Vistula rivers. In the west relentless pressure resumption of von Kluge’s Pomeranian Army, combined with the group of attack by the north army (left wing) of the southern under Blaskowitz, resulted in heavy fighting around Kutno where forces rethe German columns attempted to cut off large Polish of Bialystok, treating toward Warsaw. In the north in the vicinity forces and in the south, east of the San river, independent German respectively. Lwow and Brest-Litovsk toward vigorously pushed conEast of Warsaw, German forces on the ground, assisted by By railway. Warsaw-Brest-Litovsk the cut had stant aerial attack, September 1 5, after two weeks of severe engagement and suffering

from heavy losses. General Bortnowski’s army entered Warsaw. Kutrzeba During the remaining two days of this period. General his troops from engagement effected the withdrawal of most of General Bortwith the German columns and succeeded in joining

nowski in the defence of the capital. The junction of the the main ern and southern army corps had been accomplished and centred Polish forces were virtually surrounded in an area around Warsaw. The close of the period found no established north-

lines of resistance or continuous lines of

German

attack.

The main

—

EUROPEAN WAR effort of the German Army had not yet been realized, and the full powers of Polish resistance had not been organized. Warsaw re-

mained the capital of a besieged but determined people. Summary of Operations: September 8-i6 The German armies .

—

in the

north and in the south continued to exert considerable pressure behind the main effort to force the final issue in a joint attack against the main Polish forces. The operations of German mechanized troops continued to be independent actions concentrated upon the swift disorganization of Polish forces wherever encountered and without regard to the maintenance, or even recognition of, German lines of communication. German air forces continued operations of brilliant precision and accomplished results which indicated the existence of an elaborate pre-campaign system of espionage liaison. The Polish air forces, including ground installations considered secret, were promptly discovered and methodically destroyed. Air and ground liaison between observation planes and artillery directed effective fire on suitable targets. Air attack on Polish troop concentrations was uninterrupted and became more effective as Polish air resistance disappeared. The Polish main forces still remained intact, but were cut off from hope of reinforcement and faced severe shortages of essential supplies, due to the destruction of rail and highway facilities. The remaining possibilities of Polish resistance were under-rated by the German high command when it issued a communique on September i6, claiming that the only remaining tasks involved “mopping up operations.” The final unexpected development of the period broke upon the unprepared and harassed Polish nation on the morning of September ly, when Russian armed forces suddenly crossed the eastern frontier and began a second invasion of Poland. Faced theretofore with ovenvhelming numbers in the north, the west, and the south, subject to spectacular and sudden raids on all sides by powerful mechanized forces, Polish leaders still could count upon the heroic stand around Warsaw, followed by a slow, if necessary, retreat to the favourable defensive terrain in the eastern provinces. After September rS the Poles faced not one enemy but two, and there now began a marked decline in Polish morale and disintegration of the Polish

and

will to resist.

Final Operations: September 18-30

.

—^With the advent of Rus-

sian intervention in the east, the Polish resistance withered and

appeared doomed to

failure.

Heroic

efforts

were made

in isolated

Around Kutno the joint efforts of the north army (left wing) and the southern group, in the Pomeranian Army (right centres.

overcame stubborn Polish This engagement called by the Germans the “Battle in the bend of the Vistula,” resulted from Polish efforts to withdraw large forces to the north and east in support of the defence around Warsaw. Under General von P.unstedt, the German armies gained decisive victory, capturing an estimated total of more than 1 50,000 prisoners and large stores of supplies. {See map: Sketch No. 4, p. 258.) In the east the Russian forces encountered little resistance. Polish frontier guards and some reserves offered occasional and scattered defence. The principal directions of the Russian advance were toward Vilna, Bialystok and Lwow. The city of Vilna was

tving)

and the northern group,

resistance after eight days of

finally

heavy

fighting.

occupied by Russian forces on September ig. Twenty-four hours advance elements of the German and Russian armies met

earlier,

at Brest-Litovsk. Despite these advances, the resistance of Polish forces in the vicinity of

Warsaw and around

the fortress

town of

Modlin continued stubbornly. For days the capital city held out under continuous aerial attack and artillery bombardment. Finally, on September 27, Warsaw capitulated. And on the z8th, the fortress of Modlin surrendered. The following day the German foreign office announced the completion of a treaty of “frontier and friendship” signed at Brest-Litovsk between the German and Russian commanders. Only a few Polish forces in the northwest continued to offer resistance. The coastal garrison on the peninsula of Hela had been surrounded and finally surrendered on October

2.

Polish troops north of the city of Lublin, recognizing the

on October 5. compass Poland had been invaded, over-run and forced to surrender. What had begun as a classic manoeuvre by German troops on the north and on the south ended in a double penetration by joint German and Russian forces on a time schedule which offered little hope of successful resistance. Summary of Operations In less than five weeks and with no more than

impossibility of continuing the war, surrendered

On

all

sides of the

.

—

IS days of serious engagement, Germany had completed the speediest campaign in military history. Without disregarding the significance of the Russian invasion in the east, it remains true that the major effort was completed by the German forces. Russian intervention resulted in overrunning the eastern provinces where little resistance was faced, and in

,

261

regard to military operations in the central part of the country, particularly where Polish resistance was stubborn, the Russian intervention affected the morale of the Polish troops more than the actual reduction of numbers or destruction of organized efforts. Approximately 700,000 Polish prisoners, 40,000 horses, 1,600 guns, 8,000 machine guns, hundreds of small weapons and light anti-tank guns were captured by German forces. The Polish air force had been destroyed, with the exception of a few planes flown to neighbouring neutral States. German losses, announced by Chancellor Hitler on Oct. 6, 1939, indicated that 10,572 had died, 30,322 were wounded and 3,409 had been reported missing on Sept. 30, 1939 (probably an under-estimate). Losses in motor transportation, mechanized equipment and other material were considered insignificant. An analysis of the operations in the air, on the ground and on the sea indicates without qualification that all arms shared equally in the success of the German effort. There was evidence of complete arid continuous co-operation between all elements of the German forces. When the ground troops required observation, they received it from an alert and efficient air force. When mechanized columns operated far ahead of the foot troops and extended lines of communication in what appeared to be dangerous areas, the air force promptly located and destroyed Polish artillery and prevented strong Polish concentrations prepared to launch counter-attacks. The flanks of the two main German groups held fast to their independent missions until the appropriate time to join their strength in the accomplishment of the final drive on the capital city. Along the coast, the German naval forces engaged in no serious combat with Polish naval forces and appeared to adopt a slow but persistent pressure against naval bases and the important seaport of Gdjmia. Although the naval activities were not considered as spectacular as the swift march of German forces on the ground, it must be remembered that the German naval high command considered that Polish installations would eventually fall into their hands, and preferred to gain these prizes intact rather than destroyed as a result of constant and continuous bombardment. The time factor, the strategic advantages in geography and season, and overwhelming numbers, all favoured the German scheme of manoeuvre. Polish concentrations were delayed, disorganized and ineffectual. The adoption of independent action by mechanized units introduced an unusual but highly successful method of big area disorganization against probable

The

w’eight of destructive armament has made modern mechtremendously effective wherever time and terrain favour their employment. The speed, precision, skill and efficiency of the plan, resistance.

anized

troops

the operations and the results of the German campaign amazed an incredulous world. A nation of 30,000,000 people had been overrun, cut to pieces, and demoralized within three weeks. The German campaign in Poland will be accorded an unusual place in military history and will undoubtedly be considered one of the most brilliant of modern times. A detailed analj'sis of the reasons behind the Polish collapse indicate the following:

(1) Poland failed to estimate the i, 1939.

full

strength of

German

mobilization

prior to Sept,

(2) Poland failed to analyze the

full possibilities of the

German scheme

of manoeuvre.

(3) Poland under-estimated the potentialities of the the possibilities of joint air and ground operations.

German

air force

(4) Poland failed to adopt a simple scheme of manoeuvre, centred upon the early completion of a strong defensive position supported by ample reinforcements and adapted to the favourable terrain north, west and south of Warsaw.

(5) German co-ordination resulted in the systematic destruction of lines of communication along railways, highways, and radio, telephone and telegraph installations. The nerve centres of Polish control were shattered within 48 hours. (6) A pre-campaign espionage system proved invaluable to the German high command. (7) Weather conditions favourable to the offensive, and in the face of constantly diminishing resistance, permitted the use of mechanized columns without regard to normal security measures. The Polish battlefield was a platform where the final results of a carefully conceived, well-organized, and ably-led scheme of manoeuvre were e.xhibited, Germany had planned carefully, acted fearlessly and gained victory on that field of battle. The greatest lesson that these operations appear to have shown to students of military history seems to be that time has indeed become the fourth dimension of strategy, as it has been called by the British military writer. General Rowan-Robinson. If it is true that there is time for everything, it is equally true that on the field of battle everything successful must be accomplished at the right time.

—

Western Front. The military operations on the western front during the period Sept.-Dee. 1939, are best defined as preliminary recoimaissance. No large scale operations occurred involving thousands of men and machines and covering days or weeks of continued activity, seeking to gain or deny major objectives.

Along the common French and German frontier, fortress troops w'ere hidden behind modem and apparently impregnable defence zones separated by an unoccupied but dangerously quiet No Man’s Land. In France the Maginot Line (g'.n.) was completely manned

by

special frontier troops supported

arms. Here in elaborate ples of defence-in-depth

by mobilized forces of all embodjnng the princi-

field fortifications

and equipped with

destruction of and protection against

all

modem

attacks

by

devices for

air

and land.

EUROPEAN WAR

262 the French

movement

for Germany to initiate the first major frontier. The French army was not idle

army waited across the

Small operations were undoubtedly successful between the Luxemburg frontier and the Rhine. Reconnaissance parties extended activities several kilometres into the lightly fortified zones between the main defence positions. In the Saar valley, along the Moselle, through the Bienwald forest, and around the towns of Saarbrucken, Sierck, Bliescastel, Perl, Wissembourg and in dozens of tiny hamlets and villages along the front, the French attacked vigorously but with definite limited objectives. These attacks were made in movements so small that the action clearly during the period.

indicated intentions the initiation of ficial

any

of preliminary reconnaissance rather than larger offensive.

During the period the

arti-

defences and the defence mechanism of the Maginot Line

were perfected. Equipment and supplies were installed in preparation for the maintenance of large forces capable of offering deter-

mined and continued resistance against an invader. Overhead French aviators took to the air regularly on offensive missions including elaborate air photography of Germany’s installations. Throughout the period frequent military engagements were fought and numerous raiding parties engaged in local combat. In the first six weeks of the war France appeared to have taken the initiative in all operations reported on the ground and in the air along the western front. The result of these French operations indicate that an area 40 miles in length and varying in depth from 2 to lomi. was partially occupied by French forces after light and heavy artillery fire and aerial bombardment had driven scattered German troops and the remaining inhabitants to the rear. German reports indicated that a few border towns had been evacuated on orders and that desertion of certain areas was not entirely due to the success of French invasion. In late October and during November German official reports claimed that all French forces had been driven out of German territory. At the close of December neither side claimed any advantages in territorial gains. Reports of major engagements in the near future remained in the rumour stage and local communiques indicated “no activity” or “usual inactivity.”

The German defence zone Limes Line was considered

called the Siegfried Line {q.v.) or

less

formidable than the French de-

fence zone. Construction of the series of fortifications had been

and evidence of continued construction activity during the September-December period indicated that completion of the defence had not been accomplished prior to the started at a later date

opening of

hostilities.

Impartial observers agree that despite

defects in construction and accepting differences in the detail of

German defence zone still remained a considerable obstacle for the combined British and French armies. The number of German forces engaged in the defence on the western front is estimated between 60-75 divisions including all arms. During the Polish campaign when large forces were engaged in the East, it is likely that Landwehr divisions and elaboration of protective devices the

were the only forces actually occupying- the fortifications. At the same time the 30 days required to complete the campaign in Poland offered little opportunity to the Allies for the mobilization of men and the organization for attack on a strongly fortified and adequately manned defensive zone. At the close of the Polish campaign large forces were shuttled across the German interior and the elaborate organization of the defensive zone was rushed to completion. Late in December the minor operations in

fortress troops

the area between the two zones were discontinued. Periodic duels were reported, probably the efforts of each side to perfect ranges and test equipment. Aerial activity continued with observations

engagements involving

as the primary mission although limited air small numbers of aircraft were reported. On the north flank of the western front the relations between

Belgium and Holland, and between these countries and the belligerents gave rise to considerable speculation on the probability of invasion. Concern grew on all sides but there remained evidence of an increased tempo in the “war of nerves” rather than the Both neutrals strengthened natural and artificial defence barriers. Each mobilized large forces and possibility of actual combat.

proclaimed a policy of determined neutrality. In joint conference King Leopold and Queen Wilhelmina discussed action in the event of invasion by Germany.

At the

close of their conference, the

The

practical result of these efforts

rulers issued a plea for peace.

appeared to be that Holland was prepared to defend her frontier against armed invasion and to offer serious delay to mechanized forces seeking quick transit through the Low Land country. Belgium with small but efficient fortifications strengthened by the

modem army already mobilized, could offer serious resistance to any opponent. Invasion of Holland would result in joint defensive action by Belgium. Invasion of Belgium alone might result in joint action by recently constructed Albert canal and with a

Holland.

In either case, the two nations were rushing defence measures and organizing their nations for determined resistance. The offers made by Belgium and Holland for peace were doomed to failure.

On

the south flank of the western front, Switzerland, tradi-

tionally a neutral, took

prompt measures for defence.

Partial

mobilization of reserves, the accumulation of reserve stores of

continued manoeuvres along the border entrances through the Alps, and a proclamation of neutrality were prompt notice that any attempted invasion would be met by determined supplies,

resistance.

Luxemburg had no armed tire

forces to mobilize and offered the en-

area of her tiny country as a

common

neutral zone for evacua-

and medical care for the wounded of all belligerents. It appears that this was done in the hope that the close of the war might find the safety zone of Luxemburg still an independent state. tion of

—

Summary All military operations on the western front were confined to the minor preliminary activities of reconnaissance, raids, and meeting engagements of small forces.' Fortifications were strengthened, equipment and supplies were accumulated, large forces were organized and noncombatants were evacuated from defence zones. Aerial reconnaissance continued and minor air engagements were reported. No major offence was initiated and no co-ordinated air and ground attacks materialized. Flanks remained inactive and neutrals increased defensive measures and mobilized .

to resist invasions designed to envelop the elaborate defence-in-depth systems. A stalemate on the western front had followed the lightning attack in the East. It appeared doubtful that the Allies would begin any great land offensive in the West. For the western front the leading questions at the close of 1939 were: (1) Will Germany sit tight on the western front and continue to fight the blockade by naval and air action? (2) Will Germany make a frontal attack on the western front? (3) Will Germany try to outflank the Maginot Line?

The

War

at Sea.

—The war

at sea produced the most action

during the period Sept.-Dee. 1939. All belligerents desired free access to world markets and each employed naval strength to secure freedom of action and impede or deny free movement to the opponent. The Allies had a considerable advantage in sea

power.

Britain alone with superior tonnage and with adequate

bases in many parts of the world could negotiate a naval blockade against Germany without delay. The French navy could assist in

blockade duties, secure water routes to colonial ports, and be prepared to join in naval engagements whenever these developed. The German fleet had less tonnage than the Allies and was forced to operate from home bases in waters blockaded or pardenied by enemy craft. The naval strategy of the Allies was directed towards two main objectives: (i) a strong naval blockade in the North sea to contain the German fleet in the Baltic, and (2) tially

a convoy system for merchant shipping to ensure uninterrupted

ocean transport. The principle upon which Britain depended for success in the accomplishment of these objectives was the belief that in any naval engagement British seapower would always be

EUROPEAN WAR superior in numbers, and

fire

power, to any opponent. It has

ready been emphasized that England

is

al-

dependent upon uninter-

rupted ocean transport. This necessity requires in turn that England maintain a Sept.

I,

superior to any probable opponent. Prior to

fleet

1939, the A.xis Powers, and possibly Japan, were con-

sidered likely opponents.

Against

Germany and

Italy,

England,

with French assistance, would be required to fight in the North

combat England would be forced to accept the challenge in the Far East. Her conception of naval strategy against Germany and Italy included prompt and continuous blockade in the North sea followed by swift attack in the Mediterranean based upon Gibraltar and sea and in the Mediterranean. If Japan entered the

Suez.

Joint British and French naval strength in Western Europe ap-

pears impregnable.

Since

Germany

alone of the Axis Powers

actively engaged in combat, the naval

power of the

Allies is

is

a

definite superiority.

German naval strategy prior to Sept, i, 1939, appears to have been based upon two principles: (i) rapid rearmament equal to or approaching tion based

35%

of British strength;

upon new

and (2) additional construc-

necessities claimed as the results of (i).

which spelled danger for the German probability of simultaneous engagement in the North sea and in the Baltic. Russia, after September i, was

263

United Kingdom and to establish zones in which

all

forbidden under penalty of prompt destruction.

On

shipping was the surface,

by mines and by bombardment, Germany had prose-

as the result of independent raider action, undersea,

U-boat, and from the air

cuted a vigorous and continuous naval warfare with increasing success.

On December tacked

13 the “Admiral Graf Spec” was suddenly atthe South American coast by the “Exeter,” the “Ajax,”

off

and the “Achilles” of the British navy. The action resulted in a running fight, ended when the German vessel put in to the Uruguayan harbour of Montevideo. The “Exeter” was reported severely damaged and withdrew from the action for repairs in the Falkland Islands. On December 17 the “Graf Spee” was scuttled by her own crew in the outer harbour of Montevideo and as the vessel burned to the water’s edge an accompanying ship took off Captain Langsdorff and his crew and took them to Buenos Aires. Three days later the captain of the scuttled ship -was reported to be a suicide. The first important German naval engagement on the surface ended with considerable physical loss for Germany and world-wide speculation on the effect upon German prestige. The great

German

liner

“Bremen” managed

to run the British naval

attention

Murmansk in Northern Russia and arrived in Germany safely. The liner “Columbus” after leaving Veracruz, Mexico, was scuttled by her own crew off the eastern coast of the United States and the survivors were

could then be directed against the Allied blockade. The principal means available for use included the tactics of independ-

brought to the harbour of New York city. At the close of the year the German naval efforts of all arms in the air, on and under

submarine attacks, extensive mining and All four methods were practical, relatively simple to adopt, and the t>'pes of naval engagement which Germany could continue over the long period. The primary mission of the German fleet was the methodical destruction of both naval craft and merchant ships by independent action of raiders and submarines and the joint actions resulting from mine fields and air attacks. Early in September the Cunard liner “Athenia” was sunk

the sea, had resulted in combined British and French losses of 16 men-of-war and a total of 233 Allied and neutral merchant ships. The total tonnage destroyed up to Dec. 31, 1939, is estimated at 785,485 tons. This represents an average loss of nearly two ships

The largest fleet was the

single factor

eliminated as a potential

ent surface attacks

enemy

German

in the Baltic.

raiders,

from the

air.

(September 3-4), apparently the result of torpedo or mine. The loss indicated one type of naval warfare which could be expected to continue. The definite cause of explosion and the loss of the ship remained undetermined at the close of the year. Britain claimed that a German submarine had torpedoed the liner. Ger-

many vessel.

denied this claim and charged that the British had sunk the Regardless of these claims the loss was the initial incident

which continued to chalk up heavy casualties in merchant vessels as well as naval craft. On September 17 the British aircraft carrier “Courageous” was attacked by a submarine, torpedoed and sunk, marking the first important armed vessel lost in naval combat. On October 14 the Germans sank the “Royal Oak,” a 29,iso-ton dreadnought, at Scapa Flow. This sWp w'as

in naval warfare

rated as one of the seven largest vessels in the British navy and the circumstances of its loss while within the waters of the naval base at Scapa Flow indicated remarkable daring on the part of

the

German submarine

crew. Air raids at Scapa

Flow on October

16 resulted in the loss of the “Iron Duke,” a training vessel, and in

damage

ber 18

to the

“Southampton” and the “Mohawk.” On Novemintensive mining campaign along the

Germany began an

east coast of England. laid

from low-flying

Reports indicated that mines w'ere being normally

aircraft in the shallow coastal waters

open to commercial shipping.

The

losses

of merchant ships

mounted considerably and on at least one day (November 25) the Thames estuary was closed to all shipping. On November 23 the “Rawalpindi,” an armed merchantman, was attacked by a surface raider and sent to the bottom. On November 30 Germany claimed that 194 ships of all classes representing 736,000 tons had been destroyed. Early in the following month (December 4) Germany threatened to sow mines around the entire coast line of the

blockade after leaving the neutral port of

German

per day.

losses in naval craft included the spectacular

destruction of the pocket battleship “Admiral Graf Spee” and an

estimated total of 30-40 submarines. With the exception of the

naval action against

off

the South American coast. Allied naval attack

Germany was

confined mainly to attacks

greatest naval operations conducted

the persistent reduction of

by the

by

air.

The

Allies consisted in

German imports (and

after

November

27) exports by means of the naval blockade. Britain claimed that nearly 900,000 tons of contraband had been seized and diverted from Germany and it appeared that the blockade would increase in effectiveness as the

Summary

—

war continued.

^The Allied effort on the sea followed the traditional strategy imposed by limitations of geography and allowed by conditions of equipment, opponent and the necessity for obtaining maximum results with economical expenditure. The early institution of a strong naval blockade and the gradual completion of a convoy system combined to divert merchant shipping from the enemy and ensure uninterrupted ocean transport for the Allies. Elinor success w'as gained as the result of air raids on German considerable bases and submarine attack against isolated German craft. victory was gained in the destruction of the “Graf Spee,” made more important due to the self-destruction of the vessel by the German crew and the consequent impairment of German naval prestige. At the close .

A

of the year Allied naval strength in Western Europe was under attack and losses had been suffered but the advantage appeared to rest with England and France. German naval losses of all arms appeared relatively insignificant. ?»Ieasured against these losses considerable success had resulted in following the traditional strategy of independent action by air, surface, and undersea attack. The mine-laying campaign had resulted in a spectacular if brief success and several exploits, notably the sinking of the “Royal Oak” at Scapa Flow, had reflected credit upon the naval forces. The effect of the loss of the “Graf Spee” on Germany is difficult to determine. Accepting that the German method is to calculate chances with methodical accuracy

and, further, that the chances for success appeared infinitesimal it appears that self-destruction may be a logical deduction to arrive at. This deduction is not offered as a definition of the German view’ but appears to be one probable theory which mighty explain the decision made. The German losses of submarines appeared high but not e.xcessive considering the remarkable success secured by undersea action. German replacement of submarines is estimated by Germany to reach a total of loo per month. Impartial observers suggest that 15 would represent a reasonable and realizable maximum. German air attacks on Allied shipping of all classes appeared more active and German losses not excessive considering the total number of actions and number of craft involved. The growing losses of merchant shipping and the increased los'^es of contraband goods appear to be the most serious effect of Allied naval action

— England. Combined with these operations, the Germans completed extensive air reconnaissance flights over England and released for publication photographs showing military targets at various harbours and bases along the Eastern coast. Air activity over the western front appeared to be confined to reconnaissance flights. A few minor air engagements were reported the result of accidental rather than anticipated air combat. Observers have placed the grand total of air losses for all belliger-

and observation

ents at 1,100-1,200 planes.

more

aircraft in a larger

Accepting that Germany employed

number

of operations and would there-

fore suffer the larger proportional share of these losses, the total

Germany had ample air forces prior to September i and production rates would increase during the early months of the combat. Despite the success of the air arm as employed by Germany and regardless of losses or capacity for reappears insignificant.

placement, the

THE CLIMAX

to the biggest naval battle of 1939 came December 17, when the German pocket battleship “Admiral Graf Spee’* was blown up by her own commander off the harbour of Montevideo, four days after the ship was disabled In a running fight with three British cruisers

How

against Germany. these losses will affect the economy of the German state cannot be determined over the short period of combat ending Dec. 1939. (See also Blockade; Shipping, Merchant Marine; Submarine

Warfare.)

The

.

War In

the Air.

the world expected the rific air

bombardments

—^The great majority of people throughout European war

to open with a series of ter-

in all belligerent countries.

At the

close

in

combat

The

German

had not been seriously engaged

air force

at the close of the year.

Allies refrained

from any extended use of the

ing the period Sept.-Dee. 1939. quent long range observation

The

British air force

arm durmade fre-

over German

territory.

flights

air

Pictures were taken of the western defence positions and some

photographs of German naval bases and air installations were released to the public. Apparently the use of the air arm for propaganda purposes was considered important particularly by Britain.

Reports were received of frequent

flights

made over

of the period (Dec. 31, 1939) no air attack on any great civilian centre had been made and the great air offensives appeared post-

Germany where

large quantities of leaflets were dropped designed

to incite unrest

among

poned. With the exception of the

type of air employment appear indefinite.

German

air operations in the

brief Polish campaign, the use of air attack against ships

bases in British waters, and the Russian

bombardments

marked the extent of the destructive use Prior to Sept,

i,

in

and

Finland

of the air arm.

1939, London, Berlin, Paris and the smaller and frequent black-outs as

belligerent cities conducted extensive

precautionary protective measures. invalids

Evacuation of children and

from large centres of population had been

to the opening of hostilities.

effected prior

Air raid precautions in

all

large

had become routine and complicated provisions for protection from bombs and gas were adopted in England and France particularly. It was commonly accepted that Germany had a superior air force and might launch an extended attack by air cities

against the artificial defences of the west front, the centres of

population in France and England, and the seaports and industrial life of both nations. Anti-aircraft installations were rushed to com-

Reserve forces were organized for anti-aircraft defence, balloon barrages, air nets; elaborate systems of air ground listening stations, provisions for fighter and interceptor planes, and other precautions were adopted as defence measures. In all napletion.

tions

and included in the reports

of nearly all observers the threat

of concentrated air attack appeared

paramount and the

first issue

of the war.

The

actual air operations included the following:

German north coast. German Campaign in Poland.) (4) Air operations in Poland. (See Russian Campaign in Finland.) (s) Air operations in Finland. (See

the

On the German side the use of the air arm was confined almost exclusively to co-operative action with the naval effort against the The long range bombing

flights

made

frequent

attacks against bases in the Firth of Forth and Scapa Flow, and

were reported in attacks over the Shetland islands. Frequent air attacks were made against naval craft in the North sea. Mines were laid from low-flying aircraft along the coastal waters of

264

German

was reported against

The results of this At least one air raid the German bases along the North readers.

Heligoland and

Sylt. These attacks were admitted or claimed and the results emphasized or ridiculed, dependent upon the source from which reports were released.

coast,

Little activity of

French

air forces

was reported except for

frequent observation flights over the western front.

and minor

air

engagements enlivened the relative

Occasional

quiet.

—

Summary No belligerent initiated large scale air activities during the period Sept.-Dee. 1939. The development of aircraft and the improvement in air munitions and anti-aircraft devices indicated the lack of precedent or experience permitting the quick adoption of an air attack theory. Apparently air bombardment had far outstripped other air developments but fear of retaliation restrained leaders from early adoption of wholesale bomb raids. Full and continuous use of air observation was employed by Use of planes for propaganda was adopted with effects all belligerents. unknown. The employment of air attack against merchant ships and the bombers against naval craft appeared to be the methods most light use of regularly adopted by the German air forces. No belligerent had launched .

a major air effort at the close of the year. The strength of either side remained unimpaired. The probable future use of the air forces remained uncertain at the close of the year.

Campaign

Russian

ipjp.-^n

in

Finland.

—

Pre-Combat Phase Oct. 7Government re-

1939, the Russian quested that a delegation from Finland be sent to

Nov.

29,

Oct.

7,

Moscow

to

open

discussions for a non-aggression pact and adjustments of political and economic arrangements between the two countries. This

action

(i) Extended and frequent reconnaissance by all belligerents over the frontier defences and coast line of the enemy. (2) Propaganda flights, particularly by the British, when leaflets were released explaining war aims and suggesting internal revolt. shipping, naval craft, naval bases, (3) Air attacks against merchant and seaplane installations particularly in England and infrequently along

.

Allied blockade.

in force

the

by Russia followed

closely the completion of similar pacts

Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. These small states had agreed to accept Russian guarantees of assistance in the event of war, and in addition had permitted the occupation of important

made with

rail

centres and coastal bases

by Russian armed

forces.

The Rus-

secure sian invitation to Finland appeared to be an attempt to bases in Finnish territory and to acquire an extension of Russian

agreed to send a control in the Baltic. The Finnish Government delegation for the purpose of e.xamining Russian proposals, but

announced publicly that Finland sought a peaceful solution of common problems and would not capitulate to Russian domination of Finnish independence. Immediate appeals for diplomatic assistance were made by Finland to her neighbours Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Government called military reserves to the col-

—

ours and began a mobilization of some 250,000

men

for “extraor-

—

:

—

—

EUROPEAN WAR 9, 1939. News reports from Leningrad indicated that approximately 500,000 Russian troops were' con-

dinary service”'on Oct.

centrated in the vicinity of the Finnish frontier. activity in the Baltic increased

ling the Finnish southern coast line. in

Moscow

Russian naval

when Soviet warships began

A

patrol-

Finnish delegation arrived

to open discussions on October ii, while the Govern-

be prepared for general ment in Helsinki warned mobilization and other precautionary measures in the event of emergency. A new “war of nerves” had opened along the northern front and world attention swung away from considerations of the Polish campaign and turned to follow developments in Finland. The Russian-Finnish discussions were discontinued on October 16, when the Finnish delegation returned to Helsinki. It was the nation to

announced that the Finnish delegation would return to Moscow at a later date. On October 18 the president of Finland, in a joint conference with the rulers of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, discussed mutual assistance in the event of emergency, and plans

265

Mr. Roosevelt announced

“The present trend of force makes

that

insecure the independent existence of nations in every continent

mankind to his own government.” come to a close and the combat phase of the Russo-Finnish campaign had begun in real earnest. Combat Phase Russo-Finnish Campaign. The Finnish scheme of manoeuvre w’as based primarily upon the system of inand jeopardizes the

The “white war

rights of

of nerves” had

—

—

terior communications,

highwa5-s.

The

mainly

rail

but including a few excellent

military definition of the Finnish scheme would be

classified as a strategic defensive.

Geographically the Finnish ter-

and with a scattered populaadmirably adapted for the pursuit of a wide-

rain is well suited for such a defence

tion the nation

is

spread small but highly resistant series of defensive positions. lines east of Viborg (Viipuri) are approached from the

Defence

The character of the terrain renders continuous use of motorized and mechanized units un-

east through easily defensible passes.

favourable even during seasons of cold w'eather

marsh lands permit

when

the frozen

peace in the Baltic states might not be maintained by joint action in the immediate future, but felt assured that the will-

movement. Innumerable lakes are a feature of the national terrain. Landing bases for an enemy are few in number and easily defended. The w'aters on the south skirt shallow harbours and even commercial shipping is considerably

ingness to negotiate in an attempt to find peaceful solution might result in placing Russia in the role of aggressor in the event

nels into port.

for joint action in preserving neutrality.

The

diplomatic ob-

servers, following the progress of this conference, estimated that

began. Meanwhile Finnish preparations for any eventuality continued. Air raid precautions were begun and the Government began collecting large stores of food stocks and other essen-

hostilities

supplies for the army and for the civihan population. Unofficial sources stated that the Russian Government, among other demands, had insisted upon the occupation of three small Finnish

delayed in peacetime by the necessities of following devious chan-

gations and the conferences continued to be held in secret, with only speculations as to the extent of Russian demands upon the

small republic.

On

Oct. 27, 1939, Russian celebrations in

com-

memoration of the October revolution of 1917 resulted in a postponement of conferences with the Finnish delegation. Diplomatic observers generally believed that this postponement would turn into an eventual stalemate and that the conferees would be unable to arrive at a peaceful solution.

On November

13 the conferences

ended and the fears of those observers who expected no concrete results were justified. A number of incidents, including the arrival of Russian planes over the Finnish frontier and several border incidents on the ground, began to intensify the Russian “war of nerves.” Finnish efforts to improve her defences and to enter upon a complete emergency preparation basis were increased and the world began to recognize that Russia would probably begin the combat phase shortly. Proposals were made by the Finnish Government for resumption of peaceful negotiation on equal basis as an independent state. These proposals were rejected and Russia attempted to force immediate action and the acceptance of Soviet demands. Russia declared that the former SovietFinnish non-aggression pact was no longer effectual and that the increasing number of border incidents and other violations of neutrality would force Russian intervention. On Nov. 30, 1939, Russian warships were reported enroute to the Finnish coast. Russian planes bombed Helsinki and the combat phase of the Russo-Finnish campaign began. On the same day Fin-

IVith recent improvements in rail and highway

construction and with careful regard for the defence of the most

probable avenues of invasion, Finland was prepared for prompt and strenuous defensive measures.

The

tial

islands adjacent to the Russian naval base at Kronstadt. Negotiations had been resumed between the Finnish and Russian dele-

free

general plan for Finnish defence included three

siderations

main con-

:

(1) A principal defensive position in the fortified zone known as the Wannerheim Line across the land approaches through the Karelian isthmus in the south-east.

(2) Special of

field fortifications

Lake Ladoga

and improvised defence in the area north and Pitkaranta.

in the vicinity of Tolvajarvi

(3) Provisions for use of a strategic reserve force in central Finland of the northern frontier in the vicinity of Petsamo.

and for support

The

Finnish air force was assigned duties of observation be-

hind frontier defences, short-range bombing tasks and shore patrol duty over the Gulf of Finland. The coast defence naval craft, including five submarines and tw'o small battleships, were assigned harbour defence duties along the southern coast line. The Russia 7i Scheme of Manoeuvre. ^The developments during

—

the period closing on Dec. 31, 1939, indicate a general plan (see map: Sketch No. i, p. 266) to invade Finland by land at three places (1) Across the Karelian isthmus, south of Lake Ladoga in the direction of Leningrad (Russia)-Viipuri (Finland). (2) North of Lake Ladoga in the direction of Petrozavodsk (Russia) Tolvaiari and Pitkaranta (Finland).

.

In the Central Area (i) To the west in the direction of (Finland).

.

Kem

(Russia)—Suomussalmi-Oulu

In the North (1) South-west in the direction of Kandalaksha (Russia)-Kemi (Fin-

land).

(2) To the south-west in the direction of JIurmansk (Russia)—Kemi (Finland).

The use of air forces, particularly bombardment, and the employment of naval attack on Finnish ports along the Gulf of Finland were subordinate and included elements of the Russian scheme of manoeuvre. Finnish Armed Forces. Finland entered the campaign with

—

three regular

army

active divisions, each approximating a total of

sources

10,000 men. Preliminary mobilization had resulted in the expan-

Moscow denied any knowledge of Soviet invasion of Finland. On December i, the Finnish Government resigned and a new cabinet was drafted with the governor of the Bank of Finland as head of the cabinet. The first activities of the Russian troops in

sion of this organization to a total of six divisions divided into

land declared that a state of war existed although

official

in

crossing the- Finnish frontier included

welcoming Finnish peasants along the frontier and offering to set up an independent government under the protection of the Soviet. In the United States,

three groups of two divisions each.

In addition to these forces,

Finland mobilized one cavalry brigade, five battalions of light infantry, no more than six independent batteries of heavy' artillery', three battalions of coast artillery and one anti-aircraft regiment. Front line forces reached an estimated total of 125,000 men. In reserve, Finland counted

upon

six reserve divisions

and the fron-

.

EUROPEAN WAR

266 tier

guard whicli consisted of

about 5,000

men and were

sta-

tioned along the eastern frontier.

In addition to these

re-

upon

serves, Finland could call

the civil guard for a total of

men.

close to 100,000 Regular army

125,000 100,000 5.000

Reserves (fully trained) Frontier guards .

Total.

.

,

230.000 100.000

.

Civil guard (local militia)

Grand Total

Rmsia

7i

—All Sources

330,000

.

Armed Forces

.

—No

authentic figures had been re-

by the Russian Government describing the total and

leased

components of Russian forces. Composite estimates indicate that approximately 25 first line divisions, three to five cavalry divisions,

six

brigades and

to

seven

tank

considerable re-

serve divisions were available for the campaign in Finland. Equipment for first line troops was considered adequate, but large numbers of reserve divisions

equipped.

were

indifferently

Observers reported

that the quality of equipment

throughout the Russian components was generally considered no better than average.

(

5ee

—

^Anticipating the outbreak of Dispositions of Forces: Finland the Finnish forces were divided into three groups, .

After a week of reported by sea and by land, it became apparent that Finnish resistance had stiffened and that no early capitulation could be expected. {See map: Sketch No. 2.) seaports along the southern coasts.

attacks by

also Russia, p. 256.)

hostilities,

each of two divisions general headquarters was located at Viipuri. II Corps was concentrated north of Lake Ladoga facing in the direction of probable Russian advance from Petrozavodsk. Ill

air,

On December

8 advance elements of the Russian forces con-

;

Corps was concentrated in rear of the zone defence of the Mannerheim Line. I Corps was held in strategic reserve in the vicinity of Lahti. Small regular forces, not in excess of two to three battalions had been detached and sent to the vicinity of Petsamo to assist frontier guards. Along the Mannerheim Line defences reserve units had been concentrated as fortress troops. These dispositions permitted

maximum freedom

army and concentrated

of action for the field

the bulk of the striking forces in areas

and road transportation over interior lines. ^The details of Russian troop Dispositions of Forces: Russia dispositions were not clearly revealed. It appears that approximately one division was concentrated near Murmansk in the north. favourable for

rail

.

—

second division was based upon Kandalaksha. A third was located at Kem. At least three divisions were located near Petrozavodsk and five divisions were concentrated north and east of

A

Leningrad. Communication and supply units were disposed along the main rail line between Murmansk and Leningrad. These dispositions indicate the dependence

upon a

single railroad for

com-

munications and supply, with such assistance from Archangel and the White sea as weather conditions would permit for open water transportation. Inadequate rail and road facilities existed for the direction large scale and continuous movements to the west in

—Dec.

—

move

to the west over the 70

miles intervening between the Russian railroad and the Finnish frontier. It appears that two divisions abreast were in this ad-

vance and a third division was held in reserve for the railroad. Finnish II Corps moved to the north over a shorter distance and took position west and slightly south of Tolvajarvi; on December II the remaining II Corps, with two divisions, attacked the north (right wing) of the Russian force and divided the single division, driving the invaders to the east and over the frontier. Continuing the attack, the II Corps turned to the south and met

The

the south (left) wing of the Russian advance and defeated the other single division in the area of Sortavala-Pitkaranta, Russian shore of tank units were reported in difficulty along the north had T.alfp Ladoga, while in the north small Russian detachments

Nurmes. Meanbeen halted in a frontier foray in the direction of Mannerheim Line but while Russian attack continued against the units including regito be independent actions of small

appeared Finnish forces in that mental operations designed to engage of major Russian attacks on vicinity pending the development other fronts. from Murmansk arrived by In the north Russian detachments seaport of Petsamo. Frontier the attacked land sea and air and unable to prevent larger were but seaport the defended guards the town to the south-west in the forces from pushing beyond Before the Russian movement had Salmijarvi-Ivalo. of .

direction

of the eastern frontier of Finland.

—

Initial phase of the 1—31, 1939 Russia in force against the demonstration Russian attack consisted of Mannerheim Line along the Karelian isthmus, aerial bombardment of towns in the southern area and naval bombardment of

Operations

centrated at Petrozavodsk, began to

.

Frontier guards with the help gained considerable headway, the guards and with the aid of a few civil of of the local militia Russian column in a major battalions of regular troops met the

engagement. The Russian advance was checked and the invading

EVENTS OF THE YEAR— EXCHANGE RATES Events of the Year:

column was slowly turned back toward the coast and away from the In this area major objective which had been the seaport of Kemi. Russians bad succeeded in capturing control of the narrow Finnish coast line and the port of Petsamo. The result of the action, however, was indecisive because the advance had been stopped far to the north of the

Exchange Equalization Account:

Fvnhanfro Ratoc LAulldligC IldlCo.

Exchange

Stabili-

Exchange rates were generally stable

p. 268 was the average dollar value of the currency in June 1939 lower than in Dec. 1938; and in only five countries was it more than 1% lower: Netherlands and Netherlands Indies (2%),

on

Rumania (4%),

Brazil

(12%), Peru (14%), and China (17%).

This stability of the dollar value of most currencies does not mean that they were free from the pressure of adverse balances of payments. That such pressure was being exerted

is

indicated

by the

January-August flow of $2,600,000,000 in gold to the United States, notably in March, May, and August and coming principally from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Canada

and Japan. But by these gold shipments and by other stabilizing and pegging devices, exchange rates were generally held firm. European exchange rates were obliged, between Jan. and Aug. 1939, to combat flights of capital induced by repeated war scares. The Netherlands gulden was weakened throughout February as capital

—

^particularly that of

in fear of

German

German

aggression.

—

refugees fled the country Strong support by the Exchange

Fund was necessary to hold the gulden at 53 cents. This scare was followed by the German invasion of Prague during which Euro-

—

pean exchange rates were supported against the dollar only at the expense of heavy gold shipments. Political uncertainty in Bel-

gium sent the belga to a large discount in the for\vard market during March and April until, as an expression of confidence in the new Government, capital was repatriated in May. Similarly, the gulden declined again in June and July as the Government resigned in the course of controversy over a spending program.

into small unit attacks against the heavily fortified position defence of the Mannerheim Line. Russian air bombardment of the Finnish southern area had created considerable damage to towns and along railroad and seaport installations. The results had not weakened Finnish resistance and the lack of adequate bases combined with severe weather appeared to minimize the

Finally, as the cloud of the Polish crisis appeared

on the horizon most determined support prevented sharp exchange depreciation in most European countries. The pound sterling had been held at $4.68 since February, although gold exports to the Um'ted States had been extremely large. With the sterling-dollar rate firm, the dollar rates of the early in August and gathered intensity, only the

air effort.

The

disposition of the Finnish field forces and the reported use of these forces in major engagements suggested the following advantages:

(1) Disposition allowed freedom of movement of main field forces along favourable interior lines to meet major threats. (2) Rapidity of movement permitted early engagement in favourable action where it appears that Finnish forces equalled or outnumbered opponents. (3) Adequate reserves were continuously available behind main defence position (Mannerheim Line) to meet larger thrust from direction of Leningrad-Viipuri. The close of the year found a determined Finland with high morale successfully defending along all frontiers. A small well organized force equipped with modern weapons and well led had met and defeated independently an invasion made by a larger power. The Russian forces had been unsuccessful in several attempts to develop co-ordination in land, air and naval attacks with the objective of securing an early and complete victory. The disposition and movements of the Russian forces suggested the following disadvantages:

Sterling Area currencies did not fluctuate.

Toward

the end of

August, however, the British Exchange Equalization Account be-

came virtually the only supplier of dollars in the London market and the premium on forward dollars increased. On August 25 the Account wthdrew from the market, and the dollar was allowed to rise.

Before recounting the course of exchange rates following August 25, 1939, it is necessary to consider briefly the record of non-European rates- up to that date. The United States dollar occupied a relatively passive position. There were no “gold scares” such as had contributed to dollar weakness during short periods -

(1) Inadequate communication for large scale simultaneous movements. (2) Failure to concentrate forces behind the main efforts of independent

The excess of commodity exports over imports was only 60% as large as in the corresponding eight months of 1938 and wholesale prices had been very nearly stationary. In the Far East the major factor of disturbance continued to be the Chinese-Japanese War. Japan continued to lose gold, although the boom in raw silk prices materially aided her trade balance. But the yen was held firmly to sterling at a rate equivalent to slightly in previous years.

columns.

between ground and air forces. No official information was available from Russian sources for comment or clarification on the conduct of operations. Apparently Russian reserves were considered adequate in numbers but poorly equipped. It must be emphasized that during the first month of this campaign official reports were numerous, confusing, frequently contradictory and almost entirely of Finnish or Scandinavian origin. (For important related topics sec also Advertising; Architecture; Balkan Entente; Butter; Contract Bridge; Canada; Child Welfare; Chinese-Japanese War; Cotton; Czecho-Slovakia; Education; Exchange Rates; Exports and Imports; Financial Review; Gold of co-ordination

Reserves and Gold Standard; Hispanic America and the European War; Horticulture; Hospitals; International Laiv; International Trade; Iron and Steel; Jewish Religious Life; Lightning War; Lumber; Mineral and Metal Prices and Production; Munitions OF War; Neutrality; Newspapers; Pacifism; Petroleum; Propaganda; Railroads; Religion; Spain; Stocks; Strategic Mineral Supplies; Strategy of the European War; Tactics in the European War; Tariffs; Zoological Gardens.) (G. F. E.)

see

during the 6rst eight months of 1939. For example, in only 13 of the 44 countries shown in the table

strength of less than one-half of a division (two regiments of infantry with one regiment of artillery) moving slowly toward the two Finnish towns. Finnish civil guards took up a defence along the Kemi river while ski patrols of the frontier guards attacked the extended communication line of the Russian column. One division of the I Corps from the concentration area near Lahti was sent north by rail to the area Kemi-Oulu. The advance of Russian forces from the concentration at Kem appeared to be slower than the Russian advance to the north. The divisions of the I Corps of the Finnish forces moved swiftly to the north by rail from Oulu to Rovaniemi on December 19, continuing by rail to the vicinity of Kemijarvi where the Finnish forces met and defeated the Russian column in the area of Kemijarvi-Kuolajarvi. This engagement has been described as the battle of Salla, the second name given to the town of Kuolajarvi. On December 20 the Russian advance in the direction of KemiSuomussalmi-Oulu approached the entrance to the town of Suomuss. The strength of these Russian forces is not definitely known but appears to have been close to a complete division. The II Corps of the Finnish army had been successful in the vicinity of Sortavala against Russian attacks north of Lake Ladoga. One division of the II Corps was sent north by rail via Nurmes to Hyrynsalmi with a mission of attacking the Russian forces in that vicinity. On December 21 the two forces met in the battle of Suomussalmi and the Finnish division defeated the Russian column. The action appears to have included practically a complete envelopment of the Russian troops and in combination with ski patrol raids made by the local militia, the regular Finnish forces cut off the Russian retreat to the east. Towards the close of the month, December 23-3 1, elements of the victorious division of the II Finnish Corps advanced in the direction of the Russian base at Repola. Scattered ski patrol raids by Finnish civil guards and frontier guards across the Russian border were reported. Summary of Operations to Dec. 31, 1939. ^The Russian campaign in Finland appeared to be immobilized on all fronts at the close of the year. In the north the Russian advances had been held up in the area of Salmijarvi-Ivalo where small Finnish forces including regular army detachments and local militia had succeeded in turning the invading columns away from their main objective. The concentration of Russian forces in Kandalaksha and in Kem had closed the frontier independently but had been defeated in turn by equal, if not superior, Finnish divisions. The Russian drive from the vicinity of Petrozavodsk had failed to penetrate the defensive north of Lake Ladoga and the Russian divisions were turned back from the frontier. Along the Karelian isthmus the independent attacks of Russian troops had been dissipated by unusual terrain and had developed

Lack

1939, pages

zation Funds.

On December 14 it became clear that advance Russian detachments were moving out of concentration areas at Kandalaksha and Kem in the direction of Kuolajarvi-Kemijarvi in the north, and Suomussalmi-Oulu in the central area. The columns from Kandalaksha consisted of an estimated

(3)

Calendar of Events,

I— 18.

objective.

Russian

see

267

.

over 27 cents. The Shanghai dollar, less rigidly controlled, displayed conspicuous weakness. Until June its fluctuations were generally between 16 and 17 cents. But it then broke sharply to 13 cents and in July and early August declined further to a range betw'een 7 and 8 cents. Actually, however, during the spring and

summer

the Japanese yen was being traded in Shanghai and North China at a dollar rate not much different from that of Shanghai

.

.

EXCHANGE RATES

268

Average Value of Foreign

In February, for ex-

dollars.

in

—

North China

—

course

compared

Average value or rate in

i6

cents,

the

official

pegged rate in Tokyo of 27 cents; and in May it was reported that on the Shanghai open market one United States dollar would buy 6.2 Shanghai

and

dollars

Finland France.

controlled

of

by

.

Markka

,

free

Franc.

travel

Greece

.

Drachma

.

.

Hungary®

Fengd

Italy

.

Lira Lat.

Norway

.

Gulden Krone

Poland.

.

Zloty

.

.

Latvia Netherlands .

— various forms rationing—

largely

Rumania.

Leu

.

.

.

peseta

Sweden

.

Krona

The Mexican peso was

Turkey

July,

when

cents

and

dropped to 17

it

fluctuated

at

Franc.

Suntzerland .

.

.

£ Turk.

_

£811.

United Kingdom Yugoslavia America Argentina free

that

Dinar.

official

level until the outbreak of the

Bolivia . Brazil (free)

Boliviano

European war. Here continued

Canada

Can- $ peso

Chile

foreign trade difficulties arising in part out of

Cuba Peru.

reis

and the Peruvian

April Brazil again set rate

In

sol.

China

market

declined until

ing the spring

the

free

Durmonths the Peru-

September.

Peso

.

.

Bolivar

Natl. $ Egypt.

.

Iran

.

.

Rial

.

.

.

Yen

.

Gulden i;N.Z. peso . Baht .

Netherlands Indi< New Zealand .

Philippines

.

.

Thailand (Siam) Union South Africa

17.01

17.03 1.20 19.33 1.90

71-5 98.0 45-9 48.2

40.08 23.38 0.86 19.80

40.10 21.83 0.86

40.11 23,26 0.86 19.70 5.26 18.54 53.17 23.52 18.81 0.70 11.02 24.11 22.55 78.98 468.24

1.21

.

20.90 2.06 2.65

2.27

39-7

39-91 20.90^ 0.76 19.16

99.4 58.0 39-0 67.0 59-0 56.7 79.9 S1.7 99-3 72.2 20.1 53-0 69,2 97-5 56.7 76.4

19.73 5.26 18.SS

5.1s 18.52 53.21

467.03

53.09 23.54 18.86 0.71 1X.08 24.13 22.61 79.07 468.54

2.28

2.28

2.27

2.29

22.73 31.13 3.29 5.86 99.06

22.99 31.23 3.30 5.86 99.58

23.21 31.22 3-29

23.56 29.77' 3.24® 5-02

4.00

4.00 5.17 57.17 99.88 19-77 17.69 61.61

£

S.A.

S.17

5.17

99.77

56.98 99-93 20.03 20.17 61.65 31.73

31.50

373.27 35.06 54.39

373-13 34.92 54.50

16.11

16,02

13.44

47901

480.55 29.05 5.82 27.30 53-27 374-78 49-77 42.9s 463.74

480.25

373-72 49.82 42.81 462.32

22^67 0,72 10.49 23.78 22.58 76.65 399-59

Mar.

June

Sept.

1939

1939

1939

71.5

72.3 98.7 46.1 48.2

72.4 98.0 42.6 44.6 34.2

99.0 46.1 48.3 39.9

99.4 54.2 39-1 66.6 59.0 S6.8 78.0 SI.9 99-3 70.S 44.6

39.9

99-0

96.9 36.9 76.4

99-4 57-9 39-0 66.5 59-0 S6.8 7S.1 S1.9 99-0 69.3 44-3 53-1 69.0 96.8 36.8 76.0

94-0 48.3 76.8

31-6 43-3

32.0 43-5

32.3 43.4

41.2'

5-3

5-3

29.0 S8.S

29.0 S8.8

5-3 25-5

38.9

4.98 23.8 33-8

19.4 2S-I

34-6 59-0 23.6 30.4 35-1 96.1

19.4 25.1 34-6 59-0 23-7 2Q.8 35.2 97.1

19.4 25.1 34-7 59-0 23.4 26.1 35-2 96.4

34-6 S9.0® 22.6 27.8 30.0 97.0

45-2 56.4 56.5 22.8 56.7 36.5 38.4 32.2 80.4 45-4 58.9 57.2 56.1

45.3 56.7 56.6 22.7 56.9 36.4 38.S 32.4 78.2 45-5 S8.8 57-3 36.3

45-3 56.5 56.7 19.0 S6.8 36.2 38.5 32.3 78.3 45-5 38.9 57-3 56.2

53-2 69.2

3l.9’‘

34-8 64.7 57-7 56.7 78.2 50.0 71.4 42.1 52.4 69.1

28.92 5.82 27.28 53-32

374.60 49-82 42.92 463-33

91.25

4.00 5.18 57.05 99-95® 19.02 19.00 52.59 31.71

318.4 29-93 46.71 6.70 409.84 24.86 4.96 23.46 53-64 319-8 49-83 36.63 394-60

32.8

19.4 25-1

38.6 48.3 48.6 9-5

48.3 31.1 32.8 27.8 79.0 38.8 38.9 48.9 48.0

^Except: for China, Spain, Hongkong, Iran, Turkey, average rates for 1929; for Peru, gold parity 1930; for Yugoslavia, gold parity t>Quotation for September 1; not available thereafter, opree inland. ‘'Not available. *December, Madrid quotation; others, Burgos. 'October 17-23, ^August. 1931.

yen to the dollar at 23.44 cents. Apparently the Japanese did not want to chance the increased cost of American goods which might result if sterling declined

was depreciated about

S%

tied together at 176J francs per pound and the British Government fixed the buying rate for the dollar at $4.06 (later dollars were $4.04) per pound and the selling rate at $4.02. But

were

was about 15% below its Thereafter Japan began con-

August 24 dollar rate of 27 cents. contributing to the verting her sterling balances into dollars weakness of sterling in the New York market and pegged the

—

—

available at this official rate only

if

the transaction in question

was approved. In the New York market sterling was sold, usually at the official at lower rates, by persons unable to obtain dollars middle of the to up not, had Government British rate. The December, taken steps to eliminate this unofficial trading in York after the sterling. The reichsmark was not quoted in New Italy, axis-partner, Germany’s But Sept. of 1939. days few first held the lira at S-OS cents after a decline from 5.26 cents in

i"

it

further.

sterling

posed stringent exchange restrictions which made possible the rationing of available foreign exchange. The pound and franc

—

October; but the so-called free (actually controlled) rate was apparently tied to the dollar, although it began to weaken slightly in December. Japan allowed the yen to follow sterling until about

still

and the currencies still tied to it had been fluctuating in New York at rates between 14% and 17% of the Aug. 24, 1939, level. As soon as war was declared, the United Kingdom, France, Canada and the other British Dominions im-

Meantime

In 16 of these countries the average dollar value in

when

16.82 1 21 20.91 2.06 2.65

29.17 S-So 27.21 54-54

September was 10% or more below the JuneTevel: United Kingdom, France, British Malaya, Australia, British India, Egypt, Hongkong, Iran, New Zealand, Siam and South Africa all tied to sterling; and Greece, Uruguay, Canada, China and Japan. The decline of sterling brought immediate defections from the Sterling Area. Finland, Sweden and Norway cut the tie with sterling on Aug. 28 and 29, 1939. The Danish krone hesitantly followed sterling but apparently broke loose by September 7 after a depreciation of about 7% from the level of August 24. The official

the middle of September,

16.84 1.20 20.84 2.06 2.63

34.86 54.30

Sing. $

comparison of average dollar values in Sept. 1939 with those of June shows that in 33 of the 44 countries in the table currencies were weaker or, in the case of Germany and Poland, were not

rate for the Argentine peso

1939

31-40

vian sol declined 2.5 cents but recovered half its loss and was pegged at 19 cents between August and October. The onrush of war in Europe late in Aug. 1939 inescapably brought with it a crisis in foreign exchange markets and instability in exchange rates. In contrast with the earlier months of i939, ®

quoted.

1939

37206

Rupee

U.K. S

.

1939

Dec. 1938

19.93 20.56 61.47

£ Austr,

Ifngkong Japan

moexchange. The in

.

.

£

of Brazil’s

nopoly of foreign milreis

.

.

up a dual

Sept,

4.00 5.18 57.00 99.93

.

Venezuela

with a pegged and a relatively un-

Bank

Sol.

(official)

Other Australia. . . British India British Malaya

controlled free rate, thus end-

ing the

. .

Uruguay

system,

official rate

.

.

Mexico

most notable fluctuations

occurred in the Brazilian mil-

.

peso oro peso peso

Colombia

Farther south

the

.

official

petroleum settlement were the principal factor.

hlilreis

ejyxirt

the lack of a

June

peso

.

.

Mar.

S.26 18.52 54-36 23.46 18.86 0.73 5.00 24.0s 22.61 79.56

.

Spain®.

pegged at about 20 cents until

of 1929 gold parity*

Dec. 1938

Reichsmark

.

.

^were

exchange

spotty.

.

Germany,

New York generally at less than 1% discount. But Latinexchanges

Lev Krone

.

Denmark

nadian dollar was available in

American

Bclga.

.

Bulgaria

The Ca-

yen.

6.3

Europe Belgium

Average value as a percentage

cents per unit

Unit of Currency

Country

with

7938-39

of

illegally,

about

at

Currencies,

In United States Cents per Unit and as a Percentage of 1929 Gold Parity

ample, the yen could be bought

.

September. In November the so-called benevolent lira, used for immigrant remittances and gifts to Italians, was reduced from 4.5s cents to 4.05 cents. The neutral currencies in Europe were steady or strong after the outbreak of war. But as threats of German invasion of Bel-

gium and

the Netherlands were given credence the dollar value of

EXCHANGE STABILIZATION FUNDS— EXPLORATION

269

the belga and the gulden declined moderately in the spot market

purchases by foreigners or to support the market for United States

and moved to wide discounts in the forward market. After three weeks of war with Russia, Finland’s finmark was available in New York on December 19 at the same rate which had prevailed before

not operate in foreign currencies. That

the outbreak of hostilities.

Outside of Europe exchange rates had not, up to the end of 1939, been seriously affected by the European war, except where The shift of some pegged currencies from sterling

tied to sterling.

The Canadian

to the United States dollar has been noted.

dollar,

dropping below 90 cents, was being controlled both by exchange restrictions

peso

and by the use of

moved up

New York

balances.

The Mexican

strongly to 21 cents during September but dropped

back again in mid-December, apparently depressed by disappointing petroleum exports. The Latin-American exchanges generally remained close to the August level, despite loss of German, and disruption to other, export trade. The moderate improvement in

commodity

prices

was a sustaining

factor.

But by mid-December

the Peruvian sol and the Uruguaj'an peso had declined.

The

Japanese yen, as has been explained, ended the year tied rigidly to the dollar at a rate 14% below that of August 24. The Shanghai dollar, in contrast,

of 1939 the war.

it

was

moved more

and during the last quarter buoyed by Japanese reverses in

freely,

relatively strong,

He

also stated that, vith rare exceptions, the

to hope that during

1939 considerable progress might be made toward freeing foreign exchanges from blocking and rationing. But the outbreak of war

Europe inevitably resulted in a marked increase

in the

number

of rigidly controlled exchange rates. Belligerent powers find it necessary to husband their foreign currency resources; and neutral

is,

fund does

the Treasury does not

normally take an uncollateralized foreign exchange position. In three countries new exchange funds were set up during 1939. One was China, where a sterling credit was utilized to provide intermittent support for the Shanghai dollar. The second was Cuba,

which in June announced the establishment of a national currency stabilization fund with United States dollar resources to be obtained at par from exporters. However, this exchange fund presumably marks no departure from the dollar exchange standard on which Cuba has operated. The third country was Brazil, which in October announced that it was buying $3,000,000 in gold from the United States Treasury under an agreement made in 1937, to form the nucleus of an exchange fund. The relative calm in international finance from May until August was apparently utilized by exchange funds to build up their dollar resources in preparation for future

difficulties.

By

the

end of August more than $1,100,000,000 in gold was earmarked for foreign account by the Federal Resen^e banks, and foreign central bank deposits in New York totalled about $400,000,000.

But

ivith the onset of

Polish-German

capital to the United States began.

At the end of 1938 there was some reason

in

bonds.

manded

increasingly heavy support

friction,

a renewed flight of

Sterling, for example, de-

from the exchange account

during August, and by the 25th the account stopped supplying dollars

and allowed

On September 6, the remainwas transferred to the exchange

sterling to decline.

Bank

ing gold in the

of England

account.

Under war conditions European exchange fund operations have

trade,

can

necessarily been modified. Except for thercurrencies of the Brit-

scarcely avoid expanding the scope of their exchange control.

The

ish Dominions and the French franc, the sterling area has largely been replaced by a dollar area in which exchange stabilization operations consist principally of pegging through the medium of

countries,

faced by serious

dislocation

in

foreign

import needs of the belligerents together with the course of foreign trade tvill determine whether year-end dollar rates of the

major foreign currencies can be maintained. (See

also

Gold Re-

serves AND Gold Standard.)

The pound sterling itself is pegged to the dollar by means of exchange rationing and the exchange account is apparently gi\dng little or no attention to the unofficial “free” sterling rate in New York. With private gold export rigordollar resources.

primarily

—

Bibliography. P. T. Ellsworth, International Economics (1938); Milton Gilbert, Currency Depreciation (1939); Imre de V'egh, The Pound (F- A. So.) Sterling (1939)-

ously controlled and

exchange account, the

Exchange Stabilization Funds. ered from the strain imposed by the Czech flight to

funds, scarcely recovcrisis,

had

to offset a

the dollar during the Prague invasion in the spring of

1939 which provoked the flow of some $700,000,000 of gold to the United States. Most exchange rates, however, were held stable by the determined operation of exchange funds.

The

resources of the British Exchange Equalization Account

were replenished on January 6 by its purchase from the Bank of England of gold then worth ^3 50,000,000. Thus strengthened, the Account held sterling at about $4.68 until late in August. In the spring and again in early

summer

the

Dutch fund was obliged

to

intervene on a large scale to support the guilder, losing at least

During the first seven months of 1939 the French fund was aided by continued improvement in domestic political and economic affairs. The resulting capital re-

300,000,000 guilders in gold.

patriation permitted the transfer of gold

Bank of France

first

Early in January President Roosevelt requested continuation of the United States fund until Jan. 15, 1941. In the course of Con-

was revealed that the fund, since its establishment, had earned $12,000,000 (increased by June IS to $15,000,000) and still had its original $2,000,000,000 intact all but about 10% of it in gold. Secretary Morgenthau assured Congress that the fund would not be used to finance arms

gressional hearings

—

on the subject

it

is

gold resen^es concentrated in the

effect of gold outflow

on England’s domestic is also under

no longer a problem. The French franc

wartime control, and, with the sterling-franc rate pegged at 1763 francs to the pound, both countries are virtually on a dollar exchange standard. In both countries the wartime problem is one of husbanding and rationing foreign, especially dollar, reserves by every device necessary.

The United

States Exchange

Fund apparently did not support crisis. Whether after Euro-

foreign currencies during the Polish

pean hostilities began the fund was active is not publicly known; but in mid-September the Secretary of the Treasury announced that the Tripartite Agreement was stUI in force and that its prin(See also Exciple of co-operation was stiU being observed. change Rates; Gold Reserves and Gold Standard.)

—

Bibliography. Michael A. Heilperin, International Monetary Economics (1939); L. Waight, The History and Mechanism of the Exchange Equalisa(E- A. So.) tion Account (1939).

from the fund to the

time since Nov. 1937. Meantime, elsewhere in the world there had been no startling change in the use and condition of exchange stabilization funds. for the

economy

all official

"Exeter":

see

Exhibitions

European War; Submarine Warfare. Fairs: see Fairs and Exhibitions.

and

Exploration and Discovnnf.

^ s,*'

and variety that done by other nations. It rests on a broad program of economic and strategic development. Varied and careful scientific studies contribute

Union continues

to surpass in extent

same ends, as well as to those of pure science. Eleven freighters completed the Northeast Passage the season

to the

EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY

270

of 1939, while sections of the passage were traversed sels,

by 104 ves-

carrying freight to settlements, ports, and scientific stations

along the Arctic coast of Siberia and on the islands to the north. The freighters were accompanied by ice-breakers, and air reconnaissance of ice conditions along the route was considerably in-

and channel markand sailing directions for the Kara sea and several other sections of the Northern Sea Route have been issued. Settlements along the route contmue to flourish. Arctic ports are being equipped at Dickson creased. Additional beacons, navigation lights

ers

were placed. Fifty

island

and at

Tme

different kinds of

new

charts

mouth of the Yenisei

river,

though 50 miles north of the Arctic Circle, has grown in ten years from some hundreds to more than 15,000 people. Work has begun for a modem port at Providence bay on the Chukotsk

from Alaska.

The Chief Administration

of the Northern Sea

to organize fuel bases at the principal coal

Most of important new fuel the Arctic.

beyond the oil,

IS

Circle.

the northern fleet

centre

is

and

now

Route continues

oil

uses Arctic coal.

in the basin of the

To speed up

deposits within

An

Pechora river

transportation of this coal and

a railway crossing the eastern part of the Archangel region

under construction.

The

was caught

in the ice of the

Laptev sea in Oct. 1937, is on its third winter’s drift. The crew are in good health and busy carrying on the program of meteorological, oceanographic and other studies. In February and again in March the “Sedov” surpassed the record of 85° 57' N. which Nansen’s “Fram” established in Oct. 1895, for the most northerly drift of a ship. An aUi-time record was established on August 31 when the “Sedov” reached 86° 40' N., 47° 55' E. On December 7 the ship was at about 83° N., 5° 37' E. When near 86^° N., 39°

was paid out without reaching bottom; other soundings in the \dcinity indicated depths exceedE., a sounding line of 5,180 metres

ing 5,000 metres.

Perhaps the outstanding single 1939 achievement in Soviet exM. V. Vodopyanov over the

ploratory aviation was the flight of

May

exploratory mapping between Nabesna and Chisana rivers, near the head of Tanana river; investigation of mineral resources and

new mining developments.

of

An expedition from the University of Alaska and the American Museum of Natural History did archaeological work near Point Hope. The

finds

were “the

least

Eskimo” of anything

earthed in the Arctic. Preliminary study

is

so far un-

said to indicate these

found

in the Arctic.

Work hy Americans

included the 15th Arctic voyage of R. A. Bartlett, with a farthest north of 77° 18' N. off the northeast coast of Greenland. D. B. MacMillan made his i8th Arctic voyage, this time Labrador, Baffin island, and along the west coast of Greenland. The University of Minnesota botanical expedition to

Hudson Bay spent

mond Gulf

the

summer

exploring, particularly the Rich-

An American Geographiby Walter A. Wood, completed an aerial sur\'ey of 2,000 sq.mi. in the St. Elias mountain range, Yukon Territory. Mr. and Mrs. A. L. Washburn completed their second summer’s geological work on Victoria island, using aeroplane area and the Belcher islands.

cal Society party, led

transport.

ice-breaker “Sedov,” which

about 3,700 miles. The plane sprayed the ice beneath with paint, so that on later flights the speed and direction of the drift could be determined. The regular northern air services

Kara sea on

topographic surveys in the Porcupine river district from Fort to the Canadian boundary; revision of much of the early

Yukon

collections represent the oldest culture yet

bay.

Igarka, 300 miles south from the

peninsula, across

vestigation of potential tin fields of western Seward peninsula;

24,

Canada: The Government’s annual Eastern Arctic patrol covered io,6oomi. of northern waters aboard the Hudson’s

Bay Com-

pany ship “Nascopie.” Members of the patrol included scientists and technical officers of the Canadian Government, other scientific observers, a detachment of Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and tourists.

The

expedition called at 22 posts, leaving supplies, mail,

and new personnel. In the Canadian Arctic and sub-Arctic the aeroplane continues gaining importance. During 1939 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police introduced its own aircraft for inspection and patrol duty. Air inspection \nsits to many of the northern posts were made by officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Private aviation companies have regularly scheduled flights, both summer and winter, to Aklavik, Coppermine and other Arctic points a further number of unscheduled trips were made to such places as Cambridge bay and Reed island, taking in scientists, bringing out traders with ;

their fur, etc.

1,000,000 miles

While there has been as yet no mineral production on a com-

within the Arctic during 1939. Airports with wireless have been established at Anadyr, Cape Schmidt, and other spots on the

mercial scale north of the Arctic Circle in the Canadian sector,

Chukotsk peninsula. The scientific work of the 57 Arctic scientific stations was continued. Alaska: Contracts were let by the Navy and work was commenced on naval air stations at Kodiak and Sitka, the two bases to cost an estimated total of $13,000,000. There is a $4,000,000 Army air base development at Fairbanks which will be used as a

edge of the Circle, where the world’s richest pitchblende ore is being mined at Great Bear lake; the production of radium has

were continued; Soviet

pilots flew

cold weather experimental

more than

between Delta and Johnson the northwestern part of Chichagof

was steady progress

in Canada’s

the Geological Survey inof the Alaska range, prin-

rivers; geological surveys in island, southern Alaska; in-

radium industry on the

passed the loo-gram mark, with a substantial return from uranium oxide and other minerals.

The Canadian Government’s reindeer herd on the Mackenzie now numbers 4,146. A band of 900 which was separated

delta

from the main herd and driven eastward

field.

The work of the Alaska branch of cluded: mapping the east-central part cipally

there

in Dec. 1938, has been

established in the Anderson valley under native

there

was a

satisfactory

fawn

management;

crop, with the Aug. 1939, round-up

showing 1,196 animals. Richard Finnie, Canadian Arctic student who has been making a motion picture record of life and progress throughout the Northwest Territories over a period of ii years, continued his work in the summer of 1939 in the Mackenzie district. The Vicomte Gontran de Poncins, French anthropologist, spent the winter of 193S-39 hehveen King William island and Pelly bay studying the primitive Eskimo groups in that area. Excavations in Foxe basin by Graham Rowley, British archaeologist, are

made

said to indicate that the

Cape Dorset Eskimo culture

is

distinct

SCIENTISTS of the German Antarctic expedition landing on an ice floe in Jan. 1939 . In April the expedition claimed 230,000 SQ.mi, of territory previously explored by Norway

EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY from and

earlier than the

271

Thule culture in the Eastern Canadian

Arctic.

British activity fell off sharply, even before the outbreak of

An

war.

Andrews university did geological and Upemivik island, off the coast of

expedition from St.

work in Ubekendt West Greenland.

Norway

island

active in the exploitation

is

and development of the

portion of East Greenland where she has special privileges. Yearly scientific expeditions are sent out

by Norges Svalbard-og Ishavs-

Undersokelser to this section and to Spitsbergen and Bear island. Private expeditions are constantly in the

particularly hunters

field,

and trappers maintained in East Greenland by the stock company Arktisk Naeringsdrift A/S. The Norwegian Fisheries Board investigated the waters about Bear island and off the west and north coasts of Spitsbergen. At Ny-Aalesund in King’s bay, lat. 79° N., there has been established a hotel, with

all

modem

ordinary

comforts, including a wireless

and a doctor. The hotel was open during July and August but is designed for year-round accommodation. Sweden: Professor Hans Ahlmann and two assistants established a base for the study of glacial economy on Clavering island. Northeast Greenland; the leader and one assistant returned station

in the

fall,

while the third

work through the

member

of the party

is

carrying the

winter.

A Danish expedition of five men, under the leadership of J. van Hauen, is working in the Thule district of Northwest Greenland and on Ellesmere island. With the aid of Eskimos, extensive spring sledge journeys are planned; collections of geological and zoological specimens will be made, and a study of the migration routes of the Ellesmere reindeer. N. Chr. Rasmussen (son of the famous Knud Rasmussen), the expedition’s photographer, %vill film the party’s activities.

Two

Danish hunters attempted a spring sledge journey around

the north of Greenland, from Walrus point on the east coast to

Thule on the west, both in about 76° 50' N. lat. The trip of about 3,ooomi., which would have required one or more years to complete, was planned for the purpose of further exploration of the valleys south of Peary Land. But at 81° N. the travellers were forced to turn back, due to open water and loss of several

CLAIMS HADE ON THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT up

to Deo. 31, 1939: (A) Marie Byrd Land, claimed for United Slates by Admiral Richard E. Byrd, 192SEllsworth Land, claimed for United States by Lincoln Ellsworth In 1935; (C) Falkland Islands dependency claim, by Great Britain, 1908 and 1917; (D) Argentina’s claim, 1939; (E) Norway's claim, 1939; (F) German claim expected because of aerial mapping, 1939 (later reports give the boundaries of German claim as 14» W. and 20“ E. Long.) ; (G) and (K) Australian Antarctic territory claim, by Great Britain, 1933; (H) claimed for United States by Ellsworth In proclamation dropped from the air, Jan. 1939; (J) claimed by France, 1938; (L) Ross dependency claim. Great Britain, 1923. The new Byrd expedition will do its major work between 80“ and 150“ W. Long., in the sector Including (A) and (B). No country has yet formally claimed this sector

30 and 1933-35; (B) dames W.

to the South Pole, which are

known

pendencies, Ross Dependency of

dogs.

During the summer a number of individual Danes carried on scientific

work of various

sorts in widely separated places

—among

The French

claim, Adelie Land,

within the Australian sector.

One

own

of Dr. Pedersen’s conclusions is that tooth decay (caries)

De-

Zealand, and Australian

Antarctic Territory.

them Richard Bogvad, geological research at Ivigtut; C. L. Vebaek and one companion, archaeological studies of old Norse settlements; P. 0 Pedersen and two assistants, dental studies. .

as the Falkland Islands

New is

a

wedge

that lies wholly

By a royal decree of Jan. 14, 1939, Norway showed her respect for the British boundaries and at the same time asserted her rights

when

she laid claim to “That part of the mainland

whether among Europeans or Eskimos, when they are living on a nearly or quite

coast in the Antarctic extending from the limits of the Falkland Islands Dependencies in the West (the boundary of Coats Land)

carnivorous

to the limits of the Australian Antarctic

either

not occur or

does

is

extremely

rare,

diet.

Dependency

in the East

lacking on the 1939 work of the Danish NorthEast Greenland expedition 1938—39, the Norwegian-French ex-

(45° E. Long.) with the land lying within this coast and the environing sea ... ”, about one-fifth of the whole Antarctic

pedition

circumference.

Information to

is

Northeast

Greenland

and

1938-40,

West Greenland 1938-39. Antarctic. With growmg realization

the

French

Argentina says she has never recognized British sovereignty of

expedition to

—

that

all

lands, wherever

located, are valuable for potential resources or for strategic position, there

was during 1939 a rush by many nations

claims to Antarctic territory or to

make new

to reiterate

ones. Official British

and French declarations of sovereignty over Antarctic areas have long been on record.

Among

the nations putting forward claims, officially or un-

during 1939, have been Argentina, Germany, Japan, Nonvay and the United States. Other possible claimants are the Soviet Union and Sweden. officially,

The

issues are confused

by

the overlapping of various claims.

British declarations cover three large sectors,

wedges extending

the Falkland islands.

During 1939 unofficial claims were made in her press to everything in the Antarctic regions between 20° and 68° W. Long., which includes the South Orkneys, South Georgia, South Shetlands, Graham Land and all other islands in the Weddell sea previously claimed by Britain. These claims were based on the contention that this territory is a natural geographic dependency of the South American continent (and therefore of Argentina), and further that Argentina is the only country that has ever

—

maintained true occupation in the Antarctic ^having had a meteorological and magnetic observatory on Laurie island in the

South Orkneys since 1904.

southernmost point observed from the the Greenwich meridian.

air

was about 76°

S.

on

Ellsworth Expedition: In Lincoln Ellsworth’s American expemost southerly pomt was reached on the flight of Jan. ii, 1939, when Ellsworth and his pilot, H. Lymdition of 1938-39 the

J.

bumer, flew to about 72° S. on the meridian of 79° E. A cylinder was dropped containing a paper claiming for the United States about 80,000 sq.mi. of territory covered by the flight. The United States Antarctic Service: Upon the appropriation of funds by Congress for an Antarctic investigation and survey, President Roosevelt named Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd its

>

On

chief.

July 20 a new governmental agency to supervise the

work was formed,

to be known as the United States Antarctic which is directed by an inter-departmental executive committee, and is under the fiscal supervision of the Department of

Sercdce,

the Interior. Two ships were assigned to the Service, the “Bear,” veteran of previous expeditions both Arctic and Antarctic, and the

“North Star.” Both had previously been

in the

Alaska service,

the “Bear” for the Coast Guard (Treasury') and the “North Star” for the Department of the Interior. The “Bear” has now been commissioned as a naval vessel of the U.S. The “North Star” sailed from Philadelphia on November 21, and the “Bear” from Norfolk on November 26. There will be two posts, the East base under Richard B. Black, and the West base under Paul A. Siple, both experienced Antarctic men. The West base will be at or

near Byrd’s old base, Little America, while the other

will

be

placed some hundreds of miles to the east.

The snow

is equipped with four aeroplanes, a huge motorized two Army tanks (stripped of armour and equipped cabs), dogs and sledges, radio, and other scientific

Sen'ice

cruiser,

with driver’s

equipment of various sorts. The objectives of the Service were announced as three-fold; (1) To make a survey and investigation of the land and sea areas of the Antarctic regions preparatory to

A GIGANTIC SNOW CRUISER

was construcled

In

1939

at Chlcaoo for Richard

E. Byrd’s Antarctic expedition

German Antarctic expedition German sphere of influence was unofficially claimed for the territorj' observed, more than 230,000 sq.mi., afl of it within the section claimed by Norway. The claims of the United States have never been officially

Upon

the return in April of the

(see below), a

stated, but apparently may comprise roughly the sector lying between the Ross Dependency and the Falkland Dependency (be-

tween 80° and 150°

W.

Long.). These claims would rest primarily

on the exploratory^ work of Byrd and Ellsworth; but there are older claims, based chiefly on Wilkes and Palmer, which lie within territory covered by British dependencies. In 1924 Secretary

Hughes expressed the viewpoint of the Department settlement, in addition to discovery,

is

of State that

necessary for establishing

sovereignty in polar regions.

Discovery Research Committee: In

May the

British “Discovery

II” returned from her fifth Antarctic commission, mainly oceanographic and hydrological. During the early part of the year she had continued her series of cruises over the prescribed route along of the meridians of Greenwich and 20° E. and then along the edge advanced, summer As the meridians. the pack between these the higher latitudes were attained; the last two cruises reached shelf. slope of the Antarctic continental German Antarctic Expedition, I 93S—39 The “Schwabefiland, -

and Captain Alfred Ritscher, sailed for the Antarctic in Dec. 1938, pornier carried two she ship, A catapult April returned in

1939. The lo-ton flying boats, their pilots, and a staff of scientists. Long. 20° E, and territory' explored lies between 14° W. Long,

Wal

which flying hours 231,660 sq.mi. were observed, of about 133,000 sq.mi. were p'hotogrammetiica'fiy mappei' T’r/t

During 86^

272

the possible assertion of claims to sovereignty; (2) to map the (c. i,ooomi.) coastline between the two base camps; (3) to carry out a program of scientific research laid down by the National

Research Council which

will include investigations in

geology,

oceanography, meteorology, seismology, physics. If sufficient appropriations are

made by

Congress,

it is

planned

to continue the project over a period of three or four years, with

any required changes

in personnel

and delivery of supplies an-

nually.

Whaling Operations: During the 1938-39 season 34 factory and 281 catchers were engaged in Antarctic whaling. There were 12,705 active men, an increase of

ships, 2 shore stations

1,478 over the 1937-3S figure. The “legal” pelagic whaling season, 8 to March 7, was observed by all nations except the

December

Japanese. Preliminary reports give oil production for the season at 2,813, 546bbl. (less than the 1937-38 output), divided among the nations as follows: Great Britain, 887,sg6bbl.; Norway, 721,721; Germany, 492 339 Japan, 483,714; United States, 91,300; >

:

Panama, 69,030; Argentina, 66,826. Total number of whales killed was 38,321, of the following kinds: blue, 14,039; fin, 20,788; sperm, 2,591; other species, 883. {See also Natio.mal Geographic (V. S.)

Society.)

Export-Import Bank of Wasliington. of Washington is an agency of the United States established to aid in financing and to facilitate exports and imports and the exchange of commodities between the United States and foreign countries or the agencies and nationals

The Export-Import Bank

thereof.

By

Public Act No.

3,

approved March

4, 1939, the

76th

Congress extended the life of the Bank from June 30, 1939, to pjcriiPJ. 352 whales were captured in the Antarctic, from which 29,921, lafibbl. of oil have been produced, the Committee for according to Reports XII and XIII (i939)

Whaling.

world, notably

^For the past

Norway and Great

Statistics, Oslo. One barrel of about sogal. equals i ton. One ton equals i,oi6kg. or 2,240 pounds. From the same reports we find that during the i937“38 season alone 4^)039 whales were

Whaling

captured in the Antarctic fishery, from which 3,34o,33obbl. of oil were produced. Norwegian whaling accounted for 14,960 whales, with an oil production of i,iS7i993bbl. ; British whaling accounted for 16,111 whales with an oil production of i,i53j36sbbl.;

and

Five-Year Plan;

see

Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-

lics.

Flax: see Hemp; Linen and Flax. Federal

.

—

^The general Flood

Floods and Flood Control. 1936, established for the

Government a

first

time in the history of the Federal

definite policy for Federal participation in the con-

struction of flood control projects throughout the nation in co-

operation with the States, political subdivisions thereof, and other responsible local agencies.

Under the provisions of

this Act, local interests

were required

to furnish lands, easements and rights-of-way for all flood control structures, hold and save the United States free from damages

during construction, and maintain and operate the works after completion. The Flood Control Act approved June 28, 1938, pro-

vided that

all lands, easements, and rights-of-way for reservoirs or channel improvement, or channel rectification projects, shall be acquired in fee by the United States and be a part of the Federal

cost of the project.

FLOODS AND FLOOD CONTROL Construction on 114 Congressionally authorized flood control is now under way. Also, surveys

projects has been completed or

and the preparation of plans and specifications are in progress for dams and flood protection projects at numerous localities throughout the United States.

In

New

in the

England, construction has been initiated on reservoirs

Merrimac and Connecticut

progress has been

made on

river basins

and substantial

the construction of levees and flood

walls at principal cities along the Connecticut river in Massa-

chusetts and Connecticut.

In the Ohio river basin above Pittsburgh construction of Tionesta creek

creek

dam

dam has advanced

to

85%, and

to

75%

Crooked

of completion,

construction has been initiated on

Mahon-

Channel enlargement on the Conemaugh river at Johnstomi, Pa., is about 25% complete. Construction of local protection projects along the Ohio river has been ing and Loyalhanna dams.

completed at Section

i, AVellsville,

Ohio, and

is

Ironton, Ohio; Huntington, Ceredo and Kenova,

in progress at

W.

Va.; Tell

City and Evansville, Ind.; Paducah and Middlesboro, Ky.; and Harrisburg, Illinois. Also, marked progress is being made on the construction of levees in the

Wabash

river basin.

dam on South CanaMexico is virtually complete. Construction of the Fort Supply and Great Salt Plains dams in the Arkansas river valley in Oklahoma is well under way. On the Pacific Coast the projects for flood protection at Los In the Southwest, construction of Conchas

dian river in

New

Angeles-San Gabriel river basins and the Santa Ana river basin, involving construction of reservoirs, debris control basins, dikes,

and channel improvements are well advanced. Construction was started on Mud Mountain dam in Puyallup river basin, Wash., and improvements along the Columbia river and its tributaries in Washington and Oregon are progressing rapidly. Projects at eleven localities in this basin were completed in 1939. (J-L.S.)

293

Floods also occur due to unusual circumstances such as the breaking of dams constructed for impounding water, or to so-called cloudbursts. The Johnstown flood in Pennsylvania in 1889 was of this iypt. The Johnstown flood was preceded by torrential rains which caused the breaking of the dam above Johnstown on the Conemaugh river, resulting in loss of life

and great destruction to property. In the United States, during the year 1939, definite continued progress in measures for flood control. The 76th Congress appropriated $133*000,000 for flood control. The National Resources Committee published comprehensive reports on their basin wide studies of flood control and allied multiple purposes projects of water control. The United States has been divided into 17 districts into which the various drainage basins of the country are grouped for convenience of study and planning. JIuch work was actually started, many plans were formulated and much information was obtained regarding the problem of these districts. In many of these districts in the northeastern part of the United States, the problem of flood control is intimately connected with that of pollution abatement, power development, sanitation and recreational opportunities. In all, the problem of soil erosion is important.

was made

In the Tennessee valley a proposed system of dams upon the upper reaches of the river will provide complete regulation of the Tennessee river for navigation, flood control, and the development of electric power.

The upper ^lississippi is characterized by a multiplicity of interlocking problems. Navigation, flood control, water-power, drainage, pollution abatement, surface and underground water supplies, recreation, wild life conserv'ation, soil erosion, and siltation in streams, channels and reserv’oirs all are involved and most of them must be solved before flood control can be accomplished in this area. There are many complex and conflicting interests involved in the utilization and flood control of the waters of the Colorado river. One unit in this control on the Colorado river, the Boulder canyon dam has been completed. The partial utilization of the waters from Boulder lake by the cities of southern California has been accomplished by the successful completion and opening of the Los Angeles viaduct. Other problems of the use of the waters of the tributaries of the Colorado in other States remain yet to be solved. •In the California area, problems of flood control are largely local problems, although problems of the abatement of pollution, navigation, and recreation problems are important. During 1939* definite progress was made to control the flood waters of the Sacramento river by the commencement of the construction of the Shasta dam for Multiple purposes of

power development, and irrigation. is a major need of the Puget Sound area. It is proposed to control the flood waters of the Columbia river water system by the construction of ten major dams on the river water shed. Two of these, the Grand Coulee and Bonneville dams, are on the upper-most and lowermost reaches of the river. The establishment of reservoirs on the headwaters of the various streams which make the main river are of immeasurable value in flood control and flood control,

Flood control

.

while

the

cost

is

very

large,

definite

progress

is

being

made

in

this

direction.

The United States in the year 1939 e.xperienced the worst and most widespread drought in recorded history. A few floods occurred in certain areas, however, due to sudden, violent rainstorms. In September the muddy flood waters of the Alabama river spread over thousands of acres of fertile farm land and over 4,500 people were rendered homeless. The Alabama river alone caused crop damage estimated at many millions of dollars. Overnight the river reached the 53.9ft. level. The danger stage is the 47ft. level.

In southern California and Arizona, violent rainstorms called cloudbursts washed out highways and railroad tracks and thus interrupted traffic for over a week. A six-inch rain was suddenly deposited on the usually dry desert, causing sudden violent streams in usually dry gulches with disastrous results to highways and railroads.

During Sept. 1939, authorities estimated that 25,000,000 people faced starvation and suffering in China due to floods in the Hopeh province and the Yellow river basin. Fall crops were completely destroyed. The floods extended around the city of Tientsin for a radius of 5omi., while beyond this area the swollen rivers and creeks covered most of the central and southern province of Hopeh. Refugees were sleeping on strawstacks and farm animals were starving amid scenes of utter desolation. In Dec. 1939 the district southeast of Manila in the Philippines w’as stricken with disastrous floods. Heavy loss of life occurred in the provinces of Isabella and Cagayan due to the flooding by the swollen waters of the

Cagayan river. Hundreds were homeless, much livestock was lost and there was heavy destruction of rice and tobacco crops in a wide area flooded by torrential

Reforestation and improved soil management are vital problems not only as methods of flood control, and their wide adoption would have a pronounced influence on the prevailing state of the agricultural and lumbering industries. The correct solution of the problems presented by floods can only be obtained by a full and scientific understanding of all the contributing causes of flood disasters. Definite progress also has been made in solving the problems due to soil erosion. The introduction and practice of strip cropping, more sod and pastures, and terracing have reduced not only soil erosion but have reduced the damage due to floods in some areas. {See also Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation; Da^is; Forests; Meteorology.) (Ro. St.)

—

Great Britain In Oct. 1939 the exceptionally hea\y flooding of 600 sq.mi. in the Midland area, caused by torrential rains and the overflowing of the Grand Union canal, was followed by the overflow of several rivers. Bridges were swept away, many houses flooded and great damage done to property. Among the flooded rivers were the Nene, Welland, and the Great Ouse, which flow through the Fenlands to the Wash. These floods, ivith unusually high tides in the Wash, would probably produce a flooding of the Fens, such as occurred in 1937—38, when there was a sea surge of about 4ft. above the highest known tide. In the Fenlands there is great activity in the work done to deal with these high floods which, although they occur at long intervals, cause serious damage to property and the valuable cultivated land, some of this land being many feet below the level of the river. For each of the Rivers Nene, Great Ouse, Welland and Witham there is a Catchment Board w'hich is granted financial assistance by the Government for approved schemes. .

rains

which accompanied a typhoon. Floods of this type occur on various portions of the earth’s surface wherever similar geographical and climatic conditions prevail, such as on the Mississippi, the Hwang Ho, or Yellow river, the Ganges and the Kile, Such floods are caused by climatic conditions over which man has little or no control. They are largely seasonal and have occurred and are apt to occur at any time on the lowlands of such large rivers whenever the rainy season commences.

The main method of flood control is the use of extensive Washlands consisting of reservoirs for the storage of water on the rivers. These Wash storages are controlled by sluices operating so as to collect water from the rivers during high tides and to discharge it into the Wash at low tides. In the Great Ouse, the principal river, which drains an area of 3,200 sq.mi., there are two systems of Wash drainage, one operating on the lower marshes and the other on the higher tributaries of the river.

For^ example, heavy tropical rains occur on the headwaters of the Nile river in April and ^lay, causing rise in the river often as much as three feet per day. The resulting flood stage invariably reaches a maximum at Assuan early in September.

facilities

Since the alluvial valley of the ^lississippi has been formed by the flood vvalers caTiying the silt from the higher elevations, floods must have always occurred on the Mississippi. Recorded floods of varjing intensity have frequently occurred on the Mississippi during the past 150 years, but with no definite regularity. From 17S5 to 1930, 30 major floods have been

Bulgaria ^Proposals have been made for the extension of the irrigation system the valley of the River Manlza, where the soil for the most part is permeable loam. The annual rainfall being not more than 2oin., there is an insufficient supply of water for the crops, consisting of cotton, tobacco, flax, and fruits, which constitute a greater part of the exports. The present irrigation system, controlling an area of 67,00030., is inefficient and in-

_

recorded.

Included in the work for the Nene are the improvement of the shipping at Wisbech and the provision for sea-going vessels at Peter-

borough; in that of the Welland and the Witham, the cutting through of the outfall of the Welland, to join the Witham at its point of discharge into Boston Deeps. .

m

—

FLORIDA — FLOUR AND FLOUR MILLING

294

adequate and should be extended to 370,000 or 500,000 acres. The river its affluents provide the necessary water but, as their flows are subject to great variation, there is a pressing need for the construction of dams for the storage of water in the hills.

rived from a permanent school fund, special State and county taxes, the one-mill ad valorem tax and legislative appropriation on the teacher-pupil-unit basis, which yielded $11,607,387, inclusive of $309,083 for free text-books for the fiscal year, July i,

and

—Considerable stremmas

is being made in the scheme for the pro(about 900,oooac.) of land in the provinces and Boeotia in Greece and at Platania in Crete, the work which commenced in 1934. Rivers are being widened and deepened, canals dug, protective embankments constructed to deal with floods. Thousands of square miles of land, now either under water or liable to floods, will be reclaimed for cultivation. In the Thessalian plains, for example, where a total area of about 430,oooac. have been subject to flooding, an additional so,oooac. of protected land has been put under cereal crops for the 1939 harvest. On the completion of the scheme, in about seven years’ time, several towns and villages will be protected from flooding and an area of iso,oooac. added to arable land of a small hilly country, in addition to 7So,oooac. being protected from flooding during the five winter months of rains.

Greece

.

progress

19373,300 students are enrolled at the University of Florida and about 1,800 in the Florida State College for Women. Municipally operated institutions of learning are: the

tection of 3,700,000 of Thessaly, Epirus

Turkey

June

More than

University of Miami, the University of Tampa and St. Petersburg college. Rollins college and Southern college are privately en-

dowed institutions. The last report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction shows a total enrolment in the public schools of 396,824, of which 292,959 were in schools for whites,

and 103.865 were in coloured schools. State appropriations for higher education for the year 1938-39 amounted to $2,299,760.

—On December 27

the first of a series of earthquakes devastated Anatolia, particularly in the east and north. few days later, after torrential rainfall, there were heavy floods in western Anatolia, in the regions of Izmid, Brusa, and Smyrna. .

30, 1938.

A

—

and Finance.

Banicing

^The

last

available

on the

figures

State’s financial condition, taken

overflowed their banks, sweeping away villages, inundating towns, and causing a considerable loss of life and property. Some districts were converted into vast lakes; in others, the rivers completely changed their courses. Troops, including sappers and miners, were sent to help in the rescue work and to attempt to dam the flood waters. The extent of permanent work in flood control required in this connection is, however, awaiting investigation.

from the report of the State treasurer for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1939, show a total balance in the treasury of $8,811,444.82. The total bank deposits in Florida national and State banks, on basis of last available figures (June 30, 1939), were $311,247,000.

Iraq. An important irrigation project was completed by the construction of the Kut barrage across the River Tigris, near the town of Kut, in Iraq. The barrage has 56 openings, 19ft. 6in. wide, each controlled by a single sluice gate. The average flow of the Tigris at low water is 12,400 cusecs and at high water, where there is a rise in level of about 20ft., the flow is 140,000 cusecs.

Agriculture, Manufactures and Minerals. ^Agriculture is most important industry in the State. In 1935, the year of

A

number

of

rivers

—

—

A

stream,

the

Shatt-el-Gharraf, which

joined

the

Tigris

were 72,857 farms with a total acreage of 6.048,406, of which 1,142,767 were in crops, 489,006 were idle (fallow), 2,362,674 were in pasture, 1,140,941 were in farm woodland arid the rest mainly in fruit. The more important crops for the 1939-40 season were:

immediately

of the barrage, is now diverted by the construction of a canal so that its mouth, where there is a regulator, is upstream of the barrage, the old mouth being closed by a dyke. The stream has long been used as a source of irrigation water for cultivation purposes, but during the dry season and in times of very low water it dries up.

—

Acres

Australia. In Queensland, where the rain falls in intermittent heavy there are frequent droughts which cause great losses to stock raisers; the average losses of sheep alone represents £1,500,000 per annum. A scheme dealing with the north-eastern area of the state has been suggested for the storage and the distribution of the flood waters at an estimated cost of no less than £30,000,000. Connected with this scheme is the development of hydro-electric power for lighting and industry and for pumping and irrigation.

showers,

New

South Wales the Burrinjuck dam for the storage of storm water, which was completed in 1913 and had a capacity of 772,000 ac.ft. of water, is being reconditioned at an estimated cost of £A 1,850.000; its capacity will be increased up to 815,000 acre feet. (See also Irrigation; Meteorology.) (J. En.) In

extreme south-eastern State of the United States, is called the “Peninsula State” because of its peculiar

EInririQ

riUriUdi outline.

Its coast line is greater than that of

any other State,

the

last State census, there

downstream

Australia’s Great Artesian basin has a total area of about 600,000 sq.mi., more than half of which is in Queensland. The flow from this basin is known to diminish at the rate of 2.5% per annum, although the water capacity is large, and it is possible that after the lapse of a few years the pumping of the water will have to take the place of artesian action.

the

Oranges (Including Tangerines)

.

.

Grapefruit

Tomatoes Snap beans

38,400 64,000

Celery

7 , 3 ':>o

Corn (Maize) Tobacco

805,000 32,500 26,700

Irish potatoes

On

Jan.

694.000

i,

Production

Value

35.900.000 boxes 17,000,000 boxes 4.948.000 bu. 7.135.000 bu. 2.184.000 crates 6.038.000 bu. 23.410.000 lbs. 3.235.000 bu.

$ 35 900,000 ,

21,375,000 12,236,000 7.041.000 5 . 374.000 4.347.000 2.809.000 3.644.000

1939, the livestock resources of the State were:

111,000 milch cows, 566,000 swine, 37,000 sheep, 19.000 horses, and 41,000 mules. The more important manufactures of the State were lumber, naval stores (turpentine and rosin)

and

cattle,

cigars.

In the 12 months season April 1938 to March 1939, Florida produced 7,44o.oQogal. of gum turpentine valued at $1,660,000 and 505.ooobbl. (5001b. each) of rosin valued at $4,450,000. Her 1938 lumber output was 700,000,000 bd.ft., mainly cypress and yellow

extending 472mi. along the Atlantic and 674mi. along the Gulf of

pine, representing a value of nearly $21,000,000. The cigars manufactured yearly in Florida represent approxi-

Mexico. Its total area is 58,666 sq.mi., of which 3,805 sq.mi. are water surface. Florida contains about 30,000 lakes, many of them connected by subterranean channels. Population (U.S.

mately $20,000,000. Two comparatively recent industries are the growing of tung nuts and the production from them of tung oil, and the making of paper from pine pulp.

census, 1930) 1,468,211; (State census, 1935) 1,606,842; (Federal estimate, July i, 1937) 1,670,000. Of the 1935 population 1,139.-

063 were white and 463,205 coloured; 989,743 were urban and 613,972 rural. Only about 45,000 were foreign born. The largest cities were Jacksonville, Miami and Tampa, with populations of 146,289, 127,600 and 100,151 respectively. tal,

The

State has only limited resources in minerals, but has large

and valuable deposits of phosphates, lime and limestone, and less extensive, though highly valuable, deposits of kaolin and fuller’s earth. The value of the phosphates produced in 1938, the last full year for which figures are available, was around $13,000,000.

Tallahassee, the capi(J.

M.L.)

had 11,725.

—^The

History.

present State elective administrative officers, in Jan. 1941, are Fred P. Cone, governor; R.

Flour lUUi QIIU and Flour Mlllinp I lUUI milllilg,

Hour.—The

trend to-

whose terms expire

I

A. Gray, secretary of State; George Couper Gibbs, who succeeded the late Cary D. Landis who died in his term of office on May 10, Knott, 1938, attorney-general; J. M. Lee, comptroller; W. V.

colour has progressed conservatively throughout the principal milling centres of the United States until at present there seems to be a general consumer acceptance of the longer extraction grades.

State treasurer; Colin English, superintendent of public instruction; and Nathan Mayo, commissioner of agriculture.

While the swing toward richer breads reached and passed its peak during the summer of 1939, there seems to be little inclination on

the head of the State school system is the

the part of either the millers or bakers to revert to the highly bleached short patent flours of a decade past.

Education.

—

^At

superintendent of public instruction.

The

school revenue

is

de-

vvard flours of a

more creamy

FLUORSPAR — FOOTBALL The

European situation has had virtually no effect upon the quality or quantity of wheat flour available to American consumers. Plentiful wheat reserves should tend to preserve this condition, and during 1940, at least, there seems small probability that the quality of American milled flours may be adversely critical

affected either

by increased exports or by changes

in the

United

may

oil

soon appear upon the market

if

Wallis and E. Femholz, Ibid., 1939.)

No. 503,476, issued June 30, 1939, describes the addition of ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate or isoascorbate to flour British patent

—

Bibliography. The Northwestern Miller (1938-39); The NorthwestAmerican Baker (1939); Cereal Chemistry (1939); Chem(1939); U.S. Patent Gazette (1939): Journal of the American Chemical Society (1939). (H. E. Ba.) ern Miller

&

form of a powdered mixture with an inert inorganic matesuch as tri-calcium phosphate etc., or, with an inert organic substance such as starch. \\Tiile the addition of vitamin contain-

riUUlo|Jdl

(35%), Germany (28%), the Soviet Union the United Kingdom (8%); France was formerly an (14%)) important producer, but has declined, while the Soviet Union has increased

rial,

metric tons.

ing supplements to bread formulas

shown

is

is

not new, the present wide-

likely to result in a

\dtamization

by

millers

more favourable than has been

in the past.

Flour Milling.

—A recent compilation

of data on milling capaci-

producers of fluorspar are the United

Fllinrcnfll*

in the

of flour

{See also Vitamins.)

recent

“C” derivatives to flour by the milling- industry.

are credited with economic feasibility

consideration

most important

discoveries of 1939. (S. Bernstein, and E. S. Wallis, Journal of the American Chemical Society, July, 1939, p. 1903. Also see E. S.

patents describing the addition of vitamin

spread interest in vitamins

represents one of the

ical Abstracts

States’ neutrality position.

Vitamized flours

295

portion of wheat germ

its

.

States

The world

output.

total is

now approaching

500,000

The United States imports enough to bring the domestic consumption up to about one-half of the world supply. The iron and steel industry in 1938 took 70% of the domestic consumption, glass and enamel, 13%, and hydrofluoric acid and its derivatives 16%; other uses are small. Of the imported spar, 52% was used for steel and 48% for hydrofluoric acid. (G. A. Ro.)

&

by the statistical department of the Northwestern Miller American Baker (Vol. 16, No. 11, 1939) shows that Minneapolis ties

Fokker, Anthony flour ProducVion Dofo for BofiFo/o, Kansas City 6* American Baker , ( Nori/iwestern Miller

Year

and Minneapolis, 1936-1939 Nov.

Number of Mills

i,

igsg, p. 48.)

Capacity

BbL

daily

Production Bbl. Annual

Herman Gerard

d?,

designer and manufacturer, was bom April 6 at Kediri, Java, and died December 23 at New York city.

See Encyclopedia Britannica, volume

9,

page 441, for further

details concerning his career.

Buffalo 1936 1937 1938

7 7 7

1939

8

Kansas 1936

9

City 1937 1938 1939

9 9 8

Minne- 1936

16 16 16

apolis 1937

1938 1939

15

49,000 49i5oo 49,500 49.500

10,425.335 10,251,801 10,200,421 7,882,245*

31,800 31,809 31,800 31,800

6,202,743 7,332,452 7 . 479/540 5,441,893*

46,600 43.150 43,150 30,150

6,459.687 5.681,400 5,736,662 4,214,267*

Folk Dancing:

see

Dance.

Food and Drug Laws:

see Advertising; Legislation; Canning Industry; Drugs and Drug Traffic; Soap, Perfumery AND Cosmetics. Food Prices: see Agriculture.

footbaU has staged a steady recovery, and directors of athletic set-ups, with their large overhead and interest and amortization obliga-

Fnnth/lll rUUlUall.

^Nine months only.

has yielded second place as an American milling centre to Kansas City, first place having been taken by Buffalo, N.Y., in 1930. Since reaching a production peak of i8,S4i,65obbl. in 1916, and a top capacity of 95,3Sobbl. per day in 1923, Minneapolis has steadily declined as a milling centre.

Kansas City has maintained

tions

on stadia, are breathing more

easily.

This uptrend continued

in 1939, particularly in the South,

and

in

which led in attendance gains the number of strong teams. Notre Dame attracted close

The record crowd of the saw Southern California play the University of California of Los Angeles (U.CD.A.). Army and NaA^y met before 102,000 in Philadelphia, with a heavy fog blanketing the field. to 500,000 people to its nine games.

about the same daily capacity since 1926 with a fairly constant level of production of about 7,ooo,ooobbl. per year throughout this period. In the meantime, milling operations at Buffalo have

year, 103,000,

enjoyed a continuous advance, rising in daily capacity from

of the season, as ranked in a nation-wide were Texas A. & M., Tennessee, Southern California, Cornell and Tulane. All five were unbeaten, though Tulane was tied once and Southern California, twice. Tennessee, like Duke in 1938, went through its schedule without being scored upon and extended its winning streak to 23 games since 1937. The last 15 of them were all won by shut-out scores. Southern California was again named to represent the Pacific coast in the Rose Bowl at Pasadena and invited Tennessee as its opponent. Led by Ambrose Schindler, the Trojans penetrated the Volunteers’ defence twice to win, 14-0, and end the Southerners’ long stretch of unblemished supremacy. Southern California had too much power for Tennessee, whose attack was weakened by the poor condition of George Cafego’s knee. Texas A. & M. and Tulane met in the Sugar Bowl at New Orleans. The tremendously powerful running of John Kimbrough from his full-back position enabled the Aggies to gain a 14-13

io,8oobbl. in 1909 to the present

maximum

of 49,5oobbI. in 1937. Canadian flour production during the crop year ending July 30,

1938, was smaller in terms of percentage of capacity operation than at any time since 1932-33, having reached a low of 46-6% as compared with 51-1% for 1936-37, and 53-2% for 1935-36. The

present trend

is

again upward, owing principally to increased ex-

Kingdom which normally takes about oneCanadian output. In milling technology and research, emphasis is now on wheat conditioning and related subjects; humidity control, and air-conditioning. Recent investigations have established definite humid-

ports to the United third of the

ity levels required at the various stages of the milling process to maintain desirable moisture contents of the mill streams (C. O. Swanson, 1938-39).

High temperature tempering of wheat has been investigated by in Chem. Zeitung (German), vol. 63, p. 469, ''939i presents data on new and original research in connection with high temperature-short time wheat treatment. In the field of new products from wheat, the isolation and structural identification of new sterols from the non-saponifiable

Hugo Kuhl, who

The foremost teams

poll of sports ivriters,

decision.

Cornell, which had its biggest season since 1923, scored one of 1939’s notable victories in defeating Ohio State at Columbus. The triumph was hailed as the most signal blow struck for Eastern

'

FOOTBALL

296 football in a long time.

The Ithacans declined

all offers for

post-

tario

Rugby

Football Union champions.

The Bombers

the Calgary Bronks for the Western Interprovincial

season games.

In the other Bowl contests, Georgia Tech, with one of the trickiest attacks of the season, defeated Missouri, 21-7, in the

Orange Bowl at Miami; Clemson and the renowned Banks McFadden overcame Boston college in the Cotton Bowl at Dallas, 6-3, and Catholic university played to a scoreless draw with Tempe (Ariz.) State Teachers in the Sun Bowl at El Paso. The West defeated the East in the All-Star game at San Francisco, 2S to II, and the South won from the North in the Blue-Gray game at Montgomery, Ala., 33-20. Sectional honours went as follows; Cornell was rated the No. i team of the East, followed by Boston college, unbeaten Duquesne, Fordham, Princeton, the champion of the Big Three; Villanova, unbeaten Georgetown, Penn State and Holy Cross. Pittsburgh, coached no longer by Dr. Jock Sutherland, and Carnegie Tech, Eastern leader in 193S, were not up to standard. The Big Ten championship was won by Ohio State, although it lost to Michigan, whose defeat by Illinois was the most stunning reversal of the year. Iowa failed by a point to tie for the title. The Hawkeyes were the surprise of the year under their new coach. Dr. Eddie Anderson, who brought them up from the bottom of the conference to lose only one game and to defeat Notre Dame and Minnesota among others. Dr. Anderson was voted the “coach of the year” and Nile Kinnick of Iowa was awarded the Heisman Trophy as the “player of the year,” his leading rivals being Tom Harmon of Michigan, Paul Christman of Missouri and George Cafego of Tennessee. At the close of a most disastrous year, Chicago withdrew from Big Ten competition. Missouri won the Big Six title, and other strong teams in the Middle West were Notre Dame, Michigan, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Minnesota, Purdue

and Northwestern.

Southern California carried off the Pacific off U.C.L.A. in the final game

Coast championship, barely holding to gain a scoreless

tie.

U.C.L.A. was unbeaten, but tied four

title

defeated

to qualify

Western Ontario won

as the representative of the West. intercollegiate championship.

the

(A. Da.)

—

Great Britain. There was nothing outstanding in the 1938-39 Rugby season unless it was that after a brilliant record the previous year, Scotland occupied the bottom position in the interThey were beaten by all the other countries, who each won a couple of matches, thus being bracketed national championship table.

The best matches in the series were undoubtedly those between England and Ireland at Twickenham, and between England and Scotland at Murrayfield. The first was a sheer joy to as the top.

Rugby football at its cleanest and best. At Murrayfield, England won back the Calcutta Cup from Scotland, but only because the Lancashire captain, J. Heaton, kicked 3 superb penalty goals, which was all England could score against 2 tries. There were no really promising players, suggesting high class, though R. S. L. Carr (England), M. J. Davies (Wales) and D. O’Loughlin (Ireland) were very good. Of the older players, F. J. Morgan (Ireland), T. F. Huskisson (England) and S. Williams (Wales) watch,

played splendidly again.

Warwickshire won the County championship for the first time Mary’s won the Hospitals Cup for the sixth year in succession, with probably the best club side in London. A cheery dinner in London celebrated the jubilee of the in their history, whilst St.

famous Barbarians Club, and amongst those who responded

for

the club was A. Allport, one of the Old Originals.

The Royal Navy won the inter-services tournament, though had the Royal Air Force begun as well as they finished, under the brilliant leadership of G. A. Walker, the championship would have been theirs, aiid easily. One

of the greatest players of

Welsh centre

all

time,

Gwjm

Nicholls, the

three-quarter, died towards the end of the season.

Rugby League Cup final,

.

—Halifax met Salford

at

Wembley

in the Chal-

before a record crowd, and a better match can

times; Santa Clara and Oregon State were the other outstanding

lenge

teams on the Pacific coast. Texas A. & M. was the champion of the South-west, in which the quality of the other teams was not up to the usual high standard. Southern Methodist, Baylor and Texas were next best after the Aggies. The race for the South-eastern honours ended in a

hardly be imagined. Salford were badly, though unexpectedly, beaten by 20 points to 3. But when the Rugby League final was played the following week at Manchester, Salford had some com-

triple tie

among Tennessee, Tulane and Georgia Tech, while Duke

and Clemson shared the Southern Conference title. Other strong teams in the South were North Carolina, Alabama, Auburn, Kentucky and Louisiana State. Tulane was almost entirely a power team and used the pass sparingly. Tennessee was more of a running team than a passing team, and the same was true of Southern California, to a less extent. Texas A. & M. gave much less emphasis to the pass than the successful teams of the South-west have given in recent years. Cornell was one of the most brilliant passing teams of 1939, as well as one of the most efficient in its defence against the pass. Professional football enjoyed its best season in the 18 years’ history of the National Football League. The largest professional

crowd since 1925 saw the

New York

Giants defeat the Washing-

ton Redskins in New York to win the Eastern Division chamchampions pionship. In the play-off with the Green Bay Packers, overwhelmingly defeated of the Western Division, the Giants were at

Milwaukee

and relieved of the national

title.

Winnipeg Blue Bombers, led brilliantly by the Hanson and boasting an unusually strong line, Cup final for the defeated the Ottawa Rough-Riders in the Grey The blocking and tackling of the Bombers was actitle, 8-7.

Canada.—The

shifty-running Fritz

qualified as the repreclaimed as the best seen in the East. Ottawa Argonauts for sentative of the East by first defeating the Toronto the Big Four title and then conquering the Sarnia Imperials, On-

pensation, for they beat Castleford

(who had previously beaten

Halifax by 21 points to 4) by 8 points to 6. Allan Edwards played superbly as the left wing for Salford. Salford, for all their mag-

had never won the Rugby League final before. was a great disappointment to followers of both Codes that the war came, for the Australians were due in England (and actually arrived) to play under the Rugby Union Laws, and the New Zealanders to play under the Rugby League Laws. Association Football No club was more in the public eye than Wolverhampton Wanderers, and there was a time when they looked more than likely to win both the F.A. Cup and the League nificent history,

It

.

—

championship. In the end they lost both, being the runners-up in each case. Portsmouth beat them at Wembley in the Cup final, and beat them well by 4 goals to i. But only the most ardent of the Portsmouth supporters ever dreamed of such a result. once, youth did not have

it all its

For

own way, though nerves had

a

good deal to do with the defeat as well. Perhaps this “youth” idea was carried too far in 1939, for many of our leading clubs were playing youngsters well under 20 years of age, and in the end had to pay for it.

Everton were four points ahead of the “Wolves” in the chamThe clubs to be relegated were Birmingham and Leicester City, and two famous old clubs, Blackburn Rovers and Sheffield United, came up from the Second Division to take their places. The Rangers won thd Scottish League championship once more, and Belfast Celtic did the same to the Irish League. pionship table.

Ireland finished at the bottom of the championship table, the

J

other three countries registering a couple of wins each. For

the always attractive match be-

tween England and Scotland, at Park, Glasgow, there was an amazing crowd of 150,000. England won it by 2 goals to I, Lawton (Everton) and

Hampden

i-

/

-

/>

'

•

Beasley (Huddersfield) scoring for England,

and Dougal (Pres-

ton North End) for Scotland.

In the amateur world, England won the championship very easily. Moor Green the A.T.h.

.

'

'

-

;

V .*

Cup and Bishop Auckland the The Earl

F.A. Amateur Cup.

of Athlone has accepted the office of

president of the Football

TWO

(D. R. G.)

Association.

(1873-1939), British author, was bom Ford Madox Hueffer in Merton, England, the son of a German who was music critic of The Times of London. He was related by marriage to William Rossetti, a

Ford, Ford

Madox

founder of the pre-Raphaelite brotherhood.

He

professed to de-

work was influenced instead by frequent travels in Germany and by a profound admiration for French culture. He began to write at an early age and had his first book. The Browii Owl, published in 1890. His first volume of

spise the group’s art,

and

Poems

his early

1939

before

3,000 spectators

in

advancing prosperity in the United States and at other times by the desire to escape the periodic political crises and threats of

war which have plagued Europe. The eign-funds

more

Conrad master English, and as the critic who first recognized the abilities of D. H. Lawrence, H. M. Tomlinson, James Joyce, T. S. Eliot, and others. He collaborated wth Conrad in The Inheritors (1901) and Rommtce (1903). As editor of The London Review, which he founded in 1900, he made a practice of publishing the work of unknown authors. His Transatlantic Review, published in

World War, was

attention to the stories of Ernest

the

first

journal to direct public

Hemingway, who was one of the

effect of this inflow of for-

evident in the estimates of the investments and,

is

particularly, in the higher percentage of outstanding shares

that are held

by

foreigners

Foreign /nvejfmenti

— 2-72%

in fhe

jor Pictures, appeared seven years later.

questionably enriched contemporary English letters, literature may owe its greatest debt to him as the man who helped Joseph

Paris after the

clashed in Oct.

early in 1934. Those net purchases have at various times been stimulated primarily by the chances of sharing in the benefits of

In the meantime he had published a biography of Madox Brown, his grandfather, and had written several novels. Though Ford un-

poetry.

FOOTBALL TEAMS

GIRLS’

Los Angeles

1934 and 4-41% in 193S.

in

Vnifed Sfates by Types of /nvesfmenfs,

1934, 1936 and 1938 (Year-end data: in millions of dollars)

Types

of Investments

1934

1936

1938

i,Si 8

1,640 2,700

7 . 68 s

455

Long-Term Investments: Direct investments (book value) Common stocks (market value) Preferred stocks (par value) Bonds (par value) Other investments (various \^Iues) .

.

.

.... .

1,202 3 SI

563

750

750

425 380 750

4.357

6,108

S.693

6z4

1,620

2,193

4,971

7.728

7.883

.

Total Short-Term Investments: Total

Grand

total

2,230

536

Source: Long-term data from Finance Division, Department of Commerce, Economic No. 5, The Balance of International Payments of the United States in /pjS. Short-term data from Bulletin of the Treasiuy Department, as adjusted in The Balance of International Payments of ike United Slates in IQ38. Series,

group known as “Ford’s boys.”

Ford published more than 60 books in all, the most celebrated of which are Some Do Not (1924), No More Parades (1925) and A Man Could Stand Up (1926) a series about England and the World War. In 1938 he finished his monumental March of Literature. He died at Deauville, France, on June 26.

—

As of

the end of 1934, Canada, the United Kingdom and France 58% of the total foreign long-term investments in

accounted for

the United States. tries

risen to

By

the end of 1938, the share of these coun-

56%, although in value their investments had $3,200,000,000. German investments were insignificant

had declined

to

by comparison. Netherlands and

Foreign Exchange:

see

Exchange Rates.

increased their holdings from

Switzerland, on the other hand,

24%

to

27%

of the total, or from

first nine months of 1939, sales of United States foreigners exceeded purchases by $46,000,000. The

During the

Foreign Investments in the United States.

securities

Total foreign long-term investments in the United States rose by $420,000,000 during 1938, that is, from $5,270,000,000 at the end

principal sales -were for the account of the United

of 1937 to $5,690,000,000 at the

end of 1938. Holdings of United

stocks increased by $400,000,000 of the $420,000,000, largely as a result of the higher level of market prices that prevailed at the end of 1938. Another factor in the increase

States

common

was an inflow of $64,000,000 of foreign funds for investments in American securities. As a consequence, common stocks comprised

39-5%

of the total foreign long-term investments in the United

States as of the close of 1938

Net purchases of United

compared wnth 3S'^% ^ year earlier. by foreigners have

States securities

been an important part of the large inflow of foreign funds since

Some

by

Kingdom.

may have

been induced by the anticipation of lower stock prices at the outbreak of the war. Contrary to what happened in 1914, however, the stock market experienced a substansales

tial rise

was

after the opening of the

war

in September, part of

which

later lost.

Foreign short-term investments in the United States amounted, compared with $1,920,000,000 (re-vised) at the end of 1937. A large proportion of these forat the end of 1938, to $2,193,000,000

—

—

88% were in the most liquid form, that is, deposits American hanks. Furthermore, less than 5% of the foreign short-term investments were payable in foreign currencies. The

eign funds in

297

FOREIGN MISS ONS — FORESTS

298

United Kingdom had the largest volume of funds in the United States. After a 67% increase during the 12 months of 193S, British short-term investments amounted to $446,000,000. Canada was second with $239,000,000, followed by Switzerland, $224,000,000; France, $196,000,000; and Netherlands, $102,000,000. German dollar assets of this character were very small, amounting after several years of withdrawals to $20,000,000. During the first nine months of 1939, foreign banking and brokerage funds in the United States increased greatly as a result of an almost continuous inflow from January through September, which aggregated $1,159,000,000. Approximately one-half of this inflow was for the account of the United Kingdom, France and Canada, and just over one-third for neutral European countries.

—

Bibliography. “Foreign Investments in the United States,” Government Printing Office (1937); “The Balance of International Payments of the United States in 1938,” Department of Commerce, Finance Division; Bulletin of the Treasury Department (monthly), Office of the Secretary, Treasury Department; Cleona Lewis, Americans Stake in International (P. D. D.) Investments, Brookings Institution (193S).

Fnrpiffn Mk^inn? IllloolUllui I Ulwigll

developments

during

1939

affected the course of Protestant mis-

from the United States. First was the continuation of the between China and Japan. This proved both a handicap and an aid. It was a handicap, because the tightening Japanese cordon on the coast made access to the interior more difficult, Japanese bombings injured some mission property and added to the load carried by mission hospitals, and Japanese occupation brought various annoyances to missionaries. It was of assistance, because the relief given to the suffering and the general disor-

of the logs into piles, and burned them. the clearings, afforded a measure

crop-planting time

from

a young and eager nation expanded westward, and these processes were repeated. Now there are no hostile Indians. Forests

no longer occupy good

agricultural land to any extent. The need for wholesale forest clearing for settlement and cultivation no longer exists. But merchantable standing timber has been reduced by one thousand billion board feet since 1910. Forests

were abused still

in this process, as in earlier ones.

And

they are

being abused.

Woods

practices responsible for ghost towns are not practised

on the national

forests,

which are administered by the Forest

Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

In 1939, 1,290,-

them under regulations that promise succeeding crops; forage was used, under permits, by more than 6,500,000 domestic stock; sources of water for towns, cities, industries, and agriculture were protected; more than 32,750,000 visits were made by people who enjoyed wildlife and recreational opportunities and facilities. There are nearly i76,ooo,oooac. of public land in the national S8i,oooft. of timber were harvested from

They

forests.

hostilities

forest land that bears commercially valuable timber

made the Chinese more receptive to the In Japan and Korea (Chosen) the churches the pressure of the Government, intent as it was

Indians.

Then

sions

ganization of society

owned.

are valuable, but the best three-fourths of

more than 95%

It furnishes

is

all

privately

of the timber cut, and

is

subject to most of the forest drain. It also renders public serv-

worth more to 130,000,000 of people than are the who own it. Privately owned forests are therefore a major factor in the nation’s forest situation. So are problems facing private owners.

ices that are

values

it

has to the fewer people

A

There are many such problems.

basic one

is

that, in

most

Christian message.

regions as in the country as a whole, mill capacities are so far

increasingly felt

above the power of accessible land to produce usable

upon promoting national solidarity in the face of the war. A second development was the outbreak of the European war. By embarrassing

German

missions,

possessions and in India, and British

societies,

it

placed

especially

in

British

colonial

by jeopardizing the incomes

heavier

upon

burdens

of

American

The burden of the Protestant foreign missionary enterwas forced more than before upon the churches of the United States. A third development was the effect of the meeting

societies.

prise

of the International Missionary Council held at

Tambaram (Mad-

that the time

many

operations

may

forests

continue at present levels

is

Another is the need to operate at a profit. It costs money to grow enough timber in time to keep operations going. This has never been done by most private owners. Instead, most profits have come from liquidation. Other problems include limited.

and insurance, credits at low and freight rates. One important problem is to protect forests from fire, insects, and diseases. Another is to extend markets. This emphasizes forest taxation, tax delinquency,

interest,

including international teams, spoke widely of the findings of the gathering. The effect was to hearten missionary forces, to

the paradoxical situation of the tremendous need for new building and repairs for example, on the one hand, while forest industry plants are operating at only about half their mechanical

give an added sense of the world-wide e.xtent of Christianity,

capacities.

and to bring important modifications in missionary policy. The fourth development was financial. The incomes of the mission boards remained about the same as the preceding year and in

industrial

ras) in Dec. 1938.

some instances

On

their return, delegates to the conference,

registered a slight increase.

Catholic missions from the United States felt the impact of both the Far Eastern and the European war. Since Roman Catholic missions from the United States are so largely con-

Roman

centrated in the Far East, notably in China, Manchoukuo, and Korea, they were especially affected by the Sino-Japanese conflict.

Reinforcements continued to be sent, extensive and large numbers of baptisms were reported.

relief

was

given,

(K. S. L.)

Approximately 202,ooo,oooac. of commercial forest land are in and nonfarm ownership. Farmers, who own 139,000,oooac., have the same problems most industrial owners do, but there is a group of problems that because of certain conditions

become of

armies march as dictators command, America strengthen internal as well as external defences. Besides building warships the U.S. must stop heedless abuse of raw materials and land, water, and forests, for they are sources of income. Besides and employment of other necessities of life, and constructing aeroplanes, these resources must be built up and

r

i

When

One

particular importance to farm forest owners.

that forest ownership

is

more widely

distributed

among

is

farmers,

and that individual ownership is generally in smaller tracts. Pressure to cut farm forests for cash to buy food and clothing is greater, and this sacrifices values and throws unripe timber on the market more often. Most farmers grade, price and manufacture forest

products

owners; and •

By

of protection

and keep

it is

less

also

effectively

more

than

difficult

larger

industrial

forest

for the small owner to locate

profitable markets.

rOrBSiS. must

many of these problems, neither public nor private forest policy, nor private nor public action programs, are adequate to meet present or future conditions. Briefly, basic requirements for an adequate Federal forest policy are:

kept continuously and fully productive. With muskets beside them, early pioneers chopped down white pine and tulip trees four feet and more in diameter, rolled most

First; That although the forest policy may be stated in terms of land use^ and of trees and industries, its fundamental purpose must be to assure social and economic security for dependent people and communities. Second; That since it helps control floods, prevent erosion, and protect

Despite progress in solving

FORMOSA— FORSTER. ALBERT cultivated lands and crops, all forest land must be adequately protected. Third: That operations on commercial forest land, irrespective of ownership, shall be so conducted that (a) the land will promptly be put into new production of commercially usable timber, and (b) it will be kept in this condition. Fourth: That output of forest industries shall be so related to present supplies of accessible and usable timber, and to the power of forest lands to produce it, that continuous use of that timber by dependent industries and communities and people shall be possible.

This

is

the policy that guides the Federal Forest Service in its

administration of the national forests and in redeeming those

by Congress, have

responsibilities that, entrusted to it

with forest lands in private ownership. It

is

to

do

a policy that aims

even though it may level out shortlived booms; that aims at social and economic security for labour

299

Kingdom, the necessity for some greater management of private forests is becoming more apparent. During the year the Forestry Commission of Great

there, as in the United

regulation of the

Britain held further conferences on the subject of private forestry^ of the war and the necessity for increasing home grown supplies further emphasized the necessity for some form of state control over this class of forest. In India and Burma the new governments imder the India and Burma Acts, while fully realizing the value and importance of their forests, find

The outbreak

that the call for funds for “nation building” departments necessitates a reduction of staff

may have

and expenditure on forests, a pohcy and future revenue of

serious effects on the value

to prevent disastrous busts,

that

and industr>%

ments especially in the important aspect of land planning and soil conservation which is being tackled in co-operation with the agricultural and veterinary departments. Soil conservation and the protection of water supplies is becoming one of the most impor-

An

alike.

adequate forest action program should include (i) public

co-operation with private owners of forest land, (2) public regu-

on privately o-mied forest land, and (3)

lation of cutting practices

extension of public ownership and'management of forest land.

This action program embodies principles

all

To some

private owners and forest

and public of its

utilities

own

A

once did.

measure of

cutting practices on forest lands

and one-third of all U.S. saw timber. Yet many mills in the vicinity of Grays Harbor, Puget Sound, and the Lower Columbia basin are already facing curtailment.

Many

dependent families

and communities there are threatened. In the Northwest as a whole indications already point to a gap of a generation or more between the end of the usable old growth and the time when enough usable second growth will be ready for cutting. Despite self-regulation in the Pacific Northwest, 70% of its owned commercial forest land is not yet under adequate

privately

management. Nearly

without costly

55%

artificial planting.

Until the start of the European war, timber markets were re-

(Tahvan), a large island in the Western Pacific, between the East and South China seas, bisected by the Tropic of Cancer; area 13,429 sq.mi.; capital, Taihoku; population (1936) 5,451,863, mainly Chinese. Formosa has been part of the Japanese Empire since 1895, when it was conquered from China. Part of the island was under Dutch rule from 1624 untU 1662; and remains of forts and other Dutch buildings are still to be found in the southern part of the island, in the vicinity of Tainan. Formosa is governed by a governor-general, assisted by an advisory Council, the majority of the members of which are Japanese. The present governor-general is Admiral Seizo Kobayashi. An important Japanese naval base, access to which

PnrmnCQ

rUllllUod

is closely restricted, is at

Mako,

in the Pescadores, islands off

The importance

it

probably will not restock

the western coast of Formosa.

And

although State and Fed-

an aeroplane and naval base has been demonstrated during the

of

have been given, and progress has been made in fire prowoods operations on private forest lands in the Pacific Northwest and in most other major forest regions are still on a liquidation basis. This nullifies much of the public co-op>eration and aid that have been extended to private own-

Formosa

eral aid

hostihties with

tection, the majority of

perhaps the richest of Japan’s colonies.

—

—

ers over the years.

Public co-operation and aid are essential to private owners of

—

forest land, but experiences in the Pacific

Northwest and elseand reasonable extension of pubhc ownership and management, afiord the only

—seem

where

to indicate that public regulation,

effective assurance that forest industries will

respond effectively

to such aid. British

—One of the outstanding events

Empire.

pire forestry during 1939

was the

were

(E. H. Cl.) in British

disaster caused

in Australia, especially in the State of Victoria, in

by bush

January.

Em-

lost

guards.

Reforestation continues to make steady progress especially in Great Britain and South Africa. In New Zealand the rate of reforestation is being reduced and more attention is being paid to management of the native forests. In Canada the importance of sustained yield forestry

is

China.

is,

of the island as

in proportion It has

exploited, Japanese investment in the island

to its size,

been intensively

bemg

estimated at

400,000,000 yen ($200,000,000 at pre-devaluation rates of exchange). Most of this capital has been invested in the sugar industrJ^ Exports from Formosa in 1936 amounted to 387,948,978 yen and imports to 292,685,948 yen. Gold has been discovered in

the island, production in 1936 reaching a value of 4,223,712 yen.

As

the agricultural possibilities of the island have been largely

developed there has been a tendency to establish industries, among which the chemical and spinning are the most prominent, and also to

utilize

the island’s

considerable resources in

hydro-electric

(W. H. Ch.)

power.

fire

Many

and damage valued at several million pounds resulted. A Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the causes of these fires and make recommendations for future safe-

lives

colonial forest depart-

timber, especially from British Columbia, to the British Isles were on the increase. Since the start of the war there has been a still further increase of activity in British Columbia in order to fin the gap in timber imports caused by the loss of the Baltic trade. (_See also Lumber.) (H. R. Bd.)

by many

has been practiced for some time in the Pacific Northwest, for example; a region that has most of the remaining virgin timber,

forest

made by

extent each essential part of the program

and has been and is being translated by some of them into action in the w’oods. Agreement is general on the need for more public co-operation with industrial as well as farm owners of forest lands. But most forest industries prefer self-regula-

by industry

being

covering from the setback of 1938 and the Empire imports of

industries,

tion, as railroads

is

legis-

has also been recognized

regulation

Progress

tant branches of protective forestry.

of which have al-

ready been recognized, at least in part, by Federal or State lation or both.

the forests.

being more and more appreciated and

Fnrctor Alhprf rUldlCly nlUCll August

]•

German

politician,

27, in Fuerth, Bavaria.

was

bom

His train-

ing was for commerce, but after two years of apprenticeship

m

a

in the Nazi party. He was then a local Nazi group leader at Fuerth for five years. Moving to Danzig, he became Gauleiter (district leader) of that city in Oct. 1930. In that year also he was elected to the Reichstag.

bank he was dismissed for membership

In April 1933 he was appointed leader of the Organization of German Employees in Danzig, and four months later a Prussian State councillor. He also edited the newspaper Deutscher Vor-

.

FORT PECK DAM — FRANCE

300 posten. Forster

came

into international prominence in 1939 dur-

ing the disputes over the Free City.

On August

10, after a visit

with Hitler, he declared the imminence of Danzig’s return to the

On August 24 he was elected head of the government of Danzig to replace Arthur Greiser. On September i, the day Germany invaded Poland, he proclaimed in a letter to Hitler the formal reunion of Danzig with Germany. Then, like SeyssInquart after the Austrian anschluss, and Henlein after the pact of Munich. Forster sank into relative obliwon for the rest of Reich.

1939, e.xcept to introduce Hitler

Danzig September

when the

latter

made

a speech at

specific

army and

to call

without a preliminary voting of credits by parliament, permitting the formation of new regiments, prospecialists to the colours

hibiting the unofficial publication of military information, and re-

organizing the Sixth military region, of which

Nine decrees were intended all

Metz

to speed production in

is

the centre.

armaments and

supplies necessary' for national defence: in such industries

ma.ximum work week was increased to 60 hours; overtime, for which rates of pay were scaled down, could be e.xacted by the emthe

ployer;

Government control was established over

all local

em-

plojTnent agencies, and specialists could be required, under heaxy penalty, to take jobs in distant factories. Three further measures

19.

Fort Peck Dam: sec Dams. Foundations: see Doxatioxs axd Bequests and Foundations under their

the service periods of those already wdth the

names.

proposed by Rejmaud included appointment of a comptroller for Marseilles to carry out “municipal reform” in that city, elimination of several

autonomous Government bureaus, and suspension

new State functionaries for 1940. the closing day of the month, announcement was

of emploxTnent of sq.mi.; population (est.

Tronpo

ridilut/f

June 193S) 41,-

Chief towns (pop. 1936): Paris, 2,829,746; Marseilles, 914,000; Lyons, 571,000; Bordeaux, 258,000; Nice, 242,000; Toulouse, 213,000; Lille, 201,000; Nantes, 195,000. 980,000.

Language, French;

President, Albert Lebrun.

Catholic;

c.

religion,

—Confronted

Roman (X.)

1,000,000 Protestant.

Nov. 1938 by Italy's noisy though unofficial demands for Tunisia, Jibuti, and other French possessions, Daladier replied with a triumphal tour through Corsica and North Africa (Januarj' 2-6) and a stout proclamation to the chamber on January’ 26 that France would maintain the integrity of her empire and the security of the imperial routes. No time was lost in re-enforcing the defences in North Africa and in seeking still closer relations with Great Britain, made public by Foreign ^linister Bonnet’s announcement of Januarj' 26 that, in the event of war, all forces of Great Britain would be placed at the disposal of France and reciprocally those of France at the disposal of Britain. The two powers again acted in concert in recognizing General Franco’s Government on February 27. Socialist and Communist deputies greeted with bitter opposition History.

this

new “appeasement

since

to dictator nations”; but Daladier

main-

On

made

of

the decision of the British and French Governments to aid Poland in resisting

advances

any threat

To

to her liberties.

offset

German

trade

commercial treaties were concluded on the same day with Poland, Rumania, and Yugoslavia, opening French markets to products of these countries. in the Balkans,

A factor in the unification of France was the “draft Lebrun” mox'ement which got under W’ay shortly before the presidential election. With Lebrun at the helm, an internal political battle would be averted, and Daladier might pursue unmolested the course upon which he had embarked. Favoured candidates patriotically withdrew' in the president’s favour, and he was reelected on April 5, polling 506 votes to 39S for all his opponents. As the

Italians precipitated a

new

crisis

by overrunning Albania

(April 7), Great Britain and France hastily guaranteed Greece and Rumania aid against any attack which they themselves under-

took to resist (April 13). And a new’ batch of law's issued April 21 placed France definitely on a war footing. State control of the labour force was extended: the 45-hr. week was widely adopted, with remuneration for overtime at a rate only 5% higher than the normal pay. New’ fiscal measures were introduced to pay for

tained that he wished to relieve France of the necessity of defend-

armaments, whose manufacture had by now’ almost entirely sup-

no way im-

planted public works; municipal finances and administration were

ing a third frontier 45omi. long. These differences in

peded the rearming which went on apace throughout the spring. On Januar>' 31 the chamber voted to prolong the two-year military serrdce law. The economic and fiscal policies initiated by Reynaud in November had rapidly borne fruit interest rates had declined, a result of growing confidence among businessmen; sarings banks deposits had risen sharply; and unemplojTnent was on the wane. Optimism was being generated anew through this :

industrial rerdval,

when

Hitler’s proclamation of a protectorate

over Bohemia and Morarda (March 15) and his extension of “protection” to Slovakia (March 16) shocked France and galvanized the country into redoubled acUrdty. On March 18, Robert Coulondre, ambassador to Germany, was recalled for consultation, and, wdth Great Britain, the French Government issued a formal protest against Hitler’s conquest, marking the end of “appease-

Of greater import was Daladier’s action of March 17, when he summoned parliament to grant him plein pouvoir ^full po^-er to rule France by decree in all matters affecting national defence until November 30. In the acrimonious chamber debate ment.”

—

—

ensuing, Daladier admitted that the decree might involve a temadamantly refused

porarj' suspension of indi\ddual liberties, but

to change its prordsions. bill

18 the chamber passed the became law by a senate vote of

On March

321 to 264; next day

it

2S6 to 17. Daladier quickly put to use the extensive powers thus granted him, and on March 20 he promulgated 16 decrees. The first four dealt with militarj’ defence, empowering the Government to extend

reformed with a xiew’ to economy; limits were placed on the price-guaranty for grain;

superfluous

cixil

servants,

when not

Government departments or to private concerns, were to be retired; a progressive tax was placed on the profits of munitions firms; strict scrutiny of incomes was established for ta.xation purposes; and, lastly, a sales tax of 1% was transferred to other

levied.

FRANCE Replying to Hitler’s blistering speech of April 28 on his dif-

May

ferences with Poland, Daladier expressed to the chamber on

France to defend herself against aggresand to act jointly with Britain in safeguarding the independence of Central and Eastern Europe. This statement drew unanimous support from the chamber, alII the determination of

sion through military measures,

though the next day there was a division over

its

practical inter-

pretation, the Socialists voting against Daladier because of

Rey-

naud’s methods, which, they maintained, thrust upon the poor the chief burden of preparedness,

and were prejudicial to labour’s

301

other parties of the Left declared the

move

unconstitutional; but

whip up indignation in the country failed, for France’s attention was riveted on the international scene. Throughout August, conversations in Moscow were pursued, while Hitler pressed Poland steadily harder. France and England were determined that this time they would not be caught napping. Nevertheless the news of a Russo-German commercial treaty (August 19) came as a bitter surprise. Thenceforward catastrophic events followed one another in headlong succession. On August their attempts to

21, France, in reply to the

impending Soviet-German non-aggres-

interests.

sion treaty, mobilized reservists and reaflirmed her pledge to Po-

Reynaud, nothing daunted by these criticisms, continued to renfiscal and economic structure of the nation. On May 15 the Treasury floated a bond issue of 6,ooo,ooo,ooofr. at 98, maturing in 40 years, and paying 5% interest, which was fullysubscribed within 24 hours. France’s industrial comeback since the fall of 1938 had been truly impressive. Since October, 27,ooo,ooo,ooofr. in gold had been repatriated, and the reserves of the Bank of France had risen to 14,700,000,000, francs. The business index, which had been 82 in 1938 (100=1928), had climbed to 92 in March 1939, and 97 in May. On June 6, the control of the entire war machine was entrusted to General Maurice Gustave Gamelin, named by decree commander-in-chief of France’s defence forces (land, sea and air). To bolster French defences in the Near East and hinder a potential German Drang nach Sud-osten, a joint Franco-Turkish declaration of mutual assistance was signed June 23 a separate treaty returned to Turkey the Hatay Republic in the Levant, long under dispute between the two countries (the joint declaration was amplified by the tripartite treaty of October 21). On July i France notified Germany that no unilateral change in Danzig’s status would be tolerated, but angry mutterings across the Rhine augured ill for any satisfactory settlement of the issue. In response to

land.

ovate the

;

Soviet proposals for a united peace front against Fascism, conversations were carried on in tions sia.

among

A

Moscow, supplemented by consulta-

the military staffs of Great Britain, France and Rus-

deadlock, however, was early reached which apparently

concerned,

among

other things, the entrance of Russian troops into

Poland, Russia arguing that only by sending troops could she meet the

enemy on

Danaos”

The

common

a

front,

and Poland adopting a “timeo

attitude.

by

and the apparent was heightened by events at home. On June 16, the submarine “Phenix” sank off the coast of IndoChina, giving rise to rumours of sabotage which increased the genOn June 27, when parliament was eral irritability of spirits. closed by a brief presidential decree approved in the chamber by a vote of 350 to 231, the premier made a grim and enigmatic reference to espionage in France, giving currency to frightened rumours of a Fascist Fifth Column. The story was later unfolded; French agents had apparently been guilty of collusion with Otto Abetz, head of German propaganda in France, who had recently been intension created

failure of the

Moscow

Hitler’s fist-shaking

talks

On July 29, the cabinet approved decrees aiming to counteract the declining birth rate: 9,000,000,ooofr. were provided in bonuses and credits to large families, vited to leave the country.

On August

met

to consider Hitler’s refusal

On the same day the terms of the lo-year German-Soviet pact were disclosed, causing havoc among French Communists. Many hastily repudiated the party; others justified the pact with the argument that Stalin had subtly throivn a wrench issued to evacuate Paris.

into the Axis machinery,

and published a proclamation of

their

loyalty to France. This declaration of goodwill did not save them;

the publication of Htimaniie and Ce Soir was suspended

by

a

decree of August 26, and Communist headquarters in Paris and provincial cities were raided.

August 26 the French and British military missions left Moscow, and on Sunday night, August 27, the French Government published an account of the correspondence of the previous day. Daladier had sent the German Fuehrer a note, suggesting the direct negotiation between Warsaw and Berlin and asking him not to “spill the blood of two great peoples who long only for peace and work.” Hitler, trying to separate France from her ally, had responded that Danzig and the Polish Corridor must be returned to the Reich, but that he had no quarrel with France and wanted only to keep the peace with her. Uninfluenced by these soft phrases, the French Government on August 28 closed the frontier with Germany, established a co-ordinated censorship of all means of communication, under Jean Giraudoux, and took steps to evacuate the population from military zones. On August 30, thousands of children were removed from Paris, and the railroads were turned over to the army.

At daivn of September i, the German attack on Poland began. France and Great Britain demanded, in a joint note presented to the German Government by the French and British ambassadors, the cessation of aggressive action by

Germany and

of her troops before any negotiations

the withdrawal

could be undertaken;

comply would be met by fulfilment of allied obligations was decreed for September 2, and parliament, convoked for 3 p.m. that day, adopted a war budget bill of 69,000,000, ooofr., indicating support of the premier in any steps he chose to take. The time limit for the expiration of the last warning to Germany was fixed for 5 p.m., Sunday, September 3. When it was clear that no response from Hitler was forthcoming, France was automatically at war {see European War), but inclement weather and the strength of the opposing fortificafailure to

to Poland. General mobilization

tions produced a stalemate in the west for the remainder of the

year.

Although Paris and other large

cities

had taken

air-raid

precautions, as the fall wore on “black-outs” were lightened.

severe penalties for abortion were instituted, adoption was simplified, and childless married couples and bachelors were taxed.

Moreover,

rigorous spy code, approved at this time and issued August i, provided the death penalty for 10 crimes and offences against the

and on farms.

A

24, the cabinet

of the British suggestion for a truce; ominous warnings were

it

was planned, beginning October 17, to demobilize them for service in factories

older classes and reser\'ists, releasing

security of the State, including unauthorized publication of military information or information on counter-espionage; persons

New decrees altered the economic life of the nation. On October 8 a provision of the National WTieat Office limiting wheat planting was suspended. A decree aimed at conserving France’s

accused of such crimes were to come before military courts. On July 29 also the cabinet assented to Daladier’s momentous decision to suspend the national elections scheduled for 1940,

food resources forbade the slaughter and sale of all meats on Monday and beef on Tuesday (October 17). By a decree of October 30, French workers were placed at the command of the Govern-

prolonging the

life

of parliament for two years.

Socialist

and

ment

in factories

whose services were required for national de-

FRANCE

302 fence; such workers

may

be requisitioned and assigned to plants

where they are most needed. Economic co-ordination was facilitated by the appointment of D. Serruys as high commissioner of national economy on September IS, and by the creation, on November lo, of a new department in the Ministry of Marine, the Direction of Maritime Transport, in charge of the cargoes and crews of requisitioned vessels. Production of aeroplanes was speeded, and the lifting of the embargo in the United States (November 4) gave France an opportunity to purchase large numbers of planes. Of great moment was the economic accord reached by France and Great Britain at a meeting of the Supreme War Council on November 17. This agreement provided for co-ordinated purchase and distribution of munitions, war materials, oil, and food, and common control of shipping and economic warfare. The resources of both countries in raw materimeans of production, and tonnage were to be used in the common interest; competition in foreign purchases to be avoided; and als,

limitations suffered

By

by

either country to be equally distributed.

November a co-ordinating committee was estabwith Jean Monnet, an Englishman of French antecedents,

the end of

lished,

Hitler’s hope of driving a wedge between the two seemed less than ever capable of realization. France used the respite afforded by a period of military inactivity to strengthen her diplomatic position. On October 6, Daladier, who had assumed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on September 13 (Bonnet going to the Ministry of Justice), replied to

as chairman. allies

bogey of recurrent German aggression had been Lebrun spoke of the reparation of injustices imposed on Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, and Poland. Internally, the French cabinet has been occupied with the quash-

arms

until the

banished

;

ing of dissentient opinion, in particular with anti-war propaganda.

The Government’s attention was concentrated mainly upon the Communists. The Party as such had been dissolved on September 26, but many of its members had formed a new group known as the Workers and Peasants Party, under whose auspices a letter was presented to Herriot, president of the chamber, on October 3, urging consideration of Hitler’s peace offers. Tracked down by the military police, who charged that the new party was an iilegal reconstitution of Communist groups, many Communist deputies were summoned before military tribunals and jailed. Likewise, members of the outlawed sect were systematically weeded out of

municipal administrations.

On November

convened to extend Daladier’s dethe war. A proposition was adopted that each decree should be submitted for legislative approval within one month, if parliament were in session. On December 12, Great Britain and France reached a financial accord which was the logical outcome of the economic agreement 30, parliament

cree powers for the duration of

November

of

17.

It

provided that the currencies of the two na-

tions should be stabilized at the rate of i76^fr. to the six

months

pound

until

after the signing of a peace treaty; also, that each

country might pay in

its

own currency

for goods purchased

No

from

Hitler’s peace proposals in a speech to the senate foreign affairs

the other, without touching

committee: “We must go on with the war that has been imposed upon us until victory, which will alone permit the establishment in Europe of a regime of real justice and lasting peace.” On October 19, after tergiversation on the part of Turkey, caught between two fires, that power was induced, by the promise of extensive credits, to sign a treaty of mutual assistance with France and England against aggression in the Mediterranean or the Balkans; Turkey would not, however, be expected to take action which would bring her into conflict with Russia. On November 12, President Lebrun and King George VI stated the war aims of their peoples with a vagueness characterizing such statements to date; the King said the British would not lay down

were to be negotiated without prior agreement, and all allies were to be shared on a 60-40 basis. Great Britain receiving 60%. Finally, close contact was to be maintained on internal price policies. On December 19, the Allied Supreme War Council announced its decision to aid Finland morally and materially insofar as that was possible. As the year closed, the senate unanimously voted an '8o,ooo,ooo,ooofr. budget (December 28) and a credit of 259,ooo,ooo,ooofr. for military ex-

autumn

of

like all other French resorts, was barren of Its gay crowds 1939, except for a lone American expatriate, Berry Wall

In the

gold reserve.

foreign loans or

credits

loans granted to the

penses during 1940 (December 29). (D. C. McK.) 43.379.000. Educaflon. ^In 1938: Elementary; schools, 81,000; scholars, 4.900.000. Secondary: schools, 546; scholars, 270,000.

—

—In

Banking and Finance. 000;

DEAUVILLE,

its

expenditure,

francs, revenue, ordinary (1937),

ordinary

(1937),

48,168,000,000;

FRANCO. FRANCISCO — FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE revenue, ordinarj' (1938), 54,264,000,000; expenditure, ordinary (1938), 63,840,000,000; expenditure, ordinary (est. i939)> 64,-

500,000,000; expenditure, extraordinary (est. 1939), 29,600,000,000; public debt, domestic (Aug. 31, 1939) 432,634,000,000; ex-

change rate (average 1938), i7o.7fr.=£i stg.; exchange rate (Dec. 8, 1939), i76.5fr.=£i sterling. Notes in circulation (Nov. 30, 1939), 146,3 70,000, ooofr., gold reserve (Nov. 30, 1939), 97 266 .-

new

in his

303

cabinet at Burgos, which remained the capital of the

country until Madrid was restored October 16. Franco showed no disposition to become involved in the European war, and on September 4 he issued a declaration of “strictest neutrality.” Reputedly he was deeply chagrined over the Nazi-Soviet pact of non-aggression.

,

000,000 francs.

—Overseas

trade, merchandise:

Trade and Communication.

imports (1938), 45,981, i63,ooofr.; exports (1938), 30,S8S,730,ooofr.; imports (1939, 8mo.), 32,539,000,000!^; exports (1939, 8mo.), 23,832,000,000 francs. 48,ooomi.;

Communications: roads: national

secondary 330,00001!.; railways 26,3oomi.; airways,

1938: mileage 6,392,000, passengers 99,835, mails carried 1,894,ooolb.; freight carried 2,956,0001b.; shipping, gross tonnage

(June 30, 1938) 2,903,600; shipping, net tonnage entered (monthly average 1938) 4,330,000; shipping, net tonnage entered (July 1939) 4,467,000; shipping, net tonnage cleared (monthly average 1938) 3,561,000; shipping, net tonnage cleared (July 1939) 2,769,000. Wireless receiving set licences (Dec. 31, 1937) 4,163,692; telephones (Jan. r, 1938): 1,540,300 subscribers; motor vehicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1937): total vehicles 2,200,000, of which 558,000 are commercial vehicles.

—

Agriculture, Manufactures, and Mineral Production. ^In 1938: in quintals, wheat, 101,479,000; barley, 12,908,000; rye, 8,111,000; oats, 34,574,000; maize, 5,786,000. Mineral production for 1938 (monthly average, metric tons): coal, 3,875,000; pig iron, 504,000; steel, 515,000. Wine (i 937 )> S 4 3 io.o°o hecto,

litres.

Industry

(1929=100): index of

industrial

production

(average 1938), 76; index of industrial production (June 1939), 92. Labour: index of employment (average 1938: 1929 = 100) 81;

(June 1939:

1929 = 100),

82; unemployed

in receipt of benefit

Franlffiirtpr riullMUIlCl, FpIIy rClIA

bom in Vienna on November 15 and emigrated with his family to the United States as a child in 1894. He

graduated from the College of the City of New’ York in 1902 and was granted his degree of bachelor of laws with highest honours from Harvard four years later. After completing his legal education he became assistant to Henry L. Stimson, then United States attorney for the southern district of New York, in which position he enthusiastically joined the “trust-busting” campaign of Theodore Roosevelt and helped prosecute several large corporations. In 1911 he W’as appointed a law ofiBcer in the Bureau of Insular Affairs in Washington and remained there for three years until he was offered a professorship of administrative law at Harv’ard in 1914. Except for various leaves of absence he remained on Harvard’s faculty thereafter. During the World War (1914-18) he was assistant to secretary of War Newton D. Baker, assistant also to the secretary of Labor, counsel for the

Mediation commission, and chairman of the War At the Paris Peace conference in 1919 he

President’s

Labor

Policies board.

represented the interests of the Jewish people. On Jan. 5, 1939 he was appointed associate justice of the Supreme court to succeed the late Benjamin N. Cardozo. Frankfurter is an eminent authority on criminal, administrative, and constitutional law and

on the Supreme court; he is the author of many volumes and upon these and other legal subjects.

articles

(average 1938) 376,000; (average Sept. 1939) 317,000. (See also Chinese-Jatanese War: Japan and Foreign Powers;

Czecho-Slovakia; Review.) Bibliography.

Democracy; European War; Financial

Rivalry — Henry H. Gumming, A.Franco-British H. Holden, The Land

in the Post-

War Near East (1939); R. Dutton and (1939); Herbert

The Government

of France

Priestley, France Overseas (1939); Walter Rice Sharp, of the French Republic (1939); Joseph John Spengler,

I.

France Faces Depopulation (1939)-

Franklin, Philip Albright Small shipping executive, was bom at Ashland, Md., on Febmary i. After an education in public and private schools he worked for a time in Paris, and upon

his

return to the United States he started his shipping

career as an ofi&ce

manager; and

Fronpn Tronpicpn riulIbU, riallulouU

),

Spanish soldier and head

of the Spanish Government, was

bom

boy

for the Atlantic Transport

Baltimore. Later he became

became pany.

in

affiliated

made

1902 he w’as

agent, manager,

company

in

and general

president of the line w'hen

it

with the International Mercantile Marine com-

He was made

1916 and as

traffic

\’ice-president of the latter organization in

in 1926,

president from 1921 until his retirement in 1938 he directed seven steamship lines before three of these (the YTiite

Balearic islands, being later transferred to

Star,

in Galicia. After military service in

Morocco, he became a colonel

and served under the Spanish republic of 1931 in the Morocco again. In 1935, he was made chief of staff. Under the Lerroux-Robles Government he became governor of the Canaiy islands. On the outbreak of the civil war in June 1936, he flew to Tetuan, in Spanish Morocco, and there organized the transport of Foreign Legionaries and Moorish troops to the Spanish mainland, w'hither he soon

its

Red Star, and Leyland lines) were sold. In 1918 he was chairman of the Shipping Control Committee, a joint creation of the U.S.

War Department and

control over

some 1,200

the U.S. Shipping Board, and had

vessels.

For

the Distinguished Service Medal; he

Legion of Honour.

He

this service

was

he was awarded

also a chevalier of the

died at Locust Valley, L.I. on August 14.

followed. After the death of Gen. Sanjurjo, Gen. Franco

became military leader of the insurgents, and on Oct. i, 1936, was solemnly invested at Burgos with the titles of “Commander-inChief of the Spanish

Army” and “Chief of the Spanish State.” civil war on March 29, 1939, Franco

After the end of the demobilized his

army and began

the tremendous task of recon-

After several postponements and rumours that Italy wished to delay withdrawal of her troops from Spain, he held his “victory parade” in Madrid May 19. Franco first invited the voluntary assistance of all his subjects in rebuilding Spam, then struction.

conscripted such assistance on July 30, 1939, when he ordered that every able-bodied Spaniard should work for the state 15 days each year without pay. In August, by decree, he added the tide of prime minister of Spain to the others he possessed, and swore

Freemasonr/:

see

Masonic Order.

French Colonial Empire. Dec. 31, 1937) 112,177,000. Certain essential statistics of the French colonies, protectorates, and mandates are given in the table

on page 304.

—The

History.

70,000,000 inhabitants of the French overseas

possessions are not governed

by a

single administration,

Algeria

comes under the minister of the interior; the protectorates of Tunisia and of Morocco, and the mandated territory of Syria, under the minister for foreign affairs; the rest of the colonies and the mandated territories of Togo and the Cameroons under the min-

FRENCH CONGO — FRENCH GUIANA

304

There are 3 colonial policies which do not necessarily coincide. In 1939 the policy pursued by the minister for the colonies, M. Mandel, appeared to be more active and more

Algeria (January i-8) revealed an unexpectedly intense hostility

liberal than that of his colleagues at the other ministries.

tion

ister for the colonies.

—The developments

North Africa

of the first eight

.

months of

1939 were dominated by the prospect of war. Military preparations and economic planning took precedence over political and social reforms. German claims to her former colonies and Italian

and Jibuti stirred French public opinion, from indifference to colonial solidarity. Anti-French propaganda was most active in North Africa, through broadcasts in Arabic from Bari, .Berlin, and Seville, and through the agency of those Moroccan nationals, installed in Spanish Morocco, who supported the idea of a Tetuan-Cairo axis, modelled on the Rome-Berlin axis. Its success was slight. agitation over Tunisia

POPIHATioN

sq. Tniics ^approx.)

^ooo’s

[

Capital, Status, Governors, Premiers, Etc.

omitted)

France, 212,736

41,970

.

.

.

Paris, republic, President:

M. Edouard

Premier:

M.

Albert Lebrun,

Daladier.

283,000 .

.

.

23,300 5,656*

.

.

3,046*

Saigon, Governor-General: General Calroux.

Hue, protectorate, Resident-Superior: M. Graffeuil.

Ca^ibodia, 69,200

Cochin-China, 25,400 Laos, 88,800 ....

4,616* 1,012*

Tongkino 43,800

8,700*

Kwangchow Wan,

.

,

250

310

French India, 190 Syria and Lebanon,

300

.

.

77,700

Pnom

Penh, protectorate, Resident-Superior: M. Thibauaeau.

Saigon, colony, Governor: M. Veber. Vientiane, protectorate, Restdenl-Superhr: M. Touzet. Hanoi, protectorate, Resident-Superior: M. Chdtel. Fort Bayard, territory (leased from China), Administrator: M. Le Prevot. Pondicherry, colony, Governor: M. Bonvin.

Bish Commis-

3,600

Damascus, mandated

7,400

Algiers, colony, under jurisdiction of the Minister of the Interior, Governor-General: M.

sioner:

tcrritorj',

M. Puaux.

AFRICA Algeria, 845,400

Morocco

(F.),

Tunis, 48,800

.

.

,

165,800

.

.

.

6,430

2,670

.

Le Beau. Rabat, protectorate, under the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sultan: Sidi Mohammed. Resident-General: General Nogues. Tunis, protectorate, under the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Bey: Sidi Ahmed. Resident-

M. Labonne.

General:

French Somaliland, 8,380

SO

Jibuti, colony. Governor:

M.

pendencies, 236,900

3,800

....

210

French Equatorial 97.000 Africa, 867,700.

Gabon, 106,500. Middle Congo,

.

.

.

.

St.

Denis, colony. Governor:

M.

M,

Aubert.

410* 747 *

Brazzaville, colony, Administrator:

M. Bahot-

Launoy. Oubancui-Chari, 834*

214,600

1,432*

.

.

,

1,807,700

Senegal, 77,000 Mauritania, 330,000 French Guinea, .

.

Ivory Coast, 183,000 .

.

.

.

577.000

[Niger, 500,000 CAMEROON’S, 161,200 .

Togoiand, 20,000.

.

.

14,750 1,790*

383*

3,569* 1 , 747 * 2,400

Koulouba, colony, Lt.-Governor: M. Desanti. Niamey, colony, Lt.-Governor; M. Rapenne. Yaounde, mandated territory. Commissioner:

,

M.

.

.

781

•

Brunot.

Lome,

the colonies themselves the intense

was

if

itself felt. In politics, France occupied overseas

and

in order to “enfranchise

.

.

.

.

Administrator-

Chot-Plassot. Basse-Terre, colony, Goi’er«or;M.Pierre-Alypc. Fort-de-France, colony, Governor: M. L6ak St.

Pierre,

colony,

Administrator:

M.

de

Bournat.

.

SS

Noumea,

60

Vila,

M.

principal task of the colonial minister,

4S

who had been

ad-

May

1938 to the permanent committee for national defence, was to ensure the mobilization of the economic resources

and military strength of the

colonial empire.

The

results

ex-

ceeded the most optimistic expectations. Whereas, from 1914-18 in 50

months, the colonies supplied 3,300,000 tons of produce

and various commodities, in the last four months of 1939 they were able to send, 1,600,000 tons of cereals, the greater part being from Indo-China, 1,100,000 tons of oleaginous substances needed in Central Africa, 800,000 tons of various colonial commodities

(meat, cocoa, tea, bananas, sugars, rum) and 800,000 tons of materials essential for industry (wood, 300,000; coal and various minerals, 350,000; rubber, 60,000; textiles, 40,000). Assembling these forces of men and materials presented no

Thanks

to the opening of special credits

and

to the

subscription of loans, France was able to construct railroads in the Mossi country, the French West African reservoir of manpower; to open a transmauritanian track, four to nine metres wide, practicable for trucks between Senegal and Morocco thereby eliminating the sea route in troop transport, and to improve the

railway.

French Congo: see French Colonial Empire. French Equatorial Africa: see French Colonial Empire.

colony, Governor: M. Pelicier* , Resident-Commissioner:

condominium, Sautot.

Papeete, colony. Governor: Gery.

M.

Chastenet de

a French colony in north-eastern South America including the separately administerritory of Inini. Language, French; capital, Cay-

French Guiana,

enne (pop. 11,704); governor, Rene Veber. The area is 34,704 which Inini comprises approximately 25,000 square miles.

sq.mi., of

Including nearly 4,000 in Inini, the population

is officially esti-

from uncivilized Indians. About 6,000 are foreigners. The colony is administered by a governor and a general council, and has representation in the French parliament. Inini has its own council. The famous French penal colony. Devil’s

mated

Pacific Islands, including Society Is., Tuamotu Is., Tubuai Archipelagos, etc. 1,540

The

mitted in

tered interior

M.

OCEANIA

Caledonia and Dependencies, 7,310 Hebrides, 4,620

and was passed

set free,”

extending the rights of the native.

•

mandated territory, M. Montagne.

Cayenne, colony, Governor:

•

lon, 93

New

—In

the minister stated definitely that

up by a

Conakry, colony, Lt.-Governor: M. Giawl^hj. Abidjan, colony, Lt.-Governor: M. Crocicchia. Porto Novo, colony, Lt.-Governor: M. Apnet.

Guadeloupe, 690 Martinique, 386 St. Pierre and Mique-

New

.

Georges Mandel made

agreement was signed between Indo-China and Siam to link them

M. Parizpt. M.

AMERICA .

M.

Dakar, Governor-General: M. Cayla. St. Louis, colony, Lt.-Governor: St. Louis, colony, Lt.-Governor:

2,011* 3,851* 1 352 *

French Guiana, includ-

,

Colonial Possessions driving force of

ports of Jibuti, Dakar, Pointe Noire, thus completing the junctions Congo-Ocean, and Cam-Ranh, in Cochin-China. Finally, an

Superior:

ing Inini, 34.74 ©

general of the army and commander-inNorth Africa. Safe naval bases were assured in Tunisia, by the manning of Bizerta and the widening and dredging of the La Goulette canal; in Algeria by the completion of jetties for the El-Kebir and in Morocco by preparations at Agadir, while aviation was rapidly increasing. Steps were also taken to chief of operations in

Bangui, colony, L/.-Gorcmor.’M.deSamt-Mart. Fort Lamy, colony, Lt.-Governor: M. i)bou6.

French West Africa,

Dahomey, 43,000 French Sudan,

who had been appointed

difficulties.

Antananarivo, colony, Governor-General: Coppel.

Brazzaville, Governor-General: ftl. Boisson. Libreville, colony, Lt.-Goxernor: M. Masson.

3,500

159,700

[Tchad, 386,900

of General Nogues, the resident general of France in Morocco,

Descl^amps-

Madagascar and DeRtUNlON, 920

There was intense military activity everywhere. The reinforcement of the Mareth Line, in effect another Maginot Line, 30km. from the frontier of Tripoli, as well as the organization of both men and materials in defence of the three regions, were the work

in application of these principles a series of decrees

French Indo-Cbina, SS1800

of Albania.

territories, it

ASIA Annam,

and this hostility increased after the occupaIn Tunisia the nomination of the new heirpresumptive to the throne, Tahar Bey, was peaceably effected. to foreign intrigues

develop industrial production to supply the country with provisions should transport be interrupted.

French Colonial Empire

Country and Area

President Daladier’s triumphal progress through Tunisia and

at 37,000 aside

Island, located along the northern border, rately.

Plans to eliminate

it

is

administered sepa-

made no headway during

to lack of penitentiary facilities elsewhere,

1939, due

and to the war.

FRENCH GUINEA— FREUD. SIGMUND French Guiana’s imports are

chiefly foodstuffs

and manufactured

Summa

of 1938 imports were 50,900,000 francs, exports 42,800,000 francs. Uncertainty of communications under war conditions seriously

prisoner in the

hampered the export and import trade of French Guiana 1939

late in

-

The colony has

regular external steamer and air transport servunder normal conditions, 12km. of railway, 2Sokm. of highways, and good interior waterways. The monetary unit is the French franc (value; e.asf" U.S.). There were 35 Government ice

primary schools, with 2,724 pupils, four private schools with 793, (L. W. Be.) and one secondary school with 130, in 1938.

French Guinea: see French Colonial Empire. French Indo-China: see French Colonial Empire.

Tour du

Patrice de la

is

come from France, the balance largely United States and from French colonies. Exports are from the principally gold, tulip-wood and other cabinet woods, rum and bananas. Virtually all are taken by France. In the first ii months

goods, of which two-thirds

La

Pin.

He

305 continued his vast projected

with the publication of new excerpts, chiefly Psaumes. His

Vie Recluse en Poesie presents and explains the esoteric sym-

bolism and nomenclature of his life-work. The young poet in 1911)

went

war

to

first

as a lieutenant

days of the fighting.

by a return to mystic and spiritual between the poetic and the mystic experience was emphasized in the essays published by Marcel de Corte, Raissa and Jacques Maritain, and Rolland de Reneville, while other critics, like Georges Bataille and Michel Leiris, sought this Criticism was characterized

thinking.

The

analogj'

new mysticism

in

a

study of purely mythological

Pronrh ILllCidlUlCi itpriitlirp

riClIlill

awakening in France, and literature was a period of self-examinaand a mystic trend emerged which swept over all the mani-

powerfully tion,

festations

Orleans,

felt its repercussions. It

of

the

Peguy,

Charles

spirit.

became the symbol

brought an apotheosis of

the peasant-poet

of the spiritual renaissance.

this heroic figure

of

The war

who had fought

for

analogies.

Thierry Maulnier alone defended a classical viewpoint

in his In-

troduction a la Poesie Franqaise.

The biggest book-success of the year was strangely enough Andre Gide’s Journal. Its appearance as a book, after its fragmentary publication in reviews, created a sensation, and it became the book of the year. With great sincerity and passion Gide gives the reader an insight into his complicated mind.

marked by a national

It

is

and personal world. Drieu de la Rochelle, who had been silent for some years, appeared with Gilles, the novel of a man’s spiritual progress from 1917 to 1937. This recital of 20 years in the life of a man beliterary

tween two wars had a clinical interest, and reveals a fine panorama of the so-called post-war period. Leon-Paul Fargue presented his

Le Pieton de

readers with

who had

his experience of the city Paris during the last 50 years.

first

battle of the

Surrealisme, which had given

its

Marne.

name

to the collective nostalgia

a

member

of the

brilliant verbal inventions

In the spring of 1939 a new movement sprang up which called

Jules

saner

Vitalisme and which announced

through

order in literature

its

new and manifestations by

program

vigorous

for a

Marcel Sauvage, Pierre Loiselet and Robert Gaillard. Although most of the advance-guard magazines always the begetters of new movements ^had to stop publication, because the editors were mobilized, they were immediately continued under reduced conditions at the front. The journaux du front began to blossom forth as early as November. Notable among these little blue- and khakicoloured reviews were Le Vitaliste, Franchise Militaire, I’Isard de Metz. Older reviews, like the Nouvelle Revue Franqaise, La Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue de Paris, continued their publications dividing their material between the military situation and literature. Paul Eluard published his Chanson Complete which marks his break with the surrealist technique. In this poem he forsakes his preoccupation with the unconscious universe and returns to a synthesis of clarity and classical beauty. Jean Cocteau revealed I’Incendie, a powerfully moving poem, which translates the strange atmosphere of Paris before Munich and the reactions of human

—

—

love before the

menace of

destiny.

A

Europe. Pierre-Jean-Jouve, author of Sueur de Sang, wrote his Ode au Peuple, and his Chevaliers d’Apocalypse, a grandiose series of eschatological poems, in which he transmitted political struggle of

to

and

his hopes for France.

He

attempts

wed mysticism with modern psychology. St. Pol-Roux, the aged La Supplique du Christ, dedi-

symbolist bard of Brittany, issued

cated to Albert Einstein. It is a book of finely chiselled stanzas which passionately defends the Jews against their racist traducers.

Paul Claudel, the greatest mystic Catholic poet today, at the age of 70, completed his Jeanne d’Arc au Bucher. This deeply religious work was received with enthusiasm when it was produced in Paris, with music by Arthur Honegger.

The most important among

and a

Fargue,

stirred the reader with

fine capacity for lyric story-telling.

two new books: Vorge contre Quinette and La Douceur de Vivre. His vast chronology is moving forward towards the euphory of the post-war.

Remains continued

his roman-fleuve with

Daniel Rops, in his I’Epee de Feu, told a vigorous story of the ideological conflicts that disturb our age. It effort,

Philippe Heriat

won

a brilliant dialectical

the Prix Goncourt with Les Enjants Gates.

It is the story of a girl in revolt against her

A

is

the synthesis of which he sees in a modernized Catholicism.

upper bourgeois family.

sentimental escapade in America liberates her, but

when she

returns, she submits again to the standards of an archaic family

Jean Malaquais, a Pole writing in French, received the Prix Renaudot with his novel Les Javanais. It is the story of a colony of refugees working in a southern lead mine, written with a strong naturalistic style. Paul Vialar was the recipient of the Prix Femina for his Rose de la Mer. It is a series of delicately wrought psychological narratives of adventure. Roger de Lafforest was rewarded with the Prix Interallie for his Les Figurants de la Mart, the story of a Utopian general and his mythical conquest of a life.

country.

(E. Js.)

short time before the war,

Cocteau issued his La Fin du Potomak, a story, half contemporaneous and half fantaisiste, which expressed his attitude in the

his metaphysical disquiet

Paris, a richly metaphorical cinema of

Academie MaUarme,

for the fabulous and the romantic since 1923, was disintegrating.

itself

a deeply

speculative confession revealing glimpses of his political, religious,

the reconstruction of France in prose and poetry before 1914 and died in the

(bom

and was wounded and taken

the younger French Catholic poets

French French French French

Pacific Islands: see Pacieic Islands, French.

Somaliland: see French Colonial Empire. Sudan: see French Colonial Empire. Wesf Africa and the Sahara: see French Colo-

nial Empire.

M

I

^iirmiinri dlglllUIIU

(^^56-1939), Austrian psychologist and founder of psychoanalysis, was bom of

Jewish extraction on May 6 at Freiberg in Moravia, then a part of Austria-Hungary. His parents moved to Vienna when he was four, and there he studied as a youth in the physiological laboratories

under Bmecke and later at the Institute for Cerebral Anatomy. awarded his medical degree in i88i. In 1884 Dr. Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician, related to him the unusual case of “Anna O.,” a young girl suffering from paralysis who had been

He was

FRITSCH, WERNER VON

306

cured after recollecting, in a state of hypnosis, the origin of her

symptoms. Freud, deeply impressed, went on to reconstruct the fundamentals of psychoanalysis. He went to Paris in 1885 to study under the French neurologist and hypnotist, Jean Charcot; upon his return to Vienna the next year he set up his practice and by 189s, when he collaborated with Breuer on Studies in Hysteria, he had definitely formulated the basic principles of psychoanalysis. Essentially these principles remained unchanged throughout his later years of research; they set forth the existence of

powerful

— FURNITURE ITiiqI

INDUSTRY compression of finely divided or low

Driniiottac

rUcI pi lljUcllCdi

grade coal into briquettes, to

make

it

more

adaptable as a fuel, has grown to an industry of considerable magnitude in a

number of

countries, especially those having large

Some

supplies of low grade coals.

of the leading outputs in 1937

were as follows: United States 1,036,000 metric tons; Belgium 1,849,000 tons; Czechoslovakia 724,000 tons; France 7,957,000 tons;

Germany 48,727,000

Total world production

Netherlands

tons;

1,327,000 tons.

estimated at 64,261,000 tons.

is

In

all

“repressions” and “inhibi-

of the leading European producing countries briquettes have an

tions” and the all-important role of the “libido,” or sexual instinct, which accounts for such neuroses as the “Oedipus complex” or for great creative ability through “sublimation.” After 1906 Freud was joined by other psychologists, notably Brill, Adler, and Jung,

important place in export fuel trade; both France and Germany have net exports in excess of a million tons, while Belgium stands

and was

the United States are negligibly small, and exports are only slightly

subconscious thought with

its resulting

1908 the first International Congress of Psychoanalysis held. Both Adler and Jung later seceded from the Freudian in

school, however, Adler holding that not sexual desire, but a desire

for superiority,

is

the mainspring of

human

The majority of Freud’s works have been translated into EngOne of the most famous is The Interpretation of Dreams, published in 1901. In 1939, shortly before his death, he pub-

Moses and Monotheism, in which he psychoanalyzed antiSemitism and related the hatred of Jews to hatred of monotheism. His books were publicly burned in Germany after the Nazis’ advent, and in June 1938, after the Austrian anschluss, he moved to London, where he continued active research and directorship of the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. Dr. Freud, who had been suffering for several years from advanced cancer, died September 23 at the home of his son, Ernst Freud, in Hampstead, lished

England.

For a biography, see Encyclopcedia Britannica,

vol. 9,

pp. 836-7; see also Freud’s article Psychoanalysis, vol. 18, pp.

672-4.

FritCPh Wprnpr rilLobll) ViCMICi unn VUil 4,

the son of an

army

(^880-1939), German soldier, was bom at Benrath, Silesia, on August

At the age of i8 he joined an ar1900 he was commissioned lieutenant.

officer.

tillery regiment and in During the World War he was a general staff officer with the rank of major and was decorated with both the Iron cross, first and second class, and the Order of Hohenzollem. In 1922 he was advanced to lieutenant colonel and shortly afterward entered the ministry of defence as a colonel. In Oct. 1931 he was appointed to command of the First Cavalry division with the rank of major general; by October of the following year he was lieutenant gen-

him in Feb. 1934 chief of staff of the Gerwith the rank of general of artillery. Von Fritsch was apparently unenthusiastic about Nazi plans for a vigorous foreign policy, and in the army “purge” of Feb. 1938 he resigned and was replaced as commander-in-chief of the German Army by Gen. von

eral.

Hitler appointed

man Army

Brauchitsch

{q.v-).

Hitler, however,

general’s excellent accomplishments in

was not unmindful of his rebuilding Germany’s mili-

tary machine, and shortly after the “purge,” the Fuehrer publicly conveyed to von Fritsch his “honest thanks for the work you did in the reconstruction of our defence force.”

plus, but in

When Germany

in-

;

Czechoslovakia had a small export sur-

Netherlands imports exceed exports.

greater, chiefly to Canada.

output

is

Although

made

Imports into

of the United States

little

exported, domestic consumption

shipments having been

behaviour.

lish.

first

at about half that figure

is

widely distributed,

36 States, Alaska, and

in 1937 to

the District of Columbia. Included in the briquette output reported above, there was produced in 1937 in the United States 132,400 short tons of briquettes wrapped in paper for convenience and cleanliness in handling, the product being commercially known as “packaged fuel.”

,

German Flllfifl I llrfU/iff rUIUd| LUuVVIg

educated at Berlin, torate

from the

novelist, playwright,

was born on July 15. Leipzig, and Heidelberg and received and

He was

translator,

latter university at the age of 21.

plays were produced in

came one

(G. A. Ro.)

New York

his doc-

Two

city during the ’90s

of his

and he be-

of Germany’s leading playwrights prior to the

World

War

(1914-18). Fulda devoted much of his time to making the German theatre more cosmopolitan; he translated the works of

Rostand, Moliere, Ibsen, and the Spanish classical dramatists into German. At the time of his death he was honorary president of the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and

Among

Com-

works were Maskerade (1904), Der Vulcan (1920), Die Gegenkandidaten (1923), and Fraiilein Frau (1929). His two plays produced in America were The Talisman (1894) and Old Friends (1899). Though Jewish, Fulda did not leave Germany after the Nazis’ rise to power. With Thomas Mann, Franz Werfel, and others, he was forced to resign from the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1933 and thereafter lived quietly in Berlin, posers.

his

where he died on March

Ciillnr’p

Torth

30.

entire output of fuller’s earth

is

rUIICl o LClIllli used in the bleaching of refined petroleum or other oils and fats, its original use in the cleansing of cloth having practically disappeared. The United States production had for several years stood at 200,000-230,000 short tons, after a decline of about one-third, but in 1938 dropped to 171,000 tons,

petroleum outputs. These decreases have been due to increased efficiency in use, the development of methods of re-activating the clay after use, and to substitution by in spite of increasing

other bleaching agents, especially bentonite.

(G. A. Ro.)

vaded Poland in Sept. 1939 von Fritsch, though still retaining his rank of colonel-general, was placed in honorary command of an artillery regiment, and it was in this subordinate post that he was killed in action September 22, according to the Germans, “in the course of an offensive reconnaissance patrol before Warsaw.”

gained most of the volume they lost in 1938 and finished 1939 with a total of approximately $450,000,000, still 25% below 1929. Employment also increased to 115,000 men

Fruit: see Apples; Bananas; Grapefruit; Grapes; Lemons AND Limes; Oranges; Peaches; Pears; Pineapples; Plums

and wages advanced 6%, bringing annual wages for the industry to $100,000,000. Back of the rapid recovery of the furniture industry was America’s 1939 home building boom, the greatest in

and Prunes. Fuel: see Coal Industry; Gasoline; Natural Gas; Petroleum.

FlirnitlirD Inrilictrv

^'^^rica’s 2,200 furniture factories re-

rUlllllUIC IllUUdllji

ten years. Principal woods used by the furniture industry include mahogany, walnut, maple, oak, birch and aspen. Public style prefer-

FURS — GAMELIN. MAURICE GUSTAVE ences determine which woods will be used. The tury vogue makes mahogany more popular than formerly. Very

rabbit, hare, kolinsky,

produced now. A survey of the June (1939) markets in Grand Rapids and Chicago showed the follow-

tically the

present i8th cen-

little

ing

gum wood

furniture

is

woods used: 1939

Walnut

Mahogany Maple Oak

7-6 3-1

Orientalwood Philippine

%

33-0 3^-7

3-°

woods

2-5 1.0 i-5 i.2

Aspen Satinwood

Enamel Miscellaneous solid woods* Miscellaneous veneersf Imitations

3.5 9-i

2.8

100.0

All domestic and fAU domestic and

The

foreign solid woods not separately listed above. foreign veneers not separately listed above.

following shows the elements of cost for each $100 worth

Sales Expenses

Administrative Expenses

Abroad.

$40.80 22.84 18.77 10.00 7-49

§99-90

Total Costs

—England

supplies

most

of the better furniture used

South America and has about 100 large factories and several thousand small ones. Canada has about 100 furniture factories and imports both American and English furniture. France has 50 large furniture factories, most of its plants being small. Germany has approximately 150 large furniture plants and more

in

Her market

than 1,000 small ones.

is

silver fox

largely through Central

Europe. As a result of the European war, the United States may expand its furniture market in Canada, South America, and Mexico. (J. A. G.)

•

fur trade

first

half of

was inactive and unprofitable during the 1939. In London, New York, Montreal,

Paris, Oslo, Sydney, Shanghai, Tientsin, all important fur markets,

Europe overshadowed all other events, political and economic. Fur skin prices during the late winter and spring of 1939 were easy and were little, if anything, above the prices ruling at the end of 1938. The picture changed when war was declared in Europe. For a while there was a little confusion, but the American trade, remembering the experiences of the previous great war, kept its head and speculative tendencies were quickly curbed. Prices were held down, even though consumer demand increased steadily during the fall and winter months. Retail sales of fur during the second half of 1939 averaged about 25% more than in the corresponding period in 1938. A much larger volume of furs was actually sold at wholesale than in 1938, but low prices prevented any noticeable gain in wholesale dollar volume.

the approaching

war

in

Stocks of fashionable furs, such as muskrat, beaver, Chinese marmot, skunk, broadtail, lynx, marten showed mod-

kid, fitch,

end of 1939. Other fur skins failed compared with 1938. The jacket style of garment sold in the greatest volume. The brown- or minkdyed furs gained in popularity. Silver fox, mink, Persian Iamb (black and gray), mink-dyed muskrat, skunk, beaver, browndyed fitch and squirrel were the “furs of the year.” United States imports for the period Dec. 1938 to Oct. 1939 were valued at $46,727,841, or $3,253,523 more than for the erate price gains towards the to

show any advance

Other items remained at prac-

figures as in 1938.

The

principal sources

were Russia, Canada, Great Britain, China, and Australia, and France for rabbit fur. The duty on silver fox imports was reduced from 50% to 37i% on Jan. i, 1939. The U.S. imported over 85,000 silver fox, principally from Canada and Norway. The American fur breeders of supply

appealed to the U.S. Government to limit the imports of silver fox skins from foreign countries to 100,000 skins for the season Closing of European markets threatened to result

of 1939-40.

dumping

of silver fox skins in the American market. Prices on silver fox fell 25% in Dec. 1939 and 35% on ranch mink, compared with Dec. 193S. Fur exports totalled, for the Dec.

in the

1938 to Oct. 1939 period, $11,957,346, or $1,226,651 less in value than in 1938. The number of skins exported, however, was greater with

more muskrat, raccoon, and opossum shipped abroad

Insolvencies in the American fur trade

in price, as

corresponding period in 1937-38. Increased quantities of beaver.

up

to the

end of Nov.

1939 totalled 186 cases. In New York city area there were 128; elsewhere 58. The total of failures was higher than the 1934-38 average of 149. Liabilities amounted to $3,624,114.

The

International

Fur Workers Union succeeded in organizing

the employees in the fur merchants and skin dealers branch of the trade. At the opening of the new raw fur season in Nov. 1939, the American fur trade faced the problem of probably having to

handle a

much greater proportion of the world’s fur skins than The market of Europe, which annually consumes

ever before.

more than half of the world’s fur production, ceased to fimction normally on the outbreak of war.

Governments placed drastic restrictions on fur imports and There developed the possibility of enormous quantities of fur merchandise coming to New York, since it was at the end

exports.

of 1939 the only “free” market. Evidence of this in the flight of foreign capital from Europe to New York, some of it in the form

of fur merchandise, created a serious problem for the American fur trade.

The

were imported.

same import

than in 1938.

of furniture produced in 1938: Materials (Lumber, finishing materials, etc.) Direct Labour Factory Overhead

and

307

mink, muskrat, opossum, squirrel, weasel,

It

brought a definite weakening of pelt prices late in

The United States, under favourable conditions, could consume as much as 55% of the world’s peltries, but any quanti-

the year.

over and above American market. ties

Gambia:

see

this

will cause serious overloading of the

fW.

J.

Bx.)

British West Africa.

Gamelin, Maurice Gustave supreme commander of all French armed forces. Son of a general, he was bom in Paris and educated at St. Cyr. He was chief of staff of Gen. Joffre in 1914 and played an important part at the battle of the Mame; it was he who was reputedly most insistent in his prophecies that Germany would invade France by way of Belgium. During the course of the World War he was promoted general of brigade and in 1917 commander of a division. After the war he was head of a mihtary mission to Brazil until 1925, when he was appointed commander of French forces in the Levant. He became chief of the general staff in 1931 and vice-president of the general council of war and inspector-general in 1935. During the several crises of 1938 and 1939 he was responsible for the partial French mobilizations; in Sept. 1938 he expressed the view, in a report to Premier Daladier, that France should intervene in the German-Czech crisis despite several shortcomings in military preparedness. After France declared war on Germany Sept. 3, 1939 Gamelin proceeded with caution, apparently wishing to avoid “another Verdun” at Germany’s Westwall and to conduct slow' offensives with a minimum loss of manpower.

GANDHI, MOHANDAS

308

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand

bom

nationalist leader,

was

his biography, see

Porbandar (Kathiawar), India. For

at

Eiicyclopmdia Britannica, vol. lo, p. 15. After the elections for the provincial legislatures in 1937

had resulted

in the

gaining a majority in six provinces, Gandhi

Congress party’s

recommended

that the

office if assurances were given that the gov'ernors would not use their veto. At Madras on Jan. 22, 1937, Gandhi announced his retirement from active Indian politics, but ih 1939 he achieved two notable political victories. In the first he employed his famous weapon of “fast unto death” to protest against the administration of the Thakore Saheb of Rajkot. After Gandhi had passed four days (March 3-7) without food, the ruler of Rajkot capitulated, and the Pritish viceroy, the marquess of Linlithgow, agreed to submit the dispute to the Indian chief justice. His

party accept

second victory came on April 29 when his opponent, Subhas Chandra Bose, was forced to resign as president of the Congress and was replaced the next day by Rajendra Prasad, a disciple of

Gandhi.

was evident from events iwftuewce., which h^d It

of the year, that G;indhi’s

hccw wa.w\7ig, waft agaio. added his bit to international efforts for peace in September when, according to reports, he dispatched a personal appeal to Hitler. After hostilities broke out, Gandhi sought a declaration of British war aims concerning India and de-

p partly because of the impetus given by the war and partly because of the fruition of programs launched some years ago to bilild up supplies as a substitute for motor fuel from petroleum. In these countries coal and lignite are the important raw materials used. While this development, induced by the dependence of these countries on outside sources for fuel, went on apace, in the United States there was great expansion of manufacture and use of gaseous fuel, derived from petroleum and natural gas. It is interesting to note that whereas in Europe the products of coal carbonization are developed largely as a substitute for petroleum products, in the United States processes not always wholly dissimilar are appbod to petroleum as the raw material, and that the resultant gaseous

motor cars or for

fuel not only may be heat and cooking but also is providing spectacular results in makaviation ing available in commercial quantity high octane-number

directly used as fuel for

Germany’s production of synthetic gasoline from coal and

lignite

estimated at i2,7So,ooobbl. in 1938, a fivefold in-

with crease over 1933, and further increase is anticipated in 1940 synthetic largest the completion of the first units of the worlcf’s of oil gasoline plant being built near Stettin for the conversion residues and Silesian coal into

motor

compared

refrigeration. Chiefly supplied from' natural gas, in the production of natural gasoline, and from refinery gases, these gases are generally liquefied under moderate pressure so as to facilitate

storage and transportation.

motor buses and Gasie-Wis.

The product

also

is

used as a-fuel

fuel.

(See Petroleum.)

in

rail cars.

hydiwcMha?.?,, wataia’i gZiS

awi ta&nwry

ata UaLwra-

ing increasingly valuable as charge stock at petroleum refineries for the production of gasoline and particularly of high octane or

aviation fuel. This began with the

now well known

polymerization

Normally gaseous hydrocarbons, because of

process.

their high

a limited use in gasoline; but it has been determined through the polymerization and other processes that volatility, find only

they are capable of being transformed into high octane fuels very great value. in 1939

of

between 50 and 75 polymerization units

operating in the United States.

was the sulphuric acid alkylation process

in 1939

Humble

Development, Standard Development, and Texas companies’ research staffs. These companies, working independently, had developed processes which, though somewhat different in deOil, Shell

of operation and in the results obtained, were in principle

essentially similar.

It

was announced that

in the best interest of

the petroleum industry as a whole and in order that a major

source of high octane aviation fuel should be

made

new

available for

national defence without delay or waste of correlative experience, their efforts

had been combined to expedite the commercial applica-

tion of the process.

This process affects directly the union of isoparaffins with

olefins

volumes to form branched-chain paraffins in the presence of strong commercial sulphuric acid as the catalyst, and in a single-stage operation. Thus a new source of high in approximately equal

octane gasoline tial

is

available, and, with sufficient isoparaffin, poten-

by alkylation from a given more than double those obtainable by the two-stage process of olefin polymerization followed by

yields of branched-chain product

refinery stream are existing

hydrogenation. Standard materials of construction are used in the six alkylation plants in operation in 1939 and the others under construction.

The

fuels.

is unofficially

insignificant as

and

tails

n

is

representing the combined efforts of the Anglo-Iranian,

tained Electric Units.

Gas Masks:

obtained, the total

is

While a from

sources.

fuel derived

with gasoline obtained from petroleum. In the meantime in the United States a large by-product industry utilizing petroleum gases has been built up. This “bottled gas” goes into suburban and rural homes as fuel for cooking, heating

Announced

neering.

States has practically un-

motor fuel substantial production of benzol as a motor

There were

Garbage and Waste

The United

limited coal reserves available as

catalyst

is

of universal availability.

Another commercial catalytic process has been developed which adds enormously to the potential gasoline supply for aviation and motor vehicle use. This is the catalytic dehydrogenation process and applies to the conversion of gaseous paraffins, except methane,

and hydrogen. The paraffins are derived from natural gas, casing-head gas, refinery gases and gases from other sources such as coal. into the corresponding olefins

Germany has been engaged in supplying a large part of her fuel industry requirements from coal products for several years, the she most At subsidy. and being under Government protection succeeded in supplying no more than 25% or 30% of her normal

U. S. Consumption. The year 1939 goes down as a recordbreaker in motor fuel or gasoline consumption in the United States. Preliminary estimates for the year show a domestic motor

requirements from this source; but this greatly exceeds the ac-

fuel

—

demand

of

more than 5Si,ooo,ooobbl. compared with

323,-

I*

•

1

03 ,ooobbl. in 1938, an increase of

ireiosTottJ

5%.

In 1937 domestic demand totalled 5i9,352,ooobbl. and iiv 1936, 481,606,000 barrels. The effect of the war in Europe dn American gasoline manufacture and exports

is

yet to be determined.

While the

Allies are

expected heavily to increase their buying, the fact remains that gasoline

consumption for non-military purposes in Europe is fill this need will not be

greatly restricted and normal supplies to required.

Tankers to move American gasoline in belligerent waters must be provided, as under the United States Neutrality Act American ships must keep out of war zones.

be presumed that Allied demand for gasoline will be on high octane motor fuel for aviation purposes. In the United States also a great expansion of military and It is to

largely concentrated

civilian aviation is being launched.

in

This specialized demand in the U.S. and Europe has resulted a speeding up o! deveiopnnent of amation !uei processes by

American

refineries.

new methods

of producing aviation fuel base stock or high octane blending materials were discussed at the annual meeting Six

of the American Petroleum Institute in Nov. 1939.

These are

thermal and catalytic alkylation, Houdty catalytic reforming, catadehydrogenation of gaseous paraffins to olefins and two

lytic

processes for complete desulphurization. Also considerable impor-

tance was attached to improved tetra-ethyl lead response of these gasolines in boosting octane number.

The importance of these processes to aviation cannot be overemphasized. Higher octane fuel generally available means to the aeroplane greater speed, less fuel to be carried, greater range and greater load-carrying capacity. In the last two or three years refining processes

have enabled the

oil

industry to

new

make commer-

87 octane-number aviation fuel. Now the aim is to provide 100 octane fuel. In 1939 aviation fuels with octane ratings

WOOD'BURNING TRAILERS

attached to German motor cars convert combustion

gases into fuel for the car

5-53% of the total gasoline consumption, divided as follows: tractors 4-42% and for other farm uses Highway construction agencies consume 1-03% and other construction operations 1-06%. About -3% is consumed by manufacturing industries; •28% by the U.S. Government; -oS% for dry cleaning; -02% by the railroads. Use of gasoline by boats is extensive but only a for

For

small percentage of the total gasoline consumed, about -16%.

Undoubtedly the most significant development in gasoline consumption is the expansion of aviation resulting from war and war preparation and the resultant effect

it will have on establishing and commercial aviation on a plane possibly comparable

cially available

civilian

approaching 100 and above were increased greatly in commercial availability. In 1937 the domestic consumption of 100 octane avia-

quarter century. (See also Petroleum.) Bibliography. Petroleum Facts and Figures (1939); Proceedings 20th Annual Meeting, American Petroleum Institute. For trade journals see Petroleum: Bibliography. (L. M. F.)

tion fuel

was approximately

7,ooo,ooogal.,

and

it

has been

esti-

mated this increased to 20,ooo,ooogal. in 1938. The anticipated consumption for 1939 and 1940 is greatly in excess of these figures, and with the assurance of a larger supply of 100 octane fuel at a reasonable price, a further increase un-

doubtedly will result from changes in aeroplane motor design to take advantage of the better performance and economy possible

when operating with such a gasoline. World Consumption. By far the greatest consumption of gasoline is by motor vehicles. The United States, mth over 65% of the world’s registered motor vehicles, needs and consumes by far the greatest quantity. Other countries on the Western Hemi-

—

sphere account for 5-12% of the world’s motor vehicle registration;

Europe, for 20-9%; Africa, for 1-5%; Asia, for 1.5% and Oceania, for 2-6% this being an indication of the relative geographic con;

sumption of gasoline. In the United States increased motor vehicle consumption of gasoline

is

expected to continue.

On

top of that

is

the evident

tremendous increase in aviation consumption in the United States and in Europe, wth American refineries being called upon to supply the major part of that demand. It is estimated that about 90% of all gasoline consumed in the United States is by motor vehicles. Aviation gasoline consumption totals only about -4% of the entire gasoline consumed, divided as follows: For commercial aviation -24%, and for the Army Air Corps, National Guard, Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department Cmcrudfng Marine Corps), U.S. Coast Guard and Bureau of Air Commerce, -16%. Gasoline consumed by agriculture in the United States accounts

to the expansion of the use of the automobile during the last

—

Mn^P^ udOlCl , lllUoCO

(18S&-1939).

British-Rumanian

scholar and linguist, was

bom

Hebrew

in Bucharest.

Educated at Bucharest university and at the University of Leipzig, where he received his Ph.D. in 1877, Gaster was expelled from Rumania in 1885 for protesting vigorously against the Government’s anti-Semitism. Years later, when he had attained renown as one of the foremost scholars of his day, Rumania awarded him the Order of Merit and invited

him

he England in 1886, he delivered the Ilchester lectures at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine literature. He took an active part in English and Jewish political life and was thrice vice president of the Zionist congress at Basle and London. From 1887 until his retirement in 1919 he was chief rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. He was an officer to return to Bucharest, but

declined. Establishing his residence in

also of the Folklore Society of England, the Anglo-Jewish associa-

and the Royal Asiatic society and a Fellow of the Royal He was author of many volumes and articles on philological, historical, and Biblical subjects. He died March 5 while motoring from Oxford to Reading. A biographical tion,

Society of Literature.

notice of Gaster appears in £Kcyc/o/>ffiff/a

5r;7ann;ca, vol.

10, p. 54.

(186^1939), U.S. Protestant Epls-

Eofoc

Kiln Hlirlcnn nillU nuUoUII copal clergyman, was bom June 29 From 1907 to 1929 he was vicar of the Chapel Mass. Gardner,

uulCOf at

of the Intercession, Trinity parish. New York city, and he was dean of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York city

from 1930

until his death

on Nov.

27, 1939.

309

GAY, FREDERICK

310

P.

— GEOLOGY

New Gay, Frederick Parker

was born at and was educated at Harvard and at Johns bacteriologist,

Boston on July 22. He Hopkins, where he received his medical degree in 1901. After teaching at the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, the Univer-

Beadle,

Books. is

—An

Introduction to Genetics, Sturtevant and

particularly strong in its presentation of the intricacies

chromosome structure and behaviour. An Introduction to Modern Genetics, by the British embryologist, Waddington, presents of

genetics in relation to embryology, evolution

and human

affairs.

sity of California

Muller

He was

Genetics of Drosophila, including 2,965 titles. Complete through 1938, this bibliography is invaluable to the student of theoretical

ness,

genetics.

and other institutions he joined the faculty of Columbia university, where he taught bacteriology until his death. noted for his researches into typhoid fever, sleeping sickimmunity, and the effect of the new drug sulphanilamide upon streptococcus infections. Among his publications were Studies in Immunity (1909) and Typhoid Fever (1918). He died

New Hartford,

at

Conn., on July 14.

General Federation of Women's Clubs:

see

Women’s

Clubs, General Federation of.

Panofipp UCilCUuO, on Aug.

seventh International Congress of Genetics convened in King’s Buildings, University of Edinburgh

22, 1939.

Dr, F, A. E. Crew was elected president. In

attendance were over 500 delegates, from

all

the civilized world.

On

the program were over 350 papers. Because of the international crisis most of the delegates other than British and American left

has

published

a

comprehensive

Bibliography

of

the

—

Bibliography. Journal of Heredity, vol. xxx (1939); H. I. Muller, Bibliography on the genetics of Drosophila (Edinburgh, 1939): A. H, Sturtevant and G, W. Beadle, An Introduction to genetics (1939); C. H. Waddington, An introduction to modern genetics (1939); Edgar Anderson, “Recombination in species crosses,” Genetics (Sept. 1939); Th. Dobzhansky, “Genetics of natural populations: IV. Mexican and Guatemalan populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura,” Genetics (May 1939); T. H. Goodspeed and P. Avery, “Trisomic and other types in Nicotiana sylvestris,” Journal of Genetics (Sept. 1939): Cecil Gordon, Helen Spunvay and P. A. R. Street, “An analysis of three wild populations of Drosophila subobscura,” Journal of Genetics (July 1939); Ira H. Horton, “A comparison of the salivary gland chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans,” Genetics (March 1939): R- D. Hughes, “An analysis of the chromosomes of the two subspecies Drosophila virilis virilis and Drosophila virilis americana," Genetics (Nov. 1939); B. P. Kaufmann, “Distribution of induced breaks along the X-chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster,” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (Nov. 1939); D. D. Millet, “Structure and variation of the chromosomes in Drosophila algonquin,” Genetics (Sept. 1939). (W. P. S.)

within three days.

—

Cytogenetics. Using the larval tail-tips of the salamander, Eurycea bislineata, Fankhauser has extended his significant studies on polyploidy in the amphibians. Following the discovery

Geographical Society, American:

of Eigsti that treatment with the drug, colchicine, induces poly-

Panin mi UCUIUgJa

see

American Geo-

graphical Society. ® result of the increasing

number

of applications

ploidy in plants, workers in 1939 reported chromosome doubling by use of this drug on pine, wheat, oats, barley, tobacco, buck-

and adaptations of geology to mineral exploration and engineering projects it is becoming more quantitative in char-

wheat and onion.

acter.

By

colchicine treatment Smith,

Warmke and

Blakeslee have

—^Within the past few years

Geomorphology.

this

branch of

obtained fertile tetraploid hybrids in crosses of Nicotiana (tobaccq) species, which normally give sterile hybrids. Sears has ob-

geology has become definitely established in America. During 1939 two important textbooks appeared, namely: A Textbook of

Goodspeed and Avery have

Geomorphology by Worcester and Geomorphology; An Introduction to the Study of Landscapes by Lobeck. Physical Geology. Several significant short papers on various phases of physical geology and three revisions of widely used American texts appeared in 1939. Hisforicol Geology. The usual number of contributions deal-

tained similar results in grasses.

made

a comprehensive report of trisomics and other chromosomal

Kaufmann has made a detailed study of the several types of intra and interchromosomal rearrangements following X-raying in Drosophila melanogaster. He

variants in Nicotiana sylvestris.

reports non-random breakage along the X-chromosome. The, morphology and inversions of the salivary chromosomes of nature populations of Drosophila azteca have been investigated by Dobzhansky and Socolov, and of Drosophila algonquin by Miller. Genetics and Evolution. ^There has been a definite trend from strictly laboratory toward field-laboratory investigations in experimental evolution on the combined basis of ecology, genetics and cytology. Gene frequencies in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster have been analyzed by Plough and Ives; similar studies have been carried on by Dobzhansky in Drosophila pseudoobscura and by Gordon, Spurway and Street in Drosophila subobscura. Important cytological investigations on hybrids in Drosophila virilis subspecies have been reported by Hughes; on melanogastersimulans by Horton; and on Sciara species by Metz

—

—

—

ing with the geologic history of local areas were published during 1939. An excellent text by Wells with emphasis on the geology of the British Isles was issued iij London. A valuable theoretical conby Grabau on the Ordovician formations of the Cale-

tribution

donian geosyncline appeared as volume 4 of the series entitled Paleozoic Formations in the Light of the Pulsation Theory. Palaeontology. Continued interest in micropalaeontology is

—

manifested by the issuance of numerous descriptive papers and. bibliographies.

Of

particular interest

entitled Prehistoric Life.

ciples of

New

genetically?” 21 leading geneticists attending the International Congress signed a statement containing in brief the following:

ated. In accord with this trend

improvement of the race depends on major changes in and correlative changes in human attitudes; on removal of race prejudices; on economic security for parents and

genetic

the detailed catalogue of

An excellent treatise on PrinPaleobotany by Darrah, representing volume 3 of the Series of Plant Science Books, was published in Holland. Of

mond

and Crouse. Anderson has demonstrated limited recombination of factors for corolla shape and colour in Nicotiana species crosses. Human Genetics. ^New pedigrees of human inheritance too numerous to mention have been published. In answer to the question, “How could the world’s population improve most effectively

—

is

the Foraminifera nearing completion under the direction of Brooks F. Ellis. During 1939 there was published a notable book by Ray-

importance to vertebrate palaeontologists Paleozoic Fishes by

is

the

new book on

Moy-Thomas.

—In

Sedimenfology.

recent years the necessity for obtaining

detailed information on sedimentary processes has been appreci-

two important symposia on recent

sedimentation came from the press. “Sediment-Heft” (Geol. Rundschau, volume 29) presents the results of European investigations.

particularly for mothers; on the legalization and practice of birth control, both negative and positive; and on a wider knowledge of

Recent Marine Sediments edited by Trask under the auspices of the National Research Council includes important American contributions. The appearance of a Textbook on Sedimentation by Tivenhofel emphasizing environmental conditions marks an im-

fundamental biologic principles.

portant step forward.

social conditions

—

GEORGE VI— GEORGIA Strucfural Geology.

—^Emphasis

is

being placed on the broader

Architecture of the Earth

The

aspects of the earth as a whole.

by

311

centres, etc.; early in

December he spent some days

Daly (1938) synthesizes the causes and results of deformation and vulcanism as inferred from seismic studies and geologic field data. A series of papers, edited by Gutenberg, appeared in Internal Constitution of the Earth, comprising volume 7 of the Physics of the

while by his speeches at the prorogation

Earth Series, a National Research Council project.

“the challenge of a principle which,

Regional Geology. ^The first of a three volume reference work, entitled Geology of North America, edited by Ruedemann and Balk, appeared. Eastern North America including Greenland

be

—

is

described.

—

physical

was published by English as

properties

New

Descriptive List of the

Minerals iSgz-jgsS.

Petrology and Petrography.

—^The

two

significant trends in

petrology appear to be the emphasis on phase relations of minerals in metamorphic rocks and on petrofabric analysis with the

Universal stage.

A Manual of Sedimentary Petrography by Krum-

(1938) gives statistical methods and procedures in the mechanical analysis of sediments. bein and Pettijohn

—

Economic Geology.

^Attention has been focused

minerals as a result of the unsettled world conditions. States

Government appropriated funds

on

strategic

The United

for studies of domestic

reserves of chromium, manganese, tungsten, tin

and other min-

economy. The recent appearance of by Roush is timely. In the field of petroleum geology the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in Mississippi and Nebraska and the rapid development of new productive areas in the Illinois basin were outstanding events. The research committee of the American Association of Petroleum erals essential to national

Strategic Mineral Supplies

Geologists has been active in stimulating studies of the so-called stratigraphic traps.

A well rounded

text entitled

Les Gisements de

by Macovei was published in Paris in 1938. Engineering Geology. ^The importance of geology in construction and reclamation work is receiving greater recognition. A new text Geology and Engineering by Leggett emphasizes the value of geology in large scale construction and underground

Petrole

—

operations.

—

Seismology. Studies on the Periodicity of Earthquakes by Davison marks an important contribution in this field. Geologic Lexicons and Source Books. Geology arid Allied Sciences by Huebner gives the German equivalents and definitions

—

of

25,000

English geologic

terms.

Lexicon de Stratigraphic:

(1938), edited by Haughton, gives the names, lithology and characteristic fossils of African stratigraphic units. The Lexicon of Geologic Names of the United States by Wilmarth, Africa, vol.

i

published by the United States Geological Survey (1938), gives essentially the same data for geologic units in North and Central

America, Alaska and Hawaii.

Mather and Mason presents

A

Source Book in Geology by

from the works of outstanding contributors to geologic science up to 1900. Birth and Development of the Geologic Sciences (1938) by Adams is a

more academic work

collateral readings

dealing with geologic concepts in ancient

mediaeval times and supplements the Geikie.

classics of

von

Zittel

and and

(See also Mineralogy; Palaeontology; Seismology.)

(F.M. V. T.;

PonrffP ll UCUIgu VI

);

King

of Great Britain

(see Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol.

J. C.

Hf.)

and Ireland 10, p.

191),

and the third of his reign, had forced on him the sad duty of leading his Empire at war. Both before and after its outbreak he paid many visits to establishments of all the armed forces, to armament w'orks, anti-aircraft, A.R.P. and nursing

in his 44th year

(November 23) and

opening (November 28) of parliament no less than by his broadcasts on September 3 and Christmas Day he further encouraged

—

his peoples in their determination- to

fatal to

any

meet in were

if it

his

own words

to prevail,

would

civilized order in the world.”

Earlier in the year

among a number

of State engagements such

as the launching of the 3S,ooo-ton battleship

“King George V”

at Newcastle (February 21), visits to the British Industries Fair,

Mineralogy. ^Investigations on the atomic structure of rockforming silicates have shown continued progress. A compilation of new mineral names with citations to the original literature and diagnostic

inspecting

the British Expeditionary Force in the front line in France;

and the opening of the rebuilt Westminster hospital (April 30), there were two outstanding events, viz., the state -visit of the President of the French Republic (March 21-24) and the royal tour in Canada and the U.S.A. The former was a return for the reception accorded to King George and Queen Elizabeth in Paris in 1938, and was a diplomatic as well as a great social success; the latter was the first occasion on which any British monarch had acted as such in any of the sister Dominions of the Empire, and during it for the first time United States Congress received a foreign king. days before their tumultuous send-off from Portsmouth

in history the

Two

(May 6) the King and Queen were entertained at dinner by the American ambassador, and from their arrival at Quebec (May 17 two days late on account of weather conditions) until their return, the tour was a succession of enthusiastic demonstrations both on the part of the King’s subjects and the citizens of the United States. It led from Quebec to Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, Calgary and across the Rockies to Vancouver and Victoria, B.C.; thence back via Edmonton and Saskatoon to Winnipeg and so to Niagara Falls whence (June 7) the royal party entered the United States and proceeded to Washington. On the following day the King and Queen, after .a British Embassy garden-party, attended a State diimer and reception at the White House; on the 9th came their reception at the Capitol, visits to Mount Vernon and the Arlington National Cemetery, and their departure for New York city where, especially en route to the World’s Fair, on the loth they received an ovation which in cordiality, sincerity and spontaneity was unsurpassed during the tour. A quiet stay at the President’s home, Hyde Park, preceded the return to Canada, and after further loyal receptions in New Bruns-wick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, the King and Queen embarked at St. John’s on June 17 on the return journey, reaching Southampton on June 22 and rounding off the memorable episode -with an historic speech at the London Guildhall on June 23 and attendance at a thanksgi-ving service in Westminster Abbey on July 2. The remainder of the year was spent entirely, as mentioned above, in duties connected first with the crisis and then -with the war itself; and among other griefs that he suffered at this time were the long separation (end-August to Christmas) from his children, the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret Rose, and the death (December 3) of his great-aunt, Queen Victoria’s fourth daughter, Princess Louise, at the age of 91. (See also Canada; (L. H. D.) Tour of the King and Queen; United States.)

—

ucOrglai

United States, popu“Empire State of the South”;

original States of the

GanririQ

larly

known

as the

area 59,262 sq.mi., being the largest east of the Mississippi river; population according to the U.S. census of 1930, 2,908,506, esti-

mated July I, 1937, 3,083.000. Capital, Atlanta, 270,366, estimated July I, 1937, 280,400. The next largest city is Savannah, 85,024. Of the State’s population 895,492 are urban, or 30%; 1,836,924 whites; 1,071,125 coloured; 407 other races; 13,917 foreign-bom.

GEORGIAN

312

—

5. S. R.

D. Rivers, elected governor in 1936, on a program New Deal, was renominated in the primary of Sept. 14, 1938. In his campaign he sought endorsement fof what he had done during his two-year term and an opportunity to History.

^E.

of support of the

program. unit system of voting prevails, whereby the smaller counties have one vote each and the most populous only three. Rivers received 282 unit votes, his opponents Hugh Howell and

complete

his

The county

John in

J.

Mangham

November 1938

securing 126 and 2 respectively. In the election the Democratic ticket had no opposition gs the

Republicans seldom

make nominations

principal State officers were:

for State

offices.

E. D. Rivers, governor

The

(Dem.);

John B. Wilson, secretary of State; M. J. Yeomans, attc>meygeneral (he resigned during the year and was succeeded by Ellis Arnall); George B. Hamilton, treasurer; Zach Arnold, auditor; William B. Harrison, comptroller; M. D. Collins, superintendent of schools, and Columbus Roberts, commissioner of agriculture. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Richard B. Russell, Sr. died in 193S and was succeeded by Charles S. Reid. The campaign George was of national on account of President Roosevelt’s attempt to “purge” him, in his Barnesville address, in Aug. 1938. He was opposed by Lawrence Camp, the President’s choice, and by Eugene Taliuadge, a bitter critic of the President. George won with 246 unit votes, Camp receiving r6 and Talmadge 148. In the election in November 1938 he was unopposed. lor renom'malion of Senator 'Walter P.

significance

Banking and Finance. the

common

—For the

year ending June 30, i 939 schools received $11,643,000; the various eleemosy>

nary institutions, $3,154,000; and the University system (embracing all higher educational institutions supported by the State), $1,768,000. The State appropriated for the Public Health De-

partment and the tuberculosis hospital $826,000.

The Highway

Department received $14,773,000. The total revenues received for the same period amounted to $43,519,000, the tax on motor fuel producing the largest amount, $20,529,000. Other important sources were the income tax, $4,979,000 the general property fa*:, $4,941,000; cigar and cigarette tax, $2,761,000; motor vehicle registration, $1,875,000; insurance premium tax, $1,165,000; malt ;

beverage and wine tax, $1,342,000; and alcoholic beverage tax, $1,669,000. Poll taxes amounted to $261,000. Georgia received

from the United States Government grants amounting to $11,868,000. The bonded debt was $3,569,000. In 1939 there were 240 State banks with resources of $179,420,000. Agriculture. In 1935 there were 250,544 farms and 164,331 croppers and tenants. In 1939 the principal crops were cotton,

—

916,000 bales; tobacco, 96,62o,ooolbs. sweet potatoes, 8,892,ooobu.; Irish potatoes, i,386,ooobu.; com, 36,94i,ooobu.; wheat, i,77o,ooobu.; oats, 8,946,00060.; apples, 450,00060.; peaches, ;

4,290,00060.; sugar cane sirup, i,024,ooogal.; pecans, 8,700,000The lbs.; peanuts, 34i,25o,ooolbs.; and watermelons, 9,390,000. total value of the

main crops produced

in

1939 was $141,933,000,

6%

below the value for 1938. In 1939 the State had 970,000

cattle, 1,554,000 hogs,

31,000

of Manufacturing of 1937 credited Georgia with a the total value of $708,652,000, about five times the value of agricultural output. Since the raw materials of manufacturing

The Census

however, largely agricultural in origin, a fairer comparison by manufacturing.” In 1937 this value was $269,500,000, less than double the agricultural output, but

are, is

that with “value added

still

M

the successor of an organiza-

is

German-American the New Germany. Fritz Kuhn

tion

known

as the Friends of

got control of

in 1936

it

and

name and reorganized it. Kuhn is a native of Germany, served in the German Army and was with Hitler in the changed

its

He has been an American about 18 years and when he took control of the organization he was working in the chemical department of the Ford abortive beer hall putsch in Munich. citizen for

Motor Company main of German

The Bund, as described by its puban organization of United States citizens, in the

in Detroit.

licity director, “is

members all Aryan (white America in good standing, fighting for Christian, gentile American nationalism under the traditional American constitutional system and hence fighting for outlawing all Jewish, atheistic, international Marxism and related phenomena.” A circular setting forth its aims announces among other things that the swastika has already become the common sign of recognition of defenders of Aryan nationalism “against the Bolshevik scourge in Germany” and other countries. At a crowded meeting in Itladison 'Square Garden in 'New York city on Te'b. 20, extraction, accepting as

gentile) citizens of the United States of

1939, ib observance of Washington’s birthday, speeches were to arouse hostility against the Jews and to defend

made intended

the Hitler program.

Kuhn, who was summoned

to

Washington

in

the winter to

appear before the Dies Congressional committee investigating un-

Bund had 71 branches with which 23 were in New York. A witness from the Department of Justice, however, testified later that after a thorough investigation it was impossible to find more than 6,614 members. Kuhn defended the anti-Jewish activities as American 20,000

activities, testified that the

members

in 19 States of

necessary if an Aryan democracy was to be preserved in the United States. Other ivitnesses before the committee testified that the Bund received financial support from Germany and that in spite of its protestations of support of the

American system of was actively engaged in propaganda in behalf of the totalitarian system of the Nazis. The Bund supports several newspapers devoted to furthering its purposes by attacks upon the Jews and by elaborate defence of what Hitler has done and is doing. The Federal Bureau of

government

it

Bund planned to open camps near every military post and every navy yard to enable it to attract officers and men to its meetings and induce them to co-operate with it. Camps operating as clubs have been maintained by branches in some of the States. The treaty between Hitler and Stalin, disclosed in late 1939, Investigation reported after inquiry that the

indicated that the hostility between the Nazis and the

Com-

munists was not so real as the Bund members had supposed and that the totalitarianism of the two was practically identical. This revelation was followed by a decline in membership and a modification in the form of propaganda circulated.

In early 1939 there were rumours that Kuhn had been using the funds of the Bund for his owm purposes. Following an inquiry by the district attorney of New York county the headquarters of

—

Bund

—

indicted for theft and falsifying the

New York city Kuhn was records. He was tried in the

was submitted

in support of the indictment.

the

horses.

—GERMANY

fall

are at 178 East 85th street.

of 1939 and proof

He was

convicted on Nov. 29, 1939, and sentenced to from twoand-a-half to five years’ imprisonment in Sing Sing. He is suc-

ceeded as head of the organization by G. Wilhelm Kunze, licity relations director.

(G.

its

pub-

W. Do.)

significant of trends in a primarily agricultural state.

(R. P. Bs.)

Georgian publics.

S. S. R.t see

Union of Soviet Socialist Re-

^ totalitarian State or dictatorship, known as the Third Reich, in Central Europe south of the North and Baltic seas and north of the Alps and Yugoslavia, bounded west by France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, and east (in 1939)

rormanu UHrillaliyi

GERMANY

313

From 1919 to 1939 East main territory of Germany by the

by Lithuania, U.S.S.R., and Hungarj'. Prussia was separated

from the

so-called Polish Corridor.

Capital, Berlin; Reich Chancellor

Leader {Fuehrer), Adolf Hitler

—

fUTHUANlAi ^^'^KAUNASk.,,

and

{q.v.).

was 181,742 June 16, 1933. The population was distributed among the 18 “Lands” (former States) and among the chief religious denominations in 1933 as follows:

Area and Population.

^The area of the old Reich

sq.mi.; population 66,029,000, census of

Lands

Total pop. Evangelical 39,692,167 7,681,584 5,196,652 2.606.6^2 2,412,931 1.673,703 i»6S9,5ro 1,429,048 804,948

Prussia

Bavaria

Saxony

....

Wiirttemberg

Baden

Hamburg Thuringia Hesse

Mecklenburg Brunswick Oldenburg

25,387,39s 2,203,499 4,522,856 1,811,797 943,540 1,485.636 933,473 764,794 454,250 428,43s 317, iSS 320,708 165,337 48.913 214,766

495,119 371,588 364,41s 175,538 49,955

Bremen Anhalt Lippe

Schaumburg-L Saarland*

Germany

66,029,000

41,080,024

Rom. Cath.

Jewst

12,571,007 5,370,719 196,839 839,678 1,408,532 63,538 44,894 439.048 31.831 21,904 133,265 24,122 13,008 8,427

361,826 41,939 20,584

674 588,074

187 3,117

21.755,560

502,977

10,023 20,617 16.973 2,882 17,888 1,003 1,174 1,240 1.438 901

510

Others

Brtunsehwaig

OChOWiJli

|

^

^

oFr.nkhjiT

Ky:^oTrier5M*™ S..xb)uc!c.„ '

o

EAiltmha Numkexg

^

'

__

^

oMiinchen

v

Wien

7,585 35,661

GERMANY

Grazo 29,798 1,264 181 5,030

Jan.

1,1939

tjews by religious faith; there are no census figures for Jews by was estimated that by the end of 1938 the Jews by faith had been reduced to

^Census of 1935. blood;

it

than 400,000.

less

'•Jl

There were (1933) 104 cities with a population of more than 50,000 each, and 567 cities and towns with more than 10,000 each. of the population lived in villages of less

About 32-5% 2,000; 10-6%

May

of the “Greater Reich,” according to the census

was 79,592,000, or 86,400,000 if the “ProBohemia-Moravia is included. This Greater Reich was created by Hitler’s annexation of the following territories: of

17,

1939,

L.L

-

X

* o FtanWtm .

4 ^ Trier ^ M&inz .1

5;-^’^J!J5aai^rucken

‘

oBrunn/'

tectorate” of

^

Jan. 13, 193s, Saarland, 864,000; March 13, 1938, Austria, 7,008,000; Oct. I, 1938, Sudetenland, 2,945,000; March 15, 1939, Bohemia-Moravia, 6,805,000; March 22, 1939, Memel Territory, 153,000. In addition, by his war against Poland in Sept. 1939, Hitler added to the 86,000,000 of the Greater Reich the populations of Danzig, the Polish Corridor, Posen,

and a

strip of terri-

tory east of Silesia. The Poles, as far as possible, were exterminated or removed from these conquered districts and their places taken by Germans from the Reich or by tens of thousands of

homes in Estonia, Latvia conquered more than half of the rest

Germans “repatriated” from

and Lithuania. Hitler

also

their old

he probably hopes puppet Polish state under German control.

of Poland; its population of about 15,000,000 to organize into a

—

History. In Sept. 1938 Hitler declared personally to Mr. Chamberlain and publicly in a speech at Berlin that “he had no more territorial ambitions in Europe.” Yet in less than a month, on Oct. 24, 1938, he secretly demanded from Poland the transfer to the Reich of Danzig {q.v.) and a strip of territory across the Polish Corridor to connect East Prussia with the rest of the Reich. The demand was renewed in Jan. 1939, but was neither accepted nor flatly rejected by Col. Beck, Poland’s foreign minister, when he visited Hitler at Berchtesgaden to discuss the question.

On March 15, 1939, Hitler summoned Dr. Hacha, who had succeeded Dr. Benes as president of Czecho-Slovakia, to a midnight conference at Berlin. Dr. Hacha was compelled by threats of force to sign

German

away the independence

of his country

and accept a was split

protectorate over Bohemia-Moravia. Slovakia

and formed into a republic, nominally independent but really under German control, because Germany acquired the right to

off

garrison districts on the Slovakian border toward Poland and to march German troops through Slovakia. This annexation of 6,-

000,000 Czechs in Bohemia-Moravia, under the guise of a German protectorate, increased greatly Europe’s fears of Hitler’s

j

:Thom "

than

towns of between 2,000 and 5,000; and 7-3% in betiveen 5,000 and 10,000; almost half the population towns of lived in communities of more than 10,000. in

The population

’Graudarw

^

''fV/.

GERMANY Jan.

1.

1940

showed the faithMunich Agreement that he had

aggressive intentions in Eastern Europe, and lessness of his promise after the

no more

territorial

ambitions in Europe. Moreover, in annexing

6,000,000 Czechs, he was departing from his earlier statements

was only seeking to bring into the Reich persons of GerHis pretext for annexing BohemiaMoravia, as he declared in his Reichstag speech of April 28, was his fear that Czecho-Slovakia might become a landing place for Russian aeroplanes and thus become the spearhead by which Russian Communism would attack Western civilization. Within a week of his annihilation of Czecho-Slovakia, Hitler demanded from Lithuania the former German territory of Memel, and annexed it on March 22, 1939. Encouraged by these successes, he renewed his demand on Poland for Danzig and a strip of territory across the Polish Corridor. The Poles, terrified by the fate which had overtaken Czecho-Slovakia and fearing that compliance would simply mean the first step in a dismemberment of Poland, at once rejected on March 26 Hitler’s renewed demand. Three days later Prime Minister Chamberlain announced that Great Britain would support Poland if Poland found it necessary to fight to defend her independence and her territory. This British that he

man

speech and culture.

guarantee to Poland angered Hitler,

who

believed that

it

en-

couraged Poland to reject his demands and to take up a provocative attitude toward the Reich by alleged oppression of the Ger-

man

minorities in Poland.

Germany and Poland

During the summer tension between

increased owing to recriminatory press at-

tacks on both sides and owing to the increased danger of armed conflict in Danzig into which the Nazis were smuggling arms and

German

“tourists.”

GERMANY

314

Great Britain repeatedly warned Hitler that she would live up Germany attacked Poland or

to her promise to support Poland if

tried to seize Danzig. Germany was warned not to make the same mistake as in 1914 of thinking that Great Britain would remain neutral in case of German aggression. But Hitler, advised by

Ribbentrop, his minister of foreign

appears to have thought

affairs,

that Great Britain could be bluffed out of supporting Poland.

was announced on August to sign a German-Soviet pact of friendship. This, Hitler thought, would frighten the Poles into handing over Danzig and the Polish Corridor and would deter England from carrying out her promise to Poland. But this time Hitler grievously miscalculated. Poland and Great Britain stood firm. Therefore Hitler invaded Poland on September i, and as a consequence found himself at war with Great Britain and France on September 3. (See European War.) The invasion of Poland seems to have been made against the advice of Italy. It marked the weakening, or perhaps even the breaking, of the Berlin-Rome Axis. The German-Soviet pact also

As

a

trump card

game of

in his

22 that Ribbentrop was flying to

bluff it

Moscow

proved a bitter disillusionment to Hitler.

It destroyed further

any faith in his sincerity, because it was a complete reversal of his whole previous policy; for years he had been denouncing the Russian Communists as the worst enemies of mankind. He had

would be the greatest folly to trust The German-Soviet pact failed completely as the expected trump card in the game of diplomatic bluff against Poland and the Western democracies. Hitler appears to have been duped by Stalin. The Russian dictator took advantage of Hitler’s war with Poland, France, and Great Britain repeatedly declared that

them or make an

it

to secure imperialist advantages for Russia: Stalin quickly invaded and annexed nearly half of Poland he imposed treaties on Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania giving Russia naval and aeroplane bases and militaiy garrisons in these three little Baltic States, which were thus brought under Russian domination. Hitler had to withdraw Germans whose ancestors had been living in these ;

countries for centuries.

German ambition

BERLIN’S BALLOON

BARRAGE

on a pre-war lest of air-raid defences

in

1939

alliance with them.

He

thus had to abandon the old Pan-

them to the Reich. The Russian attack on Finland in November appeared to be a further effort to strengthen Russian power in the Baltic in case of a possible future war against Germany. of adding

Education and

Religion.

drastic reorganization

—Education

under Nazi

rule.

has

gone through a

The period

of school at-

tendance was shortened by one year in 1937, Many new schools have been established for giving a year or two of professional or technical training;

for

many

students this will replace the last

years at the regular schools or at universities and the older technical institutes (Bochschule').

Many

schools have also been estab-

and for Governemphasis in them is placed on comradeship, sports, Nazi ideology and leadership. Attendance at Germany’s universities has been considerably lished for training “leaders” for the Nazi Party

ment

cut

positions;

down

ment

since the Nazi Revolution, partly owing to Govern-

restrictions

upon attendance, partly owing

to the decline

in the quality of teaching as a result of the dismissal or resig-

nation of Jewish and liberal professors, and partly owing to other causes. The Government tends to shift students from the large city universities to the smaller

town

universities, especially

those in Eastern Germany, where Nazi influence

is stronger. Thus, the figures for attendance in the winter semester of 1929-30, and the limiting quotas fixed by Bernhard Rust, the Reich minister of education, for the winter semester of 1937—38, were for the

larger universities respectively; Berlin, 7,162, 2,400;

16,149, 6,000; Cologne, Frankfurt, 5,242, 1,700; Hamburg, 3,995, 1,700;

Munich, 9,028, 4,800. By the end of 1939 there was a serious shortage of school teachers, skilled engineers and members of some other professional classes.

The Evangelical Protestants and the Roman Catholics, whose numbers and distribution are given in the table on p. 313, have suffered what they regard as severe persecution under the Nazi regime.

form a

The Protestant

regional churches took steps in 1933 to

Reich Church in accord with Hitler’s general policy of centralization. But aggressive Nazis, who ordinarily seldom attended church and who indulged in semi-pagan views,, mobilized single

their efforts to secure the election of Ludwig Mueller as Reich bishop of the new church. - This caused a split, which has grown deeper and deeper, between the official Evangelical Church and the really devout Christian Opposition pastors and their followers led by Dr. Martin Niemoeller.

Pope Pius XI signed with Hitler in 1933 a Concordat guaranteeing to the

Roman

Catholics the free exercise of their religion,

their religious schools,

and their various religious youth, profesand charitable organizations. The guarantees have not been observed. There was much fear among Roman Catholics at the end of 1938 that, after the Jews had been mulcted by the 1,000,sional

000, 000-mark fine, the Nazis would soon make a great upon Roman Catholic property.

capital levy

—

Finances and Banking. No exact statement can be made in German Government’s revenues and expenditures, as the budget has not been published since 1935. The taxes by the Central Government have nearly quadrupled since Hitler came to power, being about 6,000,000,000 marks for 1932-33, 11,500,000,000 for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1937, and estimated at regard to the

roughly 22,000,000,000 for the year ending March 31, 1940. This does not include taxes of about 4,000,000,000 marks levied by

Lands and local communities {Gemeinde). The exact debt is unknown, because the large amounts of Treasury bills issued build armaments, auto highways and other public works, and to

the

also

to

provide for the unemployed, are not counted in the debt until they fall

Between 1935 and Jan. 1939, the Government publicly by issuing 13 long-term loans totalling

due.

increased the Reich debt

over 15,000,000,000 marks, in order to take care of the Treasury bUls as they feU due and to consolidate the short-term indebted-

These loans all bore 42% interest, were issued at 98J, and were quoted in Jan. rg3g at a fraction above the issue price. They do not include two 500,000,000-mark loans issued by the State railway {Reiclisbahn) in 1936 and in 1939, nor loans by other Government enterprises. The total debt of the Reich in ness.

was conser\'atively estimated at more than 75,000,000,000 marks or $30,000,000,000 approximately the same per capita debt as in the U.S. on the same date. The Reichsbank’s gold and foreign exchange reserves, which were about 4,000,000,000 marks in r932, had shrunk to 70,000,000 at the end of 1939, and afforded only a 0-7% coverage for paper money, as compared with 24-7% in 1932 and with the 40% which before the World War (1914-18) was considered the lowest cov-

Jan. 1940

—

erage compatible with safety.

German mark,

The standard of currency is the money to 40.3325 cents. Owing

equivalent in U.S.

to the Government’s rigid control,

exchange value

its official

is

American and foreign equivalent. Trade and Communicafion. Since 1935 Germany’s exports and imports have been very strictly controlled, first by Dr. Schacht’s “new system,” and then by Goering’s dictatorial economic power as commissioner for the Four-Year Plan. Germany’s imports and exports, and resulting balance of trade during the

kept very close to

its

—

years 1932-39 were:

during their raid on the Firth of Forth Oct. 16. 1939; the Nazis claimed the plane was British

November

shorni by the following figures to Germany,” than those for the old Reich which are given in parentheses for each successive month: Greater Germany, —64 million marks (old Reich, 37 million marks); —30 (— 34 ); —36 (— 9 ); —69 (—33)- The trade balance deficit was also much greater in the later months of the year than the monthly average for the whole year (—36). Here, then, is one of Germany’s most serious problems for the future. If deficit in the trade balance continues to increase, as seems likely, it means that Germany is losing more and more of her foreign exchange, or more and more of her tiny gold supply, and will therefore be less able to buy food for her people and raw materials for her armaments and industries. And if she cannot get raw materials for her industries she will be less and less able to send out exports, which in turn will still further increase the deficit in

October,

be

much

in 1938

is

greater for “Greater

—

the trade balance.

Another factor in the deficit in the trade balance, especially for month of Nov. 1938, was probably the tightening of the foreign boycott against German goods as a result of the attacks upon the

THE BRITISH CRUISER "EDINBURGH”

ifonthly Average

Total Yearly

DISABLED PLANE photographed by Germans

above Rosyth naval base on the Firth

1932 1933 1934 193s 1936 1937 1938*

I93gt

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Imports

Exports

Balance

Imports

Exports

Balance

Million

Million

Million

Million

Million

Million

marks

marks

marks

marks

marks

marks

4,667 4,204 4,451 4,159 4,218 5,468 6,052 2,755

5,739 4,871 4,167 4,270 4,768 5,911 5,620

+1,072

389 350

478

+89 +56

371 347 352

347

2,8 i 4

59

.

+—

667 284

-r

III

+ + 7 +

SSO 443 432

406

-24

+

356 397 493 46S 468

456 S04 458

9

+46 +37

—36

+10

*Figures do not include Austria and Sudeten area. tFigures are for the first six months of 1939 only.

The above

figures show that the imports tend to increase, espe1937 and 1938, while the exports increase less, with the result that the balance of trade becomes less favourable. Among cially in

the reasons for this is the fact that Germany has increased her imports of raw materials for her rapidly growing armaments, and to some extent her imports of food for her people and fodder for her cattle. The figures do not include the exports and imports of the annexed Austrian and Sudeten territories. If they did so, the deficit in the trade balance would have been greater in 1938, since Austria

and the Sudeten

territories

have always had to im-

port a larger proportion of their food than has

Germany’s food problem goes, these two ity rather than an asset to Germany. This as

Germany;

territories are is

a

as far liabil-

partly indicated

by

the fact that the trade balance deficit in August, September,

315

the raid of Oct. 16,

1939

of

photographed from a German plane Forth after the ship was bombed during

.

ADOLF HITLER

reviewing ballered members of the Nazi corps in Prague after prooiaiming the German nroieciorale over Bohemia Mar. 16, 1939

projected.

They

Jewish synagogues and stores and the arrest of thousands of Jews

by a grass

strip,

which began on November lo. This was alleged by Dr. Goebbels to be the result of “the justified and' understandable anger of the

German people over

the cowardly Jewish

murder

of a

German

diplomat in Paris,” but was in fact organized by some of the more

Nazi authorities. The murder of Ernst vom Rath, a secreGerman embassy at Paris, by the young Polish Jew, Grynszpan, was speedily but illogically made the excuse for levying a gigantic fine of 1,000,000,000 marks upon the Jews of Germany. In this way the Nazis hoped to offset some of the deficit in their foreign trade balance and to acquire eventually some very much needed foreign exchange. But with the outbreak of war in Sept. 1939 the British blockade cut off more than 40% of Ger-

two-way roads, separated and without any crossings intersecting roads use bridges or underpasses. The highways have regard for scenic beauty, and are of great economic and strategic importance. They have cost nearly 3,000,000,000 marks (nearly $1,200,000,000), and have given employment to 230,000 workers, half directly and are magnificent concrete

;

radical

half indirectly.

tary in the

Manufactures, Mineral Production. Germany’s grain harvests were medium or poor in 1936 and i937> causing some food and ‘fodder shortage. This was partly offset by the 1937 potato crop, which reached an all-time high record, and by the grain harvest of 1938 which was exceptionally good. Latest Agriculture,

^

—

available figures for principal crops in thousands of metric tons are;

many’s overseas trade. The e.xact figures are not available because with the outbreak of war Germany ceased the monthly publication of her trade

statistics.

The German

State railway

{Reichsbahn')

included in

1935,

and 879km. (S46mi.) of narrow gauge lines. Privately owned lines were 3,732km. (2,3i3mi.) of standard and 7S2km. (476mi.) of narrow gauge. Owing to Hitler’s great efforts for the rapid completion of S3, 330km.

(33,076mi.)

of

standard

gauge

lines

on the western frontier against France during the summer of 1938, on which 500,000 men were employed and on which vast quantities of cement and steel were employed, the railways were somewhat neglected. There were many com-

•Figures for ipsp are estimated. The total grain harvest was estimated at 27,430,000 metric tons, ».e., 6.4% more than the total for 1938.

a line of fortifications

toward the end of 1939 that trains were late and were unable to handle freight promptly. In 1939 the disruption of train schedules led during the latter

plaints

part of the year to a series of disastrous wrecks. German inland shipping in 1937 included 5,375 vessels moving

Owing to Germany’s lack of gold and foreign exchange with which to buy raw materials. Hitler established in 1936 the FourYear Plan. Its purpose is to develop Germany’s own resources and furnish substitutes for goods and raw materials formerly imported, The “Hermann Goering Reich Stock Company for Ore Mining and Iron Smelting” for the mining of low grade iron ore in the Salzgitter district in Central Germany near Hanover was expected to produce 1,000,000 tons of crude steel by 1940 when the plant is

under their own power and totalling 528,000 tons; and 12,488 canal boats and other vessels without power, totalling 5i®35>ooo tons. High-seas shipping included 3,579 vessels with a total regis-

completed.

tered net tonnage of 2,238,000. In 1938, as a result of the yearlong trial of Arnold Bernstein for alleged evasion of German

much

foreign exchange laws, his two lines, the Bernstein

and Red Star

German control. Germany had completed the construction of 3,000km. (i,864mi.) of the new automobile highway network

Lines, passed under

By

the end of 1938

{Reichsautohalm')

01 L

This completes about half of the highways

wood

Synthetic gasoline, rubber, soap, textiles partly of

products, and other substitute (^Ersatz) products are already

being successfully developed, but at a high cost; they demand labour and invested capital furnished in part by the State,

and threaten the ultimate exhaustion of Germany’s forest and mineral resources. They have caused such a shortage of labour that it is estimated that 60% of Germany’s industrial workers now have to work 12 (and in some cases 14) instead of 8 hours a day. Germany’s principal mineral and manufactured products were as follows in metric tons:

GHAZI IBN FEISAL— GIRL SCOUTS

IHIH .... Coal

Lignite

.

.

.

Iron Ore

.

.

Zinc

.... ....

Rock

salt

Lead

Potash Pig iron Steel

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

1933 109.532.600 126.756.600 2,592,000 91,000 162,000 1,841,300 7,362,800 5,246,500 7,393.200

1934 125,405.600 137,223,400 4 , 343,000 98,400 212,800 2,024,200 9.616.700 8.716.700 11,601,700

1935

1936

1937

143,491,300 147,162,100 6,044,000 122,300 205,000 2,077,200 11.672.500 12,846,200 16.013.500

159,756,600 161,426,900 7,570,000 139,000 207,700 2,383,800 11,764,600 15.302.500 18,590,900

184.500.000 184.700.000 9.792.000 158,500 194,300 2.767.000 14.460.000

317

15,^0,000 29.387.000

(5ec also Anti-Semitism; Armies of the World; Balkan Entente; Bohemia and Moravia; Brazil; Communism; Czecho-Slovakia; Education: General World Trends; European War; Fascism; Minorities; Propaganda; Religion; Roman Catholic Church; Ruthenia; Slovakia; United States: Roosevelt and the Dictators; Youth Movements.) Bibliography. See Statistisches Jahrbuch jtir das Deutsche Reich (annual); F. M. Marx, Government in the Third Reich (1936, nenr ed. 1937); Stephen H. Roberts, The House that Hitler Built (1937); Fritz Ermarth, The New Germany (1936); E. Y. Hartshorne, German Universitics and National Socialism (1937); K. Schuschnigg, My Austria (193S); Germany Speaks: by 21 Leading Members of Party and State (1938); H. Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism (1939); Elizabeth Wiskemann, Undeclared War (1939); R. W. Seton-AVatson, From Munich to Danzig (1939); British Blue Book: Documents Concerning the Outbreak of Hostilities Between Great Britain and Germany (1939); Events: A Monthly Review of World A§airs (New York). (S. B. F.)

—

Ghazi Ibn Feisal

(1912-1939), King of Iraq, was bom on 21, at Mecca and succeeded to

March

the throne as Ghazi I on Sept. 9, 1933, following the death of Feisal I, his father, in Switzerland. He was educated at Harrow

and the Royal Iraqi Military college. His reign was marked by and by his promotion of large-scale projects to modernize the kingdom. A revolt in 1935 was suppressed by the youthful ruler, but in October of the following year a sudden coup d’etat, preceded by the assassination of the minister of defence, placed Gen. Baqir Sidqi in political control. Sidqi was himself assassinated in Aug. 1937, and the unrest continued. Ghazi’s treaty of alliance with King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia was a notable step toward Pan-Arab unity in the Near East but did not prevent the king from maintaining cordial relationships with France and Great Britain. Ghazi was married on Sept. 19, 1933 to h's cousin Aaliah, the daughter of the late King Ali of the Hejaz. His son, born May 2, 1935, became King Feisal II under a regency when Ghazi died April 4 after a motor car accident near the royal palace in Baghdad. A rumour that Ghazi had been murdered by British citizens caused the assassination of the British consul in Mosul the same day.

periodic internal disorders

Gibbons, Floyd (Pbillips) nalist and war correspondent, was born at Washington, D.C., on July 16 and was educated at Gonzaga college and Georgetown university. IBs first reportorial assignment was with The Minneapolis Daily News in 1907. Later he worked for The Milwaukee Free Press and The Minneapolis Tribune. In 1912 he joined the staff of The Chicago Tribune, where he received considerable attention for his reporting of the Villa revolution in Mexico. He was aboard the British liner “Laconia” when it was torpedoed off the coast of Ireland Feb. 25, 1917, and reported the disaster in a lengthy dispatch. After America’s entry into the World War, he was appointed war correspondent for the Tribune on the western front; during the battle of Chateau-Thierry he was seriously wounded and lost the sight of

one eye. After the war he was “roving” correspondent in Russia. He also covered the Japanese conquest of Manchuria and the Italo-Ethiopian for France as a his

home

at

war of 1935-36- Gibbons was preparing to leave war correspondent when he died September 24 in

Saylorsburg, Pennsylvania.

Among

his

published

works are The Red Knight of Germany (1927) and The Red Napoleon (1929).

GERMAN VETERANS shal

Gilbert, Prentiss Bailey was bom in Rochester, N.Y., on October 3 and was educated at the University of Rochester and at Yale, Columbia, and the Colejio de San Carlos at Cebu in the Philippines. He was a special aide in the Philippines during the Spanish-American war and was promoted from first lieutenant to major. General Staff, during the World War. In 1919 he was appointed chief of the U.S. Division of Political and Economic Intelligence. He became chief of the division of Western European affairs in the Department of State in 1924. He was first secretary of the American embassy in Paris in 1930, U.S. consul at Geneva from 1930 to 1937, and counsellor to the embassy in Berlin from 1937 until his death. After the recall of Ambassador Hugh R. Wilson on Nov. 14, 1938, Gilbert was the ranking American diplomat in Germany. He died in Berlin February 24.

Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony:

see British Possessions in

the Mediterranean.

see Pacific Islands,

British. (1878-1939), U-S.

Cilman lawronPD ulllIlQll, LdniClIbC

-was

bom

critic

and author,

at Flushing, N.Y., on July 5.

See Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 10, p. 356, for his biogralist of his principal works. Since 1923 he had been music critic of The New York Herald-Tribune, and from 1933 to 1936 he was radio commentator for the Sunday broadcasts of the New York Philharmonic-Symphony concerts. He died at Sugar

phy and a

Hill,

N.H., on September

9.

Gin: see Liquors, Alcoholic. Ginger: see Spices. ® voluntary leisure-time organization in the C!rl Qnniite ulll uwUUlb, United States for girls from seven to eighteen

years old; Its program offers activities in the fields of

homemakcommunity life, international frienddramatics and literature, arts and crafts, music and danc-

ing, nature, out-of-doors,

ship,

ing, health

Gibraltar:

of the Spanish civil war marched in review past Air Martheir arrival in Hamburg May 31, 1939

Hermann Goering upon

and safety, sports and games.

various ages: the Brownie program

is

It is

adapted to

girls

of

for girls from seven to ten

GLANDS AND HORMONES — GOLD

318

years old; the Girl Scout program for girls from ten to 14 years old; and the Senior Girl Scout program for girls from 14 to 18 years old.

G irl Scouts in

•V,

'-/

"

the United States. Girl Scouts, Inc. (the official title

of the organization)

is

a

member

of the

World Association of

Girl

i ;•

5?

Guides and Girl Scouts which has headquarters in London, Eng-

The world membership

aU

members of the World Associa-

Thirty-one countries are

land.


’

260 \ otes

.

.

.

Total Self Balancing Expenditures Total Expenditure Total Revenue Balance

212

21Z 8

226

223 55 81

7

40

SI 18

18 307

320

343

S3

56 17

339

346

4S8

38s

Sinking Fund Post Office Vote -

1934-35

,

Total Ordinary Expenditures

.

1933-34

38 17

Votes

Includes Broadcasting.

'6

56

Customs and Excise and Inland Kevenue Total Supply Services

1932-33

6

Votes

Road Fund

1931-32

6

Air Votes Civil

1930-31

...

701

738

59

S8

81

I2

829 815

858

-14

-23

8Sx

81 851 8si

tThcsc were pre-war estimates. See text for comments.

68s 8 59 82 859 827

-32

8S 778

809 31

472 697

45 65 27

362 13 512

738 X2

62

88 797

80S 8

66 26 92 842 84s 3

so 368 13

567

790 13 72 27

1937-38

1938-39

216 9 3 228 63 78

230 16

sfi

74 427

394 14 60s 833

l 939-4 ot

230 17

435

IS

IS

698 944

697 942

ZI

—

76*

8 i*

S3 *

76 920 949

81

84

902 897

1,C 25

1,026 1,006

-s

29

“30

99

995

—20

GOVERNORS AND PREMIERS — GRAY. CARL

326

plant, including buildings

During the

$16,765,000.

and equipment wiU then be well over year 1939 there were 3,500 em-

fiscal

ployees on the rolls of the Government Printing Office with a

The

payroll of approximately $11,300,000.

produced a total

Office

of 128,676,071 publications of all classes. This total includes 5.302,269 copies of the Congressional Record; 5,330,421 copies of specifications of patents, trade marks, designs, etc.;

and 233,038

copies of the Official Patent Office Gazette and annual inde.xes.

Postal cards printed amounted to 2,136,042,180; mone}’ orders shipped, 261,804,697; and the Stores Diiision handled approxi-

mately 9o,ooo,ooolb. of paper. During the year 1939 the Division of Public Documents mailed out 944,076,072 publications and forms;

its

receipts

from the

sale of

Government publications durThe total value of all

ing the year amounted to $928,459.88.

was $18,238,045.10.

printing done

(A. E. Gi.)

R.

Production of grapes in the United States in 1939 was November i by the Department of Agricul-

PronDe uid|JCo>

reported

ture as 2,470,530 tons, compared to 2,703,000 in 1938 and a tenyear average (1928-37) of 2,214,995 tons. Production in Canada

was 50,444,3001b.

in 1939 and 35,973,6001b. in 1938. The United States exported in the market year of July 1938 to June 1939 almost 40,000 short tons of table grapes, or 14% more than 1938

and 155% more than the five-year average. United States grapes having taken a large part of the European market previously sup-

by Spain. Of the 1939 exports 15,205 short tons were to the United Kingdom, 13,923 to Canada, i,5ii.to Mexico, 1,267 to the Philippines, 1,248 to Sweden, 1,135 to Cuba. Production of all

plied

2,173,000 tons in 1939 and 2,531,000 tons in 1938, or 1,255,000 tons of raisin grapes, 548,000 tons of wine grapes and 370,000 tons of table grapes in 1939. In 193S

Y’arieties in California ivas

California produced 1,443,000 tons of raisin grapes, 641,000 tons

Governors and Premiers, British: see British Empire. Gozo: see British Possessions in the jMediterranean, "Graf Spee": see Great Britain; Hispanic America and THE European War; Langsdoref, Hans; Munitions of War; Neutrality; Submarine Warfare; Uruguay'; European War. Grain: xee Barley; Cereals; Corn; Oats; Rice; Ry'e; Wheat. Grand Coulee Dam: see Dams; Electric Transmission and Distribution Washington. ;

of wine grapes and 447,000 of table grapes. Pndvction of Gropes by Sfaies, 1938 and 1939

California

New York Michigan Ohio

.

.

.

.

.

.

Pennsylvania Missouri . . Ulinois

(^267-1939). u.s. architect, was

.

. .

....

Arkansas

.

.

.

Rranirpr AlfrPti Hnut uIdllgCl) nlllCU nUjl bom May 31 at Zanesi'ille, Ohio, and was educated at Kenyon college, Massachusetts Institute of

North Carolina Iowa Washington .

Technology and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. After practising in Cleveland he formed a partnership in Chicago; in 1898. Among the buildings designed by him are the La Salle street and Chicago

Oklahoma

.

.

New Jersey

.

.

& North Western Omaha,

tYY’O

terminals in Chicago, the Union station in

buildings for Indiana university and the Medical and

Dental buildings of the University of 3 at Roxburj', Conn.

Granite: £

p

see

He

Illinois.

died

December

The United

iji

had a crop of 36,600,000 boxes in

1939, the Department of Agriculture estimated November i. This compares with 43,794,000 bo.xes in 1938 and a ten-year av'erage (1928-37) of 18,923,000 boxes. These figures illustrate the im-

portant part of grapefruit in the citrus fruit development which

has e.xpanded more than any other agricultural commodity in the last 20 years. All the United States production is in four States

and was as follows

Florida

Texas

The

.

-

.

-

....

in

1939 and 1938;

1939 boxes

1938 boxes

17,100,000 15,200,000

23.600.000 15.670.000

Florida crop was

made up

Arizona

.

California

.

.

.

..

1939 boxes

193S boxes

2.500.000 1.800.000

2,700,000 1,824,000

of 6,900,000 boxes of seedless

and 10,200,000 boxes of other varieties. Texas grapefruit W’as shipped to Europe for the first time in 1939. E.xports of grapefruit from the United States for the crop years ending Aug. 1939 and 1938

w'ere to the following countries: 1939 boxes

Canada

835.000 243,700 27,100

United Kinsdom France

Norway Germany Netherlands

.

.

.

Sweden Newfoundland and Labrador ....

18,900 18,000 15,700 9.500

7.400

193S boxes 685,400 213,600 32,500 3,500 1,400 10,300 1,300

.

.

....

Nebraska Texas .... Kentucky . .

Virginia.

.

Connecticut Tennessee

.

.

.

tons

tons

2,173,000 75 , 600 58,100 42,800 23.200 12,500 8,800 8,200 7,500 S.Soo

2,531,000 SS,6oo 16,900 9,800 XS.7OO 6,200

2,000 1,830 1,750

1,500 1,660

l, 7 CO

24CO

1,170

1,240

840 750

860

Sr40O

4,800 4,100 3,200 3,100 3,000 2 ,SOO

.

2,750 2, 600

. .

1939

tons

.

.

South CaroHna

2,460 2,240 2,020

6^00 4,800 6,6oo 5,000 5,500 2,200 3,100 2,500 2,SoO 3,100 2,000 2,390 2,000 1,960 1,590 1,670

Delaware

.

.

.

Georgia

.

.

.

West

Virginia

.

Oregon .... New Mexico. .

Utah Maryland

.

.

Aiixona . Massachusetts.

7 10

Florida

670 SSo 500 490 290 290 230 110

.

.

Idaho

.... ....

Colorado Wisconsin

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Mississippi . Rhode Island

.

Minnesota

.

Nex’ada

.

.

.

New Hampshire Louisiana

.

.

.

Vermont Maine .... .

.

.

1938

430

sSo 730 540 S20 590 650 430 270 250 220 xoo 70 so

7cx>

no 50 so

40 30

30

Philippine Islands

.

New

.

.

.

.

Zealand

.

Malaya

British

Australia

Hongkong China

^

Argentina

....

1939 boxes

193S boxes

5,300 4,000 3,500 3,400 3,400 1,900 1,200

4,900 6,100 4,000 3,700 2,300

800 2,400

S.ooo (S.

O. R.)

0. R.)

E^orts

of graphite from Chosen in 1938 increased 139^ over 1937, to 50,200 metric tons, and from Madagascar by 11% to 12,500 tons, while Ceylon dropped 32%

PrsnhitO

States, the world’s leading producer

of grapefruit,

Kansas

.

,93s

tons

(S.

Marble and Granite.

uld[lGnUil>

.

Indiana

1939

and Mexico 28% to 8,200 tons; figures are lacking Germany, but on the basis of past outputs, including Austria

to 11,750 tons

for

and Czecho-Slovakia, the country now has a potential output

of

45,000-50,000 tons. Producers of less importance include Canada, India, Italy, Japan and Norway. Production in the United States has almost ceased. It is important to note that with the annexation of Austria and Czecho-Slovakia, Germany became at the same

time the largest producer of graphite, and the only consumer of importance with a surplus supply from domestic sources; all other consuming countries are dependent on imports for most or all of their supply of graphite. (G. A. Ro.)

Grasshoppers: see Entomology: Gravel: see Sand and Gratcl.

Crnu Pari Davmnnri UlflJ, uail ndJIllUIIU

Locusts and Grasshoppers.

(1867-1939), American railroad

was

bom

e.x-

on September 28 at Princeton, Arkansas. After he had completed his preparatory training he decided to withdraw from school for a time. Finding employment with a railroad at Fayetteville, Ark., in 1883, he never resumed his formal education. He remained with his first employer, the St. Louis and San Francisco railway until 1911, during which time he rose from “helper of a station agent’s helper” to senior vice president. In 1912 he became president of the Great Northern railway; in 1914 president of the Western Maryland railway. In 1918 he was director of operations under the U.S. ecutive,

GREAT BRITAIN Government’s wartime

supervision of railroads.

He was

appointed

president of the Union Pacific system in 1920 and remained in this position until his retirement

on Oct.

i,

vice chairman of the board of directors. '

1937,

when he became

On Dec.

6,

1936, his

soth wedding anniversary, he and his wife were guests at a dinner attended by 1,400 prominent U.S. railroad officials. He died on May 9 at Washington, D.C.

327

hand, in view of the very real possibility that so,

he immediately redoubled

On March

the,

it

w’ould not do

plan of rearmament.

Munich agreement and on the annexed the Czech and Slovak remainders of

16 Hitler tore up the

flimsiest of pretexts

what had been Czechoslovakia. The Czech country was taken into the Reich, and the old provincial names of Bohemia and Moravia restored; Slovakia retained a spectral semblance of independence,

which did not prevent

its

subsequent use as a base for the

in-

vasion of Poland.

&

Great Britain

Northern Ireiand,

This ended a chapter, and with

it

the so-called policy of ap-

peasement, a policy which was not proved the wrong one by the

UllllcU IxlllgUUIII Ul. 30, 1939) 47,680,500 (England and Wales, 41,375,000). Chief towns (pop. est. June 30, 1938): London, cap., 4,062,800; Glasgow (June 30, 1939), 1,131,500; Birm-

fact that

ultimately failed. In politics as in science the experi-

it

ment which

fails is

often a necessary antecedent to the policy

which succeeds.

Liverpool, 827,400; Sheffield, 520,000; Leeds, 494,000; Edinburgh

Hitler’s ambitions were now revealed beyond question; they were as unlimited as the fantasias of Mein Kampf. Indeed the man

(June 30, 1939), 473,200 Belfast (Jan. i, 1939), 443, 5oo; Bristol, 415,000; Hull, 318,700. Ruler; King George VI; premier; Rt.

man

ingham,

Manchester (including Salford), 932,300;

1,041,000;

;

Hon. Neville Chamberlain; Church. History.

—

^It is

religion; chiefly Protestant Episcopal

sjmibolic of the misfortunes of our times,

and

of 1939 in particular, that none of the European great powers has time and leisure for a history of its own. Practically all that passes traditionally under the heading of politics,

home

affairs,

domestic

the continuous effort to readjust national institutions to

the needs of an ever developing society, the pursuit of a better national

life,

and the

mentary parties as

—

secured

traditional conflict of the historic parlia-

to the

means by which these ends should be

or almost

all of it has to be cut out. Nearly rearmament; rearmament is the handmaid of foreign policy, and foreign policy has been forced across the Rubicon into war. European history is once again all one, and all this

domestic activity

all

is

in the worst sense.

division of chapters of history in accordance with the calendar year is inevitably artificial, and it so happens that Jan. i,

1939 falls midway between the making of the Munich treaty and the breaking of it. Mr. Chamberlain’s Munich policy divided the country, and that was really

its justification. For if only half (though probably more than half) the population supported the

made

to Hitler,

follows that only half

it

would

have supported with complete conviction the only possible alternative, which was war a war the immediate cause of which, at any rate, would have been Great Britain’s refusal to permit the transfer of 3,000,000 Sudeten Germans from a foreign to a German Government. The case for Munich was twofold. It was on the one hand a final test of Nazi good faith. If what Hitler had always said was true, that his only expansionist aim was the fulfilment of what had after all been the professed ideal of the victors

—

of igi8, the adjustment of frontiers in accordance with principles of nationality, then the Sudeten crisis would indeed be the last

and Hitler would

settle

down,

Bismarck after 1871, to a

like

policy of stabilization; for there were, except for the special cases of the German speaking peoples in Switzerland and Alsace certain isolated groups of

Germans

in

and Hungary and Rumania no

more Germanic groups of

all

that

to which Hitler could lay claim. In spite was hateful ahout Nazi methods at home and abroad,

the Sudeten case was, after

all,

weak

a

Annageddon. The other ground of

case for precipitating

justification for

Munich was

now

frankly acknowledged, British rearmament was, in Sept. 1938, quite insufficiently advanced. Mr. Chamberlain’s course of action immediately after his return

that, as is

from Munich was

entirely in accordance with both these lines of the one hand he expressed a firm hope, wth what degree of inward assurance we do not yet know, that Munich

argument.

Lebensraum (living room), the new Nazi alias for pan-Germanism as the ke3rword. One can understand the German point of view. Other European peoples, British, French, Russian, even Dutch and Portuguese, being situated on the circumference of Europe, had expanded over other continents. The Germans, situated so unfortunately in the centre and only achieving the power of unity so late, must also expand. It was not primarily an economic need but something deeper and of letters.

imperialism, superseded

a prestige complex. Failing a dominion over nonEuropean peoples Germany must dominate the smaller European peoples by whom she was surrounded. These peoples were not only smaller but in her view inferior, and the proper fodder of imperialism, what Kipling, in reference to peoples enjoying the benefit of inclusion within the British Empire, had called “lesser less rational,

—

breeds without the law.”

But deeper than

The

concessions then

of action clearly intended to translate into fact the fancies of the

On

would prove the harbinger of “peace

in our time.”

On

the other

but

it

this

The

to avenge defeat.

was a mere

was doubtless the longing of the Germans was the Diktat of Versailles,

pretext alleged

pretext.

—

'Whatever the faults of that treaty and they are often exaggerated they had practically all been rectified by 1939, except for the return of a miscellaneous and relatively unimportant col-

—

lection of overseas colonies

which

Hitler, speaking the truth for

once, had declared to be not worth a w’ar. What rankled was the fact of defeat and the unsophisticated longing for a return match

with a different

result.

Any schoolboy

can understand this; and

based on systematically barbarized youth. In this sinister respect war is still a sport, not of kings but of peoples, and President Wilson’s earlier and derided ideal of “peace without victory” gains a fresh significance, for it may be doubted if the victory of 1918, ev’en without the vengeance of the

power of Hitlerism

Versailles, could

in the

is

have achieved the better world which the victors in 1939 will have to try to establish.

war which began

In the new conditions inaugurated by the final destruction of initiaCzechoslovakia, Great Britain and France at once took the

Formal guarantees of protection, subsequently elaborated in Eastern Europe and betreaties, were extended to the states of \dctims of aggression next the be to likely seemed yond which for Great Britain Poland, Turkey, Rumania and Greece. This was it was remembered that in 1925. for departure; a momentous treaty. Great Britain while guaranteeing the "Western” Locarno tive.

had refused

to guarantee the Eastern treaty concerning the fron-

tiers of Poland.

The guarantee to Greece envisaged the possibility of attack from Italy, who had invaded Albania three weeks after Germany occupied Czechoslovakia. On May 22 a treaty of military alliance was concluded between Italy and Germany, and there seemed every reason to suppose that a war with one of the “Axis” powers would mean a war wdth the other, especially as, while Germany

GREAT BRITAIN

328

was conducting a furious press campaign against Great Britain, the Italian press was treating France, presumably by arrangement, to a similar series of tirades.

Meanwhile the German preliminaries to an attack on Poland were developing along all too familiar lines, the demand for Danseparated zig and the so-called corridor of Polish territory which Danzig and East Prussia from the main body of the Reich, playing the same part as the demand for the Sudeten territory had played in the case of Czechoslovakia. It was obvious policy in these circumstances to bring Russia into the anti-aggression

Franco-British negotiators were sent over in

ance.

spite of vaguely hopeful reports little progress It

was a discouraging circumstance that

alli-

May, but

seemed

to be

in

made.

at an early stage of the

negotiations Litvinov, of recent years a strong upholder of the

League of Nations, gave place to Molotov, about whom nothing favourable was known, as foreign minister of the U.S.S.R. The British Labour party blamed the supposedly “Fascist” leanings of

Mr. Chamberlain for the lack of progress

now apparent

in these negotiations,

was the surrender of the independence of some of the Baltic states, and this was a price Great Britain was not prepared to pay. On general grounds it is obvious that Russia would wish to get back the predominantly Russian regions of eastern Poland, regions which the Polish Government had originally occupied in disregard of the frontier laid down for eastern Poland after the last war, and that on this demand she could do a deal with Germany but not with Britain. However, in July allied negotiations with Russia reached a point at which it seemed reasonable to send over a Franco-British milibut

it is

that Russia’s price

common

tary mission to concert measures of case of

military action in

more than

half the intended evacuees availed themselves of the

provided, and of them a considerable number have already drifted back to their homes. The social problems, both in general and in every single “reception” household, may well profacilities

vide themes for novels

now

being written. Whatever the

evils

slum children have experienced a country holiday on a scale no philanthropic society could ever hope to entailed, thousands of

give them.

At the end

of

March the Government announced

the doubling

of the Territorial army, raising the numbers to 340,000. In May the Compulsory Service Bill was carried through all its stages after half-hearted opposition

from the Labour

for six months’ compulsory training for of 20 and 21.

The

party. It provided

men between

all

men were

the ages

up in July, and the measure was of course later supplemented by a general measure of conscription under which all between the ages of 20 and 41, outside certain reserved occupations, are liable to be called up as required. There were a few thousand conscientious objectors, far fewer than seemed likely a few years ago, and the generous treatment accorded them avoided the bitterness that this subject

batches of

called

aroused in “left-wing” circles during the later stages

of the last war.

Britain

first

There

indeed, no pacifist problem in Great Labour party’s only quarrel with the be that their war measures are not suffiis,

today, and the

Government seems

to

ciently drastic.

war with Germany.

On August

first few days of September 1,500,000 people, mostly children and mothers of children under five years of age, were evacuated from dangerous areas. These were precautions against a form of attack, the wholesale air raid, which has not yet been launched. Evacuation was voluntary. Not much

the whole population. In the

21 the whole situation

was transformed by the news who had

During the

earlier

months of the year there was a strong

de-

that the Nazis, the authors of the Anti-Comintern front,

mand in

always proclaimed as their special mission the protection of European civilization from Bolshevism, were about to conclude a

and more particularly for the inclusion of Mr. Churchill. As soon as war broke out Mr. Churchill joined the war cabinet and went

pact of non-aggression with Russia. Only 12 days

now remained

before the outbreak of the war, an interval exactly the that between the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia

of

war

As a matter

in 1914.

of fact the delay

same

as

and the outbreak was longer than

might have been expected since, from the Nazi standpoint, nothing seemed to remain to be done. While Europe mobilized, various neutrals, among them Mussolini, made offers of mediation that were foredoomed to fail, and on September i, alleging that the Poles had rejected peace terms which in fact they had never seen to have been composed solely for purposes of subsequent propaganda. Hitler sent his air force to bombard Warsaw. The next day the British and French ultimatums demanded

and which seem

the immediate withdrawal of

German

forces

from Polish

territory.

the time limits attached to these ultimatums had expired Great Britain and France were once again at war with Germany. There can be no doubt that the progress made in national de-

When

fence by Great Britain in the ii months between “Munich” and the outbreak of the war was an amazing achievement, which was

prolonged in crescendo during the first months of the war, in which none of the services except the navy were fully engaged.

For anything approaching a Blitzkrieg (lightning war) against his principal antagonists Hitler seems to have realized from the first

that he

was too

late.

Here

it is

possible to mention only a

first list of areas to be evacuated and the prime minister appealed for the enrolment of volunteers for national service. In February the first steel air raid shelters were delivered in London. By the

few

salient facts.

in the event of

In January the

war was

issued,

outbreak of war a civil defence force of A.R.P. (air raid precaution) workers, 2,500,000 strong, was ready for mobilization. Trenches to hold 500,000 had been dug and steel shelters to protect 6,500,000

had been

distributed.

Gas masks were supplied to

the press for a broadening of the base of the Government,

to his old war-station at the Admiralty. sisted of nine

The war

cabinet con-

members, most of them the heads of departments

directly concerned with the conduct of the war.

Labour and Liberal

The

leaders of the

were invited to join the government, but refused on the ground that at present they could perform more parties

useful service outside.

Before proceeding to outline the events of the war up to the it is necessary to mention certain events unconnected with the war which befell in the pre-war period.

end of the year

When

the year opened the formidable Arab rebellion against

Government and the Jewish colony was still in progress though the worst of it was over. The Palestine Conference in London, during February and March, ended in pre-ordained failure as neither Jews nor Arabs would even discuss each other’s proposals, and the colonial secrethe British

tary issued a British scheme the main feature of which was that the British did not propose to undertake responsibility for the thankless task of governing Palestine for more than 10 years. Since the war began both Jews and Arabs have for the time being laid aside their differences

and undertaken to support the

British

Government. In March the Spanish civil war came to an end, and General Franco’s government received British recognition. In the same month President Lebrun paid a state visit to England and in May the King and Queen made an e.xtensive Canadian tour after which they visited President Roosevelt at Washington. The record of social legislation, in the ordinary sense of the term, was perforce meagre, rearmament and foreign policy occupying most of the time and an even larger share of the attention of both government and parliament. When war broke out many bills

of a contentious character had to be abandoned, and

it

was a

pity

‘

GREAT BRITAIN among them was a comprehensive Criminal Law Reform Bill. Attempts were made to save it as it was for the most part an that

agreed measure, apart from the clauses abolishing the infliction of corporal

punishment except for serious offences committed by It is, however, worth

The Prime

329 Minister's weekly reviews of progress have been

supplemented from time to time by reviews of the activities of the different services by the ministers in charge of them. Among the critics, Mr. Greenwood, deputy leader of the Labour opposi-

prisoners while serving their sentences.

tion, distinguished himself

recording that in spite of the crushing burden of taxation for

otism of his utterances.

defence purposes there was no curtailment whatever of the social

Unemployment fell steadily during the first half of the year and the last two months of peace showed the lowest totals (about 1,200,000) for 10 years. The first months of the war

services.

brought a

rise in these figures

because the dislocation of peace

industries exceeded at first the development of

war employment,

thus repeating the experience of 1914.

The

year, again like 1914, and also 1931, the year of the “greatIn his April

slump,” suffered the misfortune of two budgets.

make provision for an e.xpenditure compared with £400,000,000 in the previous year), and of this sum £380,000,000 was to be raised by borrowing. Total expenditure for the year (April 1939-March 1940), including the sum to be borrowed, was estimated at £1,322,000,000. The standard rate of income tax was left vmchanged at ss.6d, but rates of surtax and estate duty were increased, as also the tax on private motor cars, tobacco and sugar. The estimates on which this budget was based were already out of date before the end of the session in July. On Sept. 27, 1939, Sir John Simon introduced a war budget, envisaging expenditure of practically £2,000,000,000 up to the end of the financial year. The standard rate of income tax was now raised to 7s. for the remainder of the current year and 7s.6d. in a full year, and a tax of 60% was imposed on the profits above previous standards of all trades and businesses. By these and other additional taxes the chancellor hoped to raise just over half the estimated expenditure out of current revenue. Loans suitable for small subscribers were issued before the end of the year, borrowing from the general public on a larger scale being postponed until 1940. Economists have been exercised in their minds by the allied problems of borrowing and inflation, and Mr. Keynes put forward a scheme for a compulsory loan, collected after the manner of income tax and repayable in the slump period which Criticism appeared to suggest that, is bound to follow the war. though the scheme might be logically sound, it was not yet, and budget. Sir John Simon had to of £630,000,000 on defence (as

might nev'er be, politically feasible. Parliament was recalled on Aug. 24, 1939, three days after the announcement of the Russo-German pact. It continued to sit for several days each week until the Christmas recess. At first its principal duty was to enact a spate of emergency legislation, prepared in advance and held in readiness for the occasion. Since then the meetings have both mirrored the essential unity of the nation and afforded a platform for outspoken criticism of ways and means.

The outbreak

of the

war

by the vigorous and outspoken revealed, as aU but the

the unity of the Empire. the freedom of

Eire,

commonwealth

it

is

true,

enemy

patri-

expected,

availed herself of

institutions to declare her neutral-

In South Africa, General Hertzog, intending to pursue a similar policy, was defeated in his parliament by 80 votes to 67 ity.

and replaced by General Smuts, who shares with Mr. Churchill the honour of being a leading statesman in both the German wars.. Canada, Australia and New Zealand were all in from the start, and Canadian troops and Australian airmen had already reached Great Britain before the end of the year. In India the performances of Congress politicians did not conceal the profound agreement of the Indian peoples with the determination of the rest of the Empire to destroy the forces of Hitlerism, and Indian troops were already serving in France before the year ended. All other parts of the 'Empire served the common cause, each ac' cording to its capacitj' and opportunity. The war also revealed the absolute unity and identity of the Franco-British combination. In this respect, if no other, the war in 1939 began where the World War left off. The British expeditionary forces in France were acting under the supreme command of General Gamelin, and French units within the British sections of the line were under the British higher command. In industrial and economic policy, also, the Allies w’ere pooling their resources and acting as one. History has never before seen independent and equal powers so closely combined. They are, for war purposes, at least, two nations but one “commonwealth.” In other respects, however, the war had falsified nearly eveiy forecast.

Those who envisaged a war pected

Germany

in the earlier part of the year ex-

to find an ally in Italy, possibly also in Spain,

where General Franco owed his victory, at any rate in part, to Italian and German support, possibly also in Japan. It would, in fact, be a war with the whole or a part of the much boosted antiComintem front; yet all these countries stood neutral. Few. if any, expected the collaboration of Hitler and Stalin, even though they realized that both w'ere equally the enemies of all that free And as in the grouping of pow-ers so also in

peoples hold dear.

from the air, the attempted knock-out blow at the heart of Germany’s most pow'erful enemy, had not by the end of 1939 been delivered. IMonths passed before a single enemy bomb dropped on British soil, and then it fell on one of strategy; the Blitzkrieg

the Shetland islands.

more than the briefest months of the W’ar. For events of the first four months of w'ar see Blockade; European War; Shipping, Merchant Marine; Strategy of the European War; Submarine Warfare; Tactics in the EuropeanWar. And, indeed, apart from the German conquest of Poland and the assault of Russia upon the liberties of Finland, it has been on land and in the air an “affair of outposts” only. On land, with Belgium neutral, the w-estem front was less than half the length of the western front of 1914-18, and along the whole of that front the Maginot and Siegfried lines (gg.v.) rendered a general assault It is not possible in this article to give

outline of the events of the first four

suicidal for the attackers.

In the air, British raiders over Germany had dropped leaflets instead of bombs. Air fighting on the British coast, over Heligoland and the Kiel canal and along the western front, have re-

UNITED KINGDOM:

Index of business aclivily

(Tie Anmiist )

vealed again and again the quality of the British and French machines and the daring and skill of the British and French pilots.

GREAT BRITAIN

330

The main German undertaking since the first day of the war has been an attempt by U-boats, by mines and by commerce destroying raiders, to break down the British command of the seas and to destroy the overseas commercial acti\'ities on which the verj' life of the country- depends.

Germany started the war with about sixty submarines, and as man}’ of these had been despatched to war stations in advance, and as British ships were engaged all over the world on their normal unconvoyed acti\’ities, the losses of the first fortnight were and a quarter of the whole of the total mercantile tonnage, allied and neutral, sunk in the first four months of the war. That total, nearly 400,000 tons, however ineritably hea%’}’, between a third

was a quite inconsiderable fraction, of the total tonby the output of the shipbuilding program and the capture of such enemy ships as remained at sea and awaited capture before being scuttled. It seems demonstrated that the U-boats, which came so near winning the war in 1917, cannot materially affect the issue under present conditions. About forty U-boats were (Jan. i, 1940) destroyed, and though the Germans may be budding new ones as fast or faster than they lose them, it is doubtful whether they can train fresh crews of the deplorable,

nage, and was, indeed, balanced

calibre of those they are losing.

After the U-boat attack began to

fail

the Germans achieved

some

success, mostly at the e.xpense of neutrals,

netic

mines from aeroplanes; but

was

largely mastered

bases.

by an

by a bold

aerial patrol over the mine-layers’

Of Germany’s three pocket aerial

this

by laring magnew (and illegal) weapon

was damaged attack on the German base; another, the “Graf Spec,”

MORE THAN A MILLION CHILDREN British cities Sept. 1,

1939, to spots

battleships, one

were evacuated from London and other from air raids

in the country relatively safe

commerce destruction in the southern seas, was brought to book by three British cruisers off the coast of Uruguay, in the most remarkable naval action of the wai; in 1939. Retiring injured to Monte\’ideo, she was ordered to leave after her time had expired by the Uruguayan Government, acting in accordance with the terms of international law, and was scuttled after a long inning of

outside the harbour

The

by

order of the

German Government.

British Na\’y suffered losses which, though tragic, cannot

be regarded as seriously damaging. The “Courageous” and “Royal Oak” were sunk by submarines, the latter within the confines of Scapa Flow. The “Rawalpindi” was destroyed by the pocket battleship “Deutschland”; two destroyers and a number of smaller craft were lost by striking mines in 1939. Sea-borne commerce is, of course, severely restricted, not by the successes of the Germans, but by the working of the convoy system, which

man

is,

in itself,

one of the best insurances against Ger-

attack.

Nothing that happened in 1939 suggested that the Germans had any chance of winning the war along the lines on which their efforts had during that year been mainly directed. (D. C. So.) Education. ^In 1937-3S; elementary, England and Wales, departments under separate head teachers 29,988, scholars on regis-

—

— —

ter 5,150,874; elementary, Scotland schools 2,895, scholars 617,047; elementary’. Northern Ireland schools 1,700, scholars 191,S62; secondary’, England and Wales, grant-aided schools 1,398.

—grant-aided schools

scholars 470,003; secondary’, Scotland

—

252,

secondary, Northern Ireland ^grant-aided 156,643; schools 75, scholars 14,557; universities, students: England 41,707 (full time. 36.37S); Wales 3,089 (full time, 2,970); Scotland 10,scholars

GREAT BRITAIN Table

I.

Aug, 30, 7939.

Bonfc of England Refurn

ISSUE

DEPARTMENT £

£ Notes Issued: In circulation In Banking .

.......

529,493,805 33 ,Sii» 89S

. .

Govt, debt Other govt, securities. Other securities

.

11,015,100 284,800,906 3,470,820 713,174

.

Silver coin

300,000,000 263,010,700

Fiduciary issue

Gold coin and bullion. (at £1585 6d per oz. fine) .

.

£563,010,700

£563,010,700

BANKING DEPARTMENT £ Capital

Rest

14 553,000 3,652,286

Public deposits

31,0^,576

Other deposits: Bankers Other accounts

90,143,424 38,976,243

.

£ 113,126,164

Govt- securities Other securities: Discounts and advances.

6,387,710 24,628,708 33,511.895 738,052

Securities

....

Notes Gold and

silver coin

.

£178,392,529

£178,392,529

Table

tl.

ESTIMATED REVENUE

1939“40

£

£ Income-tax Surtax Estate Duties

Stamps

’

^

524,250,000

Customs

232,560,000 116,170,000

348,730,000 43.450.000 7.200.000 1.600.000 1.330.000 5 000,000 10.750.000

.

.

....

Crown Lands Receipt from Simdry Loans Miscellaneous

.

Total Ordinary Revenue

£942,310,000

ESTIMATED EXPENDITURE

1939-40

£ and Management of National Debt Payments to Northern Ireland Misc^aneous Consolidated Fund Services Defence (Array, Navy, and Air Force) Pensions (Array, Navy, Air Force)

230,000,000 10,000,000 7,200,000

Interest

.

.

199,412,000 19,635,000 20,000,000 63,344,000 172,319,000 42,096,000 150,101,000 5,000,000 14,646,000

^

Defence (Mar^n for Suppleraentaries) Education Sodal Services (Health, Labour, etc.) War and Civil Pensions Other Civil Supply Services Margin for Civil Supplementary Estimates Civil

.

Tax

.

.

.^

Collection (including Pensions £1,268,000)

Total Ordinary Expenditure

of

motorists in black-outs, the trees, poles,

London's streets are painted with white strips

Scotland (class I), 6,63201!.; (class II) 3,967011.; Northero Irelaod (class I) 1,27300.; (class II) 1,933 miles.

1,250,000

Excise Total Customs and Excise Motor Vehicle Duties . . Post Office net receipt

AS GUIDES FOR PEDESTRIANS and and curbs

327,000,000 70,000,000 80,000,000 21,000,000 25,000,000

National Defence Contribution Other Inland Revenue Duties Total Inland Revenue

Post Office Fund

331

£942,444,000

Exclusive of amounts, e.stimated at £342,500,000, to be met from issues under the Defence Loans Acts, 1937 and i939*

Railways (Dec. 31, 1938): Great Britaio, track opeo to trafexcluding sidings, 2o,oo7mi.; Northern Ireland, standard

fic,

gauge, 63300.; narrow gauge 121 miles. Ainvays (1938): distance flown i4,33i,ooomi.; passengers carried 222,200; mail carried 3.453 tons; freight carried 2,527 tons. Empire Services (Ainvays), trafiBc ton miles including passenger ton miles (1937-38) 7,153,-

767; (1938-39) 13,734,899; passengers carried (1939) 12,614. Shipping, excluding vessels under 100 tons (July i, 1939) 17,984,158 gross tons; under construction (July i, 1939) 791,500 gross tons; shipping (net tonnage with cargo), entered (monthly average 1938) 5,698,000; cleared (monthly average 1938) 4,907,000; entered (Aug. 1939) 6,617,000; cleared (Aug. 1939) 5,525,000. Motor vehicles licensed (Sept. 30, 1938): cars 1,944,394; hack-

ney vehicles

(taxis, buses, coaches, etc.) 87,730;

hicles 590,397;

motor

commercial ve-

cycles 462,375; total 3,084,896.

Wireless receiving set licences (Sept. 30, 1939), 9,085,050; telephones (Dec. 31, 1939): number of stations (including public and private lines, call boxes, etc.) 3,235,500.

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production:

—

Producwheat 1,996,200; oats 2,023,700; barley 918,800; potatoes 5,197,100; beet sugar 294,200; hops tion in 1938: (in metric tons)

Table

111.

REVISED (WAR) BUDGET

1939-40

£ Revenue, ordinary

995,000,000 *1,933,000,000

Exjjenditure, total

£

To be met by borrowing

938,000,000

•Of which £502,430,000 had already been authorized imder the Defence Loans Acts.

384 (full time, 9,841); Northern Ireland 1,590 full time students. Banking and Finance. ^Revenue, ordinary (actual 1938-39)

—

£927,285,034; expenditure, ordinary (actual 1938-39) £926,779,724; expenditure, sinking funds (actual 1938) £13,219,181; public

131,000; coal 231,875,000; iron ore (metal content) 3,615,000; pig iron and ferro-alloys 6,871,000; steel 10,561,000; sea fisheries (wet fish only) 1,062,665; whale oil 221,100; benzol 218,800; oil 132,000; beef and veal (1937-38) 688,000; pig meat (1937-38) 415,200; mutton and lamb (1937-38) 257,000; wool 50,300; wood pulp 270,000; silk, artificial 48,285; margarine

shale

butter (1937) 46,700; cheese 44,400; flax (fibre) (Northern Ireland) 4,100; rye 10,900; lead ore (metal content, 1937) 26,800; aluminium (smelter production) 23,000; superphosphates of lime (1937) 449,000.

211,600;

debt (national) Mar. 31, 1939, £8,163,000,000.

Trade and Communications.

—Overseas

trade in million £:

Proc/ucffon in

imports, merchandise (1938), 920; (1939) 885-9; exports, domestic (1938), 470-8; (1939) 438-8; re-exports (1938) 61-6; (1939) 45-9; bullion and specie, net exports (1938) 73-9; imports, merchandise (Jan., i-Aug. 31, 1938) 6-5; (Jan.-Aug. 31, 1939) 6-0; exports, domestic (Jan.-Aug. 31, 1938) 6-9; (Jan.-

Aug. 31, 1939) 4-6; re-exports (Jan.-Aug. 31, 1938) 42-3; Qan.Aug. 31, 1939) 36-3. Communications: roads (Mar. 31, 1938):

England and Wales

(class I), 20,627mi.;

(class II)

I3,o7omi.;

*Note:

WTieat Barley Oats Potatoes One metric ton =.98421

Industry

and Labour.

100) av. (1938)

England and Wales*

1938

1939

1,855,000

1,555,000 794,000 1,119,000 3,312,000

803,000 1,069,000 3,486,000 English ton.

—Index of

115-5; av.

industrial production (1929 = (Jan.-June 1939) 123-1; index of

GREECE— GRINNELL. JOSEPH

332

further exchange of notes was said “to have the effect of a Pact

Subsequently, the press strongly stressed these

of Friendship.’’

friendly relations with Italy. Meanwhile, Greece’s friendship with

Turkey remained unimpaired, and her Balkan policy was based on the Balkan Entente. In internal affairs, the Metaxas regime continued unchanged. The two objects to which the Government devoted its chief energies were military preparedness and economic self-sufficiency, and various measures were taken directed towards each of these objects.

—

Education. In 1936-37; elementary schools 9,207; scholars 1,038,974; secondary schools 522; scholars 86,957.

—

Banking and Finance. Revenue (est. 1938-39) 14,519,062,942 drachmas; expenditure (est. 1938-39) 15,106,354,667 drachmas; public debt (Nov. 30, 1938) 52,127,000,000 drachmas; notes in circulation (April 30, 1939) 8,255,210,050 drachmas; gold and gold exchange reserve (April 30, 1939) 4,274,505,394 drachmas;

exchange rate (1938-39) 550 drachmas=£i sterling. 9.092.000. Trade and Communication. Foreign trade (merchandise):

—

(1938) 14,761,395,000 drachmas; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 000 drachmas; exports (1938) 10,140,180,000 drachmas; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 4,890,800,000 drachmas. Communications 1938: roads, suitable for motor traffic 7,7o8mi.; railways open to

imports

traffic

i,672mi.;

shipping,

tonnage (June 30, 1938)

1,872,165

gross tons.

—

Manufactures, Mineral Production. Producwheat 983,452; (1939) 960,000; wine 410,015; barley 245,504; (1939) 217,700; maize 199,484: (i939) Agriculture,

tion 1938 (in metric tons):

172,500; olive-oil 106,463; oats 152,479; (1939) 152,600; cotton 48,563; iron ore (1937) (metal content), 145,000; tobacco 41,574; potatoes 143,003: rye 61,963: (i939) 62,500; lignite (1937) 131,080.

.

Industry and labour: index of industrial production (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 165-1; workers insured against sickness, accidents, etc.

(See also

-Grenada:

see

1.000.

PrOU 7!)nP UlCjf; fcdllC STONE SARCOPHAGUS

of King George

V

in

Windsor

caslle, dedicafed

Mar. 12.

1939

employment (1929=100) II3-S.

av. (1938) iii-o; av. (Jan.-June 1939)

Industrial population, insured

(July 1929)

14,838,000;

unemployed, wholly, av. (1938) 1,423,662 (10-3%) ; temporary, av. (1938) 378,918 (2-8%); wholly (Aug. 31, 1939) 1,058,989

(7-1%); temporary (Aug. 31, 1939) 216,372 (i-S%){See also Czecho-Slovakia Democracy; European War; (W. H. Wn.) Japan; Propaganda.) ;

Area 50,147 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938) 7ii°7,000. Chief towns: Athens (cap. 392,781), Salonica King George II; language: Greek; religion: ruler: (236,524); Christian (Greek Orthodox).

p UrBCuui

History.

—

Italy’s seizure of Albania {q.v.) caused

ness in Greece, where troops were

uneasi-

moved up

fortifications constructed; although the

to the frontier and Government declared that On April 13 Britain and

would respect Greece’s integrity. France declared that they would lend Greece

Italy

much

all

the help in their

power, should action be taken which threatened her independence and which she felt it vitally necessary to resist by force of arms. After the European war broke out, however, Italy’s change to a more defensive attitude eased the position of Greece. On

and Italy were withdrawtroops from the Albanian frontier, and on October 30 a

September 20 ing their

N

it

was announced

that she

(1938) 351,059.

Balkan Entente.)

West

Indies, British.

(*^73-1939), Zanesville, O.

American author, was born at on January 31, the son of a back-

woodsman preacher. Grey in his youth studied dentistry and practised in New York city before giving up his profession for

for six years

writing. His book, Betty Zane, appeared in 1904. His most successful novel was Riders of the Purple Sage (1912) which sold almost 000 copies. In all he wrote more than 50 novels, most of them about the Far West in the days of U,S. expansion toward first

the Pacific.

Among his other books are Desert Gold (1913), The Lone Star Ranger (1915), Rainbow Trail (1915), Wildfire (1917), The Thundering Herd (1925) and his last. Western Union (1939), He died at Altadena, Calif., on October 23.

Crinnpll UllllllClli 27.

He

was Incpnh (^^77-1939), American zoologist, ilUou|JII born at Old Ft. Sill, Okla., on February

graduated from Throop Polytechnic institute (now the

California Institute of Technology)

in

1897 and received his

master’s and doctor’s degrees at Stanford university. In 1900 he joined the faculty of Stanford university, and from 1908 until his

death he was director of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California, where he was also professor of zoology. An authority on Alaskan fauna, he presented his entire collection of 8,300 specimen skins of

birds to the University of California in 1920.

Francisco on

May

29.

North American He died at San

GROENER. WILHELM — GUGGENHEIM, MURRY (i867-i939),German general and statesPrnpnpr Wilhplm lll UClIul ) llllllullll rnan, was bom November 22 at Ludwigsburg, Wurttemburg. On his 17th birthday he became an ensign in the German Army and by 1912 he had been promoted to a lieutenant colonelcy. At the beginning of the World War (191418) he was director of railway operations for the General Staff. His promotion thereafter was rapid; in 1916 he became a major general and departmental head of the War Office, and in 1918 he succeeded Ludendorff as quartermaster-general of the army. After the war he took charge of demobilizing the defeated German

people free of charge. Hospitalization is

the

Bank

of

is

also provided without cost.

Guam, conducting

The only bank

a commercial banking business

as a division of the Treasury of the Naval Government of Guam, which owns the capital stock. Copra is the only export of importance: 2,229 tons were exported during the fiscal year 1939. The community is essentially an agricultural one. The land is fertile and native foodstuffs are plentiful. (L. S. F.)

Under President von Hindenburg he became minister of

troops.

defence (1928) and minister of interior (1931) of the republic. As minister of interior he outlawed Hitler’s Storm Troops and otherwise attempted to stem the rising power of the Nazis. Nevertheless,

when

Hitler assumed control of the state in 1933 he

permitted Groener to

He

333

Health and sanitary conditions are very satisfactory. All medical attention is given by the naval medical officers who treat the

died at

May

4.

See Encyclopa.dia Britannica,

^ French West Indian colony comprising the CllQrlolniina uUqUcIDUPCi two large islands Basse-Terre and GrandeTerre, separated by a narrow channel, and five smaller islands, in the Windward group; language, French; capital, Basse-Terre; governor, Felix fiboue. The area is 688 square miles. The population (304,209 i,

American republics; language, Spanish; capital, Guatemala City; president. General Jorge Ubico. The area is 48,290 square miles.

The

The population

is

3,044,490 (Dec. 31, 1938

estimate).

leading cities are: Guatemala City, 166,436 (1938 census) 40,000; Quezaltenango, 35,000 (est.); Totdnicapan,

Antigua,

vol. 10, p. 903.

on Jan.

second largest and most northerly of the Central

UUdlCltldld,

official

retire.

Potsdam on

p -i __i-

by the 1936 census) was estimated

at 310,000

1938. Chief cities (with 1931 populations) are Basse-

Le Moule,

Terre, 9,268; Pointe-a-Pitre, 30,465;

17,107.

The

col-

ony is administered by a governor and an elected general council, and has representation by a senator and two deputies in the French parliament. External communication, somewhat disturbed in 1939 by the European war, is by steamer and air transport service. During the year a 278,000,000 franc public works program, including highway improvement, sanitation, harbour development at Pointe-a-Pitre, and low-cost housing, went forward. Trade is

30,000 (est.); Coban, 27,000 (est.). During 1939, the country continued quiet under the quasi-dictatorship of President Ubico, but with a noticeable growth of antiforeign sentiment. In

March the Government

seriously restricted

foreigners in business, and tightened immigration laws to reduce

May, aU alien politiwere ordered dissolved, and five months later formal warnings were given German radio officials to confine their broadforeign control of commercial activities. In

cal societies

During the year agitation arose Honduras (conceded to Great Britain by treaty in 1859), and the Government took the official stand that British non-compliance ivith the treaty had invalidated it. Meanwhile, the republic drew closer to the other American casts in the republic to the truth.

for the annexation of British

nations.

Guatemala had 85omi. of railway and 3,636mi. of highway, with 792mi. under construction in 1939. Steamship and air service

largely with France. In 1938 imports totalled $8,465,000, exports

are the principal means of external communications.

$11,851,000 ($9,820,000 and $13,545,000 respectively in 1937). Imports are foodstuffs, textiles, beverages and lumber; exports,

normal

the chief products, are sugar, rum, bananas and to a less extent

cause of the outbreak of war in Europe.

cacao and vanilla. In 1938 sugar and bananas reached alltime highs in production. One-third of the entire area is under cultivation and is highly productive. There are 18 sugar mills and

the United States to strengthen

coffee,

The monetary unit is the French franc (value: In 1938 the budget was balanced at 69,527,243 francs, and on Jan. i, 1938, the outstanding indebtedness was

94 rum

distilleries.

U.S.).

2.25fl

11,202,004 francs.

I

{See also

West

Indies.)

(L.

W.

Be.)

a possession of the United States of America and the and most populous island of the Marianas, lies

largest

end of that group, approximately 1,500 miles E. from Manila; area about 225 sq.mi.; population on July i, 1939, 22,843, including 21,199 natives of Guam who are called Chamorros; the remainder are foreign-bom and personnel of the U.S. Naval Establishment. The capital and only city is Agana, ha\’ing

at the southern

about one-half the total population of the

The

island

was discovered March

6,

island.

1521,

by Magellan and 1898, when it was

remained a Spanish possession until June 21, captured by the United States, later being ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris. Since acquisition it has been under the jurisdiction of the Navy Department with a naval officer commissioned as governor by the President. The people are regarded as wards of the United States. Immigration, while not prohibited, is not encouraged and no alien may own land. Public schools had an average enrolment of 4,217 during 1938-39. Emphasis is placed upon the English language, health

and

sanitation,

and upon industrial and agricultural

training.

Despite unsteady coffee prices, trade throughout the year was until September, when it became exceptionally active beits

War

conditions enabled

leading position in Guatemalan

trade at the expense of Germany, normally second.

Imports in 1938 were $16,671,388 (United States, 45-7%; Germany, 3S-i%), exports $16,366,623 (United States, 69-5%; Germany, 14-1%). The United States regularly takes over 60% of the country’s pre-

dominant export, coffee. Banana production, second in export importance (10,723,216 stems in 1937-38), underwent a rapid increase in 1939, due to continued development of new plantations on the west coast, while chicle, ord.

The monetary

unit

is

^^%

of exports, set an all-time rec-

the quetzal (value: $1.00 U.S.). Guate-

mala has over 2,500 schools, with an enrolment in excess of 143,000 pupils. A tremendous advance in education in recent years resulted in over 50,000 pupils in schools, 2,405 soldiers, and 752 prisoners being taught to read in the single year 1937-38. Military service

is

compulsory.

Bibliography.— B.

The army numbers

7,000 men.

Addison, Guatemalan profile (1939). (L.

Guggenheim, Murry sons of fortune

bom

at

lanthropist,

W.

was the

Be.;

M.

L. JI.)

third of the eight

Meyer Guggenheim, Swiss emigrant who built a large in mines and smelting plants. Murry Guggenheim was Philadelphia on August 12. With his father and brothers

he organized in 1881 the firm of M. Guggenheim’s Sons, which later became Guggenheim Brothers. In 1929 he established the Murry and Leonie Guggenheim Foundation for a dental clinic in New York city. During his lifetime the foundation granted ap-

GUIANA. FRENCH — GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS propriations of about $1,900,000, and to

queathed $5,000,000 in his

on November 15 at

will,

New York

it

Mr. Guggenheiui be-

probated shortly after his death

make up the maternal deficiency. This overproducon the part of the baby continues for a time after its birth,

usual to help tion

and may burn

city.

its circulating

carbohydrates (sugars) so that

velops even fatal degrees of hypoglycaemia or low blood

Guiana, French: see French Guiana. Guinea: see French Colonial Empire; Portuguese Colonial

The

Empire; Spanish Colonial Empire. Guinea, Spanish: see Spanish Colonial Empire.

baby of a

it

preventive treatment consists in giving, routinely, intravenous

or subcutaneous injections of dextrose (sugar) solutions to in

de-

sugar.

order to

settles

mother for a few days following

diabetic

down

the

offset

to a

normal

excessive insulin

formation

its

the

birth,

until

this

rate.

made the recommendation that new bom children be saved, rather

Goodall and his associates have

Gynaecology and Obstetrics.

blood from the placentas of

from obstetric causes. In the United States, for example, the maternal mortality has been reduced from 65 per 10,000 live

laboratory methods, preserved by the chemicals of the Moscow

44 per 10,000 in 1937. be surprising if a reduction in the world’s maternal death rates can be reported for 1939, and certainly not for the years of the war in Europe, because war always takes its toll of births in 1931 to It will

pregnant and parturient

women and

still

lead

the

list

as

chief causes of the fatalities. Fortunately, the majority of these

are preventable.

Colebrook and Purdie were responsible for the

beginning of the successful use of sulphanilamide in puerperal infections.

This has been found useful also in venereal (gonor-

rhoeal) and in renal infections such as pyelitis in this short time

it is

Institute formula

and held

“blood bank”

in readiness in a

for

transfusion purposes, for obstetric, gynaecologic, or even other

emergencies.

Of couples who are now

childless at least

40%

can have children

after proper study and appropriate treatment, provided no gross

their babies.

Haemorrhage, toxemias, and infections

than wasted as usual, grouped or typed by the conventional

and

cystitis.

Even

apparent that the general death-rate from

lesions exist such as

from maldevelopment of the male or female

genital organs or actual destruction of anatomic relations as from

certain inflammatory diseases or

from tumour growths.

Illustrations of certain of the investigative steps in the diagnosis

of the causes of sterility are shown because of their

same time devised by Isadore Rubin of

interest,

as well as their simplicity but at the

their ingeniousness.

The Rubin

New York

test,

consists

by the discovery

in the passage of carbon dioxide gas through the uterus and the

and use of this drug. The problem of dystocia, or difficulty in delivery, is being met by the recent developments in Roentgen-ray pelvimetry. It is still the custom to measure the bony pelvis of each pregnant woman by means of callipers. Those that are found to show average measurements may be expected to be able to deliver

and for distending them and opening them more widely when constricted. The uterus and tubes may be injected with an opaque medium and Roentgen-ray pictures taken to detect small tumours and tubal obstructions. The spermatozoa are now studied under the microscope not

puerperal infection has been definitely lowered

babies of average size without especial difficulty.

Contractions of

the pelvis, as indicated by shortened measurements, lead the

fallopian tubes for the purposes of gauging the degree of possible

constriction of the tubes or egg-passages,

only to determine their motility but also the percentages of abnormally developed forms. Many other details of study are

among

obstetric attendant to expect certain difficulties which must be met by appropriate measures. Many border-line degrees of pelvic contraction, and various specific types of pelvic deformities afford

essential but these are

considerable difficulty, however, in arriving at a decision that an

attention among by various combinations of analgesic and anaesthetic medication. For example, a patient in her bedroom an hour or two before operation may be given morphine and scopolamine by hypodermic injection, followed presently by a rectal injection of paraldehyde or of a preparation named Avertin (tribomethyl alcohol). She is sleeping when trans-

not necessary. Thoms of New Haven has developed a Roentgen-ray method of making accurate measurements of the maternal pelvis with the operative delivery

is

or

is

help of a lead grid perforated at one centimetre intervals, these perforations being thrown on the film by a second exposure after

having taken a picture of the patient’s pelvis. Caldwell and Moloy of New York have utilized stereoscopic Roentgen-ray pictures for measuring pelves, and have developed a morphologic or develop-

mental

classification of pelves.

Each

of these forms seems to

have

a typical mechanism of labour, which can be predicted with considerable accuracy.

There are certain anaemias peculiar to pregnancy, which may have serious consequences if allowed to go untreated. One of these (macrocytic) resembles pernicious anaemia, but responds promptly to liver extract therapy, alone or with iron, and is not permanent. Some interesting new observations have been made in the behalf of diabetic

women

bearing children.

Insulin has preserved the

and health of many diabetic girls who formerly could not have survived to grow up into young womanhood. Many of the infants die in utero, due probably to the disturbance in the mother’s metabolism of carbohydrates from which the foetuses derive their nourishment. Foetuses developing to term are likely to be overweight, probably from certain variations in these same metabolic processes, and of those born alive many die suddenly during the first few days after birth. Such an infant before birth seems to be stimulated by the mother’s lack of insulin from her diseased pancreas and consequently produces more insulin than is lives

the outstanding ones.

The

use of basal anaesthetics for minor and major gjmaecologic operations with a consequent reduction in the amount of inhalation

anaesthetics

gynaecologists.

attracting

is

This

is

considerable

effected

ported to the operating room, and usually requires considerably less inhalation

administration of anaesthesia (nitrous oxide or

by the older methods. Schumann of Philadelphia reports that these basal methods with or without a small amount

ether) than

of nitrous oxide, or with local infiltration anaesthesia, have permitted him in his clinic almost entirely to abandon ether anaesthesia even for major abdominal operations.

The tion

use of electro-surgical cauterization, coagulation, or coniza-

by cutting loops has now become so perfected

that

many

patients with inflammatory lesions or old lacerations of the mouth of the uterus can be treated thus as ambulatory office patients

rather than by hospitalization and operation as formerly. These procedures require special apparatus in order to avoid bleeding and subsequent constrictions of the passages, but the economic saving to the patient is tremendous. Occasionally, because of congenital maldevelopment, it becomes necessary for the gynaecologist to dissect the tissues of the pelvic floor

and to construct an

tubular grafts.

The

uncertain. This

is

artificial

operation

chiefly

is

vaginal tract

difficult,

because of the

sue for grafting and in making

it

and the

by means of results often

difficulty in obtaining tis-

live

after its implantation.

GYPSUM — HAITI Burger, of Budapest, Hungary, has described an ingenious im-

provement

in this operation, utilizing sterUe fresh foetal

mem-

for the terms of 1922

branes for the graft material.

The vasomotor

disturbances from which

time of menopause, or “change of

life,”

women

suffer at the

by the administration of oestrogenic hormone. This is an extractive from animal sources, and its preparation is laborious and costly. Consequently, as a medicine it is expensive and many persons who need it find it difficult to buy it, especially in the more concentrated dosages, and difficult to continue its use over the weeks and months of a prolonged menopause. quite successfully

Chemists have identified the chemical constituents of oestrogenic hormone, and have endeavoured to prepare synthetically an identical chemical substance in the hope that this will have similar

therapeutic effects. Such a substance (stilboestrol) has now been prepared at a greatly lowered cost, animal experimentation has its harmlessness and also its clinical effectiveness, and limited quantities have been distributed to certain chosen gynaecologists in the United States, Canada and Europe for clin-

demonstrated

use with selected patients, the effects to be carefully observed. been placed on the market commercially, as its

It has not yet clinical trial

that

has not been completed, but early reports indicate

may be

it

tractives.

a successful substitute for the more costly ex-

—by

L. Colebrook and A. W. Purdie, “Treatment of io6 cases sulfanilamide,” Lancet (i937): H. Thoms, and H. M. Wilson, “Roentgen methods for obstetrical pelvimetry,” Vale J. Biol, and Caldwell, H. C. Moloy, and A. D’Esopo, “Further 'W. E. Med. (1938): Studies on mechanism of labor,” Am. J. Obsl. St Gynec. (1936) R- S. Titus, “Diabetes in pregnancy,” Am. J. Obst. Sr Gynec. (1937); E. Brandstrup and H. Okkels, “Pregnancy complicated with Diabetes,” Acta Obst. et Gynec. Scandinav. (1938): E. L. Potter and F. L. Adair, “Fetal and maternal mortality in diabetes,” Am. J. Obst. Sr Gynec. (1938); J. R. Goodall, F. 0. Anderson, G. T. Altmas, and F. L. MacPhail, “Inexhaustible source of blood for transfusion and its preservation,” Surg. Gynec. Sr Obst. (1938): E. A. Schumann, “Anesthesia in gynecology,” M. Rec. (1938); Karoly Burger, “Biologic significance of fetal membranes,” Am. J. Obst. (P- T.) Gynec. (i939).

Bibliography.

of puerperal fever

;

&

_

p

After having dropped during the depression years

UjPoUIII. from a peak of some 12,500,000 metric tons annually to about 7,100,000 tons, world gypsum production has recovered to a level of about 10,000,000 tons.

The

and 1929. Haab died at Zurich on Octo-

ber IS.

such as flashes, dizziness,

drenching perspiration and similar symptoms, have been treated

ical

335

In 1917 he acted temporarily as Swiss minister to Germany. He was twice elected president of the Swiss Confederation, raihvays.

principal producers, with

), Czech statesman, was bom at Trhove Sviny, Bohemia, the son of a tax administration official, and was educated at Budejovice (Budweiss) and the Charles university, Prague, where he studied law. He gained his doctorate in 1896, and from 1898 till Dec. 1916, when he became court counsellor at the administrative court of Vienna, was in the service of the provincial committee of the kingdom of Bohemia. After the revolution of 1918 he became (November

Haphs ndullui

Fniil

Llllll

23) senate’s president of the Prague administrative court in the newly established republic of Czechoslovakia, becoming second president in March 1919 and first president of the supreme administrative court in 1925. On Nov. 30, 1938, following the resignation of Dr. Benes and the interim Government of General Syrovy, Dr. Hacha was elected president by 272 votes out of 312; he received the resignation of General Syrovy that afternoon, and on the following day appointed a new Government under M. Beran. In 1939 he was the chief witness to his nation’s final extinction. Shortly after it became apparent that the republic was about to collapse. Dr. Hacha made a hurried trip to Berlin, where he was received with due honour. In an interview with Hitler he “requested” the Fuehrer to proclaim a German protectorate over Bohemia and Moravia. Little was heard of him during the rest of 1939, except that he retained anomalous office as “president” of the Bohemian-Moravian protectorate and issued periodic appeals to the Czechs to co-operate with the Germans. A lawyer of international standing, he was long a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. He is a fluent speaker of both English and German and has published Czech translations of Kipling and Stevenson.

Hair-do: Haiti lidUli

see

Fashion and Dress.

® West Indian republic occupying the western third of the island of Hispaniola; language, French; capital Port-

000 tons; Germany 850,000 tons; Italy 400,000 tons; the remainder is widely distributed among some two dozen different countries, few of which have outputs as high as 100,000 tons. The 1938 output in the United States, 2,684,000 short tons, was 12% below 1937 and less than one-half of that reached in 1925,

The area is 10,204 square The population is approximately 3,000,000, and is almost entirely Negro. The chief cities are Port-au-Prince, 125,000 and Cap Haitien, 14,000. History. During 1939 Haitian development was marked by continued economic uncertainty, although with more promise for the future than previously, and by definite progress on numerous

gradually increasing, as the building industry

projects in the national program of public works, under which

their

approximate outputs are; United States 3,000,000 tons; Kingdom and Canada, each about 1,000,-

France, Spain, United

but the output

is

au-Prince; president, Stenio Vincent. miles.

—

comes back more nearly to normal. About one-quarter of the current output is used in cement manufacture in crude form, while 1% is used by agriculture as a soil addition and 3% goes to various minor uses; the remainder is calcined and, except for some 7% that is used in the glass and

several highways under construction were extended, as were

ceramic industries, is absorbed in the production of plasters, wallboard, and other building products. U.S. production is supplemented by imports, chiefly from Canada, to the extent of about

tion,

in the

20%

crease in value. Coffee, increasing

of

Canadian production in 1938 was but preliminary figures for 1939 are some-

the consumption.

1,019,000 short tons,

what lower; about

80%

of the output

is

exported, nearly

the United States.

U

Rnhprt •*UUCI I

all

to

(G. A. Ro.)

(^^^5-1939)1 Swiss statesman, was

bom

Aug-

ust 8 at Waedenschwil on the Lake of Zurich and studied law at the universities of Zurich, Strasbourg, and I

Leipzig. Later

he became mayor of

official

The

irri-

national agricultural program

was marked by the distribution of seedlings of coco-nut, lime, banana, coffee and other plants, with the triple objective of furthering diversification, extending the area under banana cultiva-

and improving the quality of

but

mam

8%

coffee, the republic’s leading

year ending Sept. 30, 1939, exports were greater in volume, but with proportionately less in-

export crop. In the

more than

fiscal

in 1938.

17%

in quantity,

Cacao exports were

was valued

15%

at

greater in

less in value; sisal 4% more in volume, 16% Banana exports, however, were approximately 30% greater in both volume and value. Cotton, nominally less in quantity, was 16% greater in value. Sugar volume increased by 11%, but was 31% greater in value. War in Europe, while momentarily

volume, but

12%

less in value.

town and a member

disrupting Haitian foreign trade, gave promise of eventual benefit. Education. Haiti has over 400 primary and secondary schools,

of the Sv-iss Federal

with a total enrolment of over 50,000. The University of Haiti

his native

of the Zurich State council, then an

gation and drainage works.

—

HALLIBURTON. RICHARD — HARVARD UNIVERSITY

336 is

at Port-au-Prince.

Finance.

—^The monetary

unit

by law at 1939, was $10,-

the gourde, fixed

is

20 cents U.S. The gross public debt on Sept. 30, is in 427,400, against $8,790,000 on Sept. 30, 1938. Fiscal control the hands of a financial adviser nominated by the President of

There is considerable interest manifested in the one-wall game, which is played almost exclusively in the East. New York city has been the scene of all the national tournaments in this branch of the game and is considered to have the best players in the country.

National one-wall ratings follow;

the United States.

Communication.—

^External

communication

Trade and by air. There are i64mi. of railway and

year ending increase over

Imports for the

fiscal

Sept. 30, 1939, totalled $8,180,737 in value, a 7^% the previous year, and comprised textiles, foodstuffs

4%

Great Britain (13-78%),

Harry Michitsch, Joseph Garber,

3.

Germany (5-65%), France (5-12%),

the

1.

2.

Women’s Rankings

(one-wall only.

I.

Lucy Caruso

2.

Mrs. Blanche Goodman

Harper

in

1937-38);

Den-

mark, 5-19%; Germany, 3-14%; and Netherlands, 1-55%. (See also Dominican Republic.) (L. W. Be.)

ndlllUUI lull, Rirhartl niblldIU Hilllihlirtnn

He moved

was born

American

author,

in Brownsville, Tenn.,

on

New

Singer

was born September 10 at from the U.S. Military academy

States.

^ ^ commissioner Wcwks, PTOjetts, Mmlwls-

of

Bristol, Virginia.

He

graduated

1909 and after being commissioned second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers, served at in

various military stations in the United States and was in charge of a construction crew during the building of the

(i9°o-i939?),

Hannah

see Rivers and Harbours. Prize Novel: see Literary Prizes: United

tration,

34-73% (43-11%

3.

Harbours:

taken by the United States,

France, 20-96%; Great Britain, 18-88%; Belgium, 10-29%;

Metropolitan

(Fr. Ro.)

Hjirrlnirtnn FranpiQ nalllll^LUU, ridlllld P U.

Indies

New York

District)

(3-38%), Belgium (2-71%) and Japan (2-38%) next in order. These represented a sharp increase from the United States (55-09% in 1937-38), and nominal doclinos for Groat Britain and Gormany. Exports vjoro Netherlands and Netherlands West

New York Morton and Seymour Alexander, New York M. Orenstein and Ben Sheiber, New York stein.

3.

in-

crease, and comprised coffee (51-2%), sugar (14-05%), cotton (13%). bananas (7-8%), sisal hemp (7-44%) and cacao (i-7%). Imports came largely from the United States (62.96%), with

New York New York Harry Goldstein, New York

i'.

2.

and miscel-

laneous manufactured goods. Exports were $7,267,655, a

Doubles George Baskin and Harry Gold-

Singles

by

in excess of

sea and

i,ooomi. of motor highway.

is

Panama

canal.

At the outbreak of the World War he was assistant professor mathematics at West Point. During the war he was instructor

of at

camps, commanded several different regiments, and was in France for a time. Upon his return he was an

Jersey in his infancy and attended school there. After graduating from Princeton in 1921, he set out upon a series of planned adventures, which included climbing the

various

Matterhorn, Fujiyama, Olympus and Popocatepetl. His favourite pastime was the duplication of famous feats of history. Like

and was subsequently assigned to the general staff of the War department in Washington. From 1935 to 1938 he was assistant administrator and chief engineer of the Works Progress Administration; on Dec. 23, 1938 he was appointed to succeed Harry L. Hopkins as administrator. In the early months of 1939 he testified several times before a congressional committee in an effort to prevent Congress from reducing the appropriation for relief and ap-

January

9.

Byron, he

swam

to

the Hellespont.

He

solemnly retraced the travels

of Ulysses as recounted in the Odyssey. In 1928 he “relived” Cortez’s conquest of Mexico and Balboa’s march across Darien.

Following the path of Hannibal, he rode an elephant from Switzerland across the Alps to Turin. His accounts of these and other

were published in The Royal Road to Romance (i92S)> The Glorious Adventure (1927), New Worlds to Conquer (1929); The Flying Carpet (1932), Seven League Boots (1935) and other volumes which sold a total of more than 1,000,000 copies. In Feb. 1939, he began a voyage from Hongkong to San Francisco in a exploits

On March

Chinese junk.

23 his craft

is

believed to have struck a

officers’ training

assistant engineer in charge of maintenance at the

plying restrictions to projects of

WPA

of

all

pation rather than attendance, attracted increased

ages.

The

classic

event

is

the national A.A.U. four-wall

championship, held every year. In 1939, the Olympic Club of San Francisco, California, was the host with entries representing every section of the country.

The winner

in the singles, for the fifth con-

was Joseph Platak of the Lake Shore Athletic Club, Chicago. In the doubles, Edward Linz and Frank Coyle of the New York Athletic Club were the victors for the second year in

secutive year,

succession. National four-wall rankings for 1939 are:

Doubles

Singles 1.

2.

3.

in charge of

third year of

numbers in '1939. Playgrounds, high schools, colleges and other media offer additional facilities yearly to both men and women

Joseph Platak, Chicago Jack Clements, San Francisco Walter Plekan, Buffalo

1.

Edward Linz and Frank Coyle, New York

Joe Gordon and J. L. Goldsmith, Long Beach, Cal. 3. G. Cappell and R. Maguire, San Francisco 2.

WPA

Projects Administration) was united in 1939 with other agencies into the Federal Works Agency, Col. Harrington re-

WPA

Il9n/9ril IlniuOrcitU IlalVdlU UllIVcIoliy,

Hand-ball, a sport which thrives on actual partici-

and President

Works

"Ham and Eggs" Pension Bill: see Elections. Hammer Throw: see Track and Field Sports.

um

He

WPA

mained

"Udlla

agency.

canal

Roosevelt both dealt firmly with the national strike in July following passage of the relief bill June 30 which imposed a 130hour month on workers. When the (renamed the

typhoon west of Midway island and foundered.

M

Ms

Panama

operations as commissioner. oldest institution for higher education in the

United States, completed the

fourth century in 1939. At the end of the fiscal year, June 30, 1939, investments exclusive of land, buildings and contents used for educational purposes stood at $140,185,769. its

Gifts during the year were $2,779,718 for capital account and $1,348,967 for immediate use. Scholarships and other student aids totalled $707,329, exclusive of student loans.

The year 1939-40 began with an enrolment

of

8,379 full time students and a faculty and educational administrative staff of 1,984.

In the undergraduate college, changes were made in the. departmental concentration system to overcome dangers of student overspecialization in fields of study; a Bureau of Supervisors for guidance and tutoring was established; and English composition course requirements were stiffened. The central administrative offices

of the university, located in University Hall since 1815,

were moved to old Massachusetts Hall. The administration adopted a faculty committee report setting up new rules for faculty tenure. Professor George H. Chase was appointed to the

new

position of

Dean Dean

of the university. Professor William S. Ferguson

of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and two

was named

new

assistant

deans of the faculty were appointed to strengthen the liaison be-

tween university executives and the faculties of arts and sciences on matters of appointment and promotion. A new Committee on Educational relations, concerned with the relations between Har-

vard and other institutions in the placement of teachers, was established and Dean Henry W. Holmes of the School of Education was named chairman. Francis T. Spaulding was appointed

Dean

Associate

of the School of Education.

largest university library in the world,

The

university library,

had 4,079,541 volumes and

pamphlets on June 30, 1939, an increase of 136,280 over the previous year.

Hatay, The; see European War; Turkey. Hats for Women: see Fashion and Dress. Territory of Hawaii consists of a group of eight

Ueuiaii

ndudlla

and numerous islets in the Pacific ocean between latitudes i8°55' and 22°i5' north and between iS4°so' and i 6 o° 30 west longitude. Their total area is 6,438 square miles. larger islands ''

The

islands are of volcanic origin.

From

south-east to north-west,

they are Hawaii, Kahoolawe, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, Niihau.

In addition, stretching north-westward beyond Niihau

is an archipelago of rocks, reefs and shoals which includes Midway (longitude i77‘’22' west) recently notable as the first stop beyond Honolulu of the trans-Pacific clipper planes. Likewise, 960 miles south of Honolulu and a part of the city and county of Honolulu lies Palmyra, a coral atoll consisting of fifty-five islets, five miles long and two and a half miles wide. The youngest island, geologically, and the largest in the group is

over 1,100 miles

Hawaii, with an area of 4,030 square miles. The capital of the Territory is Honolulu, situated on the island of Oahu. It

census)

a completely

is

of 137,582.

Oahu

modem is

city

strongest fortifications in the Pacific.

368,336 in the 1930 census in 1939.

The

is

with a population (1930

the scene of the United States’

Hawaii’s population of

estimated at approximately 415,000

racial origin of this population, in addition to the

native Hawaiians and Caucasians from the mainland,

Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Portuguese.

however,

is

native

81%

is

of the population,

citizens

from the

is

wholly self-governing.

It

who has a voice in The governor in 1939

Congress every two years a delegate

House of Representatives but no vote. was Joseph B. Poindexter; and the delegate, Samuel W. King. The Territory collected in taxes and fees $14,468,991 in 1939 and expended $14,631,310. In addition. Federal taxes were paid into the

the U.S. Treasury of $11,766,650.72, exceeding the

payment

—

Expert management, scientific methods and costly irrigation works have raised the sugar production to a maximum of 1,035,548 tons in 1933 with a value of $66,482,181. The value of the 1938 sugar shipments was $50,743,327- The pineapple industry, next in importance, dropped to 594,s6i,333lb. with a value of $38,409,875. Other agricultural crops are coffee, taro, a root

used by the natives in

macadamia nuts, making the native

now

being processed into flour. The tourist industry has developed rapidly in the last two decades, reaching a total of 50,1 75 tourist visitors in 1939. One characteristic of Hawaii,

American

flag, is

Supplies of hay in the United States for the 1939-40 feed-

unique

that there are

no

among

all

billboards.

regions under the

(E. Gru.)

as 100,000,000 tons,

made up

by the Department

of Agriculture

of a current crop of 84,000,000 tons

and a carry-over of 16,000,000

This compares with a 103,-

tons.

000,000-ton supply of the preceding year, but

is

larger than the ten-year average (1928-37).

Production of

tame hay

13,000,000 tons all

1939 was 75,023,000 tons and 80,299,000 tons in 1938; wild hay, 8,999,000 tons in 1939 and 10,444,000 tons in 1938. in

Produciion of

of

17 States of the Union. Agriculture. Hawaii’s chief crops are sugar and pineapples.

“poi” and also

Prize: see Literary Prizes: Greal Britain.

ing season were reported

Otherwise the Territory

papayas and

Hawthornden

15

Japanese,

American mainland, has ceased. The governor and Territorial secretary are appointed by the elects to

were entertained with hulas at the opening of their

session in Honolulu February

bom.

Immigration into the Territory except for

President.

HAWAIIAN LEGISLATORS 1939

Wisconsin

.

.

Minnesota

.

.

New York

.

.

California

.

.

Iowa

Illinois

....

Michican Ohio

.

.

Missouri . Indiana . Pennsylvania Idaho

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

Montana

.

Washington Tennessee Colorado

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Kentucky Oregon .... Nebraska . Kansas .... Vermont . North Dakota .

.

.

.

.

.

^lississippi

.

.

Arkansas

.

.

.

.

Tome Hay by

1939

1938

tons

tons

5,764,000 4,799,000 4 , 535.000 4,225,000 4,149,000 4,147,000 3,504,000

6 . 470.000 4,997,000 4,893,000 5,436,000 4,352,000 4,083.000 3,714,000 3,695,000 2,251,000 2,815,000 3,283,000 2,323,000 1,940,000 1,707,000 1,850,000 1,863,000 1,720,000 1,486,000 1,709,000 1,171,000 1,096,000 1,162,000 1,086,000 980,000

2,700,000 2,603.000 2,687,000 2,167,000 1,842,000 1,833,000 1,672,000 1,616,000 1,581,000 1,522,000 1,464,000 1 , 153.000 1,144,000 1,078,000 1,078,000 1,020,000

States,

Virginia.

Utah Texas Maine

7938 and 7939

.

.

.

.... ....

Wyoming

.

.

.

North Carolina Oklahoma South Dakota .

.

.

West

Virginia

.

Georgia

.

.

.

Alabama

.

.

.

Arizona Massachusetts. .

Maryland

.

.

.

.

South Carolina Connecticut HainT»hiie Louisiana

New

.

Nevada

New New

.

Jersey

.

.

.

.

.

.

Mexico. Delaware .

,

. .

....

Florida Rhode Island

.

1939 tons

1938 tons

1,010,000 965,000

1,138,000 1,051,000 1,012,000 935,000 933,000 863,000 815,000 870,000 802,000 631,000 662,000 493,000 575.000 543,000 431,000 516,000 405,000 333,000 370,000 337,000 268,000 91,000 56,000 58,000

940,000 915,000 8-v9,ooo

829,000 755 0 727,000 700.000 606,000 601,000 559,000 496,000 491,000 475,000 396,000 384,000 361,000 344,000 294,000 266,000 84,000 55,000 53,000 ,

^

337

HAY FEVER— HEATH. LADY MARY

338

Clover and timothy were 24,320,000 tons in 1939 and 27,754,000 in 1938. in 1938; alfalfa, 27,139,000 tons in 1939 and 28,858,000 (See Alfalfa.) These figures do not include sweet clover and

Fever:

Allergy; Air Conditioning: Physiological

see

Benefits.

learned about the technique

first

it

(presum-

time there

is

from the horizon which was previously almost pitch Probably also by the skilful use of sulphapyridine during

light

black.

Hay

Much more must be

ably the earlier or milder cases), but for the

some

(S-

lespedeza.

the treatment.

of the treatment and about the cases best suited for

such procedures as the removal of an infected tooth, in a person already affected by some chronic rheumatic or congenital heart

‘moIi”™-

damage, this dread disease may be prevented. The second interesting and important new treatment of heart disease also began in Boston. For years various students of the subject have advised that a certain congenital defect called pat-

portant was the treatment of subacute bacterial endocarditis, often called malignant endocarditis, a fatal disease caused by the

ency of the ductus arteriosus be corrected by surgical ligation, but nothing was done about it until an unsuccessful attempt was

Streptococcus viridans usually implanted on chronic heart disease

made by

Health Program. National:

see

Dentistry; Medicine.

Heart and Heart Diseases,

of rheumatic or congenital origin.

Hitherto recoveries have been

excessively rare, variously recorded as

A

from

less

than

1%

to

3%.

recent careful survey of 250 cases studied during the 15 years

from 1924 to 1938 inclusive showed only one recovery (0-4%).

The

disease starts insidiously

when a bacterium or a chain of the

streptococci floating in the blood stream, as

otherwise perfectly normal person

who

may happen

an

in

has some focus of infec-

Graybiel, Strieder and Boyer in Boston early in 1938.

Later the same year, and since then in 1939, Gross of Boston with the medical help of a number of associates, particularly Hubbard,

The ductus

successfully operated on six cases. in foetal life shunts blood

from the

artery directly into the aorta

is

and pulmonary

(instead of through the lungs)

normally closes at birth or soon after; not only

arteriosus which

right ventricle

if

it

remains patent,

a hazard because of the possibility of infection

widely patent,

by

it

the

tion in tooth, tonsil, or other part of the body,

Streptococcus viridans, but,

on a

good deal the work of the heart and leads to enlargement and heart muscle strain. The third therapeutic measure of special

little clot

becomes implanted thrombus that has become attached to a rough

or

surface or scarred area of the lining of the heart, especially of

if

it

finds its

it

also increases a

streptococcus

interest is connected with Goldblatt’s notable discovery of a few

environment satisfactory, and

years ago in which he demonstrated that a high (but not complete)

the mitral or aortic valves of the left ventricle. begins to multiply,

if

The

itself

degree of obstruction of the circulation to the kidney of an ex-

from the effect of any antagonistic action of the blood stream around it by a coating of fibrin and blood platelets. The disease spreads, new colonies form on surrounding regions of the lining of the heart valves and chambers and the blood is constantly invaded by the germs that break off from these colonies or still enter the circulation from the original foci of infection. The victim begins to feel sick and feverish, becomes weak and anaemic, and some days or weeks after the disease starts he consults a physician who may at first be puzzled to know what kind of an infection is going

perimental animal by a clamp on the arteries causes high blood

soon establishes a thriving colony which begins to protect

on.

The presence

of old heart disease in a person

who

is

usually

two decades from IS to 3S)> the finding of the Streptococcus viridans by blood culture, certain other signs which are often present (enlarged spleen, clubbing of the fingers and small skin haemorrhages) and the

still

young (the majority of cases are

in the

absence of evidence of other types of prolonged infection, such as typhoid and tuberculosis, establish the diagnosis of this dread disease. all

Fortunately

it is

not common, making only about

2%

of

cardiac cases, attacking one out of every 25 rheumatic heart

patients and about one out of every ten congenital heart patients.

For about

six

months on the average (varying from two months

to a bit over a year) the patient drifts along to death despite transfusions and

all sorts

of potent

and impotent drugs and other

measures. Such was the situation at the opening of 1939. Even sulphanilamide, introduced so successfully in the treatment of

more acute streptococcus infections, had But sulphapyridine was coming in and several re-

certain other serious

largely failed.

coveries

by the use

of this drug took place during 1939.

The

however, has come through the experience of Kelson and White in Boston who combined the drug sulphapyridine (an anti-bacterial remedy) with another relatively new drug

greatest promise of

all,

heparin, an anti-coagulant, which, given intravenously in constant drip, doubtless tends to prevent the formation of the thrombi on

the heart valves on which the streptococci grow. These workers report three recoveries in the first seven cases that they treated

with these two drugs in combination (one of these cases relapsed after two months but was given another course of treatment). There are dangers from the use of either drug alone and only the greater danger of this fatal disease justifies running the risks of

pressure during the period of obstruction. It has been found that

some

instances of high blood pressure in

considerable degree of

damage

that removal of that kidney

thus calling

A

arise

from a

may

result in a return of the blood

A

few notable instances have been recorded, attention to the need of determining the state of the

pressure to normal.

kidneys in

man may

to or disease in one kidney and

all

cases of hypertension.

helpful development in methods of study of the heart has

come with the

application of the ingenious device of the lag screen

to electrocardiography, allowing the

immediate visual inspection

of the electrical curves of the heart’s action,

by the

so-called

cardioscope, without waiting for the development of the photo-

graphic film of the electrocardiogram which can be carried out directly afterwards if one desires to keep a permanent record. Finally, a set of accurate life size

models of normal and various

kinds of abnormal hearts has been constructed by Spillane which show in particular the relationship of the heart chambers and great vessels to each other and to surrounding structures (spine,

oesophagus and trachea) following the original model of Taipale These are very helpful for X-ray study and for

of Finland. teaching.

—

Bibliography. S. Kelson and P. D. White, “A New Method of Treatment of Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis Using Sulfapyridine and Heparin in Combination,” preliminary report, 113:1700 (1939); A. Graybiel, G. W. Strieder and N. H. Boyer, ”An Attempt to Obliterate the Patent Ductus Arteriosus in a Patient with Subacute Bacterial Endocardi^”*' /., 15:621 (1938): R. E. Gross and J. P. Hubbard, fi'l’” 1 Surgical Ligation of a Patent Ductus Arteriosus,” report of first successful case, J.A.M.A., 112:729 (1939); R. E. Gross, “A Surgical Approach for Ligation of a Patent Ductus Arteriosus,” New England Jour. Med., 220:510 (1939): H. Goldblatt, “Studies on Experimental Hypertension. V. The Pathogenesis

of Experimental Hypertension Due to Renal Ischemia,” Med., 11:59 (i 937 )‘, G. Asher and F. Hoecker, “The Lag-Screen Am. Heart J., 16:51 (1938); J. D. Spillane, “Volumetric Reconstruction of the Heart in Health and Disease,” pamphlet, American Heart Association (1939). (P. D. VV.)

Ann.

hit.

Belt Electrocardiogram,”

(^®9S?-1939), British avlatrlx, was born Sophia Mary Pelrce-Evans at Limerick, Ireland. Shortly after her marriage In 1927 to Sir James Heath, wealthy British Ironmaster, she began a career In flying which lasted scarcely two years but brought International atten-

Hpath lailu Maru IlCflUli LdUJ llllllj

HEAVY CARBON — HEREDITY tion to her exploits. In Oct. 1928 she established a world’s altitude

record of 24,700ft. for light planes

—

^the

highest any

Animals.

from Cape Town

The

International Institute of Agriculture at

to London.

made a

licensed pilot of the

the output in the principal hemp>-producing countries, reported production of only one country in 1939, that of Bulgaria, which

produced 14,483,3001b. of hemp fibre, compared to 9,o6i,ooolb. The Institute, however, reports the acreage planted to

in 1938.

1939 and 1938. From acreage and the known 1938 production some estimate of 1939 production may be made.

hemp

in principal countries in

figures

Hemp Acreage and

Heavy Carbon: see Isotopes, Separation of the. Heavy Hydrogen: see Isotopes, Separation of the; MatStructure of. Hejaz: see Arabia.

ter,

II

of

fields

south-western United

helium reserve, covering soioooac., which supplies the Government-operated helium recovery plant at Amarillo, Tex., has an estimated reserv’e of 100,000,000,000 cu.ft. of natural gas with i-8% helium and produced 361,065,000 cu.ft. of gas, while the recovery plant produced 6,099,960 cu.ft. of helium

The

Cliffside

June 30, 1938, an increase of 27% over the preceding year; the estimated cost of production was $14-25 per 1,000 cubic feet. The bulk of the output is supplied to the

in the fiscal year ending

army and navy for made for the sale

986.000 224.000 39 ,ooot 23,000

.... ....

Germany

MclIUlIu are the natural gas States.

....

U.S.S.R

sources of helium in the world

aircraft use, but during 1938 contracts

of 800,000 cu.ft. to private parties.

Productian

Acreage 1939 Acreage 1938 Italy

The only commercial

ij

Bulgaria Yugoslavia

.

.

1,248,000 225.000

32,ooot 25.000 141.000 126.000 89.000 83.000 17.000 12.000 9,000

.

Rumania .... Manchoukuo .

.

Poland

Japan Syria

France

O. R.)

(S.

were

Mixed

application of a recently developed statistical

Horoflifu

The medical consumption during 1938 was about 200,000 cubic feet. The difficulty known as “bends,” suffered by divers and caisson workers when coming out of high pressure, is

analysis, but the data indicate that they are

air.

due to the liberation in the capillaries of small bubbles of nitrogen which had become dissolved in the blood under heavy pressure this may be obviated by the use of a helium-oxygen mixture instead of air, since helium is insoluble in the blood, but as yet the cost of helium is too high to make its use possible under ;

technique has led Burks to report the

autosomal linkage in man.

and a tooth defect

The

characters concerned

first

case of

—hair colour

—are not themselves capable of simple genetic dependent in part on

linked genes.

The ability to taste phenyl thio urea has been known for some time to be inherited as a simple dominant in man. It has also been known that tasters constitute about 70% of the population, with no marked difference

in the

frequency in the various races

of helium for the inflation

Ford and Huxley have now shown that approximately the same relative numbers of tasters and non-tasters occur also in chimpanzees. Irwin and his co-workers have continued

being promoted, in order to avoid the liability

their studies of specific antigenic properties in the red blood cells

ordinary working conditions. is

239,487,0001b. 26o,ooolb.f 9,061, ooolb. i22,i33,ooolb. 66,790,ooolb. 38,422,0001b. 28,306,0001b. 19,487,0001b. 7,637,0001b. 9,231,0001b.

latest Russian production reported is the average for IQ33-34, which the International Institute of Agriculture recorded as 447,247,000 pounds. The oirrent five-^'ear plan is said to have called for hemp planting of 1,354,000 acres in 1939, but the Institute reported planting of only 986,000 acres. ^Includes Sudetenland and Austria. jDoes not include Sudetenland and Austria.

ncIcUlty.

of toy balloons

Production 1938

*The

with oxygen, helium is a valuable substitute for air in the treatment of asthma, laryngitis, croup and diphtheria, as the effort required for the breathing of this mixture is only about half that required for

Rome,

which normally gives quite comprehensive reports on

tour of the United States, then became a Royal Dutch Airlines. Her career as an aviatrix ended at Cleveland, Ohio in Aug. 1929, when her plane crashed through a factory roof and she was critically injured. In 1931 she married George Anthony Reginald Williams, an aviator from the British West Indies. She died after a faU in a London tram on May 9.

Thereafter she

died at San Francisco July 18.

woman had

In 1928 she flew the treacherous 10,000-mi. route

ever flown.

He

339

of injury to children

The use

from the explosion of hydrogen-filled

bal-

Fisher,

tested.

of hybrid doves

and pigeons. They have shown that the pairs of

species studied differ in a series of separately inherited antigens,

loons.

The

by

substitution of helium for hydrogen in test balloons

the U.S. Weather Bureau wll require

some 1,500,000

an-

(G. A. Ro.)

nually.

HoIIor nCilCl

cu.ft.

Frimnnri LUIIIUIIU

I

(^^75-1939), U.S. naturalist, was bom at 111., on May 21 and was educated

Freeport,

where he received his bachelor’s degree an undergraduate student he joined the university’s zoological expedition to the Galapagos islands and was an assistant naturalist for the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey

at Stanford university,

While

in 1901.

in Alaska.

museum

still

From

1901 to 1907, as a naturalist with the Field he made explorations in California, Mexico,

in Chicago,

Guatemala and East Africa. In 1909 and igio he was with the Smithsonian African expedition under the direction of Theodore Roosevelt.

In later years he led explorations in

—

world

^in

Peru, China and Siberia.

many

He was

other parts of the

director of the Mil-

waukee Zoological Gardens from 1928 to 1935 and of the Fleishhacker zoo in San Francisco from 1935 until his death. He wrote numerous articles on fishes, reptiles and birds and was co-author with Theodore Roosevelt of Lije Histories of African Game

and that each antigen is inherited as a simple dominant. Extensive show that some of these antigens are present in other related species. These studies are furnishing a solid foundation for the application of serological techniques to the problems of studies

It also seems likely that the antigens concerned are rather direct gene products. Studies in this field may be expected to throw much light on the nature of develop-

phylogenetic relationships.

ment and

of mutation.

Little has reported that the frequency of spontaneous

tumours

higher in hybrids between ordinary house-mice and the oriental Mtis bactrianns than in either parental strain. This result seems likely to furnish a new starting point in the study of is

much

the inheritance of spontaneous cancer. Another result of crossing has been recorded in Drosophila psetidoobscura, where Sturtevant has shown that the crossing of two semi-cross-sterile races leads to a marked increase in mutation frequency. Older work showed that the frequency of mutations induced by

X-rays

is

proportional to the dosage.

Several investigators have

studied the dosage relations for chromosome breakage, and have shown that two types may be distinguished “one-hit” aber-

now

—

rations, due to a single ionization, and “two-hit” aberrations.

HIGHWAYS — HIS PANIC AMERICA

340

due to two separate ionizations. The former, like mutations (many of which are in fact due to chromosome aberrations), show a linear relation to dosage. The latter increase with dosage in approxi-

mately an exponential manner. A complication here is that, when a chromosome is broken, the broken ends commonly fuse either

—

to restore the original arrangement or with other broken ends. If the original composition is reformed, as in the first case, no visible aberration results.

In the second case an aberration

may

be detected. It follows that the results will depend on the number of breaks present in a cell and on their distribution in time and

The time element has been studied by Sax, who

space.

in Tradescantia microspores,

broken ends

may

finds that,

remain open and

Another X-ray

been reported by Kaufmann,

result has

that breakages are not

chromosome of Drosophila.

distributed at

random

in

who

the

X

(See Genetics.)

(1939).

Highways;

H. Sturtevant and G. W. Beadle, Ai: Introduction to C. H. Waddington, Introduction to Modern Genetics (A. H. St.) ^A.

see

The zone began

Roads and Highways.

l^iiphirn

nil dllUllldi IVIIbllllU

ken, the son of a samurai.

was born September 28

at

Okayama-

.

see

Latin America.

Hispanic America and the European War. When the war against Hitler began in Sept. 1939, the 20 Hispanic American republics found themselves faced with economic disruption, and threatened with possible involvement in the conflict itself. German steamship and air transport lines shut down their service in the Western Hemisphere, while British and French shipping activity was considerably curtailed and functioned under Under such circumstances the irregular and secret schedule. Hispanic American republics were threatened with loss of markets and deprival of needed supplies. They therefore saw a need for unity of action, and, accordingly, at the suggestion of Argentina, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, and Peru, along with the United States,

Juan Demostenes Arosemena of Panama put into motion the machinery created at the Pan American Conference at Lima in Dec. 1938, that is, the provision for joint consultation of the foreign ministers of member states of the Pan American Union in the event of common danger. On September 4 he for-

President

inally invited the representatives of the 21

member

republics to

meet in conference at Panama. The announced agenda included consideration of measures to keep the American continent free from the European conflict, and programs for preserving the commercial and financial interests of the several republics, as well as discussion of measures for the maintenance of strict neutrality within their territorial limits. On September 23, representatives of

all

at

it

was broadened

European

states

were excluded.

Among

the provisions of the

neutrality proclamation were; acknowledgment of individual de-

on the admission of undersea craft; establishment of two permanent committees, one of seven international law experts to determine violations of neutrality, the other of 21 delegates to discuss economic and financial problems arising out of the war;

conflict

lists;

On October

provision for uniform standards

European were formally notified of the declaration and asked to 4, the participants in the

respect the neutrality of the individual nations.

Subsequent to the Panama Conference, the Inter-American was held in Guatemala in November, and the

Fiscal Conference

Inter-American Financial, Economic, and Advisory Council at Washington in the same month. Their general objectives were the adjustment of economic and financial problems of the several American republics arising out of the economic dislocation of the war. No formal decisions and conclusions had been announced by the close of the year. Meanwhile, in December, the international law committee (comprising members named by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Mexico, Venezuela and the United States) began to sit at Rio de Janeiro. Hardly had its meetings begun when it was faced with the problem of the violation of the safety zone in the battle of Punta del Este, off the Uruguayan coast, in which three British cruisers defeated the German pocket battleship “Graf Spee.” The “Spee’s” flight to Montevideo compelled Uruguay to impose a time limit on its stay there, with the alter-

German protests. Her subsequent by her own crew in the mouth of the Rio

native of internment, despite

departure and scuttling

de

la Plata

and arrival of the crew in Argentina gave that nation

German protest. The German steamer “Tacoma,” which had served as an auxiliary the necessity of interning the crew, again over

“Graf Spee,” was likewise ordered interned in Uruguay. Concurrently, seizure of the German steamer “Dusseldorf” i2mi. off the Chilean coast and other, similar seizures caused resentment to the

at the disregard of the safety zone.

A

joint protest of

all

the

American republics at the violation of the neutrality zone in the battle of Punta del Este was delivered to the belligerents. The several Hispanic American members of the League of Nations, led by Argentina, took the initiative in forcing the expulsion of Russia from the League (December 14) as a result of her attack on Finland. Trade effects of the war by the close of 1939 were, notably, the practical cessation of a German trade which had represented 17% of all Hispanic American foreign trade in 1938, the diversion of British and French shipping, with heavy increases in purchases of certain products, notably meats from the Plata republics and Brazil, and tin from Bolivia, and a heavy increase in neutral trade, especially by the United States and Japan. Politically, Western Hemisphere solidarity was more nearly a reality than ever before. (See also European War.)

the American republics

Panama in what came to be known as the Panama Conference. By that time, however, consideration of defence meas-

met

the

continent, extending northward along the Pacific coast to the

educated at the law college of

Tokyo Imperial university, where he graduated in 1888. Some two years later he was a judge in the Tokyo court of appeal, and in 1906 he became director of the Bureau of Civil and Criminal Affairs. In 1923 he was appointed minister of Justice. The next year he was nominated peer, and in 1926 he was created a baron. On Jan. 4, 1939 he was named premier to succeed Fumimaro Konoye. His foreign policy, like that of his predecessor, was based on strict adherence to the anti-Comintern pact and friendship for Germany (see Japan) It was all discredited in one blow by the Nazi-Soviet pact of non-aggression. He resigned August 28 and was succeeded by Nobuyuki Abe (q.v.).

Hispanic America:

United States-Canadian border on

United States-Canadian border. In the Pacific

opposition to contraband

statesman,

He was

at the

Atlantic and covered the shipping lanes of the entire American

of neutrality.

Uironiima

other points under discussion, due to

cisions

—

Bibliography. Genetics (1939);

all

rumoured activity of both surface and underwater belligerent craft in American waters, and to the Russian invasion of Poland. After nine days of both public and private discussion of possible courses of action, the Conference approved (October 2) the Declaration of Panama, under which the American nations proclaimed a broad safety zone in American waters for inter-American shipping, and made a general declaration of neutrality in the European conflict.

to include the Galapagos islands, while undisputed possessions of

capable of reunion for about an hour.

finds

ures took precedence over

Bibliography.-— H. J. Trueblood, War and United States-Latin American Trade (Foreign policy reports, New York, Dec. i, 1939). (L.

W.

Be.; C.

N. G.)

HISPANIOLA— HOPS Hispaniola: see Dominican Republic; Haiti; West Indies. Historical Association, American: see American Historical Association.

approximate or be slightly under that of 1939. Slaughter of hogs under Government inspection in the United States was 36,131404 the

)>

Uitlor

Arinlf n I II cl] nllUII

German statesman, was bom

at

Braunau on the Inn in Austria on April 20. After residence in Vienna where, as a painter, he formed his anti-

341

bers that began in 1938, and that spring farrowing in 1940 will

first

months

ri

in 1939

Hog numbers

in other coimtries in

Marxian and anti-Semitic convictions. Hitler moved to Munich Here, in Aug. 1914, he enlisted as a volunteer in a Bavarian regiment and fought throughout the World War. In July 1919, at Munich he joined as “Number 7” Anton Drexler’s in

1912.

German Workers’ Party, which soon developed into the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, popularly knowm as the Nazis. Herr Hitler quickly became its Leader {Fuehrer) and for a time edited

its

so-called

official

newspaper, the Volkischer Beobachter.

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

of

Nov.

9,

In the

1923, Hitler at-

tempted with Ludendorff, Goering, Frick, Streicher, Roehm and others to seize the Bavarian Government, but was arrested, tried for treason, and condemned to imprisonment at Landsberg. Here he dictated to his secretary, Rudolf Hess, his famous book. My Struggle {Mein Kampf), of which more than 2,500,000 copies were later sold, thus providing the author with an abundant income. It is in part an autobiography and in part an exposition of his ideas for the regeneration of Germany, and is hence sometimes called the “Nazi Bible.” On his release from prison in Dec. 1924, as a result of a general amnesty, he devoted himself to building up various organizations to strengthen the Nazi party:

Brown Youth

Elite

Guard {Schutz-Stafeln

or

“SS”), Hitler

and 31,840,331

in the

same period

in

1938.

1939 and 1938 were:

I93S

Canada

.

4,294,000

3,486,900

38

Yugoslavia Lithuania

4,383,100

BohemiaMoraria

3,510,100

3,564,300

Protec-

United

Kingdom England & Wales Northern .

Ireland Scotland

Germany Hungary Denmark

627,100 561,500 252,900 257,400 22,482,654 20,806,304 3,885,643 3,110,160 3,230,000 2,706,000

.

.

.

.

.

Czechoslovakia

Qan.

The

.

.

.

.

2,082,733

•

2,523,988

193S

1,117,080

3,450,884 1,093,120

1,607,191

1,949,034 871,556

960,372 891,470 880,000

Latvia Switzerland Netherlands 1,553,418

Zealand France U.S.S.R

I,

1939)

torate

Belgium

1939

.

683,000 .

.

Sweden

813,500 922,807 1,537,783

756,000 7,127,000 30,600,000 1,371,000

foregoing figures are from Government sources and the

International Institute of Agriculture.

Holland:

see

(S.

0

.

R.)

Netherlands.

Home

Building, Federal: see Federal System; Housing.

Home Loan Bank

these, with efficient lieutenants,

^ Central American republic; language, Spanish; capital, Tegucigalpa (pop. 35,000); President, General Dr. Tiburcio Carias Andino. The area is 46,332 square

his

miles.

Shirts,

{Hitler Jtigend) and other formations.

With the aid of

and with his magnetic oratory, Nazi party grew rapidly in power, ivinning 12 Reichstag seats in 1928 and 230 in July, 1932. On Jan. 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor and began the social and political revolution establishing the “Third Reich.” Upon Hindenburg’s death on Aug. I, 1934, Hitler succeeded him as president, but modestly refrained from using the title and is known simply as Reich Leader {Fuehrer) and Chancellor. For events from 1934 to 1939 see Germany.

in Hitler’s career

(S. B. F.)

HnnrIlirQC nUIIUUIdO;

The

683 and

see Ice

Hockey.

War and the nU^O. mal fats and

$11.21 per head.

largest world supply of vegetable

oils

The number

was 58,312,000, compared

of hogs on U.S. farms Jan. i, 1940,

head Jan. i, 1939. But compared to $552,626,000 a year earlier. Thus with 8,919,000 more hogs Jan. i, 1940, the total value of all hogs was $98,346,000 less. Yffiile lard

the total value Jan.

i,

officially

estimated in 1935 at 962,1,000,000 in 1939. In

approximately

attention was given to proposed large-scale production of hemp, a

product hitherto produced only experimentally. In Jan. 1939 congress repealed the 1937 law creating a differential customs tariff for certain countries, and, at the same time,

50%

duty on the products of some countries, principally

is by steamship and Pan American Airways. Airlines connect Tegucigalpa with the coast. Honduras has approximately 6oomi. of railway and 28omi. of

those of Japan. External communication

and anion record affected hog production and prices in sharp diversity in different countries in 1939. Early in the war the United Kingdom contracted with the Canadian Government to maintain a large and staple supply of hams and bacon for Great Britain, at fixed prices advantageous to producers. In the Danube basin apparent competition between Germany and Italy to obtain pork products operated advantageously to growers. But in the United States average prices of hogs per head were $7.79 when the Agricultural Department’s annual livestock estimate was made Jan. i, 1940, whereas a year earlier the price was 11

at

1939 the economic situation continued difficult, although the total production of bananas was somewhat increased. During the year

imposed a

Hockey:

population was

unofficially

to 49,293,000

1940, was $454,280,000,

exports increased in 1939 over 1938 their volume was scarcely sufficient to affect hog prices in the United States. The fall pig crop in 1939 (June i to December i) was 31,985,000 the largest

and comparable to 27,651,000 in 1938. The and fall) was 84,302,000 compared to 71,101,000 in 1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of 71,752,000. Department of Agriculture economists believe the 1939 high production marks the end of the upward swing in hog num-

inter-coastal highway, with a recently-completed 9omi. stretch of

the Inter-American highw^ay. Foreign trade in 1937-38 showed a substantial decrease in exports, although the

volume of imports Imports in 1937-38 totalled $9,467,388; exports (chiefly bananas, with some gold) aggregated $7,356,388. declined only slightly.

The greater part of the foreign trade is with the United States. The monetary um't is the lempira (value $.50 U.S.). The 1939-40 budget called for a total expenditure of 11,403,000 lempiras, a slight reduction from the previous fiscal year. According to the (1936) there were 965 elementary schools with 33,461 pupils out of 80,000 of school age. There are 93 secondary schools (2,857 enrolment), and two normal schools. last official estimate

The Central

university

is

at Tegucigalpa. (L.

W.

Be.; C. N. G.)

Production of hops in the United States in 1939 was

Hops The

38,570,0001b. as against 35,261,0001b. in yield per acre for the United States

in 16 years of record

1939

total pig crop in 1939 (spring

lb-

Oregon California

Washington

19,400,000 10,350,000 8,820,000

was

1938.

1,2361b. in 1939

T

1928-37 average

16,434,000 9,152,000 9,675,000

18,352,000 8,695,000 7,032,000

lb.

HORMONES— HORSE RACING

342 and

ijiiglb. in

1938.

and

i,8oolb. in 1939

The

yield per acre in

Washington was

1,9351b. in 1938; in California, i,soolb. in

of 1939 the totalizators had not been installed at any of the New tracks, where the old-fashioned “book-making” system of

York

wagering prevailed. But in the

8301b. 1939 and 1,3661b. in 1938; in Oregon, i,ooolb. in 1939 3 ^^ hop European the detailed figures on in 1938. Owing to the war, crop are not available, but reports are that 1939 production ap-

fall of 1939 a referendum, in the shape of a poll of the electorate, was held and by a decisive majority the adoption of the machines was voted. They are ex-

proximates that of 1938. Although acreage is smaller the German Brewing Industrial Association estimated the crop as about that of 1938 since hop yards abandoned were marginal areas of low

pected to be in operation in 1940. The leading winning owner of 1939 was William Woodward, of New York, whose Belair Stud Stable won $284,250, the largest

Yugoslavia was estimated at between 5iSoo,ooolb. and 5,700,0001b. in consular reports. In the protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia the 1939 crop was reported as 9,900,-

sum

yield.

The crop

in

ooolb. compared to 7,738,0001b. in 1938. The 1939 acreage in the United Kingdom was reported as i8,8ooac. compared to i8,5ooac. (S. 0 R.) in 1938. .

Chemistry, Applied; Chemotherapy; DenGynaecology and Obstetrics; Medicine; Physiology; Psychology; Sterilization; Surgery; Urology.

Hormones:

see

tistry; Endocrinology;

of the kind amassed since 1935. This was due chiefly to the

Mr. Woodward owns two of the year’s outstanding Johnstown and Fighting Fox, which between them earned over $200,000. Johnstown took the Kentucky Derby, the Belmont, Withers, Dwyer and other great stakes and Fighting Fox the $5o,ooo-added Massachusetts Handicap. Second on the list was Charles S. Howard, of San Francisco, whose stable won $246,900; while third was W. L. Brann, of Maryland, with $222,545. During the season the stables of ten different owners won $100,000 fact that

horses,

or more.

At the

close of the

campaign the three-year-old

bred and owned by Mr. Brann, was both

UnrpQ nOiSu

records were established in ^939 Donintr Rdulllgi the United States in numerous different de-

partments of turf

affairs.

Racing being now a year-round sport

proceeds continuously from January

i

to

December

it

31, allowing

—while at New Orleans during

only for the Sabbath intermissions

the winter and just over the border at

proceeds on that day as well. It previous top figures for the

is

Agua

Caliente, Mexico,

therefore no

number

ber of races run and the amount of

of days of racing, the

money

it

wonder that the

num-

distributed in stakes

and purses were all displaced by new ones. In money, $15,312,189 was paid out to the owners, trainers, breeders and riders of winning horses, as against $14,946,609 in 1938; the number of races run rose from 16,250 (1937) to 16,966; the number of days of racing from 2,140 (in both 1937 and 1938) to 2,199. These increases were registered without any increases

number of different race courses already existent, for the year saw no new ones of importance thrown open. They were due in the

to expansion at the established plants

and indicated a correspondAs previously recorded,

ing increase in the success attending them. this success has

been the result of the

legalization,

wide, of race-track betting and the supervision of

now

all

nation-

recognized

meetings by State racing commissions created for the purpose

by

This betting, done through the machines (“totalizators”) devised for the purpose, produces most of the revenue from which the upkeep of the meetings and the taxation paid into the State treasuries is derived. Up to the end the different commonwealths.

JOHNSTOWN CROSSING THE 1939, ahead by

six lengths

FINISH LINE

of the

65lh Kentucky Derby May 6,

colt Challedon,

and popularly Horse of the Year.” Starting in 15 races and winning 9, he earned $184,535, placing him at the top of the list. His rivalry with Johnstown during the early part of the season, in the great three-year-old events, and thereafter with the fouryear-old Kayak II in the all-aged ones, were the most memorable features of 1939. In four meetings with Johnstown he won twice, while he beat Kayak in both their clashes. Kayak, owned by Mr. Howard, was bred in Argentina and imported untried into this critically

hailed as “the

country when three. In March he won the $ioo,ooo-added Santa Anita Handicap, which he followed with another victory in the $5o,ooo-added Hollyivood Gold Cup. Then brought East, he disposed of everything he met except Challedon, their final meeting to decide the championship taking place at the Pimlico track,

Baltimore, Md., on

November

race Challedon defeated

i, when after a hard and very him by half a length. Kayak won

close

8 of

and $170,875. The season was also notable for the appearance of what was believed to be the best two-year-old seen in a long while. This was Bimelech, bred and owned by E. R. Bradley, of Kentucky, who was undefeated, winning 6 straight races and $135,090. Harness Turj The season of 1939 was extremely successful and marked a further return to large popularity of this peculiarly American type of horse racing. The “Horse of the Year” conhis II starts

.

—

tinued to be the grey gelding Greyhound, owned by E. of St. Charles,

Illinois.

He made no

Baker,

J.

formal attempts to lower his made in 1938, being used for

championship mile record of i;55|-, other purposes, but showed his accustomed prowess. When sent against the two-mile record of 4:ioJ he lowered it to 4:06. When hitched double with Rosalind (i'.56J), the champion mare, the two first lowered the record for pole-teams from 2:03^ to i:59> and subsequently to 1 158^. Similarly, the pacing champion, Billy Direct (1:55), owned by Messrs. McConville and Downey, was not sent against his best mile record, but was started to beat the half-mile track record, which he reduced from 2:01 to i:59|. In the competitive arena the bold figure was the three-year-old colt Peter Astra,

He won defeat,

all

owned by Dr. L. M. Guilinger, of Andover, Ohio. the principal stakes for the age, 9 in number, without

and earned in excess of $45,000.

Great

(J. L.

—

He.)

^The flat racing season of 1939 will be remembered chiefly as revealing one of the greatest colts in turf history. Britain.

This was Blue Peter, whose four victories colours included the

Two Thousand

in

Lord Rosebery’s-

Guineas and the Derby.

The outbreak of war was responsible for the suspension of racing from September 3 to October 18, when it was resumed at Newmarket. skeleton program was then arranged which included

A

HORSES — HORTICULTURE

343

Cam-

continental countries to encounter these effects, for England im-

Manchester November

mediately cancelled hundreds of orders for tulip bulbs and other

Leger had to be cancelled, but there is little doubt that Blue Peter would have won the last of the year’s classic races, and so joined the select band of horses who have won what

Dutch bulbs. English growers being Holland’s largest customers, this was an economic blow. Fortunately, most of the bulbs destined for the United States were en route or had been delivered. The Netherlands Government then announced rather severe re-

money won

strictions, largely reducing the planting area, in the conviction that

and it enabled Lord Roseberj' and his trainer, J. L. Jarvis, to head the lists of winning o^vners and winning trainers respectively. An American owner, R. S. Clark, won the One Thousand Guineas and the Oaks with his French-bred filly, Galatea II, trained at Manton by J. Lawson. The best of the two-year-olds was Tant Mieux, but he was

shipments in 1940 might also be curtailed to a large extent. This fact will have an important effect on the florists’ trade in the

substitute races for such normally important events as the bridgeshire,

the

and

CesareTOtch

the

Handicap.

The

St.

known

is

by

as the Triple Crown.

this great colt

amounted

As

it

was, the stake

to £31,964,

beaten in the Middle Park Stakes by

M. M.

Boussac’s colt Djebel,

from France after the war had begun. was the success gained by Lord Carnarvon with five yearlings he had purchased the autumn of 1938 at the Saratoga sales. Four of the five won races. Gordon Richards was champion jockey for the 13th time in

sent over

A

feature of the season

14 years with 155 winners.

during his career.

aeroplane disaster

The King’s on his way

He

has

now

ridden 2,586 winners

jockey, J. Crouch, was killed in an to the Newcastle races in June.

A

totalization record was set up when the machine took £61,608 on the Derby. The Grand National was won by the Irish horse. (A. K. B.) Workman, owned by Sir Alexander Maguire.

new

United States. It

quite true that a large industry in the grow-

is

ing of daffodils has been built

up

in the

Probably not more than one-fifth of the millions of United States are groivn on the American continent. However, this industry has been developed limited.

tulips planted each year in the

£0 fairly large proportions in Michigan and elsewhere, and growdrs have been encouraged to increase their plantings in anticipation of a wider market.

It is felt in the trade, however, that a serious shortage of

tuUp bulbs

will

be experienced in 1940, and a less severe shortage

in narcissi, hyacinths

and other Dutch bulbs. Of course,

countries which use these bulbs will be in the

_

No war demand

had developed up to Jan. i, 1940, owing European armies and owing to the war having assumed a static quality along the French Maginot and the parallel German Siegfried lines. Germany for three years had been building up reserves of horses and mules by purchase from nearby countries. Great Britain and France drew on farm horses for immediate army needs as the 1939 crop season was about over. Should the war develop movement, with a break through or around the heavily fortified Maginot and Siegfried lines, it is believed there will be a demand for horses and mules from the United States and Canada, the most available source of supply for Great Britain and France. In the autumn of 1939 for-

levels.

to the extensive motorization of

eign military ofiicers investigated the supply of cavalry as well as artillery horses in the

United States. Military authorities point out and Ethiopia demonstrated that

Most of the bulbs (“pips,” Germany under normal conditions and

cinated against sleeping sickness (equine encephalomyelitis). The loss in 1939 was small. (See also Lu'estock; Shows; Veterinary

Medicine.)

HnrtiniltiirP nUIUbUllUIC. soon as

hostilities

(S. O.

R.)

began to tivities in

many

affect horticultural acparts of the world almost as

commenced. Holland was among the

first

of the

come from

A very limited source

of supply

Several million bales of dried peat, usually spoken of as peat moss, are used in the United States each year. Large quantities are also used in other countries. Coarse grades are commonly

purchased by poultrj'men and farmers to provide scratch litter in poultry houses and bedding for farm animals. Finer grades are

used extensively by nurserymen, florists and amateur gardeners for improving the soil and for mulching plants. In recent years, a very large business has been done in the importation of peat from Germany, Holland, and Sweden. This business was cut off

almost immediately when the war began, because peat is bulky and therefore requires an undue amount of shipping space. The scarcity of imported peat seems likely to build up a peat-producing industry in the United States, although little machinery for dr>'ing and processing the peat was on hand, when this situation predifiicult

on United States farms as of Jan. i, 1940, and for the numbers in other countries in 1939.) During the first six months of 1939 the Horse and Mule Association of America conducted a nationwide educational campaign, and about 1,500,000 horses were vac-

in the trade)

are especially prepared for

has been dev’eloped in the United States.

sented

(See Lu'estock for the Agriculture Department’s estimate of the number of horses and mules

other

forcing. Naturally, the importation of these bulbs almost entirely

ceased soon after the war started.

and aeroplanes have not entirely displaced the need for horses and mules, especially over muddy terrain. The horse population in the United States declined about 700,000 to 10,400,000 in 1939 and mules from 4,307,000 in 1938 to about 4,250,000 in 1939 owing chiefly to further increase of tractors on farms. These estimates are by Wayne Dinsmore, secretary of the Horse and Mule Association of America, long a nationally recognized authority.

all

situation.

Another shortage, resulting from the war, began within a few Lilies-of-the-valley are flowers which can be used by florists the year around, inasmuch as their forcing is a simple

that the wars in China, Spain tanks, trucks

same

weeks.

matter.

In anticipation of a huge war demand for draft aninUloCOi mals, as in 1914 at the outbreak of the World War, prices for horses and mules in the United States rose sharply in Sept. 1939, but by November had dropped back to almost August

n__

North-west and in other America is very

sections, but the production of tulip bulbs in

The

itself.

problem to

rapid drying of the peat solve.

There

are,

is

a particularly

however, immense beds of

excellent peat in various parts of the U.S., and the industry has been groiving in Michigan for several years. Maine, among other States, has extremely large peat deposits, and a product called

Florida

The

humus

is

being produced in a fairly large

eastern part of Canada, particularly

Nova

way

in Florida.

Scotia, has ex-

and under normal conditions a large part The autumn of 1939 found this market greatly reduced, and Canadian apple growers had difficulty tensive apple orchards

of the crop

is

shipped to England.

in disposing of their crop at satisfactory prices.

Great quantities

of apples were placed in cold storage in anticipation of a better

market flected

in the spring of 1940.

somewhat

in the

The Canadian

situation

was

re-

United States, depressing the market.

Naturally, ornamental horticulture was largely wiped out in war-tom Europe -within a few weeks after hostilities commenced. This was made especially evident in England, where the famous Kew Gardens, as well as the Royal Horticultural Society’s Wisley

Gardens were promptly taken over for military use in anticipation They offered a particularly good opportunity for the

of air raids.

installation of anti-aircraft guns.

Many

of the valuable books

The

seems to be pretty well settled that certain can be grown carnations, in particular cheaply and advantageously in gravel on green-house benches, when fed the proper chemical fertilizers. This phase of horticullishments.

flowers

ture

—

is still

Much

fact

—

and

roses

confronted, however, with

many

problems.

has been written of late about the rapid increase

in dan-

gerous pests with which horticulturists have to deal. The Japanese beetle States,

is

a particularly obnoxious pest throughout the Eastern

and fear

expressed that pests of this type

is

get wholly out of control. ever, although

pletely upset

is

may eventually

not likely to happen, how-

true that the balance of nature has been com-

it is

by

This

civilized

modes

of living.

Destruction of birds

and other wild creatures has done much to lessen nature’s ability to deal with pests and a very serious attempt is being made by several organizations and by the Government to restore and maintain wild life, wherever possible. However, greater dependence

is

being placed upon insecticides, the production of which

has grown to such an extent as to reach a business running to

$100,000,000 annually, based on retail sales in the United States. This includes the control of insects affecting stored crops and other products, as well as those growing in fields or orchards. Commercial aeroplane dusting has been developed rather widely in cottongrowing sections. This plan has possibilities in the protection of forest trees.

For several years

test

gardens have been maintained in

different

new annuals. The number of votes from

parts of the U.S. for trial plantings of flowers,

which receive the greatest

annual

a jury,

are called All-America selections and receive considerable pub-

on that account. A similar competition for roses is now to be instituted. Rose test gardens have been established and judges named. As a preliminary, several new roses were passed upon late in 1939, one of the roses chosen being World’s Fair Rose, which was seen by thousands of visitors at the New York Fair. There' is one result of the long-continued depression, which has had a profound influence on horticulture on both sides of the water. High taxes and reduced incomes have compelled the owners of licity

large estates to close

them or

to greatly curtail the

employees. This fact has thrown

many competent

number

of

gardeners out

work and many of them are not likely to obtain new positions comparable to those which they have occupied in the past. The of

same causes have as few large

much this

THE “WORLD'S FAIR

seriously affected landscape architects, inas-

places are being laid out. In the end, however,

probably will have a beneficial effect on landscape work in by bringing about a tendency to give more attention to

ROSE,’’ which received first award in the 1940 AilAmerica Rose Seieclions, Fioribunda classification, is a rich-red flower of 20

general

by making

petals

small places and

and paintings of the Royal Horticultural Society in London were removed from the society’s buildings to places of safety outside the city. Plans for the great Chelsea Flower Show and other exhibitions were promptly cancelled. This is a picture which seems to be duplicated throughout the British isles and, of course, in France, Germany and other countries subject to wartime

advice of landscape architects at a reasonable fee.

An attempt was made to maintain to some degree the growing and distribution of flowers, especially in England, as an antidote to the war fever. However, florists were fearful that

seriously affected hospitals in the strategic centres involved

and

to a great extent

has

threats.

bombs might bring

destruction to the

gardens in the tight

little isle.

many

acres of glassed-in

seems to have magical

is

purely

experimental.

on certain plants, but its use The growing of plants by chemical effects

nutrients and without soil has passed out of the sensational stage

and

is

344

being put to a practical test in

see

Hficnitslc

nuoplldlOi

possible for amateurs to obtain the

(E.

I.

F.)

Rayon; Silk and Silk Manufacture. major development of concern to hospitals has been the outbreak of war. While it has most all

hospitals in the countries involved,

it

had definite effect on the hospitals in many neutral countries, owing to the cutting off of supplies and equipment from belligerent also

or other neutral countries.

Perhaps the most significant advance in the United States in 1939 was the growing use of chemicals and drugs in plant cultivation. Much attention has been given to the use of colchicine to increase the size of flowers and fruits. This is a drug which has long been used by medical practitioners for rheumatism and gout. It

Hosiery:

it

many

green-house estab-

Hospitals in the capitals of the warhave had to make elaborate preparation against attack; subterranean bomb-proof shelters for patients and personnel, in some instances with emergency operating units and case rooms; decontamination units; sandbagging of roofs, windows and ring nations

the training of nurses to combat incendiary fires; camouflaging of exposed buildings, enrolment of volunteer and other auxiliary aids. The evacuation of civilian patients from Lonentrances;

don, for instance,- was a major undertaking;

some 104 hutment

hospital schemes, with 1,037 huts providing 38,120 beds, were

HOUSING erected in southern England to supplement the other local hospital

beds taken over for these evacuated patients.

number of

hospital vessels staffed

patrol to rescue

or

its

and give

banks during air

air raid casualties

On

the

Thames a

by doctors and nurses were on people rescued from the river

first-aid to

raids.

In France a 5,000-bed hospital for

was erected a few kilometres from

Paris.

Of

serious concern has been the dislocation of the personnel of hospitals

due to enlistments, etc. Financial readjustments have been London one bright spot has been the closer relation-

extensive. In

ship between governmental and voluntary agencies.

—

Hospital Construction. ^Apart from war construction in Europe, the most extensive hospital construction in 1939 was in

new up-to-date hospitals have been erected Buenos Aires, at Havana, in Caracas, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and many other centres. A modern medical centre, including a hospital, a school of nursing and a medical school, has been completed at Jerusalem, and fine buildings have been erected at the American university at Beirut. One of the largest and most modern groups to be built in Europe is the recently built Louis Latin America.^ Fine at Lima, at

Pasteur hospital at Colmar, France.

This 600-bed hospital

is

comer in front being occupied by the administration unit and the comer behind being allocated to the tuberculosis building. The five-storey main buildplaced diagonally across a square

ing

is

site,

the

divided vertically into services on the assumption that

vertical transportation is easier than horizontal.

minster hospital in London

is

The New West-

the latest British construction.

—Much

Hospital Care and Other Insurance. voluntary hospital service plans has been ’Aristides A.

MoU, "Hospital Development

in Latin

made

progress in

in the

United

America,” Bospilats (Chicago

Xni-ii, Nov. 1939.

States.

345 The approval of

tion has done

much

plans

by

the

American Hospital Associa-

to eliminate the unsound, profit t5q)e of plan.

The outstanding development of 1939 was the

setting

up of a

research service to analyze financial and statistical returns, to

make

studies of comparable financial

and actuarial experiences uniform methods of accounting, statistical terms, definitions. Though under the Council on Hospital Service Plans of the American Hospital Association, this research program is supported exclusively from special assessments on the various plans. In Great Britain the King Edward’s Hospital Fund of London set up a new plan for low income individuals, giving full hospital maintenance with medical and specialist care as well as various other benefits. In Canada, the Associated Medical Services, Inc., sponsored by the medical profession gives general practitioner, specialist, hospital, and nursing coverage. The Administrative Field. Several studies of wide international interest have been published by the International Hospital Association. These include studies of public relations, construction, equipment, power and heating, transportation, and training in administration. The American Hospital Association committees have made special studies of tuberculosis in general hospitals, insurance coverage, and hospital nursing costs. Legislation. The comprehensive health insurance plan introduced into New Zealand providing medical, hospital and other benefits has encountered considerable delay due to the strong opposition of the medical profession to the maternity bonus provided. In the United States the postponement of the Wagner National Health Act, unsatisfactory from the vie3vpoint of hospitalization, has delayed for the present the implementation of the Federal Government’s National Health program. The American Medical Association also won its appeal from a Federal grand

and and

to develop

—

—

jury indictment charging

by

it

with violation of the anti-trust laws

alleged interference with

the participation of doctors and

hospitals in a Washington, D.C., hospital insurance scheme.

The

appeal court ruled that the practice of medicine, being a profession, did

not come under these laws.

Hospital Organization.

—

^The Congress of the International

Hospital Association, scheduled for Toronto, Canada, was cancelled with the outbreak of war.

ferred

from Germany

The headquarters may be

to Switzerland.

trans-

At the American Hospital

made for a PanAmerican Hospital Congress. An Italian Hospital Association has been formed uniting the former separate unions of the various hospital workers. The Italian Government has put aU hospitals under a new code of laws, linking the hospitals with public health Association convention tentative plans were

medical ofiScer of health. In Northern Ireland an extensive survey has been made of all (G. H. Ac.) hospital facilities. activities, the director also acting as local

UnilOinir

nUUblllgi

Public housing in the United States, nationally and locally,

achieved rapid and, on the whole, solid

For residential construction by private Building and Building Industry. The large initial program advanced from survey and planning to construction stage and in some cases to occupancy. The program provides about 30,000 dwelling units in addition

progress during 1939. enterprise, see

to those cited on p. 346 as under loan contract. In the United States

Housing Act of 1937 and its 1938 amendments. Congress had authorized the United States Housing Authority to lend local public

housing authorities a total of $800,000,000, covering

90%

of the cost of local projects to clear slums and build housing for families in the lowest income group, inferentially the ill-

THE WORLD'S LARGEST CANCER INSTITUTE, June 14, 1939,

in

New York

city

housed third of the nation. (In particular communities, the illhoused group may obviously form either more or less than a third Memorial hospital. Was opened

of the population.)

To

bring rents within reach of the ill-housed

HOUSING

346 U.S, Housing Projeds Projects ujuler

Number Number Number

Loan

US. Housing

Cojilracl uHth

Hec. j/, IQ39

Authority.

347 *47 i3o»ioo

of projects of local housing authorities of dwelling units

Projects under Construction Number of projects ^ Number of loc^ authorities Number of dwelling units .

^45

.

Projects Pcceiving Tenants Number of projects . Number of local authorities Number of occupied units .

^

5S»*69 *4

9 .

4.^50

.

group, the Act authorized

USHA

matched

totalling $28,000,000,

to

make armual

b}' local

contributions

contributions of at least a

much. Usually taking the form of tax remission or exemption, these local contributions are probably worth more than the required minimum. To assure continuity for the program, the fifth as

1939 making available another $800,000,000 for loans and $48,000,000 for additional annual grants. The bill was still pending in the House Jan. i, 1940. It reserves $200,Senate passed a

bill in

000.000 for rural housing loans and provides for

home purchase

by agricultural workers. During 1939, five more States passed enabling

acts,

total of 38.

The number of

making a

local housing authorities rose to 2S1.

Alany of them have already acquired valuable e.xperience and built

up

efficient staffs.

Regional conferences, as well as national,

encourage the sharing of this experience.

Nineteen State supreme court decisions have

now been

afiirming the constitutionality of public housing

rendered

and slum

clear-

The process of

decentralization implicit in the U.S.

Housing

Act was materially aided by the establishment in Sept. 1939 of seven regional offices, each headed by a regional director, with

been increased, and

is

is

empowered

this process is e.xpected to

number

of points requiring

delegated to a regional director,

cedure

The make have continue. On the

authorities deal instead of far-away Washington.

decisions which a regional director

other hand, the

is

USHA

to

approval, even

expected to diminish as pro-

USHA

and of the local housing authorities has been concentrated until recently on reducing construction cost per dwelling unit without sacrificing essential standards. In spite of the skeptics, a large measure of success has been achieved. Average net construction cost per dwelling unit in the 145 projects under contract is $2,83r, and average total development cost, including land, utilities, landscaping and non-dwelling facilities is

in

two Buffalo

USHA projects are

project in Buffalo had been sharply

criticized as out of reach of lotv-income families. The first 67 Negro families at Willert Park had average incomes of $896.72, and the first 80 white families at Lakeview averaged $957.87. Minimum incomes ran roughly $100 less. In the South incomes of tenants are much lower. New York city, in addition to its PWA and USHA projects, has a small one under way on the lower East Side financed by a special city tax. In an earlier planning

stage

is

entirely

a large project near the Brooklym na\'y yard to be financed

by the

The Farm

State.

Security Administration continues to operate

and suburban projects, but however, as well

more of them. It is, as other agencies of the Department of Agricul-

ture, co-operating with

USHA

also Mun’icipal Go\'erxme\'t:

ing;

its rural

building no

is

in its plans for rural work.

(See

Housing; United States: Hous-

Washington, D.C.)

—

Bibliography. JIabel L. tValker and others. Urban Blight and Slums (1938): Michael W. Straus and Talbot Wegg, Housing Comes of Age (193S): Langdon \V. Post, The Challenge of Housing (193S): Housing Yearbook, 1939, National Association of Housing Officials; Publications of the United States Housing Authority, 193S and 1939. (E. E. Wo.)

—

Europe. There were no special developments in housing in Great Britain in 1939 and, of course, many of the programs- in Europe and the United Kingdom were interrupted b}’ the outbreak of war.

Such housing schemes as were

building are being finished

oft',

but

it is

in the course of

very doubtful

if

there will

yet.

In Britain the attention of

many

people interested in housing

was turned earlier in 1939 to the investigation of the problem of holiday camps which were regarded by many as being as essential as housing. The Camps Corporation appointed by the State put up a program for the building in the first place of 50 camps which were to be of such a nature as could be used for country schools and holiday centres for children taken out from the densely popu-

The Building Centre organized a competition for a camp to fill a triple purpose on the above lines, and there was an e.xhibition prior to this held at the Housing Centre. It is generally felt, in the bigger cities particularly, that where new housing is being provided and especially in large blocks of flats, that it should carry with it an annual evacuation of children for at least a month of the year to carry on their school work in country surroundings.

The

$4,867. all

PWA

lated city areas.

standardized.

Technical talent of

In

of interest because the

be any further schemes embarked upon in Britain for some time

ance State laws.

whom local

and $15.80 in the North. Actual family income figures

cases until recently the

maximum

subsidy has been

minimum income families could not be But with more and more contracts awarded

granted with the idea that

reached without

it.

and with the early projects already tenanted, it is found that in most cases the rents are fully as low as they ought to be. Families on relief are not excluded. Further reductions in rent would tend to exclude every one else and eventually to turn the projects into institutions for problem families. A new policy has, therefore, been adopted. Maximum subsidy in future contracts will be

The next major economies will be sought in management and maintenance. Where such saxdngs are not needed to reduce rents, they can be applied to reducing subsidy, thereby spreading a given amount over a larger program. dwelling units continue to furnish a valuable The 21,700

PWA

problems of tenant selection and management. Thirty-one projects out of 48 have been leased for operation to their appropriate local authorities and several more are about to be. The latest figures give $ii.43 as the average monthly shelter

laboratorj' for

USHA-aided dweUing

w'hole problem of the school camp raised again the queswhich for some time past has been very seriously considered,

of prefabrication of building units. This question is now being very closely studied by many housing experts in view of the probable need of speeding up of housing immediately after the war, and also on account of the present shortage of some essential

building materials. Although this is by no little has yet been done in housing by.

in the

South

means

way

a

new

idea very

of prefabrication.

There

is, of course, the well known Swedish method where most of the housing carried out by the municipality of Stockholm in

cottage form

granted only in exceptional cases.

rent (without utilities) per

tion,

is

in timber.

Prefabrication in timber

is perhaps the simplest method of all and particularly in Sweden where supplies are almost unlimited. There sections of houses are made in factories; doors, windows and other units in standardized sizes are produced and taken to the site and assembled by the tenant himself. A good deal of thought was given previous to the European war to this method, more particularly in Scotland w'here the system ivas to be introduced to meet a situation very largely aggravated by the local

shortage of various materials and building labour.

more

especially

of

skilled

—

HOWARD. SIDNEY COE— HUNGARY

348

other prefabricated system of any importance is that introFrance by M. Mopin in the building of working-class duced Mopin flats. An extremely interesting scheme carried out on the

The

in

lines

partially built during

was

1939 in Leeds where vast slum it was found to be very

clearance problems had to be faced, and

final scheme is to house 5,000 families and is and there, as in France where the system has been used, big workshops were set up on the site to prefabricate concrete units of various types which were used for the skin,

The

satisfactory.

Quarry

at

Hill,

South Africa during the Boer War and was decorated with a medal and four clasps. From 1903 to 1906 he was consul-general for Crete, from 1906 to 1908 councillor of the British embassy at Washington, from 1908 to 1911 .consul-general for Hungary, and then minister to Switzerland (1911-13) and Sweden (1913-19) and ambassador to Spain (1919-24). From 1924 to 1930, as Sir Esme Howard, he was Britain’s ambassador to the U.S.A., and was dean of the diplomatic corps in Washington. Upon his return to England in 1930 he was raised to the peerage. Lord Howard was in

and walls of the steel-framed buildings. scheme for the first time in England was introduced the “Garchy” system of refuse disposal, a system by which all the household rubbish is disposed of through a large trap in the kitchen sink whence it is carried away to incinerators on the site, and from the heat generated from the incinerators hot water is supplied. The Quarry Hill scheme generally is likely to

the author of Theatre of Life (2 Hindhead, Surrey, on August i.

have a good deal of influence on future housing in England, and

educated at Peking.

floors,

Incidentally also in this

is

being studied

by many

There has been comparatively very little activity in housing on the Continent and nothing of a special nature. Spain, however, since the end of the Civil War, is making big efforts under very

HqII iloU ^hih.phanff ulllll'ulldllg

general

exalted

its

probably the

kind, a comprehensive

Chinese statesman, was bom humble parentage and was

in Tientsin of

of China’s disunited military leaders, and

1918.

Hnwflrif SirinPV nuwdiu, OIUIICJ Pnp bUC

died at

ister in 1911, vice-president of the privy council, chief of the

program of housing and building for social services. (See also Architecture; Public Health Engineering: Housing; Town and City Planning.) (F. R. Y.) of

is

He

1909 he was viceroy of Manchuria. Thereafter he occupied a series of important governmental posts, as associate prime min-

first

difficult

1935-36).

Island: see South Sea and Equatorial Islands.

rapidly until he

as a possible system for the future.

circumstances to proceed with what

Howland

vols.,

jointly established

the Playwrights’.

Company

to stage

—

to the anti-Comintern Pact,

and on January 26 the foreign minCount Csaky, made a strongly pro-axis speech on Hungary’s foreign relations; while on February 2 the U.S.S.R. severed diplomatic relations with Hungary. On April ii Hungary resigned from the League of Nations. Meanwhile, her relations with Czecho-Slovakia had remained strained, frontier incidents being frequent (particularly one at Munkacs, January 6). On March 14, when Slovakia declared her “independence” 'of Prague, Hungary sent an ultimatum to Prague to evacuate Ruthenia and

ister,

immediately afterwards occupied that area herself; on March 16 she declared

it

reincorporated in Hungary.

moved westward and west of the Ung. The

garian troops

after

23 Hunfighting occupied a

On March

some

own plays without benefit of other professional producers. Howard also prepared the scenarios for Bull Dog Drummond, Dodsworth, Gone with the Wind and other motion pictures, and translated a number of plays from the French, German, Spanish, and Hungarian. He was crushed to death by a tractor August 23

further area

on his dairy farm near Tyringham, Massachusetts. Encyclopadia Britannica, vol. ii, p. 848.

See also

On August 25 Rumania offered a non-aggression pact, but Hungary, while disclaiming any intention of aggression, insisted on preliminary guarantees for the Magyar minority in Rumania,

Baron (Esme William Hownf Danrifh UT rBnriini ard) (1863-1939), British diplomat,

a condition repeated by Count Csaky on September 15. On October 7 the two countries withdrew their troops from the

their

Uniiioril

nOWdlU

was born at Greystoke castle, Cumberland, on September 15 and was educated at Harrow. He entered the diplomatic service in 1885 as assistant private secretary to the earl of Carnarvon in and the next year he was attached to the British embassy

Ireland,

Rome. In 1888 he was appiointed third secretary, of the embassy at Berlin, where he served for four years. He was a trooper at

total addition to Hungary was about 13,100 sq.km, and 720,000 inhabitants, of whom about 430,000 were Ruthenes and about 120,000 Magyars. Rumania had partially mobilized, and relations with that country remained very strained throughout the summer.

mediation of Yugoslavia, with whom Hunhad become very cordial; but it was clear that Hungary felt that Rumania must make substantial concessions, territorial or otherwise, if she was to enjoy Hungary’s friendship. Count Csaky again indicated this in vigorous terms in a long speech on foreign affairs on Nov. 21. frontier, thanks to the

gary’s relations

HURDLING -ICELAND Meanwhile, Hungary had remained neutral on the outbreak of war, showing thereafter a tendency to lean very strongly on Italy

Germany her

and, in a less degree, on Yugoslavia, while towards

become rather defensive; towards the U.S.S.R. even more so, although diplomatic relations were resumed in October. The Rumanian difficulty prevented Hungary from helping to form a more solid “neutral bloc”; Csaky declared that Hungary could attitude had

were directed against any outside state. Internal Affairs On February 14 the premier. Dr. Imredy, resigned, being succeeded by Count Teleki, Professor Homan resuming as minister of education. Elections at the end of May gave the Government party, now known as the “Party of Hungarian Life,” 183 seats, while the 28 deputies for the recovered Northern not join such a bloc

if it

—

.

supported them. The so-called “Nyilas keresztes”

districts usually

(Arrow-Cross) Party, a Hungarian brand of Nazis, got 31 seats, 4 dissident Nazi parties, ii seats, while the Small-holders’ Party

was reduced

to 14, the Liberals

Christian Party to 4. difficulties

and

Socialists to 5 each,

The Government encountered repeated

with the Nyilas opposition, against which

strong measures. This decline, for at the

and the

movement seemed, however,

end of the year

its

often took

to be

on the

candidates were heavity de-

The

feated in two successive by-elections.

it

chief internal measures

adopted were a second, more drastic anti-Jewish law, and a modest land reform act. Autonomy for Ruthenia was promised. The

German minority was allowed to constitute itself as a “Volks(N. J. S.) bund.” (See also Ruthenia; Little Entente.) Education. In 1937-38; elementary schools 6,899; scholars

—

963,087;

continuation schools

S> 74 °!

scholars 299,321; univer-

number of students 9,746. Defence. ^The army consists of

sities 5

;

—

eight army corps, four motorand two cavalry brigades. Expenditure from July 31, 1939 to Dec. 31, 1940 is estimated at 498,581,000 pengos. Banking and Finance. Revenue (est. July i, 1939-Dec. 31, 1940), 2,563,194,000 pengos; expenditure (same period) 2,693,-

ized brigades

—

156.000 pengos; public debt (June 30, 1939) 2,088,527,230 pengos; notes in circulation (Aug. 31, 1939) 1,038,333,730 pengos; gold and silver reserve (Aug. 3, 1939) 225,403,828 pengos; ex-

change rate (Aug. 31, 1939) 21^ pengos=£i sterling. Trade and Communication. Foreign trade, (merchandise);

—

imports (1938) 410,607,000 pengos; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 327,250,000 pengos; exports (1938) 522,382,000 pengos; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 391.010.000 pengos. Communications (Jan. i, 1939); roads, public 22,i66mi.; railways, open to traffic 5,38imi.; water^vays, navigable i,i39mi.

and

;

motor vehicles licensed (Dec.

taxis 18,896; trucks, buses, etc., 5,312;

31, 1938) cars

cycles 10,837; tele-

loo UnoLou iuC nUuliCjf

349 5,000,000 spectators in the United

States,

during the

1938-39 season, with the

professional teams basking in the limelight on the glossy ice of

the big rinks.

Hockey

is

now

the most important feature of the

winter program of Madison Square Garden,

Hockey League played

tional

its

New

York. The Na-

seven-team schedule to an aver-

age attendance of 10,000 persons a game. The premier trophy of 1939 in the w'orld of professional hockey the Stanley Cup went to the world’s championship team, the

—

—

Boston Bruins, in the National Hockey League (the major league) by defeating the New York Rangers. In the minor leagues the ;

Ramblers won

and the Hershey team in the western division of the International League; the St. Louis Flyers stand first in the American Hockey Association, and the Portland team led in the Pacific Coast Hockey Philadelphia

in

the

eastern

division,

League.

The Cleveland American Legion team defeated the Minnesota Gophers for the National A.A.U. ice hockey championship. Among leading amateur teams playing the eastern circuits, the New York Rovers led in the Eastern Amateur Hockey League and also defeated the strong Holzbaugh Fords of Detroit in a post-season series for the championship of the United States Amateur Hockey Association, a newly organized outlaw amateur group. The Jamaica Hawks were the victors in the Metropolitan Hockey League. McGill university blanketed the field in the International Intercollegiate Ice Hockey League. Dartmouth, for the second year in a row, won the Quadrangular League title from Harvard, Princeton and Yale. The crown of the Private Schools Hockey League went to the fast team of St. Francis Prep school, of Brooklyn, and the championship title of the Public Schools Athletic League of New York city was won by the Brooklyn Technical High

school.

—

One of the few recorded hockey championship conon foreign soil took Europeans by surprise when a team of Canadian skaters, known as the Trail (B.C.) Smoke Eaters, won the world amateur championship crown by defeating a United States team, at Basle, Switzerland. In Canadian amateur hockey, honours were divided between the East and the West. The Port Arthur Bear Cats captured the Allen Cup, symbolic of the amateur championship of Canada in the senior tournament, while the Oshawa Generals won the Memorial Cup in the junior competi-

Abroad.

tests

tion.

(J.

B. P.)

pop. (1938) 118,888; capital 39,709 |nn|nnr1 IbCldllUy town; Reykjavik (pop. 1938, 37,366). Ruler; King Christian X of Denmark and Iceland; language; Icelandic; resq.mi.;

phones, number of subscribers (Dec. 31, 1938) 119,827; wireless receiving set licences (Dec. 31, 1938) 419,233.

ligion;

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. Production 1938 (in metric tons); w'heat 2,688,315; (1939) 3,069,000;

History . The result of the sea fisheries in 1939 was under normal. As one of the countries which have the largest foreign trade

maize 2,662,041; (1939) 2,250,900; rye 804,626; (1939) 896,900; barley 723,977; (i939) 780,500; oats 310,360; (1939) 356,700; potatoes 2,140,623; beet sugar 969,402; wine 3,060,000 hecto-

per capita, Iceland has had great difficulty in recent years in

—

lignite 8,305,827; coal 1,042,051; bauxite (crude ore) 540,315; manganese ore (metal content) (1937) 10,100; petroleum, crude 43,000; iron ore (metal content) 105,000; pig iron litres;

and ferro-alloys 334, 880;

steel 647,508;

tobacco 20,400;

hemp

There were 3,885,643 pigs, 2,379,1,868,122 sheep. Industry and labour; industrial pro-

Christian (Lutheran).

—

marketing her products as a result of import restrictions. Consequently she has had to establish strict control over her own imports and the transfer of foreign exchange. In April 1939 the Icelandic krona w'as devalued by 22%, and the rate of the pound, which had been maintained at 22.15 kr. for over 10 years, wus accordingly raised to 27.00 kronur. A law of Sept. 18, 1939, pro-

(fibre) 13,700; linseed 8,900.

vides, however, that

532 cattle, duction index (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 125.3; (average Jan.June, 1939) 137-5; number employed in industry (average 1938) 1,159,690; employment index (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 112-3;

lars falls

(June 30, 1939) 125-0; unemployment, applications for work (average 193S) 47-426; (June 30, 1939) 46,876. (W. H. Wn.)

Hurdling:

see

Track and Field

Sports.

when

the rate of the

pound expressed

below 4.15, the value of the krona the dollar instead of the pound.

shall

in dol-

be adjusted to

Shortly after the devaluation of the currency, the Government formed by the Progressive Peasants party was succeeded by a National Government under the former premier, Hermann Jonasson, with the support of all parties except the Communists. Work on new roads progressed, so that most of the coastal towTis can now be reached by car from Reykjavik, and the construction

ICE

350

SKATING — ILLINOIS

whereby all the houses in the capital are to be heated with water from hot springs nearby was inaugurated. Education. Compulsory, i university and a number of secondof a heating plant

—

ary schools.

—

Banking and Finance. In 1938, revenue 10,308,000 kronur; expenditure 17,587,000 kronur; notes in circulation (Oct. 1939) 13,785,000 kronur; gold reserve (Oct. 1939) 2,799,000 kronur; currency (Dec. 15, 1939) 25.75 kr6nur=£i sterling. Trade and Communication. Overseas trade, 1938; imports

—

Communications; roads,

49,102 kronur; exports 57,752 kronur.

D. Worth Clark, a Democrat, was elected United States Senator; Henry Dworshak, a Republican, was elected Representative to Congress from the second district. Compton I. White, a Democrat, was re-elected Representative from the first district. State officials at the close of 1939 branches have been Democratic.

were: governor, C. A. Bottolfsen; lieutenant-governor, Donald

Whitehead;

S.

George H. Curtis; attorneygeneral J. W. Taylor; chief justice, James F. Ailshie; State treasurer, Myrtle Enking; State auditor, Calvin E. Wright; State mining inspector, Arthur Campbell. The 25th legislature, which convened Jan. 2, 1939, and adjourned March 2, enacted 270 laws. Important statutes were secretary

of

State,

main 4,800 kilometres. Agriculture. Export production in 1938: (in metric tons) herring, cured (barrels) klip-fish and uncured salted fish, 43,661 326,753; whitefish 15,663; codliver oil and herring oil 28,976; herring meal and fish meal 22,234; mutton, frozen 2,433; wool 377; sheep-skins (export) (number) 453,224; total production:

employees; an automobile drivers’ financial responsibility law; humanitarian occupational disease measures reduction of passenger

hay 209,410; potatoes 2,317; sheep (head) 591,948;

automobile licence costs to a

—

;

cattle 36,696;

those providing for the establishment of

through

civil service

civil

service

tenure

commissions for certain non-elective

State

;

$5 fee, a step which reduces the loss of revenue to highway districts flat

horses 49,018; poultry 86,092.

owners’ operating costs,

About 100 carnivals were staged in 1939, thereby developing what was once an exclusive amateur hobby into a big industry within a few years. The national figure skating championships were held in St. Paul, Minn., for the first time. The national titles were won by the 1938 titleholders, Robin Lee, and Miss Joan Tozzer, both of Minneapolis. Miss Tozzer and Bernard Fox won the national pairs title, and the national dance crown was won by Miss Sandy MacDonald and Harold Hartshorn, of New York. Lee has since become a professional. National speed honours went to skaters of the Mid-West. The new champion is Ken Bartholomew, of Minneapolis, who won over several veterans. The women’s speed title went to Miss Madeline Horn, of Beaver Dam, Wis. The North American title events were held at Lake Placid, the men’s title going to Charles Leighton, also of Minneapolis, and Miss Horn also captured the women’s crown. A large field of skaters competed in the Middle Atlantic, the East’s leading speed event, at Newburgh, N.Y., the home of speed skating in the U.S. Eddie Schroeder, of Chicago, the Olympic skater, took the title, and Miss Helen Bahil, of New York won the women’s championship race. Abroad. Miss Megan Taylor, of England, won the world’s speed skating championship for women, and the men’s title went to Graham Sharp, also of England. Felix Kaspar, who was in Australia and did not defend his title, has since turned professional. Canadians dominated the North American championships, in Toronto. Miss Mary Rose Thacker, of Winnipeg, annexed the women’s crown, and Monty Wilson, of Toronto, men’s North American singles champion since 1929, again emerged the victor.

Highway department; an appropriation

being compensated for by a diversion of revenues from the State

Ion Cl/ntmcr lUC Oixdllilgi

—

(J- B. P.)

equalization

of

“poor” school

districts,

of $1,000,000 for the

between “rich” and and a law permitting creation of locally-

educational

opportunity

financed Junior College districts.

this

—

The school population during 1939 was 145,262. number 122,952 attended public schools. There were

Education.

Of

88,371 pupils and 3,129 teachers in 1,160 elementary schools. The high school enrolment was large; 34,381 pupils and 1,407 teachers in

186 schools.

—

Banking and Finance. On June 30, 1939 there were 35 national and 48 State banks with a capital of $5,102,200, deposits $91,711,757.78, and total resources $103,720,669.86. State Treasurer’s receipts from Sept. 30, 1938 to Dec. 31, 1939 were $35,347>149.74 and expenditures $36,822,509.86, which with previous balances, left $4,107,871.56 in the treasury’.

valuation was less than $400,000,000.

The

On

State’s assessed

April

i,

1939, the

bonded debt was $1,419,500, as compared with $1,378,500 a year previously. The State entered 1940 in sound financial condition. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. ^Most re-

—

cent statistics (1935) reveal 45,113 farms valued at $307,395,329, with an annual livestock and crop production income of $120,000,-

The three leading crops in 1939 in dollar values were 22,624,ooobu. of wheat, $13,348,000; 2,196,000 tons of tame hay,

000.

$14,494,000; and 29,670,00060. of potatoes, $11,275,000. Although Idaho’s three major industries are agriculture, mining,

and forestry, manufacturing is attaining increasing importance. Manufactured products reached,, in 1935, a total of $67,549,960. There were 459 manufacturing establishments, employing 10,537 wage workers, earning annually $11,985,026. Eleven manufactures were producing outputs each in excess of $1,000,000. The rank order were; lumber ($19,326,216), smelting and mining lead (about $10,000,000), butter ($9,582,927), beet sugar (about $3,000,000), and flour with grain mill products five largest in

one of the far North-western States in the Union belUdllUf longing to the group regionally designated as the Pacific

j L I

is

North-west.

The

State’s area

is

83,880 sq.mi.

;

population, accord-

ing to the U.S. census of 1930, 445,032; estimated Jan. 1, 1940. 500,000; capital Boise, 21,544, and the largest city. Cities of

more than 5,000 are Pocatello, Idaho Falls, Lewiston, Twin Falls, Coeur d’Alene and Nampa. Idaho is a rural commonwealth. Of the State’s population only 129,507, or 29-1%, are urban, according to the 1930 census. There are 437,362 whites, of whom 407,-

108 were native-born and 30,454 foreign-born. There were 3,638 Indians. In literacy the State was third (98-9%) in national rank, and fourth in the preponderance of native-born (91-5%).

—

History. ^At the biennial election, Nov. 8, 1938, a Republican governor and legislature were elected. Since 1932, the State has had Democratic governors and since 1934 all governmental

($4,288,941).

In 1939, Idaho’s “big five” metals: silver, lead, zinc, copper, gold, produced $30,166,000 as compared to $38,316,400 in 1937. In dollar values silver was first, with 17,199,600 oz. worth

and

$11,674,880 in 1939. Output and value of the others were; 181,4oo,ooolb. of lead, valued at $9,070,000; 93,150,0001b. of zinc, $4>936,93o;

114,000 oz. of gold, $3,990,000; and 4,750,0001b. copper, $494,000. Since the discovery of gold in i860, Idaho

mines have produced a huge metal output, valued 166,000.

Illinnic

at $i,330r

(Co.

J.

B.)

^ north central State of the United States, admitted to Union in 1818, has a population of 7,630,654 (1930

IIIIIIUIoi the

ILLINOtS, UN IVERSITY OF census) of which 1,242,447 are foreign bom, 328,972 Negro. Estimated population, July i, 1937, 7,878,000. Area, 56,043 square miles. Capital, Springfield, population 71,864. Four cities in the State are larger: Chicago (3,376,438); Peoria (104,969); Rockford (85,864); E. St. Louis (74>347)-

History.

—State

officers elected in

1936 were Henry Homer,

governor; John Stelle, lieutenant-governor;

Edward

J.

Hughes,

351

Despite proposals to consolidate in

one department, the

now

entering

its

In July

ninth year.

public assistance activities

all

Emergency Relief Commission

Illinois

it

required

to re-apply. In September 1,043,645 persons i3‘7% of tho 1930 population, w'ere dependent on the

rolls

assistance

programs, general

WPA,

relief,

on

all clients

old-age

is

its

in Illinois, five public

assistance,

mother’s pensions and blind pensions. There w'ere 125,190 persons

WPA

Edward J. Barrett, auditor of public accounts; J. Kemer, attorney general, all Democrats. Ill health kept Governor Horner out of the State, Nov. 1938 to April 1939, and away from Springfield some time longer. Lieutenant-Governor Stelle, designated by the constitution as act-

$4,78r,4g9.56 of which §3,880,971.67

ing governor, associated with himself in the discharge of his duties

levied since 1932), §287,904.56; inheritances §3,358,788.61; liquor

two of the Governor’s department heads and close friends, Charles H. Nudelman and James M. Slattery. Senator James Hamilton Lewis died April 9. Mr. Slattery, pending the Nov. 1940 election, was appointed to succeed him. Grace Abbott, internationally known in work for women, and Cardinal Mundelein, Archbishop

taxes,

§100,333.01; sales tax, §71,220,596.45; public utility tax, §7,799,-

of Chicago, died during the year.

§7,499,464.71.

secretary of State;

employed

Otto

1938.

With the Lower House of the General Assembly Republican, constructive legislation was passed in the regular session. An act making women eligible for jury duty was passed. Bills limiting the power of the Parole Board and reapportioning the State to remove the discrimination against Chicago failed of passage. A bill increasing the State’s contribution to old-age pensions was vetoed by the Governor. A special session to re-enact the State law was expected. Bills introduced by Senator Hickman repealing some 400 obsolete laws were passed. Biennial appropriations, reduced by the Governor’s veto, totalled §478,000,000 against an

little

estimated revenue of §456,000,000.

State contribution for relief

biennium was set at the compromise figure of §96,000,000 which \vill have to be increased before the biennium’s end. in the

Education.

—Public

instruction in Illinois

is

supervised by the

State Superintendent of Public Instmction, elected for four years in the off-year election. For the year ending June 30, 1937, the

enrolment (elementary and secondary schools) was 1,302,662, with a teaching staff of 47,819. School buildings numbered 13,934. Schools are supported by local taxation and a State distributive fund and are administered by some 12,000 school boards.

Of the State’s higher institutions of learning, the University of had an enrolment in the fall of 1939 of 13,894, 1,220 of

Illinois

whom

were

in the

Chicago departments.

The

five State

normal

in

projects as

compared with 246,386

Total expenditures for direct

—

relief for the

came from

in Sept.

month were

State funds.

Finance. For the first 10 months of 1939 the State’s revenue receipts were as follows: direct property tax (arrears, no tax §9,273,471.34; insurance fees and taxes, §7,091,137.14; corporation fees and taxes, §3,320,190.49; interest on State funds,

084.15; motor fuel tax, §34,829,191.86; motor vehicle tax, §20,234,760.58; Illinois Central railroad, §953,633.75; miscellaneous, Subventions from the Federal Government, and

bonded indebtedness included

trust funds are not included. State

§121,140,000 State highway bonds, §16,956,000 soldiers’ compen-

waterway bonds, §11,502,000 emergency bonds of 1932, §26,500,000 emergency relief bonds of 1934. Industry. ^Reports from 6,752 manufacturing and non-manufacturing establishments employing 640,645 persons at a weekly

sation bonds, §1,000,000 relief

—

payroll of §17,701,302 in Oct. 1939 indicated a contraseasonal increase over Sept. 1939 of

3-6%

employment and of 7-3%

in

in

were respectively 10-8% and 17-7%; decreases for Oct. 1939 from Oct. 1937 were —8-0% and 6-i%. The 4,634 establishments reporting by sex in Oct. 1939 reported 356,795 males with a weekly payroll of §11,005,989, and 100,207 females with a payroll of §1,676,883. payrolls. Increases for Oct. 1939 over Oct. 1938

—

Oil.

—^The

oil

industry continues

its

By

spectacular advance.

September daily production had reached a peak of 331,416 barrels. At present there are some 30 fields in 18 Illinois counties, with 3,000 wells in the fields discovered since Jan.

i,

1937.

In the

Salem-Lake Centralia pool, the richest of the fields, 1,200 wells have been drilled in little more than a year. The Fayette county, and the Central Basin in Clay, Richland, and Wayne counties are second and third. Illinois is now fourth among oil producing States, yielding about one-tenth the nation’s’ production. In alleged protest against her uncontrolled production, and consequent

schools reported a total enrolment of 7,852.

price cutting, six States shut

Public Welfare. ^Twenty-seven State institutions with approximately 50,000 inmates are operated by the State Department

summer. Legislation regulating the industry by spacing wells and pro-rating product, as well as levying a tax on the new-found wealth of §40,000 a day in royalties.has been earnestly advocated

—

of Public Welfare. Other duties include administration of sendees provided by the Social Security Act old age assistance, child welfor which new divisions have fare, aid to handicapped children

— —

been formed. Co-operative measures providing aid for the blind and for dependent children have not yet been taken in Illinois. Appropriations for the 1939-41 biennium total §34,564,342 besides funds for continuing

an extensive building program which

the State has pursued in co-operation with the leads

all

PWA.

Illinois

States in the proportion of population receiving old-age

September 135,721 recipients received average monthly payments of §19.61. There were repeated escapes of inmates in the unwalled St. Charles School for Boys. The Public Welfare department hesipensions.

In

tated long before using a legislative appropriation for a fence.

their production in the late

but so far remains unenacted. Agriculture.

—In

the face of a crop decline in the United

enjoyed a bounteous yield for the year. Estimated average corn yields of 5i-5bu. per acre and soybean States of 3 to

4%,

Illinois

an all-time record. Previous high had been for com 48bu. in 1937 and 23.5bu. for soybeans

3delds of 24bu. per acre set yields

in 1938.

Use of new hybrid

for the increase.

The

strains of

State’s

com

com

is

partially responsible

crop from 8,093,oooac.

is

ex-

pected to be 416,790,000 bushels. The fruit crop is well above the lo-year record, the apple crop being estimated at 4,7oo,ooobu.,

much

of

it,

however, of low quality.

An

was made for an “Illinois Training School for Boys” intended for older and more hardened boys. An epidemic of typhoid at the Manteno State hospital resulted up to October 17 in 48 deaths and 386 patients. Indictments were voted against the Director of Public Welfare and three officers of the

viduals enrolled was 17,500.

institution for alleged negligence.

record with 3,894 students.

additional appropriation

down

Illinois,

University of,

(T. C. Pe.)

tcM TtfhuZ 21”

new building constmetion on the campus. In the completed 1938-39 academic year, including extension courses and the 1938 summer session, the total of indienrolment, and began extensive

The 1939 summer

session set a

new

;

ILLITERACY— INCOME TAX

352

In November, 13,894 students enrolled for the first semester of 1939-40. Of these, 12,290 were on the campus at Urbana-Champaign, 1,220 on the campus at Chicago, and 384 in extra-mural

Of the enrolment, 1,458 were graduate students, these numbering 1,285 in the Graduate school at Urbana-Champaign and 173 in graduate work of the colleges of medicine and dentistry courses.

at Chicago.

In 1939 a total of 3,516 degrees were conferred. This included 635 masters, 112 doctors of philosophy, 159 doctors of medicine, 40 doctors of dental surgery, and 8 profes2,562 bachelors,

For 1939-40, the total staff at Urbana Chicago numbered 2,687. Of this total, 56 persons were

sional engineering degrees.

and

at

listed as solely administrators, 1,718

teaching

The

operating budget for 1939-40

is

staff,

178 research

508 miscellaneous. $8,532,397. This included

workers, 96 as librarians, 61 extension

staff,

4-3% of the population of that age. The best illiterates) was shown by whites of foreign or mixed parentage, native whites having i-8% illiterates, foreign born whites having 9-9% and Negroes 16.3%. Rates in given years of age, or record (only

-6%

States, according to the 1930 census, ranged

0-8%

from Iowa with

only

population illiterate to South Carolina with 14-9%. While Negroes still show the highest illiteracy of any large group of

its

American population, they have made the greatest recent At the time of emancipation in 1863 it was estimated that of the 4,500,000 slaves and “free persons of colour” in the United States less than 5% could read and write; in 1939 the 12,000,000 American Negroes have a literacy rate above 85%. of the

progress.

The Works Progress Administration

reports that during the past

six years of intensive effort it has taught 1,300,000 people to read

and

write.

This should bring the

next decennial census to about

illiteracy in the U.S.

3%

by

the

$5,432,500 from tax revenues through the biennial State appropriation plus income from other sources. About 13% of the operating

years of age, by far the best record the nation has shown at any

budget funds will be expended for organized research.

time in

The

library

is fifth

any State

largest of

in size

among

university.

all

American

universities

of the population over ten

(E. R. E.)

its history.

and

It contains 1,117,000 volumes,

330,000 pamphlets, 3,900 maps, and 10,600 pieces of sheet music. More than 30,000 volumes are added each year, by gift and pur-

lilumination: see Electric Lighting. I.L.O.: see International Labour Organization. principal laws in the United States relating

Total value of the university’s physical plant at June 30, was $31,891,981. This includes 2,3i8ac. of land ^41430. comprising the main campus at Urbana-Champaign, 3ac. the campus at Chicago, and balance in agricultural experiment farms 77 major and 58 other buildings; improvements; equipment; and

ImmirrrqtSnn

library.

because of their mental, physical, economic or social

As 1939 ended, new buildings under construction and being planned on the Urbana-Champaign campus totalled $5,595,000 in

may

chase.

—

1939,

value.

During 1939, because of wars and upheavals over wide areas of the globe, there was a net loss in the world’s efforts to reduce illiteracy and in similar movements toward popular education. Germany, which before the World War (1914-18) had established a high record in all forms of education, has lost ground during recent years because of concentration on military enterprises which culminated in 1939 in the European IllitorOfiU

duji

lllllwl

war. Czechoslovakia, with one of the highest literacy rates in the world, suffered great injuries to her school system because of the

debacle of 1938 and the the greatest

number

German conquest

China, with

of 1939.

of illiterates of any nation in the world, has

been compelled because of the Japanese invasion to abandon her recent effective efforts to teach the masses to read through a simplified “alphabet” of 1,000 characters. Reports from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, where recent mass education had reduced illiteracy from the 75% of 1895 to less than 30% in 1937, indicate a slowing down in educational programs. Italy, Spain and all the countries of eastern and southern Europe have

making heroic

60%

80%

of

of the population over ten years of age

is still

unable

The United States of America was one of the few countries to continue to make progress in the reduction of illiteracy during

A nation-wide effort to teach the whole nation to read and write continued to be the chief item in the vigorous program in adult education of the Works Progress Administration. In 1930 the last year for which comprehensive figures are avail-

the year 1939.

—

May

26, 1924,

known

for the exclusion and deportation

The

The

of

act of 1917 provides

from the United States

act of 1924 places a limitation' on the

number

of aliens

unsuitability.

of aliens

who

enter the United States annually for permanent residence.

Numerical restrictions are not placed upon natives of Canada, Newfoundland, the Canal Zone, or independent countries of the Western Hemisphere; and such restrictions do not apply to the wives and unmarried minor children of citizens, or to the husbands of citizens where marriage occurred prior to July i, 1932. The administration of

all

laws relating to immigration

is

under the

supervision of the Commissioner of Immigration and Naturalization at Washington, D.C.

In the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, 82,998 immigrant and 185,333 non-immigrant aliens were admitted, while 26,651 emigrant and 174,758 non-emigrant aliens departed from the United

Of the “immigrant” class, 63,138 were from European from the Americas, and 2,721 were from

States.

countries, 17,139 were

Asiatic and other sources.

Included in this class were 1,088 husbands, 3,759 wives, and 2,196 minor children of American citizens. Under the “non-immigrant” classification 42,267 aliens were admitted as returning residents. sion at ports of entry,

seamen shipped out of American ports during the year, leaving an excess of arrivals over departures of only

ever, 17,252 alien 2,666.

'

{See also Reeugees.)

United States possessed 4,283,733

illiterates

over ten

(J.

L. Ho.)

Immunization, Therapeutic: see Serum Therapy. Imports: see Exports and Imports; International Trade.

—

^the

as the quota act.

cause of discharges, hospitalization, or desertion 19,918 alien seamen did not leave with the vessels on which they arrived. How-

report illiteracy of over

to read or write.

able

1917,

improve the education of their people but In Mexico

efforts to

still

illiteracy in all these countries is still exceedingly high.

nearly

5,

generally referred to as the basic immigration law, and the act

Mexico and other Latin American nations are

India and Egypt

the population.

to immigration are the act of Feb.

During the same period 6,498 aliens were debarred from admisand 8,202 aliens, including 1,638 criminals, were deported from the country. As distinguished from deportation, 1,825 indigent aliens were repatriated at their own request, and 392 Filipinos were returned to the Philippine islands. Immigration officers boarded 33,836 vessels and inspected crews totalling 971,662 alien and 416,124 American citizen seamen. Be-

been too busy with wars and the threats of war to make any concerted national efforts toward popular education and national literacy.

lllinilgldllDIL

Income Tax.

Changes made in the Federal income tax law in 1939 were designed in large part to remove tax

INCOME TAX deterrents to business initiative. taxes payable

They

concerned primarily the

by corporations, although some

significant changes

were made also in the tax on the incomes of individuals. Federal income tax collections in the fiscal year ended June 3O1 i 939 amounted to $2,151,375,000 or 39-1% of the total Federal internal revenue and customs. The individual and corporate >

income taxes contributed $1,028,834,000 respectively, to this total.

and $1,122,541,000,

Excess-profits tax collections, not in-

come

groups, as

married persons, and in 23 States for dependents. Although some States preceded the Federal Government in employing the income tax, more than half the States now imposing it

adopted it in 1929 or thereafter. important changes affecting the individual income tax were

Two

State income tax collections in 1938 are estimated to have been

made

during 1939. The first of these was effected by the Public Tax Act of 1939, which subjects to the Federal income tax

Salary

Tax on Individuals The Federal Government’s individual income tax consists of a 4% normal tax and a surtax ranging from

of

to

75%j

evidenced by the fact that the personal exemp-

in 21 States for

$437,000,000 ($249,000,000 from individuals and $188,000,000 from corporations) or 11-3% of estimated State tax revenues.

4%

is

tions are below the Federal level in 12 States for single persons,

cluded in the above totals, amounted to $27,056,000.

.

353

both normal and surtax, exceed 15%. In some instances. State income taxation is directed toward the low inrate, including

—

applicable to incomes over $4,000 after allowance for

The personal exemptions allowed

for taxable years beginning after Dec. 31, 1938, the compensation all

State and local officers and employees, as well as the

compensation of judges of courts of the United States who took office on or before June 6, 1932, and consents to the non-

for both

discriminatory taxation of the compensation of Federal officers

normal and surtax purposes are at present $t,ooo for a single person, $2,500 for married persons and $400 for dependents. The earned income credit, applicable against the normal tax, is at a rate of 10%, allowable only on amounts of earned income not in excess of $14,000, with $3,000 of income considered earned whether or not actually earned. These provisions serve to exempt from Federal income taxes single individuals with net incomes of $1,1 1 1 or less and married persons with net incomes of $2,778

and employees received after Dec. 31, 1938 by State and local Governments. In general, prior to the enactment of this legislation the Federal income tax applied to the compensation of Federal employees but did not apply to the compensation of State and local employees. States with income taxes, on the other hand, usually taxed the salaries of State and local employees but did

exemptions and

or less,

if

credits.

not tax the compensation of Federal employees.

In pursuance of the Public Salary Tax Act, 16 States and the Columbia passed legislation in 1939 providing for the taxation of the compensation of Federal employees. A number of

District of

without dependents.

Federal income tax data for 1937, compiled from income tax show that in that year 3,371,443 individuals

returns filed in 1938,

additional States can tax the salaries of Federal employees with-

were liable for Federal income taxes. This exceeded the corresponding number for the preceding year by 510,335 or 17-8%. These data reveal further that 58-5% of the total net income reported by individuals was received by persons having less than

out special legislation.

$5,000 and 92-1% by persons having less than $50,000 net income each. On the other hand, due to the operation of the exemptions

and the progressive surtax

rates,

persons with less than

$5,000 net income paid 6-3% and those with less than $50,000 net income paid 44-8% of the total individual income tax collections. Individual income

is

taxed also by 3t States and the District

Another income tax change during 1939 was the provision in the Revenue Act of 1939 for a net operating business loss carry-over for a period of two years applicable to individuals, members of a partnership, estates and

on or

after Jan.

from 1% to 3%, and the maximum rates from 3% to 15%. Four additional States tax particular sources of income at flat rates. Six States in the above two groups impose also surtaxes. In no instance, however, does the maximum State income tax

$25,000.

rates ranging

i,

1939.

Corporation Income Tax flat

minimum

and participants in a common

with respect to taxable years beginning after Dec. 31, 1939 but a net operating loss may be carried over from a year beginning

of Columbia. In aU but three of these the rates are progressive,

the

trusts,

trust fund, as well as to corporations. This provision takes effect

rate of

18% upon

This

—The Revenue Act of 1939 imposes a

.

corporations with net incomes of

change,

applicable

to

taxable

years

more than beginning

after Dec. 31, 1939, in effect removes the last remnant of the

undistributed profits tax, which, under the 1938 Act, had been retained for corporations with net incomes of more than $25,000

but reduced to a

maximum

of

2j%. Corporations with net

in-

comes of $25,000 or less are subject to rates graduated from 12^% of their net income not in excess of $5,000 to 16% of such income in excess of $20,000.

In the case of corporations with net incomes

of slightly over $25,000, the law provides for an alternative tax which is designed to accomplish a gradual transition between the

tax on corporations with net incomes of $25,000 and less and the tax on those with net incomes in excess of that amount. reference to the above size classification,

it

With

should be noted that

whereas under the 1938 Act it was based upon net income, under the 1939 Act it is based upon net income less credits for (i) interest on certain obligations of the United States and Govern-

ment corporations and

(2) dividends received.

Banks, insurance companies, China Trade Act corporations and domestic corporations deriving a large portion of their gross income from sources within the United States, which were subject

16^% under the 1938 Act, are taxed under the 1939 Act at the same rates as other corporations, that is, distinction is made between those with net incomes of $25,000 or less and those wdth net incomes of more than $25,000. The rate apto a flat rate of

by the 1939 mutual investment com-

plicable to resident foreign corporations is decreased

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUAL NET INCOMES States in calendar years indicated

of

$1,000,000 or more

in

the Uniled

Act from panies

is

18% and the rate on increased from 16^% to 18%. 19%

to

INDIA

354

of the short-term capital losses of individuals provided by

the

Revenue Act of 1938. Short and long-term gains are treated the same as other income. The Revenue Act of 1939 liberalized the treatment of income resulting from the purchase of bonds at less than their face value in the case of debt-ridden corporations.

establishes to the satisfaction of the

unsound

financial condition

A

corporation which

Commissioner that

may redeem

its

it is in

bonds, notes, or other

evidences of indebtedness in existence on June

than face value without recognition of gain

if

i, 1939 at less such redemption

occurs after the enactment of the 1939 Act, June 29, 1939, and in a taxable year beginning prior to Jan. i, 1943. Finally, mention should be made of the provision of the Revenue Act of 1939 authorizing corporations to increase their capital stock valuations for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1939 and June 30, 1940. The Revenue Act of 1938 had previously authorized the revaluation of capital stock in 1938 and every third year thereafter. This provision affects also the excess-profits tax since

the valuation adopted for capital stock tax purposes determines also the liability

“A VERY DELICATE CHILD'* was the Admlntslrakion's economy according to Thomas of The Detroit News

plan of 1939,

under the excess-profits

tax.

{See also Legisla-

(R. Bl.) The Revenue Act of ipjp.) United Kingdom. Owing to the war the income tax position in the United Kingdom for the year 1939-40 was affected by the introduction of a second budget. Under the Finance Act, i 939 the income tax rate was maintained at 5s.6ff. in the £. The rates

tion, Federal;

—

Federal income tax statistics show that 529,097 corporations filed income tax returns for 1937, of which 192,028 reported net

incomes and 285,810 reported deficits. The remaining 51,259 corporations were inactive during the year. The aggregate net income

>

of surtax, however, on income exceeding £2,000, as fixed by

—ranging from

the

the £i to js.td. in the £

of the corporations reporting net incomes

Finance Act 1931

total deficit

on the excess, and subsequently increased by 10% ^were now raised by 15% on the first £6,000 of the excess, and by 20% on

was $9,634,837,000; the of the corporations with no net income was $2,280,-

846,000.

The

classification

incomes

of

corporations

by the

size

of

their net

not yet available for 1937. In the preceding year, 1936, only 13-7% of the total net income corporations reported is

net incomes in excess of $23,000.

The

however, accounted for approximately

come and paid approximately

93%

corporations in this group,

93%

of the total net in-

of the total tax.

General corporation income taxes are also levied by 32 States

the balance.

provisions against the evasion of surtax were

The

The Finance (No. 2.) Act, 1939 raised the income tax rate for the last three-quarters of the year 1939-40 to js.td. in the £, rate of 7s. in the £ for the full year. The surtax on incomes over £2,000 was raised to rates ranging from

making an average

qsM.

in the £ on any excess over £30,000. In was made for the reduction of certain allowances for the year 1940-41, such as the personal and child allowances and the earned income, reduced rate and age reliefs.

is-zd. in the

£ to

addition, provision

of net operating business losses, (2) the’ treatment of corporate capital losses, and (3) the treatment of income resulting from the

Bombay

The

provision regarding the carry-over of net operating business

income tax purposes, discussed above, applies However, the privilege of carrying over losses is denied to personal holding companies, mutual investment companies and (for purposes of the surtax) to corporations subject to the surtax on improper accumulation of surpluses. Under the Revenue Acts of 1934-38, corporations were allowed

losses for individual

also to

(H. E. A. C.)

The Revenue Act of 1939 allows to corporations, other than domestic and foreign personal holding companies, full deduction of losses on capital assets held for more than 18 months

gains.

against ordinary net income for the taxable year in which the loss was realized. Losses of corporations on capital assets held

18 months or less, so-called short-term capital losses, are allowed only to the extent of short-term gains, but losses disallowed in one year (to an amount not exceeding net income) may be carried forward and applied against gains from such transactions in the succeeding taxable year.

This corresponds to the treatment

area 1,575,187 sq.mi. of which the native states and agencies total 712,308 sq.mi.; pop. (est. 1938) 362,828,Chief towns (pop. census 1931): Calcutta (1,483,582); I

000.

(1,161,382); Madras (647,230); Hyderabad (466,894); Delhi (cap. 447,442); Lahore (429,747). Ruler, George VI, Emperor; viceroy, the marquess of Linlithgow; languages, Hindi, Bengali and Urdu the most important; religions, Hinduism (approx, two-thirds),

corporations.

to deduct capital losses only to the extent of $2,000 plus capital

—

further strengthened.

and the District of Columbia. One additional State restricts its corporate tax to income from intangibles. Six States impose graduated rates, the minimum rates ranging from 1% to 3% and the maximum rates from 5% to 8%. The other 27 States and the to 8%. District of Columbia impose flat rates, ranging from Rates of 2%, 4% or 6% are most frequent. The Revenue Act of 1939 made significant changes in the Federal corporation income tax with respect to (i) the carry-over

discharge of corporate indebtedness.

is. in

History.

Mohammedan

(approx, one-fifth).

— Cross-currents, not wholly

dissociated

from personal

kept the Congress party busy during the early part of 1939. In January the retiring president, S. C. Bose, came forward for re-election; but a nominee of Mahatma Gandhi was put up to rivalries,

oppose him. Mr. Bose won; whereupon Gandhi, while ostensibly accepting the verdict, turned at once to another field of activity.

A

trivial dispute with the chief of Rajkot was developed until Gandhi decided to “fast until death” over a question, as it has been described, of “whether the ruler of a state of less importance than the Isle of Wight has interpreted correctly the wording of an ambiguous letter relating to the composition of a committee.” By

the time that the viceroy had intervened and the chief justice of the federal court had given a lengthy opinion on the issue, Gandhi

had the eyes of the world upon him, and consented to break his fast. Returning to the Congress, his renewed prestige enabled him , to enforce Mr. Bose’s retirement and replacement as president by

INDIA one of

his

own

disciples,

Dr. Rajendra Prasad of Bihar. Mr. Bose,

whose following is mostly in Bengal, remains in the Congress as head of an extreme Left group, loosely allied with the communist affinities of Pandit J. L. Nehru; and the official temper of the Congress changes from ultimatum to bargaining. The ultimatum had issued in February, when the Congress intimated to the Government that, wnthin six months, a categorical answer must be given to its demand for self-determination; otherwise the demand would be made effective by the help of a national volunteer corps a million strong. The threat was ignored; in September the position had changed, and the weapon of bargaining was brought into operation. In the interval the Congress was hard at work attacking the preparations for federation. This, which is to be the culminating feature of the new constitution, has been awaiting the consent of the princes, whose adhesion to the federal scheme must be purely voluntary; but the Congress has always opposed it, and is consequently extending its activities from the British provinces into the states. Its method is a war of ner\'es upon the princes. An association is set up or emissaries engaged in a state, grievances against its ruler are sought out and magnified, and an agitation started for reform and representative institutions. In some of the larger states, drastic action has been taken against this interference; the Nizam of Hyderabad issued a firman in February, calling on his subjects to prevent harmonious development from being hampered by “poisonous influences from outside.”

Smaller states like Rajkot have been unable to resist

355

increase the

Hindu power in the Central Government. The more Muslim camp indeed are aflame with a vision

fiery spirits in the

of exchanges of population which will enable a great Islamic state

and around the Punjab, a state which will from Kabul to Istanbul. The prospects of an early federation are thus obscure; and yet aU parties are agreed that there can be no national future for India until the provinces and the states are knit together in to be established in

link

up with the

string of Islamic pow'ers

political unity.

India and the into

War

—Immediately on the entry of Great

.

war (September

3), the vicero3' broadcasted

parties and sections in India for co-operation.

to

come from

a political organization

Britain

an appeal to

The

first

all

response

was on September 10 from

the National Liberal Federation, with a declaration that “India

should unhesitatingly and ungrudgingly’ support the democratic

powers.”

On September

15 the working committee of the Con-

gress issued a lengthy statement,

condemning Naziism but declar-

ing that India cannot associate herself with an imperialistic W’ar.

Before taking a decision, however, the committee inwted the British Government to announce its war aims in regard to India, which must include the establishment of a full democracy in the country and the right of the Indian people to frame their o'sra

constitution through a constituent assembly. ing, the

On

this

understand-

statement continued, India W’ould join “other free nations

for mutual defence against aggression and for economic co-operation.”

The

all-India Congress

committee met

later,

endorsed this

afford the changes

reply and demanded, without further circumlocution, that “India

resented in the states,

the intervention of the Congress has put a decided brake on the

must be declared an independent nation.” On September 18 the Muslim League, with a watchful eye on the tactics of the Con-

movement toward

gress,

the pressure, and at the

same time cannot

which are demanded. Bitterly though

Federation

federation.

—^The

.

it is

argument of the Congress

in

fighting the

scheme is that the representatives of the states in the Government and legislature, being nominees of their rulers, will bring an autocratic and reactionary force into the central administration, and play into the hands of British imperialism. Gandhi leaves the point in no ambiguity; there can, he says, be “no halfway house between total extinction of the states, and the princes making their people responsible for the administration of their states.” With this choice before them, it federal

Federal

is

not surprising that the more conservative rulers should hesitate on the side of British India,

to submit to a partnership in which, "the

Congress influence would be dominant. The more progressive

urged that no declaration of constitutional advance should be made by the British Government without their consent and approval.

On October

22 the working committee of the Congress

met and

resolved that Lord Linlithgow’s statement was unfortunate and w'holly unsatisfactory,

and that they were “unable to give anj' supAs gage of battle, they called upon minis-

port to Great Britain.”

who are adherents of the Congress party to an order which was obeyed, so that eight out of the eleven prownces are now without cabinet Governments, further efi'orts ters in the provinces

resign,

by the viceroy

to ease the tension ha\’ing failed.

The pro\inces

are carrying on comfortably under the personal rule of their governors ; but the general situation

is

that the Congress refuses co-

princes are equally reluctant, though on different grounds; why,

operation in what

they ask themselves, should they risk their treaty rights, if the paramount power in India is going to abdicate in favour of the revolutionary followers of Gandhi? This somewhat tenuous apprehension is a symptom of the cooling of the earlier enthusiasm

tempted to make the administration unworkable because Great Britain is not prepared with an immediate declaration of India’s independence. In this attitude Congress is not supported by the Muslim League or by a number of not unimportant, though

which the princes displayed for the Federal idea at the Round Table conferences. 'When the hard administrative details come to be faced, the rulers find themselves required to surrender ancient powers and privileges inherent in their order. They have thus been hanging back from consent to the Instruments of Accession which have to be executed as the condition of admission into the fed-

smaller,

eral structure.

of the greater princes have placed all their resources at the service of the Government; the martial races are pouring into the recruiting offices; and large quantities of material are on their w’ay to

After infinite suasion and negotiation,

final

drafts

of those

instruments were communicated to the princes in Jan. 1939, for acceptance or otherwise by September i. At a conference of princes held at Bombay in June, the proposals were rejected as “fundamentally unsatisfactory” by states representing 71% of the total state population.

This decision does not exhaust the

obstacles to the project; the very stars in their courses seem to be fighting against it, despite the strenuous endeavours of Lord Linlithgow to get it completed during his viceroyalty. Not the serious opposition comes from the Indian Muslims, who deprecate the principle of federation -on the ground that it will

least

it

admits to be a righteous war and has at-

Hindu

political groups even in orthodox Congress circles growing that their case has been overstated, and a prominent organ of their press has recently been repudiating the

the feeling

;

is

idea of cutting the British connection.

More important

still,

these

declamations have not affected the general public; for the response to India’s war effort is already widespread and impressive. Most

—

England tents, boots, sandbags, etc.: of sandbags 500,000,000 had been supplied by the end of November with a promise of another 100,000,000 a month to the end of April, 1940.

—^Recognized

Education.

institutions in British India (excluding

Burma): primary (males): schools 160,545,

scholars 7,755,656; (females): schools 31.699, scholars 2,468,632; secondary’ (males): schools II. 731, scholars 2.005,031; (females): schools 1.323, scholars 282,841. Colleges (males): number 306, scholars 110,022;

(females):

number

40, scholars 6,393.

Universities: British India

INDIA

356 Native States

15,

3.

—

Defence. A committee under Lord Chatfield which has been examining the whole question of India’s defence, has recom-

mended

the complete modernization of It

cost of £33,000,000.

by the

British

is

Government, which

fourths of that sum.

will

military forces, at a

its

understood that

has been accepted

this

make

India a gift of three-

—

Banking and Finance. ^Although the budget estimates for 1938-39 had been balanced without extra taxation, the actual results reflected the trade depression, and searching economies had

The budget

to be effected to avoid a deficit.

was

of 1939-40

bal-

anced without any special severity, other than doubling the import

duty on raw cotton, a measure which the finance minister hoped would stimulate India’s endeavours to grow a long-staple cotton of

own.

its

A

was passed during 1939, and But the Government is in strange contrast

stringent income-tax law

ought to improve the future yield from that source.

orthodox finance of the central with the devices

of the provincial ministers

for

their

filling

yawning exchequers. Their first demand in every case is for larger grants from the central Government, to be recouped by the reduction of the British garrison.

them favour taxation on

of

attention

to

Failing in that quest,

callings

some

and professions, with special

the salaries of the public servants;

and Bombay

has an ambitious tax on immovable property, likely to check the recent building activity.

Revenue, central Government

(est.

1938-39) Rs. 1,22,28,00,000;

Government (est. 1938-39) Rs. 1,22,18,00,000; revenue, central Government (est. 1939-40) Rs. 1,21,82,00,000; expenditure, central Government (est. 1939-40) Rs. r,2r,77,00,000; public debt (March 31, 1939); domestic Rs. 7,36,42,00,000; public debt (March 31, 1939); external Rs. 4,69,14,00,000; notes in circulation (Sept, i, 1939) Rs. 1,82,13,17,000; gold and expenditure, central

sterling reserve (Sept,

rupee (Rs. i) Rs.

1

= 17.94

= is.

—By

Trade and Communication.

Jan.

i,

though one important product, sugar, had been hit by unfavourable seasons. The balance of payments was improving, and the rupee exchanges showed no disturbance. With the outbreak of war, a stimulus will have been given to India’s chief

Taking normal conditions, however, one can see material

for anxiety in the economic situation. to convert India

The

nationalist ambition is

from a purveyor of raw products into a great

self-

power, the chief instrument of change being a In a sense that instrument has proved effective,

sufficient industrial

protective

tariff.

as the yield of the protective customs duties

But

its

is

rapidly declining.

reaction on the general well-being of the people

is

question-

able. Falling imports

must weaken the world’s demand for

agricultural produce;

and the

India’s

interests of the peasant will in time

clash gravely with those of the politically-minded manufacturer.

being experienced meanwhile in the changing character of India’s imports. Many of the old staples show a

Some

sharp

alleviation

fall

—

is

cotton, textiles, iron

chemicals, soap, rubber.

ments are growing

With

this,

in diversity,

and

railway equipment, however, the country’s requiresteel,

and the import

is

ery, transport vehicles, all sorts of electrical

wireless apparatus

(there are

.

,

Imports from

1940, there were signs of slow recovery from the preceding trade depression, al-

exports.

Indian Imports -

pence.

new and abnormal

DOMINION STATUS FOR INDIA was damanded as a British war objeclive by Mohandas K* Gandhi, who relumed In 1939 to an active political life

1939) Rs. 1,03,91,57,000; currency; i 6d. at par; average exchange rate (1938) i,

now more

rising of

machinequipment, films,

than 70,000 receiving

licences as against 55, 000 in 1938), as also of certain food-stuffs

and drinks. Overseas trade 1938-39: imports, merchandise Rs.

r, 52,32,76,-

S8S; exports, merchandise Rs. 1,62,79,16,269; re-exports, merchandise Rs. 6,42,35,626; gold and silver coin and bullion, imports Rs. 2,77,77,737; exports Rs. 14,09,08,106; imports from Afghanistan Rs. 2,48,95,446; exports to Afghanistan Rs. 50,70,332.

U.R.

Buniu Japan

Germany U.S.A.

and Exports 1938-30 Exports to

Rs.

Rs.

46,49,10,104 24 » 34 , 90,923 iS,4I,33r950 12 » 92 , 7?,979 9,77,82,601

SS,Sl|i3pi29 10,03,36,903 14,59.02.043 8,55.48,779 13.87,91.101

Roads (1937) British India only, 69,000011. metalled, 2oo,ooomi. unsurfaced. Railways (1937-38): Mileage open to traffic, 41,076,^ of which 29,732mi. are Government owned. Shipping, tonnage entered (monthly average 1938), 76r,ooo; tonnage entered (Aug.

1939) 853,000. Shipping, tonnage cleared (monthly average 1938) tonnage cleared (Aug. 1939) 811,000.

793,000;

Motor vehicles licensed (March 31, 1938): British India 97,872 cars and taxis; 39,172 commercial vehicles; 9,385 motor cycles, including scooters and auto-wheels. Wireless receiving set licences (April 30, 1939) 73,698.

Telephones

(March 31, 1938): 71,862 straight-line connec463 exchanges. Agriculture, Manufactures and Mineral Production. ^Production: (in metric tons) rice (1938-39) 23,962,100; wheat tions,

—

(1939 est.) 10,086,300; cane sugar, raw (1938-39) 4,156,800; maize (1937-38) 2,155,600; barley (1937-38) 2,123,100; jute (1938) 1,242,000; coal (1938) 28,806,000; iron ore (metal content) (1938) 1,850,000; pig iron and ferro-alloys (1938) 000; steel (1938) 982,000; petroleum, crude (1938) 317,000; cotton, ginned (1938-39) 929,200; ground-nuts (1938-39) 3,080,500;

tobacco (1937-38) 519,300; tea (1937) 195,200; manganese ore (metal content) (1938) 450,000; linseed (1938-39) 464,300; gold (1938) 10,000kg.; bauxite (1937) 15,400; potash (export 1937) 4,000; chrome ore (chromic oxide content) (1937) 31,000; rape seed (1938-39) 932,000; sesamum (1938-39) 401,400. Industry:

—

;

INDIANA cotton (1938-39) yam spun 1,303, 245, 9021b.; woven goods 920,475,8051b.; number of mills 435; average number employed 569,000. Jute (1937) - mills 105; average number employed 309,000; total number of factories (1937) 10,647; average daily number employed (1937) i, 957, 000. See also Education: British Em(iVlE.;

pire.

jj IllUldlldi

I

Indiana was admitted into the Union Dec. 11, 1816, the day of the year now observed as Indiana Day.

Official figures for its area

vey now

W. H. Wn.)

vary somewhat; the topographical sur-

Ac-

in progress- may, for the first time, give accuracy.

Handbook

of Geology (1922) the land surface is 36,045 sq.mi.; rivers and small lakes cover 280 sq.mi. and the southeast comer of Lake Michigan 230 sq.mi., making a total of

cording to the State

357

386 State and 126 national banks, a total of 512 (a decrease of nine, as compared with 1938) with a total capital of $104,172,450 (also a decrease). Principal assets and liabilities were; general market bonds held $71,752,686 (a decrease); loans and discount, $283,063,200; State, county and municipal bonds, $53,228,967; U.S. Government securities, $269,508,423; total cash and balance

with banks, $310,873,312; savings deposits, $264,245,681, demand deposits, $559,912,273, aU increases, except as indicated, as com-

pared with 1938. The total revenue receipts of the State of Indiana for the year ending June 30, 1939, w'ere $84,347,458, including: from gross income tax $19,981,968 ($22,339,541 in 1938), from gasoline tax $23,071,966 ($22,717,437 in 1938) and from property tax $5,981,566. State funds distributed to local units

amounted

to $36,804,-

36,555 square miles. The centre of population of the United States in the 1930 census was near Linton, in Greene county. The

485, the largest items being for schools and roads. Federal aid to all imits in the State and distributions for unemployment com-

population of the State, according to that census, w'as 3,238,503

pensation during the

(1938 estimate, about 3,500,000), of whom 3,116,136 were white and 111,982 Negroes. A larger per cent (92%) of the population than in any other State, is native bom. The largest foreign group

total property tax, all units, $99,473,099; - total

was 28,152 German-bom immigrants. About 12% of the population lives on farms. There are 92 counties and 1,016 governmental

State in the year ending June 30, 1939 were $162,095,683, compared with $128,686,116 in 1938, most of the increase being ac-

townships in the State.

counted for by three new items: payments of unemployment compensation benefits of $18,704,969, Federal funds disbursed in

History.

—

^The 8ist session of the General

Assembly was con-

term Jan. 5-March 6, 1939; the lower house was Republican, the upper. Democratic. The principal legislation passed and approved was revision of the liquor laws (abolishing ports-of-entry and their import fees), and provision for fined to its constitutional

unemplo3Tnent compensation. Governor M. Clifford Townsend; Lieutenant Governor and President of Senate, Henry F. Schricker; Speaker of House of Representatives, James M. Knapp; United States Senators, Frederick

Van Nuys and Sherman Minton;

Fansler.

Chief Justice, Michael L.

year 1938-39 amounted to $46,800,485; revenue receipts

exclusive of State distributions, $184,547,069; grand total revenue receipts, all units, $228,458,704. Total gross disbursements

by the

amount of $9,405,955, and unemployment compensation colby the State transferred to the Federal Government in the amount of $4,488,334. Total Government payments (all units), the

lections

were $191,994,321. Agriculture.

—^The

latest available figures are given; those for

1938 and 1939 are preliminary. Acreage of crops reported in 1938, 10,276,000 (10,877,900 in 1937). Production of four principal crops in 1938: com, i73,389,ooobu., 40,000,000 less than in 1937; wheat, 30,240,ooobu., 4,500,000 less than in 1937; oats, 34,060,ooobu., 11,000,000 less than in 1937; soybeans, on 828,oooac.

—

Education. ^The enrolment in public schools from the kindergarten through high school for the school year 1938-39 was 678,858 of which 23,924 were coloured; an additional 54,888 were enrolled in parochial schools. Current expenditures for the same year on public schools, not including colleges and universities, were $50,675,798. Of these, $4,990,095 was for transportation. In

was a capital outlay of $8,812,970. The closing of one-room schoolhouses has been a marked feature for the

(16,000 more than in 1937), 8,464,00060., about 2,600,000 more than in 1937. The total farm value of crops in 1937 was $190,937,000, in 1938 it was $146,522,000; income from crops in 1937, $74,556,000; from livestock and livestock products $228,974,000; from Government payments $8,624,000, gross income $312,154,-

000

—

in each instance less than in 1937.

addition, there

on farms Jan.

small,

hogs, 3,405,000,

20 years. Hence the transportation of children to consolidated schools has been an increasing item of expenditure. The total number of public schools in operation in the State in the school

last

year 1938-39 was 3,194; at the beginning of the school year 1939-40 there were 3,027. After 1940 four years of college will

be required for licences to teach in elementary as well as

in

high

schools.

Indiana university at Bloomington, Purdue university( the land grant university) at Lafayette, the Indiana State Teachers college at Terre Haute,

fiscal

and Ball State Teachers

college at

Munde,

are

The

i,

1939, 1,633,000,

7%

yield of

greater; sheep, 714,000,

Banking and Finance.

^June 30, 1939 there

were

in the State

as the year be-

Industry

and Transportation.

—Manufacturing

has far out-

number of men The total value of

stripped agriculture in the last two decades in the

employed and in the production of wealth. manufactured products in 1937 (the latest year for which figures are available) was $2,497,548,000, of which $1,018,980,000 was counted as value added by manufacturing. Indiana ranks first among the States in the manufacture of iron and steel from crude ore, of kitchen cabinets,

of inmates in State institutions.

same

i6bu., slightly less than the previous average.

The

tenance of some 35,000 dependent children, monthly grants (about $20 on the average) to 2,500 needy blind persons (the cost of this was shared by county. State and Federal Governments), and care

total of cattle

com

Charities and Correction. ^Public care of needy, dependent, and delinquent classes during 1939 included, in addition to Federal relief and work projects and voluntary benevolence, direct relief administered by township tmstees ($13,016,426 in the year ending Dec. 31, 1938, as compared with $7,589,578 in 1937) monthly awards, $17.25 per month, under supervision of the State department of public welfare, to about 65,080, the main-

Estimated

greater than a year before;

per acre (1938) averaged 4ibu., slightly above the general average; the average yield of wheat jier acre fore.

State-supported higher institutions of learning.

—

1%

cie;

and

in the fabrication of cotton gloves.

largest glass fruit jar factory in the United States is at

Mun-

the largest petroleum refinery, at 1\Tiiting, and the largest

automobile tire inner-tube factory at Indianapolis. Food products and pharmaceutical products are also extensively manufactured. Minerals. ^Principal mineral resources are bituminous coal,

—

lying chiefly in the southwestern quarter of the State (16,000,000 to 30,000,000 tons per year extracted by strip and shaft mining) limestone in Owen; Lawrence and Monroe counties, the greatest source of oolitic limestone for building in the United States ; clay,

used extensively in building and paving brick, and in pottery; sand and gravel used in building and even more extensively in road-making; petroleum, the production of which was increased

INDIANS, AMERICAN

358

— INDUSTRIAL

during 1939 through the opening of new fields in the southwestern Portland cement also is manufactured on a (C- B. C.) large scale. part of the State.

RESEARCH

languages, in order to facilitate Indian understanding of

lndo>China, French: m

The Indian population

_

•

/lllicriw 3 n>

States

From an

Inrilictrial

IllUUdll Idl nCoCfllwIla

and the records for 1939 indicate a present population of 351,878. Since 1930 there has been a steady and continuous decrease in the death rate which for 1939 reached 13 per 1,000, or only 2% greater than that of the white population. There has

nology,

crease,

been a similar continuing increase in the birth rate which for 1939 equalled 22-7 per 1,000, which is considerably above the white Surprising as

of their increase.

Mexico are

full

it

may

seem, this period has also seen an in-

number As 'most

crease in the total

of full blood Indians and in the rate of the Indians of Arizona

and

New

bloods and are living in areas apart from whites

this condition is likely to continue.

The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18, 1934 extended by Oklahoma Welfare Act of June 26, 1936 and the Alaska Act of May 1, 1936 has made possible fundamental changes in the rethe

lationship of the

American Indian to the Federal Government.

The new Federal

statute offers the Indians of today the opportun-

ity to revive or continue their tribal

governmental unit under law. These

type of organization as a

tribal organizations

may

in-

corporate and borrow Federal funds for use by the tribe or for

The law made organization optional and each tribe was required to accept or reject the Act by a secret baUot vote before June 18, 1936. Of the 266 recognized Indian tribes, bands, or pueblos within the continental United reloan to individual Indians.

States, 189 availed themselves of the

are in various stages of organization.

new

law,

French Colonial Empire.

and of these 120

Seventy-seven groups re-

jected the Act.

Since 1936 loans amounting to $4,068,411 have been authorized

principal results of progress

Docoarnh

something in the neighbourhood of 830,000 at the time of the discovery of America it sank to less than 250,000 in the 1890s. Since then there has been a gradual but steady inestimated total of

rate.

B.)

of the United

on the increase.

is

see

activities

(W. W.

being undertaken upon their behalf.

in

1939 are seen in the field of synthetic organic chemistry, including hydrocarbon derivatives, fine chemicals, plastics, and textile fibres.

Metallurgy, glass tech-

and building science have been helped forward by numerous improvements. United States. Over $190,000,000, probably as much as $215,000,000, was expended by manufacturers in supporting industrial research. During the year the cornerstones of aU the regional research laboratories of the Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering, U.S. Department of Agriculture, were laid. Many improvements in chemical processing equipment and in chemical products were displayed at the 17th Exposition of Chemical Industries. Many industrial research laboratories were increased in facilities and personnel. The New York World’s Fait and the Golden Gate International Exposition had exhibits of interesting recent research creations of American industrial lab-

—

Largely under the leadership of the Air Hygiene Foundation of America, advances were made in coping with oratories.

numerous health hazards in American industries. The Bureau of Mines investigated many problems in mineral technology. Marked advances were made in phase equilibrium studies of Portland cement clinker. Outstanding in the glass industry was the development of safety glass for use particularly in automobile windshields combining the rubbery strength of polyvinyl acetal plastic with plate glass to produce a safety glass of

great strength under

all

temperature conditions, but also

suffici-

ently yielding to reduce passenger injuries on impact with

it.

An

important development in the field of structural glass has been accomplished by the design of a new glass block containing a sheet of “Fiberglas” sealed into the block.

An

ultra-low expansion

for 53 of the organized groups; tribes have loaned $785,615 of their own money to' individual Indians; and unorganized tribes

glass has been developed

have been furnished $522,946 of Federal credit from other sources. The Reorganization Act terminated the allotment policy under which approximately 100,000,000 acres of Indian land had been lost during the 50 years preceding the Act and made possible the re-acquisition of land for Indians. In various ways since 1933, the remaining 52,651,000 acres of land under the jurisdiction of the Indian Office have been increased by 2,907,143 acres. During 1938 and 1939 research workers of the Indian Medical Service announced discovery of a filterable, virus as the cause of trachoma, an eye disease affecting about 20% of the Indian population. Several Indian Service hospitals have experienced re-

having properties superior to previous glass dishes and at a reasonable cost. High intensity mercury lamps were further improved. The sealed beam automobile headlight, a new type of gas-

markable success in the use of sulphanilamide as a specific for its relief and in many instances its cure. There has been a con-

from tuberculosis indicating Indians are developing an immunity similar to that possessed

tinuing decrease in the death rate that

by

facture

which promises the possibility

by mass production method of

Soil conservation activities

on Indian reservations are bearing

of vegetative cover; Indian timber is being developed on a sustained yield basis; increased areas of Indian farm and grazing land are being withdrawn from lease and Indians are being taught to make profitable use of it themselves; addifruit in a revival

manu-

utensils

insulated X-ray tube, and a process for removing glare from flected light

on glass by the application of thin chemical

re-

films to

the surface of the latter, came from researches of 1939. About $10,000,000 was spent by the steel industry for scientific research. It

was found that quite small amounts of

salt

silver can cut down the water corrosion of stainless steels very considerably. The

Kinkead process consists of alloying the surfaces of steel sheets and shapes with coatings of stainless steel or other metals. New alloys were developed for the automobile industry. Among the investigations carried out at the National

was a broad research on the

effects of

Bureau of Standards continuous weathering on

light-metal alloys used in aircraft. Progress

power generation from the use

whites.

of

cooking

glass

came

in the realm of

of high pressure, high temperature

turbines with hydrogen-cooled generators. Refinements occurred in the utilization of electric power in the industries. Brilliant triumphs are seen

organic chemists.

Hydrogen

superior catalyst for

many

among fluoride

the achievements of applied

was demonstrated

organic reactions.

to be a

Several hundred

developments are permitting more efficient use Despite all of these activities,

derivatives of the nitroparaffins have been prepared in the laboratory. An advance was made in the production of mustard gas by

body of Indian people without land

resources.

speeding the reaction of ethylene oxide and hydrogen sulphide. The study of diketene and its reactions vvas continued. Partheno-

Steps are being taken by the Indian Education Service to encourage the development or use of a written forrh of several native

carpy, the technique of producing fruit from unpollinated flowers, was benefited by two new growth substances, naphthalene acetic

tional irrigation

of land unsuited to dry farming. there remains an increasing

acid and naphthalene acetamide. vanillin

More than

A

calcium ligninsulphonate. Synthetic camphor oly of Japan.

new

made from

is

being

synthetic

turpentine

It is said that the

one-third of the

made from musk was disclosed. has broken the monop-

consumption of the United States

sulphanilamide derivatives re-

ported by chemists working to produce new and better remedies of this kind now total about 800. The synthetic organic insecticide field has such potentialities that

By

searchfully in a broad way.

it

is

being cultivated re-

the end of 1940

it is

estimated

most of the present 125,000,000-gal. aviation market will be supplied by loo-octane aviation gasoline. At the Forest Products Laboratory anti-shrink treatments for that

wood

are being developed, laminated construction

is

being studied

broadly, and containers are getting constant attention.

Experi-

mentation in the manufacture of newsprint from southern woods is being continued. Sulphite pulp made from Georgia pine is said to be satisfactory for the production of viscose rayon. .“Teca” is

the name of a family of cellulose acetate rayon staple fibres, characterized by an inherent stabilized crimp. To bring “Nylon,” an-

nounced in 1938, into general commercial production as soon as possible, $2,500,000 is being spent on plant extensions at Belle, W. Va., for making “Nylon” intermediates, and $8,500,000 on the erection of a “Nylon” textile plant at Seaford. “Vinyon,” also announced in 1938, is particularly well suited for use in industrial filters (“Vinyon” duck) and for raincoats, fish lines and nets, boat sails, and bathing suits. Addition of stiU another member to the rapidly increasing family of filaments derived from purely synthetic resins

is

by a patent recently granted for the fibres from polyisobutylene of high mole-

forecast

production of elastic

is

a

new

fibre,

a substitute for silk in the manufac-

Chemists are actively studying the possiof producing fibres and foils from soybean protein and from The Cotton Research Foundation has been adding valuably

ture of hosiery yarn. bility

zein.

to the chemistry of cottonseed.

Progress in soybean technology

has been so rapid in the past few years that abreast of the developments.

it is difficult

to

keep

prepared from specially compounded

Advances were made

placed on sale In

first

1939

The year 1939 has seen extension of the use of polyvinyl chloride solutions for the impregnation of fabrics.

A new

process, as yet undeveloped

mercially, has been described for the electrodeposition

comupon metal

surfaces of synthetic resins dissolved in hydrophobic solvents,

such as mineral

oils.

Further study of the vinyl resins as adhesives

and for paper coatings has resulted tions.

The

in several industrial applica-

use of these resins in the manufacture of paper hoods

for milk bottles has been put on a commercial basis.

the

new

“Vinylite” products are synthetic resins in the

improvement of plywood

properties. It has been a year of activdevelopment of the use of laminated phenolic resins in aeroplane construction, both in the U. S. and elsewhere. Canada. A special type of paint for use in marking road centres contains ground glass which reflects motor car headlights at

ity in the

—

night,

making the

kinetics

Expansion of the direct use of latex has continued, many 1940 cars being equipped with foamed latex seat cushions. “Cryo-Vac” involves food products in odourless, tasteless natural rubber bags

were

cation in the field of electric wire insulation.

Among

cular weight.

“Etho-raon”

NYLON STOCKINGS

of

the

traffic

lanes quite visible.

The mechanism and

were investigated.

process

Western Canada flaxseed was studied chemically. The chemistry of lignin was enriched by research of 1939 and interest has been shown in sulphite

the development of lignin plastics.

extension of antiseptic rubber goods

Among the investigations in progress under grants from the National Research Council are the preparation of powdered apple,

came from more research. Chlorinated rubber received impetus. Forward strides were made in the technology of “Pliofilm” and “Pliolite.” High wartime prices for natural rubber may combine

determination of the seasonal variation in water and gas content of species used in the pulp and paper industry of Eastern Canada, action of bacteria and enzymes on carbohydrates and polysaccha-

with lower production costs for the elastomers (“synthetic rubbers”) as volume grows to enlarge the field within which they can

tion.

in oil-resisting rubber.

compete with rubber. marketed.

A new

The

A

latex.

practically odourless

rubber-like material

merization of isobutylene.

is

“Neoprene” was by the poly-

synthesized

Butane has been reported as a cheap

rides,

mineral deficiency of Quebec

Brazil.

—

^Efforts are

of the use of

being

made

wood and charcoal

as

soils,

and concrete deteriora-

to learn the technical aspects

motor

fuels.

hemp

The expansion

of

was investigated. Babassu nuts and camauba wax were studied from the standpoint of utilization in native manufactured goods. industrial applications of papoula, the

of San Francisco,

source of butadiene. Methods of producing acrylic ester resins from lactic acid obtained from whey have been reported by the U. S. Bureau of Dairy Industry. The year 1939 has seen important advances in the de-

Great Britain British scientists have been indexed and classified, but not regimented, for war purposes. The Road Research Laboratory of the

velopment of methods and equipment for fully automatic compression moulding. Rapid-setting cast phenolics have been made

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research investigated fillers for tar and other bituminous surfaces. Rubber in powdered form has been recommended for incorporating with asphalt to improve the properties of the

generally available.

Owing

to the light weight, colours, effects,

and ease of cleaning obtainable with plastics, these materials are being used in ever-increasing quantities for decorating and furnishing airliner cabins.

Plastic lighting reached

prominence in

1939, through the use of urea resin reflectors on laminated sheets. There was described the commercial availability of several grades of poEwloyl alcohol in. powder form. Indicating present mill deits use for paper coating and adhesive purposes. Polyvinyl acetal-type resins are expected to have increased appli-

velopment of

.

—

road building purposes. The Fuel Research Station continued studies on the hydrogenation of tars on a pilot-plant scale. The Building Research Station studied the solubility of cement: permeability and extraction of lime are the main causes. Advances were made in the knowledge of the control of inclusions in steel, the effect of temperature on the properties of steels, creep resistance, and alloying. The work of the Electrical Research Association, which has been carried out at a total cost of $400,000, has resulted in annual economies of approximately $5,000,000, and investigations completed by the Iron and Steel Research Council are expected to save nearly $2,000,000 a year in the production of pig iron Ibe cost, ol coat used in the manuiacture and over $6,000,000 annua^V of steel. During the year 1939 the new laboratories of the British NonFerrous ^letals Research Association were opened in London. Among the new products shown at the British Industries Fair of 1939 were two latter for

359

— INFANTILE PARALYSIS

360

phenolic resins, several water-soluble resins, nonphenolic maleic resins, and phthalic ester plasticizers. Perhaps the most important new application of moulding resins during the year 1939 has been the production of a coffin, using a special “Bakelite” powder. Luminous moulding powders have been introduced. Physical modification of viscose rayon by stretch-spinning techniques has resulted in the production of a high tenacity viscose rayon (“Tenasco”). The use of polyamide resins for making yarn has been developed. Rubber threads are being employed in divers ways. Netherlands. “Mealorub,” a powder containing 96% of rubber, produced by the Proefstation, West Java, is easily mixable with other substances and enables direct moulding of rubber and rubber-resin compositions. The Dutch Quinine Syndicate is endeavouring to find new uses for quinine in industry. Belgium. “Ethanite” was described as a rubber-like material obtained from olefins contained in cracked gas. At Port-Jerome phenol was found to be especially adapted to the solvent refining of lubricating oils. Industrial hygiene is being encouraged. Sulphonated naphFrance. thenanilides were learned to be good wetting agents for te.xtiles. Nitropentaglycerin is looked upon as a potential substitute for nitroglycerin. “Cristaplem” is a process for moulding cellulose acetate in plaster of Eight woods of French tropical Africa were studied for paperParis. making. A French company has introduced truck tires wherein metallic cables are used instead of textile cords. Italy. The possibility of Italy remaining neutral in the European war intensified production and research already active in the chemical field. Dimethylacetal has been found to be a satisfactory anti-knock for ordinary use. “Catagas” is water gas produced by the reactibn of steam on gas oil instead of on coal. “Nitrometriol” is a new high explosive made from glucose and methanol. Bamboo was investigated as a source of alphacellulose. Crease-proof fabrics are being made with the aid of melamine resins. “Lenasel” and “Autar” are two new resistant fibres. The preparation of a textile fibre from fish skin is under development. Germany. —TYia German chemical industry is now subject to an elaborate

—

—

aluminium, now mostly produced from imported bauxite. Facilities lot research on coal hydrogenation and related processes are under expansion at Hsinking. A process of manufacturing aircraft lubricants from whale sardine, and herring oils is to be industrialized. The retting of vegetable fibre materials was investigated broadly. Formosan vegetable tannins have received research and synthetic tanning materials will soon be produced commercially. The coalescence of the small textile research laboratories into one large establishment to be aided by the Government is a project under discussion. Reports have come of quadrupled production of soybean wool. The use of alginic acid in the manufacture of staple fibre continues to get attention. The synthesis of chloroprene from vinylacetylene has been accomplished by several workers. {See also Cellulose Products;

Chemistry; Chemistry, Applied; Chemistry and Engineering, Agri’CULTURAL, U.S. Bureau of; Chemurgy; Plastics Industry.) (W. A. Ha.)

—

—

system of

official

wartime control.

Germany

is

relatively favourably situ-

ated as to its zinc supply. Germany’s copper-smelting industry has made progress in recent years owing to the increase of productive capacity and modernization of plants. The production and consumption of magnesium and aluminium increased in 1939. In the field of concrete the use of prestressed reinforcement is said to minimize tensile stresses and thereby to reduce cracking. Safety services have been advanced through research in industrial hygiene. It is thought in general that the prospect of finding new war gases appreciably more toxic than those already known is small. Germany’s motor and aviation fuel needs have been well investigated. Lubricating oils especially for aeroplanes are being produced by an electrical discharge process that is said to increase viscosity. Researches on cellulose have related to constitution, digestion processes, lignin, bleaching, refining, and especially derivatives. A new fibre for use in place of jute, “Zelljute,” was exhibited at the Leipzig Fair. “Pe-Ce” is a textile thread of polyvinyl chloride. "Ultrapas,” a thermosetting melamine resin derived from dicyandiamide, is claimed to be easier to work and to give more beautiful results than urea plastics. The employment of moulded plastics in the manufacture of automobiles is said to be expanding rapidly. An apparently new development in bearing material is reported in the form of “Lignofol," a highly compressed resin-impregnated wood, of which bearings more than two feet across have been made. Full-scale manufacture of “Buna” (“synthetic rubber”) in Schopkau, the first big works of its kind to be erected under the four-year plan, was begun during 1939. The production of synthetic fatty acids from paraffin will be increased to 30,000-40,000 tons yearly (from 60,000 tons of paraffin) because of the scarcity of fats for the soap industry. Sweden. ^The application of scientific research has been an important factor in attaining the success of the Consumers’ Co-operative Union. Water pollution from sulphate cellulose plants has been investigated, and the lye waste from sulphite factories is now yielding “Sulfo-Glue,” a substitute for animal and vegetable adhesives. Norway. N new phosphate fertilizer, “Orofosfat,” was developed. The potency of a number of different fish and fish products has been vitamin determined by the Norwegian Canning Industry at Stavanger. U.S.S.R. Sulphuric acid technology was improved by Soviet research of 1939. An investigation has shown that air is demercurized by hydrogen sulphide. Precarbonation of the mixture was found to intensify the ammonia-soda process. Research was continued on the utilization of Uralian titaniferous magnetites. By covering the steel parts of aeroplanes with a cadmium coating effective results were obtained. The technologies of aluminium, lithopone, and tar hydrogenation seem especially well advanced. South Africa. A Government committee has recommended a survey of coal deposits to determine the supply available for the Fischer-Tropsch and hydrogenation processes of making oil and gasoline. The use of fertilizers in South Africa is being stimulated by experimental work conducted by colleges of agriculture and in the private demonstration plots of manufacturing companies. A general survey of fish products has been undertaken with the object of insuring their more efficient utilization. Acetylene is being used to ripen fruit. Research has been done on the separation of titanium dioxide India. from bauxite. At the research laboratory of the Department of Industries of the Government of Bombay one of the projects related to the production of insecticides from waste tobacco. The Government of Assam has been considering an experimental cinchona plantation. ^The pulping properties of eucalyptus using the sulphate Australia. process were reported, and the preparation of menthol and thymol from eucalyptus oil was begun in Western Australia. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research described the losses of the constituents of flax straw during retting and its investigations of chilled beef, microbial contamination acquired in meat plants, and cooling and storage in packing houses. Japan. Research is being conducted_ on the production of potash from cement dust and on uses for magnesite, especially in ceramics. Much research has been carried out on steel manufacture. Alunite from Chosen and alum shale from Manchoukuo have been investigated as sources of

—

—

D

—

—

—

—

—

Infantilo Parolucic illldlllllD

rdluljfdioa

infantile

paralysis

has been known as a distinct disease. surgeon, Jacob Heine,

first

—poliomyelitis—

The German

orthopaedic

described individual cases of the

it was infectious. The Swedish physician Medin 50 years later described the disease in epidemic form. It was not until 30 years ago that the Austrian bacteriologist Karl Landsteiner was able to transmit the illness to laboratory animals

malady, not suspecting

—and then only Monkeys even

in its

lation.

to apes

and monkeys.

are expensive laboratory animals.

The

disease never

worst outbreaks attacks a large proportion of a popu-

These facts have made progress

very slow.

In

in acquiring knowledge

1939 a discovery of capital importance gave

promise of more rapid clearing up of

this baffling

and mysterious

Charles Armstrong of the National Institute of Health

ailment.

has transmitted the disease to the Eastern cotton

rat,

Sigmodon

At last investigators will have an animal and easily bred in captivity.

hispidns hispidtts.

cheap, docile,

is

that

Though accumulation

of knowledge in regard to infantile pabeen discouragingly slow, yet a few facts are agreed upon by bacteriologists and public healthmen concerned with ralysis has

studying and fighting

it.

From

microscopic infectious agent

fatal cases of the disease a sub-

a.

filtrable virus

—can be

passed

to

monkeys, giving them a similar paralytic sickness. It is further known that, though few persons in any given epidemic come down with paralytic signs of the disease, yet the virus may well be widely distributed in the population infected but not visibly sick. This seems true because the majority of U.S. people, and the more the older, show virus-killing power in their blood in spite of the

—

fact they have never shown paralytic sickness. Then too, in 1939, Kramer, Gilliam, and Molner by using a new technique of passing the virus from humans to monkeys ^have actually demon-

—

—

strated the virus in the intestinal discharges of a large proportion of infants and children who had been in close contact with frank cases of the disease in an epidemic in Detroit, Michigan.

Does

this

mean that the frank cases had spread the virus to who were for some mysterious reason immune?

their neighbours,

Or

that the healthy “carriers”

mune

children

who became

All that can be said paralysis virus can be pieople.

is

had spread the virus

to the non-im-

This can not yet be answered. that, during an epidemic, the infantile sick?

found in a

Just the same, since

lot of healthy as well as sick

Kramer and

his co-workers and Drs. Paul and Trask, confirming them, have found the virus in the intestinal contents of people, it appears that public health meas-

ures controlling this source of exit of the virus from human beings be advisable. Is the virus spread only by contact from person

will

to person? This is not yet known. There may be still unsuspected animal reservoirs of the disease. Unsuspected insects may carry it. How does the virus get into people? This again is an open

For some years it was generally believed that the virus known to have a high affinity for nervous tissues entered the human body only by the endings of the nerves of smell. In the laboratory, monkeys could be infected by dropping virus into their nostrils. But now a certain species of monkey— question.

which

is

—

INFANT MORTALITY— INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM Macacus mis lightly

on

—

found infectible by merely swabbing the virus And, at autopsy of children dead of infantile

^is

its tonsils.

paralysis, little trace of invasion

be discovered. This

cals like zinc sulphate

in

each year

in

the United States from

of

the laboratory—

now demanded

^to

monkeys have

United States (c)

human

beings. is

A

nation-wide co-ordinated

now under

1900

United States

54 6S

Canada Mexico

97 243 97 (b) 137

Chile

consideration

by

the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis.

Uruguay Europe

of a cheap and easily handled small laboratory animal, the cotton rat, brings hope for more rapid progress against

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia

.

.

.

146 123 (a) 68 (a)

90 67 60

France

Germany

—

Hungary .

.

.

Latvia Lithuania Netherlands

Comparisons of infant mortality among communities are based upon the infant

42 (a) 139 147 (a) 179

Poland Portugal

Rumania

number of deaths among the number of live births. Thus,

the ratio of the

(a)

38

Norway

Scotland Spain

77

III (b) 43

Sweden

the United States in 1938, tvith 116,412 deaths under age one and 2,287,980 live births, had an infant mortality rate of 51 per 1,000.

Switzerland Yugoslavia

England and Wales had an infant mortality rate of 52 per 1,000

India, British

163 (a)

Japan

110 129

1938.

Infant mortality varies widely

New

countries of the world.

among

the

Zealand usually experiences the most

Australia

.

with rates per 1,000 of 154 and 52 in 1900 and 1938 respectively, had a two-thirds reduction. The rate in the United States was

from 1915 to 1938, the fall being These notable decreases in infant principally from better sanitation and a general

practically halved over the years 1,000.

Specific beneficial factors are the

New

1905 1906 1907 1908 1909

128 132 II8 120 109

1910

105 130 95

loS los

(a)

191S 1916 1917 191S 1919

100

1920 1921 1922 1923 1924

86 76 76

80 83

77 71

69 75

192s 1926 1927 192S 1929

72 73

75 70 70 6s

101

94 lOl

87

69 68

1930 1931 1932 1933 1934

6s

1935 1936 1937 1938

56 57 54

62 S8 58

60

izo 91 g6 97 89

77

74 60 66 64 59

39

Egypt

one of the countries with very high infant mortality. Many countries of the Western world have recently experienced great improvements in infant mortality. Thus, England and Wales,

standard of living.

141 (a)

Other Countries

favourable rates, that for the period 1936 to 1938 being 33 per 1,000. Chile, with a rate of 243 per 1,000 in the same period, is

from 100 to SI per

46

Palestine

154 151 133 132 145

(a)

63 116 (a) 136 76 103 (a) 78 120

Greece Ireland, Northern Italy

England and Wales

Z901 1902 1903 1904

1911 1912 1913 1914

71 56

Estonia Finland

Bibliography. Charles Armstrong, U.S. Public Health Reports, (Sept. S. D. Kramer, A. G. Gilliam, and J. G. llolner, U.S. Public (P. De. K.) Health Reports, (Oct. 27, 1939).

children under one year of age to

,

Eire

into hitherto bafSed searchers.

is,

.

England and Wales

29, 1939);

mortality rate, that

.

Denmark

most mysterious of all infectious diseases during the coming years. Up till now, it must be admitted, we do not know how to prevent or to cure infantile paralysis. But the cotton rat discovery

lllldlll IVlUl Idlilji

87 78

Belgium

this

Infant UnrtalStu

j

Austria

The discovery

new heart

1

131 (a)

South America Argentina

Venezuela

rise in the

Year

per 1,000 Live Births

North America

healthmen means to control the disease,

plan of epidemic detective work

mortality result

Infant Deaths per 1,000 Live Births

Deaths Country

protect children

that scientists return again to the study of the

disease in nature in

live births in

period 1936 to 1938 and for in England and Woles

1938 and

Infant

monkeys against

Since thirty years of laboratory research with

putting

to

1936 to 1938

failed to give public

is

1915

from 1900 to 1938)

during epidemics.

it is

Infant Deaths

live births in certain countries for the

question the power of chemi-

—^powerful protectors

by the nose route

infection

by way

calls into serious

of the nerves of smell can

Average Annual (Per 1,000

361

Zealand of South Africa

Union

163 (a) 33 .

60

(WTiites)

fa)

51

57 59 S8 52

(a) Average for 193s to 1937. (b) Average for 1935 and 1936 in Uruguay and for 1934 and 1933 in Spain. (c) Official data begin with 1915. For years prior to 1933, the infant mortality rates relate to an expanding area within the United States.

Annals oj the American Academy oj Political and Social Science (Kov. 1936). (A. J. Lo.)

infantry: see Armies of the World; Lightning War; MuniWar; Btrategy of the European War; Tactics in

tions OF

THE European War; European War.

pasteurization of milk, systems of food inspection, the screening of dwellings to

keep out flies, and the organization of agencies and neonatal care.

that provide prenatal

The

following infant mortality rates per 1,000 live births for

the United States in 1917 and 1937 respectively indicate the extent to which various causes of death have shared in the general

and enteritis, from 20 to 5; premature birth from 19 to is; congenital debility, from 9 to 4; congenital malformation, from 6 to 5; bronchitis and bronchopneumonia, from II to 6 and influenza and lobar pneumonia, from 5 to 4. Infant mortality from injury at birth, which increased sharply from 1917 to 1931, has since been declining and by 1937 the rate had fallen to 4 per 1,000 live births. Other conditions with a con-

decline; Diarrhoea

;

sistent

downward trend

in their mortality are syphilis, tuberculosis

and diphtheria. Declines in infant mortality have been relatively greater in the later months of the first year of life than in the earlier months. Among Negroes in the United States, the infant mortality rate in 1937 was 83-2 per 1,000 live births, while among white persons it was only 50-3 per 1,000. {See also Birth Statistics.)

—

Bibliography. “Declines in Infant Mortality from the Principal Causes Death,” Statistical Bulletin oj the Metropolitan Life his. Co. (July, 1939): Robert M. Woodbury, “Infant Mortality in the United States,”

of

and Referendum.

Initiative

on constitutions resulted

in

log adoptions, 5 rejections; charters, 78 adopted, 3 rejected; October 28, proposed constitution rejected at Standing Rock Agency, 519 to 337. Marketing quota referenda: Tobacco (Fluecured), October 21,

c.

80%

November

5, c.

go%

for; Cotton, 7,

Constitutional

for,

10%

December

against; (Burley),

November

91-4%

California:

9, c.

for.

five proposals submitted, three defeated, viz.

(i)

amendment (“Ham and Eggs”)

1,933,557 to 993,204; (2) initiated measure (regulation of chiropractors), 1,894,764 to 801,173; (3) (referred act) oil and gas control (indorsed

1,755,625 to 1,110,316; two other referred acts to regulate personal property brokers were adopted:

by President Roosevelt),

(i) 1,853,663 to 753,480; (2) 1,850,811 to 732,873; see “Popular in California,” Minn. L. Rev., xxiii, 559 (Radin).

Lawmaking

Connecticut: In a total vote October 3, smaller by nearly 10,000 than that of the preceding election, the proposed council-manager charter, for Waterbury, was rejected (14,726 to 10,513). Mississippi: November 7, adopted (57,326 to 4,848) constitutional

amendment

authorizing devise, at least 90 days before testator’s more than one-third of his estate to a “charitable.

death, of not

;

MONGOLIA— IN! URANCE. AUTOMOBILE

INNER

362

religious, educational, or civil institution”

even though he has di-

rect heirs; a contrary art. (269) of the Constitution

was repealed

Jersey: June 20, adopted (457,225 to 301,128) constitutional amendment authorizing pari-mutuel betting at races; November 7, voted (391,604 to 344,483) $21,000,-

(58,354 to 4,847).

000

relief

bond

New

issue.

New

York: November

7,

adopted (1,225,-

495 to 594,811) constitutional amendment authorizing mutuel betting at horse races; there were 2,173,422 void and blank ballots; see Conlell L. Quar., xxiv, i (A. E. Sutherland); a referendum on reform of greater New York county governments, was prevented by a Supreme Court decision; Binghamton voted pari-

(11,831 to 6,913) for daylight saving; Mt. Vernon voted (7,562 to 7,484) to abolish the elective office of council president, but against election of

members by wards (7,832 to T,ioi) 4,124, and White Plains by 6,278 to

chelle, by 9,643 to jected proportional representation.

cially

Peekskill’s charter,

voided for failure to post required notices.

Peekskill, 102,

N.Y.L.

JiiL,

New Ro3,363, re-

was

judi-

{Cortland

No. 135). North Dakota: June

rejected (163,851 to 41,152)

v.

ii,

(i) referred act to abolish grain

storage commissioner’s office; (2) municipal liquor control (170,(3) diversion of highway construction funds (172,513 to 39,789); (4) gross income tax, 168,976 to 36,117 (the last three were initiated measures). Ohio, November 7, rejected

538 to 41,814);

(i) State Bd. of Education

Amendment

(1,137,054 to 747,545);

amendment (1,546,207 to 464,670); (3) amendreduce number and localities of initiators (1,485,919 to

old-age pension

ment

to

406,612); (4) proposed changes in civil service law (1,132,279 to 634,269). Oregon: July 8, Multnomah Co. Cir. Court upheld “anti-picketing act,” adopted in 1938 referendum (Am. Fed. of

Labor

v.

Bain, U.S.

Law Week,

vii,

126). Pennsylvania: Septem-

ber 12, some 500 municipalities voted under local option laws on the question of licensing the liquoi:' traffic. (See Supreme Court decision of September 8). Philippines:

Amendments

of Constitu-

[s] and sec. 3 of appended ordinance) by reason of changes in the Tydings-McDuffie Act, voted October 24 (1,393,-

tion (sec.

I

453 to 49,633), and later approved by President Roosevelt. Europe. Denmark’s proposed constitutional amendments, increasing the power of parliament’s popular branch {Folketing) at

—

the expense of the upper house {Landsting) failed of adoption for

want of the necessary 45% of the eligible voters, although the actual vote was 966,277 (44-6% of the whole) to 85,770. Poland: On October 22, at an election in the Soviet-occupied areas for delegates to national assemblies to decide the question of joining

The non-profit associations themselves have found it necessary in many instances to adopt the basic operation plans of insurance companies for underwriting, settlement and administration. Several life insurance companies entered the accident and

companies to re-enter the field of total disability insurance. (See also Insurance, Automobile: Great Britain; Law (Case): Insurance.)

insurance, Automobile.

(C. S. L.)

note of the automobile

casualty

business of 1939. Extremely satisfactory results in 1938 were

re-

broadened coverages, and frenzied efforts on the part of most companies to increase their volume. The net result is that the public is now receiving more proflected in sizeable rate reductions,

tection at a lower cost, while the

premium

writings of the com-

panies will probably be lower in total than in 1938, and the

ratio

premiums will be higher. Perhaps the most notable development in the automobile casualty field was the widespread adoption of a classification rating plan for private passenger automobiles based upon the use of the automobile, and the introduction of a rate differential based upon the number of miles operated. Another innovation was the general writing of medical payments coverage, providing for payment of medical bills incurred as a result of injuries sustained by passengers in the insured automobile. With the exception of a of losses to

new

coverage, granted without charge, providing reimbursement

for transportation expenditures incurred

by reason

of loss of use

of the automobile due to theft, there were no outstanding changes fire, theft and collision field during 1939. There were the usual number of laws proposed for further regulation of the business, but, aside from the adoption of financial responsibility laws by two additional States, no important changes

in the automobile

(G. E. Ho.)

in State regulation occurred.

Great

Britain.

—^Accident and motor insurance includes many some

different classes,

well established such as workmen’s com-

pensation and motor, and others

still

in process of development

such as aviation, credit and contingency. This section of insurance continues to expand and to occupy an increasingly important place in the business.

Figures published during 1939 of the business of two of the chief sections, are given

British offices for 1938 in

below with a comparison with the previous year. 193S Net Premiums

the U.S.S.R., “official” (Soviet) candidates received in Western

Ukraine, 90-93% of the 92-85% voting; in White Russia, 90-67% of the 96-67% voting. {See Lobingier, The People’s Law, 1909).

health

insurance business in 1939, two of them in the last 60 days of the year. There was also a tendency on the part of life insurance

Motor Employers’

liability

Motor business

1937,

Net Premiums £37.318,352

£37,651,808 9.732,138 still

greatly predominates, but

8,716,804 is

not

now

ad-

Inner Mongolia: see Mongolia. Insanity: see Nervous System Psychiatry. insects: see Entomology; Horticulture. insulin: see Chemotherapy; Diabetes; Gynaecology and Obstetrics; Intoxication, Alcoholic; Psychiatry; Psychol-

vancing so rapidly as hitherto. The figures in this section are derived from business transacted in all parts of the world, but the largest part of the revenue is provided from Great Britain and

ogy.

through the expansion of existing sections and the development of new ones. No review of the subject for 1939 can however ignore the widespread effect of the outbreak of war. Certain areas

;

Insurance, Accident and Health.

the Dominions, and the United States of America. Normally the growth of accident insurance continues steadily in all areas; both

from which accident business had been drawn in the past were to British offices as from September 3> and though these areas are but a small part of the whole, the

accident and health insurance and the adoption of this type of insurance as a major “line” by many important American agencies

automatically closed

were two important trends of 1939- Hospitalization plans, which had been regarded with misgiving by the accident and health fraternity, have actually turned to the benefit of the latter, because the widespread publicity given such plans has led to a greater receptivity on the part of the public toward accident and health policies. Insurance companies also looked forward during the year

by extension in other hampered by the dislocation due to war conditions. These considerations do not apply to the important American field, where trade conditions are likely to accelerate the

to receiving a greater proportion of the hospitalization business.

effort to

make up

for the loss of business

directions is necessarily

rate of increase in accident insurance turnover.

In Great Britain and other European countries the progress of the business has already been greatly disturbed. This is prominent

INSURANCE, in the

motor

section,

stantially reduced

FIRE.

where the volume of business has been sub-

owing to cars being

laid up, while at the

same

time the number of road accidents has greatly increased owing to the confusion resulting in its early stages from “black-out” methods. The general financial stringency of the moment is likely to have some influence in reducing the volume of personal acci(C. E. G.) dent insurance.

Inoiiranna

business of fire insurance during ig 29 distinguished by ah increase of about

Tiro

IlloUldlluu, rilui

was 4% in the losses as compared with an increase of io% in 1938 over 1937. For two years now the amount of losses has increased which lends some support to the conviction that, after almost a decade of very low loss ratios, the time has come when the loss ratio will begin to approach what might be called a more normal condition. It should be borne in mind that there have been no severe fires or conflagrations for so many years that some are inclined to think they may not occur again. That is probably not true. The conditions in the large cities are not more favourable, when it comes to resisting a conflagration, than they were some years ago. In fact, conditions are probably less favourable, due to the increasing age of many of the buildings and the fact that

many

are unrented at the present time and are not kept in

the best condition. This

only conjecture, but

is

it is

worth think-

-INSURANCE. LIFE

363

amount of life insurance (excluding reinsurance) panies was estimated at nearly $120,000,000,000 r939, an increase of about

3%

business issued during the year

at the

The new

over 1938.

amounted

comend of

in these

(original)

to about $t 2,000,000,-

000.

During the year 1939 these companies paid out to policyholders and beneficiaries the huge sum of $2,850,000,000 and their assets at the end of 1939 totalled nearly $3r, 500,000, 000. The mortality experience during 1939 was very favourable.

The

death rate from tuberculosis continued to decline to the lowest level ever recorded.

The

made

great progress recently

pneumonia was

in

the scientific fight

low mortality from

reflected in record

on

this cause

in 1939-

Safety campaigns; aimed at preventing automobile accidents, fatalities at a low level (though not as low as in 1938). The interest rate earned on the companies’ investments continued its downward trend during T939. While there was some

succeeded in keeping automobile

improvement in corporate bond and note financing in the first eight months of the year (and also in the mortgage field), the companies, on the whole, continued to experience finding an adequate

vestments for their new funds.

Government

difiSculties in

volume of appropriate and remunerative

Company

in-

holdings of United

show any appreciable increase

States

during 1939, but taxes do not seem to have reached their limit and have a tendency, of course, to push up other expenditures. Every piece of paper that is handled in business increases the

years,

general expense.

body of policyholders against unusual war losses, all companies doing business in Canada adopted so-called war clauses for Canadian policies. These clauses do not affect the insurance

ing about.

The

fire

The expenses

did not

insurance companies are not troubled any

more than

what might be called a fair return. The low return on Government securities is only possible because there are not good investments in other fields; in other words, the Government for many years has not had much competition from other investments. The portion of the assets invested in Government bonds tends to increase slightly and will do so until a normal investment market tendency, noticeable for

many

protecting against

some ten years perhaps, towards

hazards under one cover has been accen-

tuated very remarkably during the past year.

The form known

as

the Extended Coverage Endorsement No. 4 is especially referred to. In one piece of paper it covers approximately ten kinds of loss to

which the insured might be exposed.

A

sured, in order to be completely protected,

few years ago the inwould have needed a

separate endorsement or policy for each of these hazards;

ing

way

in

is

them can be secured

now

one endorsement and extremely modest. Perhaps this is one outstand-

protection against at a rate which

which the business of

fire

in

insurance

is

developing so

more thorough, yet simpler manner. be hoped that in time there will come a

as to serve the insured in a It

is

not too

increased less

than in previous

of the companies’ assets.

of hostilities in Europe raised a

number

of seri-

To

protect

ous problems, particularly for Canadian companies.

so long as the ci\dlian policyholder remains nithin the territorial limits of

much

to

Canada, Newfoundland, and the United States;

policyholders in military or naval ser\’ice are also covered with-

out any extra charge so long as they remain in these home areas, and in the event of going beyond the home areas may, under Ordinary insurance, pay an e.xtra premium to continue the full death benefit abroad.

reached.

The

The outbreak

18%

the general

other investing bodies by the lack of securities which are paying

is

securities

and comprise about

A\'iators can obtain full coverage in the

areas subject to an extra

home

premium but not abroad. Since many

residents of the United States

may

likewise be subject to a poten-

war hazard, a number of United States companies have also begun using various war clauses for policies issued to them. As a general rule poUcies issued prior to the outbreak of war are not subject to any war restrictions, except in the case of supplementary disability and accidental death benefits. In the State of New York, whose importance is far reaching as respects life insurance, a general recodification and rewsion of the Insurance Law was enacted during 1939, effective in most instances Jan. I, 1940. With regard to the provisions of the law tial

relating to

the

life

participation, etc.,

insurance contract, non-forfeiture benefits,

no fundamental changes from the present law

form of property insurance which will cover practically every form of risk to which the insured is exposed. Another important development during 1939 was the adoption in June of a new fire policy by the Insurance Commissioners and Superintendents. At present there are in use in the United States some six standard policies, no one of which has ever won the approval of all the States and all the companies. The new policy, it is hoped, will take the place of these and in time will be in

were made but the new code embraces several subjects new to the

use throughout the country.

to study insurance investments “with particular relation to their

In^uranpp liloUlPIluC,

ifp LIIC.

I

and Canada continued

(See also Fires

and Ftke Losses.) (E. R.H.)

the year 1939 the legal reserv’e life insurance companies of the United States to

make

substantial progress.

The

total

Among the more important changes of special interest were provisions relative to the insuring of minors and the inclusion of standard prowsions for industrial insurance and total and permanent disability benefits. In April 1938, President Roose-

statute.

velt sent a message to Congress with the request that certain

investigations be

made

in connection

tion, that the Securities

with monopolies and, in addi-

and Exchange Commission be authorized

use as an instrument of economic power.” Subsequent thereto Congress created the Temporary National Economic Committee to

make

the authorized investigations and the Securities and Ex-

change Commission began systematically to bring together information, which dealt not only with insurance investments, but

INSURANCE. MARINE — INTERIOR DECORATION

364

purpractically all phases of the life insurance business, for the before pose of submitting material and witnesses during hearings the Temporary National Economic Committee. These hearings

took place intermittently from Feb. 1939 up to and beyond the

record of each

fleet

has been examined and where the record

Evidence was adduced from officers and other representatives life insurance companies and tabulations and analyses were

prepared and presented by members of the

staff of the Securities

and Exchange Commission. Those interested in life insurance were asked to present for the record any additional testimony. (L.A.L.) regrettable fact that in 1939.

Inciironpp Murinp UilwC; iiiul IIICi illoUi

as in the previous year,

writers were compelled to devote

of

two years has been upward it is doubtful if the increases obtained have been equal to the increased cost of repairs which due to war conditions will probably be higher than ever in (S. D. McC.) 1940.

most of

marine under-

Insurance, Old Age:

Legislation,

see

Federal; Social

Security.

Intelligence Tests: see Education, Elementary. Inter-Allied Debts: see War Debts. Inter-American Highway: see Roads and Highways.

their time to considera-

Outstanding

tion of problems in connection with war.

Government announced the formation of a War Risk Pool to cover all shipments to and from Great Britain. The reason for this was that the British Government was most desirous of having British commerce continue to move in as nearly a normal manner as possible regardless In the early part of the year the British

of political conditions throughout the world. British

has

not been good the rate has been increased. Although the trend rates for the past

end of 1939. of

Hull business which is handled by the American Marine Insurance Syndicates has been given careful consideration. The

This action of the

Government was promptly followed by the governments of nations in Europe adopting somewhat similar They were all desirous of protecting their foreign trade and

Interior Decoration. World’s from a decorative standpoint, was

events

were

The one

Fairs.

in

The

disappointing.

two

the

New

York,

scattered

plan, the absence of adequate vistas, with a few exceptions, and

the effort to be

modem

without

the

Town

by the

of

Tomorrow,

as

understanding of under-

sufficient

lying principles were regrettable and

someone

architects of yesterday.”

seems unfortunate

it

said,

The

“seemed

that

to be designed

chief accomplishment was

other maritime

the dramatic and beautiful use of indirect and fantastic

plans.

and the successful use of sculpture as well as the sheer loveliness of the landscape planting. The American public suddenly became aware of colour in architecture and decoration. However, taken as a whole, there was a lack of distinction and real beauty. But individual achievements stand out the very real elegance of the Swedish pavilion, light, gay and in the happiest accord

merchant marine against the pepls of war. war risk bill was introduced in both the Senate and House to put the United States Government in the marine insurance business particularly in respect to war risks. Although the House committee on Merchant Marine held extensive hearings, no action was taken on this bill prior to the adjournment of Congress. However, marine underwriters in the U.S. realized that American importers and exporters must be maintained in a competitive position in their world-wide trading and formed the American Cargo War Risk Reinsurance Exchange with an unlimited capacity to handle their

A

all

the cargo

tically

war

risk business written in the United States. Prac-

every insurance company authorized to write ocean marine

insurance in the United States

is

a

member.

It is

somewhat of an

undertaking to have every cargo war risk line written anywhere in of insurance agents promptly reported and there sorted for each sailing of each ship no matter from what port or to what port the voyage is made and the U.S.

by the thousands

to one central office

further reporting to each insurance

company member

its

share of

every sailing. However, this was accomplished and the Exchange was in full operation when the European war broke out in 1939. It was most fortunate for all persons engaged in the U.S. foreign trade that the marine underwriters were organized and prepared to meet the shock. There was none of the confusion and uncertainty that prevailed in the marine insurance business in August

and September of 1914. But the outbreak of this war put a tremendous burden on the underwriters, meetings of committees have been numerous, the rate committee supervising the rates for American flag, other neutral and belligerent ships have met daily to consider rates to and from all parts of the world and putting them up or down in accordance with what, on the best available information, was considered the real hazard. However, both importers and exporters have an adequate market for their war risk requirements and commerce has not been curtailed in any manner

by lack of war

risk insurance facilities.

marine insurance on cargoes as distinct from war without change. There has been no increase in rates although there has been a substantial increase in risks brought about by conditions at piers in all ports, and increased

The

strictly

risk continues along

navigational hazards. It find the time to

is

probable that

do so consideration

will

when underwriters can

be given to marine

rates.

lighting

—

—the — —the Danish Finnish pavilion—and such

with the feeling of exhibition architecture

lighting of the

paintings in the Italian building log disc wall surface in the ticated notes in the

silver

French pavilion as the

the birchsophis-

brilliant green leather

commodes tooled in gold against a white and gilt boiserie, the amusing ante-room, painted in trompe I’oeil to represent windows and cabinets filled with decorative objects, and the astounding execution of the red velvet architecture in the dressmakers’ exhibit. At the San Francisco Fair, one remembers the beauty of

—

the planting not mere groups of flowers and shrubs, but handling that displayed each separate plant-entity as brilliantly

a as

though it were made of porcelain. The Industrial Arts Exhibit was delightful and the display in the American Indian building was handled with exquisite perfection and will probably be the forerunner to the use by decorators of Indian art. The. lovely coloured backgrounds used for the display of the paintings in the

were a joy. Each picture shone, and the eye-tiring customary museum wall was absent. Another outstanding success was the Yerba Buena Club the gilded exteriors with ramps in place of steps, the brilliant interiors with plaster art exhibit

effect of the

—

furniture in metallic colours, the seashells

worked

into swags and

decorations, the use of one colour against white for dramatic

effect.

Looking back on domestic decoration in the popular field, one sees a heartening absence of the usual much-touted “trends.” people at last refusing to be hypnotized by standardized “magazine taste”? It would seem that even though less money may be spent, ingenuity may give rooms that are lighter, fresher, and gayer, more

—

and consequently more interesting. Another gratifying sign is the increasing conviction among business men that taste can sell a product. Ten years ago, it was not individual

possible to decorate a hotel in

fashion

any but a thoroughly vulgar

—a vast baronial lobby, a huge and echoing dining room,

cramped and dreary bedrooms.

Now

fresh, lively colour can be

used, together with amusing materials

sidered impractical.

and furniture once con-

ADAPTATIONS OF THE REGENCY MODE, essential decorations stripped off,

Right:

were featured

THE TEA WAGON

1939, for use also

as

with in

non-

1939

returned to favour in an auxiliary table

366

L.

I.

O.— INTERNATIONAL LAW

is Yet, notwithstanding these encouraging signs of change, one skill designers the often too still forced to acknowledge that all

does not keep up with the scientist’s invention. Among the new is a crystal-clear, light, unbreakable

materials, for example, there

and fireproof

Instead of using

plastic.

expensive chairs are being

made of

it

.

.

modern

in a

it .

fashion,

modelled after those

of Victorian-cum-Baroque inspiration!

In 1939 increased emphasis was

Going back

centre of the house.

made on

the living

room

as the

to the i8th century, the bed-

Net result: enthuunanimous decision that I.L.O. must go on; remain in Geneva as long as possible; war-time labour

delegates representing over 30 nationalities. siastic, practically

the staff

problems to be studied as a service of highest importance in preparation for eventual peace; normal services to neutrals continued

and expanded despite

financial difficulties.

Assurances of support from Governments were received from member states by mid-October. Second Regional Conference the Americas

met

in

chamber was all-important. In the Victorian age the dining room was featured. Today we have seen the rise of the private bar, the decorated bathroom and the “fun room,” each as the mark of having arrived financially. Today, the big comfortable room, arranged for music, bridge or conversation takes the lead in any

member

decorative scheme, particularly in circles where fashions begin.

American

For once again people have begun truly to live in their houses, entertaining there in a manner that combines informality with

of his administration, and the fact that the centre of

good

taste.

The

revival of that queer old-fashioned creature, “the

—popularizing colour that

lady,” has been a pronounced influence

forms that combine comfort with and such amusing touches of fantasy as imaginatively designed hand-woven fabrics, Baroque plaster-work, Venetian blackamoors and candlelit chandeliers, in the same room with modern paintings. (D. Dr-)

is

clear without being strident,

grace,

states (16) joined in

“unwavering support” to I.L.O. More significant in both cases pledges were equally strong from employers, and even more so from workers.

Not

only does the able and courageous leadership of the new director.

of the I.L.O.

is

Governor Winant,

in this difficult first year

moving naturally westward, impose new

the U.S.A., but also they create

new

^'939 was"S

and most important “going concern” in international affairs. Despite the outbreak and spread of wars, declared and undeclared, in Europe and Asia, the I.L.O. gained in prestige, and promised greater usefulness in economic co-operation, in dealing with wartime labour problems, and in promotion of social justice as a basis of world peace. largest

The International Labour Conference, zsth session, June 8-28, Geneva, Switzerland, had 362 representatives present; 154 delegates Governments, 86; employers, 34; and workers, 34, and

—

adopted by a two-thirds vote 4 conventions, and 10 recommendations. The director’s report noted membership decline due to war,

pay dues, but increased demand for service which no other agency can render. “Twenty Years” since the First Conference (Washington, D.C., 1919) was the title of one section showing a record of marvellous achievement, the unique and

inability of

some

to

value of the tripartite 'principle basic in the I.L.O. structure

whereby the representatives of Governments, employers and workers meet as equals for discussion and action on vital common interests of

all.

Improvement of

I.L.O. technique and widening of scope

given national labour legislation everywhere, and

new meaning and

practical universality

its

have

application, a

undreamed of two dec-

Through 67 conventions with 865 ratifications (Dec. 1939)1 solid foundations have been laid for an international labour code on work hours, freedom of association, women and child

ades ago.

wage-earners, indigenous workers, maritime workers, social insur-

gravity

duties on

opportunities for service

to

which the strongest neutral and peace-loving nation in the world should not be slow to respond. {See also Child Labour; Child Welfare; League of Nations; Refugees.)

humanity

to

(S.

intornotinilQl iniCnidllQIlui

I

0111

LoW
^

,

q

1939

1,084 3.730 3,869 1,098 32,664 1.819 2,383 2.820 2,139 157 2,344 2,096 849

1,031

3,80s 4,615 1,151

31,543 1,861 2,601

3,122 2,129 138 2,433 2,217

929

.

89

Wstorj’ of world trade in the years 1937-39 dearly illustrates the growing interdependence of nations as well as the leading roles of the United States and the United Kingdom in world economy. he Umted States consumes a larger proportion of the world’s raw materials than any other country, probably as much as

692

Intprnptinnnl Trarip IlimnidUUndl iraoe.

g"; te’:

foodstuffs and likewise imports large quantities of raw materials, and their combined purchases abroad exert a stimulating influence on tli6 economy of other nations.

volume of

inter-

although the monetary value of the trade was about the same as ’"'Gher. The aggregate trade of 109 countries, imports and exports combined, had a value in 1937 of about 31.153,000,000 gold doUars, an increase of 23.c% over 1936, due partly to higher prices, but in a greater measure to a larger volume of trade.

£

g

marks

&

francs

yen :

:

:

'--i

:

Netherlands

florins

;

ip

rupees

,

lire

Sweden

crowns

Argentina Australia Switzerland.

pesos

£

....

fr'inr^

Manchoukuo Denmark. British Malaya

]

]

(SA)

milreis

yuan crowns ;

Norway

zlotys

crowns

Rumama

]ei

Finland

markkas

Egypt

£E £

Eire

Hungary

]

[

i

Burma Chile

.'

Ceylon Greece

drachmas

Portugal

Eem. Bulgaria Palestine

.

126

671 6,059 917 12,012 1,422 1,100 22,87s 9,161 37

36 52s 434 326 5,719

709 303

escudos

13,447 1,772

soles

322

leva fats

5,536 10 247

gold S

13,918

'

La tvia 'Total

peAgo rupees pesos dinars pesos rupees

Philippines

Yugoslavia

1,470 2,028 12,042 2,410 1,662

660

£

Poland

1,396 1,868 12,872 2,164 1,682

S

China Czecho-Slovakia

2,909 6,509 49.617 3.488 25,552

crowns florins

]

1939

8si 2,920 6,987 43,028 3,016 25,469 843

1,603 1,08s 1,803

yuan

;

S. S.

Dutch East Indies Union of S. Africa

1938

‘

£

834

•(T volume Its is

erewi

110

676 6,159 2,259 8,626 1,544 1,165 29,204 9,419

38 38 6x4 477 271 5,784

354 5,221

may

m-ir*”*** ° ^ coiwer ing

Zln

exceed 26,400,000,000 gold be slightly larger than in

dollars, though

1938.

is based on the figures presented in the tables Table I shows the value of the trade of 40 counmonths of 193S and 1939. The countries

.

descending order according to the gold value of imports and exports combined. The total in United States gold dollars has been obtained

I

t

e

amounts

in original currencies at average rates ‘^mmtries listed, 17 show increases in 1939 j decreases; in 11 cases, however, the changes are c aggregate trade of the 40 countries shows a decline of

•

the prices prevailing in the

about

, 01f 1938, It

ger

IS

m

8%

below the prices of the first evident that the volume of trade was about

The

half 6

%

total decline in value

was more than accounted or y decreases in the trade of the United Kingdom, Germany, Czecho-Slovakia, and Australia J939. the

f

the trade of 23 countries for the first nine The aggregate gold value of the foreign ^ 939 countries was $11,252,994,000 in 1939, as against ^ decrease of 2.56%. Of the countries gam of $227,508,000, gold, in 1939, the principal ^ ’'®'"G Japan, the United States, the -

trad 'Ktt r.iR

13 281

eninp’ 13,578

industrial and

The

fbpi

618 31s 12,578 1,742

84

estimate

858

1,806 1,454 1,856 707

11,253

2nd Italy stopped publication after the issue of the July summaries, and the Soviet Union did not issue a report on 1939 trade. However, on the basis of the a a ava a e it may be estimated that the total value of world

Table I.— Foreign Trade of 40 Countries first 7 months of 193S and 1939 (in millions)

For the

....

11,548

2,352 6,894 lOg

and Moravia by the erman rmy in March some of the foreign orders for Bohemian glass and hnen goods were diverted to Belgium, but many others were X cancelled. Exact data on international trade in 1939 will probably never be known, as trade statistics are one of the

decline in industrial production which ensued late in 1037 depress^ the prices of raw materials and reduced the volume^of was affected adversely also by the war in Spain and China, and the war scares in Central Europe where old-

.

15,590

m

The

United Kingdom United States.

16,724 2,272 7,022 158 76

aggregate value of world trade in 1938, approMmately 27,072,000,000 gold dollars, was 13.1% below the total for 1937. The year 1939 was a war year. Every day throughout the year potential producers and consumers were being killed somewhere iiurope or Asia, and wealth destroyed to make an impoverished \TOrld still poorer. The absorption by Germany of Austria, Czechotslovakia, and the invasion and partition of Poland reduced their "'orld trade heretofore amounting nearly to 4% of the f 1? After the occupation total. of Bohemia

intense

activity brought the

786 1S4

406

Jewish firms, both

commercial.

Kingdom, which began in 1935 and conthe autumn of 1937. and the resulting

bnued well into ndustna and commercial

gold $

191

392

established trade connections were disrupted by the annexation of Austria to Germany, the dismemberment of Czecho-Slovakia, and the forced liquidation of many

recovery in the United

f

-jet

Total

40%

States Sta^i^^nriW^-fA®^'''' and the United

100 1,496

1.441

^

Netherlands, Canada, Sweden, and Hungary.

Only

in the cases

I.

C.C.— INTOXICATION, ALCOHOLIC

Hungary and Japan, however, did the gain exceed io% in all 5%. The other 12 countries show a reduction in the total value of their foreign

of

;

other cases the relative increase was less than

trade of $522,521,000, gold, the principal losers, in absolute '

fig-

United Kingdom, Australia, Argentina, Belgium and Greece. In the cases of Australia, Greece and the United Kingdom the decline was in excess of 10%; the trade of Argentina decreased 6-8%; in all other cases the loss was less than

ures, being the

stimulate the

demand

for

year but at the same time

war it

The war

much

for the war.

in

Europe may

may be

constrained

pay

It is interesting to note that international trade de-

—

or because

—the

German armies had invaded Poland, and

copper,

tin,

K.)

Interstate Commerce Commission: partments AND Bureaus Railroads.

see

Government De-

;

many

all

the United

Kingdom

regulations resulted in an increased literature on that phase of

rice,

were quoted higher on the free

markets in September. In view of the great value of international trade in promoting the welfare of nations it is rather discouraging

many

Sept. 30, 1939, dealing with alcoholic intoxication, concerned itself largely with the subject of chronic alcoholism. However, the

wider use of chemical laboratory techniques in the diagnosis of acute alcoholism incident to the enforcement of automobile traffic

war on Germany. Lard, wheat, maize,

lead and zinc,

Intoxication, Aicolioiic.

after the

prices of

sugar, coffee, tea, cacao beans, hides, rubber, cotton, jute, wool, silk,

(J. J.

month

leading commodities increased sharply in that

and France declared

would be classed as adulterated merchandise, and their sale prohibited. But the times are not normal when the garrison states openly proclaim their plans to conquer the world, and their regimented economy disturbs and reduces the natural flow of trade. It may take a generation before relative freedom in the international exchange of goods is restored. {See also Exports and

reduce the consumption of other

larger proportion of the national savings to

clined in Sept. 1939 although

not only of lower quality

materials’ in the last quarter of the

may

goods in the belligerent countries since they to use a

articles are

than the genuine products; in normal times they

II appear to war-

rant the conclusion that the value of world trade in 1939 will be 193*8.

costlier

Imports.)

5%. The total net loss was $295,013,000. The trade figures shown in Table I and Table about 2-5% below the total for

In most cases the substitute but also

369

countries to reduce or destroy the

the subject.

The latter tended in the direction of bringing about greater uniformity in diagnostic criteria and improvements in the technique of assembling and presenting admissible evidence in a court of In general there has been a greater tendency for courts to

law.

and exchange of

admit, as evidence, the results of chemical tests of the blood and urine used in the diagnosis of acute alcoholism. Of greater sig-

goods by high taxes, quotas, foreign-exchange restrictions, direct

nificance, however, is the increasing trend of “pleas of guilty” to

to see the attempts of so

benefits of the international division of labour

prohibitions and other means.

The

international

monetary and

mechanism has been disrupted, and international cooperation abandoned in a world crisis when such co-operation appears to be more necessary than ever. The United States alone is making consistent efforts to lower trade barriers by reciprocal trading

trade agreements with concessions applicable to

all

countries not

In many countries “ecoinvolves attempts to make

discriminating against the signatories.

nomic nationalism”

is

countries self-sufficient

rampant;

place of imported products. It it

it

by using home-made is

substitutes in the

a sort of military economy, as

seeks to husband domestic resources for the purposes of war.

charges of “drunken driving”

when

fronted with the results of chemical

the alleged offender tests.

The

is

con-

generally accepted

and in the urine is as Blood concentration may exceed that of the urine are made within two hours subsequent to drinking.

rates of alcohol concentration in the blood I

is

if

to 1-35.

the tests

At

the end of that period, alcohol in the

body

tissues

and

fluids

tends to reach an equilibrium, the accepted elimination rate being 20 milligrams per hour thereafter.

However, it is generally conceded that the action of alcohol upon man is dependent upon a variety of factors and that differences in reactions obtain in different individuals and in the same individual at different times. In consequence there is some difference in opinion as to what constitutes “acute alcohohsm” from the standpoint of alcohol concentration in body fluids. In general, blood concentration of 0-20% alcohol correlates with clinical evidence of acute intoxication, whereas o-i percents are borderline. Experimental evidence has indicated that insulin is necessary for the o.xidation of alcohol within the body. Its clinical use, combined with dextrose intravenously, tends to increase the rate of disappearance of alcohol from the blood.

There are indications that chronic alcoholism is being regarded, more and more, as a medical problem, through the wider use of hospitals and institutions ministering to the sick as shown by the increased admission rate of alcoholics. Moreover a recent court decision established a precedent by a ruling that chronic alcoholism

is not a self-inflicted disability, but a disease. Differences of opinion have obtained since 1928 when, on theoretical grounds, vitamin deficiency was first mentioned in the

literature as

an

etiological factor in alcoholic neuritis.

This con-

ception has been substantiated not only with reference to neuritis but with reference to other physical and mental phenomena associated with chronic alcoholism.

Afflictions such as polyneuritis,

pellagra and other deficiency sjmdromes proximal to alcoholism

are the results of a deficiency in the vitamin in part the result of an inadequate intake.

“MEN WILL BE BOYS.” A cartoon comment by Thomas of TJbe Detroit News States’ announcement April 24, 1939, that It would barter products with Great Britain, Belgium, and The Netherlands upon the United

B complex. This is The cevitamic acid

content of the blood in some alcoholic psychoses has been reported as low as that seen in subclinical scurvy.

INVENTIONS — IOWA

370

trend in the direction of the biochemical approach toward better understanding of the nature of the physical disorders a associated with chronic alcoholism influenced the management and

The

treatment of delirium tremens and the polyneuritic complications, including cardiovascular and other disturbances seen in the chronic habitue. Thus, delirium tremens is characterized by dehydration, diminished blood chlorides, acidosis and by either a definite or partial multiple vitamin deficiency involving mainly the vitamin

B

complex, treatment being directed toward the cor-

rection of these adverse conditions.

and other physical complications of alcoholism has centred about the use and value of vitamin B alone (Theamin) or in combination with a diet rich in vitamin

The treatment of

polyneuritis

retail sales, corporations, gasoline (State tax 3;?

per

gal.),

and

in-

There are limited exemptions on homesteads. By July i939> S)i34-9nii. of primary roads of Iowa were paved and 3,27smi. were gravelled or otherwise surfaced. Of the secondary road system, 35,s86-26mi. were gravelled and 26.5mi. were paved. Highway construction on primary roads in 1938 cost $12,979,376. From Dec. i, 1938 to June 30, 1939, construction costs on primary roads amounted to $4,275,210.23. The State highway patrol has a staff of 103 men. Educotion. The superintendent of public instruction reports heritances.

—

for the school year, 1937-38, 8,761 rural schools in Iowa,

1,701

graded schools, and 945 approved high schools. The total number of children of school age (5-21 years) was 681,169. Of these

content or with the use of the latter alone.

519,150 were enrolled in the public schools, and 1,880 in

In general the literature on chronic alcoholism, as in previous years, was concerned with the need for a more adequate public

The teachers in the public schools, exclusive of junior colleges, numbered 25,065; and the cost of the public schools for 1937-38 was $41,296,626.01, raised largely by the gen-

and the protection and rehabilitation or reclamation of those addicted. No new principles were evolved, however. policy for the protection of the general public

—

of acute intoxication by correlation of clinical and chemical findings,” A7n. J. M. Sc. (Oct. 1938); feeding of W. W. Jetter, “Experimental alcohol to non alcoholic individuals,” Am. J. M. Sc. (Oct. 1938); H. W. Haggard, L. A. Greenberg. L. H. Cohen, “Quantitative differences in effects of alcoholic beverages,” New England J. Med. (Sept. 29, 1938); H. W. ^Morgan, “Scientific tests for intoxication (of automobile drivers) further studies,” J. Iowa M. Soc. (Febi. 1939); W. Kriskern, “Examining intoxicated drivers,” J. Michigan M. Soc. (April 1939); K. M. Bowman, H. Wortis, and S. Keiser, “The treatment of delirium tremens,” J.A.M.A. (April i, 1939); F* Mainzer and M, Krause, “Nicotinic acid for delirium tremens,” British

Bibliography.

\V.

\V.

Jetter,

“Diagnosis

:

Med.

(Aug. 12, 1939).

J,

(W. L. T.)

eral property tax in local districts.

of

higher education under the State board of education (the State university at

Iowa

City, the State College of Agriculture and Me-

chanic Arts at Ames, and the State Teachers college at Cedar

was 21,861, with over 35,000 in addition attending short Iowa City and Ames. There are also some 20 privately supported colleges in the State. Iowa ranks Falls)

courses and conferences at

first

among

the States in literacy with only

Charities.

—

-8

of

1%

illiterate.

State board of social welfare, composed of three the governor (King R. Palmer, chairman),

administers old age assistance, aid to the blind, aid to dependent children, child welfare,

Inriino lUUIIICi

For the school year 1938-39

the total attendance at the three State-supported institutions

members appointed by Inventions: see Patents.

public

junior colleges.

fonnerly the producer of almost the entire world supply of iodine (a by-product in the treatment of

sodium nitrate), now has active commarket from the United States, Java, and Japan, and small amounts for local consumption are produced in Italy. The Italian output is- of the order of 25-30 metric tons and the Javanese 100 tons annually; that of the United States was 135 tons in 1937, increasing in 1938; Japan produced 48 tons in 1937. Chile is still the main source of supply, with an output that ranged from 500 to 1,000 tons before active competition began in other countries; sales in the fiscal year 1937-38 were 832 tons. Outside competition reduced the price to 81 cents per pound in (G. A. Ro.) 1936, rising in 1938 to $1.02.

and emergency

relief.

Working with

it

are local boards in the 99 counties. The board of control (D. R. McCreery, chairman) has charge of the State’s penal, correc-

caliche for the recovery of

tional,

petition in the

Nov.

and eleemosynary institutions. Statistics for these as of were as follows: Men’s Reformatory, Anamosa,

30, 1939,

1,129; State Penitentiary, Fort Madison, 1,455;

Women’s Re-

formatory, Rockwell City, 81 Training School for Boys, Eldora, 594; Training School for Girls, Mitchellville, in; State Juvenile ;

Home, Toledo, 274; and Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home, Davenport, 535. The four State hospitals for the insane had 6,462 inmates. Banking and Business. There were 108 national banks, 296

—

savings banks, 239 State banks, and 3 trust companies doing business in Iowa in 1939. On June 30, 1939, the 538 State institutions

had

popularly

total deposits of $401,323,567.84, an increase of $25,447,464.84 over those of the previous year. At the same time the deposits in the national banks totalled $236,730,000. Approximately

State”; area 56,147 sq.mi.; population (U.S. census, 1930) 2,470,939; (estimate for 1938) 2,561,000. Capital, Des Moines, 142,559, the only city in Iowa

80% of the deposits in State banks and 58% of those in national banks were protected by Government insurance. Farm prices through Oct. 1939, decreased 9-2% from those for the same period

with a population over 100,000. Of the State’s population in 1930, 979,292 were urban or 39-6%; 2,448,382 whites; 22,557 coloured;

of 1938, but farm income (through October) increased 13-6%.

north-central ,

known

as the

State

of

the United

States,

“Hawkeye

2,282,647 native born whites; 165,735 foreign bom whites. History. ^The officers elected on Nov. 8, 1938, who took office in Jan. 1939, are: governor, George A. Wilson; lieutenant-gov-

—

B. B. Hickenlooper; auditor, C. B. Akers; treasurer, G. C. Bagley; secretary of State, Earl G. Miller; secretary of agriculture, Mark G. Thornburg; attorney-general, Fred. D.

ernor,

W.

Everett;

and superintendent

of

public

instruction,

Jessie

M.

A

Electric power production for the first nine months of 1939 showed an increase of 1-9% over the same period of 1938. Build-

ing contracts in general increased 5-7%, and residence building showed an increase of 28-8%, but business building contracts

showed a decrease of 3-4%. Life insurance sales increased 7%, department store sales, 2.3%, employment 2-8%, industrial payrolls 6-5%, automobile sales 31-1%, and bank debits 6-5%. Agriculture. There were 209,709 farms in Iowa in 1939 with

—

State conservation commission, a State board of social welfare, a State commerce commission, a

Parker. All are Republicans.

State planning board, and an Iowa unemployment compensation commission were created or reorganized by the General Assembly

but the planning board was abolished in 1939. The State highway commission is located at Ames, Iowa; all the other boards and commissions have their headquarters at Des Moines. Funds for the State are provided by taxes on property, incomes. in 1937,

Acres

Corn Oats

Hay

(all

kinds)

W^eat Barley

Rye Potatoes

Ss

for irrigation and power constructed river and will impound 1 .^ 7 °.°°°-°?° fuiorks are being other ™P°c^" on the Beside these three dams, include the Solis dam country. Cutzamala, Guerrero; a in different sections of the

canal in Guanajuato; a ^ ixmiquilpau canal; a dam q ^j^.g^gjon and canals Hmchapan, Hidalgo canals Querenda , Oaxaca; and Morelia ^ in canals and canal in Tehuantepec, cana^m^ and diversion Potosi; the in Tarecuato, Michoacan; a ^ da Obregon Queretaro; Sonora; and a the S. Ildefonso dam, j, canals Tesia canal, Sonora; several diversion dam and canals in Sta. Ro.^,

Lerma

river,

dam and

m

ilf^®t:o"hfilar Dellcifs! Culiacan,

Juarez, ’Chihuahua;

in

.

it

Y°'^%P'^Y‘rlos^Coahui™^ ciudFd

Arkhan-Churt 1940 14,82630. will be

main canal

of the

Jlilsk-Kharabakh which has been g.R The first unit soon be completed in the Arm ,A«5 This system is fed from Lake acres. 69,186 for built will provide water the and^be and Sevan van and the Zanga svstem in UzbekisUn jrrjcrfltion system . irrigation completion. The * Construction of the t^en s S.R. neared water svbich will Tash-Keprin reservoir 134.000 ac.-ft. of approximately -

.of

in the Activities are being continued

district, where a huge which vdll provide water

, Supplied with na^^^been completed. canal ha' Milskv ranai Ordjonikidze Jlilsky 74,i28ac. of land

water from the Araks

tons of sand in one loadinfl

with

i structed on the Irgiz river been has station floating pump

will be supplied irrigated.

is

Uie^

mission

is

500,000 hectares, a

nossible to irrigate about 1,000,000 ,fh,.n

•« p-«

a.'i“Sd-d EsS5.T.%sirp”u;.s 700,000 hectares. irrigation of another

in the Islamic general tendencies were in operation unity and greater towards Islam. world during 1939. one in the direction of other the powers, Muslim solidarity among the economic consolidation and modernization. Eastern pact, there was a In pursuance of an anti-aggression Iran, Iraq, and AfghanisTurkey, of meeting of the representatives demonstrations were and Protests April 1939in tan in Teheran absorption of virtual the against made in most Islamic countries also Tnpohtame the in_ policy Italy’s Albania by Italy on April 7. movement in the direction of greater friend-

Two

evoked liness

criticism.

A

or at least less hostility

is

noticeable

m

the relations

Western democracies. Egypt has had of the Islamic world with the Britain, but such discontent as Great with terms treaty intimate British policy to the Arabs in of was caused by the disapproval background by the new situathe to relegated Palestine has been in which Egyptian, British and Mediterranean, eastern the tion in are identical. The visit by the French prime

Turkish interests North Africa (Jan. 1939) showed minister M. Daladier to French France of the under-current of nationalist opposition, that in spite

of her Muslim subjects and allies could rely upon the support that region. in factors disturbing any against Kemal Atatiirk was the originator of many of the new

The

late

OF MAN — ISOTOPES, THE SEPARATION OF

ISLE

376 now

ideas

infiltrating

the Islamic world.

Under

his

successor,

Ismet Inonii, Turkish policy in its ultimate aims remains the same. But there is a change almost imperceptible in method and in spirit. The evils and empty forms against which Atatiirk fought have

such as

distillation, fractional crystallization or fractional precipi-

were believed to be

been swept away, and there is more tolerance now of the slower processes of religious and social evolution. Turkey’s alliance with France and Great Britain brings her out definitely from a posi-

had would have been observed. The only methods which appeared to be available at the time for the separation of such varieties of atoms depended upon the physical differences to be expected from the kinetic theory of gases, such as fractional evaporation and fractional diffu-

tion of neutrality to a position of responsibility in the larger issues

sion.

Europe and the world. Her acquisition of the Sanjak of Alexandretta (the Hatay) from France has however been criticized and has brought her into conflict with Arab opinion. Economic consolidation is being pushed with vigour in all independent Islamic countries. Turkey’s new Four Year plan started in 1939 with a credit of £10,000,000 from Great Britain. She is also pushing on her agricultural expansion and her mineral exploitation, at the same time that she is attending to her harbours and her mercantile marine. Iraq’s wealth depends upon irrigation, and her latest Habbaniya scheme will enable her to conserve some of the Euphrates water and at the same time lessen the danger from floods. Saudi Arabia opened her first oil and commercial port in May 1939 at Ras Tanaura on the Persian Gulf, and has of

now an

oil

pipe line in the coastal region of the Hasa.

Road im-

provements are being pushed on, and the water of the sacred

Zemzem

spring of

is

being purified and sterilized.

The

oversea

pil-

grims at the Pilgrimage of 1357 H. (Jan. 1939) numbered only a sure 52,000, compared with the peak figure of 135,000 in 1927,

—

index of economic depression and unrest in the Islamic world.

Egyptian economic development

Bank grim

is

being pushed on through the

80%

of Misr, and Egyptian ships have captured

traffic to

of the pil-

Jiddah. Communications are being improved every-

where, and a remarkable asphalted road, fioomi. in length, with

major and minor bridges,

is

being pushed through the Arabian

desert. It will

run from Haifa to Baghdad, through Palestine, Trans-

jordan and Iraq, with feeders connecting

it

with Damascus,

and Amman. in Canada was inaugurated at Edmonton (Alberta) by an Indian leader then in Canada, in a public ceremony attended by the mayor of Edmonton (J, W. Fry), and other notabilities. One of the principal benefactors was the late Ali Tarrabin, a Syrian Arab merchant who originally came from Damascus. The women’s movement is making rapid progress. Teheran was Cairo, Jerusalem

The

first

mosque

the scene of brilliant public festivities in April 1939 in celebration

of the marriage of the

Crown Prince (Shahpur Mohammed Reza)

Egyptian princess Fawzieh, who appeared at public receptions with the Queen Dowager Nazli of Egypt. Muslim women attended unveiled the international Inter-parliamentary Conferto the

ence on Palestine in Cairo in Oct. 1938, and there is a Muslim lady Muslim women have special in the Punjab ministry in India. constituencies of their

own

in the electoral rolls in India, besides

mixed constituencies. On the artistic side Iran and Turkey show the greatest progress. Turkey has special schools of sculpture and painting. The Government of Iran is encouraging national music {Musiqi-i-kishwar) and the renowned Arab singer Muhammad Abdul Wahhab has (A. Y. A.) been heard on the radio from Egypt. participating in

tations,

such been

of Mon:

see British Empire.

Isotopes, The Separation of. Sopes't eties of

an

element with different masses

was

first

“w

suggested

some

30 years ago, the experience of chemists supplied conclusive evidence that the chemical properties of such isotopes were identical. None of the usual methods for separating chemical substances.

effective in this case because,

variations in atomic weights

Early work demonstrated that the atomic weights of the elements can be changed by such fractionation methods, and this furnished a confirmation of the existence of isotopes.

The very marked

differences in the chemical properties of pro-

tium and deuterium, the two isotopes of hydrogen, resulted in the complete separation of these isotopes by fractional electrolysis and today heavy hydrogen, which exists in natural hydrogen to the extent of only one part in 6,000,

is

an

article of

commerce.

The method consists in the electrolysis of caustic alkali solutions. The hydrogen gas which escapes in the process contains about one-

much deuterium as the water from which it and hence the deuterium increases in concentration

sixth to one-tenth as is

electrolyzed,

in the residue.

When

this process is continued until only a small

residue remains, this residue consists substantially of

terium oxide. Attempts have been

made

to apply this

100%

deu-

same method

to the separation of the isotopes of other elements, but the very slight differences

in the rates of

discharge of the isotopes of

other elements do not permit an effective separation

by

these

methods.

Three methods for the separation of isotopes have been developed in recent years, all depending upon the multiplication of the

by the application of counany process produces a difference in concentration of the isotopes and the light and heavy fractions can be made to move in opposite directions in the apparatus, high concentrations of the two constituents will be built up at the

effects of a simple process separation,

ter-current methods.

opposite

ends'.

In

Thus

this

way

if

the effect of small differences can be

increased greatly.

The first of such methods to be developed was a cascade diffumethod in which gases were allowed to diffuse through porous tubes, the lighter isotope diffusing more rapidly than the heavier. The residue from such 3 diffusion process was pumped to a presion

ceding diffusing unit of the cascade and the lighter fraction was

Each diffusing, by approximately the square root of the ratio of the masses, e.g. by about 5% in the case of neon. If a cascade of n units is arranged in this way the overall fractionation to be expected is (1-05)"; thus, if some transferred to a subsequent unit in the cascade. unit changes the ratio of the isotopes in the gas

50 units are used

in

such a cascade the very appreciable frac-

by a factor of 10 can be secured. In this way nearly pure samples of the neon isotopes have been produced, and some work has been done on the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes. This method is able to produce a few cubic centimetres of Ne^^ gas in twenty-four hours from natural neon containing 10% of Ne^2 and 90% of Ne^”. The thermal diffusion method was developed in 1939. If two tionation

sides of a vessel containing a gas are maintained at different

temperatures a partial separation of the isotopes of the gas will

be

warmer Isle

true,

side.

well

effected.

The

lighter

side of the vessel

Rather small

effects

isotopes will concentrate in the

and the heavier isotopes

in the colder

can be secured in this way, as has been

known for a number of years. However, if two parallel surmounted in a vertical direction, as, for example, by

faces are

arranging two concentric tubes in a vertical position, and a sample of gas is placed between them, the one surface being main-, tained at a higher temperature than the other, a separation of the isotopes will occur. Convection currents will be set up by the difference in temperature

and a stream of gas moving downward

ITALIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE

377

will contain

an increased concentration of the heavy isotope, while a stream moving upward will contain an increased concentration of the lighter isotope. This process will produce different concen-

This has been used to effect a considerable concentration of the lithium isotopes by using a solution of lithium salt in alcohol

two ends of the tube, and this will continue until the effects of back diffusion prevent further changes in concentration. Very large separations of isotopes can be secured by this simple method, and practically the complete separation of the isotopes of chlorine has been effected in this way. In fact, a sample of chlorine with an atomic weight less than 35 and another of atomic weight of nearly 37 have been secured. The method is

in mercury as the other.

trations at the

now

being applied to the separation of the isotopes of

ments which can be secured

in the

many

ele-

form of gaseous compounds. about the same as that of

It appears that its rate of production is

the. diffusion is

method described above, but the apparatus required

far simpler.

A

third

method

makes use

for the separation of certain isotopes

of slight differences in the chemical properties of isotopes. slight difference in the relative

may

abundance of isotopes

A

exist

when two phases containing the element are brought to equilibrium. Thus water vapour contains less of the heavy oxygen isotopes than liquid water wnth which it is in contact, ammonia gas contains less N'® than does a solution of

ammonium

salt

with

which it is in equilibrium, and hydrogen cyanide gas contains more of the heavy carbon isotope C'^ than does a sodium cyanide solution in equilibrium

wth

In order to

it.

making use of these differences

it is

effect a separation

only necessary to arrange a

downward commonly used in

counter-current scrubbing system, the liquid flowing

and the gas flowing upward. Such apparatus is chemical processes in the form of fractionation columns. Fractionation columns are of different forms, but all consist of an apparatus designed to bring the liquid flowing dowmward through the column into intimate contact with the gas flowing upward.

Those used for the isotope separation w’ork so far consist of glass tubes from f" to 3" in diameter, filled wth glass spirals designed to expose a very large surface of the liquid flowing downward to the gas flowing upward. The operation proceeds in the case of the nitrogen by pumping an ammonium nitrate solution into the top of such a column and at the bottom adding sodium hydroxide, boiling the ammonia from the solution, allowing the ammonia gas to flow backward up through the column and absorbing it in water

solution for one liquid phase and a solution of metallic lithium Also, a solid liquid equilibrium has been used to secure some concentration of the lithium and potassium isotopes. In this case a water solution of an alkali metal

has been allowed to flow through a zeolite of another alkali The first alkali metal replaces the second from the zeolite, ±)ut the isotopes of the second alkali metal are not displaced in salt

metal.

proportion to their concentrations from the zeolite, and hence one isotope trails behind the other in the washing out process.

The most

separation of the isotopes of the elements has been the

problem of separation which chemists and physicists have undertaken. It cannot be dxpected that the separated isotopes will have commercial importance in themselves, for since difficult

their properties are so nearly the

same only rarely can

pected that the slight differences would be sufficient to

it

be ex-

make

the

use of a separated isotope preferable to that of the natural ele-

ment. However, from the standpoint of are

many

scientific research there

experiments which can be attacked once sufficient

amounts of the isotopes are

Thus, wherever it is dean element through a very complicated chemical system, such isotopes can be used as tracers. One of the most complicated and most interesting of such systems is presented by living organisms, and it is to be expected that new available.

sirable to follow the course of

and very important information can be secured by their applica(See also Matter, Structure of; tion in biological fields. Physics).

—

Bibljogeaphy. H. C. Urey, “The Separation of Isotopes,” Progress Reill Physics (London, 1940;; H. G. Thode and H. C. Urey, Journal of Chemical Physics, 7:34 (1939): K. F. Herzfeld and E. Teller, Physical Review, 54: 912 (1938): G. N. Lewis and R. T. MacDonald, Journal of American Chemical Society 58: 2519 (1936); G. Hertz, Zeitschrift fur Pfiysik 79: 108, 700 (1932). (H. C. U.)

ports

Italian Colonial Empire. colonial and mandated

and the

tial

material relative to Italy

territories administered

Total area 1,486,914 sq.mi.; total population

(est.

by

her.

Dec. 31, 1937)

58,099,000.

History.

—^The tension between Italy and France following the

former’s denouncement

in

Dec. 1938 of the Franco-Italian Agree-

flowing to waste at the top. After some time of continuous operaincreases at the bottom. By using tion the concentration of

ment

apparatus of this type nitrogen has been produced containing 72% N‘^, and at the rate of about one gram of nitrogen of this concen-

in the Italian African colonies adjacent to the

tration per 24 hours.

arrests for espionage were made. had eased slightly by March when Count Ciano informed the British Charge d’Affaires that the troop movements in Libya were “purely defensive.” On April 9, Field Marshal Goering visited Tripoli and was received by the governor. Marshal Balbo. The following month General von Brauchitsch paid a similar visit. An attempt to improve economic relations with Egypt was made in May when Marshal Balbo visited King Farouk and

is

effected

by the use

sodium cyanide solutions flowing downward through the colgas flowing upward. In this case the C’® concentrates preferentially in the gas phase so that hydrogen cyanide gas is fed to the apparatus at the bottom, and sodium hydroxide solution introduced at the top, which reacts to give sodium

of

umns and hydrogen cyanide

cyanide solution which flows

down

the column and

is

discarded

has been produced instead of the natural abundance of i-o6%. The rate of production in this case is about half a gram of carbon of this composi-

In

this

1939, and there were persistent rumours of the massing of troops

French possessions. In Libya an order prohibited listening to the Tunis broadcasting

station.

In the case of carbon the concentration

at the bottom.

relating to Tunis (1935), continued in the early part of

way 20%

to

25%

The

A

number of

situation

the Premier.

in this type of experiment.

In introducing the budget for Ethiopia, the under-secretary for announced on May 10 that Italy controlled the whole country materially and morally. There were small groups of hostile natives operating in Shoa and Amhara, but the mass of natives was content under Italian rule. At present, owing to the immense number of natives employed on roads and other public works, no normal economy was, however, possible in the country. As part of the public works already completed, a road across the Danakil desert from Assab to Dessye was officially opened on September 22. It is linked with the road to Addis Ababa and is described as the backbone of communication in the new Empire

also

since

tion per 24 hours. There appears to be no reason why production of both heavy nitrogen and heavy carbon cannot be increased very

considerably over the figures so far obtained by these methods. Experiments using such exchange reactions have been made in the case of sulphur as well, and some increased concentration has

been secured, using sodium hydrogen sulphite solutions and sulphur dioxide gas. It is, of course, not necessary to use liquid and gas phases only

Two immiscible liquid phases could be used travelling in opposite directions in such apparatus.

Italian Africa

it

pro\ddes the shortest route (sqomi.) from the capital to

— ITALIAN EAST AFRICA— ITALIAN SOMALILAND

378

ffahon Cofonta/ Empire Countr>'

and Area

square miles (approx.)

Population

Capital, Status, Governors,

(ooo’s omitted)

Premiers, etc.

Italy, 119,740

44,069

Rome, kingdom,

Emmanuel

III.

Prindpal Products 1938 (in metric tons)

Imports and Exports

imp. io,9iS,ooot exp. 7,9^,ooot

lector

wheat 8,091,800; Premier: Benito maize 2,936,000.

Mussolini.

Albania, 10,632

1,03s

.AFRICA

Tirana, annexed kingdom. Lieut.Generai: F, Jacomoni San Savino

^

213,876

703*

r

.

.

.

S.\ear.\, 465,482

.

.

.

.

rds. 12,930 mi.

est. rev. 25,072,000

rly. 10,394 mi. shpg. cleared (monthly av.) 7,713 tons

exp. 25,035,000.

about i,roo mi.

imp. 22 979 t e.vp. 9 749 f

rds.

(1Q37) barley 38,000; 17,500.

imp. 882,057

rds. 3,260 mi.

exp. 108,961

rly. 271 mi. shpg.: passengers arriv^ 92,256;

to be included in the national of Italy, territori’ Gozerncr-General: Marshal Italo Balbo.

Tripoli,

Italian provinces of Libya,

E.xpenditure 1938-39 (in lire, ooo’s omitted)

Shipping 193S

maize iS5^4S; wheat 44,910.

,

Revenue and

and

Road,

1938 (in lire, ooo’s omitted)

rev.

and exp. 40,000!

,

wheat

est. rev.

and

e.xp.

462,345.

departed 80,614

Libyan

Homs,

4S

Italian E.\st Atrica, including Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian

colony, authority.

12,100

under

military*

Addis Ababa, colony,

H.R.H. the Duke

Vieeroy: of Aosta.

Somaliland, 676,149

barley (Eritrea 1936) 19,900; (Ethiopia, export 1937) 14,000

imp. 2,477

rds. 3,142 mi.

(est.)

Ethiopia: rev.

exp. jgi

709 mi. shpg. passengers

and

e.xp. 1,591,128.

Somaliland: rev. and

rly.

coffee

exp. 70,705.

arrh'ed, 133,128

departed 156,176

ASIA Italian Islands of the sea, 1,035

Aegean

141

Rhodes, colony, Governor: Count olix-e oil 617; C. M. de \'ecchi. wine 27,000 hectoli tres

*Lib>'an population, Italians excepted, the latter being included in Italy.

(1937) imp. 122,374 exp. 19,705

tExcluding trade with colonies, tin gold francs.

(1934-35)

QQyillllll

§In gold francs, est. April

i,

rev.

and

exp. 48,000.

1939 to June 30, 3940

(=iS months).

the Red sea. Other public works include the building of new European totras. and extensive port developments at Assab, Kisimayo and Mogadishu. Three oceanic roads are either under construction or planned to link Addis Ababa with Mogadishu on the Indian ocean, “the free sea which lies beyond Suez and Aden.” On October 31, General Teruzzi was appointed minister for Italian Africa, a post prerdously held by the Duce. It was announced early in Jan. 1940 that a number of Italians formerly

domiciled in France were to be sent as colonists to Italian Africa.

Bontempelli’s Avventura Noveceit-

of contemporary literature

is

tista (Vallecchi), a literary

diary relating the author’s struggle for

The first volume of S. D’Amico’s Storia Drammatico (Rizzoli) has appeared. Franco Abbati,

a universal literature. del Teatro

noted music

critic,

presented the

Storia della Musica (Garzanti).

Gaetano de Sanctis’ Storia dei Greci

(Nuova

Italia)

adds to the

field of

long years of painstaking research. policy of Pius

XI is

of a three-volume work,

first

The long-awaited

A

serene evaluation of the

given by L. Salvatorelli in his Pio

ture and architecture have also been published: A.

Italian IldllCill

I

itoratiira

literarj-

year was

LllCldlUlC.

lishing houses

marked by the “Arjanization” of puband the “book reclamation,” both ordered by the

Government. As a

result of this campaign, several firms

changed

management or name and as a first step goo books by some 200 Italian and foreign authors were “withdrawn from circulation as harmful in view of the established by Fascism.”

historical, idealistic,

To

and moral values

protect the sale of Italian books,

the Government discouraged Italian translations of foreign books and forbad their display in bookshops. Judging from the year’s gross literar>' output, it would appear that the Italians are dwelling especially upon the great authors of the past. The works of Machiavelli (Barion, Rizzoli), Vasari (Mondadori), G. Vigo (Laterza), Gioberti (Bocca), to mention but a few, are appearing in new and attractive critical editions. Many reprints have also been made of works by 20th century writers ranging from Serao to Panzini, who died in April. One of the most valuable results of this quest for the past is the appearance of an unusual quantity of letters and diaries mostly inedita. Notable are the Epistolario Complete di Santa Caterina da Skua (JIarzocco), Guicciardini’s Carteggi (Zanichelli), Lettere inedite di V Foscolo a Marcia Martinengo (Le Mon.

nier), soli’s

Tommaseo’s Cronichetta Carteggi

(Nuova

Italia),

(ZanicheUi),

del Sessa7itasei (Einaudi), Rica-

Cavour’s

and the Diario

Discorsi

Parlamentari

e lettere inedite of E.

Thovez

(Garzanti).

Three outstanding contributions enriched the history of ary criticism: Volume

XVI

V

historiography the results of

XI

e la sua

eredita spirit iiale (Einaudi). Three sound works on American cul-

Italian East Africa: see Italian Colonial EiiPiRE. beginning of the

publication of

dalle origini al secolo

liter-

of the SUidi Danteschi series (San-

La Satira dal Medioevo al Poiitano (Vallardi), and G. Previtera’s La Poesia giocosa e Viimorismo dalle origini al soni); V. Cian’s

rinasemento (Vallardi). Of considerable importance to students

Cultura Americana e tettura in

I’ltalia

(Einaudi)

;

La

Piana’s

La

P. Carbonara’s L’Archi-

America (Laterza), and E. and G. Cecchi’s Emily Dick-

inson (Marcelliana).

The

seems diwded pretty clearly into three which belong such writers of the old guard as Samminiatelli, Chiesa and Soffici, continue to weave their past into autobiographical works; the second endeavour to instil love for bucolic as against city life; a third and large group of young writers find inspiration in the “historical, idealistic, and moral values established by Fascism.” Four writers who do not fall into the above classification, have enjoyed e.xceptional sucfield of fiction still

main groups: the

first,

to

cess: R. Bacchelli, with La miseria viene in barca (Barzanti), a continuation of the historical cycle begun with II Molino sid Po; A. de Cespedes, with Nessuno torna indietro (Mondadori) the

story of eight convent-bred girls, now in its tenth printing; P. Margellini, with Cittd di Pit tori (Vallecchi), fictionized art criticism; and T. Landolfi, with La Pietra Lunare (Vallecchi), a weird

and fantastic novel. Noteworthy in the

field of poetrj’ are the

posthumous

lyrics

of A. S. Novaro Tenipietto (Mondadori); E. Montale’s second volume Le Occasioni (Einaudi), and Poesie (Parenti) of the ven-

promising S. Penna. N. Moscardelli’s Le piii belle poesie dell' anno ipjp (Marcelliana) again proves valuable. Among the prominent works by Italian writers living outside of Italy, are: G. Garretto’s Sidle, Terre de Douleur (Correa); Lussu’s Sardinian Brigade (Knopf); L. Venturi’s Peintres Modernes (Albin Michel); Salvemini’s Historian and Scientist (Har-

vard) and Sturzo’s Church and State (Geoffrey Bles).

(M. F. C.) Italian Somaliland: see Italian Colonial Empire.

ITALY •

Excluding Libya: area 119,740 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Aug. 31, Chief towns (pop. 1936); Rome 1938) 43,818,000.

(1,148,948), Milan (1,103,960), Naples (860,176),

Genoa

(625,-

379

Italy clarified and solidified her position in the Balkans, even

though it meant giving up her claims on Dalmatia, one of the leitmotivs of Fascism, and Belgrade abandoned the Slavic minorities

355), Turin (623,454). Ruler, King Victor Emmanuel III; language, Italian; religion, Christian (Roman Catholic).

in Italy to their

most important events in Italian foreign affairs during the year 1939 were; the press campaign for Mediterranean claims during Daladier’s visit to Corsica and North Africa (January 2) the visit of Chamberlain and Halifax

the French press in a caustic manner.

History.

—Foreign

Affairs

—

^The

.

;

to

Rome

20)

;

(January ii); Ciano’s visit to Stoyadinovic (January the fall of Barcelona (Januarj' 26) and the extension of the

appeasement policy to Spain; Daladier’s speech crystallising the Mediterranean claims (March i); King Victor Emmanuel’s speech (March 23) Mussolini’s answer to Daladier (March 30) the annexation of Albania (April 7) Mussolini’s visit to the French ;

;

;

(May 14 and 19); 22); the recall of Amthe European war and

border and his declarations of foreign policy

Germany (May bassador Giandi from London (July 12);

the military alliance with

Italy’s non-belligerency;

(December 16)

;

Ciano’s declarations on foreign policy

the visit of King Victor

Emmanuel

to the Vati-

can (Dec. 21), and of Pope Pius to the Quirinal (Dec. 28). The year began with the continuation of the campaign for territorial settlements in North Africa. The struggle for Corsica, Tuni-

and Jibuti resulted in Daladier’s trip to the danger zones: Corsica, Tunisia and Algiers. The Italian press ridiculed the trip, playing up the small incidents and ignoring its fundamental

sia,

success, but the visit showed clearly that Italy in her struggle with France was not to meet with appeasement and could not expect victories as easy as Germany’s over the Central European countries. The Fascists hoped that a favourable agreement with

Chamberlain would bring British pressure to bear upon the French Government in order to effect a Mediterranean Munich.

On January

26, Barcelona fell

difficult international struggle.

and Mussolini had won

The

his

most

bloodiest battle yet to arise

between the democracies and the totalitarian governments was resolved in his favour. As soon as the policy of appeasement was extended to Spain, Franco became the object of much diplomatic courting and both his and Mussolini’s positions in the Mediterranean were strengthened.

(See also Spain, Civil War in.) its usual course, Yugoslavia, won

Italy’s Balkan policy pursued

away from France, was the object of increasingly persuasive overtures of friendship. Count Ciano visited Premier Stoyadinovic on January 20 with the result that the Entente Powers seemed forever excluded from Yugoslavia, which they had created and armed.

The press

own

centred

fate.

its

action against France and

would not yield

clared again that France

was answered by

On March

i,

Daladier de-

either a single

man

or an

inch of ground, and that the Mussolini-Laval agreement of Jan.

1935 (denounced by Italy on Dec. 27, 1938) was still the limit of On March 23, the King, speaking in the new

France’s offers.

Chamber

of Guilds, formally affirmed the legitimacy of the Italian

same time flouted an}' rumours of a between Mussolini and the royal house. A formal Italian ultimatum was expected by March 30. The Axis again had worked in favour of Germany in the Bohemian coup (March 16) and the occupation of what was left of Czecho-Slovakia seemed to have proved that the appeasement front was disposed to go to the limit. But instead, Mussolini answered Daladier in Cosenza with a speech which was vehement but vague. While thundering against the French attitude he indicated that Italy was in no hurry. claims on France, and at the

rift

News

Drastic action came in the Balkans.

of disorders in Al-

bania and of disagreements between King Zog and the Italian Gov-

ernment had been spread by Fascist propaganda. Rumours of impending Italian occupation of Albania were heard throughout Europe. The annexation of Albania, altering the status quo of the Mediterranean, was contrary to the Anglo-Italian agreement, but Chamberlain, still pursuing his appeasement policy, declared (April 7) that Great Britain had no objections to the annexation. That same day the Italians landed in Albania and, encountering practically no resistance, marched on Tirana. The crown of Albania was offered by a puppet Albanian Cabinet to King Victor Emmanuel who assumed the title of King of Italy and Albania.

(See also Albania.)

The Greek and Yugoslavian Governments viewed the Albanian coup with great anxiety. Italy, though actually in control of Albania since 1927,

now

took over the country directly, placing

on Greece and to first public works started in Albania by the Italian Government proved to be military highways. On May ii. Prince Paul, Regent of Yugoslavia,

herself in a position to put direct pressure

Yugoslavia on two fronts.

fight

Rome, thus giving

visited

Indeed the

his seal of approval to Italy’s position

in the Balkans.

week Mussolini visited Piedmont, i.e., the French At the close of his visit on May 19, in giving the Cuneo address, he made two interesting pronouncements: one was that there were no problems in Europe that could not be resolved peacefully, and the other was that he would not speak in public again for a long while. It was his last bid for appeasement. On May 22, Count Ciano and Herr von Ribbentrop signed a military alliance so binding that it was called the Steel Pact, thus consecrating the success of the Axis policy in Czecho-Slovakia, Memel, and

The

following

border.

Albania.

During the month of June the problem of Danzig took on new proportions, putting the appeasement policy to a Fascists supported

ment

German

to yield before

it

new

test.

The

claims and urged the Polish Govern-

was too

late.

It

was obvious that what

Mussolini wanted was another Munich with Italy getting the spoils. The Munich slogan of “peace with justice” was revamped again.

II

Duce

resorted to every

means

the French and British Governments.

to soften the firmness of

On

July 12 Count Dino

Grandi, ambassador to St. James’s, was recalled and made minister of Justice. The manner of his withdrawal indicated the extent of

by Palazzo Chigi at the British attitude. The Italian-German alliance W’as solidified in the eyes of the world by the mass repatriation of the Germans living in Southern displeasure felt

ITALY

380 Tyrol under Italian rule (beginning July

Thus Italy and Gerand at the same time emphasize their desire for peace. Incidental to this mass migration was untold suffering, hardship, and anguish on the part of

many

The Russian

s).

tried to iron out their only difference

the population involved.

activity in the Baitin'

Germany than press resumed

did Italy’s. After a its

Iain’s

sign the non-aggression pact.

and after him the Italian press, pushed the idea of an international conference. Moreover the August army manoeuvres revealed that the Italian Army was in no condition to engage in a war. In an effort to avoid an untimely general conflagration Ciano went personally to see Herr von Ribbentrop and Herr Hitler (the Salzburg and Berghoff conversations, August 14). Though the communiques declared that the Axis powers were “100% in agreement,” there has been a great deal of speculation as to the real meaning of the conver-

II

alternative he,

sations.

That the Russian-German pact took Italy by surprise has been admitted by Foreign Minister Ciano. It destroyed the antiComintern Front and thus changed the position of Italy. When

not more, to Italian

Finland with air forces. But stilt the hopes of Mussolini, supported by the Pope, rvere pinned on a “peace with justice.” According to Ciano the Axis policy was thwarted by Chamber-

him, and in which he might risk everything solely to secure Danzig

As an

if

month of wavering, the

attacks on Bolshevism and supplied invaded

With the sharpening of the Danzig question the Axis policy underwent some revision. As the war clouds darkened, Mussolini saw himself involved in a struggle which did not directly concern for the Reich.

and the partition of Poland

revealed that Russia’s friendship meant as much,

overtures to the Soviets which in turn caused Hitler to

The Rome-Berlin Axis, in spite of Duce’s friendship for der Fuehrer, was not to be extended to Moscow. As the year drew to a close, a last peace offensive was started again, with the Pope and most of the neutrals backing Mussolini. The renewed friendship of the Church and Fascism

was sealed by the King’s

visit to the

Vatican and the Pope’s

visit

to the Quirinal, an epoch-making event.

Home

—

Affairs .

^At

home, Mussolini continued

programs of

his

military strength, racial purity, and self-sufficiency (autarchia).

The

racial program was carried on vigorously and the legislation which had been started in 1938, was completed during 1939. Most of the Nuremberg laws were adopted, and the concept of

was introduced throughout the empire. The had been begun on Oct. 10,

racial differentiation

struggle for self-sufficiency which

the war finally did break out, Italy did not declare her neutrality

1938, with the creation of a Covimissione Suprema, proceeded

but declared instead that the Axis

steadily, putting the

still

obtained, but without

Once more Mussolini launched an appeal for peace, backed by the Catholic Church and by most of the neutral powers. But his efforts failed. On September 19, Giuseppe Bastianini, under-secretary for Foreign Affairs, was appointed Ambassador to London. It seemed obvious that Italy wanted to make the most of her position, and. while declaring fidelity to the Axis, she was willing to flirt with the democracies. The French and British Governments did not nailitary

activity on the

Italian

choose to consider Fascism

front.

tail

of the economic

ment

control

Government in control of almost every deWith the outbreak of the war, Govern-

life.

was extended even to consumption, and

in addition

to the meatless days already in effect, ration cards were issued for coffee, and several products were severely limited or forbidden entirely.

The new Chamber razioni)

of Guilds (Camera dei Fasci e delle Corpowas inaugurated on March 23. Though this change had

been expected for over 10 years, the actual setting-up of the new system, whereby the deputies are chosen and not eledted, made no

a part of the Totalitarianism which they were fighting, but instead chose to string along with Mussolini. No pressure of any kind was put on Italy, and Musso-

seemed

took advantage of his freedom to work feverishly for the mise a point of the military machine.

saw the establishment of the new Civil Code, the greatest codification of the changes wrought

(.q.

v.)

lini

ITALIAN TROOPS landing 1939

Albania, April 7-9,

a.

the harbour in

Durarzo during the invasion of

real difference.

The

number

fact that the

to indicate that the

new

of places for party leaders. July

^y the Fascist regime

of deputies increased,

set-up provided a larger i

in civil'life tO date.

number

IVORY An

COAST— JAPAN

381

program of land redemption was launched on

extensive

July 20 with the announcement that the large estates of Sicily were to be broken up into small farms on which farm-houses were to be built. this

The

Sicilian peasants are to

be the beneficiaries of

program, which entails an expenditure of 10,000,000,000

The plan

in 10 years.

calls

lire

not only for more houses, but also

for the wholesale building of water

and power

plants.

The mag-

nitude of the plan, and the eulogistic press campaign that adverit, demonstrated that the breaking-up of Sicilian estates is one more chapter in the traditional Fascist policy of public works

tised

with

all its

positive

On October

and negative consequences. a- sweeping “changing of the

31 there occurred

many

guard” in which

of the leading Fascist hierarchs, including number of ministers, and several high

the secretary of the party, a

The officials of the army, navy and air force, were removed. most widely-spread interpretation of this house-cleaning abroad was that Mussolini had rid himself of pro-German chiefs. Following events proved this interpretation completely inconsistent. The general-secretary of the party, Ettore Muti,

is

a veteran of the

Ethiopian and Spanish wars.

Education.

—In

1937-38: public elementary schools, 131,580,

pupils, 5,411,596; private elementary schools, 4,414, pupils, 132,students: in secondary schools, 647,505; in universities,

67s;

77,429.

the outbreak of the war (September), a report at 900,000 men; first line aeroplanes 2,200

Defence.—At estimated the

and

Army

total strength of planes 5,500.

battleship “Impero.”

To

the

Navy was added

1934

1935

1937

1936

1938

1939

1940

1941

the

JAPAN:

—National

budget: revenue, 27,468,000,000 lire; expenditure, 38,642,000,000 lire; public debt (Nov. circulation (Mar. 20, 30, 1935)1 108,636,600,000 lire; notes in 17,967,000,000 lire; gold reserve and credit abroad (Dec.

{The Annalist)

Industrial production

Banking and Finance.

1939),

31, 1938), 3,826,000,000 lire. I

lira

= $.05046

Exchange

U.S.

rate (average Dec. 1939)

—Overseas

Trade and Communication.

trade: imports, 11,-

Colonies and Ethio-

lire; exports, 8,007,100,000 lire. pia: imports, 209,100,000 lire; exports, 2,448,900 lire.

Communi-

cations: highways, 20,803 kilometres (Dec. 31, 1938)-

Railways,

061,000,000

23,221 kilometres; electrified, 6,678. Shipping (Dec. 31, 1938) (in gross tons, 3,294,897. Movement to and from foreign ports Air20,061. ports, Italian from and to 1, 000s of tons) 23,756; ways: total length, 46,669; kilometres flown, i3,S94i^9°l passenvehicles licensed gers, 142,604; merchandise (kg.), 560,446. Motor motorcycles, 112,566; trucks, cars,

(Dec. 31, 1938):

345,090;

198,220.

ProducAgriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. wheat, 80,918, quintals): of i,ooos (in tion, to Dec. 31, 1938 In tons, maize, 29,363; rice, 7,720; oats, 6,291; rye, 1,381. natiron ore, 990,043; lead and zinc, 268,341, cocoons,

islands (which lie near the equator); includes

Chosen peninsula, on the mainland of Asia, and the small Kwantung leased territory, with the city of Dairen, on the Liaotung peninsula. Japan Proper

consists of the four main islands of Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku and Kyushu, while Chosen, Formosa, and South Sakhalin are ad-

ministered as colonies. This

is also true of the South Sea islands, which were granted to Japan under a mandate from the League of Nations after the World War (1914-18). The total area of the Japanese Empire is 263,359 sq.mi., of which Japan Proper ac-

counts for 148,736 square miles. Population of the Empire (census, Oct.

With

copper, 1,982; pig iron, 864,536; ural fuel, 2,355,117; raw sulphur, 380,345. (See Antimercury, 2,963; lead, 2,963; 44,031;

Brazil, Semitism; Armies of the World; Balkan Entente; IreNorthern and Britain Great European War; Germany; Dictators, land; Religion; United States: Roosevelt and the

Jamaica:

see

,

-

War

the capital of the Chinese Nationalist

see that heading.)

Government

estab-

and with military opera-

by the Japanese troops reduced to a much smaller scale, compared with 1937 and 1938, the problem of Japan’s relations with the foreign powers possessing Far Eastern interests became more important during 1939. As a result of the war Japan was in military control of all the main centres of foreign trade and industions

try in China, Shanghai, Tientsin, It

was

Hankow, Canton, Amoy.

inevitable that there should be conflicts of viewpoint

between the Japanese militarj' leaders, committed to the idea that Japan was to establish a “new order” in East Asia and foreigners, inclined to stand on their treaty rights. Great Britain possesses the largest investment stake of any nation in China, the estimated its holdings at the beginning of the Chinese-Japanese war being somewhat over 1,200,000,000 American dollars. The United

was

drawn into controversy with Japan because of its “Open Door.” For somewhat different reasons Japan also became involved in sporadic border conflicts with the Soviet Union on several occaStates

French Colonial Empire. West Indies; West Indies, British. see

James Tait Black Memorial

,

value of

Youth Movements.) fvory Coast:

1935) was 97 697 555 the Chinese-Japanese

— (For

lished in Chungking, i,ooomi. inland,

19,971;

silk,

I,

History.

also

consistent stand for the principle of the

Prizes: see Literary Prizes:

Great Britain.

sions during 1939.

Hirohito;

an Empire, capital, Tokyo; ruler. Emperor japan, premier. General Nobuyuki Abe (resigned Jan. 14, stretching from 1940). A chain of islands in the western Pacific, mandated South Sakhalin (50° of latitude) to the South Seas I

-

—

General Issues between Japan and Western Powers. The causes of friction between Japan and the Western Powers were greatly enhanced because of the existence in China of foreign settlements

and concessions governed by representatives of foreign communi-

:

JAPAN

382 ties

and guarded,

in

some

cases,

by

foreign troops.

The Japanese

military authority, automatically established in every captured

Chinese

city, did

not extend to these foreign enclaves on Chinese

soil.

These foreign concessions, where the Chinese population greatly outnumbers the foreign, naturally became places of refuge for Chinese nationalists.

In the large International Settlement of

Shanghai and in the adjacent Chinese portion of the city there were scores of assassinations of Chinese “traitors,” i.e. Chinese

who consented

to hold office in Japanese-sponsored regimes.

Al-

leged laxity of the foreign police in controlling this terrorist activ-

was one Japanese grievance against the foreign concessions. it was part of Japanese policy to introduce new currency issues and to establish a certain control of foreign trade in occupied territory. But the Japanese writ did not run in the ity

Moreover,

foreign administered sections of Shanghai and Tientsin.

Here,

Japanese regulations could be disregarded' in some cases, evaded

The

was that they were under Japan in its war against China indeed the British, French, and American Governments had given at least platonic support to China by associating themselves with statements that Japan had violated the Nine Power Treaty concluded at Washington in 1922 and prescribing respect for China’s sover-

in others.

attitude of the foreigners

no obligation to

assist

;

eignty and territorial integrity.

Moreover, the conduct of the war and the actions of the Japanese military authorities created a

number

of material grievances

for nationals of Western powers with commercial and cultural interests in China.

The Japanese Army took over

the operation of

the railways in occupied territory without paying any compensa-

Such large river arteries Yangtze and the Pearl were closed to foreign shipping. On the other hand, a fairly lively trade in Japanese manufactured goods developed in the Yangtze ports. Discriminations were imposed on British shipping in North China ports. Japanese currency regulations added to the difficulties of foreign trade. The Japanese maintained a permanent military occupation of the part of the Shanghai International Settlement which lies north of Soochow Creek. There were instances of damage and looting of foreign property and a few cases of loss of life and serious injury on the tion to foreign holders of railway bonds. as the

part of foreigners during the military operations.

—

^Japanese feeling was especially inJapan and Great Britain flamed against Great Britain, which was represented in many military and extreme nationalist leaflets and speeches as the chief enemy of Japan’s aspirations on the mainland of Asia. There were .

a number of incidents at Shanghai, including several clashes between the International Settlement police and the police of the Japanese-sponsored Chinese administration. A British executive in a cotton mill, R. in a scuffle

M.

Tinkler, died of

wounds which he received

with Japanese soldiers in June 1939.

But the most serious Japanese-British conflict occurred in North China. Its immediate occasion was the refusal of the authorities in the British Concession of Tientsin to hand over to the Japanese

who were accused of having assassinated a Chinese customs inspector named Cheng who had taken office under the

spokesman in Tientsin declared that Japan would not be with the handing over of the Chinese suspects and formulated others aims; to obtain British and French co-operation in establishing a new order in East Asia, to stop British support of military

satisfied

the Chinese currency and to introduce pro-Japanese textbooks into the Chinese schools in the British Concession.

Grosser physical insults to Britons ceased toward the end of June; but the blockade, in somewhat milder form, was still going on at the end of the year. Conversations began in Tokyo in July between the Japanese Foreign Minister, Hachiro Arita, and the British Ambassador, Sir

Robert

Craigie, with a

view to

settling

On

July 22 a joint formula was reached which the Japanese hailed as a complete surrender to their views, althe Tientsin

affair.

though the British Government repudiated this interpretation. of this Arita-Craigie formula was as follows

The wording The

Government

fully recognize the actual situation in China in progress and note that, as long as that state of affairs continues to e-vist, the Japanese forces in China have special requirements for the purpose of safeguarding their own security and maintaining public order in the regions under their control, and that they have to suppress or remove any such acts or causes as will obstruct them or benefit their enemy. His Majesty's Government have no intention of countenancing any act prejudicial to the attainment of the above mentioned objects by the Japanese forces, and they will take this opportunity to confirm their policy in this respect by making it plain to the British authorities and British nationals in China that they should refrain from such acts and measures.

where

British

hostilities

on a large scale are

four Chinese

pro-Japanese administration.

The Chinese were finally handed over and a preliminary agreement was reached on Anglo-Japanese co-operation in suppressing terrorism in Tientsin. But the conversations failed to lead to any

the Japanese

Allegedly as a reprisal for British non-compliance in this matter Army commenced to blockade the British and French

positive far-reaching agreement because the British Government,

Concessions in Tientsin on June 14. While the blockade was not an absolute one it slowed up and hindered the importation of food-

on August 20, declared itself unable to discuss, much less to enter into any agreement on currency and economic issues which in-

while British were singled out for indignities and insults

volved the interests of other powers. Japan and the United States ^The United States, in a note of

stuffs,

when they tried to pass the barriers. They were in many cases completely stripped by Japanese sentries. At the same time an anti-British campaign was launched among Chinese in North China, with obvious Japanese encouragement. All British residents were forced to leave some towns in the interior. A Japanese

.

October

6,

—

published on October 27, complained of various alleged by Japan. The Jap-

violations of the “open door” policy in China

anese Government, in a reply dated

November

18, disputed

some

of the American factual allegations, declared that the co-operation

JAPAN

383

of third powers in the economic development of China would be

ration of Soviet-Japanese relations, vras concluded in September;

welcome and declared that Japan “was devoting its energy to the establishment of a new order, based on genuine international justice, throughout East Asia, the attainment of which is not only an indispensable condition of the very existence of Japan, but

but there were rumours of a resumption of hostilities in October.

also constitutes the actual foundation of enduring peace

and

A modus

vivendi was found for a perennial subject of dispute,

the conditions under which Japanese fishing companies ate in Soviet waters, in March.

may

oper-

But there was persistent bickering

sta-

over the functioning of Japanese oil concessions in the northern, Russian half of the island of Sakhalin. Soviet help to China,

to China a run for five years, in Dec. 1938. On Dec. 30, 1939, the American Government sent another note to Jap)an, indicating dissatisfaction with the arguments of the Japa-

perhaps the most serious cause of bad feeling between the Soviet Union and Japan, seems to have continued. In October there were

East Asia.”

bility in

The Reconstruction Finance Corporation extended

credit of $25,000,000, to

nese communication of

November 18 and

reiterating America’s

stand on the principles of international .treaties regarding Far

Eastern relations and the “open door.”

The next important development

in Japanese- American rela-

was the abrupt denunciation of the Japanese-American Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, signed at Washington on tions

Feb. 2r, igir, by the U.S. Government on July 26, 1939. This denunciation very closely followed the announcement of the Craigie-Arita agreement and

was interpreted

in

some quarters as

designed to stiffen British resistance to Japanese demands. After a period of six months, after Jan. 26, 1940, the American

ernment

that

when Japan’s “new order”

He

declared

seen to be depriving Americans

is

of their long established rights they oppose

it

and reminded the

Japanese that they had insisted upon and received benefits from the “open door” in other parts of the world than China. Japanese

comment on the Ambassador’s speech

nese Constitution.

Army and Navy.—^The

—

concessions or extra-territorial rights in China, important causes

nese troops along the ill-defined

between Soviet and Japafrontier between the Japanese

Manchoukuo and

the Soviet protectorate of Outer

protectorate of

Mongolia.

The

precise circumstances, scope,

and

results of this fighting

are very obscure, because of the remote theatre of hostilities

and Amazing and probably greatly exaggerated figures of the numbers of aeroplanes shot down during these border clashes were circulated by both sides, but especially by the Japanese. About the only reasonably certain fact about these conflicts is that they took place in the neighbourhood of Lake Buir and the Khalka river. Nomanhan, a small Mongol settlement, is frequent-

the absence of impartial foreign observers.

ly

mentioned

in statements

about the

to have gone on sporadically during

The fighting seems May, June, and July 1939.

fighting.

The Japanese put forward the remarkable claim that they had shot down or othenvise destroyed 715 Soviet and Mongolian aeroplanes up to July 28. The Soviet counterclaim is that 199

May 8 and July 12, Soviet statement also as-

Japanese aeroplanes were destroyed between while the Soviet air force lost 52.

The

Japanese-Manchoukuo and wounded, while 254 pris-

serted that between July 6 and July 12

Japanese Armj' is raised on a basis of all male Japanese between the ages

The strength of the Navy as of Sept. 30, 1936, was officially given as 302 warships, of a total tonnage of 1,134,823, including 9 battleships, 12 first-class and 25 second-class cruisers, 6 aircraft war.

carriers,

and 3 seaplane

ment law

Under the

carriers.

latest fleet replace-

the naval building program from 1938 until 1943 called

for the construction of 4 battleships, 2 aircraft carriers and a number of cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and other vessels. Japan has consistently refused, since the e.xpiration of the

Washington naval treaties, to limit the size of its battleships or gun calibre or to exchange naval building information with

other powers.

—The

Banking and Finance.

of friction between Japan and the Western powers, there were several outbursts of sporadic fighting

(end of 1933)

of 17 and 40. Its peacetime strength has been officially stated at about 230,000 organized in 17 divisions. AU details of numbers and organization have been kept secret since the outbreak of the

their

.

latest oflncial statistics

universal liability to service of

Japan had no intention of modifying its policy and America had no right to interfere in Far Eastern affairs. While the Soviet Union has no Japan and the Soviet Union

that

The

reveal 41,127,307 Buddhists, 16,525,840 Shintoists, and 439,444 Christians in the country.

large

effect that

influence

China, including Shensi and

—

w'as generally to the

press

from Japanese sources of an expansion of Soviet

Kansu. It is not yet clear how the new Soviet expansionism in Europe wll affect its policy in the Orient. Education and Religion. ^There W’ere 47,750 schools of all kinds in Japan in 1936, with 14,949,792 students. Elementary education is compulsory, and the percentage of attendance among children of school age is 99-58. Japan has 45 imiversities with 71,607 students. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Japa-

Gov-

be free to impose discriminatory treatment on Japan in commercial relations. Joseph Clark Grew, American Ambassador to Japan, told a largely Japanese audience in Tokyo on Oct. 19, 1939 that American public opinion is strongly and unanimously opposed to some will

of the things that the Japanese are doing in China.

reports

in the northwestern provinces of

um't of currency

is

the yen (worth

cents in United States

currency in Nov. approximately 23.65 1939). The Japanese ordinary budget of 1939-40 (the Japanese fiscal year ends on March 31) calls for an e.xpenditure of 3,694,666.000 yen, as against 3,3r4,5zi,ooo yen in 193S-39 and 2,372,099.000 yen in 1936-37, the last pre-war year. Extra expenditure

war

China for the current fiscal year a sum. which wilt be almost entirely raised by new bond flotations. The Japanese national debt, which was 9,850,000,000 yen at the end of 1936, reached 15.524.209.000 yen in Oct. 1938 and had passed the 20,000,000,000 yen mark by the end of 1939. Much the greatest part of this debt is internal, Japan’s foreign debts amounting to about 1,300,000,000 yen, as of the p>eriod before currency devaluations took place in connection with the

is

in

—

estimated at 5,270,000,000 yen

in almost

all

countries.

The

actual value of the foreign defat, in

terms of present-day Japanese currency is somewhat greater, because almost the wffiole of Japan’s foreign debt is in pounds and dollars

and the yen has depreciated more than the pound or the

dollar.

The Bank of Japan is the central bank of issue. The Yokohama Bank is in charge of foreign exchange transactions and

Specie

finances foreign trade.

Commercial banking

is

largely in the

hands

oners were taken, including 12 aviators.

of seven large banks: the Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Dai-ichi, Sumitomo Yasuda, Daihyaku, and Sanwa. Foreign banks operating in Japan

No results proportionate to such losses seem to have been achieved by either side. The region of combat was a sparsely populated, semi-desert country, without large towns or important military objectives. A truce, which seemed to indicate an amelio-

include the National City Bank of New' York, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Chartered Bank of India Australia, and China, the Banque Franco-Japonaise, and the Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank.

casualties

amounted to 5,500

killed

JAPANESE BEETLE— JEWISH RACE, DISTRIBUTION as metallurgy, machine-building, and chemicals; and the war has the Japanese EmTrade and Communication. —

384

^Exports for

were 2,896,707,000 yen (a decline of 422,113,000 yen from 1937) and imports were 2,836,209,000 yen (a falling off of 1.118.517.000 yen, by comparison with 1937). Nominally this

producer of chemicals.

indicated a favourable trade balance of slightly over 60,000,000

ceramics.

yen.

However, it is important to note that Japan’s exports to yen bloc countries in 1938 amounted to 1,182,261,000 yen, as against imports of 565, 359, 000 yen. These yen bloc countries include Manchoukuo and the occupied parts of China. Inasmuch as their currencies possess no value in international exchange Japan’s effective trade balance was unfavourable to the extent of between 550,000,000 and 560,000,000 yen. The same tendency is visible in the incomplete figures for 1939. During the first seven months of 1939 Japan’s exports were 1,960,079,000 yen (the figure for the corresponding period of 1938 was 1,517,329.000 yen). Its imports were 1,853,933,000 yen (1,705,999,000 yen in 1938). Japan’s exports to non-yen-bloc countries during these seven months were 877,737,055 yen, while its imports from

industrial

so-called

statistics ceased in 1937 as a matter of war secrecy.' (See also Armies of the World; Communism; Chinese-Japanese War; Fascism; United States.)

pire in 1938

these countries were 1,308,933,743 yen, leaving an unfavourable balance of trade of 431,196,688 yen. There were i5,2S4mi. of Government and private railways in

Japan Proper, besides 3,i29mi. in Chosen, 935mi. in Formosa, and 3oomi. in South Sakhalin. The total number of registered steamships in the Japanese Empire on Sept. 30, 1937, was 1937, in

4,518, with a tonnage of 4,617,183. The number of sailing ships was 17,494, the tonnage 1,010,893. Japan had 235 commercial

aeroplanes on Oct. 1, 1935. Air routes link up the main cities of Japan Proper and regular air service is maintained between Japan Proper, Formosa, the South Seas islands. Chosen and Manchoukuo. Air lines connecting Japan with such Chinese cities as Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai, Nanking, and Tsingtao were instituted in

During the year 1933-36 Japan’s aeronautical companies carried 11,877 passengers, 75,643kg. of goods and 265,564kg. of mail. There were 10,570 telegraph stations in Japan Proper in 1937, and 11,920 post offices. There were 420,740km. 1937 and 1938.

accentuated this tendency. Japan ranks fourth in the world as a Other important industries are the gen-

wood products, paper and Mining output has been increasing under the stress of demand. Publication of many industrial and mining

eration of electrical power, foodstuffs,

Bibliography.—Annual issues of The Japan Year Book and The JapanManchoukuo Year Book; T. Yano and K. Shirasaki, Nippon: A Charted Survey oj Japan; The Mitsubishi Economic Research Bureau, Japanese Trade and Industry: Present and Future; Ryoichi sure and Economic Life in Japan.

Ishii,

Population Pres(\V.

H. Ch.)

Japanese Beetle: see Entomology; Horticulture. Japanese-Chinese War: see Chinese-Japanese War. Jarvis Island:

see

Islands.

^^^70-1939)) Belgian statesman, was born in Schaerbeek, a suburb of Brussels, on July 28.

Honri

I^CnSI'

South Sea and Equatorial

l}do|ldl| uwllll

For his biography, consult EiicyclopcBdia Britannica, vol. 12, p. 970. He was minister of interior and later minister of foreign affairs from 1920 to 1924, during which time he was instrumental in League of Nations. From 1926 February 15 in Brussels following an operation, only four days after King Leopold had asked him to form his second cabinet to succeed that of PaulHenri Spaak, who had resigned February 9. effecting Belgium’s entry into the

to 1931

He died

he was prime minister.

fourth in size but most important in population and ref

sources

among the

islands of the

Dutch East

Indies, is

separated from Sumatra to the west by Sunda strait and from Bali to the east by Bali

.strait.

With the adjacent small

island of

of telegraph lines, handling about 67,300,000 messages annually.

Madura, Java in 1930 had a population of 41,719,524, mostly people of Malay race professing the Mohammedan religion.' The area of Java and Madura is 30,752 square miles. Java is the most

Japan

densely populated land in the world, with 821 inhabitants to the

In Sept. 1937 there were 5,467 telephone exchange Proper, with 956,330 subscribers.

offices in

square mile. Because of this density of population the economic

—

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. There were 5,597,465 farm households in Japan at the end of 1936. This figure shows little tendency to change from year to year. Much the most important crop in Japan was rice, with the breeding of silk worms as a secondary source of income for farmers in some parts of the country. Other agricultural products were wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. Animal husbandry plays a minor role and has mainly developed in Hokkaido, northernmost of the large Japanese islands. The rice crop for 1938 was estimated at 64,758,070 koku, a koku being equivalent to 4-96 bushels. This was slightly lower than the crop for 1937 but

than the average rice crop for the preceding five decrease was expected in 1939 because of inadequate

slightly higher

years.

Some

of 1929-33, during which period the quantity of Dutch East Indian exports declined by 17%, the value by 67%, brought a crisis

good deal of unemployment and distress. The number of labourers employed on large estates decreased from 1,200,000 to 600,000. The Government endeavoured to cope with this situation by organizing migration to the less thickly peopled neighbouring island of

Sumatra and by encouraging the development of native Another noteworthy result of the crisis was the marked

industries.

increase in the purchase of cheaper Japanese goods. Japan’s share

Dutch East Indies increased from 1928 to 30-9% in 1933. Further growth has been checked by the introduction of a quota system for Japanese goods. Apin the import trade of the

10%

in

proximately

40%

of the land in Java

is

under cultivation. Java’s were as follows; sugar,

rainfall.

principal exports in 1937, reckoned in tons

Industry gives direct employment to about 6,000,000 people in Japan. Of these about half are occupied in tiny workshops employing less than five persons. These hand, or cottage, industries,

1,137,666; shelled coffee, 98,849; tea, 66,716; tobacco, 47,832; cinchona bark, 6,345; copra, 498,241; pepper, 31,042; rubber, (W. H. Ch.) 483,124; tin and tin ore, 50,917.

where wages are extremely low, are an important factor in Japan s economy. The most important single industry is the output of textiles. Up to the outbreak of the war, which has caused a reces-

Javelin Throw:

most of the peacetime industries, while promoting a boom in munitions and other war industries, Japan led the world in the production of rayon. Japan in 1937 was the leading exporter of cotton textiles, exports of cotton cloth amounting to 2,661,751,000 square yards. This was 1-7% less in volume, but

exact

sion in the output of

19-7% more

in value than the figures for 1936.

striking gains in recent years

have been

in

Japan’s most

such heavy industries

Track and Field Sports.

see

Jewish Race, Distrihution number

of.

1,,

‘’,”'“1?.?

^

Jews in the world. In some of the countries where large numbers of Jews live, the census does not contain any of

questions as regards religion, in other countries especially in

Asia no exact census

is

taken at

all.

It is also difficult to

the exact delimitation of those included in the Jewish race.

draw

Most

JEWISH RELIGIOUS

LIFE

census figures, as far as they consider the Jewish element at

members of the Jewish

consider only gious criterion

is

estimates give the

Even the

faith;

— JEWISH

all,

and even this reliThe most reliable

difficult

of exact definition.

number

of Jews at present at about 16,500,000.

distribution

according

great changes during late years.

to

countries

The National

has

undergone

Socialist legislation

Germany, the conquest of Czecho-Slovakia and Poland by Germany, the anti-Semitic legislation introduced in Italy, Rumania, Hungary and Slovakia under the inspiration of National Soin

cialism, has led partly to a decrease in the to a great shift in their distribution all sult of

migratory movements.

number of Jews, partly

over the world as the re-

Poland before the war was the

country in Europe with the largest number of Jewish inhabitants, estimated at about 3,325,000. Probably more than 250,000 perished as the direct result of the war, another 250,000 as the result

Of the remainder about half came under the domination of Germany, the other half under the domination of the Soviet Union which now counts probably over 4,000,000 Jews and has the largest Jewish population in Europe, surpassed only by the United States where the number of Jews can be estimated at more than 4,500,000. Many Central European

of mass-persecution and starvation.

WELFARE BOARD

385

Jews in Eastern Poland have witnessed the communist ban on ligious education, the prohibition of

Hebrew

re-

instruction, rabbis

deported, synagogues made into communist clubs and anti-God propaganda organized for the utter suppression of the Jewish religion.

The

horrible fate facing Jews and Judaism in these lands filled Jewry of adjacent countries with such grim fears that in free Yugoslavia so many sought flight in baptism that the Church had to set up unusually severe conditions for the w’ould-be convert, and in Hungary the Union of Jewish Communities felt compelled to issue a proclamation calling on Jews not to desert their God and their people. Great Britain’s White Paper on Palestine, which threatened to nullify the Balfour Declaration and the Mandate for Palestine, caused such widespread consternation that Jews gathered in their

the

s3magogues to repeat the ancient pledge of the Psalms, “If I forget thee,

0

Jerusalem,

may my

right

hand forget

its

cunning.”

In democratic lands there has been a marked reaction of goodwill towards Jews and Judaism. In the United States Father Coughlin’s quotations of Nazi libels were repudiated sentative Catholic leaders,

whUe

by

repre-

Protestant denominations and lay

Jews have emigrated during later years to Great Britain, France, the United States, Latin American countries, Palestine and the Far East. This movement of migration has not yet come to its end by far. Estimates for the numbers of the Jewish race vary greatly throughout the ages. In the ist century a.d. they were estimated

and religious leaders denounced every form of anti-Semitism. The Temple of Religion at the New York World’s Fair was a steady

of the estimated population of the Roman Empire. At about 1700 the number of Jews in the Old World Was estimated at about 2.000,000. A rapid increase in the number of Jews began only with the end of the i8th century, a movement

New York

at 4,500,000 or about

8%

completely corresponding to a similar increase in the population of Europe and of the whole world. If we estimate the Jews at

somewhat more than 16,000,000 and the population of world at about 2,000,000,000, the Jews form about 0-8% of

present at the

the total population. The increase in the Jewish population in the 20th century is practically everywhere slower than the increase in

the surrounding non-Jewish population.

Especially in Western

witness to American democracy’s interdenominational goodwill in contrast to the totalitarian States’ also

was the

rate.

At

through John

war on

W. Burke

religion.

Outstanding

of $1,000,000 from the

Friedsam Foundation to be used for Jewish religious education in city.

life has been made the poorer by the death of Adolph Buchler, principal of Jews’ college, London; Israel Davidson, authority on Hebrew’ religious poetry; Moses Gaster, former chief rabbi of the Sephardim of Great Britain; Isaac Husik, of

Jewish religious

the University of Pennsylvania, religious philosopher; Jacob IMeir, chief rabbi of the Sephardim of Palestine; Jacob Nemierow’er, chief rabbi of

Rumania; Robert Lachmann, of the Hebrew union synagogue music; and Israel Levi,

versity in Palestine, expert

former chief rabbi of France.

—

(See also Antt-Semitism.)

Bibliography. American Jewish Year Book Contemporary JoDtsk Record, II (1939).

XVI

(1939-40); The (D. de S. P.)

sharply falling birth-

America the Jews show a it may be estimated that of the 16,500,000 Jews about 9,750,000 live in Europe, 5,250,000 in the two Americas,

Europe and

gift

in

present

900,000 in Asia of

half live in Palestine, 600,000 in Africa

whom

and about 35,000 in Australia. In Europe there were ten countries with a population of more than 100,000 Jews (Poland, Soviet Union, Rumania, Germany, Hungary, Great Britain, Czecho-Slovakia, France, Lithuania and Netherlands), in America three (United States, Argentina and Canada), in Asia one (Palestine), in Africa three (Morocco, Al(H. Ko.) geria and South Africa). {See also Anti-Semitism.) ” I 1. n 1” * Jewish Religious

The year 1939 was

I

for Judaism

the crudest and blackest in 18 centuries. In Germany, Danzig, Memel, Slovakia and the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, Nazi-organized technique for the rooting out of Jews and Judaism has gone ruthlessly forward

Life,

through the burning of synagogues, confiscation of religious prop-

and the banishment or wan-

erty, desecration of cemeteries, closing religious schools

dissolution of communities

following pillage,

ton murder of their members. In Hungary and Rumania and other neighbouring lands also synagogues were defiled and bombed. Three million Jews in Poland have been given up to obliteration. Those in Poland absorbed by Germany have seen

Western

rabbis shot, synagogues destroyed, world famous Talmudic academies annihilated, religious scholars conscripted for forced labour

and every element of organized Jewish

religious life

smashed. The

Wpifflrp IiCIIqIC Rnarrl DUQIU. founded on April tered the

men

9,

welfare Board

is

a

national organization which was

1917, two days after the United States ento serve the religious and welfare needs of

World War,

of the Jewish faith in the military forces of the United

This work has been continued in peace time and has been expanded to provide service to disabled veterans, members of the States.

Citizens Military Training

Camps and of the

Civilian Conservation

Corps.

The Jewish Welfare Board is also the national organization of Young Men’s Hebrew Associations, Young Women’s Hebrew Associations and Jewish Community Centers, of which there are 324 in the United States and Canada, with a

membership of 380,000 men, women, young people, boys and girls. These organizations own 242 buildings which are used as Community Centers. The local centres conduct a varied program of recreational, cultural and social activities. The Jewish Welfare Board furnishes to its member organizations consultation service on program, membership, financial and administrative problems; undertakes community surv’eys and institutional studies; conducts field sendee in connection with local Jewish centres; publishes program bulletins; issues The Jewish Center quarterly; conducts extension education actii’ities; maintains a lecture and concert bureau; co-operates in local health and physical education programs; aids in the establishment and supervision of outdoor summer camps and home camps; conducts training courses for volunteers; aids in training

JITTERBUG — KALICH. BERTHA

386

and placing professional workers furnishes technical assistance in planning and equipment of buildings and conducts campaigns for membership enrolment, building and maintenance funds. The board has a department of vocational guidance and has made provision for the social and cultural adjustment of refugees through local centres. The board fosters regional federations of centres which promote inter-centre relations and activities and ;

Jupiter:

see

Astronomy.

;

with

actively

co-operate

organizations operate in

the

national

organization.

Regional

New England, New York State, New York

New

Overproduction, which had been severely troubling the jute industry, disappeared with the advent of war in

Into

llUlCi Sept.

and the increase

1939,

in

war-time demands, including

200,000,000 jute bags ordered by the British Government for delivery by Jan. 1940, to be used as sand bags. Government control of jute was instituted following the declaration of war, a maxi-

mum

price

was established and

restrictions placed

and Middle Atlantic States, in the Mid-West, and on the Pacific coast. The board cooperates with the National Association of Jewish Center Workers, composed of professional workers in the Jewish centre field, whose

cept Government contracts and excepting

annual meeting was held in Buffalo, N.Y., June 12-18, 1939. The annual meeting of the Jewish Welfare Board was held in

of jute outside the United

Metropolitan area.

New York

Jersey, Pennsylvania

Saturday evening, April 22, and Sunday, April 23, 1939. Judge Irving Lehman is president of the Jewish Welfare Board, and Louis Kraft is executive director. The offices of the Jewish Welfare Board are located at 220 Fifth avenue. New York city

(F. L.

city.

Jitterbug:

see

50%

on output,

ex-

of other written

The price restriction was soon withdrawn and a licensing system established under which the Government maintained concontracts.

trol.

No

licence,

however, was required for the purchase and

Kingdom

sale

or for the importation of jute.

Production in 1939 was estimated as between 11,000,000 and 11,500,000 bales. The pucca, or export bale, in India weighs 400 pounds. The United States reported a rise in jute bags for sacking potatoes and of jute cloth for linoleum and other purposes immediately after the outbreak of war.

(S.

0

.

R.)

W.)

Juvenile Oeliniiuenty.

Dance.

nant are the development of children’s courts and probation, and the analysis of statistics. Approximately 3,000 Juvenile Courts

Johns Hopkins

University,

LL.D. Enrolment for 1939 in the several schools of the university was as follows: school of higher studies of the faculty of philosophy, 309; school of higher studies in education, 49; engineering, 364 (including 40 graduate students); arts and sciences, 476;

hygiene and public health, Enrolment in the afternoon and evening courses was 3,063, and in the summer school, 946. At the end of the fiscal year the endowment of the university was valued at $30,387,195.78 and income from all sources for the year was $2,691,014.09. During the year the following were elected to the board of trustees; Robert business economics, 108; medicine, 297

;

176.

W.

Williams, Baltimore lawyer and son of the

first

professor of

geology at the university; John Lee Pratt, retired engineer and industrialist, of Chatham, Fredericksburg, Virginia; and Francis

White, son and grandson of university trustees, and former assistant secretary of State. Carl R. Gray, vice chairman of the board of the Union Pacific and a trustee of the university since Feb. 7, 1938, died in

May,

1939.

were in session in the United States in 1939. The present trend is toward social treatment, and away from the penal rules of the

common

Combined juvenile courts and domestic relations some jurisdictions, including New Jersey, Virginia, and New York city. The National Probation Association has summarized all important provisions of Juvenile Court laws law.

courts have been tried in

all States under topical headings. Interpretations, comparisons, and Supreme Court decisions are given. The Federal Children’s Bureau has analyzed the juvenile delinquency cases of 28 courts which have been reporting since 1929. These courts, located in 17 States, scattered widely, represent

of

approximately

15%

of the total population of the United States.

The number

of cases in 1938 was 29,971 as compared with 31,038 in 1937. During the past ten years there has been a general downward trend. In eight courts, including Philadelphia, one of the largest,

was between

the decrease

10% and 20%.

In Hudson

county, N.J., the decrease was 40%. Special service bureaus of boards of education and crime prevention bureaus within police

departments have contributed to such substantial decreases.

b«m“«

Johnson, Royal Cleaves Cherokee,

la.

on October 3. Admitted to the bar of South Dakota LL.B. degree from the University of South

after receiving his

he practised at Highmore in that State, was State’s attorney from 1909 to 1910 and attorney-general from 1911 to 1915. He was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1915 and retained his seat for 18 consecutive years until he retired in 1933 to return to the practice of law in Washington, D.C. Al-

Dakota

in 1906,

Boys represent 84% of the total number officially handled by White children were involved in 73%; Negro children 26%, and children of other races in 1%. This racial distrib-

the courts. in

ution for 1939 is similar to other years. Sex offences, running away, or being ungovernable, concern 60% of the girls. Among

boys, approximately half were stealing, one-third were for acts of carelessness or mischief.

In proportion, more tions than boys.

girls are committed to correctional instituBut for both sexes there is increasing use of

though he voted against the United States’ entry into the World enlisted as a private in the Regular Army in Jan. 1918. He advanced to first lieutenant with the American Expedi-

methods of social adjustment, rather than institutional commitment. Gradual socialization of Juvenile Courts is noted in many

and received the U.S. Distinguished Service Cross and Purple Heart and the Croix de Guerre. Johnson died at Washington, D.C. on Au-

New

War, Johnson

tionary Forces, was

gust

wounded

at

Montfaucon

in Sept. 1918

2.

Judaism:

communities, particularly in the reorganization of the courts of

Hampshire and Rhode

Island.

—Probation Cosulich,

Juvenile Court Laws of the United Association, New York city (i 9 S 9 ): Social Number, Children’s Bureau, Washington, D.C. (June 4, 1939); American Youth Commission Publications of the Ameri-

Bibliography.

Gilbert

States, National Statistics; Supplement

can Council on Education, Washington, D.C.

see

Jugoslavia:

Jewish Religious Life.

Ifalirh

l\dlllill|

see Yugoslavia.

Rosenwald Fund: see Rosenwald Fund, The Jumping: see Track and Field Sports.

Julius

Junior Colleges:

see Universities

and Colleges.

Julius.

Rorfha Del lllo

(M. V. W.)

(i874?-i939).Polish-American actress, was born in Lemberg, Galicia, where she made

first stage appearance. In 1894 she was offered the opportunity to appear in the Imperial theatre at Bucharest, provided she would learn the Rumanian language. This she did in three

her

KAMEROONS — KENNELLY, ARTHUR months. Her part in La

Dame

Blanche

in

Bucharest was acclaimed

critics and public despite the wave of anti-Semitism then spreading throughout Rumania. American producers were promptly

by

by the press notices, and in the same year she went to the United States, where she appeared in Yiddish presentations in New York city. Among her vehicles in English were Fedora (1905), Monna Vanna (1905), The Kreutzer Sonata (1907), and Magda (1926). She returned to the Yiddish theatre in 1927 and retired in 1931. In private life she was Mrs. Leopold Spachner. She died in New York city on April 18. attracted

Katneroons: f/-_ __ Ivulloudf

see

British

West

Africa.

a central State of the United States admitted Jan. 29, 1861, popularly known as the “Sunflower State;”

area, 81,774 sq.mi.; population according to the U.S. census of

(State census of 1939, 1,810,359, an increase over 1938 of 4,905 and the first increase in recent depression years.) Capital, Topeka, 64,120. (State census of 1939, 7 S,S 84 -) 1930, 1,880,999.

Topeka was the

third city in size, the largest being

Kansas

127,423), and Wichita, 111,110 (State census of 1939, 111,718, substantial increases). Of the State’s population (1930) 729,834 were urban, or 38-8%; City,

121,857

(State census of

66,344 were coloured; 1,723,131 69,716 were foreign bom.

History.

—

^In

1939,

were native-born white and

the biennial election of 1938,

Payne H. Ratner,

a Republican, was elected governor, together with a Republican legislature. Other State officers elected were Carl E. Friend,

Ryan, secretary of State; George Robb, auditor; Walter E. Wilson, treasurer; Jay S. Parker, attorney-general; George L. McClenny, superintendent of public instruction; Charles F. Hobbs, commissioner of insurance. At its regular session of 1939 the legislature enacted laws for the amendlieutenant-governor;

Frank

J.

ment and development of statutes relating to drainage districts, the conservation of oil and gas, grain warehouses, standards for dairy products, workmen’s compensation and social welfare. More far-reaching in character was the adoption of a new corporation code and a probate code. This process of modernizing the State Government was to be carried further, the research department of

387

E

—

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. ^According to the U.S. census of 1930, the four leading money crops of 1929

were wheat (50% of total crop value), com (24-1%), hay (8%) and oats (3-2%). AVinter ivheat production for 1939 (U.S. Dept, of Agriculture estimates) was iii,657,ooobu. as against 152,184,000 in 1938 and a lo-yr. average (1928-37) of 138,072,000. Com production W'as 37,220,ooobu. as against 45,200,000 in 1938 and a 10-yr. average of 80,736,000. Production of other crops was similarly low, except barley and commercial apples. Livestock inventories were relatively small. AA^inter wheat planting of 1939 was i2,9i3,oooac. as against 13,885,000' for 1938, which w'as reported by the U.S. Dept, of Agriculture as of December i at 35% of normal condition as against 61% at the same time in 1938. The leading manufactures, according to the U.S. census of 1935, were meat packing, flour, petroleum refining, railroad cars and equip-

ment

built in shops, butter, foundry and machine-shop products, bakery products, cement, feeds and printing with 1,508 establishments producing goods valued at $468,690,290. The annual average of bituminous coal mined for 1926-30 was 3,215,000 tons. This represents a decline from 5,204,380 for 1919. The low point

was reached

in 1932 with 1,953,000 tons, with the 1937 figure standing at 2,892,360 tons and the preliminary figure for 1938 at

2,560,000 tons. The major portion of the State’s mineral output was made up of petroleum and natural gas. (J. C. Mm.)

Kazakh

S. S. R.; see

Uxiox of Soviet Socialist Republics. German

ffpifPl Wilhplm IVGilCl| IIIIIIClIll

during the AA'orld AVar.

soldier,

bom

Sep-

was a commander of artillery On April i, 1934, he w^as promoted to

tember

22,

major-general and the following year,

when Germany introduced

he took charge of the personal section {Wehrinachtsamt) in the war ministry, and was thus connected to a certain extent with the re-occupation of the Rhineland in 1936, and conscription,

German reinforcements to Nationalist Spain. In Feb. 1938, during Hitler’s “army purge” of Gen. von Blomberg and other conservative members of the high command, Gen. with the dispatch of

Keitel,

who was

more complaisant to the Nazi was appointed chief the German armed forces. At the

believed to be

Party’s plans for an aggressive foreign policy,

the legislative council being instructed to study administrative and tax-collecting agencies, and the council was instructed to study the tax code for the purpose of revising and codifying the tax

of the supreme command of same time he was made a cabinet

laws that have accumulated since 1861. One Republican campaign pledge, the exemption of food from the sales tax, proved was impracticable; another, the abandonment of sales tax tokens,

ducted the military preparations which coincided with the Sudeten

commission was authorized to stimugovernor late the industrial development of the State, but the emphasized that the objective should not be a “trade at home carried out.

A nine-member

campaign but rather a promotion of

all its assets,

including

recreational attractions, as well as its products, industrial

its

libraries, of

which

private over half are tax supported. There are 15 public and six and junior colleges, 15 private four-year colleges, one municipal, five State-supported institutions of collegiate grade.

Other State

institueducational institutions include a vocational school and the tions for the blind and deaf. For the school year 1936-37, one-teacher 6,636 last for which data are available, there were eight eledistrict schools in operation with an enrolment in the mentary grades of 83,100. There were 985 two or more teacher with enroldistricts (excluding cities of first and second class) ments in the elementary grades of 83,769. The 88 cities of first enrolments of 119,980. All

and second classes

had elementary of elementary schools showed declines classes

in the

children, a continuation of the depression trend.

crisis six

minister. In his neiv capacity he

the troops which invaded Austria in

months

later

March

1938, con-

and directed the occupation of Czecho-

1939. A firm believer in the merits of blitzkrieg, he threw the weight of the German Army and air force against Poland in September while conducting a more or less

slovakia and

Memel

in

March

passive resistance against the Allies in the west and harassing their shipping.

and

agricultural.

Education.—The State has over 200 public

commanded

number of

(1873-1939). U-S. actor internationally as “the Virginia Judge,” a character he created in vaudeville, was bom on October 29 in Mineville. New York. In his youth he was a machinist. He alternated his appearances as “the judge” with bit parts in legitimate-stage )

Wiilfpr llailCl

productions. His

P U>

first

known

major

role

was

in the

Theatre Guild’s pro-

duction of Maxw'ell Anderson’s Both Your Houses in 1933. retired in 1936 and died in Philadelphia on January 6.

He

Kennelly, Arthur Edwin December 17. He was educated in private schools of France and England and at University College school, London. Beginning as a telegraph operator in 1876 in England, he later bebay, India, on

came

chief electrician of a cable-repairing vessel

and senior

ship’s

KENTUCKY— KIDNAPPING

388

Cable Company. From 1887 to 1S94 he was the chief assistant to Thomas A. Edison and in the latter year he became associated with a firm of electrical engineers in Philadelphia. In 1902 he joined the faculty of Harvard university as professor of electrical engineering and continued electrician of the Eastern Telegraph

He held

fund were $41,395,406. Outstanding bonds on nine toll bridges and eight interstate bridges now stand at $8,936,000. The floating debt of Kentucky has increased slightly. Reduction of revenue from the liquor trade, invalidation of the chain store tax,

and increased payments for

social welfare

combined to increase

same academic post at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1913 to 1924. He was co-discoverer with the English physicist Oliver Heaviside of the Ken-

the floating debt to $6,953,703 as against $3j3oo,ooo in 1938. The main increase in expense under the Chandler administration,

nelly-Heaviside layer, a conducting layer of ionized gas in the

public relief.

upper atmosphere which has a peculiar effect upon electromagnetic waves. He invented a hot-wire ammeter and other devices which brought him a score or more of academic and scientific recogni-

1940.

teaching until 1930.

tions, including the

on June

the

Edison gold medal in 1933.

He

died in Boston

as

compared with

unemployment insurance started There has been a steady but striking decline in

from the alcoholic beverage 9-2 in the fiscal

1939.

tax.

year 1936-37;

The corporation income

income

18.

his predecessors, was' for public buildings and

Partial

in Jan.

receipts

This tax yielded (in millions)

7-1 in

1937-38, and only 5-6

in

tax totalled $1,500,000; personal

tax, $1,959,000; inheritance

Forty-nine

tax, $1,866,000.

counties were “dry” and C3st south central State of the United States, iXClIlUuiVJi admitted June 1, 1792, popularly known as the

27 counties were in de-

i/_nti|nl/ii

fault on their local bonds

“Blue Grass State,” area 40,598 sq.mi.; population (U.S. census, 1930) 2,614,589; estimated (July

i,

1937) 2,920,000.

on June 30. Agriculture and Man-

Capital,

—

Frankfort, 11,620; the largest city, Louisville, had 307,745 inOf the State's population, 799,026 were urban,

ufactures.

^Tobacco, the

chief crop,

was estimated

or 30-6%, 2,366,524 were white, 236,040 coloured, and only 21,840

in 1939 at 313,646,0001b.

habitants (1930). foreign born.

Hisfory.

Death

—On

rate low: 9-9 per 1,000 in 1938.

of

1939 Governor A. B. Chandler resigned the unexpired term of Senator W. M. Logan, deOct.

types,

all

with

9,

compared

342,238,0001b.

in

inated in the August primary, and elected in

Both in production and manufacture of tobacco, however, Ken-

834 to Other State

North

his office to

fill

1938.

Keen Johnson, who succeeded him was nomNovember by 460,354.704 votes over his opponent. King Swope (Rep.).

ceased. Lieut. Gov.

tucky

Democratic, were R. K. Myers, lieutenant governor; H. Meredith, attorney general; J. W. Brooker, educaofficers, also

W. H. May, agriculture. Only one Republican was elected to any State board. The General Assembly also is strongly Democratic: 28 of 38 votes in the Senate and 72 of 100 votes in the House. There W'as no meeting of the Assembly in 1939, but the Legislative Council prepared a number of measures pertaining to increased payments for the aged poor, unemployed, the Teachers’ Retirement fund, and budgetary problems in general. Efforts of the United Mine Workers to secure a new contract in the Appalachian field in April assumed national importance. The Operators’ Association of Harlan county resisted extreme demands by John L. Lewis, who denounced Governor Chandler as an enemy of Labour. In reply, the Governor sent troops. May 10, to maintain order, increasing the force as union agitators became active. The U.S. courts indicted 52 coal companies for conspiracy. In August peace was imperilled by a clash in Bell county, but only one death could be directly attributed to some five months of military occupation. The operators finally signed varying contracts, and tion

is

second to

Carolina.

Sales

on the Kentucky open markets in the season

;

on October 3 the courts dismissed the cases against the companies. An unusual combination of firmness and tact characterized this

now

of 1938-39 amounted to 2Si,ooo,ooolb.

average cents.

an

at

price

of

19.48

In a referendum in November the tobacco planters en-

dorsed a national restrictions plan for 1940. The corn crop of 1939 was estimated at 70,400,00060. compared with a ten-year

average of 62,688,000 bushels. Irish potatoes yielded 3,864,00060. compared with 4,635,00060. in 1938. The apple crop was dis-

—only

appointing

300,000 bushels.

There was some increase

the production of wheat and sorghum.

Of the varied mineral

in re-

sources, which include rock asphalt and fluorspar especially, the is coal. In 1938 this industry employed 55,418 men who produced 39,689,449 tons. The loss of life was only 98 as compared with 141 in 1937. Petroleum lifted increased

chief commercial output

to 5.777>o58bbl.,

due

in part to

new

wells in Davies county.

The

natural gas yield was estimated at 38,000,000,000 cubic feet.

—

Bibciogeaphy. J. Bakeless, Daniel Liberal Kentucky, 1780—1828 (1939).

Boone

(1939);

N.

H.

Sonne, (E. T.)

protracted struggle.

Education.

—The per

capita distribution of the

Common

School

fund, designed to assist the poorer districts, was the largest ever

—

$12.19. The school census figures, however, were in need of correction by the Federal Census of 1940, in the opinion of the new State superintendent. In Nov. 1939, Frank L. McVey, Presi-

Kenfucky Dam: see Tennessee Valley Authority. Kenya: see British East Africa.

made

dent of the University of Kentucky, reached the retirement age

without definite indication of his successor. Charities and Correction. ^The governor appointed Miss

—

Margaret Woll as Commissioner of Public’ AVelfare, replacing Frederick Wallis, resigned. At Lyndon the State purchased the

number of kidnappings in the United States iMUIIappillgi during 1939 was the lowest since 1934 and represented a marked decline from the number recorded in 1938. The annual total of kidnappings jointly investigated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and by State and local police, under the terms of the Federal Kidnapping Act of June 22, 1932, appears in ifirin!)nnin(r

the table on p. 389.

Since the purpose of kidnapping ma3' be the

and now supervises the care and placing out of orphans. When the new prison at La Grange was finished, convicts were transferred from the old prison at

extortion of ransom, or

Frankfort.

manded

Children’s

Home

Finance.

Society’s property

—In the

fiscal

year 1938-39 the receipts in the general

may

be motivated by some quite different

number number wherein ransom was de-

crime, such as rape or robberr^, the table shows the total

of kidnappings, and also the

for the release of the victim.

All but

two of the foregoing cases have been solved. Prosecu-

^

KINGSLEY

DAM— KYANITE

and State courts have resulted in the conviction of 328 defendants. The sentences imposed included nine death sentences, 45 sentences for life, and others for varying terms totalling 3,790 years. During this same eight-year period, two kidnappers were lynched, five committed suicide, and seven were murdered. Eight others were killed under varying circumstances. On Dec. 19, 1939, eighteen persons were under indictment for tions in Federal

Number Number Wherein of Kidnappings Ransom Demanded Total

Fear 1932

ms 1934 193s 1936 1937 1938 1939 (to Dec. ig) Total

20 37

4

in the

5

_19

0

170

31

The insurance membership numbers 218,491. Of members initiated during 1939, 14.391 were insurance members. The amount of life insurance applied for during 1939 was $18,902,000, an increase over the 1938 figure of $13,612,000.

5 I

I

IS

10 7

Annual

Totals

193s 1936 1937

4 3

is

7

Insurance benefits totalled $2,998,221, as against $2,874,368 in the preceding year. There are now, in active condition, 2,470 Councils,

and

located in eveiy State of the Union, in the Dependencies, in

5

Guana0 Lampe was kidnapped by juato, Mexico; his family received a demand for ransom on the bandits April 29, 1939, at

.

following day.

and one Mexican in Los Anthat an international kidnapit ping ring had thereby been broken. (See also Federal Bureau OF Investigation.) arrest of five Japanese

was announced

—

Bibliography. Federal Bureau oj Investigation Law Enforcement (monthly) for 1939, (Federal Bureau of Investigation, Wasbingtim); Criminal Statistics. England and Wales, 1937 (Home Office, London, (Be. S.) 1938).

letin

see

Dams.

Kirghiz S. S. R,; see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

At the 57th annual meeting of the KnigntS of COlUmDUS. supreme Council, held in Seattle, Wash., August 13-17, Francis P. Matthews, of Omaha, Neb., was elected Supreme Knight, in succession to Martin H. Carmody,

nnliimhiin

that office since 1927.

limited to Catholics in good standing.

is

lications include

Columbia, a monthly, and a

The

News

official

pub-

Weekly.

(F.X.T.)

Korea:

see

Chosen.

Krupskaya, Hadazliila Konstantinovna viet educationalist and widow of Lenin, was bom in

$,3,“ l;

Petersburg daughter of an impoverished army officer who died when she was a young girl. With the money she had earned as a tutor she studied for five years at the new Woman’s

on February

St.

26, the

and graduated with distinction. From 1891 to 1896 she taught geography in Sunday schools, during which period she became a fervent convert to Marxism. She met Lenin in 1893 and with him was exiled to Shushinsk, Sicollege in St. Petersburg

beria, after she

had participated

They were allowed

to

many

in

in

a workers’ strike in i8g6.

1898, and after their release

from Siberia the next year they went to Munich, where Krupskaya helped her husband organize secret revolutionary units in Russia. They were permitted to return to Russia in 1903 but were ejected again in 1908, whereupon they continued their underground activities in Prague, Paris and Cracow—Krupskaya meantime studying pedagogy. IVhen Kerensky was overthrown and Lenin installed in power, Krupskaya became a member of the people’s commissariat of education and drafted the party’s plan for popular education. In Jan. 1938 she was elected to membership in the Presidium of the U.S.S.R.; she was also a member of the central committee of the commum'st party and vice commissar of education. As Lenin’s widow she was revered throughout Russia despite several well-known disputes m’th Stalin; and her 70th birthday, the day .before her death, was in the

the occasion for a popular celebration in Moscow. She died in her apartment inside the Kremlin wall on February 27.

Kurdisfan: see Turkey.

Kuwaif:

see Arabia.

John E. Swift, of Milford,

Deputy Supreme Knight. Joseph F. Lamb, of York, N.Y., was named Supreme Secretary, replacing William McGinley who had served since 1909. Rev. Leo M. Finn, of

Mass., was chosen

Canada.

Organized in 1882, this fraternal and benevolent order is dedicated to strengthening and defending Catholic principles. Mem-

4 4

ransom.

Dam:

417,150.

8

Embassy. H. F. Dyott, Chairman of the British Chamber of Commerce, was seized by bandits at Tientsin, March 18, 1939 and held for

New

year

the 39,618

demanded and his son was subsequently released. Frank Poletti, Italian postal commissioner, was kidnapped in Peiping on Jan. 10, 1939. Ransom was paid through the Italian

who had held

Christian social reconstruction. Notable advances were also made Boy Life Bureau. The total membership for the current

bership

on July 30,

by the recent popes, and economic reform of society.

CathoUc Action was advanced through the lectures of Paul McGuire of Australia, and others who toured the country, and through the wide distribution of Catholic literature dealing with

Unusual kidnappings of the year included the seizure of the Rev. J. H. Goldner, and his son, the Rev. G. R. Goldner, American missionaries, by Arab bandits in Palestine on July 20, 1939. Upon release of the elder Goldner, he offered to pay the ransom

Kingsley

better understanding of the remedies offered in their encyclicals, for the social

5

Five Year Averages

With the

made during 1939 to develop study forums and other activities of a cultural and intellectual nature. Particular emphasis was laid upon the crusade against atheistic Communism and other subversive movements in the United States. A positive crusade was undertaken to promote a Success attended the efforts

clubs,

10

as follows;

geles

offices are

S

most important factor in the suppression of kidnapping in the United States. Official reports of kidnapping in England and Wales are confined to stealing children under 14 years of age. The record since 1900, summarized from available official sources,

1900-1904 1903-1909 1910-1914 1913-1919 1920-1924 1925-1929 1930-1934

is

14 18 26 31

violations of Federal kidnapping statutes. Some of these persons were already serving sentences for other crimes. Active participation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation continues to be the

is

New

located at

389

Supreme Chaplain. The national Haven, Conn.

Bridgeport, Conn.,

adaptability for the production of special high temperature refractories has led to a gradual increase in the demand for kyanite, which has been supplied by produc-

fftfUnffP AJdlillC.

;

LABOR.

390

DEPARTMENT OF— LABOUR UNIONS

U.S.

from North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia and California, and by imports from India, where production amounted to 29,231 long tons in 1937. Imports into the United States were 3,964 short tons in 1937, all from India. The related minerals, sillimanite and andalusite, which have the same chemical composition as tion

kyanite, but a different crystal structure, are also used for the

(G, A, Ro.)

same purpose.

During 1939 the Communist Party ordered its “secret” members who had been occupying official positions in the Labour land.

Party to withdraw from it, presumably as a preparation for the impending change in communist international policy. This caused a few local resignations of some importance; but neither this factor nor the troubles arising out of the Cripps “Popular Front” campaign seriously affected the internal organization of the party. (G. D. H. C.)

Labor, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments AND Bureaus. Labour: see American Federation of Labor; Civil Service; Congress of Industrial Organizations; Initiative and Referendum; Labour Unions; Law (Case); Labour; Relief; Strikes and Lock-outs; Supreme Court of the United States: Labour; Unemployment; Wages and Hours; United States; Labour Problems; Motion Pictures; Cotton: Employer-Employee Relations; Negroes (American); Radio, Industrial Aspects of. See also under various

developments in 1939 reflected the IlninilQ UlllUIIO. marked improvement in business which began the year before and the political influence oh organized labour ilhniir LdUUUI I

of the approaching presidential election of 1940. Labour relations were much more disturbed than in 1938 and the number of

employees engaged

from

No

success-

movement

resulted

in strikes substantially increased.

ful contribution to peace within the labour efforts of the President of the

United States to compose the

which continued to divide the C.I.O. and the A.F. of L. Relations Board and the law which it administers were vigorously attacked by the A.F. of L. and the employers, and were made the subject of a far-reaching investigation by a special committee of the House of Representatives. Because of differences

States.

The National Labor The 38th annual conference

Labour Party. suntide, 1939.

The

of the British

Labour Party was held at Southport at Whitissues before

it

related to the international

and to the movement for a “Popular Front” headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, who, with certain of his leading followers, had been expelled from the party for defiance of “party discisituation

pline” in collaborating with

members of

the Liberal and

Com-

munist parties in a campaign against the official policy. Sir Stafford Cripps was allowed to appear and state his case; but a proposal to endorse the “Popular Front”

feated

by 2,360,000 votes

to 248,000.

was overwhelmingly de-

The

stood; but except for Sir Stafford Cripps

members have

On

expulsions therefore

most

of the expelled

since been re-instated.

the international situation, the conference carried almost

unanimously a resolution in favour of a pact of mutual aid against aggression, to be based on a triple pact between Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. It also protested strongly against the betrayal of Czechoslovakia and the failure of the British Government to check Fascist intervention in Spain and Japanese aggression in China. On the outbreak of war the party, in conjunction with the Trades Union Congress General Council, strongly supported the policy of resistance to Nazi aggression, but refused to join a coalition government. It agreed, however, for the time being to an electoral truce, and also to legislation dispensing with elections to local authorities, for the war period. The leader of the parliamentary Labour Party, C. R. Attlee, was away ill through the early months of the war, and his place was taken by Arthur Greenwood. Late in 1939, however, Mr. Attlee returned to his leadership; and he was duly re-elected leader for 1940.

At the end of 1938 the Labour Party had a national affiliated membership of 2,642,618, as against 2,527,672 a year previously. Individual membership of the constituency parties, which num-

—

this investigation, charges

brought against a number of unions for

violation of the anti-trust laws, and local reactions against organ-

ized labour, there were indications during the year of the possibility of material revision of the National

Labor Relations Act and,

perhaps, of the whole labour policy of the Federal Government.

—

The leading strikes the industry-wide shut-down of the bituminous coal industry and the prolonged strikes in the plants of the General Motors and Chrysler corporation were aimed primarily toward strengthening the positions of the United Mine Workers and the United Automobile Workers. The miners’ union,

—

the dominating organization in the C.I.O. sought to protect ,

itself

against the Progressive Miners, the union of coal miners affiliated

with the American Federation of Labor. In several important

re-

gions of the coal industry, notably Harlan county, Kentucky, as

Kansas and Oklahoma, the Progressive Miners were makheadway among the miners, were chartering new locals, and, in some cases, taking over local unions affiliated with the United Mine Workers. These tactics and the fears they engendered forced the United Mine Workers to modify their traditional policy and demand arrangements tantamount to a well as

ing considerable

closed-shop. In the negotiations for the renewal of contracts, held in the spring of 1939, this

down

demand

precipitated a general shut-

of the coal mines and a prolonged strike, which

only after presidential intervention on

Workers won

their principal

May

11.

was

settled

The United Mine

demand, protected themselves effecand in the process obtained

tively against the Progressive Miners,

union contracts in hitherto unorganized parts of the industry. Similar considerations accounted for the General Motors strike of July and the Chrysler strike of Oct. 1939. In this industry the union of automobile employees, though claiming a large mem-

had won only limited recognition from the Chrysler and all recognized by the Ford Company. As a result, further, of dissension within the union an important faction had broken away and become affiliated

bered 614, reached 250,705 men and 178,121 women a reduction on the totals for the previous year (258,060 and 189,090). The affiliated trade union membership was 2,170,408, as compared with 4,669,000 represented at the 1939 Trades Union Congress.

bership,

of “contracted-in” trade union members {i.e., the political levy) thus averages under one-half but there are wide differences between trade unions in this respect, the unions of less skilled workers having on the whole considerably higher percentages of Labour Party members than the

with the A.F. of L. To protect itself against this rival union as well as to strengthen its ties with its members, the United Auto-

The proportion members paying

craft unions.

Over most of Britain, the Labour Party’s policy of support war has been endorsed by the local parties. There is, how-

for the

ever, evidence of fairly strong pacifist opposition in parts of Scot-

General Motors companies, and was not at

mobile Workers, affiliated with the C.I.O., made extensive demands upon General Motors. When these were denied by the

company, a strike was called. Several months later restrictions of output (slow-downs) practiced by members of the union, caused the shut-down of the Chrysler plants and initiated a strike of nearly two-months’ duration. In the negotiations for the settlement of this, as of the General Motors strike, the basic union

LABOUR UNIONS demands were concerned with establishing the union as the sole and permanent labour organization in the industo'- Although the union received minor concessions in both settlements, on the main

issues of the closed-shop

and the union’s control over the

demands remained unsatisfied. On a minor scale, the C.I.O. union of seamen attempted to win the same concessions by demanding from shipping companies on the East coast control of hiring-halls, \^'hen these demands were denied, the union struck against a number of the companies, including the Standard Oil Companies of New Jersey and New York and the Texas Company. The strike was lost and the union, for the time being, eliminated from the ships of these companies. shops

These

its

1939 to union account

efforts to turn the better business of

greatly increased the time lost through strikes.

the

number

It is clear that

was more than double that of 1938, number in 1936, but fell appreciably

of man-days lost

substantially exceeded the

short of 1937

—the most

disturbed year in the recent period of

union organizing activity and labour unrest.

How much is

progress organized labour

becoming increasingly

difficult to

Smith

is

391

chairman, was preceded by thorough examinations of the

The minutes of the committee’s first sessions has undertaken a searching review' of the board’s

board’s records. indicate that

it

methods of operation and of the consequences of the Wagner Act. The board meanwhile has made little change in policy. But it

met many

reversals,' particularly in the

lower courts.

Tw'o deci-

sions late in the year rejected the board’s findings that the

pany unions

in question were employer dominated.

A

com-

decision

by the Circuit Court of Appeals in the Inland Steel case not only reversed the Board by holding that of fundamental importance

the

Wagner Act

did not require an employer to

make

a written

contract with the um'on but also severely criticized the board’s

The United States Supreme Court has continued to uphold the decisions of the board. But this court, too, in the well-knowm Fansteel case, involving the

handling of the whole proceedings.

rights of sit-down strikers, completely reversed the board’s de-

cision

and refused to sanction an order requiring the reinstate-

ment of sit-down strikers. (See also Law [Case] Labour.) The acts of trade unions were attacked also from another direction. In proceedings under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, the :

made

during the year

it

determine from the reports

The

C.I.O.,

Federal District Court of Philadelphia, in a decision issued April

for reasons of strategy, failed to submit the usual financial state-

awarded the Apex Hosiery Company damages of $700,000 The decision was reversed by the Circuit Court of Appeals on the grounds that the acts of the union were not obstructions to interstate commerce and has been appealed to the Supreme Court. No litigation since the famous

published

ment

by the two leading federations of

labour.

to its annual convention and, therefore, to

the only satisfactory data for checking

The A.F.

its

make

available

claims of membership.

was issued as in the past, claimed a further substantial increase in the membership of affiliated organizations. In their struggle for members, the A.F. of L. appears on the whole to have made the most progress. The United of L., whose financial statement

Textile Workers, one of the original group of Federation unions

abandoned that organization and was readmitted into the A.F. of L. The Ladies Garment Workers, another union of the same class and one of the largest unions in the country, has quite definitely withdrawn from the C.I.O. and is reported to be considering reaffiliation with the Federation. In the automobile industry, the A.F. of L. now has a union of its own, which, to join the C.I.O.,

though small,

is

in a position to

make

trouble for the C.I.O. union

and to grow at its expense. Both federations are doubtless suffering from the rise of a considerable number of plant and local unions, unaffiliated with either the A.F. of L. or the C.I.O., is increasing throughout the U.S.

number and importance The growing tension

whose

betw'een the C.I.O. and the A.F. of L.,

which characterized their relations during 1939, rendered unlikely an early peace and amalgamation of the two factions. The promising negotiations of the spring, initiated by the President, were adjourned for the duration of the miners’ strike and were never resumed. The messages sent by the President to the two

annual conventions of these organizations, held in the fall of the year, were aimed to force a resumption of these conversations. But, although the messages were acknowledged, there was appar-

new conference and it is the general opinion that the two organizations are further apart than at any time since their initial rupture in 1935. In fact, the latest step

ently no agreement to hold a

3,

against the hosiery’ workers’ union.

Danbury

Hatters’ case has so aroused organized labour as has this

threat to bring unions under the provisions of the anti-trust law.

But not long thereafter the United States Department of Justice instituted proceedings under the same statute against unions in the building and trucking industries. These latest moves brought a strong protest from William Green, president of the A.F. of L. Attorney-General Murphy, however, asserted the department’s intention to proceed with the indictments.

(See also

American

Federation of Labor; Congress of Industrial Organizations; Strikes and Lock-outs.) (L. Wo.) Great Britain. Trade unionism in 1938 and 1939 continued its recovery from the effects of the world slump. In 1938 total trade union membership rose by 3-6% to 6,034,000. This was a much slower rate of advance than in 1937, when membership rose by over 10%, the fall in the rate of increase being due to the recession in industrj’. Complete figures are not available for 1939; but the Trades Union Congress which met in Sept. 1939 represented 4,669,000 members, as against 4,461,000 in 1938. Owing to war conditions, the congress met for only two days instead of the customary week, and most of the time was taken up with emergency questions, including a report on the international situation, in which the Congress declared its strong support of resistance to Nazi aggression. The General Council of Congress also received larger powers to deal with inter-union disputes and to undertake campaigns for increasing trade union membership.

—

Owing

to the scarcity of trade disputes, trade union funds in-

taken by the C.I.O. in organizing rival unions in the building industry seems calculated to make a settlement all but impossible. The chief sufferers from this dispute were the Labor Relations

creased during 1938, the accumulated balances of 426 registered unions amounting to over £20,000,000 at the end of that year,

Board and the Wagner Act. Opposition by the A.F. of L. to the board’s policies and personnel prevented the confirmation by Congress of a member of the board, nominated for reappointment by the President. In his place the President appointed W. M.

in

Leiserson, chairman of the railroad National Mediation Board, who shortly became a severe critic of the board’s procedures and staff. The scope and vigour of the complaints made by the A.F.

Government action against the strikers. A discretionary amnesty, subject to numerous exceptions, was approved by the Chamber in Feb. 1939; but a serious blow had been dealt to the power of the Confederation Generate du Travail. During 1939 there was in-

of L. were a powerful factor in promoting the latest Congressional

DecemHouse committee of which Congressman Howard W.

or twice as

much

as in 1928,

consequence of the general

France.

—

when funds had been badly depleted strike.

^The trade unions entered in 1938-39

on a period of In Nov. 1938 the unsuccessful attempt at a general strike against M. Reynaud’s new decrees was followed by increasing difficulty.

investigation of this whole matter. This inquiry, begun in

creasing tension inside the unions between the

ber by a

non-communist elements; and

this

tension

communist and became much more

LABRADOR— LATIN AMERICA

392 acute

when

Communist

the

Party, on the outbreak of w'at, took

(1^94-1939), German naval officer, was 20 at Bergen, on the Isle of

PnffQlInrff Hanc LallgOUUI II, IldllO I

and was outlawed by the Government. The leaders of the C.G.T., in common with the Socialist Party, took up a strong line against the communists, and at the begin-

up an anti-war

attitude,

ning of October

M. Leon Jouhaux,

the C.G.T. secretary, de-

communists from positions of influence in the trade unions. By agreement with the Government, the election of delegates in the workshops was suspended for the period of the war, the delegates being nominated instead by the trade unions concerned. No recent figures of C.G.T. membership

manded

the elimination of

all

are available.

Internafional Federation of

Trade Unions.

—The eighth Tri-

was held in July 1939, with Sir Walter Citrine as announced a rise in membership from t3, 000, 000 to

ennial Congress president.

It

bom March

Ruegen. He joined the imperial navy as an ensign in April 1912 and was advanced to lieutenant three years later. During the battle of Jutland May 31-, 1916, he saw action aboard the battleship “Grosser Kurfuerst” of the High Seas fleet. Later he commanded flotillas of minesweepers and torpedo boats. In 1935 he became chief of staff officers of the German Admiralty and in 1938 he was appointed commander of the pocket battleship “Admiral Graf Spee.” After the European war began the ship shuttled between

South America and Africa, raiding commerce and sinking nine British merchantmen. After an all-day battle with three British

December 13 the “Graf Spee,” badly damaged, put into the harbour of Montevideo, and four days later Langsdorff, upon cruisers

European War). He

nearly 19,000,000 since the 1936 Congress, despite the loss of the

orders from Hitler, blew up the ship (see

movements in Czechoslovakia, Spain and Austria. The trade union movements of the United States (A.F. of L.), Mexico and New Zealand had meanwhile joined the I.F.T.U. The congress had before it a British motion recommending that the Russian trade union movement should be invited to affiliate to the I.F.T.U. This was supported by France, Me.xico and Norway, but was defeated by 46 votes to 37, the American and Swedish delegates taking up an attitude of especially strong opposition. The

then took his crew to Buenos Aires where, after internment, he

affiliated

congress, however, carried a resolution in favour of an AngloFrench-Russian pact against aggression, and adopted strong reso-

shot himself to death

Laos:

I

see

December

20.

French Colonial Empire. called Hispanic America, is the portion

otm Amanna

LdUII nlllClIud, of

the American continent deriving

its cul-

and institutions largely from Spain and Portugal. Latin America includes 20 republics and the United States dependency ture

of Puerto Rico.

Spanish

is

spoken throughout, except

(Portuguese) and in Haiti (French). English

in Brazil

on a parity with Spanish in Puerto Rico. Indigenous languages and dialects

and the suppression of industrial liberties in the Fascist countries, and in favour of a renewed agitation for a shorter working week. In October the Bureau of the I.F.T.U., meeting in Paris, unanimously supported the action of the British and French unions in helping to “defend liberty, democracy and civilization against the aggression of the totalitar-

mately 8,050,000 square miles. The people are white, mestizo and Indian, with negroid elements predominant in the Dominican Re-

ian States.”

public and Haiti, and prominent in Brazil,

lutions against racial persecution,

The

resolution

went on

to declare that peace could

only on a basis of respect for the rights of

see

of the peoples

(G. D. H. C.)

to self-government.

Labrador:

man and

be restored

Newfoundland and Labrador.

are used

by large numbers in some

regions, particularly in Mexico,

Central America, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.

The population (1939

bean

coast.

The

chief cities are:

Buenos

is legally

The

area

is

approxi-

Cuba and on the Carib-

estimate)

is

about 114,000,000.

Rio de Janeiro,

Aires, 2,345,221;

1,871,830; Sao Paulo, 1,167,862; Mexico City, 1,229,576; Santi-

ago de Chile, 859,830. During 1939 no political changes were efby force, although serious, abortive revolutions occurred

fected in

Peru and Bolivia.

Impending presidential

elections in Costa

(^^^7-1939), U.S. motion picture producer and executive, was born January 17 at

Rica, Cuba, Ecuador and Mexico, scheduled for 1940, gave rise to some political unrest, especially in the last two.

Laupheim, Germany, and moved to the United States in 1884. After clerking in various stores in New York city and Chicago he managed a clothing house in Oshkosh, Wis., until igo6, when he

(1861-1939). U.S. physician and former president of the American Medical Association (1919) was born in New York city on December IS and was educated at Yale and Columbia universities. In 1894 he became attending physician at Bellevue hospital, New York city, and a bacteriologist on the staff of the New York Health department. Four years later he was appointed professor of clinical medicine at Cornell university. Dr. Lambert was a

Outbreak of the European war in Sept. 1939 brought serious economic dislocation throughout Latin America, disrupting communications with European markets and preventing delivery of goods already ordered and paid for. An inter-American congress met at Panama in September to discuss and plan joint action of all the American republics. Similar consultations on special problems were subsequently held. ( 5ee Hispanic America and the European War.) The Latin American members of the League of Nations assumed leadership in forcing the e.xpulsion of Russia from the League after her attack on Finland in December. Every country except Bolivia has important agricultural resources, with wheat in Argentina, coffee in Brazil and the Caribbean States, and sugar in Cuba, the economic mainstays. The pastoral industry is outstanding in Argentina and Uruguay. Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, Peru and Ecuador are important for petroleum. Mexico and the Andean republics of South America are leading metal producers. Manufacturing is developing rapidly, but is inadequate for domestic needs, and manufactured goods and foodstuffs comprise the chief imports, with exports the respective leading products of each country. In 1937

leading authority on the treatment of alcoholism and drug addic-

the imports of the 20 republics aggregated approximately $1,630,-

tion.

829,000, the exports $2,396,054,000.

aommio

I

LaBIlllllluy

Par! ball

opened a motion picture theatre in Chicago. In the same year he founded the Laemmle Film Service. Moving to Hollywood, he began production of motion pictures, and in 1912 he merged the leading independent producers into Universal Pictures Corporation, of which he was president until 1936. He died at Beverly Hills, Calif., September 24.

La Guardia Field;

see Airports.

amhprtIj IiICahIIUCI illPYflnripr LalllUGl I

He

died in

New York

city

on

May

9.

trade. Great Britain

Roman

Land Banks:

see

Federal Land Banks.

ever,

The United

States led in total

was second, with Germany a

Catholic faith

is

predominant in

all

close third.

The

countries, with,

how-

a varying degree of relationship with the

Church

itself.

LATTER DAY SAINTS — LAW —

Bibliography. Charles E. Chapman, Republican Hispanic America; a history (1937); Lewis Hanke (ed.), Handbook oj Latin American Studies; a guide to material published in 1937 ^1939); Pan American Union, Commercial Pan America (Washington, monthly); Howard J. Trueblood, “Raw materia! resources of Latin America” (Foreign policy reports, 1939)(L.

Day

Latter

W.

Chief towns

55%, Roman

(Protestant

Catholic

24-5%,

Greek Catholic 9%, Greek Orthodox 5-5%)History. ^The whole of Latvia’s national effort during 1939 was devoted to the preservation of her neutrality both before and after the outbreak of war in Europe. She already had a nonaggression pact with Russia, and on June 7 she balanced this by signing a similar pact with Germany. While negotiations between

—

Russia and the Western democracies w’ere

made no

still

in progress, Latvia

secret of her dislike of the Soviet proposals for guaran-

teeing her neutrality;

German pact and the

but after the conclusion of the Russofell into line with

collapse of Poland, Latvia

the other Baltic States

by acceding

to Russia’s

demand

for naval

bases at Liepaja and Ventspils and for aerodromes and artUlery

Pius X.

—Emphasizing

Agriculture.

regulation, upheld

called up some reservists on September 8, and on September 28 a state of emergency had been proclaimed and the setting up of a council of defence decided upon; but on November 8 the reservists were ordered to be disbanded On October 30 an agreement was reached with* Germany regarding the repatriation to the Reich of German Balts and the dis-

The Government had

German minority

in Latvia

amounted to some 62,000.

—In 1938-39:

elementary schools, 1,895; scholars,

229,825; secondary schools 114; scholars 25,225.

—

Banking and Finance. ^Revenue (est. 1939-40) 198,852,000 expenditure (est. 1939-40) 198,696,000 lats; public debt

lats;

1939) 146,491,000 lats; notes in circulation (July 31, 1939) 81,001,000 lats; gold reserve (July 31, 1939) 97*869,000 lats; exchange rate (up to Sept, 12, 1939) 25-22J lats=£i ster-

(June

I,

ling.

Trade and Communication.

—

^Foreign trade (merchandise):

imports, total (1938) 227,336,000 lats; (Jan.-June 1939) 118,340,000 lats; exports, total (1938) 227,204,000 lats; (Jan.-June 1939) 117,830,000 lats. Communications 1939; roads, suitable for

motor

traffic

i,7i5mi.; railways, op>en to

traffic

2,o8imi.; in-

land waterways 2,776mi.; motor vehicles licensed (Jan. cars 3,399; trucks

ing set licences (April (April

I,

i,

1939):

cycles 3,357; nireless receiv140,099; telephone subscribers

and buses 3,188; i,

1939)

1939) 76,436and Industry.

Agriculture

—Production 1938

(in metric tons);

(1939) 450,300; rye 378,700; (1939) 429,7°°; barley 220,600; (1939) 209,000; wheat 191,000; (1939) 198,7°°; potatoes 1,751,400; flax and hemp (fibre) 21,500; beet sugar oats 446,600;

wood pulp 41,200. Industry and labour; factories (1938) production 5,977; employees (average 1938) 110,546; industrial (1929 100) (average 1938) 174-5; (June 1939) i75-5; index of

33,300;

=

employment (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 144; applicants for work (average 1938) 2,164; (Aug. 31, i939) 446.

New

York.

He was

ordained to the priesthood in 1879 and

named

trend

toward

governmental

drews, U.S.D.C., D. Mass., January 18). Similarly validated were the Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 (U.S. v. Krechting, U.S.D.C., S. Ohio, February 17), and a California statute providing for such regulation (In re Willing, January 18). But Florida’s so-called

Grower’s Cost Guarantee

Law

of 1935 providing

for the regulation of marketing of citrus fruit produced in the State

is

unconstitutional insofar as

proiides for the establish-

it

minimum price at which be sold: such regulation being arbitrary and in violation of the due process clause of the constitution (Lakeland Highlands Canning Co., Inc. v. Mayo, U.S.D.C., S. Florida three the cost of production as the

may

—

—May Aliens.—The

judge court

3).

influx of refugees into the country has given rise

to a

number

of problems pertaining to the rights of aliens.

come

standing are the right to

in

Outunder the Immigration Act of

1937 and liability to deportation. Although under normal circumstances willful false swearing would involve moral turpitude, in the opinion of the attorneygeneral (Dec. 31, 1938, released Jan. 9, 1939) such offence did not bar a

German

refugee

making a

of knowingly

who was

conricted

by a German court by the

false statement in a report required

German Real Property Law (Opinion No. sg

—

^vol. 39 of AttorneyUnited States did not lose her citizenship because of her removal during minority to Sweden where her parents resumed their citizenship in that country. Such native, having returned to the United States within a reasonable

General).

A

native

bom

citizen of the

time after attaining her majority with intention to remain and maintain her citizenship here, continues to enjoy that citizenship unless she was deprived of it through operation of a treaty, or congressional enactment, or by voluntary action (Perkins v. Elg; V. Perkins, nos. 454-5, May 29). The Circuit Court of Appeals decided in a novel case that the revocation of a visa after

Elg

the embarkation of an alien is unauthorized although it is based on fraud in obtaining the -visa. The Consul who issued the passport relied on a misrepresentation that the alien was not accountable.

The

alien denied such facts

on his

arrival.

The

court held that

he could not be excluded solely on the ground that the idsa had been revoked but is entitled to a hearing on the merits before a board of special inquiry on the question whether he obtained the -visa

by fraud (Strachey, US. ex rel v. Reimer, Januarj^ 23). Under the anti-trust law, treble damages are

Anti-Trust.

—

allowed the injured plaintiff in a

civil suit.

the Government’s numerous anti-trust

damage (1856-1939), American priest, rector I QUdIId Uinhaal I LdVCl:C| iniblldci U. of St. Patrick’s cathedral in New York city for 52 years, was bom in New York city on May 30 and was educated at Manhattan college and St. Joseph’s seminary, Troy,

the

by the Supreme Court, several tribunals have

theory that the distribution of a substantial amount of milk in

the fruit

Education.

Pope

an area outside of the regulation -would seriously interfere wdth and adversely affect the regulation of the interstate handling of milk undertaken by the Secretarj' of Agriculture (U.S. v. An-

on October 5 (see also

affected

to

been deemed illegal because of its price-fixing features. This phase of control is applicable to intrastate handlers of milk on the

ment of

The Soviet-Latvian pact was signed Union of Soviet Socialist- Republics).

The

-was appointed vicar

sustained agricultural legislation which, heretofore, -would have

bases on Latvian territory.

posal of their property.

he

New York and the next year domestic prelate He died at New York city on October 17.

general of

The following cases, decided during 1939, have I ny. /pnonX Ldfl ^llddCy> been selected to represent the crystallization of the more important rules of American law.

Saints: see Mormons.

Christian

religion,

rector of the cathedral in 1886. In 1902

Be.)

25,016 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938) 1,994,500. (pop. 1935): Riga (capital, 385,063), Liepaja (57,098). President, Karlis Ulmanis; language, Latvian; Jituia LulVidi

1

393

actions have been brought

suits,

by

Simultaneously with

many

of these treble

private suitors.

A

novel aspect of this method of enforcement of the Sherman Act was involved in a case decided by the Circuit Court of Appeals for the second circuit. A distributor of a certain product, who had been

lower than that fixed in a price maintenance agreement, and as a result had been deprived of his supply of the selling it at a price

—

K

LAW

394

product, was permitted to sue the producer and other distributors for

treble

damages even though he

originally

was a parly

combination to restrain trade in violation of an anti-trust act by a price agreement {Connecticut Importing Co. v. Frankfort to the

Distilleries, Inc.,

ever,

have been

January g). The major anti-trust activities, howby the Department of Justice and the attor-

suits

ney-general’s office to curb such practices

by compelling

industries

under which they were enjoined from the continuance of such practices. This so-called method of “potential” anti-trust actions has been deemed more effective and farto enter consent decrees

reaching than actual indictments. Wherever a governmental investigation is undertaken, illegal practices, it is noted

attorney-general, have

become

less,

and

by the

assistant

profiteering eliminated.

The turn in anti-trust suits has been away from injunctions and more towards the criminal action. The oil companies indicted in U.S. V. Socony Oil Co., Inc. (C.C.A. 7, July 27), General Motors Corp. (U.S. V. General Motors Corp., U.S.D.C., N.D. Indiana, November 15), and U.S. v. Aluminum Co. of America (U.S.D.C., S. N.Y., November i) have brought to a close a series of actions in which the Government has been highly successful. In the General Motors case the corporation (as in oil and aluminium) was convicted of conspiring to violate the anti-trust laws, but

Constifufional Law.

all

the

statute providing for flag salute

by

were acquitted of that charge.

individuals in that case

—

pupils of public schools

is

constitutional

Amendment

the due process clause of the 14th cerely

and honestly

Town

as to pupils

who

sin-

believe, in accordance with the doctrines of

their religious sect, that such salute

son

and does not violate

is

a

form of idolatry {John-

of Deerfield, U.S.D.C., D. Mass.

—

three judge court January 4). A New York statute making the presence in an automobile of any weapon presumptive evidence that all persons in the V.

automobile at the time the weapon was found therein are guilty of illegal is

possession of the

weapon

is

constitutional.

Such statute

not unlike placing a similar burden on others discovered in the

possession of stolen goods, burglar’s tools, proceeds of larceny,

SLIGHT DIFFERENCE OF OPINION’* concernino the performance of the National Labor Relations Board existed In 1939^ notes Sykes of The Boston

**A

Transcript

divorce where the wife’s frequent statements to her husband that she had ceased to care for him and did not wish to live with him

were deemed “personal indignities” rendering the husband’s life “burdensome” within the meaning of the Oregon statutes {Neely v. Neely, October 3). A novel guardianship statute, providing that

liquors, etc. {N.Y. v. Burt, N.Y.C. Ct., Queens County, March 18). The New Jersey Gangster Act provides that “any person not engaged in lawful occupation, known to be a member of any gang consisting of two or more persons who has been

ment and treatment in guardianship proceedings has been upheld by the Minnesota Supreme Court. jPersons having a “psychopathic

who

personality” are proper subjects for guardianship {Pearson, State

de-

Under the common law, husband and wife could not sue each other on the theory of union of personalities. With the coming of women suffrage and the recognition of equality, modern statutes have been granting them the same rights enjoyed by males. Accordingly, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia has allowed a wife to maintain an action for defamation against her husband and other persons who had conspired with him falsely to charge her with adultery {Ewald

intoxicating

convicted at least three times of being a disorderly person, or has been convicted of any crime in this or any other State

is

This act was declared unconstitutional because the terms of the statute “are so vague, indefinite, and uncertain as to deny the due process of law guaranteed by the 14th clared to be a gangster.”

Amendment

of the Constitution” {Lanzetta, etc., et

New Jersey, No.

30,

March

27).

al. v.

State of

A statute subjecting all income of

domestic corporations doing business within and without a State to a tax is unconstitutional in view of the fact that domestic corporations doing business in other States are exempt {Me Carroll v. Gregory-Robinson-Speas, Inc., Ark. Sup. Ct., April ii).

Domestic

Relations.

—^The

attitude

toward

the

migratory

Mexican origin, is reflected in the recent decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals, District of Columbia, which refused to recognize a Mexican divorce despite the fact that both husband and wife joined in procuring it (apparently by mail order). Since neither party was domiciled in Mexico nor personally present there, there was no basis for the Mexican court to exercise any jurisdiction {Garman v. Garman, January $0). The Ohio Court of Appeals has ruled that a husband whose wife was employed in a gainful occupation although he was able to provide her divorce, particularly of

with a suitable home, was not entitled to divorce on the ground of gross neglect of duty. Nor was the court impressed by his claim that business worries incident to her work made her irritable, un-

and quarrelsome {Winnard v. Winnard, November 8). The Oregon Supreme Court takes a more liberal position, allowing

pleasant,

sexually irresponsible persons are to be held subject to commit-

exrel. Probate Court, June 30).

V.

Lane, March 13). Indiana and California have upheld State housing

—

Housing.

legislation designed to

make

available to local housing authorities

Federal aid provided for by the U.S. Housing Act.

The unanimity

with which State courts have upheld such legislation

is

significant

view of the constitutional objections which have been invoked in attacking such statutes. It is now clearly established, at least under State constitutions, that slum clearance and low-rent housin

ing projects are in furtherance of a public purpose although the

—

immediate benefit is limited to a particular group persons of low income {Edwards v. Housing Authority of City of Muncie, Indiana, Sup. Court of Indiana, March 13; Housing Authority of County of Los Angeles v. Dockweiler, California Sup. Ct., October ii).

—

Insurance.

A.

commercial aeroplane passenger killed in a plane

crash did not die as a result of participation in aviation or aeronautics within the meaning of an excepting clause in a life insur-

—

LAW

395

&

ance policy (^Massachusetts Protective Assn., Inc. v. Bayersdorfer,

tute a refusal to bargain collectively (In re SteliU

June 28). The Supreme Court of Minnesota holds that a person suffering from diabetes is entitled to disability benefits under a life policy even if he refuse to submit to medical treatment which would improve his health to the extent that he would

NLRB

premature, an employer’s refusal to bargain collectively is held to prolong it and his failure to reinstate strikers was a discrimina-

be able to work (Miller

Candy

C.C.A.

6,

MttUial Life hisiirance Co. of N.Y., lay-off of a factory worker because of lack of v.

November 3). The work does not in the opinion

Supreme Court, employment within the meaning of a

affect the continuity of his

of the Wisconsin

group insurance policy even though the lay-off continues for six v. Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., October

months (Garnsky 10).

The double indemnity

ing against injury

burning of a building collapse or

clause of a life insurance policy insur-

and death “by the collapse of the outer walls or if

the insured

commencement

is

of the fire,”

therein at the time of the

was applicable

to the death

of the insured as a result of burning of an automobile trailer, the trailer

being a “building” within the meaning of the policy (Aird

Aetna Life Insurance Co., U.S.D.C., W. Texas, March 6). Labour. Labour has profited and lost by the divergent tendencies expressed in legislative, executive and judicial circles. An outstanding development in this heavily litigated field has been the

V.

—

pronouncement by the attorney-general’s office that labour unions are subject to criminal prosecutions under the anti-trust laws whenever the objective of a strike, boycott, or other concerted activity has no reasonable connection with a legitirriate labour official

purpose such as wages, hours, safety, or collective bargaining. In the significant case of Leader v. Apex Hosiery Co. (C.C.A. 3, November 29) the Third Circuit Court of Appeals held that a sit-down strike in the manufacturing plant of the company did not restrain interstate commerce within the meaning of the statute

although the company buys all of its raw materials and ships 80% of its completed merchandise in interstate commerce, and though

no. C-463,

March

tion in violation of the

Co.,

NLRB

The Wagner Act

30).

Even though a

Wagner Act (hi March 13).

Co., Inc.,

be clearly

strike

re Bennett-Hubbard

no. C-609,

does not prevent an employer from discriminat-

(NLRB

v. National Casket Corp., C.C.A. 2, December ii). But the fear that union employees will engage in a sit-

ing in hiring

down strike justified an employer in replacing the employees, where under the circumstances the employer’s suspicion was well founded (In re Calmer Steamship Corp., NLRB no. C-417-26, C-428, December i).

The reaction to labour’s growing power, its insubordination and the immunities it enjoys by virtue of the anti-injunction statutes stemming from the Norris-La Guardia Act back in 1932 have given rise to a flood of anti-picketing ordinances and statutes which have, in the main, been upheld (Swing v. A.F. of L., HI. Sup. Ct., June 19). IVhere, however, anti-picketing ordinances conflict

with the State anti-injunction act obviously the latter will prevail. Under such a statute in the State of W’ashington an injunction restraining the doing of certain acts which involve a labour dispute

may not be

granted (City of

Yakima v. Gorham, September

27).

In determining whether to order reinstatement, the board is governed by the Fansteel case (see Supreme Court of the

United States), illegal acts

i.e.

the employee

(Republic Steel Corp.

must not have been v.

NLRB,

C.C.A.

3,

guilty of

Novem-

ber 8). In the matter of judicial review, the board has been censured

by many courts for its findings and recourse to “background evidence” when in lack of more con\nncing proof that an employer has been guilty of unfair labour practices. Yet judicial review of

manufacturing operations were disrupted for a period of six weeks. On the other hand, the court for the Seventh Circuit, held that picketing of retail milk stores in the city of Chicago constituted

the board’s decisions, ruled the Circuit Court of Appeals and affirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court (see Supreme Court of the

restraint of interstate

commerce in view of the fact that the flow of interstate commerce in milk was retarded (Lake Valley Farm Products, Inc. v. Milk Wagon Drivers’ Union, C.C.A. 7, No-

effect of this ruling is to grant absolute

vember

segment of labour board decisions, namely, over matters of certification of representatives and the conduct of elections in determining the appropriate unit of bargaining (A.F. of L. v. NLRB,

29).

Act has radically altered former concepts of interstate commerce. Although for the first time in its history of almost five years the Labor Board formally

The widening

application of the Labor

that dismissed a proceeding for lack of jurisdiction. It found of $15,000 shipment commerce is not affected by (i) Interstate worth of goods which is three-tenths of 1% of the company’s total sales (In re

San Diego Ice

& Cold Storage Co., NLRB nos. C-43^>

taxicab company which 9) (2) Operations of a interstate business from revenues its of receives two-tenths of 1 no. C-1098, NovemBaggage Co., (In re Yellow Cab

R-499,

November

;

&

%

NLRB

ber 19). o . j bargain In determining whether labour has been permitted to has Board collectively without molestation from employers, the concesand arrangement every continued its policy of scrutinizing .

by the employer to detect domination, coercion, or persuasion. oflSWhere the bargaining was originated by the employer s chief dominafinding in justified Board cers, the Circuit Court held the sion

January 9). Courts sma 1 have been willing to uphold the board even though there was (Cudahy organization employee substantial interference with the however, Packing Co. v. NLRB, C.C.A. 8, March 27). \Vhere, a reprewith negotiate evidence did not show “wilful refusal” to employment, the sentative as to wages, hours, and conditions of tion (Virginia Ferry Co. v.

NLRB,

C.C.A.

4,

C.C.A. board’s order was set aside (Globe Cotton Mills v. NLRB, estabin co-operate to refusal 5, March 30). But an employer’s to constilishing a union’s majority status was held by the board

United States),

will only

be allowed from a

final order.

The

power over an important

U.S. Ct. Appeals, D.C., February 27). A buyer of securities Securities.

—

prospectus

1933 only interstate

may

who was not furnished a bring a civil action under the Securities Act of

if the particular sale was made through the mails or in commerce (Parrel v. Reynolds, N.Y. Sup. Ct., February

24). The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia held that a registration statement filed under the Securities

Act of 1933 could not be withdrami without the consent of the Commission after the statement had become effective and the Commission had instituted stop-order proceedings (Resources

&

Corp. International v. Securities Exchange Commission, February 27). Reports of National bank examiners to the comptroller of the currency may be furnished by the secretary of the Treasury to the cial

SEC,

for its use in connection with

condition of a bank whose stock

pany being

investigated

by

is

its

inquiry into the finan-

owned by a holding com-

the Commission on charges of fraudu-

Such reports, however, be introduced in evidence by the Commission at its hearings or otherwise made public (Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association v. Douglas, U.S.D.C., D.C., January 31). Social Security. A foundation created by a will has been held exempt from payment of social security taxes although it has granted donations of trust funds to employees and invested trust funds in a housing project (Linderman v. Discoll, U.S.D.C.. W.Pa., February 15). An employer-employee relationship exists for social lent statements in securities registration.

the court held,

may not

LAWN TENNIS — LEAD

396

security purposes in the case of contracts between a manufactur-

company and truck drivers {Jack & Jill, Inc. v. T one, Conn. Sup. Ct. of Errors, December 6) physicians devoting full time in clinic (S.S.T. 363, May 8); sales clerks trained by employee service company (S.S.T. 377, October 16) and students of high school placed in vocational training (S.S.T. 356, March 20). Soliciting ing

;

;

life

insurance agents are not employees within the meaning of

Connecticut Unemployment Compensation Act {Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Tone, Conn. Sup. Ct. of Errors,

March i, in which holding 29 States concur). A contrary view is maintained by the Colorado Supreme Court {Equitable Life Insurance Co. of Iowa V. Industrial Commission, October 16). Torts.

—Formerly

the

ultimate

consumer

had

no

recourse

commodity because there was no privity of contract between the parties. Recent trends in the field of tort law point in the direction of allowing recovery. Accordingly, a cigarette manufacturer was held liable under California law for personal injuries suffered in smoking a cigarette in an action based on negligence in the fabriMyers Tobacco Co., cation of the cigarette {Lape v. Liggett Cal. Sup. Ct., January 17). An automobile driver whose negligence caused a collision was held liable for injuries suffered by a bystander from a flying spare tire even though the driver could not have anticipated such injury. It is sufficient to hold him liable, said the court, if he should have anticipated an injury {Sullivan v. Flores, Texas Sup. Ct., October 18). An automobile passenger was held guilty of contributory negligence in asking the driver a against a manufacturer for negligence in the production of a

&

question, thereby distracting his attention while the car

proaching a curve {Brandau, State to use

May

of, etc. v.

was ap-

Brandau, Md.

Although the conventional distinction in the law of torts between mental and physical harm still plays a Ct. of App.,

17).

significant role (recovery being allowed for physical

harm and

generally denied for mental) the tendency of the law to ignore

“mental” harm is diminishing. The law has long given redress in some circumstances for intended mental harm without attendant physical consequences. A collection agency which has been employed to collect an alleged debt

may

be held

liable to the

debtor

for injuries suffered as a result of statements in letters causing

him mental anguish and impairing 1939)senger

his health {Clark v. Associated

Men

of Washington, D.C., Inc., D.C., April 10, Ohio Supreme Court denied recovery to a bus pas-

Retail Credit

The who became

as the result of fright

ill

when detained

for a

period of 30 seconds to two minutes between electrically operated folding doors, where the fright was not accompanied by contemporaneous physical injuries {Davis v. The Cleveland Railway Co.,

Ohio Sup.

Ct.,

May

ing payment where no such service was genuinely rendered {Oliver Brothers V. F.T.C., 102 F [2d] 263, March 25; Great Atlantic

&

Tea Co.

—^The most

{American Stores Co. v. Boardman, Pa. Sup. Ct., June 19), KenPacific Tea Co. v. Kentucky Tax Comtucky {Great Atlantic mission, Kentucky Court of Appeals, March 21), Georgia {SouthCo., Inc. v. City Council of Augusta, Ga., Supeern Groceries Pacific Tea Co. v. City Great Atlantic rior Court, October 21

&

&

;

The

Fair Trade laws, enacted to prohibit predatory price-

by permitting

tion

upheld the constitutionality of

N.C. Sup.

&

New York

Co. v. Saunders,

Court of Appeals

&

its Fair Trade Act unconstitutional insofar as it was held to be binding on dealers who have not signed such contract although they had notice thereof. Such provision, the court held, was not within the scope of the title of the Act as required by the State constitution {Bristol-Myers, Inc. v. Webb’s Cut Rate Drug Co., Inc., Sup. Ct.,

April 14).

Loss leader laws prohibiting

sales

below cost have not been as

successful in courts as have been Fair Trade laws.

savouring too

much

The

former,

of price fixing, have been declared rmconsti-

and unworkable (Michigan, Maryland, New Jersey). Under the Wheeler-Lea Amendment, the Federal Trade Com-

tutional

mission has intensified

its campaign to eliminate unfair competiHarr and Chamberlain, Inc., F.T.C. No. 3725, November 5), receiving added encouragement by declaration of the act’s constitutionality {Ostler Candy Co. v. F.T.C., C.C.A. 10, August 30). The Bituminous Coal Act of 1937, insofar as it provides for price fixing, was held a constitutional exercise of the commerce power of Congress {City of Atlanta v. National Bituminous Coal Comm., U.S.D.C., Dist. Col., February 15). Furthermore, the National Bituminous Coal Commission in a proceeding under this law, to establish minimum prices and marketing rules and regulations, has the power (sect. 10 [a]) to make available for inspection and introduction in evidence the reports concerning costs which have been made by coal producers who are members of the Bituminous Coal Code {Utah Fuel Co. et al v. Natiorial Bituminous Coal Commission et al, No. 528, January 30). {See also Bankruptcy.) (B. We.)

tion {In re Laing,

Lawn

Tennis: see Tennis.

The nine

90% of the world 10% being scattered among a large number minor producers, on^ five of which, France, Italy, Poland,

total,

of

chief lead-producing countries, with outputs in

excess of 50,000 tons, supply nearly

•

the remaining

Kingdom, and Japan, produce amounts in excess of 33% from 1929 to 1932, 1937 had recovered to 97% of the former high; the 1938

the United

10,000 tons. World production declined

and

in

World Production of Lead (In thousands of metric tons) 1929

and uniformity in ta.xation “is one of the cornerstones of our Constitution” and that the classification singling out chain stores for a heavy tax was arbitrary, unreasonable, and confiscatory. Colorado Supreme Court, on the other hand, extended to “agency” stores the chain store characteristic and held them subject to the multiple store licence fee {Bedford v. Gamble

Belgium

of the Robinson-Patman Act prohibit-

act {Lilly

July ir). Florida, on the other hand, has declared

Australia

Skogmo Inc., May 29). The brokerage provision

its

September 27). The

Ct.,

minimum

North Carolina

has held that a non-signatory to a Fair Trade contract was bound by the contract as though he were, a party to it, if he had knowledge of its existence {Porchester Wine Liquor Co. v. Miller,

their chain taxes

principle of equality

the manufacturer to determine his

resale price, has received wide judicial approval.

&

of Columbia, Georgia Supreme Court, November 16), declared unconstitutional, insisting generally that the

F

cutting on trade-marked commodities in free and open competi-

essential issue in this field of

control has been the acrimonious battle between independents and chains and independents and price-cutters. The battle against the chains was on the whole unsuccessful in 1939. Pennsylvania

v. F.T.C.,

Courts’ decisions.

17).

Trade Regulation.

106

[2d] 667, September 22), is upheld, since the Supreme Court has refused to review the Circuit Pacific

Canada Germany

177-3 62.2 148.0

....

Burma Mexico Spain U.S.S.R United States World Total Ex. U.S

.

624.2 1,756.8 1,132.6

928.0

6.2 .

.

.

189.2 6I.S II6.I

95.2 72.3 130.3 109.8 18.7 251.7 1,179.7

97-9 81.5 248.8 133-3

.

1932

1936

1937

1938

200.6 65.1 173-8 139.0 74-3 218.3 46.6 50.8 362.9 1,493.6 1,130-7

234-4 88.0 186.4 162.4 78.9 231.2 30.0 55-0 426.3 1,719.6

233-7 90.3 185.7 171.7 81.4 242.7 36.0 69.0 344-4 1,703-0 1,360.6

1,293-3

LEAGUE OF NATIONS by i%,

total declined

to 1,705,000 tons, while preliminary esti-

mates for 1939 indicate some increase. United States production dropped ig% in 1938, to 344,400 metric tons, but rose again in 1939 to 430,000 tons, an increase of 18%, which brought the output back to the 1937 level. Canada and Burma had little change in 1938, but dropped slightly in 1939.

Germany had a small

increase in 1938 and apparently again in

1939.

Mexico had a small increase

1939.

All of the figures quoted for 1939 are estimates based

figures for

from seven

only approximate.

to ten

in 1938, but

dropped sharply in

on

months’ operation, and therefore are

Since the outbreak of war on September

i,

no information is available on European operations. Consumption of lead in the United States is practically independent of both imports and exports, each of which amounts to

practically

less

than

1%

of the total.

The

Australian, Belgian, Canadian, In-

Mexican and Spanish outputs are largely exported, there being a large surplus over local consumption demands; German production, although large, must be supplemented by imports, which amount to 40-50% of the production, which is itself partly from imported ores. The United Kingdom has only a small home output, and depends on imports, largely from Empire sources. dian,

(See also

Metallurgy: Lead.)

(G. A. Ro.) '939, the League’s role

PairilP nf LCdgUC ncIllUllua Ul Natinn^ !

was that of uneasy spectator until December. Czecho-Slovakia and Memel were annexed by Germany and Albania by Italy. But the cases of the victims were not laid before the League. Nor was the League able to give China anything like the effective help which she repeatedly asked for against the aggression of Japan.

The

causes for this political

Hitherto

2.

it

397

had been deemed

Council or Assembly to be

politically inadvisable for a

summoned

—

^not least

out of regard for

neutrals with powerful neighbours w’ho were hostile to the League.

Now

Council and Assembly met to deal with Finland’s appeal. Action taken by the League took a mere four days. The Council first considered the appeal, and passed it on to the new 20th As-

sembly,

who appointed a special “Finn” committee to deal wath The Soviet Government was invited to submit the for settlement, a formality met by refusal. The Assembly

the dispute. dispute

thereupon adopted a report setting forth the facts and containing a resolution which urgently appealed to every member of the

League

and humanitarian help League to be used in its organization; it stated that Soviet Russia had “by its own action placed itself outside the Covenant,” and asked the Council to consider “what consequences should follow from this situation.” The Council on the same day, December 14, repeated the Assembly’s condemnation of Russia’s actions. “It follows,” concluded the Council’s resolution, “that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is no longer a member of the League.” The League’s action, whatever the final consequences, was of great importance. Forty-three nations turned to the only e.xisting machinery for the peaceful settlement of disputes and for action against a state which refused to use the processes prescribed for such settlement. The League pronounced a severe moral verdict against the aggressor state, expelled it from membership, and organized help for to give Finland all the material

possible, the technical services of the

the victim.

The

International

Labour Organization showed that its triparGovernments, employers and workers for a

tite character, uniting

common

aim,

is

capable of facing social problems in a time of

weakness and inactivity lay in the past. Not a little was due to deliberate pressing and propaganda on the part of the axis States, who had been living openly in defiance of the League. When the war broke out the principle that the League was con-

Owing to the condition of “near war,” the annual conference in June abandoned attempts to realize the 40-hour week immediately. But draft conventions and recommendations were adopted on road transport, contracts of employ-

cerned was recognized to the extent that belligerents notified the League of their declarations of war and the reasons therefor,

ment

while the neutrals notified their neutrality.

No member

of the

League, not even Poland, requested intervention. For some time the League had recognized the possibility of the

1938 outbreak of war. After the Czecho-Slovak plans were devised for constitutional adjustments within the League. An emergency committee with plenaiy' powers was formed crisis of Sept.

out of the supervisory commission, the keeper of the League’s purse, together with the secretary general, M. Avenol, the director of the International Labour Organization, Mr. Winant (United States), former premier Colijn of Holland and M. Carton de Wiart of Belgium. A similar emergency committee was formed for the International Labour Organization. When war came, these

committees at the request of some 40 states including non-memi.e. the United States and Brazil, determined that the League should carry on above all in neutral, non-con-

bers of the League,

and should ensure that its organizabe fully prepared for handling, as they had done successfully after the World War (1914-18), any of the special activities which war allows or demands. The League deputysecretary-general, Sean Lester, summed up the League s position, in a broadcast to New York on Oct. 21, 1939, thus: “Three fields

troversial, technical matters,

tions should

before the League today; they are readaptation of meet the needs of the present crisis, preparation of material for assisting the settlement which will eventually come out of the war, and examination of the economic conditions to be of activity its

work

lie

to

faced in the problem of reconstruction.”

Preoccupation with technical problems was, however, interrupted by Finland’s appeal to the League under Articles ii and 15 of the Covenant, against Soviet Russia’s aggression on December

as well as in normal times.

crisis

to indigenous workers, and protection of migrant workers. In November, a second conference dealing wuth South American labour problems was held at Havana. A message from President Roosevelt strongly urged that the war should not be allowed to

the work of the International Labour Organization. At Geneva the Organization concentrated on collection of information to enable it to answer questions on social problems arising out of the war. (See also International Labour Organization.) Determination to adapt its technical machinery to changing conditions led the League to set up an expert committee under Mr. Bruce. Its report in August proposed to set up a central committee lessen

of 24 to co-ordinate

all

the League’s technical work,

i.e.

social

and economic questions, which really concern the whole world. Many League organizations worked steadily throughout 1939. The routine work of the Health Organization persisted with little change. At a full session in November the Health Committee prepared for concerted action with the Balkan states for prevention of diseases caused by war. The Mandates Commission held two It declared that the British Government’s White Paper on the future of Palestine was not in accord with the accepted interpretation of the mandate. The League Council has stUl to pronounce on this -vieiv. The Opium Central Board and Supervisory Committee laid dowm the world’s legitimate need of drugs (162 countries out of 177 sent information); this -work was

sessions.

May

of

officially described by the U.S.A. as of the highest importance, notably in time of war. The League budget ^Russia’s expulsion involved a serious loss

—

—

pared to the bone,

less than £1,000,000, which was over than that for 1939, and the equivalent of some four da3'S of Switzerland’s mobilization costs. (See also PACiFisii; Refu^w'as

34%

less

gees.)

(m! Fe.)

LEATHER— LEEWARD ISLANDS

398 I P/lthpr LCdUICIi which was

by an

leather, controlled

The measure of the stretching of calfskin leather through an adaptation of the Mullen tester, long used for determining the bursting strength of paper, has been proposed as an index of qual-

elastic backing,

introduced in 1938, has been further developed and is meeting with an increased demand. Among the newer developments are processes for making shoe lining and other leathers sanitary and antiseptic to prevent the growth of

ity that

and thus promote cleanliness and elimination of offensive from foot perspiration. Methods by which leather affected by poison gases may be de-

bacteria effects

contaminated, have been devised in England. Nearly

all

significant in predicting the be-

cracks occur either because of low resistance to stretching or a grain. An inelastic grain can result from overloading with tanning, dyeing, or finishing materials. As a result of the continual search for raw materials by those

low extensibility of the

types of

may

be freed from effects of mustard gas by immersion for six hours in water at 120° to 130°F. Alum tanned leather, however, will not stand this treatment. leather

might be particularly

haviour of leather in lasting and other operations in the shoe factory. Splitting a leather lowers resistance to stretch far more than can be accounted for by the decrease in thickness. Grain

countries facing a shortage of staple hides and skins, Japan

is

In seeking factors that might cause failure of white shoe leathers, studies have been continued to include the effect of various con-

reported to have developed a simple method for tanning chicken skins. The area of each skin approximates 0-7 of a square foot.

stituents of shoe finishes, polishes

The leather is said to be suitable for handbags and women’s shoes. The commercial feasibility of using these skins is doubtful, however, since they command in Japan for the preparation of several

and cleaners upon the

strength and stretch of the leather.

Sulphonated

tensile

certain

oils,

gums, and glycerine tend to maintain a higher moisture content in the leather and, consequently, increase

strength and stretch.

its

Materials such as ethyl alcohol and carbon tetrachloride that tend to dry out the leather

and remove

fats,

cause an especially serious

lowering of the strength and stretch of the leather.

Shellac cut

popular dishes as high a price as the meat. Whale hides are also being tanned. Their appeal lies in the large supply from a single hide. It is claimed that the hide of a small whale yields as much leather as ten cattlehides, whereas that of a large whale

with borax decreases both strength and stretch. Turpentine, ethyl

lent to 100 cattlehides.

acetate and petroleum naphtha increase tensile strength

turned

and de-

crease stretch.

Italy, like

study of currying leather has shown that the which sometimes forms on vegetable tanned leather dation and gelation of the cod

present.

oil

gummy spew is

due to oxi-

This formation

is

Table l^Estimafed Number of 5 fop/e Hides and Skins Tanned (ooo's omitted)

1929

1935

2936

grayling, ray

2937

1

2938

1939

....

Goat and kldskins Sheen and lambskins .

.

.

.

,

101,614 74,650 87,664 06,211

203,507 70,452 74,426 91,371

UNI TED Cattle hides Calf and kipskins Goat and kidskins

.

.

.

19,146 15,364 55,686

Sheep and lambskins

.

.

.38,085

....

104,874 74,166 83,557 00,913

101,515 72,995 78,863 88,067

103,142 74.545 80,276 00,887

22,628 13.127 17,042

22,87s 12,440 46,600 34.235

19,4x0 12,500 32,783 28,050

21,397 14,273 40,890 36,442

9,610 12,436 7,527 10,608

9,827 13,006 8,313 10,411

9,750 12,187 6,450 9,865

9.814 11,1x6 7,987 0 . 9 5.5

11,413 7,617 13,005 8,012

10,960 7,800 13,19s 8,6x0

20,787 8,144 12.610 8,85s

7,248 7,512

7,500 7,89s 8,210 11,6x2

7,880 8,055 9,177 12,545

47 » 45 o .

.... .

,

.

Sheep and lambskins

.

.

9,1x6 10,317 8,512 10,004

9,074 12,762 7 , 77 S 0,168

codfish, are

The

skin side

is

is

provided with a special covering and

required.

finished product is said to resemble a deep pile Chinese

carpet.

Among

the novelties in leather are ash trays, humidors and

serving trays

made from chrome

leather thoroughly impregnated

The

leading export countries in 1938 according to dollar value

at the average annual exchange rate for the year were; United

Kingdom

c,ERMAN Y Cattle hides Calf and kipskins Goat and kidskins

Skins of the dentex, carp,

and even of the imported dried

with a wax and then pressed into shape and finished.

ST,\TES

22,932 24,240 48,250 58,465

eel,

bound so that no pad

The los ,»23 75,012 80,122 00,729

and

A new process and product has been developed in Australia for making carpets of sheepskins. The skins are tanned and dyed with the wool on and cut when necessary to provide patterns in various

WORLD Cattlehides Calf and kipskins

also

used.

colours. 1

equiva-

attention to the tanning of fishskins, with the newly

its

established industry located at Milan.

A

is

Germany and Japan, has

.

$16,113,000; United States $12,061,000; Germany $10,(R. W. F.; J. G. Sc.) 510,000; and France $9,951,000.

Lebanon:

see

French Colonial Empire.

UNIT ED KIN 3 D 0 M Cattle hides Calf and kipskins Goat and kidskins

.... .

.

.

Sheep and lambskins

.

.

10 , 6 x 2 7,319 8 ,si 6 O.iiS

9,862 6,451 12,015 Q.003

11,063 6,918 12,613 7,967

I

oHorar

LcUcIwly

ITinil lIIIII

(1882-1939) German economist, was born in Bohemia, on August 22. He received ,

Pilsen,

content of oil, and exposure to light and heat. It is prevented by water solubles in the leather and by free fatty acids either in the currying oils and greases, or formed afterwards. Spewing also

law at the University of Vienna and his doctorate Munich. In 1912, after two years of co-editorship with Werner Sombart of a sociological journal he became a lecturer at the University of Heidelberg. His White Collar Workers in the Modern Economy (1912) was one of the first books to call attention to the peculiar economic problems of middle-class office workers. His chief work was Principles of Economic Theory, published in 1922. He remained as full professor of economics at Heidelberg until 1923, when he went to the

can be prevented by the addition of anti-oxygens to the cod oil. In continuation of studies to develop physical tests for meas-

University of Tokyo as visiting professor for two years. His advocacy of a modified Marxism gained him the enmity of the Nazis,

uring the properties of leather, a comparison has been made of five machines of different design proposed for determining the resis-

him from Germany in 1933. He went to the United where he helped his friend. Dr. Alvin Johnson, organize the Graduate Faculty of the New School for Social Research at Yale university. Lederer became first dean of this “university in exile,” and served for two years. In the United States he published Japan in Transition, written in collaboration with his wife. He

his doctorate in

FRANCE Cattle hides Calf and kipskins Goat and kidskins

.... .

.

.

Sheep and lambskins

.

.

9,007 7,689 11,992 12,055

6,996 6,713 6,889 11,003

6,159 7,005 7,16s 10,8x3

7,341 11,417

accelerated by the presence of catalytically active metals, a high

tance of sole leather to abrasion. Eighteen leathers were used all machines showed a general tendency to rate them in a

and

Choice of abrasive had a greater effect on the rethan the construction of the machine, and a machine measuring abrasion only appears to give as good an indication of the wear of the leather as one that attempts to emulate action of the

similar order. sults

foot.

in political science at the University of

who

expelled

States,

died at

New York

Leeward

city

on

Islands: see

May West

29.

Indies, British.

LEGISLATION. FEDERAL I

Officliltinn

customary

Parlanl

LugIdlullUII} rCUCiai.

abundant Congressional

output

of

legislation,

the following statutes have been selected for review because of their social significance.

—

Adminisfrafive Officers Act. The Administrative Officers Act incorporated in the Court Reorganization Plan of 1937 substantially proposes to effect two broad beneficial objectives advocated by the Bench and Bar, Specifically they are: (i) to place the business management of Federal courts under the judicial rather than the executive branch of the Government; (2) to expedite the administration of justice officer to

compile

by providing

statistics relative to

make recommendations based thereon

may keep ment

for a full time

Federal court dockets and to the

end that the courts

abreast of their business. Formerly, the fiscal manage-

of the entire Federal judicial system lay within the jurisdic-

Department of Justice. Requests for salary increases for clerks and other court employees, for added appropriations, for library and office equipment, and other financial details, had to be submitted to the Attorney General, The budget for the courts was prepared by the Administrative Assistant to the Attorney General, the budget officer of the Department of Justice, and included in the general budget for the Department of Justice. The entire judicial system as a result becomes an integrated whole, responsible only to itself and implemented with the means to achieve an effective administration. Under the Act, provision is made for expert reports on the condition of alt Federal courts and the tion of the

means given in the

to the courts to eliminate conditions causing delay

over-burdened courts. Operating through the judicial coun-

of each circuit, the needs of the courts will be demonstrated by the statistics and findings of the Director in a quarterly report which will be submitted for their scrutiny and for such accils

tion as they see

fit

to take thereon.

An

essential part of the

399

port, or attempted export or transport of

an}’-

articles or materials

(except copyrighted articles or materials) until aU right, title and interest therein shall have been transferred to some foreign Government. The Act authorizes the President to define combat areas which, as defined,

may be made

sels or aircraft or both.

Here, too, violation

of not

more than $50,000

to apply to surface ves-

subject to a fine

is

or imprisonment for not

more than

five

years, or both.

After such Presidential proclamation,

any person within the United States

it shall

be unlawful for

to purchase, sell, or exchange

bonds, securities, or other obligations of the Government of any

named

state

in

such proclamation, or of any political subdivision

of any such state, or of any person acting for or on behalf of the

Government

of

any such

state or political subdi-vision thereof,

issued after the date of such proclamation, or to

make any

loan

or extend any credit (other than necessary credits accruing in

connection with the transmission of telegraph, cable, wireless and telephone services) to any such Government, political subdivision,

or person. These provisions shall also apply to the sale by any person w’ithin the United States to any person in a state named in

any such proclamation of any

articles or materials listed in

a proclamation referred to in or issued under the authority of the

For the conviction of any

law.

fined not

violation, the offender will

more than $50,000 or imprisoned

for not

more than

be five

years, or both.

Following such Presidential proclamation, solicitation or receipt of any contribution for or on behalf of the Government of any state named is unlawful. Medical aid, food and clothing may,

however, be

solicited. If, in the President’s judgment, forbidding a vessel’s departure will serve to maintain peace between the

United States and foreign states, or to protect the commercial interests of the United States and its citizens, or to promote the

may

new

security or neutrality of the United States,

bi-annually.

owner, master, or person in command thereof, before departing from a port or from the jurisdiction of the United States, to give a

provision requires the senior circuit judge in each circuit to convene a judicial council composed of the circuit judges at least

To

this council is

submitted the quarterly reports upon his examination of

of the administrative officer predicated

the dockets of the courts in their circuit together with information as to the needs of the various courts, as required in the Act.

On

the basis of this report, the council is empowered to to the district court judges. In the past,

state

named

no authority was vested in any body to make recommendations to the district court judges and because of this autonomy, in certain instances, unfavourable conditions had to be tolerated. Under the

tion

I

act they must now heed the admonition of the circuit council. Neutrality Act of 1 939.—In an effort to preserve its neutrality in wars between foreign states and to avoid involvement therenationals in, Congress by this new act, voluntarily imposes upon its by domestic legislation certain restrictions by which, however, its own rights or privileges, or international law, and exunder those of any of its nationals, pressly reserves all the rights and privileges to which it and its nationals are entitled under the law of nations. Whenever the

the United States waives none of

by concurrent resolution, finds that war between foreign states, and that it is

state will serve to maintain peace between the United States

States and its citizens, or to promote the security of the United

he may ban such vessels, limit their navigation or revoke such instructions when the conditions -s^’hich have caused him to issue his proclamation have ceased to exist. States,

—

The National Munitions Control Board. The Neutrality Act of 1939 repealed the arms embargo clauses of the joint resolution of Aug. 31, 1935, as amended. It continued, however, the NaMunitions Control Board by re-enacting

tional

naming the states name proclamation, by involved; and he shall, from other states as and when they may become involved in the war and revoke such proclamation on the cessation of hostilities. Upon the issuance, of such proclamation by the President, no American vessel may carry any passengers, articles, or materials to any state named in such proclamation. Violation is punishable by fine of not more than $50,000, imprisonment for not more than five years, or both.

Such proclamation

shall

bar any export or trans-

and

foreign states, or to protect the commercial interests of the United

changes.

time to time,

under the authority of secShould the President find that special restrictions

placed on the use of the ports and territorial waters of the United States by the submarines or armed merchant vessels of a foreign

there exists a state of

States, the President shall issue a proclamation

in a proclamation issued

(a).

President, or the Congress

necessary to promote the security or preserve the peace of the United States or to protect the lives of citizens of the United

require the

bond to the United States wth sufficient sureties, in such amount as he shall deem proper, conditioned that the vessel will not deliver the men, or any fuel, supplies, dispatches, information, or any part of the cargo, to any warship, tender, or supply ship of a

make recommendations

new

he

it -with

only minor

The

Neutrality Act of 1939 provides that reports are to be made to Congress by the Board on January 3 and July 3 of each year in lieu of the annual report which had been in efiect.

The

registration fee which formerly was $500 with provisions for refund in case business aggregate was smaller than $50,000 annually is now fixed at $100. The period of registration is five years

and the

fee for renewal

is

$100 for each subsequent five-year

period.

Every person who engages in the business of manufacturing, exany arms, ammunition, or implements of war must register with the Secretary of State. It is unlawful for any

porting, or importing

person to export, or attempt to export from the United States, or

LEGISLATION. FEDERAL

400

to import, or attempt to import into the United States any arms,

ammunition, or implements of war without

first

having submitted

to the Secretary of State (through the Office of the

name

Board) the

of the purchaser and the terms of .sale and having obtained

a licence therefor.

The President is hereby authorized to proclaim upon recommendation of the Board from time to time a list of articles which shall be considered arms, ammunition and implements of war for the purposes, but the proclamation

numbered 2237, of

May

r,

1937 (so Stat. 1834), defining the term “arms, ammunition and implements of war” shall, until it is revoked, have full force and effect as if issued under the authority of this subsection. In addition to its supervision over the articles proclaimed “arms,

ammuni-

and implements of war” the National Munitions Control Board has been charged with regulation and protection of the tion

resources of tinplate scrap and helium.

U.S.

Neu-

(See also

trality.)

—

to

The Revenue Act of 1939. The new legislation was designed remove hindrances to business and some inequities in the FedIt replaces the undistributed profits tax with a income tax levy on corporations; permits carryover to

eral tax system. flat

18%

1940 and 1941 of operating losses; provides that the capital stock may be increased; permits corporations in unsound

valuation

financial condition to

buy

bonds without paying income tax on

in

the excess of face value over the price paid; and eliminates the limitations

on deduction of corporate capital

extends the period for

filing

claims for refund of

hibits sale of information obtained

tax collectors to

file

It

losses.

AAA

also

taxes; pro-

from tax returns; and requires

notice of lien for

it

to be valid.

The

enact-

ment of the Internal Revenue Code, on Feb. 10, 1939, did not change the law as it existed on that date. Consequently, the law applicable to 1939 returns is the same as the Revenue Act of 1938, applicable to 1938 returns, except for the changes made by the Revenue Act of 1939 and the Public Salary Tax Act of 1939. The most important changes effected by the Revenue Act of 1939 were undoubtedly the amendments made to the Internal Revenue Code. Practically every taxpayer will be affected by one or more of the amendments, some of which will apply to returns for the calendar year 1939 and fiscal years beginning in 1939 and ending in 1940, others will apply only for taxable years beginning after Dec. 31, 1939.

The assumption

of a transferor’s liabilities by a transferee

in certain non-taxable exchanges is

no longer treated as money That

re-

up

to

ceived by the transferor at the time of the exchange. the gain on the exchange the

amount of the

is not,

liabilities

as heretofore, recognized

Any advantage

so assumed.

is,

to the

transferor, over the prior rule, at the time of the exchange,

is

ingtott

Post on co^iperatlon between Oemooratio congressmen and the New

1939

Deal in

is added to the general rule that a discharge or satisfaction of indebtedness for less than face amount results in income to the debtor. The exception relates to situations where a corporation

an unsound financial condition discharges

in

its

indebtedness,

evidenced by a “security” for less than the amount received when the “security” was issued. “Security” means any bond, debenture, note or certificate,

or other evidence of indebtedness, in

The commissioner has authority to reamount excluded from income shall be applied in reduction to the basis of any property held by the taxpayer. The limitation on deductions by insurance companies other than life or mutual companies, previously in force has been removed. The amendment extends to all taxpayers the privilege of valuing their inventories by the so-called last in, first out method, which was existence on June

i,

1939.

quire that an

however, by a requirement that the basis of the stock or securities received in the exchange must be decreased by the

previously allowed only to tanners and producers and processors of non-ferrous metals.

transferee. The Act compensation for personal servor more years is received only in

Social Security Act Amendments. The Social Security Act enacted in 1935 which established a Federal old-age insurance program offering the States Federal co-operation and financial assistance in nine Federal-State programs (unemployment insurance, aid to the needy aged, aid to the needy blind, aid to dependent

offset,

amount of the indebtedness assumed by the further provides generally that

if

ice rendered over a period of five

the year such services are completed, the income tax attributable to the compensation shall not be more than the aggregate of taxes

which w’ould have been paid had the compensation been received in equal portions in each of the years involved.

so elect,

may

treat as

Taxpayers,

if

they

income amounts received as loans from the

Commodity Credit Corporation. Where

the loans are so treated

the Act provides for proper adjustments of basis for computation of gain or loss on a subsequent sale of the commodities. It allows

corporations a credit against the

19%

tentative tax for

amounts

used to pay, not only an original indebtedness as was the case prior to amendment, but also a renewed indebtedness. In either case, however, the original indebtedness must have been in existence on Dec. 31, 1937 and evidenced by a bond, note, etc., which also roust

have been

in existence

on that

date.

A

new exception

—

children, services for maternal and child health, child welfare, treatment of crippled children, public health and vocational rehabilitation) has been amended following an intensive study of

some three years by the

The

Social Security Board.

original Social Security

monthly

Act did not take into account

benefits for survivors of insured individuals.

Benefits to

survivors were limited to

ments

set

up

a

lump-sum death payments. The amendsystem, however, whereby monthly insurance bene-

with respect to qualified individuals who die after Dec. 31, i939i are paid to widows, dependent children, or dependent

fits

parents

who meet

Death

the stated requirements.

benefits in a

lump sum equal

to $ 1

% of the total accumu-

LEGISLATIO N. FEDERAL wages credited subsequent to Dec. 31, 1936, to an individual who dies before Jan. i, 1940, will be paid, as heretofore, to his relatives or to his estate. The new law provides that after Jan. lated

I, 1940, lump-sum death benefits shall be paid only when the insured individual leaves no survivor entitled to survivor’s benefits

amount equal to six times the monthly primary insurance benefit. The payment is made to surviving relatives named in the statute or, if no such relatives sur\'ive, and, in that event, in an

401

the Secretary of the Treasury of refunds paid by the State both

on account

of erroneous

payments into the fund, and

in

ac-

cordance with the provisions of Section 1606(b) of the Federal Unemplo5mient Tax Act; (3) the requirement in the State law

money which the State withdraws from its unemployment fund must be expended in the payment of unemployment comthat all

pensation, exclusive of administration expenses, has been modified

then to any person or persons “to the extent and in proportion

by excluding from such necessary expenditure all refunds made of sums erroneously paid and all refunds paid to instrumentalities

that he or they shall be paid the expenses of burial of the de-

of the United States or its employees in accordance with Section

Claim must be made for lump-sum death benefits by

1606(b) of the Federal Unemployment Tax Act; (4) should the money granted for the administration, or spend more than the board finds necessary in the proper adminis-

ceased.”

those entitled thereto within two years after the death of the in-

sured individual.

The new law imposes the duty upon the board to make deducfrom payments under Title II up to the full amount of the individual’s monthly benefit or benefits for any month after retions

tirement in which he rendered services for wages totalling $15 or more. In like manner, violation of the retirement provision by an

indmdual with respect

to

whose wages a

benefit or benefits are

pa3'able also renders a wife’s or child’s insurance benefit subject to

must be made (i) if a child under 18 and over 16 j'ears of age failed for any month to attend school regularly and the board finds that attendance was feasible, or (2) if for any month “a widow entitled to a widow’s current insurance benefit did not have in her care a child of her deceased husband Similarly deductions

entitled to receive a child’s insurance benefit.”

The amendments

required that the board must be satisfied with

the following provisions of the State law; (i) there must be a provision which limits the expenditure of Federal funds for the

administration of the State law to only such purposes and in only such amounts as the board deems necessary for proper and

administration; (2) in addition to the provision formerly immediate payment to the Secretary of the

required, for the

unemployment fund, this pajment to from deduction for the there must be a provision

Treasury of

tration of the State law, provision must be made in the State law for replacement of such funds by the State within a reasonable time; and (5) after Jan. i, 1940, the State law must provide for the establishment and maintenance of personnel standards (other office, and compensation) on a merit which are reasonably calculated to insure “fuU payment of unemployment compensation when due.”

than selection, tenure of basis,

The amendments

deduction.

efficient

State lose any of the

all

money

received in the State’s

also increase the amount of Federal money match State expenditures for aid to the needy aged, the needy blind and dependent children. More Federal money is also appropriated for grants to the States to aid them in strengthening and extending their public health, vocational rehabilitation, material, and child welfare programs. The Federal old-age insurance tax, based upon the wages of every individual engaged in covered employment, is levied, collected, and paid in addition to all other taxes upon his income. An important amendment changes the rate of the' tax, which is imposed alike upon employer and employee, by continuing the 1% rate through the calendar years 1940, 1941 and 1942 on wages received by the worker after Dec. 31, 1936, thus repealing the

available to

former

rate

for those years.

The

2%

tax rate for the

1944 and 1943, and the 2-|% rate for the years 1946, 1947 and 1948 remain unchanged. As under the former law, a rate of 3% is imposed after Dec. 31, 1948. calendar years

The amending

1943,

act, recognizing the uncertainty of

continued em-

ployment, simply provides that adjustments shall be made “with respect to any pajunent of remuneration” in accordance with authorized regulations. Special refund to employees and receipts

more than one employer during the parEach employer must pay both the employer’s and employee’s tax on wages up to $3,000 paid to and received by the employee in a particular year, irrespective of the number of employers involved. for employees having

ticular calendar year are provided for.

Although the tax base remains the same, t.e., the first $3,000 by an emploj'ee from an emploj'er, the amendments have specifically excluded certain payments from the definition of wages. The exclusions are; (i) payment to or on behalf of wages received

of an employee under any emploj'er plan or system providing for (b) sickness or accident disability medical and hospitalization expenses in connection with sickness or accident disability, or (d) pajments on account (a) retirement benefits, or

benefits, or (c)

premium payments made by an employer for insurance or annuities, or payments into a fund to provide for any such insurance payments, or to establish such a fund; (2) payment by an employer (without deduction from the employee’s wages) of an employee’s old-age insurance tax; (3) employee’s contributions under a State unemployment insurance law; and (4) dismissal payments by an employer which are not required by law. A new' duty has been imposed upon the employer to furnish each employee with a written form or statement show'ing the wages paid by him to the employee during specified periods. The statement of death. These exclusions comprehend

LEGISLATION. FEDERAL

402 must

formed for

also show the names of the employer and employee, the period covered by the statement, and the amount of the tax im-

religious, charitable, scientific,

and educational organ-

The domestic extended to include employees performing

izations (with a slight clerical change in the text).

service exemption

posed with respect to wages paid. Credits extended to taxpayers against Federal unemployment compensation taxes have been liberalized. Certification for credit (up to the go% limitation) for contributions actually paid under

is

such service in local college clubs or local chapters of college ternities or sororities.

A

new

fra-

definition of “agricultural labour”

is

included which considerably broadens the scope of the exemption

a State law are no longer limited to cases in which the State

for such service

provisions comply with the Federal law with respect to covered

sidered to be intimately related to farming operations, but which

performed in employment. The amendments also take

services

have heretofore constituted covered employment.

cognizance of those instances in which the taxpayer makes payment of contributions to the wrong State. Upon payment to the State entitled to contributions, the date of the erroneous is

tion, similar to that already contained in the

amount

of contributions actually paid.

have extended and

clarified the conditions

credit allowances shall

maximum

the taxable year

extension of time for the filing of such returns

prescribe, has been extended

tax

may

is

made

from 60

to 90 days.

that the full

amount

by the law

for obtaining

90%

credit against the tax.

Under the new law extensive changes are effected in coverage of employment. The definition of employment applicable to servrendered on and after Jan. i, 1940, continues unchanged; the exemptions accorded to casual labour and to services per-

ices

of

internes,

and of newsboys under i8 are

also

specifically

excepted.

coverage

will, effective

Jan.

i,

1940, be included under the Federal

eligible for benefits

new amendment) and

will

be

under Title II of the Social Security Act.

A

Insurance Contribution Act (the

great portion of the group performing maritime services, formerly

excepted, will be covered.

of the Federal

be collected from a bankrupt estate which has not com-

plied with the conditions prescribed

excep-

Several large groups of employees, formerly excluded from filed for

under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner for Internal Revenue with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury may Specific provision

and '

be made.

Beginning with the tax returns to be 1939, the

A new

Federal Unemploy-

employees of certain non-profit organizations exempt from income tax is narrowed. Services of certain students, of student nurses

The amendments

under which additional

activities con-

ment Tax Act, exempts family employment. The coverage

payment

controlling for the purpose of allowing credit against the tax

for the

by excluding numerous types of

Also covered will be employees performing services for Federal instrumentalities which are not wholly owned by the United States nor exempt from employment

any other provision of law. This will mean the member banks of the Federal Reserve System, Federal Savings and Loan Associations, and other similar organizations and their employees. With respect to instrumentalities of States, all such instrumentalities were formerly excluded without distinction between those exercising functions of a governmental nature and those exercising functions of a proprietary nature. Under the amendments, the exemption accorded to instrumentalities of States is more restricted and such instrumentalities are now exempt only if they are wholly owned by the State or, irrespective of ownership, they are constitutionally immune from taxes

by

virtue of

inclusion of national banks,

tax.

—

Trust Indenture Act. ^Losses to investors during the early years of the last decade have focused the attention of the entire nation upon the United States’ financial structure and methods of

To

operation.

reconstruct a system which would

more

fully

be

New

Deal called into existence the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1933. By the Securities Act of that year. The Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 and enabled to withstand cyclical depressions, the

the Chandler Bankruptcy Act of 1938 the

with power to compel

full

and

SEC

has been vested

fair disclosure to investors of all

material facts pertaining to securities publicly offered for sale to

prevent fraud and unfair practices in the securities markets, and to regulate the financial practices of holding company systems controlling gas activities,

and

electric utilities.

In investigating the work,

personnel and functions of protective and reorganization

committees as part of its report recommending a revised bankruptcy act, the commission sponsored the Trust Indenture Act in

an

effort to

The

remedy the alleged defects

in this

branch of

securities.

act requires extensive changes in trust indentures with respect

to qualification

and

disqualification of trustees, duties of trustees

before and after default, covenants of obligors, provisions with respect to taking

down

of additional bonds, release of property,

and discharge of the indenture, reports to indenture security holders and ordinary creditor relationships between trustees and indenture obligors. On and after Feb. 3, 1940 it will be unlawful (Sec. 306) to use the facilities of interstate commerce or the mails (a) to sell or satisfaction

:

PLEAS FOR AND AGAINST

arms embargo poured

Into the U.S. Senate’s mail room as Congress prepared to debate the Neutrality bill; on Sept. 19, 1939, congressional mail reached an all-time record of 490,000 letters in a single day

repeal of the

:

LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY— LEPROSY bond, debenture or evidence of indebtedness,

offer to sell a note,

whether or not secured, a certificate or interest or participation in such note, bond, debenture or evidence of indebtedness or a guarantee thereof unless (i) issued under an indenture, (ii) one

an institutional trustee meeting the requirements of the Act, and unless the indenture security is either (i) exempt from registration under the Securities Act of 1933 (sec. 304), (2) registered under the Securities Act of 1933, or (3) issued under an indenture which has been of the trustees under the indenture

qualified as provided in the

new

is

Act.

damages caused by reliance on mis-statements or omissions is imposed unless the person sued shall prove he acted in good faith and had no knowledge of the alleged misCivil liability for

statement or omission.

The information with

designated to act as trustee

respect to the person

must be contained

403

nish the commission such reports,

Miscellaneous.

—Other

significant

measures have been enacted

to tax public salaries; to prevent pernicious political activities;

amend National

Stolen Property Act; aid in Federal reclamation;

continue functions of Reconstruction Finance Corporation; post-

pone Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act until Jan. i, 1940; amend Ci\Tl Service Retirement Act; Merchant Marine Act of 1936, Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933, Act authorizing the establishment of a Postal Savings Bank, and the Federal Seed Act. iSee also Public Utilities.) (B. We.)

Leland Stanford Junior University:

see

Staneokd Uni-

versity.

in a separate part

of the registration statement or application and must be signed by such person (Secs. 305 and 307). Its provisions are applicable to

lemons from the United

QmnnQ onrf LcillUllo dllU I

the issuance on or after Feb. 3, 1940 of securities under existing indentures, but the commission is on application authorized to

lilTIOC LllllCo. States in the 1938-39 season (Nov. i, 1938, to Oct. 31, 1939) were the highest on record, 830,855 boxes, a 15% increase over the 719,891 boxes exported in the preceding

of the new Act are not applicable to placements and assuming the persons

season and more than double the five-year (1931-35) average of 359,689 boxes. Up to 1930-31 the United States was a net-im-

purchasing securities in private placements can prove the limited

porter of lemons. Expansion of citrus groves in the United States

number to whom the securities were offered, the bona fide intention of the purchasers to buy for investment and not with a view

and the League of Nations’ sanctions on Italian lemons in 1935 and 1936, relating to the invasion of Ethiopia by Italy, were foremost factors in the increased foreign trade in United States lemons, Exports of lemons from Italy for the nine months ending July 31, were 6,227,330 boxes in 1939 and 5,5&S>S32 boxes in 1938. Italian

grant exemptions.

The terms

securities issued in private

and that the

to distribution,

initial

transaction

was not a public

offering, the securities originally issued in private

placement

may

be subsequently sold without registration even though the indenture does not comply with the new Act. Although indenture securities of

a public

utility

company subject

to the provisions of

Section 6 and 7 of'the Public Utility Act of 1935 are issued in a private placement the commission requires that the indenture conform to the provisions of the Trust Indenture Act of 1939-

The Act materially

boxes approximate 701b. each; United States bo.xes, about 76 pounds. Principal exports of lemons by the United States in 1939 and 1938 were to the following countries;

limits the financial institutions eligible to act

as indenture trustees

and may require a

trustee to share with in-

denture security holders certain payments

made on

obligations

owing to the trustee in its individual capacity within a period of four months before and after the default under the indenture. The provisions defining conflicting interests of trustees and the provisions setting forth the eligibility and

qualification of trustees

are to be exclusive and the commission is not authorized to set up additional qualifications under the Public Utility Holding

Company Act

An

of 1935.

indenture trustee

is

deemed

to have a conflicting interest

trustee imder another indenture under which any other securities, or certificates of interest or participation in any other securities, of an obligor upon the indenture securities are outstanding unless (a) the indenture se-

in the following cases; (i) If

he

Production of lemons in the United States was 10,650,000 boxes and 11,097,000 boxes in 1938, the ten-year average (1928-

in 1939

37 ) being 7,881,000 boxes, all in California. Production of limes in the United States (Florida) was 95,000 boxes in 1939 and 95, 000 boxes in 1938, against a ten-year (1928-37) average of 20,000 boxes. (S. 0 R.) .

is

I

pn|.n«y

tCpiUoJ.

The

investigations in leprosy during the year 1939

followed the principles and general pattern of the

question, or (c)

methods formerly evolved. Surveys of its prevalence have been extended to uncharted areas and in those previously registered, Thus, the currently estimated number of cases within the French colonies, possessions and mandates is 150,000. Among 15,000 forest-dwelling natives of the delta of the Niger river 500 cases were found, a rate of over 3%, and as a result of this and other

assets

pertinent surveys the conclusion

curities in question are collateral trust notes under which the only collateral consists of securities issued under such other indenture, or (b) such other indenture is a collateral trust indenture under

which the only

in collateral consists of the indenture securities

such obligor has not substantial unmortgaged and is engaged primarily in the busmess of owning, or of mvning and developing and/or operating real estate, and the indenture to be qualified and such other indenture are secured by wholly separate and distinct parcels of real estate. The Act also considers the preferential collection of claims against an obligor, indentures of public utilities which

must be

under the' Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, duty to furnish bondholders list, reports, etc. It requires evidence of compliance with conditions precedent, prescribes the duties, responsibilities and special powers and claims of the trustee, notice of defaults, directions and waivers by bondholders. Procedurally, the commission is empowered to subpoena witnesses,

qualified

and other departments of the Government are authorized to

fur-

is

reached that there are more Reports from other

than 500,000 leprous persons in Nigeria.

parts of Africa point to an average incidence of approximately

one-tenth per cent of the populations in widely separated districts.

In Portugal, whose population

is cited as 6,500,000 people, 3,000 cases are reported to be scattered throughout the country, and as many as 200 live at large in one village. The disease is regarded

as endemic in areas of the northern part of Western Australia in the Northern Territory, but the of incidence

is

number of leprous and

and rate

smaller than that which formerly prevailed. Among New Caledonia the incidence is stationary, while

the indigenous of

among ing.

the immigrants and the European inhabitants

On

it is declin-

the other hand, an examination of 10,245 of the 40,000

LEPROSY

404 natives of Malaita, British

Solomon

islands, revealed 138 leprous

individuals, a rate of 13-4 per 1,000 population.

The remarkable and

large areas

variations in the type of leprosy occurring over

same area are by a survey of the Rangoon the Burmese patients are suffering

in different races occupying the

likewise again brought to attention

Leper asylum in which 75% of with the cutaneous form and but

39%

of the Indians.

This

parity exists also, but in less degree, in the clinics of

dis-

Burma.

it has been noted that most natives affected in Basutoland develop a light degree of the neural type.

Contrariwise,

Search for the explanation of these differences of

clinical

forms and incidence has been carried on, particularly through epidemiologic studies.

An

evaluation of the role of hereditary

factors has been attempted

by comparisons and contrasts in the evolution of the disease within families and especially in seven sets of twins among the leprous patients of Surinam. Leprosy developed in two sets of twin partners of like sex; in one partner of each of two sets; in both partners of one set of unlike sex; and it has not developed in two sets of like sex though they were intimately exposed to leprous relatives. In the leprous pair of unlike sex the age at which the disease appeared and its subsequent development were highly concordant. The relation between exposure to infection and development of the disease was analyzed by application of the methods of life tables to data collected in the examination of 8,007 persons constituting 1,051 household families the Philippine islands; With the adoption of a period of one month as a unit of exposure, and the computation of the

in

attack rate per 1,000 person-years (1,000 persons observed for one year), it was decided that the annual risk of contracting lep-

rosy is about five times as high (5-1 to o-g) with as without household exposure. Further, the highest rate occurred in those between 10 and 14 years of age. The effects of meteorological fluctuations

2,779

new

upon leprous processes were sought

in the records of

cases admitted at the Calcutta clinic during the two-

year period of 1936-38, and

it

was concluded that the greatest

clinical activity, and the largest bacterial content of the neuromacular lesions (spots or wheals in which sensation is abnormal) appear to coincide with the hot and relatively dry season of March

to

May, and

similar quest

400

to decline abruptly with the onset of the rains.

A

was conducted in Madras Presidency through whose were 200,000 admissions during the nine years

clinics there

1931-39. In this instance the high rate of incidence

is

attributed

modifications of technique and reagents (antigens)

cutaneous leprosy; weak or negative reactions in neural leprosy;

and

whose classification is inHowever, positive reactions occurred also in tests of some non-leprous individuals who had malaria, syphilis, or tuberculosis. One investigator claims to have made the differentiation between syphilis and leprosy by serological examinations of the blood of 24 leprous patients with the use of an extract of Spiroindefinite reactions in those cases

definite.

chaeta pallida (the micro-organism causing syphilis). The lesions of syphilis may resemble those of leprosy and an individual may

be the subject of both diseases simultaneously, hence confirmation of this test will be of great importance to diagnosis and treatment.

The

analogies between rat-leprosy, a disease of rats, and lep-

rosy of

man

continue to stimulate investigations of this disease.

It has been discovered e.xperimentally that the bacillus of rat-

leprosy will gain er\trance to the underlying tissues through hair follicles

of the skin which have been emptied of hairs by

naturally as well as with treatment.

60%

years have become arrested spontaneously islands,

there were 161 patients in

amount considered adequate. Contributions to the detection of the first dermatologic maniand to the knowledge of its period of in-

festations of leprosy,

cubation within the patient are in progress in the Philippine Six hundred and twenty-nine children, born of leprous

islands.

parents between Sept. 1934 and April 1938, have been repeatedly examined since birth, and 35 have thus far exhibited skin lesions which are pronounced as leprous. The first lesions in 14 of these children were papules or wheals which were similar to lesions of

but in which the specific bacteria were demAll the children have been under observation for a

less significance,

onstrated.

year, but the great majority are less than three years old. ological

tests

of established

cases

Ser-

have been continued with

and

at

Magokai,

Fiji

the disease became

among

560 who were under treatment, and 70% of the former were neural cases. The onset, symptoms and course of this form of leprosy have led to the hypothesis that a vitamin deficiency

be a factor in

its

development, and in several

localities

may

treatments

injections of vitamin Bi have been instituted. It reported that neuritic pains are promptly relieved by this

by hypodermic

which resided in a suburb of Madras, and within each of which leprosy existed. It was learned that the chief food was milled parboiled rice; the total intake of food was insufficient in calories; and the calcium and vitamin Bi content were below an

;

whom

quiescent or arrested for from six months to two years

is

families

In Basutoland apparently

of the light neural cases registered during the past ten

the higher rates occur

marriage customs are considered also to contribute to the incidence. The dietary of people among whom leprosy was of high incidence was studied in a group of 83 persons comprising 14

artificial

and are carried from these follicles to remote locations in the body by phagocytic cells of the blood. The processes of the disease in the rat are being studied also by chemical and physical (ultra-violet light) examinations of the tissue cells and the bacilli, which are separated from the cells by procedures of centrifugation and washing. Also, the cells of these leprous tissues have been transferred to the culture tube and are reported to have been grown under artificial conditions. Rat-leprosy is distributed among rats in many parts of the world, and other rodents will contract it under experimental conditions, but it has been discovered recently in the bandicoot (a large Indian rat) under natural conditions in India. Summaries of the results of treatment afford additional evidence of the tendency of the neural form of leprosy to become arrested depilation,

to the hot

humid climate of the lowlands, and it is remarked that among the poor depressed classes, and in those under 1 2 years of age among school-children. The caste and

made from

chemical extracts of tubercle bacilli, and from the bacillus of Stefansky (rat-leprosy). Strong reactions were obtained in

therapy, and the general physical condition of the patient is improved. Another treatment of neuritic pain and persistent ulcers has been that of resection of a portion of the involved autonomic

nervous system, and recently it has been proposed after several trials that the same purpose can be accomplished by the injection of novocaine around the large plexuses of this nervous system in the region of the kidney. {See also Vitamins.) Bibliooraphy. E. Sorel, “Die Leprabekamfung in den franzosischen Kolonien, Besitzungen und Mandaten,” Deutsche Medizinische Wochcnschriftf 65:636-639 and 676-678 (1939); “Leprosy in Nigeria,’’ International Jour, of Leprosy (Jan.—March 1939); “Leprosy in Portugal,” Leprosy Review (July 1939); Ernst Keil, “Hereditary Factors in Leprosy,” Ibid.; Jas, A. Doull, “The Importance of Field Studies of Leprosy with Especial Reference to the Risk of Household Exposure,” Amer. Jour, of Hygiene (Jan. 1939); J. J. Joseph, “Factors Influencing the Incidence of Leprosy in the Madras Presidency,” Leprosy in India (Jan. 1939); J. Lowe and S, N. Chatterji, “Seasonal Variations in Leprosy in Calcutta,” International Jour, of Leprosy (April-June 1939); \V. R. Arkroyd and B. G. Krishman, “Diet Survey of Families with Leprosy,” Indian Jour, of Med. Research, 26:4:899 (1939); C. B. Lara, “Early Leprosy in Children of Lepers; Further Observations on the Early, Definitely Identifiable Leprotic Lesions,” Monthly Bttlletin Bureau of Health, 18:7:325-355 (Manila, 1938); S..D. S. Greval, John Lowe and R. Bose, “Complement Fixation in Leprosy with Witebsky, Klingenstein and Kuhn Antigen,” Indian Jour. Med. Research (Jan. 1939); R. Row, “Some Observations on Human and Rat Leprosy and their Significance in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of the Disease,” Transactions Royal Society Tropical Medicine and Jlygiene (Jan. 1939); E. Capelli, “The Pallida Reaction in Sera of Lepers,”

—

LETTUCE— LIBRARIES Giornale di Batteriologie c Immunologie (March 1939); E. Marchoux and V. Chorine, “Jlode of Penetration of the Bacillus of Stefansky into the Freshly Epilated Skin of the Rat,” Aimalcs de I’Insiitut Pasteur (Aug. 1939); Idem., “Ways of Penetration of Lepra Bacilli,” Bulletin Societie Pathologie Exotique, 31:9:796-803 (1938); P. D. Strachan, “Statistical Evidence Indicating the Predominance of Abortive or Stationary Leprosy in Basutoland,” International Jour, of Leprosy (Oct.-Dec. 1938); E. V. Cowdry, A. Ravold and D. JI. Packer, “Physical and Chemical Properties of Rat Leprosy Bacilli,” Proc. Exper. Biol, and Med., 41:2:341 (1939); Ernst Keil, “Is Neural Leprosy Etiologically Uniform?” Arch. f. Schiffs u. Tropen. Hygiene, 42:1-13 (1938). (N. E. W.)

Production of lettuce in the United States in 1939 reported by the Department of Agriculture as

I

Banking and Finance.

171,370 in 1939.

In 1938

it

was 150,220

acres.

The ten-year

(J. L. K.) In 1937: revenue $1,009,433; expendi-

—

ture $969,921; public debt (Dec. 31, 1937), external $1,737,000; internal $291,942. Currency: Liberian dollar, exchangeable at a

$4.8o=£i sterling. Trade and Communication,

trade 1938; imports

$2,241,792;

exports $1,990,255.

Communications 1938: roads

suitable for

motor

fixed rate of

—Overseas

trafiSc c.

i5omi.; shipping cleared, 1,761,715

tons.

Agriculture and Mineral Production.

LCllUbC* was

24,066,000 crates compared to 19,676,000 crates in 1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of 19,433,000 crates. The acreage was

405 war.

trality in the present

—In

1938 (export

fig-

ures) (in metric tons): rubber, latex 1,457; rubber, crepe 1,456; piassava 5,008; coffee 892; cocoa 549; palm kernels 462,682

bushels; gold 1,902 troy oz.; ivory 9,1471b; palm

oil

162,757

imperial gallons.

average ivas 154,280 acres.

from 77^? to $1.68 in 1939. Average prices were in a crate $1.40 1939, and $1.50 in 1938, with a ten-year average of $1.51 per crate. Production in the United States, by seasonal Prices ranged

varieties,

was

as follows in 1939, in 1938,

and for the ten-year

6.670,000 crates 7,481,000 ,, 801,000 „ 4,210,000 „ 4,904,000 .,

(i) (2)

without Although

income.

of

were reported in

many

showed no great improvement as compared with 1938. the majority of the professional staff are

1928-37

1938

1939

Late Late

slightly larger expenditures

increase

libraries, in

general the situation in tax-supported libraries in the United States

(1928-37) average:

Early Second early Intermediate

libraries continued to increase

ihroriQC LIUldllCOi a corresponding I

4,776,000 crates 5,804,000 ,, 809,000 „ 3,689,000 „ 4,598,000 „

Salaries of

distressingly low.

still

3,259.000 crates 5,382,000 „

It is estimated that

939,000 3,576,000 4,277,000

unemployed. Because of diminishing returns from invested funds libraries supported in whole or in part by income from endowments are facing a period of retrenchment and curtailment of

(S.

„

„ „ O. R.)

4%

of the active librarians (12,124) are

services.

James Hamilton

According to a report of the Library Extension Board more than 42,000,000 people in the United States, of whom 91-8% live in

was bom at Danville, Virginia. The date of his birth is believed to be May i8, 1866, though he concealed his exact age. Both his parents died when he was an infant. As a child he was taken to Georgia, where he attended

library extension is primarily one for the appropriate agencies of

Houghton college. Later he studied at the University of Virginia and took courses in law at Savannah, Georgia. He went to the Pacific coast in 1886 and worked for a while as a stevedore on

the various States. The United States Office of Education has in preparation a study of the organization and functions of such agencies. State aid was initiated or continued in Arkansas, New

the Seattle waterfront. After being admitted to the bar in Seattle he entered politics and was elected representative at large in the

Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Vermont; in Canada, in British Columbia and Nova Scotia. Michigan’s $500,000 fund was repealed and Illinois’ $415,000 program was vetoed. The Harrison-Thomas education bill, which

lewis,

U.S. Congress from Washington in 1896. He served as a colonel and inspector general in Cuba during the Spanish-American war,

duty in Puerto Rico, and from moved to Chicago in 1898 to igoo was counsel from 1903 to corporation and attorney and was city 1903 Elected U.S. senator from Illinois in 1912, he was appointed

was

later transferred to military

in the Philippines. Lewis

1907.

rural areas,

were

still

without library service.

The problem

includes provision for Federal aid for libraries, did not for action

by Congress

in the 1939 session;

it is

of

come up

hoped that

it will

be introduced early in 1940. Library Training and Personnel. ^The 1938-39 report of the Board of Education for Librarianship (American Library Associa-

—

by President Wilson as representative of the Senate in London to to prepare international laws for safety at sea. He was elected colleagues the senate again in 1930 and re-elected in 1936honoured him by maWng him the first whip of the upper house annually. His re-electing him unanimously to that position

meeting

of and courtesy made him one of the most picturesque April on 9. D.C., Washington, American legislators. He died at

now require a bachelor’s degree for admission to the library schools. The Hampton Institute Library school (for Negroes),

and

dress, tact

ihoriQ LlDcrld,

sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1937) 2,500,-

I

President:

000. Chief town

Edwin

(capital)

Barclay; language,

Monrovia (pop. 9,700). official,

English; religion,

Christian (Protestant).

—

enjoys a constitution History. This independent African State considermodelled on that of the United States. There has been con-

improvement in the administration in recent years in to the sequence of which the United States has granted recognition the Government, previously withheld. A program of expansion in the t>ut during 1939 fields of health and education was continued retards railways no are there lack of modern communications send progress in the more remote districts. It is proposed to centre, educational principal students from Liberia college, the exploited by to Achimota college in the Gold Coast. Rubber is an American company, Firestone Plantations. Liberia took an able

—

neuearly opportunity of notifying the belligerent powers of her

tion) lists 31 schools of various types accredited its

On March

standards i,

;

all

1939, the total enrolment

for advanced study.

by the board

as

are connected with teaching institutions.

The University

was

1,750, including 211

of Wisconsin

and Pratt In-

stitute

organized in 1925, closed in June 1939. Temporary provision for the training of Negro librarians under the guidance of Miss Flor-

made by the Carnegie corporation. In addition to scholarship funds provided by individual schools, the Carnegie corporation made a final appropriation of $20,000 for the United States, and $5,500 for Canada to be used over a ence Curtis has been

three-year period for grants-in-aid for advanced study and re-

The corporation also made endoivment grants of $50,000 each to the library schools of Pratt Institute and the University of Denver. The summer institute, as a means of assisting li-

search.

brarians in service to continue their professional preparation,

met

with a gratifying response from accredited schools. There has been further discussion of library “internships” as a method of training.

The Board on

Salaries, Staff and Tenure (American Library Ashas in preparation classification plans for libraries in institutions of higher education (t.e., university, college, junior

sociation)

;

LIBRARIES

406

and teacher training) similar to the Classification and Pay

ington, under the sponsorship of the State Department, are evi-

York) Public Library, 1,153,136 volumes (Dec. 31, 1938); University of Illinois, 1,130,584 volumes (July 1, 1938) University of Michigan, 1,025,815 volumes (June 36, 1938); Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh (Pa.), 1,017,856 volumes .Dec. 31, 1938); University of Minnesota, 1,017,690 volumes (June 30, 1938); Cornell university (Ithaca, N.Y.), 1,010,170 volumes (1939). Such figures are very uncertain standards of comparison, because of differences in methods of counting and because public

America.

dence of a desire to strengthen cultural relations with LatinTo provide for more effective co-operation, a grant of

standard books.

$30,000 was made by the Rockefeller Foundation for the development of a Latin-American program by the American Library Asso-

in 1939, adds 249mi. of shelving

and 2oac. of

national library, over-crowded for

many years. The

college

Plans for Municipal Public Libraries issued in r938. Attention has also been given to the question of civil service in libraries.

—^The second convention of the Inter-American

Bibliography.

Bibliographical and Library Association, held in Washington in

Feb. 1939, and the conference on Inter-American relations in the field of publications and libraries, held in November, also in Wash-

Another event of importance was the appointment of Lewis Hanke as chief of the Hispanic division of the Library of Congress (July r). The Rockefeller Foundation has also made a ciation.

;

libraries

many

with

branches contain

Library Buildings.

—

many

^The Library of Congress Annex, occupied

tral building.

appropriations needed to provide for additional

general interest, to be sent to selected popular libraries in north-

increased cost of maintenance.

ern and western European countries, to give European readers

ing (cost $1,600,000) of the

science.”

The Carnegie

letters

corporation, in addition to

and of

many

other

grants for library interests, appropriated $t98,ooo for the develop-

ment

of teachers college libraries through purchase of books over

a three-year period.

The

Association of College and Reference

Libraries, organized in 1937 as the successor of the College

and

Reference section of the American Library Association, issued the first

number (December)

of

its

new

journal, College

and Research

administrative

book order and binding departments of the Brooklyn (N.Y.) Public Library have been moved to the new cen-

over a three-year period for the purchase of American books of

American men of

floor space to the

ofiSces, cataloguing,

grant of $60,000 to the American Library Association to be used

“freer access to the thought of

new and

copies of

Transfer of the public departments awaits further

On

April

i,

staff,

and

for the

the remodelled build-

New York Historical Society (New York city) was opened after having been closed for two years. The cornerstone of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library at Hyde Park, N.Y., was laid by the President on November 19. It is exr pected that the building (cost $350,000) will be opened in the spring of 1941. Other buildings completed or dedicated during the

year were: Babson Institute, Babson Park, Wellesley, Mass, (cost $200,000) ; Bennett college, Greensboro, N.C. (Thomas F. Holgate Library;

capacity 60,000 volumes); Drew (Rose Memorial Library) Fort Worth

cost $100,000;

under the editorship of A. F. Kuhlman. Shortly after the outbreak of war in Europe a joint committee was formed to represent the American Library Association and

(Texas) Public Library (cost $400,000; capacity 180,000 volumes) ; Littauer Center of Public Administration, Harvard univer-

other library organizations in the matter of the importation, par-

sity (contains library)

from Germany, of books and periodicals needed for research. Delay and irregularity in shipment, and the possibility of loss in transit, are inevitable under conditions of war. The Librarian of Congress agreed to act on behalf of American libraries in presenting to the State department statements sent to him

field (archives

Libraries,

ticularly

through the committee.

Microphotography.

university, Madison, N.J.

sity of

New

Illinois State

Archives building. Spring-

a division of State library; cost $820,000)

;

Univer-

Mexico, Albuquerque (cost $34r,4i6); College of

Rochelle,

New

Rochelle, N.Y. (Mother Irene Gill Memorial

Library; cost $400,000; capacity 108,000 volumes) ; Oregon State Library, Salem (cost $850,000; capacity 525,000 volumes) Talla;

dega college (Negro) Talladega, Ala. (Savery Library; cost $150,000) ; Washington, D.C., Public Library, Petworth Branch. ,

—

Interest

and experimentation in the apand research problems

plication of microphotography to library

continue unabated. At present there

is

pensive reading machines, and several

great need for simple, inex-

new models adapted

with any microfilm have been introduced. laboratories were opened at

Brown

New

for use

microphotographic

university and the Library of

by bombardment has quickened interest in microphotography in various European countries. Courses in microphotography for libraries were offered in the 1939 summer sessions of the Chicago and Columbia university library schools. Eighteen libraries contain more than r, 000,000 volumes each, Congress. Possibility of destruction of books and manuscripts aerial

according to the latest available statistics: the Library of Congress, 5,591,710 volumes (June 30, 1938) ; the New York Public Library, 4,090,379 volumes (comprising reference department, 2,687,377 volumes and circulation department, 1,403,002 volumes)

(Dec. 31, 1939); Harvard university, 4,079,718 volumes (July i, 1939) Yale university, over 2,830,000 volumes (June 30, 1939) Cleveland (Ohio) Public Library, 2,i6f,39o volumes (Dec. 31, ;

1938) ; Chicago ( 111 .) Public Library, 1,718,867 volumes (Dec. 31, 1938) Boston (Mass.) Public Library, 1,701,166 volumes (1939) i Columbia university (New York city), 1,615,051 volumes (1939);

volumes (June 30, 1939) University of California, approximately i,3r4,ooo volumes (comprising nearly 1,000,000 volumes at Berkeley and more than (Calif.) Public Library, 1,601,447

:

314,000 volumes at Los Angeles) (1939); University of Chicago, 1,232,745 volumes (June 30, 1938); Cincinnati (Ohio) Public Library, 1,224,007 volumes

(Dec. 31, 1938);

Brooklyn (New

—

^Herbert Putnam, librarian of Congress for 40 August t, becoming librarian emeritus. On June 21, at the Conference of the American Library Association held in San Francisco, he was chosen to receive the Joseph W. Lippincott award for the “most outstanding contribution to librarianship.” The presentation was made in New York on October r8 at a luncheon in Dr. Putnam’s honour. On June 6 President Roosevelt nominated Archibald MacLeish to be librarian of Congress, and on June 29 the appointment was confirmed by the Senate. Mr. MacLeish, born in 1892, trained in the law, is best known as a poet and the winner of the 1932 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. He assumed office October 1. At the time of his appointment he was curator of the Nieman Collection of Contemporary Journalism at Harvard university. Late in the year Robert W. G. Vail, librarian of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Mass., since 1930, was appointed director of the New York State Library at Albany, in succession to James

Librarians.

years, retired

I.

Wyer who retired in 1938. He M. White, librarian of

1940. Carl lina, will

;

Los Angeles

New

;

;

begins his new duties Jan. 15, the University of North Caro-

succeed Phineas L. Windsor

who

retires Sept, r, 1940,

after 30 years as librarian of the University of Illinois

and director

of its library school. Julian P. Boyd, librarian of the Pennsylvania Historical Society,

was appointed

librarian of Princeton univer-

sity.

M. Nourse became librarian of the Kansas City (Mo.) March i, 1939. Ernest Cushing Richardson, for many years librarian of Prince-

Louis

Public Library on

LIBYA— LIGHTNING WAR ton university, and since his retirement in 1925 honorary consultant in bibliography

and research

in the

Libya:

see Italian

407

Colonial Empire.

Library of Congress,

died on June 3 at the age of 79. Scholar and bibliographer, Dr. Richardson will be long remembered for his efforts to promote

independent European State, situated I iDPhtoncfoin LlCulilclldlljiil) north-east of Switzerland, to which it is united

national and international co-operation in the organization and

in a

development of the materials for scholarly research.

George Watson Cole, librarian-emeritus of the Henry E. Huntington Library (San Marino, Calif.) died on October 10, aged 89. The catalogues of the library of E. D. Church (now in the Huntington Library) which he prepared will long stand as models of scientific description and bibliographical scholarship. Mary E. Robbins,

Simmons college, Boston, died in June at Lakeville, Connecticut. The deaths of two younger librarians should also be recorded: on August 4, Donald first

director of the school of library science at

B. Gilchrist, librarian of the University of Rochester since 1919;

on December

19, J.

Howard

Dice, librarian of the University of

Pittsburgh since 1920.

—For

Bibliography. sult:

Bulletin of

further information about American libraries conthe American Library Association (Chicago); Library

(New York); Library Quarterly (Chicago); American Library Directory, 1939, comp, by Karl Brown (1939). Important contributions

Journal

customs and postal alliance. Area 65 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1936) 12,000. Chief town, Vaduz (capital, pop. 1,710). Ruler: Prince Franz Josef II, b. 1906, sue. 1938; language: GerChristian (Roman Catholic 90%); products: corn, wine, fruit, wood, and marble; revenue (1938) 2,190,800 Swiss francs; expenditure (1938) 1,880,900 Swiss francs; public debt

man; rehgion:

(Jan. I, 1938) 4,330,300 Swiss francs; currency: Swiss franc, approx. i7.8=£i sterling (Dec. 30, 1939).

Lie Detector: see Crime Detection. Life Insurance: see Insurance, Life. Life Span : see Birth Statistics;- Death Statistics; Infant Mortality; Suicide Statistics. Lighthouse Service: see Coast Guard, U.S. Lighting: see Architecture;. Electric Lighting; Motion Pictures; for air raid precautions see Coal Industry.

were: Wilhelm Alunthe, American Librarianrhip from a European Angle: An Attempt at an Evaluation oj Policies and Activities to library literature

(1939): Clara W. Herbert, Personnel Administration in Public Libraries (1939): Edna Ruth Hanley, College and University Library Buildings (1939); James Westfall Thompson, The Medieval Library (1939): A. E. (C. F. McC.) Bostwick, A Life with Men and Books (1939)-

Great

Britain.

—Up

to Aug. 1939 there

was steady development

of the library service in Great Britain,

much

evidence being

shown of an increased interest by the general public in reading, cultural and recreational. Slum clearance and the migration of the population from cities to one-time country districts has been followed by the establishment of still more attractively designed public libraries which have imrnediately become a social asset, appreciated by a large percentage of the people. Owing to the war, the arrangements for the opening of the

new Huddersfield

Central Library were altered, but the fine new central library in the Civic Centre at Southampton was completed earlier in the year and opened by the duke of Gloucester. The war naturally had a considerable effect on libraries, and the

upheaval experienced in the first months seemed to presage severe restrictions of the service everywhere. Fortunately this did not

happen and although some public libraries had to curtail hours, or had rooms commandeered or lost staff owing to military and civil defence calls, greater use of them than ever before resulted. Deprived of many other forms of entertainment, a great number of people found in the library a new source of enjoyment and this rising issues of books. is reflected throughout Great Britain in the The national and the university libraries also had their service interrupted Giving to the transfer of valuable material to safe Conplaces and the evacuation of some of the universities. suffered toward the close of 1939, but instiindicated that gradually the normal service of these

sequently research it

was

work

tutions was being resumed.

In France, the great libraries such as the Bibliotheque National and the Mazarine closed down on the outbreak of war, but within

two months opened again with a restricted service. Libraries In Australia the publication of the New South Wales proposals, far-reaching its with Advisory Committee Report, progress focused attention on the library service of that State and is

bound

to be

made.

appointZealand, an important development was the ment of a library liaison officer, attached to the Government Country Library Service, to co-ordinate the services, arrange This for professional instruction and to develop propaganda.

In

New

^

was made possible by a Carnegie Corporation of to the

New

New York

grant

liO'htninD’ Ll^llllillig

War 11(11

“Lightning

(D. C. H. J.)

(Blitzkrieg)

It means a war waged quickly by taking the fullest advantage of the powers of avdation, mechanization,

in quickly waging war.

and motorization

to

make good

cavalry, horse-drawn artillery,

and

the limitations of infantry, horsed

and transport and pack

artillery

This while using their powers to make good the limitations of aviation, mechanization and motorization. By doing this, quicker and more continuous blows against an enemy can transport.

be struck than was true when the older type of arms alone were used. At the same time harder blows and more effective ones can be dealt

than

if

aviation,

mechanization and motorization alone

were used. Experimentation by the German and Italian armies and air War proved and disproved various theories held in these armies and air forces with respect to the technique of Lightning War. As the result of these forces in Spain during the Spanish Civil

experiences both countries

made changes

in their organization,

armament, and tactics. Albania was a dress rehearsal on a small scale for the Italians. The conquest of Poland in less than three weeks by the Germans was effective proof that the technique was correct. Admitting that the weather favoured the Germans and that the Polish initial concentration was bad from a strategical point of view, the fact remains that it was not either of these factors but the German preparation to wage, and skill in waging, blitzkrieg which brought about the decisive defeat of the Polish Army and air force in such a short period of time.

The Polish Army and air force were not poor ones. From the point of view of organization, equipment, and armament of those countries as yet unprepared to either meet or wage this typ)e of war, the Polish forces were both first class. However, the Polish air force

The

was greatly

inferior in strength to that of

Polish infantry division, as

true of

Germany.

most

divisions of infantry throughout the world today, did not have the considerable proportion of anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons which make is

up the armament of the present German dimsions. The Poles lacked the mechanized force essential to a cavalry corps. Without a mechanized .force horsed cavalry caimot meet modem conditions. The Polish Army as a whole lacked the artiUeiy of various types, the tanks, and the aviation necessary under modem

conditions to either successfully resist or

Zealand Library Association.

war”

can be used to indicate any kind of quickly waged war. However, it has come to mean a definite technique •

wage

blitzkrieg.

In general, the method of waging blitzkrieg

is

as follows:

— LINDGREN.

LIME

408 An

enemy aviation

and

centres.

attack from the air on (1) (2) At the same time, if the attacker has enough aviation, if not immediately after (i), an attack on everything necessary for the mobilization and concentration of the enemy’s army, such as barracks, depots, supply centres, bridges, railway stations and junctions, railways and motor convoys. (3) If the border is fortified or already defended by troops in position, a standard assault is made consisting of a heavy bombardment of artillery of all calibres followed by a heavy aviation bombardment and then, as the infantry and tanks move to the assault, light bombers dive and bomb the enemy’s position. (4) The way having been opened by this successful assault the pursuit of the enemy’s beaten forces is taken up by the light divisions supported all

fields

aviation. The organization of these divisions varies in different countries, but in general includes motorcycle infantry and machine guns, armoured cars, horsed cavalry, and sometimes horse-artillery, light tanks carried in trucks, motorized infantry and artillery, anti-tank guns, engineers and signal troops. (s) Following come the armoured divisions of various organization in different countries. In general, each division consists of a reconnaissance echelon, a tank echelon, and a ground-holding echelon. The first is made up of motorcycle infantry, armoured car companies and a company of heavy infantry weapons. The second consists of approximately 400 tanks organized in two regiments. The third is made up of a motorcycle infantry battalion, 3 motorized infantry regiment, a motorized artillery regiment, anti-tank and anti-aircraft artillery, signal and engineer troops. (6) Back of all come the standard tj-pe of infantry divisions with their accompanj'ing artillery of all types, ready to give and take the hardest kind of blows. Frequently, the leading divisions are motorized.

by

The

light

fighting.

and aimoured

They

divisions are not expected to

do heavy

are for the purpose of surprise, to turn flanks,

to break through

wherever the resistance In

pursue beaten troops.

all this

is

not heav'y and to

the aviation lends the closest

WALDEMAR

in modem war is a burden which only a large, efficient modern industry can meet. Such industrial mobilization also insures the possibility of re-equipping and rearming with new types

placement

developed during war. tions

and

These two

factors, strategic

communica-

industrial mobilization, are absolutely essential

if blitz-

be successfully waged. The army of the United States, including both the regulars and National Guard, is not equipped krieg

is

to

and armed either to resist or wage blitzkrieg successfully. The strategic railways and autostrades necessary to quickly concentrate U.S. troops do not exist on large sections of the frontiers and

The industry of the United States would need at least a year and perhaps longer before it could be mobilized for war

seacoasts.

The only sure means of preventing blitzkrieg is, for a sea power, the possession of a fleet so strong that no possible purposes.

combination of enemy sea powers could defeat it, and for a land power, the fortification of its frontiers with a Maginot or Siegfried Line constantly garrisoned with sufficient troops to prevent surprise attack.

Modern industry gives the industrial nations today the same chance for dominance on land which they have had at sea since the industrial

modern

revolution gave

navies, while denying

because only nations with a

it

them the opportunity

to

build

to the non-industrial nations. This

first class

modern industry can

pre-

support through reconnaissance by attacking troops on the road

pare for and successfully wage blitzkrieg.

and by the closest

Armies or the World; European War; Strategy of the European War; Tactics in the European War.)

Where

tactical support in action.

armed enemy infantry ready

and in a good position to do so is encountered, the light and armoured troops go around a flank and leave the heavy combat for the regular divisions initial

well

In this

following in rear.

defeat

is

way

to fight

the

enemy

after his

(See also Air Forces;

—

Bibliography. Illustrated Loudon News, Aug. ig, 1939; Nation’s BusiMarch 19391 Army Ordnance, May-June 1939: Foreign Affairs, Jan. 1940; U,S. Infantry Jour., Jan.-Feb. 1940; U.S. Cavalry Jour., Jan.-Feb. 1940. (H. J. Re.) ,

ness,

never allowed the opportunity to reform and

The popular

reorganize.

be crossed before the enemy has completed his concentration, or better yet, his mobilization, then the chance exists to disorganize him thoroughly before he has completed his If the border can

preparation to fight.

Even

in the countries

which have universal

service coupled with all preparation in the shape of equipment,

armament and reserve a mobilization of their

officers

army

and non-commissioned officers for war strength, time is necessary

to its

conception of lime

is primarily as a buildnot the case; of the 3,347,000 short tons produced in the United States in 1938, only 26% was used in the building industry, and even in pre-depression days,

ing material, but this

when

building

was much more

under one-half.

is

extensive, the proportion

Agriculture used

11%, and

was well

of the remainder

38%

went to chemical, 15% to metallurgical and 10% to refractory uses. Of the total sales, about one-third is as hydrated lime

and two-thirds quicklime. In Canada production dropped from

before this mobilization can be completed. troops mobilized to their concentration points near the threatened border. If the invader is already mobilized and concentrated,

674,100 short tons in 1929 to 320,700 tons in 1932, increasing to 473,300 tons in 1936 and 549,330 tons in 1937, followed by declines in 1938 and 1939. (G. A. Ro.)

time element gives him the chance to initiate Lightning get it well under way. Thus blitzkrieg even if not a surprise as to the place where the border is crossed can be called

Limes; see Lemons and Limes. Limestone; see Stone.

After mobilization

more time

is

necessarj' to

transport the

this

War and

a surprise in time. There are two other elements which increase the chance for a fully prepared country like

successfully.

The

first

is

Germany

or Italy to

wage

blitzkrieg

to have not only strategic railways

Linileiiiiiiiii, in

Ferdinaml von

Hanover on April

12, the

son of a teacher.

He

studied at the

but also strategic autostrades. Even though Germany’s railways have not been maintained in the best condition, they have been built for strategic purposes; that is, to insure mobilization

universities of Goettingen, Erlangen,

and concentration of the German Army on the frontiers of possible enemies. In addition to this, the Germans have constructed or have under construction to meet all strategic needs broad motor roads xvith every modern improvement to insure safe and quick passage of columns of motorized and mechanized troops. Some of these roads will permit four columns of mechanized or motorized troops to advance in the same direction at the same

the University of Munich in 1904-05 and full professor of mathematics there from 1893 until his retirement. Lindemann, who first proved the mathematical impossibility of squaring a circle,

The other important preparation is the mobilization of all industry, either promptly when war conies or before the outbreak of war. This not only insures the army and air force being amply supplied with all equipment and armament when war time.

comes, but also the maintenance and replacement of this equipment, and armament, as the war progresses. Maintenance and re-

Munich, London and Paris. He taught first at Erlangen, Wuerzburg and Freiburg, then at Koenigsberg, where he was rector in 1892-93. He was rector of

received the Steiner prize of the Prussian

died at

Munich March

inilirrpn Walripmar LlliUglClli llulUCIIIal !

academy

in 1900.

He

7.

(^860-1939), u.s. geologist and auon mineralogy, was born

thority

February 14 at Kalmar, Sweden, and was educated there and at the mining academy at Freiberg, Germany. After moving to the United States he became assistant geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1884 and later (i 911-12) he was chief geologist. From 1912 until his retirement in 1933 he was professor of economic

LINEBARGER. PAUL M. W. — LIPMAN, JACOB G. geology and head of the department of geology at Massachusetts

he was president of the Geologi-

Institute of Technology. In 1924

Society of America, and in 1937 the Geological Society of London awarded him the Wollaston medal, premier international cal

award for research in mineralogy. line,

He

died

November

3 at Brook-

409

any exports during the 1939-40 season. The declaration of war in September brought a period of confusion

when London

they knew whether

wholesalers asked for deferred deliveries until it

would be necessary to remove

their busi-

nesses out of potential air-raid areas; American buyers hurried

home and Denmark, number one European

Massachusetts.

customer, ceased buyWar-time regulation of the industry through the Flax Control Board limited supplies of yam to filling contracts for private business placed prior to September i, or for Government contracts. Prices of yams increased 50% above 1938. By October, these conditions had righted themselves and while prices were high, the warehouse stocks accumulated during the early part of the year found a ready market. Buyers from both North and South America apparently decided that it would be advisable to secure supplies while they were available. Chinese trade opened up and Denmark resumed ordering in November. The Neutrality Law of the United States also had its effect. It was e.xpected that the Board of Trade would encourage linen shipments to the United States and Canada to provide the dollar exchange needed for purchase of armaments. Whether this hope was expressed by linen merchants to encourage more generous releases of yams by the British Government agencies or was based on actual business indications still remained a question by December. However, the market was in a much better situation at the end of 1939 with a larger turnover of business than the previous year and the strong position of low stocks and restricted supplies. Higher costs were the chief concern; wages for workers in the handkerchief and other manufacturing sections increased 7^% and the prices of yams, as previously noted, 50%. This shortage of yarns and high prices aroused a fear that the demand might revert to cotton and rayon during 1940. (I. L. Bl.) ing.

lineliarger, Paul Myron Wentworth u,s!V'ri?»d author, was bom in Warren, lU., on June 15. After attending Naperville college and Lake Forest university, he studied law in Paris from 1889 to 1892. He was admitted to the bar in Chicago in 1893 but returned to Europe shortly thereafter to continue his studies at the University

American

From

War he was

of Heidelberg.

During the Spanish-

a lieutenant in the First Illinois cavalry.

1901 to 1907 he was U.S. Judge in the Philippines. He rebecome legal ad\nser to Dr. Sun Yat

signed from the bench to

Sen, a position he held until the death of the founder of the

Chinese republic in 1925. Later, from 1930 to 1937, he w’as legal adviser to the Chinese Nationalist Gov’t. As “Paul Myron” he

was author of books in several languages, notably the authoritative biography, Sun Yat Sen and the Chinese Republic (1924). Other works were This Side of France (i9t8). The World Gone Mad (1922), and The Ocean Men (1934). Mr. Linebarger also was founder and editor of the Chinese Nationalist. He died February 20 at Washington, D.C. international hostilities, which had a depressing effect on the linen and flax industry in 1938, was realized in 1939. The result, however, was that at the close of 1939, there was serious shortage of supplies and a strong price trend. The cutting off of Russia and I

onrf PIqV

incin

3nU

Llilull

I

Germany from

IflXi

Irish manufacturing consumers because of the

plus the difficulties of maintaining any reasonable flow of trade with Estonia, Latvia and Poland, the other chief sources of flax supply, made the filling of orders a

outbreak of

hostilities

problem.

The year started with a continuation of the 1938 conditions. Demand was very light and the only activity in the Irish linen industry was that of supplying tent duck to the Government. Fine were piling up in warehouses due to restricted Far East shipments and United States buyers were not active. By May 1939, however, the Chinese shipments not only resumed on their usual scale but increased radically; 122-7% above the nine

weave

linens

year average (1930-38) and 386-3% higher than in May 1938. China took 13-6% of the May 1939 exports from Ireland. Following that period, the failure of the Anglo-Japanese talks again left the putting shippers uncertain. An encouraging note in 1939

on Jan. i, 1939, of the reciprocal trade agreement between Great Britain and the United States. Under the agreement. generous reductions in tariffs were made ranging up to 20% difference, especially in the finer weaves. Handkerchiefs were given a into effect

15% difference, the duty being reduced to 35% on hemmed handkerchiefs. Table damask in the

instead of finer

50%

weave was

reduced from 43% to 25%. Linen tow'els not exceeding 120 threads per square inch were reduced to 50% from 55% and under 120 threads per square inch from 40% to 20%. This was hailed as a hope of more business from the United States and the publicity of the Irish Linen Guild at the New York World’s Fair was also taken as a helpful indication by the Belfast market. The market was ready for any demands with large stocks in

warehouses and plentiful supply in the looms. The only cause was the securing of yarns. The Russia-German

for apprehension

pact did not add any

new problem

holding exports since 1938 and,

it

(^^’^^539). U.S. educator and auwas born at Winnebago, 111 on May II and was graduated from the University of Chicago in 1897. He worked for a brief period as a reporter on the old Chicago

Wphpr llCUCl

thor,

.,

Record, then returned to the university for graduate study. He assistant professor of English and remained on the faculty until his death. For 16 years he w'as a columnist for various Chicago newspapers, and he was the author of three novels. The Second Generation (1902), This Was Life (1936) and Winds

was appointed

,

over the Campus (1936). He also wrote The Chameleojt (1903), James Keeley, Newspaperman (1937) and a biography of Jane Addams, who %vas his mother’s sister. In 1938 Linn was elected an Illinois State representative

on the Democratic

ticket.

He

died at

Lakeside, Mich., on July 16.

I

intnn

LllllUllf at

Pdu/in LUnlll

(^^55-1939). American scientist, was bom at East Bethlehem, Pa., on March 14. Educated

Washington and Jefferson college and at Yale, he became an

instmctor of mathematics at the latter institution in 1879. From 1882 to 1920 he was professor of geology and biology at Washing-

who was one of the world’s worms and parasitology, died

ton and Jefferson college. Dr. Linton, leading authorities on the study of at Philadelphia

on June

4.

Lipman, Jacob Goodale

scientist,

was

bom in

Friedrich-

Russia (now apart of Latvia) on November 18; he was educated there by private tutors and later studied at Moscow'. His family moved to the United States in 1888, and after several years of farming he entered Rutgers university, w'here he graduated in

stadt,

1898. After receiving his master’s

as Soviet Russia had been with-

university he returned to Rutgers

was expected, would not permit

agriculture there

from 1915

and doctor’s degrees at Cornell and was dean of the college of

imtil his death.

In 1911 he was also

;

;

410

LIQUORS,

appointed director of the

New Jersey

tion.

He

agricultural experiment

sta-

authority on the chemistry of

Lipman was a pre-eminent

agriculture.

alcoholic— LITERARY

conducted pioneer research in

soil nutrients

which

made possible more efficient and productive cultivation of crops. He made many significant investigations into the soil chemistry of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and other chemicals.

he received the Chandler medal for chemical research. New Brunswick, N.J., on April 19.

United States

AIpnhnIip

is

In 1934

He

died at

the country of

nIwUllUllu* greatest production and consumption of potable spirits. Whisky is the predominant beverage. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1939, the apparent consumption of all whiskies was 101,452,000 proof gallons. Of these there were 9i,79S>ooo of domestic origin, and the balance largely Scotch and Canadian. Corresponding figures for gin, brandy and rum were 13,392,000 gallons; 2,229,000 gallons; and 1,775,000 gallons. By far, the majority of these spirits

The

is

whisky (the word derivates from th^ Celtic otigmated in. Ireland in. tfin r^tk century, appeared in Scotland in the 15th century and assumed importance in England during the reign of Elizabeth. The first excise tax on distilled spirits dates from that period. Most of of life)

United States, next are Scotland, Canada and Ireland. Considerable quantities are turned the whisky of today

is

produced

in the

out in Australia and a few other countries.

Gin or geneva had

its

origin in Holland.

copy of the Dutch product

at first a

is

English gin which was to the trade gener-

known

gin. It dominates not only the British but world market. However, the production of gin in

London dry

ally as

also the general

the United States

is

far greater than in England.

the product originating from the Charente district and which alone is entitled to the designation “cognac” has been considered lar,

Lately, however, a quite grape brandy has been produced in the State of

as a standard for this type of beverage.

California in the United States.

Rum,

the distillate from fermented juice of sugar cane or

molasses, was at one time a distinctive product of the

West

Indies,

In the i8th century, the American Colonies took up the distillation of rum, adopting a somewhat different method which resulted in the New England type of rum. Up to especially Jamaica.

the beginning of the 19th century,

it

was the predominating

alco-

Other potable spirits are other fruit brandies, especially apple brandy or “apple jack,” and a great variety of liqueurs or cordials.

made almost exclusively in certain locally grown products, such as mostly from then localities and vodka (in Russia and Poland), kirschwasser (cherry brandy), of

these spirits are

slivovitz (prune brandy),

and such

specialties as benedictine, char-

and many others. Until a few years ago, the world supply of whisky and gin was predominantly in the hands of English exporters, with Canada furnishing some whisky and Holland some gin. France shipped most treuse

(A. J. Li.)

of the brandy.

Literacy:

:

:

;

( c.

$2,500 each)

Brynes, William

Elmer

Kenneth Fearing, Wallace K. Ferguson, J. Muller, Charles John Olson, Gaines Post, Fannie Elizabeth Ratchford, Harold A. Sinclair, Robert Pern Warren., Arthur M.. Wilsuu, Edrauud Wilsuu, H.u’Ha.rd Wulf Passos,

Following

—

Ellis,

Richard Wright, Carl Zigrosser. Harper Novel Prize ($7,500) Houghton Mifflin Literary

Vardis Fisher, Children of God.

Fellowships ($1,000

Mary

in

addition to royalties and advances);

National Book Awards for 1938 (American Booksellers Association) David Fairchild, The World Wcj My Garden; Margaret Halsey, With Malice Toward Some; Daphne du Maurier, Rebecca; Anne Morrow Lindbergh, Listen! the Wind. John Newbery Medal (most distinguished children’s book, American Library Association) Elizabeth Enright, Thimble King, Helen Todd.

;

:

Summer.

New York Herald Tribune

Children’s Spring Book Festival Contest ($250 each) Alice M. Coats, The Story of Horace and Phil Stong, The Hired Man’s Elephant. 0 Henry .

Memorial Awards

(best

short

stories):

first

prize

($300),

William Faulkner, Barn Burning; second prize ($200), James Still, Bat Flight; third prize ($100), David Cornel De Jong, Calves. Poetry (magazine) Prizes ($100 each); Maxwell Bodenheim,

John Malcolm Brinnin, Malcolm Cowley, E. E. Cummings, H. B. Mallalieu, Stephen Spender. Pulitzer Prizes ($1,000 in each class): fiction, Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, The Yearling; drama, Robert Sherwood, Abe Lincoln in Illinois; history, Frahk Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines biography, Carl Van Doren, Benjamin Franklin; poetry, John Gould Fletcher, Collected Poems. Mary Roberts Rinehart Mystery Novel Prize

Contest ($1,000):

Clarissa

Fairchild

Cushman, I Wanted

to

White Medal (American Library Association) Louis Round Wilson, A Geography of Reading. John Anisfield Award ($1,000): Charles S. Johnson, The Negro College Graduate. Dodd, Mead Detective Story ($10,000) Hugh Pentecost, Cancelled in Red. Hopwood Prizes (University of Michigan) poetry, John Anthony Ciardi, Homeward to America; ;

;

;

Fuller, The Loon Feather. Southern Authors’ Award: Ben Lucian Berman, Blow For a Landing. Great Britain. Benson Medal (Royal Society of Literature) Christopher Hassall, John Gawsworth. James Tait Black Memorial Prizes (about ^250 in each class) biography. Sir fiction,

lola

—

;

:

Edmund K. Chambers, Samuel Taylor Coleridge fiction, C. S. Forester, Flying Colours and A Ship of the Line. Carnegie Medal Streatfield,

made

Oscar Fritiof Ander, Herschel Brickell, Oscar Clark, Robert Donaldson Darrell, John Dos

S.

(best juvenile book. Library Association of Great Britain)

see Illiteracy.

|»

:

Murder. James Terry

holic beverage in America.

Many

PRIZES

—

United States. ^All-Nations Prize Novel Competition, American section ($1,000): John Selby, Sam. Atlantic NonFiction Prize ($5,000) Agnes Keith, The Land Below the Wmd. Commonwealth Club of California Awards to California Authors, Gold medals: George R. Stewart, East of the Giants and Herbert Ingram Priestley, France Overseas. Silver medals; Oscar Lewis, Big Four, Edward Alexander Powell, Gone Are the Days and Dana Lamb (joint author with June Cleveland), Enchanted Vagabonds. Duke University Press Prize ($1,500); Clement Eaton, Freedom of Thought in the Old South. Julia Ellsworth Ford Foundation Children’s Book Contest ($2,000) Elinore Blaisdell, Falcon, Fly Back. Friends of American Writers’ Prize to a Midwestern Author ($1,000) Herbert Krause, Wind Without Rain. Guggenheim Fellowships

:

Brandy, or more specifically “grape” brandy was recognized for a long time as almost an exclusive product of France. In particu-

fine quality of

is

a partial

list

of the awards

International. ^Nobel Prize for Literature (c. $40,000): Frans Eemil Sillanpaa, Finnish novelist. (See also Nobel Prizes.)

($15,000):

Robert

;

Noel

The Circus Is Coming. Sir Israel Gollancz Memo-

the British Academy (£100): John M. Manly, Hawthornden Prize (£100) Christopher Hassall, Penthesperon. Heinemann Prize (£40); Camille Mayran, Dame en Noir. Irishwomen Writer’s Club Nonfiction Prize: Mary Colum, From These Roots. Stock rial Prize of

The Text of

in 1939.

All-Nations Prize Novel Competition D. Q. Henriques, No Arms, No Armour.

:.

Ernest C. Mossner, Herbert

produced in the United States.

distillation of

ttsqtteba«gk='>«atei:

;

the Canterbury Tales.

Prize; Robert Graves, Count Belisarius.

F

LITERATURE— LITHUANIA

—Governor-General’s Award;

Canada.

Kenneth

Leslie,

By

Stubborn Stars.

—L’Academie pRANgAiSE.

France.

(20,000 fr.)

:

prix de litterature

Jacques Boulenger; Le grand prix du roman (10,000

Antoine de Saint Exupery; Grand prix Gobert (18,000 fr.); Jean Leflon; Prix Louis-Barthou (22,500 fr.); Jacques Chevalier. Prix Petitdidier (15,000 fr. Maison de Poesie) Georges-Louis ;

Ralph

B. Strassburger Prize ($1,000); Jean Pierre

Le Mee, Jeunesse d’Ameriqtie. Goncourt Prize Novel (5,000 fr.) Philippe Heriat, Les Enfants Gates. Femina Prize Novel (5,000 fr.) Paul Vialar, Rose de la Mer. Other European Prizes. ^An extensive list is published in the winter number of Books Abroad (University of Oklahoma). (See also Children’s Books.) ;

;

—

—

or historical information, see: Bessie Graham, Bibliographv. Literary Prises and Their Winners (1939); Charlotte E. JIurray, (M. A. Literary Prizes (1934).

Famous Famous Wr.)

Literature: see American Literature; Canadian Literature; Dutch Literature; English Literature; French Literature; Italian Literature; Literary Prizes; Publishing; Radio, Industrial Aspects op; Spanish- American Literature.

I

lithium have long been used for

ithiiim Minarelo Inillul dio.

to about four days; and on the

next day the state of emergency, proclaimed in Kaunas in

Le grand

fr.):

Gamier.

4n

German ultimatum extending

of a

medical purposes, and the metal has recently been used to some extent in the compounding of bearing metals. The latest addition to the use of lithium is the application of concentrated solutions of the chloride as a dehumidifying Lllllllltil

Decem-

whole country. To compensate for loss of revenue resulting from this cession, a surtax of 25% was imposed on May 25 on the taxes on land, profits, income, etc., and the taxes on beer and cigarettes were increased. A trade agreement concluded with Germany on May 20 provided that Lithuania should receive a free zone south of the existing harbour at Memel, to be built by Germany; and on June 7 the compensation to be paid by Germany for Lithuam'an property in Memel was fixed at

was extended

ber,

600,000,000

litas

to the

(about £22,000,000).

anian inhabitants of

Memel were

In

November

all

Lithu-

ordered to leave within 10 days,

taking only personal luggage and 8 marks apiece.

By

the terms

of the Soviet-Lithuanian pact of October 10 Russia gained the right to maintain limited land

and the

and

and

air forces

on Lithuanian

terri-

(Wilno) was ceded to Lithuania. On October 27, the day of the oflicial entry into Vilnius, a virtually compulsory internal loan of 60,000,000 litas tory,

city

district of Vilnius

was

floated for the reconstruction of the city; and on October 29 Colonel Merkys, former governor of Memelland, was appointed

On March 27 the Government of Father Mironas resigned, and a new Government was formed by Gen. Chemius, with M. Urbsys as foreign minister. This was succeeded on Nov. 22 by a Government under Col. Merkys, with M. Urbsys governor of Vilnius.

(E. A. Ash.) Education. ^In 1937-38; elementary schools 2,601; scholars 307,173; secondary schools 273; scholars 31,647. foreign minister.

—

—

duction of lithium minerals in 1937, amblygonite and' spodumene from South Dakota, increased to 1,35 7 short tons. Ore production decreased heavily in 1938, but total output was increased by

Banking and Finance. Revenue (1938) 370,992,700 litas; expenditure (1938) 366,787,500 litas; budget estimate (1939) 367,900.000 litas; public debt (Dec. 31, 1938) 132,556,300 litas; notes in circulation (Aug. 15, 1939) 152,000,000 litas; gold re-

about 10 times in value, due to the recovery of lithium phosphate from the potash operations at Searles Lake, California. South-

Sept. 1939) 27i-28i litas=£i sterling.

agent in

modem

air conditioning plants.

The United

States pro-

West Africa produced 764 long tons of amblygonite in 1938, and (G. A. Ro.) exported 315-5 tons. (See also Metallurgy.) 20,460

lithlionia

LlinUani3| 2,575,000.

Antanas (mainly

pop.

(est.

sq.mi.

(excluding

Memel area); Memel area)

Dec. 31, 1938, excluding

Chief town; Kaunas (capital 130,000). President; Smetona; language; Lithuanian; religion; Christian

Roman

History.

—

Catholic).

^Anticipating the eventual destiny of

Memel, Lithu-

ania decided in January to develop another overseas port at the fishing village of Shventai. Memel was ceded on March 22 in face

GERMAN SCHOOLGIRLS OF MEMEL Hitler seized the former Lithuanian port

organized their

March 22, 1939

own

ceiebration

when

serve (Aug. 15, 1939) 62,000,000 litas; exchange rate (up to

Trade and Communication.

—Foreign

trade (merchandise);

imports (1938) 223,700,000 litas; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 127,390,000 litas; exports (1938) 233,200,000 litas; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 144,520.000 litas. Communications 1939; roads, suitable for motor traffic

2o,948mi.;

railways,

open

to

traffic

i,i73mi.;

motor

vehicles licensed (Aug. 31, 1938); cars 3,376; cycles 1,589; wire-

(1938) 75,737; telephone subscribers (Dec. 31, 1938) 27,395. Agriculture. Production 1938 (in metric tons) ; rye 623,700, (1939) 653,400;^ oats 420,000, (1939) 401,700; barley 274,000,

less receiving set licences

—

(1939) 246,700; wheat 251,300, (1939) 251,200; potatoes 2,118,300; flax and hemp (fibre) 25,800; butter 19,600. (W. H. Wn.)

LITTLE ENTENTE

412 I

Little Entente, a defensive alliance of

CntDntQ

ittlo

— LOGAN.

Lllllc tnicillCi

Czechoslovakia,

Rumania and Yugoslavia,

against Hungarian aggression, found itself practically dissolved

and perhaps the most active partner in the Entente. The dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in the fall of 193S had not provided any opportunity for the casus foederis, as Hungary had refrained from any act of aggression and in 1939

extinction of one

by the

MARVEL

M.

England and Wales Horses

1939

Cattle

Hogs Sheep Horses Cattle

'

Hogs Sheep

Cattle

Hogs Sheep

Germany Hogs

(as of

Sheep

against Bulgaria as established by the Balkan Entente (g-U-)Hungary, while pressing her demands for the whole or part of Transylvania with renewed insistence against Rumania, expressed several times her readiness to arrive at an understanding with Yugoslavia and to drop all her claims against the latter country. In this endeavour Hungary found the active support of Italy. In

New Zealand

end of the

would mean the

Hun-

Cattle

Hogs Sheep Netherlands (as of

May

(H. Ko.)

Cattle

Hogs

of

ham and bacon

Government

to'

Sheep

Hogs

Canada a Government board took charge

production, under agreement with the British

take regular monthly quotas of pork products to

Sheep Goats Belgium Horses Cattle

Hogs Bohemia-M oravta Horses Cattle

Hogs Sheep Goats

Denmark (Hogs, Nov.

months

of

1939 than in 1938, totalling 2S8,40o,ooolb. in 1939, while ex-ports of pork for. the first 11 months of 1939 were ii2,200,ooolb. or 24,6oo,ooolb. more than in the same period of 1938. Germany negotiated pork product supplies with Hungary, Yugoslavia and

Rumania, but apparently failed in negotiations with Bulgaria, which made arrangements to make shipments to Italy and Greece and also to Rumania. In the United States increased industrial activity maintained beef and mutton prices in the face of increased supplies. The trend in livestock in 1939 continued generally throughout the world to an increase in meat animals and a decrease in draft animals. Following are the numbers of livecountries

stock in various official

sources and

in

1939 and 1938 as reported by

by the International

2,763,453 1,537,783 654,251

1,711,000

1,700,585

Institute of Agriculture:

218,500 705.000 442.000 694,700 3,500

219,000 660,900 384,600 649,700

264,650 1,689,680 960,372

264,464

i)

10.616.000 4,321,000 68.769.000 58.312.000 54.473.000

Horses and colts

Mules and colts Cattle and calves Hogs and pigs Sheep and lambs

Canada

(as of

June

Horses and colts Cattle

and calves

ig40

i)

....

Hogs Sheep and lambs

1939

Cattle

Hogs

2,824,340 8,474,600 4,294,000 3,365,800

Horses Cattle

Hogs Sheep Horses

'

Cattle

Hogs

Cattle

Hogs Sheep Goats

268,102 2,311,037 1,949,034 25,220

3.258.000 3.230.000

3 ,z86,ooo 2,706,000

414.470 2,162,500 891.470 1,469,570

400,470 2,102,380 813,500 1,360,460

520,710 1,103,550 1,1x7,080 1,223,600

516,560 1,097,340 1,093,120 1,208,420

468,69s 3,407,046 2,082,733 469,943 708,111

462,371 3,393,248 2,523,988 485,374 733,641

939,422 2,379,532 3,885,643 1,868,122 65,972

813,591 1,882,031 3,110,160 1,628,730 41,445

Cattle

Hogs Sheep

1,075,700 8,875,200 4,390,100 26,903,700

Horses Cattle

Hogs Sheep Goats France Horses

Mules Asses Cattle

Hogs

.

Sheep Goats 17 . S. S.

2.692.000 135.000 185.000 15,622,000 7.127.000 9.872.000 1.416.000

R.

Horses Cattle

'

’

Hogs Sheep and goats

Sweden Horses Sheep

1,093,500 8,761,900 4,383,100 26,775,400

612,880

Hungary

10,815,000 4,384,000 66,789,000 49,293,000 53.783.000

United Kingdom (as of June)

Horses

871,556

Lithuania (as of June 30)

Hogs

2,820,700 8,511,200 3,486,900 3,415,000

1,710,037

Latvia (as of June 26)

1939

^938

2,200

273.621 2,280,735 1,607,191 21,992 591,669

(See also

17.500.000 63.200.000 30.600.000 102,500,000

617.000 3.036.000 1.371.000 406.000

Cattle

United States (as of Jan.

311,576

18; Cattle, July 15)

Sheep

larger in the first ii

322,152 2,817,314 1,553,418 689,501

Protectorate

Czechoslovakia (as of Jan. i) Horses

40%

278.000 4,506,000 756.000 32,379,000

(as of Dec, 31)

United States pork and lard producers in 1939 reported the largest pig crop on record and a huge export surplus. Exports of however, were about

275.000 4,565,000 683.000 31,858,000

880/100

Oct. 1940.

lard,

20,806,304 5,679,125

Switzerla>id

Horses

age the production of meat animals and to further the imports of meat products. In the United Kingdom these various measures may be said to have culminated in absolute Government control when it was decreed that beginning with Jan. 15, 1940, all livestock (excepting hogs) marketed in the United Kingdom must be sold to the British Government. The Government set the prices and guaranteed a market consistent with farm costs. The Government also operated all slaughter houses and reduced the number from 16,000 to 750. Prices for cattle were announced as $ 7-45 lo $11.58, according to grade; veal, $11.74 to $21.80; lambs and sheep, $6.71 to $28.50. In

22,482,000 5,712,423

Estonia

Following the outbreak of war in Sept. 1939, belligerent governments adopted measures to encour-

iifoctiinlr

92,000 731,900 561,500 893,400

15-17)

Horses

Cattle

I

88,700 753,000 627,100 894,600

(as of April 30)

Horses

Hogs

LlVCulUuni

144,800 1,315,700 257,400 7,969,000

June 3)

Cattle

{See also CznCH0-SL0VA.Kix;

Little Entente.

Rumania; Yugoslavia.)

gary;

definite

142,300 1.360.000 252,900 8.042.000

Northern Ireland

gary and thus paralleled the defensive alliance of the two countries

case of success this Hungarian policy

856,700 6.714.300 3.564.300 17,912,500

Scotland

Horses

had received her share of Czechoslovak territory by negotiation. The Little Entente remained, however, in existence in 1939 ns a defensive alliance between Rumania and Yugoslavia against Hun-

1938

844,700 6,762,200 3,510,100 17,976,100

Cattle; Dairying; Hogs; Horses; Sheep.)

(S.

O. R.)

Local Government: see Municipal Government. Locusts: see Entomology: Locusts and Grasshoppers. senator, (1874-1939), American bom January 7 at Brownsville, Ky., where he practised law from 1896 to 1912. He was county attorney in 1902 and 1903, first assistant attorney general of

Lnpran MarVPl LUgail, inai VCI

llllllo

.^^35

Kenlutky from 1912 to 1916, and attorney general from 1916

—

he resigned on June i, 1917 to accept appointment as chairKentucky State tax commission. The next year he resigned from this position to return to the private practice of law at Louisville. He became judge of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1926 and chief justice of that court in 1930, again resigning upon his election to the U.S. Senate for the term 1931-37. In 1936 he was re-elected for the term 1937-43. At the time of until

man

of the

his death in Washington, D.C., on October 3 he was the ranking Democratic member of the Senate militarj' committee and also served on the judiciary committee. In the Senate he supported

much

New Deal’s

of the

legislation, including the

Supreme Court

bill.

^sain there were no general elections in London’s Government during 1939, and before its close an act was passed postponing such for the duration of the war and I

nnrinn

LUllUUlli

local

allowing for casual vacancies to be filled Jubilee year of the

with

London County

by

co-option.

In the

Council, an event celebrated

ceremony in March, the chairman was for the first Mrs. E. M. Lowe, J.P., a former chairman of the education committee, and E. C. H. Salmon, M.C., succeeded Sir George Gater as clerk. The county rate remained unchanged at 75 92^; the rateable value increased by over £900,000 to £62,484,038; the net debt fitting

time a

—

woman

of the Council stood at £87,269,000 (over £32,000,000 being in respect of housing), and the value of its landed property at over £50,000,000.

Its

houses and

flats

numbered over 92,000 with a

population of some 400,000; and, while the population of the administrative county has decreased to 4,062,800, an increase of

80,000 during 1937 brings that of Greater London in 1938 (the latest date for which statistics are available) to 8,655,000. London’s outward aspect continued to change rapidly even be-

had made its vast contributions in sandbags, shelters, whitewashed kerbs and numerous defence works, not to mention the absence of street- and advertisement-lighting. The new Adelphi building, completed in 1938, was in 1939 housing the Ministry of Supply; in Mayfair the reconstruction of Seville row, where a new police station replacing the famous “Vine street” has been built, was finished, and much progress had been made with the extension and re-alignment of Curzon street, which now affords direct access between Berkeley square and Park lane. The bottle-neck in Kensington High street was removed new Government offices were going up in I\TiitehaIl gardens, where the exfore wartime

LIE-DOWN STRIKE They demonstrated

of for

unemoloyed men an increase

in

in Oxford street, London, Jan. 17, 1939. winter reiief funds

Tavistock square demolitions were occasioned by the extension of the British Medical Association’s building. On the Strand-Fleet street line the internal reconstruction of “the king’s chapel of the

Savoy”, which was to have been dedicated as the chapel of the Royal Victorian Order in the presence of the King and Queen

and Queen Mary

in October,

was completed; both the Lyceum and

the Gaiety theatres were closed and are to be removed; and

Anderton’s hotel in Fleet street, on whose since the 14th century,

of the

Lyceum

made way

site

has stood an inn

for a huge office building.

Much

theatre site, as well as that of Inveresk house in

cular road),

Aldwych, will probably be throrwi into the extensive “roundabout” that it is proposed to construct as the northern outlet of Waterloo bridge, whose reopening is due in June 1940. In the City, AU Hallows church, Lombard street, built by Wren on the site of a Saxon church, had made room for a bank, and its tower is to be re-erected at Twickenham new entrance gates were provided, and other improvements made, at the Tower; certain wharves were removed to allow of the extension of the Billingsgate fishmarket; and the final demolition of Doctor’s Commons

to the

well

;

cavators uncovered most interesting remains of the old IVhitehall palace; Wellington barracks and Regent’s Park barracks were being rebuilt; and of the recommendation made in the Bressey

was made with the Cromwell road extension, the duplication of Blackwall tunnel, the reconstruction of Wandsworth bridge and its southern approach (part of the South Cir-

report, progress

and certain other outlying connections. All opposition development of the south bank of the Thames between Westminster and Waterloo bridges was withdrawn, and the Councost of cil had authority to proceed with it at an estimated £1,629,000.

Helped by the Pilgrim Trust’s grant of £50,000 towards the £400,000 necessary for the purpose. Parliament square was preserved as an open space, and the Westminster hospital that stood there for so long was replaced by a huge new building in Horseferry road, erected at a cost of £850,000 and opened by King

George in April. In Old Palace Yard, Westminster, the erection of the revised design for the King George V memorial, prepared by

Wm. Reid Dick, R.A. and Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, R.A., had been assured. In Bloomsbury the destruction of the charm of the old .squares continued, the growth of the new university being responsible for that in Russell and Torrington squares while the Sir

;

known

to Dickensians

—for

the enlargement of telephone

headquarters was assisted in early August by a disastrous plosion which caused much injury and damage.

London

transport

e.x-

had an exceptionaUj' busy year; the important

extensions to East Finchley (N.E.) and Stanmore (N.W.) were

completed, and good progress was made with that to Loughton (E.) and with others in the north and west; the refashioning of the High street Kensington, King’s Cross and Piccadilly circus

tube stations was finished and that of the King’s Cross underground and the Euston terminus of the L.M.S. put in hand; while since Jan. r more newly electrified branches of the S.R. came into use. Passenger fares were increased in June. Before the outbreak of war much A.R.P. work had been done, but on its occurrence

it

became necessary temporarily

to close 19 stations

and the tunnels under the Thames for further protective work.

413

LONDON UNIVERSITY— LOUISIANA

414

On the road an improved type of bus appeared during the year and another 37 miles of tramway were replaced by the trolleybus system. Large numbers of buses and nearly all the “Green Line” coaches were requisitioned for military or ambulance service, and by the close of the year all services were running to a restricted though adequate wartime schedule. Any hope of the Thames being used as a passenger waterway was again frustrated, but before the war London bade fair to become a world air-centre. It was hoped that the city’s £1,100,000 “super-standard” airport at Fairlop (Essex) would be ready before the end of 1941 and in addition to this the development of Heston (Middlesex) and Croydon (Surrey), and the negotiations for the new site at Lullingstone (Kent) were well advanced. (L. H. D.)

for development.

held

its

ties

of the university were maintained

and the number of students in attendance was nearly 1,000 more than at the same time in 1938. The international crisis in Sept. 193B, however, had led to

to the full

serious consideration of the position of the university in the

event of war and, at the instance of the Government, plans were

prepared for transferring the work of the university to less vul-

These plans had been put into operation and were being given hospitality in the provinces. Some departments have closed but most of the undergraduate

nerable centres.

most

of the Colleges

include the Indian ocean,

Malay

area,

American.

Demand

its

own municipal

students for

whom

continue training.

it

has been decided that the wise course is to of the uni-

The more important examinations

versity are being held although courses and examinations for

many

of the academic diplomas have been temporarily discontinued. (S. J.

W.)

I

ne Anfrolop LUo nllgCiGO)

county seat of Los Angeles county, and largest American city west of Chicago, has an

area of 442 sq.mi.;

its

present population

is

estimated at 1,600,-

000 (1,238,048 in 1930, 102,479 in 1900). During Sept. i939> ^ record-breaking hot wave was ended by exceptionally heavy rainUnder the reform fall, followed by an unusually dry autumn. administration of Mayor Fletcher D. Bowron complete reclassification of the entire civil service

was

effected, progress

in applying scientific principles to the selection

of personnel.

and the

Arthur C.

Hohmann was

was made

and management

appointed Police Chief

was reorganized. The councilmanic the choice of a majority of members favour-

entire department

election resulted in

able to the

new

city administration. Tourist business in southern

California for 1939-40 season was estimated at $300,000,000. During 1939 death removed Carl Laemmle, Sr., celebrated

executive of the films; Addison Day, prominent civic leader; Zane Grey, distinguished author; and Douglas Fairbanks, famous

was very heavy. system by Los

electric

Angeles began to take shape in 1909; thirty years later (Aug. 1939) the city achieved this goal by purchasing remaining distribution properties of the Southern California Edison its limits.

June

30,

Company

1939 the assets of the Bureau of Power

and Light were $226,649,987; gross revenue, $27,051,567; earned the largest publicly owned electric utility in the United States. E. F. Scattergood is chief electrical engineer and general manager. The Colorado river project under the surplus, $647,788,849

—

The main line, from the intake to Cajalco reservoir, 242mi., was completed and water was delivered by November 19. The distribution lines, which will serve 12 cities besides Los Angeles, are 70% constructed. The huge project was financed from the proceeds of a $220,000,000 bond issue voted in 1931. Present indications are

MetropoVilan "Water District neared completion.

it will

be completed at a cost $20,000,000

less

than original

esti-

(R. D. Hu.)

lothian, Philip Henry Kerr,

many

arms em-

Tasman sea, Arabian sea, The European war

for petroleum and gasoline

Plans for developing

dents has materially decreased but London, like other universi-

playing an important part by providing classes for as students as possible between the ages of 18 and 20 and for

lifting of the

brought unprecedentedly heavy orders to aircraft manufacturers about Los Angeles, especially to Douglas, Lockheed and North

mates.

is

Los Angeles

Persian gulf and Chinese coast territory.

work is continuing. The Imperial college, the London School of Economics (for some evening work), and Birkbeck college (for day and evening work) are in London. The total number of stuties,

in

bargo; areas in the Pacific free for operation of American vessels

within

nnrinn llniuor^itu .UllUull UllIVCIdllji

Association of Real Estate Boards

32nd annual convention

from Oct. 23 to Nov. 2, 1939. Los Angeles harbour benefited from the

;

I

The National

largely attended

"Jit

was born April 18; he was educated at the Oratory school in Birmingham and at New college, Oxford. In igo8 and 1909 he edited The State of South Africa. Returning to England, he was editor of the scholarly Round Table from 1910 to 1916 and for five years thereafter he was secretary to Prime Minister Lloyd George. For a year (1921-22) he was director of United Newspapers, Ltd. In 1931 he entered the cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1931-32 he was parliamentary undersecretary in the India office, being also chairman of the Indian Franchise committee in 1932. On April 24, 1939, Lord Lothian, who had not previously held a diplomatic post, was appointed ambassador to the United States to succeed Sir Ronald Lindsay.

nilicP PrinPOCC LUUIOCf IllUCOOf

n

I

Duchess of Argyll (1848—1939)1

sixth

and fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, was born at Buckingham palace March 18. She married the Marquess of Lome, later the ninth duke of Argyll, in March 1871 and accompanied her husband to Canada when he became Governor General of the Dominion in 1878. The duke of Argyll died May 2, 1914. Princess Louise, who was the great-aunt of King George VI, devoted much of her life to sculpture and painting. She died at Kensington palace on December 3.

nilicianQ LUUIoldlldf I

child

carved from the Louisiana Purchase, admitted to the Union in 1812, popularly known

Fatalities from automobile accidents for the county were again high despite all safety programs, though the ratio has been slightly reduced. A master Civic Centre plan for the location of important new structures was advanced. Los Angeles is second to New York in dollar volume of new construction. For

as the “Pelican State” or “Creole State”; area 48,506 sq.mi.; population according to U.S. census of 1930, 2,101,593; estimated

first II months of 1939 construction in the city amounted to $69,416,994, a gain of nearly $6,500,000 over 1938; while the total for southern California during the same period was $192,503,976, a gain of $18,415,784. In the Baldwin Hills area a large-

39-7%; 1,318,160 whites; 776,326 coloured; 2,064,517 native born; 37,076 foreign bom.

in the films.

the

scale rental housing project

(“Thousand Gardens”)

is

scheduled

Jan.

I,

1940, 2,210,000.

Capital,

cities

with larger populations are

port,

76,655.

Of the

Baton Rouge, 30,729. The only

New

Orleans

;

458,762 ; Shreve-

State’s population 833,532 are urban, or

—

History. ^The legislature did not meet, but there was intense preparation for the State Democratic primary election of Jan. 16, 1940.

On June

26, 1939,

Governor Richard W. Leche resigned and

LUMBER was succeeded by Lieutenant-Governor Earl K. Long, brother of the late Huey P. Long; and shortly thereafter a series of public scandals were revealed, involving the president and certain busi-

ation of propert)' $1,500,000,000; annual State budget $60,000,000.

Agriculture,

ness officers of the State university, several building contractors

—Cotton,

Manufactures, Mineral Production.

engaged in construction at that and other State-supported colleges,

sugarcane, com, rice, sweet and Irish potatoes, and hay are the

and numerous

chief staple crops, valued at nearly $200,000,000 annually. Dairy-

politicians high in the councils of the State adminis-

Several of the malefactors were sentenced to State or

tration.

Federal prison terms, others stand indicted though not yet brought to trial,

and the TOdespread investigations by State and Federal authorities

still

continued

as the year ended.

included

charges

The

zlement of public funds, forgery, use of the mails

and other violations of State and Federal laws. These scandals to defraud,

provided the chief issue the Democratic pri-

in

mary campaign

for nomi-

nations to State

offices,

nomination being tanta-

mount to

K.

LONG became

governor of Louisiana

their

candi-

subsequent

but

left

only five

in the race. Earl

K. Long,

is

(Jan.

i,

1940) the administration candidate, the other aspirants being supported by various opposition factions. Notable progressive movements of 1939 were: completion of

new $14,000,000 Charity hospital in New Orleans, and smaller charity hospitals in other cities; continued expansion of the in-

the

program; construction of additional farm-to-market roads as part of the State highway system; pushing toward completion the combined highway and railway bridge over the Mississippi at Baton Rouge; extension of the rural electrification system; enlargement of the soil-conservation program establishment of additional trade-schools an extensive building program at the Statedustrial

;

;

supported institutions of higher learning; opening up of new fields; and large expenditures on public improvements

petroleum

its municipalities.

W. Leche, governor (to June gov1939); Earl K. Long, lieutenant-governor (to June 26; A. P. State; of secretary Conway, ernor after that date); E. A. Tugwell, treasurer; L. B. Baynard, auditor; G. L. Porterie, attorney-general (resigned early in year, and has had two successors Principal State officers: Richard

26,

since)

;

T. H. Harris, superintendent of education.

—^Education

and compulsory for all children. Separate schools are maintained for white and Negroes. Over 300,000 pupils are enrolled in elementary and high schools, 10% Educafion.

of

whom

free

is

are in private and parochial schools.

Charities and Correction.—The State maintains the following: charity hospitals at

New

Orleans, Shreveport, Lafayette, Pine-

and Independence, under the new social security program; insane hospitals at Jackson and Pineville; schools for deaf and blind at Baton Rouge; training school for feeble-minded at Alexandria; Soldiers’ home at New Orleans. There are also numerous private and endowed hospitals and orphanages. The State main-

ville

tains three prison farms for adult offenders,

and separate training

female juvenile delinquents.

male and Banking and Finance.

institutes for

—

is

industrial establish-

ments, with 70,000 employees, receiving $50,000,000 annually in wages, produce commodities valued at $500,000,000. Principal manufactures are lumber

and other cotton-seed

and other wood products,

oil

derivatives, rice products, paper, refined

sugar, petroleum products, carbon-black, chemicals, canned vege-

and sea-foods and tropical clothing. Petroleum, natural gas, and sulphur are the chief mineral products, with combined annual value of $150,000,000. (W. Pr.) tables

salt

I

illTlhDr

LUIIIUCI

production in the United States for 1939 at 25,500,000,000 board feet, or about

is

estimated

18%

above

The United States Census Bureau reported 21,646,000,000 for 1938. The estimated production for 1939 is somewhat above the midway point between the five-year average of 1925 to that of 193S.

1929, inclusive, and the low point of lumber production for several

governor,

by the State and

About 1,600

decades amounting to about 10,000,000,000 board feet in 1932. The leading species produced in order of importance are southern

withdrawals June 26, 1939

a heav'y producer of lumber.

aspirants

announced

EARL

and truck and vegetable

election. Twelve

gubernatorial

dacies,

ing, stock-raising, citrus fruit culture

gardening are also important agricultural activities. Louisiana

diver-

misuse and embez-

sion,

.

415

000,000 and capital, surplus and reserves of $50,000,000. The State’s bonded debt is approximately $150,000,000; assessed valu-

^There are about 120 State and 30 national banks, with total assets of $500,000,000, deposits of $450,-

Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, oak, white pine, hemlock, red pine, 500.000. gum, cypress and maple. Altogether about sixty species enter prominently into commercial lumber production. Southern pine is produced from 21 southeastern States, of which seven cut at least 000 board feet each. Douglas fir is cut in ten Pacific Coast

and Rocky Mountain States, but two of these States, namely, Washington and Oregon, contributed about 95% of the total production of this species.

The outbreak

of the European war early in September definitely lumber production and the price structure. Generally prices advanced sharply during that month, and in some grades and sizes quotations advanced from 10% to 30%. Many mills, both in the South and on the West Coast, caught with low inventories were completely sold out, and refused further orders until Jan. I, 1940. Lumber stocks in retail yards were generally low and this contributed materially to the advancing prices when the demand was felt at the mills. Lumber exports were about 15% above 1938, although in the latter year they were the lowest for the past 40 years. Lumber exports advanced prominently during July and August 1939, but dropped off drastically during the following months. The signing of the Neutrality Act on November 4 definitely affected lumber shipments to Europe, which is the most important consuming mar1.000. ket for export shipments from the United States. Railroad pur27.000. chases of lumber, cross ties and structural timbers were a noteworthy feature during the summer months when railroad income began to show definite evidence of increase. Residential construction, which is the most important single item in lumber consumption in the U.S. was appreciably above the figure of 1938. The two World’s Fairs at New York city and San Francisco contributed to the increase of interest and use of lumber. About 000 board feet of lumber were used in covering more than 000 square feet of floor space at the Golden Gate Exposition. affected both

The use of timber connector construction played an important part at this Fair. More than 1,000,000 people visited the low cost five-room lumber exhibit house built by the National Lumber Manufacturers Association at the New York city fair. In the foreign trade agreements w'hich have been active for the Kingdom and the sec-

past several years, the one with the United

LUTHERANS- -LYNCHINGS

416 ond pact with Canada became

effective

Jan

1939. Other negotiaand Chile, as well as

i,

tions are pending with Belgium, Argentina

with some other important lumber importing countries. Considerable attention has been given by lumber manufacturing

tion of the old, unsolved problem of the relationship between the church and the State increasingly acute. The practical interests involved led to the restudy of fundamental principles, not for one

country only but for the whole world. These changing conditions,

concerns to a revision of American lumber standards, which have

challenging

and other matters important to architects, engineers, builders and others interested in lumber construction. One important basic improvement has been the inclusion of modern structural grading rules, which have been needed for many years. The Congressional Investigation Committee on Forestry’ held a number of hearings in the fall of 1939 to devise new legislation affecting forest policies on the part of the Federal Government. Hearings were held at Syracuse, New York;

the executive committee of the Lutheran World Convention

clarified

definitions of grades

Mobile, Alabama; Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; and Madison, Wisconsin. Resulting legislation may have an important bearing on the lumber industry in the years to come.

—

—

Bibliography. R. C. Bryant, Lumber; Nelson C. Brown, Lodging Transportation (1934); Nelson C. Brown, Logging Principles and Practices (1936); Nelson C. Brown, Timber Products and Industries (1937). (N. C. B.)

—

Ofher Countries.

—The year 1939

down

in lumber his-

of the claims of the Christian religion, influenced

all

the formulation of the program for

its

in

1940 meeting in Philadel-

phia, Pa.

The year 1939 brought changed

conditions which have required

work of the church in non-Christian lands, by all parts of the Lutheran Church engaged in foreign missions, placing upon Lutherans in America increased responsibility for missions heretofore maintained by European groups. also a complete review of the

The movement

for official union of the nearly 3,000,000 Luther-

ans in America according to reports on negotiations showed decided progress in 1939. A notable e.xpression of the growing unity

among Lutherans

in

America was given

in a joint declaration,

signed April 1939 by presidents of seven independent Lutheran bodies as the first such joint declaration on record. The title of that declaration was; “These

Momentous Times,” and

it set

forth

tory as one of the most eventful periods ever known. Following a

“certain fundamental and controlling elements in the world’s

life,”

depression year from the lumber point of view, importers in lead-

to be observed

will go

European buying countries adopted a very cautious policy in months of 1939. Softwood export quotas, fixed by the European Timber Exporters convention, were reduced from ing

the opening

3,164,000 standards in 1938 to 2,903,200 standards for 1939. Purchases were very restricted until May, political uncertainties

on the trade. Then the British Government introduced conscription and immediately a sharp impetus was given to the trade by the heai^y demands for material for the building of hutment camps. In other European countries, too, demand quickened and prices went upward. The changed circumexercising a severe effect

stances led the Exporters convention in August to increase the

by 290,320 standards. The European war revolutionized

by Christians in times of confusion and chaos. The possibility of war in Europe, as manifest at the time of the meeting of the Executive Committee of the Lutheran World Convention in Germany, May 1939, led that body of representatives of the Lutheran Church in all parts of the world to adopt a resolution that no matter what political or social issues or conditions might arise between nations, the

bonds of Christian

fellow-

ship in the church should not be broken, but that the church would preserv’e its unity

and continue

its

testimony against the

war, with continuous readiness to do

evil of

utmost for peace, while service of mercy to the suffering of all races and (W. H. G.)

giving a full nationalities.

its

export quotas

regulations, the British

Government

Under defence up the Timber Control,

the trade. set

and stringent regulations were imposed to ensure conservation of timber stocks in the country and to confine their use primarily to urgent work of national importance, such as defence work and air raid protection. All United Kingdom buying from overseas was concentrated in the hands of one buyer, the Timber Controller, and all stocks bought by him were to become national stocks. Toward the end of 1939 plans were being worked out for the rationing of these stocks and their allocation on a quota basis to importers and merchants for sale to consumers. Germany’s declaration of wood as contraband seriously hampered the export trade of the Scandinavian countries. Moreover, the over-running of Poland by Germany and the attack later on Finland by Russia put these two important timber exporting countries temporarily out of the picture. The result of the hostilities has been to change the directions of trade, and Britain has turned more and more to Canada and the United States for the satisfaction of her timber needs and to some of the smaller Euro-

pean countries that are not involved in the war. The loss of some important sources of supply has meant new and greater opportunities for other exporting countries that are rich in forest re

I

independent European State, south-east of

llVOmhlirO'

LUACIIIUUI57 Belgium, with which country an economic

was formed

German;

religion: Christian (mainly

—In

Catholic).

April, the

factured goods were suspended. Just before the outbreak of war

Luxemburg received assurances of respect of her neufrom Germany (August 26) and France (August 29); but,

in Europe, trality

though these assurances were observed during the remainder of German preparations along the frontier were the object of an anxious watchfulness. the year,

—

Finance. Revenue (1938) 343,341,049 francs; (1939) 353.229,716 francs; expenditure (1938) 333,137.434 francs; (1939) 333.439.719 francs; floating debt (Nov. 13, 1938) 137.831,307 francs; consolidated debt (Nov. 15, 1938) 624,793,615 francs.

I

lynchings occurred, so far as could be learned,

VnphiniTC

Ljfllblllllgo*

The value of timber exports into the United Kingdom in the eleven months, Jan. to Nov. 1939, was £34,708,162 compared with (N. F.) £39,413,401 in the corresponding period of 1938.

and one each

during 1939. Three of the victims were Negroes and two Avere white. Two of the lynchings occurred in Florida in Louisiana,

Arkansas and Missi&ippi.

Investigation, however, of the lynching of Joe Rodgers of Canton, Mississippi on

LUlllCrdilOa

Roman

Grand Duchy celebrated the centenary of her independence, dating from the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839. On Aug. 3, 1939, the import quotas of a number of manuHistory.

sources.

Lutheran Church throughout the world, with a membership'of nearly 70,000,000 faced the chal-

union

1922 and the customs frontier abolished. Area 999 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1937) 300,732. Chief town: Luxemburg (cap., 59,760). Ruler: Grand-Duchess Charlotte; language: Luxemburgian (idiomatic); official languages French and in

which mobs

in

tic details of

May

8 disclosed a

new technique

in lynching

some States have adopted. Revelation of the

sadis-

lynchings during the debate on Federal anti-lynching

House of Representatives and

lenges of changing conditions with increasing gravity, during 1939.

legislation in the

The

Senate had aroused public opinion, particularly in the South.

situation, in

Germany

especially,

made

the serious considera-

the United States

LYONS. JOSEPH

A.

— MACHINERY

AND MACHINE TOOLS

ministers in

Prime Minister

417

Scullin’s labour cabinet in 1931

and

founded the United Australia party, a strong opposition group which swept Scullin from office. Lj'ons became prime minister in 1932. Probably the most noteworthy accomplishment of his three successive terms

Lyons

was

his reorganization of Australian finances.

United States in 1935 and represented Australia at the coronation of King George in 1937. He died after a brief illness at Sydney on April 7. visited the

McDonald Observatory:

see Astro.nomy.

Machado y Morales, Gerardo September

29, in the province of

the island’s separatist

politician,^

movement when he was

was twice decorated for

bom on He joined

was

Santa Clara, Cuba.

a youth of 22 and

braverj' in the outbreaks that preceded

the declaration of independence from Spain. After several years

Governors, chambers of commerce, and others

he became inspector general of the Cuban Army, and secretary of the interior in igoS. As leader of the Liberal party he was elected president in 1925 for a four-year term. By adroit manipulation of the congress and the constitution, he first

to induce textile

secured extension of the presidential term to six years, then

in private life

LYNCHINGS

in

the United States:

number each year

since

1900

who were working and other mills to move their plants to the South found that lynching and mob violence was threatening the stability of labour supply as well as property and economically hurting States where lynchings occurred.

In the Joe Rodgers lynching, news of which appeared in no newspapers, the new technique was revealed of 30 or 40 mob

members whose duty

it

to take their victim to a secluded spot In one area of Mississippi it is alleged

was

and there dispose of him. that at least four such lynchings occurred within a period of four months prior to the lynching of Rodgers who was put to death in the same fashion because he is said to have refused to pay rent for a company house belonging to the company for which he worked. It his

is

alleged Rodgers refused because he had a

home

of

own.

Additional unpopularity of lynching was created by the jibes of Nazi and other newspapers when Americans criticized Nazi-

Germany’s mistreatment of Jewish, Catholic and other minorities. Das Schwarze Karps, organ of the Nazi storm-troopers, featured a photograph of President Franklin D. Roosevelt upon the occasion of his denunciation of the mistreatment of Jews in Germany

when he declared

that “It

is difficult

to believe that such things

can happen in the 20th century.” Surrounding the President’s photograph in

Das Schwarze Karps

were pictures of the lynching and burning at the stake of Negroes United States. Efforts to secure enactment of the I\agner-Van Nuj'S-Capper-

in the

Gavagan-Fish Federal anti-lynching bill were continued during Refusal of 1939. But neither house of Congress passed the bill. the chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, Hatton W. Sumners, of Texas, to permit that committee to report the bill out of the committee to the floor of the House for debate and vote caused action to bring the bill to the floor by means of a discharge petition which was successful when the necessary 218

members of the House signed the out on Jan.

8,

petition

which brought the

1940. {See also Negroes, American.)

bill

(W. Wh.)

effected his

own

re-election in 1928.

ing unrest of the

army

Australia from 1932 until his Stanley, of a poor Irish immigrant family in Tasmania, on September 15. His education was largely informal. After a period as a school teacher he w’as elected to the Tasmanian

bom

death,

was

House

of Assembly in 1909.

He

w'as

premier of Tasmania from

Australian postmaster-general and minister of public W'orks in 1929. Lyons broke with his fellow

1923 to 192S.

He became

distress

and growHis

enemies accused him of wholesale political assassinations, and a trail of indictments followed him into exile in the United States

and Europe. He was arrested in New York city at the request of the Cuban Government in Nov. 1937, but the charges against him were dropped the next month. He died at Miami Beach, Fla., on

March

29,

Macliinety and Macliine Tools. working machines, for many years selected only for work in mass production plants because of the time necessary to set up cutting tools and cams or other control elements, during 1939 found increasing application on short-run jobs. This trend toward simplified tooling and more easily adaptable machine tools has been gathering momentum during the past few years. It now is economical to assign jobs of less than 100 pieces to types of machines that only a few years ago would have been used only when requirements were numbered in thousands. Production managers whose plants are equipped only with standard general-purpose metalworking equipment are finding it more and more difficult to compete with plants that are taking advantage of the profit-making possibilities offered

by up-to-the-minute machines.

Attention in machine design to refinements that

make

metal-

working equipment easy to operate and accurately controllable w'as even more noticeable during 1939 than in 1938. Controls frequently are interconnected and interlocked to safeguard the machine, the work, and the operator on many current machines the operator has only to press convenient pushbuttons to initiate a

—

machining cycle once the work-piece has been loaded and clamped. Seeking to fill the long-existent gap between the plain precision bench lathe (long used for small work of accurate nature) and the precision toolroom engine lathe, a

number of

lathe manufacturers

market floor-type lathes of 9 to ii-in. diameter swing. Each features desk-high working position, with all controls within easy reach of the operator whether he be standing or seated. Such arrangements result in faster production, more accurate work and reduced operator fatigue. Perhaps the most consistent trend in the design of machine tools was the increasing use of hydraulic operating units. Solenoidoperated valves, by means of which the electric drive and control sj’stem can be interlocked with the hydraulic system to provide in 1939 placed on the

Lyons, Joseph Aloysios

Economic

led to his overthrow in Aug. 1933.

Specially designed machines and were required for each application when this method was introduced during 1938; the year 1939 saw the development of both a general purpose superfinishing machine and a carefully selected lubricant. special honing stones

standard heads that can be used for developing superfinished

The general-purpose machine can be equipped for between-centre, collet or chucked work and has surfaces in engine lathes.

capacity for cylindrical parts up to 4in. in diameter and i8in. long.

been adopted for a wide variety of work.

It already has

Gear-tooth finishing with serrated cutters has found extensive

Both rack-type and rotary

application.

cutters are used and the

operation can be performed at high production rates. chine,

new

in 1939,

is

One ma-

capable of finishing either spur or

external gears with a rotary cutter

mounted

in a

helical

head having angu-

adjustment so that either “crossed-axes” or “parallel-axes” The slide which carries the cutter head is caused to reciprocate rapidly during the cutting operation, thus

lar

finishing is possible.

permitting the removal of considerable material while producing a fine finish on the work. rapid

accurate gears. teeth,

It is claimed that the combination of

reciprocation with high-speed

The

rotation results in highly

rotary tool can have either straight or helical

depending upon the direction of the teeth on the gear

and the necessary crossed-axis setting When employing the parallel-axis method, a straight-tooth tool is required for spur gears and a helical tool for helical gears. This method is necessary when relative to the gear axis

required for the best results.

finishing gears cut close to a shoulder, or

One THE PATTERNS OF INTERNAL STRESS remain permanently In flywheels and other machine parts and can be photographed In colour by virtue of a new process in photoelasticity developed by Dr. M. Hetenyl In Pittsburgh

“fool-proof” operation and permit automatic control, had to do with the continuation of this trend.

much

Limit switches oper-

ated by moving machine elements frequently actuate these valves. In some machines, particularly grinders, even the lubricating circuit is interlocked with the electric drive so that the main drive

motor cannot be started

until oil pressure in the bearings is suffi-

Excessive pressure in this clogged supply pipes, or a drop in pressure will

cient to provide adequate lubrication. circuit, indicating

actuate interlocks and stop the machine.

Grinding, honing, lapping and “superfinishing” methods continued throughout 1939 to hold the interest of metal workers. One of the principal developments in this group has been fostered primarily by manufacturers of aircraft engines, and is gradually finding acceptance with other manufacturers. This of threads, frequently direct finishing pass.

one of the

from the

is

the grinding

solid in a roughing

and a

1939, in fact, saw the development of commercially successful machines for grinding

The year

first

grouped

in a cluster.

tool can be used for finishing gears having a large range in

pitch diameter, so long as the teeth have the same

Both a

size.

and a gear shaper using a disk-type cutter have recently been placed on the market for producing fine-pitch, small-diameter external spur and helical gears at high production rates. The gear generator differs from the shaper in that it employs a rack-type cutter carried in a clappertype holder. Each of these machines is equipped with a magazine feed and operation is entirely automatic; cutter speeds can be straight-line gear generator

as high as 2,000 strokes per minute.

a

is

medium

Another 1939 development

capacity vertical gear hohber featuring automatic

cycles and hydraulic control. The automatic cycle of this machine employs hydraulic pressure for actuating the hob carriage, clutches and clamping mechanism; mechanical drives to the hob spindle and screw feed; electrical drives to the hydraulic pump unit, coolant pump and work slide rapid traverse. Either conventional or “climb” cutting can be employed, merely by changing the setting of the controls.

Dies and moulds can be completed at one set-up in a rotaryhead vertical milling machine recently announced. Layout, and all milling, drilling, boring and slotting operations can be performed without removing the die block from the table of the machine,

spindle of this

thereby making possible major cost reductions because of the time

machine operates at up to 18,000 r.p.m. and is adjustable for helix angle. Wheel dressing is automatic. Lead accuracy is assured by using interchangeable master leadscrew and nut assemblies. Another first for 1939, also in the grinding field, is a machine

saved, as well as insuring the production of more accurate dies. The rotary head carries a vertical spindle which can be set off

internal threads to precision limits.

The wheel

for finishing curved-tooth bevel and hypoid gears. Generated tooth profiles are ground in this machine by means of a relative

motion between the wheel and the work. This motion conthe cradle on which the wheel is mounted and the rotation of the work on its axis. The relative motion is the same as though the gear being ground were rolling with a generating gear. Operation is automatic, once the work is chucked and the wheel dressed. More and more applications are being found rolling

sists of rotation of

centre radially and rotated in a planetary motion. Individual motors drive both the head and the spindle. A cherrying attachment mounts directly on the rotary head and ties together the cross-slide and vertical motions of the spindle, permitting circu-

movements of the cutter in a vertical plane. Because this cherrying attachment also can be used for angular cuts, conical cavities and projections can be generated by combining the cherrying attachment operation with the rotary motion of the

lar

head.

Attachments for

this

machine permit

slotting, right-angle

,

method of producing an extremely fine surface finish, which uses a combination of short motions, light abrasive pressures, slow cutting speeds) hard abrasive stones and

for the “superfinishing”

418

milling and universal-angle milling operations.

Another interesting milling machine made available

in

1939

is

the straight-line “Mill-N-Shaver” which combines rough milling

with a shaving operation to produce plane surfaces comparable

MACKAY, WILLIAM A.— McREYNOLDS, SAMUEL with those obtained by surface grinding.

Essentially,

this

is

a planer-type milling machine having a combination head which performs the rough milling operation during the forward motion of the table, positions the tungsten carbide shaving blade,

and

then takes the finishing cut during the “rapid traverse’ return stroke of the table. Micrometer adjustment is provided for the shaving blade, which automatically

is

drawn back, out of the way,

during the milling stroke.

Bar stock of imlimited length can be threaded in an unusual roll now on the market. Operation is entirely different from that of conventional roU threading equipment, which is limited in length of thread that can be produced. In this new machine roller dies take the place of the usual plate dies and are rotated around the work, which is fed through the die head for whatever length is desired. Only the length of the bar stock limits the length of thread that can be obtained. The machine looks very

threader

much

like a conventional die threading

machine, with the chasers

by threaded rollers. Speed of rolling is, in some cases, as much as 50% more than is obtained when cutting threads. Large-platen hydraulic presses have found much favour in the being replaced

forming parts from sheet duralumin, particudevelopment of the Guerin process, patented by the Douglas Aircraft Company. Fundamentally, this process consists of using a block of rubber in the press instead of the custom-

aircraft industry for larly since the

ary upper

die.

Inexpensive lower dies are

made from

steel,

zinc

or wood. Sheets of duralumin are placed over the lower dies and the rubber block is brought down so that it engages each die and flows so as to cal in

conform

to the die contours, producing parts identi-

shape with the various

dies.

IVhen blanking, the pads

set

up

tension between the pressing surface and the periphery of the die,

causing the sheet to part along the cutting edge of the die. As as 35 parts have been formed, or 65 pieces blanked, at one

many

pressing in a hydraulic press of 2,000-ton capacity having gzxyain. (B. C. B.) platens. (See also Textile Industry.)

H/lackay, William

Andrew

was”

bom

in

Philadelphia

on

July 10 and studied at the College of the City of New York, at the Academic Julian in Paris, and at the American Academy in

Rome. During the World War he was a chief district camouflage artist of the U.S. Army. Among his many murals in public buildRoosevelt Memorial hall of the American Museum of Natural History in New York city are perhaps the most notable. This work, for which he was commissioned in 1933, depicts various historical scenes in the life of Theodore Roosevelt. Mackay also painted murals for the ceiling of the reading room of the U.S. Senate, for the Civic Opera house in Chicago and for the

ings, those for the

State building of the

New York

New York

World’s Fair.

He

died July 26 at

city.

(1873-1939), British Salvation Army offiat Glasgow, Scotland. His

McMillan, John cer, was bom parents, who were also attached to

the Salvation

Army, were

Canada in 1888. After remaining there for several years in various offices he was ordered to Australia in 1896 and rose to Australian field secretary of the army before his return to Canada in 1916. In 1923 he became chief secretary for the British transferred to

he was promoted to commissioner and sent to Chicago as commander of the central U.S. territory, where he remained until 1930. From 1930 to 193S he commanded the eastern U.S. territory with headquarters in New York city, and in isles,

and three years

lIpMnufrhtnn

iilwliuugliluilj

419

D. ~

fintlrDU/ CofirffO I Otta nllUICn uCUigC Ldllu

bom Moosomin

C.B.;

C.AI.G.;

February 25; son of Robert Duncan and Christina Mary Anne (Armour) educated Moosomin public school, Bishop’s college school, Lennoxville, P.Q., McGill imiversity (1906-1910), B.Sc., 1910, M.Sc. 1912, Senior DemonD.S.O.;

(Sask.)

;

strator in Electrical Engineering (1912-1914)

;

Honorary LL.D.

1920; married (Sept. 17, 1914) Mabel Clara Stuart Weir: children, Christina Stuart, Andrew Leslie, Edward Dalzell, Ian Ar-

mour, Leslie Stuart. General McNaughton served conspicuously in the World War 1914-1918, during which he commanded in succession the 4th Battery^ 2nd Brigade, Canadian Field Artillery; the 2ist Howitzer Battery; the nth Brigade C.F.A.; and next was appointed Counter-Battery staff officer of the Canadian Corps. Wounded at the second Battle of Ypres (April 1915) and again at Soissons (Feb. 1918) he was three times mentioned in despatches, awarded the Distinguished Service Order (1917) and made a companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (igig).

Upon returning to Canada in May 1919 General McNaughton was appointed member of the committee for the Reorganization of Military Forces of Canada, and in 1922 promoted to Deputy Chief of the Canadian General Staff. In 1929 General McNaughton was again promoted, this time to Chief of the General Staff, a position

which he held until asked to be President of the Canadian National Research Council (1935)- He served in this capacity until Oct. 6 1939, when he was appointed to his present position, Commander of the Canadian Active Service Forces. As head of the National Research Council, in addition to contributing numerous papers to technical journals, he particularly directed research in electrical and aeronautical investigations, and was joint inventor with W. A. ,

Steel of the cathode-ray direction finder.

At the

close of the year

(1939) General McNaughton was “somewhere in England” with the First Division of the Canadian Active Service Force, which arrived in the middle of Dec. 1939.

(J.

T. C.)

was on July 19 and was educated at Indiana university (A.B., 1913) and at Harvard (LL.B., 1916). He was admitted to the bar of Indiana in 1914 and began his practice at Martinsville in that State. Three years later he was appointed to the faculty of the Indiana university school of law, and he was dean of this school from 1925 until he resigned in 1933 to assume office as governor of Indiana. In 1928 he was elected national commander of the American Legion.

MpMlltt IliUliUll,

Paul r dUl VnriPQ VUIlCO

politician,

bom

at Franklin, Ind.

He

did not support Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Democratic convention in Chicago in 1932, and he was himself mentioned soon afterward as a possible future candidate for the presidency. In

1937 Roosev'elt appointed him U.S. high commissioner to the Philippines.

While

and on Feb.

23,

still

in that office

he returned

to the U.S.A.,

1938 his friends staged an elaborate testimonial dinner for him in Washington, D.C. which was widely interpreted as an initial

move to secure his nomination as the Democratic candidate in 1940. Some political observers freely predicted an open rupture between McNutt and high officials of the New Deal, but President Roosevelt confounded these prophecies on July ii, 1939 when he appointed McNutt first administrator of the new Federal Security Administration.

later

1935^36 he was in charge of the entire Canadian territory. The next year he was appointed chief of staff to Gen. Evangeline Booth and thus became the head executive officer of the world-'n'ide organization of the Salvation Army. He died at London September 22.

McReynolds, Samiiel Davis

gSjts

br‘„'e“

on April 16 and was educated at Peoples college. Pikeville, and at Cumberland university, Lebanon, Tenn. Admitted to the bar in 1S93, he practiced at Fike\dlle and Chattanooga and from 1903 to 1923 was a criminal court judge in Tennessee. In the latter year he was elected U.S. representative. Two years later Pikexdlle, Tenn.,

MADAGASCAR- MAGINOT

420

he became a member of the House committee on foreign and,

in

1930,

chairman

of

that

influential

legislative

affairs

group.

at first a conservative, he became a staunch New Dealer after the election of President Roosevelt and was noted for his championship of the latter’s views on U.S. neutrality. He

Though he was

LINE

—

of regular issue, and found thousands of new readers due apparently to the fact that the strips themselves began to carry their

more

endlessly continued stories into

Among

adult fields of interest.

the general magazines the coming of the

Madagascar:

war was marked toward serious non-fiction, dealing not only with European topics but American as well. The picture magazines stabilized at about the point they had reached at the close of 1938. Trade journals generally enjoyed a good year, with large

Madeira:

increases

died at Washington, D.C., on July ii.

see

see French Colonial Empire. Portuguese Colonial Empire.

Magazines and Periodicals.

^

pe'Lt

during 1939, as of every other, was the coming of the war in Europe. It brought sharp curtailment both in the numbers cal business

and the physical size of English, French and German periodicals, and changes of character both to those periodicals and magazines in America. Paper shortages and increasing costs withered away the German art magazines whose rise had featured the previous year; other publications revealed a pronounced decline in number, in typography, and in circulation. In France and England only the sturdiest magazines survived. Old periodicals like Illustrated London News and L’ Illustration filled up with war articles and war pictures, but became thinner in total pages and lost advertising revenue. Vu disappeared in France and across the Channel the digest magazines belatedly echoed their great American popularity of a few years before, headed by Parade. In all fields there was a marked tendency toward the tabloid, low-cost periodical. At the same time black-out nights provoked a curious phenomenon in something like a concerted drive for more reading, with Government approval and support. This was reflected in the wide popularity of the periodical book reprinted books in paper covers, issued like periodicals, either by subscription or for newsstand sale. A single example of this class. Mercury Books, under the auspices of American Mercury, had some success in the United States. In the American periodical field the leading developments exhibited a sharp line of fissure between those produced by the war and those preceding it. Among the pre-war changes may be listed the disappearance of Ken after a brief and stormy career, and the fact that American Mercury, Saturday Review of Literature and North American Review aU changed hands without any noticeable change in content. Scribner’s, one of the oldest and

—

most respected names in American periodical history, also abandoned publication. Its title was acquired by a firm which also took over Commentator, founded as a kind of cross between the digest and news magazines; and a new publication bearing both titles appeared for the first time in November. The magazine, although not radically different from others of the “quality group,” was remarkable format, a portion of its pages appearing on the familiar smooth paper with half-tone illustrations, while the bulk were printed on wood-pulp paper. distinguished

by

its

Also among the pre-war developments was the startling attrimovie magazines, perhaps a reflection of declining interest in the movies themselves, with the time-lag usual between events and the reading habits they induce. The pulp fiction tion of the

magazines, whose decline was one of the outstanding features of 1938, came back strongly, but with a changed character that perhaps reflected an escape psychology generated by the obviously

approaching war. Nearly all the new pulps that attained success were devoted to pure or pseudo-scientific fantasy; and the older pulp magazines showed a strong tendency to increase their content of this type of material. In a somewhat analogous field,

paper-bound “books” containing collections of comic strips from the daily press, which in other years enjoyed a mild popularity among children, advanced to the status of full-fledged periodicals

by a

shift of content

among those dealing with aviation. Newsstand sales grew at the expense of subscription circulation. At the close of the year there were 6,432 periodicals being published in the United States, an increase over the previous year; 3,466 of these were monthlies, and 1,399 weeklies, both figures showing gains.

Great

Britain.

—Eleven

(Fl. Pr.)

weeks before the outbreak of war

Lord Camrose, chairman of the Amalgamated Press, publishers of the most extensive list of magazines in Great Britain, drew attention to the serious disabilities under which the business was

The

then suffering.

1938 had not

effects of the crisis of Sept.

passed away.

In January Criterion, a high-class

literary quarterly

founded

in

was followed in April by the amalgamation of the London Mercury, which, especially when edited by its founder. Sir John Squire, had accomplished much for the literary and artistic world in its 20 years, with Life and Letters To-day, a ix. weekly originally founded by Desmond MacCarthy as a half-crown quarterly, Life and Letters, in 1928. 1922, announced its demise, and this

Coming nearer the war,

the Era, a theatrical weekly with a

fine

from 1837, issued its last number in July, and soon after its outbreak the Windsor (1895) and Pearson's, (1896), monthly magazines, as well as the Cambridge undergraduate tradition dating

journal, Granta, did the same.

Perhaps the crowning disaster

the magazine world was the disappearance with

its

in

December

number of the Cornhill, which from the time of its founding and editing by Thackeray in i860 had played a leading part in English periodical literature.

Among

other suspensions during the year

may

be mentioned: United Services Review; Modern Motoring and Popular Motoring; Flying; Golf Illustrated; Good Gardening and House arid Garden Design; Radio Pictorial, Screen Pictorial, and Television and Short-Wave World; the British Musician and

Musical News; Eve’s Journal and Salesmanship. Many others were the subjects of amalgamation, as: Great Thoughts (1883) with Sunday at Home and Overseas (1854), Melody-Maker with

Rhythm, Film

Show, Film Weekly with World Radio with Radio Times; while Odham's Passing Show and Weekly Illustrated were incorporated to form the new and highly successful Illustrated. Odham’s also during the Pictorial with Picture

Picturegoer, and

year took over

News Review,

Parade, Armchair Science, Garden-

Home), and Housewife, pocket monthly launched elsewhere in January. On the other hand, there were a few newcomers, the war itself, and the preparations therefor, being responsible for some, such as ing (which was amalgamated with Ideal

a

fid.

Battle Training (a

fid.

pocket monthly) some A.R.P. and A.F.S. serials. The new “Pockets” were led by

magazines, and some war

the already mentioned Housewife, and include the World Digest (Amalgamated Press), P.T.O. {i.e., “People, Topics, and Opinion”) (Newnes), Causerie, and Horizon all fid. monthlies. Tomorrow is

—

a non-political but democratic fid. weekly; Cameo (Pearson), a monthly, is a “non-fiction library”; and the Trident, which corporates Blue Peter (1921), sea and oversea travel.

.

is

a

ix.

ir.

in-

monthly dealing with the (L. H. D.)

France’s northern and eastern frontiers derives

its

name from

—

MAGINOT Andre Maginot, French minister of war who, taking office in 1929 managed to secure, the year following, an appropriation of no less

than 2,900,000,000 francs toward

But

its

French

its

construction.

from a decade

earlier. Studies to

determine

new fortifications, construction of which was made imperative by Germany’s astonishing post-war

421

machine. These include barbed

entanglements, concealed dry

tvire

ditches deep enough to entrap a tank,

of steel

beginnings, at least in the minds of certain far-sighted

soldiers, date

LINE rails

mined

areas, serried rows

projecting unequally from the ground surface (some

of these with bundles of explosives attached to be detonated on

impact), canals, moats, in short every

human

known

passive

means for

the type and extent of the

delaying and neutralizing

military and industrial renaissance, were instituted as early as

The active defence elements are much more inconspicuous. Above ground, there is little to reveal the extent of what lies beneath. Prior to the commencement of hostilities the fortress troops

1920. In 1922 there

consider the problem.

was constituted a military commission to Working unofficially, first under the direc-

Marshal Joffre and, subsequent to

under that of General Guillamat, it finally received, in 1925, full governmental sanction under a decree signed by Painleve on the last tion of

his death,

day of that year. A report which it submitted in 1926 was studied by the Supreme War Council throughout 1927. Finally, in 1928, a few tentative fortifications were constructed in an effort to determine the exact line on which the

final

works should be

built

were quartered

by entrances they life,

—

accenting in particular three defence areas, viz: the Rhine, the

Vosges and the Metz-Thionville sector. Subsequently, in order to forestall another German “push” through Belgium, the works have gradually been extended to the

north-west along the Franco-Belgian border, and are eventually to reach the sea at Dunkerque. This despite the fact that Belgium has constructed, commencing in 1937, her own “Little Maginot Line” with its southern terminus opposite the French fortifications at Longwy, its northern in a crook or elbow running from Eupen to Liege.

The

initial

appropriation toward this effort w’as the

equivalent of about $33,000,000 (nearly $4.50 per capita), a tidy

sum

for a nation of Belgium’s size.

Generally speaking, the Maginot Line comprises a series of conand strong points connecting France’s

crete pill-boxes, blockhouses

old fortifications with two gigantic fortresses, Hackenburg and Hochwald, protecting the great iron and industrial regions of Lorraine. Extending eastward from the works proper are row upon row of obstacles to impede the advance either of man or

model

villages, located close

now inhabit, the medical service holding that subterranean when not imposed by war conditions, was inadvisable. But

the buildings were of

special

construction,

camouflage and surrounded in a twinkling by of passing the closest scrutiny of

With

1934. By this time a line 314km. long had arisen stretching from the Belgian border on the north to Switzerland on the south, and

in innocent-appearing

to the tunnels leading to the hidden blockhouses

at

collapsible

an

hour’s notice into small components, these to be overstrewn wdth

and the nature of the dispositions required. Following the voting of the appropriations of 1930, the project was commenced in earnest, its main features being completed in

or mechanized assault.

dummy

occupation.

Here and there

is

trees capable

aviation.

these habitations razed, the visitor sees

human

of

enemy

little

evidence

a small concrete

dome

upon the earth, for all the world like an inverted sugarbowl. From some of these' •will project the muzzles of guns of set flat

various calibres; others will reveal merely the presence of ports

through which still additional muzzles wall issue should an alarm be sounded. Apart from these, plus an occasional ventilator spout squat upon the ground, identical with the millions adorning chimney-pots the world over ^no sign of life exists. But were we able to cleave with a gargantuan blade some of the innocent-looking hillsides upon which these domes and spouts are perched, we would uncover a series of astonishing human anthills piercing the very bowels of the earth with as many as seven layers of tunnels, galleries, shafts and storage spaces. The arrangement of one of these has been described as follows:

—

(1) Subsurface layer: officers’ quarters, men’s quarters, motor-generators for air-conditioning and illumination.

Below

this

we

find:

quarters, more machinery, storage spaces. Food storage, ammunition storage, general supplies. Clerical staff, telephone exchange, generators. Hospital, medical supplies, reserve stores. Electric tramway (connecting at various points with main-line railway spurs), map rooms. (7) Reserve ammunition, additional machine installations.

(2) (3) (4) (s) (6)

More men’s

From freight

the lowermost levels to the uppermost extend shafts for

and passenger

To

stairways.

lifts

supplemented by conventional

steel

reach the interior of a cupola from the subsurface

hand over hand on a steel ladder leading upward through a narrow shaft. Save where pierced by

quarters, one ascends vertically

these, a solid concrete ceiling of considerable thickness covers

the topmost gallery, itself in turn being overlaid

stratum of

soil,

by a

hea'vy

the whole sufficient to render the spaces beneath

both bomb- and sheU-proof. 'Within the beehive itself, space is naturally at a premium, though it is so cleverly utilized that the individual soldier can lead quite a comfortable existence.

Bunks

are double decked; mess tables fold and clamp against concrete walls

when not

in use.

Washrooms

are long and narrow, shower-

spaces restricted but adequate. Each blockhouse possesses

its in-

dependent water supply. Food and other stores are on hand in quantities sufficient to withstand an almost indefinite siege despite the fact that the underground railway connections assure ready

replenishment from zones to the rear. '\\Tiat

does such a termite colony represent in

construction of one large blockhouse

CROSS-SECTION

of part of the Maginot Line, tion released by French military authorities

drawn by an

artist

from informa-

human

efi'ort?

The

have involved the excavation of 700,000 cu.m, of earth from the ground surface, and 50,000 more by subsurface mining. Following this, 120,000 cu.m. of masonry were erected. The volume of earth excavated to promote concealment of the entire line was equal to that which w'ould be removed in building a canal from Paris to Bordeaux. is

said to

MAGLiONE, LUIGI — MAIL-ORDER BUSINESS

422 The

zones swept by the collective

of the guns,

fire

if laid

end to

would more than equal the distance from Pole to Equator! Strategically, the Maginot Line symbolizes passive defence, whereas military engineers hold that the Siegfried Line (g'-t'.) was end,

constructed with a defence based on the counterattack as the primary consideration. To pierce the former would appear next to

have suggested that in its a measure of weakness. For it endows its de-

Germany, 14,100; United Kingdom, 4,000; United States, 2,200; France, 1,800; Japan, 1,400; Switzerland, 800; Soviet Union, 600; and Italy, 400 tons. Practically the endistributed as follows:

tire

output

is

obtained

Plans are under Britain,

way

Japan and

by the

magnesium

electrolysis of

chloride.

for the expansion of production in Great (G. A. Ro.)

Italy.

impossible, but certain British critics

very strength

lies

fenders with such a sense of security that they, being virtually

unable to visualize the possibility of a “break-through,” have apmade little effort to plan the measures to be taken should

parently

such a calamity befall. {See also Armies of the World; European War; Lightning War; Siegfried Line; Strategy of the European War; Tactics in the European War.) Bibuogkaphy. U.S. Injaniry Journal; Command and General Staff

—

(Ft. Leavenworth); Illustrated London News; United Review (Great Britain); Illustration (France). (C. Gn.)

School Quarterly Services

V

(1877-

Maglione, Luigi Naples, on

March

Cardinal and Papal Secre-

),

tary of State,

was born

at Casoria, near

After his ordination to the priesthood in

2.

1901, he entered the Papal diplomatic service. In Feb. 1918, he was sent to Switzerland as the special representative of Benedict XV. Through his efforts, a Nunciature was established at Berne and he was appointed first Nuncio. He was consecrated. Sept. 26, 1920, titular Bishop of Caesarea of Palestine. In 1926 he was transferred from Switzerland to Paris, as Apostolic Nuncio to France. Created Cardinal on Dec. 16, 1935, he was recalled to Rome the following year and served on several Congregations of the Curia. On March ii, 1939, Pius XII named Cardinal Maglione (F.

Monnocita

lildgllcSIlwi

the

Slovakia,

X. T.)

absorption of Austria and Czecho-

Greater

Germany heads

the

list

M

see

Blockade.

nrrior Rlicinoco “Ul UCl UUolllCOOf

^ commercial enterprise which lies

on

its retail

car-

transactions almost

entirely

by

mail, and while found in other parts of the world, has

reached

its

highest stage of development in the United States.

The

mail-order business had

its

inception during the era of

rapid expansion following the Civil War.

Due

to geographical

became the centre of this business, and remains so to this date. Montgomery Ward started in Chicago in 1872, and Sears, Roebuck and Co., now the largest mail-order reasons, Chicago, Illinois,

house, actually started in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1887, but moved to Chicago the following year. Other smaller mail-order

companies got their start during this same period. Isolation of farmers due to poor transportation literacy of the

American

facilities, high

public, increased earning

power

of the

masses, inability of local retailers to meet consumer demands, prices charged

by

local retailers, convenience of the mail-order

method, truthful advertising, guarantee of satisfaction, wide selection of merchandise offered by mail-order houses, combined with the popularity of the parcel post system, all were important contributions to the success of the mail-order

method

of

selling.

Although from its inception the mail-order method of distribution met with a measure of success, it was not until the turn of

as his successor in the oflBce of Papal Secretary of State.

Since

Magnetic Mines:

of

the century that the rapid expansion of mail-order sales got under

way. For example,

in

1900 the gross sales of Sears, Roebuck and

world magnesite producers, with a total close to 600,000 metric tons; intermediate producers, with outputs of 200,000-100,000

Co. were $11,000,000; by 1906 they had increased to more than $30,000,000. Annual sales continued to increase until by the end

Manchoukuo, United States and Greece. YugoChosen, India and Australia range from 50,000 to 20,000 Total output from these producers was about 1,100,000

of 1939 the combined sales of mail-order and retail operations had reached the huge sum of $657,061,593, the largest in com-

tons, include slavia,

tons.

metric tons in 1937.

put of as

much

The Soviet Union reported

increases in out-

as 50,000-100,000 tons a year, reaching 482,000

tons in 1934, but these figures are so large in comparison with internal needs and visible exports that they have been received

pany

history.

The course of Montgomery Ward more or less degree

mail-order companies to a

8z

Co.,

and other

parallels that of

Sears.

The

increased expansion noted above

is

to

some

extent attribu-

sales included 1,930 tons 10,030 tons of caustic calcined, and 83,200 tons of dead-burned. This domestic supply was supplemented by 35

and to operating economies peculiar to the mail-order business, both of which have enabled these companies to raise the general standard of living by making more goods available to consumers at a price lower than they would otherwise have paid. Throughout the history of such houses they have obtained their ISrge sales volume by offering, as a rule, better quality merchandise at the same price, or the same quality at a lower price.

tons of crude, 2,800 tons of caustic calcined and 56,000 tons of dead-burned in imports, mainly from Austria and China, with

more

with considerable skepticism in the industry.

Except for the Russian figures, the only material increases beyond the 1929 level have been in Greece, Manchoukuo, and the United States.

United States production of crude magnesite

was 203,400 short tons in 1937, while of crude,

smaller amounts from Czecho-Slovakia and a

number of other

Production declined by more than half in 1938. British Empire output is comparatively small, being limited in 1937 to 26,200 long tons in India, 19,700 tons in Australia, and 1,500 tons in South Africa, plus an annual output of 25,000-30,000 (G. A. Ro.) tons of magnesitic dolomite in Canada.

producers.

.

Mqirnapiiim

IVIdgllColUIIL

Although magnesium metal has been produced on a small scale for a limited number of uses for

a long period of years,

it is

only since 1922 that

its real

commer-

development began. The metal is now used extensively in a vide variety of light metal alloys, and plant capacity and produc;ion are expanding so rapidly that it is difficult to determine current outputs. The estimated 193S output was 25,300 metric tons, ;ial

table

to large quantity purchases

Certain tendencies in the mail-order business are becoming apparent. Examination of current catalogues reveals an

increased emphasis upon private brands;

i.e.

upon merchandise

manufactured and sold under the proprietary trade names of the mail-order houses. Such merchandise, placed in competition with nationally advertised brands which are also offered in the same catalogue, has found a ready acceptance with the public. Another tendency is seen in greatly increased instalment accounts, which have resulted not from a lowering of credit standards, but by making available all kinds of merchandise to time payment purchasers. For instance, at the close of 1938 the Customers’ Instalment Accounts balance of Montgomery Ward had reached the staggering sum of $65,141,841, while that of Sears, Roebuck and Co. amounted to $53,987,455. In the middle of the 1920’s, the two largest mail-order houses,

commonly known

as Sears’ and Wards, entered the retail store

MAINE — MALARIA This new activity was largely experimental until about the two companies, apparently believing that they

field.

when

1928,

had learned enough about

retail store

operation to justify consid-

erable expansion in this field, opened retail units in a

communities. stores,

By

number of

the end of 1939 S'ears’ were operating over 500 in excess of 600. By this time, too, it was

and Ward’s

clear that the original function

of the two mail-order houses

had been modified by the added fimction of acting as jobbers to their own retail stores, whose sales it is estimated are running over

60%

distributing goods over a wide area. It not only economical but renders a great seixnce to people living in remote sections of the country. The potential market of is

the mail-order houses

is,

therefore,

of the business under discussion

—^because of

its

a large one.

still

which

is

large purchases

An

aspect

often overlooked

—on

is its

factory production

and employment throughout the country. (See Retail Sales.)

Marketing; (J. G. Me.)

also

extreme North-eastern State of the United States, admitted as a State in 1820 and popularly known as the “Pine Tree State,” has an area of 33,040 square miles. Populaii.*

_

IlldlllC)

The cap70,810. Of the

tion (census 1930) 790,182 (estimated 1939, 824,500). ital is

city, Portland,

Augusta, 17,198; the largest

twenty incorporated cities. Banows, of Newport, was in-

State’s population, 292,793 live in the

—

^In Jan. 1939, Lewis 0 augurated for his second term as governor, having been re-elected in Sept. 1938. In the same month three Republican representatives

History.

.

Washington: James C. Oliver, Clyde H. Smith, of Skowhegan (second district), and Ralph 0 Brewster, of Dexter (third district). Brewster, former governor, later in the year announced his candidacy for the Senate seat to be vacated in 1940 by the retirement of Senator Frederick Hale. Governor Barrows announced

re-elected in 1938 took their seats in

of

balanced budget. Political sabotage and inadequate funds seemed to critics to prevent effective operation of the (1937) merit sys-

tem

Portland

(first

district),

.

his intention to

campaign for the same

position.

Several Repub-

and one Democrat prepared to fight for the governorship in 1940. Maine’s legislature, meeting in regular biennial session, pondered tax reform, but decided to continue the State’s narrow tax base, depending largely on auto, gasoline, liquor and real estate levies. Proposals for an income tax law failed of passage, as in previous years. No major bills were passed; the Department

licans

and Welfare was reorganized and a host of minor hills and amendments were approved. Several municipalities were granted the right to adopt the manager form of government. Dog racing, lottery and liberal old age pension bills were killed. A proof Health

posed constitutional amendment increasing the State debt limit to permit additional highway bonds was defeated by the voters in Sept. 1939. Old age assistance appropriations were increased without passing any major tax bills. Part of the money was found by cutting other appropriations, part by assessing the cities and towns for one-fourth of the cost, an equivalent

sum

being returned to

Unable localities for local road work from gasoline tax revenues. to meet payments from regular revenues, the State dipped deep years into the sinking fund reserv'e. The percentage of persons 65 of age and older is larger in Maine than in all but one or two States. According to 1930 figures there were 69,010; by 1939 number had increased, but no definite figures were available. By Dec. 31, 1939, approximately 28,165 of this age group had applied for old age assistance; had been granted aid, and the 13,977

monthly payment averaged $20,64. However,

in spite of financial

the governor stated that a special session of the legislature would not be needed in 1939. In late December the Bangor Daily News published a series of front page stories with accomdifficulties,

act.

—Maine

Education.

continued to be low in its expenditures compared with a majority of States. The legislature re-enacted the $200,000 annual “equalization fund” which has relieved the situation somewhat since 1937. for rural schools

Charities

method yet discovered of

influence

pan5dng tables purporting to show irregularities in the transfer and accounting procedure of the State, and ridiculing claims of a

of total sales.

Despite the success of these two companies in the retail store field, the mail-order system is probably the most economical

423

and Correction.

—The population of State

institu-

and mental patients continued to increase and existing buildings remained inadequate, but the legislature of 1939 provided no money for new construction during 1939-40. Banking and Finance. Savings bank deposits continued at tions for criminals

—

high levels during the year 1938, while interest rates were somewhat above those in Boston and New York and varied widely within the State.

—

Agriculture and Manufactures. Maine continued to lead the potato States with 1939 production lower than the average. Estimated income was about the same as in 193S, but not ov'er half the amount of the peak years, 1929, 1936. Estimated yield in bushels: 1938, 39,600,000 (figure reused, 1940), 1939, 38,250,000. With Federal assistance, timber owners salvaged much of the tim-

ber blown down in the 1938 hurricane, and expected to receive higher prices than usual. General business conditions, following national trends, were better than in 1938.

The

tourist trade topped

the previous year, yet was below 1937. Gasoline taxes reached new high levels. Unemployment compensation payments decreased substantially

from 1938. The State employment service registered

fewer persons than in 1938, but increased the proportion of placements, especially in private business. As the year closed, oflicial estimates showed 325,000 social security numbers issued in Maine, as compared \vith the estimate a year ago of 293,556 (corrected figure 289,308). rolls indicated a drop of 40% from 1938.

WPA

(E. F. D.)

Maize:

see Corn.

Malacca:

see Straits Settlements.

Malano lildlaila>

spread of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae in the

has spread following in the wake of the

northern part of South America.

This mosquito was formerly found only in Africa where it was recognized as the most efficient vector of malaria in the whole world. In 1930 it was discovered at the port of Natal in northern Brazil, having been introduced apparently by ship or aeroplane from West Africa. Soon after its discovery in Natal, the city suffered the most severe outbreak of malaria in its historjL The following year the mosquito had travelled

more than loomi. up the

coast,

and

in 1938

had doubled

distance of travel and caused over 50,000 cases of malaria in the State of Ceara, Brazil.

its

In certain

districts

10%

of the population died and agriculture

was ruined because of lack of dangerous because

it is

labour. This mosquito

easily infected with malaria;

is

especially

it

prefers to

man

rather than animals; and it prefers to live indoors and even breed there. It also flies farther than most Anopheles. Probably this mosquito will soon invade the river valleys of northern Brazil. If it does, it will probably be beyond control and bite

may

eventually invade Central America and possibly North America. For this reason, the Rockefeller Foundation appropriated $100,000 and the Brazih'an Government an additional large will

sum

in order to attempt to stop the advance in 1939. States, malaria is continuing a downward trend for the sixth consecutive year. This is longer than in previous

In the United

natural cj'cles of the disease, but

it is

not yet known whether

it

—

MALAYA, BRITISH --MANCHOUKUO

424 is

due to unfavourable breeding conditions because of the drought

summer

of 1939 or to the extensive drainage of breeding places which has been continued with the help of in the latter part of the

the Federal relief agencies.

The only unfavourable circumstance

reported in the United States highly fatal malaria

is

the continued occurrence of

among morphine and heroin

addicts transfer malaria

from one

to

These another by hypodermic addicts.

needles used for the intravenous injection of their drug, dividing

among

a large dose

several persons and transferring a

little

blood

from one to another. Advances have been made during the year 1939 in our knowledge of the immune reactions in malaria. The complement fixation test, described in 1938 for monkeys, is applicable to man, using

monkey malaria

antibodies in the blood

parasites for the test.

This demonstrates

serum of the infected individual and

be of assistance in the diagnosis of obscure cases.

may

It has also

labour in 225 towns in 76 counties and has affected more than 600,000 people or approximately one-third of the population of the State. Since 1936, when concrete ditching was started, ii4rai. of such, ditches have been constructed. This is an illustration of what can be done

by co-operation of national. State and local The control of Anopheles breeding around the lakes by the Tennessee Valley Authority has continued to be

agencies.

created

satisfactory

The

and methods have been devised

to reduce its

greatest problem in this area will be created

tion of the Gilbertsville

and Kentucky

will

of the land will

dam when

e.xtensive areas of Tennessee

be flooded and where the relatively

make

cost.

by the comple-

the control of breeding

flat

much more

nature

difficult.

BinLiOGRAPHV. L. \V. Hackett, Malaria in Europe (London 1937); N. H. Swellengrebel and A. deBuck, Malaria in the Netherlands (Amsterdam, 1938) Rockefeller foundatio i, International Health Division, Annual Report (1938); P. F. Russell, “Malaria due to defective and untidy irrigation,” Jour. Malaria Institute of India (Dec, 1938). (H. E. M.) 7

:

been shown that agglutinins appear in the blood of infected

monkeys, which infection.

will cause

clumping of the parasites causing the

Protective antibodies have also been demonstrated in

monkeys which have recovered from the

the blood serum of

acute infection.

This serum, when injected into fresh monkeys

which usually die of the infection, prevents a fatal outcome. The complement fixation antibodies can be produced by killed malaria

and protective antibodies can be

parasites but the agglutinins

produced only by the living parasites.

The only

significant

advance

in the treatment of malaria is the

cure monkeys infected with the Plasmodium knowlesi, although it has no effect on another monkey parasite, P. inui, and little if any effect on the malaria parasites of man. It was found that the effect of the drug on discovery that sulphanilamide

rvill

parasite

P. knowlesi

by the one,

is

parasite,

may

associated with a cessation of the use of oxygen

and

it is

believed that this test, which

is

a simple

be used in the search for other anti-malaria drugs.

In the southern United States, Anopheles breeding places have been studied in minute detail to determine the relation of plants, microscopic animals, light and various degrees of acidity and

development of the larvae. This is done in the hope that some simple method may be found of making water unfavourable for the development of the mosquito. During the last decade a number of varieties of the species Anopheles maculipennis have been discovered, some of which bite man and transmit malaria, and others of which do not. Attempts to cross these varieties by interbreeding have been unsuccessful, indicating that there is little danger of one variety changing into alkalinity of the water to the

another and thus acquiring the ability to transmit the disease. Attention

is

Malaya, British: see Federated Malay States; Straits Settlements; Unfederated Malay States. Malta: see British Possessions in the Mediterranean.

now

being directed by the Rockefeller Foundation

where it presents problems quite different from those in Europe and where the problem is different in the Nile delta from that in the oases of the desert. to malaria in Eg}qDt

In India, extensive studies of the conditions responsible for the occurrence of malaria have been continued, indicating that much of the problem is the result of man-made breeding places

which could be eliminated by intelligent engineering and agriculture. Vast irrigation projects for the cultivation of land during the past century, and even in recent years, have been developed such disregard to malaria prevention that unnecessary Anopheles breeding places have been produced and malaria has been tremendously increased as a result. Malaria control has advanced steadily in the southern United States through the extension of studies, screening, and permanent drainage conducted by various State and local health departments. with

Monohnillflin MdlluliuUlvUD

(M'^nchuria), an Empire, with

Japan,

located

in

closely connected

north-eastern

Asia,

bounded on the north and east by Siberia, on the west by Siberia, outer Mongolia and China proper, on the south-east by Korea. Its capital is Hsinking; its ruler the Emperor Kangte.

Area and Population.

—

^The area is 460,383 sq.mi.; its popu(June 30, 1936) 33,836,898, including about 700,000 Koreans, about 230,000 Japanese, about 50,000 white Russians lation

and some 3,500 foreigners of other nationalities, among these 434 British, 439 Germans and 226 Americans. Population of chief cities: Hsinking (1936) 307,602; Harbin (1936) 462,602; Mukden (1936), 534.638; Antung (1936) 166,238. History. ^The League of Nations passed a resolution, recommending non-recognition of Manchoukuo; and for six years after

—

establishment Japan and the Central American Republic of El Salvador were the only countries to extend de jure recognition.

its

Manchoukuo on Nov. 30, 1937; and Germany maintains a special trade representative in Hsinking. In 1938 Germany extended full recognition, and Poland de facto recognition to Manchoukuo. The United States and Great Britain mainItaly recognized

tain consulates in Mukden and Harbin; and their consuls deal with the established authorities on an informal basis.

—

Education and Religion. ^As of June 1938, there were 16,002 elementary schools (1,422,386 pupils and 33,505 teachers); 137 secondary schools (14,835 pupils and 1,959 teachers) and seven colleges

(1,765 students and 228 teachers).

high, especially in the country districts.

are Buddhism, Taoism,

The

Illiteracy is very

principal religions

Mohammedanism and Lamaism. There

are about 100,000 Christians in the country.

Armed

—

Forces. Besides the Kwantung army, the size of which kept secret, Manchoukuo maintains an army of 80,000 and a flotilla of 15 gunboats, a destroyer and 6 patrol vessels. is

—

Finances and Banking. ^The unit of currency is the Manchoukuo yuan, equivalent in value to the Japanese yen (23.65 U.S. cents). The budget, which has been increasing in size, amounted to 420,454,000 yuan in 1939. The Central Bank of

Manchoukuo choukuo

controls the note issue

;

the Industrial

Bank

specializes in crediting industrial enterprises;

of

Man-

and there

number of other Japanese and Manchoukuo banks. Trade and Communications. Manchoukuo’s exports and

are a

—

The most noteworthy advance has been in the construction of drainage ditches lined by concrete inverts with side walls of con-

imports in 1937 were valued at 645,297,656 yuan and 887,411,696 yuan respectively. Japan supplied 627,229,748 yuan worth of im-

In Mississippi alone since 1933 malaria control drainage has been carried on with the help of Federally subsidized

ports and purchased 277,087,993 yuan worth of exports. Manchoukuo’s exports amounted to 723,454,000 yuan in 1938, while

crete, stone or sod.

MANDATED PACIFIC ISLANDS—MANDATES imports were valued at 1,274,748,000 yuan. In this year Japan supplied over 80% of Manchoukuo’s imports (993,413,000 yuan) and purchased almost 60% of its exports (416,825,000 yuan).

Manchoukuo has about 6,ooomi.

of railway lines, of which about

2,000 were constructed after the creation of the principal towns are connected

new

State.

by a regular commercial

Agriculture, Natural Resources, Manufactures.

The

Mandated

most important crop consists of soybeans. Kaoliang, millet corn and wheat are also produced in substantial quantities, together with small amounts of rice, cotton and tobacco. In 1937, Manchoukuo produced 4,200,000 tons of soybeans (value 273,000,000 yuan) 4,441,690 tons of kaoliang (value 266,501,400 ;

yuan) 3,451,000 tons of millet (value 189,805,000 jaian); 2,261,000 tons of maize (value 128,877,000 yuan); 1,156,300 tons of ;

wheat (value 115,630,000 yuan). The effect of Japan’s war economy became much more pronounced in Manchoukuo during 1938 and 1939. There was an almost inflationary rise in prices; an actual shortage of labour developed; the peasants showed a tendency to hold back goods from the market. There was an effort to push through a five year plan of industrial production (supposed to run until the end of 1941) with a view to increasing the output of the mining and machine-building and chemical industries. While

were registered there were considerable difficulties with supplies of raw materials and of trained labour personnel, and the term of the plan has been extended to 1943in production

Mandafed

Area

Territory South-west Africa, including Caprivi Zipfel, formerly part of Bechuanaland protectorate

317.725 sq.mi.

1939 the Permanent Mandates Commisin June and December. In June it examined annual reports from South-West Africa, New Guinea, French Togoland, Nauru, Palestine and Syria. Little comment was

ManrifitPC nflullUulCOi

sion

met

forthcoming on the complete pictures presented of the economic, and social life of the inhabitants of these areas, save in the

political

case of the final two. In Togoland the commission noted the dis-

couragement of transfer of land to Europeans, and it recommended further examination of labour conditions in New Guinea. But Palestine presented a major problem. With the report was the British White Paper of May, proposing to terminate the Mandate after 5 years, during which 15,000 Jews might immigrate a year, but after which the British Government would not support development of the Jewish Home, if the Arabs objected. The commission concentrated on the White Paper, which, in its unanimous opinion,

was not in accord with the interpretation which, in agreement with the Mandatory Government and the Council, the commission had always placed on the Mandate. Proof offered was the British statement of 1937 that the Mandate was unworkable. If it was now Terri/or/es

Date

of

Mandate Dec. 17, 1920

Mandatory Power Union

of South

Former

Togoland,

(2)

Togo,

i.e.

i.e.

.Africa

Togo western section, excluding the seaboard.

eastern section and seaboard

Cameroons adjoining French Equatorial Africa

.

.

Great Britain

13.040 sq.mi. 20,000 sq.mi.

Cameroons, comprising; (1) Cameroons adjoining Nigeria (2)

Title

German Southwest

Africa

Togo, comprising: (1)

34,081 sq.mi. 161,200 sq.mi.

.

360,000 sq.mi. 21,200 sq.mi.

10,100 sq.mi. 34,000 sq.mi.

Former Administration

German Empire

German Empire

France

July 20, 1922

Kamerun Great Britain

German Empire

France

July 20, 1922

German East

Great Britain

Africa

German Empire

Belgium Sept. 29,

Great Britain

Palestine

Great Britain

Part of the Wilayat of Syria Syria

1923

France

77,700

Ottoman Empire

sq.mi.

New Guinea, (1)

(2)

Territory of, comprising; North-eastern New Guinea (i.e. the northern section of south-east New Guinea) Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, the

Admiralty (3)

Isles, etc.)

_

,

95jOop sq.mi.

Dec. 17, 1920

Commonwealth

of

German

Land

Empire

Bismarck Archipelago

German Solomon

,

Western Sajnoa, comprising Savaii, Upolu, etc

Kaiser Wilhelm’s

Australia

Islands

Certain of the Solomon Islands (Bougainville, Buka, etc.)

1.133 sq.mi.

Dec. 17, 1920

New Zealand

8 sq.mi.

Dec, 17, 1920

British Empire, as

represented

German Samoan

German

Islands

Empire

Nauru

German

by

Empire

Great

Britain, Australia, and

New Zealand

(2)

North of the Equator, comprising; Marianne or Ladrone Islands (except Guam) Caroline Islands, comprising the Eastern Carolmes ana Western Carolines, together with Yap Island and Pelew

(3)

Marshall Islands

Pacific Islands (1)

Man-

Pacific Islands: see Pacific Islands,

dated.

air service.

—^Manchou-

kuo's

some increases

425

—

Bibliography. Japaii-Manciwukuo Yearbook, 1937: Owen Lattimore, Manchuria: Cradle of Conflict. (Vi. H. Ch.)

8 ri sq.mi.

Dec. 17, 1920

Japan

No

change

German Empire

MANGANESE — MANITOBA

426

6%

tons, but declined about

The

in 1938.

status of the leading

shown in the accompanying table below. The feature of the manganese industry in recent years has been the rapid rise of South Africa from a minor producer to third rank, following the Soviet Union and India; production to the end of Aug. 1939 was 12% below the 1938 level. Gold Coast at the midyear was well below 1937 while Brazil and India were a bit ahead. No production information is available from the Soviet Union, but producers

is

exports have dropped heavily; Russian exports through Oct. 1938, the latest available, were only 324,600 tons. Another point of interest brought out

by

these figures

output; the Soviet Union

is

is

the status of the Russian

the only important producer which

is

consumer on any appreciable scale, and since production and consumption by minor countries approximately balance, this means that, roughly speaking, the difference between the total output and the total consumer imports for any year is an approximate measure of the amount of the Russian output that has been also a

Since 1934 this amount has been any possible demand of the local steel industry, dicating that large amounts are being held in stock.

retained within the country.

far

in excess of

in-

World Production and Imports of Manganese Ore (In thousands of metric tons)

Brazil

1929

1932

316

20 10

Cuba

I

Egypt

....

41S

India blustered into Palestine ’'without benefit of trumpets*' In 1939* according to Elderman of The Washington Post ^ and was criticized therefor by the League of Nations’ Permanent Mandates Commission

1,010

South Africa U.S.S.R Others

.

.

9

,

Totals

new interpretation must be found. Here unanimity majority of the commission said the W/tife Paper’s policy was in accord neither with the terms of the Mandate nor the

ended.

3.840

1.289

3.300

460

124

54 363 902 552

1,068 631 2,700?

2,900?

360? 6,000?

5.660?

545,

Imports of Major Consumers

A

authors’ intentions;

and

criticized the safeguards for the Jews,

the proposals regarding the Constitution

and the policy of land

settlements and immigration as contrary to Article

A

date.

832 159

3,002

482

1>41S

workable, a

135 417 826 258

S2 216

222

253 131 186 536

38

191

Gold Coast

JOHN BULL

1937

156

VI

of the

Man-

minority thought existing conditions could justify the

Government issued a reply not accepting the view of the majority. As the commission is advisory, decision on the question of mandatory policy in Palestine rests with the Council, which however did not meet for this purpose during 1939. In Syria and the Lebanon the commission approved progress in local administrative autonomy and official measures for centralizapolicy, if the Council did not object.

The

British

Belgium France

1937

329 801 390

154 349

340 492 554

294 671 389

127

3.033

929

2,342

288 927 570? 3.300

80s

376

2.958

2,700

.

Others Totals Difference

1936

107 20

161

.

.

1932

154 421 230 103 245 826 363

Germany .... Norway United Kingdom United States

1929

....

80 92

'

131

Partial figures for 1939 indicate a continued

demand

in

all

1938 196

3'9 426 124 196 491 ? '

? ?

heavy decrease

in

of the leading consuming countries except the

that the 1936 Franco-Syrian Treaty was still unratified. As the report was silent about the Sanjak of Alexandretta, international

United States, where imports were 20% above the 1938 level, though still far below those of 1936 and 1937. Imports during the first half of 1939 were almost a half less than in 1938 in Belgium, France, and Germany, 20% less in Norway but only about 10% less in Great Britain. Receipt of later data has been hampered by

considerations apparently overriding the scope of the Mandate,

war

the commission could exercise no supervision. In December the commission examined reports from Western Samoa, British Cameroons and Togoland, Tanganyika, French

be available

Cameroons, and Ruandi Urundi. Japan’s report on the Pacific Islands did not arrive. The commission noted British measures encouraging natives to take part in their own administration and safeguards of native interests provided in the demarcation of the frontier between British and French Cameroons. Conditions gen-

IlidlllUJUdi and most easterly prairie Province; area; 246,312 sq.mi. (26,789 sq.mi. water) population (census of Manitoba,

tion

and

ties

was not

unification,

in full

but noted that in places treatment of minoriaccordance with the Mandate. It regretted

were satisfactory, efforts being made from the consequences of the war.

erally

MqncTQnapa

HldllgdUCoii*

to protect the areas

(M. Fe.)

World manganese production in 1937 rose to a new record figure, estimated at 6,000,000 metric

,

conditions,

and

until

it

may

peace

is

be that

full

information will not again

established.. (See also

Metallurgy.) (G. A. Ro.)

ManitnllQ

“lid-continent Province of

Canada and the

oldest

;

June 1936), 711,216; urban, 310,927, 44%; British racial origin, 362,389; Ukrainian, 86,982; German, 32,430; French, 47,683; Polish, 33,136; Scandinavian, 21,304; Dutch, 23,321; others, 66,210.

Total Canadian-born, 308,300, 70%.

Capital, Winnipeg,

population (Nov. 1939), 222,434. History. ^The present legislature of Manitoba consists of 33 members, with the. Government headed by Hon. John Bracken,

—

premier since 1922.

—

MANNERHEIM

LINE

The lieutenant-governor is Hon. William J. Tupper. Manitoba elects 17 members to the House of Commons of Canada, and has six representatives in the Senate.

—

Education. Public, elementary and secondary schools are maintained by general taxation, with the Manitoba university, including a faculty of agriculture, and affiliated colleges, provid-

There are

ing for higher education.

and

also several other colleges

Pupils in elementary grades, 117,430; in secondary,

schools.

Full-time students enrolled in university, 2,642.

21,899.

Banking and Finance. Canada,

is

—^Winnipeg,

western headquarters

of

financial centre of

Western

eight of the 12 Canadian

banks, and of insurance, mortgage and financial institutions. Agricultural, Mineral, Manufacturing, Other Production. Total value of crops in 1938, $87,463,000; manufactures, $140,805,000; mineral production, $17,175,000; fisheries, $1,735,000; furs, wild catch, $669,535; fur farms, $320,440; processed in

Winnipeg, $376,068;

f.o.b.

— MARINE marble

BIOLOGY

small, 18,900 short tons in 1938, a decline of

1937.

—

to 491,400 short tons, valued at $1,126,400. Production of granite

Great Britain

in

reported along with other tjpes of igneous

is

rocks, increasing in 1937

at £3,267,000;

91%

by

5%

of the total

Winnipeg, including furs from other

Canadian Pacific railway mileage, 2,697; Canadian National, 2,965; Midland, 90; Greater Winm'peg Water no. Highways, including Trans-Canada, District operates

427

13% from Marble production in Great Britain is not of commercial importance, most of the supply being imported. Granite. ^The United States production of gram'te as dimension stone in 1938 decreased by 10% from 1937, to 672,600 short tons, valued at $9,778,000; 58% of this was building stone, 22% monumental stone, 5% paving stone, and 10% kerbing; production as crushed or broken stone increased by 15% over 1937, to 9,760,000 short tons, valued at $11,137,600; 68% of the total was for concrete aggregate or road metal, and 17% as railroad ballast; riprap, which constituted 46% of the 1936 total, was 14% in 1938. Canadian production of granite decreased by 57% in 1938, is

to 10470,000 long tons, valued was used for road metal or ballast. (G.A. Ro.)

Provinces, $2,899,914.

'

(1S63-1939), Italian cardinal, was born

Mariani,

Domenic

He

at Posta, in the province of Rieti,

prepared for the priesthood in

i,73imi. (gravelled, 1,308; bituminous surfaced, 410; concrete surfaced, 13). Province-oivned telephone system has 78,236mi.

April 3.

of wires, also 25,ooomi. of toll wires for long distance use. Total

and Pius XII. Pope Pius

(W.

of phones in Province, 68,931.

Mannerheim

He.)

J.

Line: see European War; Finland.

sistory of Dec. 1935.

terially

in the United States were mareduced in 1939 by a poor season and

the loss of trees in the Sept. 1938 hurricane. Only 9,670,000 trees were tapped in 1939, compared to 11,672,000 in 1938 and a

ten-year (1928-37)

average of 12,390,000.

He

Morino RinlnfTU DlUIU

Maple products Ollgar.

The United

States

maple sugar crop in 1939 was 715,0001b. compared to 1,078,0001b. in 1938 and a ten-year average of 1,548,000 pounds. Syrup whs av2,447,ooogal. in 1939, and 2,772,ooogal. in 1938, the ten-year erage being 2,628,000 gallons. In Quebec, i939 production was

and 1,810,400 imperial gallons of S3Tup. The and 2,3341°°® imperial 1938 production was 3,212,0001b. of sugar

2,715,4001b. of sugar

on

served in

Leo XIII, Pius X, Pius XI him cardinal in the conVatican City on April 23.

various administrative posts under

llldrillu

Manlo iVidpic

Rome and

5 y>

XI

created

died at

^ paradox to find biologists stressing as never before the conservation of life

while the war-lords pound

away

at its destruction.

Even while

were brewing, science congresses’ were in progress to find ways and means of conserving marine forms. Coincident with the outbreak of war in Europe, the Seventh Triennial Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics^ was called into session at Washington, D.C., by President La Cour of Denmark, to discuss problems related to the earth’s crust, its oceans hostilities

and its atmosphere, while from Bergen, Norway, came the announcement of the meeting of the International Exhibition for Polar Exploration^ and a conference of polar explorers to be held there in 1940. What the ultimate effect of war will be, cannot be

Dundee meeting of the British AssoAdvancement of Science'* has been cancelled, and

predicted, but already the

gallons of syrup.

ciation for the U. S. Production of

the projected meeting at Newcastle-on-Tyne has been indefinitely

Maple Sugar and Maple Syrup by Stales ig 39 Ib.

Maple Sugar 290.000 279.000 43 »ooo 30.000 24.000 17.000 10.000 9.000 7.000 6 , 0CX5

New York Vermont Pennsylvania Massachusetts

New Hampshire Michigan

Maryland Ohio Wisconsin

Maine Maple Syrup

gal.

843.000 714.000 370.000 129.000 105.000 104,000 64.000 sg,ooo 25.000

Vermont New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Michigan Massachusetts

New Hampshire Maryland

1938 lb.

260.000 627.000 43.000 32.000 72.000 16.000 10.000 9.000 3.000 6.000 gal.

1,485,000 588.000 283.000 95.000 49.000 64.000 52.000 83.000 26.000

Ten-year average lb.

378.000 789.000 100.000 78.000 88.000 34.000 21.000 32.000 70.000 17.000 gal.

1,002,000 736.000 337.000 192.000 65.000 ItO.OOO 57.000 72.000 23.000 (S.

O. R.)

postponed. It seems certain that

if

protracted, the

war

'will

not

only draw upon the most competent marine researchers, but will disrupt

many programs under way.

Several exploratory expeditions have been initiated, or progress of their scientific

work has been

reported.

The

U.S. Government

Antarctic Expedition to Little America under the direction of Admiral Richard E. Byrd (Rtd.) is under way, and will extend

over a three-year interval, exploring the Antarctic continent and adjacent waters. The “North Star” left Boston in the middle of November of 1939, taking with it the huge snow'mobUe, the

its

“Penguin,” which

is

and sleds. “North Star” at the Bay of

calculated to take the place of dogs

The barkentine “Bear”

will join the

Whales early

in January. U.S. Coast Guard cutter, “Hamilton,”^ which was to have sailed from San Francisco in Sept. 1939 with 18 scientists aboard to make an extended study of the island-studded central and south

The

under the joint sponsorship of the National Geographic Society and the University of Virginia, has been ordered to patrol Pacific

IIm.UI..

P-Mnll-n

MarDlB ano uraniie.

The production of marble in the 1938 declined united states

m

two-thirds of slightly to 89,000 short tons, valued at $4,473 1°°°> which stone and one-third monumental stone. Most

was building

of the crushed or broken marble sold is waste from the dimension stone branch of the industry; this increased by i6% in 1938, to 130,400 short tons, valued at $275,200. Canadian production of

duty in Atlantic waters. *One of the symposia of the Padfic DhTsion of the American Association for Ad\'ance> to consen'atioa problems of migratory fish. Science, p. 504 Ciune 1939). Another program of the Pacific Sdence Congress held in Berkeley, Calif., devoted to oceanography and marine biology. See Science, sessions had several technical pessrp.4S4 (Xcv. ig^gh ^Science, p. S3p (Oct. 2gsQ\ ^Science, p. 236 fAag. 2g3 achieved a world-wide fame in 1914-18 for

Allninhp

,

nUUI|JIIC

his defiance of the

German army

of occupation in Belgium.

He

was born on December 31 and studied at Brussels university, where he was awarded his law degree at the early age of 20. For nine years he was provincial councillor for Brabant and in 1903 was elected a city councillor of Brussels. Later he became managing editor of Le Soir in the Belgian capital, and he was elected burgomaster of Brussels in 1909, retaining this office until his death. For his utter lack of respect for the German army chiefs he was imprisoned in 1914 and not released until Nov. 1918, despite appeals on his behalf from prominent personages of many nations.

He

November

died at Brussels on

6 and was buried with

national honours.

NEW TYPE OF ATOM-SMASHER

with Sft. glass lube, perfected Cornell university by Prof. Lloyd P. Smith

in

Jan,

1939

Maun Pharlpc HnriIPP bimilCd ilUldUC

ffldju, at

barium, and suggested that a new type of radioactivity might exist wherein the unstable nucleus, formed by the addition of a neutron

uranium nucleus, instead of ejecting one of its nuclear conmay divide into two particles of comparable mass. This “fission” of a heavy nucleus should theoretically have several consequences. First the two particles should fly apart with great energy. This was soon verified, the particles were found to recoil from a uranium surface, to give intense pulses of ionization, and to

to a

stituents,

produce heavy drop tracks, the energy set free agreeing with that calculated from the change of mass according to Einstein’s rela-

(1865-1939). vvas

bom

American

surgeon,

in Rochester, Minn., on

July 19, the second son of Dr. William Worrall Mayo (i8ig1911). He was educated at Rochester High school and a private academy, then went to Chicago, where he studied surgery under

Dr. Christian Fenger, Dr. Nathan Smith Davis, and other famous He received his medical degree from North-

surgeons of the day.

western university in 1888 and later took post-graduate work

New York

While he was

in

a student, a cyclone struck Rochester and killed 22 persons. His father was placed in charge of the 300 injured and was ably assisted in his work by Charles and his elder brother William (g.v.), though Charles had no formal city.

still

medical training at that time. After this disaster the tmvn recog-

tion.

nized the need for a hospital, which tvas duly built and dedicated

consequence was that the new elements formed in the middle of the periodic table should be far too heavy for stability. They must either eject neutrons or change into elements with a

six years later.

A second

greater nuclear charge.

Experiments showed that both processes

take place. Thus as a result of the fission process we find two mixtures of radioactive elements, a light group in which various observers have identified radioactive forms of krypton, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, and molybdenum, and a heavy group including radioactive isotopes of antimony, tellurium, iodine, xenon, caesium,

436

Mayo

clinic,

St.

Mary’s hospital was the nucleus of the famous by the father and his two

established in Oct. 1889

by the brothers until 1912. By time the clinic was admitting thousands of patients annually

sons, but not formally organized this

and was already known as one of the world’s greatest medical centres, a model of treatment not only for general diseases and operations, but for maladies that defied diagnosis. In 1938, the year before Dr. Charles Mayo’s death, the clinic admitted its 1,000,oooth patient.

MAYO. WILLIAM J.— MEDICINE Charles

Dr.

fields of

Mayo’s

versatility

extended to

practically

all

medical knowledge, and his associates declared that he

had performed every conceivable type of operation before his retirement in 1929. He is best known, however, as the originator of modern goitre surgery, concerning which he first published a paper in 1904. Almost equally famous was his surgical treatment of the nervous system.

upon varicose

veins,

He

originated a technique for operating

performed more than 700 operations for

cataract of the eye, and contributed ear, nose, throat,

much

to surgery of the brain,

and abdomen. Focal infection and preventive

U.S. during the

of ivar in Europe.

back

war on the meat

By mid-November prices had gradually worked The most marked effect of the

situation in the United States

was the abrupt

ces-

hams from Central Europe, principally new item in meat imports was reported in 1939,

sation of imports of canned

from Poland.

A

dog food, of which 3,649,6041b. valued at $109,145 was imported, chiefly from Argentina, in the nine months ending September 30. War had no effect on beef exports, but increased United States fresh pork and lard exports sharply. U, S. Imports

In 1913 he was appointed first lieutenant in the Medical Reserve Corps of the U.S. Army and was later advanced to colonel. Alternating every six months with his brother, he was chief consultant for all surgical services in the Office of the Surgeon Gen-

from 1917 to 1919. He was appointed brigadier general in the Medical department of the U.S. Army in 1926. He was president of the American College of Surgeons in 1924-25 and of the American Medical Association in 1916-17. He wore the Distinguished Service medal and was an officer of the Legion of Honour. His recognitions from other countries almost outnum-

437

ten days of September, following the outbreak

to near their pre-w’ar levels.

medicine also occupied his attention.

eral

first

(For

and Exports of Beef and Pork Products

first

ten months of 1938 and 1939)

Exports

Imports 1039 lb.

lieef, fresh

.

.

Veal, fresh . Beef Veal,

.

&

ptckled&cured Beef, canned

&

Bacon

&

salt,

.

lb.

Ib.

1,830,524 I2S,S9S 1, 686,'004

69,647,546 r,622,343

1,332,568 58,400,564 3,443,364

.

34,609,541

34,308,891

.

>

2,075,039

.

.

Beef, canned Pork, fresh & frozen , .

.

4,137,484 5,477,979 1,200,606

3,261,965 4,968,391 1,523,002

20,307,771

5,539,805

2,924,682

614,220

Pork, Cumberlands & Wiltshires

.

.

.

Hams&Shoulders 49,662,914 40,411,509 Bacon .... 7,511,581 6,440,342

cured

pickled

Beef & Veal, fresh Beef, cured

1,216,152 78,193

.

.

Pork, fresh . Hams, Shoulders

Pork,

1930

1038

3,058,584

bered those bestowed upon him by his own. He died in Chicago on May 26 after an attack of lobar pneumonia and was buried in

Pork, pickled Pork, canned

10,665,784 9,782,349 7,167,915 6,438,516 213,557,326 148,324,925

. .

Lard

Rochester. See also Encyclopeedia Britannica, vol. 15, p. 124.

Meat animals processed under Federal

and was educated at Rochester (Minn.) high school, Niles academy, and the University of Michigan, where he received his medical degree in 1883. For an account of the association with his father and younger brother in the famous Mayo clinic, see Mayo, Charles Horace above; see also Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. of MichiIS, pp. 124-5. After his graduation from the University 29,

United States the

nine months of 1939 numbered 604,015 (S.

Medical

Association,

Charles for their eminent accomplishments in surgery; while Dr. Mayo performed many varieties of operations Dr. William Mayo

was perhaps best known for his surgery of the stomach. During chief the World War (1914-18) the two brothers alternated as William consultants in the office of the U.S. Surgeon General. Dr. (1905— Association Medical Mayo was president of the American

American Surgical Association (1913-14), the American American College of Surgeons (1918-20), and the Congress of decoradegrees, honorary his Physicians and Surgeons (1925);

06), the

brother. and honours almost equalled in number those of his death of died at Rochester on July 28, two months after the Dr. Charles H. Mayo in Chicago.

tions,

He

if- j»

iyi

62 l.

5%, more meat was consumed in than 1938, the Institute of Amer1939

5oo,ooo,ooolb., or

in the U.S. in

.

R.)

see

Medical

British

Medical discoveries in 1939 centred principally on

_

•

British:

new developments

glands and sulphanilamide with

in the fields of the vitamins, the

its

derivatives.

The year saw

the

lowest sickness and death rates ever achieved in the United States, including a tremendous lowering in maternal mortality.

Vitamins.

—Most

significant of the vitamin studies

were those forms

related to the use of vitamin Bi in relationship to various

of neuritis,

some of these being

classified as alcoholic neuritis,

and metabolic neuritis, also in tics or habit spasms and some nervous disorders. The scientific name for this vitamin is thiamin chloride. It also influences appetite and digestion favourably. An adult requires about 300 to 350 international units, which is equivalent to about one milligram of pure thiamin diabetic

neuritis

per day. Pre-school children apparently require as

About

0

American Medi-

see

cal Association.

iiiwUiwIilbi

Mayo

first

Medical Association, American:

Associatio.v.

1.

ten

head, as compared to 295,753 in the same period in 1938.

returned to Rochester to begin the practice of surgery and remained there except for brief periods over until his death. He and his brother were known the world

i|_

first

cattle,

7,835,584 head; hogs, 31,694,605 head; sheep, 14,383,531 head. Cattle and calves imported into the

Majo, William James

gan’s medical school. Dr.

inspection the

months of 1939 were:

much

as 20 to

25 or more international units of this vitamin for every 100 calories of food that they eat. Whereas it was formerly thought

we

we

about 8% higher than the In the meatconsumption. five-year (1929-33) average annual meat Federal-inspected October 31. packing year, which ends

now know

and io,82i,ooo,ooolb. in 1938. at Consumption for the year ending Oct. 31, i 940 is forecast Meat inspected by the Federal Govern-

Vitamin Bi is a water-soluble vitamin. Hence, when beans and peas are cooked in water, much of this vitamin is dissolved in the water. When the water is discarded, the vitamin Bi is lost. There

Inrepresents roughly about two-thirds of consumption. fact that the by caused was creased production in

are only about ten foods which contain more than three micrograms of thiamin for each gram of food. These are principally potatoes, pork and liver, eggs, milk, fruits, beans and whole grain

ican

Meat Packers

estimated. This

is

totalled ii,39o,ooo,ooolb. in 1939

>

12,200,000,000 pounds.

ment

meat 1939 filling numbers of livestock on United States farms are rapidly Ihe 1936 and up the reductions made by the droughts of 1934 largest the is States United The Government control program. of meat-producing country and meat animals provide about 25% the farm income. the

in the Prices of meat, especially pork products, rose sharply

that the foods which

eat contained plenty of vitamin Bi,

that our refined diet, and particularly the use of re-

fined cereals, has produced a rather general shortage.

cereals.

A significant step has been the recognition of the possibility of reinforcement of white flour and other refined foods by the addition of thiamin. The vitamin also has significance in certain diseases of animals and of plants.

MEDICINE

438

on vitamin K, which is useful particularly in forms of haemorrhage when there is a deficiency in the prothrombin of the blood. A new test for determinOther interest

in the vitamins centred

ing whether or not people need vitamin

bom

Babies

ing 1939.

K has been developed dur-

jaundiced or suffering from haemorrhage

which they inject heparin, a new product developed Canada, shown to have virtue in preventing coagulation of the blood and the formation of fibrin. After this material has been given to loosen up the vegetation on the heart valves, sulphapyridine was given to control the growth of the germs. Its effects carditis, in

in

at birth sometimes

have a deficiency of this vitamin. In such K, derived from alfalfa, kale, spintomatoes and oat sprouts, or made synthetically,

were measurable as revealed by the response

cases, preparations of vitamin

fever in the patients.

can be given by mouth or injected directly into the body. This

lymphogranuloma venereum. The tests in and in tuberculosis were quite disappointing.

ach, carrot tops,

an increased amount of prothrombin

followed by

should be

Studies with these remedies were of value also in smallpox, and in

A

within three or four hours.

which

Interest in vitamins has also centred on vitamin Be,

seems to be related to certain skin disorders. Moreover, much has been done with the vitamin concerned in pellagra known as B2 or riboflavin.

—

Glands. ^Most of the work on the glands during 1939 has been concentrated on the male and female sex hormones, which are

now

and which may be injected into the body, rubbed into the skin, or planted in pellets, for slow absorption, under the skin. The male sex hormone, testosterone propionate, has now been shoum to be of value particularly in persons who have lost the available in various forms,

effects of

these glands because of surgical operation, accident

The use of

or disease.

ant in ity,

men

this

product has been especially import-

whom

of the female type, in

it

will increase masculin-

produce a growth of beard and a deepening of the voice.

Apparently,

it is

men who

also effective in

pass through a period

resembling the climacteric in women, during which time there a lessened secretion of the important male sex hormone.

now

may

ful in

many

sex

hormone known

some

as estrogen has

flashes

not

—

insulin shock

method, although considerable virtue

form of treatment. Metrazol shock began tensively and was found to be of value also in

this

still

inheres in

to be used

more

ex-

certain depressional

conditions affecting the mind, like manic-depressive insanity and involutional melancholia.

—

Surgery. ^In the field of surgery, a new operative procedure which attracted attention was a technique developed by Lempert for persons with otosclerosis, in which a window is made directly into the internal ear, after which hearing is promptly restored. Unfortunately after a time, in

new

many

cases, there is a development

which invalidates the value of the operation. At present, investigators are working on modifications of the technique which will prevent this secondary complication. Another interesting surgical procedure involves an operation of

tissue

cell.

does not pass through the heart,

been saved by

and nervous reaction,

cases of leukoplakia, which

is

a thickening of

map,

sometimes called geographic tongue. Special studies made on the sex hormones indicate the possibility that they may have tissue-stimulating qualities, and that in there

is

Metrazol Shock Therapy. Continued work with shock therapy in dementia praecox indicated somewhat less promise in the

been found use-

the tongue, producing a condition which looks like a relief

whom

believed to be

for ductus arteriosus, a condition occurring at birth, in which

but also the mental depression. Apparently also this material has

persons in

yet well established.

A

of the disorders associated with the climacteric in

in

is

an opening from the large veins into the aorta, so that the blood

women, including not only the hot been effective

sulphamethylthiazol,

modification,

especially useful for staphylococcic infections although this

be used in stimulating sex

tends to inhibit the formation of the sperm or egg

The female

new

infantile paralysis

established that the use of this material

ently, also, the glandular material activity, although it is

is

Appar-

in lowering of the

is

the history of cancer heredity, the

must be used with the greatest of doses may be followed by enlargement of the

glandular material

caution.

cess

breasts,

Exand

this

new

is

closed surgically.

Lives have

operative procedure.

technique developed by Brien King involves a plastic opera-

overcome paralysis of the vocal cords, caused by cutting or injury of the nerve in the operation on the. thyroid gland. tion to

Successful results in a

number of

cases attracted interest through-

out the world.

Continued studies made possible further transplantation

to

overcome scar tissue on the cornea of the eye with tissue removed from the eyes of babies who died at birth. Another operation involved a technique employed on the sympathetic nervous system to control the pain in angina pectoris a difficult surgical procedure employed only in the most serious

—

instances are reported of the possible development of cancer fol-

cases.

lowing large doses where there

Bacteriology. Investigations in the field of bacteriology brought new knowledge concerning the virus which is responsible

A trol.

is

susceptibility.

synthetic substitute for oestrogen was announced as stilbes-

This synthetic substance has

the glandular material

itself.

all

of the effects inherent in

—

Sulphanilamide and Sulphapyridine. Extensive investigamade with sulphanilamide and sulphapyridine in a wide variety of diseases indicated that these drugs constitute one of the greatest medical discoveries of all time. Sulphanilamide has been shown to be of special value particularly in streptococcic infections and in certain forms of influenzal and streptococcic meningitis, tion

which were formerly invariably fatal but now yield to the use of this remedy. It has been found especially valuable in trachoma, which is believed to be caused by a filtrable virus. Its use has been of the utmost importance in operations on the ears and the mastoid.

Sulphapyridine has been established as of special value in various forms of pneumonia, in some instances making the more expensive anti-pneumococcus serums unnecessary. Investigators in

Boston and

in

Chicago found that there might be possible control known as subacute bacterial endo-

for a formerly fatal condition,

—

for the

form of inflammation of the brain known as equine

ence-

phalomyelitis. It

was shown that the virus of infantile paralysis may be found and may in some instances enter the body by way of the

in stools,

gastro-intestinal tract.

An organism was to

it

isolated and studies were made in relationship as concerns the artificial infection of mice with a virus that

will cause

rheumatism.

Studies were also

made on

indicate that swine influenza

influenza as

may

it

occurs in swine, which

be definitely related

to

human

and that perhaps swine constitute the means by which epidemic influenza is kept alive between periods of epidemics. A vitamin was discovered in the bacteria found in soil which seems to have the power of destroying gram-positive germs which bring about infections in human beings. Studies made in the South indicate that rabies, formerly under influenza,

control, is gradually increasing in certain portions of the South,

affecting cattle particularly, as well as

man.

—

Nervous System. Most significant in studies on the nervous system were with metrazol shock method, already mentioned, and the application of electroencephalography in determining

also

new facts about the character of epilepsy. Drug Therapy. ^In the field of drug therapy, continued work

—

showed the importance of prostigmine in the weakening disease of the muscles known as myasthenia gravis. A form of epinephrine was developed known as slow epinephrine which may be put into the body and absorbed over a long period of time to produce more effective results in many forms of disease, particularly allergies in which epinephrine is advised. In Dec. 1939, a new product for the treatment of syphilis which can be taken by mouth was announced by Stanford university, where Hanzlik and his associates have developed a preparation of bismuth known as sobisminol, wnth which excellent results have been achieved. This product has been tested in the clinics and been found to have merit, so that it has now been accepted by the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association.

A

concentrate of thrombin has been found useful in direct ap-

plication for the control of haemorrhage.

HUMAN HIBERNATION

was described at the annual meeting of the American Association tn May 1939. Ice lowers body temperature to S9°, after which the patient sleeps for five days, with only a slow heart beat. This treatment apparently stops growth of cancer

fJIedical

In certain cases of allergic response to food substances with resulting headache, the taking of a preparation of histamine has

seemed to be of value

A

new

in desensitization.

sity,

anaesthetic called cyclopropane, previously developed,

and its uses definitely restricted. The an inhalation anaesthetic like ether, but serves

was

finally standardized,

new

anaesthetic

is

better^than ether in selected cases.

Basic Research,

—^Fundamental

portance concerned the work on the causation of high blood pressure or hypertension

by Goldblatt of Cleveland whose

investiga-

factors, including such varying conditions

the National Health

biologic effect

was observed by Temple Fay, Smith and

who

continued freezing on cancer tissue.

tested the effects of long-

Apparently freezing inhibits

cancer growth, although at the same time ties

it

stops

all

of the activi-

human being is in a state of hibertested thus far only on incurable has been The method

of the body, so that the

nation.

However, much is being learned of the nature of the cancer cell, and the method is believed to be of importance as a means of biologic study. Medical Apparatus, ^Also of interest in the study of cancer was the use of the cyclotron, which is the new atom-smashing apcases;

the results have not been conclusive.

—

paratus developed in the University of California.

Human

beings

as asthma, high

Studies were also emphasized which relate to the weather and of geography on health.

blood pressure.

A new

is

men-

blood pressure and arthritis.

tions given

their associates in Philadelphia,

rooms with

Attention began to be paid to psychosomatic medicine, that

which interfere with the action of the kidneys as a fundamental cause of high tions demonstrated the importance of conditions

sterilizing air in operating

to say, those forms of disease which are definitely related to tal

research of the greatest im-

on the importance of

ultra-violet rays.

Health

Legislation.

—

by the Senate

of

important were considera-

^Especially

to the

effects

Wagner

bill

for making effective

bill.

The new Food and Drug laws and trol advertising of foods, drugs,

the ^Vheeler-Lea bill to concosmetics and physical devices

became effective. Widespread and important changes began to be made in labels and in advertising copy in response to these laws and their enforcement.

—

Refugee Physician. The problems of the refugee physician coming from abroad to the United States were given special consideration

by medical

organizations,

by the State

licensing boards

and by charitable organizations concerned with the care of the refugees.

—

Care of the Aged. ^The problem of the care of the aged, both from a physical and an economic point of view, attracted

were treated with neutron rays produced by this device, with the idea that the rays will break down the wild self-reproductive cancer cells and thus bring about a remission in cancer. A new oxygen mask was developed by Boothby of the Mayo Clinic for treating patients with sea-sickness and for use by aero-

It is recognized that the difficult diets of the aged tend to give them a lessened amount of minerals and vitamin D, and a lessened absorption of these products which affects the bones adversely. This may be associated Mth the bent

plane pilots and

Motor Accidents. Also important was the control of motor accidents with relationship to the physical condition and sobrietv of the driver with standard plans for physical examination of

others at high altitudes.

—

Miscellaneous.

^hledical attention centred largely during

1939

on improvement in preservation of blood for use in blood banks. Reports became available suggesting the use of preserved serum and preserved ascitic or dropsy fluid as a substitute for blood.

increasing attention.

or stooping attitude of the aged.

—

those applying for driver’s licence, the effects of a deficiency of vitamin A, and tests as to the amount of alcoholic intoxication

motor

Elman of St. Louis suggested the feeding of patients with severe degrees of malnutrition with a solution of amino adds which

prevailing in drivers of

could be injected directly into the veins. Obser\'ers report the possibility of using such materials as

awarded to Domagk of Germany who

walrus tusks, soup bones, and antlers of deer for bone grafts. Special attention was given to the possibility of control Of some

Nobel

Prize in Medicine.

cars.

—The Nobel is

prize in medicine

was

credited with having in-

troduced the use of sulphanilamide.

Deaths.—Outstanding among deaths

of physicians during 1939

forms of hardness of hearing by the use of some of the sex

was Dr. Harvey Cushing who won the Pulitzer prize for his Life oj Sir William Osier, and is credited with having established surgery'

hormones.

of the brain scientifically.

Continued studies were made, notably by Hart of Duke univer-

the two famous

Mayo

Outstanding also were the deaths of and Charles

brothers, Drs. William J.

H

439

MEDITERRANEAN — MERCER. BERYL

440

Mayo, whose surgical accomplishments and organization ability made them recognized leaders in American medicine. (See also Allergy; Anaesthesia; Bacteriology; Biochemistry; Birth Control; Chemistry, Applied; Chemotherapy; Dietetics; Drugs and Drug Trafeic; Endocrinology; Epidemics and Public He.alth Control; Gyn.aecology and Obstetrics Hospitals; Physiology; Psychlatry; Public He.alth Sermces; Radiology; Serum Therapy; Soclalized Medicine; Sterilization; Surgery; Urology; Veterinary Medicine; Vitamins; ;

X-Raa'. Also see articles on specific diseases.)

—

Charles B. .Aring, Joseph P. Evans and Tom D. Spies, neurologic aspects of vitamin B deficiencies,” (Dec. 9, 1939); George R. Cowgill, “The need for the addition of vitamin B] to staple .American foods,” (Dec. 9, 1939): -Albert M. Snell and Hugh R. Butt, “Vitamin K,” JaSiA. (Ilec. 2, 1939) ; W. O. Thompson and N. J. Heckel, “Male se.x hormone: clinical, application.” y_4..1/_4. (Dec. 9, 1939I: Ephraim Shorr, Frank H. Robinson and George X. Papanicolaou, “.A clinical stud.v of the stmthetic estrogen stilbestrol,” J-J.-l/M. (Dec. 23, 1939): Report of Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, “Sulfanilamide,” JA.Mul. (Feb. 2S. 1939) and “Sulfapyridine,” (Jan. 7, 1939): Special Report of Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, “Sulfapyridine,” /M.-1/M. (May 6. 1939); Jesse G. Bullmva, “Serotherapy of the pneumonias,” (Oct. 7, 1939): Xorman Plummer and Herbert K. (Xov. iS, Ensworth, “Sulfapyridine in treatment of pneumonia,” 1939): Saul R. X'elson and Paul D. IVhite, “.A new method of treatment of subacute bacterial endocarditis,” yM.-M_-l. (Xov. 4, 1939); Meyer Friedman, W. \V. Hamburger and L. X. Katz, “Use of heparin in subacute bacterial endocarditis,” y_-i.jy_4. (Xov. 4. 1939); .A. .A. Knight and V. C. David. “Treatment of venereal Ijmphogranuloma with sulfanilamide,” y_4..1/..-l. (Feb. II, 1939); Brien T. King, “Xetv and function-restoring operation for bilateral abductor cord paralysis,” y_-fJ/./l. (March 4, 1939): R. E. Gross and J. P. Hubbard, “Surgical ligation of patent ductus arteriosus first successful case,” y_-f..U_-l. (Feb. 25, 1939): E. O'G. Kiman, “Transplantation of the Cornea,” Archives of Ophthalmology (July 1939); L. D. Fothergill, Mar^ret Holden and R. W. G. Wyckofi, “H'estern equine encephalomyelitis in a laboratory’ worker,” yMJ/-4. (July 15, 1939): Lester S. King, “Some problems in the pathology of neurotropic viruses,” yM..iy_4. (Xov. 25, 1939); .A. B. Sabin. “Identification of filtrable, transmissible neurolytic agent isolated from to.voplasmainfected tissue as new pleuro-pneumonia-Iike microbe,” Science (Dec. 16, 193S): Editorial, “Earthworms as carriers of swine influenza,” y„-!..l/Jl. (July 22, 1939); R. E. Shope, “Intermediate host for swine influenza virus,” Science (May 12, 1939): R. J. Dubos, “Bactericidal effect of extract of soil bacillus on gram positive cocci,” Proc. Sac. Exper. Biol, and .Med. (Feb. 1939I: George A. Denison and J. D. Dowling. “Rabies in Birmingham, .Alabama,” J.AM-A. (July 29, 1939): Henry R. Vietz and Robert S. Schwab, “The diagnosis and treatment of myasthenia gravis,” y_'l..iyM. (.Aug. 12, 1939): Report Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, "Sobisminol,” yMJ/M. (Dec. 16, 1939) and “Present Status of Cycloproprane,” y_4.J/_4. (March iS, 1939): Harry Goldblatt, J. R. Kahn and R. F. Hanzal. “Studies on e.xperimental hypertension: effect on blood pressure of constriction of abdominal aorta above and below site of origin

Bibliography.

“Some

clinical

—

of both main renal arteries,” J. Exper. Med. (May 1939): L. \V, Smith and Temple Fay, “Temperature factors in cancer and embryonal cell growth,” yMJ/J-f. (Aug. 19, 1939); \V. M. Boothby, C. W. ilayo and \V. R. Lovelace, II, “One Hundred per cent oxygen,” JA.MA. (.Aug. s, 1939); Robert Elman and D. O. Weiner, “Intravenous alimentation,” /A.MA. (March 4, 1939): Editorial, “Sterilization of air in operating (AL Ft-) room,” y.-l.MM. (Mari iS, 1939)-

Mediferranean, British Possessions sessions IN THE MEDITERRANE.AN.

in; see

British Pos-

anians prevented the smooth working of the Government. Lithuania tried to strengthen its hold on the territorv- by dismissinv

Germans from office, suppressing German newspapers, and e.AproGerman property owners to make place for Lithuanian farmers and business men. But these measures aroused great resentment and strengthened the German feeling. In 1935 Dr. Ernst Xeumann and manj’ other German Memellanders rvere accused of treason and condemned to long terms of imprisonment. Dr. \eumann, however, was released after a couple of years. He now created a unified German party with the slogan, “Back to the Reich.” priating

In the elections to the Landtag on Dec. a striking \ictorj’ with

87-3%

ir, 193S, his party

won

of the valid votes, while the Lithu-

anian tickets polled only 12-790.

Mam’

persons expected that

Hitler w’ould use this electoral victory as a prete.xt for reuniting

Memel with

the Reich. Warned, however, by France and England

Memel Statute of 1924. he did not do so until he had successfully anne-xed Bohemia-Moravia on hlarch 15, 1939. Then he put pressure on Lithuania to cede the Memel Territorj’ back to the Reich. Lithuania was too W’eak to resist, and on JIarch 22, 1939, the Memel Territory was again a part of the Reich. to respect the

—

Bibliography. See Art. Memel in £/Jcyc/opa:dia Britannica; and Ian F. D. Morro\Y, The Peace Settlement in the Polish-Gcnnan Borderlands (1936). (S. B. F.)

Mendelsohn, Charles Jastrow lologist and authority on codes, w’as bom at Wilmington, N.C. on December S. After graduating from the University of Pennsylvania and taking post-

graduate work there, he began as a tutor in Greek and la^er be-

came an instructor in history at the College of the City of New York. During the World War he w’as employed by the U.S. Government as a translator and censor. In 191S he was commissioned captain of the military intelligence division of the U.S. general

and placed in charge of deciphering German codes, .\fter the Amr he continued his research in codes and the history of crjptography and wrote, in collaboration with H. O. Yardley, Universal Trade Code (1921). He died at Xew York city on September 27. stafi

Mental Diseases:

see Psychiatry.

Henzies, Robert Gordon and

»

W’as educated at Grenville college, Ballarat, at

Wesley

college,

IMelboume. and at Melbourne university, where he graduated with highest honours. After practising for several years as a barrister at the Victorian bar he entered the Metorian parliament in 1928.

During the

MnmnI lYlCIllcl

Torritnrif

ICirillilj}

of the river Xienien on the frontier of

ne.xt year he was a member of the legislative council of East Varra, and from 1929 to 1934 he w’as a member of the legislative assembly of Xunawading. He was also (1932-34) at-

and a population of about

torney-general and minister for railways in the cabinet of luc-

along the right bank

®

East Prussia, comprises 976 sq.mi.,

150.000. According to the German census of igio this region had a population of 140,766, of whom 71,191 sptoke German as their

mother-tongue,

The Germans

67,34s Lithuanian,

and 1,970 were bi-lingual. town and port of

greadt’ predominated in the

hlemel, the Lithuanians in the rural districts. By the Versailles Treaty Germany was compelled to cede the Memel Territorj’ to the four principal Allied Powers. VTiile they were delav-ing as to

its final

disposition, the

armed

forces of Lithuania suddenly burst in and occupied it in Januarj', 1923. The Powers accepted the situation but tried to regularize

by the Convention and Statute of May, 1924. Memel Territory was to be part of Lithuania but was promised large autonomy. Its Government was placed in the hands of a governor appointed by Lithuania; an elected chamber of representatives (Landtag); and a directorate of five. it

Unfortunatelv racial hatred between Memellanders and Lithu-

N

torian Premier Argj’le,

acting premier.

and minister for

and for a short time in 1934 was himself In that yeag he w’as appointed attomej’-general industry’ in the Austrah'an cabinet of Joseph A.

Upon Lyons’ death in 1939, Menzies was elected April iS succeed him as leader of the United .Australia party, and tw’o

Lyons. to

days later he received his commission to form a cabinet. Prime Minister Menzies announced in hlay that, as part of his foreign

he would seek better relationships with Japan. He also declared loyalty to the British foreign policy, and immediately

policy,

upon the outbreak of w’ar September 3 his cabinet approved a declaration of war against Germany. On September 15 he formed a war cabinet of six members, and on October 20 he announced the re-introduction of compulsorj’ military training in Australia.

(1SS2-1939), was

Mercer, Beryl

bom

in Seville. Spain, the

daughter of a diplomat and Berv’l Montague

MERCURY— METALLURGY

441

Mercer, well-known leading lady of the British Victorian theatre.

spread attention that has been given to the so-called “powder

She was educated at Guernsey college on Guernsey island and as a young girl became one of the most popular players of children’s roles in Drury Lane productions. For a time she was under the direction of Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree. She made her American debut at New York city in 1906 in The Shiilamite and after a residence of three years in London returned again to the United States. In 1922 she went to Hollywood to act in motion pictures,

metallurg}'.”

but she returned frequently to the stage, notably in the Theatre

ate

Pygmalion and Right Yon Are if You Think You Are. On the screen, as the “little old lady,” she often

processing,

Guild’s productions of

Among

personified eerie feminine characters rvith great effect.

the

pictures in which she appeared were Three Live Ghosts (1929 and 1936), All Quiet on the Western Front (1930), The Little Minis-

—

Aluminium. development

by

MorPlirU

lYICiuUIji metric tons in 1937 and 5,200 tons in 1938, as compared with the record high of S,6io tons in 1929. The leading producers are Italy, Spain and the United States; over the past 25 years, the distribution of the output has been one-third each from Italy and Spain (with Italy slightly in the lead), and onesixth

from the United States, the remainder being divided among number of minor producers, the chief of which are Mexico

a large

not greatly

and the Soviet Union. The present distribution is different from this, except that Italy has taken a greater lead over Spain. Austria was formerly a producer on about the same scale as the United States, but in the readjustment of territory after the World War (i9r4-i8) lost the producing district to Italy; without this addition to production capacity, Italy would Italian production was 2,300 tons in 1938, but the rate declined somewhat in the first half of 1939. Spanish production has

not been reported since 193S, but exports were about 1,400 tons in 2938. Sixty years ago the United States supplied two-thirds of the world total, but the highest figure in recent years was 860 tons in 1931, dropping to 330 tons in 1933, and increasing to 620 tons in 1938. United States imports in 1938 were only 81 tons,

from Italy, and 53% from Spain. British Empire producmercury is limited to about r ton in Australia and New Zealand, but imports fay the United Kingdom are heavy, the sur-

47%

tion of

plus of imports over re-exports in 1938 being 1,035 tons.

imports are

still

heavier, 1,132 tons in 1938.

Merit System: I

iil

German

(G. A. Ro.)

see Civil Service.

nnnnrA

6 rriCK) L 60 n 3 r 0

(1864-1939). British novelist and dramaUst, was bom Leonard Miller, Febru-

ary 21, and later changed his surname to Merrick. He was educated at Brighton college and at private schools. For a list of his works see Encyclopczdia Britannica, vol. 15. P- - 84 Merrick s -

novels never obtained a general popularity and he was

known

as a

intro“novelist’s novelist.” In 1918 his books were reissued with ductions by some of the most famous authors of the day, including James M. Barrie, Arthur Pinero, Granrille Barker, W. D. Howells and G. K. Chesterton. Jlerrick died at London on Au-

gust

7.

General features, equally applicable to various metals, that have occupied the attention of metallurgists during 1939 include fatigue, creep, age hardening, Another phase is the widediffusion, and electrodeposition.

Matolllirtru

mClullUrgy*

pure into

interesting

and potentially important new

would operfrom the polished surface, rather than by

The metal base has

bility

the advantages of faster

no stretching or shrinking, lower price, greater duraand strength, and the ability to use both sides of the film;

furthermore, since the film

mination can be increased.

is fireproof,

A

the intensity of the

new bearing metal

illu-

of aluminium,

with 5-5-7% tin and smaller percentages of nickel, copper and is reported to combine the desirable characteristics

of w'hite metal and copper-lead bearing alloys.

—

^This

{See also Aluiiik-

metal received a great deal of publicity

during the early months of 1939 through hearings of the Temporary National Economic Committee, which resulted in about 650

pages of published minutes, but apparently

little else.

—A

new smelter has been put into operation at Hurley, N.M., by Nevada Consolidated Copper Co., and plans are under way for another at Morenci, Ariz., by Phelps Dodge Corp. Copper.

{See also Copper.) iron

and

Steel.

—^There

is

a marked trend in the United

States toward increased capacity in blast furnaces,

up to i,ooq

tons daily and more, as well as toward ore mixtures which will

from the furnace. During the year the metaldepartment of the Jones and Laughlin plant at Pittsburgh announced the use of a battery of photo-electric cells w'ith acces-

give a higher yield lurgical

sory apparatus to give precise control of the blowing of the besse-

mer converter by

rank below Spain, instead of above.

of

now developed

the use of a thin continuous strip of aluminium

transmitted light.

Beryllium.

estimated at 4,600

^An

is

reflected light

lUJI.)

is

consolidation

has

alloy as a base for motion picture film, w’hich in use

wood,

production of mercury

this

nonferrous, from powders of the component metals.

magnesium,

July 28.

with the simple

a method of synthesizing a variety of alloys, both ferrous and

ter znA Jane Eyre (1934), Age of Indiscretion (193s), Magnificent Obsession (1936), Night Must Fall and Call It a Day (1937) and The Hound of the Baskervilles (1939). She died at HollyCalif.

Starting

metal powders by pressure and heat,

following the condition of the flame; this not

only results in a more uniform product, but

is also advancing knowledge of the oxidation process and of nitrogen absorption by the bath. This is the outstanding development of 1939 in steel metallurgy, as well as probably the most significant single step in the technology of bessemer steel since the discovery’ of the deoxidation methods w’hich made the process commercial, shortly after the invention of the process itself. {See Iron and Steel.) Lead. New features in 1939 are mainly the continued extension of former trends, rather than strictly new developments. Sintering machines have been increased in both length and width, and also separately in capacity without change of dimensions through careful control, especially of air leakage. A novel feature in blast furnace operation is being worked in a plant where a preponderance of gold and silver ores and a shortage of lead ores resulted in an insufficient lead fall for proper collection of the pre-

—

cious metals bullion,

;

this

which

is

has been remedied

by'

adding to the charge pig

thus further enriched before going to the re-

In refining, the process using gaseous chlorine has been extended to include the removal of tin. Several new alloys have been developed, including copper-tellurium-lead, tin-cakium-lead, finery.

and calcium-barium-lead. The addition of 2% magnesium to lead shot gives an alloy that completely disintegrates in contact with water in a few hours, and thus will serve to obviate lead poisoning in water fowl, caused from spent shot picked up from shallow water in feeding. {See also Lead.)

—A

new source of comparativ’ely large amounts of Lithium. lithium {g.v.) has resulted from the by-product recovery of lithium

from the potash operations at Searles Lake, California. The electrolytic production of manganese {g.v.) has reached a stage where metal of 99-9% purity is being produced commercially. salts

Manganese.

—

METAL PRICES— METEOROLOGY

442

—

Platinum. Platinum-clad nickel sheets for use in chemical apparatus are now available in sizes up to four by eight feet. Selenium and Tellurium.—A new development during 1939 is

the use of selenium and tellurium in copper and copper alloys

improve the machineability of the product. Another new application is the use of selenium in a heavy-duty power rectifier which to

withstand heavy overloads without deterioration. The addition of 0-25% silver to the standard 18-8 Silver.

will

—

improve resistance to corrosion and pitting, work hardening, and to improve machinethe new product has been made in castings, forgings, and

stainless steel

said to

is

Metal Prices and Production:

lilulCUl UlU^jfi

most sections of the United States although

Feb-

ruary was decidedly cold in central and western States.

The

precipitation in

season averaged above normal in

Using vaporization methods, silver coatings of the order of may be obtained; as a protective layer

o-ooooosin. in thickness

on an ordinary can the cost of silver would be only o.osjf. Application of this protective layer to glass bottles has also

temperature through reflection

and to retard the warming up of refrigerated maof heat rays,

such as a beverage after

being placed on the table.

Sil-

ver has also been used in a

magnesium

alloy

aluminium,

zinc,

with

along

and manga-

nese, producing a high strength

alloy with sistance.

good corrosion

re-

are

alloys

Silver-tin

also said to

be receiving atten-

tion.

(See also Silver.)

Tantalum Molybdenum. Efforts Tungsten,

—

and to re-

duce the consumption of tunghigh-speed tool steels

in

centre around the use of sin-

tered carbides of tungsten and

tantalum, and the substitution of

part

of

the

tungsten

by

continues

on

molybdenum.

—Work

Zinc.

the improvement in the yield

from is

retort plants, one of

now producing

metal per retort

which

over loolb. of

daily.

New

ex-

tensions of plant capacity in-

clude a second unit of the

Jersey

continuous

Germany; a in

New in

retorts

reflux plant, also

Europe; and extensions of

plants for the electrogalvanizing of wire and sheets.

Continued technological improvements have been made in retort

operation,

volatilization torts,

east of the

Rocky Mountains. Precipitation

was much above normal

in the eastern half of the

United States and the Southwest, but was scanty

in

most

Pacific

Snowfall was heavy in the northern Rocky Mountain States during the latter part of the winter,

Following the abundant winter precipitation, the spring months were generally warm and dry. Precipitation in March was scanty over a large northwestern area and April and May were decidedly dry throughout the Great Plains, so that by the middle of May

been proposed, in order to protect the contents from the action of light, to reduce the effect of Monthly and Annual

sten

warmth everywhere

sections.

sheets.

terials,

Mineral and Metal

winter 1938-39 was characterized by abnormally high temperatures and above-normal

Mptpnrnlngy

to lessen the degree of ability;

see

Prices and Production.

recovery

losses

electrothermic

from

of re-

distilla-

and the recovery of cadmium, the latter serving the tion,

double purpose the output of

of increasing

cadmium and im-

proving the purity of the zinc produced. (See also Zinc.) fG. A. Ro.)

Rainfall, in Inches,

J939,

in Cities

of the United States

METEOROLOGY a rather severe drought had developed over a large midwest-

Monthly Rainfall Jan.

Feb.

4*3

0.8

Edinburgh

3-3

Paris Berlin

3.6

1*5 1.9

in Inches for

March

April

443 7939, Outside the United States Jlay

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

1.8 2.3

3-4

0.9

1*4

i*S

4.9 2.0

3-8 5-9

0.8 2.0

2.2

I.O

2.3 4-2 3.1

2.1 2.2

0.6

1.5 4-2

Nov.

ern section. Temperatures were

abnormally

during

high

London

the

spring season.

The weather

of

Stockholm

summer was

Oslo

Copenhagen

mostly favourable for agricul-

The

ture.

Utrecht Vienna

spring drought that

Rome

threatened to hold over into

summer was

the

relieved

Calcutta

Bombay

by

Baghdad Singapore

good, timely, and verj’ benefirains

cial

May

the latter part

of

the

of

principal

agricultural

1.6 2.S O.I

0*4

0.0

0.0

1.4 10.7

i.i

0.0 3.7

Victoria,

veloped satisfactorily in most

3-4 3-8

i.i 1.2

Cape Town .

95

.

Toronto Winnipeg

crops responded rapidly and de-

0.8

Johannesburg Sallsburv (Rhodesia)

Growing

and in Jxme.

.

2.2 2.2 3.1

2.3 0.8

B.C

I.O 1.6

3*1 1*5

6.3 1.6 7.3 16.8 3-6 1*5

Si'dncy

4.7 3.2

3-5 O.I

Melbourne

0.3

Perth Wellington, N.Z

0.7

7.7 I.I

o.g

0.7

The summer was somewhat warmer than normal with

I.O 2.5

2-2

1-5

1-9 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.6

X.2

3.0 0.5

0.8 0.9 2.S 2.8

SO

1*7 2.2

1*3 2.3 2-2

0.3 0.8

4-7

I.I

1.3

2.3

1.6

1.6

2.7

IS -2

0.0

0.0 0.0

4-7

6.6 0.4

8.7

2-3

i-S

4.0

2.7 11.8 3.2 O.I 1.2

0.3 0.6 3-4

1.7

10.9 0.8 O.I I.I

I.I

0.4 3*9 4-5 I.I

3.0

1*5 1.4 I.O 3.2 2.0 7.8 2.3

0.0 14.9 33.1 0.0 3-8 3.6 2.4 0.1

0.0 5-7 1.9

0,0 0.2

0.6

Dec.

4*4

3 -S

3.1

I.I

I.O 2.0 3.1

0-4 0.8

0.0 0.0 0.8

1.2

1.4 I.O

1.9 2.5 1.2 0.7 3.1 II.I

.

7.8 2.7 1.2

1-7

4-2 s-s 0.3 2.9 4-3 8.7

0.9

6.0

3-4

21.7 lo.g

1.4 1.2 1.2 II.

3-7

S -9

12.3 1.2 0.7

JO-8 0.3 3-0

1.2

8.3

2.S 1.6

0.3 2.9 2.1

0.4 2-9

2.8

areas.

Monthly

a few widely scattered areas having below normal only

London

temperature for the season as

Edinburgh

a whole.

Paris Berlin

The outstanding weather

fea-

ture of 1939 was the severe fall drought. Following the mostly

-ample

summer

dry period set in

the

.......

Singapore

practically uninterruptedly un-

Johannesburg

Cape Town Salisbury (Rhodesia)

.

.

Toronto Winnipeg

For the three fall months, September-November, only limited areas in the far Southwest and

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

53.0 51-4 55-4

59-1 56.7 JS-2 63.7 59-9 59-4 62.1 65.5 64.4 63-S 86.5 84.7

61.3 57-9

63.4 59-5

59.8 56.0

48.9 46.1

48.7 44-7

67.1 64.0 66.6 66.9

53-6

39-4

58-3 61.2

44-2 46.6

79-9 60.4 56.7

80.1 63.7 63.1

61.7 55-3 S8.i 58.5 54-7 59-5 50.3

52.3

40-I 34.3 Si.i 69-4 76.6 49-3 79.6 71.3 65.7 67.9 23-7 4*5 42.9 72.3 70.0 69.7 58.9

Baghdad

the close of the year.

May

48.6 44.6 52.3 49.1 41.0 41.0 44-4 50.9 54-9 5 S -2 89.1 81.9

Utrecht

part of August and continued

til

April

43-5 41.8 43.2 36.0 32.4 32.4 35-6 41.2 36.5

3 S -4

Bombay latter

March

42.6 41.9 41*4 37.4 35-8 30-9 37-9 39-2 37 -S 47-7 74-9 76.4 50.4

Copenhagen

Calcutta

Victoria,

B.C

Sydney Melbourne Perth Wellington,

N.Z

°F for 7939, Outside the United States

Feb.

Oslo

Rome

rainfall, a long,

in

41.9 37.5 44.1

\'ienna

Temperatures

Jan.

37-4 30.4 25.0

Stockholm

Mean

80.1 70-5 65.5 68.2 24.8 8.9 t

39 74 -t

46.0 81.6 78.S S8.S 80.9 68.9 62.7 65.6 28.7 14.1

441 69.7

69.x

657

751

72.S 60.1

60.3

81.S

62.9 59-7 63.9 40.6

37-0 50.1 66.1 61.0 66.8 36.3

53-2

49.8 Sr.r

52.0 57-0 55-8 S8.8 88.7 84.8 83.7 81.8 61.9 SS-8 62.2 57-9 55-6 54-3 61.7 56.7

60.8 SJ -9

88.S 81. 60.1 5I.I

| 4 .S 65.5 S 9-0 55-4

56.5 51.2 56.9 50.8

65.5 64.8 6r.o 64,0 65.5 68.0 70.9 83.9 80.7 91-9 81.7 57.8 48.2 56.3 71.8 70.4 59.6 51-9 47.3 55-2 43.3

Dec.

S3.1 80.7

80-9 $6.6

72.3 67.8 62.2 57.1 51.0 55-9 47.9

67.4 6z.8

the middle Atlantic coast region

had normal

rainfall,

with

all

other States having deficiencies.

The

relatively driest area ex-

tended from the central Mississippi VaUey westward to the central Rocky Mountains. For the fall season Nebraska had only 26% of normal rainfall, and Kansas only

29%.

It

was the

driest fall

Minnemore than 100

of record over large areas of the U.S., a long record at

Minn., showing the driest

apolis,

November

in

closing month of 1939 was remarkably warm everywhere until the last week when there was a reaction to abnormally low temperatures which carried subzero weather well into the Central valleys, and frost to the Gulf coast. For 1939 as a whole the temperature for the United States averaged abnormally high, the means being remarkably similar to those for the preceding year. Practically all parts of the U.S. had a warmer than normal year, with the greatest abnormaUties, about

years.

The

4°, in the interior

and central-northern portions of the Great

The preceding year also was about 4° warmer than normal these areas. The lowest temperature reported for the year was

Plains.

in

51° below zero at Meadowlands, Minn., on February 21; the was 123° at Greenland’s Ranch, Calif., on July 13. The record extremes for the United States are —66° and 134°, the

highest

was much more cloudy weather than normal in some areas, and extreme Southeast. Many parts of the U.S. had from 100 to nearly 300 more hours of sunshine than is received in a normal year. Storms, Floods, Etc ^While the number of tornadoes reported in 1939, 137, was near the average of 141 for the U.S. as a whole, most of the storms occurred in sparsely settled communities, making the loss of life and destruction of property less than in a normal year. While, on the average, tornadoes kill 265 people and destroy approximately $12,000,000 worth of property annually, the loss of life in 1939 was only 97 and the property damage about half the average amount. The greatest loss of life for a single storm occurred at Center Point, Ark., and vicinity, on April 16, killing 27 people. {See also Floods and Flood Control.) The general storm damage was also comparatively small. A tropical disturbance on September 24 and 25 in Los Angeles and vicinity resulted in the death of 45 people and damage to or destruction of property to the amount of some $2,000,000. However, no tropical storm of consequence reached the south-eastern there

principally in the Central valleys

.

portion of the U.S. during the hurricane season of 1939.

former occurring in the Yellowstone National Park, and the latter in

Death

Europe.

Valley, California.

Precipitation for 1939 as a whole was about normal east of the Mississippi river, and below normal practically everywhere to the westward. Alabama, with a State average of 59-33^., was the wettest State, and Nevada with 8.4sin., the driest. Some central

Rocky Mountain

localities

had the

In general, there was considerably

least

annual rainfall of record. 1939 than

less precipitation in

in 1938.

Sunshine was above normal in most parts of the U.S., though

—

—^The values

(F.W. Re.) mean

of monthly rainfalls and monthly

temperatures in the tables are to be regarded as provisional, and Blanks in the tables indicate that

subject to slight corrections.

the corresponding data were not available (Jan. i, 1940). General Notes on the Weather of ipjp. The north Atlantic was unusually stormy during Januarj', and in consequence rainfall %vas

above normal over a large part of northwest Europe. The first half of January was also one of the stormiest in recent years in the north Pacific. Stormy conditions over the north Atlantic

METHODIST CHURCH

444

ministers of their church who, being ordained at the conference,

became

effective bishops of

The Methodist Church.

Women

and youth have represenffition on nearly every board and commission of the church. The Board of Missions and Church Extension has general oversight over all the missionary enterprises of the church. It operates through four divisions; (a) division of foreign missions; (b) division of tension;

(c)

Woman’s

division of education

Congregations of

now

home missions and

division of Christian service;

and

church

cultivation.

The Methodist Church,

totalling 46,255, are

to be found in the United States, Cuba, Central America,

Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Austria, Belgium, garia,

THE HEIGHT OF CLOUD CEILINGS

can be measured In daytime by a new experimental detector with a photoelectric cell mounted at the focus of a reflector first half of Februarj', and recurred in May. There was a long thundery spell over the British Isles in mid-July. At the end of December a severe earthquake in Turkey was followed by very heavy rainfall and severe flooding of many rivers, with heavy loss of life. (D. Bru.)

persisted during the

Episcopal

Church,

The

Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and The Methodist Protestant to form The Methodist Church. The articles of reThe Methodist Church are those which the three uniting churches have historically held in common. The Methodist Church is organized into conferences. A General

Church united

Bul-

Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany,

Hungary, Italy, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Union of South Africa, Portuguese East Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Angola, Belgian Congo, Liberia, Tunisia, Algeria, India, Burma, Sumatra, Sarawak (Borneo), Malaya, Philippine Islands and China. In Japan, Chosen, Manchuria, Brazil and Mexico there are autonomous Methodist Churches to whose support The Methodist Church contributes. The membership of The Methodist Church is 7,856,060 (U.S. 7,492,935; other countries 363,125). Its Sunday schools, numbering 46,369, enroll 5,926,155 persons (U.S. 5,593,190; other countries 332,965). There are 65 bishops (effective and retired); 21,-

687 effective ministers and 15,969 local preachers; 2,000 deaconesses (U.S. 835; other countries 1,165); 5,592

home

missionaries;

1,457 foreign missionaries (Asia i,o68; Africa 152; Latin America 225; Europe 12); 1,805 ordained native ministers and 16,500 un-

The 139

ordained native workers.

bllulvlli Methodist

ex-

(d) joint

educational institutions of The

Methodist Church enroll 93,000 students;

its 83 hospitals, with 365,000 patients; its 115 “homes” care annually for 4,500 children, 3,200 aged persons, and

5,300 nurses,

minister annually

to

ligion of

800 young people. It has, also, 40 homes for deaconesses. The Methodist Church has property whose net value is $656,-

Conference for the entire church, meeting once in four years, has full legislative power over all matters affecting the total life of the church. It is composed of not less than 600 nor more

permanent funds amounting to $14,132,961.73; and annuity funds

than 800 delegates, ministerial and lay in equal numbers, elected

by the Annual Conferences. The Annual Conference is itself composed of ministers and laymen, in equal numbers, representing In the United States, there are jurisdictional conferences composed of delegates, ministerial and lay in equal numbers, elected by the annual conferences within their several boundaries. The jurisdictional conference meets within the 12 months succeeding the meeting of the General Conference. It elects

its

own

bishops,

promotes the evangelistic, educational, missionary, and benevolent interests of the church, and provides for interests and institutions its

boundary.

The church

outside the United States

is

organized into central

conferences that have powers and duties similar to those of the jurisdictional conference. A Council of Bishops composed of all the bishops

of

all

the

jurisdictional

and central conferences

meets at least once a year to plan for “the general oversight and promotion of the temporal and spiritual interests of the enChurch.” At this meeting, the bishops of the central conferences may vote only on matters relating to their respective con-

tire

A

bishop has residential and presidential supervision only in the jurisdiction that has elected him. On request of an-

ferences.

other jurisdiction, however, he diction

by the Council

may

be transferred to that

juris-

of Bishops,

In the Uniting Conference at Kansas City, the delegates from the Annual Conferences of the Methodist Protestant Church, which was non-episcopal, elected to the office of bishop two

X

totalling $7,313,458.06.

Its current asking for foreign missions

is

$31980,504; for home missions, $2,510,533. During a recent period of 12 months, it raised for ministerial support, debt pay-

ment, current e.xpenses, general work, and benevolences a of $80,543,997.

During

this

same

period,

it

total

administered the

baptism to 309,949 persons and received 315,652 persons membership in the Church. A considerable portion of the funds of the American Church Committee for China Relief is rite of

the churches in a given area.

within

474,867 (U.S. $625,018,885; other countries $31,455,982). It has

into full

now

being administered across China by missionaries of The

Methodist Church.

(E. F. T.)

—

Great Britain. ^The annual conference of Church met in Liverpool for a fortnight in July

the

Methodist

1939, under the presidency of the Rev. Richard Pyke, a former president of the

United Methodist Conference. The report of the National Children’s Home and Orphanage showed that about £200,000 was raised in the year for this work.

The March

total

number of

full

members of

the Methodist Church in

1939, was reported to the Liverpool conference as 802,455 (net decrease 2,177), with 18,338 “on trial,” and 65,967 junior

members. The number of lay preachers is 31,990. There are 980,005 scholars in the Sunday schools, but this figure represents a decrease of 23,795. The report of the Overseas Missions issued in June 1939, shows an adult baptized Christian community of 223,487 recognized as full

members

There are

of the church, an increase of 3,732 on the year.

and 189,826 on membership, and 220,227 children in the Sunday schools. The total Christian community under the care of the Methodist Missionary Society, in the West Indies, Ceylon, India, trial

for

in addition 39,042 baptized adherents,

full

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP ART— MEXICO Burma, China, Africa and Latin Europe is 752,406. All these figures show great increases, even if the home church has nothing comparable to report. The Missionary Society is without a debt. The total income raised for its work by the home church was

by the churches on the mission fields, £116,029. Th^ income of the Missionary Society was £482,726.

£317,849, and total

—

Bibliography. ^The above figures from Methodist Conference Minutes (1939) and Annual Report of the Slethodist Missionary Society for 1938, issued June 1939. (J- R- J-)

445

the 1938 expropriations legal, admitting the right of the foreign

companies to claim compensation “for capital directly and legitimately invested,” permitting the Government to defer payment

much as ten years, and ruling out reimbursement for the companies “for an expectation of profits from oil still in the ground for as

or for damage suffered through cancellation of concessions.”

The

decision, surprising to neither party involved, exhausted all legal

Government prepared

recourse for the companies and the

to

evaluate the properties for compensation as the year closed.

Metropolitan

Movion

nluAlbUi

Museum

of Art; see Art Exhibitions.

Mexico experienced a third year of economic depression in 1939. Business during the early months was on an upward trend, but in

^ Federal republic, between the United States and

June a slump

Central America and bordering the Pacific and Atlan-

crisis.

in silver value abroad brought about a financial

The United

States treasury, which

had been buying Mex35;!, and

(Gulf of Mexico); language, Spanish; capital, Mexico City; president, Lazaro Cardenas; area, 767,168 square miles. Popula-

ican silver at 43ff (U.S.) an ounce, lowered the price to

tion (census, 1930) 16,552,722; (official estimate, 1935) 18,512,-

dollar, fluctuating

tic

55% of the population was mestizo, 15% white, with less than 1% (150,000) forApproximately 14% of the total population speaks only

837.

In 1930 approximately

29%

Indian, and

eign.

some Negro and part Negro elements Mexico coast. The chief cities are: Mexico City,

Indian tongues. There are

on the Gulf of

Guadalajara,

1,029,068;

Monterrey, 137,388; Puebla,

184,826;

fell from 4-99 to around 6 to the between the two figures for the rest of the year. A rise in the price of foodstuffs and other domestic necessities, in spite of governmental counter-measures, created an acute situa-

tion

among

the people of the nation.

Labour disputes continued throughout the year with strikes against both foreign and Mexican companies. Even school teachers and Government employees struck for higher wages, back salaries or better

122,914; Merida, 110,183.

—Mexico includes

the Mexican peso immediately

working conditions.

A

12-day bakery strike in

own gov-

the capital, causing a serious bread shortage, was settled April 10

ernor and legislature and a limited autonomy, and three territories

by compromise. In October, five States were temporarily darkened by an electric power and light strike. A shortage of water power in the Federal district caused the Government to inaugurate a drastic program of electricity conservation from February until July, when summer rains alleviated

History.

and a Federal

district,

28 States, each with

its

with governors appointed by the president.

Government is administered by a president elected and a bicameral congress. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for three years and of the Senate for six

The

national

for six years,

years,

by

the situation. Inadequate transportation facilities created serious

universal suffrage.

In 1939, developments in Mexico were hampered by stringent economic conditions brought about by a sharp fall in the price of silver, which caused the peso to slump to a new low, and by ex-

congestion in the port of Veracruz in April, and elsewhere freight

was held up by similar difficulties. The Government continued to subsidize com, beans and other foodstuff importations in

ternal pressure

the early months, but

The European war,

good.

on the Government-owned petroleum industry. disrupting maritime commerce, had disastrous effects on Mexico’s markets abroad. Land expropriation and redistribution continued, but the revolutionary social program was overshadowed by the economic crisis and by political activity leading toward the election of a president in 1940 to succeed Lazaro Cardenas, whose term ends in December of 1940. Administration and opposition party candidates were selected. Foreign relations were concerned with the oil controversy between the Government and the foreign companies whose properties were expropriated in arising

March

from the wars

in

grain harvests were exceptionally

major expropriations of private

industries occurred during

the year, but Mexico’s drive toward “economic independence”

was

strengthened in August by legislation restricting property acquisition

by

foreigners.

A

steeply-graduated excess profits tax

passed the Chamber of Deputies December 22.

To

stimulate in-

vestments, however, a Government fund to guarantee capital and

minimum

1938, and with international conditions

interest on all sums invested in specified industries w'as approved by Congress for 1940. The fund was to be created from the proceeds of a tax on alcoholic beverages for the next five

Europe.

years.

depression

Mining, the nation’s most important industry, suffered from

seriously lim-

the silver slump and failed to revive as expected during the Euro-

In the first seven months of i939> producwas up 15% and the Government was marketing oil in pre-

pean war. Copper prices rose 20% in September, but lead and zinc fell in export value and volume as Great Britain confined her purchases to sources within her empire. The 12% export tax on silver was removed to stimulate the industry. Mexico’s political scene was dominated by preparations for the

The petroleum industry revived remarkably from in 1938, when boycotts in protest of expropriations

its

ited foreign markets.

tion

No

summer

expropriation quantities, chiefly through barter agreements with

Germany and

Italy.

In September, however, when the German market, which had been taking 42% of the exported product, was eliminated by war, storage sales were cut in half. As no new outlets were found, in scarcity resulted, and it was necessary to curtail production the closing

months of the year. Expected

benefits of a United

December 16, did not 50% sales materialize, for Mexico’s quota, determined by her 1938 oil Petroleum, also (See to the United States, was only 3-8%. States

tariff

United States.) The petroleum

reduction on

effective

oil,

administration,

known

as Petroleos Mexicanos,

addicentralized, and steps were taken to nationalize tional properties. In November the Constitution was amended to prohibit the granting of petroleum concessions to private com-

was further

panies in the future.

On December

2,

the

Supreme Court declared

July 1940 presidential election. Bidding for the official National Revolutionary Party’s nomination were generals Manuel Avila

Camacho, former minister of war and

unofficial choice of the ad-

ministration; Rafael Sanchez Tapia, a moderate; Francisco

Mu-

and Gildardo Magana, an administration supporter. Mujica and Magana withdrew and, on November 3, ALula Camacho was chosen unanimously as the official candidate by the party convention. Rightist opposition factions formed the new jica,

a

leftist;

March with General Joaquin In July, however, Juan Andreu

National Party of Public Salvation in

Amaro

as a potential candidate.

Alraazan, recently retired military

commander

of the North and

a popular moderate, declared himself against the administration

and became by far the leading opposition

figure.

After the

official

MEXICO

446

was a lull in campaign activities while both Avila Camacho and Almazan conserved their political ener-

but negotiations between the Government and the American companies were active. Attempts to reach a settlement by reinstating

gies for the ensuing year.

the foreign companies on a joint-operation basis with the Govern-

party’s nomination, there

Strongly supported by the

Mexican

official

politics for ten years, Avila

party, which has dominated

Camacho was conceded

the

1940 election by many observers. Almazan’s large popular following, however, with President Cardenas’s promise of a fair election, gave the opposition candidate a chance to win. Almazan’s platform, vaguely stated in July, called for breaking down bureaucratic politics, putting the agrarian revolution

on a private owner-

ship basis, and further aiding national recovery tion with the

drawn up

by

close co-opera-

United States. Avila Camacho’s program tentatively

in the official party’s

new “Six-Year Plan,” included

the complete nationalization of the

oil

industry and continued

land expropriation and redistribution, but also co-operation with private industry and “gradual reparation of social injustices.”

After four years of remarkable political strength and popularity. President Cardenas suffered

some

loss of prestige during 1939.

In the face of pressing national problems, keenly

felt in

the capital,

on an extended trip through the North to look after regional economic and social needs. Gone 97 days, the President travelled through ten States and territories, visiting 252 localities and thereby increasing his political strength in that region. In the capital, however, political and economic unrest was voiced in the election campaigns, and the administration came under

he

left

sharp criticism.

Minor insurrectionary disturbances continued throughout the

ment

condemnation of Soviet Russia’s invasion of

A new

conflict.

to the inter-American agreement at

aid to Finland.

Education.

—Urban

States; rural education

education

is

supported largely by the

by the Government. There

are approxi-

mately 20,000 schools of all kinds in the country. The Government is striving to lower Mexico’s large percentage of illiteracy estimated at

45%) by

spreading primary education

In 1938, the Government maintained 12,245 rural and 1,846 urban elementary schools, with 15,714 teachers and 811,790 students in the former and 10,143 teachers and 368,the Indians.

in the latter, at a cost of 67,260,000 pesos. The 1939 budget provided 67,075,000 pesos for education. There are six universities including the National Autonomous university and the National Labor university, both at Mexico City.

414 students

—

Banking and Finance.

^The

monetary unit

is

the peso (value:

I7-3S{^ U.S. in 1939, with parity not yet determined; 2o.3f' in 1938). When the price of silver abroad fell from 43^ to 35(‘

(U.S.), the

peso seek national census was begun during the year with com-

In the next month

it became a signatory party Panama, which established a neutrality belt around the American waters, and restricted the activities of ships of belligerent nations by coast guard patrols on both shores. (See Hispanic America and the Eueopea.\ War.) As a member of the League of Nations, Mexico denounced Soviet Russia’s invasion of Finland in December and pledged her

European

(officially

President’s

in

Bank of Mexico retired from the market and natural level. The national budget for 1939,

its

Mexican

history, called for 445,875,614 pesos

let the

largest

(430,920,000

months were up 12-3%

pletion expected in 1940.

pesos in 1938). Receipts for the

Social reforms went forward steadily in 1939 in spite of economic adversity. The Government continued to support labour and agrarian movements, to carry socialized education into the remote Indian villages, and to spend huge sums on irrigation projects. Jewish refugees from Germany were refused admission into Mexico, but immigration restrictions were relaxed to allow several thousand Spanish Loyalists to enter the country, and a few thousand Mexicans of the first and second generation residing in the United States were repatriated. Most of these immigrants were colonized in undeveloped regions.

from the estimated 300,000,000 pesos for that period. Trade and Communications. Exports in 1938 totalled

Agricultural land expropriations continued, especially affecting

During the fiscal year ending Sept. 1939, the Government made 1,317 land grants totalling more than 6,000,oooac. to 106,829 farmers. Almost 40,000,00030. of land, formerly held by large estates, have been redistributed to peasants in communal holdings during the agrarian revolution. President Cardenas

large sugar estates.

in

1939 set a goal of soac. for each of Mexico’s 3,000,000 peasant

There was no noticeable religious unrest as in past years. The Catholic church continued to operate peacefully under Govern-

ment

supervision.

—

Foreign Relations. ^Diplomatic relations with Great Britain remained suspended over the petroleum expropriation controversy. '

first

eight

—

126,000 pesos

(6%

principally silver,

838,-

than in 1937), of which mineral products, gold, lead and petroleum, constituted 499,027,less

228 pesos (or 59-6%), including gold bullion. In the

first half of

1939, exports increased in value to 490,300,000 pesos (423,100,000 pesos in the same period of 1938). The principal customer is the

United States which took 67-4% in 1938. Great Britain was

sec-

ond (9-4%). Imports in 1938 totalled 493,323,784 pesos, with automobiles, rayon yam, machinery and other manufactures the principal commodities. In the

first six months of 1939, imports had increased to 306,100,000 pesos (237,100,000 in the same period of 1938)The United States supplied 57-8% of the imports in 1938. Ger-

many was second (i8-8%). The

devaluation of the peso during the year caused a slight increase in pesos spent and collected as

compared with the actual amount of goods exchanged. A signifiGermany after war broke out in September offset Germany’s gain by previous barter agreements on the trade of the United States and Great Britain. Mexico’s external communications are by steamship service, especially through Veracruz, by three main railways to the United States, and one to Guatemala; by increasingly important air servcant drop in trade with

families.

rela-

Franco Government. The Government continued to recognize Poland and Czecho-Slovakia after they were conquered, but, in September, declared its neutrality in the tions with the victorious

among

Finland.

ruling

ported the Republican cause but, in July, assumed normal

them. In January, the seven-months’ hunt for General Satumino

the

to re-

was upheld in the Mexican Supreme Court December 2, the dispossessed American companies appealed to their own Department of State. As the year ended, however, no official action hy the United States was forthcoming. Mexico took definite stands on almost all major military aggressions in Europe. In the Spanish civil war, Mexico actively sup-

year in the various States, but Federal troops quickly suppressed Cedillo, leader of the short-lived revolt in San Luis Potosi in 1938, ended when the rebel chief was killed in a skirmish between Federal troops and his few remaining followers. In Mexico City, anti-Semitic, anti-Fascist, anti-Nazi and anti-Communist riots occurred, but were suppressed by police. Unrest centred about such issues as the admission of Jewish refugees from Germany, Republicans from Spain, and Mexicans from the United States, and repercussions from the various wars in Europe. In December, the Communist minority was sharply criticized for denouncing

however, and Mexico showed no inclination After the expropriation

failed,

linquish control of the industry.

MICA— MICHIGAN and south and to the West Indies; and by highway, Nuevo Laredo. There are over 23,750km. of railway, 57% of which is under Government operation. During the fiscal year ending Sept. 1939, 171km. of rails were laid on a line which will link Baja California with the rest of the country, 26skm. on the Southeastern line, and 83km. on the projected Uruapan-Puerto Zihuatanejo road. Highway building during the year 1938-39 included the completion of the 680-km. paved road from Mexico City to Guadalajara. Including projects in co-operation with the States, the Government surveyed 936km. of new ice north

notably through

and surfaced 1,525 kilometres. Among 1939 was one between Mexico City and Tampico. An airmail service between Mexico City and Bridgetown, Barbados, was also opened. In 1938, Mexico had over 23 lines of air passenger service. In the same year, there were 138,081 telephones (1,337 Government and 136,744 private). During the fiscal year 1938-39, the Government spent 17,976,589 pesos on railway construction, 11,681,717 pesos on highways, and

roads, laid beds for 686km.,

the

new

airlines established in

997,525 pesos on aeroplanes and equipment. Agriculture and Mining. Resources are mineral and agricul-

—

Holding sixth place in world petroleum production, Mexico produced 38,5o6,ooobbl. in 1938. The 1939 output was estimated at 4i,7oo,ooobbl., an increase of 8-3%. Mexico is the leading protural.

ducer of silver (2,S2o,isskg. in 1938). In the first eight months of 1939 silver production was down 20.2%. Other important min-

and zinc. Normally almost self-sufficient agriculturally, Mexico suffered a shortage of com, wheat, beans, and other such produce in the early months of 1939, but good crops were harvested in the summer. The 1939 wheat crop attained the all-time record of 385,000 tons, and com prospects pointed to a similar record. Important exports are coffee, henequen (hemp), bananas, chicle and chickerals include gold, copper, lead

peas.

important in the northern States. Manufactures include sugar and oU refining, textiles, tobacco products, iron and steel, rubber, leather, glass, flour and meat packing.

The

The

cattle industry is

fishing industry is important

on the west

coast.

A

recent

the tourist trade, which revived after a poor previous year. In the first ten months of 1939, foreign visitors entering Mexico numbered 49,287 as compared to 40,130 in the

national resource

is

corresponding period of 1938. Army and Navy.—Mexico’s largest appropriations are for national defence (92,984,458 pesos in 1939)- Th^ standing army is

men, with 40,000 in reserve. A and thus bring the rehad 170 pilots and army The years. serves up to 200,000 in four con70 planes in its air service in 1938, and in 1939 Government tracts called for 40 fighting planes and ten training ships. The navy consists of one coast defence ship, eight gunboats and nine coast guard craft. (See also International Law.)

unofficially estimated at 70,000

program

is

under way to

train peasants

challenge; H. -B. Parfe, old Mexico; J. ti. history oj Mexico; H. A. Phillips, iVcir designs for public Plenn, Mexico marches; B. M. JIcConnell, Mexico at the bar of Mexico reopinion; W. E. McMahon, Two strikes and out; V. C. Millan, born; N. and S. Weyl, Cardenas and the Mexican revolution. (L. W. B.; *’l. L, Ai.l

Bibliography.— F. L. Kluckhohn, The Mexican

A

447

Of a world total output of about 50,000 metric tons in 1937, apparently about 10,000 tons were sheet and splittings, and the remainder scrap. Production declined rather sharply in 1938 in The output of British India stands foremost, with mainly sheet and splittings, but in recent years conpractically all countries.

amounts of scrap have apparently been included, so little meaning. Other British Empire producers include Canada, Rhodesia, South Africa, Tanganyika and Australia, but none of these are of any great commercial importance except Canada, and there output has declined heavily siderable

that the data available have

in the past decade.

United States production has likewise dropped, but not so badly as the Canadian; an output of 847 short tons of sheet and 25,200 tons of scrap in 1937 declined to 470 tons of sheet and 20,250 tons of scrap in 1938. Imports dropped by about half in 1938, to

4,530 tons of scrap and ground mica, 175 tons of sheet, and 890 tons of splittings.

Heretofore mica has lacked any satisfactory substitute for its most important uses, but a recent announcement makes public the discovery of an artificial film made from bentonite which gives

promise of serving for many of the ordinary electrical uses of mica, but due to a high power factor it has not yet been developed to a point where it can be used in high grade condensers. (See also Veriiiculite.) (G. A. Ro.)

f^^^fy'Sbdh state to become a member of the mlulligdiif United States, popularly known as the “Wolverine

MiphifTQn

State”; area, 57,480 sq.mi. (exclusive of 40,000 sq.mi. of Great Lakes’ water surface wthin her boundaries); population (U.S. census, 1930) 4,842,325; (estimate Jan. i, 1940) 5,405,000.

Cap-

Lansing, 78,397. Larger cities are Detroit, 1,568,662; Grand Rapids, 168,592;' Flint, 156,492; Saginaw, 80,715. Of the State’s ital,

population, 3,302,075 are urban, or 68-2%; 4,650,171 whites; 192,154 coloured; of the whites, 3,809,903 native bom, 840,268

bom; about 350,000 of the total population live in the upper peninsula, which comprises about one-fourth of the State’s foreign

area and possesses nearly one-half of the State’s 1,624-mile shoreline (longest fresh-water shore line of

History.

—The beginning of

any State in the Union).

the year witnessed the inaugura-

tion of a Republican administration to succeed the “Little

New

Deal” of the Democratic regime under the outgoing governor, Frank Murphy. Under his successor, Frank D. Fitzgerald, who had been secretary of State (1931-34) and governor (1933-36), it soon became evident that the Republicans ivere planning sweeping changes not only in the practices inaugurated

by the Murphy

regime with respect to economic and social problems, but in the recently established Civil Service program, as well. Almost immediately, however, the Fitzgerald administration was embar-

by widespread publicity given to the opening of numerous gambling establishments in the State, particularly in the neighbourhood of Detroit. Several of the influential new'spapers which rassed

had vigorously supported Fitzgerald

Murphy now

led an insistent

in his fall

demand

used to suppress the gambling.

campaign against

that the State police be

Fitzgerald, taking the position

that the problem

In the discussion of mica

Mica.

we

are mainly concerned with many commercial uses for

sheet mica ; although there are

scrap mica, this

is

a low grade material that

falls into

a different

category from that of sheet mica. Sheet mica is classified according to the standard size of sheet that can be trimmed to shape, and that below the smallest size, but still too large for scrap, goes to splittings, for the production of built-up mica shapes, using a plastic binder. The growing demand for built-up mica has made splittings a feature of the market, with a consumption in the United States about double that of sheet mica.

was one for county, rather than State, handling, at first declined to order suppression by State police except in instances where local authorities professed inability to handle the matter. In the face of persistent popular clamour, however, the governor in March finally ordered the State police to clean up the gambling situation.

Governor Fitzgerald died, after a brief illness, on March 16. On 17, Luren D. Dickinson, who as a candidate for a seventh term as lieutenant-governor (previous terms, 1913-20; 1927-32) had led the Republican ticket in the November election, took the

March

oath of

office

as Michigan’s S4th State governor (the 37th indi-

MtCHIGAN

448

Seventy-nine year old Dickinson had

vidual to hold the office).

long been

known

as an active leader of the Anti-Saloon League;

his inaugural address as lieutenant-governor

had inveighed against

“the encircling odours of the seething, boiling, sin-cursed cesspools of crime, insanity, idleness, social putridity, gambling dens, profligacy,

waste,

houses. ...”

commission.

Walter F. Gries became chairman

Under terms

of the

new

sponsibility for the administration of relief

county social welfare board.

Due

of

act, the principal re-

was placed upon

the

in part to resignations, the per-

road

sonnel of the Civil Service Commission was completely reconstituted, with William A. Irving the new chairman. Before the end

these activities had scarcely prepared the public

of the year, the State Liquor Control Commission had been simi-

new governor enas he saw it. This

larly completely changed

beer

upheaval,

industrial

Even

State and county agencies. this

gardens,

for the vigour and enthusiasm with which the

and

membership, with Or-

gaged upon an oratorical campaign against sin campaign has made Dickinson probably the best-known, certainly the most talked-about, governor in Michigan’s history. Severe

in

by the governor of moral conditions as he found them at a governors’ conference in Albany, N.Y., during the summer, drew forth comment from every part of the country, while his colourful account of the temptations of New York city provoked a retort from Mayor Fiorello La Guardia. Before long Michigan people had become used to the governor’s claim that he had “a pipeline to God,” and suggestions of the order of bis proposal that smoking mothers reduce their e.xpenditures for cigarettes by one-half and

McPherson became chair-

rin

criticisms

donate the savings to the depleted State funds for

much comment.

A.

DeMass

chairman.

man

of

the new

Melville

the

Commission

;

B.

State Tax the resigna-

Demomembers gave the

tion of one of the cratic

Republicans the

control

commission.

dier General

of

Briga-

Edward G.

Heckel succeeded Hilmer

relief failed to

however, were im-

Gellein as director of the

pressed with the uniformly large audiences attending the Sunday

Department of Correc-

arouse

Political observers,

religious rallies addressed

by the governor

in various parts of the D.

Michigan

Meanwhile the State legislature, in a session lasting until the middle of June, had passed nearly 370 measures. Perhaps the most important was a new civil service bill, to take the place of the one passed during the Murphy regime. Although Republican leaders insisted that the principle of civil service was being adhered to, the Michigan Merit System Association and a host of other non-partisan organizations were bitterly opposed to the new measure. The measure removed from the civil service about onehalf of the 16,000 positions which had been under civil service at the beginning of the year.

partisan in character,

A great

deal of pressure,

much

of

was put upon Governor Dickinson

the measure, but he signed

An

it.

oil

raising of standards for nurses

established in 1933.

;

bills

signed as State budget director to

budget, was succeeded

Gus T. Hartman. In

were vetoed by the gover-

first

who

re-

director of the Federal

by Grover C. Dillman, and then by

the place of William Brownrigg,

who

re-

signed to accept the position of director of personnel in the Fed-

Department of

Justice, Paul T.

new wardens were

appointed for the State Prison of Southern Mich-

igan and for the Michigan Reformatory.

Anderson became State per-

Governor Dickinson’s personal physician, replaced Dr. Don W. Gudakunst as State health officer. In the spring election, the Republican party swept to complete victory.

Henry M. Butzel and Howard Wiest were re-elected jusSupreme Court, and Eugene B. Elliott was re-

tices of the State

elected State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Junius A. Beal

and Ralph Stone, Republicans, who after serving 32 years and

16

Melville B.

McPherson and Forest M. Akers were chosen

to re-

place Democrats on the State Board of Agriculture, while the election of Mary Farnsworth as a member of the State Board of Education made that body completely Republican in personnel. Education. Under the superintendency of Eugene B. Elliott,

—

the State Department of Public Instruction continued to place particular emphasis upon vocational guidance and upon the devel-

opment of a State-wide curriculum program. A committee was appointed to formulate a program in conservation education for Michigan schools. The institutions of higher learning in general reported increases in enrolment. At Michigan State college in East Lansing important buildings were erected for class-room, for athletics,

and for dormitory purposes at the University of Michigan ;

Ann Arbor

sonnel director of civil service. Richard T. Frankensteen, C.I.O.

in

whose appointment by Governor Murphy to the State Emergency Relief Commission had provoked much criticism, was replaced by Governor Fitzgerald with Carleton H. Runciman. Measures of administrative reorganization undertaken by the legislature were accompanied by a program of sweeping changes inaugurated by Governor Fitzgerald and continued by Governor

phasis upon the construction of dormitories, was carried through.

leader,

Dickinson with respect to the personnel of appointive offices. The Public Utilities Commission, which Governor Fitzgerald alleged was partisan, was abolished by the legislature and replaced by a Public Service Commission. Replacing a social welfare act which

by popular referendum

Nov. 1938 election, a new law created a State Social Welfare Commission which was directed to co-ordinate all the various responsibilities and obligations of the Emergency Welfare Relief Commission, the State Welfare Commission, the' Old Age Assistance Bureau, and other

had been

nullified

in the

^

Dr. H. Allen Moyer,

not to stand for re-election, were succeeded by Harry G. Kipke, formerly football coach of the University, and J. Joseph Herbert.

by the and Gas

become

of

to veto

abolished the Legislative Council

Twenty-one

flovernor

years, respectively, as regents of the University of Michigan, chose

control act drafted

nor; three were passed over his veto. Harold D. Smith,

In

DICKINSON became March 1939

non-

it

Department of Conservation and sponsored by the Oil Association of Michigan was described by State Geologist R. A. Smith as the best legislation of its kind in the nation. Other acts passed by the legislature made a new requirement of oath of allegiance of teachers, instructors, and professors; provided for the

eral

tions;

LUREN

State.

a $5, 500,000-building program, with particular em-

—

Charities and Correction. The brief age (six months) of the recently created Social Welfare Commission rendered impossible

any accurate appraisal of

its

effectiveness in dealing with

Michigan’s complex $45,ooo,ooo-a-year welfare and relief problem; in view of the fact that county “home rule” administration of relief did not come into being until December i, the probability of success of this plan was at the end of the year still entirely a matter of conjecture. The Department of Corrections reported that from January

i to December 1 the number of prisoners incarcerated in State penal institutions rose from 7,299 to 7,722. As of

June 30,

91%

were native-born Americans, 43% Michigan-born. Banking. F. Elliott, Jr., State Banking Commissioner, at the end of the. year reported that the resources of 351 commercial banks under his supervision increased from $701,000,000 to

—

,

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF— MILK from $635,000,000 to $677,000,000. Of 64 receiverships supervised by the State Banking Department in 1933, only 22 were still in existence at the end of 1939; 20 receiverships were closed during the year. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. ^During 1939 the State Department of Agriculture under Elmer A. Beamer continued a program working toward the elimination of animal diseases, especially among dairy herds, and of American Foul Brood among bees; the analysis of agricultural seeds; the inspection of orchards and nurseries. In the automotive and construction industries in particular, marked gains in business were reported. The longest and costliest labour dispute in automotive history, a 54-day deadlock between the Chrysler Corporation and the C.I.O. United Automobile Workers reached a dose at the end of November with a compromise including a wage increase amounting to $747,000,000 during the year;

deposits

—

Captain Reynolds, U.S.S. “Lackawanna,” took possession formally

on Aug.

28, 1867.

Since 1903 the islands have been under the jurisdiction of the U.S.

Navy Department. Sand island is the site of a commercial The Navy Department has licensed Pan American

cable station.

Airways its

to establish certain facilities for use in connection with

transpacific commercial airline.

The

76th Congress authorized the

$5,000,000 for the turning basin for tenders and

oil

Forces; Navies of the World.

—

CoHStruction of the

new

build-

MlCtligdil, UniVBrSity OI. ings prodded ivith the help of the Federal Public Works Administration was the most important problem before the University of Michigan in 1939. The building program included a large quadrangle of men’s residence halls, housing 932 men, a second smaller quadrangle for 400 men, a dormitory for medical students, a home for hospital interns, a

women’s dormitory housing 392 women, a new building for children’s and post-graduate dentistry, and a student health service with hospital facilities. In addition the heating and power plant had to be increased to care for the new buildings. The administration of university residence halls, except those for which special provisions are made in the deeds of gift, has been committed to a board of governors and a director of residence halls. The house plan adopted by the governors looks forward to making the student’s experience a genuine contribution to his or her education, broadly conceived in terms of general culture

tankers, ramps, barracks

and

manently one squadron of patrol planes and 300 men, was

Nearly 1,500 drilling permits for oil and gas were issued during Output of the iron mines on the Marquette iron range showed an increase toward the dose of the year; the outbreak of war in Europe stimulated the copper mining industry, also. By the end of November over 68,000,000 tons of shipping had passed

Bibliography. Bulletin No. 307 of the Department of Public Instruction, entitled Michigan Today, Eugene B. Elliott, ed. (1938);^ T/ze Michigan History Magazine, quarterly; printed reports of the various governmental offices; Michigan Official Directory and Legislative Manual, pub(L- G- V. V.) lished by the Secretary of State biennially.

to con-

administration buildings and public works to accommodate perprogress (Jan.

through the locks at Sault Ste. Marie, an increase of approximately 29,000,000 tons over the corresponding period of 1938.

Navy Department

Midway and appropriated approximately purpose. The work, involring dredging for a

struct a seaplane base at

over $5,000,000 a year.

1939.

449

The group was discovered in 1859, by Captain Brooks, bark “Gambier,” who took possession in the name of the United States.

i,

Military and Naval Forces:

jyijii.

Iflilft"

in

(L. S. F.)

1940). see

Armies of the World; Air

The canned milk business, a highly profitable “w’ar baby” among industries between 1914 and 1918, revived suddenly

with the outbreak of

month

hostilities in Sept. 1939 and during the wholesalers reduced manufacturers’ stocks of evaporated

milk to the lowest point since 1922. Prices of condensed and evaporated milk advanced on the belief that war would again create a huge

demand

for this highly compact, non-perishable and

easily transported food.

Condensed milk output had declined, in comparison with 1938, every month from Feb. to Aug. 1939, but increased when war became imminent. Evaporated milk output, w’hich had roughly

was stepped up sharply in September. September 30 production of condensed milk in the United States was 1 75,130, ooolb. and 195, 412,0001b. in 1938. In the same period manufacture of evaporated milk was i,753;OS6,ooolb. in 1939 and 1,737,479,0001b. in 1938. Stocks in manufacturers' hands Oct. i, 1939 and 1938, and the five-year paralleled 1938 production,

From January

i

to

average (1934-1938) were: Five-year average

1039 lb.

lb.

Condensed milk Evaporated milk Dr>* niilk (skim)

13,780,000 135 . 135 . 0®^ 11,951,000

27,oS5tOoo 398,287,000 52,702,000

24,461,000 260,988,000 35,129,000

and com-

munal living. of In June 1939, it was decided to transfer the Department Landscape Design, formerly part of the College of Literature, change Science, and the Arts, to the College of Architecture, and to name The Architecture. Landscape of its name to “Department and of the college, also, was changed to “College of Architecture

The milk flow in 1939 in the United States was slightly under 1938 owing to dry weather during the summer in some areas. On September i, however, production per cow was again almost at the record figure of 1938 for that date, according to farmers who reports to the Department of Agriculture. The number

make crop

of heifer calves kept for production increased.

(See Dairying.)

Design” in order to recognize the growing importance of the (A. G. R.) curriculum in decorative design.

The year 1939 was one of wide-spread dissension in the milk industry. A strike of milk wagon drivers disrupted deliveries in New York. The Department of Agriculture set up local milk control

Microphofography: see Libraries. Midget Auto Racing: see Automobile Racikg.

boards to foster agregpients under which producers would receive a fairer price. Although this arrangement, which established zone prices per loolb. in milk sheds, provided a higher price to farm-

lllfliiinit

Midway

Inlnnrln

and several 3 gioup of two Small islands

Islands, sand Islets m lat. 28° 13' N., and long. 177° 23' W., 1,149 niiles N.W. of Honolulu, belonging to the United States of America. The larger is Sand island; about Sjoac., maximum height above sea level, 43 feet. The other is Eastern island; about 32Sac. and very low. The islands are enclosed in a circular reef about

which tants.

is

fiv'c

miles in diameter, about four-fifths of

above water. There are no native or permanent inhabi-

was not entirely satisfactory. Some producers complained was made in price between milk of high butterfat content and milk of the minimum allowable fat content. The Federal Government prosecuted in Chicago an action against milk distributing companies, the Pure Milk association of 12.000 farmers in Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Michigan, the Milk Wagon Drivers union and officials of the Chicago Board of Health. These defendants were charged with combining to fix prices, control supply and suppress competition. Judge Charles ers, it

that no difference

MILK CONTAINERS — MINERAL AND METAL PRICES

450

“SOME JUMP**

Is the title of Jensen's complaint In against the rise of retail milk prices In 1939

The Chicago Daily News

of the Federal court ruled that other acts of Congress

Woodward

had removed the marketing of farm products from the tion of the

jurisdic-

Sherman Anti-Trust Act.

(For the milk situation as to dairy herds, see DairyinC-) (S.O. R.)

Milk Containers, Paper:

f

Cellulose Products.

(^864-1939). American economist, the leading exponent of the Sin-

Inoanh Rana

Millar lYIIIICI

see

UUoC|JII Udllu

-vvas

Henry George in 1897. Born he was educated by private tutors and had written many published verses and critical articles before he met George and became a fervent convert to the lattef’s doctrine of limiting taxation to land. In 1901 he founded the Smgle

gle

in

Tax movement

after the death of

New York

on July

city

i,

(later Land and Freedom), international journal of Tax movement, which he edited for 38 years. Miller published two collections of poetry. Verses jrom a Vagrant Muse (1894) and Thirty Years of Verse Making (rged). He died at

Tax Review the Single

Jersey City, N.

J.,

on

May

8.

Mineral and Metal Prices and Productinn. The

first

of the accompanying charts shows the range of prices

and minerals during 1939 on the New York and London markets. The outbreak of war in Europe caused prices to advance, but this was largely confined to commodities in the strategic materials group, others showing little change; however, since the British strategic group is much larger than the American, the general effect on the market was correspondingly greater, but control of prices for all important commodities was put into effect by the British Government before the market could be seriously affected. In the United States there was a general decline of prices for the leading metals

through the

first

half of the year, the

E&MJ

index of non-

Cents per pound, (b) Dollars per, pound, (c) Dollars per long ton, c.i.l. Atlantic (d) Cents per pound of primary metal content, (e) Dollars per fine ounce, (f) Dollars per short ton. (g) Cents per long ton unit, cj.f. Atlantic ports, (h) Dollars per flask, 76 pounds, (i) Cents per pound of contained Mo S2. (j) Cents per fine ounce, (k) Dollars per short ton unit. ( 1 ) Cents per pound of V2O5 contained, (m) Eng. Min. Jour. (a)

ports,

s

MINERAL AND METAL PRICES AND PRODUCTION World Mineral and Mefal Production (Long tons unless othemise

specified;

in

1938

Th. indicates thousands and Mi., millions

of units.)

Steel

(Mi

m Ore

)

0.93 (0.38)

(0.64)

P Belgium

2,43

2.2s

Bolivia Brazil

Burma Canada

65.0

Chile

0.76

1. 16

I

'

.

.

China Colombia 1.21 5-97 18.22

Czecho-Slovakia

France

44-6

Germany

159.0

4.0 4-0 94

I. 71

6.09 22.87

5

42.9 173.2

Gold Coast Greece Guiana, Brit Guiana, Neth

Hungary

i.S

0.33 J.S 7

35.4,

0.91

20.0

(2.76)

India

(0.66)

0.94

Indo-China Italy

Japanese

Emp.

Luxemburg Malaya Manchoukuo

.

.

.

....

Mexico Morocco, Fr.

2.27

I

40 22

J

(S.72)[

(0.64)

(0.34)

0,09

0.07

277.9 18.7

28.3s 17.5

330,1 67

227,3

Neth. E. Indies New Caledonia

Norway

26-0

Peru Philippines

Poland Portugal Rhodesia. No Rhodesia, So Siam (Thailand) Sierra

Leone

South Africa So.-West Africa

...

......

Sweden. Tunis

3.4

Turkey United Kingdom United States U.S.S.R Venezuela Yugoslavia

.

23.0 128.1 SO.o

.

....

x.2

....

World Total

S2S

35

jioooo

jiroo

|I420

zo6

91

i6s

I7fiO

1620

I

fe

by John L. Hyde s New Jersey. Other noteworthy marks were set figures are “Gypsy Lass” in the 135 cu.in. class. His over five nriiles. Amo Apelj over a mile course and 52-173 m.p.h. set a mile

World

cu-m. c ass. of 53-894 m.p.h. in the 91 remai s however, water, the on supremacy

mark

,

,

own record farthe^ Malcolm CampbeU moved his bluebird II his pushing by rivals reach of prospective

land, for Sir

from the

to 141-74 m.p.h. over a

Motor Buses:

see

v

measured mile.

Vehicles: Motor Transportation- Motor ;

Commercial Vehicles.

Motor Cars: see Motor Vehicles. Motor Racing: see Automobile Racing. Commercial highway transport is form Motor Transportation. Americas fastest growing ^s motor to equally of public transportation. This applies operation, each of which ger operation, and to motor truck freight .

represents a separate industry in

Commerce

Intrastate carriers, those

been operating solely within the boundaries of a State, have long under the regulation of their respective State governments. In both in types of regulations the fundamental provisions are similar and,

Gold Cup championship. prepared for the “My Sin” was built in 1938 and was thoroughly she set a winning In Day. Labor on Gold Cup grind at Detroit

America’s premier

a division of the Interstate

tion that is of an interstate character.

winner 0

Sm,

is

Commission and governs both motor bus and motor truck opera-

m

My

as interstate carriers.

either All types of motor bus companies are closely regulated, cases by all some in and agencies, municipal or Federal State, by Federal reguthree. Interstate highway carriers have been under with this charged Bureau Carrier Motor lation since 1933. The

Although there were few noteworthy developments in either hulls or en-

~ . Ill0t0r"D03t K3Cin§«

1939.

known

crossing State boundaries,

_

^ '•'r'T'Z.

itself.

operaPng groups are Buses.—In the motor bus field two main intercity or long-haul involved. These are companies offering

general, consist of rules governing insurance requirements,

meas-

acures designed to promote safety on the highways, a standard counting classification, the filing of tariffs and compliance with the are regurates filed in those tariffs. City or local carriers usually

lated in a

somewhat

similar

manner by the governing bodies of

the cities or municipalities in which they operate. At the close of 1938 the latest year for which statistics are there were 4,007 bus operating companies in the United available

—

—

companies were operating in city service, long-haul service and 413 in sightseeing and 2,848 in intercity services. These companies jointly owned miscellaneous other and 20,000 51,500 buses, divided 29,200 in city and suburban service, and sightseeing in and service, 2,300 in intercity and long-haul

States.

Of

these, 746

other types of

common

carrier service. Jointly they operated over

385,868mi. of highway, of which 27,8i2mi. was in city service and 338,056mi. in intercity and long-haul service. Motor bus revenue for 1938 amounted to $465,900,000 divided

$222,610,000 for city carriers, $234,510,000 for intercity carriers, and $8,830,000 for sightseeing and miscellaneous operation. Passengers carried by buses in 1938 reached the astounding total of 3,965,020,000.

Of these 3,249,120,000 were

city passengers, 712,-

w-ere sightseers. 390,000 were One of the most interesting trends is the gradual changeover from railway to bus operation in cities. The records show' that close to 600 cities in the United States, having a population of

intercity passengers,

more than

10,000, are

now

and 3,510,000

served entirely by buses, a figure

which takes on more meaning when

w-e realize that there are only

population group. The electric railways and their 982 subsidiaries now operate approximately 18,000 buses. The steam railroads also have gone in heavily fog motor bus operation. Sixtycities in this

operated about 1.800 buses, while in addition many steam railroad companies hold substantial stock ow-nership in

five railroads

1

MOTOR TRANSPORTATION

464

motor bus operating companies and thus are directly interested in motor bus transportation. the Still another phase of motor bus operation is represented by school bus field. While school bus operation is not a source of large revenue since much of the equipment is school owned and

—

the balance operated under relatively low-priced contracts—it does represent a highly important phase of the nation’s educational system.

Approximately 36,350 schools use buses to carry

pupils to and from their classes, utilizing a total of 80,100 buses. In the neighbourhood of 3,400,000 children are carried daily in

this service, at an annual cost to the schools of $66,000,000, There are approximately i,22S,ooomi. of school bus route. Trucks. ^In size the motor truck field far exceeds the bus field,

—

and there are many ramifications as to the types of service operated. Trucks are used not only by cartage companies in cities and by long distance haulers, but by private businesses as a part of their service to customers. The latest census by the Automobile Manufacturers’ Association shows, for instance, that in 1938 there were 997,127 trucks on farms alone. Registrations for 1938

showed

that 4,224,031 trucks of

all

types were licensed during

that year.

The large truck fleets are owned mostly by The Bell Telephone Company, for instance, trucks; Standard Oil of

New Jersey,

private shippers.

operates

16,210

12,000; the Railway Express

Agency, 9,960. According to compilations of the Automobile Manufacturers’ Association thirty-one private companies operate more than 1,000 trucks apiece, while approximately 1,000 comall the way from 100 to 1,000 do not include tractors, trailers or cars owned by these companies which in many cases equal and often exceed the numbers of motor trucks owned.

panies operate truck fleets ranging trucks apiece.

These

figures

DUfnhufion of Motor Truck Fleets by Industries (Source*. Chilton Company) Fleets of 8 or

More

Trucks

As

DIESEL 1939 In

TRUCK less

which made

trip

from

New York

than 8 days, with a fuel cost of

less

to San Francisco and return than a cent a mile

in

of

March 1939

Bakeries, Candies, Florists Bottlers, Breweries Coal Dealers, Mineral Mines

Fleets

Trucks

Number

Number

RIS«

1,602

90s

Contractors, Builders Dairy Products, Milk, Ice Cream Department Stores, Furniture Express, Hauling^ Inter fir Intra State Flour, Feed, Grams .

.

.

....

'

!

!

4S9

•

1

S • 4 4

1

153 1,851

^Bf 24 4 ^Bf 2 ; '

493 1,691

!

789 686 215

!

^BjE

1,333

^Bi

192 ,

1

'

5,376

.

Government, State. County, Municipal Ice Dealers, Manufacturers Laundries, Cleaners, Dyers Manufacturers, Steel ^!iIls Meats, Fish Newspapers, Publishers Oil^ Gasoline, Greases Paints, Chemicals, Drugs Public Utilities, Railroads Vegetables, Farmers, Chain Stores Miscellaneous

!

1

1,076 2,981 1,795

,

1

^ t

2 7

j

S

1,237 i>S$S

.

j

1

659

Totals

954,302

25.058

Railroad use of motor trucks

is

rapidly expanding.

In 1925 ^

900 trucks were used in railroad service. By the end of 1938 this had grown to approximately 64,000 trucks in

total of only

This includes terminal transfer service, intercity and store-door delivery. Another 200,000 motor trucks are owned by Federal, State and local governmental departments. A highly significant sidelight on the use of motor trucks was offered by a study of the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads which in railroad use.

service,

SPECIAL SIGHTSEEING BUS, with duced in 1939

elevated seats and hiflh windshield, intro-

May

1939 reported that

80%

of

all trips

by motor truck are under

2omi. in length. According to another Government survey 60% of all common carrier truckers travel less than loomi. per trip.

The

trucking industry gives employment to

drivers,

and

and an uncounted number of

helpers.

It

is

more than

3,000,000

freight handlers, mechanics,

closely regulated in every State as to sizes,

must conform with innumerable other regulaand Federal. It pays annually over $400,000,000 in special truck taxes over and above all regular levies on business, property, and income. Its proudest claim is that it serves

weights, speeds, and tions both State

50,000 communities that are not reached

World Trade

—^The beginning

by the

railroads.

(C.

W.

S.)

of 1939 showed that in spite of the fall in world trade in 1938, the growth of motor transport was continued, though the rate of growth was checked, the addition to the number registered (42,756,000) being only 256,000.

CAB-OVER-ENGINE

international truck

Though America

.

is still

overwhelmingly the greatest of the con-

MOTOR TRUCKS— MOTOR VEHICLES Most speedometers Taxis

Trucks Buses

’000 's

*000 ’s

Private Cars

United Kingdom France

1,916 i»750 1,306 i,i6i

Gennany Canada

552 8s

Australia

U.S.S.R

303 294

Italy

Union of South Africa

Total

626 500

now marked with

2 .S42

safe driving speed zones.

new

bodies, better vision,

many others are primarily contributions Two outstanding developments were

2,250 1,708

402 220 252 593 86 45

are

Improved brakes, stronger

*ooo*s

465 and

lights

to safety.

by most of the

offered

automobile industry in the 1940 models, both of them contributing

1,381

to the safety of the vehicle.

804 678 389 339

The sealed beam headlight was made up of representatives of

veloped by a co-operating group

de-

the

State motor vehicle commissioners, safety organizations, electri-

and automobile manufacturers. The headlamp and lens. Two types are made, one with glass reflector and glass lens welded into a single unit, the other made up of a sealed assembly of light bulb, metal reflector and lens. The sealed unit protects the reflector from deterioration and assures proper focus of the beam. Either type is interchangeable with the other. In replacing a burned out bulb it is necessary only to aim the beam to have the lamps in proper adjustment. The new' lights have an upper and lower beam and are used with a standard foot switch on all cars. The upper beam has an increased intensity for open road driving. The upper beam has a maximum intensity of 75,000 candlepower, an increase from 50,000 candlepower. Practically all passenger car makes and most light trucks carrj' these lights. Larger batteries and generators have been put on all cars as standard equipment because of the increased drain on the electrical manufacturers,

tinents in the field, the percentage of the world total registered in

the other continents rose

from 25-8% to 26-8%.

United States, the largest numbers are found

shown

in the table above.

The

figures exclude

Outside the

in the countries

motor

cycles, of

—

which large numbers are in use in certain countries ^notably Great Britain and Germany. The number in Great Britain has fallen from a peak of 705,000 in 1929 to approximately 400,000 in 1939, owing to the increase in the popularity of the

The

early

low-powered

car.

months of 1939 indicated that the growth

in

1938

was likely to be at least repeated, but the outbreak of war in Europe reversed the picture. Severe restrictions were placed on the use of motor vehicles, and, while motor transport is being used on an enormous scale for military purposes, the use of private motor cars and public service vehicles has fallen heavily. The issue of safety on the roads intensified, though the results of the many efforts made to reduce the toll of death and injuries were meagre. About all that can be said is that the growth in motor transport was not causing a further growth in accidents. In one or two cases experiments hold out some hope of a material improvement. In one area in Great Britain motor control police were so effective that deaths were reduced from 303 persons to 248, seriously injured from 1,839 to 1,050, slightly injured from This gave a percentage reduction of 44-1 in the killed persons and injured. Unfortunately, to produce such results requires a large staff. Again, the outbreak of war altered the whole 5,200 to 2,807.

position in the countries affected. Fear of attack from the air caused restriction in street lighting and the shading of vehicle

In spite of the reduction in vehicles on the roads, deaths on the roads have doubled in Great Britain in September and October 2,009 persons were killed, about double the number

headlights.

—

corresponding months of 1938; and the figures for Germany (W. T. St.) are equally bad. (See also Railroads.)

in the

Motor Trucks:

see

Motor Transportation; Motor Ve-

consists of a sealed unit replacing the light bulb, reflector

cal system.

Glass insulation

is

A

new sandwich type

safety glass was developed by the glass,

chemical, and automobile industry and

is standard equipment on most 1940 models. An inner layer made of a polyvinylacetyl plastic retains its strength under extremes of cold and has a long life.

Passenger Cars.

—^The

1940 passenger car bodies are longer,

wider, and roomier. Running boards have entirely disappeared on

some bodies and many others are them. Windshields and windows

offered either w’ith or without

are larger with narrower cor-

ner posts. This gives better visibility to the driver and passengers.

Curved rear windows of safety

More models

glass are used

on many bodies.

use foamed-rubber seat cushions. Plastics are used

for ornamentation in increased quantities.

In opposition to the

now

three small-size auto-

trend toward larger vehicles there are

mobiles made.

The appearance of all models has been completely changed. Hoods are broader and lower. Several models have hood, catches operated from the drivers’ seats.

hicles; Commercial Vehicles.

used to increase the generator

capacity.

headlamps, signal lamps and

tail

Many lights

additional designs hav'e

mounted

in the fenders,

adding to the smooth appearance of the body. Die-cast radiator grilles are used more widely. Front seats are wider and bodies low-

and in Oct. 1939. There were 21 makes of passenger cars nine makes of commercial vehicles on exhibit, representing most of the automobile industry. The outbreak of the war in Europe

show

preceded the European shows by a few weeks, and the automobile shows were cancelled in the leading producer countries. The 1939 motor vehicle production was 33% larger than the veprevious year. Factory sales amounted to 3>5^7>°°^ motor hicles with a wholesale value of $2,224,475,000. Total registration

er.

Several bodies have front seat widths of 6oin. which brings

body to the full width of the car across the With the gear shift removed from the floor, this makes it

the exterior of the

wheels.

comfortable for three passengers in the front seat. All bodies have better ventilating systems and heaters have been improved.

Many

have heaters under the front seat which heat both front and rear compartments of sedans. Front fenders are more massive and blend into the sides of the body and hood. cars

climbed to 29,425,000 with 68% of world registration in the United States. Direct employment in automobile, body and parts or factories reached 380,000. Export sales amounted to 474.000,

ment on

13%

switch or buttons mounted conveniently near the steering wheel are used to operate the lights. One model has an automatic switch

of the output.

The

2%

traffic

accident rate showed a further small reduction of

in the first nine

months of 1939- The number

killed

was

22,-

of 1938. 240. a saving of 570 liv’es ov^er the comparable period The reduction was due almost entirely to the smaller number of pedestrian fatalities. The automobile industiy has spent much of

its

time in developing the safety features of the

new

products.

Directional signal lights for indicating turns are standard equipseveral models and optional equipment on manj' more.

Flashing lights, both front and rear, are usually used.

A

suitable

for turning the lights off after the turn has been completed.

making a

turn, front white lights

In

and rear red lights flash on and off to indicate the direction of turn. In addition, telltale lights are used on the instrument panel to indicate the operation of the

lights to the driver.

MOTOR VEHICLES

466 ratio of engines has

The compression

been increased to take ad-

in vantage of the higher octane number of gasolines available petroleum The in power output. increase an in 1940. This results or industry now oScrs several gasolines of 80 octane number of number still up. A fuels is octane higher higher. The trend in

engines are

made with compression

eral engines a

low

ratios of over 7 to i.

In sev-

pressure of 7lb. per sq.in. is maintained in the

cooling system to increase the boiling point of the cooling solution. This allows driving in hotter weather, in mountains and other

an economy device since driving.

The

it

reduces the engine speed for level road

driver can return to direct drive at will by'pressmg

the accelerator

all

way dowm.

the

Fluid flywheel drive

is

more widely used and a

on one model. This automatic transmission does away completely with the clutch pedal and shifter lever for all forward speeds. The accelerator pedal is pushed to go ahead and the brake pedal to stop.

A

lever under the steering wheel pro\ddes for reverse and a

adverse conditions without boiling away the cooling liquid. Increased attention has been given to noise and \nbration.

high and low range of ratios.

panels are insulated to prevent resonance and the entire often insulated from the frame. Mufilers and intake silencers

planetary gear system

Body body is

Unbalance limits on rotating parts have been made smaller. One company has added a final balance operation on the engine assembly line. A new tjqje balancing machine it

used to balance the completed engine to a limit of f oz.in. before is assembled into the chassis. This operation is in addition to

the balancing of the individual rotating parts during their

manu-

facture.

Transmissions were the subject of models.

Practically

the shifter lever

all

much

is

trader the steering wheel.

now have

Many

shifter

mechanisms were redesigned to make shifting easier. A vacuum operated gear shift was continued by one manufacturer. Automatic overdrives are optional on

many

models.

The overdrive

is

the

Preliminary

automatic.

Fads and

Figures,

Motor

Industry

For Year 1939

Production and Value Car and truck factory sales, U.S. and Canada 3,587,000 2,892,000 Passenger cars Motor trucks 695,000 Percentage increase over 1938 33% 81,776,151,000 Wholesale value of cars, U.S. and Canada Wholesale value of trucks, U.S. and Canada ... $ 448,324,000 Wholesale value of cars and trucks combined $2,224,475,000 Wholesale value of parts, accessories and tires for replace-

.... .

attention in the 1940

cars with gear transmissions

mounted

For most driving conditions

lever is left in the high range and the control of shifting the

have been redesigned.

is

fully automatic

transmission incorporating a fluid flywheel has been introduced

.

.

ment, and service equipment

Motor

vehicles, accessories, service placements of parts and tires

$1,243,236,000

equipment and

re-

$3,467,711,000

Regislralion

Motor vehicles Motor cars

registered in

Motortrucks World registration

of

U.S

29,425,000 25,215,000 4,210,000 43,000,000

motor vehicles

68%

Per cent of world’s automobiles in U.S Taxes Total motor vehicle user taxes Gasoline taxes, federal, state and municipal Percentage motor user taxes to all taxes from federal, state

and

.

.

all

$1,601,000,000 $1,021,000,000 sources, .

11.4%

local

Employment

Employment in auto, auto body and parts Weekly payroll, wages

factories

.

. . 380,000 $11,796,000

Automobile’s Relation to Other Business Largest purchaser of gasoline, rubber, steel, malleable iron, mohair, lubricating oil, plate glass, nickel, and lead. Railroad carloads of automotive freight shipped 3,400,000

....

Used in Automobile Industry

80% 16% 2% 12% 40% 11%

Rubber Steel

FIAT

4-cylinder. 4-passenger sedan, redesigned in

Lumber, hardwood Copper Lead -

1939

Zinc

Tin Aluminium

io%'

11%

Nickel 29% Gasoline 90% Gasoline used by motor vehicles (gallons) 20,550,000,000 Gasoline used by motor vehicles, retail value including taxes

$4,009,000,000

Motor Trueks and Buses

Motor trucks in use Total special motor truck taxes Fleets of 8 or more trucks (number of operators) Trucks operated by fleets of 8 or more Number of truck drivers Motor buses produced Motor buses in use

4,210,000 $420,200,000 25,058 954,302 3,55°,°°° 18,000 134,000

....

Sales Outside United States Number motor vehicles sold outside U.S 474,000 Per cent of production sold outside U.S 13% Value of motor vehicles, parts and tires e.xported from U.S. and Canada $312,100,000

Motor Vehicle Retail Btisiiiess Total car and truck dealers Total repair shops Total retail outlets, duplications eliminated Wholesalers

FRENCH RENAUET,

on exhlblUon in

1939

at the Nevi

York World’s Fait

Retail gasoline outlets

41,698 88,929 95,°^3 6,063

380,000

MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE — MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT

468

additional manufacturers have added independent front all 1940 models. Only a few cars are being

Two

wheel suspension to

with conventional leaf springs in front. Coil spring rear suspension was continued on several cars. Frames are longer and built

wider to accommodate the longer wheelbases and larger bodies. One manufacturer has a full ball-bearing worm and nut steering

make handling easier. Commercial Vehicles. ^The National Truck Show

mechanism

to

—

at Chicago

Nov. 1939 opened the 1940 truck model year. A greater attention to body appearance, following the lines of passenger cars, was noted. Trucks vary more in design than passenger vehicles bein

cause of the varied nature of the

work they

do.

One

engined buses are offered in the 1940

line.

air cooled

Several

rear engined truck chassis has been developed.

rear

Aluminium was used

generally in bus construction.

Hypoid gear rear

axles were introduced on light trucks, allowing

a reduction in the height of the vehicle. are offered a

Cab-over-engine models

by most manufacturers. This arrangement allows for

maximum

of load space for a given wheelbase. Diesel engines,

both two- and four-cycle, are Installed by several manufacturers in trucks and buses. For large vehicles on heavy schedules the Diesel

becoming more common.

is

(C. F. Ke.)

(See also Gasoline.)

Mount Holyoke College, women founded

for

the

higher

education

of

1837 by Mary Lyon and situated at South Hadley, Massachusetts. The campus covers 27030. with over 70 buildings.

St. Mary’s of the Lake at Mundelein, 111 ., a town near Chicago named for him. Cardinal Mundelein died October 2 of coronary thrombosis at his home adjoining the Seminary of St.

nary of

Mary’s of the Lake and was buried on October

6.

Munich Pact:

see Czecho-Slovakia; European War; Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of.

Municipal Airport of Cleveland: see Airports: Pla?i. Municipal Airport of Newark: see Airports Plan. ;

Municipal Government. Government

during 1939 was the

The advance in Europe of totalitarian philosophies which dispense with all types of local home rule have served in America to accentuate interest in municipal institutions. This interest is shown not only in local elections, graft clean-ups, the extension of local rising tide of interest in the vitality of local self-government.

home

rule powers,

new municipal

charters, the'

demand

for the

increased decentralization of relief administration, the opposition to increased central control of education, but also in the state-

ments made by nationally recognized leaders. The words President Nicholas Murray Butler are worthy of note:

of

The strength of democracy is measured by the power of local self-government and by the strictness with which limitations set upon distant and central governments are enforced. That people which surrenders local selfgovernment, either from indifference, from inertness, or from a desire to live on someone else’s earnings, is on the way out from the temple of democracy.

in

Registration figures for the 1939-40 session include

1,037 undergraduates and 57 graduate students, a total of 1,094. faculty numbers 130; the endowment fund as of

The teaching

New

emphasis

is

being thrown upon the meaning of citizenship

through the organization of “Citizenship Days’’ with impressive ceremonies surrounding the induction of voters. The cities of

Wisconsin and

June 1939 was $3,264,291; the total college income for the preceding year was $1,239,661. Gifts received during the year (R. G. Ha.) 1938-39 amounted to $324,729.

have found such programs of value. Changes in Federal and State policies have thrown additional burdens upon the cities to finance and administer relief and other local services. The effort to meet this burden in local budgets from current funds and current tax levies

Mozambique:

see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Thai: see Siam. Multiple Shop: see Chain Stores.

has created new financial

Muang

in Ohio,

Illinois

Budgets and Prices.

New

York,

—

New

difficulties in

many

Jersey, Michigan

cities particularly

and

New

England.

The

rapid growth of relief needs, together with the increased demands for hospitals and other institutional services, and the

new management

Mundelein, George WiHiam

cardinal.

One

of nine chil-

dren of an early immigrant family from Germany, he was born July 2 in New York city and showed such an aptitude for study that he received his bachelor’s degree from

Declining an appointment to

the age of 16.

emy

Manhattan college at the U.S. Naval acad-

he entered St. Vincent seminary at Beatty, Pa., where he completed his theological studies, then went to Rome. Here he enrolled in the Urban College of Propaganda, was awarded a doctorate of divinity and, on June 8, 1895, was ordained a Catholic priest. Upon his return to America he became secretary to Bishop McDonnell of Brooklyn and from 1895 to at Annapolis,

1897 was pastor of a Lithuanian church in that city. From 1897 to 1909 he was diocesan chancellor of Brooklyn; in the meantime he

had been appointed censor of the Liturgical academy Nov. 14, His rapid rise in the 1903, and domestic prelate Nov. 21, 1906. Catholic hierarchy began Sept. 21, 1909 with his appointment as auxiliary bishop of Brooklyn and titular bishop of Loryma. Six years later, on Nov. 30, 1913, he was made archbishop of Chicago and thus became not only the youngest American priest ever to be made bishop, but the youngest bishop ever to become archbishop. With Patrick Joseph Hayes (who died Sept. 4, 1938) he was summoned to Rome by Pope Pius XI who, at the consistory of

March

dinals.

Chicago.

1924, created the two American churchmen caryears later he secured the Eucharistic Congress for

24,

Two By

that time he

had completed the $13,000,000 Semi-

costs of buildings, boulevards, bridges, parks, playgrounds, highways, sewage systems, water supply systems and other improvements constructed largely by the Federal Govern-

ment

to “make work” are now seen to be upsetting the long established internal balance of local budgets. The first service to feel the pinch has been education, with drastic cuts of school services, as in Ohio and Michigan, and less severe cuts throughout

most of the cities of New York State. Those interested in the schools are retaliating by placing their needs before the public more effectively, and are initiating a movement to take the schools completely out of local budgets. Tax delinquency continues to improve slowly, though 1939 shows little improvement over 1938. There were, however, no significant new defaults on municipal bonds. The cities are already experiencing slight increases in com-

modity prices influenced by the war.

If

hostilities

continue

throughout 194°) substantial increases are anticipated by city purchasing agents, though no provisions have been made therefor by budget officers. Miscellaneous city revenues have all shown distinct gains especially during the latter half of 1939. The only municipal service thus far generally affected by the war is police.

New York

city and several other large cities have placed their forces on an emergency basis in co-operation with the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the Department of Justice, extending special protection to steamship piers, foreign consulates, utility

plants and other danger spots.

MUNITIONS OF WAR

—Drastic

reductions and restrictions

Relief.

b}'

the

Federal

Government have complicated the relief problem for both the governments and the States. Congress slashed $150,000,000 from the President’s supplementary appropriation bill for the

local

WPA in the first half of 1939. In June, reduced the total annual appropriation for WPA by almost one-third as compared with

469

throughout 1939. despite an increase in highway traffic. -Automobile thefts showed a drop of 5-2%, though other major crimes

showed a similar

increase,

fiscal year.

imposed many

It also

restrictions,

such

State or local contribution, not

25%

as the requirement of a

necessarily a cash one, however; limitation of the cost of building

projects; abolition of the prevailing

wage

wage

policy;

differentials in different sections of the

cept as justified

by

abolition of

United States, ex-

the differences in costs of living; compulsory'

30-day layoffs for those carried on the rolls continuously for r8 months or more and establishment of a need basis for employ'ment. The effect has been to increase the relief problem for most ;

cities.

Particular hardship has been experienced in States where

direct relief is left to the local governments. in

Ohio

cities,

Toledo and Cleveland

The

acute situation

in particular, as well as in

the rural communities, with respect to the schools and direct relief,

attracted nation-wide attention.

—^Low-cost

Housing.

housing received a tremendous impetus

through the functioning of the United States Housing Authority. This organization aids local projects through loans and grants.

The

local authorities

bear

10%

of the cost of housing projects,

besides providing a local subsidy, usually in the form of tax

exemption, equal to at least one-fifth of the annual Federal contribution. The number of local housing authorities increased

than 50 in Dec. 1937, to 250 by the close of 1939. Some 38 States have housing legislation, at least five of which were added in 1939. The legality of State housing authority acts

from

machine of a nation of 30,000,000. counted only two-thirds as

mented

its

constitutional housing

New York State impleamendment by a public housing

law authorizing State borrowing and re-lending to local housing authorities and providing for annual subsidies to help liquidate the loans it makes. New York city inaugurated the first housing

program financed entirely by a municipality, through a special city tax on the occupancy of rented business property. The proceeds of the tax are used to liquidate the bonds of the authority over a period of years.

A

notable study of housing

by Homer Hoyt and

L.

Durward

demand

is

to the Federal

found in a report Housing Administration, entitled “The Housing Demand of Worklocal ers in Manhattan.” There were many new laws enabling agencies State with or another one with Governments to contract airport for the performance of numerous public services, such as and construction highway building, police and fire protection, is now most service co-operative Such personnel administration. highly developed in California, Michigan and

New

York.

The documentary film The City, sponsored by the American InWorld s Fair in the stitute of Planners and shown daily at the New York City building, was but one of many new steps for visitors. bringing local affairs to the attention of citizens and in Center Information new of a installation Among these was the

Reports from city planning commissions indicate stage and is that planning has passed from the “city beautiful now equally concerned with the economics of urban development. discussion of the It is particularly significant that there is open development business for frontage danger of zoning too large a in view of current population trends. for There were extensive acti\'ities in public service training the U.S. of parts various in employees both local and State regulations State Education Department of New York adopted and the courses training relating approval of in-serv’ice

New York

many

the former, available reser\'es,

(L. Gu.)

three weeks of Sept.

forces aggregating ap-

rout the entire military'

And

effectives

although the latter (regular

army)

as

employed, as they presumably' ratio in favour of the defender. if

—

were, just about reversed this

The

by 4-6%.

first

Munitions of War. 1939. German proximately 1,000,000 men put to utter

were fighting for home and fatherland with the courage of desperation. YTiy then such swift and overwhelming defeat? Military experts ascribe two causes for the debacle, viz: (a) Inept Polish strategy, and (according to most observers, much the PoleS, brave soldiers

all,

more important) (b)Insufficient equipment in all modem munitions. As an example of such insufficiency, it is recorded that of the 70 to 80 German divisions in the field, six were fully mechanized, and four more, motorized, while no comparable units existed among the 40 to 60 Polish (regular) divisions engaged, and obvi-ously none among the reserves. Further, each German division boasted 72 anti-tank, and 12 anti-aircraft guns, as against 18 and 4 respectively for similar Polish commands, while in the air, Germany was prepared to cmsh Poland’s 800 to 1,000 planes w'ith some 8,600 of her own. Reviewing these figures we arrive at the following ratios:

Men

less

has been uniformly upheld by the courts.

rising

During the

it

the preceding

murders

Germany Poland

i r

Anti-tank guns

(Approx.)

Anti-aircraft guns

4

Other things, then, being equal,

Aeroplanes

3

it

would appear that the nation

number of ultra-modem munitions

possessing the largest

is

likely

to achieve victory in military operations of today.

Hordes of men and masses of modem weapons do not neceshowever, spell success. Other factors, such as morale and leadership, must receive consideration. ’iVitness the failure of the Russians, most of whose older and abler officers had been “purged” in recent years, to crush, despite overwhelming superiority in men and munitions, the stout Finns in the undeclared war which sarily,

they initiated in the late

fall.

Other things being equal, the quality and quantity of the munitions possessed by one side or the other may readily be the deciding factor.

To

achieve superiority in these elements

ever, not as simple as

of the very

minimum

it

may

is,

how-

sound. Indeed the mere acquisition

sufficient to the

demands of

a

major

military'

offensive, or defensive, cannot be assured unless: (i) The numbers required have actually been fabricated and issued to troops, or placed in storage, prior to the commencement of hostilities, or (a) adequate stocks of all the raw materials entering into their composition, the purees of which lie without the nation’s borders and the supply of which is likely to be disrupted or severed when operations commence, have been purchased and actually received, and (b) necessary provisions made to assure the rapid and uninterrupted conversion of these into the finished product as soon as any indication for this arises.

city.

to the

granting of certificates.

In

New York

State alone 20,469 public

servants attended training courses in 1939.

The downward

trend in the

number

of traffic deaths continued

Obviously, the

first

answer appears the simpler. In reality, For it is difficult to estimate

the solution lies betw'een the two.

very long beforehand, either as to type or quantity, the exact requirements, in munitions, for the conduct of a major militaiy' operation. Thus, had the United States, at the termination of the

World War (1914-18) determined

or store

all

to

manufacture and issue by an army of,

of the items of munitions required

say, 4,000,000, over a period of one, two, three, or four years of active campaigning, and been prepared to spend the billions effort demanded, it would now hav'e available a supply of these sufficient for the arming of a force much larger than it is likely to assemble for a long time to come. But the

which such an

:

MUNITION S OF WAR

470 majority of these would

be obsolete, or obsolescent.

Ammunition

would in large measure have become unserviceable and require replacement. Gas masks would long since have deteriorated. Guns would be inferior in range and mobility as compared with types recently developed. And imagine a few thousand tanks, or aeroplanes, of the vintage of 1918 being uncrated and assembled for

anno Domini 1940! Not only do weapon types change over such a

(2) The laying up of reserves of raw materials sufficient to a major military effort of one to four years. (3) The education of civilian manufacturers in the fabrication of products strictly military in character and not ordinarily produced in time of peace. (4) The advance preparation of an elaborate and comprehensive plan which will ensure that the thousands of factories whose facilities will be required in a war effort will be in a position to commence their conversion toward the objectives of such an effort within 24 hours after the bugle sounds.

active service,

tremendous improvement since 1918, but the quotas of those issued per tactical unit have been multiplied by several hundred

armament, and, at least so far as numbers are concerned, for machine guns, though changes in the last-named have scarcely been as revolutionary as in the other varieties. Thus a supply of any of these weapons adequate to the requirements of an army of 4,000,000 in 1918 would be woefully inadequate in a war of tomorrow. On the other hand, the purchase and storage of stocks of raw percent.

The same holds

for aircraft,

Passing from the general to the specific in the

period, but like-

wise the proportions in which they are employed. Thus the tank, anti-tank gun, and the infantry mortar have not only undergone

anti-aircraft

1939 witnessed

much

field of munitions,

progress in the perfection of existing types—

by way of innovation. Probably the most exciting velopment in the latter category was the employment by

little

de-

•

Germans

against the British of a

new

character. While the details of their

sea mine make-up and

the

of “magnetic”

mode

of

operation remain military secrets, best naval opinion seems

to

exact

hold that their firing mechanism must incorporate a circuitclosing device (for detonation of the priming element) the operation of which

is

initiated

by the near approach of any large

capable of exerting a magnetic influence

Beyond

this, all is

conjecture, though

—such

it is

object

as a steel vessel.

hinted that the

made on

British,

materials vital to the fabrication of munitions, but not produced,

as a result of careful laboratory studies

or inadequately produced, within the homeland, and hence likely

drifted ashore, have solved the intricacies of their construction.

become unavailable or insufficiently available after hostilities.^ commence, is but the beginning of an answer to the problem. For it has been learned by sad experience that the period required by manufacturers not previously trained in their production to convert these into finished munitions varies, no matter how modern their plants and skilled their operatives, from a number of months to considerably more than a year, during which an active and fully armed aggressor can wreak unending havoc. Nevertheless, it remains an important, indeed an absolutely essen-

Since most of the latest improvements in munitions, as now

to

tial,

beginning; for lacking such reserve stocks a suddenly estab-

and completely shut off all further Hence the active efforts now being made, and made for years past by all major nations doubtful of the security of their naval lanes, to acquire such stocks against the day of need. Even the United States, finally awakened to the necessity for speedy

lished blockade can instantly supplies.

and comprehensive action in this direction, has now undertaken active steps toward the procurement of many vital raw materials in quantities of considerable

But

magnitude.

this is only the beginning.

munitions

is

an art

The

—one not

in itself

building of

many

save in a few Government arsenals operating with skeleton staffs. fully staffed, and working under the stimulus of

And even when

wartime conditions, these are unable to supply more than a minute fraction of the total requirements.

As already

indicated civilian

manufacturing plants, having no demand for such products, lack experience in the art and must acquire this before they can, when the tocsin sounds, turn out such items in the quantity and quality

which the exigencies of war demand. So, in addition to the raw materials, it becomes necessary to educate, at the Government’s expense, a selected group of such producers in the fabrication of the finished products, not after hostilities commence, but before. Not until the executive and operating staffs of enough of these have been trained in the accurate and speedy construction of the most essential civilian

items of an army’s equipment and are prepared to convert their plants, practically overnight, from the production of instruments of peace, to those of war,

breathe easily.

toward Thus, in the

efforts

Even its

then,

The

contestants,

liminary try-outs in the Spanish Civil War,

received their pre-

may prove

it

examine conclusions of military observers as to how or unsuccessfully, various of these

useful to

successfully,

fulfilled their missions.

Some

of the pronouncements have been as follows: (1) The anti-tank arm has shown itself capable of coping with any tank attack. (2) Armoured attacks (i.c., by tanks) must have the support of the

—

infantry, artillery, aircraft. other arms (3) Low-flying aircraft can at times be the decisive factor in an engagement, and are almost always able to render service of the utmost value. (4) Fast-flying planes tend to overreach their targets. (s) Bombing from the air fails to demoralize civilian populations. (6) Anti-aircraft artillery performed most efficiently, its moral effect likewise being most noticeable. (7) Too few tanks were used to answer the question as to whether these can be counted upon in future wars to break up a stalemate. Light types were less effective than heavy models, and even the humble hand grenade was used with some success by infantry against these lumbering juggernauts. (8) The individual infantry soldier must not be overburdened with loads of ammunition for his accompanying weapons machine guns, trench mortars, and light cannon.

—

Let us see what weapons actually underwent the steel during the

Tanks.

German

test of fire

and

Spanish conflict

—^The Insurgents employed two general

types, viz:

The

tank and the Italian Fiat-Ansaldo tankette. The former weighed si tons, had an overall length of 13ft., a top light

speed of 30 m.p.h., and carried armour of 0-6" maximum thickwas equipped with two machine guns, manned by a crew of two; possessed a rotating turret but no radio.

ness. It

The latter weighed 3-6 tons, was loft. long overall with a maximum speed of 27 m.p.h. and armour 0-5 1" thick. Its weapons were one to two machine guns. The crew again numbered two. It had neither rotating turret nor radio. Against these the Government forces mustered the following varieties: Trubia (light) Spanish, Renault (light) French, T 26 (light) Russian, ChristieRuski 34 (medium; convertible) Russian, and T 28 (medium) Russian.

These weighed

may

7, 8, 8^, 14, and 19 tons respectively, with overlengths to 2i-6ft., speeds to 40 m.p.h., and armour from -43" to i-o" thick. Guns varied from three machine weapons (Trubia)

it

to one

a nation, in these parlous times, dare not lessen for an instant such

military security.

last analysis, this security

depends upon;

organization, thorough arming (with the most modern weapons) and training of a force (regular and reserve) sufficiently numerous to ensure the successful defence of the State if suddenly attaclted by a major opponent, until it can adequately be reinforced through the usual channels of voluntary service and conscription.

(i)

by European

being employed

types of

practised in time of peace

specimens which

all

45mm. cannon and 3 machine guns (T 28). Crews ran from two to five or six. All had rotating turrets, and the T 26 and T 28 were occasionally equipped with radio the rest not.

—

It thus appears

that the Insurgent tank equipment, though

speedy, was uniformly too light, and radio facilities, whereas

sonably well equipped

weak in arms, armour, and most of the Government types were rea-

in these particulars.

It is not therefore sur-

Upper left: BRITISH 3.7-IN. ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUN which fires up to heights of 36,000 feet Above, left: FRENCH 155-MM. GUN which fires a 95-lb. shell 10 miles Above, right: FRENCH 8-MM. HEAVY MACHINE GUN, In position for antiaircraft fire

Right: LIGHT FIELD ARTILLERY PIECE of the German army: a 75-mm. howitzer Below, left: ANTI-TANK GUN of British army, with effective range of 1,000 yards Lower left: BRITISH BREN J03-IN. LIGHT MACHINE GUN, used chiefly for attack

Lower right:

GERMAN 81-MM. TRENCH MORTAR,

into the muzzle

fired

by dropping a bomb

—

!

MUNITION S OF WAR

472 many

prising that the Insurgents suffered

tank losses, rather

is it

cated that no plane would survive 15 successive shots fired at it anti-aircraft battery into whose range it flew at an altitude

be remarked that these were not more extensive. Anti-tank. Calibres and varieties of anti-tank weapons included: Hotchkiss (French) 13mm. and 25mm., Oerlikon (Swiss)

by an

20mm., Rheinmetall (German) 37mm., Bofers (Swedish) 40mm.,

spect to

to

—

6smm.

Italian

infantry cannon.

variously estimated as follows:

The effectiveness of these was 13mm. (.50 calibre), its solid

proved inadequate; 20mm., this piece, weighing but 700penelb. and capable of a rate of fire of 300 rounds per minute, trated i" armour at soo-7ooyds., and proved highly efficient; projectile

2smm., of

but of excessive weight (1,7601b.) and lO'v rate

effective,

(180 rounds per minute); 37mm., opinions differed, some fire too slow; effectiveness generally conceded;

fire

of less than 12,000 feet.

So much for actual trials of munitions in the field. With new or improved methods and devices, or the more

ficient

ef-

applications of older ones, first disclosed to the world

1939 and yet to stand, over long periods and under

in

re-

of war,

tions, the acid test

we may

to operations on Land, Sea,

Land Warfare. creasing attention

and

Air.

—Mechanization and motorization from

all

all condi-

discuss in turn those applicable

received

in-

major military establishments. Thus

the British announced, early in 1939, the motorization of three

Guard)

divisions, each incorporating,

considered rate of

Territorial (National

40mm., no observations recorded; 6smm., too heavy, and lacking

other units a motorcycle battalion and a radio-equipped motor-

in mobility.

ized company of Field Police (to control and direct traffic while on the march), these in augmentation of one partly mechanized division and one mechanized brigade in the regular establishment.

would appear, then, that while almost any well-designed gun of 20mm. calibre or above can cope successfully with the average tank, those possessing features of light weight and great rapidity of fire proved more satisfactory than such types as lacked these It

among

France has thus far developed three mobile (partly mechanized)

Each of these latter includes in its armament and motor equipment, 14S Vig'nt and 6b ’neavj' machine guns,

divisions, Italy four.

characteristics.

based on the Spanout of

38 minethrowers, 36 field pieces, 30 tanks, 16 armoured reconnaissance vehicles, 400 motorcycles, 650 light, 183 medium and 320

by gunfire (80-90% of all lost in battle) has increased from 17% of those engaged in 1918 to 19% in 1939 thus supporting the conclusion already cited: that development

heavy trucks; or about 1,000 motor vehicles all told. The new United States “triangular” division (mechanized and mobile) five of which (four infantry; one cavalry) are in process of organization, has a war strength of ii,Soo, and is equipped (infantry) with i, 3S7 motor vehicles as against 1,000 for the old division of almost double its size, though it does not, as yet, embody any tank elements. Even the relatively small Swiss Army entered

World War ish

conflict,

figures

compared with

indicate that

statistics

the percentage of tanks put

action

—

slightly

defence has closely paralleled that of the tank itself. Considered opinion holds that even greater losses (with a mini-

in anti-tank

mum

of

25%) must be

War,

expected in the future.

—^Although

Aircraft.

aircraft

enormously improved since the World (when not enjoying great numerical superiority, as

invasion of Poland) while occasionally turning the tide of battle, did not prove a decisive factor in military opera-

in the

German

tions.

As already noted, constant bombing

morale.

Nor, in

many

instances, did

it

bombs dropped

on the power houses in Barcelona and Sagunto during Spain’s 2^ years of Civil War, exactly six made direct hits Nevertheless, as a combat arm the aeroplane developed increasing significance, completing the artillery preparation and often

Even more successemployed in the counterattack, having proved the defender’s quickest and most effective means of halting the enemy. Power-diving from great heights to positions 150 to 300ft. above hostile ground troops, ships in groups of 15 to 50 executed short but violent raids, circling above their quarry and harassing him with bombs and machine gun fire. (At i,oooft., the altitude formerly kept, anti-aircraft fire was effective; at the new low altitudes the enemy became panic-stricken and dashed madly for closely supporting the infantry attack as well.

was

it

cover.)

—^Divergent

Anfl-Alrcraft.

44 m.p.h. for the losmm., and presumably even more for those of lesser calibre.

break civilian succeed in disabling obfailed to

jectives of strategic importance. Thus, of 38,000

fully

the year 1939 with 45 motorized batteries of various calibres, their road speeds varying from 9 m.p.h. for the 120mm. gun to

opinions continue to be registered

Russia announced nine independent mechanized divisions in her regular army, with five

more

in the reserve.

In addition she

is

said

have somewhere between 25 and 55 combat car regiments of two to three battalions, 13 independent combat car battalions (be-

to

longing organically

motorized

rifle

employment

in

the infantry

to

combat car companies,

division),

at least five (probably

12

independent

more) completely

and 9 mechanized brigades designed for connection with the larger cavalry organizations

divisions,

for increasing their shock power.

In the last-named units, rifleare transported in fast trucks accompanied by organic artillery. Certain of her mechanized commands have been grouped

men

into three motor-mechanized corps, each of

two mechanized and two motorized brigades, and 23 independent brigades of mechanized units and tanks, apart from 13 independent tank battalions.

Her

total strength in tanks was estimated at 5,000—many of these in special categories (flame-throwers; smoke-emitters, etc.). Dis-

regarding the lessons of the Spanish war, she was sacrificing arto speed, insisting that the latter offers greater protection than do walls of steel. Thus her heaviest standard tank (36 tons)

as to the percentage of planes brought down by other ships and by anti-aircraft fire. Thus an excellent authority states that pur-

mour

accounted for nearly 75%, anti-aircraft artillery, 20%, and small arms, 5%, whereas other military experts of high repute attribute to anti-aircraft fire no less than 80% of all plane

which mounts one gun of 7smm., two of 37mm., and two machine guns, is capable of i8-6 m.p.h., while her light amphibian (3-2 tons) makes 23 m.p.h. on land and 6-2 in water.

suit aviation

Probably both opinions are correct, the discrepancy being due to the fact that, in the first phases of the World War, planes were slower, flew lower, and paid little attention to ground casualties.

weapons, hence the heavy toll taken by these during that period. Anti-aircraft guns of small calibre (20mm.) were found highly effective for front line defence,

where planes swooped low

to at-

tack, but for the security of rear positions subject to bombing from high altitudes those of much larger calibre (e.g., 88mm. or

Improvements in fire-control systems based on sound ranging were such that creditable reports indi3-6") proved necessary.

Certain tank authorities foresee the gradual separation of these instruments into three general categories (apart from specialized

•

types), viz:

Accompanying Tanks vt

to three, with (battlefield) speed of

(light); weighing up to 10 tons, manned by crews as their heaviest pieces, and a maximum

37mm. guns

5—6 m.p.h.; armoured to

resist infantry weapons but not anti-tank cannon. ^Leading Tanks (medium) : heavier and better armoured than the former. With larger crews and more powerful guns, their mission being to open smaller types and the infantry. An example is the French tank of 15—17 tons, with minimum armour thickness of 20mm., armed with a 47mm. gun and two machine guns. With a radius of action of somi,, it possesses a maximum speed of 12 and. ajo. average speed

D

MUNITIONS OF WAR action) of s miles per hour. Its short wave radio is effective to a distance of 3-6 kilometres. Special Mission Tanks (Heavy); for attacking anti-tank batteries and hostile tanks. Their weight averaging 20-30 tons, armament includes guns up to 75mm. in calibre. Still heavier types may mount guns of even i S5mm. bore, and as many as 8 machine guns. With armour thick, these can withstand the shell of the 75mm. field gun, but their slow speed and great weight (up to 98 tons) will seriously limit their employment. Reconnaissance Cars: The French have developed a 60 km.p.h. armoured reconnaissance car with an average speed of 40 km.p.h. and a range of 200 kilometres. It carries a 37mm. gun and two machine guns of alternate calibres. A wheeled vehicle, it weighs tons and is manned by a

same shell interchangeably. In

crew of

Gas. ^Though accusations and counter-accusations have been made, there appears to have been no authentic instance of the

(in

five.

37mm.

lighter types, the

manufacture of her

anti-tank weapon, but a single pilot model of 3vhich was

is now in full swing. This little gun, mounted on a pneumatic-tired carriage with split trail, is capable of wide traverse, and discharges, at a muzzle velocity of 2,600 ft.sec., a

available in 1938,

proj'ectile

capable of penetrating 1^" of the best armour at 1,000

yards. Light in weight (only qoolb.),

vred into position by

—

man

it

may

readily be

manoeu-

power.

operates on tracks with a crew of two, and mounts two machine

employment of gas in military or naval operations during 1939. Thus the gloomy prognostications of whole cities being wiped out by toxic gases rained from above show, to date at least, no indi-

guns.

cation of being fulfilled.

For closer reconnaissance there

is

a 55 km.p.h. car, capable of

a cross-country speed of 17 kilometres per hour. It weighs 6 tons,

In heavier types we find the armoured combat car of 50 km.p.h.

normal road speed is 30 km.p.h., and its crossWeighing 12 tons, it has a three-man crew which manipulates a 37mm. cannon, and machine guns. The new 155mm. field gun just developed by the Artillery. U.S.A. is considered equal or superior to any comparable piece in existence. Weighing 30,7651b., it possesses the remarkable range of 25,000 yards. Capable of high elevation (65 degs.) and alltop speed.

Its

country speed,

fifteen.

—

around traverse,

it

and the 155mm. corps howitzer handle the

—

Sea Warfare. ^The outcome of the naval battle between the German pocket battleship “Graf Spee” and three British cruisers coast of South America in December, astonished a world which up to that time had been convinced that the heavy guns (ri") of the "Graf Spee” and other ships of her class would inevitably sink any less strongly armed vessel before it could approach close enough to employ its pieces effectively. (The largest weapon carried by any of the British vessels engaged was of 8" calibre.) The answer to the apparently anomalous outcome off the

’

MURPHY. FRANK — MUSIC

474

He showed great energ>’ and travelled over the nation

engagement is yet to be disclosed. Air Warfare. ^As in the case of gas, the myriads of highexplosive and incendiary bombs which the capitals of Europe had e.xpected to descend upon them immediately following the commencement of hostilities, failed in most instances to materialize. True, in those cases where one contestant held overwhelming air

Jan.

superiority (e.g.,

Germany v. Poland, and Russia v. Finland), bombing of certain non-military objectives (as in Warsaw and Helsinki) was ruthlessly carried out, wdth many attendant civilian casualties. But when a strong counterattack could be expected,

Butler.

belligerents let each other’s civilian centres severely alone.

Art Galleries and Art Museums. Museums of Art: see Art Galleries and Art Museums.

of the

—

flights

the agencies of air warfare, planes steadily became more heavily powered and armed, and capable of longer from their bases. Speeds now mount to well above 350

m.p.h.

(as against about 125 m.p.h. at the termination of the

1939.

2,

throughout 1939 investigating charges of corruption and fraud. Among his successful prosecutions were those of Judge Martin T. Manton of New York and Thomas J. Pendergast of Kansas City.

On

Jan. 4,

1940 President Roosevelt nominated Mr. Murphy Supreme Court to succeed the late Pierce

associate justice of the

Museum

of

Modern Art (N.Y.C.):

see

Art

Exhibitio.ns;

Among faster,

World War, 1914-18) with operating ranges up to 3,75omi. Diesel motor continues to receive serious attention in cer-

tain quarters.

Reinforced plastics (for moulding fuselage and

wings) are rapidly coming to the fore,

it

having been demon-

men

can produce, from such materials, either of these structural elements of a plane within a few hours. strated that a handful of

Though not

as yet generally adopted,

aU portents appear

cate that, as the wood-and-fabric plane gave

the latter

by

political situation of the world has vitally affected both composer and performer. The year 1939 has in-

tensified the relation of art to society. political chaos, a

must now look

way

to indi-

to the all-metal,

Anfi-Aircraft.

—^^Veapons

The Spanish

war of the past few years interrupted the musiGermany’s attack upon “cultural bolshevism,” upon degenerate music, upon Jewish music led to an exodus, by no means limited to the Jewish race, of established German musicivil

weakening unmistakably the musical fecundity of that counupon the Jew, brought about by the RomeBerlin Axis, exiled once again more talent of Italy. The year

cians, try.'

Italy’s attack

193S witnessed the cancellation of Austria as a musical centre;

are constantly increasing in calibre

1939 has seen the cancellation of Czecho-Slovakia, of Poland and of Finland. “Black-outs” and mobilization have for the moment

is

stopped what musical

per minute, whereas the smaller, fully automatic weapons, can

countries,

100 rounds per minute and more.

Forces; Armies of the World; European

(See also Air

War; Naites op

THE World.)

—

Bibliogsaphy. U.S.A.: Army and A'avy Journal, Army and Navy and Army Ordnance (Washington); Command and General Review (Ft. Leavenworth). Great Britain: London

Register

Staff School Quarterly

Times. Belgium; L’Aviation Beige; Bulletin Beige dcs Sciences hjilitaires, France: LTllustration; Revue de VArmie de VAir; Revue Militaire GenGermany: Die erate; Revue dcs Deux Mondes; La France Militaire, Panzertruppe; Militar Wochenblatt; Die Krajtjahrkampllruppe; Wehrtechnische Monatshefle; MilitSnoissenschaltliche Mitteilnngen. Russia: Krasnaya Zvyezda; Estonia: Sodur. R. E. Dupuy, World In Arms, Harrisburg (1939); Dr. Kletz, Lefons Mililaires dc la Guerre en Espagne, Paris (C. Go.) (1939).

iilUl|jilji

Tronlf riulln

(^893at

),

bom April 13 He was made a

U.S. jurist, was

Harbor Beach, Mich.

bachelor of laws by the University of Michigan in 1914 and then continued graduate study at Lincoln’s Inn, London, and at Trinity college in Dublin. He practised law in Detroit from 1916 until the

The immediate

life

was

Reputedly at the suggestion of President

taking action to control the sit-down strikes of 1937 in Michigan, and in 1938 he was defeated for re-election by Frank D. Fitzgerald (g.v.).

Roosevelt then appointed him U.S. attorney-general to S. Cummings, and he was sworn in to this office on

Homer

intensi-

still in a position to foster an active musical life, and favoured by the increasing talent that is available for the carrying on of such activity, find themselves taking over the functions that

were formerly assumed by the large music centres of Europe. While a review of musical productions for the first part of 1939 must still give space to the activities in London and Paris, that for the last half of the year must shift to Switzerland, and other neutral countries of Europe and to the Americas.

The one.

position of the Americas in the musical world

While concert

life

is

a unique

even in Switzerland and other neutral

countries has been affected

by' mobilization and by' the uncertainty comes from too great proximity' to the belligerent nations, the American nations, however much their economic life is affected by’ the world situation, hav'e not as yet felt any curtailment of

that

their cultural activities.

Moreover, this shift of the spot light America comes at a time when the contribution of American composers and performers is being more felt and more recognized, to

with the result that the situation created

the effect

Roosevelt he ran for governor of Michigan in 1936 and was elected. During his administration he was widely criticized for not

an

what has been occurring for the past decade. Neutral countries, somewhat removed from the strong currents of conflict, become the retreats for an increasing stream of exiles. These

Detroit and was appointed chief assistant to the United States attorney for the eastern district of Michigan. From ig23 to igso

of the Philippines.

other centres.

fication of

Exiles have arrived in great

he was judge of the Recorder’s (criminal) court in Detroit, and in ig30 he was elected mayor of the city. Re-elected in 1932, he resigned in May 1933 to accept appointment as governor-general

left in

effect of the political situation is

United States entered the World War, when he went to France as a first lieutenant and later captain of infantry. After his discharge from the army of occupation in Germany in igig he returned to

succeed

of

cal life of Spain.

and range. Thus the tendency in the British service is toward a minimum calibre of 90 to loomm., with even isomm. not entirely out of consideration. (The new aircraft carrier “Ark Royal” mounts anti-aircraft guns of iismm.) When the bore equals or e.xceeds loomm., however, the rate of fire slows to 15-20 rounds

Mlirnhu

has been a year

not to be superseded

to its laurels if it

its plastic rival.

operate at

It

year in which the easy relationship of peoples

of one culture with those of another has been very' nearly stopped.

(330 in 1918).

The

The niUolUi

true,

and

of the

numbers

a new- and

v'ital

one.

in the United States,

it is

is

their musical activity

work is

is being felt, but the importance that American composers are doing is increasing and stimulating both to the composers themselves and to

American concert life. It is not impossible that in time America will do as much to change the idioms of exiled composers living there, as the exiles w'ill do to effect change in the American idiom. The usual international festivals of music that occur during the spring and summer took place, and on their programs were heard some W'orks of interest. The 17th Festiv’al of the International Society for Contemporary Music (S.I.M.C.) met in Warsaw in April in spite of the acute political tension at the time.

On

programs were few works by the most known modem composers. Either the more established composers do not feet that they should use these programs for the presenting of their new its

works or else the international situation was such that they wished not to do so this season.

Of the new works performed some were of Francis Poulenc’s Messe en Sol-majeur revealed a

real

new

interest.

side to

temperament which may mean a great deal in the future of his expression. On the whole the concerts showed once more a movement away from the more extreme methods of exthat composer’s

pression.

Two

works, both using with great ingenuity the 12-tone

technique, achieved success; a scherzo-finale of a concerto for \nolin

and orchestra by Vladimir Vogel, and Five Orchestral

Pieces by the English composer Christian festival of the

S.I.M.C.

is

Damton. The 1940

scheduled for Budapest.

Neither the

Baden-Baden Festival of Contemporary Music nor the 7th International Festival of Music at Frankfort were of very great interest. The difficulties in organizing these festivals on an international basis must have been almost insurmountable. To find composers and performers who were willing to appear on these programs and who were acceptable to the Foreign Office must have been a Herculean task. Most of the compositions were by younger German composers, with a few works such as G. Francesco Malipiero’s Hecuba, a string trio by Jean Riviere, and a ballet. La Rosiere du Village, by Henri Tomasi, to give the impression of an international scope. The “Maggio Musicale Fiorentino” established in 1933, though not pretending to be in any way an international festival of music,

is

nevertheless an occasion of considerable interest.

1938, Malipiero’s ingenious

“Dramma

In

per Musica” Antonio e

One of the most interesting producwas Orazio Vecchi’s “Madrigal Opera”

Cleopatra was performed. tions

of the

festival

L’Amfiparnaso. It must be admitted that though the international festivals in Europe in the past may have been truly international in their scope, this was not true of them in 1939. There were, however, festivals of contemporary music in the United States which were

broader.

The

series

of concerts

by various

nationalities pre-

New York

might well be termed a festival, and though these concerts presented but few first performances they did present an international view'point. The most outstanding concert was that of music by Brazilian composers, in which the music of Villa Lobos had a great success. Three first performances of new English works were well received: Arnold Bax’s Seventh Symphony, a Piano Concerto by Arthur Bliss and sented at the World’s Fair of

Five Variants on “Dives and Lazarus" by Vaughan Williams. With one exception no American work appeared on this series of concerts at the World’s Fair. This exception was Walter Piston’s Prelude and Fugue, included by the courtesy of Sir Adrian Boult.

WPA

(It should be mentioned that the Composer’s Forum of the presented an outstanding series of concerts of chamber music by American composers.) It was left to Serge Koussevitzky to

present the concerts of American music that might well have been

included on this international occasion.

At an American Festival in Boston were presented works of and interest, ranging all the way from Arthur Foote’s Suite for String Orchestra, Howard Hanson’s Romantic Symphony, Gershwin’s Concerto in F., Randall Thompson’s Second Symphony, to Roy Harris’s Third Symphony and an Overture by a new young American composer, William Schumann. Such a festival of American music by a major s>Tnphony orchestra was truly daring, yet it was accepted as a matter of course, 'was well received, and was repeated in New York city. Of the many other festh'als of music held in the United States great variety

the Berkshire Festival should be specially mentioned, for

planned to e.xtend this festival with a

it

is

summer academy somewhat

IGNACY PADEREWSKI beoan hit farewell tour a concert broadcast from New York city

in

America Feb. 26, 1939, with

475

MUSIC. POPULAR

476

In conjunction with the be a course in conducting

on the order of the Salzburg Festival.

usual symphonic concerts there will under Serge Koussevitzky and courses in composition

by Aaron

Copland and Paul Hindemith.

The usual repertoire of standard operas continued in spite of the tenseness of the times. With the declaration of war most opera houses in cities that feared bombing were closed, but there were already plans for reopening a few of them. Several new operas of a conventional type were performed. In Italy Re Lear by Vito Frazzi was produced at the spring festival in Florence; Re Eassaii by G. H. Ghedini was staged at the Teatro della Fenice

hy Ezio Carabella was given in Genoa. La Chartreuse de Parma based on a libretto adapted from Stendhal by Armand Lunel achieved a moderate success. The movement towards a more dramatic yet musically stylized work that dominated the period following the great war may still be followed. Performance during 1939 of Hindemith’s Mathias der Mahler and Malipiero’s Antonio e Cleopatra showed that interest in a revitalized form of dramatic expression is not dead. The great success of the former led to its repetition in Switzerland and performance elsewhere. Hindemith’s opera Cardillac was revived in Zurich. In line with this more progressive thought are also the new works by Darius Milhaud and Arthur Honegger. Milhaud’s new opera Medee (text by Madeleine Milhaud) had an apparently successful premiere in the Royal in

Venice; and

II

Condelieri

In Paris, Henri Sauguet’s opera

Flemish Opera house of Antwerp.

Honegger’s “Oratorio-Dra-

an Bucher, composed to a poem by Paul Claudel, was pronounced on its performance at the Municipal raatique,” Jea 7me d’Arc

Theatre of Orleans to be his finest achievement since King David. Two new works by this composer: La Danse des Marts, also to a text by Paul Claudel, and Nikolas von der Flue are to be per-

performed by Maurice Jaubert, Henri Tomasi and Olivier Messiaen. A new piano concerto by Jean Francaix was given when Nadia Boulanger conducted the New York Philharmonic-Symphony during her visit to America. Jean Riviere was represented at the Festival of the S.I.M.C. by a Symphony in D Major and at the Baden-Baden festival by a string trio. The interest in new Italian music centred largely in the Florentine productions. Among the works performed were G. Francesco Malipiero’s Concerto a Tre, a violin concerto by Gino Gorini, a pupil of Malipiero, and a cantata by Leone Massino. The first performance of Castelnuovo-Tedesco’s second Piano Concerto was given November 2 by the New York Philharmonic-Symphony. Two new symphonies were performed in Helsinki: Uuno Klami’s First Symphony and Lauri Ikonen’s Second Symphony. Bela Bartok’s Rhapsody for clarinet and violin was given a sensational first performance in New York city by the famous Hungarian violinist, Szigeti, and the great exponent of “swing,” Benny Goodman. Not to be outdone by the critics who discover infant prodigy virtuosi, two critics sang the praise of two infant prodigy composers, both of America. Lukas Foss, born in Berlin in 1922 and now living in Philadelphia, was praised by Paul Rosenfeld. From Paris came the praise of critics for the compositions of nine-yearold Andre Mathieu, son of a Montreal musician. (See also Music, Popular.) (R. L. Fy.)

string quartets were

it was a Polish folkmasquerading under the title of “Beer Barrel Polka,” that led the American hit parade of 1939. This Shapiro-Bemstein pubh' cation sold a total of about 600,000

Mlicip

PniHlIar

liiUolUi riJ[Juldr>

ironically enough,

song,

copies of sheet-music during the year, the

pass the half-million

mark

in

some

first

popular song

to

time.

formed in 1940 in Switzerland. Yet this production of new operas more radical type was not the only sign of the interest composers have in the form. A manifesto “Pour un renouveau du Theatre-Lyrique” was signed by several outstanding French composers: Auric, Delannoy, Honegger, Jaubert, Milhaud, Poulenc, Poland-Manuel and Germaine Tailleferre. In New York city a

Second place was taken by a late arrival, “South of the Border,” a reversion to the geographical nostalgias that were once so popular in Tin Pan Alley. In third place was “Deep Purple,” whose melancholy strains were evolved from an instrumental piece.

the purpose of performing operas and ballets of American interest. This organization produced with definite success during the month of April two new operas: The Devil and Daniel Webster by Douglas Moore to a libretto by Stephen Benet, and Susantia, Don’t You Cry to a

ured by actual sales. These 12 were: “Umbrella Man,” “Deep in a Dream,” “Penny Serenade,” “Little Sir Echo,” “Three Little Fishes,” “Wishing,” “Sunrise Serenade,” “Over the Rainbow,” “Man with the Mandolin,” “Scatterbrain,” “Blue Orchids,” and

of the

new American Lyric Theatre was organized 'for

A

by Clarence Loomis including music by Stephen most interesting opera score was The Old Lady and

the Thief,

written on commission for the National Broadcasting

Company

score

Foster.

In addition to these three leaders, a dozen hit songs were grouped by Variety in the “first fifteen” of popularity as meas-

“My “And

Prayer.”

Close to the sacred circle were four more hits, the Angels Sing,” “Jeepers Creepers,” “Stairway to the

Stars,” and

“Rancho Grande.”

to the

The year showed a significant continuation of the tendency to make popular songs out of established classics, with frank credit

Ball was successful in 1938 at the Metropolitan Opera. That there will eventually develop a “radio” opera there can be no

to the source of the melody. Larry Clinton, who had started the cycle with “My Reverie” (after Debussy), again scored heavily

by Gian-Carlo Menotti, whose one-act opera, Amelia Goes

doubt, and this that direction.

new opera by Menotti Dance: Ballet.')

is

a noteworthy attempt in

(See

It would be impossible to enumerate important performances by even the greatest symphony orchestras and chamber music groups. Such performances were the first to be revived after the first shock of the crisis. Concerts in Germany tended to be limited, as might be expected, to performance of German classics and to works of young composers who have, as yet, achieved no hearing

outside of that country. In England there was considerable activity on the part of the British Broadcasting Company for the

performance of new works. A first symphony by Erik Chisholm and a piano concerto by William Busch were performed. Symphonic Studies by Alan Ravsthone and a string quartet by Elizabeth Lutyens were performed at the Contemporary Music Festival at Warsaw. A new violin concerto by William Walton was scheduled to be given

its

premiere performance by the Cleveland Symsolo part. In France three new

phony with Heifetz playing the

when he turned

the best theme of Tschaikowsky’s

Romeo and

Juliet Fantasie-Overture into

“Our Love.” Andre Kostelanetz then capitalized the slow melody from the same composer’s fifth symphony as “Moon Love.” There was also an echo of Ravel’s Pavane in “The Lamp is Low,” while Raymond Scott made household music out of Mozart’s piano sonata in C by simply giving the title “In an Eighteenth Century Drawing Room.”

At the to 1917,

it

close of 1939 Abe Olman’s “Oh, Johnny,” dating back riding high once more, proving that a good tune will

was

assert its vitality in the face of the strongest competition. Hawaiian music maintained its vogue, with Ray Kinney and Clara Inter

(“Hilo Hattie”) as its chief interpreters, and the “swing” treatment of popular melodies showed no signs of weakening, with Glenn Miller’s new band added to the established groups under the direction of Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, Bob Crosby, and other leaders in the improvisational style. The battle between the American Society of Composers, Authors

MUSSOLINI — NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and Publishers (ASCAP) and the entertainment interests, particularly radio, was bitterly fought out in the courts, with the creators of America’s commercially profitable music winning signal victories in the upholding of the Federal Copyright

Law,

One result of this running battle was an increased interest in the work of obscure songwriters and musical amateurs, whose op-

National

and publication became greater than new talents, the most practi-

vestigating,

portunities for performance

ever before. In this development of cal service

was given by the

New York

clearing-house.

The Song-

mart.

music business, however, showed that the tradimethods of publishing and exploiting popular songs were too firmly grounded to be shaken by legal attacks or undermined by novices. The most successful of America’s popular songs continue to be produced by a comparatively small group of skilled workmen, to whose efforts the public insists upon giving a just (S. Sp.) reward. (See also Music.) Statistics of the

tional

Mlipcniini lYlllboUllllli

Italian statesman

Donitn

DBIIIIU

tator,

played a large part

in

477

Narcotics: see Drugs and Drug Traffic. Natal: see South Africa, The Union of.

and dicEuropean

during 1938 and 1939. For his earlier career, see Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. r6, pp. 28-31. On Sept. 29, 1938, he formed politics

one of the “Big Four” at Munich which, at 1.30 a.m. on the 30th, reached agreement. His last act of international importance before the close of 1938 was his denunciation, on December 17, of the

Academy of Sciences. emy

of Sciences

was

incorporated by Act of Congress in 1863 for the purpose of in-

examining, experimenting and reporting upon

any

subject of science or art whenever called upon

by any department of the United States Government. Membership is by election, in recognition of outstanding achievements in scientific research, and is limited to 350 active members and 50 foreign associates. Members must be citizens of the United States. At the annual meeting held in Washington, D.C., April 24-26. i939> 15 new members were elected, as follows: Gregory Breit, Detlev Wulf Bronk, William Bosworth Castle, Frederick Gardner Cottrell, Frederick

Nikolaevich

Parker Gay, Albert Baird Hastings, Vladimir Merkel Henry Jacobs, Zay Jeffries, Donald

Ipatieff,

Forsha Jones, George Bogdan Kistiakowsky, Warren Judson Mead. Oscar Riddle, Adolph Hans Schultz, Philip Edward Smith. Three additional foreign associates were elected: Sir Joseph Barcroft, of Cambridge, England; Sir William Bragg, of London; and F. A. Vening Meinesz, of Utrecht, The Netherlands. Four gold medals were presented at the dinner on April 25, 1939: The Agassiz Medal for Oceanography, to Harald Ulrik Sverdrup, of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, of the University of California, for his personal oceanographic explorations in Arctic

Franco-Italian agreement of Jan. 1935 regarding Tunisia.

began with

regions and his numerous contributions to physical oceanography

the two-day visit of Neville Chamberlain to Mussolini in Rome, January 10-12. Nothing developed from this meeting. The rest of the year II Duce blew hot and cold on the question of peace. On March 26 he suggested that France should begin discussion of the “problems” of Tunisia, Jibuti and the Suez canal, but when Daladier declined, Mussolini did not press his point. On April 7 he

and the interrelations between the sea and the atmosphere; the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal for 1933 and an accompanying honorarium of $200 to Richard Swann Lull, of the Peabody Museum of

The

Italian role in international politics of 1939

on April 20 he accused President

ordered the invasion of Albania Roosevelt of committing “geographical errors” by asking Hitler to refrain from further aggression, but he tempered this speech by calling attention to the Rome fair of 1942 as an indication of ;

Natural History, Yale university, titled:

“A

in recognition of his

work

en-

Revision of the Ceratopsia or Horned Dinosaurs”; the

Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal for 1934 and an accompanying hono-’ rarium of $200 to Theophilus Shickel Painter, of the University of Texas, in recognition of his work on 'the chromosomes of the salivary glands in Drosophila in relation to the problems of muta-

14 he delivered a very conciliatory speech at Turin, declaring that “recourse to the sword is not necessary”; and eight days later Italy signed a lo-year treaty of military alliance with Germany. At the approach of war Musso-

tion and genetics, published in Genetics and in the Joitnial of Heredity in 1934; and the John J. Carty Medal and an accompanying honorarium of $3,000 to Sir William Bragg, of the Royal Institution, London, England, in recognition of his fundamental work in X-ray crystal analysis. Sir William Bragg had come to the

redoubled his efforts for peace and as late as September 2 he tried to call a five-power conference. When the war did break out

Trust Lecture before the Academy. The Pilgrim Trust Lecture-

Italy’s will for peace.

On May

lini

would take no initiative whatever.” This alternate sword-rattling and peacecourting revived the old charges of opportunism directed at Mussofor his peacelini, but in some quarters he was publicly thanked

he declared

in

an

official

communique

that Italy

‘

Com-

endeavours, notably by Chamberlain in the House of mons on September i. (See also Italy.) ful

United States primarily for the purpose of delivering the Pilgrim

was established in 1937, to continue for six years under a plan of operation adopted by the Royal Society of London and ship

the National

Edward

S. Harkness,

I

NSlSiniin, J3I116S was

bom

(1861-1939), U.S. physical director and

game November

inventor of the

at Almonte, Ont., Canada,

of basketball.

He

6 and received his

education at McGill university, Presbyterian college at Montreal, and the Y.M.C.A. college at Springfield, Mass. It was at the

where he was physical director after his graduain 1891. The tion, that he originated and introduced basketball game was originally called Naismith ball and was played with two peach baskets and a soccer ball. Naismith was later director of physical education at the Y.M.C.A. college in Denver (1S95-

latter institution,

189S) and at the University of Kansas CiS 98-i 937 )-

November

28 at Lawrence, Kan.

London

will

Academy

a distinguished

invite

scientist to lecture before the Society,

and

He

died

in the inter-

of Sciences wall invate a dis-

tinguished British scientist to lecture before the first

y

which was set up in Great Britain by an American. Under this plan, in alternate

vening years the National

Mustard Gas; see Chemical Warfare. Mustard Seed: see Spices. it,

of Sciences, supported through the gen-

years the Royal Society of

American

.

Academy

erosity of the Pilgrim Trust

Academy. The

Pilgrim Trust Lecture was given in London on Dec.

8, 1938,

by Dr. Irving Langmuir of the Research Laboratory of the General Electric Company. The subject of Sir William Bragg’s lecture before the Academy on April 24, 1939, was “History in the Archives of The Royal Society.” The autumn meeting was held at Brown university. Providence, Rhode Island, October 23-25, 1939. The Academy publishes an annual report, biographical memoirs of deceased members, scientific memoirs, and monthly Proceedings. The officers of the Academy are: Frank B. Jewett, president: Arthur L. Day, vice president; L. F. E. Wright,

home

secretary';

Brockett, executive secretary.

Henderson, foreign secretaiy; Arthur Keith, treasurer; Paul

J.

The Academy huiiding

Constitution avenue, Washington, D.C.

is

at 2101

(P. S. B.)

NATIONAL CATHOLIC RURAL

478

FE

LI

— N ATI O N AL

DEBTS

from one-and-one-half to two times as large as the national income, and in Italy the national debt is more than twice the na-

National Catholic Rural Life Conference: see Catholic Rural Life Conference, National.

is

National Catholic Welfare Conference: ^ee Catholic Welfare Conference, National. National Conservation Bureau: see Traffic Accidents.

tional income. Also, in France, Belgium,

Matinnol Ilahtc NallUlldl UuUlOi

In

and meaningful measures com-

many

parable from one country to another, there are factors in such comparisons.

national

other countries the national income

all

is

larger than the

national debt, the ratios of debt to income varying from about three-fourths in Canada, Japan, Spain, the Netherlands, and the

public debt figures would appear to be precise

and Greece the

debt exceeds the national income.

United States to less than one-half in Argentina, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, and Sw'eden.

Fin-

land,

limiting

The

Figures are generally available for

national debt of the United States has only been of sub-

World War. Throughout

only national debt, whereas the relative importance of the inde-

stantial size since the

pendent obligations of lesser political units no doubt varies con-

the iQth century the gross debt never exceeded $100,000,000.

siderably

among

different countries. In the

of States, cities, counties,

civil

divisions

was

through the balance of the century and varied only

approximately $20,000,000,000 in 1939, about half as large as the Federal public debt. The figures as presented herein are confined to national debt because of the limited source material

debt of local agencies for nearly

all

and have been reduced

in so far as possible to a

tion, the official reports

in

defini-

on which they are based are not equally

every year since 1930 have brought the level above $40,000,000,000 at the close of 1939.

order to indicate understatements of the debt total.

Somewhat

Because of limited comparability of data taken from primary League of Nations’ Statistical Yearbook was used and

The data

from

this

Great Britain was much smaller prior to the World than subsequent thereto. Throughout the entire last quarter of the 19th century, the total national debt varied from approxi-

War

source are for some date in 1938.

are available in original

form only

similar to the trend in the United States, the na-

tional debt of

sources, the

the latest figures

public

000,000 or $240 per person. Throughout the ’20s there was a decrease, the low point being recorded in 1930 when the obligations of the United States totalled $16,185,000,000. Deficits in

same source

common

slightly in the

In 1916 the United States

debt was $1,225,000,000 or $11.96 per person. By 1919 the World War brought about an increase in the national debt to $25,482,-

on the

being a tendency in some countries toward conceal-

reliable, there

ment

early part of the 20th century.

countries. Although the figures

given in the accompanying table are taken from the

It

rose to $2,678,000,000, or a per capita total of $77 in 1865, as a result of the Civil War. Thereafter the debt tended downward

United States the debt

and other minor

the early part of

in the local cur-

rency of each country and, therefore, must be converted into a

mately £700,000,000 to £800,000,000.

common unit of measurement. This conversion into dollars has been made through the use of exchange rates prevailing as of, the

during the slightly

date for which the debt figures are given. Exchange rates are not

1920

this

what

larger than the rise in national debt in the ’United States

satisfactory in

many

instances because of the artificial controls

first

downward. In 1914 the total debt was £651,000,000; by had risen to £7,829,000,000. This increase was some-

and barriers imposed on foreign exchange in different countries. For instance, the debt of France as measured in dollars has dropped sharply since 1936 because of the decline in the dollar e.xchange rates of the franc. Even when the conversion into a single monetary unit can be achieved satisfactorily, the matter of population is a factor and the figures must be converted to a per capita basis.

Beyond

these adjustments there are

many

Notional Debt of Various Countries

Date of Latest

Egypt. Union of South

.

.

3/31/39

,

,

.

.

.

Chile

.

.

.

.

.

.

Colombia Peru .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Bulgaria.

.

Asia India

.

Japan Europe Belgium .

Per Capita

Debt

Compar-

jj,

Dol-

(000,000)

97.0 pounds

S04.07

280.4 pounds

463.74

12/31/3I 12/31/38 6/30/38

3»S40.2 dollars 1,326.3 pesos 4i»i3i.S dollars 4,032.7 16,571.2 3.804.3 206.6 747.6

pesos milreis

pesos pesos soles

3/31/39 3/31/38

12,055.6 rupees 13,270.1 yen

12/31/37 12/31/38

33,762.0 francs 21,778.9 leva

Czechoslovakia .

Denmark Finland France

and $724 in New Zealand compare with $316 in the United States, $315 in Canada, and $277 in France. Other countries whose per capita national debts exceed $200 include the Netherlands, Belgium, and Italy. The latest figure available for Italy is for 1935. No doubt the expanded military program of Italy and its conquest of Ethiopia have greatly enlarged the

,

.

.

.

.

Germany

.

Greece.

.

.

Hungary.

.

Italy

.

.

.

Netherlands Noru'ay Poland Portugal. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Rumania Spain

.

Sweden

Italian national debt in recent years.

.

Switzerland

Turkey Unit.Kgdom.

Comparisons between the national debt and the national income

.

.

Yugoslavia,

difficult

and Australia the national debt

4/30/37

3/31/3S i 2/3*/36 United States 6/30/39 America, South Argentina 12/31/37 Brazil 12/31/37

in Australia,

It appears that for Great Britain

.

Africa

Canada Mexico

substantially

because the figures are not always available for the same years, and the income figures are even less dependable than are the debt figures. However, some generalizations can be made.

.

America. North

more than double that of any other country except Australia and New Zealand whose per capita debts are not far below the Great Britain figure. The averages of $819 per person in Great Britain,

is

Exchange Dollars

Popula-

Nearest

lars

(ooo)

$39,000,000,000, and the latter slightly over $41,000,000,000. These totals are several times as large as the debts of France, Germany, or Italy. When the figures are converted to a per

$727

in

Africa

owed by Great

is

Currency (000,000)

Debt

other

Britain and the United States, the former being slightly under

capita basis, the national debt of Great Britain

able

Debt

Total

Dollar

Pate

available.

far the largest aggregate national debts are

Total Debt in Local

Compar-

elements which should be considered, such as the value of Government property, the scope of Government functions, the national income, the interest and service costs of the debt, and costs of living. For most of these factors there is little information

By

Little variation occurred

13 years of the 20th century, the total tending

12/31/37 3/31/38

8/31/39 12/31/38 3/31/37 6/30/38 9/30/33 12/31/37 6/30/38 9/30/38 12/31/37 3/31/3S 12/31/33 3/31/39 12/31/38 3/31/38

3/31/39 3/31/39

33.312 S.4492 5.1758 57-001 23.32 35.057 28.864

3.3948 1.2326

46.003.3 koruny 1.233.1 kroner 4.302.0 markkas 443,341.0 francs 27.241.3 reichmarks 49,679-8 drachmas 1,397.7 pengos 108,636.6 lire 4,066.4 guilders 1.495-5 kroner 4.973.2 zlotys 7.220.3 escudos 117,874.3 lei 21,779.0 pesetas 2,

9,889

99.716 27.750 100.000

1,616.2 279-3 94.9 11,645.1 10,918.3

444-7 315.7 8.844.0 2.261.0 372.5 935.7 327.0

864.8 2 , 977-3

6^.9 kronor

629.0 622.6 425.3 38,893.5 560.9

francs

pounds pounds dinars

O^ania j

Ar^tralia I

I

.

New Zealand

6/30/38 3/31/38

1,275,0 pounds 290.2 pounds

39S.02'

400.28

Sources: Sfaltslicof Vtar^Book of the Lea^ue of Nations, 1938-39, Geneva, 1939 Federal Reserve Bulletin; Official Government Reports.

131

NATIONAL DEFENSE COMMITTEE — NATIONAL GUARD bership world — World War. Throughout was of 1,100,000 of

the ’20s there

as a result of the

decline in the British national debt, whereas the total in the

no

However, in recent years the national debt of Great Britain has shomi little change whereas United States

fell off substantially.

more than doubled since 1930. the war in Europe in Sept. 1939 there ap-

the United States debt has

With the outbreak

of

in all parts

tional institution of our time.

479

the largest educa-

the

In addition to the editorial and

photographic surveys constantly being made, the society has

sponsored more than 100 quired years of field

scientific expeditions,

work

some of which

to achieve their objectives.

of these expeditions and other explorations, together with photo-

peared immediate evidence of further mounting of national debt

graphic

United Kingdom and elsewhere on the continent. The large debts of the World War had, in most countries, continued to be

through the pages of the National Geographic Magazine.

in the

unliquidated, except in

and

tions for

some instances by

participations in

default, before prepara-

new wars brought new

debts.

The

conflicts in China, Spain and Ethiopia were costly but appear minor in comparison with the prospective cost and new debts of the war of the major European powers %vhich began in Sept. 1939- (.See also Government Expenditures; Great Britain

AND Northern Ireland, United Kingdom

(R. R. N.)

of.)

are

sun^eys,

presented

to

the

membership To form

society’s

a pictorial record of world geography, the society has assembled a gallery of some 300,000 photographs, over 25,000 of which are in natural colour. During 1939 the society in co-operation with the Smithsonian Institution sent an archaeological expedition to

Veracruz, Mexico.

M. W.

Stirling, leader of the party,

Jan., 16, 1939, the discovery of the oldest dated

reported on

work of man yet

uncovered in the Americas, a Mayan stele bearing a date equivalent to Nov. 4, 291 B.c. Dr. Stirling’s account of the find was published in the August issue of, the National Geographic

National Defense

Power Committee;

see

Public Utili-

ties.

National Education Association

organized

in

Phila-

delphia in 1857, “is dedicated to the upbuilding of democratic civilization and supported by the loyal co-ojieration of the teachers of the

profession,

cation of

and

all

the people.”

It has a

membership of over 200,000 assembly composed of

governed by a representative

is

delegates is

United States to advance the interests of the teaching promote the welfare of children, and foster the edu-

from

State, territorial,

The Journal of the

NEA

issued to

during June, July and August. are represented teachers

and

local units. all

organ

members monthly except

Special branches of education

by 27 departments such

colleges,

Its official

as school administrators,

elementary principals, secondary principals,

classroom teachers, adult education, and the like. The Association’s winter convention was held in Cleveland,

re-

Narratives

Mag-

Another outstanding record of archaeological achievement was published in the May 1939 issue as “Frozen Fragments of American History.” This is an account of the National Geographic azine.

Society-Smithsonian Institution Expedition to Bering sea which, under the leadership of Henry B. Collins, Jr., found the first traces in Alaska of the old Eskimo “Thule” culture. The National Geographic Society-Comell university three-year study of auroras, under Dr. C. W. Gartlein, clocked and measured the aurora borealis on the m'ght of Aug. ii, 1939. Photographs in colour and motion pictures were made of these lights which

were the most spectacular seen in the northern United States and Canada in ten years. Charles Bittinger, N.A., completed his paintings of solar phenomena for which he made studies during the National Geographic Society-U.S. Navy Solar Eclipse Expedition to Canton island in 1937. These paintings were reproduced in the July 1939 issue of the National Geographic Magazine to accompany F. Barrows Colton’s review of recent astronomical achievements.

February 25 to March 2, 1939, around the theme “The Fmmdations of American Education;” its general convention in San Francisco, July 2-7, 1939, around the theme “The Responsibilities of our Profession.” The 1940 conventions are to be at St. Louis

Mr. and Mrs. Wendell Chapman conducted an expedition which photographed in colour big game animals in their native habitats from Arizona to Canada; these pictures were shown in the July 1939 issue of the National Geographic Magazine. J. D. Whiting

February and Milwaukee in July. Leading activities of the Association during 1939 were the Centennial of Teacher Education; the development of Future Teachers of America; the work of the Educational Policies Commission; and continuing efforts

made

in

on behalf of teacher welfare and Federal aid for general education. American Education Week, which the Association sponsored in co-operation with other groups November 6—12 around the

theme “Education for Tomorrow’s America” brought more than are 8,000,000 visitors into the schools. Association headquarters in its own building at 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washingprincipal ton, D.C. president for 1939-40, Miss Amy Hinrichs, ;

of the

Audubon School

Willard E. Givens.

in

New

(See also

Orleans, La.; executive secretary,

Academic Freedom; Education.) (J. E. Mo.)

National Finance: see Banking; Budget; Gold Reserves AND Gold Standard; Government Expenditures; Income INealth Ta.x; National Debts; National Income; Taxation; AND Income, Distribution of. National Gallery of Art: see Smithsonian Institutio.v.

a survey of the ancient cone dwellings in

full-colour illustrations all the

known

North American continent, north of

species of birds on the

^Mexico.

The

scientific

mono-

graph entitled “National Geographic Society-U.S. Navy Solar Ech'pse Expedition of 1937 to Canton Island” was published in 1939 as one of the society’s series of Contributed Technical Papers.

the increase and diffuby Gilbert sion of geographic knowledge,” and since 1899 directed over a completed has Society Geographic National Grosvenor, the half-centuiy of noteworthy achievement. It had in 1939 ^ mem-

Cappadocia,

Turkey; the first pictures in colour of these early Christian retreats were published in December. Dr. Maynard Owen Williams, W. Robert Moore, and Luis Marden made an eight-months’ sur\'ey of South America for the society. The hostilities in Europe necessitated the postponement of the year-long expedition during which the society, in co-operation with the University of Virginia and the U.S. Coast Guard, planned to survey an area of 4,500,000 sq.mi. in the Central and South Pacific ocean. In addition to its magazine the society has published a series of nature books. The most recent is The Book of Fishes, edited by Dr. John Oliver La Gorce, the most comprehensive, full-colour presentation yet published of the better known species of North American inland and coastal waters. The two-volume Book of Birds, edited by Dr. Gilbert Grosvenor and Dr. Alexander Wetmore, in this series is the first book to be published portraying in

(G. Gr.)

National Geographic Society.

Uatinnol DlIorH ndllUlldl uUdlU. to take the field

mobilization plans of the

Army

of the

United States call for the National Guard at peace strength immediately upon the call or

NATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM — NATION AL INCOME order of the President. Eighteen infantry divisions are to moArmy. One bilize at once concurrently with four of the Regular cavalry division and numerous other non-divisional units are also

activity

Force. to mobilize without delay as parts of the Initial Protective

high and general prosperity prevails.

The National Guard

is

the largest of the three components of

with strength of approximately 205,000. During the year, Congress authorized a substantial increase in the air corps units of the Guard. The National Guard appropriation for the

Army

the

year ending June 30, 1939, included $14,024,472 for modern arms

companies.

most comprehensive measure of economic When everyone is employed and produc-

It is the

now

available.

tive capacity is being effectively utilized, the national income

the national

income

there

falls,

On

unemployment,

is

is

the other hand, when idle

plant

capacity and depression.

National income

is

by adding together

arrived at

of what each industry produces.

The

the net value

contribution of each industry

and equipment. On June 30 there were 14,667 commissioned and warrant oflficers in the active and 674 in the inactive National Guard. Also, 1,602 enlisted men of the active National Guard held commissions in

income equals the gross value of its product, less its plant and equipment and the value of raw materials it consumed during the year. By making deductions for all raw materials used, all duplication is eliminated. With but few exceptions, present estimates of the national in-

the National Guard of the United States which they would fill immediately upon mobilization. It is planned to increase this last

ices

category to approximately 12,000.

In Aug. 1939, approximately 54, 000 officers and enlisted men Guard took the field for extensive manoeuvres in

of the National

the First Army Area at Plattsburg, N.Y., and Manassas, Va. These manoeuvres brought out the fine state of training and esprit of

to the national

the value of the wear and tear on

come are confined primarily

to the value of those goods and serv-

which are produced for sale in the market. Goods and services produced within the home for domestic consumption are not included. Thus, the value of the housewife’s services in the form of cooking, cleaning and caring for the family is not counted. However, when such services are performed by a servant, their value

is reflected in

the servant’s wages, which are included. Also,

the National Guard.

personal services performed

During 1939, 421 members of the National Guard graduated from Regular Army schools. There were also 33,524 enrolled in the Army extension courses of these schools. Regular Army in-

shaving and washing one’s own car are not included.

Guard numbered 463. Guard are now distributed at some

hand,

if

by individuals

similar services are performed

for themselves such as

On

the other

by the barber shop

or the

garage, they are incorporated in the figures.

There is no doubt performed within the home

structors on full duty with the National

that the value of economic activities

The

add greatly to the general well-being but there is no basis satisfactorily evaluating the yield from these efforts. Price Influence. When the national income rises and falls,

units of the National

2,200

home

stations throughout the 48 States, the District of

Columbia, Puerto Rico and the Territory of Hawaii. The organi-

Guard are listed in the National Guard Register. {See (A. H. Bl.)

zations and officers of the active National

Government publication; Official also Armies of the World.)

—

for

the

magnitudes of the changes do not satisfactorily indicate changes in the quantities of goods and services being produced. The national income is measured in terms of dollars and the buying power or the value of the dollar

National

Health Program:

Dentistry;

see

Socialized

Matinnal Inmino ilflllUliai IllUUIIICa

income upward again

’'^39 the national

States turned

ing a sharp decline in the previous year.

The drop

in

the United

after recordin

1938 had

after five successive annual gains. Thus, the national

income

increased in six of the seven years from 1933 to 1939, inclusive, with the 1939 total of $68,500,000,000 representing a 70% increase over the $40,100,000,000 level of 1932.

The $4,500,000,000

1938 total of $64,000,000,000 represents a considerable advance but the dollar national income in 1939 was still more than $3,000,000,000 below the recovery peak of 1937 and some $14,000,000,000 under the 1929 record total.

increase

clearly illustrated in

over the

Within the year 1939, economic activity drifted moderately of the year and then turned rise exhibited added vigour early in September after the initiation of hostilities in Europe and the gains were particularly large m the final months of the year. According to the monthly figures on income payments to individuals, as compiled by the United States Department of Commerce, the gain in the final quarter of 1939 over the comparable period of 1938 was $1,250,000,000, whereas the increase in the the same months of the previous first three months of 1939 over

downward during the early months upward early in the summer. The

below the 1929 national income of $82,700,000,000. This does not mean that the quantity of goods and services produced in 1939 was one-sixth below 1929, because prices were lower in 1939 than in 1929. In fact, relative to 1929 the national income in 1939 was 83%, the cost of living of urban wage earners was 82%, and the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale price index was 81%. These figures appear to indicate that “real” income in 1939 was slightly higher than in 1929. The price series

quoted are not truly representative of all prices and therefore do not lend themselves to such precise comparisons, but it is obvious that the output of goods and services in 1939 was little different

from the record pre-depression that the “real” national income

with the exception of 1936. the rise in nearly

in the

Department

of

Commerce

defines the

all

Industrial Source.

than in the corresponding month of 1938reports, the

It also appears probable

was approximately

equal

Average prices for the year 1939 as a whole were slightly under 1938 so that the $4,300,000,000, or 7%, increase in the national income in 1939 was entirely accounted for by an enlarged production of commodities and services. The rise in real income in 1939 probably was larger than in any other year during the past decade

national income

its official

levels.

in 1939

to that of 1937.

year was $500,000,000. Income of the United States was higher in each month of 1939 In

itself changes from time to time. This comparing the national income in 1939

with the total for 1929. In 1939, the total of $68,500,000,000 was more than one-sixth

Medicine.

come

is

is

This evidence

is

substantiated by

available indexes of physical production.

—The

contribution of each industry to the

a valuable

measure of its relative importance but is not always related to

total output of the nation,

indispensability of the industry.

goods and services pronational income as the net value of all duced within a given year. It includes not only the value of the production of such physical commodities as food, houses, roads

Some industries, like mining, contribute only a very small proportion to the national income but are highly essential segments of the economy.

and industrial equipment, but also the value of intangible services such as those created by hotels, laundries, theatres and telephone

In the accompanying table data are presented showing the net value of product or the contributions of each of the major Indus-

NATIONAL INSURANCE — NATIONAL PARKS tries to the national income in the United States. These data are

indicators

significant

of

the industrial character of a nation.

For instance, in 1929 the commodity producing industries (agriculture, mining, manufacturing and construction) contributed ap-

40%

proximately

The commodity han-

of the national income.

some

areas established

by

Eighty are national monuments,

presidential proclamation under authority of

the Congress because of historic, prehistoric, or scientific interest

of national calibre.

and the public

In addition there are four national historical parks, ii national

accounted for about one-fourth of the national income

military parks, seven battlefield sites, eight national memorials of

dling industries, including transportation, trade utilities

of their superlative scenery or

of outstanding national interest.

481

historic or scientific feature

one national recreational

the remaining third having been contributed by the service creat-

various types, four national historic

ing industries such as Government, finance and service proper.

area, ii national military cemeteries, three national parkways,

Available data over a long period of years indicate a gradual

the park system of the national capital, consisting of over 700

commodity producing

decline in the relative importance of the

and a

industries

relative rise in the importance of the service in-

dustries in the United States. This

is

to be expected as an

economy

sites,

and

separate units in and around Washington, D.C.

Through Congressional action two national parks primarily of historical value

were given new

status.

The Abraham Lincoln

becomes more mature.

National Park, Kentucky, became a national historical park and

commodity indusby the magnitude of the declines from 1929 to 1932, and again from 1937 to 1938 in these industries as compared with the service industries. The difference is particularly marked in 1938, for in that year the commodity industries which in 1937

Fort McHenry National Park, Maryland, a national monument. The Chalmette National monument, Louisiana, became the Chal-

The

tries

substantially greater fluctuations in the

are revealed

contributed about one-third of the national income, accounted for

more than three-quarters of the drop from

As would be

1937.

expected, the recoveries in 1932 and 1937 and again in 1939 were largest in these commodity industries. Construction was an exception with the recovery in this industry after 1932 lagging far

behind the improvement in other industries.

mette National Historical Park. By presidential proclamation the following new national monu-

ments were established: Homestead National Monument of America (Nebraska), including all of the homestead of Daniel Freeman who filed the first claim under the Homestead Laiv signed by President Lincoln in 1862; Badlands National Monument (South Dakota), containing over i5o,ooomi, of the most important “badland” geological features in the world; Santa Rosa Island National Monument (Florida), a long narrow strip of white sand forming a barrier

National tncome, by Industrial Divisions*

island

[In millions of dolJarsl

off

the

Guff coast

of

Florida and illustrating in an «

Item Total national income Agriculture

Minins Electric light

Manufacturing

,

Contract construction Transportation

Finance

1930

I 9 JI

1932

1933

1934

I93S

1936

1937

2938

I939t

outstanding

69,104

54.249

40,089

42,504

50,622

55.794

65,226

71,853

63,993

68,500

processes

7,238 1.789

5,622

W

3.729

2,551

3,419

4,553

5,276

687

478

534

920

954

5,970 1,229

6,378 1,428

5,432 1,051

5, 660

7

1,121

been formed and Tuzigoot Na-

1,268 20,297 3,762 7,09s

1,19s 14,983 2,957 6,140

1,139 10,192 1,844 4,937

l,Olt

941 8,164 547 3,606 639

1,034

x,ii 6

1,201

tional

Monument

(Arizona),

813

920

interesting

prehistoric

4.136 722 7,378 5,330

17,551 1,861 5,142

with

3,817

24,937 2,634 4.796

1,143 22,803 1,759 4,409

1,215

SM

1,042 12,405

and power, and manu-

factured gas

...

Government, including work-relief wages Government, excluding work-relief

829 3.623

1, 04s

1,011

908

722

12.280 8,84s

0.406 7,840

7,589

S.380

6400

5,141

6,013 4,552

676 7,023 4,921

816 9,181 6,576

804 8,761 6,116

2,894 4,744

823 8,970 6,294

6,434

6.452

6,349

6,563

7,626

7,919

9,447

9,133

9.84s

10,170

6,434

6,452

6,349

5,917

6,196 1,430 6,223 2,488

6,580 1.339 6,845 2,660

7.064 2,383 7,661 2,868

7,304 1,739 8,588 3,048

7,701 2,144

8,200 2,550

8,190 1,980 8,367

3

7

209

950

1,119

8.851 3,428

7,447 2,925

5,632 2,339

5,368 2,157

2,632

em-

ployers

1,210

ruins.

Other interesting additions to the Federal park system were

Federal Hall Memorial and the Philadelphia Customhouse National Historic Site, established

by Secretary of the

Interior

Harold L. Ickes under author-

Source; United States Dept, of Commerce.

tPreliminao'*

Government Expenditures; Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of; Wealth and Income, (See also

(R-

Distribution of.)

National Insurance: see Social Security. National Labor Relations Board: see Labour Unions; Law (Case): Labour; Democratic Party; Supreme Court of THE United States; Labour; United States: T/ie NLRB. National Monuments: see National Parks and MonuME.VTS.

National

767 8,459 6.044

15,400

6,327

9,750 3,976

Social security contributions of

10,

6,327

646

...

shoreline of the continent has ;

6 ,0 X 2

Work-relief wages

Miscellaneous

manner natural by which much of the

1929 82,691

Munitions Control

Board:

see

Legislatio.n,

New York est,

city’s old

ity of the Historic Sites Act. subtreasury building, itself of historic inter-

stands on the site of old Federal Hall, where George Washing-

ton took the oath of

office as President of the United States; where the Declaration of Independence was read to the populace July 18, 1776; where the first 12 amendments to the Constitution (10 of them forming the Bill of Rights) were adopted among many epoch-making events in American history.

—

The

Philadelphia Customs House, over 100 years old, was built

to house the

Second Bank of the United States. When the fiscal system of the Federal Government was changed, the ba'nk became the Second Bank of the United States of Pennsylvania and continued in operation until 1841, when it was closed as a result of the panic of 1837. Shortly afteiAvards it was occupied by the

Federal.

Customs sendee.

National Parks and Monuments.

century, a system of

monuments undreamed

of a century ago in

national parks and

any political economy, has been established and developed in the United States. The Yellowstone, the first national park, was established in March 1872. On Dec. 31, rgSQi there were 155 separate areas in the national park and monument system of the United States, OTth a total area of 20,839,891 acres. Twenty-five of these

areas are national parks, areas reserved

by the Congress because

The Skyline

drive, throughout the length of the Shenandoah Nawas completed and opened to travel. Excellent progress also was made on the Blue Ridge parkway, to connect Virginia’s Shenandoah Park with the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina and Tennessee. One hundred miles of the parkway was opened to travel. Interesting progress was made also on the Natchez Trace, following generally the route of the historic highway between Natchez, Miss, and Nashvdlle, Tenn. tional Park,

lb

»«'

Above,

left:

THE "PRINCE OF WALES,”

new “King George V”

type,

second

was launched May

3,

British 35,000-ton battleship of the 1939, at Birkenhead

Above, right: FIRST LARGE BATTLESHIP of the German horst,” commissioned Jan. 7, 1939, at Wilhelmshaven

THE FiRST GERMAN AIRCRAFT CARRIER,

Right circie:

the ways Dec. S,

Above,

"Graf Zeppelin,”

slid

down

the

"Wasp," Was

launched

1939

Above, right: U.

S.

CRUISER

“ST. LOUIS,” commissioned May 19, 1939

Right circle:

RUSSIAN SUBMARINE on manoeuvres

Below,

THE 35,O0O-TON “KING GEORGE

years,

the 26,000-ton "Scharn-

1938

AMERICA’S LATEST AIRCRAFT CARRIER,

left:

April 4,

fleet,

left:

was launched Feb. 21, 1939,

at Newcastle

in the Baltic

V,"

first

British battleship built in

14

NATIONAL POWER POLICY— NAVIES The Great Smoky Mountains National Park

attained full status.

International complications have held in abeyance plans for its

by the President. The various areas of the Federal park system were visited by 15,454,367 persons during the year

though her spacious hangars, arranged on two decks, could un-

(A. B. Ca.)

National Power Policy Committee: see Public Utilities. National Socialist Party: see Fascism; Germany. National Wealth: see Wealth and Income, Distribution or. National Youth Administration: see Education, Vocational; Government Departments and Bureaus.

many more

doubtedly accommodate

Cruisers have hitherto been limited

dedication

1939.

483

maximum gun

of 8,000 tons, and a

than

this.

by treaty

to a displacement

calibre of 6-i-in., but this does

not apply to Japan, which was not a party to the 1936 London Treaty. There have been rumours that battle cruisers of about 15,000 tons are being built by that country, and one is even reported to have been launched during 1939; but otherwise there is no evidence that 8,000 tons does not mark the limit of Japanese cruiser displacement. Destroyers built in recent years are remarkable for their size,

many

of those building for the British Fleet

being over 1,900 tons displacement. So far the United States has

Notlirol

Coe

ndlUldl DdOi

tons, but Japan’s current

built

suffered only a comparatively small reduction

cludes a dozen of about 2,000 tons. France

during the depression years, dropping from

1,943,000,000,000

1930 to 1,556,000,000,000 in 1933, and recovering to approximately the former level in 1935; in 1938 production declined 5% to 2,295,600,000,000 cu.ft., of which 29% was used in the field, 50% for industrial and 21% for domestic and commercu.ft. in

cial

none beyond 1,850

Production of natural gas in the United States

consumption. The largest item of industrial use

duction of carbon black, which took

14%

is

the pro-

of the total output. Pro-

duction in Canada increased slightly in 1938, to 33,400,000,000 cu.ft., and preliminary figures indicate a further increase in 1939.

program

in-

building two types,

one of about 2,900 tons, the other of under 1,800 tons. Italy has not gone beyond 1,729 tons in destroyers, but has built a dozen cruisers of 3,362 tons, obviously designed to repel destroyer attacks.

Germany’s biggest destroyers are of i,8ii tons, but Russia has completed several of about 2,900 tons. Submarines are being built in very large numbers. In the British and American Navies, under-water craft building or on order at the end of 1939 numbered 14 and 19 respectively. Japan has at least a

(G. A. Ro.)

is

dozen under construction; France 24; Italy 16; and Geruncertain but undoubtedly large number. Russia, which

many an

Nauru: see Mandates; Pacific Islands, Mandated. Navicert System: see Neutrality.

is

believed to possess

number

One

of

the

results

of

the

war

Navies of the World. which

broke out on Sept. 3, 1939, new warships, not only in with interests liable to be others the countries involved, but in were no fewer than 33 batthere year the of affected. By the end tleships building or about to be begun, of which nine were British,

was

to stimulate the construction of

eight American, four Japanese, four French, two Italian, four German, and two Russian. In the case of four British, two Ameri-

can, four Japanese

'

more submarines than any other

published no figures, but 20

and possibly two German, the displacement

is

in

hand.

is

nation, has

a conservative estimate of the

—

Naval Strength ^When the war with Germany began, active steps were in progress for the replacement of the high proportion of out-of-date ships which resulted from the restrictions imposed by the Naval Treaties of 1922 and 1930. Of the new battleships under construction, four were understood to have been launched by the end of 1939, and it was hoped to complete one, if not two, by the end of 1940. Good progress had also been made British

.

with other categories of

new

At the end of 1939 the

warships.

British

Navy comprised

the following

3 battle cruisers; 15 heavy cruisers mounting 8-in. guns; 43 cruisers -with 6-in. guns; 6 anti-aircraft ships (ex-cruisers); i minelayer; 5 first line aircraft carriers; 181

between 40,000 and 45,000 tons. The remaining 21 ships are all to be of 35,000 tons, in accordance with the original limitation imposed by the London Naval Treaty of 193^1 which was expanded by agreement in 1938 to 45,000 tons.

warships:

None of the various designs provides for a speed of less than 28 knots, and in the majority of cases the figure exceeds 30 knots.

patrol vessels; 3 aircraft tenders; 2 netlayers; 20 river gunboats; 6 coastal minelayers; over 25 motor torpedo boats; and 3 moni-

to all are absence of torpedo tubes, extenplentiful sive protection against plunging fire or air bombing, a and camseaplanes of inclusion the and anti-aircraft armament,

tors.

Other features

common

pults in the equipment.

General similarity

whose maximum displacement

is

is

inevitable in ships

limited, giving

little

latitude for

and innovations if adequate defensive power, protection, speed, seakeeping qualities are to be ensured. Considerable variation British 35,000 exists as regards the calibre of the main armament. and the guns, 14-in. ten with armed are to be ton battleships

American, Japanese and Russian French, built to mount nine i6-in., while the

40,000 tonners with 16-inch. battleships are all

nine 1 5-inch. Italians have preferred either eight or In range and accuracy there is believed to be little to choose beweight of tween the three calibres, the main difference being the it fires. With that projectile the of the gun and its mounting, and

Germans and

the exception of Italy, whose naval staff regard such vessels as superfluous in view of the country’s geographical position, all these powers are building aircraft carriers, varjang in displacement

from 10,050 to 23,000 tons. A typical e.xample of these aircraft Ark Royal, carriers, which was completed in 1938, is the British of 22,000 tons, with a speed of 31 knots. She is armed with 16 dual-purpose guns of 4-s-in. calibre, and can operate 60 aircraft.

ii

battleships;

destroyers; 58 submarines; 51 escort vessels; 44 minesweepers; 8

At the outbreak

authorized (in

many

of

war there were under construction or

instances as replacements)

:

9 battleships; 23

cruisers; 4 minelayers; 6 aircraft carriers; 18 destroyers; 14 submarines; 26 escort vessels; 20 minesweepers; 3 patrol vessels; 2

river gunboats; and 22 motor torpedo boats. A supplementary program, passed shortly before war began, authorized the con-

struction or purchase of a large

trawlers

and patrol

many more new

number

of small craft, mainly

vessels of the whale-catcher type.

Undoubtedly

ships have been begun since the outbreak of war,

but particulars of these have not been published. One of the first steps taken by the British Government on the outbreak of war was to give notice of suspension of all its obligations under the London Naval Treaty of 1936, and under the Naval Agreements with Russia and Poland, thus giving all the parties to these Treaties freedom from the restrictions as to displacement and gun calibre placed on the various categories of warships by the Conventions in question. The total personnel provided for in the 1939 Navy Estimates was 133,000, just 20,000 less than at the outbreak of the World

War

in 1914.

Naval forces of the Dominions, including Royal Indian, Roval Australian, and Royal Canadian Navies and the New Zealand

•

NAVIES OF THE WORLD

484 Division, are included in the above

figures, so far as material is

concerned, but not their personnel, which amounts to over 10,000 reserves. There are also reserves of personnel in other British overseas territories, such as Newfoundland, Kenya, South Africa, Hongkong, and the Straits Settlements.

—

Large increases in the numbers of all United States Naval Strength classes of warships had been approved up to 1939, when proposals for additional constructirn were being brought forward. The total strength at the end of that year included 15 battleships; 18 heavy cruisers with 8-in. guns; 19 light cruisers with 6-in. guns; 5 aircraft carriers; 221 destroyers; aircraft 94 submarines; 10 escort vessels and gunboats; 23 patrol vessels; 5 .

tenders; 8 light minelayers; and 4t minesweepers. Under construction or about to be ordered were 8 battleships; 6 cruisers; 2 aircraft carriers; 29 destroyers; 19 submarines; 6 aircraft tenders; i minelayer; 2 minesweepers; 3 motor patrol vessels; and 6 motor torpedo boats. The total personnel amounts to 138,903, e.\clusive of reservists. Though official information concerning the Imperial Japanese Japan Navy is nearly non-e.xistent, it is known that at the end of 1939 the total strength was; 9 battleships, which may have been increased to 10 (if one which was to have been demilitarized has been re-armed as proposed); 6 aircraft carriers; 12 cruisers with 8-in. guns; 27 cruisers with 6-in. or S.S-in. guns; s old cruisers rated as coast defence ships; 122 destroyers; 12 torpedo boats; 63 submarines; 15 submarine chasers; 5 aircraft tenders; 14 minelayers; 18 minesweepers and ti gunboats. So far as unofficial reports are to be relied upon, the following ships are believed to be building: 4 battleships and possibly two battle cruisers; 6 cruisers; i or 2 aircraft carriers; at least 4 destroyers; 12 submarines; and numerous smaller craft. The total personnel when last reported was 107,000, but this may have been increased. France The French Navy possesses (Jan. i, 1940) 7 battleships; 7 cruisers with 8-in. guns; 11 cruisers with 6-in. or 6.1-in. guns; i aircraft carrier; 58 destroyers, of which 32 are of between 2,126 and 2,884 tons displacement; r3 torpedo boats, one of these being of the motor type; 77 submarines; 2 minelayers; i netlayer; i aircraft tender; 8 escort vessels; 27 patrol vessels; 13 minesweepers; 17 submarine chasers; and 9 river gunboats. There are also two old battleships which have been relegated to training duties. Under construction or about to be laid down are: 4 battle.

—

.

—

ships; 2 aircraft carriers: 3 cruisers; 30 destroyers; 30 motor torpedo boats; 25 submarines; 4 aircraft tenders; 2 escort vessels; 15 minesweepers; and 14 submarine chasers. The total personnel is about 83,000. Italy. Italy is the first power to complete any 3s,ooo-ton battleships of modern design. Her strength at the end of 1939 comprised 6 battleships, of which 2 were under reconstruction; 7 cruisers mounting 8-in. guns; 14 cruisers with 3.9-in. or 6-in. guns; i obsolete cruiser, of value only for coast defence; 61 destroyers; 73 torpedo boats; 72 motor torpedo boats; 103 submarines; i escort vessel; i aircraft tender; 13 minelayers; 42 minesweepers; and 13 gunboats. There were under construction: 2 battleships; 14 cruisers; 14 or more submarines; and an uncertain number of motor torpedo boats. The personnel numbers about 73,000. Germany. German naval strength when the war began included 2 battleships; 3 armoured ships of 10,000 tons, popularly known as "pocket battleships”; 2 cruisers with 8-in. guns; 6 cruisers with 6-in. guns; 22 destroyers; 12 torpedo boats; 20 motor torpedo boats; 71 submarines; 10 patrol vessels; and 37 minesweepers. Under construction at the same date were four battleships; 2 aircraft carriers; 3 cruisers armed with 8-in. guns; 4 cruisers armed with 6-in. guns; 8 destroyers; 30 torpedo boats; 12 motor torpedo boats; 28 submarines; and 18 minesweepers. Two obsolete battleships, officially rated as training ships, were employed in the attack on Poland. A great many more submarines are believed to have been begun since. The total personnel is uncertain, but unquestionablj' exceeds 30,000. U.S.S.I?.—Official information concerning the Soviet Fleet is as scarce as in the case of the Imperial Japanese Navy, but the following particulars are believed to be reliable. Completed ships include 3 old battleships; s cruisers (excluding obsolete vessels used for training); 33 destroyers; 21 torpedo boats; 130 motor torpedo boats; 130 submarines; and a large number of minelayers and minesweepers. Under construction or about to be begun are: 2 battleships; 2 cruisers; 3 aircraft carriers; 6 destroyers; and about 20 submarines. There are no recent statistics of personnel, but the total is probably between 30,000 and 40,000. Of the smaller naval powers, the one that Other European Countries has taken the most active steps to increase its naval strength is the Netherlands, which has in hand the biggest program of construction in Dutch history. The existing fleet includes 4 cruisers; 8 destroyers; 10 torpedo boats, of which 2 are of the motor type; 23 submarines; i gunnery training ship; 3 escort vessels; and i old coast defence ship; 11 minelayers; and 13 minesweepers. It is proposed to build 3 battle cruisers; which will be by far the biggest warships ever designed for the Royal Netherlands Navy. There are building or on order 3 cruisers; 4 destroyers; 30 motor torpedo boats; 7 submarines; and 7 escort vessels. Particular concern is felt in the Netherlands for the safety of the vast Dutch possessions in the East Indies, for the protection of which the existing fleet is thought to be

—

—

.

—

insufficient.

.

.

In the Scandinavian countries there is great uneasiness in regard to the international situation. It is plain that the tendency of Germany and Russia to expand at the expense of their immediate neighbours is causing concern to those on the opposite side of the Baltic. Sweden (Jan. i, 1940) possesses 2 cruisers; 8 coast defence ships; 8 destroyers; 13 torpedo boats, submarines: and 6 minesweepers. 2 of which are of the motor type: 16 There are under construction or to be laid down shortly: 2 coast defence ships: 2 destroyers: 4 motor torpedo boats; 5 submarines; and ro minesweepers. , The Royal Norwegian Navy comprises 4 coast defence ships; 20 torpedo boats; 9 submarines; 4 minelayers; and rr minesweepers. Under construction are 2 destroyers: 3 torpedo boats; 8 motor torpedo boats; and 2 submarines.

Denmark, whose

fleet

(Jan.

i,

1940) comprises

2

coast defence ships; 17

torpedo boats; lo submarines; and 3 minesweepers, is building 2 torpedo boats; 2 submarines and a minelayer, part of the most extensive program that has been put in hand for a long time past. The Finnish Navy, at the time of the Russian invasion, included 2 coast defence ships; 5 submarines; 7 motor torpedo boats; 4 gunboats and a number of small minelayers and minesweepers. Poland, although her navy sustained severe losses when attacked by Germany, still possesses 3 destroyers, which are now serving with the British Fleet, and s submarines. Two more submarines were ordered in France some months ago. Estonia proposes to build a number of motor torpedo boats, one of which was ordered in England early in 1939. Otherwise her Navy consists of 2 submarines; 1 torpedo boat; 4 minelayers and a number of smaller craft.

Latvia possesses two submarines, 2 minesweepers and i gunboat; and Lithuania has a single patrol vessel, which since the German occupation of Memel has had to seek refuge in a Latvian port. Spain is still engaged in reorganizing her naval forces after the Civil War. There are in service (Jan. 1, 1940) 6 cruisers; 19 destroyers; about 2$ torpedo boats; 13 submarines; 4 minelayers; 6 escort vessels; and many smaller craft. The old battleship “Jaime Primero” is still in existence, but is of little fighting value except for coast defence purposes. New ships ordered before the Civil War include two destroyers, 3 submarines and 2 minelayers. Construction of these has doubtless been resumed. The Portuguese Fleet, as modernized under the present regime, comprises 6 destroyers; 8 escort vessels; i torpedo boat; 3 submarines; and 4 gunboats. It had been proposed to order 3 destroyers; 3 submarines; and 6 motor torpedo boats during 1939, but the outbreak of war between the Allies and Germany has held up this program. Greece possesses 1 old cruiser; 10 destroyers; 13 torpedo boats; 6 submarines; I large and 8 small minelayers; and 2 motor torpedo boats. Two destroyers and two motor torpedo boats are under construction, and two submarines are projected. The Turkish Fleet comprises one old battleship; 4 destroyers; 9 submarines; 2 old cruisers used for training; 3 motor torpedo boats; 3 minelayers; and various smaller craft. Four destroyers; 4 submarines; and 2 minelayers are under construction in British shipyards. Rumania has 4 destroyers; i submarine; 3 old torpedo boats and some minor war vessels. Two submarines and 2 minelayers are building in Rumania, and it is proposed to acquire 3 motor torpedo boats. The Yugoslav Navy possesses 4 destroyers; 4 submarines; 8 torpedo boats; 10 motor torpedo boats; i aircraft tender; 6 minelayers; and an obsolete cruiser, used for training. A destroyer, a patrol vessel and 2 submarines are under construction, but as the last mentioned are building in Germany it is probable that they will be appropriated by that country. Hungary has 4 armed patrol vessels on the Danube, but, following the annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia, the river flotillas of these countries have been absorbed into the German Navy. South America. Recently several South American states have taken steps to renovate their naval forces. The Argentine Navy includes 2 old battleships; 3 cruisers; 4 coast defence ships; 16 destroyers; 3 submarines; and 15 patrol vessels. To these will need to be added 2 escort vessels under construction in an Argentine

—

dockj'ard. Brazil possesses (Jan. 1, 1940) 2 battleships; 2 cruisers; i destroyer; 6 torpedo boats; 4 submarines; and 4 minelayers. Three destroyers and 2 minelayers are to be built in Brazilian yards. Chile, which in naval efficiency is second to no other country in South America,^ has been restrained by financial considerations from increasing her fleet, which at present comprises 1 battleship; 3 cruisers; 8 destroyers; and 9 submarines. A program of new construction to include 2 cruisers, 2 submarines and an escort vessel has not yet materialized, with the exception of the last ship, which is being built in Chile. Peru has undoubtedly been hindered by the instability of her recent Governments from making much progress in the modernization of her Navy. It includes 2 cruisers; 2 destroyers; 4 submarines; and i torpedo boat. Similar considerations apply to Ecuador, whose sea force (Jan. i, 1940) is restricted to a single gunboat. Colombia has in service 2 destroyers; 2 minesweepers; and some vessels of less importance. Venezuela can muster 5 gunboats, while Uruguay has 3 vessels and 2 old gunboats used for training. Paraguay’s force comprises 3 river gunboats. Mexico has 4 modern escort vessels; 2 older vessels of a similar category; 10 small gunboats; and 3 patrol vessels. Cuba has 2 escort vessels, recently reconstructed; 5 gunboats; and 7 patrol vessels. Haiti has 2 small patrol vessels of no fighting value. The Dominican Republic, in addition to an armed transport, has 3 patrol vessels, purchased from the United States Coast Guard. Nicaragua has a patrol vessel acquired from the same source. None of the other Central American republics appears to possess any vessels of importance. Asia. In the Far East, the Chinese Navy, for practical purposes, has ceased to exist, though it is possible that a few small craft survive in the upper re^hes of the Yangtze. Three or four of the larger vessels of the Lnmese Fleet have been repaired and added to the Japanese Navy. On the other hand the Navy of Thailand, to give Siam its new name, has been completely reorganized as regards its materials and personnel. iMost of its new ships have been built in Japan or Italy. There are in service 4 coast defence ships; i destroyer; 21 torpedo boats, 9 of which are of the motor type; 4 submarines; 2 escort vessels; 2 minelayers; and sundry smaller craft. Two cruisers are under construction in Italy. Iran has ^so developed a small Navy under Italian tutelage. This inclu^s 7 gunboats; 3 motor patrol boats; and i or 2 smaller vessels. Manchoukuo, as a satellite of Japan, has acquired i destroyer; 15 gunboats; and 16 patrol vessels. l^Iany of these are understood to be river craft. Iraq has 4 patrol vessels, a yacht and a tug. first class war in progress at sea, developments in naval affairs are likely to be rapid. Those countries with extensive programs of new hand will naturally do their utmost to accelerate them, though difficulty in obtaining materials may cause delay in some cases.

modern patrol

m

..

a

.

NAZIS — NEGROES (AMERICAN) Navies of fhe World

tive

BattleC^ast ships & Defence Cruisers Aircraft Destroyers Battle Caniers Ships Cruisers

Ounlry

Torpedo Boats

U

3

15 g or 10 7

5 2

S8 37 39 18

6

I

21

S 3

2

8

22

5

33

Empire .

Japan

.

.

France

.

.

Italy

.

.

4

I

..

TO

13

..

19

2

8

Rumania

2

.

Peru Colombia Mexico. Thailand .

.

(Siam)

58 94 63 77 lOS 71

23 9 10

3

6

.

..

.

2

.

1

4

4 16

3

.

2

I

3

8

2

2

X

3

3 18

4

*8

X

t

4 9 4

2t

4

6 4

*The German

to $30,220,830.

Charities

—^The dependent,

and Corrections.

I

2

I

..

1 7

institutions

delinquent and under the super-

Board of Control. In addition to the penitenand reformatories for men and women, there are industrial schools for boys and girls, hospitals for the blind, the deaf and tiary

home

for

and sailors, an orthopaedic hospital and a home for dependent children. The total institutional population in 1939 was 9,103 and the legislative appropriation, $5,574,989. In addisoldiers

2

Manchoukuo

amounted

the feeble-minded, three hospitals for the insane, one

3 6

.

.

school expenditures were $20,525,000 and school indebtedness

vision of the State

2 2

2

which there are now more than 7,000 in the State. Financial supis derived almost wholly from the local tax on property. The total enrolment in 1937 was 300,041 and the number of teachers employed was 17,440. School property was valued at $84,424,329,

defective classes are cared for in

5 X

.

X

6

3

total

port

13 16

-

The

enrolment in 1939 was 4,877 and the faculties numbered 186. Control is vested in a board of seven members. Elementary and secondaiy education is in the hands of local school districts of

5

. .

SI S

150 9 6

2

Yugoslavia Argentina .

IS 10 2Q 17

4

.

.

.

Brazil Chile.

8 8

2

4

. .

ss 61

6

r

.

Estonia Latvia Portugal

12 13

.

.

Poland

2S

.

.

Finland

6

145 12 ISI 3

CJcrmany* Russia . Turkey. Greece . Spain . Sweden. Nethl’nds

Norway Denmark

181 221 122

S 5

offer collegiate

training for four years leading to a bachelor’s degree. Sub^cort marines Vessels

British

U. b. A.

485

board of regents. The four teachers’ colleges

tion there is an appropriation to the State assistance fund for

the biennium 1939-41 of more than $14,900,000. This fund is administered by a State assistance director in co-operation with

figures are as of Sept. 3, 1:939.

the county boards.

For convenience of

reference,

table

the

above shows

the

strength in the principal categories of warships of the navies of

(See also Air Forces; Armies or

the world at the end of 1939.

THE World; Blockade; European War; Munitions of War; Strategic Mineral Supplies; Submarine Warfare; Tactics in THE European War; United States: History.) (F. E. McM.) Nazis: see Anti-Semitism; Argentina; Bohemia and MorEast Africa; Education; Fascism; Germany;

avia; British

Minorities. States formed from the Louisiana Pur-

NohrocItQ iIwUruSKu}

Banking and Finance.

—State banks under the supervision of numbered 290 on June 1939—

the State banking department

30,

decrease from 415 in 1933. These banks have resources of $78,355,307. There were also 54 building and loan associations with resources of $58,946,419 and 161 co-operative credit associations

with assets of $2,452,498. National banks at the same date numbered 136 with resources of $213,411,000.

The

total assessed valuation of the State for tax

purposes

The

tax rate for State purposes for 1939 at 2.6r mills, which is calculated to produce $3,344,026. $2,033,302,482.

is

is set

The

biennial budget for 1939-41 carried appropriations of $51,436,114. of which about $12,500,000 are Federal funds. The chief sources

population, 1930, i,377r 1937, 1,364,000; capital, Lincoln, 75,933The largest city is Omaha, 214,006. In 1930, 54-9% of the population was urban; 1,355,702 were white, 13,752 coloured, 1,262,-

of State revenue, aside from the direct tax on property, are the tax on gasoline, motor vehicle licences, taxes on liquors and

617 native-born and 115,346 foreign-born.

by the

chase; area, 76,8o8sq.mi.

963, estimated July

;

i,

—^The executive power

History and Government.

is

vested in

the governor and eight other administrative officers. The governor prepares the biennial budget, has a considerable appointing

power, and a veto power which extends to items in appropriation bills. The principal State officers for 1939—41 were governor, R. L. Cochran; lieutenant-governor, W. E. Johnson; auditor,

Ray Johnson; secretary of State, Harry R. Swanson; treasurer, John Havekost; attorney-general. Walter R. Johnson; superintendent of public instruction, Charles W. Taylor. The legislative power is vested in a single chamber of 43 members, known as the Senate. Senators are elected for single-member districts

on a non-partisan ballot for a term of

tw'o years.

The

the presiding officer, though a speaker acts in his absence. Regular sessions are biennial in the odd-numbered years, though special sessions may be called either by the governor

lieutenant-governor

or

by two-thirds

is

of the membership.

—^Higher education

miscellaneous fees and licences. There

or corporate incomes or on counties.

The

subdivisions in 1938

sales.

The

is

no State tax on personal

inheritance tax

is collected State has no debt, though that of the local

amounted to $71,000,000. This does not inPower and Irrigation Districts amounting

clude debts of the Public to $60,000,000.

Agriculture

and

Manufactures.

purely agricultural State and

—^Nebraska

an

is

almost

from the soil. Its most valuable products are cereals and livestock. The normal production of com is nearly 23o,ooo,ooobu. and of hogs more than 5.000,000 annually.

its

chief products are

Other important crops are wheat,

oats, hay,

potatoes and sugar beets.

The

chief industries of the State are connected

essing of farm products.

mth

the proc-

The meat packing industry of Omaha

involves 12 establishments, turning out products valued at $109,419,614. Next in order of their importance come the processing of milk, flour, feed and mill products; car and car repairing, and such minor industries as confectioner)’, leather and harness, lumber and miUwork and concrete products. In 1937, 24480 persons

is supported by the State at the University of Nebraska and in four teachers’ colleges. The Stale university consists of ten colleges and three schools of collegiate

were gainfully employed in 1.071 manufacturing establishments and the value of manufactured products was $282,502,287.

enrolment for 1938-39 e.xceeded 12,000. of whom more than 9.000 were resident students of collegiate rank. Prop-

Necrology:

Educafion.

grade.

The

total

erty and equipment are valued at $1 1.700.000 and the biennial appropriation for 1939-41 was $7,530,270 (including Federal grants).

The management

of the university

is

vested in an elec-

(L.

W.

L.)

see Obituaries.

Negroes (American). crimination

has

continued significantly.

After the

1938

U.S.

NEOPRENE—NERVOUS SYSTEM Supreme Court decision, ordering the State of Missouri to admit Lloyd L. Gaines to the University of Missouri Law school or provide equal facilities within the State, a separate law school for Negroes, authorized by the Taylor Bill, has been organized at St. Louis as an extension of the State-supported Lincoln university.

This has been widely protested, the school premises picketed, and suit is impending to show the facilities offered unequal and therefore, discriminatory. Other Southern States, much concerned

by

the implications of the Gaines decision,

have been increasing

appropriations and educational facilities for Negroes. land, the State has taken over tion, as a State college.

A

and professional

some

studies,

Morgan

In Mary-

college, a private institu-

few States are now offering graduate in co-operation with the faculties

Washington Easter Sunday

at the Lincoln Memorial, 72,000 per-

sons participating in a record-breaking event under prominent patronage and with an introduction by Secretary of the Interior Ickes July

2,

ciation for the

at the annual convention of the National AssoAdvancement of Colored People, Miss Anderson

was presented her Spingarn medal awarded by Mrs. Roosevelt, who had previously placed her on the 'White House recital program honouring the visit of King George and Queen Elizabeth, the British sovereigns. Notable recognition came during 1939 to another singer, Dorothy Maynor, soprano, presented by Serge Koussevitsky in Boston and New York with the Boston Symphony orchestra. In the 2sth anniversary concerts of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers at Carnegie

of the white State universities, others by extension of the pro-

Hall, an historical review of

grams and staffs of the Negro State schools. Pressure for full facilities and removal of legal disability still continues in legal and popular protest.

with special tribute to

Fourteenth amendment pleas before the liberalized courts seem increasingly successful.

The

Virginia suit for the equalization

of teachers’ salaries, brought in Norfolk, Va.

was

lost

and has

been appealed, but the Annapolis county (Md.) Mill’s Injunction case

won a

favourable decision and the Maryland authorities were

ordered to equalize the pay of white and Negro teachers, and' acquiesced.

Negro music featured one evening, Handy, composer of the “St. Louis well as popular music was presented. It

W.

C.

Blues.” Symphonic as was established by Kelly Miller that the author of “Carry Me Back to Ole Virginny” was James Bland, a Negro musician of the

Geo. W. Carver received one of the three Roosevelt medal awards, for his achievements in scientific horticulture and

late ’70s.

industrial chemistry.

In drama, notable theatre productions of 1939 were Mamba’s Daughters, by DuBose Heyward, starring Ethel Waters, John Henry, by Roark Bradford starring Paul Robeson, and the Chicago

Similarly, there has been increased participation of Negroes in both labour organization and in campaigns for labour rights.

Federal theatre production of a jazz version Swing Mikado.

and C.I.O. organizations, increased recognition and actmty of Negro workers took place, especially in the C.I.O. unions, where mixed unions are the rule even in Southern jurisdictions. The Brotherhood of Red Cap Porters won a longstanding salary decision before the Labor Relations Board on mandatory wages instead of gratuities from the travelling public. Labour activity has been intensified by the pressure of the depression, from which Negroes have suffered disproportionate employment losses. Growth of labour consciousness accounts also in part. Acute suffering and unrest among urban Negro workers has only been obviated by the Federal and State relief and remedial

court judge by

Both

in A.F. of L.

employment programs. In the rural districts, the situation has steadily grown worse, so that farm tenant evictions, riots and protests have featured the year; especially in Arkansas, Missouri and Oklahoma, where sharecropper conditions have become matters of national publicity and concern. A significant feature has been the frequent joint organization and action of the white and the Negro sharecroppers, sometimes independently, sometimes under the auspices of the Southern Farm Tenants Union. In the relief retrenchments of both State and Federal funds, Negroes have experienced heavy economic set-backs, due to local dis-

New York

Jane Bolin was appointed the first woman Guardia, and Judge Myles Paige, previously appointed to the Criminal Division Court was promoted In

city,

Mayor La

to the Special Sessions Bench.

and race

publicist, died

Kelly Miller, famous

December

sociologist

29.

In the field of religion, the unification of the Northern and Southern branches of the Methodist Episcopal churches took place and two Negro bishops were assigned jurisdiction over Negro churches. In the Roman Catholic Church a movement for closer

Negro communicants in churches and church schools without racial discrimination received great impetus from its approval in the first encyclical of Pope Pius XII, who at his first inclusion of

consistory appointed two Negro missionary bishops.

(See also

Illiteracy.)

Bibliography.—W. E. B. DuBois. Black Folk, Then and Now; Race Beand the Race Problevi, ed. by Edgar Thompson; E. Franklin The Negro Family in the U.S.; Horace Cayton and Geo. Mitchell, Black Workers and the New Unions; Ira de A. Reid, The Negro Itnmi“The Position of The Negro in the American Social Order,” 1939 Fear Book of the Journal of Negro Education; Hortense Powdermaker, After Freedom; Wilder Hobson, American Jazz Music; Winthrop Sargent, Jazz: Hot and Hybrid. (A. LeR. L.) lations Frazier,

Neoprene:

see Standards,

National Bureau

of.

crimination and allowance differentials in certain States of the relief allotments.

kingdom lying between India and Tibet, is now completely independent, but has the closest association a

—

Educational and Cultural. The Crisis annual survey of education reported a grand total of 3,467 Negro college and professional graduates, 2,890 of whom were trained in Negro colleges with a total of 23,781 students enrolled. Fourteen doctoral degrees and 32 Rosenwald Fellowship and two Guggenheim Fellowship awards showed steady gains in the upper brackets of research and In the arts especially noteworthy progress took place not only in music and drama, but in the fine arts. The Baltimore Museum of Art held in March a show, very favourably received, of the work of Negro artists. Marian Anderson, world famous contralto, continued her triumphal career with new public recognition in radio and concert, but was denied the use of creative scholarship.

Continental Hall in 'Washington by the D.A.R. Board. This discriminatory decision met nation-wide protest, culminating in resignations from that organization which included that of Mrs.

Eleanor Roosevelt. As a protest, an open

air concert

was held in

»

with India, both in commerce and in its recruits for the fine Gurkha regiments of the Indian army. The prime minister is

by

old tradition de facto ruler of the State.

(Col. G. L.

Betham)

The

British envoy

Khatmandu, the capital city (pop. 80,000). On the outbreak of war in Europe the Government of Nepal offered to send 8,000 Gurkhas for the garrisoning of India. (Me.) Nervous Diseases: see Medicine; Psychiatry. resides at

NorVnilC ^UCtom

liCl VUllo OyalClII. tex of the brain has

Localization of specific functions residing within discrete areas of the grey cor-

become more exact

since neurosurgeons have, during the course of operations for brain lesions, systematically stimulated the exposed surfaces of the human brain. Valuable data have been derived of practical value in localizing diagnoses.

Penfield and Boldrey have demonstrated that in epileptic patients habitual abnormal patterns of discharge have been conditioned

repeated attacks indicating

how important

is

by

early adequate anti-

convulsant therapy. The field of electroencephalography has been extended and has become of practical value. Focal lesions may be

by the presence of large slow

localized

from

specific areas of the skull.

waves recovered

delta

may

Epileptics of various types

be differentiated by a specific type of wave. Children with behaviour problems and sufferers from dementia praecox may show epileptoid

waves indicating a primary disturbance

brain

of

rhythm. Data are emerging which seem to indicate that the personality

and even

may

an individual

intelligence of

be roughly

mirrored in his brain waves. Vitamin Bj deficiency which at

first

seemed only causative of beriberi has now been shown to be the most important factor in producing many types of neuritis. The term has been modified to that of neuropathy because only in a circumscribed group of cases is there actual inflammation. Most of the so-caUed cases of neuritis are degenerations of the peripheral

These include the neuritis plumbism, diabetes, pregnancy cachexias, etc.

nerves due to vitamin Bi deficiency. in

alcoholisms,

Excellent therapeutic results are achieved synthetic vitamin

compounds such

by the administration of

as thiamin.

The psychoses

alcoholics, as delirium tremens, are rapidly alleviated

of

by vitamin

ingestion.

The shock phrenia, has

treatment, which was

now been extended

first

introduced for schizo-

to the field of the depressions

with amazing results. Melancholia even of long duration

may be

by two or three induced convulsions pr shocks brought on by metrazol. Even elderly individuals are successfully treated. The effect seems to be largely psychological but imrapidly alleviated

provement of cerebral circulation and release of pent-up tensions are probably other factors in the recovery process.

(See also

THE DUTCH BARRICADED

On June

Edwin Boldrey, “Cortical Spread

&

.

Neuropsychiatric Diagnosis and Treatment,” J. Michigan 1939).

Nathorlonilp nCUIClIdllUOf

^ 3>440

M.

Soc.

(May

(R- R- G.)

sq-mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938)

Chief towns (pop. Dec. 31, 1938)

8,728,560.

Amsterdam (793,326); Rotterdam (612,372); The Hague (495,518.) Ruler: Queen Wilhelmina; president of the Council of Ministers: Jonkheer Dr. D. J. de Geer; language; Dutch; religion: Christian (1930 census: Dutch Reformed Church: 2,732,-

Catholics, but a few days later it was voted down by the Second Chamber and resigned. In August Jonkheer de Geer formed a new cabinet which included social democrats for the first time. The suspension of payments by Mendelssohn’s Bank caused a

and inter

On August

alia

24, the statesmen of the

to discuss various problems of

Germany confirmed in the

caused considerable losses to a

Oslo bloc met in Brussels interest. In this month

common

that Holland’s neutrality

event of a European war.

would be respected

On September

r Great Britain did likewise with the proviso that no other power violated its

guarantee.

Princess Irene

Emma

Elizabeth, second daughter of

Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard, was

bom

on August

H.R.H. 5.

General mobilization took place on August 28 and Lieut. Gen. Reynders was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Netherlands

333; Roman Catholics: 2,890,022). Hisfory. Naturally the European conflagration overshadowed all other events in 1939, especially in view of Holland’s geograph-

—

ical situation.

Quite apart from

questions of right and

all

wrong

should be borne in mind that although Great Britain is Holland’s best customer, Holland’s economic relations with Germany are of great importance to her, a

as between

the belligerents,

it

which renders her position as a neutral all the more difficult. commercial treaty between Holland and Germany was signed on March 25, the main purpose of which was to effect exchanges of goods equitable to both sides. In April Holland intensified her military precautions and introduced a Government Scheme for insurance against maritime war risks. The subsequent sinking of several of her ships notably the “Simon Bolivar” and

fact

A new

—

—amply minister of finance— “Sliedrecht”

justified

^Mr. de

this

measure.

On May

19,

the

—

Wilde

resigned on acfount of dif-

ferences of opinion relative to the 1940 budget.

The

state visit

paid by Queen Wilhelmina to King Leopold on May 23 was an event of great political importance as it reaffirmed the friendship

of

On July 23 the prime minister. Dr. Colijn, succeeded in forming a new cabinet which excluded the Roman

great Netherlands’ bank. Penfield and

manner

29, the cabinet resigned, after difficulties relative to

financial sensation

—Wilder

all

financial policy.

MlflS.)

Bibliography.

1939 with

between Holland and Belgium. Holland continued her great work of peace, namely, the reclamation of the Zuyder Zee. Steady progress has been made during 1939. The north-eastern Polder is now under construction and a new great dyke connects the island of Urk with the mainland.

Endocrinology; Physiology; Psychiatry; Medicine; Vita-

of Epileptic Discharge and the Conditioning Effect of Habitual Seizures,” Am. J. Psychiat. (Sept. 1939); Israel Wechsler, “Multiple Peripheral Neuropathy ,” /./f .M./1 (June 1938); W. G. Walter, “Electroencephalography,” }. Neurol. Psychiat. (Oct. 1938); A. E. Bennet, “Metrazol in Depression,” Am. J. M. Sc. (Sept. 1938); Roy R. Grinker. “Newer Methods of

Ihetr fronller roads in

obstacles to mechanized forces

NETHERLANDS:

Indutlrlal production 'Index

(The Annalist)

487

NETHERLANDS COLONIAL EM PIRE — NEUTRALITY

488

Army and Navy. Various emergency laws became operative and measures were taken to safeguard Holland’s economic position. On August 2g on the initiative of Queen Wilhelmina she and King Leopold offered their good services to France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Poland, in an attempt to find a way out of

—

—

the political deadlock.

September

Holland proclaimed her neutrality on

Neumann,

(1873-1939), Austro-Hungarian otolwas born at Hethars, Hungary

Heinricli

ogist,

on June 16 and studied medicine at the University of

4 the Netherlands Government published an Book relative to various negotiations with the belligerents. On November 9 Queen Wilhelmina and King Leopold again offered (C. M. Me.) to mediate between the belligerents.

On November

Orattge

—

Education. In 1938; elementary schools 7,812; scholars i,secondary schools 288; scholars 62,301; high schools

242,778;

from the

latter institution,

and

in

1912 he became chief

Men’s hospital

middle and inner ears; his later patients were

then to Switzerland and, in the spring of 1939, to

where he died November

—^Revenue,

ordinary

1939) 602,153,493 1939) 744,732,786 florins; public debt (Dec. 31, 1938) 3,986,628,806 florins; notes in circulation (July 31, 1Q39) 1,036,976,000 florins; gold and silver expenditure, ordinary

of the

in Vienna. In

to include King

Edward VIII of England and King Alphonso XIII of Spain. He was arrested in Vienna four days after German troops invaded Austria in March 1938 but was later freed by the Nazis. He went

(1937-38) 4: scholars 3,037; universities (1937-38) six: scholars

florins;

began

1918 he was appointed to the faculty of the University of Vienna. Dr. Neumann became famous for his successful operations on the

9.471-

Banking and Finance.

He

to specialize in diseases of. the ear shortly after his graduation

surgical department of the Business

3.

Bucharest,

later completing his course at the University of Vienna.

New York

city,

6.

(est.

(est.

reserve (July 31, 1939) 1,153,448,000 florins; exchange rate (aver-

which had almost been

status of neutrality,

Moiiti’Qlitu

nCUll dlllji

abandoned as a

legal conception during the years

immediately succeeding the establishment of the League of Nations, began to revive in 1931 when the League proved unequal to

age 1938) 8-89 florins=;£i sterling; (July 31, 1939) 8-82 florins

the task of restraining Japan, and thereafter gradually reacquired

=£1

its traditional

sterling.

Trade and Communication.

—Overseas

trade (merchandise)

1938: imports 1,414,768,000 florins; (Jan.-Aug. 1939), 983,450.florins; exports 1,039,156,000 florins; exports (Jan.-Aug.

000

1939), 703,710,000

florins.

Communications and transport 1938;

place in international law

when

Italy successfully

1935 and Japan again defied it in 1937. Small States, members of the League, which had hitherto expected to defied the

League

in

play their part in enforcing the sanctions of the League, began consider

how they might maintain

a. position of neutrality

to

now

roads, suitable for

that the authority of the League appeared unequal to the task of

2,oi6mi.; rivers

preventing war.

motor traffic i6,ooomi.; railways, open to traffic and canals, navigable 4,8i7mi.; ainvays, distance

shipping (June 30) 2,855,400 gross tons; launched (July 1938-June 1939) 246,400 gross tons; entered with cargoes 27,606,524 net tons; cleared with cargoes; 23,151,428 net tons. Motor vehicles licensed (Aug. 1, 1938): cars 94,000; buses flown 6,629,ooomi.;

4,088; trucks 50,988; cycles 55,140; wireless (June 30, i939): registered receiving sets 839,342; connections with radio-distrib-

uting-systems

368,710;

telephone subscribers

(Dec. 31, 1938)

302,808.

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production.

—In

1938,

(1939) SS4,ooo; oats 446,349; (1939) 332,000; wheat 433,762; (1939) 362,000; coal 13,487,524; P'g iron and ferro-alloys 299,000; potatoes 2,842,800; barley 140,465; (1939) 130,000; beet-sugar 191,321; butter 103,000; cheese 124,-

in metric tons, rye 551,060;

900; flax (fibre) 17,100; superphosphates of lime 569,855; lignite 170,637; wood pulp 105,000; paper and paper boards (1937) 535,000. Industry and labour: index of industrial production

(1929=

too) (average 1938) g6-i; (average May 1939) 106-3; workers employed in industry (average 1938) 827,000; (May 31, 1939) 930,000; wholly unemployed, registered (average 1938) 303,422;

(W. H. Wn.)

(June 30, 1939) 196,166.

The United neutrality,

States,

now

which had never renounced the status of itself against being drawn into

sought to protect

another world war by adopting legislation in 1935 and 1937 designed to restrain its individual citizens from performing acts which, although permissible under the general law of neutrality,

might have the effect of giving rise to incidents tending to arohse sympathy for or hostility to one or other of the belligerents and thus create the danger of drawing the country into the war. In April 1939, with the possibility of war in Europe imminent, new legislation was proposed in Congress and public hearings were held upon a wide variety of bills. Chief among these was the Thomas Resolution, which sought to distinguish between belligerents on the basis of their violation or observance of treaties not to resort to rvar, forbidding shipments of materials of war to the former and permitting them to the latter. Other bills ranged all the way from complete prohibition of all shipments of rvar materials to the free sale of them under the traditional rules of international law. Congress adjourned in August without taking action. In the meantime, however, the “cash and carry” provisions of the act of 1937 were allowed to expire by time limit on May .1, 1939, without renewal. Upon the outbreak of

Netlierlaiiils Colonial Empire. population (est. Dec. 31, 1938), 76,401.000. The table mother country and its various possessions:

two lists

the

war on September

obligations of the United States as a neutral in accordance with

the rules of international law and the provisions of domestic statutes

Country and Area,

Population est. Dec. 31, 1938

sq. miles (approx.)

3 the President issued upon the

distinct proclamations of neutrality, the first based

harmony with

in

law;

ternational Capital

Status

The Hague

kingdom

Ruler: Queen Wilhelmina Premier: Jonkheer Dr. D. J.

Batavia

colony

Governor-General: Jonkheer Dr. A. W. L. Tjarda van Starkenborgh-Stachouwer.

Governors, Premiers,

etc.

(ooo’s

omitted)

the

in-

second

based upon the act of May i, 1937, the revision of which had been under consideration dur-

Netherlands

13,120

8,729

774,600

67,400

de Geer

ASIA Netherlands Indies, including Java and Madura, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo (D.),

Timor

New

(est.

Dec.

31, 1937)

Guinea (D.),

(D.), etc

AMERICA 386

Surinam (Dutch Guiana)

57,700

lOI 171

Willemstad Paramaribo

colony colony

Governor: G. J. J. Wouters. Governor: Dr. J. C. Kielstra.

ing the last session of Congress.

Congress was cial session,

21

the

summoned

in spe-

and on September

President delivered

a

message recommending on the one hand the enactment of legislation

prohibiting

the

ship-

NEUTRALITY ment of goods

to the belligerents in

American

ing the foreign buyer to take transfer of

vessels

title in

and requir-

the United States,

489

controlling interest in the

Panama company. The

hesitation, finally ordered the

President, after

Maritime Commission

to forbid

and on the other hand the repeal of the existing embargo on the shipment of arms, ammunition, and implements of war, and a

the transfer.

return to the traditional rules of international law.

neutrality legislation of the United States lay in the effect which

The "Neutrality Act of 1939." A joint resolution was introduced in the Senate striking out all but the enacting clause of

Just as the restrictions placed upon American shipping and upon

—

the Bloom bill, which had been passed by the House during .the summer, and containing provisions substantially in accord with the President’s recommendations. The resolution provided that whenever the President, or the Congress by concurrent resolution, should find that there exists a state of war between foreign States he should issue a proclamation naming the States and thereafter it should be unlawful for any American vessel to carry passengers or articles or materials to any State named in the proclamation and unlawful for any person to export or transport to any such State articles or materials until all title and interest therein should have been transferred to some foreign Government or national. Together these two sets of provisions had come to be known popularly as the “Cash and Carry” plan. A later amendment permitted the transport of goods, other than arms and ammunition,

the possessions of belligerent countries in areas other

to

“Combat

Effect of U.S. Legislation .

it

was

certain to

—

^The importance of the special

have upon the fortunes of the belligerent

States.

the extension of credits to belligerents operated to the advantage

of Germany, so the lifting of the embargo upon arms operated to the advantage of Great Britain and France.

does not require a neutral to adjust

International law

its legislation

so as to operate

with equal effect in respect to the belligerents. Geographic loca-

and control of the sea are permitted to have their natural The objection was raised by a number of persons, whether the United States was free to change its neutrality legislation during the progress of a war, when its motive was to aid one side against the other; but this was answered by saying that so long as the United States was acting within its acknowledged rights no foreign nation was privileged to claim that the motive of the United States was any other than that stated by Congress in the law, namely the preservation of its neutrality. General Neufralify Problems: Submarines and Mines. ^In tion

results.

—

areas”

respect to the traditional rules of international law, as distinct

were to be proclaimed by the President, and thereafter it should be unlawful for any American vessel to proceed into or through any such combat areas. American citizens were forbidden to on vessels of the States named in the President’s proc-

from special national legislation, controversies soon arose as to the use by the belligerents of certain instrumentalities and methods of warfare by which neutral States were indirectly affected. Complaints against Germany arose when submarines sank neutral mer-

lamation; American vessels engaged in commerce with any foreign State were not to be armed; no person within the United

chant vessels carrying goods alleged to be contraband to the enemy, the justification given by Germany for their destruction

than the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean.

travel

could

States

of the States

purchase or

named

in

sell

the

securities

the proclamation or

extend any credit to such Governments, or Further contribution on their behalf.

any

of Governments

make any solicit

loan or

or receive

provisions

were

designed to prevent the use by belligerents of American ports

and to restrict the use of American ports by submarines and armed as bases of naval supply

The

merchantmen.

resolution

embargo upon the shipment of arms contained in the acts of 1935 and 1937, so that all goods of what-

omitted

the

specific

ever character were ject to the

The

same

made

sub-

provisions.

was debated

resolution

at length in the Senate, finally

passing by a vote of 65 to 30.

Debate

in

House

the

briefer, the vote in

was

favour be-

ing 243 to 181.

Proposed Transfer of MerImmediately chant Ships. upon the passage of the law the question arose whether certain American ships belonging to

—

United States Lines, formerly engaged in trade wdth the belligerents, might be transthe

sharply criticised as

Panama. was being an

attempt

the

ferred to the flag of

The

proposed

chiefly

to

transfer

evade

because

the

law,

United

States Lines, which requested

permission to transfer, had a

being the fact that

it

was impossible for the submarine to bring German port for condemnation by a prize

the neutral vessel into a

U.S. SHIPS AND CITIZENS were forbidden by presidential proclamation on Nov. 4, 1939, to enter waters in a specified “combat area” (zone 1 on the Government map). Ships may travel in zone 2 but must not enter ports of bellioerent countries or their possessions unless they carry no passengers or cargo (shorelines indicated by heavy lines)

NEUTRALITY

490

tem of navicerts, by which neutral

vessels could submit

cargoes to examination before leaving their ^

•

.

home

their

ports and

te-

ceive from the British consul a document, navicert, which would

insure

them

free progress through the controlled

traffic zones.

Protests were entered against these navicerts on the ground

subjecting neutral trade to restrictions not authorized by national law.

of

inter-

—

Submarines and Neutral Ports. The practical difficulty durWorld War of making submarines conform to the laws of war in respect to the safety of the passengers and crew of neutral vessels intercepted by them had led to the adoption of several international conventions condemning their use unless they coning the

formed to the traditional law. These conventions led a number of neutral States, upon the outbreak of war in September, to consider the advisability of excluding submarines from their neutral ports. The United States neutrality legislation of 1935 and 1937 had made provisions for their exclusion; and on October 18, the President by proclamation denied them the use of American ports except in cases of entrance due to force mafeure. Sfafus of Armed Merchantmen. ^Likewise deriving from World War precedents, the question arose whether belligerent merchant vessels might arm for defence against submarine attacks without losing their character as commercial vessels in respect to

—

AFTER ROOSEVELT'S ANNOUNCEMENT

Sept. 6, 1939, that the U.S. Navy would patrol the Atlantio and the Caribbean to keep Informed of belllflerent reconditioning 116 old destroyers for patrol began Immeactivities, the work of

privileges in neutral ports.

diaiely

for denial of admission of such vessels to American ports

The United

deemed by the President

court.

By November

the complaints of neutrals against sub-

marine warfare were supplemented by complaints against the use of automatic contact mines in violation of the rules of international law. Large numbers of neutral merchant vessels were sunk by mines sown near the entrance to the Thames river, and along the eastern coast of Great Britain and in other parts of the North sea. A Dutch vessel, the “Simon Bolivar” of 8,309 tons, an Italian vessel, the “Grazia,” of 3,837 tons

the “Terukuni

Maru”

of 11,930 tons were

ing the second and third weeks of

and a Japanese vessel, others sunk dur-

among

November.

—On October

9 the United States merchant “City of Flint,” was captured by a German warship for alleged carriage of contraband destined to a British port, and was taken by a German prize crew to the Russian port of Murmansk.

"City of

Flint."

vessel,

upon the Russian Government by reason of its presence in a neutral port which, under international law, was not permitted to harbour a belligerent prize of war except under conditions of necessity not pres-

The United

States promptly called

to release the vessel

ent in the case.

The Russian Government,

in spite of protests

Act of 1939

States Neutrality

also

made

provision if

be a necessity for the protection of neutral security or commercial interests but no action was taken to

;

in respect to

them.

—

Declaration of Panama.

^An important

right of neutral States to be free

extension of the

from the operations of war

took

place at the meeting of the ministers of foreign affairs of the

American republics at Panama, September 23-October 3. The “Declaration of Panama,” there adopted, asserts on the part of the American republics a right to have the waters adjacent to the American continent “free from the commission of any hostile act by any non-American belligerent nation." The demarcation of this security zone protection.”

is

put forth “as a measure of continental,

It extends roughly to a

self-

distance of 3oomi. from

shore, so as to insure not only that hostilities

mil not be committed near the shore but that inter-American trade routes will not be endangered.

The Declaration announces that the American republics will endeavour “to secure compliance” by the belligerents with the rights thus asserted, and if necessary will consult together to determine upon the measures which they may individually or col-

from the American ambassador, released the vessel to the German prize crew; but when the vessel put into a Norwegian port the

lectively take to this end.

Government of Norway interned the German crew and released the vessel to its American crew. In the announcement of British Contraband Regulations.

tion to the Declaration of Panama the meeting of the ministers of foreign affairs adopted a General Declaration of Neutrality of the American republics, in which the American republics affirmed

—

contraband schedules Great Britain retained the distinction between absolute and conditional contraband, placing fuel and instru-

The General Declaration of American Neutrality.

—In

addi-

its

their “status of general neutrality"

ments of transportation in the

ards of conduct” which they proposed to follow in order to maintain their neutral status and to fulfill their neutral duties. These standards are set forth in a series of rules to be followed; and it

first

category, but placing food and

clothing in the latter category. The distinction, however, quickly broke down when Great Britain resorted to the practice followed

during the World to tic

Germany so

War

of “rationing” neutral countries adjacent

as to prevent

increased

them from

selling their entire

Germany and making up for imports for their own consumption.

production to

—

domes-

the larger sales

by

In order to exercise a more complete with Germany and at the same time trade neutral over supervision to meet the complaints of neutrals over delays due to detention in port for purposes of inspection, Great Britain instituted a sys-

The Navicert System.

and undertook

to state “stand-

was further provided

that, with a view to formulating further recommendations based upon experience and changing circumstances, there should be established for the duration of the war an

Inter-American Neutrality committee, composed of seven experts in international law. The committee was scheduled to hold its initial meeting at Rio de Janeiro on Jan. 13, 1940. Case of the "Graf Spee." Both the Declaration of Panama and the General Declaration of Neutrality were put to the test

—

when on December 13 the German pocket

battleship, “Admiral

NEVADA Graf Spee,” after attacking a British cruiser, the “Ajax,” which was convoying a French passenger liner, was engaged in battle by two other British cruisers and sought refuge in the harbour of Montevideo. The Uruguayan Government decided to follow the rule of the Hague Convention of 1907 limiting the repairs which the vessel might make to such only as were absolutely necessary to render

it

seaworthy, and ordered the vessel to leave within of the “Graf Spee” then scuttled his vessel

rather than engage the

Furthermore, following the example set by Japan in China, Russia not only began hostilities against Finland on No-

vember 30 without formally declaring war, but continued

to

main-

tain the official position of not being at war, although Finland

had announced that “a state of war” existed. In consequence of this anomaly, it was possible for the United States Govern-

ment

measures of assistance for the Finns, to the

to undertake

by the Government-owned ExportImport Bank, and American citizens sjmpathetic to the Finnish cause have been able to raise funds for military assistance to Finland without coming into conflict with the provisions of the neutrality laws. (See also Chinese-Japanese War: The European War; Coast Guard Academy, U.S.; European War; International Law; League of Nations; Legislation, Federal; Lumber; Propaganda; Roosevelt, F. D.; Shipping, Merchant extent of a loan of $10,000,000

72 hours or be interned.

The commander

491

domain.

enemy

forces awaiting him.

In view of

the fact that the battle was in part fought within the aoomi.

mouth of the River Plate and was continued to a point within less than three miles from the shore the Uruguayan Government protested against the violation of its territorial sea. On December 23 the American republics as a body protested to Great Britain, France, and Germany against violation of the “safety belt” defined by the Declaration of Panama. On December 31 it was announced by the Uruguayan Government that the German freighter “Tacoma” must leave port within 24 hours or be interned on the ground that her assistance to the “Graf Spee” on the day the

Marine; Submarine Warfare; United States: History.) (C. G. Fk.)

j_

admitted into the Union on Oct. 31, 1864, has two popular names, the “Sagebrush” and the “Silver State”;

iluVdUdi

was blown up proved her to be an auxiliary vessel of German 'Navy. The following day the vessel was interned. Changing Concep-ts of Neutrality. ^While the relations be-

area 110,690 sq.mi.; population according to the U.S. census of

tween neutral States and belligerent States have during the openmonths of the war been governed by appeal to the traditional rules of international law, it is significant that the policies of a

37-8% is urban; 89-4% white; 6-6% In3-4% Mexican or Oriental; and -06% coloured. About 83-4% of the population is native and i6-6% is foreign born. ^The outstanding event during 1939 was Nevada’s Hls'lory. Diamond Jubilee Celebration held at Carson City on October 29, 30 and 31, marking the 75th year of Statehood. Legislation

battleship

the

—

ing

number of neutral States have shown many deviations from the more rigid status of neutrality hitherto defined by international law. Italy, for example, although

give ofiicial expression to

neutral has not hesitated to

dian;

—

not

passed in recent State legislatures included a workmen’s compensation law, child labour laws, a women’s minimum wage law and a Jaw to permit open gambling under State licence. Nevada has made no material changes in its tax laws, except the gasoline tax,

war between Germany and Poland,

in the conquest of

the State’s population

Russia, although neutral in re-

sympathy with Germany which

in accord with traditional law.

spect to the

still

1930, 91,058, estimated Jan. i, 1940, 110,000. Capital, Carson 1,596. The largest city is Reno, population 18,529. Of

City,

assisted

is

Germany

Poland and annexed a share of the Polish

in

30 years.

The

principal State officials were governor, E. P.

Maurice

lieutenant-governor,

Malcolm McEachin;

Dan W.

treasurer,

J.

Sulh’van;

secretary

Carville;

of State,

Gray Mashbum; State

attorney-general.

Franks; State controller, Henry C. Schmidt;

surveyor-general, E.

W. McLeod; mine

inspector,

State highway engineer, Robert A. Allen;

Matt Murphy;

U.S. Senators,

Key

Pittman and Pat McCarran; U.S. Representative in Congress, J. G. Scrugham. Chief justice of the Supreme Court is E. J. L. Taber; associate justices are Edw. A. Ducker and William E. Orr.

—The University of Nevada

in Reno had an enrolcomposed of 702 men and 423 women students. Dr. Leon W. Hartman was inaugurated as presi-

Education.

ment of

1,125 on Jan.

i,

1940,

dent ivith impressive ceremonies on Dec. 15, 1939. In 1939 there were 253 elementary schools, 14 kindergartens and 47 high schools in Nevada, staffed by 629 elementary teachers, 13 kindergarten teachers and 258 high school teachers. The total enrolment of school children was 19,973.

Charities and Correction.

—The

State Orphan’s

located at Carson City; inmates on Jan.

i,

Home

1940, were 51.

State Hospital for Mental Diseases at Reno, on Jan.

i,

is

The

1940, had

345 patients. The State Industrial Home at Elko had 63 inmates and the State Prison, Carson City, on Jan. i, 1940, had 240 inmates.

—On Jan.

Banking and Finance.

1,

1940, there was a Treasury

more than $3,000,000 and no bonded debt except that held within the State. The resources of the ii insured commercial banks in Nevada totalled $40,102,000 on June 30, 1939, and surplus of

deposits were listed as $36,696,000.

—

Agriculture and Mineral Production. ^According to the latest census there were 3.696 farms in Nevada ha^ving a farm population of 15,385. The State has a total farm acreage'of 3,621,769 acres.

NEWBERY MEDAL — NEW HAMPSHIRE

492

The number

The principal crop is hay. Nevada ranches was listed on Dec.

i,

cattle populating

of

ig39> as 360,000 beef

producing Province, the value of the output in 1938 being

New

Brunswick

represented in the Dominion Parliament by life, and 10 members of the House of

21,000 dairy cows; 23,000 hogs and 845,000 sheep; the number of sheep shorn was 774>ooo, and the shearings totalled

10 Senators, appointed for

6,192,0001b. of wool.

Commons, who

cattle;

The mineral production of Nevada

in 1938

lead, copper and zinc

was valued at $23,-

—a

only

$3,766,265. is

are elected for five years or less. Bibliography. The Royal Gazette ; The Annual Report on Public Works ; Report oj Hydro-Electric Power Commission (J, C. He.)

—

,

decline of

32%.

529,064 in gold, silver, Gold production for the year totalled $10,375,190; silver, $2,815,658; copper, $9,049,124; lead, $430,468; zinc, $858,624. The production of gold alone showed an increase for the year of 5%. and zinc all showed decreases in production.

New

see Relief; Roosevelt,

Deal:

Franklin Delano;

So-

cial Security; Trade Agreements; United States: History.

New

Education Fellowship:

see

Education, Progressive.

Silver, copper, lead

Nevada

retained

its

position as the principal tungsten producer.

In 1938, shipments of concentrates totalled 1,461 short tons, reduced to the equivalent of 60% WO3. The production of vanadi-

was seven tons and no molybdenum was produced in 1938. was shipped. Mercury was produced in a number of counties of Nevada. The total output of the State, however, was only 336 flasks. An estimate of the 1939 output is expected to show an increase, especially in gold, silver, copper, tungsten and mercury production. In gem stone production Nevada showed increases, during 1938; 8,ooolb. of turquoise and turquoise matrix were marketed at $3 per pound; 39 mines were noted in the State. The discovery of emerald was made early in 1939, but the importance of the find is in doubt. (E. C. D. M.) nite

carload of manganese ore

One

Newfounillaiiil

and Labrador.

dor 110,000 sq.mi.; total 152,000 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938); Newfoundland 290,660; Labrador 4,780. Chief town (capital,

pop.

est.

1938)

St.

Humphrey Walwyn, K.C.M.G.,

Johns

(41,000).

Governor:

English; religion (1935 census): Roman Catholic 93,925; Church of England 92,732; United Church 76,110; Salvation Army 18,054-

—

History. The island of Newfoundland off the east coast of Canada, which has sovereignty over the mainland area of Labrador, is a British

Dominion with

pension since 1933. It

is

its

government

at present administered

as such in sus-

by a Commission

Government instituted by the Imperial Government. H. Penson, the commissioner for finance, in the course

of

J.

Newbery Medal:

see

American Library Association; Chil-

dren’s Books; Literary Prizes; United States.

to

one of the original Provinces which united ^rllnpUfipl^ urUllSWIvIvj to form the Dominion of Canada in 1867;

Sir

K.C.S.I., C.B., D.S.O.; language;

of

budget speech on July 3 outlined an extensive program of reconstruction with which the Government intended to proceed.

his

This would involve the expenditure of some £197,000 on agriculture, £321,000 on roads and bridges, £25,000 on land settlement, £20,000 on medical services, and £20,000 on educational buildings,

Dominion census

as well as provision for five additional bait depots and aid for

Capital,

Provinces.

the manufacture of herring meal and oil. The Commission Government introduced its first tax increase by raising the excise on local manufactures of beer, cigarettes, and tobacco. The year was noteworthy for the visit of the King and Queen on their way home from their tour of Canada and the United

64%;

States.

victory over the Conservatives.

Education. In 1938: schools 1,166; scholars on average attendance 43,406.

area 27,985 sq.mi. of

;

408,219, Fredericton, 8,830. 1931,

population, according to the

estimated

The only

Jan.

i,

1940,

445,000.

other cities are Saint John, 47,514,

the most important port, and Moncton, 20,689, the sional point of the

Canadian National Railway

main diviMaritime

in the

Of the Province’s population 263,432 are rural, or 403,049 are Canadian born or neatly 99%. The present Government assumed office in 1933 as the result of a Liberal

A

—

rolls 62,272;

—

provincial election in Nov. 1939, resulted in the return of 27 Liberal as against 21 Conservative members. The lieutenantgovernor, who is appointed by the Dominion Government for a

Banking and Finance. ^Revenue, ordinary (est. 1939-40) $11,381,700; e.xpenditure, ordinary (est. 1939-40) $13,634,732; expenditure, reconstruction and special (1939-40) $5,735,208;

five years, is the Hon. Murray MacLaren. The Premier and Minister of Public Works is the Hon. A. A. Dysart. New Brunswick has a system of free schools and the law provides for the compulsory attendance of children but, largely as the result of the presence of a large number of French Canadians in the north and east of the Province, the law is not strictly en-

public debt (June 30, 1938) sterling £20,392,543, Canadian $625,000; notes in circulation (June 30, 1938) $44,823; exchange rate

term of

forced.

This, together with the sparseness of the population, is 7% of the population

largely responsible for the fact that nearly

can neither read nor write.

The enrolment

in

the public day

(1940) 94,179; in private day schools 2,395. There are two universities in the Province, the University of New Brunswick, which is financed and controlled by the Government and has an

schools

is

enrolment of 365, and

Mount

Allison university with an enrolment

value of the net production for the Province in 1936 was $63,573,236, an increase of nearly 4% over the preceding year. The maximum of the 14-year period ending in 1934 was of 445.

The

reached in 1928. The high level of that year was followed by four years of decline. The estimated wealth of the Province is $855,511,000; wealth per capita $2,118. The net value of manufactured products in 1937 was $28,770,727, a slight increase over the preceding year.

gross value of agricultural products in 1937 New Brunswick is not an important mineral-

The

was $26,517,000,

as Canadian dollar.

Trade and Communication. chandise):

imports

—Overseas trade 1938-39

$24,500,000;

exports

$31,500,000.

(mer-

Com-

munications (Dec. 31, 1938): roads, main i,i5omi.; secondary and local 6,ooomi.; railways, open to traffic 747mi.; motor vehicles licensed (1938); cars 3,966; trucks 1,082; cycles 172.

—

Mineral Production and Fisheries. Fisheries (inshore, cod and Labrador) 115,604 metric tons. Seal fishery (1938) $189,384; salmon fishery (1938) $368,030; lobster fishery $267,923;

(1938) (1938) $189,384. In metric tons; wood pulp 342,000; iron ore (metal content) 890,000; lead concentrates (1938) 42,652; copper concentrates (1938) 33,382; zinc concentrates (1938)

fish oils

124,036; silver (1938) 47.9; gold (1937) 699 kilograms.

New

Guinea:

see

Dutch East

Indies; Mandates; Pacific

Islands, Mandated.

NpW naillpollllCy HumnchirO IlCn

original states of the United

known as the “Granite State”; area, 9,282 sq.mi.; population (U.S. census 1930) 465,States, popularly

NEW HEBRIDES — NEW JERSEY 1937, 510,000. Capital, Concord, 25,228. Other cities with populations exceeding 20,000 Manchester, 76,293, estimated July

i,

:

834; Nashua, 31,463; Berlin, 20,018. Of the State’s population 273>079, or 58-7%,' were (1930) urban; 464,350 whites. Of the

white population, 381,690 were native bom, and 82,660, foreign bom. Important foreign-bom elements were: United Kingdom 11,539; French Canadians, 37,682; other Canadians, 13,277. History. Governor, Francis P. Murphy; secretary of State,

—

Gordon Kimball; adjutant Thomas P. Cheney (all Republican). U.S. Senators from New Hampshire are H. Styles Bridges and Charles W. Tobey (both Republican). Congressmen are Arthur B. Jenks and Foster Steams (Republican). Enoch D.

Fuller; State treasurer, F.

general, Charles F.

The 162nd

Bowen;

attorney-general,

session of the General Court of the State extended

from Jan. 4 to June 17, 1939. Important measures enacted were those authorizmg a $5,000,000 bond issue for constmction, reconstruction and maintenance of highways and for reimbursement of towns for hurricane and flood damage; levying a 15% tax on all

tobacco products as a means of eliminating the direct tax of

$1,200,000 a year; approving acquisition

ment

of land at four sites in

flood control

New

dams; extending

by

the Federal Govern-

Hampshire

for constmction of

legality of pari-mutuel horse race

493

13-6% from trade and finance; 9-9% from transportation and communication and 5-4% from agriculture. The report embodies what is claimed to be the first such economic analysis of a State as a unit ever made. A report on industry was also issued by the State Planning and Development Commission, which estimates that between 1933 and 1937, the value of the manufactured products of the State increased by more than 50%. (W. E. Ss.)

ice;

New

Hebrides:

see Pacific Islands, British;

French Co-

lonial Empire.

Uoiif loreau ncW UbiSCji 4,041,000,

described as the “Garden State,’’ was one of the original States of the United States; area

8,224-44 sq.mi.; population according to U.S. census of 1930, estimated by U.S. Census Bureau, July i, 1937, 4,343,-

000; capital, Trenton, 120,000.

The

largest city is

Newark, popu-

Of

the State’s population in 1930, 1,571,548 were native whites and of native parentage; 208,828 coloured;

lation 1930, 442,337.

1,413,239 native white and of foreign or mixed parentage; 844,442, foreign bom. The urban population was 3,339,244, or 82-6%. History. ^The Republican Party in the 1939 elections added to

—

the gains begun in 1938

when W. Warren Barbour was

elected to

betting through 1942.

the United States Senate for the unexpired term of Governor A.

Education. ^There are in New Hampshire 1,693 public schools, including 103 approved public high schools; 16 public academies approved as high schools; 5 accredited private academies; 608

Harry Moore, Democrat. Only

and two teachers’ colleges (formerly designated normal schools) at Plymouth and Keene. There are also four in-

line

—

private schools;

stitutions of higher education;

University of

New

Hampshire,

college, Hanover; St. Anselm’s college, Manand Colby Junior College for Women, New London. There were in 1939 some 198 juvenile camps licensed by the State Board of Health. Total State expenditures for public education,

Durham; Dartmouth chester;

year ending June 30, 1938, $7,458,043. Last available report of the State Board of Education shows a total of 82,181 public school pupils and 33,037 private school pupils, with a total of 115,218 pupils in

all

schools.

—

Banking and Finance. ^Savings banks and savings departments of trust companies reported deposits of $204,464,415, as of June 30, 1939, being an increase over June 30, 1938, of $3,263,868. There were also 28 building and loan associations with assets of preceding year. $11,970,454, an increase of $293,562 over the year ending fiscal for Department, Treasury Cash receipts of State June 30, 1938, $44,320,965; cash disbursements, $43,072,192. Net bond and note debt June 30, 1938, $13,683,000. Average tax rate in 1936, $34.30 on each $i,ooo of valuation.

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. Major farm products are milk and cream, potatoes, apples, dairy cattle and live poultry, marketed principally in cities of Eastern and acreage Central Massachusetts and New York city. Estimated woodland, pasture, 961,000; 706.000. in 1934, used for crops, 448,000; for 161,000,000 1.274.000. Lumber production, 1936, estimated at average acreage board feet. Number of farms, 1935, ^7>^95, industries of 119-6; average value per acre, $31.64. Principal produce textiles, boots and shoes, and lumber and wood products, 724including paper. Value of manufactures in i937i $249,631,

power, power generated in 1937, in kilowatt hours: water direct gross in000; fuel power, 56,000,000. Estimated come from recreational facilities within the State, in 1936, $9>^4i,* to the Commis503. An important report was submitted in 1939 People of sion for the Promotion of the Wealth and Income of the State as the of people the New finds that in 1936,

Electric

Hampshire.

It

business, indhiduals saved $13,761,000, but that the net loss in banking and government amounted to State income. 5i-s9o came from manufacturing; ig-6% from scr\'-

legislative

and

local offices

were

at stake, but the Republicans took control of the 1940 legislature

by the largest majority since 1930. The House of Assembly up with 45 Republicans to 15 Democrats and the Senate be Republican 16 to

New

will svill

5.

Jersey joined the States which have turned to race tracks

new

A

constitutional amendment, adopted was modified at a State-wide referendum to permit pari-mutuel betting at race tracks. Supported by the Democratic State machme and Republican machines in most counties, the referendum was carried by 152,000 votes. When the year 1939 ended, however, no race tracks were operating in the State because the legislature had failed to agree on the proper form of racing control and no racing commission had been appointed because of a fight between the Senate and the Assembly. This factional Repubhcan quarrel seriously impeded the work of the legislature and agreement was impossible on most controversial issues. It was not until mid-summer that an agreement was reached on the method of financing relief for 1940-41. Then the legislature authorized a referendum on a bond issue of $21,in quest of

revenues.

in 1896 to prohibit gambling,

000,000, representing the State’s share of relief.

was carried by 47,000

The referendum

votes, largely because the electorate

was

convinced that municipalities were in no position financially to carry the full load and because no alternative program had been provided by the legislature.

The

lack of accord between the Senate and the Assembly was

reflected also in the failure to pass

promised election reform meas-

ures and to compromise overdue taxes

owed by

New

Jersey

rail-

The

roads ofi'ered $14,263,000 in settlement of arrearages which aggregated approximately $32,000,000 including interest roads.

Subsequently the Central Railroad of New Jersey a petition in bankruptcy contending this action was necessitated by the failure of the legislature to agree to a compromise.

and

penalties.

filed

Later Judge Philip Forman in the United States District Court declared the State’s formula of taxing railroads to be invalid and

the effect of the decision was to cancel approximately $15,000,000

which the State claimed to be due for 1934-35-36. The controversy between Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City and the C.I.O. was terminated by the Supreme Court of the United States. The court ruled unconstitutional an ordinance under which the police power was used to prohibit public meetings in streets and parks. The decision upheld an injunction by Judge William Clark

.

NEW MEXICO — NEW SOUTH WALES

494

of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals which prohibited Jersey City officials from interfering with the right of free speech and free assemblage.

In 1939 the State’s payroll reached an all-time high of $24,000,000 due to “broader State activities.” The State continued its policy of requiring examination of motor vehicles twee a year, at a charge of 50 cents for each inspection. This system was adopted as a safety measure and traffic deaths were approximately

11%

under 1938.

—The net valuation of taxable

real and personal propwas $5,667,877,713. That was a decrease from 1937 of $100,425,888. These ratables are made up as follows; Real

Finance.

erty for 1938

estate, exclusive of

second class railroad property, $4,815,510,255;

second class railroad property, $197,994,407; personal property, $718,889,817. The average tax rate for 1938 was $4,535 per $ioo of valuation. Real estate and personal property specifically ex-

empted from taxation for 1938 amounted to $1,058,536,661, comprised mainly of schools, churches and charitable properties. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, New Jersey collected $160,788,000 in taxes, which did not include unemployment compensation taxes.

—^The

and Mineral Production.

Agriculture

leading

gr.

Mineral production for 1939: copper, $9,549,904; zinc, $3,362,108; gold, $1,294,685. Bibliography. Gladys A. Reichard, Dezba, Woman 0/ the Desert; T. M. Pearce and James Hall, Cartoon Guide oj New Mexico; Cleve Hallenbeck, Aluar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. (F. D. R.)

—

^“9432

Mow/ Qnilth Wflioc liCVi uUUin iidICbi

31,

1939)

sq.mi.; pop. (est. March

2,742,859.

Chief

towns

Dec. 31, 1938): Sydney (1,288,720); Newcastle (115,660). Governor: Capt. the Rt. Hon. Lord Wakehurst, K.C.M.G. History. On February 28 B. S. B. Stevens achieved a record (pop.

est.

—

term of

New

premier of

office as

South Wales. In August, howon financial policy with Mr.

ever, following a sharp disagreement

Spooner, minister for works and social services, his government

was defeated and

resigned. A.

Mair became premier

at the head

of a reconstructed Cabinet which included Mr. Bruxner (deputy

premier and minister for transport), Sir Henry Manning

—

farm

sorghums, 4,725,ooobu.; wheat, 2,96o,ooobu.; corn, 2,552,ooobu.; beans, 643,000 bags; cotton, 97,000 bales. In 1938 there were 1,190,000 head of cattle, worth $36,129,000, and 2,334,000 sheep worth $11,906,000.

products were:

(attor-

Agriculture and Manufacturing. ^IVeather conditions in 1938 were generally unfavourable and crop production in New Jersey declined accordingly. The total crop of grains, potatoes,

ney-general and vice-president of the Executive Council), Mr.

hay, berries and vegetables fell from 56,129,000 units (generally

(minister for labour, industry and social services), Mr, Reid

bushels or crates) in 1937 to 50,500,000. Prices were below the previous ten-year average. Prices stood at 77 cents per unit, three cents less than in 1937 and 15 cents below the preceding

Vincent (minister for mines and forests) and Mr. Manfred

10 years.

The

estimated value of the 1938 crop was $41,819,000 (A. J. S.)

and of livestock $51,245,000.

Drummond justice),

(minister for education),

Mr. Primrose

Mr. Treatt

(minister for

(acting minister for health), Mr. Gollan

(minister for agriculture), Mr. Tonking (chief secretary), Mr. (as-

sistant minister)

The

State Labour Party also suffered from internal

revolt of

Mr. Heffron and

strife.

Mr. Lang’s

his followers against

The

leader-

by the Federal Executive of the AusLabour Party, which recommended a conference of both sections of the party. The Heffron group were favourable, but Mr. Lang strongly opposed interference from outside. The conference took place in August, and resulted in the overwhelming defeat of Mr. Lang, and the election of W. J. McKell as leader ship provoked an inquiry

NoiU Movipn NeW McXIGOi

fourth largest State in the South-western

United States, popularly known as the “Sun-

shine State”; area, 122,634 sq.mi.; population according to the U.S. census of 1930, 423,317 (official estimate July i, 1937, 422,-

000). city,

Capital Santa Fe, 11,900. 27,200.

Of the

Albuquerque

State’s population

is

the only larger

106,816 are urban, or

tralia

of the party.

25-2%; 33Ij7SS white; 59,34° Mexican; 28,941 Indian. History. The Administration, legislature and congressional

In estimating a budget deficit of £1,502,309 for the financial year 1939-40 the treasurer announced increases in company taxa-

Mexico is Democratic. The chief officers two years are: governor, John E. Miles; lieutenant-governor, James Murray, Sr.; secretary of State, Jessie M. Gonzales; auditor, E. D. Trujillo; treasurer, Rex French; at-

tion, taxation of individual incomes and taxation of motor vehicles, which together were expected to yield additional revenue amount-

—

representation of

New

of State elected for

The deficit of £2,448,674 for 1938-39 was larger than anticipated, principally owing to higher railway costs. ing to £3,900,000.

superintendent of public instruc-

Pastoral and agricultural areas suffered from drought conditions

Grace J. Corrigan; commissioner of public lands, Frank Worden. The national representatives are Senator Carl A. Hatch, Senator Dennis Chavez and Representative John J. Dempsey. Education. For the school year 1937-38 public schools cost

was some improvement later. The autumn lambing was below expectations. Damage from bushfires and heat in January was estimated at £300,000. On August i8 the premier, Mr. Mair, inaugurated the Deniboota irrigation scheme, built to serve 1,400,000 acres of the Murray river area.

torney-general, Filo

Sedillo;

tion,

—

$9,001,045 for 129,877 children. The State also supports the University of New Mexico, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Normal university. School of Mines, Normal school. East-

New Mexico Junior college, Spanish American Normal school, and the Military Institute.

ern

Charities

and Correction.

— State charitable

institutions are;

School for the Deaf, School for the Blind, Home and Training school. Girls’ Welfare School for Mental Defectives, Industrial penitentiary and the Hospital, Miners school. Insane Asylum, Hospital. Carrie Tingley Crippled Children’s and Finance.—On June 3°, W39. there were 41

Banking The assessed valuation banks with total deposits of $57,054,000. State revenue receipts for of New Mexico is $312,442,485- Total A 5(‘ the fiscal year ending June 30, i939, were $22,608,766,52.

2%

sales tax, $3,451,997-95: gasoline tax yielded $4, 57°, 713-76; a An estimated $1,877,488.00. tax, property and a 5.60 mills general

$80,000,000 was spent by tourists.

early in the year, but there

Secondary industries continued to Proprietary

thrive,

company declared a record

and the Broken

Hill

profit at its annual meet-

ing. New industrial enterprises included the formation of a £1,000,000 company for the production of aluminium. (L. R. Me.) Education. ^In 1938; public schools 3,317; teachers 13,134;

—

scholars on roll 367,052; average attendance 300,768; expenditure by State £5,000,000; private schools 746; scholars 100,720.

—

Finance. ^In 1937-38: revenue £54,346,000; expenditure £54,292,000; debt outstanding (June 30, 193S) £354,299,000. Communication. Roads (March 30, 1937) 46,io8mi. fit for motor traffic. Railways, Government (June 1938) 6,114 miles.

—

Tramways (June 1938) 188 30,

1939)-

cors

216,050;

24AS2; buses 777; taxi-cabs

miles.

Motor

vehicles licensed (June

commercial vehicles 84,175;

cycles

1,313. Wireless receiving set licences

(June 1938) 403,978. Telephones (June 1938) instruments connected 244,390.

;

exchanges 2,004;

— I

.

.

.

* -

—

Agriculture and Mineral Production. Production in 1937— wheat 5S,io4,ooobu.; butter 120,883,0001b.; wool greasy

38;

495,027,ooolb.; maize 3,403,000 bu.; coal (1938) 9,570.530 tons; gold (1938) 88,698 fine oz. Industry and labour: average num-

ber of employees in factories (1937-38)

224,861; employment

(June 1939) 93-7%-

Npw’. It was led by Prof. James A. Reyniers, equipment was demonstrated, and some of the early results revealed, emphasis being placed on germ-free cubicles for infants, which have successfully prevented disease. The Knute K. Rockne memorial, devoted to intra-mural athletics and the program of physical education, for all students, was to medicine, bacteriologj’

dedicated in June. .4

competition, conducted

In addition there are an agricultural college and a normal school,

both of which are financed by the Provincial Government. The Liberal Government continued in office with the Hon. A. L. Macdonald, premier, provincial secretary and treasurer of the Pro\’ince.

The

lieutenant-governor,

minion Government, is

who

is

appointed by the Do-

Nova Scotia Commons by 12 mem-

the Hon. Walter H. Covert.

represented in the Dominion House of

whom belong to the Liberal Party, and in the Dominion Senate by 10 members who are appointed for life.

bers, all of

The net value

of production in 1936 was $89,823,005, an increase over the preceding year. The net value of agricultural products for the same year was $16,195,664, a slight increase over of

7%

the preceding year. The net value of forest products was $8,537,693; fish and fish products. $8,202,308; mining products, $19,108.641; manufactured products. $27,788,310, a slight decrease in comparison with the preceding year.

—The Royal Gazette; Report

Bibuockaphy.

by the Notre Dame department of

is

oj the

Duncan Commission (J.

C. He.)

503

NURSERY SCHOOLS— OBITUARIES

504

Nursery Schools: see Education: Nursery Nutmegs: see Spices. The Mediterranean

basin almond crop for 1939 was esti-

at 50,000 short tons (shelled), the smallest pro-

mated

•

countries was 2,3574S2,ooobu.,

Schools.

duction since 1929 and comparable to 7S,ioo short tons (shelled)

The United

almonds was 18,700

States (California) crop of

1939 and 15,000 tons in 1938, the ten-year average (1928-37) being 12,170 tons.

tons in

Almond

I.

mate.” The latest figures from China are the average annual yield of 5g,7i2,ooobu. (1933-37). The 1939 oats crop in the United

was 94i,230,ooobu., compared to i,o53,839,ooobu. in 1938 (Department of Agriculture preliminary estimate). Canada; 396,453,ooobu. in 1939 and 394,393, ooobu. in 1938. (See also Cereals.)

(S.

MediTerranean Basin, 7938 and 7939

(shelled) Production in

following

flhifllQnQC 1938

short tons

short tons

23,000 15,000 7,000

24,000 44.000 3.S00 3,100

Italy

Portugal

French Morocco France

for

4 ,8 oo 200

i

is

whom

men and women who

a list of

esti-

the Department of Agriculture as 58,200 which 53,900 tons was in California and 4,300 tons in Oregon. The 1938 crop was 45,300 tons in California and 5,300 tons in Oregon. The Oregon yield of filberts was 3,120 tons in 1939 and 1,860 tons in 1938; in Washington 590 tons in 1939 and tons, of

380 tons

in 1938. Pecans, the

most widely grown commercial nut

crop in the United States, produced in 1939 60,474,0001b., of which 22,281, ooolb. were improved varieties and 38,193,0001b. uild or seedling.

The 1938 crop was

i7,so4,ooolb. of improved varieties

and

32,217,0001b. of wild or seedling varieties. Table

11 .

Pecan ProcJucfion of 72 Sfofes

Improved varieties lb.

Georgia

.

.

.

Mississippi

.

.

Alabama

.

.

.

Louisiana

.

.

.

Florida . ^ South Carolina .

8.472.000 3.720.000 3.495.000 1.231.000 1.201.000 t , x 88 ,ooo

.

in

7939

Corntus JoHAJJNts Karel Van, Dutch financier

Abbott, Grace,

U.S. social worker .Abbott, John, U.S. Indian leader and philanthropist

Marchioness

or, British philanthropist

and author

Aitken, Peter, U.S. engraver Alberti, Mario, Italian econonust Aldobr-^ndini, Giuseppe, Italian prince and papal guard Alexander, Hartley Burr, U.S. professor and author. Alexander, Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Bohemian .

Baron, British labour leader

Almond, Rev'. John Macpherson, Canadian archdeacon Alschuler, Samtjel, U.S. judge Andrew, Harriet White Fisher, U.S. manufacturer and

.

Missouri

.

.

,

Illinois

....

(S. O.

R.)

Nyasaland: see British East Africa. Nylon : see Chemistry, Applied; Cotton: Cotton Manufacture; Industrial

Research; Plastics Industry; Rayon; Tex-

tile Industry. other food grains, the outbreak of war in Eu-

rope in Sept. 1939 caused an immediate rise in the price by United States farmers August

of oats. Average price received

15 was 25.4 cents a bushel, but by September 15 the price had advanced to 31.5 cents. World production in 1939 for principal

Germany

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Sweden . England & Wales

Denmark Finland Scotland Italy

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

Belgium Ireland

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Rumania SpainT Latvia

Lithuama

in

Certain Countries,

1938

1939

1938

bu.

bu.

bu.

24,496,000 23.881.000 22,873,000

21,382,000 22,496,000 30.765.000

74,060,000 54,013,000

40 430 ,«» ,

37,892,000 32,511,000 27,657,000

74,830,000 78,829,000 57 , 572,000 44,310,000 43,342,000 42.738.000 39.133.000 31,904,000 21,977,000 30.769.000 28.936.000

Hungari’ yugosla^ia , Netherlands. Northern ,

Ireland Turke>' . Algeria :

Norway

Greece . Estonia Bulgaria

totals.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

French Morocco

.

Tunisia

.

.

Luxemburg

•^eludes Austria and the Sudeten. tDoes^ not include Austria and the Sudeten.

Not included in

.

.

,

.

15,157,000 10,586,000 10,334,000 8, 810,000 5,236,000 2,067,000 3,100,000

.

.

.

.

.

diplomat

Bingham, (Edward) Barry (Stewart), British admiral Birch, Sir James Frederick Noel, British general Bitja, Alfred, Polish governor of Lwow .

.

DU.

375,986,000 198,415,000 183,015,000 95,127,000

.

.

.

Bittner, Julius, Austrian composer Blaschka, Rudolph, (Jerman creator of glass flowers in Harvard museum

7938 and 1939

1939

uo.554.000* 468,549,000!

.

.

.

Production of Oats

.

.

•.

all

20.279.000 17,748,000 10,892,000 » 3 , 554 ,000 10,505.000 12,100,000 6,137,000

3 , 275,000 2,067,000 2,864,000

Sept. 17

Nov. 16

Feb.

.

As with

Mar. 3

Mar. June

Indian prince

Barra, Francisco Leon de la, Mexican statesman Barro.n, O.swald, British authority on heraldrj’ .... Barth, Carl George Lance, U.S. engineer Barton, Donald Clinton, U.S. geologist Barzilaj, Salv'atore, Italian senator Bates, Anna, U.S, actress Bates, Ernest Sutherland, U.S. historian and critic Baum, Divight James, U.S. architect Beaty, Amos Leonidas, U.S. oil executive Beaubjen, Ix)UIS de Gaspe, Canadian financier .... Beggs, George Erle, U.S. educator and engineer Benares, Maharaja of (Sir Aditya Narayan Singh Badahur), Indian prince Benenson, (jRicORi, U.S. financier Bennett, Laura, U.S. actress Benson, Sir Frank Robert, British actor Hermann, Richard A., Austrian author and journalist Bernard, Oliv'er Percy, British stage designer .... Bernstorff, Johann HEiNiacH. Count \’on, German .

{See also Peanuts.)

Nov. 9

9,

Dec. 9 July IS Apr. 11 Apr. 7 July 2x Feb. 9

.

Baker. Ol^r, British artist and author •Baker, Thomas Stockham, U.S. educator Baldwin, Arthur J;, U.S. attorney and philanthropist B.vlfour, Henry, British anthropologist and archaeologist Baroda, Maharaja Gaekw’ar Sir Savaji Rao UI,

300.000 132.000

Nov. 22

18S9 1872 Nov. 20, 1859

May

July 26, 1862 Nov. 24, 1878 Mar. 30, 1856 Mar. 23, 1871 Aug. 26, x868 1S63

.

Babbitt, Edwin Burr, U.S. major general Backhouse, Sir Roger Roland CHAja.ES, British admiral

.

July 21

1869

10,

iS 67 (?) .

lb.

.

June 25 July 27

Feb. 1, 187S Aug. 13 July 8. 1857 Nov. s Jan. 13, i860 Jan. 20 June J 7 1847 Apr. 5 Dec. 25, 1863 June2o(?) Nov. 20 June 28, 1877 Dec. 15 T Sept. x6 Jan. S3, 1S74

.

16.356.000 10.220.000 221.000 3,047,000 526.000 150.000

.

Apr. 18 8 Oct. 28 ilar. 30 Jan. 19

June

iSsi(?)

Nov.

author

1,044,000 769.000 629.000 496.000 34,000 2,000

.

23

July 25

Andrews, Charlton, U.S. educator and dramatist. Ancell, Frank, U.S. psychologist Anthony, Rev'. Alfred Williams, U.S. theologian .... Appleton, Francis Henry, U.S. agriculturist *.Arb6s, E. Fernandez, Spanish musician ...... Armstrong, Alexander, U.S. attorney and State official Arosemena, Juan Demostenes, Panamanian statesman Arps, George Frederick, U.S. educator

Wild or

Aransas

Oct.

June 19

ist

seedling

Oklahoma

1 S 57 7, 1874 Dec. 22, 1862 June 16, 1858 May 4, 1884 June 10, 1865 Apr. 9. 1S73

prince

Aixxander, Wallace McKinney, U.S. industrialist Allen of Hdrtwood, Reginald Clutord Alien,

lb.

North Carolina

date

1866 1878 1S79

Mar.

varieties

2.873.000

I,

.

Acland, Sir Franos Dv-re, British legislator Adams, John Taylor, U.S. political leader

Improved

....

7,

17,

Aberdeen and Teuair, Ishbel Maria, Dowager

lb.

Texas

May Nov. Oct.

Wild or seedling 638.000 3.298.000 432.000

Death

Birth date

Name Aalst,

was

R.)

betical position.

500

in the United States, walnuts,

.

died during 1939. An asterisk (*) marks those biographical notices are to be found in regular alpha-

1

The largest nut crop mated Nov. I, 1939, by

0

UUllUdllCOi

1939

Spain

France Poland

in

States

in 1938.

Table

compared to 2,486,364,ooobu.

1938 (estimate of the International Institute of Agriculture). Figures do not include U.S.S.R., for which a crop of 1,091,128,000 in 1938 is given by the Institute as an “approximate esti-

Bledsoe, Samuel Thomas,

.

Jan,

Bodanzky, Artdr, U.S. opera conductor Boewone, Pakoe, Sultan of Surakarta, Javanese ruler Bolles, Albert Sidney', U.S. educator and author Bolton, Chester Castle, U.S. Congressman Bonvin, Rev. Ludwig, U.S. comooser Booth, Christopher Henry Hudson, U.S. musidan Boucher, Jean, French sculptor Bodsqott, Paoi. Hesm Jacques, French author Bradlee, WnrjAii Aspeotvail, U.S. author and critic ’

Brady, Alice,

U.S. actress . Brai-yis, Reuben, U.S. author and Hebrew leader Braun, John Frederick, U.S. manufariiirer Breese, Burtis Burr. U.S. psvchnloin^t Bregdet, Jacques Eugene, French aircraft designer Brewxr, Dr. George Emerson, U.S. surgeonand educator Brewster, Eoge.ne Valentine, U.S. publisher and

author

Bridge. James How'ard. U.S. author Bridges, Dr. Milton Arlanden, U.S. m^cai educator Bristol. Mark Lambert. U.S. admiral Brut, James J.. U.S. Congressman Bruton, Wilton Eyerett, U.S. entomologist

10, 1S63 16, 1S63 3,

Feb. 28,

June July

Nov. Oct,

June

29, s,

10, 14, 24,

Sept. I, Oct. 29,

Apr. 13,

Nov. Mar.

I

Nov. 13 Nov. 23 Apr. Apr.

i860

5

5 Sept. 24

Dec. 31

4, 185S Apr. 27, 1883 Apr. 8, 18S1

Sept.

5

Apr. IS

Nov. 14, 1862 July 26, xSSi Dec. 29, 1865 i 889 (?) Apr. 8, 1874 x856(?)

May

Oct. 6 Sept, 24

Feb.

3

Sept. 19

Jan.

9

May

I

Mar. 8 Nov. 23

12, 1868 Dec. 16, 1877

Mar.

S

May

Dec. 4 Dec. 13 Apr. 29

Nov.

,,

July

Nov. 8

17, 1874 I,

6

Sept. 23 Sept. 24 Oct. 28

1S68 i860 1889 r86o 1869 1S79 x886 1870 1867 1883

Sept. 28, 1859

,,

U.S. railroad executive

.

,

i865(?) 8, 1846

Feb. 20 May 8

Sept. 5, 1882

Oct.

Feb. 17, 1850 Sept. 5, 1865 1870 Jan. 24, 1S83 Feb. 8, 187S Nov. 2, 1S92 Mar. 15, 1862 June 22, 1867 May 17, 1867 Apr. 23, 1881 July 28, 1861

Feb. 18 Apr. 19

Sept.

May May

7,

June 18 Nov'. iS

Oct.

28

Nov. 30 Nov. 18 July 31

Mar.

21

Dec. 24 Jan.

1871

8, 1856 20, 1894 Apr. 17, 1868 hlar. 4, x56i Sept. 18, 1868

29

I

Alay 28 Aug. 19

May I

1

13

Dec. 26 Feb. IS

.

OBITUARIES Brodie, Edward Everett, U.S. editor and diplomat Brodie, Dr. Maurice, Canadian immunologist ....

.

Brooke, Rev. Aean England, British chaplain to the King Broun, Heywood (CAitPSELL), U.S. author and journalist BROtVN, Bill, Canachan pioneer Brown, Sir George McLaren, Canadian railroad executive

Mar. Aug. Sept.

12, 19,

Dickinson, Oliver Booth, U.S. jurist Diesel, William F., U.S. manufacturer

1876 1903 Oct. 30

1863 Dec. 7, 1888 Dec. 26, 1839 I,

Dec. 18 Jan. 19

June 28

BROtVN, James, British labour leader Brown, James Stanley, U.S. educator Brown, Oswald Eugene, U.S. educator Brown, Rev. Wallace Elias, U.S. Methodist bishop BROUTt, William Henry, U.S. botanist Brownlng, Jonathan Edmund, U.S. co-inventor of rifle Brubacher, Abram Royer, U.S. educator

Jan. 29, 1865 Dec. 16, 1862 Sept. 13, 1863 Dec. 8, 1861 Oct. 30, 1868 Oct. 6, 1884 Jan. 26, 1859 July 27, 1870

Aug. 23

Bruce, Charles Granville,

Apr.

1866

July 12

.

British explorer

Bruchesi, Rev. Louis Joseph Paul Napoleon, Canadian archbishop Bruestle, George MATTHEtv, U.S. painter BRUMiHTT, Rev. Dan Brearly, U.S. editor Bryant, Ralph Clement, U.S. forester Buchanan, A. W. Patrick, Canadian attorney and author

Buckley, Dr. Albert Coulson, U.S. neuropsychiatrist Burd, Rev. Walter, Canadian bishop Burnett, Charles, U.S. brigadier general and chief of insular affairs

Afar. 21 Sept. 6 Oct. 22 Nov. i8

Nov. 9

May

Dec.

Busch, German, Bolivian statwman and soldier .... Butler, Pierce, assodate justice of U.S. Supreme Court Buttenwieser, Moses, U.S. Biblical scholar Cabot, Dr. Richard Clarke, U.S. physician Cady, Rev. George Luther, U.S. missionary leader Calinescu, ARiiAND, Rumanian statesman Cammack, Ira Insco, U.S. educator Cannon, Lawrence Arthur Dumoulin, Canadian jurist Carrigan, William L., U.S. artist Carroll, Beryl F., U.S. State governor .

.

1870 6, 1873 Feb. 23, 1888

.

Nov. 28

16, 1869 Apr. 15, 1859 Apr. 9, 1859 Mar, 23, 1904 Mar. 17, 1866 Apr. 5, 1862

Sept- 24 Nov. 17 Apr. 27

May

21,

June

3,

1868 1868

Alay 8 Nov. 23

22, 1893 Feb. i6, 1858

Sept- 21 Sept- II Dec. 25 Oct. 27 Dec. 16 Mar. 2 Jan. II

Aug. 23

Nov. 16 Alar. 12

May

Apr. 28, 1877 Sept. 21, 1868 Mar. IS, i860

Clinton-Baker, Sir Le^vis, British admiral CoAR, John FmtAN, U.S. scholar CoLcoRD, Roswell Keyes, U.S. State governor Cole, Cyrenus, U.S. legislator Cole, George Watson. U.S. librarian and bibliographer Colebrooke, Edward Arthur Colebrooke, ist Baron, .

.

.

Coleman, Algernon, U.S. educator and editor CoLEJtAN, Edward Davidson, U.S. librarian ... CoLERUS, Egmont, Austrian novelist Collier, Barron, U.S. advertising executive Collin, Frederick, U.S. jurist Colville, Sir Stanley (Cecil Ja3ies), British admiral Coman, Wilber Edmund, U.S. railroad official Comiskey, John Louis, U.S. baseball executive Conroy, Rev. Joseph H., U.S. Catholic bishop Corcoran, Rev. Franxis Vincent, U.S. educator Correvon, Henri, Swiss botanist Costigan, Edward Prentiss, U.S. Senator CouTAN, Jules-Feldc, French sculptor .... Cowles, Henry Chandler, U.S. botanist Crandon, Dr. Le Roi Goddard, U.S. surgeon Crane, Charles Richard, U.S. diplomat Cravens, Ben, U.S. congressman Crawford, James P\xe Wickersham, U.S. professor Crdh, Giulio, Italian tenor .... Cristea, Miron, Rumanian patriarch and statesman .

.

.

6,

1830

12,

1861

.

1887 1873 1850 Feb. 21, 1861 May IS, 1869 Aug. 12, 1885

.

Nov.

.

.

.

... Hugh, U.S. educator .... Crommelin, Andrew Claude de la Cherois, British

Critz,

astronomer

Cronau, Rudolf, U.S. artist and author Crosley, Walter Selwyn, U.S. rear admiral .... Cross, Rev. Edward Weeks, U.S. clergyman .... Cunningham, Louis Wyborn, U.S. jurist Cushing, Dr. Harvey, U.S. brain surgeon Dalton, Henry George, U.S. industrialist Daranyi, Koloman, Hungarian statesman Dashiell, William Robert, U.S. brigadier-general Davidson, Israel, U.S. Hebrew scholar .

Davtes, Ellis William, British JiI.P Davies, John Vipond, U.S. cml engineer Davis, Irving G., U.S. economist Davis, Nelson Fithian, U.S. professor Davts, Warren Blair, U.S. editor and publisher

.

Mar.

23,

Aug.

2,

May

8, 6,

Mar.

22,

Apr.

3, 27, 12,

May Apr.

Oct. 13,

Apr. 2S,

Aug. 10, .

.

.

Sept. 12,

July 21,

U.S. painter

Day, Harry, British M.P Dean, Alexander, U.S. professor and dramatic director Deetjen, Otto Paul Werner, German librarian Deibler, Anatole (“Monsieur de Paris”)* French .

.

.

Sept. 16,

May

6,

Apr.

3,

executive

Deuell, Harvey V., U.S. ne%v3paper De Vries, Marion, U.S. jurist

editor

.

.

.

.

.

Freak, James A., U-S. legislator Free, Edward Elway, U.S. chemist and editor .... Freud, Sigmund, Austrian psychoanalyst ... Frey, Oli\t:r W., U.S. legislator Friedlander, Dr. Alfred, U.S. medical educator ... Frieseke, Frederick Carl, U.S. painter Fritsch, Wef^r von, German general Fulda, Ludwig, German playv-Tight Fulto.s, John Allen, U.S. mining engineer

...

.

Gamboa, Federico, Mexican novelist and statesman Gardner, Henry Brayton, U.S. economist and educator Garst, Perry, U.S. rear admiral Gaster, Moses, British-Rumanian Hebrew scholar Gates, Rev. Milo Hudson, U.S. clergyman -

.

.

Gay, Dr. Frederick Parker,

.

.

U.S. pathologist Geiger, Ferdinand A., U.S. judge Ghazi Ibn Feisal, King of Iraq Gherardi, Walter RocKt\XLL, U.S. r^r admiral Ghuzna\% Sir Abdelkerbi, Indian political leader Gibbons, Floyd (Phillips), U.S. war correspondent .

...

.

.

Giberne, Agnes, British writer Gilbert, Hiram Thornton, U.S. jurbi Gilbert, Newton Whiting, U.S. jurist Gilbert, Prentiss Bailey, U.S. diplomat Gilbert, Ralph, U.S. legislator Gilchrist, Donald Bean, U.S. librarian Gillespie, Julian Edgeworth, U.S. commercial attache Gillett, Sir George, British legislator .

•

.

Gillingwater, Claude, U.S. actor U.S. critic and author Gimbel, Daniel, U.S. merchant U.S. nurse and educator Elizabeth, Mary Gladwtn, (Jodfrey, Sir Dan, British conductor Goetze, Sicismund Christian Hubert, British artist Goff, Sir Park, British legislator Goodnow, Frank Johnson, U.S. educator Goodwin, Rev. William Archer Ruthertooro, U.b. . .. clergyman and educator Gordon. Sir Charles Blair, Canadian finanaer Goyau, Georges, French author and secy of French .

Gilman, LAttRENCE,

.

.

1859

-

•

.

•

•

.

.

..

•.••••

Apr. xp, 1866 Nov. 20, 1890 Aug. IS, 1865

,

.

Academy ‘r Grandcent, Charles Hall, U.S. professor Granger, Alfred Hoyt, U.S. architect 3RD Levx«^-n-Gower, Grasxtlle, Granxtlle George .

oil

Earl, British diplomat Gravxs, Ralph Henry, U.S. editor

Oct.

17 7 7

Sept. 9 Sept. 28

I

i

Dec.

6

6,

June 26

2,

July 8 Feb. 17 '

G:t.

8

Aug.

3

Sept. 17

Jan.

s

23, 17, 14,

22, 1876

Dec. 31, 1859 9, i86p Nov. 4, 1872 Jan. 15, 1858 Jan. 12, 1874 Aug. 26, x86o Jan. 27, 1885 Jan. 26, 1878

Dec. 31 Dec. 2

Aug.

.

26,

May

Apr.

i 867(?)

...

.

May

7

Feb.

Mar.

British author

.

Sept.

1883 July 187s June 1867 Aug. 25, i860

,

.

I

Sept. 16 Jan. 2s

^lar.

May

Fairbanks, Frank Perley, U.S. muralist Farrand, Dr. Livlngstone, U.S. educator Fawcett, George D., U.S. actor Fearn, Dr. Anne Walter, U.S. physician and author Fechner, Robert, U.S. director of Civilian Conserv’ation

.

j

U.S. motion picture

tive

1862 1886 1863 1870 1871 1862 188s 1872 1877 1864 1880 1893 1877

21

2$ 25

Feb. 13

1873 1859 Nov. 23, 1876 Jan. 15, 189s 1859 Dec. 7, 1862 Nov. IS, 1873

actor

.

May May May

i86r 1869 1868

1874 Feb. 25, 1856 Aug. 3, 1896 Dec. 6, i8ss Sept. 8, 1853 June 18, 1874 June 14, 1859 Jan. 27, 1874 Feb. 22, 1864 Feb. 17, 1863

.

.

Fowler, Sir John SHARiiAN, British general Fox, Charles J., U.S. publisher France, Dr. Joseph Irwin, U.S. Senator Frank, Tenney, U.S. Latin scholar Franklin, Fabian, U.S. author and educator Franklin, Philip Albright Small, U.S. shipping execu-

j

Deterdinc, Sir Henri Wilhelm August, Dutch

3,

Ford, William Ebenezer, U.S. mineralogist Forrester, James Joseph, U.S. statistician

July 19, 1864

British diplomat

May

.

Ford, Ford Madox,

executioner

Dell, Ethel M., British novelist Denbigh, Rudolph Robert Basil Aloysius Augustine Feilding, pTH Earl, British Catholic leader De S^s, John pRANas Charles, (Tount de Saus,

Jan.

.

.

Feb, 6, 1865 Jan. 21, 1855 Oct. 30, 1871 Feb. 12, 1885 Aug. 14, 1863 Apr. 8, 1869 3,

.

... Fish, Williston, U.S. lawyer and author G., U.S. real estate executive Fisk, Pliny, U.S. financier Fitzgerald, Frank Dwight, U.S. governor Flippin, Dr. James Carroll, U.S. medical educator Fokker, Anthony Heriian Gerard, Dutch aeroplane designer

1874 2848 Feb. 27, i86g Jan. IS, 1873 Aug. 7, 1858 Jan. 17, 1874 Feb. ig, 1882 May 10, 1885 July 20, x868 Dec. 21, 1876

Oct.

.

Edgren, Robert Wadsworth, U.S. cartoonist .... Edmonds, George Washington, U.S. Congressman Egbert, Dr. Seneca, U.S. medical educator Elliott, Dr. Charles Addison, U.S. physician .... Ellis, (Henry) Havelock, British psychologist and author Embody, George Charles, U.S. biologist Engelbrecht, Helmuth C., U.S. author Enna, August, Danish composer Evans, Rev. Milton G., U.S. educator Everwijn, Jan Charles August, Dutch statesman Sr.,

Feb. 13

5, 14, 8,

Eddy, Spencer, U.S. diplomat Edgar, Dr. James Clifton, U.S. obstetrician

Fairbanks, Douglas Elton,

9 Nov. lo

29, 1857

Oct. Oct.

Fisher, Carl

I,

May

May

.

.

George Buchanan, IJ.S. journalist and author Finck, Herman, British composer

1858 1879

1869

July 14, 1872

.

Fife,

i 8S4(?)

July

Dunn, Charles John, U.S. jurist Dunn, Herbert Omar, U.S. rear admiral Durkee, Frank Williams, U.S. chemist and educator

.

Aug. 9, 1876 Aug. IS, 1891

17,

June 30, 1849

.

Apr. 25, 1839 Jan. 13, 1863 Sept.

Mar. British

admiral

0)rps Fiedler, Max, German orchestra conductor

28, 1856 Mar. 16, 1866 July 26, 1863

Oct.

British court official

Dawson-Watson, Dawson,

12, 1871 Dec. 23, 1876 Dec. 10, 186s Dec. 24, 1878 Aug. ig, 1809 June 21, 1876 Mar. 17, 1858 Aug. 30, 1876

I '

Feb. 17, 1882 Sept. 4, 1882

foreign service officer

Dunbar, Charles Augustus Royer Flood,

.

May

trialbt

grower

.

Aug.

Aug.

.

fruit

Duffy, Jack, U.S. com^an Dumont, Frederick Theodore Frelinchuysen, U.S.

Earle, Ralph, U.S. rear admiral and educator Easley, Ralph Montgomery, U.S. political economist Eaton, Thomas M., U.S. Congressman Eberhardt, Magnus F. W. von, CJcrman general Eddy, Dr. Forrest Greenwood, U.S. dentist ....

British Egyptologist

man

Dopper, Cornelis, Dutch composer Douglass, Benjamin Wallace, U.S. entomologist and

.

Cedillo, Saturnino, Mexican rebel general Cespedes y Quesada, Carlos Manuel de, Cuban states-

Chamberlayne, Churchill Gibson, U.S. educator Chambers, Frank Monmouth, U.S. illustrator .... Chandler, Charles de Forest, U.S. aeronautics expert Chapman, Francis, U.S, legal educator Chappedelaine, Louis de, French statesman Chilton, William Edwin, U.S. Senator CiANo, Costanzo, Italian statesman Clergue, Francis Hector, Canadian-American indus-

Sept. 25, 1857 Jan. 19, 1877 Aug. 9, 1864 May IS, 1870 July 14, 1893 July 12, 1867 Nov. 9, 1869 Feb. 2, 1870

Dmowski, Roman, Polish statesman Doherty, Henry L., U.S. industrialist and philanthropist Dolan, Rev. Francts James, U.S. educator Doixi, Angelo Maria, Italian cardinal Donnelly, Charle^U.S. railroad executive

Duveen, Baron (Joseph Duveen), British art dealer Dyson, Sir Frank (Watson), British astronomer

1871 Aug. 13, 1867 Jan, 22, 1877 21,

Mar.

conservationist

Burr, George Elbert, U.S. artist Burt, Edward Angus, U.S. botanist

16

Oct. 29, 1855

Oct. 28, 1877

Burnham, John Bird, U.S. author and

Carter, Howard,

7,

505

,

Mar. Z2 Apr. 21 Dec. 19 July IS Mar. 30

;

Mar. z6

I

Feb. x6

Apr.

6, 1890 1873 Feb. 18, 1878 Oct. 28, 1867 July 27, 1864 July 23, 1873 Oct. II, 1873 May 19, 1876 Jan. 18, 1853

Feb. I, 1871 Oct. 24, 1861

May May

6,

Sept.

7,

1883 1856 1890 July 5, 1871 Apr. 7, 1874 Aug. 4, 1880 July 15, 1862 Sept. 24, 1878 3,

1864 Mar. 26, 1863 July II, 1848 1856 June 29, 1866 July 22, 1874 Ocl. IS, 1867 Mar. 21, 1912 Aug. 9, 1875 Aug. 25, 1872 July lO, 1887 1845 May 9, 1850 Jlay 24, 1862 Oct. 3, 1883 Jan. 17, 1882 Jan. ii, 1892 June 20, 1893 1870

Aug. 2, 1870 July s. 1878 Dec. 1863 Dec. 24, 1861 June 20, 1868 Oct. 24, 1866 Feb. 12, 1871 Jan. 18, 1859

June Nov.

18, 22,

May

31, 1869 14, 1862

Nov.

1869 1867

May 31,

1867

Mar.

1872 1878

July

4, II,

Aug. IS Apr. 22 Aug. 29

Mar. s Nov. 27 July July Apr. July July

14 31

4

24 24 Sept. 24

Aug. 21 .

Nov. 29 July 5 Feb. 24 30^ July ^ Aug. 4 -

J

2

June 23 J Aug. 10 2 Nov. 1 I ‘ Sept. ‘ Sept.

9 8

Nerv'. ] 22

July 20 Oct. 24

A^r. J 15

Nov, I 14 5

J ( S 1

;

|

OBITUARIES

506

Gray, Carl Raymond,

U.S. railroad executive Grayson, Dr. Charles Prevost, U.S. laryngologist Green, Henry Woodhuil, U.S, laivyer Greene, Frederick Stuart, U.S. civil engineer .

.

.

.

.

....

Grey, Zane,

U.S. author

Grinnell, Joseph,

U.S. zoologist Griswold, W., U.S. Congressman Groener, Wilhelm, German general

H^ry

Grosz, wilhelm, Austrian composer Gubkin, Ivan, Russian scientist

...........

Guggenheim, Murry, U.S. financier and philanthropist Gulick, John W., U.S. major-general Guthrie, Hugh, Canadian statesman

.

*HAAB,NRaBERT, Swiss Statesman Halle, Rt^Rey. Joseph, Canadian Catholic prelate Halliburton, Richard, U.S. author HAiLOWEUy Robert; U.S. artist and publisher Hamilton, Lord Ernest (William), British author Hamilton, H. Apelbert, U.S. philologist Hamlin, Simon Moulton, U.S. legislator Hammond, Sir Egbert Laurie Lucas, British colonial .

.

.

.

.

.

Max

Sylvius, U.S. economist

Hankin, Dr. Ernest Hanbury, British bacteriologist Harding, George Franklin, U.S. politician Harkavy, Alexander, U.S. lexicographer and author Harker, Alfred, British pelrologist Harrel, Sir Davtd, representative of British crown

.

.

.

.

.

.

-

..

Ireland

Aug. 8, 1865 Dec. 10, 3874 Jan. 9, igoo Mar. 12, 1886 1858 Jan. 14, 1870 Aug. 10, 1866

Aug. 16, 1868 May 5, 1863 Feb. 19, 1859

9

Aug. j6

Nov. 7A Alar. 26 Oct. 23

May

29

July

4 4

May

Dec. 9 Apr. 21

Nov. IS Aug. 18

Nov. 3 Oct. IS Oct. 7

Mar. 23(?) Jan. 26 Dec. 14 May 23 July 27 Jan. 28 Dec. 26 Alar. 29 Apr. 2

Nov.

27

July 29

Mar. 30, 1869

May 12 Jan. 6 July 18

Mar.

Nov.

Mar.

•

Harkj^ Dr. Louis Israel, U.S. public health authority Hart, Louis Brett, U.S. judge Hatton, Fanny Cottinet Locke, U.S. playivright and critic

Hayashi, Gonsuke, Japanese statesman G. A. R. Williams), British .

Apr. 14, 1870 Jan. 31, 187s Feb. 27, 1877 May 19, 1886 Nov. 22, 1867 Aug. 11, 1894 i87o(?) Aug. 12, 1858 Nov. 8, 1874 Aug. 13, 1866

May

in

.

,

Sept. 28, 1867 Oct. IS, 1859 Apr. 30, 1868

.

Jan.

2Si 1841 27, 1882

6,

^[ar.

1869 i860

June

27 27

Heath, lady Mary (Mrs. aviatrlt

iSgsC?)

^

Heller, Edmund, U.S. naturalist Helmle, Frank J., U.S. architect Henri, Duke of Bourbon-Parma

May

....

Herbert, Sir Sidney, British baronet and M.P .... Higgins, Rev. Joseph Reginald, U.S. priest Hill, Arthur Edivard, U.S. chemist and educator

.

.

Hin Wong, Chinese

journalist

Hirshfeld, Clarence Floyd, U.S. scientist and author Hoban, Walter Cephas, U.S. cartoonist Hohenzollern, Oskar Wilhelm Karl Hans Kuno von, Prussian prince

Holman, Louis Arthur, U.S. antiquarian and author

.

Hopkins, Arthur John, U.S. professor Hopeinson, Sir Alfred, British educator Houtart, Baron ^.Iaurice Jules, Belgian statesman . Howard, Sidney Coe, U.S. dramatist Howard of Penrith, Esme Wiluam Howard, ist Baron, British diplomat Hsu Shih-chang, Chinese statesman Hulbert, Mary Allen, U.S. author Hull, William Isaac, U.S. historian and educator .

.

Humphrey, Arthur Luther,

tf.S. industrialist

.

....

Tglesias, Santiago, Puerto Rican territorial delegate Ives, Joseph Moss, U.S. jurist and author

Iwanaoa, Yukichi, Japanese journalist Jackson, Dr. Reginald Henry, U.S. surgeon Janvier. Marie-Albert, French clergyman Jaspar, Henri, Belgian statesman

.

.

.

....

JoHANis, Vaci.av, Czech statesman

Johnson, Frank Tenney, U.S. artist Johnson, Royal Cleaves^ tl.S. Congressman Jones, John Arthur, Indian journalist Jones, Morgan, British M.P JucH, Emma Antonia Joann.\, U.S. singer Kalich, Bertha, Polish-American actress Kavanaugh, Wiillam Harrison, U-S. en^neering edu-

July T2, igis July 13, 1866 Sept 20, 1864 June 28, 1851 July 5, 1866 June 26, 1891

Keith, Charles Penrose, U.S. attorney and historian Kelly, Florence Finch, U.S. author

May

26,

Nov. June

19, 12,

C., U.S. actor

Kennedy, Francis Williasi, British admiral Kennelly, Arthur Edwin, U.S. el^lrical engineer Kenney, William Patrick, U.S. railroad executive Kerr, John Brown, U.S. railroad executive Keys, David Reid, Canadian historian Kidder, Kathryn, U.S. actress King, Dr. Cora Sshth, U.S. physiotherapist and suffragist King, Frederick Allen, U.S. author and editor King-Hall, Sir George Fowler, British admiral Kipling, Caroline Balestter, widow of Rudyard .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Kipling

Kirbye, Rev. J.Edw’ard, U.S. minister and educator Kirkland, James Hampton, U.S. educator Klofac, \^aclav, Czech political leader

Knochenhauek, Wilhelm, German Korfanty, Wojciech, Polish

.

.

general

political leader

Krupskaya, Nadezhda Konstantinoitja, Russian educator and widow of Lenin Kun, Ladislas, Hungarian-American composer .... Kundt, Hans Anton Wilhelm Friedrich, German commander of Boli\ian forces in Chaco war Kushida, Manzo, Japanese financier Lacour, Leopold, French dramatist Ladd, Anna Coleman, U.S. author and sculptor Laemmle, Carl, Sr., U.S. motion picture executive Lambert, Dr. Alexander, U-S. phj'sidan and narcotics

1

Lane, Merritt, U.S. jurist Langsdorff, Hans, German naval officer L\timer, Juuan I.ane, U.S. admiral Laubeuf, Max, French submarine designer

Afar. 22

Nov. 28 Alar. 16

Feb. IS Apr. 19

Nov. 22 Sept.i4(?) Dec. 14

Nov. 10 Nov. 12 Feb. 1 Aug. 23

Aug. June

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Lee, Dr. Frederic Schiller, U.S. physiologist Lee, John Yiubong, Chinese scientist and educator Lee, Porter RA\'iroND, U.S. social worker Leocett, Eugene Sheldon, U.S. journalist and Gov’t .

s Dec. 17

Nov. 14 Nov. I Dec. Apr. Sept.

7 2

Jan. 17, 1876

Sept.

7

i860 July 2S, 1870 i 87 i(?) June 26, 1874 Oct, 3, 1882 1867 May 3, 1885 July 4, i860

Apr. 2S Feb. 15

Oct.

19, IS, 27, 29,

Dec.

17,

Mar. Mar.

Jan. 10, Feb. i,

May

2,

Dec. 23, Sept.

7,

Feb. 20, Aug. 14,

1S73 1854 1858 1873 1862 1861 1870 1851 1856 1869 1867 1865 1850

5

June 18 Jan.

I

Aug.

2

June 16 .Apr.

Mar.

23

6

Apr. 18

Afay

6 Apr. 23 Dec. 17 6 Jan. July IT June 18 Jan. 24 June 25

July II Sept.

.

.

.

.

official

Leguch, Dr. Felix, French surgeon

cutive and worker for blind Lindsey, Joseph Bridgeo, XJ.S. chemist

Linebarger, Palt. Myron Wentworth, U.S. jurist Linn, James Weber, U.S. educator, legislator, and writer Linton, Edaaxn, U.S. biologist Lipman, Jacob Goodale, U.S. agricultural chemist .

.

.

.

Nov.

21

Oct. 31 Sept. 10

Dec. 31, 1865 Dec. 23, 1873 Sept, 9, 1859 1868 Jan. 16, 1878

June 28

1S73

Aug. 16

Dec. 19 No\'. 13 5

Aug.

Oct. (?)

17,

(?)

Oct. 31

1859

2

July

Feb. 26, 1869 Aug. 12, 1869

Feb. 27

Feb. 28, 1869 Feb. 10, 1867

Aug. 28

1854 July 15, 1878 Jan. 17, 1S67

Apr. 29

Dec. IS, 1S61 Jan. 2, 1881 Mar. 20, 1894 Oct. 10, 186S

Alay 9 June 23 Dec. 20 June 4

i 864(?)

Dec. 23

Alay

2

teriologist

Andrew Stewart,

U.S. surgeon. U.S. Senator Lombard, Dr. Warren Plimpton, U.S. physiologist Longone, Paul, U.S. operatic producer Lord, Bert, U.S. Congressman Louts, Henry, British mining engineer Louise, Princess; Duchess or Argyll, British princess Lovejoy, Thomas E., U.S. insurance executive Loatxl, John Haraxy, U.S. biologist Lunn, Sir Henry, British philanthropist Lynch, John Rov, U.S. Negro Congressman Lyons, Rev. Charles Whuam, U.S. educator Lyons, Joseph Aloysius, Australian statesman

Lobincier. Dr.

.

.

,

Logan, Marvel Mills,

.

.

6

June

3 Sept. 24

Sept. 14, 1875

May

1872 1870 Aug. 1882 June 1859 1884 Dec. 21, 1879

Aug. 28

Dec.

Feb, 19

9, 10, 22, 16,

9,

1902

28

Sept. 14 29 Dec. 14

May

Apr. 20 Mar. 8

12, 1863

Oct.

4

Oct. II, i860 Jan. 8, 1871 Jan. 23, 1878

July

3

Mayi8,i866(? Mar. 8, 1862 i86o(? Apr. 12, 1852 Feb. 14, i860

Apr. 6, 1856 Dec. 26, 1S62 15, 1871 May XI, 1876 Mar. 14, 1855 Nov. 18, 1874

June

May

29, i 8 s 5 3,

Dec. Dec. .

.... ....

McClure, Sir William, British journalist McCoR3.ncK, Rev. John Newton, U.S. Episcopal

Apr. 8, 1876 Dec. 22, 1S62 Jan. 7, 1874 Jan.

....

bishop

hlAcDoNNELt, ARCHIBALD Hayes, Canadian Senator Mac Dougall, Robert, U.S. psychologist ^Iachado, Antonio, Spanish ]^et Machado y Morales, Gerardo, Cuban politician Mackay, Willl\m Andrew, U.S. painter MacLaren, Alexander, Canadian lumber executive ^IcLauchltn, ^Iary Louise, U.S. ceramist MacLean, Altred Edgar, Canadian legislator .... McLennan, John Stewart, Canadian Senator and pub.

.

.

.

4, 7,

Mar.

.

.

.

McMillan, ^omas Sanders, U.S. Congressman MacPherson, jAiiES Ernest, Canadian public utilities executive

McReynolds, Samuel Daws, U.S. Madigan, Michael J., U.S. editor

legislator

Jan. 31, Sept. 15,

...

Mangum, Mapes, Carl Edgar, U.S. Congressman March, Thomas Stone, U.S. educator Mariani, Domenic, Itahan cardinal

27,

Dec.

1870 16, 1872

.

.

Mason, Caroline Atwater, U.S. author U.S. wTiter

Max,

Adolphe, Belgian burgomaster Maxwell, Charles Robert, U.S. educator Mayo, Dr. Charles Horace, U-S. surgeon Mayo, Dr. William James, U.S. surgeon Mendelsohn, Charles Jastrow, U.S. crj’ptographer and .

.

.

.

philologist

U.S. actress

Merrick, Leonard, British author Merriman, Thaddecs, U.S. engineer AIetcalf, Ralph, U.S, editor and legislator Meyers, George Julian, U.S. rear admiral Middleton, Edgar, British author Mill.\r, Rev. William Bell, U.S. church leader Miller. Charles Ervine. U.S. educator Miller, Joseph Dana, U.S. economist Miller, Russell King, U.S. organist and composer Miller, Dr. WiLLiAai Snow. U.S. anatomist Mitchell, Dr. Clifford, U.S. urinologist and author Moffett, Rev. Samuel Austin, U.S. missionarj' .

....

.

.

U.S. lesislator

Mondello, Uco, Italian seismologist Monroe, Will Sey.mour, U.S. psychologist and author. Moore, Hugh Kelsea, U.S. chemical engineer Moore, Ow’EN, U.S. actor Moorehead, Warren King, U.S. archaeologist Morgan. James Henry. U.S. educator Mosquera Narvaez, Aurelio, president of Ecuador Mount Temple, ist Baron (\1 ’ilfrid ^^'IILUM Ashley), .

.

British statesman

Mucha, Czech artist Muirhead, Anthony John, British legislator Mundelein, George William, U.S. cardinal Bryce. U.S.

1888

11,

1839 , July 14, 1870 Dec. 26, 1874 Feb. 26, 1868 Apr. 3,

186^^^

.

.

Mn.N'DiE, \Vn.LiAM

Nov.

financier

Martin, Edward Sandford, U.S. author and editor Martin, Helen Reimeksnyder, U.S. author AIartin, John Andrew*, U.S, Congressman Mar\"in, Fred Richard, U-S. editor Marx, Charles David, U.S. ci\’il engineer and professor

Mondell. Frank Wheeler.

i8s3

28, 1867 Sept. 23, 1861 Apr. 12, i860

Chinese scholar Dr. Charles Staples, U.S. medical educator

Mercer, Beryl,

s,

Nov. 18, 1802 Jan. 16, 1879 1S73 ,,

Aug.

Ma Hsiang-Pai,

Mason, Walt,

1886 1869 iSss 1848 187s i860 i 8S9 1847 186S 1879

Apr. 15, 1S77 Feb. X, 1863 Feb. 6, 1868 June 12, 1866 187s „ Sept. 29, 1871 July 10, 1876 Feb. 27, i860 Sept. 28, 1847 ^lay 8, x868

.Apr.

MagiLL, Robert Edward, U.S. church officer Maher, Dr. Stephen, John, U.S. physician

Marko\i6, Edo, Yugoslav

iS,

Sept. 16, Oct. 21, July 30, Sept. ID,

Nov.

lisher

McMahon, Joseph H., U.S. Catholic clergj-man McMechan, Dr. Francis Hoeffer, U-S. anaesthetist McMillan, Joh.n, British Salvation Army officer

.

Sept.

date Oct. 17 Sept. 3

ilar. 13

Feb. 14 Apr. 9 Dec. 20 Dec. 18

Mar. 7 Nov. 3

Nov. Oct.

7

27

Feb. 20 July x6 June 4 Apr. 19

Lister, Sir (Frederick) Spencer, South African bac-

.

June

1856 1874

Death

Aug.

Mar.

Leslie, Amy (Mrs. Lillie West Broavn-Buck), U.S. dramatic critic Lea'etzow, Magnus von, German admiral Le\h, Gerson Baruch, U.S. rabbi and editor Leahs, James Hamilton, U.S. Senator Lewts, Dr. Robert, U.S. medical educator Liljefors, Bruno, Swedish painter Lindemann, Ferdinand von, German mathematician Lindgren, Waldemar, U.S. geologist Lindsay, Sir Charles William, Canadian business; exe-

.

7

May 30, May 18,

Mar.

Lederer, EiHL, German economist

.

1

and jour-

Krause, Lyda PARRiNCTbN ("Barbara Yecbton”), U.S. author and editor Kraut, Julius, German portrait painter

tive

La^Juuos Gareche, member of U.S. Foreign Service Le Boedf, Randall James, U.S. jurist

'

9 July 18 July IS Alay 10

Feb. 22, 1872 Feb. 5, 1876 Sept. 1883

nalist

specialist

1858 1S63 1868 i860

i 874(?)

.

May

Laveixe, Rev. MiaiAEL J., U.S. clergj’man Lawtience, Sm Alexander, British solicitor to Treasur>' LAttHENCE, George Warren, U.S. public utilities execu-

.

Sept. IS, 1863

Aug.

cator

Kelly, Walter

1875 s, 1869 13, 1873 July 29, 1890 Feb. 21, 1862 Mar. 20, 1880 Oct. s, 1887 Jan. 30, 1881 Aug. 11, 1890 21,

Mar. June

Birth date

Name

date

Jan. 12, 1873 Dec. 13, 1885 Feb. 4, 1865

administrator

Handman,

Death

Birth date

Name

architect

.

.

Oct.

3

July 13 Aug. 3 May 24 Feb. 22 Dec. 3 Dec. 12

Aug.

2

Mar. iS Nov. 2 Jan. 31

Apr.

7

Apr. 23 Nov. 20

Nov.

12

Oct. 31 Feb. 23 Mar. 29 July 26

July 9 Jan. 17 Oct. aS Sept. IS

6

Jan.

June 29 Sept. 22 Sept. 29

Mar.

7

July II Nov. 14 ilay 4 June 6 Nov. 4 Sept. 29 Dec. 12 Jan. 13 Apr. 23 Dec. 18

Jan. 2, 1856 Oct. 18, 1868

June 13 June 29

Apr. 10, 1868 Dec. 22, 1868 Oct. 10, 1857 July 10, 1853 May 4, 1862 Dec. 31, 1869 Jan. 19, 1878 July 19, x86s June 29, 1861

Dec. 23 July 14 Dec. 31

Dec. 8, 1880 1882 Feb. 21, 1864 Apr. 6, 1876 Nov. 2, 1861 Apr. xo, 1881 Xov. 26, 1894 1866 Feb. 24, 1867 July 1, 1S64 May 10, 1871 Mar. 29, 1858 Jan. 28, 1S54 Jan. 25, 1864 Nov. 6, i860 Mar. I, 1876 Mar. 22, 1863 Jan. 3, 1872 Dec. 12, 1S86 Mar. 10, 1866 Jan. 21, 1857 '

1SS3C?) Sept. 13, 1S67 i86o(?)

.

6

Sept.

July 31

Nov. 4, 1S90 July 2, 1872 Apr. 30, 1863

May

2

June 22 Nov. 6 Sept. 14

May 26 July 28 Sept. 27

July 28

Aug.

7

Sept. 26

Apr. 14 Dec. 7 Apr. 10

May

30

Jan. 10

May May

8 3

Dec. 26 Oct. 19 Oct. 24 Aug. 6 Dec. 3 Jan. 29 Dec. iS June 9 Jan. 5 Oct. 17

Nov.

17

July 3 July 16 Oct. 29 Oct.

2

Mar. 27

OBITUARIES Muneo, Dr. Walter Lee, U.S, surgeon Murphy, Rev. Joseph A., U.S. Catholic bishop Murray, William D., U.S. lawyer and youth leader .

.

Sept. 4, 1857 Dec. 24, 1857 July 17, 1858

, .

Naismith, Dr. James A., U.S. physical director .... Neal, Robert Wilson, U.S. educator Neeld, Reginald Rundell, British adrmral Neilson, Dr. Thomas Rundle, U.S. surgeon and educator

Neumann, Dr. Heinrich,

Austro-Hungarian otologist Neuiiann, Dr. Wilhelm, German physician Nevill, Lord Richard (Plantacenet), British aide to Royal family . . . . Nicholl, Sir Edward, British shipping executive .... Nicholson, Reginald Fairfax, U.S. rear admiral . Niemiro^ver, Rev. Jacob Isaac, Rumanian rabbi Noda, Hjdeo, Japanese-American painter Nofe, Adolf Carl, U.S. palaeobotanist NoRitAN, Sir Henry, British journalist .

.

.

.

.

.

Norton, Arthur Henry, U.S. educator Norton, Charles Ladd, U.S. engineer OciLviE, Albert George, premier of Tasmania .... Ogilvie Gordon, Dame Maria M., British geologist O’Hagan, Thomas, Canadian author Oka, Minoru. Japanese publisher Oldenburg, Andreas, Danish diplomat Oliphant, Herman, general coimsel of U.S. Treasurj' O’Malley, William, Irish Nationalist leader

Omwake, John,

U.S. manufacturer Orr, William, U.S. educator and author Orteig, Raymond, U.S. restaurateur and donor transatlantic flight prize

.

Owen, Emmett Marshall, U.S. legislator Owen, Sir James George, British publisher Paddock, Rev. Robert Lewis, U.S. Episcopal bishop Palmer, Charles Seeele, U.S. chemist Pancoast, H^nry Khunratb, U.S. radiolo^st .... .

.

Panzini, Alfredo, Italian novelist Park, Dr. William Hallock, U.S. public health authority

Parker, Emmett Newton, U.S. jurist Parker, George A., U.S. educator architect

Pattison, WiLLiAit J., U.S. publisher Patton, Rev. Cornelius Howard, U.S. clergyman and author Paxon, Frederic John, U.S. merchant ... Peabody, Charles, U.S. educator and museum curator Pearson, Alfred John, U.S. educator and diplomat Pearson, Raymond Allen, U.S. educator Pease, Sir Alfred Edward, British explorer .

.

.

Phillips, Nelson, U.S. jurist

.

.

.

.

..........

Pillsbury, Charles Stinson, U.S. mill executive

.

.

.

Pius AVS XI, Pope it

Plant, Oscar Henry, U.S. pharmacologist Plumb, Charles Sumner, U.S. educator

Pond, Irving Kane,

U.S. architect

•

•

-

Poole, Reginald Lane, British historian Sir William Jackson, British chemist Porter, Alfred Williaii, British physidst Potts, Dr. WiLLiAii Alexander, British psychologist

Pope,

.

...... Price, Jesse Dashiell, U.S. legislator Pritchett, Henry Smith, U.S. educator and scientLst Prystor, Alexander, Polish statesman Pujo, Arsene Paulin, U.S. Congressman Pulitzer, Ralph, U.S. publisher Putnam, Edward Kirby, U.S. museum director ,

.

.

.

.

Quast, Ferdinand von, German general

RACKHAii, Arthur, British illustrator Ramsay, Sir William Mitchell, British explorer Ramsden, Omar, British goldsmith Rank, Otto, Austrian psychologist Rathvon, William Roedel, U.S. Christian Saence ^

leader

Ray, Sir Sidney Herbert,

Read,

•

•

•

British ethnologist

Opie, U.S. author

Reeves, Ira Louis, U.S. engineer and soldier Rhayader, Leifchild Stratte.v Leif-Jo.ves,

.

.

..... ist

Nov. 6 Dec.

17, 1862 Dec. 16, 1852 1872 July IS, 1908 Oct. 28, 1873 Sept. 19, 1858 Dec. 9, 1870 Dec. 11, 1870

Mar. 31

J.

t

Riano y Gayangos, Juan, Spanish-American diplomat Rice, Wallace (De Groot Cecil), U.S. author , Richardson, James Armstrong, Canadian financier RiCHTiiYER, Floyd Karker, U.S. physidst •

-

•

.

,

Riesenberc, Felix, U.S. engineer and author Riesenfeld, Hugo, U.S. musician and conductor Rinfret, Fernand, Canadian statesman RrrcmE, John, U.S. conchologist, author, and health .

.

.

.

.

expert

Robertson, Joseph Andrew, U.S. industrialist .... Robinson, Robert P., U.S. ixiUtidan Rogers, James Har\t:y, U.b. economist Rogers, Dr. John, U.S. surgeon . Rohrbach, Adolf, German aeroplane designer .... Rorimer, Louis, U.S, artist Rosenthal, Albert, U.S. artist Ross, Tames Delmace, U.S. engineer Ross, JOHN Dawson, U.S. author and librarian .... Rossi, Enrico, Italian count and liquor manufacturer Roth, Joseph, Austrian novelist Routledce,S’ of Navy SwiNDALL, Charles, U.S. jurist

Sept.

Mar.

.

.

.

Alexander Mair, U.S. builder Stewart, Samuel Vernon, U.S. attorney and State

is IS

Jan-

.

.

cator Stew'art,

Aug. 28

Jan. 16, 1862

Mar. Nov.

I

6

Sept.2o(?) Dec. 31 June 14 May 22

IS, 1851 21, 1873

;

Dec. 14

May

.

,

Dec. 2 Feb. 20 July 29

9, 1886 IS, 1863 Apr. x6, 1857 1875 Dec. 16, 1861 June ir, 1879 Nov. 17, 1868

Mar.

Staunton, Sidney Augustus, U.S. rear admiral

Steiwxr, Frederick, U.S. Senator Stengel, Dr. Alfred, U.S. physician and educator Stephani, Friedrich Franz Adolf von, German major;

.

.

....

Taft, Rev. George Wheaton, U.S. theologian

Talmace, Algernon, British artist Tanahashi, Ayako, Japanese educator

Tannery, Jean, French i

i

June Nov.

20,

Mar. Nov,

7, 1 I

1

6, i

18, 17, 3, I

Sept. 29,

June July

J

27, 1

4

.

;

Xov. 30, 1875

Nov. 21

1875 1884

July 26

1865 7, 1850 Oct. 13, 1883 Nov. 3, 1868

Nov. 26

May

;

Apr.

17, 18,

1

Aug. June

27,

Taylor, J. Wnx, U.S. Congressman Taylor, Richard V., U.S. Federal and city official Tchenc Lon (Ch’En Lu), Chinese politician Teleszky, John, Hunganan financier

.

.

.

12, 1876 Feb. 25, 1863 3, 1883

Apr. 26 Oct.

Mar.

1, 2,

1866 1857

Aug. 13

Oct.

Aug.

2,

1872 1879 i860 1857 1859 1867 1865

Sept. 15

Feb. 27, Sept.

5,

Nov. Nov.

4, 12,

May

IS, JIar. 18,

Dec. 20, 1847 Sept. 12, 1842 Mar. 31, 1862 Feb. 13, 1876 July 17, 1865 25, 1838 Dec. 31, 1878 Mar. 20, 1881 June 18, 1863 Jan. 29, 1888 1885 Aug. 28, x88o Aug. II, 1859 1878 1868 Apr. 20, 1879 Dec. 25, 1865

Temperley, Harold William Vazeilli:, British historian Templeton, Fay, U.S. actress Templetown, Henry Edw’ard Montagu Dorincton CLorwoRTHV Upton, arn Viscount, Irish p>eer Apr. .

.

.

Terry, (Joseph Edw'ard) Harold, British author •i^OMASHEFSKY, BoRES, U.S. Yiddish actor Thompson, Andrew Thorburn, Canadian legislator and .

.

.

Thomson, Sir Basil, British police commissioner

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

T^e-ndike, Dr. Paul, U.S. surgeon Thornton, Alfred H.R., British painter

Todd, Daxtd, U.S. astronomer Toller, Ernst, German poet Towxr, George Warren, Jr.,

May

27,

1870

Jan. 29, 1859

Aug. Aug.

1844 1867 Apr. 21, 1861 Mar. 2, 1863 1863 Mar. 19, 1855 Dec. 1, 1893 5, 13,

&pt.

1

13

Dec. 21

Apr. 7 Dec. 19

Nov.

IS

Dec. 14

Junp 29

May

17

Sept. 12

Oct.

9

July

7

June 18 Jan. 21 Sept. 14 Sept. 23 July 7 July 28 June 28

July 17 Oct. 31

Nov. 14 Dec. 22 Feb. 20

June 13 July II Oct.

Oct.

3 2

Aug. 10 July

9

Apr. 20 Dec. 2 Dec. 14 Mar. 19 Mar. 26 May 28 Feb. 20

June

i

Jilay 22

U.S. geolo^st and cn-

pneer

Towxr, Sir Reginald,

20, 1853 Sept. 21, 1885 12, 1868^

May

soldier

Thompson, Eben Francis, U.S. lawyer and author Thompson, Dr. Frederick Henry, U.S. surgeon Thompson, Waddy, U.S. historian

Jaru 11 Feb. 3 Apr. 10

June

i 869{?)

Tarr, William Arthur, U.S. mineralogist and geologist Tate, Frank, Australian educator Tatsch, Jacob Hugo, U.S. Masonic leader Tavera, Chaeles-Joseph, French admiral

2

Nov.

Mar.

financier

June

I

chemist

Mar. 4

2S,

May

facturer

21

Nov. Nov.

]

3

Feb. 28,

.

.

18, 26,

Nov.

.

Spingarn, Joel Elias, U.S. professor and author ... Squires, Edith Lombard, U.S. poet . ., Stabler, Laird Joseph, U.S. educator, inventor and

Aug.

2,

.

.

i

Mar.

.

.

Rhinelander, Rev. Philip Mercer, U-S. Episcopal •

I

Baron,

British liberal leader

bishop

6

Oct. 25

i 884(?)

.

Powers, Thomas E., U.S. cartoonist Powys, Llewelyn, British author Prance, Joseph G., U.S. founder of Kiwanis International Pratt, Waldo Seldzn, U.S. musician and professor Price, Frank J., U.S. author and editor Price, Hickman, U.S. agriculturist

.

May Aug.

Oct. 29, 1857 16, 1873

and

Ruppert, Jacob, U.S. brewing and baseball executive Ryan, William Henry, U.S. Congressman Saavedra, Juan Bautista, Bolivian statesman ....

Nov. 28

June

Mar. Nov.

.

•

1861 1871

i8s7 Mar. 29, 1857

.

.

.

2,

Ort. 10, 1850

May

•

.

.

6,

Apr.

Row's, Joseph Eugene, U.S. educator, mathematidan,

23

Nov. 25 Nov. 20

of first

O’Shea, John Augustine, U.S. organist and educator O’Shea, William James, U.S. educator

Parsons, William Edward, U.S.

Nov.

Oct.

507

British diplomat

Townse.nd, Julius Curtis, U-S. rear admiral

Oct. 27, 1871 Sept. I, i860 Feb. 22, i88i

Sept. IS Jan. 21 Dec. 2S

1

OBSTETRICS — OCEANOGRAPHY

508

Birth date

Name

May

Marion Ernest,

U.S. educator Trent, WiLLiAii Petertield, U.S. professor Trinkle, Elbert Lee, U.S. State governor

Town'sen'd,

.

Tubeus, Juozas, Lithuanian statesman Tucker, Benjaxiin R., U.S. author Turk, Rev. Morris Howland, U.S. cIerg>-TOan Vauxant, Charles, French radiologist Valdemar, prince of Denmark Vance, Rev. James Isaac, U.S, minister Van Der Goes, Frank, Dutch socialist .

.

.

.

S. S.

(^YILLARD Huntington

Feb. 13, iSs9

.

.

.

.

.

iS4i(?)

phvsician

...

Walker, Hugh, British author Walker, Lapsley Greene, U.S. editor Wallace, Dillon, U.S. e.\plorer and author Wallace, James, U.S. educator Walsh, Frank Patrick, U.S. attorney Walsh, Raymond Arnold, U.S. editor and jurist Ware, Helen (Helen Remer), U.S. actress Warfield, Ralph Mer\tne, U.S. rear admiral Warren, Albert Edward, Canadian railroad ofiicial Warringto.n, Albert Pouxll, U.S. iheosophist Warrum, Henry, U.S. labour counsel Washburn, Margaret Floy, U.S. professor Watson, John Jay, U.S. industrialist

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

June 28

Aug. Mar. Aug. June

18, 31, s,

13,

Oct. 9, Oct. 20, Jan. 7, July 20,

June Mar.

24,

July

12, 20,

June

17,

Oct. IS, Sept, 12, 9,

June

19,

July 23, .

Nov.

12,

Feb.

9,

June

.

Wild, Frank, British explorer Williams, Herbert Oswald, U.S. consul Williams, Dr. Leonard Llewtlyn Bulkeley,

.

.

Williams, Vasily Robertovich, Russian scientist Williamson, Sydney Bacon, U.S. engineer ....

.

Nov. Mar.

U.S. reformer

July 25, 1869 May 8, 1868 Oct. 31, i868 Nov. 30, 1857 Aug. 24, 1857 July 26, 1862

Sept. 28

Aug. 23

May

2

June

6

Jan.

25 21 16 16 18 29

Mar. Oct.

June -Apr.

Oct.

Mar. 30 July 25

Oct. 12 June 17 Oct. 24 Dec. 12

Oct.

1S61

Aug. 20

i 8 s9

Sept. 17

eries

1863 186s 1872 1856 1867 1863 i88i

Nov.

2,

I,

Aug. 31,

WlNCHlLSEA AND NOTTINGHAM; GUV MoNTAGU GeORGE Finch-H.\tton, Earl of, British peer .

.

.

ufacturer biologist

Woodson, Urey, U.S. pubUsher and governmental

field

Mar. 3 Jime 28 Jan. 4 Aug. 19

.

.

.

.

Chinese soldier and poet

Yeats, William Butler, Irish poet .... Young, Dr. Archibald, Scotch surgeon Ysembourc, Karl von, Austrian princess Zeleny, Charles, U.S. zoologist

Zemgals, Gustav, Latvian statesman .... Zimmerman, Alfred Rudolf, Dutch statesman and

Geodesy and Geophysics reported on a number of

28,

Feb. 10

restricted area north-west of the

Feb.

4,

1885 1907 Nov, 16, 1870 July 26, 1875

June

9 Jan. 30 July

S

Apr.

9 19

May

Nov. 5

16, July 14,

1859 18&1 1866 Jan. 3x, 1864 Oct. 18, 1877

Aug. 7 Feb. 28 Aug. 27 July 15 Dec. 4

Dec. 23, 1865 1873

Oct.

June Nov. Mar.

Jan. 28 July 23 Apr. 35 Dec. 21 Jan. 7

13, 1865 10, 1873 16, 1872

Sept. 17, 1878

Aug,

12, 1871

Dec.

29

4

dip-

Jan. 19, 1869 Sept, 22, 1855

July

2

Mar. 22

Gynaecology and Obstetrics.

Merchant Ma-

rine.

evident that the European war

have a serious effect on oceanographic work has been radically curtailed and

sur\'ey

interesting de-

May-July 193S, in a Azores by German and Norwe-

carried

out,

gian ships indicates that even quite minor features of the bottom topography can influence the superficial current pattern in depths as great as 1,500 fathoms.

Both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of the United States the tide gauge records have recently been studied in relation to fluctuations in the current systems along the coast. It has been found, for example, that the variations in the transport of the

Gulf Stream are rather closely reflected level at

Miami and

Charleston. There

is

b}'

changes in

mean

sea-

a possibility that in some

circumstances tide gauge observations may become helpful in forecasting the gradual trends in coastal climate.

In addition, there

is

some evidence

certain fisheries depends largely

to

show

that the success of

on whether or not the current

system disperses the eggs. When the currents are abnormal, many of the very j'oung fish are carried off to deep water ivhere they have little chance to survive. Thus a better knowledge of the variations in the currents

Plankton.

\vill

The

May

Liners: see Shipbuilding; Shipping,

(IrPSimOrsnllV UliGallUgIdIJlIja

—

Ocean Currents. ^In Sept. 1939 the physical oceanographers attending the Washington meeting of the International Union of velopments.

mar-

shal

has made arrangements for the reconditioning of a trawler to study off-shore fisheries problems in the Neiv England area.

June 14

Aug. .

Jan. Feb. 16

of-

ficial

Woodward, Ellsworth, U.S. artist and educator Woodward, John Charles, U.S. militarj' educator

II 13

as

Jan, 16, 1873

Mar. 1, 1866 July 3, 1873 Jan. 29, 1873

U.S, geologist

SEVEN MILES OF STEEL ROPE, equipped with a core sampler and powder charge, were completed early In 1939 at the Carnegie Institute of Washington to plumb ocean floors for scientific data previously unknown to man

mediums for the exchange of observations and ideas. The chief exception to a world-wide decrease in oceanographic activity is the recent announcement that the United States Bureau of Fish-

Feb. 16,

WiNDiscHGRAETz, Rudolph VON, Austrian prince Winsor, Frank Edward, U.S. civil engineer Wise, Rev. James, U.S. Episcopal bishop Wood, Henry Alexander Wise, U.S. inventor and man-

Worthington, Sir Percy, British architect Wright, Joshua Butler, U.S. diplomat Wderttemberc, Albrecht, (German duke and

3

3 July 14 Sept. 3

Aug. 20 Aug. 17

May

W1MBOR.NE, Viscount (Ivor CIhurchill Guest), British statesman

Woods, Dr. Frederick Adams, U.S.

Sept.

June

r June 30, 1873

Oct. 19,

U.S, author Wilson, Henkv Van Peters, U.S. biologist Wilson, S.asioel Da\ts, U.S. politician

see

July 12

Sept 17

20, 1862 30, 1849

Apr. 13, Apr, 24,

Wilson, Edmund Beecher, U.S. zoologist

Obstetrics:

Dec. 11 Sept. 14

June 28

Nov. 13

.

Wilson, Harry Leon,

British feminist

Oct. 31 4 Oct. 29

July

1873

it>’

ZiMMERN, Alice,

Mar. 25

British

gland authoriw Williams, Dr. Louis Laval, U.S. public health author-

lomat

Dec. 22 Sept. 12 Apr. 16

Finnish sociologist

Whallon, Rev.Edward pAYSON,U.S.mimster and editor White, J. Du Pratt, U.S, lau^’er and civic leader Whtteley, Emily Stone, U.S. historian Whitman, Russell Ripley, U.S, publisher Whitney, Jaues Povndee, British historian WicKERSEAM, James, Alaskan legblator, jurist and author Wiener, Leo, U.S. philologist and historian

Ocean

18S8 1864 i860 1864 1873 1861 1855 1S54 1863 1849 1864 18S9 1877 1S80 1S74 1S66 1867 1871 1874 1873

1

Sept. 13

Feo. 11

13, 1S86

socialist

and anthropologist

*Wu Pei-Fu,

s

Mar. g, 1897 i 87 o {?) Jan. 22, 1848

Aug. 27,

director

Woodman, Joseph Edmund,

June

Feb. 20

U.S. motion picture

Westermarck, Edward Alexander,

WusoN, Clarence True,

4 14

Apr.

June

Weber, Rjev. Herman Carl, U.S. clergx-man and editor Wels, Otto, (German

Dec.

Nov. 24

188S Dec. 27, 1849 Mar. n, 1885

1S66

Waid, D.an Everett, U-S. architect Wain, Louis William, British illustrator Waldo, Dutght Bryant, U.S. educator Walgreen, Charles Rudolph, U-S. drug s-torc executive Walker, Arthur George, British sculptor

Weber, Lois (Mrs. Harry Gantz),

Jan.

.

ViLDOSOL.\, Silva, Chilean editor ViLLAZON, Eliodoro, Bolivian statesman ViLLiERS, Edward Cecil, British admiral

.

i 872(?) Oct. 27, 1858 Sept. 25, 1862

1

right), U.S.

Vernon, Robert, U.S. motion picture actor

.

June 22 Mar. 2

Oct.

....

author Van Dyke, John Wesley, U.S. petroleum executive Verigin, Peter, Canadian leader of Doukholors

Wagner, Gerhard, German

Nov. 25

«

Vanderpoel, EiiiLY C. XoYES, U.S. painter and author

*Van Dine,

date

Apr. 17. 1854 June 2, 1867

Nov. Mar.

.

.

Death Dec. 21 Dec. 6

1889 1862 1876

16, 10, 12,

is essential to fisheries investigations. ^The floating population of small marine animals and

plants are of course studied for their own sake, but during 1939 they also received attention for other reasons. Investigated quantitatively, the

plankton provide information concerning the ferIt has been found, for example, that although

research. Already the field

tility

such organizations as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea and the North American Council for Fisheries Investigations are finding it difficult to continue their functions

tropical waters are relatively sparsely populated, the total annual plankton crop may exceed that of northern coastal areas, which

of the sea.

for short periods are often so e.xtremely fertile that the waters

'

OFFICERS’ RESERVE

CORPS— OHIO

become discoloured by the swarms of

cuts in the rolls of those holding

much

jobs.

tiny creatures. There is a longer growing season in low latitudes and the better pene-

509 Works

So the number of persons on

Projects Administration

although industrial

relief rose

tration of sunlight permits plants to flourish over a considerable

hiring increased.

depth range. The plankton are also successfully being used for a study of the currents in the North sea and the English channel.

last quarter of 1939 Toledo and Cleveland, industrial found their relief funds at the vanishing point. They appealed to Gov. John W. Bricker to call a special session of the

The

various primary water-masses, which are mixed in this re-

gion, each gists,

have a characteristic population

by counting the numbers of

Thus marine

biolo-

certain indicator forms in each

In the

centres,

legislature so that additional funds

remedy the situation. He charged that poWPA was partly responsible for Cleveland’s difliculty and pointed out that at a special election in Toledo in September a relief levy was defeated, with only 11,622

haul of a two-net survey, are able to gain information on the

thing in their pow’er to

mixing which accompanies the rather complicated current system.

litical

Submarine Geology.

—The

sonic sounding equipment tails

is

use

of

continuously

bringing to light

many

recording

interesting de-

of the bottom topography. Recently published charts of the

continental shelf off the eastern coast of the United States not

only adequately edge, but also

map

show

the huge submarine canyons at

its off-shore

that the whole face of the continental slope

has been eroded, presumably at the same time that the canyons were formed. (See also Fisheries; Marine Biology; Zoology.)

—

Bibliography. The Inlernalional Survey of the GulJ Stream Area, published by International Assn, of Physical Oceanography (1939): “Some Physical Factors which May InBuence the Productivity of New England’s Coastal Waters,” Jour, of Marine Research, Vol. II, No. i (1939); “Research within Physical Oceanography and Submarine Geology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography during April 1938 to April 1939,” Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Part III (1939); “Plankton Studies. II. The Western North Atlantic, May-June 1939 ,” Jour, of Marine Research, Vol. II, No. 2 (i 939 ): “Hydrographical and Biological Conditions in the North Sea as Indicated by Plankton Organisms,” Jour, du Conseil, vol. xiv. No. 2 (1939); "Atlantic Submarine Valleys of the United States and the Congo Submarine Valley,” Geological Society of (C. O’D. I.) America, Special Papers, No. 7 (1939).

Officers'

Reserve Corps:

see

Armies of the World:

Mili-

tary Service.

Ogilvie, Albert mania, on

March

10.

S:

George He

received his degree of bachelor of laws

from the University of Tasmania and was called to the bar in 1914. After building up a large practice he entered parliament in igig as a Labour member. Four years later he became attorneygeneral and minister of education in the Labour cabinet; in the same year he also held the portfolios of forestry and of mines. He became leader of the Tasmanian Labour Party in 1929 and was premier of Tasmania from 1934 until his death on June ii at

manipulation of

persons voting in favour of

it

see

Literary Prizes: United

States.

his charges of

WPA political

manipulation brought heated retorts

from President Roosevelt, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes and Col. Francis C. Harrington, Works Projects commissioner. By transferring funds intended for other purposes and with temporary help from Federal agencies, the cities were able to take care of the most desperate cases of need. Ohio voters rejected decisively at the election November 7 a proposal to pay every person over 60 years of age a pension -of $50 a month regardless of need. Revenue was to be raised by a special land tax and a State income tax. The vote was 460,537 for and 1,527,577 against. This proposed amendment to the Ohio Constitution and another designed to make it easy for minorities to get other constitutional amendments and initiated laws on the ballot were sponsored by Herbert S. Bigelow. The vote on the initiatii’e amendment was 403,749 for and 1,469,796 agamst. Two other State issues were voted down at the same time. A constitutional amendment to establish a State Board of Education lost, 739,082 for and 1,118,704 against. The vote on a referendum bill to reorganize the State Civil Service Commission was 645,096 for and 1,110471 against. Over the State, proposed bond issues and tax levies were voted down by the scores with school levies in general faring befter than the others.

Gov. Bricker on August 26 appointed a Democrat, former Adjt.-Gen. Frank D. Henderson, warden of Ohio penitentiary.

Henderson succeeded James C. Woodard who was dismissed on March 25 on charges of favouring prisoners with wealthy or political connections and of permitting prison traffic in narcotics and Opposition of residents of the 18-county Muskingum Watershed Conservancy district to increased taxes and assessments on benefited property induced the Federal Government to add to its original grant of $22,090,000

central State of the United States, popularly

flhin

although there w'ere 11,204 cases or rolls. The govemor-’s stand and

nearly 33,000 people on the relief

liquor.

Warburton, Victoria, Australia.

O. Henry Memorial Awards:

might be voted. This the govcities had not done every-

ernor refused to do, holding that the

known

UniUf

as the “Buckeye State”; area, 41,040 sq.mi.; population (1930 census), 6,646,697, estimated July i, 1937, 6,733,000. Capital, Columbus, with a population of 290,564 (1930). Other cities with over 100,000 were: Cleveland, 900,429; Cincinnati, 290,718; Akron, 255,040; Dayton, 200,982; Youngstown, 170,002; and Canton, 104,906. Of the State’s population, 4,507,371 were urban, or 67-8%; native white 5,686,985; foreign bom 644,151; and coloured, 309,304. History. An unemployment relief crisis and the efforts to fix the responsibility for it focused national attention on Ohio in the last two months of 1939. The General Assembly on May 26 en-

451,160; Toledo,

—

acted a §317,000,000 budget for the 1939-40 biennium.’ Relief authorities and the large cities had asked that $26,000,000 be

voted for unemplo>’ment reh'ef for the two-year period but when for that purit was enacted the budget allotted only $20,000,000 pose or $10,000,000 a year. Industrial employment was expanding and $10,000,000 might have covered the relief needs except that the Federal Government at the order of Congress made drastic

trol project.

WTien

management

of the project

toward the $45,000,000 flood con-

this additional contribution

was vested

in the

was made

in

United States

1939

Army

Engineers. Residents of the district then expressed the fear that

under Federal control the development of recreation and wildlife conservancy programs that were originally contemplated around the 14 key dams would be neglected. Effectiveness of Ohio’s

3%

sales tax

was increased

the State began redeeming sales tax coupons for

3%

in

May when

of their face

amount when submitted in amounts of at least $100 face value. During the first six months this plan was in operation $66,363 was paid out for coupons which had a total face value of $2,212,183 and represented purchases of $73,739,503. This system coupled with improved business conditions produced sales tax reve-

nue for the

first

10 months of 1939 that

was nearly $4,300,000

in

excess of the revenue for the corresponding period in 1938. Education. .Alter Toledo voters defeated a school tax by a two-to-one majority at the November 7 election, the city was

—

forced to close the schools for the last six v.’eeks of 1939 because lacked funds to pay teachers and other employees. (P. By.)

it

OIL^ONTARIO

510 Mineral

Manufactures,

Agriculture,

Production.

—Impor-

Talihina; two orphan

homes

at

Helena and Whitaker; school

for

tant crops, with provisional figures of production for 1939, are as follows: corn, i67,825,ooobu.; soybeans, 7,8s4,ooobu.; apples,

the deaf. Sulphur; school for the blind, Muskogee; Deaf, Blind, and Orphans’ Home for Coloured Children, Taft; and the State

i2,626,ooobu.;

Hospital for Negro Insane, Taft. The penal and corrective institutions include the State penitentiary at McAlester; Oklahoma State

S,8oo,ooobu.

;

tobacco,

wheat, 36,66g,ooobu.

tame hay, 3,487,000

;

28,i6o,ooolb.

tons.

yield of 49bu. per acre.

$3,099,816,893, with

potatoes,

steel

Corn in 1939 reached a record estimated Manufactures in 1937 were valued at products, rubber tires, electrical machin-

ery and motor vehicles leading.

was valued

;

oats, 3S,4go,ooobu.; barley, i,o5o,oQobu.;

Total mineral output in 1937

Principal minerals were coal ($44,-

at $131,023,104.

313,000), clay products ($24,329,083), natural gas ($19,967,000), stone ($9,426,808), coke ($32,183,945), lime ($8,653,571) and pig iron.

Oil: see Petroleum. Oils and Fats, Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats.

reformatory, Granite; Training School for White Boys, Pauls Valley; State Ind’ustrial School for White Girls, Tecumseh; and training schools for Negro boys at Boley and for Negro girls at Taft.

—

Banking and Finance. Of the 77 counties, 69 are in the loth (Kansas City) Federal Reserve District and eight in the nth (Dallas) District. There are 182 banks under State supervision and 212 national banks. In 1939, 380 banks carried Federal Deposit Insurance and 14 did not. Bank deposits averaged $445,396,000 during 1937. State expenditures for 1939-40 were estimated There is (Jan. i, 1940) no State ad valorem tax, main source of revenue being a gasoline tax, a sales tax (2%), production tax, and an income tax. The funded State debt stood

at $100,000,000.

and Animal:

see

Vegetable

the a

at $25,622,681 in July 1939. forty-sixth State of the United States,

nirloVinmo UKIanUilldi popularly known 2,396,040 (estimated July city is

1937, as 2,348,000).

i,

Oklahoma

The population

is

capital

and broom corn. The total value of agricultural products for 1939 was $115,040,000 compared with $iio,3i2,ooo-in 1938 (a 4% increase). Wheat with a value of $37,472,000 ranked first in 1939. The value of cotton and cotton seed was $25,934,000. The 1939 season average prices of most crops was above that of 1938. The

Tulsa, 141,258 (esti-

mated 160,000). Of the State’s population, 821,681 were urban, or 31%; 2,095,671 were native white; 26,753, foreign-born white; 172,198, coloured; and 92,725, Indian. History. The year 1939 opened with the inauguration on January 9 of Leon C. Phillips as iith governor. The 17th legislature remained loyal to the new governor and the session ended

—

with tions.

little

change in the

The heavy debt of

way

of taxation or increased appropria-

the State has been constantly criticized

by the governor and steps have been taken in an attempt to bring about a more economical State Government. In August the State forced all oil production to cease and for two weeks all State wells were shut down. The situation came as a result of similar action taken in Texas and was widely heralded as a price-fixing scheme. However, State officials stoutly maintain that production exceeded the market demand and that the purpose was conservation as State statutes define any production of oil over market de-

mand as waste. On the educational

common

principal mineral products are petroleum, coal, lead

school fund.

In addition, control of the State

was wrested from the State board of education and placed in the hands of a college board of regents. As a result of laws passed by the 17th legislature the so-called teachers colleges were changed to State colleges and in many instances changes were made in the administration of the schools. At present, the governor has the power to approve all institutional budgets by the quarter and to make any recommendations he feels are necessary for the economic stability of the State. teachers colleges

—

Education. ^The educational institutions include the UniverOklahoma, Norman; Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical college, Stillwater; Panhandle Agricultural and Mechanical

and

zinc,

There is a known reserve of 3,500,000,ooobbl. of petroleum and in 1939 there was a total production of i53,349,ooobbl. of crude oil. In 1939, there were produced 1,062,212 tons of coal, 100,957 tons of lead and zinc, 98,264 tons of gypsum, and 31,234 tons of asphalt. The chief manufacturing interests are glass, cement, flour, brooms, bricks and all types of refinery products. The total value of manufactured products in (R. Git.) 1935 was $282,658,470.

gypsum and

asphalt.

Old Age Pension:

see

Elections; Initiative and ReferenNew Zealand, Dominion of; Sounder various States.

dum; Legislation, Federal; cial Security. See also

fiscal expert, was born on August 31. He took his bachelor’s degree at Indiana university in 1909 and his doctorate of jurisprudence at the University of Chicago five years later. Meanwhile he was instructor of English at Marion college in Indiana. From 1914 to 1921 he taught law at the University of Chicago, and from 1921 to 1929 he was professor of law at Columbia university. In 1929 he helped organize the Institute of Law at Johns Hopkins university, where he assisted in the preparation of

(1884-1939). U.S.

Uormon

niinhant scene, strife appeared between the governor

and the State department of education over issuance of the $11,000,000

^The chief

agricultural commodities are wheat, cotton, corn, grain sorghums,

City, population 185,389 (estimated,

1939, 225,000); the second largest city

—

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production.

was

in 1930

The

(Estimated debt, July, 1940, $32,-

600,000.)

as the “Sooner State,” has a

total area of 70,057 square miles.

and largest

and

Uiipildllli nclllldll

many

in Forest, Ind.,

notable surveys of judicial systems and litigation in the

United States. Henry Morgenthau,

Jr. invited

him

to

Washington

1933 to act as his legal counsel in the new Farm Credit Administration. After Morgenthau became Secretary of the Treasin

sity of

ury on Jan.

college,

Department of the Treasury. This position he held until his death in Washington on January ii. Oliphant became widely known

Goodwell; Oklahoma College for

Women, Chickasha;

Colored Agricultural and Normal university, Langston colleges,

;

six State

formerly teachers colleges; four secondary agricultural

three junior colleges with six independent senior colleges, and three independent junior colleges. There are 19 municipal junior colleges and 868 approved high schools. Elementary and

schools

;

i,

1934, he appointed Oliphant general counsel of the

during Roosevelt’s second administration as author of the ill-fated undistributed profits tax.

;

Olive Oil:

see

Oman and

Muscat:

high school district average daily attendance, 1939, was 497,120. Charities and Corrections. The hospital and eleemosynary

—

institutions include three white

mental hospitals located at Nor-

man, Vinita and Supply, two tubercular hospitals

at Clinton

and

'I

to the

Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. see Arabia.

one of the original provinces of the Dominion of Canada; area, 412,582 sq.mi.; population according

Dominion census

of 1931, 3,431,683, estimated Jan.

1,

OPERA— OSTEOPATHY or

Of the Province’s

Capital, Toronto, 631,207.

1940, 3,731,000.

population 2,095,992 are urban, or

61%;

2,794,631 native

bom

81%. attention has been directed to the policy of the Govern-

ment of Ontario

in

supplying cheap light and power to the people

Province through the

the

of

estimate), 1,053,000. Portland, 1939 (Polk’s Directory estimate), 337,183, Salem, the capital, 1939 (estimate), 31,816.

History.

Much

Hydro-Electric Power Commission. electric services to

and controlled The Commission provides

publicly

o^wied

782 municipalities, comprising nearly

the cities and towns in the Province as well as

munities and local areas.

The

many

all

of

small com-

actual distribution within a munici-

511

—^The year 1939 saw Oregon looking

visioning great strides in

industrial path.

its

to'the future Chiefly, this

and was

due to the completion of the giant Bonne\nlle dam. The first big by the lure of cheap power was the -•Muminum Corporation of America, w’hich is located on the Wash-

industry to be attracted

ington side of the Columbia river with

But the State of Oregon took

this as a

its $3,000,000 plant. healthy sign, of the indus-

try to come.

performed by the municipality itself, under the supervision of the Commission. The capital of the Commission and Municipal Utilities amounts to $424,422,000. reserves $184,016,209. Rates are low and the service is excellent. The net value

Meanwhile, Oregon was talking public utility districts. In every section to which transmission from the Government’s big

of the total production of the Province in 1936 w’as $1,183,844,782.

time faced sale to the

pality

is

an increase of

10%

over the preceding year. The net annual agri-

was $234,619,984; of mineral products 1936, $151,874,462. ,The net value of forest products was

cultural revenue in 1936

for

$58,390,676; of manufactured products $686,470,917. The provincial election of 1937 resulted in the return to power of the Liberal Party under the leadership of the Hon. Mitchell Hepburn. The party standing of the Provincial Legislature comprises 63 Liberals, 23 Conservatives and 4 Independents. The lieutenant-governor is the Hon. Albert Matthews. Ontario is

Dominion Parliament by 24 senators, appointed members of the House of Commons elected for

represented in the for life and 82

term of

five years or less. Bibliography: Annual Report oj the Department of Labour; Statistical Year Book of Ontario; Annual Report of the Hydro-Electric Commission. (J. C. He.)

a

Bonneville project was feasible, groups of citizens talked of forming public utility districts.

Private power companies at the same

districts.

In

its

Holland-like Willamette

and flood conwas awaited. Embodying six dams, the project will be a giant “tap” on the flow of Willamette river water and will open thousands of acres to new farms. The year 1939 saw labour peace in Oregon. The so-called antipicketing law went into efi^ect. This prevents picketing where more than 50% of the employees are not involved. As the year ended the A.F. of L. was trying out an experiment using a large “unfair” headline on its own publication and having the paper offered for sale in front of any establishment where there was difficulty. This was held to be the sale of a newspaper rather valley, the beginning of the $62,000,000 irrigation trol project

—

than picketing, despite the obvious intent of the displayed headline. its new $1,000,000 library building, adjoinnew $2,500,000 capitol. Looking to the future, Salem residences are making way on surrounding blocks for a capitol

The

State dedicated

ing the

Opera: see Music. Ophthalmology: see Eye, Diseases of. Opium: see Drugs and Drug Traffic; League

Orange Free State:

n

_ UranguSi

Bumper

see

group.

oj Nations.

South Africa, the Union

of.

crops and a market disrupted by war were

the lot in 1939 of the orange section of the citrus fruit industry, which, as a whole, has had the largest expansion of any branch of agriculture in the last 20 years. Exports of

oranges from Spain for the season ending Oct. 31, 1939. were 2,572,000 half cases, compared to' 3,243,000 half cases for the 1938 season. The five-year average (1933-37) "'as 10.479,000

Orange groves of Spain were less damaged “than would be supposed,” official advices report. Orange exports from Egypt for the season ending March 31, 1939, were 729,000 boxes, compared to 341,000 boxes in the preceding season. The United States orange crop in 1939 was estimated by the Department of Agriculture as 78.564,000 boxes. In 1938, the record high, it was 78,863,000 boxes. The ten-year (1928-37) average was 53,785,000 boxes. The orange crop by States in 1939, in 1938 and for the ten-year (192S-37) average was as follows, in boxes; half cases.

lo-yr. average

igjg California Florida

Texas

....

Arizona Louisiana

Alabama

3q,oSo,ooo 35,000,000 2,730,000 460.000 260,000 7S.ooo

Mississippi

41,152.000 33,900.000 2,815,000 450,000 385,0^0 p6,ooo 85,000

34,715,000 x7,843,ooo 677,000 180,000 255,000 78,000

39 ,°^

For current data on the cost of marketing oranges see Nation^s Business of July 1939, in which Robert W. Gordon quotes the California Fruit Growers Exchange average costs for marketing for five vears. including five cents a

box for

advertising. (S.

Oregon.

0

.

R.)

Area, 96,699 sq.mi.; population; April i, 1930 (census), 953,786; 193S (Oregon Chamber of Commerce

The

legislature

moved

into the capitol in Jan. 1939, after a reg-

and a special session in the Salem armoury due to fire in 1935. The lawmakers did little, making minor changes in the income ular

tax.

Again they rejected

all

attempts at a sales tax, voted

down

repeatedly by the people of Oregon.

—

Education. The census rolls show 270,396 children of school age (4 to 19), with 207,417 enrolled in public schools. Of these. in high schools. There were 7,887 teachers and ad62,063 ministrators. There were 1,733 elementary schools, 264 standard high schools. 34 junior high schools, and the average teacher’s was $1,309.73, a gain of $20.12 for 1938-39. The school

salary

debt stood at; bonds, $14,627,954.83; warrants, $1,258,957.79; other $104,945.82; total, $13,991,838.24.

Finances. able.

The

—

was increasingly favourwas reduced from $50,586,810 in

^The condition of the State

State bonded debt

1936 to $38,718,085 on Oct.

Manufactures.

1939.

I,

—A census showed that there were 2,107 manu-

factures in the State, employing 117.396 persons, paying $157.357,520 in wages, and producing products of a value of $363,142.053. Of this total, lumber products accounted for $127,760,857;

canned and dried

fruits

and vegetables. $24,212,542;

grain mill products. $19,138,231

flcfonrinthu

;

flour

and

paper. $16,643,999. (P- H. P.)

Considerations of public health and welfare had

UolCU|Jullljfa

a large place in osteopathic activities in 1939. It being a “legislative year,” laws affecting the practice rights of osteopathic physicians, and their ability to serve their patients,

were enacted or amended in Delaware, Florida. Maine, Montana, New York. Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota and Tennessee. California and Los Angeles were added to the list of important States and cities whose boards of health include osteopathic physicians. South Dakota and Tennessee forbade by law any infringement

upon the

rights of patients of osteopathic physicians in the

admin-

OTTAWA— PACIFIC

512

and Ohio made

istration of public health programs,

it

ISLANDS, BRITISH

non-profit hospital service plans to discriminate against them. Rights of the people to select physicians properly accredited and

were

all

The

with such public health problems as pre-marital examinations, examinations of expectant mothers, etc. In preparing better to serve the public the American Osteopathic Association completed

many

improved their

and the number of osteopathic hospitals training interns was In

officially

U.S. Senate committee studying the

The Oxford University Handbook; The Oxford Uni(especially for Oct. 13, 1939 containing the Vice-Chancellor’s Review of the Year); The Annual Report of the University; (D. V.) Oxford (the Magazine of the Oxford Society). Bibliography.

represented before the

bill

to set

Wagner Health

Pacific Isiands, British.

up a national

bill),

continued

which certain essential statistics are given in the table below. See British Empire for population, capital towns, status, and gov-

its

Mothers and Babies and was represented in the White House Conference on Children in a Democracy. The 1939 convention of the American Osteopathic (R. G Hu.) Association was held in Dallas, Texas. participation in the National Council for

ernors.

UlldWdf

of the

Dominion of Canada and the seat Supreme Court, is situated on the right bank

Ottawa

mouth of the Rideau, both rivers The city itself is divided into an upper Rideau canal. The Parliament buildings

river near the

having very beautiful

falls.

and a lower town by the

are situated on a series of high bluffs which overlook the river, in

one direction toward the Chaudiere

toward the Rideau

falls.

The

falls

and

in the opposite direc-

population of the city

is

126,-

872; of the metropolitan district (including Hull) 175,988- The gross value of manufactured products in 1939 was $25,o43>8i8.

most important educational

institution

the

is

Universite

In Papua, a territory in the north, explored in 1935 but hithDisappointment was caused by the abandonment of operations by Papua Oil Develop-

d’Ottawa.

—Handbook

Bibliography. Book.

Outer Mongolia:

see

nvfnril linhiorcitu UXIOrO UniVcrSliy. Chemical

Industries

of the City

of

Ottawa; The Canada Year (J. C. He.)

erto a prohibited area, was declared open.

ment Limited. The commission

Mongolia.

were made for the erecnew wing to the organic chemistry laboratory and

Guinea with Papua. Principal Products

Territory and Area Square Miles

exported 1938 (in tons)

paratus and equipment for

to

Revenue and

Education:

Expenditure 1938 (in thousand £)

Elementary and Secondary 1937

rev,

exp.

£ £

Fij'i

890

Fiji

967

it.

£550 a year for seven years from Harry Sacher and of £500 a year for five years from Manchester college have Gifts of

in

Imports and Exports 1938 thousand £)

(in

sugar (total) 131,344 imp. £ Fiji 1,675 copra (total) 33,475 exp. £ Fiji 2,535

Fiji 7 ,oss

for the purchase of special ap-

possible

up by the Australian Government reported mandated territory of New

respec-

tion of a

it

set

against a proposal for uniting the

£23,000 and £6,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation and Imperial

*^*^*'®

tively

readerships

—

^The most important of these are the Fiji islands; the Western Pacific islands, comprising the colony of the Gilbert and Ellice islands and the Solomon islands and Tongan islands protectorates; the New Hebrides, under joint British and French administration; and the Australian territory of Papua. Fiji suffered severe floods in January. The new Government buildings were opened on May 12. A significant step, for good or ill, was the transference to the Government of the Suva Municipal Council. A severe earthquake on April 30, followed by a tidal wave, caused considerable damage and some deaths in the Solomon islands. A 50-year agreement was signed with the U.S.A. for joint occupation of Canton and Enderbury, islands in .the Phoenix group of the Gilbert and Ellice islands colony.

History.

British

capital of the

nttQlifq

made

dealt with 2,362 offers of service.

—

in-

The Ameri-

radio and other informational enterprises.

health program (the so-called

Its

establish

post-Biblical

Jewish studies and in religious

Papua (administered by the Commonwealth of Australia; see also Pacific Islands, Mandated) 87,786 (mainland)

(1937-38 export) rubber £129,448 gold £1^,141

(1937-38) imp. 631 exp. 436

phosphate of lime 329,800 copra 4,850

(1937-38) imp. 207 exp. 351

copra 11,448 cocoa 1,893

imp. 112 exp. 120

(in-

cluding the Gilbert group; the Ellice group; Ocean island [seat of administration}; Fanning, Washington and Christmas islands; and the Phoenix group*), c. 200

New

Hebrides

(a

condominium adminis-

by the British and French Governments) 5,700

copra 22,937

(1937-38) imp. 233 exp. 292

(est.

imp. 82,8

(est.

(1937-38) £A 183 £A 183

rev. exp.

(est.

1938-39)

rev. 27.6 exp. 23.9

tions

The number

students

459

,

of research

increased

1,135

persons

by

12

to

took the

British Solomon Islands Protectorate, ii,4S8

Tongan Islands Protectorate,

c.

250

.

copra 12,427 bananas, 10,825 cases

exp. 98.4

schls., 224; schlrs., 6,728

rev. 80.6 exp. 84.6

The number of matriculain the academic year 1938-39 was 1,717, which is loi more than in the previous

(1938) schls., 253; schlrs. 29)323 (1^622 Eurpn., 19,580 Fiji, 7,968 Ind., 153 Chinese)

2 » 7 S 4 (islands)

Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony

tered jointly

education.

year.

uni-

bers of the university for certain branches of national service.

The board

public health educational efforts, osteopathy extended

its

can Osteopathic Association was

tion

The

versity Gazette

its

of the

available for

by arrangement with the military authorities and the Ministry of Labour, provided accommodation and staff for the board which selected volunteers from among the younger mem-

creased.

greatly

made

versity also,

for giving postgraduate work,

facilities

university and college buildings were

public purposes on the outbreak of the European war.

the organization of an advisory

board for the certification of specialists, and advance steps were taken by the Associated Colleges of Osteopathy, the American Osteopathic Hospital Association and the National Board of Examiners for Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons. Osteopathic colleges

total expenditure of the university (exclusive of the col-

was £527,548. T. F. Higham succeeded Dr. Cyril Bailey as Public Orator. In accordance with arrangements settled between the university, H.M. Government and other bodies in the course of the year,

numerous laws and regulations having to do

protected also in

of persons taking

other degrees was 243.

leges) in 1937-38

States, without regard to their school of practice,

by the

licensed

number

B.A. degree; 552 the M.A., and the total

unlawful for

193S-39)

rev. 69.5 exp. 69.3

1938-39)

Numerous Presbyterian and Catholic mission native schls., i Fr. Govt, schl., and i Catholic mission schl. for whites elem. schls., 4,889

6;

schlrs.,

schls., 108; schlrs., 6,128

rev. 64.4 exp. 73-8

^nd Enderbury islands, in the Phoenix group, are shared with the U.S.A. under the Anglo-American pact, Aug.

10, 1938.

PACIFIC ISLANDS, FRENCH — PAINTING and Canada no

Pacific Islands, Frencli.

absolutist pacifism.

herewith; area (Society, Tuamotu, Tubai and Marquesas Is.), 1,540 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1937) 45,000 (whites, c. 3,700).

Chief town; Papeete (in Tahiti), cap., 8,460. Governor; tenet de Gurry.

Finance 1939:

M. Chas-

local budget (est.) 27,560,000 francs.

Overseas Trade 1938: imports 63,241,000 francs; exports 47,647,000 francs. Roads 1937: Tahiti 48mi.; Raiaeta igmi.; shipping (1938) cleared, 162,927 net tons.

Production 1938 : copra 25,000 francs; vanilla 12,000 francs; natural phosphates (1937) 147,000 metric tons.

Pacific Isiands, Mandated.

sessions in the Western Guinea with adjacent archipelagos. Western Samoa, the Marshall, Caroline, Palan and Ladrone or Marianne islands, and the islet of Nauru. Certain essential sta-

Pacific comprise part of

tistics

New

of these territories are given in the following table.

For

towns and governors of New Guinea, Western Samoa and Nauru, see also British Empire.

capital

Guinea, mandated territory (69,700) including Bismarck Archi*

pelago (iQ.aoo) and Solomon

Is.

Another pacifist attitude believes that the only promising approach towards the establishment of a secure international peace can be through establishing international law on a firm foundation so that disputes between nations be judged judicially as are disputes between other groups. This pacifism regards isolationism in the present war as one of the fundamental obstacles to the establishment of peace which can be reached only by concerted peace efforts of all peace-loving nations. It believes that no

nation can live

its

own

h'fe in

peace in a world of lawlessness

and anarchy, and therefore it affirms the necessity for all nations to co-operate in finding ways and means to organize the international community for concerted action to oppose aggression. The ultimate aim of this pacifism is the establishment of a world organization which would not only secure peace, but also replace military rivalries by economic and cultural co-operation between the nations. The outbreak of the European war in 1939 resulted in the establishment of an International Peace Campaign with national committees in British

Principal Products

304,445 (white, 4,445) Under Mandate of the Commonwealth of Australia

(1937-38) gold £2,028,980; copra

59,306 (white, 412) Under

(Export 1938) copra 11,241 tons; bananas 7,347

£847,734

the United States, Great

Dominions and France. Imports

Population and Status

Territory and Area Square Miles

New

Revenue and

Mandate of New Zealand

Marianne Is., Caroline Is., Palan, and Marshall Is. (Six) ....

107.137 Gapanese. 56,496) Under J apanese Mandate

(1936) cane sugar 49,100 net

tons; phosphates 84,973 net tons

Nauru

3,38s (European 187, Chi* nese 1,516) Under British Mandate, held jointly by Great Britain, Australia,

(8)

and

New

Expenditure (coo s omitted)

peace at the end of the European war should be based so as

(1937-38)

to achieve the aims of pacifism.

(1937-38) imp. £1,611

rev.

exp. £2,980

exp.

£Aso6 £A509

This peace should establish a system of collective security which would make possible a

(1938)

(1938-39)

imp. £ip6

rev.

£249

exp.

exp.

(1936) imp. 13,866 yen exp. 25,108 yen

£224 £119

settlement of international dif-

(1939) rev. 9,904 yen e.rp. 9,675 yen

ferences without resort to war, allow the immediate beginning of general disarmament and lay

(1938)

(1938)

natural phosphates

unp. £A272

rev.

£As47

exp.

exp.

(1938)

£A29.4 £A30.3

the foundations of justice and liberty for

Pacifism.

a system of beliefs in the desirability and possibility of permanent peace. This belief may is

be based on liberal-humanitarian, rational-cosmopolitan or religious grounds. It always presupposes a belief in the essential unity of mankind and in the sanctity and dignity of individual existence. It is thus completely opposed to fascism which denies the oneness of mankind and the dignity of the individual and which

permanent peace is neither possible nor desirable because war alone awakens, according to fascism, the highest believes that

moral response in man. The communist attitude which rejects only certain wars which they label as “imperialist” or “capitalistic” wars, cannot be regarded as pacifist, even less the isolationist attitude which is based upon the sole consideration of national self-interest, and does not reject war in principle, but only if it does not involve their own nation’s honour, security or wants. A twofold attitude can be involved in pacifism. The one is the so-called “absolutist” pacifism as best represented

entious objectors and by the

War

by the

its

peoples.

its

no doubt that

There

this war,

with

threat of spreading and drawing “neutral” nations into its

maelstrom, has acted as a great stimulus to pacifism, as the only alternative to the establishment of a system of collective security

seems to be the rapid increase in the burden of armaments and the growth of international chaos with its repercussions for all, even the most distant nations. A project much discussed during 1939 was the proposed federation of democracies, suggested by Clarence Streit, an American journalist, in his book Union Now. This proposal found wide response, especially in Great Britain. British and French statesmen have repeatedly declared that they envisaged as the outcome of the European war the creation of some form of federation or rejuvenated League of Nations to establish lasting jreace .{See also International Law; Religion.)

—

Bibliography. ^Norman Angell, Peace with the Dictators? (1938); Eduard Benes, International Security (1939); W. B. Curry, The Case lor Federal Union (London, 1939); Sir John A. R. Marriott, Commonwealth or Anarchy? (London, 1939). (H. Ko.)

consci-

Resisters International which

most democratic countries. They reject war under any circumstances and refuse to participate in it. With the outbreak of the European war in Sept. 1939 the British Government took this point of view into consideration and recognized it officially. Special tribunals were instituted before which conscientious objectors were to appear and to prove their sincerity which was generally presupposed in all men who had belonged to religious organizations taking the absolutist pacifist point of view like the Society of Friends. These tribunals either absolved the conscientious objectors from all military service or assigned them to non-combatant service. Generally the European war of 1939 brought in Great Britain has

all

2!.€aland

is

Pacifism

the

and Exports

•

841,050 tons

Britain,

This Campaign discussed the foundations upon which the

(ooo’s omitted)

(4.100)

Westers Samoa

513

upon any form of propaganda for

restriction

Packaged

Fuel: see Fuel Briquettes.

centre in England and branches in

—

American painting during the turns of interest were evident. On one hand regionalist and “American Scene” emphases in subject matter notably diminished; and on the other, themes of social satire and political propaganda narrowed in popularity. Both these developments probably grew out of a fundamental dissatisfaction with the results that these approaches were producing. The Contemporary American Art Exhibition at the New York World’s

United States.

^In

Painting. year 1939 two important

Fair, so carefully planned to bring to light anything of real interest in the way of regional expression, proved a distinct failure in this direction.

Nothing wdth an unexpected tang was

discov^ered.

mF

YASUO KUNIYOSHI

Japanese(1893), born American artist, won second prize at the 1939 Carnegie International exhibition In Pitts-

burgh With his “Lay Figure—1938“

.-

ONE OF EDGAR BRITTON’S

two murals. Story of Petroleum,” completed In Aug. for the Department of Interior building, inglon, D.C.

MURAL for the Department of Interior building, Washington, D.C., by William Gropper, entitled “Construction of the Dam,” installed Mdy 7, 1939

"A''

"Thi

1939 Wash

,

J-

PAINTING And once

the novelty of political and class-conscious expressions

had worn

thin, the

narrow and shoddy repertory of pictorial conventions upon which they were hung began to show through. It was clear that the essentials of pictorial expression had been-neglected in these emphases on the associational interests in subject matter. Finally, the signing of the pact between Berlin and Moscow left political propagandists in an embarrassing quandary; while the major scale of the threatened tragedy abroad made such daintily patriotic whimsies as the Iowan Grant Wood’s 1939 version of George Washington and the cherry tree legend, “Parson

Weem’s Fable,” seem

pathetically jejune.

During 1939 the serious curtailment of the WPA Arts Project patronage was in part offset by commissions to mural painters and sculptors by the New York World’s Fair and the Golden Gate Exposition; while in Washington the section of fine arts of the Public Buildings Administration, under the directorship of Edward Bruce, held the largest competition since the inauguration of this system in 1934. One thousand four hundred and seventy designs

were submitted anonymously; out of these 48 were chosen for execution. Yet neither this competition nor the opportunities provided by the extensive Fair commissions brought to light any striking

new

direction or talent.

Even

at the

New York

Fair the

most satisfactory mural was the decoration of the inner court of the Old Masters Building fay the repatriated, experienced Lyonel

Feininger.

older generation, however, it was John Marin who primarily distinguished himself during the year for his bold and imaginative exploration of the medium of oil-paint which he had

Of the

taken up only in the last few years.

On

the other hand, his water-

colour expressions suffered no neglect and preserved all their personalized spontaneity and freshness. At the same time, the younger water-colourist, Charles Burchfield, who had been painting relatively sombre oils during the last few years, seemed to

throw a backward glance to his fanciful water-colours of 1917 and 1918 and from them recover a new lyricism for his 1939 work; while George Grosz, also well known for his work in the watercolour medium and in biting social caricature, turned with a quiet but intense enthusiasm toward still-life and the depiction of texture contrasts in

oils.

Yasuo Kuniyoshi’s

first

exhibition in

three years showed him likewise placing an emphasis on textural While his work was primarily a display of technical effects. virtuosity it took rather the character of a distillation of effects

than a development or change of direction. Like Kuniyoshi, Franklin Watkins in his 1939 work also leaned toward a primar>' interest in technical refinements. But in contrast to both these

Arthur Dove in his exhibition at “An American Place”

painters,

returned to his early college interests with a fresh lyric note, while Marsden Hartley turned from his usual landscapes to a rough, burly figure-depiction; and William Gropper, in his Paul

Bunyan

series, laid

primary

stress

on the energy of

his

brushwork.

a richness of colour and deepening of plastic effects. The year 1939 will stand as a vital date in the history of Europe European art. Not so much for what was produced in that year, but be.

—

the close of a period. How long the present hostilities not change the situation. The aesthetic outlook of Europe between the years 1919 and 1939 is permanently consigned to history. Should even the first months of 1940 see a withdrawal of troops from the field and a new economic peace there could be no return to the status quo; so many artists, philosophers, historians and teachers have been transplanted from Europe that a new peace-time must belong to a new generation. Already in 1939 the United States had begun to show the effects of these wholesale exportations of trained minds in a relaxation of regionalwhile Europe’s discouragement ist prejudices against foreign influences; and uncertainty of the future were evident in its relative unproductiveness

cause

may

it

marked

last will

and sculpture. Germany, controlling (Jan. i, 1940) the greater part of middle Europe,

in the fields of painting

dictated the art attitudes of that region as well as its political allegiance. The hostility of the Reich persevered toward all forms of the unconventional or even the unfamiliar in painting and sculpture which it had condemned publicly as “degenerate art.” In fact the Government took an even bolder stand in the spring and summer of 1939 and offered many of the more valuable examples of late 19th and early 20th century foreign painting from

515

museums for sale, both privately and at a public auction held in Switzerland. At the same time the officially approved art continued along the line of banal academicism. Czechoslovakia, like Austria, after its absorption into the Reich gave over completely its earlier artistic individuality. Prague, previous to the Munich agreement bad been one of the leading centres of modern art in Europe. But immediately following the Munich concordat all non-national tendencies in art were officially discouraged particularly those that had been influenced by German e.xpressionism or any of the various movements of Paris during the last half-century. The new prime minister, Reran, declared: “IVe must put an end to the modern scribble and smear artists and the jazz cries of modern art. We must return to our own Czech art and keep away from non-national tendencies.” Many of the most prominent state art and museum officials were relieved of their positions primarily because of liberal sympathies. Notable among them was Vincenc Kraraar, the director of the State Gallery of Old Art in Prague, a man of wide culture and scholarship who owned one of the richest collections of Cubist paintings in Europe, and whose book Kubismus (1921) was one of the earliest to be devoted entirely to Picasso in any language. Czech caricature, which boasted some of the most brilliant satirical draughtsmen in Europe was completely crippled. Thanks to the new censorship the drawings and montages of such men as Pelc and Hoffmeister could no longer be published. While the painters Hartfield and Kokoschka, both closely identified with Prague during the last few years, left the country shortly after its assimilation by the Reich. Italy, for all her totalitarian colour, had never taken the attitude to the arts that Germany and Russia had. Undoubtedly the senatorial rank of Marinetti, the founder of Italian Futurism in 1909, and Mussolini’s early link with the literary members of that movement have played their part in the liberal official attitude of Fascist Italy. It is true that the recent work of Giorgio di Chirico, Fontana, Funi and others of their immediate group can scarcely be regarded as strikingly venturesome, leaning, as it does, toward a broad humanism. Nevertheless, the painting of such abstract artists as Alberto Alagnelli, Pompeo Bona and Jlauro Reggiani is also exhibited and encouraged. And in 1939 JIagnelli clearly showed himself competent to stand up with the leaders of extreme abstract expression in their exhibitions in Paris. Furthermore, there has been no prejudice against displaying work, of foreign surrealists in Italy nor against the acceptance of their influence by such young surrealist-abstractionists as Adone Asinari, Corrado Forlin and Gelindo Furlan. Spain, in spite of the cessation of civil strife, was still, in 1939, most effectively represented in painting and sculpture by artists working outside its frontiers. Pablo Picasso in Paris had turned to large colourful portraits based on a pictorial symbolization of muscular and psychological responses to the subjects rather than the conventional visual approach. The result, in his most successful essays, was a new vitality of rhythmic organization well in accord with his natural linear predilections and a powerful gamut of non-naturalistic colour-contrasts. Joan Miro, in Paris also, found a new freshness in his 1939 work after his larger, more restrained compositions of 1937 and 1938. But while Picasso’s new strength came from an increased tempo of development along lines which he had been following for some time, Miro’s freshened note was struck by a return to earlier whimsical fantasies. For in his recent work Miro has completely abandoned the trend toward expressionistic realism which bis large 1937 still-life “A Pair of Shoes” had seemed to inaugurate, for a lighter and gayer lyricism closer in spirit to his work of the pre-revolution period. At the same time the arch-surrealist, Salvador Dali, continued to flout the conventions of the conservative art public, both in Paris and New York with consummate success. Still, in his large exhibition held in New York in the spring of 1939 there was a notable relaxation of the technical finesse which had so consistently characterized Dali’s earlier work. And here, for the first time, certain political references were allowed to creep in with the obvious purpose of bribing popular sympathy. France, although relatively removed from the actual centres of trouble during the first six months of the year, seemed also to feel the threatening shadow. Shortly after the September crisis of 1938 Piet Mondrian, the Dutch neo-plastician, joined the constructivist sculptor Nahum Gabo in London. Antoine Pevsner, the brother of Gabo, continued his work with Domcla in Paris; and all four collaborated in the comprehensive international exhibition of abstract art organized in the early summer by Petro Van poesberg, the widow of the founder of the Dutch Die Stijl movement. Henri JIatisse, after finishing an important mural decoration for the apartment of N'elson Rockefeller in New York continued to work out extremely fresh decorative compositions with a new two^jimensional emphasis and a spontaneity of draughtsmanship that recalled his style previous to 1919 and particularly his early graphic work. The first two months of the j'ear saw Fernand Leger in New York where he painted several decorations for the Rockefeller apartment and a sketch for a mural at the World’s Fair. After his return to France and the outbreak of the war he withdrew to his native Normandy and set about a series of figure compositions, twice life size, Braque and Derain continued to work on large canvases more or less along the lines of their recent work; while the autumn months saw many of the younger men mobilized the painter Jean Helion even coming back from an extended sojourn in the United States to join the ranks. Early in 1939 the 77-year-old sculptor .Aristide JIaillol completed his monument “L’.Air” for the city of Toulouse. And in the spring the former Cubist, Henri Laurens, held a notable one-man exhibition of sculpture in Paris in which works such as his “Amphion” showed a profound revitalizaits

—

—

tion of expression. Belgium, in June saw James Ensor, the dean of its impressionists, paid the honour of a large one-man e.xhibit in Paris. Earlier in the year the younger e.xpressionist painter. Constant Permeke opened an exhibition of sculpture at the Palais des Beaux Arts in Brussels which placed him, in the opinion of the leading critics, with Constantin Meunier and Rik Wouters as one of the three greatest sculptors of Flanders in modern times. All three had been painter-sculptors, or perhaps better, sculptoreach representative of a particular idiom; naturalism, impressionpainters ism, and expressionism. Permeke only took up sculpture at the age of 52.

—

PAINTS AND VARNISHES— PALAEONTOLOGY

516

vein of Still it is not quite exact to state that this is an entirely new expression for him. In reality in his sculpture he pursues the basic imom gigantic elementary nudes. Constant Permekes of Permeke the painter expressionism is profoundly Flemish a colossal and imperious monumentality. So in spite of his brusque change of metier, he kept integrally in his sculpture all the qualities, as well as the weaknesses and faults, of his painting. Among the young Belgians, Paul Delvaux and Rene Magritte, both surrealists, continued to do the most interesting easel paintings during 1939; while Auguste Mambour’s large fresco in the Lycee Leonie de Waha in Liege in its originality and architectural suitability is easily the finest mural decoration produced in Belgium for many years. England has never been a notable contributor to the plastic experimentation which has marked European painting in the 20th century. Still, in the last few years, there has been a growing audacity and receptivity to extra-

—

—

on the part of young English artists. And, in i939» while well known names such as Walter Sickert, Duncan Grant, Matthew Smith, Vanessa Bell, Mark Gerller and Stanley Spencer are still widely represented by work and exhibitions, new names begin to take a front rank of interest if not of achievement. Among the younger men John Piper probably made the most notable advance in 1939, His landscapes show at once the benefits of his research in collage and in compositions of abstract forms. They offer an extremely personalized idiom and a free lyric sensibility to nature that gives his work a genuine distinction. Allied to Piper in his predominantly plastic interests are the two older men, Paul Nash the painter and the sculptor Henry Moore, Nash’s response to the fantastic in nature brings him close to the surrealist fold, yet never tempts him to lose his English eye for the ohiectlve world about hirer; on the other hand Moore keeps one foot in the field of surrealism and the other in the camp of the abstract artists with such success that his latest productions make him probably the most interesting plastic artist in England today. During 1939 Ben Nicholson, the leader of extreme abstractionists, gave his earlier white geometrical reliefs a wide range of contrasting flat colours, but made no concessions to naturalistic representation. And sympathy with the abstract approach continued to show itself in the work of such men as Jackson, Stephenson and Hayter, even penetrating the London group in the work of John Tunnard, Roy de Maistre, Ceri Richards and others, in a less absolute form leaning rather toward surrealism. Among the avowed English surrealists the most striking newcomer of 1939 was the sculptor F. E. McWilliams; while the painter, John Armstrong in “his practical exploitation of ruins” or in a canvas such as his “River of the Dead” frankly ties a thread of the English romantic tradition into the warp of surrealist approach. (J. J. Sw.) territorial influences

The shortage of raw materials, more especially oils, has inmore intensive research, with the result that substitutes for tung oil, both compounded and chemically manipulated (de-

spired

hydrated castor), have appeared and have considerably relieved the shortage. Soybean oil has received its share of attention from the new U.S. Department of Agriculture Regional Laboratories, and from private investigators, resulting in a rather pronounced increase in consumption. Still further work along agronomical and chemical lines and in processing technique will quite certainly broaden the scope of this interesting oil. On the whole, the situation might be summarized as a general improvement in paint, varnish and lacquer formulations, supplemented by developments in raw materials, and a more thorough

technical understanding of protective coating performances. also

DQlqonntnlniru rdldCUIIlUIUgJ. and

{See

Electric Lighting.) Russia, A. N. Riabinin published an ac-

count of the discovery of dinosaurs,

turtles

Tashkent-Chimkent district of South Kazakhstan. Several new forms of each of these groups are named. The beds in which these fossils occur are regarded as Upper Cenomanian fishes in the

and Turonian

in age.

The presence

of the remains of sauropodous

Dinosauria (Titanosauridae) has been established; a discovery of

much

interest as indicating a further extension of this already

widely dispersed family.

In the United States, several important advances have been made in vertebrate palaeontology, C.

Lewis Gazin described new genera

and species of Palaeocene mammals from a new

locality in central

Utah. This assemblage displays a stage of development indicating

Vornichoc dill V

loll Cb.

United States production figures

months of 1939 showed a recovery from the slump of 1938, and a generally improved condition which promised well for the later months and for 1940. There has been a substantial change in paints and for

the

early

enamels toward balanced formulation, resulting in easier application,

improved coverage,

gloss

and colour retention and increased

life.

The developments

in white pigments mentioned

ularly in connection with titanium oxide

more

partic-

and zinc sulphide have

from study of the physical as well as the chemical characThe literature carries numerous articles on X-ray studies of the crystal structure and infra-red studies of the particle size and distribution of pigments which point definitely to an even

resulted

teristics.

more nearly complete

technical control of the protective coating

industry.

The work tion

from

of Dr. Kathryn Blodgett in the elimination of reflec-

glass surfaces

by the use

of thin films of organic coat-

may lead to interesting developments in the paint Illuminating engineers are awaiting with decided interest

them

is an event of much importance to all palaeontologists. In invertebrate palaeontology, one of the important papers of

1939

same

time, raising the temperature unduly. Developments

pigment types and in paint formulation give indications of same order of magnitude as in the visible spectrum, which may lead to dual purpose lighting.

in

reflection in the ultra-violet of the

The

so-called pearlescent or opalescent finishes, so popular in pyroxylin lacquer coatings, have, during the year 1939, been produced in synthetics with a consequent improvement in the

appearance of industrial synthetic enamels. Coloured pigments in general have shown an improvement in quality, light stability and chemical resistance; and some new pigments, such as the phthalocyanine green, have been offered on the market.

of camel

of Science

dle

at the

region. Messrs.

new genus

from the Pleistocene deposits of south-western Nebraska. This gigantic new animal (Gigantocamelus) is said to have attained a height of 12 feet. A fossil egg from the Permian of Texas described by A. S. Romer and L. L. Price is unique in being the most ancient egg of a vertebrate animal ever found. It is thought to have been laid by one of the early reptiles. A skull of the curious horned mammal BraurotUerium from the Tertiary of India and a new rodent {Mastomys) were described by Dr. G. Edward Lewis. For the first time the complete osteological structure of the Stegocephalian, Seymouria, from the Permian was made known by the published studies of T. E. White. The republishing of a revised edition of William D. Matthew’s important work Climate and Evolution by the New York Academy

field.

promise of enabling the illuminating engineers to increase the intensity of office, shop and home lighting to higher levels without,

New Mexico

E. H. Barbour and C. B. Shultz described a

ing material

the commercial exploitation of recent developments in wall coating which absorb radiant infra-red rays and, consequently, give

to be intermediate in age between the well established fau-

nas of the Puerco and Torrejon of the

is by Kenneth E. Caster, describing a hitherto unknown MidDevonian fauna from Colombia, South America, In this arti-

cle the stropheonid

Brachiopoda are revised. Another important a monographic study of the foraminiferal family Nonionidae by Joseph A. Cushman. It is world wide in the scope of

advance

is

materials treated and includes

all of the known forms of this famfrom the Jurassic up through the Tertiary, including the living members. A paper by Charles E. Resser describes the first complete Middle Cambrian fauna from the Wasatch mountains of Utah and Idaho. A great number of new forms are described. During 1939, A. Okladnikov published an account of the discov-

ily

ery of the skeleton of a Neanderthal child associated with characteristic Mousterian implements and an old fauna in a cave near Baisun, Uzbekistan, Central Asia. This find greatly extends to the eastward the known occurrences of Neanderthalers and for the first

time establishes the existence of this rare skeleton in Central

Asia. This discovery will exert a profound impression cepts of

human

on the con-

prehistory in the Old World, and will necessitate

PALESTINE human

antiquity.

(See also Geology; Zoology.)

—

Bibliography. C. Lewis Gazin, “A Paleocene Mammalian Fauna from Central Utah,” Jour. Wash. Acad. Science (June 1939); A. Riabinin, “Some Results of the Studies of the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaurian Fauna from the Vicinity of the Station Sary-Agach, South Kazakhstan,” Pub. Lab. oj Pal. Moscow Vniv. U.S.S.R., vol. 4 (1939); E. H. Barbour and C. B. Shultz, “A New Giant Camel,” Bull. Univ. of Nebraska State Museum (Sept. 1939); Kenneth E. Caster, “A Devonian Fauna from Colombia,” Bull. 83, Amer. Paleonl., vol. 24 (1939); Joseph A. Cushman, “A Monograph of the Foraminiferal family Nonionidae,” U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper igi (1939); T. E. White, “Osteology of Seymouria baylorensis,” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 85 (1939): A. Okladnikov, “Makhodka neandertalea V. uzbekistanie,” Viesnik Drievnie Historii, No. 7 (C. W. Gi.) (1939). .

rdiCollllb.

of policy.

Dec. 31, 1938) 1,435,283; immigration (1938):

Jews 12,868; Arabs 473; others 1,922. Chief towns (pop. est. 1938): Jerusalem (cap. 139,000); Haifa (104,000); Jaffa (77,000); Tel-Aviv (130,000). Bdgh Commissioner; Sir H. A. MacMichael; languages:’ English, Arabic, Hebrew; religions (1938);

Mohammedan History.

900,250; Jewish 411,232; Christian 111,974. ^The year 1939 opened with the preliminaries for the

—

conferences with representatives of the Jewish Agency, of the Palestinian Arabs and of the neighbouring Arab States, which the colonial secretary

had announced the previous December were

to

be held in London. These preliminaries took place first in Cairo, where, under the presidency of the Egjqitian prime minister Mohamed Mahmud Pasha, representatives of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the Yemen, Iraq and Trans-Jordan met to decide the composition of the Palestinian Arab delegation, and later in London where the colonial secretary sought to establish contact with each of the delegations in order to create a propitious atmosphere for the actual confer-

ence.

After protracted discussions and frequent communication with the it was arranged that the Defence Party,

the Mufti at Beyrouth

opponent of the Mufti’s Party, would join the official Palestinian Arab delegation. But when the conference assembled in London a hitch occurred and the London talks opened at St. James’s Palace on February 7 without any Defence Party delebitter

^

The Arab delegates aU returned to Cairo where further meetings were held to endeavour to find a formula acceptable to both the British Government and the Palestine Arabs. The Egyptian ambassador in London, Hassan Nashat Pasha, flew out to Cairo with new British proposals and returned with the observations of the Arab and Egyptian delegates. No compromise could, however, be found and on May 17 the British Government issued in White Paper form its own statement of policy. In this White Paper His Majesty’s Government declared unequivocally that it is not part of their policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State nor is there any justification for the Arab claim that it should become an Arab State. The objective of the policy was stated to be “the establishment within ten years of an Independent Palestine State in such treaty relations with the United Kingdom as will provide satisfactorily for the commercial and strategic requirements of both countries in the future.” This would be achieved by placing Palestinians in charge of Government departments with British advisers, subject to the High Commissioner’s control, and by giving them seats on the Executive Council, which would ultimately be converted into a Council After five years a body representing the British Government and the people of Palestine would make recom-

of Ministers.

mendations for the constitution of an Independent Palestine State. His Majesty’s Government would require to be satisfied that in

both the treaty and the constitution contemplated adequate

provision had been access to, the

Holy

made

for the security of, and freedom of

Places, the protection of the various religious

bodies, the special position of the Jewish National strategic requirements of the British Empire.

gates.

Thanks, however, to the colonial secretary and the representaArab States a compromise was reached and two mem-

tives of the

Arab bers of that party were included in the official Palestinian Arab the with separately place took conference delegation. The and with the Jewish delegations, the discussions being conducted on parallel lines. To each the British prime minister delivered an inaugural speech. between Right at the outset the question of the correspondence and the raised was Hussein Sir Henry MacMahon and the Sherif do so, pubto refused hitherto had British Government, which

on March 3 as a White Paper. After which the regarding the disputed passages,

lished the correspondence

lengthy discussion

to Palestine, Palestinian Arabs considered confirmed their claim an Anglo-Arab committee of the conference was formed under the questions the chairmanship of the lord chancellor to examine raised.

ten years His Majesty’s

representatives conthe correspondence. The United Kingdom

Party.

Arab contentions had greater force than had ap-

language in which

its

exclusion was expressed

was not so

specific

the

end of

Government considered that circum-

Independent State they would consult with representatives of the people of Palestine, the Council of the League of Nations and the neighbouring Arab States before deciding on such a postponement. Jewish immigration would be permitted for the next five years at the rate of ten thousand a year, and twenty-five thousand refugees would be admitted as soon as the High Commissioner was satisfied that provision could be made for them. After the period of five years no further Jewish immigration would be permitted unless the Arabs of Palestine acquiesced in it. Finally the High Commissioner would have powers to prohibit and regulate transfers of land throughout the transitional period from the date of publication of the White Paper. Immediately on the publication of the White Paper, Egypt and the Arab States declared through the Egyptian premier that their

Governments

construction peared hitherto. They maintained that on a proper from the area excluded was Palestine of the correspondence the claimed by the Sherif of Mecca. But they agreed that

Home and

If at the

stances required the postponement of the establishment of the

committee reIn a White Paper published on March 21 the representaKingdom United the ported that both the Arab and of view but that point other’s each understand tives had tried to interpretation of they had been unable to reach agreement upon an sidered that the

517

and unmistakable as it was thought to be at the time. The committee was further of opinion that His Majesty’s Government were not free to dispose of Palestine without regard for the wishes and interests of its inhabitants. Meanwhile the conference itself had continued. The British proposals for an agreed settlement, finally submitted on March 15 to both the Arab and Jewish delegations, proved acceptable to neither and the conference ended on March 17 with the British Government considering the situation with a view to producing their own statement

a material revision of ideas relating to the Neanderthal phase of

felt

unable to recommend the inhabitants of Pales-

tine to collaborate with the British

Government on the

basis of

the White Paper proposals.

These proposals were rejected by the Zionists and the Mufti’s The Defence Party, however, accepted them. On May 23 both Houses of Parliament approved the policy of H.M.’s Government relating to Palestine and on July 21 the colonial secretary gave the House of Commons an assurance that if the League Council reached a decision which in their view made it necessary to alter the mandate, H.M.G. would take no step without consult-

*

PANAMA— PANAMA CANAL

518

States jurisdiction) 34,169 sq.mi. The population was officially estimated at 547,536 in 1937 (1930 census: 467,459). The chief cities (with 1930 pop.) are: Panama, 82,827; Colon, 33,460;

ing parliament.

:

had been an uninterrupted During the first series of outrages in Palestine in which numerous Jews and Arabs were killed and the British forces and police suffered casualties. But, by the end of April, public security had sufficiently improved three months there

for the

Government

Penonome, 16,074; David, 16,004.

On July 25, 1939, after Panami had suspended payments on her bonded indebtedness (held largely by United States citizens)

to consider that Sir Charles Teggart could

in protest against the

safely relinquish his appointment as police adviser.

The

publication of the White Paper, was, however, followed

a revival of unrest confined almost exclusively to the started with a 24-hour strike,

mass demonstrations

by

Under the new

Jews which

Panama

and Tel-Aviv and a protest-procession by' Jewish women. Acts of violence, mainly Revisionist, continued for some time and the Palestine problem began to manifest a new feature in the

form of a marked increase in illegal immigration. So serious did this effort to get round the restriction imposed by the White Paper become that the colonial secretary announced on July 12 that he had authorized the High Commissioner to suspend the immigration quota for the next half-yearly period and '

would be a resumption of immigration quotas would depend on whether illegal immigration continued. This decision dissatisfied the Jews but gave great satisfaction to the Arabs. The outbreak of war found the rebellion in full process of disintegration, various Arab leaders having either surrendered or been killed. All factional fighting ceased in response to an appeal for a truce from the High Commissioner, which was followed by offers from both the Arab and the Jewish communities of services to the mandatory power. The Jewish community within a month enrolled 90% of the Jews eligible between the ages of 18 and 50, and in many directions there were welcome instances of close Arab and Jewish co-operation in defence of their interests which the war had made mutual. (A. Mn.) Education. 1937-38: Arab public system maintained by Govthat whether there

—

ernment, 402 schools (ii with secondary sections), 49,000 scholMoslem schools, private 184 (2 with secondary sections) with

treaty,

Panama

of the former “$250,000 gold.”

Jerusalem

in

United States Senate’s failure to ratify a

treaty adjusting canal annuities, final ratification

was obtained.

receives $430,000 annually instead

Upon outbreak

of

war

in Europe,

co-operated closely with the United States in measures

for the protection of the Canal Zone, and was host to the InterAmerican Congress at Panama City (Sept. 1939). (^ee Hispanic America and the European War.) Dr. Juan Demostenes Arosemena, president since 1936, died on December 16 after a long illness. Dr. Augusto S. Boyd, eminent physician and Ambassador of Panama at Washington, D.C., became acting president for the remainder of the presidential term (to Aug. 1940). Panama has 2S7mi. of railway and over 800km. of good highway, with more under construction. Her strategic position in relation to all parts of the Western Hemisphere makes her the hub of inter-American air and maritime transport. Imports, principally textiles and foodstuffs, aggregated $17,651,454 in 1938, with

57% supplied by the United States; 9-3% by Japan. Exports, with bananas comprising 35%, were $3,769,561 (88-6% to the United States). Re-exports were $3,899,005. Tourist and Canal Zone purchases normally offset the “unfavourable trade balance.” The Panamanian merchant

marine, largest in Hispanic America

(133 ships of 602,661 gross tons in 1938) was materially increased by transfers from United States registry in 1939. The monetary unit

is

the balboa (equal to the U.S. dollar).

In the school year

1938-39 there were 629 primary schools (544 rural), with 61,706 pupils and seven secondary schools (3,830 enrolment). The Na-

14,052 scholars; Jewish schools 662 (including 6 training colleges

tional university (411 students in 1939) is at Panama. Panama has no army or navy, but maintains a national police force of

and 27 secondary, 14 technical and 13 agricultural schools) with

1,200.

ars;

71,376 scholars;

Hebrew

Christian

schools

193 with

24,046

—

Revenue (1938-39) £P. 5, 937, 280; expenditure (1938-39) £P.s,692,67i; public debt (March 31, 1939) £P.4, 475,000; surplus balance (April i, 1939) £P.2,333,265; notes circulation

(June 30,

1939)

£P.5,93i,967;

exchange rate:

£P.i=£i sterling. Trade and Communication.

—Overseas trade 1938 (merchan-

dise): imports (excluding military stores) £P.ii,356,963; exports,

domestic £P.5,020,368; re-exports £P.663,2i7.

Communications

1938: roads, all weather 1,783km.; seasonal 1,758km.; railways, standard gauge 28omi.; narrow 92mi.; air-

and

W.

Be.)

university, Jerusalem; 75 teachers, 733 students.

Banking and Finance.

in

(L.

scholars;

transport

ways: passengers 600, mail 88,213kg.; shipping, entered 1,971 5,201,473 net tons. (Dec. 31, 1938) Motor vehicles licensed: 3,935 private cars, 1,031 public cars, 750 buses, 2,592 trucks and vans, 1,182 cycles; wireless receiving set licences

vessels;

35,708; telephone subscribers,

Agriculture

and

number

1938

(in

metric

tons): potash (exports) 50,288; oranges (exports 1938-39) 13,055,420 cases, (value) £P.3,865,292; barley 66,736; wheat (1938) 44i43S; (1939) 1361I00; olive oil (exports) 78,977; melons and water-melons 114,805; grapefruit (exports 1938-39) 2,066,833

£P .445, 148; wine 31,000 hectolitres; maize 8,000; tobacco (1937) 2,500; potatoes (1937) 9,500; sesamum 4,000. {See also Minorities.) (W. H. Wn.)

cases, (value)

a republic at the juncture of Central and South Amerraildllld, ica; language, Spanish; capital, Panama; president, Dr. Augusto Boyd; area, including the Canal Zone (under United

pAnnimn

the canal from shore line to shore line is 40-27 miles. Both canal and zone are under the jurisdiction of the United States.

The Panama canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the narrow isthmus of Panama, at approximately 9° N. lat. and 79° W. long. It was opened to traffic on August 15, 1914. Revenues for the fiscal year 1939, principally from tolls, toand the net appropriation expenses were $9,965,272, which left a net revenue of $14,522,344, or a return of 2-86%, to the U.S. Government on its investment in the canal enterprises.

talled $24,487,616

The

gross capital investment as of July

i,

and the net investment, after deducting

1938,

was $540,694,148 was $508,346,investment would

reserves,

An interest return of 3% on this capital have been $15,250,405 from the year’s operations, or $728,061 more than was actually realized. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, there were 5,903 823.

9,241.

—Production

Minerals.

Panama Canal and Canal Zone, population, June 1939, exclusive of Army and Navy personnel, 28,978, of whom 8,979 were United States citizens. The length of

transits of ocean-going

commercial vessels in comparison with 5,524 in the preceding year and 5,387 in the fiscal year 1937. Of the total number of commercial transits during the fiscal year

ended June 30, 1939, 1,788 were of United States registry, 1,502 British, 704 Norwegian, 361 German, 261 Japanese, 312 Netherlands, 200 Danish, 193 Panamanian, 157 Swedish, 107 French and the remaining 318 of 11 other nationalities. The origin and destination by principal trade areas of cargo in vessels passing through the Panama canal during the fiscal year

PANAMA CONFERENCE— PAPER AND PULP Traffic ffirough the

Fiscal year ending

Conaf for the Last £/even

Fiscal Years

Southbound

Northbound

(Atlantic to Pacific)

(Pacific to Atlantic)

Total

with

Tolls Vessels*

Cargo, tons

Vessels*

Cargo, tons

Vessels*

Cargo, tons

3 279 3,051

9,873,529 9,472,061 6,670,718 3,631,717 4,507,070 6.162.640 7,529,721 8,240.800 9.893.632 9,688,560 9,011,267

3,010 2.976 2,633 2,089 1,978 2,481 2,504 2,612 2,522 2,378 2,757

20,774,239 20,546,368 18,394,56s 14.167.260 13,654.093 18,541.360 17,770,806 18,256,044 18,212,743 17.697,364 18,855,360

6,289 6,027 5,370 4,362 4,162 5,234 3,180 3,382 3,387 5,524 S.903

30,647,76s 30,018,429 23.063,283 10.708 .086 18,161,165 24,704,009 25,309,527 26,505,943 28,108,375 27,385,924 27,866,627

2,717 2,273 2,184 2,753 2,676 2,770 2,86s 2,946 3,146

shown

From

in the following table;

Commencing March

tolls.

i,

Pacific

to

United States intercoastal United States and Far East (including Philippine Europe and South America .

.

.

•

.

Is.)

.

.

Europe and Canada Europe and United States East coast United States and west coast South America Europe and Australasia United States and Australasia

.

.

TOTAL

rules for registry in the

States, or

be on

less

United

than $0.75 per

net ton the same basis. However, during 1937, legislation was passed by the U.S. Congress, which made the Pan-

ama

canal rules for measuresole basis for levTung

1938, tolls were assessed at $0.90 per

2,391,523 2,871,207

415,697 78,789 337,401 192,732 542,77° 374,544

based on new rules of measurement of the Panama canal. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, tolls collections averaged Panama canal measure-

$4,008 per vessel of over 300 net tons, ment.

Panama Conference:

see

(C. S. Ri.)

Hispanic America and the Euro-

pean War; Mexico.

9.011,267

Pnn-flmoripan ilninn dll nlllclludll UIIIUIIi I

From

Pacific

to

United States intercoastal Far East and United States (including Philippine South America and Europe .

.

Canada and Europe United States and Europe West coast South America and Australasia and Europe Australasia and United States

.

-

Is.)

.

.

.

.

_

east coast United States

TOTAL

tial

mutual understanding and co-operation, with the essenduty of making effective the resolutions adopted by the

successive Pan-American Conferences; headquarters, Washington;

1,199,330 2,481,541 2,539,436 2,349,888 2,447,257 759,794 86,999 2,497,712

director general, Dr. Leo S, Rowe. A governing board plans interAmerican gatherings for the purpose of conferring on problems

18,855,360

of interest to

principal commodities transported through the canal during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, segregated by direction of

The

were as follows: Atlantic to Pacific

Long tons 1, 495, 497

steel

1,200,368 i,°32,67i

402,264 4°°,285 250,752 234,879 202,981 194,186

Metals, various Cotton, raw

Sulphur Phosphates Tinplate

From

Pacific to Atlantic

Long tons 3.i9i,°93 2,777,201 1,991.69° 1,539,474 1 .444,148 1,329,276 1,232,636 674,314 4i9,i°9

Lumber oils

Wheat Nitrate

Sugar

Canned food products Metals, various Fruit, fresh Fruit, dried

Cold storage (food products) Barley Soybeans Wood pulp

(e.xcept fresh fruit)

.

.

337,769 335,874 259,612 236,099 235,768

Tolls are levied on the net tonnages of ships. Prior to March 1938, the rate for laden ships was $1.20 per net ton, Panama

all.

A

general conference of the

member

republics

held quinquennially. In 1939 the Union was active in making effective the resolutions adopted by the Eighth Pan-American Conis

ference at Lima, aiding the special committees and conferences

provided for by the Lima session. Most notable activities,

Manufactures of iron and Scrap metal Mineral oils Paper and products

body created by the

4,493, 203

.

All other trade routes

From

international

21 American republics for the fos-

tering of

Atlantic

Cargo, tons

i,

the

1,806,604

All other trade routes

Mineral Ores

that

net ton for laden vessels and $0.7 2 per net ton for ballast vessels Atlantic

Cargo, tons

transit,

for

collectible shall not ex-

ment the is

and

ceed the equivalent of $1.25 per net ton as determined under the

$27,111,125 27.059,999 24,624,600 20,694,70s 19,601,077 24,047,183 23,307.063 23,479,114 23,102,137 23,169,889 23,661,021

Ocean-going commercial vessels, over 300 net tons Panama canal measurement, excluding canal vessels, Array and Navy, Panamanian Government, Colombian Army and Nav>’ vessels.

ended June 30, 1939,

proviso

the

amount

levied

i

measurement,

canal

ballast ships $0.72 prer net ton,

June 30

igap 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

519

among its 1939 however, were the Panama congress of the ministers of

American republics in September to deterEuropean war {see Hispanic America and the European War), and the resultant special conferences to provide the machinery for the declared neutrality. The Union is financed by contributions from its 21 members on foreign affairs of the

mine

joint action in the face of the

the basis of population, and, because of 1939,

membership assessments were

its

increased activities in

increased. It has several im-

portant subdivisions, devoted to such specialized activities as foreign trade, intellectual co-operation,

Bibliockaphy.

—Pan-American

can Bookshelj (monthly).

and agricultural co-operation.

Union, Bulletin (monthly); Pan-Ameri(L. W. Be.)

Paper and Pulp Industry.

"

was featured by the war conditions and increased business resulting therefrom. Paper production in Dec. 1938 was at about 74-4% of capacity and by Oct. 1939 had risen to 83%. Paper board during the same period rose from 61% to 83%. During the year two new mills were under construction, a newsprint mill at Lufkin, Texas and a cigarette paper mill at Brevard, N.C. There has been considerable expansion of existing miU properties. In the paper board industry considerable progress is being made manufacture of containers of all kinds, largely at the ex-

in the

pense of the lumber and cotton goods industries. In paper manufacture considerable advances are being made by the machine coating processes wherein a product is being made that is replacing paper coated by the slower coating methods. In pulping there is a continued trend toward the use of forced circulation and in the

PAPER MtLK CONTAINERS — PARAGUAY

520

There was no new mill construction during the year other than

vacuum washers have replaced diffusers in a number The production of tallol and fatty acids, as kraft mill

kraft process

of mills.

the rebuilding of the Gaspesia Paper Mill at Chandler, Quebec.

There was, however, some expansion in existing mills. An interesting technical development was the starting of a plant at Cornwall, Ont., mill of the Howard Smith Paper Company

by-products, has become an important factor. Wartd’s

Wood

Pulp Balance Sheet

1938 Estimated

—Short Tons

from sulphite waste liquor. At an manufacture of yeast from this liquor was started at the Liverpool, N.S., mill of the Mersey Paper Company. These projects demonstrate the possibilities of producing chemical byfor the production of vanilla

Consumption

1,711

Canada Germany

7,546 3,08s 2,80s

Great Britain Japan

I,IOI

161

806

436

Russia Finland

1,070 1,099

0 0

Norway

427

17

S 22 1,278

294 638

United States

Production

Imports

17 172 1,812

France

Sweden

Italy

Others

Exports

earlier date the

140

S, 97 S 3,622 2,71s

S 44 82

2i3 940

0

products from pulp mill wastes.

37 S 3,384 1,070 2,472

s 2,185

076 228 784

566

—

United Kingdom.

1,373

Kingdom

Although no

official statistics have been issued since 1935, by the Board of Trade, the following for 1938 and probably for 1939 (in long tons) are approximately correct in so far as the use of raw

187

Note: Since all data for 1938 are not available the following figures for 1937 are helpful: Great Britain consumption 2,223, exports 10; Sweden—consumption 1,082, imports 12; Italy

^The paper business in the United

continued to be good in 1938 and in part of 1939.

0

— —exports

materials

is

concerned.

o.

C/nifed States

Raw

Paper Production

In Short Tons (U.S. Census)

stock

Paper board

Wrapping Writing

Cover Tissue Building All other, including absorbent

Total

—

^all

.

grades

1938

1936

1937

947,717

938,287

975,854

1,090,000

1,281,870 4.60^.800 1,632,054 507,325 20,806 473.314 440,704 177,192

1,438,046 5,454,637 1.879,323

603,833 24,000 494,721 549,701 238,117

1,520.523 5,802,036 2,053,387 578,147 24,437 546,152 608,086 196,317

1,424,000 5,137,000 1,897,000 510,000 21,500 500,000 568,000 180,000

10 521,747

11,620,685

12,304,939

11,327,500

.

,

in

Paper Producfion, Greaf

Material in Long Tons

igss

Newsprint and sinular papers Book papers and coating raw-

Maferrafs

Brifain

Board

Paper

Bleached sulphite Unbleached sulphite

117,000 SSS.ooo 212,000 703,000 3»ooo 130,000 50,000 10,000 220,000

Sulphate Mechanical Knotter Esparto Rags, etc Waste paper Loading, etc

450,000

2,000,000

1

United States Production and Consumption of Paper, Wood-pulp,

Wood-pulp Tons

Paper

Tons

X 934

1935 1936 1937 1938

Canada.

and Putpwood •

oi

Pulpwood

1939.

(Cords)

Production

Consumption

ProducUon

ConsumpUoD

Domestic

Imported

9,186,266 10,506,19s 11.670.000 12,837,003 12.860.000

11,185,682 12,490,886 14,546,046 16,055,681

4,425,669 4 , 944,226 5,695,219 6,573.918 5 934.000

5,969,633 6,877,869 7,420,829 8,692,489 7,546,000

5 , 979,700 6,590,942 7,506,156 8 , 377,132 8,194.000

1,037,332 2,209,760 1,522,868

—Business

16,000,000

,

Price problems were the most important concern during

(Estimated)

Consumption

817,000

1,030,000

Total 6,796,700 7,628,274 8,715,916 9.900.000 9.224.000

The

world con-

of newsprint

In spite of price increases kraft mills

ran

difficult

Canada

sale

was uneconomic since much of this material was bought for 1938 and 1939 on 1936 prices.

to

to

capacity.

estimate

It

is

(Jan.

i,

much

1940) the effect of European war conditions since some mills were turned over to munitions manufacture. There was probably a

Business started in 1937 under weak conditions and increased rapidly after mid-year. Although prices were in-

considerable increase in paper imports to offset this temporary decrease in production.

ditions

and

newsprint

conditions in

in particular those of the

reflected

United States, where so

is sold.

creased these were offset considerably

by

the rising costs of

raw

materials, etc.

Board

mills

The

total

paper and board produced in 1939 was 2,306,452 long

total

consumed was 3,200,000

tons.

had an

excellent year, particularly containers for

The

tons.

(R. G. M.)

the retail trade.

Paper Milk Containers: see Cellulose Products. Papua: see British Empire; Pacific Islands, British. inland republic in southern South America;

ralagUajf,

language,

Spanish; capital, Asuncion; president. General Jose-Felix Estigarribia. The area is 154,165 square miles. The population (1936 census; 936,126) was officially estimated at 954,848 on Dec. 31, 1938. The chief cities are: Asuncion, 104,-

819; Villarrica, 20,000 (est.); Concepcion, carnacion, 10,000 (est.); Paraguari, 10,000.

11,000 (est.); En-

—

History. ^The dominant feature of Paraguayan development during 1939 was the economic and political rehabilitation begun under the leadership of General Jose Felix Estigarribia. Presidential elections called

by Provisional President Felix Paiva were held on April 30, and General Estigarribia, hero of the Chaco War and the Chaco Peace, and, at the time, Paraguayan minister at Washington, D.C., was elected president without formal opposition. Before leaving Washington to be inaugurated on August 1 5, PRODUCTION OF NEWSPRINT in the United ny News-Print Service Bureau, New York city

States and in Canada.

Compiied

the president-elect and Pablo Insfran (later named as minister of Economics) carried on negotiations with the United States Gov-

PARAPSYCHOLOGY— PARIS eminent with the result that the United States Export-Import

tivities

Bank granted

The

credits to the extent of $5,000,000.

Technical ad-

were obtained to assist in a program of renovation. Already, 1939, United States Tariff Commissioner Harold D. Gresham had been loaned to the Paraguayan Government to act as an adviser in tariff and related matters.

visers in

Feb.

Recognizing that one of the country’s outstanding needs was the development of communications in order to break the oly of Argentina

on Paraguayan external

trade, with its

521

have for their purpose the education and welfare of youth. vary with the

activities of the parent-teacher associations

t}ipe of school with which they are connected, the educational system under which the school operates, the customs and habits

of the

members of

the community.

the group, and the social and economic

These

tion, child hygiene, exceptional child,

humane

life

of

activities relate to art, character educa-

monop-

ing,

accom-

legislation, library service,

home

education,

homemak-

education, international relations, juvenile protection,

mental hygiene, motion pictures and

panying high freight rates (Asuncion-Buenos Aires freights exceed

visual education, music, parent education, radio, recreation, safet}\

those from Buenos Aires to Europe), the

Government began plans and highway connection to the Brazilian border, to link with a Brazilian railroad from the port of Santos. Construction was begun on the 220km. Asuncion-Villarrica highway, while the new minister of economics gave particular attention to develop-

school education, social hygiene, student aid, and study of the

for a rail

use and effects of alcohol and narcotics.

ment of the country’s latent resources. A “most-favoured-nation” treaty with Uruguay was concluded, along with commercial treaties with Argentina and Bolivia. Development of immigration (4,473 in 1938, of whom 3,604 were Poles) was accelerated, and

president and to additional subscribers.

Czech refugees were especially encouraged. Educafion. ^In 1937 Paraguay had 1,742 schools (enrolment:

—

The

official

Teacher, which Bulletin

is

parent-teacher magazine is

sent monthly

tional Congress is at

from September

600

S.

the National Parent-

is

issued ten times a year.

The National Congress to

June to every

The

office

Michigan boulevard, Chicago, (J.

From

local

of the

the beginning of

Na111 .

K. P.)

1939 preparations in case of

139,466), including 129 private schools, with 6,179 pupils, 8 norschools, and 12 secondary schools (2,500 enrolment). The

war progressed steadily in Paris. A plan had been drawn up for closing half the “metro” stations and converting them into air raid shelters, the sections of line remaining open to

National university at Asuncion, had 847 students. Finance. ^The monetary units are the paper and gold peso,

ing incoming

mal

—

and

both based on Argentine currency (values; approximately 68 (‘ U.S.).

—

textiles,

and machinery, and

They were derived chiefly from Argentina (38-5%), Japan (is%)) Germany (ii-s%)) Great

totalled 13,082,101 gold pesos in 1938.

Britain (9-7%), United States (9'6%). Exports totalled 12,017,228 gold pesos, and went chiefly to Argentina (47-1%, including

25-7%

in transit),

Germany (12-25%), Great

Britain

(13%). and

the United States (12-3%). Exports are agricultural products, of which cotton comprises three-fourths; forest products, primarily quebracho logs and extract; and animal products, especially proc-

essed meats.

be made impervious to gas and equipped with apparatus for

The

air.

filter-

Prefect of the Seine received a credit of

approximately £800,000 for the scheme, and work was started in The construction of underground roads to maintain com-

January.

Trade and Communication. ^External communication is primarily by way of the Parana river, with regular steamship service, and by railway and air service to Argentina. There are 1,147km. of railways. The highway system is in process of development. Imports are chiefly foodstuffs,

•

—^Paraguay’s resources are

Resources.

agricultural, pastoral

and

Cotton, mate (Paraguay tea), tobacco, sugar and citrus fruits are the leading agricultural commodities. Cattle are the principal livestock. Quebracho and its extract (tannin) are the forestal.

most important forest products. Manufacturing is on a small scale and for domestic consumption, except for processed meats and some fine lace work for export. Defence. ^In 1939 Paraguay’s defence forces included an army of some 10,000 men, and a navy of two gunboats. (L. W. Be.)

—

munications in war and to relieve

Some weeks

continued. tion

traffic

was urged upon all whose presence and arrangements were made

necessity,

ment, or

district of the city, to

By August

congestion in peace-time

before war broke out voluntary evacuain the capital

was not a

to allot each arrondisse-

a safe region in the surrounding

compulsory evacuation of school children was well under way, and on that day nine hospital trains were drawn up at the Austerlitz station to remove the inmates country.

from

hospitals.

30, the

The evacuation

of certain

ments, banks and other businesses

Government depart-

(dressmakers removing to

went on into September. Animals from the Vincennes were distributed among collections throughout France. Trenches and shelters had long been made ready. Steps were taken, as war approached, to safeguard the art Biarritz)

zoo

treasures of Paris.

The

stained glass

was taken from the Sainte The Louvre and contents, which were taken

Chapelle and from the cathedral of Chartres.

museums were stripped of their among the former royal chateaux. The principal monuments and statues were sandbagged or boxed other

to secret refuges

city's in.

Nearly 2,000,000 people were withdrawn from Paris and

its

suburbs in September. As the city remained unmolested, evacuated persons began to return in increasing numbers, against the advice of the authorities. Schools therefore re-opened on October

16 and the university faculties started work on

Parapsychology:

November 6, pubTaxicabs and buses became more plentiful and shops re-opened, and cafes were keeping prac-

see Psychical Research.

lic libraries

Parents and Teachers, National Congress The National Congress cally by parent-teacher

of.

of Parents and Teachers represented loassociations

was established

in

Washing-

On

April 15, 1939, there were 2,291,420 active memberships enrolled in 27,111 parent-teacher associations in 49 State branches (including the District of Columbia) and in ton, D.C., Feb. 17, 1897.

Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Approximately

11%

63%

of these associa-

and senior high and 15% in ii- and 12-grade schools. Approximately 10% of the membership is composed of teachers.

tions are in elementary schools,

in junior

schools,

Congress parent-teacher associations through their various ac-

also partly re-opening.

tically normal hours. The black-out, never as complete as in London, was relieved by increased street and shop-window lighting; on Jan. 4, 1940, it was made an offence for a pedestrian not to carry at night a torch, which must he flashed when crossing the

road.

Apart from war preparations, there was some building activity Decrees were passed (February 28) remitting death duties on new properties within certain periods, which stimulated building, until it was checked by the war. Notable buildings completed in 1939 were; the new ministry of Posts, Telegraphs

during the year.

and Telephones,

in the

10,000 sq.m.; the

new

Avenue de Saxe

et

de Segur, covering

theatre under the terrace on the site of the

PARK, WILLIAM H. — PATENTS

522 old Trocadero building on the right

bank of the

museum

for 2,800 people; and the

Seine, with seating

of the ministrj’ of Public

Works designed by the Ferret brothers on a neighbouring site. The renovation of the interior of the Opera, delayed by the fire of September 26, was completed and a new lighting system installed. The city of Joan of Arc, a large slum in south-east Paris, was cleared to make room for ntw flats.

War was followed on December 13, when a secret session of Commons was held to debate on the organization of supplies House of to sit in the

Lords.

—

House,

^At

the close of 1939, 783 peers were entitled 4 royal peers, 2 archbishops, 20 dukes,

viz.,

28 marquesses, 129 earls, 86 viscounts, 24 bishops, 461 barons and 16 Scottish and 13 Irish representative peers. Many of the most

and authority on public health,

toxin anti-toxin,

was horn

in

New York

on December 30.

city

New York

He

1883 and received his medical degree from Columbia three years later. In 1889 and i8go he studied at the University of Vienna. From

graduated from the College of the City of

in

1894 to 1937 he was director of the Bureau of Laboratories in New York city; he was also professor of bacteriology and hygiene at the medical college of New York university from 1897 to 1937. In 1908 two assistants, working the health department of

under Dr. Park’s direction, purified the anti-toxin for diphtheria. was used with a great incidence of success in the public schools of New York city. Dr. Park was also inventor of a process for

It

purifying milk and developed a

He

died in

New York

city

new serum

on April

Parks and Monuments:

see

for infantile paralysis.

Crown appointments

overseas,

etc.,

and of the remainder only about 10% actually do so, except on special occasions. Ten peerages became extinct during the year, and new creations were confined to two viscountcies and nine baronies. On the outbreak of war Sir Thomas Inskip (created Viscount Caldecote) succeeded Lord Maugham (who was raised to a viscountcy) as Lord Chancellor; the Earl of Onslow (Chairman of Committees) and Lord Snell and the Marquess of Crewe (leaders of the Labour and Liberal Oppositions) retained their offices.

are virtually debarred

often called “the American Pasteur” because of his research in

for

the prosecution of the war.

able of these, as holders of

Park, William Haliock

the

from

attending,

a'S

Parsons, William Edward

In 1905 he was appointed consulting architect to the U.S. Gov’t in the Philippines. Later he helped design city plans for Chicago, 111 ., Buffalo, N.Y., St. Paul, Minn., Washington, D.C., 19.

San Juan, P.R., and other cities. He died December 17 at New Haven, Connecticut. See Encydopcedia Britannica, vol. 17, p. 341.

6.

National Parks and Monu-

ments.

Appraisement of the patent system as an economic factor has prompted congressional legislation designed to increase its efficiency and its value in the field of industry. The Temporary National Economic Committee com-

Dqtontp

rdlullLOt

Pariiiimpnt Hhikpc nf ralllalllClU, nUUOvO Ul, ment was adjourned

until

Octo-

ber 3; but owing to the situation caused by the Danzig crisis an emergency session was held on August 24, when the prime min-

and the foreign secretary made statements to the Commons and the Lords respectively and the Emergency Powers Act was passed. Parliament was prorogued on November 23, and the new session was opened by the King on November 28. House of Commons. Before the outbreak of war there were, during 1939, ig by-elections to the British House of Commons, 17 of these being contested and 2 unopposed. A change of representation was brought about in two seats, as the result of Labour gains. At North Southwark on May 17 a former Liberal National majority of 79 was converted into a Labour majority of 1,493; and at Brecon and Radnor on August 1 a National majority of 2,i6g became a Labour majority of 2,636. On September 8 it was announced that the political parties had agreed that, during the war, no by-elections should be contested, but that when a seat ister

—

fell

vacant a representative of the party previously holding it There were 9 by-elections sub-

should be returned unopposed.

sequent to this agreement, and in the case of two of these the party truce was violated and the election was contested. At the

Clackmannan and East Stirling by-election, the result of which was declared on October 14, a Pacifist candidate entered the field, but polled only 1,060 votes against his Labour opponent’s 15,645; and at Stretford (Lancs.) on December 8 the Conservative, elected with 23,408 votes, was opposed by an Independent Labour Party candidate who polled 4,424 and a Communist who polled 1,519 votes. On April 14 the Select Committee issued its report on the question whether the Speaker should be required, when in office, to take part in a contested election. in

The committee was

strongly

favour of continuing the present practice of contesting the

Speaker’s seat.

The House

of

Commons Member’s Fund

Bill,

which passed its third reading on July 25, provided for pensions for ex-members of the House of Commons, or their widows, who might be in reduced circumstances. A precedent of the World

menced

its

investigations in Dec. 1938 with hearings

patents by several industries.

At the next

on the use of

session, Jan.

1939,

proposals for changes in law and procedure were presented by the

commissioner of patents, and testimony on the operation and benefits of the patent laws by inventors, scientists and industrialists.

Bills relating to the

recommendations of the commissioner

Congress and some of them were enacted in August. Public Act No. 286 reduces the period of permissible pub-

were presented

in

and public use before an application for patent must be from two years to one year. Public Act No, 288 establishes a period of one year beyond which another applicant cannot copy claims from an issued patent for the purpose of interference. Public Act No. 287 simplifies interference practice by eliminating lication filed

one of the several appeals allowed by law; the internal Patent Office appeal is abolished and the decision by the Office is to be made by a board of three examiners of interference. Public Act No. 341 gives the commissioner of patents authority to fix the time within which response to actions by the Office must be made. Renewals are abolished by Public Act No. 358.

A significant change was made in the patent law of France in July 1939, when the term of patents was increased from 15 to 20 years, counting from the date of filing of the application. The most

recent data and estimates available

154,000 patents were granted by

all

show that about

the countries of the world

The number granted by some countries during that year were; Australia, 2,642; Austria, 3,800; Belgium, 6,166; Brazil, ij 034 ; Canada, 7,856; Czecho-Slovakia, 3,100; Denmark, 1,602; France, 16,750; Germany, 14,526; Great Britain, 17,614; Hunin 1937.

gary,

r,92o;

Italy,

9,980;

Norway, 1,340; Poland,

Japan, 4,615;

Netherlands,

2,478;

Rumania, 1,131; Sweden, 2,953; Switzerland, 6,447; United States, 43,271. In 1938 the United States granted 43,493 patents, and 49,080 were granted in 1939. The total number of patents granted by all the countries to and including 1937 can be estimated as approximately 7,300,000; however, these do not involve that number of distinct inventions 1,734;

since

numerous inventions are patented

in a

PEACHES — PELLAGRA

523

number of

20%

countries.

smaller than the record crop of 32,473,ooobu. in 1938 and above the ten-year average (1928-37) of 25,489,000 bushels.

different

(C. P. Co.)

The 1939 peach crop in the United States was estimated by the Department of Agriculture as 61,730,-

Pp.pUp.

rbdbllCOi

.

ooobu., about

19% larger than the crop of si,94S,ooobu. in 1938 14% higher than the ten-year average (1928-37) of

and about

PP/ir

democracy. It

is

easy to over-simplify a conflict of this scope,

intellectually as well as emotionally. effort to

draw philosophical

In

an be more

this particular conflict

lines of cleavage is likely to

than usually misleading, since the ideological issues are more than usually confused. The causes of the war, indeed, may well have

been more in competitive interests that are not peculiar to the recognized philosophies of either side but reside in the structure of modem industrial and urban life wherever it is found. Nevertheless the war may be said to be very roughly a violent demarcation between the more centralized, tightly organized systems and the empirical, experimental point of view. It

is

roughly a conflict

between authoritarianism and experimentalism. In the more limited world of philosophical writings several events of importance have taken place. The logical positivists and semanticists have continued their discussions and publications. The New Thomists, particularly through the writings of Mortimer Adler in The Thomist, have maintained the fires of their scholas-

and the pragmatists, with the great have continued their march. A fourth tendency of importance has been the more generalized effort made on various levels to integrate the different fields of human interest and activity. In this centrifugal modern world this

tic

renewal.

figure of

effort

The

Dewey

naturalists

at their head,

has a philosophical function,

if

connection the continued publication of the Internatio7ial Encyclopaedia oj United Science under Neurath is imthis

Four new volumes. Principles of the Theory of Probability by Ernest Nagel, Foundations of Logic and Mathematics by Rudolf Camap, Linguistic Aspects of Science by Leonard Bloomfield, and Theory of Valuations by John Dewey, continue the emphasis on semantics, positivism, and pragmatism that marked the first year of publication. Two more volumes have

portant.

been added to a group designed to consider various ideologies, skills, and special knowledges in the light of each other and to find bases for common action. These are Politics and Public Service by

Leonard D. White and T. V. Smith, and Agriculture in Modern Life, by 0 E. Baker, Ralph Borsodi and M. L. Wilson. Geist und .

by

Russell.

Dewey’s

is

sharply

any unbroken movement and change, and his insistence that logic or inquiry has- for its purpose not to describe the world but to change it, is analysed by Russell with considerable criticised

interest in the continuity of

situation, its

severity.

The

pragmatists’ position, he says,

scepticism supplemented

by a

is

a product of a limited

surprising dogmatism. If Russell’s

on the face of it has what the pragmatist might call an undue faith in verbal logic, which really is a faith in the correspondence betw’een symbolic processes and the real situation, criticism

there

is

behind his logicisms a deep resistance to Dewey’s em-

phasis on the essential transitiveness or practicality of action.

There there

is

in activity,

is rest,

Among

says Russell, peace as well as yearm'ng;

ecstasy.

other philosophical books of the year are Husserl’s post-

humous Erfaiming und Urteil: Ulitersuchungenzur Geneologie der Logic; Language and Reality by W. M. Urban; Charles S. Pierce’s Empiricism by J. Buchler. Also may be noted: The Decline of Mechanism in Modern Physics by A. D’Abro; Art is Action by Baker Bro3vnell; Types of Religious Philosophy by E. A. Burtt; Freedom and Culture by John Dewey; L’epithymologie by Jean Urban.

Phoenix Islands:

(B. B.) see Pacific Islands, British.

not always a philosophical

terminology.

In

imprecise language of action, pressure, organic change,

phosphates, chiefly phosphate rock, a of calcium, are basic fertilizer ma-

Phn^nhsitp*; rilUopiidlCdi phosphate

terial, and as such support an extensive producing industry. A world production of 11,760,000 metric tons in 1930 declined to 6,678,000 tons in 1932, and recovered to 12,025,000 tons in 1938. The United States is the leading producer, with 32% of the total,

followed by Tunis

16%, the Soviet Union 15%, French Morocco 12%, Ocean and Nauru islands 10%, Algeria 5%, and Eg5^t 3%.

These seven countries account for 93% of the total, and the remaining 7% is scattered among about 30 others. The general producing area in northern Africa, including Tunis, Morocco and made any verj' material recovery from the depression drop. Although both Eg>’pt and Ocean and Nauru islands suffered only a minor decline, and have recovered to a level well Algeria, has not

PHOTOGRAPHY

532

above that of 1930, the Russian output is the only producer which has shown an exceptional growth, increasing steadily from 200,000 tons in 1930 to 1,791,000 tons in 1938. The United States output

and 1937, about one-quarter of which was

of 3,989,000 tons in 1930 dropped to 1,734,000 tons in 1932, rose to 4,019,000 tons in

exported. In 1938 production declined to 3,799,000 tons, but ex(G. A. Ro.) 30%. ( 5ee also Fertilizers.)

ports increased to

2"x2"

slides.

Phntmrranhv rilUlUgldJlIIja

cameras were announced,

and miniature

film

roll

sizes.

In general,

miniature cameras. There was, however, an enormous shutters of precision type

Much

to reduce reflections.

The manu-

was started

in the

attention has been paid to the possibility of

increasing the transmission of lenses

The

by

with

and

and

roll

introduced in which a photoelectric trol automatically the

forms.

A

new camera was

was incorporated to con-

opening of the diaphragm in accordance

A new

with the brightness of the subject.

In Europe, colour photography was still by the amateur, using the Kodachrome, Agfacolor-Neu and Dufaycolor processes. In Germany, filters.

carried out almost exclusively

Agfa demonstrated the Pantochrome process for colour motion on to multicoated “Tripofilm” using the silver-dye bleaching process. Agfa also demonstrated colour films made by the colour negative-positive process. In the United States, the number of

fine grain. Interest in infra-

cell

compensating

very

red photography was reflected in the introduction of infra-red sensitive films in cut sheet

for con-

trolling the quality of illumination, in conjunction with special

picture films, using a lenticular bipack in the camera, and printing

interest in fine-grain development,

the newer films having high speed

The Eastman Color Temperature Meter was much used

treating the glass surfaces

evident in recent years, declined somewhat, owing to the use of

precision enlarger of

was introduced on the American market. Several new types of flash lamp using foil and wire were introduced, and devices were produced whereby such lamps could be used with the simplest of amateur cameras. Flash lamps were rendered practically non-shatterable by coating with special varnish which, in some cases, included a dye to produce colour correction. Much interest was displayed in the new gaseous discharge lamps conextreme

made

with daylight for colour photography, and blue glass filters were used over studio lamps to be mixed with arc lights and sunlight.

Many new

increase in the use of colour film in miniature cameras.

new

Flash lamps and studio lamps were also

higher speed and increased fineness of grain

films

there was indication of a tendency to prefer the smaller roll film

facture of

slides

was accompanied

specially selected blue coatings to permit of their being mixed

mostly in the smaller

United States.

projection, and

of

continue to be introduced.

sizes to the

home

by the introduction of cheap models of slide projectors. Colour photography requires that the lamps used in the studio be of the correctly controlled colour, and special incandescent tungsten filament lamps were increasingly used, operating at the colour temperature of 3,200° K., for which cut sheet Kodachrome is balanced.

Photography.—New

This gave a great impetus to the use of such

for visual education and

flexibility

films

made by

the Technicolor process increased.

In July 1939

there were nine colour feature films in production, the most under

way

any single month, and there was a marked increase in At the HaU of Color in the Kodak building at the New York World’s Fair, there were projected changing series of ii Kodachromes made in miniature cameras, using a continuous screen 22ft. by 187 feet. Special automatic projectors were dein

quality.

signed for this unprecedented

feat,

particular attention being

paid to screen illumination, film cooling and accurate registration of adjacent pictures.

—

gases in the tube.

Motion Picture Photography. ^The industry adopted for new types of film introduced in the previous year. The extremely fast films extended the possibilities of news-reel work, while for studio operation the films of medium speed were

processes using coupler developers resulted in a revival of interest

mainly used. Fine-grain duplicating films permitted the preparation of duplicate negatives and positives of improved quality. Improvements were made in incandescent lighting equipment and

taining fluorescent material to

fill

in gaps in the spectra of the

These lamps showed some promise for broad front lighting, but their introduction in practice appears to be rather slow. The recent publication of patents on the new colour in

the

use

of

such

developers

for

producing

toned

images,

the purpose for which they were originally proposed. There

was

a steady increase in the use of photoelectric types of exposure

meter, and meter ratings and speeds were published facturer for

Munich

all his

materials.

An

by

one- manu-

international meeting

was held

June 1939 to discuss the standardization of the measurement and specification of the speed of photographic films. Much progress was made, and agreement on this much-discussed problem is in sight. The American Standards Association Sectional Committee on Photography formed many sub-committees which have started active work on standardization in numerous aspects of photography. The centenary of the discovery of photography by Daguerre was celebrated throughout the world in August, and attracted much public notice. The New York and San Francisco World’s Fairs acted as a great stimulus to amateur photography. Colour Phofography. Colour photography went ahead by leaps and bounds, particularly in the amateur field, but also for in

in

—

commercial illustration using Kodachrome in cut sheet form. An important innovation by the Eastman Kodak Company was a service for supplying duplicates of

Kodachrome

pictures to the

the original and enlarged or reduced, as well as i6-mm. motion picture films in colour. Three-colour one-exposure cameras continued to be used for making colour separation negatives for commercial print making by the Carbro and Wash-off Relief processes, and a number of new cameras

same

size as

duplicates of

.

were introduced. Kodachrome pictures made in miniature cameras were returned from processing ready mounted in the form of

studio use the

and the new fluorescent gaseous discharge lamps were studied was no startling innovation in sound recording, but a steady improvement of quality. Television has not yet reached a stage where it is a serious competitor for the motion picture. Motion picture films were used daily as part of the television programs broadcast by R.C.A. in New York, and the Columbia Broadcasting Company announced a new method of scanning motion pictures for television purposes. A demonstration was given to show the improvement in the viewing of a projected picture obtained by surrounding the screen with an arcs,

for studio use. There

illuminated border of

medium

brightness.

(See also under Colour

Photography.')

—

Applications. Photography continued to serve as a very important tool in the fields of scientific and technical investigation

and record, and for education. Colour was increasingly used, particularly in the biological applications, and for illustrating lectures. The great progress in astronomy which has occurred in recent years largely as a result of the introduction of specially sensitized films

and

new dark

was continued, particularly with plates Through the use of infra-red sensitive

plates,

of very high red speed.

have been discovered, and the presence Within six weeks after the Sain, reflector had been put in operation in the new MacDonald Observatory at Mt. Locke, Tex., two new super-heavy stars were discovered. Under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, a program of photography of the aurora was started, and many records were made in both black-and-white and materials,

stars

of infra-red radiation in space detected.

PHOTOGRAPHY. MINIATURE CAMERA

534

New York. The

High speed photography using the technique developed by Edgerton found many applications in science and industry. By lowering a tiny camera, calibrated scale and compass into oil wells,

number were transmitted by

drillers

have developed a way of determining the alignment of the method has been used to produce deliberate departure from the vertical. In the educational field, there is a slight increase in the use of sub-standard motion

focus.

wells underground, and in one case the

There was much activity in aerial photography during 1939, and it was accelerated by the war in Europe, particularly for reconnaissance purposes. There has been some interest in the use

colour.

pictures, although the interest

as

it is

in

Europe. There

is

is

not so great in the United States

a great increase in the use of projec-

due to the new practice of returning Kodachromes from processing ready mounted for projection, and partly to the availability of cheap projectors and simple means for the photographer to mount his own transparencies. In tors using 2in. square slides, partly

the photomechanical field, there

is

a

marked

increase in the use

Stripping film and process film of high contrast type have

almost entirely replaced the wet plate in photolithography, and to a lesser extent in photo-engraving. There was

some

interest in the

use of ultra-violet photography to facilitate production of highlight screen negatives

showed a greater

and exaggerate contrast. Police departments photography in crime

interest in the use of

detection. illustrated

newspapers and magazines gave evidence of the

news reporting. One news events of 1939, the visit of the King and Queen of England to Canada and the United States in May and June, was very extensively covered, and the war in Europe provided much in the way of propaganda and news pictures. These were subject to censorship by the nations concerned, bUt a fair

possibilities

by the newly introduced

fast

and by the use of telephoto lenses of very long equivalent

films,

of small cameras for aerial work.

normal

led to the use of

aerial

The

necessity for flying high

cameras

with telephoto

fitted

and using infra-red and extreme red sensitive films for haze penetration. Colour photography and infra-red photography were studied for their possible use in camouflage detection, and flashlight photography for night work. The Fairchild Camera Corporation made a new camera taking the largest single negative lenses,

yet used in aerial photography.

of colour.

The

radio to

of press photography were extended

the lens of aperture

f/fi-S

and

The

picture

square, and

is iSin.

izin. focal length.

The

roll

of film

accommodates 600 exposures. In England, a 7-lens aerial camera was produced under the direction of the Air Survey Committee. There was a trend towards the use of cameras provided with short focus, wide angle lenses, covering more terrain on a single negative, and so saving flying time and film. The large United States aerial survey for crop and erosion studies and mapping was continued. There was much use of gun cameras and motion pic-

steadily increasing use of photography for

tures for military training purposes.

of the outstanding

Astronomy; Aviation, Civil; Electric Lighting; Libraries; Motion Pictures ;. Photography, Miniature Camera; Print-

(See also Advertising;

ing.)

—K.

Bibliography.

Henney and B. Dudley, Handbook

of Photography Clark, Photography by Infrared. Its Principles and Applications (London, New York); H. D. JIurray and D. A. Spencer, Colour in Theory and Practice. General Theory, Vol. i (London); E. Stenger and H. Staude, Fortschritte der Photographic (Leipzig); L. P. Clerc, “Structure et Propriety des Couches Photographiques,” Revue d’Optique (Paris). (C. E. K. JI.)

(New York, London): W.

Photography, Miniature Camera. advantages and conveniences such as small in taking

many

camera

size, light

offers

many

weight, ease

exposures, fast lenses and fast shutter speeds,

economy of materials, use of colour films, and other features, it is no wonder that nearly 5,000,000 new photographers have entered the field during the past ten years in England and the United States.

These miniature camera owners have found a new release own ideas and the interpretation of all the modern activi-

for their ties

associated with their daily living.

found

in candid

Thrilling experiences are

photography, action pictures of

all

kinds, children

and family pictures and many others. During the winter and spring of 1939 miniature camera photography undoubtedly had its greatest 'peak of popularity in the United States, England, Germany and a few other countries. The 3Smm. cameras such as the Contax, Leica, Retina and others were in great demand through England and Germany. In the United States the trend toward the larger miniature camera sizes was quite noticeable.

making

aj-xzj- size

By

spring and summer of 1939 the cameras negatives such as the Rolleiflex, Ikoflex, Super

This trend continued with the introduction of the 2^x3^ Speed Graphic camera in the Ikonta B, and others were very popular.

United States. This latter camera which enjoyed enormous sales throughout 1939 attracted many photographers who had been formerly using the

35mm. cameras

exclusively.

the end of 1939 the sale of the miniature 2^x35 Speed Graphic camera in the United States was definitely on the increase

By

many of the 2^x2^ miniature cameras in spite of the European war which had a marked effect upon the importation of German cameras into England and the United States. Although stocks of the German miniature cameras were not exhausted, the actual sale of the higher priced cameras fell off by the

along with

graphic salons in 1939 and won several prizes; member of the Camera club .of New York

il

was taken by H.

J. Phillips, a

PHYSICS end of 1939 to as much as 50% or more in some cases. The list prices for imported cameras remained unchanged for 1939 even

war started. The 35mm. cameras represented

after the

the greater

number

of minia-

camera sales in England and Germany during the first nine months of 1939, while in the United States the balance was gradually changing from the smaller size miniature cameras to the twin lens reflex cameras such as the Rolleiflex and the Ikoflex, with the new 2^x3:^^ miniature Speed Graphic camera heading the list of the larger size miniature camera demand in the United States. Undoubtedly one of the factors creating this trend toward the use of larger miniature camera films has been the development of Speed Flash photography. With the modern Micromatic Synchronizers, such as the Kalart, which make it possible to operate camera shutters at their highest speeds and synchronize a flashbulb at the same time, photographers found a new aid in obtaining photographs which could not be taken before. The new Super Speed films were another factor in the popularity of the miniature camera. With film speed increases of two to as much as six times over former films, photographers could use smaller lens stops and obtain greater depth of field in their pictures. This greater depth of field was formerly an almost exclusive feature with the 35mm. cameras and their short focal ture

third factor to be taken into consideration

is

the continual

development of the amateur photographers’ ability to discriminate between good and bad picture quality. As an average it was found that the larger negative size produced a finer tone gradation and print quality.

While there is no one universal camera, there is a definite trend toward the possession of two cameras, a 3Smm. and one of the larger miniature camera sizes up to as large as 25x3^ inches. Another development during the early part of 1939 was the deluge of cheap 35mm. cameras which flooded the markets in the United States and, to some extent, in England. These cameras were introduced under extravagant advertising claims for precision workmanship, speed lenses, candid camera qualities, etc. However, with such cheap cameras selling in the United States for as low as 985“ and $1.95, it was impossible to make anything of a permanent lasting value. The result of this came with the rapid decline in sales of these cheap cameras

by the end of 1939. How-

low priced 35mm. cameras ranging in price from $14 to $35 held up very well and were on the increase. General observation shows that the 3Smm. miniature camera still has a very definite place in photography. With the enormous

ever, sales of other

use of

atom into roughly equal parts is called Thorium and protactinium also have been found to undergo fission when exposed to neutron bombardment. The atomic number of uranium is 92 so that a uranium atom of atomic weight 239 contains 92 protons and 147 neutrons. If the nucleus of this atom breaks up into two parts the sum of the atomic numbers should be 96 and the sum of the atomic weights 239. However there are not among the known stable elements any two whose nuclei satisfy these conditions. For example, barium has atomic number 56, krypton 36 and 56-}-36=92 but the highest atomic weight of barium is 138 and that of krypton 86 and fission.

1384-86 is only 224 instead of 239. It is necessary therefore to suppose that the products of the fission are not stable atoms but unstable or radioactive atoms. In fact Hahn and Strassmann were able to detect the products formed

35mm. Kodachrome

colour film, the

35mm. cameras

are

continually in demand.

Probably another barometer

3Smm. camera has been

in

the steady interest

for the

the enormous sale of the Leica Manual.

by means of the beta rays

which they emit. Thus the barium atoms formed have atomic weights greater than 138 and are unstable emitting beta rays.

When

a beta ray

is

emitted a neutron changes into a proton so

when a barium atom emits a beta ray its- atomic number is increased by one and it becomes a lanthanum atom. Neutrons in the unstable atoms formed by the fission change into protons that

with the emission of beta rays until stable atoms are formed.

The

heavy atom involves the release of a very large The atomic weight of uranium with o'®=i6, as determined with the mass spectrograph, is 238-09 and the elements with atomic weights between 80 and 120 have atomic weights equal to an integer plus 0 94. It follows that if a uranium atom changes into two stable atoms with atomic weights between 80 and 120 there is a loss of mass of 2-09— 1-88=0.21 atomic fission of a

amount

length lenses.

A

535

integration of a heavy

of energy.

One atomic weight

weight units.

unit"

is

equal to 931,000,000

electron volts so that the energy released

by the fission of a uranium atom should be about 931X0-21 or almost 200,000,000 electron volts. The fission of the uranium atom therefore is an atomic explosion and the fragments fly apart with enormous kinetic energy.

Carson and Thornton at the University of California placed a uranium in a closed expansion chamber near to a source of neutrons and obtained photographs of the tracks made by the fragments. The kinetic energy of the fragments calculated thin layer of

from the length of the tracks agreed roughly -with that estimated from the loss of mass. It is found that neutrons are emitted during fission so that since fission is produced by neutrons it seems possible that the fission process once started in a mass of uranium might be able to maintain itself without any supply of neutrons from outside. The neutrons readily escape from the uranium so that the concentration of the neutrons will be greater the greater the volume of the uranium. It

seems possible that in a very large mass of uranium the con-

the end of 1939 over 50,000 copies of this book had been sold in England and the United States over a period of three years.

centration of the neutrons due to fission, once started in the mass, might go on increasing and so the rate of fission go on increasing

{See also Photography.)

until the

Bibliography. ^The Leica Manual (Xew York); Miniature Camera Work (New York); Synchroflash Photography (New York); The Miniature (W. D. Mx.) Camera Magazine (London).

the results obtained so far

By

—

uranium was

volatilized

seem

by the energy

set free.

However

to indicate that such results are

not possible and the existence of large masses of uranium ore on earth for millions of years confirms this.

..the

Nuclear Dhupinc rnyoiwO. gration was mann in Germany. It was

—A new type

of atomic disinte-

Hahn and

discovered in 1939 by Hahn and Strassfound that uranium, the heaviest known

cause fission

Physics.

element,

when exposed

to neutrons breaks

up

into several differ-

ent elements with atomic weights about half that of uranium. It is supposed that a uranium atom, of atomic weight 238, absorbs

becoming a uranium atom of atomic weight 239, and is unstable and breaks up into two roughly equal parts. Barium, antimony, tellurium, iodine, caesium and other elements are found among the products formed. Such a disa neutron, so

that this

new atom

Strassmann’s discovery of fission is

quite different

is

important be-

from previously known atomic

disintegrations. All such involved the combination of a nucleus with a particle, like a proton or deuteron, of small atomic weight, followed by the emission of another particle also of small atomic weight. For example, a magnesium atom, of atomic weight 26 absorbs a deuteron of atomic weight two and then emits a helium atom of atomic weight four so that the magnesium atom is

changed into a sodium atom of atomic weight 24. The nucleus of a heavy atom may be regarded as analogous to

u

be increased almost without limit either continuously or by

a

series of increments.

Mesotrons are found to have a life of only a few millionths of a second. They are unstable and probably break up into an electron and a neutrino or a photon or both. It is clear therefore that mesotrons are not primary cosmic rays.

—

Magnetic Moments of the Proton and Deuteron. An exact determination of the magnetic moments of the proton and the deuteron has been done at Columbia university by Rabi and his Hydrogen gas was allowed to enter a large highly

associates.

slits. The molecules from the were focused on to a sensitive Pirani gauge detector by means of two magnets. Between the two magnets the molecules passed between the poles of a third magnet. A weak alternating magnetic field at right angles to the field of the third magnet was produced by means of the current from a high frequency oscillator. The hydrogen molecules which act Hke_ small magnets are lined up by the field of the magnets and focused on the detector but

evacuated chamber through narrow slits

if

the alternating field disturbs this orientation the focusing

prevented which

by the

indicated

is

detector.

is

The hydrogen

molecules act like magnetic spinning tops and process around the

When

direction of the magnetic field.

nating effect

the frequency of the alter-

equal to that of the precession a sort of resonance

field is

between the alternating

field

the molecules are disturbed even

The magnetic moment

and 'the molecules occurs and

by a very weak

alternating

of the molecules can be caPA’lated

field.

from the

field which preven the focusing and the strength of the steady field of the third ft of ;et. In this j^lton is 2-80 way it was found that the magnetic moment of and that of a deuteron o-86 nuclear magnetons. V .
^876-

name

priesthood on April civil

)

inals as the

and canon law.

of Eugenio. 2,

1899, he

Following his ordination to the continued special courses in

PLASTICS INDUSTRY Eugenio Pacelli entered the Papal Secretariat of State in 1901. When the codification of canon law was begun under Cardinal Gasparri, he

was engaged

his priestly ministrations

was named secretary

Meanwhile, he carried on and preached frequently. In 1914, he as assistant.

Congregation for Extraordinary

the

to

Ecclesiastical Affairs.

The then Pope, Benedict XV, on signor Pacelli

for the delicate

April 20, 1917, chose

office

Upon

of Sardes.

May

13,

Mon-

of Apostolic Nuncio

Bavaria, the only diplomatic contact between war-torn

and the Holy See. On

he was consecrated

to

Germany

titular

bishop

German Republic, he a nunciature, and was named first

the establishment of the

was instrumental in negotiating nuncio to Germany, establishing

his residence in Berlin in 1925.

In recognition of his services in Germany, he was called to Rome and, on Dec. 16, 1929, was created Cardinal. This was preparatory to his appointment by Pius XI, on Feb.

7,

1930, as

Papal Secretary of State. During the next nine years, his public life

merged with the achievements

of the

dynamic pontificate

As Papal Chamberlain, Cardinal

XI

of objects that can be

made from

plas-

beginning to capture the imagination of the public and

tics is

popular magazines as well as scientific journals published articles plastics

and the beautiful

arid useful

products that can be

made from them. The re-armament program

in Europe altered the program of European countries, reducing the production of phenol-formaldehyde moulding powder and increasing the manufacture of laminated phenolics. As always, most Government reports deal more with exports and imports than with production and estimation is reduced to “guess work.” Reports on synthetic resin throw together resins used for plastics and for other uses such as paints and adhesives, and it is believed therefore that 1938’s estimate on synthetic resins was high. With the above explanation, we estimate the 1938 world production of cellulose derivative plastics to be 84,000 short tons, and

plastic production in the

that of synthetic resins to be 121,000 short tons.

of Pius XI.

Pius

Plactinc Inrilictru riddlluo IllUUollJfi 1939. The infinite variety

on

*

539 predicted in 1938, the field of plastics was expanded still further in

on Feb.

10, 1939.

Pacelli

announced the death of

Sixty-two Cardinals assembled for the

new Pope on March i. On the third ballot of the day of voting, March 2, Cardinal Pacelli was chosen Pope, and assumed the name of Pius XII. He was crowned with the triple tiara on March 12, in the presence of some 125,000 spec-

More

intelligent

and

artistic designing of plastic articles

apparent and plastics are

now

standing upon their

own

was

merits, the

election of a

time being past when they were merely substitutes for accepted

first

materials,

and were accordingly made to simulate such materials. They are now filling many structural and utilitarian purposes. The further development of injection moulding powders and

tators assembled in the square before St. Peter’s.

multiple unit injection presses was accompanied by the wider use

year of his pontificate, Pius XII devoted himself to the cause of world peace. His first address, broadcast to the world on the morning after his election, was an appeal

of plastics in automobile construction, such as steering wheels,

During the

first

instrument panels, directional signs, and window

radiator

grilles,

reveals.

Greater use of automatic compression type presses also

nations. Again, at Easter, he renewed his demand for peace and his condemnation of war acts. On April 20, he ordered a “crusade of prayer” for the preservation

helped in this development.

of peace.

laminated sheets in architecture and decorations. Very large sculptural castings were made for the New York World’s Fair. In-

for peace within and

among

During May and June, he sought by diplomatic approaches to Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany and Poland, to prepare his

advances were received favourably, his proposals

were not accepted by the Governments. less, to strive

through the

summer

between Poland and Germany,

He

continued, neverthe-

to ease the tension, especially

On August

3^, as a final act,

he

urged a five-power conference to avert hostilities and to seek revision of the Versailles Treaty. During September and October, he seized every opportunity to plead for the avoidance of war horrors, especially against civilian populations. Courageously, he showed sympathy with Poland, aggression and the Russian invasion, and conboth Governments. On November 10, he intimated the

after the

demned

German

need for “a stable organization of nations.”

Pope Pius welcomed the proposals looking toward parallel peace efforts of religion and government issued by President Roosevelt on December 23. Speaking before the Cardinals on Christmas Eve, he laid down five points necessary for “a just and honourable peace,” namely, the right to life and independence of all nations, acceptance of the principle of disarmament, a system

of international arbitration, recognition of the just

demands of

and minorities, and acceptance by peace negotiators of the principles of justice and charity. On October 27, he issued his first encyclical, Sumvti Pontificattis, dealing with the unity of human society. His Sertnm Laetitiae,

nations, peoples

dated

November

States, treated of

ii,

thermosetting

resins

continue

to

lead

were music box assemblies Fghted from within, imand rotors of pumps, chemical and sanitary piping and electric shaver cases. The use in radio cabinets was greatly exdustrial uses

pellers

for a peace conference.

Though

Phenol-formaldehyde

other plastics in volume, partly because of an extended use of

directed to the hierarchy of the United

American problems. Despite the

stress of his

he continued through the year holding audiences and peace making addresses, six of which were broadcast internationally. On December 28, the Pope visited the King and Queen of Italy, efforts,

breaking a precedent of 70 years.

(F.

X. T.)

tended, particularly in the case of the furfuralphenol resins be-

cause of their resistance to scorching during moulding.

Development of urea-formaldehyde resins was largely in improvements in structural design and better control of colour, these resulting in a rapid growth of the use of urea plastics for illuminated signs. There was also an increased use in laminations. Large sections such as refrigerator doors and store fronts were introduced.

Nylon, the new synthetic

fibre

introduced in 1938, found suc-

cess as a bristle material for tooth brushes

and hair brushes.

In 1939, fishing leaders and surgical sutures from synthetic material were introduced.

this

strong

New uses of cellulose acetate moulding powder included moulded duck pins and shoe heels. Cellulose acetate rigid sheeting found use in making transparent containers for hats, garment accessories and other luxury articles. Acetate film, because of its light weight and its property of ultra-violet transmission, is being used for hot bed frames and solarium enclosures. In some places cellulose acetate butyrate was introduced in place of cellulose acetate because of its greater moisture-resistance and it was therefore used for flat sections such as instrument panels and glove compartment doors. The acrylic resins, particularly methyl methacrylate, have gone ahead by leaps and bounds. Divers uses of both cast resins and moulding powders have been found. The use of methyl methacrylate dentures has become wide-spread in England and the United States, new methods of application having been developed which make the material more easily worked by dental technicians. ’

;

PLASTIC SURGERY— PNEUMONIA

540 Highway

lighting reflectors

lenses are

now

being

have increased in use and spectacle

made

The

by moulding.

to prescription

edge-lighting property of methyl methacrylate resin has led to

increased use in signs and displays and the use of “piped light” in the surgical field

is

on the increase. Polyvinylacetyl resin as

the interlayer in safety glass

now

is

used in practically

all

pared to 65,900 tons in 1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of fi7j59o tons. By States the plum crop was, in tons

auto-

mobiles manufactured in the United States, and in some of Canadian manufacture. Thus far there is no other important use

_

Lpjp

.

Calitornia

polyvinyl

including

resins,

polyvinyl

chloride,

for

moulded articles, and triangles, book bindings injection

raincoats,

extruded cable coatings, slide rules

and storage batteries. Polystyrene, heretofore available chiefly in Germany, was produced in the United States and found service adapters, cosmetic packages, refrigerator knobs

as acid bottle

California

in

dials,

transparent dishes and condenser insulation.

Germany was

Its use

.

,

Oregon Washington .

.

.

Information as to specific European developments

meagre and unreliable because of the war. After the war clouds have cleared, reports of startling developments will probably be obtained. (See also Chemistry, Applied; Industrial Research; Paints and Varnishes; Rayon; Rubber and Rubber Manufacture; Textile Industry; Wool.) (H. W. Pa.) is

IPJQ 212,400 184,000 26,600

IQ3S

lo-yr. average

238,300 224,000 13,300

1,800

1,000

225,300 198,600 23,460 3,440

.

IQ3Q 54,900 20,200 19,400 15.300

United States, Idaho . . Oregon .

.

,

.

.

Washington

,

I93S

lo-yr. average

48,500 15,200 17,800 15,500

49,350 18,110 17,000 14,240

pRTOES Canned

greatly extended over that of 1938, an estimated

sale of 2,000 tons being reported.

States, in tons, as follows:

Prunes Used Fresh

.

and

by

......

United States. silk

61,800 S,790

Prunes Dried

adhesives, impregnation of fabric for wrapping pipe lines, im-

of

lo-yr. average

the United States in 1939, in 1938 and for the

ten-year (1928-37) average was,

acetate and after-chlorinated polyvinyl chlorides, found use for

pregnation

jqj 8 63,000 2,900

09,000 6,300

Michigan

The prune crop in

of resins of this type.

Other vinyl

part of the 1939 crop of prunes was left on the trees because of low prices. The plum crop in the United States in 1939 was reported by the Department of Agriculture as 75,300 tons, com-

IQ3Q 31.S00 2S,6oo

United States, Oregon .

.

.

JQ38

lo-yr. average

15,300 12,400

18,460 13,940 (S.

R.)

.

stands out as a banner year in the

DnaiimnniQ

r IlCUIIIUIIIda

0

history of the control of pneumonia.

Interest

has been focused chiefly on the therapeutic use of the new derivative

from sulphanilamide, sulphapyridine. The' chemical formula

is 2-(p-aminobenzene-sulphonamide) pyridine; it produced in England in 1938 under the trade name' of M&B 693. One of the most interesting features of sulphapyridine is its applicability to all types of pneumococci, and it appears to be just as efficient against the streptococcus haemo-

of this agent

Plastic Surgery: see Surgery.

DlQtiniim ridUIIUIIK platinum output are incomplete

;

was published

since

on

the

Russian

1926, and data on exports

since these figures vary widely

from year

to year,

originally

Some

lyticus as sulphanilamide itself.

authors claim that certain

pneumococcus may develop a tolerance

the world totals fluctuate accordingly, and do not represent a true

strains of

known how much of the Russian shipments is from current production and how much from accumulated surplus stocks from previous years. The world supply

from the standpoint of practical experience, this must be an extremely rare occurrence. There is still some debate as to which of the two agents, sulphanilamide or sulphapyridine, is the less toxic. No doubt further studies will supply a definite answer to

picture of the industry, as

in 1938 is estimated to

From

it is

not

have been

in excess of

400,000 ounces.

1929, the Canadian production increased to 161,300 02. in 1938, with prospects for a further increase in 1939.

12,500

02. in

The next

largest producer is Colombia, with an output which has dropped in the past few years from 55, 000 oz. to less than 30,000 ounces. The fourth large producer is South Africa, which had a

high figure of 45,500 oz. in 1930, but averaged about 26,000 oz. from 1934 until it rose to 31,200 oz. in 1937, and to 42,300 oz. in 1938; production continued to increase in 1939, and for the first eight

ounces.

months

of the year

The United

was

at the record rate of 58,000

States output stands fifth in the

list,

the

yield since 1935 having been boosted above the previous level by a new placer deposit in Alaska. In 1938 the recovery of by-

and of placer crude 42,000 oz., (G. A. Ro.) the exact platinum content of which is unknown.

product platinum was 3,800

oz.,

Pliofilm: see Industrial '^’SResearch;

Rubber and Rubber

Manufacture.

but for the present

this question,

growers.

In Bulgaria 6,000,000kg. of p^,iXF{j'ul,p, a newly-developed product for export, were shipped^ Germany. The Bulgarian crop was estimated at about 'ii3o,o^,oookg. compared to 96,000,000kg. in 1938. In New Zealand, Vhich exports about 2,soo,ooolb. of prunes annually, experiment \vas begun with a plantation of 500 trees of new variety. lu^-'Ae United States a

safe to say that there

not

is

a great deal of difference in their toxicity for man.

Sulphapyridine

man

than

is

is.less readily

and more irregularly absorbed

sulphanilamide, and furthermore, a considerable

active fraction accumulates in the blood in the

jugated or acetylated sulphapyridine.

Due

in in-

form of con-

to this fact,

it is

im-

from the amount of the drug administered the resulting blood level of the active unbound drug. It may vary widely, due to the difference in the amount of drug conjugation in different subjects. Often extremely high blood levels will be obtained with apparently small doses of the drug, and possible to foretell

may

conversely a clinical response of only I to 2

mgms. per

be obtained with blood

The

cent.

levels

ideal blood level has not yet

been established, but it is probably somewhere between 5 and 10 mgms. per looc.c. of blood. The effect of sulphapyridine on the clinical course of pneumonia is usually prompt and dramatic. Within a few hours after the initial dose, the temperature

and marketing difficulPlume OnH Driinoe Large, crops riUlllO dllU riUllCo. ties, h'ecause of the European war, caused the Yugoslavian Governmemt to take over prune exports in 1939 and to guarantee a minimunii price to plum and prune

it is

to the drug, but

the patient seems

much more

some nausea and depression drop in temperature, there

may

drop to normal by

resulting

is

crisis

comfortable, though there

and

may be

from the drug. With the

a corresponding

fall in

pulse and

respiration.

The

toxic effects of sulphapyridine are varied.

of these

is

nausea and vomiting.

tions are a rapid fall in the total

Other

number

in the blood, mental depression, fever,

Most common

less frequent complica-

of red or white corpuscles

and drug

rashes.

sionally the drug precipitates in the urinary tract to

concretions.

Occa-

form stony

POETRY- POLAND The

on the

statistical reports

effect of sulphapyridine

541

on the

Eq.mi.; population

fatality rate of

Pniflnri rUidliU*

death rate of

34,200,000.

cific

(1,300,000), Lodz (690,000), Lwow (350,000), Poznan (290,000), Cracow (280,000), Vilna (225,000). President (Jan. i. 1939):

pneumonia show an amazing drop from a standard 25% to 30% in patients who have not received spetreatment to a figure between 5% and 10% for patients

treated with sulphapyridine.

The writer compiled from the American literature 956 cases of pneumococcal pneumonia treated with sulphapyridine. The death rate for this entire series

was only 7-1%.

C.

M. McLeod Of

reports 100

rabbit serum, of

pneumonia patients treated with spe-

whom

only eleven died.

these eleven, however, seven deaths were due to

Type

III

pneumococcus, a type for which the most ardent advocates of serum therapy have never made many claims. It seems quite clear that with the refined rabbit serum now in use, the results obtained are quite as good as those which result from chemotherapy.

Type

III cases of course being excluded.

A

now has a double-barreOed weapon for fighting pneumonia. For many reasons chemotherapy is preferable serum therapy because of its simplicity of administration by mouth and because it is effective in all tj^jes of pneumonia. Howto

still

5%

to

10%

of patients

who

die in spite of

and many authorities believe that when sulphapyridme fails to give prompt results, the treatment should be supplemented by specific serum therapy. They believe that for both theoretical and practical reasons, all pneumonia patients with sulphapyridine,

bacteria in the blood-stream should receive both agents.

writer

is

quite sympathetic with such a point of view.

quite possible, however, that as

we become more

It

The seems

skilful in the

use of chemotherapy, there will be less and less need for serum therapy. Finally, there are certain patients

crasy cannot take sulphapyridine.

who, because of drug idiosynserum should be used

Specific

such cases; In addition to these important advances in the field of specific therapy, some progress is also being made in oxygen therapy. Efforts are now being made to simplify oxygen therapy and to get

in

away from the complicated and expensive oxygen chambers and oxygen tents. As a substitute for elaborate methods, several types of nasal inhalators have been introduced and the face masks of Barach and of Boothby have also attracted attention. These simplified

methods, however,

all

have certain disadvantages;

it

seems

quite likely that the oxygen tent will continue to be the favourite

method

of administering oxygen for

some time

to come.

For-

timately, with our greatly improved specific therapy, there will be

and less demand for oxygen therapy. (See also Chemotherapy; Epidemics and Public Health Control; Medicine; Serum Therapy.)

less

—

Bibliogeaphy. A. L. Barach and M. Eckman, “Technique of Inhalational Therapy,” Modern Hospital (Feb. 1939): J. G. M. Bullowa, “Discussion of Pneumococcus” Third Int. Congress for Jlicrobiology (Sept. 1939): N. Finland, W. C. Spring, F. C. Lowell, and J. W. Brown, “Specific Serotherapy and Chemotherapy of the Pneumococcus Pneumonias,” Ann. Int. Med. (May 1939); C. M. JIcLeod, “Chemotherapy of Pneumococcic Pneumonia,” read in Panel Discussion on Pneumonia, A.M.A. (May 1939): D. S. Pepper, R. F. Flippin, L. Schwartz, and J. S. Lockwood, “The Results of Sulfapyridine Therapy in 400 Cases of Typed Pneumococcic Pneumonia,” Amer. J. Med. Set. (July 1939); N. Plummer and H. Ensworth, “SulfapsTidine in the Treatment of Pneumonia,” /A.MA. 113:1847. (R. L. C.)

Italian Literature; Literary Prizes; Spanish-American Literature.

Poison Gas: Gas; Leather.

see

(pop.

est.

Sept,

i,

i,

1939)

1939):

c.

Warsaw

Prof. Ignacy Moscicki; (Sept. 30, 1939); IWadislaw Raczkiewicz;

Premier (Jan. i, 1939); Gen. Slawoj Skladkowski; (Sept. 30, 1939) Gen. Wladislaw Sikorski.

—

The year 1939 marks the end of Polish independence, by the Versailles Treaty in 1919. Nazi-Germany attacked Poland on Sept, i, 1939 and, by that act, started the European war (q.v.). Great sections of the country, and especially the great cities like Warsaw, Lodz and Lwow, were severely damaged by constant bombardment during Sept. 1939. History.

created

—

International Relations . Since 1934, and the conclusion of a non-aggression treaty 3vith Germany, Poland’s foreign policy tried to maintain a balance between the country’s two powerful neigh-

Germany and Soviet Russia. On Jan. 25, 1939,' Joachim von Ribbentrop, Nazi Foreign Minister, \dsited Poland for the celebration of the fifth anniversary of the Polish-German non-

aggression treaty.

Publishing;

Chemical Warfare; Munitions of War;

The document was

praised

by him

as

one of

the fundamental instruments of European peace, and as the basis for friendly Polish-German relations. In fact, the Polish foreign policy,

under Colonel Beck, was considered, by a large section of

public opinion in the democratic countries, as being pro-German.

When slovakia,

the Nazi Government, after the annexation of Czecho-

made demands on Poland

for the cession of Danzig, and

for an ex-territorial road through Pomorze, the opposition in Poland, irrespective of party affiliations,

was unanimous. Poland

feared the fate of Czecho-SIovakia, and refused to abandon

its

The Polish Government was willing to negotiate, and establish a common PolishGerman guarantee over Danzig, and make all possible concessions to facilitate German transportations through Pomorze. This meant sovereignty over any section of her territory.

that Poland

was willing to agree to a virtual political Anschluss between Danzig and the Reich, while reserving her vital economic interests in the Baltic. 'When no reply was received to these proPoland realized the gravity of the danger and turned towards Great Britain and France. Meanwhile, the British Government, shocked by Chancellor Hitler’s violation of the Munich agreement, decided upon a fundamental change in British foreign policy. In a historic statement in the House of Commons, on March 31, 1939, Prime Minister Chamberlain gave assurances to Poland that: posals.

... in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence and which the Polish Government, accordingly, considered as vital to resist with their national forces, His ^lajesty’s Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power. They have given the Polish Government an assurance to that effect. I may add that the French Government have authorized to make it plain that they stand in the same position as do His ^lajesty’s Government.

The

unilateral guarantee of the British

Government was subse-

quently changed into a bi-lateral treaty of mutual assistance. Chancellor Hitler, in his speech of April 28, 1939, before the Reichstag, denounced the non-aggression treaty with Poland of

memorandum

sent the same day by the German was explained that the demmeiation of the non-aggression treaty was the result of Poland’s acceptance of

1934, and in a

Government

to Poland,

it

Colonel Beck, replying to the German demands, reaffirmed the willingness of Poland to negotiate over

the British guarantee. the Danzig and

American Literature; Canadian Literature; Poetry: Dutch Literature; English Literature; French Literasee

ture;

1939) 34,900,000; (Sept,

i,

bours,

practising physician

ever, there are

Jan.

Chief towns

:

Favourable reports continue to appear on the value of concentrated rabbit serum in the treatment of pneum’onia. For example, cific

(est.

Pomorze

questions,

and denied that the British

guarantee of Polish independence was in contradiction with the non-aggression treaty between Poland and Germany. Incidents in Danzig and on the Polish-German frontier were

summer 1939, and an anti-Polish press campaign was launched in the German newspapers. \Vhen, on Aug. 19, 1939, a commercial agreement was signed between Nazi-Germultiplying during the

On September

with practically no resistance.

an agreement

28,

Moscow, between Germany and the Soviet Union, dividing Poland between the two countries. was signed

in

German-occupied

The

territory:

area

ritory of the former Polish republic;

about half of the

ter-

inhabited by about

21,-

is

is

000,000 people, of which 18,000,000 are Poles, Jews, and about 800,000 are Germans.

than 2,000,000

less

Contains the most im-

portant industrial establishments and large agricultural areas in the provinces of Posen and Pomorze. Culturally, the people are

much more advanced than

Most

in the Russian-occupied area.

the large cities of Poland are situated here.

German

of

authorities

have divided the territory into two sections; one, containing the provinces of Pomorze, Posen, and Upper-Silesia (which, before 1914 belonged to the German Empire), and Lodz, was incor-

porated in the Reich; the other, with Cracow as made into a Gouvernement General of Poland.

its capital,

was

Russian-occupied territory An area of about 75,000 sq.mi., inhabited by approximately 13,000,000 people, of which 8,000,000 :

are Ukrainians and WTiite Russians,

3,500,000 are Poles; contains

1,300,000 are Jews,

wells in Galicia,

oil

dustry in Bialystok; the population

is

and

and

textile in-

overwhelmingly agricultural

and very poor. Only one great city, Lwow. In an agreement between Soviet Russia and Lithuania, the city and region of Vilna were ceded to the Lithuanian republic. New Regime: On Sept. 30, 1939, President Moscicki resigned and appointed as his successor Wladislaw Raczkiewicz. The new A GERMAN INCENDIARY BOMB 1939 and

killed

suburban homes

fired these

of

Warsaw

In Sept.

15 occupants

President appointed, in Paris, a Cabinet, composed of representa-

and headed by Government later moved to Angers (France), and was recognized, not only by the Allies, but also by the neutrals. The program of the Government tives

of

all

important Polish

General Wladislaw Sikorski.

many and Soviet Russia, followed by a non-aggression many was pressing for an immediate solution of her with Poland.

pact, Gerdifficulties

Chancellor Hitler agreed, through Sir Nevile Hen-

derson, British

Ambassador

in Berlin, to enter into direct negotia-

if a Polish envoy with full powers would come Poland refused to negotiate on those conditions, and

tions with Poland,

to Berlin.

be held in a neutral country. The Polish Government, remembering the so-called negotiations between

insisted that talks

Schuschnigg or Hacha, and the German declared that no envoy

tions,

dotted line would go

On August the

German

officials, in

who would have

similar condi-

to sign

on the

to Berlin.

31 at 9 P.M., an radio, stating

official

that

communication was read over German Government had

the

waited in vain for two days, for the arrival of a Polish negotiator. In these circumstances, “the German Government cannot but re-

gard their proposals as having been virtually rejected.” Those proposals contained the demand for the return of Danzig to the Reich. In Pomorze, a committee composed of representatives of Great Britain, France, Soviet Russia, and Italy, was to organize a

on Jan. i, igi8. In the event that the Corridor went to the Reich, under the plebiscite, Poland was to receive a narrow corridor connecting her to Gdynia. If Poland won the plebiscite, Germany was to get an plebiscite limited to those domiciled in the territory

ex-territorial

road and a four-track railway

line.

The German

proposals provided also for compensation of damages done to minorities since 1918, and for the demobilization of Danzig,

Gdynia, and the peninsula of Hela.

On

Sept, i, 1939,

troops crossed the frontier and a score of saw,

Lwow and

cities,

German War-

including

parties,

Polish

new democratic Poland,

which

in

all

be granted equality of rights. {See also AntiSemitism; Czecho-Slovakia; Minorities; Slovakia.) citizens

will

Banking and Finance.

— (In

(S. Sl.)

thousands of zlotys)

:

revenue

193S-39) 2,475,000; expenditure (est. 1938-39) 2,475,000. Gold reserve (Dec. 31, 1938) 44S.ooo; (Aug. 31, 1939) 443,000. (est.

Bank notes

in circulation (Dec. 31, 1938) 1,406,000;

1939) 1,928,000. Exchange rate (Aug. 1939) I zloty = i8.75f‘.

Trade and Communication. zlotys):

imports,

(1938 av.)

—Foreign trade

i

(Aug. 31,

zloty=i8.86f‘;

(in thousands of

merchandise

(1938) 1,299,600; (Jan.-July Exports, merchandise (1938) 1,184,400; (Jan.-

1939) 762,300. July 1939) 781,500. Net tonnage of shipping entered (monthly av. 1938) 542,000; (June 1939) 622,000. Net tonnage of shipping cleared (monthly av. 1938) 542,000; (June 1939) 600,000.

—

Agricolture, Mineral Production, Manufacturing. (In thousands of quintals, 1939): wheat, 22,700; barley, 14,800; (1938): rye, 1,029; oats, 948; maize, 2,962. (In metric tons,

1938); coal, 38,100,000; petroleum, 504,000; pig-iron and ferroalloys, 972,000; steel, 1,548,000. Industrial production (monthly 1938, 1929 = 100) 118; (June 1939) 127. (monthly av. 1938) 348,000; (June 1939) 241,000.

Unemployed

av.

Polar Regions: see Exploration and Discovery. Pole Vaulting: see Track and Field Sports.

Cracow, were bombed.

Partition of Poland: Premier Molotov, in a radio speech of Sept. 17, 1939, declared that the Polish State ceased to exist

and therefore the treaties concluded between the Soviet Union and Poland, namely the non- aggression treaty of 1932, had lost all value. The Soviet Union could not “remain indifferent to the fate of its blood-brothers,” the Ukrainians and White Russians. At least 1,000,000 Soviet troops marched into Poland, and met

542

the establishment of a

is

political

The new

Dnlino rUIIUCi

numerical strength of municipal police in the

U.S. continues to increase. Latest figures (for 1938) covering over 2,500 cities, towns and villages, are summarized

from the Uniform Crime Reports in Table I. All five groups of cities above 10,000 population showed slight increase in police quotas for

in police quotas

is

1938 over 1937.

immediately reflected in police

Any costs.

a

increase

Latest

POLICE data upon per capita costs for police are is

complete for

shown

in

543

Table II which

Table IV

over 50,000 population.

all cities

Numerical Strength

Police pay-scales also continued to rise, as the salary cuts effected during the early 1930s

were gradually restored

to

former

levels.

Table

>938 1937 1936 1935 1034

Gross Expenditure

63,594 62,804 60,966 60,257 59.988

£25,849,470 25,096,020 23.497,839 22 7 S 1,377 22,785,323 »

I

which represented a decline of 263 from Prior to that, the force had reached levels

totalled 18,623 in iQSSj

Number

Population Groups

Group I Group 11 Group III Group IV Group V Group VI

Number

of Forces

Filing Returns

—over 250,000 — 100,000 to 250,000 50,000 to 100,000 — —25,000 to 50,000 .... — 10,000 to 25,000 .... —2,500 to 10,000 .... .

.

.

.

,

.

of Police per of

the preceding year.

Thousand

Population

which approached 20,000 men. The annual report of Lieutenant Colonel Frank Brook, H.M. Inspector of Constabulary, caused wide comment in police circles, particularly the statement that

2.2

37 57

t

1-5 1-4 1.2 l.I l.I

102

190 571 1.5S1

“the time

appropriate for a renewed plea for the merging of

is

small forces. Totals

2.538

.

.

.

Some

of the forces are too small to justify the

1.6

and cannot procure even simple police equipment. . The time has gone by when the Service as a whole can be handicapped by local sentiment.” police administration, .

.

Table

!l

j 1

—$

Per Capita Cost of Police

]

Population Groups

Group Group Group

I

II III

—All —All —All

cities cities cities

over 250,000 pop from roo,ooo to 250,000 pop. from 50,000 to 100,000 pop.

. .

1

As a

result of a vigorously

1936

1935

1934

1933

1932

6.06 3-71 2.83

5-84 3-65

5-65

showed a

2.66

5-69 3-79 2.69

6.06 4-35

2.71

3-oc*

dents.

360

conducted

Home Office

experiment in

the maintenance of road patrols, the Lancashire constabulary

44%

reduction, in 1939, in personal injury road accidifficulties continued in 1939, particularly in

Recruiting

the Metropolitan police force. Air raid precautions, for the ad-

New York, Jersey City, Yonkers and Mount Vernon (all located in the New York metropolitan area) continued to have the highest pay-scales, with the set at $3,000 per

maximum pay

annum

for the grade of patrolman

in these four cities.

police salaries are highest in the larger cities, places.

From

the standpoint

Generally speaking,

and lower

geographic

of

in smaller

the

distribution,

higher brackets are to be found in the Middle Atlantic,

New

Eng-

ministration of which the police have been

made

largely respon-

became a duty of prime importance with the outbreak of the European w'ar on Sept, i, 1939. At about the same time, the police were armed with revolvers, which represented a departure from established practices of long standing. Extension of regional crime laboratories by the Home Office was sible during recent years,

land and Pacific Coast States, and along the Great Lakes, while

continued during 1938 with the establishment of the Northwestern Forensic Science Laboratory at Preston. It will serve every police

the lowest police scales are quite definitely located in the South

force in Lancashire, Cumberland and Westmoreland.

Atlantic and South Central areas. Thus, the level of police salaries reflects in

The

a general

way

the local living costs and standards.

latest available figures for crimes cleared

(by arrest and

formal charge) relate to the calendar year 1938. As in previous years, the largest percentage of offences cleared in this

was

manner

in the group of reportable crimes against the person (murder,

Police reported a general increase in indictable ofi'ences during

1938 (running as high as 109% in Canterbury), and juvenile offences also gave cause for concern. On the other hand, non-

showed a tendency to decline. Scotland. Continued rise in police quotas and in police costs was a feature in 1938. A comparison for recent years follow's: indictable offences

—

manslaughter, aggravated assault and rape), which ranged, in 1938, from 77-3% (for aggravated assault) up to 89.5% (for

murder and non-negligent manslaughter). Crimes against property show a less favourable situation, wth clearances in 1938 (for auto theft) up to 42-5% (for robbery). ranging from 22 3 The police record of crime clearances for 1938 was in general better than that for 1937, except as to larceny and rape. -

the general rule. It should not, however, be concluded that there any causal relationship between the two, the whole issue being

is

confused by the fact that both the crime rates and the police quotas of the small cities are smaller than those of the large cities.

A summary

of the 1938 percentage of clearances, for 1,182 cities, towns and villages with a total population of 38,462,850, appears in Table III. England and Wales. Increase in the numerical strength and the net cost of the police forces, noted for each year since 1934-

—

in

The

£2,563,523 2.426,439 2.397,246 2,296,943

in 1938.

The numerical

strength of the Table

Murder and Non-

Negli-

Negligent

Man-

Man-

slaugh-

slaughter

ter

Rape

by the Scottish

Office to the

county councils of Wigtown, Kirkcudbright and Dumfries. Similar action was suggested with respect to the Angus constabulary and the Arbroath Burgh police. At Comaig, on the Island of Tiree, a new police station, with

was opened in 1939. Value of the new was doubted by those who pointed out that no prisoners

electrically heated cells, facilities

have been taken on either Tiree or Coll wdthin the memory of persons

now

living.

—

General. ^The first Congres International de Criminalistique was held in Lausanne, July 22-24, 1938. Technical papers on various aspects of police science w'ere read

by

delegates

from

Frankfurt-am-Main, Lausanne, New York, Riga, Karlsruhe, Lille, Graz, Stockholm, Genoa, Assen, Berne, Budapest, Tallinn, Am-

London Metropolitan Police

sterdam and Berlin. In Canada, the 34th annual convention of the Chief Constables’ Association was held at Windsor, Ontario, in June 1939. Greatest interest centred around a proposal that Canadian police be co-ordinated as in the United Kingdom, with

III

Bur-

gent

Further consolidation of small police forces, long agitated in the United Kingdom, was proposed

shown

totals for recent years are

was continued Table IV.

Offences Cleared by Arrest

Net Expenditure

6,887 6,695 6,607 6,556

%

Taking the country as a whole, success in solving crimes varies inversely with the size of the city, and 1938 was no exception to

35,

Numerical Strength 1938 1937 1936 1035

Robbery’

Aggravated

Break-

Assault

ing or

glary’,

Larceny',

Auto

Ibeft

Theft

Entering

the Dominion establishing standards for and contributing to the support of a system of locally controlled forces. Compulsory civil finger-printing

was

also discussed.

In Oct. 1939, the International Association of Chiefs of Police Sg.s

S7.1

82.5

42 .“;

77-3

34.7

23.3

22.3

(in

which American and Canadian memberships heavily predomi-

POLIOMYELITIS— PORTUGAL

544

its 46th annual Police Congress at San Francisco. Most important action there taken involved renewed efforts to secure

nate) held

more adequate frequencies for police radio service, and a report by a special committee that “the residence restrictions imposed in many communities which prohibit trained, qualified and experienced persons from competing in examinations (for police appointment), simply because they do not reside within the corporate limits of the city in which examinations are being conducted, is the greatest handicap to professionalized police service.”

During 1939, also, the Federal Bureau of Investigation at Washington announced the opening of the new National Police Training Center at Quantico, Virginia. Hailed as a veritable “West Point of Law Enforcement,” the new plant and improved facilitieswill

be devoted to the higher training of Federal, State and local

in

made

notable discoveries in connection with mustard gas and other poison gases. For his career and work consult Encyclopcedia

Britannica, vol. 18, p. 226, also the index.

Cambridge on October

Sir William died at

17.

see Communism; Labour Party. Populations of the Countries of the World: AND Populations of the Countries of the World. Porto Rico; see Puerto Rico.

Popular Front:

see Areas

(including Azores and Madeira) 35,670 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938) 7,460,000. Chief towns: capital, President; Gen. 594,300; Oporto, 232,280.

Darflliral

rOriU^al,

police officers.

Important publications of the year included the Police Blue Book, 1939-40 (International Association of Chiefs of Police), a directory of the major police officials of 70 countries, dominions, colonies, dependencies and mandated territories, together with those of the States, provinces and leading civil subdivisions. also

and

1908 he was appointed professor of chemistry at CamHis first research was in crystallography. Later he specialized in pure organic chemistry, and during the World War he ter,

bridge.

(See

Federal Bureau of Investigation.)

Lisbon,

Antonio (mainly

Carmona;

Roman

—

Portuguese;

religion;

Christian

—

History. Internally, Portugal in 1939 was passing through a period of reorganization conducive to greater efficiency in the public services.

Bibliography. Reports oj H.M. Inspectors oj Constabulary, England and Wales, for the year ended Sept. 29, 1938 (London, 1939): Vnilorm Crime Reports (quarterly) for 1938 and the first three quarters of 1939. Federal Bureau of Investigation; The Police yearbook, international As(Br. S.) sociation of Chiefs of Police, 1938-39 (1939).

language;

Catholic).

The Foreign

Office and the Board of Trade were and the reform of the postal, telegraph begun in 1937, was completed. The con-

entirely reconstructed

and telephone services, tract was given for a new naval base

to be constructed in Lisbon

The outstanding

at a cost of £130,000.

year was the February

rally, in

spectacular event of the

Lisbon, of 300,000 members of

Poliomyelitis: see Infantile Paralysis.

labour syndicates in honour of Dr. Salazar. Preparations for the

Political Parties, U.S see Communist Party; Democratic Party; Elections; Republican Party; Socialist Party.

versaries, that of the independence of Portugal

commemoration, from gal’s final separation

international polo between Great Britain

Dnin

rUlUi

and

the United States to take place in the U.S.A. since

first to be held anywhere since 1936, was the outstanding event of 1939 in polo. In this two-out-of-three game series for the historic International Polo Challenge Cup, held at

1930, and the

the

Meadow Brook Club in June, the United States team' successdefended the Cup by winning two straight games by the

fully

scores of 11 to 7 and 9 to 4. The United States team consisted of Michael G. Phipps, Thomas Hitchcock, Jr., Stewart B. Iglehart,

and Winston F. C. Guest. Great Britain played with Robert Skene, Aidan Roark, Gerald Balding, and Eric H. Tyrrell-Martin. The National Open championship, top event of the American season, was won by the Bostwick Field team of George H. Bostwick, Robert L. Gerry, Jr., Elbridge T. Gerry, and Eric H. Tyr-

They defeated the Greentree team of J. Peter Grace, Robert Skene, Thomas Hitchcock, Jr., and John Hay Whitney

rell-Martin. Jr.,

in the final

ing the

game. Greentree, however, was successful

Monty Waterbury Memorial Cup,

handicap tournament of the year.

M

in captur-

the most important

(R. F. K.)

lniinff I^Ana )

irVmg ndllu

educated at the University of Michigan there. After travelling abroad in 1883-84 he settled in Chicago, where he established an architectural firm with his brother, Allen B. Pond. Among the

were the Hull House and the Chicago Commons in Chicago, the Michigan Union building at the University of Michigan, and a public hospital at St. John, N.B., Canada. He died at Washington, D.C., September 29.

buildings designed

by

this firm

Pope, Sir William Jackson

chemist. Born at London Technical college and at Finsbury educated he was 31, Central Technical college, London. In 1901 he became professor of chemistry at the Municipal School of Technology at Manches-

on March

to

Dec. 1940, of the two great anniand that of Portu-

from Spain, continue.

The treaty of non-aggression and friendship signed with Spain on March 17, 1939 confirmed and intensified the good relations existing

between the two corporative States. 22, in the National Assembly, Dr. Salazar made

On May

a

formal declaration that the Anglo-Portuguese- alliance continued to be an unchanging principle of Portuguese policy, and the of Commons, four days later, was informed that “His Majesty’s Government for their part unhesitatingly reaffirm their determination to fulfil their obligations under this alliance.”

House

On ment

the outbreak of the European war, the Portuguese Governissued a manifesto, declaring

its

neutrality and confirming

the alliance with Britain. In October, Dr. Salazar tion, in this sense,

before the National Assembly.

made

a declara-

On the commermuch lost trade

cial side it seems likely that Britain will recover with Portugal. Being far from Germany, Portugal has been little affected by the war, but early in September a decree to check

speculation was issued which provides for the control of imports, exports,

and

industrial

and commercial

activities, and, if neces-

sary, the requisition of retailers’ establishments

of food.

(^857-1939), U.S. architect, was bom May i at Ann Arbor, Mich, and was

May

and the rationing (E. A. P.)

—

Education. ^Elementary (1937) schools 7,890; scholars 734,922; secondary (1936-37) schools 45; scholars 18,055; universities (1936-37) 3; students 3,871. Banking and Finance. ^Revenue, ordinary (est. 1939) 2,029,-

—

200.000 escudos; expenditure, ordinary

(est. 1939) 2,019,800,000 escudos; public debt (1938) 7,229,300,000 escudos; notes in circulation (Aug. 31, 1939) 2,230,000,000 escudos; gold reserve

(Aug. 31, 1939) 920,000,000 escudos; exchange rate:

=£1

no

escudos

sterling.

—

Trade and Communications. External trade (merchandise) imports (1938) 2,284,337,000 escudos; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 1,275,720.000 escudos; exports (1938) 1,140,943,000 escudos; (Jan.Aug. 1939) 786,770,000 escudos; re-exports (1938) 412,436,000 escudos. Communications and transport (Dec. 31, 1937): roads, first and second class 8,858 mi.; railways, open to traffic 2,187 ibl;

PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE— POST OFFICE

545

motor vehicles licensed: cars 34,442; commercial 11,410; cycles

ment has performed many other important

4,536; shipping (June 30, 1938) 261,100 gross tons; launched (July 1938-June 1939) 2,100 gross tons.

the sale of United States savings bonds, which during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, amounted to $567,007,406.25. Air Mail. ^During the year 1939 both domestic and foreign air mail services showed tremendous growth. At the end of the fis-

—^Production

and

Agriculture

Minerals.

1938

—

metric

(in

wheat 430,100; maize 296,200; wine 10,955,000 hecto-

tons):

litres; coal

308,000; rye 102,900; oats 94,800; rice (1937) 84,900; (1937) 596,100; olive oil 36,000; sea

cal year the aggregate length of all domestic air mail routes was 37,049mi., representing an increase of approximately 3,394mi. during the period. A total of 15,818,617,372 pound-miles of air mail service was performed as compared to 14,137,360,791 pound-

barley 39,000; potatoes

(W. H. Wn.)

fisheries 224,400.

public duties, including

Bibliography.— Antonio Ferro, Salazar: Portugal and Iter Leader, 1939 ); A. de Oliveira Salazar, Doctrine and Action, ( 1939 ); Armando Inglcta, (Lisbon, 1939 ); Portugal ante la Guerra Civil de Espana, (Lisbon, 1939 ); Portugal and Revista dos Centendrios, (Lisbon, 1939 ) (each monthly).

year.

Portuguese Colonial Empire.

Nevada; Jacksonville, Fla. to New Orleans, La.; Tampa, Fla. to Memphis, Tenn., and Tallahassee, Fla. to Atlanta, Ga.; Detroit,

The revenues during the same period were $16,326,358.27, an increase of 6.7% over the previous miles during the fiscal year 1938.

(

Marques Guedes, A Alianga

population tistics

(est.

Within the fiscal year service was inaugurated on six new domestic routes as follows: Phoenix, Arizona to Las Vegas,

mir“ai

Dec. 31, 1937) 16,790,000. Certain essential sta-

Mich, to Sault Sainte Marie, Mich.; Houston, Tex. to BrownsTex. and San Antonio Tex. Wichita, Kan. to Pueblo, Colo.

of the colonial possessions of Portugal, including the mother

country

itself,

ville,

;

There was a substantial increase

are given in the table.

in the

amount of mails

trans-

Porfvgoese Cotonial Empire

Country

& Area

sq. mi. (approx.)

Population est, Dec- 31, 1937

Principal Products (in metric tons)

Capita], Status, Governors, Premiers, etc.

(ooo’s

Imports

&

Exports

Road^ Rail,

(in

Revenue and

&

Shipping

1937

thousand escudos)

19.37

(in

omitted) 7,380

Lisbon, republic, President: General Antonio Carmona- Premier: Dr- Antonio Salazar-

3,250

Luanda, colony, Gevernor-General: Manuel de maize 260,500 cane sugar 32,500 Cunha e Costa Marques Mano.

AFRICA

(J937-3S)

Angola (Portuguese West Africa)

rds.

imp, 214,897 exp. 343,773

481,351

Cape Verde

166

Is.

1,546

governor:

Praia, colony, Figueiredo.

Amadeu Gomco de

(export 1937)

preserved

Portuguese Guinea

420

Bolama, colony, governor: Luiz Antdnio de Car-

60

S.

Tome,

colony, governor: Ricardo

Vaz Mon- cacao,

2t,s88nii.

(est.

r\y, i,d34mi. shpg. (1936) entered, 5,330,087 tons

and exp. 255,990

rev.

and exp. 19,452

rds. 493mi.

(est,

shpg. (1936) entered, 4,508,196 tons.

2,84s

1939)

rev.

1939)

imp. 36,642 exp. 38,535

rds. i,7i4mi. (est. 1930) shpg. (1936) cleared, rev. and exp. .30,395 159,761 tons.

imp. 20,522 exp, 46,446

rly.

imp, 432,769 exp. 365.257

rds. i7,97omi. rly. r,i3onii.

6,900 coffee,

coconut

(eiro.

gUgl

ezp.

(export 1938)

palm and palm kernel oil,

Mozambique

325

ground-nuts 31,500;

valho Viegas,

13,946

fish

(lp36)

imp. 63,583

salt 29,843

Expenditure est- 1038 thousand escudos)

rds. i69mi. rev. and exp. 12,296 lomi. shpg. entered, 868,539

tons.

(Portu-

4,280

guese East Africa) 297,729

Lourenco-Maroues, colony, Jose jVunes de Oliveira

governor-general: cane sugar (1936-37)

115,100;

ground-nuts 37,600.

Nova

ASIA 600

Portuguese India

G6a,

colony,

governor-general:

Jose

fish, spices, salt.

Cabral.

1,538

170

BB

464

Macao, colony, governor: Dr. A. T. Barbosa.

Dili, colony, governor:

Fontoura.

fish,

cement, preserv’es

Alvaro Eugfinio Neves de coffee, sandalwood, wax.

Portuguese East Africa: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Portuguese Guinea: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Portuguese West Africa: see Portuguese Colonial Empire.

rev. 581,839 exp. 570,1x9

shpg. (Beira) cleared, 4,148,118 tons.

(1937)

rds. 73omi.; rly. simi.;

(1936)

rev.

and txp. 52,612

imp. 111,545 exp. 20,508

(1936) shpg. entered, 2,687 vessels.

(2936) imp. 108,158 exp. 62,818

shpg. cleared, 2,298,- rev. and exp. 38,746

28s tons.

rds.

(1936)

imp. 3,413 exp. 7,550

496mi.

rev,

and exp. 13,411

(1936) shpg. entered, 221 vessels.

ported over foreign routes, amounting to 22-1% in mails dispatched and 19-3% in mails received. There are now 34,302-6 route miles embraced in the foreign air mail service over which 5,357,405-imi. were flown during the fiscal year.

An

for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939,

important event of the year was the inauguration of transTwice a week service was authorized on the southern route between New York and Lisbon, Portugal,

which was the largest in the history by $17,321,023.88 the previous banner

and on the northern route between New York and Foynes, Ireland. The United States Foreign Air Mail System now serves directly

estimated revenues of the Post Office Depart-

Dnet fiffipfl I Uol UlllwU" ment amounted

to $745,955,075.24,

of the service, exceeding

year of 1938, an increase of 2-38%. The audited expenditures for the department during the

93 fiscal

year were $784,646,938.14, leaving a gross deficit which includes various non-postal items such as franked mail, air mail subsidy, penalty mail, and publications free in county, of $38,691,862,90. Deducting all these non-postal items which total $55-374,890-27, as authorized by Act of June 9, 1930, leaves a net postal surplus for services rendered for hire of $16,683,027.37. fifth net postal surplus during the past six years.

In addition to

its

customary functions the Post

This was the Office

atlantic air mail service.

Depart-

cities in

the following places:

Canada, Newfoundland, Eu-

rope, Cuba, Mexico, Central and South America, Hawaii, Asia, as well as Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, the Canal

Zone and Guam. Buildings.—During the

fiscal

year 1939, 160

new and

additional

Federal buildings were occupied, 13 extensions to existing buildings completed, and 16 new Federal buildings replaced a like num-

ber of old buildings which had become inadequate for Government purpose.

Nearly 400,000 people earn their living

in the postal service.

AN AUTOGIRO AIR-MAIL ROUTE

—

first In

the world

1939, to deliver mail to the Philadelphia post miles

office

—was Camden

Inaugurated July 6,

from

airport, six

away

10%

of the total.

of which something

Great

more than 250,000 are

regularly employed.

Government Departments and Bureaus.)

(See also

Britain.

(J.

—^The increase

in the

work

W.

Co.)

of the British Post

was well maintained during the year ended March 31, 1939. The delivery of letters and parcels both showed new records, the former at 8, rso, 000,000 (up 160,000,000 on T938), the latter at

World production decreased from

2,800,00c

K2O

metric tons of

equivalent in 1929 to 1.400,000 tons in 1932. increasing to 3,105,000 tons in 1938, distributed as follows: Ger-

many 60%, France 19%, United States 9%, Soviet Union 9%, and Poland 2%; the remaining 1% comes from Palestine, Spain and several

smaller sources.

still

The production

money orders rose to sum of £70,984,000 (up

of potash in the United States was a World Wat development that has been growing steadily since the post-War slump. In 1929, five plants produced 55,900 tons, and expansion continued throughout the depression with practically no break; 10 plants produced 174,900 tons in 1935, and nine plants turned

£1,483,000), while the sale of postal orders again registered a big

out 287,500 tons in 1938. In spite of this heavy increase in pro-

Office

184.832.000 (up 9,332,000).

The

issue of

i7>iSS,o°o (up 312,000), representing a

increase, the

number

rising

amount by £4,057,000

by 23,196,000

—

to £103,960,000

to 422,427,000,

and the

figures that again reflect

The

increase in telephones

—was

—nearly

183,500, bringing the total

rather smaller than that of the previous year;

effective calls totalled

2,236,000,000 (up 70,000,000)

2.122.400.000 were local and 111,553,000 inland trunk

remainder being international.

demand

and imports increased

far exceeds the supply,

and 318,000 tons

in 1937,

but decreased

to 175,600 tons in 1938. Sales of potash salts in the United States

the activities of the football pool promoters.

to 3i23S,5oo

duction the

to 219,000 tons in 1935

in

1938 amounted to 869,300 metric tons, equivalent to 424,100 (See also Fertilizers.) (G. A. Ro.)

tons of K2O.

of which calls,

the

Potato Beetle:

see

Entomology.

Telegrams, which had shown a

fall

the previous year, rose by 929,000 to 59,311,000, of which So,396,ooowere inland; the “greetings” telegrams no doubt contrib-

Dntotnoc rUldlUCOt

uted to this result, for at4, 500,000 they showed an increase of 33%.

potato starch industry, following the outbreak of war which pre-

The Post

Office surplus declined by £629,942 to £9,539.588, necessary to withdraw £990,894 from the reserve to enable the fixed exchequer contribution to be met. Net receipts during the year were £88,452,687. The issue of a further £40,000,000 capital for development of the service was authorized by

making

it

parliament in July, when it was estimated that £36,200,000 would be required for the telephone and £3,800,000 for the postal and telegraph services to cover the period ending about

On

the outbreak of

and curtailment or

war a

March

1941.

amount of increased charges services became necessary, par-

certain

restriction of

and it is to be regretted that what was to have been a regular weekly transatlantic airmail service had to be abandoned. It was inaugurated on June 28 by the arrival at Southampton of the Pan American Airways’ flying-boat “Yankee Clipper,” with i,734lh. of mail, and the arrival at New York on Aug. 7 of the Imperial Airways’ “Caribou”

(L.

H. D.)

tory prices had advanced from 3J;? in June to 6^ a pound in OctoThe war demand for sand bags caused a rise in the price of

ber.

also developed in 1939

rOlflolla

proportion of nitrate and carbonate, produced primarily for fertilizer use; only a very small amount goes into industrial chem-

United States, where the industrial demand is probably higher than in any other country, with the possible exception of Germany, the chemical salts comprise only about

icals,

546

and even

in the

when

innovation in the potato trade

the Chicago Mercantile Exchange

established futures trading in potatoes,- similar to futures trading in grain, cotton

and other commodities. Production

in the

United

States in 1939 was given by the Department of Agriculture in preliminary reports as 358,689,ooobu., or under the 1938 crop of

3%

V.S. ProdvcVion of Pofatoes

1939 bu.

,

Idaho > Michigan

.

.

.

.

. .

.

.

.

.

California

.

.

Minnesota Wisconsin Colorado North Dakota Washington Oregon .... Nebraska South Dakota .

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Utah Montana

.

.

.

Wyominf'

.

,

.

Nevada

.

.

.

40.800.000 28.980.000 27.825.000 23.826.000 22,052,000 21,510,000 18,128,000 13,050,000 11,016,000 7,568,000 7.200.000 6.020.000 2.325.000 1 935,000 1,848,000 1,430,000 270,000 ,

39,600,000 28.750.000 30,000,000 26.840.000 18,720,000 20,700,000 19,080,000 11,830,000 12,070,000 7,568,000 7.310.000 6.240.000 1.624.000 2,244,000 1,620,000 1,080,000

336,000

Ol/trr late

Ohio Iowa

West

bu.

Vermont Rhode Island

11,800,000 5 432.000 4.680.000 3,256,000 2,852,000 .

.

.

.

....

Virginia

.

.

.

.

12,626,000 5,684,000 4,940,000 3,822,000 2,720,000

1938 bu.

2,490,000 2,000,000 720,000

2.041.000 1.884.000 624,000

7,280,000 6 052.000 4,929,000 3,864,000 2,250,000 2,175,000 344,000

10,530,000 10 , 349,000 5,832,000 4 , 635 iOOO

8,091,000 4,752,000 3,422,000 3,108,000 2,920,000 2.849.000 2.666.000 2 ..38 o,ooo 2,268,000 1,482,000 1,368,000

8,690,000 4,326,000 4,488,000 2,784,000 3,120,000 3.400.000 2.950.000 2.376.000 2,752,000 1,044,000 1,368,000

Intermediate States

New Jersey

.

Virginia.

.

.

.

Missouri

.

.

.

Kentucky Maryland Kansas .... .

Delaware

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

2.000,000 3,219,000 368,000

Early potato Slates

North Carolina

Alabama

.

.

.

....

Florida South Carolina

Tennessee Arkansas Texas

.

.

.

.

,

....

Potato Slates

Illinois

1939

.

.

New York

Indiana

T938 and 1939

Stafes,

Massachusetts,

Potatoes

Maine

by

1938 bu.

Surplus laU

.

DntQch

An

bags used in sacking potatoes.

.

crude potassium salts output of the world is almost exclusively the chloride or sulphate, with a small

stock county, Maine, centre of the United States

vented exports of starch from Germany, a large producer of potatoes and starch. The Potato World reported that Aroostook fac-

ticularly in relation to overseas air-mails;

with 960 pounds. During the year newly designed stamps of the values of gd., rod., 15., 2s.6d., 55., i 05 ., were issued. (See Philately.)

Prices for potato starch advanced sharply in Aroo-

Oklahoma

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Mississippi

.

.

Louisiana Georgia

POULTRY— PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 4% under the ten-year average (1928-37) of Canadian official estimates placed the 1939 crop at 38,875,ooocwt., compared to 3S,938,ooocwt. in 1938 and nearly 6% under the six-year average. Other important producing countries showed the 1939 crop as follows, with 1938 figures in parentheses: Netherlands 93,695,ooobu. (103,632,000); Hungary 86,37i,6i7,ooobu. and 372,258,000.

346,ooobu.

(78,653,000); Finland 56,584,00060. (44,014,000); Estonia 33,730,00060. (36,656,000); Switzerland 24,985,00060. (29,802,000); Italy I2,o66,ooobu. (13,358,000). Figures for Po-

Germany, France and England and Wales are not

land,

official

and the Sudeten; Poland 7,562,00030. (7,487,000); France 3,415,oooac. (3,521,000); England and Wales 454,00030. (475,000). The German crop in 1938 was 1,964,430,00060.; England and' Wales 123,797,000 bushels. (See also Sweet Potatoes.) (S.

0

.

R.)

.

largest production on record, both in chickens and turkeys, was reported in 1939 in the United Between January i and July 31 commercial hatcheries

Dnilltru I UUIlIj* States.

19% more

hatched

creased production

is

chicks than the previous high of 1936.

a continuation of the shift

In-

from home hatch-

ing to commercial hatcheries as the source for chicks to supply

both commercial and farm hatcheries were

moved

first

flocks.

Since records of commercial

available in 1929 production of chickens has

invariably in a three-year cycle, one year

Admiral Sir Roger Keyes, then commander-in-chief of the IMediterranean fleet. After two years as assistant chief of the Naval staff

(1927-29) and two years as rear admiral in command of a was appointed in 1932 as

battle cruiser squadron (1929-31), he

Second Sea Lord and chief of naval personnel at the Admiralty. He was advanced to admiral in 1935 and the next year he was named commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean fleet. On May 17, 1939, he was appointed First Sea Lord and chief of the British naval staff to succeed Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse (g.v.).

available,

reports of the acreage planted to potatoes in 1939 and 1938 are: Germany 7,848,00030. (8,046,000), including Austria

but

547

down and two

Production was on the increase in both 1938 and 1939. Therefore, the Department of Agriculture anticipates a probable

years up.

Powder Metallurgy: Power:

see

Metallurgy.

Public Utilities.

see

Droehutorion CoUjlCI n

Idll

Reformed Churches holding

Phliroh

uliUlwIii

the Presbyterian System, located

number and include 18,054 and 3,984,732 communicant members. Outside of continental United States, they have 2,221 American foreign missionaries and 12,800 native workers in a total of 21 countries, and a communicant membership of 239,258.

within

the U.S.A., are twelve in

ministers, 18,581 churches,

The year 1939 among

the Churches of the Presbyterian family'

was marked by an increased emphasis upon the evangelistic program. There was no attempt to evade or under-rate disquieting features of church

life,

yet every effort in church activities indi-

cates a turn in the tide which

is

most heartening. Several of the

larger denominations reported the greatest net increases in church

membership

in the last ten years.

A world aspect was given

to the spirit of church unity

when

the

General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States

Farm flocks in 1939 were about There are about 400,000,000 laying hens in the United States, according to the Institute of American Poultry Industries, which estimates that breeder hatcheries and commercial hatcheries produce about 700,000,000 chicks annually. In Canada the number of chickens on farms, as of June i, was officially reported as 58,509,800 in 1939 and 53,774,600 in 1938; turkeys, 2,476,000 in 1939 and 2,039,600 in 1938. In England and Wales on the same dates, chickens 52,738,000 in 1939 and 52,539,000 in 1938; turkeys 700,000 in 1939 and 789,000 in 1938. In Scotland, chickens 7,293,700 in 1939 and 7,380,900 in 1938;

body received with marked approval reports from its Department of Church Cooperation and Union regarding the negotiations in 1939 with the Protestant Episcopal Church and the Southern Presbyterian Church. Invitations were issued to the Reformed Church in America and to the United Presbyterian Church to confer upon closer co-operation, and a message was received from the Methodist Commission on Interdenominational Relations inviting the General Assembly to resume the negotiations toward

turkeys 131,100 in 1939 and 143,900 in 1938. Prices for chickens ruled lower in the United States in 1939, as, for example, in Nov.

ing Methodist churches in the United States.

decrease in production in 1940.

of America elected as

2%

British citizen, president of Allahabad Christian college,

larger than in 1938.

1939, farmers received an average of 12.4^ a pound compared to a year earlier. The proportionate increase in supplies in

1939 over 1938

Nov. War had no ooolb.

is

by stocks of frozen poultry of 81,165,compared to 76,481,0001b. a year earlier.

indicated

25, 1939,

on poultry prices in the United States, except buying power. During the World War (1914-18) poultry exports provided only about ii% of the total income United States farmers received from poultry. Despite record supplies turkey prices in the United States in 1939 approximated those of 1938, owing to the fact that growers are encouraging all-winter consumption of turkeys, and not merely holiday consumption. Observance of Thanksgiving on both November 23 and November 30 by different communities in 1939 added to the

as

it

may

demand

effect

affect public

for turkeys.

(See also Eggs.)

(S. O. R.)

of the most widely

its

known

Moderator, Dr.

educated at Fonthill, East Grinstead, and at The Limes, Greenwich. He was in command of H.M.S. “Colossus” at the Battle of Jutland

May

31, 1916,

and was mentioned

in dispatches for his

From 1922 to 1925 he was director of the Admiralty’s plans dhusion, and from 1925 to 1927 chief of staff to

part in the engagement.

Higginbottom, a and one

missionaries in the world. In addition,

that

union interrupted pending completion of union of the three leadPlans were carefully made for the first General Synod of the newly created Evangelical and Reformed Church to be held in June 1940. These plans, necessitated by the union consummated in 1938, include the mode of operation, and the scope of activity of congregations (officers and members), synods, boards, educational and benevolent institutions and commissions. Eleven changes in the Confession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church in' the United States (Southern) were finally approved, a number of others proposed being rejected. Two overtures which would revise the Confession of Faith and the Larger Catechism of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America to make

more

clear the Christian right of conscientious objection to mili-

by a majorbut failed of the required approval of twothirds of the presbyteries. This vote should not be regarded as

tary service in the event of war, received the approval ity of the presbyteries,

indicating the attitude of this

Pound, Sir (Alfred) Dudley (Pickiuan Rogers) and was (1877), British First Sea Lord, was bom August 29

Sam

Church toward war

itself.

A

meet-

ing of real significance in the relation of the Presbyterian and

Reformed churches to the Oecumenical Movement was that of the Western Section of the World Presbyterian Alliance in Feb. 1939. Europe. In spite of the outbreak of war, the year 1939 among the Presbyterian Churches of Great Britain was marked by an inner unity and an evangelical solidarity. New opportunities and grave responsibilities were created by the changed situation. Wei-

—

PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN — PRICES

548

meet war needs, the interruption in the education of town children and the disruption of family life due to their evacuation, the disturbance of local parish routine by the blackout, and the induction of so many young men into the military service, were some of the problems confronting the churches. The movement which in 1939 united the various Reformed branches to form the Reformed Church in France was most providential in grappling with the vast refugee problem created by the war. Many of the 500,000 people evacuated from the frontiers are members of this church. The Waldensian Church in Italy celebrated in September with elaborate ceremonies the 250th anniversary of the return of the Waldensians to their homefare services to

franc in 1936, 1937, and 1938 contributed to the increase in the French price level during these three years. Sharp declines in

exchange early in 1935 and in Italian exchange late 1936 were partly responsible for the concomitant increases in

Belgian in

When the war broke out in American securities held abroad were dumped on the New York market and sterling and franc exchange rose sharply. This wholesale prices in these countries. 1914,

tended to delay price increases in Great Britain and France. In Sept. 1939, England and France husbanded their external credits,

and

The

prices.

countries

land.

In other parts of Europe the principal Reformed terian) Churches

have experienced

—

—

^in

common

(f.e.

Presby-

with the churches

and persecutions unparalleled in modern history. The religious balance of 1939 showed a tremendous deficit in church membership, in the loss of church property and influence, and in the decrease of pastoral and educaof other confessions

^sufferings

tional forces of religious character.

Meagre reports from Poland revealed chaotic conditions among The Church in Galicia and the Ukrainian Evangelical Reformed Church remained in the darkness behind the iron curtain of Russian occupation. In Germany, the church faced danger in methods of intimidation which are tempting it with an ideology alien to its message. (W. B. Pu.) the scattered congregations.

and franc exchange depreciated, and exchange decommodity

sterling

preciation contributed to a sharp rise of wholesale rise

of wholesale prices in England, as well as in

from which she buys

more rapid

extensively, reflects also a

industrial mobilization for

Although price levels rose slowly at

war

war than took place

much

in 1914.

after the declaration of

first,

was eventually both sharp and extensive. The memory of this war-time rise was itself a factor in the quick response to the outbreak of war in 1939. United States. The sharp, concerted rise of wholesale commodity prices in the United States following the outbreak of war in Europe in Sept. 1939 contrasts with the uncertain price movements during the preceding year-and-a-half. As the chart reveals, this uncertain period had been preceded by a precipitate decline in the prices of farm products and foods during the sharp business recession- which began in the latter half of 1937. The decline in industrial prices during this recession was slower and conin 1914, the rise

—

siderably smaller than that in agricultural prices in spite of an

Pre-School Children, Education of:

see

Education: Nurs-

Presidents: see Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers.

n

PripPQ IliCOi sale

Prices of

unparalleled drop in industrial production.

The period

ery Schools.

Commodifies at Wholesale. war

—

During the

movements was a period latter half of

of busi-

1938 business ex-

perienced a marked recovery, to which some commodity prices ^Following

Europe in September, wholecommodity prices rose sharply in most of the countries for the outbreak of

of uncertain price

ness uncertainty.

in

which information has continued to be available. Germany is a marked exception, as is clear from the chart on p. 549 comparing the movements of wholesale price levels since 1933 for the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The sharp, widespread, and concerted rise of prices which began in September contrasts with a small and somewhat uncertain upward movement of prices for

about a year after the outbreak of war in Aug. 1914. There were also important differences in the economic conditions preceding the outbreak of war in 1914 and in 1939. There was a world depression in 1914; whereas, in 1939 the business situation was more diversified. Industrial production was expanding in the

United Kingdom and France, while in the United States there had been a dip in output in early 1939. Again, collectivism was a more important factor in the latter period than in the former. Thus, the German economic program in recent years includes price controls, the effects of which are clearly evident in- the chart. In the period before Sept. 1939, war had been a price-disturbing factor. The Abyssinian war contributed to the rise of prices in Italy during 1935. Beginning in 1937 the Chinese war was a

responded while others did not. Early 1939 saw a mild decrease volume of business. Reflecting in part these business move-

in the

ments, a temporary check in the downward trend of the level of prices of

farm products and foods in the

latter part of 1938

was

number of further commodity price declines in The downward movement of hog prices was halted only

followed by a 1939.

temporarily during 1938, and under pressure of increased supplies

resumed in 1939, until in August a level of 6^ a pound was reached. After a temporary rise in the fall of 1938, sugar declined to a low of 4.2^ a pound in the following June. Prices of cotton and of beef cattle fluctuated uncertainly over this period, the former between 8^ and 9-|-(f a pound and the latter between gf and 10^ a pound. With a repetition of large wheat and corn crops in 1938, wheat prices fell to a six-year low at 65f‘ a bushel in late 1938, and corn prices declined to 45;^ a bushel. With smaller crops, wheat prices strengthened somewhat during the spring and summer of 1939 while corn prices remained at a low level as production was maintained. The relatively stable level of the industrial price index during the 15 months preceding the outbreak of war reflects mixed movements among individual commodity prices. Prices of a number of commodities rose under the

stimulus of expanding business activity during the latter half of

upward trend shown by In the months preceding Sept. 1939, international exchange rates had undergone various wide fluctuations, while prior to Aug.

1938 and remained relatively stable throughout the early part of 1939. Southern pine lumber prices increased from slightly over $21 per 1,000 bd.ft. to $25; scrap steel from less than $12 a ton

1914, exchange rates were fixed within narrow limits by the gold in Sterling exchange declined in New York about

to $15; copper from 9^ a pound to iif'; and rubber from i2(? a pound to 17^ during the latter part of 1938. Most of these gains were maintained through the following months. Various

the Japanese price inde.x.

factor in the

6%

standard.

the latter part of 1938.

This tended to support the level of The declining value of the yen in

British prices in early 1939.

1938 was a minor factor in the increase in the Japanese price level, which is shown on the chart on p. 550. Price movements in other countries have been more markedly affected by depreciating exchanges in recent years. The French wholesale price level has more than doubled since 1935. The declining value of the

commodity

prices

followed other patterns.

rising during the latter part of

Silk

prices,

after

1938 to $1.80 a pound, continued

as demand expanded in the face of a limited supply, reaching a level of $3.90 a pound by the end of 1939. Prices of cattle hides rose to 14^ a pound in Nov. 1938 and declined to

upward

less

than

lof" in

the

first’

half of 1939.

Prices of finished steel.

PRICES

549

beginning of 1939, the price of rails declining from £10 to £9^ The price of copper rose in the latter half of 1938 and

per ton.

eased during the

first

half of 1939.

Prices of building timber,

which went below' £16 per standard in Jan. 1939, and hides, which went below sd. a pound in December and January' rose sharply during the spring. Wheat and barley continued downward in early 1939, W'heat to slightly over 45. per cwt. in March and barley to slightly over 6s. in July. Mutton and sugar prices rose in the latter part of 1938 and early 1939, contrary to the general trend. Following the outbreak of the war in September, wholesale commodity prices rose sharply. In November the level was about

120%

of that of August. This

marked

rise

took place in spite of

the fact that a ivide variety of commodities were subjected to

supply and price controls, and in

many

cases

maximums were

established beyond w'hich prices could not rise.

As

a-

general rule, prices of foods w'ere allowed to rise

than prices of industrial materials.

Wheat and barley

gradually, reaching over js. per cwt. and 154. per

more

prices rose

cw't.,

respec-

I

,

1934

1933

I

I

,

I

1937

1936

1935

1939

1938

tively,

during December.

Granulated sugar prices, which had

increased to 23^. per cwt. before the outbreak of the war, increased

OFFICIAL INDEXES OF WHOLESALE PRICES IN THE UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, AND GERMANY (all converted to 1929 as a base)

to 36s. in early October and remained at about this figure. Prices

of Argentine beef and English mutton increased only slightly,

however, before stabilizing at

70s.

per cwt., and 88s. per

cw't.,

passenger automobiles, and petroleum declined in the latter part

respectively, in late September.

of 1938.

Maximum prices were set for the non-ferrous metals during mid-September which allow'ed for little or no increase in the prices prevailing before the declaration of war. Copper prices were set at £51 a ton, lead and zinc prices at about £17 a ton, and tin prices at £230 a ton. Subsequent difficulties with supply, resulting in part from marked price increases in other major indus-

At the outbreak of war there was a concerted rise of prices in which most important commodities participated. Exceptions were brick, cement and coal, the prices of which have been relatively stable for several years at levels slightly below those of 1929,

and finished Although

passenger automobiles and petroleum.

steel,

industrial production reached 1929 levels during the

remained during this period somewhat below the peak reached in 1937. Southern pine reached a peak of $31 per 1,000 bd.ft. in Oct. 1939 and delatter part of 1939, the level of industrial prices

somewhat

clined

thereafter.

Likewise, prices of scrap steel and

two months of the year after

cattle hides reacted during the last

reaching a peak in October, the former falling from $21 a ton to $18,

and the

latter

from nearly i7(? a pound to almost i4jf. Coppound and rubber above 20^ a pound,

trial countries,

brought about a revision of these prices during

December. The maximum price for tin was removed altogether and the price rose to over £270 a ton and then receded somewhat. The maximum price for copper (including duty and delivery cost) was reset at £62 a ton, and that for lead and zinc at about £23 a ton. Iron and steel prices were allowed to return to about their 1937-38 levels

late in the year,

with steel

rails

going to about

per, however, rose to 12 ft a

£10 a ton and Cleveland pig iron to

last quarter of 1939 these levels were maintained. After increasing sharply in September in anticipation of an enlarged war-time export demand, the prices of a number of agricultural commodities reacted during the last quarter of 1939The price of beef cattle eased slightly after reaching io(f a

timbers remained at about £24 per standard from late in September through the balance of the year. Among other industrial commodities, moderate increases were allowed from time to time.

and during the

pound. low.

Hog

prices declined

from

7i{?

a

pound

to

S(i,

loSs. a ton. Prices of building

a five-year

a pound in August, rose

Sugar, which had been below

sharply to over si(f a pound in September and subsequently declined again nearly to 4if‘ in December. Prices of w'heat and com likewise reacted during October

from

their

September

highs, but

rose during the last weeks of 1939 to over $1.00 a bushel and 57{‘ a bushel, respectively, in response to reports of drought. Cotton prices rose over the entire period, to iO(? a

Great

pound

in

—During recent years the pattern

Britain.

December. move-

of price

ments in Great Britain has, in general, been similar to that in the United States. But there have been significant differences. The heavy demand for industrial raw materials under the rearmament program (as well as the weakening of the pound in the latter half of 1938) helped to moderate the downward trend in the level of prices between mid-1937 and the spring of 1939. In early 1939 prices averaged well above the level of 1936, while in the United States the early 1939 level was below that of 1936. However, prices of both foods and industrial goods in Great

months of 1939 than at any which had remained firm dur-

1936

1937

1938

1939

Britain averaged lower in the early

time in 1937 or 1938. Steel prices

ing the 1937-38 industrial recession w^ere belatedly cut at the

INDEXES OF WHOLESALE PRICES Statistics

IN

THE UNITED STATES:

Bureau of Labor

PRICES.

550

COMMODITY— PRINTING 1939 was $53,460,000; in manufacturing industry, The estimated total value of farm products in 1939 was over $12,000,000; potatoes (approximately) 5, 8oo,ooobu.; turdustry in

$2,400,000.

nips 4,ooo,ooobu.

oats 4,8oo,ooobu. wheat 320,ooobu.; hay and clover 401,000 tons; butter i,8so,ooolb.; cheese, 450,000 pounds. ;

;

The estimated

value of fisheries was $650,000; oysters 900,000estimated fox pelts, 80,000, valued at $i, 800,000. There is

lb.;

little

serious crime, and practically

no

(Cy. M.)

illiteracy,

1939—its 192nd year—improved its curriculum, in pursuit of a policy of meeting the needs and aptitude of the individual under-

Prinpptnn llnii/pr^itv rilllbClUII UlllVCIbliy

graduate.

Continuing to cut new doors in the academic walls which divide it applied to the social sciences, through reorganization of undergraduate instruction in the School of Public and Indepartments,

ternational Affairs, the principle of cross-departmental specialization that had been previously tested in the humanities. Thereby it opened up, as a single field of selection for individual programs,

the whole range of the social sciences.

1

I

1

1933

1934

I

L-__

I

1936

1935

1937

Among new research projects was the establishment of the Princeton Listening Center to record and analyze war propaganda broadcast by European nations. Gifts received totalled

1939

1938

Enrolment, which is controlled by a policy of was 2,714, of which 299 were graduate students. The teaching staff numbered 403. (H. W.Do.)

$1,581,624.84. limitation,

OFFICIAL INDEXES OF WHOLESALE PRICES IN FRANCE, ITALY, BELGIUM, AND JAPAN (TOKYO, BANK OF JAPAN) (all converUd to 1929 as a base)

Principe: see Portuguese Colonial Empire.

pound

December, rubber to about lid. a pound, American cotton to nearly gd. a pound, wool tops to nearly 32d. a pound, and Welsh coal to over 27s. a ton. (See also Agriculture; Wars and Prices; Cost of Living; Financial Review; and articles on individual commodities.) (M. A. Co.) hides rising to over 8d. a

in

striking and important developnaent of the year in the printing industry took place near the end of 1939. As a result of this development, printing

PrintiniT n

lllllllgi

ink, heretofore invariably in thick liquid form, is

in

Prices,

Commodity:

Primary Education:

see see

Agriculture;. Prices. Education, Elementary.

It

The

heated.

PrinCB LdW3r(l ISiBnd, in the Gulf of St.

Lawrence

side towards the north. It

the separating winter and

and

strait,

summer

freight.

There

is

populated province in Canada,

in the

shape of a crescent,

lies

inner

nine miles from the mainland. Across

powerful ice-breaking ferry-boats ply in

is

also a daily air mail

and passenger service

i37mi. long, and varies in width from

tains 2,133 square miles.

The

The

island

32 miles. It conpopulation, Canadian census 1931,

31, 1939, 91,000 of which 81% is Charlottetown, the capital, 12,361 estimated Dec. 31, 1939, 13,000. Of the island’s population 80% are of British descent; ;

14% French; 42% are Roman Catholic and 58% Protestant, of which 28% are of the United Church, r8% Presbyterian; and 6% Anglican. The Legislative Assembly consists of 30 members, 2 from each of iS

electoral districts.

To Dec. mated

31, 1939 the estimate of revenue was. $1,900,000; estiexpenditure, ordinary, approximately the same; capital ex-

penditure including provision for sinking fund $800,000, of which interest absorbed $300,000. The Dominion subsidy was approxi-

mately $650,000. Of the revenue, $370,000 went to education, the total cost of which was $555,000. Pupils enrolled were 18,600;

in liquid form,

to the curved plates

setting, that is, ink of a printed sheet not yet dry smudging the next sheet or opposite side of the roll.

There

may

is

not only the advantage of improved quality but presses when no allowance for time for drying is nec-

be speeded up

essary.

This so-called “cold-set” method follows closely upon another

2 to

was 88,038; estimated Dec. rural.

now

from the fountain and apply on the press cylinder, which is also heated to keep the ink liquid. The very instant the warm ink strikes the relatively cold paper, however, it dries. This obviates off-

it

carrying railway cars, automobiles, passengers

connecting with trans- continental Canadian Airways. is

its

available

press rollers, preferably of rubber or synthetic rub-

ber, take the ink,

the smallest but the most densely

made

powdered form with indications of very definite advantages. is put into the enclosed ink fountain of the press, which is

development in inks known as “heat-set,” “Vaporin,” and by other names. As the term implies, drying of ink by the latter method hastened by the inks being quick-drying themselves but espeby application of heat to the sheets instantly after printing. “Heat-set” inks were a decided boon to magazine publishers and

is

cially

merchandisers requiring large catalogues with pictures in full colours on smooth paper because they permit faster production and because they are a protection against offsetting. Developers of the

powdered ink (cold-set) claim, and the claim appears reasonable, that

it

The

represents a further advance.

term is not to be confused with the word as used above), or planograph, method of printing continued advancement, especially in the newspaper field. The Trenton, New Jeroffset (the

sey, News-Advertiser

which in 1938 adopted offset for pictorial monochrome, ordinarily done by rotogravure, has

cost per pupil $30; teachers 710; average salary $502. The public debt Dec. 31, 1939 was approximately $6,000,000; per capita $68.

sections

Income, real estate and succession taxes are moderate. The main occupations are agriculture and fishing; 485,000 acres are under cultivation. The capital investment in agricultural in-

sections in full natural colour, having done so since early in 1939. new all-offset daily paper was announced during 1939 from

in

progressed in the use of this kind of printing. It

now

prints such

A

Hartford, Connecticut.

A number

of so-called “country” news-

PRISONS — PRITCHETT. HENRY SMITH papers turned to possible

offset.

The

by the regular

lure

is

letterpress

more detail than is method with stereotypes cast

pictures of

from regulation copper photo-engravings. In process of development for several years, a new method of machine typesetting advanced materially toward the practical

551

stitutions with psychiatrists, psychologists,

sonnel for

its

and an adequate per-

prison schools, recent cuts in the budget have vir-

stage during 1939.

wiped out these departments. Consequently, segregation of now be largely impossible since the specialists trained for that work are no longer associated with the prisons. Thus, the effective accomplishments of the past

reliably said that the

ten years are practically vitiated.

types of composing machines. Other factors, like cost of the type,

In North Carolina and Texas, however, much progress has been in the classification and segregation of inmates. And of particular importance is the fact that in these States the mainte-

Speed is apparently its chief advantage. It is machine composes type at the rate of 14,000 ems an hour. If it maintains this rate under actual shop conditions later on, it will prove to be considerably faster than present

on the economy of the system. Instead of the

tually

various types of criminals will

made

single letters, full type height (-918 inch), type is like just the top

nance of prison camps makes this work much prisoners most amenable to reform can be sent State prison also undertook in 1939 the scientific

part of the letter, say

aU inmates.

have an

will

effect

product being one piece for a complete line or a combination of -g-in.

high, in short quite similar to the steel

common multigraph machine. These are caused drop in place in a grooved base (which makes them type-high)

by

striking keys for the different letters

linotype

is

and characters

operated, although the keyboard

machine and not that of the

tj'pewriting

is

just as the

that of the standard

classification of

discipline infractions

prison, the dungeon formerly used to inmates has been eliminated. This section

consisted of an ordinarj' cell TOth a solid

the usual grille door.

wooden door covering

Prisoners confined there were fed entirely

on bread and water, and given a regular meal but once every

linotj’pe.

The year witnessed a gigantic show of printing equipment at Grand Central Palace, in New York city. Y'hile all items showed progress, few were of

because

Alabama

At the Rhode Island State

types used on the to

easier,

there.

major importance or indicated any decided

five days.

The wooden door has now been removed and

regular rations

substituted.

Worthy of note was the development in making plates for offset by projection. Ordinarily a negative is made from the copy, photo-

During 1939, the Federal Government appropriated $14,000,000 and construction of Federal penal and correctional institutions. Nineteen projects were approved which included the

graph, or painting to be reproduced, of the size the printing plate must be. By the new method the negative may be very small and

short term prisoners in Colorado, Connecticut, Kentucky, and

the plate very large, the negative being projected upon the sensitive press plate as a lantern slide is projected upon the screen.

Texas; and additional hospital and other facilities at many of the units now comprising the Federal prison system. Work on these

By the older method the negative w-as “printed” by contact with the press plate just as films are printed on paper in amateur photography. By the projection method, small Kodachrome films

projects

be blown up to tremendous dimensions, saving a great deal costs. The photographic equipment in great size is negative in being made up for the army to be used in making giant-sized

Alexander Patterson, His Majesty’s Commissioner of Prisons for England and Wales, reported on the British system of handling offenders under 21 years of age. These youthful inmates are not confined in prisons with older and hardened criminals, but are sent

change.

may

maps. {See also Newspapers.)

(J-

L. F.)

for the repair

construction of a

medium

was started

At

to

officials

The Arkansas State penitentiary built an upto-date hospital, and two new dormitories exclusively for Negro inmates. At the Arizona State prison, two new dormitories also

because of the war.

walls,

will

be completed

what are known as Borstal Institutions. There are nine such and their populations range from 100 in the smallest,

United States. At the Kansas State penitentiary, a three story structure was added to the institution to house the kitchen, com-

were erected; one within the

and most of them

the annual meeting of the American Prison Association,

institutions,

missary, and school.

in 1939,

very shortly.

During 1939, new buildings were constructed, or were Q rrioUllS. in the process of construction, in some prisons of the •

security prison in Indiana; farms for

Because of these small inmate quotas, the can more easily and effectively rehabifftate their charges.

to 300 in the largest.

As for European penal activities, little information is available However, in England and Germany, men whose sentences ran three months or less, w’ere released to engage in military service or other war operations. (L. E. L.)

and the other, designed for

the walls. Colorado State penitentiary completed security ceU block, and has just commenced the con-

trusties, outside

a

maximum

struction of a

Two

new

dining

room

to

large duplex dormitories were built at the 'Connecticut

while at the Maine State prison, a new wing was added to the cell block. The California State prison at San Quentin had a fireproof industrial building under course of State

Farm

for

Women,

construction to house the following industries: shoe, clothing, furand printing. At the Kentucky State penitentiary, a new

Henry Smitii

guished teacher

Henry

educator, was

April 16, the son of Prof. Carr

who founded

Pritchett graduated

W.

bom

in

Fayette,

Pritchett, a distin-

Pritchett college at Glasgow,

from

Mo.

1875 and the next year began the study of astronomy at the U.S. Naval Observatory under Asaph Hall. In 1878 he was appointed assistant astronomer at that obser\'atory, and two years later he rehis father’s college in

niture,

turned to Glasgow as chief astronomer of the observatory there.

kitchen, dining room, cold storage plant, garage, and three cell

From 1883

blocks were being built.

the observatory at Washington university in St. Louis. President

In

.

Pritctiett,

Mo. on

accommodate 1,400 men.

New York

United States,

will

structure, one of the first of its kind in the

have a seating capacity of 1,200, and

in 1900 to accept the presidency of Massachusetts Institute of

maximum

security prison

was being

struction, including the shaping of the native field stone

fashioning' of

its

con-

and the

the altar and pews, has been entrusted to the

Technology.

New York

State has previously provided

its

penal in-

Six years later he was selected as president of the for the Advancement of Teaching,

new Carnegie Foundation which

prisoners.

Although

he was professor of astronomy and director of

McKinley appointed him superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1897, and in this position he introduced civil service for the first time into the bureau and conducted several important investigations of the American coastline. He resigned

State, a

erected at Green Haven. Earlier in the year, the cornerstone of the Church of St. Dismas, the Good Thief, was laid at Clinton prison,

Dannemora. This

to 1897

office

he held

until his retirement in

Santa Barbara, Calif, on August 28.

1930.

He

died at

's

PRIZES— PROPAGANDA

552

Prizes: see Literary Prizes; Nobel Prizes. Processing Tax: see Cotton. Progressive Education: see Education, PRooREssivf.

Progressive Education Association: dom; Education, Progressive.

ing on propaganda” was itself propaganda, designed to allay sus-

Academic Free-

see

rrUPdganUdi

sometimes as important as victory

is

in the field;

and especially in this age of total warfare, when the conflict is not so much between armies, fighting on distant fronts, as between

World War (1914-18), one that Adolf Hitler took most to heart. The ex-army corporal would not, or could not believe that Germany was ever defeated in the field: “the Fatherland collapsed whole nations.

Of

all

the lessons of the

this was, perhaps, the

behind the

lines, slowly,

under the ivithering

ganda,” wrote Adolf Hitler in Chancellorship, he, therefore,

Mem

made

fire

of Allied propa-

On assuming

Kainp}.

the

the Ministry of Propaganda

and Public Enlightenment an integral part of Germany’s war machine. If his armies were later to walk into Austria, Sudetenland, and Czecho-Slovakia almost without opposition, it was partly because Dr. Paul Joseph Goebbels had been successful in undermining opposition first, not only in those nations, but throughout Europe and

in the

by the democracies would result if the Allies were victorious, Americans were told. Official documents rolled from the presses, as each government led

war-time, the conquest of public opinion

DrnnAfronHn

was coupled with the assurance that England and France were fighting the fight of democracy against totalitarianism, law and order against the rule of force. A United States of Europe picion. It

United States, as well.

The United Kingdom and France were slow

to realize this;

but

sought to place responsibility for the war. Germany charged that England, alone, was responsible, absolving France. The French, it was said, had been willing to negotiate at the last moment, while the

German armies were

already well into Poland. Over and over,

the French were told in short-wave radio broadcasts; “England

Frenchman.” This attempt by propaganda was unsuccessful; and their

will fight until the last

to divide the

Allies

official

docu-

ments agreed that Germany had been offered the chance to negotiate but would not accept it, preferring unconditional Polish surrender or war. Planes of the Royal Air Force roared into Germany, peppering the Reich with handbills which called on the people to overthrow the National Socialist regime. Then, Adolf Hitler launched his so-called peace offensive, with the help of the Soviet Union. This was designed further to absolve Germany of war-guilt, for, even though Herr Hitler knew that peace was impossible unless the German armies withdrew from Poland, the German propaganda-machine described the re-

apparently the law of diminishing returns operates in propaganda,

jection of his offer as conclusive evidence of the Allies’ desire for

Herr Hitler’s technique was always the same to shame the Allies by talk of the iniquities of Versailles to gain their sympathy and support by holding Germany up before the world as the only bulwark against Communism; to disrupt the nations of central Europe by propaganda-inspired movements for Anschluss. It worked for nearly six years; but eventually it became an oft-told tale, which annoyed many and convinced few. Then, in one swift move, Herr Hitler shattered the myth of his undying enmity for Communism. Seemingly, his object was to frighten England and France into acquiescence now that his propaganda could no longer seduce them. He failed. On September i, war broke out in Europe. In the United States the post-war years of disillusionment had served to make the people only too aware of the power of propaganda. A nation, which had gone to war to make the world safe for democracy and to insure everlasting peace, saw only dictatorship

war.

—

too.

;

and militarism

in

Studying the history of America’s

Europe.

participation in the war, as described

by Walter

Millis,

Oswald

Garrison Villard, H. C. Peterson, Senator Gerald P. Nye, and many others, millions became increasingly convinced that the U.S.

—^perhaps by the

had been duped

into fighting

Street,” perhaps

by

Allies,

or

by “Wall by

the “Merchants of Death,” but certainly

propaganda. The very word seemed enough to frighten them. On the whole they were not so much afraid of German propaganda, however; six years of National Socialism had made the name Adolf Hitler anathema in the United States, and even the Germans

hoped to achieve little more by their propaganda than strict American neutrality as defined in the Neutrality Act of 1937. Quite naturally, this allergy to Allied propaganda heartened the

German

propagandists.

Seeking to counteract

tened to assure the American people that

it

it,

the Allies has-

was not

their intention

to carry on propaganda in the United States. In the words of Lord MacMillan, one-time Minister of Information, their attitude was that “We are content with Hitler as our propagandist.” It was said that no lecturers would be sent to the U.S., as lecturers were

by Sir Gilbert Parker in the World War (1914-18). Later, when lecturers did begin to come, they insisted that arrangements for their visits had been made long before the invasion of Poland. sent

However, •'

in the

New Statesman and Nation, H.

that semi-official suggestions

had been made

United States. Apparently, the assurance that

to

G. Wells revealed him to \asit the

“We

are not carry-

The Soviet propaganda-machine chimed in, saying that if Germany had been the original aggressor, the roles were now

reversed.

More and more,

war progressed, Soviet propaganda began The non-aggression pact between the Soviet

as the

to echo the German.

Union and Germany represented no quicker right-about face for Herr Hitler than it did for Josef Stalin. Ever since 193s, the Soviet Union had sought to line up the democracies against Germany, denouncing National Socialism, denouncing attacks on smaller nations, praising democracy, and distinguishing between the imperialism of England and France and the imperialism of the Reich. Now that Germany and the Soviet Union were friends, if not allies, Soviet propagandists had to sing another tune. The democracies were as reprehensible as Germany; indeed, the democracy of England and France was only “sham.” American foreign policy, which the Soviet propagandists had formerly praised, became “war-mongering.” As the Red Army marched on Finland, they joined with the Germans in ridiculing the announcement of the Allies that Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, and Poland would some day be reconstituted in one form or another. The right of smaller nations to exist, which, for 20 years, they had so ably defended, it was now convenient to forget. Important volumes which appeared on propaganda during the year 1939 included:

^

H. C. Peterson, Propaganda jor War (1939). Peterson skilfully analyzes steps taken by the British Government to break down American neutrality in the period 1914— 17. Sidney Rogerson, Propaganda in the Next War, London (1939);* Rogerson wrote just prior to the war which began in Sept. 1939. He set forth propaganda policies which England should follow in the expected war. He emphasized especially what should be done to break down American neutrality in the expected war. James R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words that Won the War (1939). Mock and Larson review the work of the Creel committee during America’s participation in the World War (i9r4— 18). They show that the American Government had a monopoly of propaganda and of the various channels through which propaganda flowed to the American people. They indicate that in any new war there will be another Government monopoly of propaganda with the chief e.xecutive at the head of it. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, complete and unabridged, fully annotated, Reynal (1939). Also, unabridged edition, Stackpole & Son (1939). The two unabridged editions of Hitler’s Mein Kampf brought to Americans for the first time, a clear picture of Hitler’s propaganda methods. Considered in connection with his accomplishments since 1933 in building a strong Nazi Germany, these methods reveal Hitler as perhaps the greatest

propaganda genius

of

modern

history.

•First published 1938; reprinted 1939

and given

its first

big publicity in 1939.

PROTEINS— PSYCHIATRY Volume n. Publications of the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Inc. (1939)- The Institute’s second published volume represents an attempt to illustrate analytical methods set forth in its first volume published in 1938. The chapters in volume II are devoted to the following; The JIunich Plot; The Attack on Democracy; Communist Propaganda, U.S.A. 1939 Model; Propaganda in the Schools; Father Coughlin; Priest and Politician; Britain Woos America; Spain; A Case Study; The Associated Farmers. Institute for Propaganda Analysis, The Fine Art of Propaganda, edited by Alfred McClung Lee and Elizabeth Briant Lee (1939). In the Fine Art of Propaganda, Doctors Lee define and illustrate the seven common propaganda devices as these have been set forth by the Institute for Propaganda

—

Analysis; Name Calling; Glittering Generality; Transfer; Testimonial; Plain Folks; Card Stacking; Band Wagon. Specifically, most of the illustrations in the book reveal how Father Charles Coughlin, the radio priest, used the devices in his radio sermons and addresses. American attention in 1939 was focused on propaganda, not only as a result of the European war but as a result also of the work of the socalled Dies Committee a Congressional committee to investigate “unAmerican activities.” The committee revealed numerous Communist and

—

activities and propagandas. Some significant activities and propagandas, notably those of the Christian Front and Father Coughlin, were analyzed by The Nation of New York. Its revelations were documented further in an address by its editor, Freda Kirchwey before the Institute of Human Relations at Williamstown, hlassachusetts. An account of the Williamstown Institute discussion of propaganda and democracy appeared (C. R. Mr.) in Survey Graphic, for Nov. i, 1939.

Nazi

553

of metrazol treatments associated with paroxysmal seizures. These

In addition, prolonged

treatments are given alternately.

coma has been t5q)e of

used,

up

to 12 or

more

The

hours.

insulin

effect of this

One

treatment cannot be evaluated at the present time.

can only say that shock treatment of any type has been effective in schizophrenia.

symptoms.

-

Many

patients are

Relapses, however, are

now reported as common and the

from

free

treatment

often has to be repeated. It would appear, after a period of five

years since Sakel introduced his insulin treatment, that only a this method. In many the durabeen decreased and the periods of remissions

few patients have been cured by tion of the illness has

greatly extended. In clinics treated

over the world patients are being

all

by the coma or convulsive form of treatment.

It

-will

take, however, a decade before a final report can be given in

regard to the actual value of this type of therapy.

A

similar

form of treatment

that

is

known

as narcosis therapy.

This treatment consists of the use of narcotic drugs to induce sleep for the greater part of 24 hours, on successive days, for

periods ranging up to 14 days.

Proteins: see Biochemistry: Proteins.

dates

from the report of Klasi

The modem use

of this treatment

It is used chiefly in the

in 1922.

treatment of schizophrenia. It has not increased the recovery rate

Protestant Episcopal Churcti. of quiet

work

of the disease, but

and of effort to maintain and strengthen the spir-

itual life of the-

church in the midst of the present world-wide

The continued financial difficulty and depression in the United States was reflected in the situation of the Church in regard to its Missionary work both in the U.S. and in Europe. At the opening of 1939 the church found itself consions but as a result of a special

its

budget for General Mis-

campaign most of

this

amount

does curtail the duration of the psychotic

excitement more manageable.

In contrast to the forms of treatment outlined above, new sur-

anxiety and distress.

fronted ivith a deficit of $300,000 in

it

condition and makes the administrative care of chronic psychotic

veys of ordinary hospital treatment have been made by psychiatrists in

order to correlate their results with the results of

active forms of therapy.

schizophrenia under ordinary hospital conditions recover in a

period of three years, at a rate of about

33%. About 50% remain

in the hospital at the end of this period.

was raised and the church was thus saved from the serious reductions in its expenditures- for its missionary work which would

as good as those followng treatment

otherwise have been necessary.

hypoglycaemic shock or metrazol.

The Forward Movement inaugurated by the General Convenwork and has given its efforts largely to

These

results are not

by continuous

narcosis,

Another form of treatment for schizophrenia has been brought by Myerson and Tillotson. This known as the “total push” method. In general, patients with

tion in 1934 continued its

to the attention of psychiatrists

the circulation of devotional and religious literature throughout

is

chronic schizophrenia, hospitalized for

the church.

more

been found that patients with

It has

many

years, are treated

importance, and one widely observed during

intensively with physiotherapy, irradiation, exercises, games, spe-

was the isoth anniversary of the adoption of the Book of Common Prayer. During the whole of its history in the United States from the beginning, the church had faithfully used the Book of Common Prayer and had fully recognized its authority as the official standard of doctrine and worship, but in 1789 the Prayer Book was officially adopted by the Protestant Episcopal Church as autonomously organized after the War of Independence. The preface of the Prayer Book as thus adopted by the Episcopal Church declares that “this church is far from intending to depart from the church of England in any essential point of doctrine,

and psychological methods. Particular attention is paid and they receive praise, blame, reward, or punishment according to their actions. The results of this simple method have been encouraging and it is believed by the authors that even if the insulin and metrazol methods are used, the “total push” method should be instituted in its fullest sense as an important

An

much

event of

1939,

discipline,

or worship; or further than local circumstances re-

adjunct.

The operation on the frontal lobes first suggested by Moniz in 1936 has been carried out in a number of clinics, largely for symptomatic treatment of tension, apprehension, anxiety, depression, One

15% of the patients were moderately improved. The operation has not been widely accepted, but appears to have considerable agitation, etc.

report indicates that

greatly improved and

quire.”

The

cial diets

to their clothing

official

reports for 1939

show a

total of 2,157,000 baptized

persons, an increase of 46,801 during the year, and a total of

1,466,598 communicants, an increase of 26,630.

Prunes:

see

(W. T. M.)

merit.

In 1937 Lehmann-Facius described a chemical test of the blood, which he had found positive in a large percentage of cases of schizophrenia.

Plums and Prunes.

50%

Realizing that schizophrenia

not a definite dis-

is

ease entity but only describes a group of patients with certain Ij I

Lj i Syulildirjfi

During the year 1939 the active treatment of the psychoses, particularly schizophrenia, begun

symptoms, he nevertheless,

in testing large

with psychoses, found that

88%

a

phrenia gave a positive

fore.

of patients showed changes.

few years ago, was carried out to a greater extent than ever beThe hypoglycaemic shock treatment was continued, although in a' modified form. In addition to insulin shock, metrazol

was

used extensively, as well as narcosis therapy.

The

original

by Sakel is now largely supplanted by the socalled “block” method of treatment, in which a series of insulin treatments leading to coma are combined with an equal series

insulin treatment

test,

to

whereas

The

92% less

numbers of patients

of those -Rith schizo-

than

40%

of other types

other types of patients, more-

over, suffered almost exclusively with destructive diseases of the

tumour and types of desame clinic in 1938 indicated that the test appeared to be of even more value in the diagnosis than originally supposed. In other clinics where the test has been nervous system such as multiple generation.

sclerosis,

A further report from

the

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH — PSYCHOLOGY

554 used

it

has also proved to be unusually positive. One clinic re91% and another in 100%. The test,

An

interesting approach to the theory of

0

L. Reiser (Pittsburgh).

ESP

is

offered

by

the

ports positive reactions in

philosopher,

however, cannot be evaluated until more data are collected from

upon the notions of emergent evolution, non- Aristotelian logic and a hypothetical psychic ether. He concludes that clairvoyance and telepathy are emergents in the process of development of a “world mind.” Whately Carjngton of the Society for Psychical Research (London) renewed his quantitative study of mediumistic trance person-

various clinics throughout the world. An important step in the legal aspects of psychiatry was taken

by the State of New York when the lunacy commissions were abolUnder the old system the court appointed a three-member

ished.

advisory committee consisting of at least one qualified psychiatrist and one lawyer. Defying public opinion, judges appointed their relatives, political district leaders and other followers. The new law, which went into effect in 1939, substitutes for the lunacy

commission a board of three psychiatrists, who pass upon the question of the sanity of the defendant at the time of the trial, an

.

Reiser bases his theory

In his experiments, the same “communicating” personaliwere produced by different mediums. Word association tests were given the mediums in the trance state and the normal state, and similarities and differences calculated. John Hettinger studied alities.

ties

mediums by

the “ultra-perceptive faculty” of

statistical evaluation

important point, for the psychiatrists are not required to determine the mental condition of a defendant at the time of the com-

of their responses to pictures and reported positive conclusions.

mission of a crime; in other words, they are only requested to

yond

state

whether or not the defendant is able to understand the protrial. This law, known as the Desmond law,

ceedings of a court

should have a wide influence as a guide to future legislation. {See also

Nervous System.)

—

&

PsyBibliography. R. D. Gillespie, “Narcosis therapy,” J. Neurol. (Jan. 1939): E. Guttmann et al., “Short-distance prognosis of Schizophrenia,” ibid.; Abraham Myerson, “Theory and principles of the ‘total push’ method in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia,” Am. J. Psyc/iiat. (March 1939); K. J. Tillotson, “The practice of the total push method in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia,” ibid.; }. W. Watts and cliiat.

&

Mcnt. (Nov. 1938); H. Walter Freeman, “Psychosurgery,” J. Nerv. Lehmann-Facius, “Liquoruntersuchungen bei destruktiven Erkrankungen des Nervensystems, besonders bei Schizophrenie,” Zcitschr. /. d. gcs. Neurol, u. Psyebiat., 138: 109-117 (1937); Idem, “Weitere Erfahrungen mit der Liquor-diagnose der Schizophtenien,” ibid.,_ 161:513-521 (1938); G. Schneider, “Erfahrungen mit der Lehmann-Facius-Reaktion,” Allg. Zcitschr. j. Psyebiat. (Nov. 10, 1938); W. Weinert and E. Funfgeld, “Uber die klinische Bedeutung der Hirnlipoidreaktion nach Lehmann-Facius,” ibid.; T. C. Desmond, “New York wipes out lunacy commissions,” Am. J. Psyebiat. (If- R- V.) (July 1939).

Pcuphipfll PoCOJirph rdjblllufll IlCOCflluili

during 1939, experimentalinvesUgations in psychical research were, in

the United States, devoted to further research in extra-sensory

perception (ESP).

The

early controversial phase of this research

has shown a marked decline, accompanied by a general recognition that the research problems fall specifically within the field of psychology. Three symposia on

ESP

research methods scheduled

psychological societies have indicated this trend.

by

The Southern

Society for Philosophy and Psychology, meeting at the University of North Carolina, was the first to hold a symposium arranged by research workers

Recognition of

psychology as a whole

PcVrhnlniTV rojullUIUgJ.

R.)

see Psychiatry.

char-

is

by a catholicity of interest and activity in keeping with the tremendous scope of its subject matter. Reports of research at the 1939 annual meetings of the American Psychological Association ranged from accounts of the influence of pressure upon the polarity potential of the human eye to a field acterized

study of the acculturation of second-generation Italians. In spite of the diversity of interests three major areas of concentration are discernible.

haviour

is

The broad domain

of learned modifications of be-

being thoroughly explored.

A

second area comprises

re-

search upon the chemical or internal environment of the organism

and includes ex-periments upon drug and hormone effects. Finally there bulks large the development of methods for dealing scientifically

with the social relations of man.

—In an

The Conditioned Response. ciseness of a mechanistic

view of

effort to retain the pre-

man and

still

keep the common

between two types of conditioned response. Type A is the old Pavlovian conditioning which the behaviourists made their central principle. For example, an indifferent stimulus (such as a sound) if presented immediately prior to an adequate or unconditioned

psychologists, in a recent article, proposed standardized test

tional stopping of experimental series.

of error

(J. B.

Psychoanalysis:

a psychological problem has tended to limit

methods many of which had already been in use in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory. Rhine (Duke) proposed a number of requirements for a mechanical selecting and recording device for ESP tests. Greenwood (Duke) introduced a mathematical technique to correct possible exaggerated probability values from opin

over in 1939 by Gardner Murphy of Columbia university and Bernard Riess of Hunter college. {See also Psychology.)

sense of a purposive conception, a dichotomy has been established

research methods to the techniques of the university laboratory. Knight Dunlap (University of California) and six other experimental

The death in 1938 of Professor William McDougall, co-editor with J. B. Rhine of the Journal of Parapsychology, was a distinct loss to psychical research. Editorship of the Journal was taken

the methods under discussion.

who had used

ESP as

Recent summaries of the field of psychical research include Bethe Senses by Charles Francis Potter, Fijty Years of Psychical Research by Harry Price and A Cavalcade of the Supernatural by Harold H. V. Cross.

Studies in possible sources

recording techniques were continued by

Kennedy

quate stimulus. In Type B instead of simple stimulus substitution, a response which brings reward (such as pressing a lever which releases a pellet of food) is soon learned as a means of obtaining the reward.

Type

A

Murphy and Taves (Columbia)

presented four different

ESP

and found that even though no

emphasizes a mechanical association of two

stimuli in time with the one stimulus acquiring the

charge of the other.

(Stanford). test situations to their subjects,

stimulus (such as a puff of air in the eye) will in time evoke the response (the eye wink), even though unaccompanied by the ade-

calls attention to the

Type B emphasizes

B

significant deviations occurred for the total results, the variations in correct response to the four tasks w'ere positively correlated.

can be obtained in Type

Pratt and Woodruff (Duke) carried out a 60,000 trial series with college student subjects, in which they found that scores did not

since

vary with the size of the symbols used. This experiment, conducted under the most stringent conditions for the exclusion of alternative hypotheses yet attempted in ESP research, yielded

as

significantly positive evidence for extra-sensory perception.

complication of the former.

Type

In the

it

than in

seems unwise

A and Type B

first

dis-

motive of obtaining a reward or of avoiding

a painful stimulus. Experimentally

Nevertheless

motor

the law of effect, and

much more Type A.

to infer

two

rapid conditioning ,

distinctive processes

refer to different experimental situations.

type the situation

is

oversimplified and conditioning

mere linkage is the logical result. In the second type the situation is more complex with some measure of problem solving involved.

Logically this latter process

may

be a quantitative

PSYCHOLOGY Experimental work, moreover, shows that the two types of conditioning are not alien even from the point of view of motivation,

Type

for the unconditioned or adequate stimulus in

A

has the

same reinforcing or

activating function as has the reward or punishment in Type B. If the unconditioned stimulus is not occa-

—a

sionally reintroduced, the conditioning dies out

known

as experimental extinction.

Now

Culler,

phenomenon Finch and Brog-

den have shown that experimental extinction does not occur if another stimulus is used as a reinforcing agent, even though this new stimulus does not itself become conditioned. The presence of

some strong stimulus to keep open the nervous pathways within the organism is more important than mere external contiguity for both types of conditioning. Other recent experimentation in conditioning includes the

fol-

lowing findings:

—

Effects of Drugs and Hormones. ^The cumulative effect of contemporary research on drugs, chemicals and hormones has been making itself felt both upon the trends of psychological experimentation and upon the explanations of developmental and be-

The apparent

success of

many

hospitals in

the use of metrazol and insulin in treating schizophrenic patients has stimulated investigations of the effects of drugs upon the action of the nervous system,

upon mood, and upon conduct.

A

number

of investigators report that metrazol produces its convulsive effects through stimulation of centres in the brain stem. If certain stimulating drugs are used in conjunction with metrazol, sensitivity to metrazol is increased.

On

the other hand, the so-called

brain stem narcotics increase the tolerance of patients to metrazol,

whereas the bromides do not inhibit the convulsion. Insulin affects the nervous system through lowering the oxygen utilization of the brain. In one experiment the phrenic nerves of cats subjected to at least ten days of treatment with convulsive doses of insulin were removed. Measurement of the after-potentials,

when

these nerves were stimulated, showed that the

more severe

the insulin convulsion the longer the after-potential.

Benzedrine sulphate, used medically in the treatment of narco-

mental states and similar conditions, has been the subject of considerable psychological research. B. F. Skinner and W. T. Heron report that after several days of ex-

lepsy, certain depressive

tinction a conditioned response in a rat

extent

difiiculty of predicting

how any

and the

given individual will react, be-

cause paradoxic effects which reverse the above picture are not impossible.

More

important, however, than studies of drug

are the

efi'ects

investigations of hormones, the chemical products of the endocrine

glands; for the whole internal chemical state of the organism

On

maintained by the functioning of the endocrines. logical side the isolation

is

the physio-

and chemical characterization of hor-

mones is proceeding successfully. The present emphasis is upon the more difficult problem of the interrelationships of the hormones, especially in the field of sex. On the psychological side research is accumulating concerning the relation of sex hormones

mood and

conduct. N. Miller has studied clinical cases of casand senile prostatic hypertrophy during treatment with the male hormone substance, testosterone propionate. In general to

tration

(1) Conditioned responses which are invariably reinforced during training extinguish more rapidly after training than do responses which are irregularly reinforced. Human subjects who received an air blast on the eye roo% of the time during training did not maintain as high a level of performance as did subjects who received only so% reinforcement. (2) Though the conditioned response is fairly consistent in a given individual, different individuals show qualitatively different patterns of response under the same e.xperimental conditions even in the relatively simple reaction of the eyelid to light. (3) Sensory preconditioning has been definitely established. W. J. Brogden paired light and sound stimuli, neither of which evoked any overt responses from the experimental animals. Then the light stimulus was presented simultaneously with shock until the light alone produced withdrawal. Finally the previously paired sound was used alone and this, too, evoked conditioned withdrawal. (4) Conditioned salivary responses can be built up to configurations of stimuli as well as to simple stimuli. G. Razran has demonstrated conditioning to patterns or ratios of light or sound even though the component stimuli of the ratios did not themselves call out the conditioning. is) Pavlov’s method of producing experimental neurosis in dogs has been extended to other species and the neurotic behaviour has been more thoroughly studied. N. JIaier has reported that rats whose previously established conditioned discriminations are thwarted will exhibit such abnormal response patterns as intensive tics, running in circles, and varying degrees of coma.

havioural processes.

555

investigators emphasize the general nature of the effects

by the administration

was restored

of benzedrine.

to its full

Experimenters agree

the patients not only reported stronge'r sex desire, but

them changed from

most of

states of depression to stat.es of elation with

regression to their original pattern during periods of control in-

In particular the castrates under treatment exhibited

jection.

more

rational aggressiveness

and

less irrational irritability.

R. T.

Sollenberger found that the behaxdoural changes during adoles-

cence are related to the male hormone.

In a group of 30 boys

the degree of maturity of interests and attitudes varied with the

amount

of male

hormone found

in the urine.

The

specific effect

of testosterone propionate as the instigator of sex behaviour has

appeared in a number of studies. C. Stone, for example, produced precocious sex behaviour in young rats by the injection of the

male hormone.

—

Social Functions. ^Advances have been made in the methodology for studying complex questions of motivation and behaviour which have significant social implications and which can-

not always be brought into the laboratory. F. H. Allport and his students have developed an observational approach which emphasizes

two

criteria: (i)

teleonomic description or the characteriza-

tion of actions in terms of their purposive aspect; (2) the record-

ing of these acts on telic scales previously constructed

physical methods.

The

latest

study from

by psycho-

this school is a

system-

between obedience to the law, ideological conceptions of the law, and effect displayed toward laws. In general the dissociation between behaviour, ideology and effect is marked, but for certain indixnduals an institutional view of the law was associated with law-abidingness. Another attack upon social problems is the application of psychoanalytic concepts in modified form to normal social relationships. For example, in the recent work, Frustration and Aggresatic exploration of the relations

sion, appears a systematic formulation of hypotheses inspired

by Freud and Adler and so stated as to permit of experimental and observational test. In this system aggression is viewed as the result of frustration and its overt manifestation is a function of the degree of frustration and the severity of the anticipated punishment. A radically different methodological approach is furnished by the techniques of factor analysis developed by L. L. Thurstone. The purpose of factor analysis is to find by statistical means the number of unitary factors which lie back of any series of correlated measures. It

is

a tool for seeking answers to such questions

as: '\\Tiat factors can be analyzed out of the data

as independent and primary?

on delinquency

Basic to factor analysis

is

the as-

effects of this drug: general

sumption that measures which correlate highly with one another are saturated with the same common factor. By the use of this method Thurstone has found 12 primary mental abilities which account for the scores made by a group of over 200 students on a battery of 57 mental tests. The first seven factors Thurstone

stimulation of mental processes, enhancing of the speech function,

identifies definitely as spatial, perceptual, numerical, verbal rela-

and an acceleration of motor functions. On the other hand, these

tions,

that this drug enhances subjective feelings of well-being.

Bore-

from the carrying out of repetitive monotonous been counteracted by small doses of benzedrine sulphate and ephedrine hydrochloride. E. Reifenstein and E. David-

dom,

resulting

tasks, has

off

report also the following

major

memor}', words (single words) and induction.

(See also

PSYCHOLOGY. APPLIED

556

Nervous System; Psychiatry; Psychical Research; Psy-

the role of alcohol in accident-production.

chology, Applied.)

Aviation. Except for a few investigations of the effects of low oxygen and high altitudes, relatively little has been done since the close of the World War to study the manifold psychological problems in aviation. The year 1939 saw an international rebirth of interest in these topics. Reports from Spain, Rumania, Germany, England and the United States indicated that psychologists

— Conditioned

B. F. Skinner, The Behavior oj Organisms (1938); E. Reflex,” Annual Review of Physiology R. Hilgard, “The (1939); VV. J. Brogden, E. A. Lipman and E. Culler, Antcr. Jour, of Psych., G. 51:109-117 (1938); W. J. Brogden, ibid., 52:46—55 (i939)*» Humphreys, Jour, of Experimental Psych., 25:141-158 (1939); D* A. Grant, ibid., 25:333-346; 445-461 (i939); W. J. Brogden. ibid., 25:323332 (1939); G. H. Razran, Jour, of General Psych., 21:307-330 (1939); G. H. Razran, Jour, of Psych., 7:3-16 (1939); N. R. F. Maier, Studies of Abnormal Behavior in the Rat (1939); F. C. Redlich, Amer. Jour, of Psychiatry, 96:193-204 (i939)l E. D. Bond, J. Hughes and J. A. Flaherty, ibid., 96:317-326 (1939); H. Hoagland, D. E. Cameron and M. A. Rubin, Psych. Record, 1:196—203 (1937); B. F. Skinner and W. T. Heron, ibid., 1:339—346 (1937); J. E. Barmack, Jour, of Experimental Psych., 25:494— 505 (1939); W. D. Turner and G. P. Carl, Jour, of Psych., 8:415—482 (1939); E. C. Reifenstein and E. Davidoff, Amer. Jour, of Psych., 52:5664 (1939); N. E. Miller, Psych. Bulletin, 35:665—666 (1938); R. T. Sollenberger and J. B. Hamilton, Jour. Comparative Psych., 28:81-92 (1939); E. Allen, C. H. Danforth and E. A. Doisy, Sex and Internal Secretions (1939); F, H. Allport and R. S. Solomon, Jour, of Abnormal and Social Psych., 34:419-464 (1939); W. S. Gregory, Character and Personality, 7:265-284, 8:42—57 (1939); J. Dollard et al., Frustration and Aggression (1939); L. L. Thurstone, Primary Mental Abilities (1938); G. H. Thomson, The Factorial Analysis of Human Ability (1939); L. \V. Ferguson, Jour, of Psych., 8:217—224 (1939), (D. Ka.)

Bibliography.

apparent in the

P«;vphnln(rv AnnIiPll OjuliUlUgJf, np|JIICU. applied psychology

field

of

1938 were emphasized and intensified during 1939. There were many evidences of an increasingly strong inclination to rely upon controlled reI

itself in a

and

in a

A

of

aiding in the selection of aeroplane pilots. Responsible executives in commercial

and military aviation were confronted with the fact that proper selection of candidates might greatly reduce the cost of training pilots and markedly decrease the accident rate. There

were signs of wide-spread dissatisfaction with arbitrary standards long accepted and an inclination to establish new standards by direct investigation.

Efforts were being made to establish a battery of tests from which a combined score might be used to predict later success in flying. As in automobile driving, it was obvious that mere aptitude in handling the controls would not be adequate and that certain other aspects of behaviour must be measured. In the European countries the problem was almost entirely under military sponsorship. In the United States, however, a nation-wide pro-

gram of research was

up

set

in conjunction with the proposal of

the Civil Aeronautics Authority to train 11,000 student pilots.

healthy tendency towards self-criticism manifested

This program, under the auspices of the National Research Council, involved a series of integrated researches dealing with the se-

number

of articles dealing critically with basic methods

growing insistence upon

statistical verification of validity

instead of a tacit assumption that methods were producing results.

were again being invited to concern themselves with the task

upon proclamations based only on dramatic

search rather than

examples.

in

—

Technological publications from the warring nations showed

lection

and

training of civilian pilots.

—Where

investigations of a decade or two earlier had been focused upon improving the working environment and stand-

Industry.

movements

of the worker,

a definite trend toward a concern with military problems as well

ardizing the

marked impress from the ideology of the countries involved. The outbreak of hostilities in Europe caused the abandonment of

1939 followed the trend of recent years in stressing the socio-

as a

plans for an international psychotechnological congress.

There

was, however, intensive discussion of topics in applied psychology

psychological reactions of the worker. tion

from the long-term

studies in the

researches reported in

The most recent publicaWestern Electric Company

again emphasized the high importance of the social identification

Psychology and at the Seventh International Management Con-

Reports of this investigation, now spread through three books and a number of articles in profes-

gress.

sional journals, constitute a

at the annual meeting of the

American Association

for Applied

—

Accidents. ^Although figures for accident-fatalities in 1938 had dropped slightly below their anticipated level, there was no slackening of effort in investigating the causation and possible prevention of accidents.

Data from

all

countries continued to

of the worker with his work.

volume of evidence to show may be more than

shortcomings in the working environment

that out-

weighed by an intelligent company policy adequately grasped by workers who are truly identified with their jobs. Findings based

upon an extensive survey

in a cocoa

works

in

England served

demonstrate that accidents are not uniformly distributed through the population but that a group of accident-prone individuals incurs more than an anticipated share of accidents. Attempts to

further to verify this basic contention.

determine in advance the characteristics of those

the openings available were widely reported. In France, major laboratories were following a standardized procedure which based its tests upon thorough job-analysis and upon adequate testing of the tests themselves, with results that showed a

liable to acci-

dent proneness have resulted in tests which are useful in selecting commercial drivers but are of dubious value in licensing the general population. Preliminary studies gave increasing hope that

As a

corollary to these studies of job-satisfaction, efforts to use

the most advanced techniques of psychology in selecting workers to

fit

eight

the tests might be used educatively to warn drivers of their shortcomings and thus reduce an accident-toU which internationally

marked

has reached dramatic proportions.

broad scope of

Attempts to study the causes of accidents pointed unmistakably to human failure as the source of primary responsibility. Improvements in highways were found to reduce accident rates

to deal with the

only as they reduced possibilities of it

was found that accidents

causes in which

rate varies with age

failure.

ordinarily result

it is difficult

marily responsible.

human

Beyond

this,

from a complex of

to detect a single condition as pri-

Extensive researches showed that accidentdrivfers, while scoring high

and that youthful

mechanical performance, incur accidents with a disproportionately high frequency. Attempts were being made to test large numbers of drivers for alcoholic content of the blood at

on many

tests of

might be established for the investigation of drinking as a factor in accidents. Until this has been done, figures on “drinking drivers” can cast but little light on

specified hours, so that a base

The National

effect in reducing accident-rates.

Institute

of Industrial Psychology in England published accounts of the its

testing activities,

more complex

many

of which were designed

aspects of

human

personality. In

the United States, professional meetings brought out numerous

papers on specific activities in industrial selection, including ports of progress from the United States its

Employment

attempts to develop a “horizontal” classification of jobs.

classification of this type will classify jobs in

re-

Service in

A

terms of their psy-

chological requirements, cutting across vocational lines in a search

for psychological uniformities.

Market Research and Advertising.

—With

the expenditure

for advertising reaching astonishing proportions, an association of advertisers sponsored a volume summarizing the present status of methods that have been proposed for measuring the effectiveness of advertisements. This revealed a half-dozen major methods in current use, each with its ardent sponsors and each with certain

h

PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING

557

weaknesses that are apparent to an objective observer. The evidence suggests that it is much easier to develop some measure of

ness seems to be closely associated with skin temperature and this

the influence of a total marketing campaign than to obtain a pre-

rounding wall temperature (radiation

cise

index of the effectiveness of a single advertisement. Methods

in turn with certain relations

ity

wthin

proposed ranged from the photographing of eye-movements during the reading of a magazine, through checks on the identification of

pleasantness.

and included various ways of determining the relative frequency with which typical respondents reported that they read a certain advertisement. In connection with the latter method, initial data were published on the development of a formula to

ford and

slogans,

deal with the recognized

human tendency

to report having read

advertisements not yet published. There was a strong suggestion

region has

this

between

little

effect

A somewhat different approach to this Warner

London School

air

temperature and sur-

The relative humidupon the sensation of

effect).

question

is

made by Bed-

of the Industrial Health Research Board and

of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Essential con-

found to be lower rather than

ditions to a feeling of freshness are

higher temperature, humidity not over 70%, air movement variable rather than fixed, both as to direction and velocity, walls cooler than

air,

and freedom from objectionable odours. Neither

were moving to abandon the vague term

the ordinary changes in electrical conditions (ionization) nor the

“measuring effectiveness of advertising” in favour of a direct specification of what each particular method actually yielded.

presence of small quantities of ozone affect the sensation of fresh-

that critical psychologists

In more than one country, intensive research in these commercial fields brought to a high level of accuracy a purely non-commercial device

—the

suffered severely

poll of public opinion. Earlier polls had from improper sampling, crude wording and

inadequate safeguarding in the interpretation of

results.

WTien

those trained in the precise methods of market research took over the task of sampling public opinion, the gain was at once apparent and the poll today has become a commonplace in the daily news-

paper.

(See also Advertising; Marketing.) ^It is apparent from

Vocational Psychology.

—

many

publica-

1939 that the civilized world at large has recognized a duty to provide aid for its youth in finding suitable employment. Perhaps the most characteristic international note of the year in this field was that of critical self-inspection within the group contions of

cerned with vocational orientation. From many centres came critical articles which stressed the need for facing the more important shortcomings of the movement. There was increasing emphasis

on the necessity of checking statistically the results of guidance programs, instead of assuming that any program must be helpful. Tests, it was frequently pointed out, are important aids to the counsellor but do not constitute in themselves any more than one aspect of a total program. Studies of youth brought out additional vocadata to show that there is a wide disparity between the available. opportunities vocational the and youth of choices tional counselling centres reported specific findings to demonstrate longthat vocational maladjustment can be markedly reduced by a light the conceived in and safeguarded adequately program,

Many term

and international of local opportunities under existing national conditions. (See also Psvchoeogv.) Bibliography. Accidents: H. JI. Johnson, ^^‘Detection of accident prone drivers,” Pfoccedings of 17th Annual iMeeting of Highway Research Board (1937); H. M. Vernon, Accidents and Their Prevention (Cambridge University Press, I 937 )„ n Aviation: E. Mira, “Psychological work during the Spanish war. Occupational Psychology, 13:163-177 (i 939 ), . , Industry: P. Hall and H. W. Locke, Incentives and contentment (1938); the Worker F. j. Roethlisherger and W. J. Dickson, Management and

—

,

,

.

.

,

^

Research and Advertising: Technique of Marketing Research, American Marketing Society (1938); G. Gallup, “Government and the sampling referendum,” Market Research, 8:6-10 (1938). , ^ Vocational Psychology: F. J. Keller and M. S. Viteles, Vocational GuidCounsel ance Throughout the World (1937); E. G. Williamson, How to ^h^arket

Students (1939).

Public Health Engineering.

ing interest continues to de-

velop in the physiological aspects of ventilation of enclosed spaces' Yale univeras contrasted with the purely physical conditions. At subjects sity systematic studies of the physiological reactions of to modification of each of the basic physical factors, temperature, humidity, movement and radiation to surrounding walls, are being

attempt has been made to fix the physical limits of the rather intangible property “pleasantness” in a room air. Within the region of ordinary home and office conditions, pleasantcontinued.

An

ness.

The

sterilization of air

by

the use of ultra-violet light

being

is

rather rapidly developed in the direction of hospital wards and

operating rooms, cold storage rooms for the prevention of

mould

growths and other commercial uses.

—

Housing . Present interest in housing lies in the financing and sociological aspects although sanitation plays a large part in the housing prohlem. In contrast to the emphasis now so frequently placed upon artificial illumination, even to the suggestion of windowless homes and factories, this report emphasizes the importance of orientation and fenestration of buildings with respect to natural daylight. The sun’s rays provide thermal, visual, physiological, psychological, and bactericidal effects.

—

Water Supply. Bacillary Dysentery. With the general improvement of the water supplies of the world, there appears to be increasing evidence of water-borne bacillary dysentery, presumably previously masked by the high rates of typhoid and para-typhoid infections. The Office of Public Hygiene (League of Nations) reports continued increase in reported cases in Great Britain since 1934, mostly of the Sonne or the Flexner type. In the U.S., minor outbreaks are reported with increasing frequency. A committee of the American Water Works Association in a preliminarj’ report indicates the frequency of water-borne outbreaks, most of which have resulted from inadequate protective devices or improper control methods. Ozone . Renewed interest in ozonization of public water supplies is indicated in a paper before the Inst, of Water Engineers by George Baxter and by the subsequent discussion. When electrical energy is not too costly ozonization appears to be preferable to chlorination on several grounds. Interest in the significance of fluorine in Fluorine and Dental Caries water supply, as a cause of a dental disfigurement known as mottled enamel, has been increased by a recent publication of Dean, et al., who find on the basis of e.'ilensive studies in Illinois (U.S.), that fluorine appears to be partially preventive of dental caries. significant trend of the time in sewage treatment Sewage Treatment. is a return to the long abandoned aim of valuable by-product recovery. At present, not only is sludge recovered as a useful and valuable by-product but, what is more important, power is being generated from the sludge digestion gas in sufficient quantity for pumping the sewage, heating and lighting the premises, and, at times, for aeration, the most e.xpensive item in the activated sludge process. A further development has recently been announced in Middlesex county, England, whereby this gas is being compressed in cylinders and utilized in motor vehicles. The Mogden treatment plant produces over 1 30,000 cu.ft. of methane per day, equivalent to about 700 imp. gal. of gasoline and having a value, under present conditions, of about $93,000 a year. Aviation and Mosquitoes ^The International Health committee has had under consideration the possibility of the transportation of Aedes mosquitoes by aeroplane. In a study of planes arriving at Durban, Natal, Ross reports the recovery of live mosquitoes in 28 out of 84 planes examined, after routine treatment with oil spray. He concludes that there is definite danger of introducing yellow fever by this route. Recreational Use of Natural Facilities In the U.S. many new problems in sanitation have arisen through the use of the “trailer,” a house on wheels carried about the country behind an automobile and detached for overnight or more lengthy stops at trailer or road-side camps or elsewhere. So popular has this type of vacation convenience become that elaborate arrangements are provided for them in the form of camp grounds, and local authorities have promulgated special rules and regulations for their control. Jlinimum requirements are a suitable water and milk supplj', adequate waste disposal, drainage, toilet, bathing and laundry facilities. The spread of disease is facilitated by these constantly interchanging groups and its prevention calls for special diligence. An allied problem is the recreational use of public land in general and in particular of water-shed areas serving public water supplies. The desirability of permitting bathing, boating or fishing in or upon reservoirs is being more frequently debated, and has recently been dealt with in a symposium of papers before the American Water Works Association. ^The ever present problem of garbage and Garbage and Waste Disposal waste disposal is apparently being studied with renewed activity in many places, despite the favourable and almost general acceptance of high temperature incineration- the principal objection to which appears to be its cost. At Manila, a serious fly nuisance has resulted from the practice

—

.

—

—

.

—

.

.

—

—

—

dumping despite all precautions, and the monthly Bulletin of Health recommends a study of the Baccari system (fermentation). In the U.S. of

the latter system has been tried experimentally but the only definite trend

ficiency disease in

away from

incineration has been in the direction of the “sanitary fill” method. This consists in dumping in prepared areas and quickly covering and compacting under several feet of soil, generally excavated from a pit ahead of the dumping face. This process is being extensively developed in New York city. It appears to be quite successful except for slight local objection. Hog feeding, the other American practice, appears to be definitely associated with human trichinosis. In a recent survey Wright finds indications of a widespread, sub-clinical infection, trichinae having been found in about 17% of 3,000 human diaphragms from routine hospital autopsy. The rate among Jewish cases (134) was 0.7%. Further evidence against the feeding of garbage is found in a study of Feldman on tuberculosis in garbage-fed swine. Examination of 264 such carcasses resulted in a finding of 7 S with tuberculosis lesions. From these, 47 cultures of tubercle bacilli were recovered, 35 of the avian type, and 12 of the human type. It is indicated that tuberculous poultry are perhaps of more common occurrence than has been generally recognized and that city garbage has certain hitherto unverified if not unsuspected potentialities for disease transmission. Bibliography. League of Nations, Health Organization Bulletin (19.38); International office of Public Hygiene (May 1938); Bull, of

—

Hygiene (1938); J.A.W.W. Ass'n (1939); Surveyor (1939); U.S. Public Health Service, Public Health Reports (jMay 26, 1939); Bull, of the Office of International Hygiene (1939); Bull, of Health (Manila) (1938); Am. Jour, of Hygiene (1939). (E. B. Pii.)

Countries with highly central-

Public Health Services.

States for

many

man which had

probably existed

in the

United

years.

A national health survey made in the United States reported in 1939 that more than 800,000,000 days of disability were occurring annually as the result of chronic diseases. The public health services of several countries are directing greater efforts to discover the

aetiology of such diseases as cancer and rheumatic heart disease.

In

many

countries the public health services are attempting to

secure a wider dispersion of health, medical and hospital ties,

and various forms of health insurance and

have been. adopted.

The

cessful.

It

facili-

collective medicine

cannot be said that they have

all

been suc-

British Ministry of Health reports that the Insur-

ance Medical Service was working satisfactorily in Great Britain.

By an

act which

became

effective there in 1938,

young persons

16

years of age and over became eligible for the benefits of the serv-

by approximately 1,000,000 the number of persons was previously the case with their elders. The number of persons covered by health insurance in England and Wales was about 18,000,000 ice, increasing

entitled to the services of their chosen doctor, as

in I 93 S-

powers have highly centralized health organizations, with supreme authority in all health matters, while in other countries, such as the United States of America, for example, local health powers are retained by the constituent States or provinces. Recent advances made by the

In western Canada the “municipal doctor” system has been found to work efficiently. The municipal doctor is paid a salary and is allowed to make charges for services to non-residents. It is said that he makes an ideal health officer because he finds it to his advantage to use to the fullest extent possible all preventive

various public health services follow a similar pattern, and relate

measures.

principally to the

ized

improvement and expansion of present health

administration, better training of public health personnel, intensified attacks

on

specific diseases, the

adoption of nutrition as a

public health problem, greater attention directed to infant,

and child

ternal

care,

ma-

and the enactment of some form of health

While the health services of the various countries continue the basic public health activities of quarantine, environmental sani-

and immunization procedures, they are expanding the scope

of their public health activities.

Facilities for special training

by the public health

courses are being provided

services of

many

countries.

In certain parts of Europe symptoms of dietary deficiency eases are reported

among

the rural populations.

dis-

The appearance

of cases of night blindness and skin affection attributable to vita-

min

A

deficiency has been noted

several countries,

and rickets

is

among

the rural population of

reported to be wide-spread in

the children of these populations in southern Europe.

Dietary

made in 1939 by the health services in Great Belgium, Finland, France, Hungary, Norway, Sweden and Yugoslavia. The United States Public Health Service and State and local departments of health of that country are devoting surveys were being Britain,

attention to nutrition.

The

recognition of the

ill

effects of

an

in-

adequate diet in the health of pregnant and nursing women, on the normal physical development of children, and possibly on resistance to disease has resulted in the development of a

of nutrition education.

program

In 1939 the United States Public Health new vitamin (riboflavin) de-

Service reported the discovery of a

558

by persons ties

well able to

pay for such services and that the indemni-

allowed by the social insurance system for sickness and

maternity cases are

insufficient.

A

biU has been introduced pro-

viding for stricter control of hospital admissions.

security legislation.

tation

The French physicians maintain that the system adopted in France of providing medical care and hospitalization is abused

The proposal for a national health insurance scheme in Australia was abandoned in 1939 because of the fear that the financial burden would stifle normal development, as it came simultaneously with an enlarged defence program, and also because of the general unpopularity of the act. The 1938 Social Security Act of New Zealand provides for medical services and indemnification for sickness.

The

Public Health Service of the United States proposes Fed-

eral aid to the States for medical

and hospital care and

is

already

giving assistance to the States through Federal grants-in-aid for

These grants-in-aid are for strengthening and expanding State and local health services and improving the

preventive medicine. technical

qualification

of

their personnel.

Many

State health

departments have created special divisions of industrial hygiene and venereal disease control, have intensified efforts directed to the control of such diseases as tuberculosis and pneumonia, and have increased the number of full-time health services in rural areas by more than 130%. Adequate treatment for venereal diseases

is

being brought within the reach of more patients,

clinical

being expanded, and a larger number of syphilitic patients are being brought under treatment in the early stages of facilities are

the disease

when the outlook

for cure

is

most favourable. During

PUBLIC LIBRARIES— PUBLIC UTILITIES the

was

fiscal

year 1939 approximately $10,500,000 of Federal funds

allotted to the States for the

improvement of

their health

of the long drawn out attempt to abolish the Public Service

mission of Wisconsin, replacing

services.

In France, the use of toxoid against diphtheria cessful over a period of several years,

and

is

it is

reported suc-

stated that the

disease has practically been eliminated in the French

A

Army.

law making diphtheria vaccination in school children obligatory was promulgated in France in 1938 and a similar law is in effect in Hungary, Rumania and the city of Geneva, Switzerland (also in Poland before the occupation of that country). In Germany, advance in public health services in 1939 was sig-

by the expansion of infant welfare work, pro\nsion of examination and consultation service for school and preschool children, including dental service which theretofore had been reported as unsatisfactory. X-ray examination, and increased facilities for the control of the venereal diseases and mental conditions. Re-

nalized

ports of the Division of Public Hygiene (Ministry of the Inte-

559

process of reorganizing State regulatory commissions, the failure

it

species of administrative court, should be recorded.

odic attempts to set

Administrative commissions both State and Federal, continued to turn out the annual grist of investigations, opinions

The Federal Power Commission, under

lics

is

in the prevention of

drug addiction.

represented by a

number

American Repub-

of outstanding developments

which reflect the attention being given to public health by the governments and the people. New Ministries of Public Health have recently been created in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. Expansion in public health service activities are represented by wide-spread development of health centres, the extension of laboratory service, nutrition stud-

and greater attention to the problem of proper diet, training of public health personnel, increase in full-time health services, creation of services for public health education, improvement in

ies

vital statistics, including disease reporting and intensified efforts directed against specific diseases. Legislation providing compul-

sory health and social security insurance was enacted in Ecuador and Peru, and existing provision for such insurance was amplified in Chile.

Increased appropriations for public health services were

made by most Latin-American The health services of many

countries in 1939. countries are taking a greater in-

Great Britain has developed a progressive housing program; and of approximately £1,230,000 asked for social services in Ireland £800,000 is for housing and terest in housing as a health problem.

approximately £450,000

is

for health services.

(See also Vene-

real Diseases.)

—

Bibliography. Annual Report of the surgeon general of the Public Health Service (1939); Et. Burnet and W. R. Aykroyd, “Nutrition and Public Health,” Quarterly Bulletin, Health Organization of the League of Nations (June 193s); The National Health Survey, “The Magnitude of the Chronic Disease Problem in the United States,” Sickness and Medical Care Series, Bull. No. 6, U.S. Public Health Service (1938): Proceedings National Health Conference, Washington, D.C. July 18-20, 1938 (Washington, D.C., 1938); Boletin dc la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana issued monthly by the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Washington, D.C. (1938— (C. V. A.) 39); J.AM.A. (1938-39).

—

Public Libraries:

D blin

see Libraries.

Iltilitiap

rUullU UllllllCOt

“New Deal”

Legislatively, the year 1939 significant

was much

the preceding

years

less

of

and reorregulation having apparently come to

influence, the era of legislative expansion

ganization of public utility

The only was an amendment a close.

than

significant piece of Congressional legislation

of the Tennessee Valley Authority Proj'ect

Act

which expanded the borrowing capacity of this public corporation in order to enable it to pay its share of the acquisition price of privately

owned public

utility properties in the valley region.

As

indicative of the tendency in public policy to call a halt in the

and orders. Gas Act of

Wyoming and New Mexico. Little progress, however, made by the Securities and Exchange Commission

has as yet been

working out the physical integration program under section ii Company Act of 1935. On the other hand, the commission has made notable progress in the simplificain

of the Public Utility Holding tion of holding

While the

company

financial structures

grist of actual legislation

was

and reports concerning public

initiated or concluded during the year.

in public health services in the Latin

the Natural

1938, began an extensive investigation of natural gas rates in

Colorado,

vestigations

its efforts

utility

regulation were defeated in Texas and Florida.

and flat foot in preschool children. Germany is also conducting a campaign against the excessive use of alcohol and tobacco, said to be the result of extensive and seductive advertising, and is intensi-

Advance

Fresh peri-

up a State commission for public

rior) reveal considerable prevalence of postural defects, scoliosis

fying

Com-

with an Administrator and a

committee investigating

TVA

on a voluntary

basis.

small, important inutility

matters were

In April a congressional

operations

made

a maj’ority and

minority report, giving the country directly opposite conclusions. Speaking generally, the majority upheld the present functioning of the board while the minority accepted the criticisms of the board’s former chairman, A. E. Morgan, besides developing several of

its

own. On the question of administrative autonomy,

the majority would merely eliminate control

counting Office, substituting what

by a private

audits

it

by the General Ac-

regarded as more suitable

auditing firm responsible to Congress.

The

recommended a complete reorganization of activities with the return (i) of agricultural functions to the Department of Agriculture, (2) of dam construction and operation and river regulation to the War Department, (3) a revamped minority, however,

TVA

board of five directors retaining merely the marketing of wholesale power under local and Federal regulation and taxation as would be the case with private enterprise. On the very contentious yardstick issue, which the

any other agency,

TVA

exemplifies

more than

the majority contended “that the electric rates

of the Authority provide a legitimate, honest yardstick of equitable rates of private industry” while the minority held that the

word “yardstick” should be stricken once and for all from the vocabulary. The most reassuring finding that private indus-

TVA

try can extract from the report

is

TVA

present or prospective supplies of

will

not be able with

its

probably the conclusion that the

power safely to expand beyond its present service area. (See also Tennessee Valley Authority.) Another committee, the National Defense Power committee, with Mr. Louis Johnson, assistant secretary of War, as chairman has been at work since Sept. 1938 to investigate the total power production capacity of the United States. Because the World War (1914-18), with its increased power demand for munitions

and other purposes developed a serious power shortage, this comis required to study the problem as a phase of the general problem of national defence and to recommend steps to assure a plentiful supply. In this connection needed links in the transmission network are especially important. Another important committee, or rather renewal of an older mittee

is the National Power Policy committee. Under the chairmanship of the secretary of the Interior, Mr. Ickes, this group is also to report on existing power capacity and transmission facilities and to project the requirements into the future, studying

committee,

means, both public and private, of alleviating any shortages or inadequacies. In this connection a technical report suggesting something approaching a British Grid system for the United States has been much discussed but no definite recommendations are as yet available.

:

WORKS ADMINISTRATION— PU BUSHING

PUBLIC

560

.

Certain preliminary figures of the census report on electrical become available showing changes in

industries for 1937 have

number

of customers, sales in kilowatt hours and revenues for the more than usual interest attaches to the dismissal

year. Judicially,

by the United suits against

States

Supreme Court

TVA. This

decree

may

January of certain

in

utility

be said to constitute the con-

cluding action in the long campaign on the part of private

utili-

thwart the power production and power marketing program of the Federal Government as incidental to its nation-wide program of river regulation in the interests primarily of navigation ties to

and

American book trade enjoyed a

Dllhlichinrr I

relatively

UUIIollllig.

new

prosperous year in 1939, although the number of books and new editions decreased about 4% from the total

of 1938. Inexpensive editions were published in greatly increased

and one newcomer in this field successfully introduced paper-bound reprints to sell at retail for 2 S^. Table I, prepared by The Publishers’ Weekly, gives the comparable figures of book production for 1939 and 1938 in the various international classi-

quantities,

fications. Toble

I,

—

ti.S.

Publicafions

flood control.

In April the highest court reversed a statutory

“York Case,” where

the so-called

that court

For 1938

district court in

had granted an

New

in-

For 1939

New

Books Editions Total

New

Net Change

New

Books Editions Total

junction against a temporary rate reduction order of the Pennsyl-

vania Public Utility Commission.

Because the commission had

a finding of “fair value” in accordance with former decisions of the Supreme Court but had avowedly based its decision on

not made

investment

historical

cost, the

lower court considered the tem-

porary rate-fixing procedure as confiscatory. The Federal Supreme Court, however, while not definitely overruling the leading case of

Smyth

V.

Ames

of 1898 as

demanded by

Justices Frankfurter and

Black, found that there had been presented no compelling evidence

by many as the first approval by the revamped Supreme Court of the

to sustain confiscation. This decision

step in the final

hailed

is

“prudent investment” basis of public

utility rate regulation.

There remains only to record the facts regarding the substantial completion of the Tennessee Valley Authority’s purchasing program, designed to bring about peaceful relations between the Fed-

Government and the private utility industry in the Southwest. Combined with certain earlier purchases of transmission lines, substations and distribution systems of the Mississippi Power company and Alabama Power company in 1934 and 1936, the cur-

Philosophy Religion Sociology, Economics

89 790 7S8 II4

.

Law Education (books on)

Domestic EJconomy

29s

.

Philology Science Technical Books. . Medicine, Hygiene. Agriculture Gardening .

.

.

.

.

,

266 423 319 293 115

.... ....

General Literature. Poetry, Drama

.

508 6qS

.

Fiction Juvenile History

21

16

1,217

Geography, Travel Biography Miscellaneous Total

.

89s 776 317 004 64

.

....

9.464

104 821

91

11

669

838

773^

28 81

148

138 293 256 422 34S 307

313 295 525 454

390 136

60

89 3S9

35 18 20 54

287 124 213 362

46 446 146

1,663 1,041

73 299 252 106 193

Business Fine Arts

Music Games, Sports

IS

31 80 34 18 29 102 13s 97

81

49 S8 X2 1,603

744

8S7 366 662 76 11,067

22 22

30

102 697

—

854

+ + +

100 31s 286 523 461 431 129 104 357 288 124 219 584

298 262 III 190 Sii 584

lOI 116 124 29 z6 59 26 13 29 73 73

1,133

414

I.S47

830 708 296

119 96 61 71 8 1,625

949 804 357 628

100 88

SS7 70 9,ois

2

--124

-

—

+ + _ +— +

2 7

41 7

IS 2 I

— -

+

2

+ -

78 10,040

2

9

6 22 87 II6 92 53 9

-f

657

16 12

-427

eral

rent purchases with a few minor supplementary acquisitions are and its public and co-operative distribudesigned to give the

TVA

tors complete control of the

market

in

an area comprising practi-

State of Tennessee, the northern tiers of counties in north-eastern Mississippi, northern Alabama and north-western cally. the entire

Georgia.

The

table gives the

amounts involved

Seller

Tenn. Public Service Co

Memphis Power & Light Miss. Power Co Tenn. Elec. Power Co

$ Co.

.

.

Total

TVA

price

payment

payments

$ 2.551,500

S 5,483,500

2,110,000 X, 533.000 44,500,000

15.250.000 667,000 34.100.000

$50,494,300

SSS.SOO.SOO

8,035,000 17.360.000 2,000,000 78.600 .000

Contractors’

the

with which

it

has contracts for the

supply of power at wholesale rates. The Oct. 1939 report showed that TVA was supplying all the power requirements of 63 cities, ii temporary operating 29 co-operatives, 2 private companies, districts

and Government reservations.

The monthly output

is

resold to 354,54° customers of all classes and represents 596,446,121 kw. hours. The importance of these arrangements is that it point the way in which -:he output of other Federally pro-

may

moted power

supplies will be absorbed as these projects go into

Legislation, Federal;

{See also Electricai- Industries; CourtW '"tSEUNiTFD States; Utilities)

(M. G. G.) Public Works AdminiMration (PWA): Publishers’ Prizes: see LIterary Prizes.

see

Housing,

of the

postage rate on books for two more

June 30, 1941. Best Sellers. ^The most popular book of 1939, fiction or nonfiction, was John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, which according to the percentage analysis of The Publishers’ Weekly, had a sale of more than 300,000 copies. Rachel Field’s All This and years, until

—

first published in 1938, was second among novels in 1939 with 107,780 copies printed, and Daphne du Maurier’s Rebecca, another 1938 publication, was third with 162,300. Other works of fiction in the order of their sales in 1939 were Wickford Point, by John P. Marquand; Escape, by Ethel Vance; Disputed Passage, by Lloyd C. Douglas; The Yearling, by Marjorie Kinnan

Heaven, Too,

Rawlings (published in 1938) The Tree of Liberty, by Elizabeth Page; The Nazarene, by Sholem Asch; and Kitty Foyle, by Christopher Morley. The last two novels were published in October and therefore their sales are not strictly comparable with those of books published earlier in the year. Escape was published in September.

The

sale of non-fiction reflected public pre-occupation with in-

ternational events.

First on the

Days of Our

by

Years,

list

of best sellers in 1939 was

Van Paassen (230,000 copies the Stars, by Nora Wain, and

Pierre

sold).

third. Second was Reaching for Inside Asia, by John Gunther. Others were Autobiography with Letters, by William Lyon Phelps; Country Lawyer, by Bellamy Partridge; Wind, Sand and Stars, by Antoine de Saint Exupery; Mein Kampf, by Adolf Hitler; A Peculiar Treasure, by Edna Ferber; Not Peace But A Sword, by Vincent Sheean; and Listen!

The Wind, by Anne Morrow Lindbergh, published

Great

production.

Supreme

the domestic events favourable to publishing in 1939

;

In accordance with TVA policies, the above purchases give the Federal agency complete control over all power producing facilities, both steam and hydro, operating in the area together with all major interconnecting transmission facilities, enabling it to serve local distributing utilities

Among

was continuation

Britain.

—September,

ordinarily

one

in 1938.

of

the

busiest

months for the English book trade, was one of the poorest within memory; the coming of war virtually stopped all activity in the business. But public attention was soon directed to the virtues of reading as a diversion from unpleasant realities a “lenitive,” as

—

one observer put it. By the first part of October normal conditions were restored, and provisional estimates indicated that retail sales

PUERTO RICO months of 1939 were not far below those for the last three months of 1938. Table II, compiled by The Publishers’ Circular, London, shows the number of new books and new ediin the last three

tions

which appeared during 1939. Table II.— British Publications

For 1939

New

New

Trans-

Pam-

Books

lations

phlets

Editions,

1939

Philosophy

172

18

5

Religion Sociology

623 688 130

30

67 312 61

30 99 80 80

Law Education

178 122 247

Naval

Military.

26 5

Philology Science

Technology

2

Totals,

Totak,

1939

1938

22s 819

273 982

1,106

I.14S

276 26s 254 29s 722 677

310

32 46 25 98 139

279 216

560 426

12

6

S3 83 20 52 Z06

348

8

SO

119

S2S

S18

ISO

I

42 16

37

239

13

IZI

17

30

44 6

21

130 321 73 219

2IS 97 158 314

3 3

292 701 755

Domestic Arts

82 83

Business Fine Arts

6

250 .

.

.

.

.

.

Drama

.

.

61

IS8 29s

Literature

Poetry and

3 8 29 S8 22 34 23

280 1,666

Fiction Juvenile

858 490 451 69 557

Histor>'

Description and Travel

-

Geography Biography General Works Totals for igsg

6 45 SO 74

13 23

Z08

2,260

7

3 16

6

622 6x9 78

108

720

34

39

263

460 624 4.338 1,620

1.565

662 759 64 753 203

201

20Z

....

61

376 491 3,984

429 64 138

256

9.154

336

4,029

1,394

14,913

....

11,744

—

^The

Russia’s production in 1936 (the last year for which statistics were

was about 42,000 books and pamphlets.

n

ruBnO

D’

KICOi

troubles as a result of application of the United States Wages and Hours Act. Lower standards and costs of living, it was alleged, necessitated exemptions, and employer groups vigorously opposed

new act. In April, 20,000 minimum wages of 25 cents an

sugar factory workers struck for

65%

of the population, were undergoing

the

that 1,000,000 persons, or

(J.

hour. In August

V. Do.)

^ United States insular dependency in the West Indies; languages, English and Spanish; capital,

San Juan; governor, Rear-Admiral William D. Leahy. The area is census was 1,543,3,435 square miles. The population by the 1930

it

hardships due to lack of work and of adequate food.

was estimated

The

restricted

sugar quota compelled closing of sugar mills in

after the

shortest grinding season in 23 years.

May, Governor Leahy

reported,

asked

l6,09t

4,347

number of new books and new editions published in France in 1938 was 15,894; in Italy, 10,648. The production of European works in German in that year was 25,439. issued)

United States temporarily alleviated the situation but did not it. Early in the year Puerto Rico experienced labour

remedy

shortly after assuming

10,884

Ofher Countries.

States

16,091

^

1

Totals for 1938

was important in the February war games of the United Navy. Throughout the year 1939 Puerto Rico continued to face economic difficulties, arising primarily from her overpopulation and from the quota restrictions placed upon sugar, her most important single product. Early in the year Governor Winship officially complained that the island had not received its fair share of relief and rehabilitation appropriations. Business groups within the island placed emphasis upon three major points as essential for restoration of Puerto Rican prosperity: increase of sugar quota, amendment of the United States Wages and Hours Act, and improvement of credit facilities. The sugar quota for 1939 was 831,000 tons, but there was actual cane in the fields ready for cutting and processing sufficient to produce 1,200,000 tons. Quota island

modification in September, as a result of the sugar panic in the

Medicine, Public Health, etc Agriculture, Gardening, etc

Music (books on) Games, Sports, etc-

561

aid.

For the

office,

that 476,000 were unemployed,

and

coffee industry, representing a $26,000,000 in-

vestment in 4oo,oooac., with 300,000 persons dependent upon it, aid was also asked. To alleviate unemployment a $100,000,000 Federally financed corporation, to finance agricultural, industrial,

and mining enterprises, was recommended by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes. During 1939 marked progress was made in betterment of health conditions, -with notable decreases in the malaria and hookworm death rate.

The tourist trade brought 18,917 tourists (more than triple the 1935-36 figure) in the 1938-39 season, besides 28,616 personnel of the United States

—

and foreign war

vessels.

In 1930, 913, and was officially estimated at 1,805,480 in 1938. 25-7% of the population was Negro. The chief cities (with 1935 estimated populations) are: San Juan, 137,213; Ponce, 60,867;

1939, Puerto Rico had 1,830 primary schools, with 281,539 enrolment (a slight increase). The University of

Mayagiiez, 44,907.

link between the Americas,

—

History and Government. ^Puerto Rico is governed by a governor appointed by the President of the United States and an elected bicameral legislature. On Sept. II, 1939, Rear-Admiral William D. Leahy (retired) assumed the governorship, succeeding Brigadier-General Blanton Winship, governor since 1934. The appointment of Admiral Leahy, a specialist in naval strategy, was closely connected with measures looking toward the development of Puerto Rico as a major cog in the United States

Caribbean defences of the Panama canal.

On

July

i,

a

new

mili-

tary department of the United States, the Department of Puerto Rico, with headquarters in San Juan, was created. San Juan, ac-

cording to the

new

policy,

is

to serve as

one of the great strategic

centres in the Atlantic, with aviation bases, modem coast defences, and anti-aircraft guns, and as a general base of supply for mili-

tary and naval operations throughout the Caribbean. Estimated costs are $30,000,000. In September, 1,700 additional troops, chiefly

anti-aircraft

to Puerto

Rico and,

and coast

artillery units,

were transferred

in October, contracts aggregating $8,300,-

000 were made for the construction of a naval air base at Grande island, near San Juan. In keeping with the new militarj' emphasis on Puerto Rico, the

Education.

^In

Puerto Rico (enrolment 4,500), already important as a cultural is in process of development as a major centre of inter-American cultural exchange. The Eighth Congress

World Federation of Education Associations was held at San Juan during Aug. 1939. Finances. The monetary unit is the United States dollar. The budget for 1938-39 (accounting for sffghtly more than one-fourth of the total costs of government) amounted to $14,223,510.14. Bonded indebtedness on June 30, 1939, was $26,215,000 ($27,400,000 on June 30, 1938). Total revenues available in 1938-39 were $44496,702.25 of the

—

($44,255,382-41 in 1937-38).

Trade and Communication.

—

Puerto Rico has regular, daily communications with the United States and southward to Panama. Frequent, regular steamship sailings connect the air transport

West Indies and with the United There are 492km. of railways and a main highway system of 1,896km., supplemented by local roads. The insular Government owns and operates 1,900km. of telegraph and 3,157km. of island -nith other parts of the States.

telephone lines (15,171 telephones).

Exports in 1938-39 totalled $86,486,570 ($82,077,178 in 193738), of which $84,782,650 went to the United States. ImporU

were $82,724,182 ($93,314,783 were from the United States.

in 1937-38), of

which $75,684,719

PUGILISM ~9UEBEC

562 Manufacturing. —Puerto

Rico is primarily Agriculture and Sugar (1,703,938,0001b. in 1938-39) accounts for 70% of the income. Coffee (23,498,0001b. in 1939-40) is largely

agricultural.

Tobacco (11,688,3841b. in 1938-39) and especially grapefruit and pineapple, are also im-

for local consumption. tropical fruits,

Manufacturing

portant.

is

limited,

but rum

(supplying two-

thirds of the United States demand), cigars, canned fruit and fine (L. W. Be. ; M. H. B.) embroideries are important.

Pugilism: see Boxing.

DlllitTQI*

(^^79-1939). American publisher, was the

Dolnh

Amermost distinguished journalists. He was born in St. Louis, Mo., on June ii and was educated during his youth by private rUlluS34 sq.mi.; population, according

Dominion census of 1931, 2,874,255, estimated Jan. i, 1940, 3,172,000. Capital, Quebec, 130,954. The only city with larger population is Montreal, 818,577. Of the Province’s poputo the

63%; 2,696,122 native bom; only 178,133 foreign born. Two types of trade unions are found in Quebec; the National Catholic Unions and the older International Unions. The former lation 1,813,606 are urban, or

have a membership of about 57,000, while the membership of the

and pharmacy. nuclear physics have been started

The net value of production in the province for 1936 was $656,932,315, an increase of 8% over the preceding year. The gross value of agricultural products in 1936 was $iii,742,408, of manufactures $377,514,998, a decrease of 4% from

is

in the fields of agriculture, engineering, science

studies of importance in

British production of pyrite in 1937); Australia, Southern

being constantly expanded

Research work of the university

New

Spain. Partial data for 1939 indicate a rise of about one-quarter

with the cyclotron or “atom smasher’’; commercial exploitation of the fundamental research of the nitration and chlorination of hydrocarbons has proven unusually productive during the year; basic research has been undertaken co-operatively with both pri-

latter is 59,000.

the preceding year.

The Union Nationale Administration

of the Hon. Maurice Duwas defeated in Oct. 1939 and the Liberals were returned power with the Hon. A. Godbout as premier and attorney-gen-

vate corporations and governmental agencies in aeronautics, radio, and television 50 of the 330 college and university students who

plessis

were trained

eral.

;

in the spring of 1939 in institutions of higher learn-

to

The standing

of the different parties at the present time

—

QUEENSLAND — RADIO, NDUSTRIAL ASPECTS OF

563

I

is as follows: Liberal, 68; Union Nationale, 16; Independand National i. The Hon. E. L. Patenaude is the lieutenant-governor. Quebec is represented in the Dominion Parliament by 24 Senators who are appointed for life and by 65 members of

Among the works illustrated by him were The Vicar of Wakefield (1929), The Night Before Christinas (1931), The Compleat Angler (1931), Andersen’s Fairy Tales (1932), The King of the Golden River (1932), The Pied Piper of Eamelin (1934), and Peer Gynt (1936). He also published The Arthur Rackham Fairy Book (1933). He died at Limpsfield, Surrey, England, on September 6.

(1940)

Britannica, vol. i8, p. 873.

ent,

in his later years

the

I,

House

Commons who

of

Bibliography.—

Statistical

Secretary and Treasurer.

nilDOncliinri

are elected for five years or less.

Year Book; Annual Report of the Provincial (J. C. He.)

(Australia).—Area 670,500 sq.mi.; pop. (est. 31, 1938) 1,004,150. Chief towns (pop.

UUCCilolullU Dec.

Radio, Industrial Aspects of.

Dec. 31, 1938): Brisbane (325,890); Rockhampton (32,526); Townsville (31,414). Governor: Sir Leslie Orme Wilson, G.C.S.I.,

enue during 1939

G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., D.S.O. History. On August 18 Mr. Forgan. Smith’s tenure of

a whole,

—

ofiice as

premier became the longest in the history of the State, surpassing the record of the late Sir Samuel Griffith. Mr. Forgan Smith has

been in continuous

office since

1932.

Mr. Hynes, minister for

labour and industry, died during 1939 and was succeeded by T. A. Foley, while J. Larcombe became minister for mines. revealed a surplus of £14,046 for the financial year being £19,330,369 and expenditure £19,316,323. revenue 1938-39, A deficit of £64,702 was estimated for 1939-40 but no extra taxa-

The budget

tion

was imposed.

The Motor

Spirit Vendor’s Act, to encourage the production of

power alcohol, compelled gasoline vendors to purchase two gallons of power alcohol for every loogal. of motor spirit sold. The governor’s speech at the opening of parliament on August 8 reviewed the steady growth

in the prosperity of the State during

wk

—marking

ful

crease in broadcast rev-

another year in which the youth-

still

—

medium of radio set a doUar-volume record the industry, as made more history in fields indicative of coming maturity

than in

fields

(such as revenue records) which are primarily the

playground of youth. In

this respect, three trends are w'orthy of

emphasis: (i) the trend toward bigger investments, not only in technical equipment, but also in personnel, wages, publicity, gen-

and

in experimentation; (2) the rapid upsurge in (3) the desire to maintain continued friendly relations with the listening public by means of self-imposed polieral operations,

unionism; and cies

governing programs and advertising.

—

Revenue and Finance. Revenue, 1939. ^Not until mer of 1940 will the official broadcast revenue figures

the

sum-

for 1939 (receipts from advertising and allied sources) be released by the

Federal Communications Commission. estimates can be indices

show

made

in the interim

However,

fairly accurate

on the basis of certain trade

whose mechanics need not be discussed here. Such indices

—that —

that net broadcast revenue

—rose about

12%

is,

revenue after

all

trade

over 1938. Meantime gross revenue revenue prior to discounts over-reached 1938 by around

valued recent years. Total production during the year 1938-39 at £68,136,000, and was the greatest ever recorded. Primary pro-

—

duction and factory production showed increases of 22-8% and 11% respectively over the past 10 years, and unemployment a

13%.* The major networks had an especially good year, their gross receipts soaring 15-6%. This situation may be summarized

decrease from 22-2% in 1932 to

4-2%

record.

In July the Premier opened the new outer harbour at Mackay, which had taken five years to build and had cost £1,000,000. (L. R. Me.)

—In 1936: schools and Finance.—Revenue

(1938-39) £Ai9,33o,369; Banking (est. 1939-40) £A20,3io,735; expenditure (1938-39) £Ai9,3i6,outstanding (June 30, 323; (est. 1939-40) £A20,347,437; debt

—

Communications. In 1938: roads, motor 37,95Snii.i rsU" ways 6,567 miles. Motor vehicles licensed (June 30, 1938) 72,407 cars and taxis; 38,555 commercial; 7,846 cycles. Wireless receiv:

Telephones 58,626.

—

Producwheat 3,749,00060.;

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production.

maize 2,628,00060.; wool 174,751,0001b.; gold (1938) 151,432

fine

(1938) 3,533,49° oz.; coal 1,113,426 tons. Industry, manufacturing, 1937-38: factories 2,995; employees (average) 51,391 production, net value £i7,933,752. oz.; silver

;

Quicksilver: see Mercury. Rabies: see Veterinary Medicine. Racing and Races: see Air Races; Automobile Racing; Horse Racing; Track and Field Sports. whose illuswere known throughout the English-speaking world, was born September 19; for his biography and list of his earlier works, see Encyclopedia

Arthur nrinUr

receipts from sale of time Total industry net receipts from sale of time Total industry gross receipts from sale of time

(^867-1939), British

artist

tratlons for children’s books

ms

1939 $ 83,000,000*

.... .

.

$ 71,728,400

131,500, ooo(?) i6s,ooo,ooo(?)

.

ii7»379,4S9 143.500,000

•The networks’ best commercial customers were tobacco manufacturers, drug manufacturers, food producers, and the makers of soaps. The automotive industiy, once a leading buyer of radio time, did not spend nearly as

this writing,

however,

rose as rapidly as income.

much

during 1939 as in prior years.

it does not seem probable that profits Between 1937 and 1938, for instance,

the expenses of the industry increased $1,000,000 while advertising income was showing only dubious gains. costs

1939) £Ai27,503,24i.

tion in 1937-38: sugar, cane 763,242 tons;

is,

Network gross

At

1.956, scholars 201,514.

ing set licences 117,487.

that

as follows:

in 1939.

Rate of population growth was greater than in any other State, and the national income had increased by 11-3% since 1929. Overseas exports direct from Queensland ports constituted a

Education.

discounts

Subsequently, wage and outlays on technical experimentation have been greatly

accelerated, indicating that profits probably are not keeping pace

with revenue. Distribution of Profit.

—

If past Federal

Communications Com-

mission analyses anent the distribution of profits will hold true for 1939, then anyn'here from 64% to 71% of the 700 U.S. commercial stations will show a profit, while between 29% and 36%

have expenses in excess of revenue.’ The generic difference between profitable and losing stations is that the latter usually lack network affiliation, operate on limited time, are situated so that economic support is difficult to obtain, or have problems of delivering a proper signal. will

Singly, or in combination, these factors conspire to tion lose

money. On the other hand, aggregate

losses

make

by

this

a sta-

group

have never been alarming. In 1938 (official figures for which were released in the summer of 1939), such deficits amounted to only $2,223,195, while the 419 stations in the profit category showed an excess of revenue over expenses of $16,728,533 prior to *Maga«ines, newspapers, and other media compute their annual dollar volume as “gross.” The FCC computes radio income as “net.” Hence, the broadcast industry’ is in the habit of using two income figures one for comparative purposes with other media and one for FCC purposes-

—

;

:

RADIO. INDUSTRIAL ASPECTS OF

564

Aside from the

Federal taxes. If network profits are added, the aggregate industry profit for 1938 totalled $18,854,784 prior to Federal taxes.*

—^There was continued evidence

made any

news programs were the only

serials,

class

which

appreciable gain whatsoever during the incipient 1939-

broadcast revenue, the per-

40 season. Most Poptdar Network Programs. ^As in the past, the most popular network programs continued to be sponsored programs.

formances of newspapers and magazines in the advertising field were far less spectacular. Broadcast revenue also compared fa-

Despite frequent demands that the network give more free time to programs of a purely educational, informative, or instructive

vourably with indices on general business activity. Projections by J. A. Livingston, Business Week economist, on the “Business

sort,

Radio

Other Media.

V.

that radio’s acceptability as an advertising

Compared

ing.

Week Index

12%

to the

rise in

medium was

24%

of Business Activity” indicate a

1939 over 1938. However, since this index ^not on sales industrial production radio’s

—

—

is

in

still

1939 grow-

average gain in

on

largely based

12%

may

increase

be assumed to be comparatively good.

—^Programs,

Programming.

or entertainment and information,

are broadcasting’s primary reason for existence and the

sifte

viewpoint, changes in the content of evening hours centred chiefly

around a deflation of formality, accompanied by an increase in such program types as drama, tests-contests (quiz programs, etc.)

and news. On network daytime schedules, an ironclad domination was again exercised by the “strip serial” a form of “heart throb”

—

dramatic presentation akin to the cartoon strips in newspapers.

—

Statistically viewed,* the

1939-40

season which began in September compares as follows with the

1938-39 season which concluded

in

May

(commercial programs

only are tabulated here because they are in the great majority) Type of program

193^40

Pet. of Total

Variety

1.

2.

Drama

3.

Tests and Contests Straight Popular Music

4.

0.

News Comedy Teams (Amos

7.

Classical

5.

'n'

Andy,

etc.)

193^-39 Pet. of Total

35.52% 18.40% 16.45% 8.17% s-ss%

Nov. ZQ38

Chase & Sanborn Program (Edgar Bergen, Dorothy

I.

Tack Benny.

2.

3

Lux Radio Theatre.

3.

4

*

Kratt Music Hall (Bing Crosby). Fibber McGee & Co.

S-

6.

78.

4-

6.

Rudy Town

7-

A

5.

Major Bowes. Pepsodent Program (Bob Hope). Kate Smith Hour.

9 - Filch Bandwagon

mere percentages would 1939-40 season

is

Kay

It.

Good News

Kyser.

Coward

Arnold, Fannie Brice, 12. One Man’s Family. 13. Town Hall Tonight (Fred Allen).

.

.

indicate, for the only partially

completed

—

daytime category are so uniformly of the dramatic serial type that some concern has been expressed in the industry lest this lopsided schedule alienate listeners. But audience surveys continue to show that the housewife prefers problem-type melodrama to

any other kind of presentation.

It

may

safely be concluded,

therefore, that the domination of the serial will continue into

Daytime commercial network programs

for 1939-40

com-

14. 15.

Big

(Edw. G. Robinson), jfajor Bowes.

and Drama

1.

Serials

2.

Talks and Instruction

13.

.

.

.

.

News

1939-40 Pci.

193S-S9 Pci.

of Total

of Total

84.92%

76.46% 10.40% 2.44% ^.87% 0.03% 0.91% 1.21% 2.18% 0.31% 0.63% 0.05% 0.12% 0.39%

4 54 3 49 -

-

Variety

,

Straight Popular Music Single Act Religious Programs

Music Music

Classical

Tests-Contests Familiar Music

32 . Novelty

Band Music

-

10. 11.

Burns & Allen. Eddie Cantor.

I2.

Good News. One Man’s Family.

14. 15.

is

Hollyw’ood Hotel.

Kate Smith Hour.

— contests and

much

quizzes are

in fa-

gaining the upper hand over 1938’s elab-

One

other factor should be empha-

in length are enjoying

.

.

.

.

% %

2.33% 1.50% 1.16% 0.82% 0.62% 0.18% 0.18% 0.17% 0.09%

more favour

a trend toward shorter programs in 1940, accompanied by still less formality, and possibly a reshuffling in the ranks of the “name stars.” It undoubtedly also presages a partial trend away

from the extremely high production expenses of 1938’s “glamour hours.”

The

fact that

no news program

IS rankings should in no

commentator shows up

or

way

'The depreciated value of broadcast assets for the industry was $46,777,987 0! whidi Sii. "26, 179 was credited to goodwill. 2These tables were especially compiled for the 7940 BrUannica Book of ike Ymt by the Variety Radio Directory. Programs were measured by the amount of time per broadcast per week, multiplied by the number of stations on the network hookup. This method is technically known as the “station hour” method of computation.

in the

an underestimation of this type of presentation. Spurred by Europe’s martial events, plus the coming U.S. presidential election, news has again marched rapidly to the fore. Indicative of how this trend toward news and first

factual information lic’s

may be

result in

coupled with informality and the pub-

desire to participate in a test, or quiz, is the “Information,

The continued favourable reaction from press and made this a unique and noteworthy program, as well pattern for many similar productions.

Please”

series.

public has

—

Individual Station Programming. Type of program

Hymn

Town

8. 9

13.

Burns & Allen. Pot of Gold (Horace Heidi).

as the

pare as follows with the prior season

9.

Hall Tonight

comparatively than programs 60 minutes in length. This presages

The same may be said of news programs and tests-contests. Network Daytime Programs. ^The commercial programs in the

10. 11.

Vallee.

Jolson.

etc.).

—programs 30 minutes

being compared to the cumulative 1938-39 sea-

son.

7. 8.

1

(guest orchestras). 10.

sized

should be noted that the proportion of dramatic programs is noticeably growing. In fact, this growth is even larger than the

6.

Jack Benny. Lux Radio Theatre. Kraft Music Hall.

Sanborn Program.

etc.)

-

orately stylized productions.

2.55% 1.93% 1.35 .35^ 0,7 .71%

It

5.

Chase

-

Semi-Classical Music Familiar Music (ballads, waltzes, etc.) 10. Religious Programs 11. Talks-gossip (Walter Winchell, etc.) 13 . Sports 13. Single Act (one-person variety entertainment) 9.

3. 4.

&

1.

Lamour,

2.

vour; and informality

-

8.

1940.

-

Nov. ip3Q

This individual program comparison again repeats the story

3 42 3 34

Music

programs of the year before. The ranking is in exact order of popularity, and was compiled by the Co-operative Analysis of Broadcasting, the industry’s major fact-finding body in the field of program preferences;

told in previous statistics

% % 2.63%

....

commands more than a very In the following tabulation the most popular programs as of Nov. 1939, are compared with the most popular such non-commercial fare never

small audience.

qua

non of economic support from advertisers. During 1939 the programming structure was perceptibly altered. From the network

Network Evenitig Programs.

—

work programming, the

^Less spectacular

than net-

efforts of individual stations during 1939

were none the less based on sound values. Music, news and sports received primary emphasis. Music especially showed a rise, for music is the best contrast to the many network dramatic programs. Commentators 09 cooking, home economics, etc. also continued to fare well.

Educational Programs.

—Time

given over to universities, col-

leges, non-profit organizations, etc.

was much more

deftly

em-

ployed in 1939 than ever before. Not only are non-profit organizations learning the mechanics of the new medium after a period of trial-and-error production, but they are being assisted professionally

directors now on the payrolls of stations and On-the-scenes broadcasts of foreign news and events

by educational

networks.

RADIO. INDUSTRIAL ASPECTS OF showed much improvement in 1939. (For a more thorough discussion of this type of programming see Broadcasting.) similarly

Literary-Musical Property.

—Literary Property.—^During

the

course of 1939, the radio stations of the U.S. were on the air an aggregate of 3,500,000 hours. This vast stretch of time naturally

occasioned the use of

much

literary property (plays, stories, etc.)

to provide listeners with a proper dramatic diet.

Until the 1938-

39 radio season (roughly from Sept. 1938 to May 1939) radio acquired its literary property chiefly by adaptation. That is, the

works of such weU-known literary giants as Shakespeare, O. Henry, Ibsen, etc. were shortened and remoulded for purely aural reception.

During the 1938-39 season, however, a most significant change took place. Prompted by the increase in dramatic programs and the competitive necessity of avoiding repetition, network program producers began to decrease the number of adaptations and increase the

number

of specially written radio works. This

may

be seen from the following statistics: during the 1938-39 season 165 plays and 60 books, poems, and short stories were adapted

same

interval no less than 207 were broadcast. Ranging from tragedy to fables in verse, this new form of dramatic writing not infrequently displayed genume merit, and focused increasing public attention on such authors as Arch Oboler, Norman Corwin, Merritt P. Allen, Milton Geiger and True Boardman, to cite but a few. It seems safe to say that as radio “finds” itself as a me-

for network use; but during this

specially written dramatic features

dium for dramatic

literature, efforts in the direction of special

dramatic writing for broadcast purposes will increase in quality and frequency. Fortunately, advances in such mechanical aids as sound-effects and acoustical devices, coupled with a rising scale of pay, are enhancing the opportunities for the

endeavours.

new

literary

—

Musical Property. No other form of radio entertainment even remotely approached in quantity the amount of popular music broadcast during 1939. In the course of 12 months, an estimated 1,000,000 hours, or nearly one-third of all time on the air, were devoted to

mammoth

this

parade of “sweet,”

“swing,” and

Since the radio industry does not create this music, it has to license, or rent, the performing rights from various “sothat is, groups of composers, authors, cieties” and individuals united into business organizations to who have publishers and

“ballad.”

—

Of these American Society of Composers, Authors and Pub-

license the rights to their pooled musical compositions. societies, the

lishers

(ASCAP)

industry.

engages in the heaviest

For the use of ASCAP’s

traffic

with the radio

repertoire, stations annually

sum which in 1938 (last year for which figures are available) came to §3,845,206.34. Following the sporadic, but significant, demand for anti-ASCAP

pay

ASCAP 5%

legislation

of their receipts, a

on the part of individual broadcasters, the industry

trade association (National Association of Broadcasters) in Sept. 1939 unanimously approved a plan for establishment of an indus-

Designed to outmanoeuvre ASCAP, from the latter’s power, the new firm is called Broadcast Music, Inc. It is to be supported by an initial $1,500,000 raised via the sale of stock and licences. Definitely placing the broadcast industry in the domain of music try-controlled music venture.

as well as release the industry

publishing and creation. Broadcast Music is, at this -writing, in the process of formation. Whether the project will succeed, can-

not as yet be foretold.

But

in

determined, and the battle with

any event, the broadcasters are ASCAP wll be bitter. It will

Dec. 1940 when current ASCAP contracts are due for renewal. Should renewals satisfactory to both parties fail, a break with widespread repercussions will occur. Phonograph Records. Ordinary phonograph records have always been a convenient and economical means of programming

come

to a

head

in

—

many

565

In July 1939, this economy %vas threatened when a court decision held that the manufacturer of records can for

stations.

use to home phonographs only. Subsequently, record manufacturers have planned to prohibit use of their wares on radio restrict their

stations unless a licence, scaled in the case of one manufacturer

from $1,200 to $3,600 per annum, is first obtained. To date, legal entanglements have held the situation in abeyance. However, should licences be issued in 1940, the cost to the industry will be quite appreciable, for about 11^% of all time on the air is occupied with the playing of phonograph records. For technical-experimental developments, television, facsimile, and

new

frequency modulation, see Radio, Scientific Developments of; Television. '

—^Not

Short-Wave Programs.

a technical development, but

certainly an economic experiment in 1939 -ss’as NBC’s selling of time for international short-wave programs to Latin and South

America. United Fruit -was the

first

sponsor, buying a news broad-

cast in Spanish. Prices for this type of broadcasting

were

set at

$25,000 for seven quarter-hours per week per year. However, sponsorship may be carried on only under the stringent rules devised

by the FCC to regulate advertising. Employment-Unionism. Employment. The radio industry can boast that it pays higher wages than any other U.S. industry.

—

FCC

statistics for

—

1939 credited the industry with the following;

Full Time Employees Average W'eekly Pay Part Time Employees Average Weekly Pay

As

18,359 $45.20 4,377 $23.55

against the year before, payroll figures

weekly compensation of $0.08 for

showed a

rise in

time employees, and $4.58 for part time employees. The sharp increase in part time compensation may be assumed to be due to unionization. However, the complete story is by no means told in the above-cited data. full

To

these sums must be added the many millions of dollars e.xpended for the services of such artists as Jack Benny, Bums and Allen, etc., who are employed, not by stations or networks, but by the sponsors whose wares they help advertise. Unionization. ^At no time in radio’s history has there been such a sudden and -widespread mushrooming of unions as in 1939. The year’s foremost victory was won by the American Federation of Radio Artists, an arm of the American Federation of Labor. On February 1 2 this union -was awarded a code of minimum terms and working conditions governing all actors, singers and announcers commercially performing on the major networks. The new code makes a “federation shop” mandatory that is, a imion shop continually open to new membership. Minimum pay scales for actors and announcers were set at $15 per quarter-hour, while singers were awarded a minimum of $40. Performers working on non-commercial (sustaining) network programs already had a contract prior to the commercial victory. Meantime, it became evident in November that the industry would have to engage in another major union encounter in 1940 when contracts with the American Federation of Musicians are due for renewal.

—

—

Present contracts guarantee the A.F. of M. a minimum of $3.000,000 annually from stations affiliated with major networks, plus

payments by the networks on their key stations in New York, Chicago and Hollywood. As the situation currently stands, the union wishes to increase station pa3unents by 50% and netspecial

work

special payments by 100%. Other 1939 union activity paled beside the above mentioned events, but a thorough if local job was being done by the technicians’ unions throughout the year in organizing engineers and technical operators. In fairness to both sides, however, it may be said that all activity and counter-activity caused no public

—

—

'

RADIO, INDUSTR lAL ASPECTS OF

566 inconveniences whatsoever.

Actual strikes and interruptions of

presaging improved relations between

FCC

between the

broadcast schedules were so rare as to be negligible.

—

Radio V. Public. Fully aware that standardized rules governprogramming and business procedures are more acceptable to

FCC

Rides and Regidations

ing

ings dating back to 1937, the

the public than haphazard regulation, the National Association of Broadcasters in July 1939, adopted a formal code of conduct.

regulations

It specifies;

must not contain sequences involving horror Children’s programs or torture or use of the supernatural or superstitious or any other material which might reasonably be regarded as likely to overstimulate the child listener, or be prejudicial to sound character development. No advertising appeal which would encourage activities of a dangerous social nature will be permitted. Time for the presentation of controversial issues shall not be sold, except for political broadcasts. will continue their search for improving applications Broadcasters of radio as an educational adjunct. News shall be presented in fairness and accuracy and the broadcasting station or network, shall satisfy itself that arrangements made for obtaining news insure this result. . . . may not be used to convey attacks upon another’s race or Radio .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

religion.

.

.

.

...

may be

amount of time

devoted to advertising on radio programs, and

listed

and advertising appeals which are henceforth unacceptable. While the code to date has not put any bar-

certain types of products

way

FCC, and

of the

.

—As the FCC

result of extensive hear-

issued in 1939 a

new

set of

governing standard broadcast stations. The most noteworthy of these regulations were; (i) refusal to allot wattage as high as 500,000 because of “speculative risks, unsupported by adequate data, even though it be true from a technical standpoint that 50okw. power is one of the methods to improve service in

(2) station power increases where needed and and (3) the safeguarding of rural and small-town coverage through preservation of 26 clear channels free of any nighttime duplication, and 18 additional channels in such shape as to be relatively free from interference in outlying areas. While the commission throughout the year found itself in the dilemma of whether to adopt socio-economic viewpoints in the regulation of the industry, or whether to confine itself to tech-

areas”;

rural

feasible;

nical factors alone, there

further specified limitations on the

The code which

.

members

and the industry as a whole.

wander too

was some

quiries into the minutest financial

stations

relaxation in the tendency to

Fewer

far afield in socio-economic directions.

were promised

and programming

affairs

in-

of

for the future.

Agitation for changes in the commission came to naught on

of the Father Coughlin broadcasts (mainly be-

the part of Congress. Less and less fear was expressed over news-

cause of prior contractual obligations on the part of stations),

paper ownership of stations (publishers own one-third of all U.S. either wholly or in part). And censorship that is, stringent regulation of programs dwindled after the incipient

riers in the

it

generally viewed as a healthy and far-sighted development

is

Meantime, the National Broadcasting Co. issued

in the industry.

its own, clearly stating public obligations to be observed network broadcasting, and the three major networks ^NBC, CBS and Mutual in September formulated a set of self-imposed rules governing fair and accurate news coverage of the European

a code of in

—

—

{See Bro.apcasting.)

war.

Research.

—Industry research

in 1939, as in the previous sev-

mainly around the problem of determining how large an audience is commanded by each of the various programs. The raniifications of this matter are too lengthy and

eral years, again centred

technical to be discussed here. Suffice

it

to say that the following

methods of determining program popularity were either actively employed or tested in 1939; (a) telephone surveys involving a review of the listener’s radio activity over the past several hours; (b) coincidental telephone surveys that is, asking the inter-

—

viewee to what program he views;

(d)

is

measurement of

now

listening; (c) personal inter-

listening

recording devices attached to receiving

Most important

also

by means

of

automatic

sets.

was a survey completed by the Joint Com-

—

stations

—

tendency was loudly decried.

Meantime

the

haustive hearings as to the operation and

FCC

carried on ex-

management

of the

major networks. The results of this investigation have, to date, not been made known. As a subsidiary development in radio’s relations with the Government,

it

might also be noted that in 1939 representatives from first time admitted to Congress and the White

radio were for the

House on the same footing as representatives from the press. Radio in the Western Hemisphere. ^The radio stations

—

North, Central and South America have one

common

of

character-

which distinguishes them from the radio stations of the Old World: they are principally operated on the economic foundation

istic

of advertising.

Estimates for 1939 indicate that there are 510 and South American nations,* and an

stations in the 20 Central

aggregate set ownership of roughly 2,500,000. Canada meantime has 85 stations, and a total set ownership of 2,000,500. These figures, when compared to statistics for the United States,

show

that the latter has over one-sixth again as

many

stations as

lights

the rest of the western hemisphere combined, and ten times as many radio sets, although the population of the U.S. is no greater

least

than that of

mittee on Radio Research on the subject of rural radio. Its high-

were: 69% of all rural families (or 9,470,900) owned at one radio set as of Jan. i, 1938; S-8% rural homes have multiple sets; the median daily use of rural radio sets is four hours, 47 minutes. As to the 1939 total

Government regulated

number

of sets in the U.S., the publication

—Broadcasting

Industry.

in all its phases is

by the Federal Communications Commission, a seven-

man board and

be

nations.

Faced with large, and sometimes oddly-shaped, land had to contend with the dilemma of serving

areas, these nations

scattered population without incurring financial disaster. Further-

more, national boundaries, the barriers of language and the widelyspaced concentrations of humans and human wealth have created bizarre marketing conditions to begin with, and these reflect on the

not be attempted here. But some reference to the

not unique, therefore, that the broadcast operations of the U.S.’s neighbours are on a smaller scale than those of the U.S.

will

general situation

Changes in

may

FCC

be profitable. ^Two new members were added to

Personnel.

—

FCC in

amount and It

feasibility of radio advertising.

is

Except for Canada, networks play no integral

by

1939: James Lawrence Fly, previously general counsel of the Tennessee Valley Authority, who became FCC chairman in September, succeeding Frank R. McNinch, resigned; and

picture, being hindered

Frederick Ingate Thompson, newspaper publisher, who took the place of Eugene O. Sykes, also resigned. Mr. Fly’s appointment as chairman was generally hailed in the broadcasting industry as

and perhaps some scattered

the

may

appointed to administer the Radio Act of i934- Any is best approached from a legal

discussion of this administration angle,

the neighbour nations. This mighty preponderance

ascribed, at least in part, to the coverage problems of the other

Radio Today estimated 45,200,000 (including auto, portable and multiple sets) owned by 28,700,000 families. v.

all

of the U.S. in broadcast facilities and set ownership

role in the radio

and the economic hardships of long “line hauls.” Programming likewise far less elaborate.

is

*

geographical-political confines

Music, news, a certain amount of drama, tests-contests,

form the principal en-

Excluding some short-wave stations used for national purposes.

RADIO. SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS OF But while the factors of geography and

tertainment values.

567

his-

tory indicate that the U.S.’s radio leadership will not be challenged for

many

years to come,

it is

safe to say that radio’s importance

in the national life of the western

hemisphere

will

grow rapidly

and soundly. Canadian Radio.

plans, the

high-power wattage in Canada.

Private broadcasters are envi-

—^Under 1939

CBC

will control all

sioned in the role of providing “local coverage,” and increases in private wattage,

work

if

A

any, will be sparing.

rate-regulation of private stations

is

tendency toward net-

afoot. Private stations,

once allowed to form their own networks, no longer

may do

so

without the approval of the Canadian Broadcasting Co.

Canadian Radio

CBC made

vs. the

—^Due

War.

to

European

hostilities,

the

certain regulations governing the broadcast industry’s

conduct during the war. These regulations specified: (1) obedience to a censorship board which, however, intended to interfere as little as possible with the “ordinary avocations of life enjo3Tiient of property;” (2) guarding of

R.C.M.P.

to prevent sabotage;

(3)

CBC

and the

property by the

submission of advance in-

formation on talks and speakers; (4) prohibition of all foreign language broadcasts; (5) discontinuance of weather reports east of Toronto;

(6)

discontinuance

of

broadcasting

from public

meetings; (7) submission of news copy to the censorship board. CBC employees, except in specific instances, were exempt from military service.

—In —the United

North American Regional Broadcast Agreement. four principal nations of North America

—

1937 the

States,

Can-

Cuba and Mexico negotiated an agreement to facilitate betapportionment of wave-lengths, power and interference-free reception. Cuba, Canada and the United States ratified the agreement not long afterrvard, but Mexico during most of 1939 contin-

ada, ter

ued to be a stumbling block, again delaying the signing of the negotiation. It was rumoured that the difficulties resulting from Mexico’s failure to ratify were brought about at the insistence of certain high-powered border stations (some of which are financed by U.S. capital and located in Mexico to evade U.S. regulations). In early December the situation, already bad, grew worse when a second rumour spread that the Mexican border stations would

A PORTABLE RADIO TRANSMITTER 1939

weiflhing less than lOOIb. was buill In

for transoceanic broadcasts

cathode ray tube as an oscillograph, have added to the store of knowledge as to fundamentals and as to performance in all branches, old and new, of the radio field. Before passing to a consideration of the scientific developments in the

still less extensively applied portions of radio, it should be noted that in ordinary broadcasting there has been achieved considerable progress in improving the realism or naturalness of tone reproduction. For some years it has been recognized that speech

“jump” on frequencies already held by important U.S. However, on almost the very last day of the year on December 29 the Mexican Senate suddenly committed an amaz-

and music, as provided in the home by a broadcast receiver, did not sound fully natural. That it did not represent a true replica of the sounds originating in the studios was attributed largely to the fact that the system as a whole (microphone, transmitter, receiver and loudspeakerj was not designed to carry effectively the entire range of audible sound frequencies from, say, i6 to 16,000 vibrations per second. To improve the situation, individual transmitters and receivers had been made to extend the usual range

ing about-face and ratified the agreement, effective in 90 days. At present it is too early to see whether, and to what extent, the

of perhaps 80-5,000 \dbrations to as high as 10,000, but strangely enough (as it seemed) the wider range systems were less accept-

or qualifications.

able than the older ones, because the tones showed an unpleasant

actually

stations.

—

—

ratification

is

complicated with

reservations

In the year 1939 this apparently anomalous be generally understood, and the fault recognized

sibilant roughness.

But the prospects do seem bright for better wave-length order between the “neighbour nations” in the future, and Mexico’s sudden ratification undoubtedly was brought about by a realization on the part of the majority of Mexican broadcasters that disorder (E. A. Go.) works many an economic hardship.

linearity or

Radio, Scientific Developments of. fome° sJ''wi£

and the tone-frequency range of broadcasting

flung an

activity,

both geographically and

in its technical scope,

that a brief annual review of scientific progress must necessarily be limited to features of outstanding importance and interest. The radio services of relatively long standing, such as those which

carry speech or telegraphic messages across the continents and oceans and those which broadcast music and information to the

many lands, have continued to prove their worth but have adopted few modifications in technique. The major scientific developments have, perhaps naturally, been a part of the newer services such as ultra-high-frequency broadcasting, television and facsimile transmission. However, more recent applications of methods of observation and measurement, including particularly the use of that powerful research tool provided by the publics of

result

came

to

to lie not in the extension of the tone-frequency range but in the failure of the earlier experimenters to detect

and minimize nonharmonic distortion in their apparatus-. Consequently some of the newer tools for reducing such distortion, such as the so-called inverse feed-back systems, are coming into wider use, extended and the

Radio

many

is

being usefully

reproduction thus improved.

which a picture or text passed through the automatically copied or reproduced on paper at one distant radio-operated recorders, has benefited from subfacsimile, in

transmitter

or

fidelity of

is

improvements during 1939. The most successa carbon paper for mechanical impression of the symbols or a specially treated paper which changes colour when acted upon thermally or electrolytically. Imstantial scientific

ful facsimile recorders utilize either

provements in the recording papers and in the recorders themselves have made possible the transmission of tvpe or drawings at speeds in excess of 16

sq.in. per minute, with sufficiently exact reproduction to show 8-point type clearly and legibly. Under such conditions, text may be transmitted by radio at speeds in excess

RADIO FACSIMI LE — RADIOLOGY

568

of 300 words per minute, something like five times the word-

speed of the page-printing telegraph.

One of the problems of facsimile transmission between widely separated points has been, in common with photo-radio, the automatic synchronization or locking together of the transmitting

The year 1939 has seen the completion of substantial improvements whereby it is no longer necessary to utilize such cumbersome and expensive systems as device and the reproducing recorder.

those having electrically-controlled tuning forks to permit syn-

chronous operation.

In ultra-high-frequency radio transmission, both for broadand for point-to-point service, progress has been made in

casting

the provision of frequencies.

vacuum tubes

for higher powers at the upper

Likewise, ultra-high-frequency receivers have been

greatly improved as to sensitiveness, simplicity of operation and stability.

The most

striking event of

1939, however,

was the

rapid development of the system of frequency modulation, as

contrasted against the slow growth of the older system of ampli-

tude modulation, both in the ultra-high-frequency portions of the radio spectrum. In frequency-modulation, the transmitter radiates its full power level but the frequency of the carrier swung above and below the nominal value, in accordance with the signals to be transmitted. This new method of operation has been adopted by a number of broadcasting and relay stations, notably the experimental plant of Professor E. H. Armstrong, of Columbia university, and shows promise of wide further application. The importance and practical value of the system are due primarily to its inherent noise-reducing characteristics, by means of which it discriminates against not only radio interference from

constantly at

waves

is

lightning, tion,

but the electrical disturbances due to automobile igni-

diathermy, and so forth, which have heretofore been the

and television. During the wide-band frequency-modulation, on megacycles per second, has been so tested under service conditions, and

thU

radio set, developed In

foetal blood circulation. The transitional stage between the foetal and adult types of circulation has been studied by Barclay in new-born lambs. Barclay is the first to study the foetal circulation and, what is more important, the transition from foetal to adult

with such success, that

circulation in the

its

future wide-spread application to broadcasting and other radio

would seem to be assured. {See also AnvERnsiNG; Airports; Broadcasting; Radio, Industrial Aspects of; Television.) (J. V. L. H.) services

Radio Facsimile:

are required In

year 1939, transmission by waves of approximately 43 completely and repeatedly

bete noire of ultra-high-frequency radio transmission of sound, facsimile

NO AERIAL OR GROUND WIRES 1939

see Radio, Scientific

Developments

of.

new bom.

Photo-roentgenography.

—The

indirect

method of photo-

roentgenography has been developed to practical usefulness in the roentgen examination of tuberculous patients in clinics and sanatoria where the use of large films for each patient becomes an item of great expense. This method

will compete with non-transparent paper film both and diagnostic values. Ordinary or cinematographic cameras are incorporated in the

in expense

DadSnlnmi

^939

ndUIUIUgJfi on the

t^^e

intimate study of radiation effects

normal and tumour cell was intensified. Increase in the voltage and intensity of X-rays, while offering profound tissue effects has not materially improved the statistics of cancer mortality. Ambitious attempts with artificial radioactivity by means of the cyclotron have shown profound effects

apparatus. If very small films are used they may be enlarged or projected to a larger size for interpretation. If a 4x5 photographic film is used in the camera that photographs the fluoroscopic image

on experimental animals but these

greatly decreased.

living

posed or transferred into

human

effects are

—Satisfactory radiation

one-eleventh.

Not only

The advantages

equations of value.

Radiation Therapy for Infections.

many inflammatory

not as yet trans-

produced by the X-ray exposure, then the film costs

in

losis clinics

and

will

be cut

the film costs but the filing costs are

of X-ray examinations of the chest in tubercu-

in the survey of industrial

now

workmen

in hazardous

and of organs, such as boils, carbuncles, erysipelas, parotitis, mastoiditis and other glandular infections, has provided an elaborate literature lately. Gas

been recommended for the roentgen examination of large groups

bacillus infections are included.

visable that the usual large film examination be completed for

diseases of the skin

—^The manufacture of extremely rapid

Cine-roentgenography.

photographic film and the construction of fluoroscopic screens of increased fluorescence have led to two important advances in

dust occupations are

quite well established. This

method has

of school children, soldiers, sailors, hospital personnel. the

more accurate

It is ad-

diagnosis of those cases which this rapid and

cheap survey method

culls

from the

larger groups.

—

radiology.

Body-section Roentgenography. This generic term has been applied to the various methods which seek to radiograph a selected

in

layer of the

Cine-roentgenography by the indirect method consists photographing the fluoroscopic image by means of a motion

picture camera equipped with a special lens (F/o-8s, focal length 5-5 cm.).

The

study the circulating blood stream by cine-roentgenography has produced discoveries in the physiology of the ability to

body to the exclusion

of all other layers.

claims are quite chaotic although an article

by

Priority

Keiffer furnishes

a complete record and mathematical analysis of the principles involved.

Specific terms such as stratigraphy, tomography, planig-

raphy, vertigraphy and laminagraphy are identified by the me-

RADIOTHERAPY— RAILROADS chanical devices which seek to apply the principle of body-section

g-ji„

radiography, to wit: “If a source of visible light and a recording

much better in 1939 than in the year 1938. In 1939 they earned their fixed charges and had a surplus of about $95,000,000. In the preceding year they

medium be revolved about

a fixed axis, the shadow of any object

in this axis will maintain a constant relationship to the light

the recording medium.” ple

The

and

practical apphcation of this princi-

was extended considerably during 1939, and

it

offered con-

siderable advantage over ordinary exposures, especially about the

head, neck and chest.

blastoma (Hodgkin’s disease and lymphosarcoma) he indicates the diagnostic value of roentgen therapy; the prognostic value of the rate of regression;

and cautions concerning the untoward

of excessive quantitative doses of roentgen therapy.

He

effect

especially

symptomatology of abdominal lymph gland involvement carcinoma as a primary or metastatic display and the possi-

erects a in

-j ndlliUdUb*

railroads of the United States, considered col-

lectively, fared

critical

by $123,000,000

failed

They were,

to earn their fixed charges.

therefore, $218,000,000 better off in 1939 but the surplus of $95,000,000 after fixed charges is a painfully small amount to meet

the needs of additions and betterments that should be financed

—

—

Retroperitoneal lymph nodes Lymphoblastoma. ^Desjardins focuses attention upon the importance of the retroperitoneal lymph nodes in cases of malignant tumours. In cases of lympho-

from income and to

satisfy the dividend-hungry holders of ap-

proximately $8,000,000,000 par value of railroad stocks.

Stated

terms the 1939 net railway operating income, the part of operating revenues left after the pajment of expenses and taxes,

in other

was equivalent to a return of 2-26% on the book value of road and equipment, the working cash balance, and the investment in materials and supplies. The rate of return in 1938 was 1-43%. The Interstate Commerce Commission in 1922 defined a fair return as 5-75%. The Commission has found that the physical

confusion in the diagnosis of secondary retroperitoneal gland enlargements after the removal of ovarian or testicular new

value of railroad properties

growths. (See also X-ray.) Bibliography. A. E. Barclay, Sir Joseph Barcroft, D. H. Barron and K. J. Franklin, “A Radiographic Demonstration of the Circulation Through the Heart in the Adult and in the Foetus, and the Identification of the Ductus Arteriosus,” British Jour, oj Radiology (Sept. I 939 ); Jean Keiffer, “Analysis of Laminagraphic Jlotions and Their Values,” Radiology (Nov. 1939): Shenvood Uloore, “Bods’ Section Radiography in Surgical Conditions,” American Jour, oj Surgery (Nov. 1939); Arthur U. Desjardins,

are not overcapitalized, yet the 1939 return of but 2-26% on that value, if continued, would mean insolvency on a greater scale

bility of

—

“Retroperitoneal Lymph Nodes: Their Importance Tumours,” Archives oj Surgery (April 1939).

in

Cases of Malignant (E. H. S.)

Radiotherapy: ij

g

When

is slightly

in excess of the net capi-

tahzation and that from that viewpoint the railroads collectively

now exists. The situation with during the year. At

than

respect to insolvency changed but slightly

the beginning of 1939 the mileage of all under Sec-

railroads in equity receivership, or in reorganization tion 77 of the

year

it

was

Bankruptcy Act, was 76,938. At the end of the

77,414, an increase of 476 miles.

The

percentage of

mileage in bankruptcy proceedings at the end of the year was 31% of the total railroad mileage of all classes- For Class I rail-

see Radiology.

the world’s supply of radium was obtained

KdDllinii '

The

569

from the comparatively lean ores of Czecho-Slovakia, the United States, Australia and Portugal, the price of the product was $100,000 or more per gram; the discovery of much richer ores in the Belgian Congo brought the price down to $70,000, and with the collapse of world buying power in 1929

it

was reduced to

deposits of unparalleled richness have been discovered in Canada, and since the construction of a refinery for their treatment the official quotation has been cut to $40,000, but

$50,000; new

roads alone

(those with

operating revenues of $1,000,000 or

more) the percentage was 32-1%. In that railroads. I;

Their investment value

their capital stock,

26-4%;

class are

27-7% of the

is

their

39 bankrupt

total of Class

funded debt, 32-4%; their

operating revenues, 23-9%; and the number of their employees, 25-9%. The disparity between the percentages of capital stock

and of funded debt

is

of significance inasmuch as

it

indicates that

the bankrupt roads collectively are those whose bonds form too large a part of the total capitalization.

at $25,000, or even as

While no Class I railroad emerged from bankruptcy proceedings

low as $20,000 in quantity. Production of refined radium salts began in Canada in 1933, with 3-0 grams of radium content, but later additions to the refinery have greatly expanded the operations. In 1937, the milling

during 1939, some progress in reorganization has been made. Plans for three Class I properties were promulgated by the Inter-

it is

reported that purchases could be

made

of 23,838 short tons of ore jdelded 475 tons of pitchblende concentrates, from 290 tons of which 23-868 grams of radium were recovered.

Press reports give the 1938 output at 70 grams and the rate of operation at 9 grams monthly. The entire, output is shipped to England for measuring and packing into treatment needles, after which much of it is returned to Canada for sale. It has been re-

state

Commerce Commission and approved by

the courts but have

not been finally confirmed by aU interests. Other plans are going

through the procedural steps.

Of

the plans for 21 properties,

approved by the Commission or proposed by its examiners, the capital structure of the new companies would reflect reductions of about 60% in funded debt and about 75% in annual fixed either

charges.

While the depressed state of business in general explains in

ported that Congo and Canadian producers have agreed on a division of the market on a 60:40 basis. Although the radium-bearing

nH IDII III EIDIDIIIIII

and Utah have been mined on an increasing two or three years, this is primarily for their vanadium content, and little radium is recovered. The United States is the largest consumer of radium, and imores of Colorado

scale during the past

M fiIDIDIDIII

ports have increased heavily; during the decade 1928-1937 imports of radium salts totalled 138-32 grams; during 1938 the

nIIIIDIDIII

imports rose to 38-75 grams, and in nine months of 1939 to 70-5 grams, an amount in excess of the entire world output only a few

IIIDIDIDIII

years earlier.

IIIDIDID

(See also Standards, National

Bureau

HI

(G. A, Ro.)

Vanadium.)

Railroad Accidents:

of; Sterilization;

see Disasters.

CLASS

I

RAILROADS, United*

States:

Revenue

passengers carried

one

mile

)

RAILROADS

570

important influence in the sharp increase in American railroad traffic in October and November. Notwithstanding the curtail-

50.000 tA

J 2 0

40.000

11111111 1

11

ment

30.000

1 i1 1 1 1

11

were able to handle the hea^^er volume of and the urge to provide more locomotives and cars and the improved earnings which made available more

u.

° 2 0

20.000

11

Si

1 1 1 11 1 111

11

1

07 0 —

ment Assistance Board

to

make

a study of male beneficiaries 30

whom it was found there were somewhat more whom 58% had either had no employment in the

years or under, of

than 100,000, of were previous three years or less than six months. About 40,000 of seen personally by members of the staff, with the assistance and Eight committee. advisory one or more members of the local for nine per cent were found physically or mentally disqualified

Works

is

it

reinvestigation.

payments

consider

WPA,

segment of the relief tuted. In July, Congress passed several repressive measures, such as forbidding federally sponsored WPA projects which affected writings, dramatics, and music. But the most important legislative provision was the rule that all continuously employed on WPA for 18 months should be dismissed, and taken on again only at the dose of one month and on re-application with its incident

the settlement of the millions of additional refugees envisaged as

meeting at Havana in Nov. 1939 considered the problems of refugees and adopted a comprehensive report aimed at facilitating migration for settlement. The Conference also voted to convene the Permanent International Committee on Migration to

wholly responsible

was at this program that a national policy could be insti-

extensive studies and surveys of larger areas for

ization

is

almost uniformly to

the only relief project for

man

Some

relief ; to

it

uals

plans for re-emigration.

amount of

over to the wife of the unemployed man; to pay the grant not in cash but in food, clothing, etc., or to require the man to turn

and that public funds would

the mass settlement projects under consideration

577

their

to the

own communities. In

the United States, legislation was

dka by

tax-paying groups and others

interested in balancing the national budget, but with

among

reh'ef

relief recipients in

no inquiry

the recipients of aid.

In Canada, the only change in the basic law was in the liberalization.

The

line of

plight of the transient labourer, dramatized

United States by the most popular novel of the year. The Grapes of Wrath, was brought under relief protection by a provision of the Dominion Parliament offering to meet on a basis of equal sharing of costs any program for the care of transients a Province might wish to set up. On the whole, and before the effect of the war could be noted, the trend of relief in these three countries has been downward from the new high reached in the -winter of 1937-38. In September 1939 the estimated number of families in the United States receiving relief in all categories, local. State and Federal, both in the form of assistance and work was about 5,750,000, representing an estimated 15,500,000 persons, a low not equalled previously since in the

Dec. 1937. Statistics of

Great Britain are not precisely comparable, refer-

ring principally to

unemployment

relief,

but they show the same

In July 1939, the number of unemployed had dropped nearly 13% from July 1938 or from about 1,750,000 to 1,250,000, trend.

but need of

relief to the

unemployed remained about

stationary'

for the reported 12 months, there being over 500,000 applicants at the beginning and the end of the period, while relief grants to

during that period from £36,695,000 to somewhat over £2,000,000. Canadian figures compare more closely with those of the United

applicants

decreased

Anemplo}nnent, of whom only about a quarter was remediable. been have could localities, other group, as large as 40% in some available placed, had the employment services told them of jobs

£34,583,000, or

workers elsewhere. The largest single group consisted of unskilled there which of kind a labour of who “can only offer to employers especially is a superabundance.” Vocational training and guidance,

they do not include those on work relief. The total number of persons in families receiving assistance in July 1939 w’as 805,654, compared with 836,556 in July 1938, and 793,271 in July 1937.

the immediately following school were considered

The high for the previous 12 months was reached in March 1939 when it reached 1,027,336. The unique relief probtenrin Canada

in the years

only remedy for this chronic and well

known

condition.

And

was found a small group who refuse reasonable offer of work. Some seem to have other and unknown sources of income; some will take jobs only at wages and conditions that insure their failure. Recommendations for this group were of a repres-

finally there

States in that they refer to all classes of recipients of relief, but

the plight of its farmers in the wheat raising Provinces of Western Canada, especially Saskatchewan. ^\Tiile the situation there has not improved to the e.xtent it was anticipated when the relief project was initiated in 1932, there has been some improi'e-

is

The Franco victory was welcomed by the Vatican, which from the first had shown its sympathy with the insurgents, a sympathy openly expressed when Pope Pius XII received the returning Italian troops at the Vatican and gave them his blessing State.

“as defenders of civilization.”

The

Polish debacle, on the other hand, was recognized as a all the more disastrous because

severe blow to the church; a blow it

meant the transfer

bolshevism, of

to Russia, and so exposure to the

many

menace

of

millions of Polish Catholics.

In Germany, the strained conditions which' had existed between' the Government and the churches both Catholic and Protestant, still continued. But the repressive measures of the Gov-

ernment did not succeed

in breaking the spirit of

independence

either of the Catholic bishops or of the independent Protestants.

soon to say what effect the outbreak of the European war have on the relations of the Government to the churches. But it seems not unlikely that it will cause some relaxation of the Government’s oppressive policy in the interest of national unity. It is too

will

Pastors of ice as

all

branches of the church have been drafted into serv-

chaplains and the difficulties of the

home

congregations

have been correspondingly increased. Martin Niemoeller statement widely

A UNIQUE EXPERIMENT

relief was begun May 16, 1939, at Rochester, hungry citizens and surplus food. For each $1.00 in “food stamps" purchased by relief clients, they received SO cents’ worth of stamps redeemable only for foods designated as “surplus"

N.Y., to solve the

dilemma

In

of

offering to serve as a volunteer in

without foundation. The fact cer in the

should feel merit. In that Province 46,506 or

86-5% of

the

Dominion

total of

53,302 agricultural dependents reside.

the central government to local units are provided by

all

three

countries largely because the central governments alone have the

decentralized in Canada, the

Dominion Gov-

ernment laying down conditions to be met by localities to qualify for grants-in-aid; but localities taking responsibility for administration. In the United States there are three systems; WPA is wholly centralized; the categorical classes under the Social Seare administered under curity Act blind, aged and children

—

—

it

his

instances.

is under local administration, supervised by grants-in-aid from the central government to local authorities. {See also Municipal Government; Social Security; Unemployment; Works Progress Administration.)

others

—

Bibliography. Social Security Bulletin, Federal Social Security Board (Nov. 1939); Report, Unemployment Assistance Board (H.M.S.O. London, 1939): Recipients of Material Aid, Department of Labour (Ottawa, (F- J- B-) Canada, i 939 ). •

The most important

fact in the religious life of the

Catholic Church during 1939 was the death on February 10 of Pope Pius XI, scholar, statesman and saint. His administration of his high office was a notable one, most of all for curia and this, that it put an end to the long dispute between the

KullglOna

the quirinal and re-established the papacy as an independent political power, master in its own houte. Two political events during 1939 had an intimate bearing upon the fortunes of the Roman Church. The first was the ending of

the Spanish Civil

War by

the victory of General Franco; the war with its consequence in

second, the outbreak of the European

the defeat and virtual annihilation of Poland as an independent

S7ft

called

offi-

up he

duty to serve. The German Government, how-

made

notable progress. Landmarks are the World Con-

ference of Madras of Dec. 1938 and the

Amsterdam Conference

of July 1939.

The Madras Conference,

in 1938, held at the initiative of the

International Missionary Council, brought together at India,

some 400

younger churches

IJ

a reserve

if

In the non-Roman churches the movement for practical cooperation

churches in the

Q

is

for their persecuted fellow Christians.

In England, unemployment relief is centrally administered, with local, voluntary advisory committees; relief to

some

told his wife that

him was too and he remains in concentration camp. The growing attacks upon religion by the rulers of Russia and Germany have caused a corresponding rapprochement between the leaders of the Catholic and Protestant churches. This new spirit of sympathy found impressive illustration in an encyclical of Pius XII in which he called upon all Christians to unite in prayer

grants-in-aid; general relief is left with localities, with State aid in

submarine service, proves to be

that Niemoeller

ever, evidently concluded that the risk of releasing

necessary resources to meet the extraordinary relief demands. is

German navy and

is

great,

The fiscal policies of the countries under review remained unchanged during the period under review. Great Britain alone paid all the cost of relief from current income; both Canada and the United States rely in part on borrowed money. Grants-in-aid by

Administration

continued in confinement in 1939. The that he sought release from captivity by

still

made

delegates

drawn

in

equal numbers

Madras in from the

field, and the older Taking its departure from the findings of the Oxford and Edinburgh Conferences, the Madras Confer-

the so-called mission

in

home

field.

ence considered in some detail the application of these principles

new problems faced by the churches of Africa and of the Far East. The conference was notable for its strong pronouncement in favour of church unity; a pronouncement rendered more impressive by the presence of large delegations from the churches of China and Japan. The conference also approved the appointment of Dr. William Paton, an officer of the International Missionary Council, as one of the secretaries of the proposed World to the

Council of Churches. The Amsterdam Conference was held under the joint auspices of the World Alliance for International Friendship Through the Churches and the Provisional Committee of the World Council.

brought together at Amsterdam, in July, some 1,300 delegates young people’s societies from 70 countries, denominational and interdenominational. While the strained conditions under It

of

which the conference met made tlie adoption of formal resolutions inexpedient, the gathering gave an impressive demonstration of the extent to which the young people of different countries feel themselves, in

spirit, at one.

The week before

the

Amsterdam Conference opened,

the admin-

RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS— REPUBLICAN PARTY committee of the World Council met at Zeist in Holland to decide when and where the first meeting of the proposed World Council should be held. It was reported that 53 churches, inistrative

cluding representatives of Orthodox, Old Catholics, Episcopalians,

Reformed, Lutherans, Congregationalists, Disciples and Baptists, had already given their approval to the Movement and that its success seemed to be assured. It was therefore decided to call the first meeting for the fall of 1941 and to approve the holding of this meeting in America, if that should prove acceptable to the

American churches. All these developments, in themselves encouraging, have been overshadowed by the coming of war. At no point is the change in the attitude of the churches more apparent than in the spirit in

which they have met

new

Where

579

and party workers throughout the country'. Representative J. William Ditter of Pennsylvania served as chairman of the Republican Congressional Committee and Senator John G. Townsend, Jr., of Delaware headed the Republican Senatorial Committee. licans in Congress

Preparation for the 1940 campaign ivas the principal objective of the national organization.

With their numbers nearly doubled. Republicans in Congress showed increased activity. On several occasions, the}' joined with independent Democrats to defeat or sidetrack important Administration measures. With the help of independent Democrats, Republicans in Congress defeated the Administration’s $3,800,000,000 spend-lend program, forced the enactment of a tax revision

churches with scarcely an exception approved the action of their Governments in declaring war and confidently expected that the

measure to relieve business of certain burdensome levies, won a revision of the Social Security Act to “freeze” the payroll taxes at their present levels, and modify plans for a $47,000,000,000

victory of the Allies would promote the moral ends to which they

reserve fund, assisted in passing the

were committed, they volving in

its

this

now

mean

25 years ago the

look upon war as the great enemy, in-

disastrous train victors and vanquished alike.

agreement at least in

sion

is still

allowed, that

all

Hatch “pure

politics” bill

Federal officeholders, and sup-

gen-

000 Stabilization Fund, and to continue the power of the Presi-

peoples share the blame for the causes

dent to alter the gold content of the dollar. In the Senate, many Republicans voted for the amendment offered by Senator Alva

all

all

by

countries where freedom of expres-

this

new

attitude

for the responsibility of the churches. There

eral

As

to prohibit electioneering

ported a Congressional investigation of the NT^RB. Despite virtually solid Republican opposition, the Administration won its fight to continue until Jan. 15, 1941, the $2,000,000,-

no unanimity as to what

yet, however, there is

should

crisis.

is

which have produced the European war. There is equal agreement as to the type of social order which the church should hold up as a difference of opinion as to the way the ideal, but there in which this goal is to be reached. A convinced minority believe that war in any form is futile and so take the pacifist’s position is still

Adams, Democrat of Colorado,-

newly-mined

to fix the price for

domestic silver at 77.57 cents an ounce, instead of 64.64 cents. To help formulate Republican policy, Minority Leader Martin

The majority

appointed five special study committees. These committees, with their chairmen, were as follows national defence. Representative

must

James W. Wadsworth,

believe that there are e\dls so far-reaching that they be resisted even at the cost of war and so even though it be

with heavy hearts, they lend their support to their Governments European conflict. In the United States where sympathy

in the

with pacifism

is

for the

especially strong, great denominaand Protestant Episcopalians have gone

moment

tions like the Methodists

on record in support of the conscientious objector, while in the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (the Northern Presbyterian Church), an amendment removing from the Confession of Faith the phrase “lawful war” was defeated by only a small majority. (W. A. Br.) (See also Church Reunion.)

:

President, Representative Jesse P. Walcott of Michigan; national

trade agreements. Representative Allen Treadway, Massachusetts.

During the regular

etc., see listings

ment Departments and Bureaus. See

U.S.

Works under Govern-

also Legislation,

Republicans in Congress

session.

Fed-

eral; Administrative Officers Act. Representatives, House of: see Congress, United States.

made

it

American involvement in European power politics. Following the outbreak of the European war, the President, in September called Congress into e.xtra session to revise the neutrality law and repeal the arms embargo. Though plain that they would oppose

leading Republicans,

including

Bridges and Representative James

see

Federal ofiices and bureaus under Federal Security Agency,

Agency, Federal Loan Agency,

York; extraordinary powers of the

debt policy. Representative Daniel A. Reed of New York; agriculture, Representative Clifford R. Hope, Kansas; and reciprocal

several

Church Membership. Reorganization, Governmental: For regrouping of Religious Denominations:

New

Senators

W. Wadsworth

Taft,

Austin,

New York

of

supported the Administration’s neutrality proposals, a majority of Republicans in both Houses voted to retain the arms ban. Scattered State and local elections on dicate that the Republican Party

had

November

lost

7 seemed to inno ground in favour with

the voters since the national elections of 1938.

In Philadelphia,

the Republican candidate for mayor, Robert E. Lamberton, de-

feated his Democratic opponent, Robert C. White. In Cleveland,

Doniihlinon Dortu KBpiiUllCdil rally.

^e

Republican

entered 1939, Party, both encouraged and strength-

Mayor Harold H.

Burton, Republican, was elected for his third Commenting on the elections. Chairman Hamila statement issued on November 8, said; “With only a few

consecutive term.

—

ened by gains scored in the elections of Nov. 1938, prepared to

ton,in

play a more active part in national affairs. When the 76th Congress assembled on Jan. 3, 1939, the Republicans held 23 Senate and 169 House seats. Eighteen States had Republican governors governments the number a gain of 11, and in State and local

exceptions. Republicans maintained or increased their strength

— of

Republicans holding

Senator Charles L.

W.

elective

office

had greatly increased.

of Oregon and Representative Joseph Massachusetts, continued, respectively, as

McNary

Martin, Jr., of Republican Senate and House leaders. John D. M. Hamilton remained at the helm of the Republican National Committee and Franklyn Waltman, a former newspaper

man, continued as its director of publicity. Through its research professor of division, under the direction of Olin Glenn Saxon, factual prepared Committee economics at Yale, the National Repubstudies on current issues. These were made available to

compared with a year ago, notably in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and The failure of the New Deal to restore other Eastern States. the country to economic recovery was made the issue in a number of local contests where the Republicans w'on.” Since the 1936 campaign, Hamilton revealed, the party debt had been reduced from $1,200,000 to approximately $655,000. .

.

.

The Republican National Convention is

usually held the second

about two weeks

week

in a presidential election

in June, the

Democrats meeting

A

proposal for a later meeting date in 1940, either in June or August, had the support of many leaders. The Executive Committee had no authority to fix the convention date. This

in 1940.

was

to

later.

be done by the

full

Committee when

(See also Elections; United States.)

(

it

met

early

0 McK.) .

RESINS, SYNTHETIC

580

— RHODE

ISLAND

Resins, Synthetic: see Chemistry, Applied; Industrial Research; Plastics Industry.

ing to the U.S. census of 1930 was 687,497 and 680,712 in the 1936 State census. Of the latter figure, 525,232 were native white, 144,952 were foreign-born white comprising 30,093 Italians,

types of United States

33,105 French Canadian, 20,458 English, 13,459 Irish, 6,355 Polish, 5,133 Scottish; 10,528 were Negroes and others. The urban

Rofoil QqIoo nCldll OdICOa

show an estimated increase of approximately 6J% over 1938. The fiscal year of most retail stores ends January 31 and as a consequence the percentage of increase in January sales must be estimated. The largest sales increases in dollar volume were shown by the two major combination retailmail order companies. During the first six months in 1939 the increase in retail sales was nominal. Beginning with July, however, the percentage of increase became larger and each subsequent month continued to show relatively larger increases than were shown during the first six months in 1939. The increase in 1939 was not only in dollar volume but also in the number of transactions, since the estimated increase in number of unit sales made by retail stores in 1939 was approximately

4%

retail stores will

greater than in 1938.

population in 1930 (U.S. census) was 635,429, or 92-4% and in 1936 (State census) was 578,206 or 85%.

The cities are Providence (capital), which (1936) had a pop. of 243,006; Pawtucket, 72,820; Woonsocket, 46,822; Cranston, 44,533; Newport, 29,202; Warwick, 27,072; Central Falls, 23,996. History. ^At the regular 1939 session of the legislature, lead-

—

ing measures passed were: act reorganizing the State departments by revising the reorganization act of 1935; act creating a civil

service system

ment

and a resolution proposing a

to the Constitution; act allowing the

five senatorial districts;

retail prices generally.

ities

increase in sales

volume

in 1939 over 1938 brought a drop

2%

amend-

of Providence

greater appointive power and providing for a charter commission to draft a charter revision proposal for Providence; act appropriating money for investigation of voting frauds; acts creating

There was also a slight increase in the dollar value of each transaction. This was not due primarily to an increase in retail prices but rather to the increase in consumer buying power which permitted the purchase of more units of merchandise in the medium and upper brackets. Save for a brief period of a few weeks after the declaration of the European war, when prices on some commodities rose sharply, there was little if any increase in

The

civil service

mayor

commissions to study and report upon juvenile and district court legislation, election and caucus laws, direct primary and corrupt practices

labour legislation,

acts,

by more than $1,000,000;

expenditures cigarettes

division

and

all

of Providence into

annual appropriation

bill

reducing State

acts levying a tax on

other tobacco products, increasing inheritance

tax and increasing tax rates on electric and communications ;

util-

act exempting from local taxation idle mill and manufactur-

ing property; act creating a board of trustees for State colleges

and the average for the year 1939 of operating expenses for department stores and specialty stores will approximate 33% as compared to 35% for

permitting certain municipalities to rehabilitate hurricane-damaged

the year 1938.

beaches; act ceding land to the Federal Government for a naval

Retailers faced the close of their 1939 fiscal year with their inventories in a satisfactory' position. Although the inventories

April i; act banning the use of “loss-leaders” in retail trade;

in the operating expenses of retailers of

averaged this

8%

10% more in

to

was not out of

line

about

dollar value than they

were

in 1938,

with the expected increases in sales that

but reserving to the legislature control over the of the institutions;

air base;

changmg date

act

The

1939 will range from s% to 10%. Based on financial statements issued for the

Thomas

first

three quar-

there was a substantial increase in net profit on sales for

the year 1939 as compared managed department and

to 1938.

It

is

estimated that the best

specialty stores

strategic positions obtained a

5%

net profit

and those in more on their retail sales

for the fiscal year 1939, whereas in 1938 the net profit of

the larger stores where profits were shown, was less than

most of 3% on

their retail sales.

The control of operating expenses in 1940 will still be a major problem for retailers in view of the higher prevailing wage levels, the tendency to shorter hours, and the prospect of additional taxes. Moreover, retailers will be greatly concerned if there is any substantial advance in consumer commodity prices that may be reflected in higher retail prices, since unless these are nominal and gradual, consumer purchasing power will be inadequate to absorb the increase and thus enable retailers to maintain the expected increase in their sales volume during the early part of 1940. (See also

Chain Stores; Mail-Order Business; Marketing.) (P. J. R-)

Reunion:

see

Revenue Act Rheumatism:

see Legislation, Federal.

dual

chief officers of the State were: William

H. Vanderbilt,

0 McManus,

lieutenant-governor; J. Hector Paquin, secretary of State; Louis V. Jackvony, attorney-general; .

P. Hazard, general treasurer;

justice of the

Edmund W.

Flynn, chief

Supreme Court.

—

Education. ^During 1938-39 there were in the public elementary schools 68,790 pupils and 2,269 teachers; in junior high schools 25,449 pupils and 1,007 teachers and in senior high schools 23,302 pupils and 976 teachers. There were in private and parochial elementary schools, 23,634 pupils; in junior high schools, 4,589 pupils, and in senior high schools 6,033 pupils. Teachers in private and parochial schools numbered 1,252.

Charities

by the

—^During

and Correction.

1939 there were handled

State department of Social Welfare 6,800 cases of old age

assistance, 1,150 cases of aid to dependent children, 150 cases of soldiers’ relief,

unemployment

60 cases of aid to the blind and 8,300 cases of State relief. Under same department were institutions:

mental hospital, 2,773 inmates; infirmary, 820; school for feeble minded, 731; home and school, 206; correctional school for girls, 37; correctional school for boys, 116; soldiers’ home, 68; reformatory for men, 117; reformatory for women, 20; prison, 268. Banking and Finance. ^In the State there were 33 banking institutions. Resources of 23 banks under State supervision totalled

—

amounted to $315,690,553, representing 398.6^4 depositors June had re30, 1939. In addition, five loan and investment companies

see Arthritis.

the original Dhnrio lelonrl one of KilUDc ISIdllu, popularly known

amendment banning

$447,915,110, and of 12 banks under Federal supervision, $iii,309,207. Savings deposits in savings banks and trust companies

French Colonial Empire. of 1939:

acts

for registration of automobiles to

resolution proposing a constitutional

governor; James

ters,

affairs

office-holding.

probably be obtained in the early months of 1940, since it is expected that the increase in sales in the early period of 1940 over will

fiscal

act permitting group hospitalization;

States of the United States,

as “Little Rhody”; 1,248 sq.mi. (smallest of the United States); population accordarea,

sources of $8,730,530; eight building and loan associations, $37.261,999; 14 credit unions, $3,108,838. ^onAgriculture. In 1935, the farm population was 21,731 i"

—

RHODESIA— RICE trast with 16,477 in 1930. All land in farms, 307,725 acres; 4,327

581

farms; value, $35,237,660. Crop production estimate by acres and quantity, report of Rhode Island department of agriculture and

Northern Rhodesia. At the outbreak of war the price of copper was controlled and the whole of the output taken over by the Government. A five-year plan for the development of social serv-

conservation for year 1938, indicated: tame hay, 45,oooac., 58,000

ices in

tons; potatoes, 3,90oac., 624,ooobu.; apples, 3o8,ooobu.; peaches,

27,ooobu.; pears, ii,ooobu.; grapes, 220 tons. Livestock, 23,159 cows producing 142,000,0001b. of milk; 320,000 hens

dairy

(1937) producing 2,910,000 dozen of eggs. Industry and Business. ^The United States census of business

—

for 1935 shows that there were in the State 165,024 employees receiving a payroll of $181,309,000. Retail business employed

28,881 with a payroll of $27,671,000. Wholesale employed 6,328; insurance, real estate and finance, 4,976; service, 3,210; hotels, 1,288; mines and quarries, 175; construction, 2,299. Manufactur-

employed 112,518

ers

in 1,429

a payroll of $120,070,000.

manufacturing establishments with census' of manufacturers for 1937

The

employing 108,031 workers producing goods valued at $517,196,193, and paying in wages $112,933,084. More than 50% were employed in the textile industry, there being 309 textile plants employing 57,050 workers, manufacturing goods (M. C. Mi.) valued at $259,603,426.

listed 1,409 establishments

Area 440,656 sq.mi.; comprises two

j

Iji

KnODBSIdi

Empire,

territories in

Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia. Certain essential statistics are given in the table below. See also British Empire. History. Southern Rhodesia is a self-governing member of the of

Africa,

the

British

viz.

Northern Rhodesia provides an expenditure of £1,000,000 on capital works also for an increase in current expenditure. Expansion of local government through the native authorities continues. More money was set aside for native treasuries from which schools and other social services w’ill be financed. Grants were made from the Colonial Development Fund for the construction of ground facilities for aircraft, also for native hospitals and dispensaries. 1,423,600 acres of land were acquired from the British South Africa Company for the benefit of the native people.

(J.

Rhodes Scholarships. Rhodes Trustees

were

ships

suspended

in Sept. 1939 as a result of the war.

L. K.)

by the The 1939

have been postponed and it is not likely that any elecend of the war. There were 96 Rhodes Scholars who would normally have spent the year 1939 at Oxford. Immediately after the opening of hostilities the 1939 Scholars-elect were ordered to remain in the U.S.; the 1937-38 Rhodes scholars in residence in Oxford returned to the United States as soon as accommodations could be obtained elections

tions will be held until the

after declaration of war. Scholarships in force are only suspended

and

will

be resumed when possible.

(F. Av.)

—

Commonwealth but supervision over native rights is reserved to the Imperial Government. Northern Rhodesia remains a dependency of the Crown. The Royal Commission on the quesBritish

tion of closer union between the Rhodesias its

between the

languages for several years at Grenoble and London, then went to Canada in 1910 as an independent merchant. He returned to

closer co-operation

decided in the future after a period of parallel development.

It

suggested that the union of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland might take place at an early date. A general election for the Southern Rhodesia parliament party was held in April. The United party led by Mr. Huggins, the

prime minister, was returned to power with 23 seats out of 30. Labour held 7 seats but neither the Rhodesian nor the Union parties secured seats.

Government were re-elected. The seems assured. In 1938 gold Rhodesia Southern prosperity of exports reached the record value of £5,718,000 and export trade in All ministers of the previous

general showed a favourable balance of £2,000,000. Since the outbreak of war the defences of the country have been

strengthened and forces for sending overseas are under training. Over two-thirds of the European male population volunteered for depletion service and conscription was introduced more to prevent

airmen of vital industries than for military purposes. Over 100 minister prime The were sent out of the country for training. and the minister for defence visited the United Kingdom to discuss defence and other questions. The copper industry continues to assure the prosperity of

Northern Rhodesia 290,323

Southern Rhodesia 150,3.33

Principal Products in ipsS

from a family long connected with

German army, he was bom April 30 at Wesel on the Rhine and was educated at the gymnasium at Metz. Later he studied

three territories but left amalgamation of the Rhodesias to be

Territory and Area in sq. mi.

lieutenant-colonel, descended

and Nyasaland issued

report early in 1939.

The commission recommended

Ribbentrop, Joachim von

Imports and Exports 19.38 fin thousand £).

Rail 1938'

imp. S,224

All rds. 5,924 mi-

copper, 213,031 gold, 31.6 kg.

e-Tp.

coal, 1,043,61s gold, 25,321 kg.

imp. 9,759 e.xp. 10,574

10,135

Road and

rly.

622 mi.

rds. 1,621 mi. rly. 1,357 mi.

Main

the

Germany after the outbreak of the World War and enlisted in a Hussar regiment. Serving on both eastern and western fronts and in Turkey, he was wounded, advanced to lieutenant-colonel, and by the end of the war was attached to the war ministry. After being mustered out of the army he returned to business life as a wine merchant and established an influential import and export firm. He first became identified with the Nazi party as a worker in 1930. In his home in Berlin-Dahlem were held the important meetings that preceded Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor of the Reich Jan. 30, 1933. Until May 1935 Ribbentrop was a commissioner of the Reich on disarmament problems, then he was apFrom 1936 to 1938 he w’as pointed ambassador-at-large. ambassador to Great Britain, and on Feb. 4, 1938, five weeks before Hitler marched into Austria, he was appointed foreign minister. Ribbentrop, who had concluded the anti-Comintern pact in 1936, also negotiated its antithesis, the Nazi-Soviet pact of non-aggression in 1939, and personally went to Moscow to sign it

August

24.

He

played a prominent role in the negotiations with

European war, and thereafter Moscow, signing for Germany the

Britain prior to the beginning of the

was

Hitler’s intermediary in

Nazi-Soviet partition agreement of September 29.

Revenue and Expenditure thousand £).

fin

{esL 1939) rev. 1,465

exp. 1,265

(1938-39) rev. 3,515

exp. 3.58s

Education:

Elementary and Secondary 1938. Eurpn. schls-, 18, schlis., 1,320; African schls., 431, schlrs., .3.5. .570. schlrs., 10,762; Asiatic and coloured schls., 12, schlrs., 11,462; native (1937) schls., 1,283, schlrs.,

108,995.

World production of niUt/i rice in 1939 was gennj _

below 1938. The 1939 Chinese crop was predicted in consular reports 5 to 10%

erally

smaller.

The Chinese was

crop of

2,811,000,000

Burma crop

1938

bushels.

w’ould be

10

to

RICHTMYER. FLOYD

582

K.

— RIVERS

15% below normal due to floods (1939). The 1938 Burma crop was 400,400,000 bu. Drought was reported to have cut the 1939 Chosen crop 25 to 35%; the 193S crop was 220,000,000 bushels. The 1939 Japanese crop was estimated Sept. 20 as sS8,ooo,ooobu. compared to 599,ooo,ooobu. in 1938. The 1939 Taiwan crop was 36,662,ooobu. compared to 44,433,000 bu. (1938). Italy, the largest surplus-rice producing country of Europe, had a bumper 1939 crop, 4o,8oo,ooobu. compared to 4o,090,ooobu. in 1938. The price of the Italian crop was fixed to start at $1.02 a bushel and

AND HARBOURS

harbours of the United States, after eliminating

all known dupliwas 466,900,000 short tons valued at $17,019,000,000. The principal items of new work in progress during 1939 on rivers and harbours, exclusive of that on canals and inland water-

cations,

ways, include construction of a 40-ft. channel at Boston harbour; the enlargement of the Hudson River channel to a 48-ft. depth

between West 40th and West 54th streets; the deepening of Bayside-Gedney channel to 3Sft.; the deepening of Bay Ridge channel to 40ft.; the improvement of the New York-New Jersey channels to provide a controlling depth of 35ft.; the deepening of

finish at $1.10.

Buffalo bayou at Houston, Tex., to 34ft. the widening of Cuyahoga river at Cleveland harbour; and the general enlargement of channels at Fairport, Ohio, and Buffalo, New York. ;

R/ce production in the United States (As reported Nov.

i,

1939, bj'

Department

of Agriculture)

1939

193S

bu.

bu.

Average 1928-37 bu.

Total U.S Louisiana

52,204,000 20,812,000

Texas Arkansas

i3i932|C>c>o

52,303,000 20,748,000 13,005,000

g, 180, 000

0..1S0.000

California

8,280,000

g, 100,000

43,387.000 18,128,000 g,2i5,ooo 8,178,000 7,827,000

Additional dikes for contraction works and dredging for channel correction at the Southwest pass,

mouth

of the Mississippi river,

were under way. On the North Pacific coast the south jetty at the mouth of the Umpqua river was extended, a 26-ft. channel at the mouth dredged and a 22-ft. channel to Reedsport started; an auxiliary jetty was under construction at the mouth of the Colum-

Exports from the United States during the rice-marketing year

bia river; the is-ft. deep, 300-ft. wide channel on the Columbia

ending July 31, 1939, were the highest in ten years, 326,1 22,ooQlb. in terms of cleaned rice. Of this, Cuba, the largest customer, took

river between Vancouver and Bonneville was started; fish lock machinery was installed at Bonneville dam; and reconstruction of the Grays harbour jetties continued. Major works completed include a 40-ft. channel in the Hudson

203,261,000 pounds.

(S.

0

.

R.)

river at

Richtmyer, Fioyd Karker

was born at

Cobleskill,

N^Y.

on October 12 and received his education at Cornell university, where he taught from 1906 until his death and was dean of the graduate school after 1931. He was internationally recognized by men of science for his study of X-rays and for his development of the laws of X-ray absorption in matter. He was chairman of the division of physical sciences of the National Research council (1930-35), president of the American Physical society (1936), of the Optical Society of America (1920), and of the American Association of Physics Teachers (1937-39). Among his honours was the

He

Levy medal (1929) of the Franklin institute, November 7 at Ithaca, New York.

Philadelphia.

died

(1883-1939), Canadian statesman, was born February 28 at Montreal. In 1907 he became parliamentary correspondent for Le Canada, and he was editor of this French-Canadian journal from 1909 until 1926. He was first elected to the House of Commons in 1920 and was re-elected five times. Prime Minister Mackenzie King appointed

Rinfret,

Fernand

and he served in this position until 1930. From 1932 to 1934 he was mayor of Montreal. King again appointed him to his cabinet in r93S as secretary of State, in which post he continued until his death at Los Angeles, Calif.,

him secretary

on July

of State in 1926,

12.

New York

for full river width

street; a 20-ft. channel along the

Kill

Van Kull

to

New

from

Ellis island to 59th

Jersey pierhead line from

Anchorage channel; construction of a

turning basin at Hollywood harbour, Fla.

;

3S-ft.

deep

the widening and deep-

Miami a 2S-ft. channel in the Cape Fear river to Navassa, N.C.; channel deepening at Bridgeport, ening of the turning basin at Conn.-; deepening of

;

Egmont Relocation channel

at

Tampa,

Fla.,

to 32ft.; construction of a 32-ft. channel at Mobile, Ala.; the

Galveston, Tex., project providing 34ft. to Bolivar Roads and

thence 36ft. to deep water in the Gulf of Mexico; the outer harbour, channel and turning basin at Lorain, Ohio; the harbour at

Conneaut, Ohio; a sand barrier at Crescent City, Calif.; the widening of the 30-ft. channel of the San Joaquin river below Stockton, Calif., and the upper settling basin near that city; a 24-ft. deep, 200-ft. wide channel at Rainier, Ore.; and a 40-ft. outer harbour turning basin at Los Angeles, California. {See also

Canals and Inland Waterways; Floods and Flood Control;

Water Power.) British Isles.

—

(J. L. S.)

^The steady progress in the development of ac-

commodation for shipping which has characterized British port policy during recent years was abruptly arrested in the early autumn of 1939 by the outbreak of hostilities with Germany, and for the last four months of the year there was a practical cessation of all activities which were not essential to the prosecution of the war, though certain works which were well advanced towards completion were allowed to be continued. The interruption,

Rio de Oro: see Spanish Colonial Empire. Rio Muni: see Spanish Colonial Empire.

supervision of the chief of engineers, in accordance with plans authorized by the Congress. Approximately 1,000 river and har-

was actually earlier than the outbreak of war, because months beforehand, right back, in fact, to the beginning of the year, the shadow of the impending disaster hung over the country and port authorities were reluctant to undertake schemes, the success of which would be dubious in view of the rapid approach of conditions likely to affect maritime commerce adversely to a very marked degree. Moreover, they were called upon to expend considerable sums of money on protective works and to tram their staffs- to deal with emergency conditions. The Port of Lon-

bour projects were in force on June 30, 1939. New work was undertaken on 177 projects and 48 were completed during 1939Active maintenance operations were under way at 296 localities. Total expenditures during the fiscal year were $117,700,000, of

don Authority, for example, spent £250,000 in constructing 3imi. of trenches within the dock area for the protection of 30,000 workers from blast and splinters in air attack. Rescue, fire prevention and gas decontamination services were also organized, involving

indeed, for

Improvements of rivers, harbours, and other watenvays of the United States for navigation are prosecuted by the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, under the direction of the secretary of War and the

Uophniirc n 3 rU 0 UrSa

which $77,600,000 was for new work. The

total net

water-borne

commerce during 1938 over federally-improved waterways and

much

Notwithstanding this, the Authority program of improvements on which their carry on to

time and attention.

managed

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS they embarked some three years ago and certain works were completed in the early part of 1939, including two new warehouses for

plywood at the Surrey docks. Considerable progress was also made in the modernization of the Royal Victoria dock, a total length of over 3,000 lin.ft. of deep water quayage being rendered available, while substantial progress was made in the erection of warehouses. Improved accommodation has also been provided at the India and Millwall docks. As matters of outstanding importance

may

be mentioned the new branch Edward dock, Avonmouth, which was begun in Feb. 1939 and was (Jan. i, 1940) well in hand. At Cardiff, a new general cargo quay, i, 000ft. in length, was completed and put into commission. The year 1939 was notable at this port by reason of the commemoration of the centenary of the opening of the first dock the Bute West dock. At Newcastle, the Tyne Improvement Commission were building, at a cost of £221,000, a new quay in the Tyne dock. At Leith, the construction of new breakwaters for the extension of the harbour was proat other British ports, there

dock, loac. in area, at the Royal

—

gressing steadily, the Eastern breakwater being nearly completed,

while about one-third of the Western breakwater was formed.

On

much progress was made at two new wharves for tankers, and

the other side of the Irish sea,

Dublin with the construction of the extension of the Alexandra quay for a length of 1,400ft. was

commenced.

—

In France, the same general considerations obtained as Great Britain, but certain works of importance were in hand;

France in

.

notably at Dunkirk, where a

new entrance

lock, 984ft. long,

was

completed; at Calais, where a new maritime station was inaugurated,

Roads and Highways. 1939 in modernizing old road systems to make them suitable for traffic and the world network of highways continued to grow and extend into regions formerly inaccessible. Road buildpresent

came

Bordeaux ceased

in administration.

to Holland. In Holland, a new oil basin, with an area of 35ac., was in course of formation at Pernis, within the port area of Rotterdam, where a new wharf and cargo shed were recently completed. Denmark. In Denmark, the new port of Frcdericia was opened in July 19J9. An important program of improvements was foreshadowed for the port of Copenhagen. Spain. Following the devastation produced during the civil war, the National Government in Spain is proceeding with the repair and modernization of a considerable number of Spanish ports, including those in the

—

—

—

Balearic

to a

in

beginning of war in September.

first place in number of vehicles with about 30,000,000 followed by the United Kingdom with 2,611,000, France in third place with 2,251,000, Germany next with 1,816,000, Canada

States holds

with 1,375,000; Australia follows with 758,000. Countries of English speaking people all rank high in number of

in fifth position

motor vehicles and mileage of improved highways but excellent highway transportation facilities are now being provided in many countries that were considered backward only a few years ago. In the older, more densely populated countries with old estabhighway systems, the greater part of the w'ork done con-

lished

main highways to make them suitable for traffic. There was also a more definite realization of the need for special motor roads built according to the highest standards to accommodate the large volumes of traffic in metropolitan and congested areas. Highways of this type are not new. There are numerous examples of highstandard multiple-lane highways and Germany has been engaged in sisted of modernizing

the present speed and volume of

and at Marseilles where the reconstruction and extension of was well advanced. a decree dated March 20, 1939, the ports of Havre and be autonomous

sudden stop

most European countries with the Highway improvement has made possible a continuation of the phenomenal increase in the use of motor vehicles. At the beginning of 1939, 43,819,929 motor vehicles were in operation, an increase of i-7% over the previous year and an increase of 36-8% over the preceding 10 years. The United ing

Mileage of World Highways and Condition of Improvement*

the Eastern basins

By

583

Unimproved North and South America, clusive of United States

Europe,

exclusive

of

Specified

649,636 1,965,000

235,180 1,100,000

93,899

980,71s 3,065,000

128,614

674,679 176,022 189,666 321,198

2,420,695 2,882 82,289 720,217

3,223.988 178,904 437,998 1.138,237

.

.

Kingdom

166,043 96,822

Asia

New

Total

United

Africa Australia,

Improved Not

ex-

Zealand

and

Oceania

2 pS»SS 5>

274*692

8,679

578,930

3,301,674

2.971,437

3.330 661

9,603,772

isles.

Other notable events in Europe include the inauguration of works for a new harbour at Tashaul in Rumania, as a relief port to Constanta. Africa In Egypt, the harbour of Alexandria is to be improved. At Capetown, the new outer breakwater is practically completed for its full length of 7,oooft., while over 2,000 lin.ft. of quay wall was constructed and a considerable amount of dredging and reclamation work carried out. Four berths for shipping were brought into commission in^ the new basin, which ultimately will be able to accommodate 17 ocean-going vc^elsAustralia During the summer of 1939 a contract was placed for the construction of the new Appleton dock adjacent to the Victoria d^tk at (B. Cu.) Melbourne. It will provide berthage for six large ships. .

—

—

Infonnation

collected

by U.

S.

Department

of

Commerce.

building a national system of such highways.

In the

first

half of

1939 more highways of this type were being built or plarmed, and in England, France and the United States there has been general discussion of the necessity of planning and making provision for

.

A NEW FLOOD WALL district of

on the Ohio river compieted Huntington, West Virginia

in

1939

protects the business

future needs for heavy-traffic, high-speed arteries. this

Projects of

type are the ones that attract the greatest public notice

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

584

SIX-LANE EXPRESS June 30, 1939

HIGHWAY

from Lincoln tunnel,

New York

city,

opened

faced road. This province has completed a considerable mileage of

but in nearly every country with an old road system attention has

been centred most largely on modernization of the old roads. Since the beginning of war in Europe in Sept. 1939 very little

“motorways.” Vast northern areas of Canada are being opened by roads being constructed in other provinces. Roads now under construction in the Canadian Rockies will make accessible

news concerning highways has been reported. Such information as

some

has become available indicates that major highway work has been

Infer-American Highway. ^Nearly half of the projected Inter-American highway is now surfaced. This highway, 3,267mi. in length, extends from the United States through Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica to Panama. At present i,i23mi. are paved, an additional fifiqmi. may be traversed at all seasons, 6s3mi. are usable in dry weather and

stopped in the countries at war. In these countries highways are playing an important part in the

and

movement

in the production of munitions,

Motor

rials.

rationed and

of troops and supplies, machines and other war mate-

vehicles have been conscripted, gasoline is being it is

evident that highway transport facilities are to

special

of the world’s outstanding scenic wonders.

—

be devoted entirely to war purposes and supplying the essential

822mi. are only

needs of civilian populations.

Recent highway construction along the west coast of South America and in Argentina leaves only a few major obstacles in the way of a Pan-American highway linking together all countries of the two American continents. Mexico continues its rapid progress in the creation of a national highway system. During 1938, 64imi. of highway were constructed of which 43Smi. were surfaced.

—

United States. In the United States more than a billion dolhas been expended annually on highways since 1923 and in and 2 billion dollars has each of the last three years between

lars

been expended. In the highway program administered by the Public Roads AdWorks Agency, largely in co-operation

ministration of the Federal

with the States, i3,4S2mi. of highway were improved in the fiscal year 1939 and 382 highway-railroad crossings were eliminated.

The United

States leads

all

other countries in the progress

made

in

elimination of grade crossings.

In April 1939 the Federal Government completed the first comprehensive study ever made of the national highway situation, taking into account conditions on city streets, main rural high-

ways and on secondary or farm-to-market

roads.

The study

re-

vealed that express routes passing directly through the centres of our largest cities are urgently needed to relieve serious traffic congestion. Difficulties of acquisition and the high cost of necessary rights-of-way are the of the

gress

most

serious obstacles hindering provision

needed improvements. The report which was sent to Con-

by the President recommended: The construction

of a sys-

tem of interregional highways complete with connections through and around cities; modernization of the Federal-aid highway system; elimination of hazards at railroad grade crossings; improvecreation of a Federal Land Authority to facilitate the acquirement of lands needed for public

ment of secondary roads; and the purposes.

The report states that a system of transcontinental toll is not economically feasible and would not solve any considerable part of the highway problems.

—

Canada. ^Highway development in the provinces of Canada is following closely along the lines of development in areas of the United States with comparable population density. Ontario, the

•

province most advanced in road building, has over s,ooomi, of sur-

trails.

—

Argentina. ^This country is making excellent progress in carrying on the ambitious highway program initiated in 1933 by the National Highway Bureau. Since then 23,ooomi. of road have been improved and in 1937 and 1938 the rate has been at about 62omi. a year. Both a national highway system and secondary or feeder roads are being built. Many miles of lowcost road of types similar to those used in the United States are being built on the secondary system. Specific authorizations of funds have recently been made for improvement of international routes. Transit over the Andes to Chile has been blocked for about seven months of the year of snow. commission of engineers representing the Argentine and Chile

on account

A

joint

has recommended plans to enlarge a railroad tunnel so as to make Jiighway communication between the countries possible for nine months of the year. Brazil. ^The great area of Brazil presents a difficult problem to its road builders. Of the i2o,ooomi. of road reported, about 20,ooomi. have been improved. Brazilian authorities are planning a network of highways connecting State capitals but as yet national funds have been made available only in small amounts. The State of Rio Grande do Sul is particularly active in road work and is planning the construction of about 4somi. of

—

entirely

new

road.

—Highways

of the United Kingdom are practically all in modernizing the old roads, a problem more difficult than in any other country because of the dense population and the many roads located hundreds of years ago that are still in use. During 1939 many major improvements were made both in the London area and adjacent to large cities throughout the Kingdom. When the outbreak of war put an end to major highway activity the Ministry of Transport had begun rebuilding the Great North road from London to

United Kingdom.

surfaced.

Authorities are

now engaged

Edinburgh as a fine modern road designed according to the latest standards and departing from the Roman road in many places. It was planned to spend £2,000,000 on 26 projects, 14 of which had been started. Europe. Every European country made substantial progress in road development during the first eight months of 1939. The war-torn roads of Spain were being repaired and it was planned to spend $92,000,000 for work already begun and $245,000,000 for supplementary work. The supplementary work will include 388mi. of new national highway, i,242mi. of regional highway, and 6,2i3mi. of local road. Germany continued the rapid improvement of the system of Reichsautobahnen begun in 1933. Work was pushed on both the original system and on extensions into territory brought under German control. These highways

—

ROBINSON-PATMAN ACT- ROGERS. JAMES HARVEY have broad surfaces with separated traffic lanes, widely spaced entrances, controlled roadsides, and separated grades at crossings and are designed throughout for large volumes of fast-moving traffic. On July i, 1939, 3,077km. had been completed, an increase of 713km. over the preceding year, and 2,095km. were under construction. In the summer of 1939 Sweden was planning the immediate construction of its first express highway from Stockhoim to Goteborg. At the same time Poland was engaged in surfacing i, 600km. of highway. This country had only one paved road to its borders, a road from Warsaw to the German boundary near Katowice. Since 1922 Italy has improved about i.sookm. of entirely new State roads and 130km. are now' under construction or planned for immediate construction. An intensive program of road construction was begun in Albania immediately after the Italian occupation. More than 10,000 workers are reconditioning old Roman roads and building

new roads.

France has an e.xcellent system of highways as a result of more than a century of competent technical direction. In the past j’ear work has been done in modernizing portions of the system, particularly in the region of

highway (5ee

is

also

Vehicles;

585

already in use and a bus line has been established on

it.

Industrial Research; Motor Transportation; JIotor City Planning; Traffic Accidents.) (T. H. JIacD.)

Town and

Robinson-Patman Act:

see

Chain Stores. chartered in 1913 for the

Pnnnristinn rUUIIUuUUii

permanent purpose of “promoting the well-being of mankind throughout the world.” Its present program is concerned with certain definite problems in medical, natural, and social sciences, the humanities, and public health. In the field of medicine its interest is centred in nervous

and mental

Paris.

The projected highway from eastern Europe to Istanbul, Turkey, approaches nearer to completion each year. Travel has been possible from France, Germany and Belgium to near the border of Yugoslavia and almost the entire route through Yugoslavia has been improved. Much work has been done in Bulgaria and it is reported that the 2s6km. section in Turkey from the Bulgarian border to Istanbul will be completed in 1940. Some road building has been done in everj' country of Africa Africa . and this continent is no longer one with an interior that can be reached only over trails. It is now possible to travel by automobile from the Mediterranean through French, Belgian and English territory to Cape Town. Some sections of the road are rough and the route is to be recommended only to experienced travellers. The outstanding highway work in Africa is being done bj’ the Italian Government in Abyssinia and by the Union of South Africa. Important centres in Abyssinia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland are being connected by a system of nine main roads. In little more than two years 2,ioomi. of surfaced roads have been built. The cost of transporting goods 7Somi. from Massawa to Addis Ababa is only one-fifth of what it was in 1936. The Union of South Africa made good progress in the fourth year of its program of constructing 5,40omi. of surfaced road. Since the beginning of war in Europe work has been speeded up on certain of the national roads as a defence measure. Australia For several years road work in Australia has gone forward as a continuing program directed by State authorities. In 193 7_ a policj' of Federal aid to the States was initiated, supported hy funds derived from imposts on imported gasoline and that refined in Australia. Roads connecting the principal cities have already been completed and feeder roads are being extended into the less thickly settled sections. China . Before the beginning of the present conflict in China that country was outstanding in its effort to overcome lack of communication through construction of highways. While there has been great destruction of highways in eastern China as a result of military operations, road construction has progressed rapidly in western China. Highways have been built to French Indo-China, Burma and the Soviet Union to establish communications from which China was cut off by Japan’s occupation of its ports. Chinese authorities report that construction has been at a rate of 2om_i. a day during the past two years. The present war-time ^pital is rapidly being connected by highway with all provinces under Chinese control. An outstanding achievement is the construction of the Yunnan-Burma highway, about 6iomi. in length. Additional work is yet to be done but the

—

.

—

—

a combination of prisms which gives a motorist unobstructed vision of the other side of a hiil, was first tested in 1939 near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

THE "TRAFFICSCOPE,”

diseases, and its contributions are chiefly for the furtherance of research and teaching in psychiatry and allied

subjects.

Its

program

in the natural sciences is concerned rvith

experimental biology. In the social sciences

it has three spheres of special interest: international relations, social security, and public adrm'nistration. The program in the humanities centres

around the techniques by which cultural levels of contemporarj' such as museums, the radio, drama, and libraries and the promotion of better international under-

—

society are being influenced

—

The program in public number of selected diseases; demonsome of these diseases in their environ-

standing through cultural interchanges. health includes research on a strations in the control of

ments; co-operation with Governments in services of central or and the development of public health education. During 1939 the Foundation appropriated approximately $9,400,000 for work in its various fields of interest. The chairman of the board of trustees is John D. Rockefeller, Jr.;

local health departments;

the president, Raymond B. Fosdick; and the secretary, Norma S. Thompson. General Education Board was incorporated by an act of

Congress in 1903, with the stated object of “promoting education within the United States of America without distinction of race, sex, or creed.”

Its present

program

is

restricted largely to three

types of work: (i) the support of research and experimentation in relation to the problems presented in the field of general education,

i.e.,

the secondary school through the junior college level;

(2) the continuance of the existing program in the Southern States; and (3) a program, now coming to a close, in child growth and development. During the year 1939 appropriations

approximating $3,814,000 were made by the board. The chairman of the board of trustees is Ernest M. Hopkins; the president, Raymond B. Fosdick; and the secretary, William W. Brierley.

(H.B.V.W.)

Rogers, James Harvey September 25 and was educated at the University of South Carolina and at Yale, where he received his doctor’s degree in 1916. In the meantime he had pursued graduate study for a year at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. From 1916 to 1920 and from 1923 to 1930 he taught economics at the University of Missouri he also taught for three years at Cornell university and in 1930 he joined the faculty of Yale university as professor of political economy. He was acknowledged by this time to be ;

one of the nation’s leading economists. Not long after 1929 he advocated inflation as an economic remedy, and in America Weighs Her Gold (1931) he pointed out the disadvantages of a blind adherence to the gold standard. In 1933 he became one of the original members of President Roosevelt’s “brain trust” and

with Prof. George F. Warren outlined the monetary program which led to devaluation of the dollar in Jan. 1934.

He was killed August 13 with 13 others when a “baby clipper” plane plunged into the harbour at Rio de Janeiro.

;

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

586

Among

Roman

Catholic Church.

when the 821939. At the call

universal church

Francis

J.

the notable appointments of the year were:

Spellman as archbishop of

New York,

Most Rev.

N.Y., and bishop

year-old pontiff, Pius XI, died on February 10, of the papal chamberlain, Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, secretary of

ordinary for the army and navy Most Rev. Samuel A. Stritch, in succession to Cardinal Mundelein, as archbishop of Chicago, 111 .;

The Con-

Most Rev. Moses E. Kiley, as archbishop of Milwaukee, Wis. Most Rev. Joseph Schrembs, bishop of Cleveland, 0 was given the rank of archbishop; Most Rev. Edwin V. O’Hara was transferred from Great Falls, Mont., to Kansas City, Mo.; Most Rev.

State, 62 cardinal electors assembled in the Vatican.

clave solemnly opened on third ballot,

He

March

i.

On

the next day, after the

Cardinal Pacelli was proclaimed sovereign pontiff.

took the name of Pius XII and was solemnly crowned on

March

12.

He became

the 261st successor of St. Peter as vicar

—

it

known

is

Exact figures are not available,

a Catholic.

is

that the Catholic world population

The

of 375.475>ooo.

largest proportion

is in

excess

located in continental

is

In the English-speaking lands, the United States leads accordto revised

figures

of

the Official

Catholic Directory with

21,406,507, an increase of 239,827 over 1938.

place the

0

.

Brady was consecrated bishop J.

Condon, of Great

number

of Catholics: in England and

Latest estimates

Wales

at 2,406,419,

of Sioux Falls, S.Dak.;

Montana.

Falls,

In England and Wales, there are four archbishoprics, of which

Westminster

is cardinalitial, and 14 bishoprics. In Scotland, two archbishoprics and four bishoprics. Ireland has four archdioceses, including the cardinalitial see of Armagh, and 25 dioceses. Canada

numbers 12 archdioceses, with Quebec

Europe. ing

William

estimated that one out of every seven per-

It is

sons in the world

but

.,

Most Rev. William

of Christ on earth.

Population.

;

7 vicariates. I

Australia

vicariate, i

is

cardinalitial, 29 dioceses,

divided into 5 archdioceses,

abbacy; and

New

Zealand into

i

17

dioceses,

archdiocese, 3

dioceses.

Spiritual

and Temporal

Relations.

—The

Holy

See, in

the

an increase of 31,223; in Scotland, at 614,449; in Ireland, at 3,013,701; in Canada, at 4,771,000; in Australia, at 1,258,112; in

person of the sovereign pontiff, holds spiritual power over all the Faithful throughout the world, but also exercises temporal power

New Zealand, at 193,725. Roman Curia. Pius XH

over the Vatican City State (g.v.).

—

his secretary of State.

selected Luigi Cardinal Maglione as

In December, he named Lorenzo Cardinal

Lauri as papal chamberlain. ecclesiastical

Through the

year, he strengthened

procedure by several other notable appointments.

In this dual capacity, he

exchanges diplomatic representatives with governments and peoThirty-nine nuncios,

ples.

accredited to as

many

enjoying

full

diplomatic rank,

are

nations. Twenty-three apostolic delegates,

having no formal, diplomatic status

in the

country to which they

The government of the universal church is centralized at the Vatican. Twelve Sacred Congregations, presided over by cardinals,

are commissioned, act as papal representatives.

have executive and

and 27 ministers and envoys extraordinary. During the year a nuncio was named for Lithuania, the first since 1932. Uruguay

judicial

The

functions;

powers; three Tribunals exercise

legislative five

Offices

transact

the ordinary business.

reports and decisions of these Congregations and Tribunals

are published in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis.

Outside of the activities of the secretariat of State, treated later

under Spiritual and Temporal Relations, popular interest

attaches each year to the decisions of the Tribunal of the Sacred

Rota. According to the latest report, 97 cases were presented to the judges; of these, 65 were matrimonial. The decree of nullity

marriage was held to be valid in 46 cases. Twenty-five petitions sought annulment because of lack of consent; only three decrees of nullity were granted for this

was pronounced on

reason.

Of general

19, the

interest, likewise,

are the decisions of the

Congregation of the Holy Office in regard to the Index of Forbidden Books. Three titles were added during the year d’Annun:

zio’s

Solus ad Solam, and Ubaldi’s L’Acesi Mistica and

La Grande

Sintesi.

A

notable decree was issued

by

the Sacred Penitentiary on July

22, to the effect that a plenary indulgence

the radio. Ecclesiastical Jurisdictions.

may be

—The number

imparted over

of cardinals, tradi-

from 62 to 57 by the end of 1939. Cardinal Pacelli was elected pope, and death visited Cardinals Sbaretti, Mariani, Dolci and Mundelein. No new cardinals were tionally held at 70, declined

created.

Throughout the world the church is divided into 1,702 jurisThese are classified as 14 patriarchates, 255 archdioceses,

dictions.

prefectures apostolic, 50 937 dioceses, 292 vicariates apostolic, 135 prelacies. mission abbacies and 19 Two jurisdictions were erected in the United States. The area

comprising the District of Columbia, formerly a part of the archdiocese of Baltimore, Md., was designated as the archdiocese of Washington. Though holding rank as an archdiocese, it will be governed by the archbishop of Baltimore. Gallup, N.M., was constituted a diocese, thus raising the total of

Two

American Sees to 117.

of these, Boston, Mass., and Philadelphia, Pa., are governed,

respectively,

by Cardinals O’Connell and Dougherty.

the

Holy See from recognized governments

exchanged representatives, the

first

Accredited to

are 13 ambassadors

time since 1898. In December,

without resuming diplomatic relations which lapsed in 1867, President Roosevelt named Myron C. Taylor as his special representa-

Pope Pius XII. and moral

tive to

All the spiritual

influence of the

Holy See was

di-

rected toward the preservation of peace before September, and since then, for

its

return.

Pius

XII

seized every opportunity of a

Through diplomatic channels, he attempted, without success, to promote conferences between the governments, excepting Soviet Russia, engaged in war overtures. In these efforts, the pope stated he would not involve the Holy public nature to issue appeals.

See in

political or territorial controversies.

Pope Pius XII welcomed President Roosevelt’s proposal for parallel efforts, and issued a five-point program for adjusting European problems.

The church flourished in the United States, and the gains in membership more than compensated for the losses. The 150th anniversary of the establishment of the American hierarchy was observed.

XII

In

this connection,

issued an encyclical,

under date of November

Sertum

laetitioe

i,

Pius

addressed to the Amer-

ican bishops.

In France, Great Britain and the countries of the British Commonwealth, there were new and happy auguries of peaceful relations with Catholicism and the Holy See. The church authorities supported the Governments to the fullest extent in the prosecution

of their

war aims.

Special regulations and exemptions of a disciplinary nature were

put into force. Accord between the Holy See and Italy was further strengthened. The waning influence of Nazi Germany and a pronounced opposition to Communism brought Italy closer to the spiritual aims of the papacy, as did the parallel efforts made to preserve peace. Further agreements on the Concordat were published in

June.

The

Nationalist

to the church.

Government

in

Spain solidified

Some disagreements were

its

loyalty

inevitable during the

ROME-BERLIN AXIS— ROOSEVELT. FRANKLIN

D.

587

reconstruction period, as to the relation of the church and State, but these were reliably reported as being adjusted amicably.

000,000 stabilization fund, and the power of the Chief Executive

Condemnation of the destruction of Poland and deep sympathy for the Polish people subjected to atheistic Sovietism and Nazi paganism, were frequently expressed by the Holy See. On October 7, the Vatican recognized the Polish Government set up in Paris. In Germany, the struggle between Catholicism and Nazi totalitarianism continued. The drive against Catholic education was intensified. Personal attacks on ministers of religion and on Religious were frequent. Conferences between representatives of Nazi Germany and the Holy See were spoken of in the spring, but later developments nullified any accord. Catholicism, as all forms of religion, was combatted throughout the Soviets. The godless organizations and propaganda increased in intensity. The Holy See recognized, on many occasions. Communism as the greatest menace to religion and world peace. Some new manifestations of Marxian atheism were observed in Mexico,

On March 4, the President addressed a joint session to commemorate the 150th anniversarj' of the first meeting of Congress, and on March 20, nominated William O. Douglas associate justice of the Supreme Court. On April 14, he made two addresses one, a Pan American Day address before the governing board of the Pan American Union, the other, at Mount Vernon on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the message received by George Washington from the first Congress of the United States. In a letter to the Young Democratic Clubs of America on April 19, he declared that in the campaign “we are now approaching,

—^The European war adversely

affected the mission-

ary labours through the reduction of the number of missioners and

The number

the curtailing of funds.

of Catholics in recognized

mission lands increased from 14,330,000 to 21,143,000 in the past ten years. Foreign priests number 10,285; native priests, 6,225; religious ligious

brothers, sisters,

foreign and

almost

native,

total

nearly 7,000;

re-

divided between foreign and Native bishops or vicars govern 44

equally

native, approximate 36,000.

—

just one agency potent

enough to defeat the Democratic He warned that the Democratic Party “can commit suicide by abandonment of the policies that brought it to power.” On April 27, he asked Congress there

is

Party, and that

the Democratic Party itself.”

is

to appropriate $1,477,000,000 for Federal relief for 1940.

In a statement on March

especially in the school decrees.

Missions.

to alter the gold content of the dollar.

It is estimated that 1,439 periodicals support mission activities; of these, 750 are published in mission (F.X. T.) countries. {See also Vatican City State.) ecclesiastical territories.

Rome-Berlin Axis: see European War; Germany; Italy; Strategy or the European War.

28, the President

advanced a plan for

disposing of a substantial part of the 11,000,000 bales of surplus

cotton held

by

the Government.

paid to producers that a moderate

who

He

proposed that $1.25 a bale be

release their loan cotton to the

payment be made on

market and

cotton exported after the

all

He estimated that the plan would cost from $75,000,000 to $105,000,000 during the next 16 months. In a speech before the Retailers National Forum on May 27, he defended Government spending. On June 8, the President and Mrs. Roosevelt gave a State dinner at the White House to King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. To stimulate industry and increase employment, the President in a letter to Senator James E. Byrnes of South Carolina on June plan went into operation.

21 proposed a

new Federal

The plan called for by Federal agencies over

lending program.

$3,060,000,000 of self-liquidating loans

periods ranging from two to seven years.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

clopczdia

Britannica,

vol.

19; P- 535; for an extended biography.) On Jan. 4, 1939, in his annual message to Congress, President Roosevelt stressed the need

for stronger national defence and declared that there are

many

methods “short of war, but stronger and more effective than mere words, of bringing home to aggressor governments the aggregate sentiments of our

own

probability of attack

is

He

observed further that “the mightily decreased by the assurance of

people.”

an ever-ready defence.” In his budget message on January 5, he revealed that the Federal Government faced a deficit of over $3,year 1940. On January 2, he appointed attorney-general, and three days later nominated

300,000,000 for the

Frank Murphy

fiscal

Felix Frankfurter as

At the Jackson Day

an associate justice of the Supreme Court. dinner in Washington on January 7, he urged

that the Democratic Party continue to follow liberal policies. In a special national defence message on January 12, the Presi-

dent said that “careful examination of the most imperative present needs leads me to recommend the appropriation, with as great

speed as possible, of approximately $525,000,000, of which sum approximately $210,000,000 would be actually spent before the year ending June 30, 1940.” He proposed that for new needs of the army, $65,000,000 allocated be $450,000,000 for new needs of the navy, and $10,000,000 to train civilian air increase pilots. He also asked for a $27,000,000 appropriation to the permanent garrison at the Panama Canal Zone, and provide liberalizaadditional housing there. On January 16, he proposed a recommended later days three tion of the Social Security Act and legislation to subject the salaries of public employees and income

end of the

fiscal

from future issues of public securities to Federal income taxation. On January 20, in letters to Speaker Bankhead and Vice-President $2,000,Garner, he asked continuation until Jan. 15, 194!; of

“All can be financed through the issue of guaranteed securities by the government agencies, with good prospect of repayment of both principal and interest through earnings,”

he

for

men and machines

The Senate approved fused to consider

it

a

Of work

said.

that $870,000,000 could be put to

the total, he estimated to provide

employment

in various lines of industry during 1940.

“Works Financing Act,” but the House

before Congress adjourned, Aug.

re-

5.

Though problems of recovery and domestic questions required

much

of his time, the President, as the year advanced, devoted

On April 15, he sent cablegrams to Chancellor Adolf Hitler of Germany and Premier Benito Mussolini of Italy, asking assurances from each that their increasing attention to international affairs.

armed

forces

would not attack or invade

their neutral independ-

ent neighbours. Provided such assurances w'ere given, the United States

would be

willing, the President revealed, to enter

an inter-

armaments and international trade problems. “We recognize complex world problems which affect all humanity, but we know that study and discussion of them must be held in an atmosphere of peace,” he said. “Such national conference to discuss limitation of

an atmosphere of peace cannot exist if negotiations are overshadowed by the threat of force or by the fear of war.” Despite strong pressure by the Administration, Congress at the session refused to revise the Neutrality Act by lifting the

first

automatic arms embargo. On July ii the Senate foreign relations committee, rz to ii, voted to defer consideration of aU neutrality legislation until the next session. The House previously had passed the Bloom

bill,

embodying some of the Administration’s embargo on exports of arms

proposals, but retaining a mandatorj'

and ammunition to

belligerent States.

Though the President urged

the advisability of prompt action “in the light of present world conditions,” a White House conference of Senate Democratic and

Republican leaders agreed to postpone further action, and make

ROSENWALD FUND — ROWING

588

first order of business at the next session. In the event of a European war, the President announced that he would immediately call Congress into extra session, in advance of the

neutrality the

regular meeting date in 1940.

On August 24, President Roosevelt made an appeal for world peace in messages to Chancellor Hitler, President Moscicki of Poland and King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, and the following day he addressed another peace appeal to Chancellor Hitler. On September Italy,

I,

he asked the Governments of Great Britain, France,

Germany and Poland

the event of war.

war by Great

to refrain

On September

5,

from bombing

civilians in

following the declarations of

Britain and France, the President issued tw'o neu-

and three days later proclaimed a “limited” state of emergency and ordered increases in the Army, Navy and Marine Corps. On September 13, he called Congress into extra session to revise the Neutrality Act, fixing September 2r as the date for its convening. Addressing Congress in person, he advocated repeal of the arms embargo and a return to the principles of international law as file besf means oi pievenling invoivemeni. oi liie VniVed States in the European war. After extended debate, Congress repealed the arms embargo and adjourned on November 3, taking action which represented a major victory for the President. Following the adjournment of Congress, President Roosevelt visited Hyde Park, N.Y.,and spent Thanksgiving at Warm Springs, Georgia. On December i, in a sharply worded statement, he contrality proclamations,

Russia’s invasion of Finland and the following day pro-

demned

claimed a “moral embargo” upon the sale to Russia of United

equipment that might be used

States planes and

in

bombing

James Delma^e

Ont., Canada. In 1903 he

was appointed superintendent of the municipal power system in Seattle, Washington. From this position he obtained a leave of absence in T933 to become advisory engineer on power with the Public Works Administration in Washington. In 1937, Pres. Roosevelt appointed him administrator of the huge Bonneville dam project on the Columbia river. Upon his death at Rochester, Minn., March 14, Pres. Roosevelt paid tribute to

him as “one of the

^

greatest Americans of our generation.”

(^^S 3 ~I 939 ), U.S. librarian and au101111 TlQUfCnn dUnil UdWdUII thority on Robert Bums, was bom at

,

Edinburgh, Scotland on October 23 and was educated at the School of Arts there. He removed to the United States in 1873. In 1894

he organized a book company in ager until 1910.

He

New York

brary in 1920. Ross was the author of

city

and was

its

man-

New York

Public Li-

many books on

the Scotch

joined the staff of the

Burnsiam (1892), The Memory of Btmts (1899), The Burns Hondb&ofe (iqso), and The Lme Songs oj Robert Bunts (1932); also other volumes on Scotch poetry and songs. He died at New York city October 29.

poet, including

Dnwintr nUnillg.

'U

intercollegiate rowing season opened in the S on April 15 with two regattas. On the Oakland

estuary the University of California varsity scored a decisive victory over their ancient rivals from the University of Washington, for the

first

Losing also to California

time since 1932.

in the

junior varsity event Washington found some solace in the easy

On the Harlem river Columbia easily defeated crews from Rutgers and Manhattan, Harvard easily defeated Rutgers, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) and Boston university April 22 on the Charles river, making a clean sweep in varsity, junior varsity, freshman and lightweight events. The Naval Academy crews opened their season the same day by defeating Princeton on the Severn river in varsity and junior varsity events but only after close hard races, winning each by about a length. Navy won a second time on April 29 by defeating Columbia at Annapolis, Md., and were deprived of a clean sweep by the victory of the Columbia freshmen. Having won the mythical intercolvictory of their promising freshman crew.

civilians.

he dispatched a peace message to Pope Pius XII and announced the appointment of Myron C. Taylor as his personal representative and “peace ambassador” to the Vatican. In his message to the pope, the President referred to the parallel efforts in Rome and Washington to aid in bringing back a just peace.

On December

The

Ross, ham,

23,

President spent Christmas

Day

at a family gathering at the

White House. During the closing days of December, he devoted most of his time to conferences with congressional leaders and to work on his budget and annual messages. {See also United States.)

(

0 McK.) .

legiate

championship at Poughkeepsie

in

1938 the

Navy

thus con-

Rosenwaid Fund, The Julius.

tinued their winning streak and loomed as another potential cham-

American foundations in that the trustees are not only permitted to spend capital as well as income at any time but are cornpelled to expend all its funds within 25 years of the death of its founder, that is, before Jan. 6, 1957. During the 22 years since its establishment in 1917 by Julius Rosenwaid, this fund has expended more than fifteen million dollars ($15,335,534). being all of its income

pion.

from year to year and about three-fourths of its principal fund. At the close of the past fiscal year, June 30, 1939, the assets of the fund (held chiefly in capital stock of Sears, Roebuck & Co. of Chicago) had a value of approximately $5,000,000. The chief program of the fund during its early years was aid in prothe building of rural public schools for Negroes. The main of quality and content improving the grams at pre^nt are (i) rural education in both white and Negro schools in the South; (2) aid in building

Negroes:

centres of higher education for university in Washington, D.C., Atlanta uni-

up four important

Howard

TennesAtlanta, Georgia, Fisk university in Nashville, behalf in efforts see, and Dillark university in,^ew Orleans; (3) and of Negro health; and (4) a series of fellowships for Negroes for white Southerners. \ During the year the funcKexpended $530)202 upon these versity

wxd,

in'

1939 programs.

\

At

Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell opened

powerful Syracuse varsity by

its

season by defeating a

than a second in a close and exciting race, M.I.T. trailing by many lengths. A third regatta on this

less

day found Pennsylvania also making

its

rowing debut on the from Rutgers and

Schuylkill, winning rather easily over crews

Manhattan.

The

eastern rowing season

three major regattas.

On

swung

into full stride

the Housatonic, Yale in

on

May

6 with

its first trial

of

the season defeated Pennsylvania and Columbia in the historic

Blackwell

Cup

regatta winning

by

1-2

lengths and breaking the

course record held by Columbia since 1929. On the Severn river Cornell substantiated the promise it had shown the previous Satur-

day and defeated the powerful Navy crew, removing them from lengths The margin of victory was about and although the Navy offered stiff resistance there was no doubt but that Cornell was a really fine crew. On the Charles river Harvard scored a clean sweep in varsity, junior varsity, freshman and lightweight events .rowing against Syracuse, Princeton and M.I.T. This was the ninth consecutive victory for the Harvard varsity the undefeated class.

over a period of two years.

Yale scored a clean sweep over varsity, junior varsity and freshcrews of S'yracuse and M.I.T. on the Housatonic river May

man

RECORD TIME,

IN

a University of California crew defeated the University of six lengths in their annual regatta Apr. 15, 1939, in

Washington by more than Oakland estuary

last

two miles caused the eastern contingent

back, led

A

walk-away for Yale when an unfortunate mix-up with one of the lane markers forced Syracuse out of the race after rowing nearly even with Yale for a mile. On the same day Princeton also scored a clean sweep over Columbia and Pennsylvania in varsity, Junior varsity and fresh13.

man

close varsity race

was turned

into a

races.

regatta at Princeton on May 20 saw Cornell triumph in junior varsity and freshman races in easy fashion over Yale and Princeton. Yale for the second time in .1939 broke a

The Carnegie Cup

course record, and finished

its

short distance season undefeated.

two-year victory record intact Harvard scored its tenth consecutive win, this time at the expense of Navy, Pennsyl-

Keeping

its

vania and Columbia on the Charles river.

A

fitting

climax to the eastern short distance season was sched-

by Na\y with

to drop several lengths

and Columnamed. The college rowing season was brought to a close by the 77th annual Yale-Harvard regatta on the Thames river June 23. Starting at Bartlett’s Cove the undefeated but inexperienced Yale crew faced the veteran and powerful Harvard eight and soon after the start Harvard pulled into a slight lead. Rowing at a lower stroke Cornell, Syracuse, Wisconsin

bia finishing in the order

they gradually lengthened their advantage to a

maximum

of over

two lengths at the two-and-a-half-mile mark. Here Yale seemed to improve and soon after the three-mile flags were passed began closing the gap between the two shells. Over the last mile the splendid Harvard crew although being overtaken by Yale was able to hold its lead and crossed the finish line at New London slightly more than a length ahead of Yale and thus completed a clean sweep of the regatta, having won the freshman and junior varsity

27 on the waters of Lake Cayuga at Ithaca. The undefeated Harvard crew was pitted against Cornell, Pennsylvania and Syracuse. Before the races could be run off a blinding hail

races in the morning.

and wind storm swept the waters of the lake into a fury. Regardless of the hazardous conditions the races were held and Cornell with a remarkable exhibition of watermanship defeated Harvard by a length with Syracuse and Pennsylvania close behind. The University of Wisconsin varsity crew, enroute to the Poughkeepsie races, stopped at Lake Onondaga and raced Syracuse on

Tabor academy was the undisputed champion of preparatory

uled for

May

June 9 over a three-mile course, losing by one and one-half lengths. Seven varsity crews lined up at the start of the annual Poughkeepsie four-mile race in the evening of June 17. The usual rivalry between eastern and western rowing had shown an equal sharing of honours in the two preliminary races. California won in the record time of iS.'iaf; Washington was

second, also breaking the old record (18:19) set

by Navy

The

4-mile course

in 193S.

blistering pace set

by the powerful western crews over the

Harvard won the annual Joseph Wright Cup race at Cambridge for the championship in the lightweight division of college rowing. school rowing being undefeated in five races.

Great

Britain.

— Contrary

(E.

0

.

Le.)

Cambridge won April during 1939. Facing an

to all expectations,

the University boat race early in

Oxford crew which had been considered much too strong for them, the somewhat lighter Cambridge eight confounded the critics and their opponents by starting with a tremendous rush which gave them a lead of almost a full boat length at the end of the first half-mile and open water at the end of the first mile. Oxford, completely surprised by the unexpected starting speed of the others, never was able to settle to real rowing, struggled hard but was never back in the race. Cambridge, with a comfortable lead, dropped its stroke to 30 and paddled over the course in control all the way. At one point, the winners had almost six lengths of lead, holding four at the finish in face of a late rally by the losers.

589

"ROYAL OAK” — RUMANIA

590 The Henley

was notable for the dominance of foreign crews. Harvard university won a victory in the Grand Challenge Cup, becoming the second United States, and incidentally Harvard, crew to win this event, the last time in 1914. Turning back

stones or lumps of earth accidentally passing through the machine, have aided greatly in reducing the cost of combined har-

London Rowing Club, holders of

direction.

regatta

the Grand, in their first heat.

Harvard continued to win all its heats without much trouble, defeating the Argonaut Rowing Club of Canada in the final. The final was rowed into a squally headwind. Harvard winning by 3

vester and thresher to a point within the means of the average farmer. Rubber tires, also, have been an important factor in this

Increasing numbers of farm implement machines and farm tractors were equipped with rubber tires. During 1939 more than half the farm tractors manufactured were so fitted.

Applications of rubber for reduction of noise and vibration

were extended. Wheels for

lengths in 7:40.

rail-vehicles

were constructed so as to

were won once more by Joe Burk of the United States, his unorthodox, straight up stroke and high rate giving him his second successive victory in this, R, Verey of Poland being the runner-up. The winner had lengths at the finish

support the load of the cars on rubber in shear and to reduce the shocks to rails and to car bodies and greatly diminish noise. Under rails, mainly on bridges and in terminals, tie plates with rubber inserts have been installed. These carry the full weight of rails

and his time was 9:15. The Thames Challenge Cup, which has been taken frequently in the past by United States schoolboy crews, produced an All United States final when Tabor academy defeated Kent school, the latter the holders. The Zurich Rowing Club won the Stewards Challenge for Fours, Trinity hall of Cam-

and cars and successfully decrease noise and

The Diamond

Sculls

bridge took the Visitors

Cup

for Fours;

Plate went to Clare college of Cambridge

;

the Ladies Challenge the Maidenhead

Row-

by taking the Wyfold, contributed a British victory and John Beresford, Jr., and L. F. Smithwood, coming from behind to tie J. Scherlie and Brothie of the Trieste Rowing Club, furnished ing Club,

another British

first

(R. F. K.)

place in the finals.

"Royal Oak": see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of; European War; Submarine Warfare. Ruanda and Urundi: see Belgian Colonial Empire; Mandates.

Rublier and Rubber Manufacture.

m.£1;

reducing noise inside automobiles and aeroplanes.

The use of rayon cords as reinforcement in high speed tires increased greatly during 1939. Sales of large tires for earth-moving or strip-mining operations were markedly enlarged. Scrapers for stripping earth from the surface require

enormous

tires,

the predominant sizes of aeroplane tires have shifted to larger

dimensions.

Puncture-sealing tubes found increased acceptance

and the European war developed a need for similar tubes to hold air after bullets have punctured them. Both rubber and synthetic materials were increasingly utilized for equipment to hold corrosive solutions. Plating baths from which bright nickel is deposited are sensitive to minute quantities of impurities; but rubber linings were designed which serve admirably in this exacting service. Metal tanks were lined with Koroseal to

resist the action of nitric acid

used for cleaning

cles of stainless steel, copper, brass or nickel.

were supplied for

.chromic acid baths for chromium-plating operations.

abruptly stopped.

Active progress

is

being

made

to synthesize

Because of cheaper raw materials and elimination of import duties, development of uses for the American-made product should be stimulated. The use of similar materials in the United States.

other rubber-like materials, notably Pliofilm and Koroseal, likewise increased greatly during 1939. Koroseal-insulated building wire for low-voltage circuits, recently announced, is less bulky than the earlier type of conductor sheathed with rubber and

A number Rubber

resisting

the intensely

corrosive

in roads.

strips

These

seals are designed to

for materials used in

filling tree cavities

was

supplied.

Marked progress was made; in extending

the uses of articles de-

veloped in former years. Sptipge rubber from latex found greatly increased application in seal cushions and mattresses. It was adopted for automobile seat atshions, and railroads were stimuthrough lated to adopt it because of the\uperior comfort obtained great combining belts C\onveyor intercity buses. its use in understrength and flexibility were installed for handling coal

ground where space for transport is limited. V-belts, long used for power drives for various types of'^ationary machines, were increasingly ^plied on agriculturaP machinery, particularly on small combines.\

tricity

and found

to permit less surface leakage of elec-

than those they replaced.

(J.

W.

Sc.)

Rttbber Footwear.

Rulers: see Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers. 113,919 sq.ml.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938) 19,852,000 (Rumanians 75%; Magyars 8%; Germans 4%). Chief towns (pop. est. July i, 1938); Bucharest and suburbs (cap., 646,744); Chisinau (112,941); Cernauti (109,821); lassy (104,597); Galati (102,235); Cluj (100,099). Ruler King Carol 11 ; premier, M. Tatarescu; language, Rumanian; religion, Christian [Greek-orthodox 13,108,227; Greek-Catholic 1,427,391;

Roman

Catholic 1,234,151

History.

—On February

i,

(census figures 1930)]. the cabinet resigned. A new Govern-

ment was constituted with the premier,

M.

Patriarch,

Miron

minister.

Cristea, again

Calinescu vice-president of the council and minister

M. Gafencu foreign and M. Calinescu be-

of the interior and of national defence, and ,

These belts, spetially designed to withstand shocks caused by

of

ing telegraph wires on poles were adopted to guard against malicious breakage,

Dlimania nUlIlQlllui

installed in

Growth

new bark over this rubber was found to be more rapid than over nny other material heretofore tried. Rubber insulators for hold-

old conduits.

may now be

of

of miscellaneous applications of rubber are of inter-

Rubber Footwear: see Shoe Industry; Rugby: see Football; Great Britahi.

circuits

action

were applied extensively for sealing of joints remain below the road surface at aU times and effectively exclude water. Hard rubber possessing special electrical properties and moisture resistance was adopted for insulation in radio equipment. Special rubber facing est.

Consequently, larger conductors or more any conduit. This new product installations but permits lighting new not only offers economy in increase in total lighting load on conductors newly installed in

braided textile covers.

arti-

Similar containers

ment appeared

methods of processing and manufacturing rubber goods. Nor were there any startling announcements of new rubber-like synthetic materials which rubber manufacturers might use as an adjunct to their operations with natural rubber. The use of imported Perbunan increased rapidly up to the onset of the European war, when the supply was

some

weighing 7501b. and capable of carrying a 20,000-lb. load. As aeroplane travel has increased and larger planes have appeared,

1939, as in former years, in improving the quality of certain materials used with rubber, no outstanding new commercial developeither in materials or in

More-

vibration.

over, plastic rubber sprayed on metal has been found effective in

On March

6 the Patriarch died

came premier. Parliamentary 2,

elections were held on June i and only candidates'for the National Front being allowed to stand;

parliament was opened on June

7.

There were several clashes with the Iron Guard in the spring, but policy towards Jews and national minorities (most of which joined the “National Front”) was more conciliatory. M. Gafencu remained in close touch with his fellow-statesmen of the Balkan Entente, and also with Poland; but relations with Hungary became severely strained at the Czecho-Slovak crisis of March; troops were called up and remained on the frontier during the summer. When in August M. Gafencu offered Hungary a nonaggression pact. Count Csaky insisted on receiving at least formal guarantees for the

On March

Magyar minority

as a preliminary.

was reported that a German economic mission in Bucharest had proposed to Rumania a far-reaching agreement whereby Rumania was assured a market for her agricultural sur1 7 it

plus in return for her reducing hef industries.

German

experts

were to co-operate on favourable terms in developmg certain of Rumania’s natural resources. The trade agreement actually concluded on March 23 was much less unusual, although Germany was promised a large share in developing Rumania’s mines, forestry, oil wells, etc. and undertook to supply arms and munitions extensively. But subsequent trade agreements with France (March 31) and Britain (May ii) somewhat restored the balance. The British and French guarantees to Rumania (April ii) were re-

6,

Rumania deGerman and sub-

following the invasion of Poland,

cided to maintain strict neutrality, although the

sequent Soviet advance, which wiped out of existence her chief

She showed an increasing tendency to lean on Turkey, with whose help she hoped to weld ally,

made her

position very

In

tions, Hungary even withdrawing her troops from the frontier, both Hungary and Bulgaria were unwilling to join any bloc, in-

stead reviving, ever

Dobruja

edly that she would

Meanwhile, a

more openly,

member

M.

their claims

on Transylvania and

In face of these, Rumania declared repeat-

respectively.

make no

territorial concessions.

by M. Argeseanu became premier, on September 28 by M. Argetoianu. On NovemCalinescu was assassinated on September 21

of the Iron Guard.

ber 22, following trade talks with Germany, which was reported to have demanded a more favourable rate for the mark against the leu, the minister for national

economy

resigned, the whole cabinet

On November

24 M. Tatarescu, the former cabinet which seemed less remote

resigning next day.

difficult.

the Balkans into a “neutral bloc”; but although her neighbours likewise proclaimed neutrality and disclaimed aggressive inten-

Calinescu, assassinated Sept. 21.

Bucharest by members of the Fascist Iron Guard

being succeeded

ceived “with satisfaction.”

On September

FONERAL OF RUMANIAN PREMIER Armand 1939,

formed a new from the old party alignments although M. Gafencu continued as foreign minister. His first task was to give a sharp reply, defending the justice of Rumania’s frontiers, to the equally strong comments which Count Csaky had made in his speech on Hungarian foreign policy on November 21. Relations with Bulgaria remained little more satisfactory, and uneasiness was caused by an article in liberal leader,

the

Comvninht International of Moscow suggesting that the Rumania when they

U.S.S.R. proposed to turn their attention to

had

finished with Finland.

On December

22 Rumania signed a further trade agreement with Germany fixing the rate of the leu to the mark at the lower value of 49-50, providing for an increased export of Rumanian oil

to Germany of 130,000 tons monthly, and guaranteeing to Rumania certain deliveries of armaments from the Skoda works. Education 1937. Elementary, State schools 15,630: scholars

—

2,338,851; secondary, ties 6: registered

Banking and

all schools 913: scholars 190,272; universistudents 34,093. Finance. ^Revenue, ordinary (est. 1939-40)

—

39,933.000,000 lei; expenditure, ordinary (est. 1939-40) 39,933,000,000 lei; public debt (Mar. 31, 1938) 117,874,300,000 lei; notes in circulation (Aug. 31, 1939) 42,351,000,000 lei; gold reserve (Aug. 31, 1939) 20,667,000,000 lei; exchange rate (Aug. 31,

1939) 655 lei=£r sterling.

—

Trade and Communications. ^Foreign trade (total): imports (1938) 18,768,000,000 lei; imports (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 15,877,000,000 lei; exports (1938) 21,533,000,000 lei; exports (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 16,891,000,000

lei.

Communications and transport: roads,

(1938) 67,26omi.; railways open to traffic (1938) 243omi.; aiiw'ays (1937): passengers carried 7,697; mail and total length

motor vehicles licensed (1937) 39,453: wireless receiving set licences (1937) 218,276; telephones, number of stations (1937) 81,205. Agriculture and Minerals. ^Production in 1938 (in metric freight carried 36,125 kilograms;

—

tons); petroleum, crude 6,603,000; natural gas 1,725,000,000 cubic

591

RUNNING— RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION

592

metres; maize 5,098,300; (1939) 6,239,400; wheat 4,821,400; (1939) 4,488,600; barley 832,200; (1939) r, 005, 600; rye 517.200;

(1939) 474,300; oats 463,100; (1939) 475,900; coal 297,000;

lig-

nite 2,084,000; iron ore (metal content) (1937) 63,000; pig iron

and

127,000; steel (1937) 239,000; potatoes (1937) 2,016,500; beet sugar, refined r39,2oo; wine 10,400,000 hectolitres; manganese ore (metal content) (1937) 18,300; gold ferro-alloys (1937)

5,465 kilograms; soybeans (1937) 70,300; rape-seed (1937) 39,300; hemp (fibre) (r937) 27,000; hempseed (1937) 23,400. Industry and labour: industrial production (1929=100) (average 1938) 131-6; unemployed, registered (average 1938)

(1937)

7,271; (Sept,

r,

1939) 4,400. {See also

Balkan Entente; Euro-

pean War.)

home and farm activities. A group of co-operative systems reported an increase in average monthly consumption per user from 69 in 1938 to 82 kw.hr. in 1939. An appliance survey conin their

ducted during the summer of 1939 among farm consumers who had been receiving service for an average period of 10-5 months

showed the following percentages

see

Track and Field Sports.

lonnh

nU{J(JCil}

was

bom

in

of the

New York

city

New York Yankees

on August

5.

baseball team,

As a young man he

herited his father’s brewing business and expanded

it

in-

into one of

the most profitable in the eastern United States. He was a U.S. congressman from 1899 to 1907. With Cot. T. L. Huston in 1915 he bought control of the Yankees, and under his ownership the team won ten American League championships and seven world’s series. Ruppert bought Huston’s interest in 1922. He died in

New York

city

January

^‘‘“Sress

in

the

electrification

of

United States which has been notable since 1935 continued at an accelerated pace during the year 1939. It is estimated that over 1,700,000, or about 25%, of the farms in the United States were receiving cenrural

areas

of

the

—

tral station service on Dec. 31, 1939 an increase of appro.ximately 300,000 for the year. At the end of 1938 about 20-6% of the farms in the United States were receiving electric service; 1937, about i 8-2%; 1936, approximately 15-4%; and 1935, about -

greater part of the increase in 1939, as in 1938,

was ac-

counted for by the extension of rural electric'systems financed by loans from the Federal Government in accordance with the Rural Electrification Act of 1936. The number of rural consumers receiving electric

be seen that

was en-

was

essential.

Interests of farmers

and

their associations in wider availability

of rural supplies were reflected in an increase in the number of applications for consent to the erection of overhead lines and in

the planned programs of the different electricity supply undertak-

Progress in isolated communities has been

many

difficult

because

adverse factors, such as local rates, guaranteed revenues

and way-leave opposition. The British Electrical and Allied Industries

Research Association has been conducting a plan of

research on rural electrification and had sub-committees at work

during 1939 on the following phases: standardization and simof supply to farms; agricultural applications; and

plification

horticultural applications.

Circumstances created by the European war strongly influenced the operations of the supply undertakings during the latter part

Development and use of electricity in rural areas were by the scheme for rationing consumption of electricity and by the mass evacuation of townspeople to safe areas in the of 1939.

power from these systems was estimated

to be

These conditions may have a substantial influence on the development and extension of rural electrification in Great Britain in the immediate future. {See also Electrical Industries; Electric Transmission and Distribution; Public countryside.

(R. B. C.)

400,000 at the end of 1939 as compared with 176,000 at the end of 1938. Of these consumers, 86% were farms, 6% were non-

Utilities.)

farm residences and 8% were commercial and industrial enterprises and public buildings. Of allotments totalling $268,037,293 made by Rural Electrification Administration by, the end of 1939 to 690 borrowers located in 45 States, about 91-5% had been lent to co-operative and other non-profit associations, about 6-8% to various public agencies and approximately 1-7% to utility companies. At the close of 1939 these borrowers had more than i8o,ooomi. of rural line in operation and approximately 25,ooomi.

Rural Electrification Administration (REA): see Electrical Industries; Rural Electrification.

ready to be energized.

Further progress in making service more widely available to farmers was achieved during the year 1939 ky the Governmentto financed systems. Estimated average cost of line decreased Among the out$583 a mile during 1939 from $768 during 1938. the development of a standing technical advances of 1939 of very limited low-cost, small-capacity service to enable farmers very low cost. at electricity benefits of income to enjoy minimum Wider availability of electric service to rural areas will be

Admin-

through the transfer of Rural United States Department of Agriculture which became effective July i, 1939. Increasing emphasis during 1939 was placed on aiding farmers to utilize electricity more effectively

facilitated '

may

affected

11 6 %.

The

it

10%

than

couraged during 1939. The National Federation of Women’s Institutes at its annual general meeting in June passed a resolution which stated that a supply of cheap electricity in rural areas

of

LlCUllilllidUUII.

Since there are about 448,000 agricultural

of the total were electrified in 1939. Further development of rural supplies in Great Britain

ings.

13.

riopfrifipotinn

in 1936.

holdings of over one acre in Great Britain,

(^6^7-1939), American brewer and owner

uduUu

iron, 84;

of rural electric supplies during 1939, it being estimated that approximately 40,000 farms were using electricity during that year. This is in contrast to about 35,000 in 1938, 30,000 in 1937

less

Dlinnort

hand

cream separator, 14; and poultry lights, 10. In Great Britain, progress resulted from the gradual expansion

and 25,000

Running:

of saturation:

washing machine, 59; refrigerator, 32; toaster, 31; vacuum cleaner, 21; hot plate, 19; pump, 18; small motor, 18; radio, 83;

istration to the

Electrification

Russell Sage foundation.

™

“

brM“»!

Sage in 1907 as a memorial to her husband. Its purpose is “the improvement of social and living conditions in the United States of America.”

The original gift by Mrs. Sage was $10,000,000, to which she added $3,000,000 in her will. The income of the Foundation in 1939 was approximately $575,000 per year. The Foundation has published over 130 books and over 200 pamphlets. Printing of books, pamphlets, educational measuring scales,forms, catalogues, etc., nowaverage

more than 200,000

pieces

per year. Its largest annual sale of books was recorded in 1939. Among its most recent publications are: Social Work Year Book

igsg edited by Russell H. Kurtz; The Master Plan, by Edward M. Bassett; Lawyers and the Promotion of Justice, by Esther Lucile Brown; Your Community, by Joanna C. Colcord; Bousing for the Machine Age, by Clarence A. Perry; and Consumer Credit arid (S. M. Ha.) Economic Stability, by Rolf Nugent.

— RUSSIA — ST. PIERR EANDMIQUELON Russia: see Uniox of Soviet Socialist Republics. Russian S.F.S.R.: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Russo-Japanese Border Conflict: see Japan; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Carpathian Ukraine was constituted

Qllthonio nUUIClIld.

the

fall

593

cents September 15, prices received

Production of

States.

by farmers in the United 18 leading countries was 894,870,ooobu. in

1939 and 895,523,ooobu. in 1938, estimates of the International Institute of Agriculture. These figures do not include U.S.S.R., for which official data have not been available for some years al-

though the Russian rye crop for 1938 was estimated at 787,000,ooobu. and the five-year average at 861,930,000 bushels. The rye crop of the United States w'as 4o,834,ooobu. in 1939 and 55,039,-

in

of 1938 as an autonomous part of the second

Czecho-Slovak Republic. It was regarded at that time as a nucleus for the formation of an independent State embracing

000 in 1938, preliminary estimate Department of Agriculture; Canada, i3,2ii,ooobu. winter rye in 1939 and 8,363,ooobu. in 1938; and 3,338,ooobu. spring rye in 1939, and 2,625,ooobu. in (S. 0 R.) 1938. {See also Cereals.)

all Ukrainians under the protectorate and control of National Socialist Ger-

many. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Mgr. Voloshin it tried to develop the Ukrainian movement through the Uno, the Ukrainian Nationalist Party, and the Sich, the militia organization of the young Ukrainians. Early in March 1939 the Central Government of Czecho-Slovakia tried to combat separatist tendencies in Ruthenia, dismissed one of the ministers, Julian Revay, and appointed General Leo Prchala as a member of the Ruthenian Government. The unrest in Ruthenia, which was soon followed by unrest in Slovakia, was the signal for the complete disintegration of Czecho-Slovakia in the middle of March 1939. Whereas German troops marched into Bohemia and Mora\aa, and Slovakia proclaimed her independence, Hungarian troops began to occupy Ruthenia. Their occupation put an end to the plans for an independent Ukraine which would have included the Ukrainians settled in the Soviet Union and in Poland. The Ukrainians tried to proclaim their independence and fought, supported by a few Czech

.

"Safety Zone": see Hispanic Ajierica and the EuropeanWar; International Law; Shipping, Merchant Marine. St. Christopher: see West Indies, British. St. Helena and Ascension Island: see British West Africa. St. Kitts-Nevis: see

West

Indies, British.

the largest city in the State of Missouri, extends I

approximately 2omi. along the Mississippi river,

covers a total area of 61-3 sq.mi., and has 856,000 persons living

within its

corporate limits.

its

The populous

areas radiating from

boundaries hold, within a distance of 25mi., 526,000 more peo-

ple.

In 1939 began a transformation of the

city’s “front

yard”

troops stationed in Ruthenia, against the invading Hungarians, but

the historic levee district, a blighted vestige of a glorious past

their efforts

were in vain. Ruthenia was occupied by Hungarian was disbanded, and the whole territory of about 11,000 sq.km, with 550,000 inhabitants annexed to Hungary. The annexation of Ruthenia gave to Hungary a common frontier with

when

troops, the Sich

After several years of delay, demolition of 40 square blocks of buildings

common

frontier for

started.

On

the site will eventually rise a beautiful

Thomas Jefferson and pioneer westward expansion. The total cost of the project will be $30,000,000. While these old riverfront structures were disappearing ^many antedated the Civil War private building construction showed a

—

—

mountains into eastern Galicia. The conquest of Poland by Germany in Sept. 1939 and the occupation of eastern Poland by the

30%

increase over the previous year. Meanwhile, public construc-

dream long cherished by the medical Malcolm A. Bliss Psychopathic Institute.

tion brought to completion a

Hungary

and the Soviet Union which was of special importance in view of the fact that the Soviet Union might wish to incorporate the Ukrainians of Ruthenia into the Soviet Ukraine, and thus to achieve the unification of all Ukrainians, not under German, but

was

national park memorializing

Poland, put the great wealth of timber at Hungary’s disposal, as well as the three great railway lines which crossed the Carpathian

Soviet Union created in Ruthenia a

Mississippi -steamboats plied a busy and profitable trade.

centre, the $1,000,000

Completed

also

was a railroad deck of the city-owned Municipal

bridge across the Mississippi, an undertaking which cost $2,700,^

000 altogether and has worried local administrations for years. But their worries were just beginning; the railroads showed a re-

imder Soviet auspices. On June 23 the Hungarian Government published a decree about the autonomous administration of Ruthenia the name of which

luctance to use the bridge after

was now changed to Carpathia. According to this decree the capital of Ruthenia is Ungvar. The autonomy which is to be exercised by officers appointed by Hungary covers the interior administration, finances and education. The Ruthenian language is admitted

families.

as second official language besides the Hungarian.

—

Bibliography.

Day (London,

jor a

Winch, Republic

^Alichael

I939)*

Declaration of war in Sept. 1939 caused a sharp advance in rye prices, from 34.2 cents a bushel on August 15 to 44 Production of Rye

in

00

1939 bu.

Germany

.

Poland Hungarj’ Prance Lithuania Netherlands .

. .

.

.

.

....

Rumania Spain

Sweden

.

.

.

.... .

,

36,510,000

.^1.677.000

21,810,000 19,062,000

31 933,000 29.555.000 21.694.000 20,362,000 ,

.

.

.

....

Latvia Finland.

.

.

.

Denmark

.

.

.

•

362,084,000 285,556,000

.

."

.

Certain Countries^ 1938

17,212,000

14,818,000 12,795,000

13,661,000 15,158,000 15.377.000 14.909.000 14,507,000 11,165,000

Argentina Bulgaria

,

Yugoslavia Slovakia Estonia

-

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

-

Italy

Portugal Greece Switzerland .

....

Luxemburg Norway. .

England Wales Ireland

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

and 1939 1938

bu.

bu.

.

known summer

open-air theatre, presented 12 musical

plays, attracting 686,045 patrons.

The

city’s

10,826,000 9,674,000 9,637,000 7,907,000 7,441,000 5,962,000

annual pageant, the

Veiled Prophet parade, drew 400,000 spectators. 7 , 397 , 000

(E. L. R.)

.

St. Lucia: see

West

Indies, British.

7,403,000 4,051,000

2,401,000 1 , 374,000 S 49 ,ocx3 394,000

St. Pierre 507,000 433.000

S:

....

Belatedly, St. Louis decided

Improvement of national economic conditions contributed a normal addition of new business firms and industrial plants to the commercial life of the city. The cultural life was enhanced by the Art museum, which acquired notable works by Millet, Wimar, Corot, Homer, Benton, Picasso, Sargent, Prud’hon and others. Erected on a city plaza, but not to be unveiled until the spring of 1940, was a $60,000 group of fountain figures modelled by the famous Swedish sculptor, Carl Milles. The Municipal Opera, internationally

1939

all.

upon a program of slum clearance and low-rent housing, with Federal aid. From Washington a $7,000,000 loan-grant was obtained which will be used for two housing projects to accommodate i,37S

428.000 53,000

and Miquelon,

smaller islands near Newfoundland.

tion

by the

latest

Language, French;

capital,

The area is about 93 sq.mi.; the populacensus was 4,175 (1936), a decline of 158 since

St. Pierre (pop. 3,396).

’

594 1931.

VINCENT— SALVATION ARMY

ST. The colony

elected council. British

is .governed by an administrator and partially

and French

The colony enjoys

transatlantic lines.

radio communications and cables connect

American continent. The islands

Merchandise already received from Germany had exceeded in value the sum of askimark credits held by Salvador. El Salvador has 604km. of railway, and a rapidly improving highway system featured by a good dirt road as its section of the new Pan American highway. local merchants.

St. Pierre is a regular port of call for several

it

sole industry is fishing, for

The

are an important centre.

excellent

with Europe and the

which the

The

trade has, nevertheless,

declined seriously in recent years, with consequent acute economic depression.

Exports in 1938 totalled 14,385,000 francs, imports

19,771,000, against 12,673,000 and 13,680,000 francs respectively

The

showed a decided increase over Imports, mostly textiles, salt, wines, foodstuffs, and meat, are from Canada and the United States, who, with the other French colonies, are the best customers. Several factors combined to reduce trade: unsettled world commerce, revaluation, and elimination of in 1937.

first

to hurt this important industry.

half of 1938

i937i with imports 9,223,000 francs and exports 14,271,000.

the lucrative liquor traffic with the United States.

Monetary unit

is

Primary education ondary schools.

is

is

The 1938

St. Vincent: see

West

the colon (value 40;? U.S.).

was 89,839, with

In 1938, foreign trade declined

1

Public school enrolment in 1938

1-9% of the national budget

tion.

the French franc (value: 2.23jf U.S.).

public,

(for domestic consumption)

22.5% over 1937. Exports amounted to 27,365,000 colones and imports to 22,867,000. The United States took 61-8% of the exports and furnished 46-7% of imports, an increase from 40-4%, at the expense of Germany’s share in the trade. The monetary unit

budget was balanced at 10,371,900 francs. In spite of efforts to improve the colony’s economic condition, it still shows annual deficits.

principal products are corn

and coffee. In 1938 coffee accounted for 87% of the exports, a drop from 91% in 1937. The 1939 coffee crop was estimated to exceed that of 1938, but loss of the German market was expected

(L.

Colirotinn flrmu udlVdllUII nl llljfi

supplemented by two parochial sec(L. W. Be.)

“the

W.

allotted to educa-

Be.; C. N. G.)

^^39 was an important one in Army world” a sphere

—

Salvation

which embraces some 18,000 corps and employs some 30,000 commissioned officers doing religious and social service work among the less privileged classes of 97 countries and colonies the world

Indies, British.

around.

Qoitn Uirnci OdIlUy nilUol

Japanese diplomat, was

bom

The year saw

at

Niigata in the province of Echigo, Japan, De-

women

cember 24, and was educated at Peers college and the University of Tokyo, where he received a law degree in -1910. That same year he entered the Japanese diplomatic service. In 1922 he was a delegate to the naval conference in Washington; later he was consul in Seattle, consul general in New York city, and from 1934 to 1938 Japanese Ambassador to the United States. In 1930 he was attache to the Japanese embassy in London and the next year minister to The Netherlands. Prior to his appointment as Ambassador to the U.S.A. he was senior counsellor to the embassy at Washington. Saito was author of Japan’s Policies and Purposes, published in the United States in 193^. He died in Washington, D.C. on February 26, four months after retiring because of ill

rendered her penter.

was

convened in

by the London

new

balloting of

head of the Army High Council,

international

members

of the

for this purpose during the

month

of August.

many

years

and executive departments, previously commanded the Army’s forces in Canada and South America, advancing its interests in those lands by his progressive and democratic policies.

The year 1939 tive,”

phase of

literary

also witnessed a broadening of a comparatively

Army

ministry: character-building, or “preven-

work among young

people. While in no wise slackening

rescue and rehabilitative labours

among

those

whom

its

society at

large stamps incorrigible, Salvationists last year^pushed the devel-

smallest of the Central American republics, located on the Pacific Coast; language, Spanish;

San Salvador (pop. 136,845) president. General Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez. The area is 13,172 square miles. The population by the June 1937 census was 1,631,967, with 38% urban, and was officially estimated at 1,685,827 in June 1938. Government is in the hands of the president-dictator. General Mari, tinez. On Jan. 20, 1939, his term of office, due to expire March Constitutional Congress 1939, was extended to Jan. 1945 by the which drew up and adopted a new Constitution. This document capital,

;

put the appointment of suffrage mayors in presidential hands, and required compulsory office of vice-president,

A

plot against the

Government

just

of all adult male down by before the Constitution was promulgated was quickly put throughquiet remained troops already mobilized, and the country Conthe passed by was law new press year. the out the rest of of all except gress Jan. 30, restricting publication and editing Refupurely scientific publications to nativerbora Salvadoreans. order gees from Europe were refund admission to Salvador by an another issued in July dsi^ing entry to/‘any person expelled from citizens.

her successor, General-elect George L. Car-

prominent in the organization’s

many-phased youth program, creating boys’ clubs, to, and in some cases allied with, the Boy and Girl Scouts), summer camps for the young, Torchbearers’ clubs (for the evangelization of youth by youth), and many other departments catering to the educational and spiritual needs of boys and girls. Indicative of the public’s increasing acceptance of the Army’s

opment

away with the

office to

election of the

General Carpenter, an Australian by birth and for

^

Sales: see Retail Sales. Sales Tax: see Taxation.

did

The

effected

modem

El,

personalities of the 20th century. General Booth, at 73, in

obedience to a retirement regulation partly created by herself, sur-

health.

Salvador,

the retirement of General Evangeline Booth,

daughter of the Army’s founder and one of the most striking

A

country.” Trade agreements vAtb.

September when the European

firms were caricelled in broke out, 'without losses to

German

^r

of a

Life-Saving Scout, and Guard units (similar

peculiar evangel cals, chief

is

the increased circulation given

among which

is

The War Cry, the

its

129 periodi-

several editions of

which average close to 2,000,000 copies per week. During 1939, The War Cry’s circulation increased by many thousands per week. For example, the four editions printed in the United States, combining for a national Christmas issue, sold 1,900,000 copies for that single number, said to be the largest circulation ever given a religious journal in America.

But perhaps the most striking service performed by the SalvaArmy in 1939 was its quick establishment, on many fronts, of Already labouring during the early its war work operations. months of the year among war victims in China, and courageously tackling the gigantic problem of caring for refugees and orphans left by the Spanish conflict, the declaration of war between Germany and France and England found the Army ready in the comtion

petent tradition which gained for

it

acclaim during 1914-18.

SAMOA. AMERICAN — SAN FRANCISCO FAIR and military homes, in strategic spots around the world, promptly enlarged their services. A trained force of workIts naval

the arts of ministering to the comforts of soldiers

ers, skilled in

was immediately dispatched to the war Huts and canteens, more than loo in number, were opened in and near virtually all large military and naval bases in Great Britain, France and Finland. In co-operation with governmental agencies, Salvationists and their many institutions of mercy lent invaluable service in the evacuation of children from large cities (E. J. Pa.) such as London and Paris. in front-line positions,

zones.

^ possession of the United states of America, lies about 2,700 miles east of of Australia and 2,200 miles south of the Hawaiian

Qamna Amoriran OulllU(l| filliCI Ibiillf the northern tip islands

;

comprises the island of Tutuila and all other islands of the of longitude 171° W., including Rose island,

Samoan group E.

Tau, Olosega, Ofu, Aunuu, and Swain’s. The principal island is Tutuila, area about 40 square miles. Pago Pago, the capital, population about 1,000, has the safest and best harbour in the South seas.

Total population on July Samoa (Polynesians)

natives of

1939, 12,785, including 12,562

i, ;

the remainder are foreign

bom

and personnel of the U.S. Naval establishment. Public schools had an average enrolment of 2,823 during 1938Health and sanitary conditions are excellent. All medical is given by naval medical officers who treat the people free of charge. The only bank is the Bank of American Samoa, conducting a commercial banking business as a division of the Treasury of the Naval Government of American Samoa, which 39.

attention

Copra is the chief export of importance: owns 1,400 tons, returning $55,324> were exported during the fiscal year 1939; 360 tons of mats, rugs, and native curios, returning $47,000, were also exported during the year. The island is solvent and re(L. S. F.) ceives no financial aid from the U.S. Government. the capital stock.

595

24-2%; 39,425 Negroes or of other races, or 6-2%; 338,033 males and 296,361 females. More than $100,000,000 of major construction was under way at the turn of the year in the San Francisco Bay Area with approximately $50,000,000 in a shipbuilding program, $35,000,000 in naval supply and naval air bases and other Federal projects on Government Island and the agricultural laboratory at Albany. In addition $15,000,000 will be spent by the Pacific Gas and Electric company for the construction of three power plants in Contra Costa county in the vicinity of the refineries of the Tidewater Associated, Shell, and Union Oil companies. The $10,000,000 aeronautical research station at Sunnyvale will also be under way. The 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition brought 10,496,203 visitors to Treasure Island. Of this total, approximately 4,900,000 persons went via the San Francisco-Oakland Bay bridge. Preliminary estimates on the value of the Exposition to the San Francisco Area, presented by the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce, indicated that approximately $70,000,000 was expended by visitors to the San Francisco Bay Area. Education. ^There are 181 public schools in San Francisco, including 72 kindergartens, 82 elementary schools and 26 high schools, supplemented by numerous private, parochial, non-sectarian and technical schools. It is estimated that there are several whites, or

—

thousand children in the city attending private schools. The University of San Francisco and the San Francisco State Teachers’ college are located in the city

and the University of California at

Berkeley, and Stanford university at Palo Alto, are both within

easy commuting distance of San Francisco. In addition, the University of California maintains several branches in San Francisco,

including colleges of medicine, dentistry,

pharmacy and law, and

the California School of Fine Arts; Stanford university’s colleges

of dentistry and medicine are also located in San Francisco.

—San Francisco

Trade.

contains the

most compact market in

the West, with 15,105 persons per square mile. Only

Samoa, Western:

see

Mandates; Pacific Islands, Man-

Boston and Philadelphia exceed

power

dated.

of these people

Americans.

Qonil onri Proiral uallD flllQ UiaVcI.

leading uses of sand and gravel are

in building construction and road paving; these account for 80% of the sand and 90% of the gravel consumption of the United States; the only other important use of gravel is as railroad ballast,

remainder, but

which takes

all

but

with sand, ballast accounts for only

1%

2%,

of the

while the

an additional 3% as engine sand; there are a number of industrial uses, the most important ones being in foundry work pro(8%), glass making (4%), and abrasives (1%). The total duction decreased by 4% in 1938, as compared with 1937, reachrailroads use

ing 57,114,000 short tons of sand and 124,206,000 tons of gravel,

a total of 181,320,000 tons. The combined output of sand and gravel in Canada increased by 13% in 1938 to 30,557,000 short tons. Production in the United than in Canada, amounting to 21,307,000 long tons in 1937. Of this total 73% was used by the building industry (G. A. Ro.) and 18% for road metal and ballast.

Kingdom

Sand

is less

amounts

is

effective

to $3,360,

The

New

effective

York,

buying

the equivalent of 1,127,675 “average” buying income per family in San Fran-

compared

to $2,893 in California, $2,788

and to $2,392, the average for the nation. The retail sales in San Francisco are estimated at $300,000,000, and wholesale sales at the tremendous sum of $1,400,000,000. Sales at in the Pacific Coast,

retail

coast.

per capita amount to $443, leading all other key cities of the Sales at wholesale exceed those of any other coast city.

Transportation.

—Converging

in

San Francisco are seven major more than 30

transcontinental rail routes, 177 steamship hnes,

truck

lines,’

four transcontinental bus services, three transcon-

and the famous transpacific Clipper Today, San Francisco is the terminus of four Class I railroads and a number ,of short lines. Since the San FranciscoOakland Bay bridge was opened on November 12, 1936, it has been crossed by 28,650,000 vehicles and more than 80,000,000 passengers have been carried over the bridge by motor vehicles or comtinental air transport routes fleet.

The bridge has taken in $15,300,000 and it is has effected a saving of $10,268,000 to motorists in lowered fares. During the three years it was estimated that motor muters’ trains.

estimated

it

amounted to 236,362,500 and that a total of 14,772, 656gal. of gasoline were consumed at an estimated cost of $2,732,941, and that the State gasoline tax on this gallonage amounted to $443,1 79. (G. L. N.) vehicle mileage over the bridge

Island: see MmwAv Islands. see Stone.

Sandstone:

U.S.A., central port, financial and r ; -n California, rlQuCiSCQ) marketing centre of the Pacific coast, known area, 44-82 sq.mi.; population i, of census according to the U.S. 1930, 634,3941 estimated Jan. were (1930) population, 235,298 city’s Of the 776,260. 1940, whites native whites of native parentage, or 37-1% 206,285 native bom foreign iS3;386 or parentage, of foreign or mixed 32-5%;

as the “City

cisco

The

this density.

by the Golden Gate;”

San Francisco Bay Bridge: see California; San FRAxasco. San Francisco Fair: see Architecture; Art Exhebitions; Art Galleries and Art Museums; California; Electric Lighting;

Fairs

and Exhibitions;

;

Lumber; San Francisco.

Interior Decoration;

SAN MARINO — SAVINGS BANKS, MUTUAL

596

republic of 38 sq.mi. in the Apennines,

QqII Mormn udii iViurillUj

S.W. of Rimini, entirely surrounded by Italian territory, is ruled by a Grand Council and two Regents (“Capitani Reggenti”) appointed therefrom to exercise executive powers. The population (Sept. 1938) was 14,389, giving a density of about 379 per square mile.

There

inhabitants.

rency

is

The is

capital (of the

an electric railway to Rimini. Italian cur-

in use, but there

issue of postage stamps.

anced at 5,474,673

same name) has about 2,000

is

a local silver coinage, and a separate

The budget

estimate for 1938-39 bal-

21. He was educated at the Athenee Royal in Brussels, at the School of Mines in Liege, and at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, where he received his bachelor’s degree in 1889. Many of his colleagues called him a founder of the science of metallography, and he was thus cited in an honorary Sc.D. degree from Harvard in 1935. He joined the faculty of Harvard in 1889 and was professor of metallurgy there from 1905 until his retirement in

to advise the American Aviation

Commission in France and the French Ministry of Munitions. His many honours included the Bessemer gold medal of Great Britain in 1924 and the first Albert Sauveur achievement medal of the American Society for Metals.

see Borneo.

He dency of Calvin Coolidge, was born in Ludlow, Vt., on October 13 and was educated at Tufts college. Admitted to the bar in 1890, he became attorney-general of Vermont in 1908. Coolidge appointed him to the cabinet in 1925 after the U.S. Senate had withheld confirmation of Charles Warren as attorney-general. He died

town of

his birth

QncIfOtphoU/Qn

udondllillcWdll,

on March

i,

1905. It has a total area of 251,700

Dominion Bureau

sq.mi.; population 949,000 (estimate, tistics,

The seat of Government is Regina. The Liberal Party, elected June 8,

of Sta-

1939).

History. in

—

power under the premiership

of

W.

1938, continued

Patterson. There were

no

happenings of special significance during 1939. The wheat crop for 1939 (wheat growing is the

political or other

Economic. first

—

industry of the province) was 239,ooo,ooobu. as compared

with 132,000,000 in 1938, and 37,000,000 in the drought year 1937. Other grain crops were in bushels, oats 115,000,000 (90,000,000, 1938), barley 26,000,000 (20,000,000, 1938), rye 9,300,-

000 (3,400,000, 1938) and flaxseed 1,150,000 (725,000, 1938). The total value of all field crops for 1939

is

estimated at $165,150,000

compared with $101,388,000 for the previous year, a gain of 63%. Aggregate farm capital has now reached approximately $1,000,000,000. Other main sources of income were minerals $7,as

782,847, manufacturing, $62,205,884, fisheries $468,646, for 1938. Incomplete figures show these were exceeded in 1939. Mining progress in the north of the province was reflected in the addition of 26,300 h.p. to the hydro plant at Island Falls on the Churchill river and a new installation (3,300 h.p.) at Wellington lake on

Chariot river for use at Goldfields.

(J.

T. C.)

Gustave David) (18S8Cir Dhiiin UuSSuOili uir rilllip 1939), British statesman, was bom December 4 of a distinguished Jewish family, the British branch of which Lad been founded by his great-grandfather. He was

Coppnnn

educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford. Sir Philip entered Parliament in 1912 at the age of 23 and was at that time its youngest member. During the World War he was private secretary to Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, commander in chief of the British armies in France. He was twice under-secretary of state for air, from 1924 to 1929, and from 1931 to 1937. In 1937 Neville Chamberlain appointed him first commissioner of works in his cabinet. Sir Philip was a bachelor and was believed to be

one of England’s wealthiest men.

RonVe

He

died in

i,

in the United States in-

1939. Total assets were $11,-

I, 1939, an increase of $213,900,000 over 1938, as compared with an increase of $40,400,000 during

741,000,000, on July

July

I,

London on June

3.

The combined

surplus remains unchanged at $1,314,000,000 or

Dividends averaged 2-17% in 1939, a from the average of 2^% in 1938. Decreases by individual institutions were announced to become effective during the second half of 1939. During the year two banks were absorbed by mergers reducing the total number of banks to 541. Although Government bonds continued to be the chief outlet for investments, there was evident a renewed activity in new mortgage loans. Approximately 22% of such loans made during the six months ending June 30, 1939, were insured by the Federal Housing Administration. Nearly 40% of all the-savings banks have become “approved mortgagees” under the Federal Housing Act and are, therefore, in a position to make insured loans. This type of loan has been well received by the public. An important reason for its popularity is the elimination of the second mortgage and by virtue of the system of regular monthly payments of interest on principal it is possible for the Government agency to insure loans up to 90% of the appraised value of the property. The Federal plan has done much to demonstrate to borrowers the desirability of reducing their mortgage debt periodically. Progress is being made in converting old mortgage loans to an amortized basis under which loans are repaid in fixed and regular small instalments. This development was in large part a result of the education of borrowers by the activities and example of the Federal Government, both in the Home Owners Loan Corporation and the Federal Housing Administration. Perhaps the outstanding development in 1939 in the mutual savings banks was the establishment of insurance departments in New York banks. The law permitting savings banks in New York State to establish an insurance department became effective Jan. i, 1939, and on January 6 three banks in New York city opened their insurance departments for business. A bank in Rochester followed suit on January 24, and in April a bank in Troy and another bank

12-60% of

total deposits.

slight decrease

in

New York

city joined the list of issuing banks.

'^slam.

In addition to

the six issuing banks, seven banks located in various parts of the State have become agency banks. By October i there was $ 5 574 >000 of insurance in force representing 6,699 policies. In Massa,

chusetts, the first State in

was over

31 years in the

which savings bank

field,

insurance was was sold before

life

eight years after the first policy

force exceeded $5,000,000. Now, after Massachusetts banks have over $170,000,000

the total insurance in

V ;

Assets and deposits of mutual sav-

creased in the year ending July

sold, it

Saturn: see Astronomy. Saudi Arabia: see Arabia

Mlltliol

uuVIllgO DdllnO) IVIUlUdl. ings banks

the year ending July i, 1938. Deposits credited to 15,400,112 accounts reached a new high of $10,390,000,000 on July i, 1939.

5.

middle of the three prairie provinces of Canada, was created a province by the Do-

minion Parliament Sept,

died at Boston on January 26.

dSl/pS!

Sargent, John Garibaldi

in the

(^^63-1939), American metallurgist, was a native Belgian, born at Louvain on June

I 93 S- As one of the acknowledged world’s experts on the metallurgy of iron and steel he was called upon during the World War

lire.

Santo Domingo: see Dominican Republic. Sao Thome: see Portuguese Colonial Empire.

Sarawak:

^ailUPlir Alhort uflUVClII nilJCI I I

SAYRE. FRANCIS in force representing

more than 190,000

policies.

— SCHWAB.

B.

At present there

are in the State of Massachusetts 26 issuing banks and lor agency

As a result of the interest created by the passage of the York law similar bills were introduced in the States of New

banks.

New

Jersey and Ohio.

The

little

1939, balances in Trustee Savings Banks increased £16,000,000 to a total of £284,200,000 while the balances in the Post Office Savings

bank rose from £654,000,000

3 i> 1939

to £694,000,000.

As of March

the National Savings Certificates outstanding totalled

)

£518,900,000, an increase of £2,100,000 during the preceding 12

months. In France, savings banks did not enjoy an uninterrupted growth in deposits

XV

during the year ending

May

M.

597

On Dec. 4, 1916, Pope Benedict XI made him a cardinal bishop

created him a cardinal. Pius and vice dean of the Sacred College. At the time of his death in Vatican City on April i, he was secretary of the congregation of office.

evident effect

Great Britain. During the year ending April 30,

in

assessor of the holy office.

the holy

unsettled international conditions had

on savings

become

CHARLES

31, 1939, although the net

^PhpiriPItlflnn OullClUCllldllII| Philinn rilllip)]

('865-1939), German statesman, bom at Kassel on July 26. He

-was

entered the Reichstag in 1903, later became leader of the Social

Democrats, and proclaimed the German Republic Nov. 9, 1918. At the Weimar assembly in 1919 he was selected first Chancellor of the republic but resigned in June 1919 rather than sign the Treaty of Versailles. He went into exile in 1933 and died at Copenhagen November 29. See Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol 20, p. 63.

change for the year was an increase of 2,000,000 francs to a total

Under the decree-law of Nov. 12, 1938, amount of deposits that may be paid into an account in any one year after July r, 1939. This decree was not received favourably by the banks. In Germany, the Savings Bank Federation issued a special edition of its fortnightly publication to commemorate the passing of of 41,000,000,000 francs.

a limitation of 20,000 francs was placed on the

Henry

Sctielling, Ernest

and conductor was

pianist

bom

July 26 at Belvidere, New Jersey. After studying for four years under Paderewski in Switzerland he began his career as a concert

a century since the promulgation of the “Regulations Concerning

During the World War he served \vith the American Expeditionary Forces in France and was awarded the Distinguished Service medal. Later he conducted

the Organization of Savings Banking.” These regulations are

children’s concerts for the

still

the basic laws under which the savings banks operate although amendments have been made, such as the reorganization decree

(He. Br.)

of 1932.

pianist with a successful tour of Europe.

Bowes

Symphony

House (she died Jan. 15, 1933)He was deputy assistant district attorney of New York county in 1912-13, assistant to the president and instructor in Government at Williams college from 1914 to 1917) and a teaching fellow in President Wilson, at the White

Law

school, where he received a doctorate of

1934 he remained on Harvard’s law and director of the university’s Institute of Criminal Law. He was an adviser in foreign affairs to the Siamese Gov’t from 1923 to 1925

juristic science.

From 1919

until

faculty, first as assistant professor, then full professor of

and during the next

of five years, as jurisconsult to the ministry

foreign affairs, negotiated

orchestra.

many important

New York

died in

political treaties

which

Schizophrenia:

^phnpiripr UbllllCIUCI

Bom

in

was a

of

fascii,

n

in

thp administration of the

Roman

Catholic

Rome, e on November 12 at Montefranche, near ordained received doctorates in both law and theology, and was

Bom

the Entering the diplomatic service of sent delegation papal the of church, he was appointed a member

priest April

12,

1879.

mission. to the United States in 1893 to establish an apostolic in Jan. and, Philippines Later he was apostolic delegate to the apostolic was he Thereafter Havana. 1900, he was made Bishop of Rome to delegate for ten years before he returned to to

Canada

was originator of the co-operauniversities, whereby students

Summit

Hill, Pa.,

on September

12,

Schneider as a youth

university

by working

in

an engineering

office.

His experience

with alternate study and work in industry led him to formulate his

own

theories of practical training in engineering.

He

practice as an engineer and specialist in structural iron

gave up

work

to

accept an instructorship at Lehigh in 1899, and four years later he became assistant professor of civil engineering at the Univer-

In 1905 he persuaded the administration of

the university to introduce the co-operative plan into

its

engineer-

The success of the plan was such that it was later adopted, in one form or another, by most of the large American schools of technology and engineering, and even by colleges of commerce and Schneider was president of the University of Cinfrom 1929 to 1932 and dean of its college of engineering

liberal arts.

cinnati

until his death

on March

28.

was

cardinal, Italian (1856-1939), supportas one of the staunchest

Sbarretti, UOlifllO known Church.

American

carpenter’s apprentice and paid for his education at Lehigh

and commerce

Must Act (1935)-

('872-1939), U.S. educator and engineer,

are employed in private industry, while pursuing their studies.

ing curriculum.

ers

8.

Nervous System; Psychiatry.

tive plan of education in

and in this position directed the negotiation of reciprocal trade agreements under Cordell Hull. He had been chairman of the U.S. Interdepartmental Committee on the Philippines since i 934 on July 26, 1939 President Roosevelt appointed him U.S. high commissioner to the Philippines to succeed Paul V. McNutt. Sayre is the author of case-books on criminal, labour and ad)

see

Hprmnn

sity of Cincinnati.

Hnnnfn

his compositions for orchestras are

December

city

ilCI lliail

j

eventually abolished extraterritoriality in Siam. He was appointed assistant U.S. secretary of State by President Roosevelt in 1933

miralty law; also of America

Among

™s"bL“Arn”“o“i

South Bethlehem, Pa. and received his A.B. degree from Williams college in 1909 and his LL.B. degree from Harvard three years later. In 1913 he was married to Jessie Woodrow, daughter of

1917-18 at Harvard

Philharmonic and other

Legendes Symphoniques, Symphony Fantastic Suite, Impressions, Morocco and Victory Ball (based on the poem by Alfred Noyes).

He Sayre, Francis

New York

orchestras and from 1936 to 1938 was conductor of the Baltimore

Schwab, Charles Michael dustrialist and bom at Williamsburg, Pa. on Febmary 18. After tion

finander, was

a brief educa-

he was employed as a stake-driver by the Carnegie Steel comin 1881; by 1897 he was president of the company, and in

pany

when

merged with the U.S. Steel corporation, he became About two j'ears later he organized the Bethlehem Steel corporation. During the World War, prior to America’s entry, his company sold steel and steel products to the Allies valued at more than $200,000,000. When the United States entered the war, Schwab was chosen as director-general of the rgoi,

first

it

president of the latter.

Emergency Fleet corporation, a position he held until after the Armistice, when he returned to the Bethlehem Steel corporation as chairman of

board of directors.

its

From 1926

to 1932

president of the American Iron and Steel institute.

New York iiica, vol.

on September

city

He

he was died in

See also Encyclopedia Britan-

18.

20, p. III.

Scotland: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of.

^rillntlirP ObUlplUlCi this status in

sculpture proved

itself in

1939 in

of the most flourishing of the the exhibition

many ways one

arts.

It revealed

the completion of public

field, in

monuments and memorials, in the acquisitions of sculpture by public collections, and by various projects initiated for the use and promotion of sculpture. The two international expositions held in the United States ggve striking, lUustrafiona of srjjhjUxte’s

prominence

and afforded sculptors an additional notable achievements were recorded both in America and in Europe. Though the European war inevitably tended to dislocate plans for sculptural work in Europe, leading nations made definite attempts to foster the continuance of art expression and to provide commercial outlets for their talents. The democratiaation of art under the influence of the Governin the art field

Some

stimulus to creation.

ment Works Progress Administration continued

to

stimulate

was instrumental through the means of enabling

sculpture both in practice and appreciation, and chiefly in encouraging

new

talents

open competitions for public art works. Local Federal art projects, functioning on a relief basis, provided much useful and attractive sculpture which was allocated to schools, libraries, hospitals, and other publicly supported institu-

them

to participate in

tions.

National exhibitions in the larger

cities

served best to

illus-

which were suggested by work in new strong current of social consciousness was

trate the trends of the times,

A

experimental forms. perceptible in

many

sculpture shows, reflecting the popular trend

of the Federal program.

At the

New York

World’s Fair the solid architectural masses

of the main exhibit area were relieved and enhanced by striking sculpture groups, heroic figures representing a wide variety of historical, mythological,

and modern subjects.

In size the figures

ranged from the 65ft. statue of George Washington, dominating the main mall, to the sprightly terra cotta figures of

modern

cherubs in one principal fountain display. The 35 sculptors who conceived the work were chosen by the board of design and represented noted as well as

little

known

artists.

Sculpture also

fig-

ured prominently in the decorative pattern of the San Francisco Exposition. In both instances the sculpture was largely of impermanent construction, and not destined generally for lasting preservation.

In the exhibition field the Whitney Museum of American Art again served to bring together one of 1939’s most comprehensive groups of sculpture by contemporary artists. Opportunity for the exhibition of recent work was afforded a large number of young and older artists, however, through an outdoor exhibition held in New York, N.Y. by the newly organized Sculptors’ Guild. The 120 exhibits

by 60

sculptors, displayed in a vacant lot adjoining one

York’s principal thoroughfares, were shown throughout the spring and early summer of 1939, and attracted particular attention. The major event in the historical field, on the other hand, of

New

display of early Roman sculpture and other art held by Museum of Art to celebrate the anniversary of Metropolitan the the Emperor Augustus. This was noted especially lor its classiand percal portraiture and threw a revealing light on the art

was the

of Gulzon Borglum's oianl stone heads of four American that of Theodore Roosevelt was unveiled on Mount Rusbmorep Sout July 2 1939

THE LAST ,

—

«

sonalities of the

Augustan era

in

Rome.

Above: “EUROPA/* by G!eb W. Derujinsky, at the New York World’s Fair In 1939 Right: *'MOSES” by Alexander Archipenko, completed In

1939

Centre: "LEWIS the Department D.C.,

by

AND CLARK,”

cast-stone relief for

of Interior building, Washington, Heinz Warneke, installed May 16, 1939

Below, left: "STABILE,” an abstraction In Plexiglass by Alexander Calder, won first prize In a national competition and was exhibited at the New York World’s Fair In 1939 Below, right: "GUARDIAN OF WATER” by Donal Hord for the San Diego civic centre, dedicated June 10, 1939

r^

5

1

SEA BLOCKADE — SEISMOLOGY

600 Leading museums were fortunate sculptures.

The Frick

collection,

in acquiring several notable

opened as a public institution

Diana by the French i8th century sculptor, Jean Antoine

several years ago, obtained a life-size terra cotta statue of

the Huntress

Houdon, thereby taking possession of the only replica in cotta w'hich Houdon made of one of his most celebrated

terra figure

The statue once belonged to Cardinal Fesch, uncle of Napoleon. The acquisition by the Toledo museum of a stone relief by Desiderio da Settignano of “St. Cecilia” also marked an

turn to industry for re-use has grown to such an extent that in many cases the yield is so large a proportion of the total consump-

consuming industries would be seriously handicapped this additional supply; on the other hand, secondary recovery is viewed unfavourably by the primary protion that the

without access to ducer, because Very'

subjects.

important addition to the public collections of Renaissance sculpture in its most e.xquisite form, through the gift of Edward Drum-

mond

Libbey.

Except for several pieces acquired by museums

museum and

the

Art, contemporary acquisitions were few

and

devoted to latter-day

Museum

of

Modem

such as the Whitney

art,

not such as to give great importance to any particular

The

unveiling of Jo Davidson’s statue of Will Rogers, the cow-

by some,

it

exemplified for others “the story

of man’s evolution from the primitive

—

a figure

more powerful

than the most powerful animal.” There were few such sensations,

however, in the year.

(See also

Art Exhibitions.)

side of the United States.

Secondary Metals.

recovery

the

in

United

(C. Bu.)

Seconc/ary Mefafs Recovered

Copper—Thousands

in

recovery was 15,200 tons, or

—

260,0 224.6 484.6

285.6 246.5 532.1 62

192.4 167.4

154.5 120.6

68.0 S4.1

64 s 62.8 27'3 21

122. 21

—

.

275 -*^ 41

42

—

.

I

Total Percentage Nickel Thousands of short tons As metal

—

4.9 lg.7

30.S

23-6

29.4 33'2 62.6

38 0.9

0.8

1-5

1.5 2.3

9.9

66

—

in chejuical

compounds.

L

38.8 26

1.

9.2 0.7

Total Percentage* Platinum Thousands of Troy Ounces As metal Percentage

16.7 22.1

0.9

of short tons

In alloys

42

35

2.4

s6.o

lo

5

s

Antimony Thousands As metal

42-3 44.8 87.1 21

S .3

2.0

Total Percentage*

II9.4 105 s 224.9 41

22.0

42

alloys’!

60

7.2

20.9 30.6 Si-S

In alloys

359-8

20.S 28.0

34

—

some

re-

193S

125-4 262.9

In alloys Total Percentage* Zinc ^Thousands of short tons As metal In alloys Total Percentage* Tin ^Thousands of short tons As metal In alloys! Total Percentage* Aluminium ^'rhousands of short tons As metal

jlncludes

and their

rojT

I37-S

As metal

—

metals

1936

65

.

of

^

metal.

new

supply.

(G. A. Ro.)

Exchanges. corporate society that educates dogs to be

FuO wCClIlg LjC) the trusted guides and friends of blind men and women, had in 1939 the most successful year since its inception in 1928 when Mr. Morris Frank brought his German shepherd, Buddy, from Mrs. Harrison Eustis’s kennels

in Switzerland. Bred by Mrs. Eustis and Mr. Elliott S. Humphrey, the geneticist, Buddy was the dog that proved Seeing Eye dogs could safely guide blind people through heavy American street traffic; and it is primarily due to her that in 1939, 450 dogs were leading their 450 blind owners from darkness and dependence into light and liberty. Even in death for Buddy drew her last faithful breath, in the summer of 1938, still by her master’s side ^she continues her Seeing Eye work. Mr. Frank now has a handsome male dog for guide and friend; but the first "buddy"

for “character” and trained

—

—

not forgotten.

Eye dogs

are

now working

in

II 0.8 12,3 .

68

\,S 5.9

7-8 0.7

8.S

73 44-7 51

45 of the United States, and Canada. Some dogs are

the District of Columbia, and in

“attending college” as pilots to student masters; others are en-

gaged as guides in such diversified occupations as the law, teaching, the ministry, journalism, music and a great variety of mercantile pursuits, including selling insurance

In alloys Total Percentage* Lead ^Thousands of short tons

new

Second World War: see European War. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): see Bankruptcy; Law (Case): 5 ec;(nV/w; Legislation, Federal; Stock

Seeing

of short tons

.

6%

the United States

As metal

In

secondary

States

for

Indirect data from Germany indicate a secondary copper recovery of 80,900 metric tons in 1938, or 22% of the new supply; lead recovery was 22,500 tons, or 9% of new supply; and zinc

Secondary.

of

demand

available on secondary recovery outNo other country has developed it to

the degree prevailing in the United States, but pressure of circumit farther in Germany than elsewhere.

in

The

the is

stances has probably pushed

is

Sea Blockade: see Blockade. Secondary Education: see Education,

it restricts

information

artist.

boy humourist and philosopher, in the statuary hall at the national Capitol in Washington, marked a principal addition of 1939 to the store of public sculptural monuments. Presented by Oklahoma, it serves as a valued instance of the public’s interest in sculpture as a means of commemorating a national personality. Others completed were a bronze statue of Walt Whitman by the same artist, to be set as a monument to the poet in the Palisades Interstate park. New York, and a symbolical group entitled “Meeting of the Rivers” by Carl Milles, erected at St. Louis, near the junction of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. The year’s most celebrated controversy was that created in London in June by the exhibition of Jacob Epstein’s squat 7ft. figure of Adam, carved in a three-ton mass of alabaster. Considered "shocking”

little

and

groceries,

and

raising

poultry.

In addition to the increased number of trained dogs

produced

in

1939 for those blind persons mentally and physically

capable of benefiting from a dog, the Seeing

Eye rnade notable

progress in informing a sympathetic public of the Seeing Eye’s

need for

financial support

—each dog

costs

many

times the amount

paid by the blind purchaser. Bibliography. Ruth Adams Knight, A Friend in the Dark (1937); Alice Crewe and Fleming Gall, Each in his Way (O-xford, 1937); The Story (B. Ta.) of The Seeing Eye (The Seeing Eye, New York, 1938).

—

CniomnlniTil dClolllUIUgJ

I’^^intained progress

of events after that date.

through August, and

it

is

1940) to appraise the effects Major earthquakes in central Chile

not possible (Jan.

i,

on Jan. 24, 1939 and in central Turkey on December 27 caused widespread destruction and loss of life. Severe aftershocks followed the earthquake in Turkey, continuing into the new year and adding to the destruction. (See also Chile.) A destructive earthquake on June 18, at Accra, Gold Coast, Africa, was in a rather unusual locality.

Strong earthquake motion has been measured, and has been analyzed by mechanical as well as by mathematical methods. Information thus obtained has been applied to the design of many kinds of structures, including dams, bridges, water towers, and

Models of proposed structures have been tested on shakconstrained to reproduce actual earth motions. Effecplatforms ing

buildings.

— SELENIUM — SHASTA DAM live building construction codes

have been adopted where neces-

sary and are being improved as information

is

seismograph has been adapted to the conditions to be encountered by the U.S. Antarctic Expedition.

Study of deformation of the earth’s crust by laboratory methods has been continued, with pressures up to 50,000 atmospheres, corresponding to a depth of 100 miles. prediction

is

regarded as impossible,

attention has been .given to the possibility of determining whether stress

is

growing in the crust which

means of

may

and treatment of disease.

During 1939 two chemotherapeutic agents, sulphanilamide and

perfected.

A

Though general earthquake

601

modification, prophylaxis

diagnosis,

lead to earthquake,

by

sulphapyridine, have been employed, alone or in combination with

immunizing agents, for the treatment of many diseases previously amenable only to the immunizing agents. Diseases which are treated by the use of serums, vaccines, etc., are acne caused by the bacillus acne, anthrax, bacillary dysentery', botulism, diphtheria, erysipelas, gas gangrene, measles, meningococcic meningitis,

plague,

pneumococcus pneumonia, pneumo-

coccus meningitis, scarlet fever, snake bite (North American

measurement, and listening

rattlesnake, copperhead, water moccasin;

to sounds possibly related to earthquake along great fault planes.

de-lance and other Bothrops, and British

triangulation, levelling,

tilt

and undulant (Malta) selenium output of the world

is

—

fer-

viperine),

staphylococcus and streptococcus infections, tetanus, tularemia

(N. H. H.)

Qolnniiim

South American

—cobra and

as

The use

fever.

of typhoid vaccines in the treatment of typhoid has

uClulllUllli a by-product in copper refining in the United States

never become well established, and the use of immunizing agents

and Canada; Sweden, the Sowt Union, Mexico and Japan have some production, but no statistics are available. Production in the United States amounted to 43S,8oolb. in 1937, declining to

in the treatment of

225,700 in r938, with imports of ror,o72 pounds. Production began in Canada in i93r, and reached 397,2001b. in r937. The chief use

is

in the glass industry as a decolourizer

and as the colouring

agent for red or ruby glass; other uses are in pigments, rubber vulcanization and flame-proofing; one of the most promising of the newer uses steels to

is

the addition of selenium to copper alloys and

(G. A. Ro.)

improve the machinability.

Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson

U.S. economist,

was born in New York city on April 25, the son of the founder of the banking firm, J. & W. Seligman and Company. He was tutored as a child by Horatio Alger, author of boys’ books. In 1879 he received his bachelor’s degree from Columbia university,

whooping cough

Diseases in which diagnosis

is

is still

experimental.

confirmed by the use of serums

and related preparations include chancroid, diphtheria,

leisch-

mahiasis, tuberculosis, scarlet fever, typhoid, paratyphoid, typhus

and undulant

fevers.

Experiments have been conducted with the whooping cough, but such procedures

diagnosis of meningitis and

are not established.

The

following diseases

may be

prevented by the use of immuniz-

ing agents: cholera, diphtheria, gas gangrene, measles (which

may

permanent immunization occurs), rabies, smallpox, tetanus, scarlet fever, typhoid, paratyphoid and typhus fevers. Some experimental work has been done in attempts to prevent erysipelas and chancroid, but the work is not well established. Typhoid vaccine continues to be employed in non-specific protein therapy, and normal horse serum is used in certain haemoralso be modified so that

rhagic conditions.

Convalescent

human serum has been used

in the treatment of

and in 1883 his doctorate of philos1884 ophy. At the age of 20 he began his famous collection of 50,000 books and pamphlets which he sold in 1930 to Columbia university for $500,000 one-half its estimated value. In r885 he was appointed a lecturer in economics at Columbia and he remained on the faculty as professor of political economy and finance until his retirement in r93r. Meanwhile he had served on a number of taxation committees and his advice on economic policies was sought by nations the world over. In r922 and r923 he was an expert on the League of Nations committee on economics and

measles and scarlet fever, and experimentally for the treatment of

special adviser to the

Experimental work continues with well-controlled studies of Phase I whooping cough vaccine. The use of oral vaccines for the pre-

in

M.A. and

his

LL.B.,'

—

finance,

and from 1918 to 1925 he was a

Ways and Means committee

House of Representatives. commissions was his study of the

of the U.S.

Perhaps the most famous of his tax structure of Cuba. In r93i he completed a report which became the basis of Cuban tax laws and attracted the attention of economists generally for its omission of consumption taxes and its emphasis upon direct levies. Seligman opposed all forms of the

which he deemed unjust. He was the author of some subjects, including 15 volumes on taxation and general economic (roth ed., Taxation in Essays r9r4). The Income Tax (2nd ed., Economics ed., (rzth 1929); Economics Principles 1925), of Price Cutting and Price Maintenance of Farm Relief Interpretation of History (2nd ed., r937). (1932), and Economic

sales tax

He

died at

Lake

Senate: see Congress, United States. Senegal: see French Colonial Empire. Serbia: see Yugoslavia.

Thoranu I

nBrdPy*

and other immunizing

rhage and bums.

Serums are available for the treatment of all types of pneumonia from I to XXXII, and of these, serums for Types I, II, V, VII and VIII have become official preparations, both as horse serums and as the newer rabbit serums. Immune globulin (human), as well as convalescent serum, is used in the prevention, modification and treatment of measles.

vention of the

There are

still

common cold and typhoid fever is not established. no established immunizing agents for the treatment

or prevention of the myelitis. ( 5 ee also

Sewage

common cold, influenza, gonorrhoea Common; Pneumonia.) (P.

Cold,

or polio-

C. B.)

Disposal: see Public Health Engineering: Sewage

Treatment.

Seychelles:

see

British East Africa.

sharpening stones is used Qharnoninfr Qtnnac OIIqI [Jwlllllg OlUlludi to designate the small, hand operated varieties of stones used for sharpening tools, as distinguished

Placid, N.Y., July r8.

Serums of various

mumps and chicken-pox. serums have been used in the treatment of shock, haemor-

poliomyelitis and the prevention of

Human

types, as well as anti-

vaccines toxins, toxin-antltoxins, toxoids, agents are being widely employed for the

from the large power-driven grindstones. Scythestones and whetNew Hampshire and Vermont; rubbing stones from sandstone in Indiana and Ohio; and oilstones from novaculite in Arkansas and Kansas. The tonnage is small stones are produced from schist in

(511 short tons in 1938), but the small size of the units permits amount to cover an extensive use. (G. A. Ro.)

this

Shasfa Dam:

.

see

Dams.

SHEEP — SHIPBUILDING

602 The number •

Jan

of sheep and lambs on United States farms

by the Department of Agricompared to

1940, was estimated

1,

culture as 54,473,000 head, valued at $342,893,000,

53)783,000 head valued at $309,280,000 a year earlier. The average price of sheep and lambs per head was reported as $6.29 Jan. 1940, and $5.75 Jan. i, 1939. Of the increase of 690,000 head, 177,000 were sheep and lambs on feed for market and 513,000 were stock sheep. Stock sheep in the United States Jan. i, 1940, numbered 48,473,000; a year I,

earlier, 47,960,000.

New Zealand, one of the largest producers, reported a decline: 31,858,000 as of April 30, 1939, compared to 32,379,000 a year earlier. Figures from official sources and from the International Institute of Agriculture

show the number of sheep

in different

countries in 1939 and 1938 as follows;

193S

1939

Canada

3,365,800 26 903)700 17 ) 976)000 8,042,000

United Kingdom England and Wales

,

Scotland

Northern Ireland

894,600

Germany Hungary

3,415,000 26,775,400. 17,912,500 7,969,000 893,400

5 ) 712,423

5,679,125 1,628,730 654,251

1,868,122 689,501

Netherlands Estonia Latvia Lithuania

694,700

649,700

1,469,570 1,223,600

1,360,460 1,208,420

21,992

25,220

469)943

483,374 9,872,000 102,500,000 10,137,337 406,000

Bohemia-Moravia Protectorate Czecho-Slovakia (Jan. I, 1939) France U. S. S. R. (Sheep and goats) Vugoslavia

Sweden

The 1939 lamb crop about

1%

under

in the

the' record

United States was 31,867,000 head,

crop of 1938.

Sheep slaughtered in the first ii months of 1939 under Government inspection in the United States numbered 15,852,332, compared to 16,712,714 in the same period in 1938. {See also Livestock.) (S. O. R.)

Sherman Anti-Trust Act:

see

Law

(Case): Anti-Trust.

shipping, the whole of the world’s shipQhinhiiililinn' uilipLlUllUnig* building in 1939 was influenced by war or anticipation of it. The position at the beginning of the year was varied in the diff'erent countries but in comparatively few weeks it

was on the

also

stable foundation of rational

Shipping,

Merchant Marine.)

and natural

trade.

(See

Lloyd’s Register for the quarter ended June 30, 1939, the last quarter reported before the beginning of the European war, vessels of 2,859,292 gross

tons under construction throughout the world, the

number

completing her maiden voyage Aug. 6, 1939, beLondon by squeezing Into her

largest liner ever to use the Port of

dock with only feet to spare

full

showed that there were 719 merchant

THE NEW “MAURETANIA,*' came the

(F. C. Bo.)

in-

program of 50 ships a year for ten years, at a total cost estimated at between $1,000,000,000 and $1,250,000,000. By the close of 1939, the commission had awarded contracts either directly or

in 1938.

Thus the stimulation of

unknown

quantity, has occurred in

with private owners for 141 seagoing commercial an expenditure of approximately $350,000,000 and representing almost a third of the full projected program. During the year ended Nov. i, 1939, the commission or private

In the United States, where the picture is clearer, the European war gave added impetus to the greatly enlarged merchant marine program which had been inaugurated by the United States Maritime

owners awarded to private shipbuilders contracts for 118 seagoing commercial vessels with a total gross tonnage of 911,455. The enlarged nature of this program may be seen from the fact that the heaviest building year of the American industry between the World

cluding only vessels of 100 gross tons or more. This compared with 801 merchant vessels of 2,826,902 gross tons under construction at the

same period

building, the extent being an

the last half of 1939.

Commission in late 1937 under the provisions of the Merchant Marine Act of 1936, the purpose of which was to continue the policy of providing for the carriage of a substantial portion of

American foreign trade in American vessels. Under this legislation the commission has projected a building

in co-operation

vessels, involving

War

(1914-18) period and the establishment of the Maritime Commission was 1930, when 214,000 gross tons came from the ways, but of the vessels built in that year, only 15 were of seagoing types. At the close of 1939 American shipyards, including the Government-owned Navy Yards, had under construction about

SHIPBUILDING

603

506,600 displacement tons of Government vessels and 1,122,000

program of standardized designs was

gross tons of sea-going commercial vessels, as well as a large

Alarm about the serious condition into which the British merchant navy had been allowed to decline brought a promise of Government aid, in the form of grants and loans, for the construction of new tonnage, although passenger liners, tankers and refrigerated ships were excluded. A large number of cargo vessels,

number of smaller naval and commercial craft. The year consequently has been the most active for the shipbuilding industry of the United States since the World War period, when ships were being produced at a rate never equalled before or since in America or any other country. Wages in American shipyards in 1939 were at their highest level in the history of the American industry and employment was the largest since the World War. Ship repair yards were more active than in recent years and a strong volume of employment was being

started.

both steam and motor, were ordered on the first announcement and although the grants were later withdrawn the Government decided to carry on with the loans

when

the wider subsidy scheme

was held up by the outbreak of war.

A

small proportion of the ships ordered were designed for

maintained.

regular service but the majority were tramps in the neighbourhood

Events of importance in 1939 included the maiden transatlantic voyage of the “S.S. Mauretania,” of the Cunard-White Star Line, the largest commercial vessel ever built in England (although not the largest British built vessel), and the launching at the works of the Ne^vport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of the “S.S. America,” the largest commercial vessel ever built in the United States. It is expected that the “America” will be ready for the service of her owners, the United States Lines, in 1940.

of 9,000 tons deadweight and the

Six yards not previously engaged in the construction of oceangoing commercial vessels opened and received contracts in the United States in 1939, two of them being new organizations and

the others having been engaged in ship repairing or the building of small vessels.

In the

important

field of research, continuing

have been developed from model tank tests in Europe and America. It is of note that the most modem and one of the largest model tanks in the world is now under construction at Carderock, Maryland. This model basin will be used for the study and design of ships and their propellers. It will be available for both Government and commercial work. It is nearing completion and will be results

(H. G. S.)

placed in operation in 1940.

In Britain, the yards which specialized in naval work were busy but the remainder were in a serious condition; the orders placed during the slight revival of shipping in 1937 had been completed

and very few had been secured

in

their place.

The

effort

to

spread the benefit of Government work by placing orders for small naval craft with non-naval yards was not yet showing much effect but the high pressure at which the naval section was working had material, and all others, both for labour and a number of British orders were going to Continental yards on the from difference in price, which in many motor types amounted to

increased costs in

10%

to 17%. Dutch and Scandinavian yards were working to capacity, very more largely on foreign account, as were also the Germans where

of the facilities of the industry were tic

demand

after bitter complaints.

for the coasting trade

being released for the

A

large

domes-

number of small

and inland waterways were being

craft

and

built

in experiments with producer gas engines instead proving were oil, imported of order to reduce the consumption of

Diesels,

very successful. rvith State also in process of expansion the huge getting in difficulty still assistance. In Italy there was Germany State-aided program started in full. In both Italy and

The

fishing fleet

was

yards were naval orders provided much employment. The French greatly

hampered by the

regard to social laws, especially with work was seriously slowe

the short working week, so that naval

down and

prohibitive wit the cost of merchant tonnage became

(See also Navies of the World.) careful y In Japan, beside a huge volume of naval work kept commercial on busy secret, the Government policy kept the yards

out heavy subsidy.

number of “handy-sized” tramps was disappointing. Conspicuous favour was shown to the standardized designs which a number of yards had worked out for the sake of economy, and both steam and Diesel machinery was generally of comparatively simple design, few of the more elaborate economizing devices with heavy patent royalties being installed. Except for a few tankers on Norwegian account and still fewer first class tramps for the Greeks there were no foreign contracts and the number of coasters ordered in Britain w’as not to be compared with the number of contracts which went across to Holland.

When war broke out, and the German submarine campaign was immediately launched against British and French commerce, there was naturally a complete change throughout Europe, in neutral countries as well as the belligerent States, but most of the details were kept carefully secret and only a few were released by ministers and others. Shipbuilding and repairing were brought under

Government was put under

control, for national benefit.

strict

Amos Ayre,

In Britain that

who had and construction of “econcargo ships of the simplest and most efficient type, which was the principle most favoured for rapid output and reliability when the engine-room personnel was certain to be of varied side

made omy”

Sir

a practical shipbuilder

his reputation with the design

quality.

was soon announced that there was no intention of following World war, when all the yards were made to scrap their individual plans and to work to a few Government designs, and it was planned to secure the most rapid delivery of the simplest suitable types by making the greatest use of the individual policy of each yard and engine works. This policy produced most satisfactory results and there was soon a steady stream of merchant ships being delivered. (See also Blockade; Submarine Warfare.) It

the standard ship policy of the

In

all

the belligerent countries, a large proportion of the ship-

building resources normally used for mercantile

had

work

naturally

to be diverted to naval purposes; in Britain

and France because the war against commerce demanded very large numbers of patrol, escorting and minesweeping vessels which were best built at the commercial yards and in Germany because the projected fleet of submarines, especially small minelayers, was far beyond the powers of the few yards which had specialized in their construction before the war. Italy, Holland and Denmark, with plenty of work on order, were handicapped by the difficulty of getting materials, and Spain, starting a big effort to repair the damage done by the Civil War, of getting machinery and fittings. Outside Europe, Australia, which had planned a shipbuilding

industry for years to go with .her increasing steel output, launched with Government bounties, Japan relaxed her very expensive

it

when

the ships formerly on European service returned the United States, owing to the workings of the Neutrality Act, were content for the time with the pre-war program

efforts

subsidy work to the limit of the available material, but after the tankers policy had encouraged the building of fast liners and

home and

and a almost exclusively, the shortage of tramps became acute

of the hlaritime Commission.

(F. C. Bo.)

SHIPPING.

604

MERCHANT MARINE video and Buenos Aires. Success of the passenger service inaugu-

Shipping, Merchant Marine • important development American shipping since the World War occurred in the fall 1939 when

in

rated at the end of 1938 was believed due in part to the speed

of

and attractiveness of the three liners, “Argentina,” “Brazil” and “Uruguay,” which were luxuriously equipped for the South American trade. The freight service of the Good Neighbor Fleet operated by the American Republics Line also showed encouraging

convened by President Roosevelt because of the European war, adopted the Pittman Neutrality Act which barred American ships, American citizens and American seamen from travel to belligerent ports or in combat areas.

a special session of Congress,

After a short period of readjustment most of the affected

steamship lines found other work for vessels which were thus prohibited from operating in their normal services.

The permanence

of these substitute operations and the extent

of the hardship which they involved tainable.

was not immediately

ascer-

{See also Neutrality.)

Leaving out of consideration the neutrality problem which was one of supreme national importance, to be decided on the basis of the welfare of the entire people rather than of the

segment rep-

resented by the shipping industry, the year 1939 was a relatively successful one for American ship companies and for shipping as

gains.

One new steamship service was established, the Puget SoundOrient Line, operated for the account of the United States Maritime Commission. This provided cargo sailings from PacificNorthwest ports to the Orient, which had not been available under the American flag since the American Mail Line withdrew its ships in Aug. 1938. The Puget Sound-Orient Line was begun with cargo vessels on an experimental basis, with the prospect of introducing combination passenger

and cargo ships as soon as some now building

are

completed.

The

services to Spanish ports which

Lines, Ltd., (reorganized Dollar Steam-

had been discontinued durwere resumed by the American Export Line and Lykes Bros. Steamship Co. This involved merely the

ship Lines) went into full operation with fortnightly sailings in

addition of Spanish ports of call to the established service. Late

ing the Spanish Civil

a whole.

The American President

the round-the-world service, and likewise in the transpacific service,

spaced so that there was a weekly sailing of American-flag

vessels across the Pacific.

The Lykes

Bros. Steamship Co. lines

out of the Gulf were forced to curtail their service during the

year because of a decrease in business with Germany, but toward the end of the year resumed their previous activities, using

all

their ships.

The Government-established American Republics Line from to the east coast of South America had a most suc-

New York

cessful year,

and with the increased emphasis on Latin-American

trade and co-operation, gave promise of

The

line tuns

from

New York

to

still

greater prosperity.

Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Monte-

in the

ping

War

year the Maritime Commission chartered three of

lines,

the American

Hampton Roads-Yankee

its ship-

Line, the Amer-

France Line and the Oriole Lines to United States Lines company. The lines operated in the transatlantic trade and 16 vessels were covered in the charter. Introduction of new, fast freighters was contemplated for all three lines. American flag trade from the Gulf of Mexico to the Orient practically disapica

peared because of the to China or Japan, but

new

later

out-bound

resumed. offer substantially

improved

ships being built under the Maritime

Commis-

American steamship service with

difficulty of obtaining cargoes

was

sion’s construction

lines

began to

program. They provide, particularly,

efficient

cargo handling equipment, economical operating costs and increased speed.

Twenty-five of these had been launched by the

middle of October and were to be in service by the close of the year 1939. Several were placed in service on the Moore-

McCormack Lines Scantic service to Scandinavian and Baltic The 1 2 high-speed tankers which were built by the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, with the Maritime Commission

ports.

paying the cost of national defence features, including the cost of providing the additional speed above normal tanker requirements,

were so successful that three were purchased by the Navy and two by the Keystone Tankship Corporation of Philadelphia. One in service by the Standard Oil company from New York to Aruba, and two in the coastal service. The “America,” largest commercial ship ever built in an American yard, was launched August 31 under the sponsorship of Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt. The commission’s construction program was subsequently ac-

was placed

celerated so that orders planned for 1940 were in

issued in the

fall

of 1939.

By

many

cases

the middle of October, there were

139 ships ordered, of which 25 had been launched. The C-2 type vessels launched by the commission proved

in

be among the most efficient of their class in the world. The commission’s construction program included a large number of Diesel propelled vessels, marking the first time Diesel propulsion had been given adequate recognition in American shipyards. Freight rates were steady until the outbreak of the European trials to

war when sharp advances occurred due

to increased hazards of

operation and increased operating costs, such as war risk insurance and the requirement for higher compensation to crews.

GERMAN CREW MEMBERS

leaving the burning ''Columbus” after the luxury 1939, to avoid capture by

liner was scuttled 450mi. off the U.S. coast Dec. 19, a British destroyer

Above: BRITISH MERCHANTMEN steaming closely together with naval convoy In 1939 Right: S.S. “PARIS” of the French line keeling over at Le Havre Apr. 19, 1939, after being destroyed by fire of unexplained origin Below, left: AMPLE IDENTIFICATION for submarines was painted on the sides of the U.S. liner “President Roosevelt” before it sailed for Europe Sept. 6, 1939

TO AVOID DETECTION BY BRITISH SHIPS, the “Bremen’s” crew painted the ship a dull tirey durins iU mysterious voyage from New York to Murmansk to Germany, where it arrived Below, right:

on Dec. 12,

1939

j

SHIPPING,

606 The

chartering market

was

MERCHANT MARINE

fairly active during the entire year,

mercantile plans for the future had to be ity of

for the sole purpose of repatriation.

release of

The demand

American ships was increased when was sunk with many Americans aboard.

for space on

the British liner “Athenia”

The Government

freighter “City of Flint,” operated for the Mari-

time Commission’s account, picked up tragedy and

made

221

survivors

a remarkable voyage to Halifax.

of the

With ordinary

accommodations for 29 passengers and 40 crew, Capt. J. A. Gainard provided bunks and food for 290 persons. In the early months of the war American ships and American seamen displayed heroism and seamanship in participating in the rescue of more than 800 persons who were victims of marine disasters resulting from belligerent activity. (See also Exports AND Imports; International Trade; Shipbuilding; Trade (E. S. L.) Agreements; United States: History.) European Shipping and the War. Merchant shipping for the whole of 1939 was naturally influenced by the war which broke out in September, for in spite of the Munich agreement

—

the world was obviously heading towards war. and while possible efforts were being to

made

to avoid

it,

all

every country had

take precautionary measures which involved shipping;

all

made with

the possibil-

war in view. The war risk added

There was a decided demand for tonnage on time and net form and also on a lump sum basis. Charter prices rose from 300% to 300% and gave promise of rising further if there were continued losses of tonnage from torpedo and mine warfare. The movement on the Great Lakes was the heaviest in years, due largely to expanded operations of the steel industry. The trade consisted of iron ore from the head of the lakes to Lake Erie and coal on the return voyage, with some carriage of package, freight. Coastwise and intercoastal ship traffic was poor during the first half of the year, but improved during the second half. This development was normal. The Maritime Commission made substantial progress in its training program for licensed and unlicensed seamen, the United States Maritime Service, with the commissioning of the training ship, “American Seaman,” and with the establishment of training stations at Hoffman island, New York, Government island in San Francisco bay, and Fort Trumbull, Connecticut. The European war caught thousands of Americans abroad and passenger facilities on returning ships were insufficient to meet the tremendous demand. Cots were set up in the public rooms of liners. Freight ships brought passengers far beyond their ordinary capacity. The Maritime Commission arranged the charter of five coastwise vessels

particularly during the last few months.

to the expenses of the shipowner and disturbed the marine insurance market long before the war started,

when huge

especially

States in shipments

quantities of gold were sent to the United

—

—up

to £12,000,000 in one vessel ^which were quite unjustified in ordinary commerce, and often in unsuitable

ships.

This nervousness of approaching trouble was naturally against traffic for the purpose of rearmament was purely artificial. Ordinary business enterprise was checked and freights were generally low. the interests of shipping, for the

The tramping section was particularly hard hit, for the tendency was to ship in smaller parcels by liner. Practically all owners showed a decline in profit in their reports and had to reduce or pass their dividends.

The

International

Committee

tried to maintain the policy of

freight co-operation in spite of obvious signs of crumbling.

For a time they had some success, but in consequence of the British Government favouring British ships to carry the war-time reserve of grain from the River Plate

when Greeks were next on

agreed roster for employment, the Plate collapsed and

was

it

Minimum

the

Freight scheme

realized that international agreement

practically ended until conditions were radically altered.

was

Competi-

was therefore intensified and matters were made worse by the most of the remaining ships’ time chartered during the 1937 revival, by the paying off of a number of ships, mostly Scandinavian, which had been employed by the Japanese in the campaign in China and by the collapse of the Government party in the Spanish Civil War. The possibility of war naturally greatly increased the grave concern already felt in Britain at the decline of the merchant service and seagoing personnel. The shipping industry, through the tion

Chamber

of Shipping, issued a very careful statement of the

causes of the decline of each section, and suggestions for rectifying matters with the help of the State.

The

sections which sup-

plied this information were the deep-sea tramps, the deep-sea and

near-trade liners, the near Continental traders, the coasting tramps

and the coasting

liners;

among themselves and

the owners of tankers failed to agree

desired further discussions ivith the Gov-

ernment.

These reports and suggestions were considered by the authoriwho announced the general principles of their plans in March and introduced the British Shipping (Assistance) Bill at the end ties

of July, to

come

into effect at the beginning of 1940. It provided

for a subsidy not exceeding £2,750,000 per

tramps for

five years,

and assistance

competition of subsidized foreign sidered on

its

annum

for deep-sea

to liners suffering

rivals,

from the

each case to be con-

merits.

Tankers and coasters were excluded, the former for lack of suggestion and the latter on account of their competition with the railways. Assistance in the ordering of new tonnage was to be in the form of grants and loans on generous terms, but passenger ships and refrigerated foodstuffs carriers were excluded. The measure was abandoned at the outbreak of war but the shipbuilding sections were honoured as so many ships had been ordered when they were announced in Parliament. In addition to monetary help the liner and near Continental sections suggested that the fair claims of British shipping should be

when trade treaties were being arranged as these had frequently resulted in the shipping of the other country concerned carrying all or nearly all the goods exchanged.

pressed

move towards State aid the owners and authorico-operated in measures to keep the ships running in war-time and to defend themselves from attack. The normal sea-going perAlongside the

ties “Bosnia," torpedoed Sept. 5, 1939, off the Scottish coast

MERCHANT MARINE

SHIPPING,

been offered for

In the

sale,

607

but only a few have found purchasers.

months of the year there was a strong renewal of that shipping affairs should be taken out of the hands of the Board of Trade and administered by a Ministry of Shipping concerned with nothing else. This demand was strengthened by the Government action which caused the collapse of the River Plate minimum freights scheme and some incidents concerning the transfer of British ships to foreign flags, but no action was taken until some time after the outbreak of war, when the post of Minister of Shipping was made a political one and nearly all the personnel was drawn from the Board of Trade, with earlier

the British

demand

practical shipping

When

men

as adrdsers only.

became

critical British and French liners on yachting cruises rvere recalled by wireless, mail and passenger sailings were cancelled to satisfy the authorities’ demands for auxiliary cruisers, transports and the like, cargo vessels were taken up by the score for war purposes and the plans for utilizing merchant ships in war, although not properly framed until a few months before they were wanted, worked with far less waste and inefficiency than in 1914. All German ships were ordered by wireless to seek shelter at once and special care was taken to get the little

the situation

home waters to The withdrawal of most of

short-sea traders into

in the Baltic.

act as supply ships

the allied passenger

from the transatlantic sendee at the height of the American was particularly awkward and the large number of holiday-makers wanting to get away from Europe was further handicapped by American ships, including some big coastal liners chartered by the U.S. Government, being delayed by disagreement with the seamen as to terms. Some cruising yachts were pressed into service and neutral ships were naturally packed to capacity. In Britain all shipping came under the control of the Admiralty at once. The Mediterranean was closed to British shipping for a time owing to. the uncertainty of Italy’s attitude and merchant ships were temporariiy held up in neutral ports in areas where there was known to be special danger. The convoy system was started without delay, although at first it was hampered by lack of naval material which forced fast and slow ships to be grouped together and also caused excessive delays. The results were excellent with regard to the safety of the ships; after three months of war 81 British ships of over 305,000 tons gross had been sunk by enemy action, beginning with the “Athenia” on the first day of the war, but of those under convoy the proportion was less than one in 750. The defensive armament of merchant ships was also most effective, although ships so armed were regarded by liners

tourist season

“YOU HAVEN'T SEEN THE BREMEN AROUND, Fitzpatrick of

The

St.

have you. Bill?" Cartoon by

Louis Post-Dispatch

Royal Naval Reservists had been withdrawn for naval work, would obviously be insufincient when laid-up ships were commissioned and early in 1939 the Mercantile Marine War Services List was established. This was a register of

sonnel, especially after

seamen of all grades who had left the sea for work ashore and who were willing to return to it. Officers had already gone through the Admiralty’s courses on handling their ships in war in trained

large

numbers; now the scheme was extended to short courses

gunnery,

etc.,

in

for the other ranks.

Risk Insurance scheme was put into operation by Britin deish underwriters in March and although some amendments Govthe April in well worked tail were immediately necessary it

A War

;

ernment announced

its

intention of undertaking the re-insurance

of the risk.

The sale of British ships, especially tramps, to foreign interests when they could no longer be made to pay under the British flag official dis-

had also been causing concern and after a period of build couragement of the practice it was decided that in order to aid should State of payment the tonnage, up a war-time reserve of giving the be made dependent on owners who had tonnage to sell, only four out broke war Board of Trade the first refusal. When ships had been acquired. State aid. Other countries were also interested in schemes for payments, based In the United States the policy of differential ships as American of costs running on the greater building and found compared with those of practicaUy every other nation,_was and cnticism of deal to work excellently after weathering a good it from return better a got has it is probable that the nation Several of the

than from any previous subsidy scheme. any time powers which have previously been against

man

orm o

their posi State aid to shipping were being forced to reconsider Italy an Japan tion before the outbreak of war, and Germany, given,^ since mer only revealed part of the assistance that was countries as being those in regarded chant shipping matters are reorganization of as secret as those of the navy. As part of the services have assisted of the American subsidy scheme a number

Germany

as warships in spite of all neutral nations acknowledg-

Germany herself having done so in the past. Submarine Warfare.) There was a great movement to buy shipping shares on the recollection of the profits made during the war of 1914-18, but in

ing their rights and

(See also

British ships freights

were

strictly regulated

from the

first,

and

although the inelastic “Blue Book” system of 1914 was avoided they were soon far below those obtained by neutrals, and running costs naturally rose-rapidly.

To make

the most of the cargo space

available a system of licences for all overseas voyages

was im-

mediately introduced, worked by voluntaiy committees of shipping men, and this was later extended to the coasting trade also.

The

diversion of a large proportion of the shipping of the Brit-

measure of precaution against than had been anticipated, but there was an inevitable demand on the coasting services to relieve land transport in the distribution of imports and the Dutch motor vessels which had become a big factor in British waters were withdrawn at once although many of them, especially those built for owner-skippers on deferred payment, w’ere soon offered for sale on the insistence of the mortgagee banks. ish east coast ports to the west as a air

attack

caused

less

confusion

SHOCK TREATMENT— SHOWS

608

Although German enemy action by surface raider, submarine and mine caused heavy losses to British, French and Polish shipthe losses

ping,

among

neutral

ships were particularly heavy,

—

production amounted to 1,183,000,000 in 1939 (Europe, 505,000,000, North America, 515,000,000, South America, 60,000,000, Asia and Oceania, 75,000,000 and Africa, 28,000,000). Native

especially after the beginning of the

German policy of sowing new magnetic mine which claimed many neutral ships with hea\'y loss of life. A number were also torpedoed, both when bound for allied ports and also when on

handicraft also increased the world over.

international waters with the

Utilitarian and work shoes increased materially, though the previous trend was towards style and novelty footwear. Regi-

blameless voyages from one neutral port to another.

construction in 1940.

Generally

by German surface ships in the Southern Baltic and the Belts was legal, the ships being sent in to port for search and prize court proceedings, but when a prize crew frotn speaking the blockade

the battleship “Deutschland” took the

American steamer “City of Flint” into a neutral Norwegian port the United States authorities made a strong protest while the Norwegians released the ship and interned the prize crew. (See also Blockade.) While a certain number of neutral ships, partly on account of the risk and partly the heavy cost of insurance and manning, were laid up, the majority of them continued to run on a rapidly rising market. The Italian liners “Rex” and “Conte di Savoia” were the only first-line ships to remain on the North Atlantic service and they reaped a rich harvest with increased fares. The “Normandie” and “Queen Mary” were tied up in New York, the “Europa” in Germany and the “Bremen,” after finding shelter for some -weeks in

Russian waters, also returned to a German port. In spite of the big Government building program that was

immediately put in hand, the British merchant navy proved as

mentation and rationing of footwear

charter on the open market.

The

United. States Neutrality Act,

debarring American ships from a large part of western Europe,

threatened the owning firms with immediate destruction of the valuable business that they had built up with so resulted in a

number

much

care and

of Scandinavian ships, mostly fast cargo

(See also Balance of Trade; Exports AND Imports; International Trade; Neutrality; Spain, Civil War in; Shipbuilding; Strategy of the European War; (F. C. Bo.) United States.) liners,

being chartered.

accelerate the heavy

—

were an unknown type. In war-free lands the expression of in men’s shoes was significant of masculine dress change.

Rubber Foo-fwear.

—

style

Expansion of rubber boot and shoe manuwas evident in 1939 war and “decontaminization” civilian wear in Europe; cheap rubber shoes (canvas topped) for peasant and native wear in Asia and Africa; and sport and play shoes (tennis type, sandals, platforms) increased in war free lands. Controls and Marketing. EWorld rubber supply is subject to economic rationing by Great Britain Australian and Indian skins are marketed with British Government controls, Argentine hides

—

facturing

—

;

are export-managed, and leather

is listed as a contraband, by Trade barriers, reciprocal agreements and nationalistic controls were revised in late 1939 to include materials in shoe construction but the movement of machinery mostly from United States for shoe manufacture is almost universally favoured under regular tariffs. (A. D. An.)

warring nations.

—

—

inadequate for war needs as had been feared for some years past,

and a number of neutral ships, mostly Greeks, were taken up on time charter while others were employed on ordinary voyage

may whims

of women manifest themselves, and 25,000,000 pairs of elasticized-upper shoes were made in the United States in 1939 which, only three years ago,

Nevertheless,

—

Horses. ^War in Europe took a noticeable portion of colour and public interest from the principal horse

ftL

ullUWOi show

in the United States in 1939. Only two foreign army teams, those of Mexico and Chile, competed in the eight-day exhibition of

Nov. 4-1 1, 1939, at New York. and Canadian army teams, which had added to the interest in previous shows, were absent in 1939. The 1939 honours were divided among the Mexican, Chilean and United the 54th National Horse Show,

British, French, Irish

army teams. Capt. Misael

States

man won

Mariles, Mexico,

won

the

Bow-

Challenge Trophy, and his colleague, Capt. Ramiro Palafox,

Trophy donated by Whitney The Chilean team, composed of Maj. Eduardo Yanez, Capt. Armando Fernandez, Capt. Pelayo Izurieta and Lt. Hernan the Military Special Challenge

Stone.

Shock Treatment:

see

Medicine; Nervous System; Psychi-

won

Vigil,

atry.

the three-day, low-score competition for the Arturo

Capts. Fernandez and Izurieta tied for

Alessandri Trophy.

Chno

war

1939 changed the world economics of shoes and leather ac-

months

Inrlliotrif

ullUu IIIUUoUji

of

in

—

celerated the use of more heavy shoes and leather and affected world supply and prices materially. The normal eight months of 1939 indicated a rising manufacture of shoes in every country.

Intense nationalism found expression in shoemaking and shoe

the

in

International

Individual

won

the

International

Capt. Drake and Lt.

The

Perpetual

Wing

100% kangaroo, War has disturbed

and

teams.

comment by newspapers and

tails,

attracted considerable

the American Society for the Preven-

lizard, croc-

trade routes

diction over leading shows in the United States reported

—

odile, shark, etc., for the industry.

military

show in New York when owned by Mrs. Reed A. Albees. Strolling Bye, which appeared in the 1938 show with a natural tail, was entered in the 1939 show with a set tail. The American Horse Shows Association, Inc., which has juris-

a quarter of a million hides and skins are imported every working day of the year into the U.S. 99-9% kidskins, 50% sheepskins, cattlehides

for

Horse Show, $2,000 for threetail and over 14-2, was won by Clearview Maybelle owned by Mr. and Mrs. Geo. C. Mahoney. This prize, for horses with natural

15%

Trophy

largest prize at the National

modity, a by-product of meat and not subject to the theory of “surplus” economics. It therefore commands a world price. The United States is the world’s largest producer and consumer of leather and also the largest importer of hides and skins. Normally,

calfskins,

The

tied for the $1,000 Military Stake.

gaited saddle horses with a natural

25%

first

United States army team, Capt. Royce A. Drake, Capt. Carl W. A. Raguse, Lt. Franklyn F. Wing and Lt. Frank S. Henry,

wearing as a symbol of “buy at home.” World Trading. Leather is actually a “short” world com-

—

Championship.

Military

tion of Cruelty to Animals, at the 1938 it

was won by

Strolling Bye,

187

and foreign supplies to practically every country on the globe. As a consequence, the supply and price factors are flexible to

recognized shows in 1939 compared to 174 in 1938. The association reported that six shows had resigned membership for 1940.

events on the seas. For example, hides from the Argentine (the world’s great sug^jW source) and kid skins from China actually trickle into Germany'tferough neutral countries.

Among

i

,

World Production.-^Vprld (machine made)

production in

1939 exceeded the estimated manufacture of ^1938. Machine made

these

was the Atlantic

for lack of public interest.

City, N.J. show,

The

which suspended

association’s jurisdiction refers

and State shows and does not include county which number several thousand

chiefly to the larger city

the

small local and

annually in the United States.

The

association announced re-

ceipts for

1939 as $14,226; expenses, $17,708.

$3,482 was

made up by

—

private contributions.

The

deficit

(S.

0

.

of

R.)

Dogs. ^The j'ear 1939 closed with around 302 dog shows. The cocker led in registrations and was the fashionable dog of the day. Other leading breeds in order of registration were the Boston, beagle, Scottish terrier, wre-haired fox-terrier, Pekingese, dachs-

hund, springer, chow chow and greyhound. The largest show of the year w'as the Morris and Essex at Madison, N.J., rrith 3,862 dogs actually on the benches.

—^Heading

Livestocic.

the

list

(W. Ju.) of national livestock shows for

1939 was the 40th International Livestock Exposition and Horse show which was held from December 2 to 9 in the International Amphitheatre at the Chicago stock yards. Stockmen from 34 States and Canada exhibited 13,322 head of beef cattle, horses, sheep and swine. The 33rd National Western Stock show, first in calendar position among .American national shows, was held in Denver, Colo. January 27 to Februarj' 4. It is noted for its exhibitions of feeder cattle and beef bulls -which are shown, judged and sold in carlots. Another early show, and the oldest in the United States, is the Southwestern Exposition and Fat Stock show at Ft. Worth, Texas. It celebrated its

43rd annual renewal March 10 to 19, 1939. The

Eastern States Exposition at Springfield, Mass., a late

summer

show founded in 1917, accents dairy and beef cattle competitions. It was held September 17 to 23. A similar exposition in the West is the Pacific International at Portland, Oregon. It was founded in 1911 and was held Oct. 7 to 14, 1939. A series of national shows, featuring, in turn, beef cattle, horses, swine, sheep and dairy cattle, was held during 1939 in

connection with the Golden Gate International Exposition at San Francisco. Cash prizes totalling $266,980 were offered in the five

PRINCE ADITYA DIRABHA, which

officially

regent of Slam, affixing the royal seal on a decree of the kingdom to Thailand on June 24, 1939

changed the name

—

History. Siam, -ivhich at the end of May announced her change of name to “Muang Thai” (“The Land of the Free”), continued to maintain her neutral independence during 1939 and, in face of the European -R-ar, proclaimed her strict neutrality within three weeks of

its

outbreak, and proceeded with her land, sea and

A

from February 18 to October 30. The final feature was the National Dairy show, which was founded in Chicago in 1906 and in later years became an itinerant show. Its San Francisco dates were October 21 to 30. Dairymen and Belgian draft horse breeders stage a combined show each 3’ear at Waterloo, Iowa, knowm as the Dairy Cattle

air

Congress and National Belgian Horse show. The 30th Congress was held September 25 to October i. The American Royal at Kansas City, Mo., is noted for its outstanding horse shows and beef cattle exhibitions. The 40th Royal was held October 14 to 21.

especially in road-construction

divisions

which took place

at intervals

Important livestock shows were also featured at nearly all of the State fairs during the summer and early fall months. Canada’s two leading annual livestock shows are the Canadian National Exposition and the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, both of which are held in Toronto. The Canadian National, founded in Wfinter 1879, was held August 25 to September 9. The i8th Royal on cancelled was but Fair was scheduled for November 21 to 29 account of the war. The big livestock exposition of South America

rearmament.

plot revealed in January for the replacement

Ananda Mahidol by the former King Prajadhipok (now Prince Sukhodaya), or by another uncle, Prince Nago Svarga, and the consequent cashiering of a number of army officers, had no effect on the peaceful progress of the country, the of the young King

development of which

proceeding on

is

W'ell

thought out

lines,

and irrigation. Though the capital, Bangkok, now one of the most important air-route centres in -Asia, suffered

through a serious

fire in .August,

damage estimated

made with its new port; and by encouraging the co-operative credit movement and issuing an internal loan of 25,000,000 baht the Government has done much to at over £go,ooo, progress has been

improve the

lot of the peasants.

Following the treaties successfully concluded with various foreign powers in 1938, a number of new laws affecting trade were passed, and the sale and manufacture of

oil

(the refining of which

a Government monopoly), salt and tobacco are now controlled. Large changes in the finances were made during 1939; the capitais

and taxes on sugar-cane and tobacco plantations with

the Palermo show, held annually in Buenos Aires in August. It usually runs about ten days, no definite closing date being sched-

other land-taxes and those on houses and shops were replaced by

uled. The Palermo show is particularly noted for its huge showing of Shorthorn cattle, attracting each year the largest display of

a re-organization of excise duties and other special revenue, the balance being slightly against the treasury. Also, the beginning of

is

breed in the world. Great Britain’s two leading all-breed shows are the long-established Highland show of Scotland and the Royal of England. Both are itinerant. The io8th Highland show was held in Edinburgh June 20 to 23; and the 98th annual Royal show took place in this

Windsor July 4 to

the financial year was changed from April

sq.mi.;

pop.

(census

towns: (pop. 1937) 14,650,000. Chief Khonkaen Chiengmai (544,001); (cap. 681,214); Mahidol; (473,475); Chiengrai (443.476). Ruler: King Ananda language: Siamese; religion: Buddhism.

to

October (L.

—

i.

H. D.)

Education. In 1936-37: elementary schools 8.9S3; scholars secondary schools 206; scholars 42,225; special schools

2,984; scholars 33,087; universities,

number of students

—^Revenue,

Banking and Finance. 200,148

i

I, 151,915;

II, 525-

8.

Area 1937) Bangkok

tion tax

ordinaiy

(est.

enrolled

1939-40)

109,425.940 baht; e.xpenditure, ordinary (est. 1939-40) 109.397,988 baht; expenditure, capital (est. 1939-40) 22.108,524 baht; public debt (Mar. 31, 1938) 80,593,000 baht; notes in circulation (June 30. 1939) i5i-ooo,ooo baht; exchange reserve (June 30,

1939) 127,000,000 baht; gold reseiwe (June 30, 1939) 18,000,000

609

SIBERIA—SIEGFRIED LINE

610 baht: exchange rate (approx.) ii

—

baht=£i

Trade and Communicafion.

cupola set atop a lower one of materially greater dimensions, the floor of which is at ground level. The single subsurface gallery

sterling.

^Foreign trade 1938-39; (mer-

chandise): imports 123,575,000 baht; exports 173,078,000 baht.

depicted houses the inevitable electric tramway for communication with other strong points, and with the rear.

Communications: roads. State highways completed (1938) 1,815mi.; railways, open to traffic (1938) i,923mi.; airways, length of route opened (1938) 444mi.; motor vehicles licensed (1937-38): total 11,439 (cars 5,910; trucks 4,233; buses 146; cycles 559); wireless receiving set licences (1938) 29,834.

The roof of the crowning cupola (which houses personnel engaged in observation and communications) appears to be three or more feet thick, while that of the huge mushroomlike edifice beneath, the west-facing elements of which contain guns and their

ric tons), rice

Agriculture and Mineral Production. Production; (in met(1938) 4,937,400; rubber (1938, exports) 42,000;

crews, the remainder, quarters and utilities for officers and men, seem fully as thick again. Even a density of six feet, however, is

tin ore, metal content (1938) 14,000; soybeans (1937) 9,72r; tobacco (1937) 8,033; cotton (1937) 7.083; maize (1937) 5,025.

so

—

only just sufficient to protect against a shell of 250mm. calibre, it is evident that these works are not designed to withstand

(W. H. Wn.)

the fire of guns of over 10" bore. But being as they are, so numerous, and so relatively small by comparison with many of the French underground fortresses, it may be assumed that the Ger-

Siberia: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

mans have concluded (probably Germany’s Siegfried Line or “Westwall” is OlCglilCU LIIICi that nation’s answer to France’s eastern border fortifications, the main elements of which were completed in 1934 to bear the name of the Minister of War during whose regime they were commenced Andre Maginot. Begun in 1937, Hitler (May 1938) pronounced the Siegfried works “the most gigantic fortress in the world,” embodying, in the advanced zone, no less than 1 7,000 concrete forts, these supported in rear by from three to four additional lines of defence. Completion of the whole by the winter of 1937-38 was predicted, but it is recorded that when the Fuehrer visited Kehl in Sept. 1938, to inspect the progress thus far made, he nearly wept with disappointment. Roundly castigating the Prussian officers who accompanied him, he summoned Germany’s ace roadbuilder, Dr.

QiairfrioH

I

waste the

ino

Fritz Todt,

and instructed him

in

no uncertain terms

to increase

wisely) that no enemy would super powerful artillery upon any one of them.

The scope of these fortifications German publication, Der Angriff, as

has been described in the

follows: “There is a front and concrete pyramids running like a road over hills and down valleys from the northern to the southern extremity of the Western Border.” Behind this lies ... “a secondary line of ferro-concrete forts largely sunk into the ground and practically invisible to the naked eye.” Reports indicate that behind the works just described lie chain after chain of machine gun nests. These are not, however, necessarily interconnected by networks of line of steel

—

.

effort of

command

subterranean passages, for the German high

does not

favour an entirely underground system as do the French. Rather '

does

it

share

its

favours between works above ground, but very

heavily camouflaged, and those below, restricting these, however, as already indicated, in both size and scope.

Within a brief space thereafter, 500,000 additional workmen had been assembled for assignment to the task, and shortly some 278,000 of these were

varying from one to several kilometres, then extending eastward

pouring concrete at scattered points along the line. Following quite closely the windings of Germany’s western fron-

Here

without delay the tempo of the entire

tier

from Switzerland (opposite Basel)

effort.

to a point facing the

Dutch

border approximately 6omi. north of Aachen, the key points in the Westwall include the rebuilt Isten fortress opposite Mulhouse,

Closely linked with, and parallel

tem

is

an “Air Defence Zone”

to,

the Westwall defence sys-

—separated

from

it

by

distances

to a depth generally greater than that of the Westwall lie

itself.

myriads of anti-aircraft gun positions, deeply echeloned

and, like the front lines, heavily camouflaged.

Supplementing

these are kite and balloon barrages, so-called “mine fields of the air.”

The

entire zone is covered with a

network

of observation

Strasbourg), the

posts, with telephone connections, prepared to notify neighbour-

and the defences of Cologne. In the Kehl sector observers report “pillboxes” so numerous that they appear to be located no more than loora. apart: indeed the number of these strong points along the entire 150km. where the Rhine

ing anti-aircraft batteries and the headquarters of fast pursuit

the fortifications around Kehl

Saar

(just

east

of

forts,

especially,

forms the international boundary is notably greater on the Gerthan on the French side. And while the French have placed their works, in general, from 7 to lokm. distant from the boundary

man

proper, the to

it,

German emplacements, when not

actually contiguous

are usually not far removed.

While the measures taken on the German side to delay and employed by the barbed wire although Thus, details. certain French, they differ in entanglements are common to both, as are blind ditches and other upon thouterrain obstructions, the Germans rely on thousands

nullify tank attacks are similar in scope to those

unequal heights sands of small pyramids of concrete, projecting to mechanized from the surface of the ground, to bring grief to comparable in installation, the vehicles, whereas the French favour

numbers of steel rails set vertically in the earth, distances above again with their free extremities rising for varying in part, underemploying, while the sod. It likewise appears that, have not they French, the of those similar to beehives ground burrowed so deeply nor built as massively as have their enemies. Thus a German artist’s sketch of one of their blockhouses reveals positions, of equal

but three levels (as against seven in a comparable unit of the Maginot line). The uppermost of these is no more than a small

squadrons of the approach of hostile planes.

Not only

is

anti-aircraft defence provided (and this is flexible,

as well as stable since, in addition to permanent emplacements,

many

motorized

field batteries are available) but, if

credence to an article in Die Wehrmacht (Feb.

we

can give

1939) by Lieut. General Kitzinger, zone commander, the area appears literally to constitute a second Siegfried Line.

parts of the Western Air Defence

He

says in substance: “All

Zone are protected by armour

and reinforced concrete. An enemy attacking after penetrating the

i,

this terrain strikes,

army zone (Westwall), tank

obstacles, road

obstructions, and a united front of ground defences which at

several points are echeloned to a depth of several kilometres.

.

.

.

The zone as developed is a powerful element in the framework of West Front defence. The ground works are of great depth, while in the air is a blockade stronger and more extensive than any has ever been. The countless anti-aircraft batteries and pursuit squadrons protect not only the operations zone of the army; they are

above

all

an

effective defence for the

populace and industry of

War; Lightning War; Maginot Line; Strategy of the European War; Tactics IN THE European War.) great areas of our land.”

—

{See also European

Bibliography. Command and General Staff School Quarterly (Ft. Leavenworth); Illustrated London News; United Services Review (Great Britain); L’lllustration (France); Der Angriff (Germany); Die Wchr(C. Go.) rnaclrt (Germany).

SIERRA LEONE-^SILVER Sierra Leone:

see British

West

The economic Silk is

and

611

Africa.

history of

Silk Manufacture.

the silk industry for 1939 replete with contradictory and illogical situations. In a year

when new

synthetic fibres designed to compete ivith silk were

brought to more practical development, higher than for ten years.

The

silk prices

rising trend in

soared to levels

consumption during

the last six months of 1938 reversed itself in 1939 as a decrease of 7% in the year’s consumption.

The

four months of 1939 showed an average price on the market of $2.14 a pound. The 1938 yearly average was $1.69. The rise began in May and moved rapidly upward closing in December at $4.34 a pound. Average silk prices during 1939 were 60% above the 1938 level. The cause of the unexpected and unexplainable rise is not clearly indicated. A shortage in supply would partially account for it, but not to the extent of the 60%. The general belief was that speculation in the Japanese market got beyond control of the Government as it did about 20 years ago when the American silk market became so alarmed by severe fluctuations in the price of their raw material that special business missions went to Japan to discuss the situation with high officials. At that time, the fabric manufacturers were the sufferers, first

New York

SILVER PRODUCTION: world total and output as compiled by The Mineral Industry

of the

world’s silver production

Ciiirar

ullVCliin North America;

this

is

major producing countries,

rather heavily centred

continent in 1929

furnished

%

of the total output, and 64% in 1938; Mexico is the leading 75 producer, with 30%, followed by the United States wth 23%,

Canada with

8%

and the remainder of the continent (including

did not take into consideration the plans for use of nylon, which

West Indies and Newfoundland) 2%. The status of the important producers is shown in the accompanying graph and table. Figures for the first 10 months of 1939, although not quite complete, indicate a decrease in output of about 5% from the same period in 1938. The chief decreases are in Mexico and the United States, partly offset by minor increases'in other countries. On July 1, 1939, the official U.S. Treasury price for newly mined domestic silver was raised from 64.64 cents to 71.11 cents. The London market for sterling silver opened at 21.125^., and closed at 22.$d., with a high of 23.5^. and a low of 16.0625^. The New York open market stood steady at 42.75 cents till late in June,

had already appeared on sale in one American city in women’s hosiery and which it was expected would be available in the late

but fluctuated considerably during the second half of the year, with a high of 39.75 and a low of 34.25 cents, closing at 34.75

spring of 1940 for general distribution. Silk supplies, as predicted in the 1938 report, were small at the

cents.

close of 1939. Japan’s internal problems of labour shortage, coal

Kingdom

and through their trade association

in the

United States special

information was collected and disseminated as to actual stocks of silk in New York warehouses, prices quoted on the

statistical

Yokohama Bourse and on the outside markets so of the uncertainty among American consumers

some what they

as to dispel as to

For several years, prices were was believed that a similar situation would not repeat itself. In 1939, it was the hosiery manufacturers in the United States who were chiefly affected. Prices in women’s might expect

in price changes.

fairly well stabilized,

and

it

8%

and plans were hosiery increased at the end of 1939 about being made to utilize rayon to a greater extent than before. This

and power restrictions plus rain, frost and disease in Italy and the continued warfare in China combined to generally contract production. Japan, too, radically increased its domestic consumption of silk. At the beginning of 1940 prices were going down in New York but reports were that the silk price trend was still strong in Japan because of fears of possible shortage in New York

and a

belief that a further rise in

is comparatively small; the United has only a negligible output, and Empire production centres chiefly in Canada, Australia, Burma and South Africa. Empire production as a whole is still slightly under the 1929

British production of silver itself

level in ounces, but. by less than the change in

world output, so

that the proportion of the world total in 1938

was 18% against

16%

in

world commodity prices was

At the same

World Produclion of

stockings.

This would mean a

possibly $75,000,000 to Japan, a serious blow to in the United States. The increased silk prices

its

loss of

gold credit

meant greater

accentuation of the elimination of silk in fabric manufacturing. At the close of 1939, fabric mills in the U.S. were said to be con-

Great Britain

suming only 9% of the total imports. In Europe and conthe consumption of silk showed slight change but, contrary to Switzerland and Kingdom United the ditions in the U.S., both an showed, during the major part (first seven months) of 1939 the France, In respectively. increased importation of 1% and 7% increase was

much

larger,

manufacture of war

54%. This

is

principally because of the

materials but also possibly influenced

increased use of silk as a substitute for wool in clothing. also R/\yox.)

by an

Silver

(In millions of fine ounces)

strength rayons with nylon and vinyon would be supplemented by cotton lisle cuprammonium rayon in toes, heels and tops of

and medium and lower grade

Metallurgy; Mineral and Metal

(See also

1929.

Prices and Production.)

time, hosiery manufacturers predicted a high decrease in the use of silk in 1940- New fine denier,

inevitable.

50%

Central America,

Canada United States

.

.

Mexico Other N. America Peru

.

S.

60.3 108.7

62.8

58.7

2.8

21.0 68.1 6.0

2 I-S

7-3 5‘5

0.6

2-3

....

5 -S 0.4

6-3 1.0

6-S 5-0

5*5 5-2

8.0 6.0

7-3

7-3 2-3

7-3 1.9

1-3

.

.

.

....

Africa

Total

1938

23.0 69-3 84.7

1-7

India

Oceania

1937

18.3

6.2

U.S.S.R Other Europe Japan

Other Asia

1936

15-2

.

America

Germany

1933

23.1

77-5 4.8 19.9 10.7

.

Bolivia

Other

1929

......

9-9 261.S

S-i 17.2

22.2

81.0

9 -S

5-4 20.5 6.4

6.1 6.8

5'5 7.0 8.1

9.8

3-0 8.2 lO.O

6.7 3-1

6.9 3-8

4.0 11.6

4-7 13.2

S -3 14.8

169.7

252.7

27 S-I

6.0

II.O 6-S 4.0 5-6 14.9 262.9

(See

(G. A. Ro.)

SIMPSON. JAMES — SLOVAKIA

612

(^^74-1939). U.S. business executive, was born January 26 at Glasgow, Scotland and

Pilsudski to

become premier and thus strengthen the

He

began his business career as a clerk with Marshall Field & Co., Chicago department store, in 1891, advanced to president in 1923 and was made chair-

He became

premier again in 1931 and held the post for a third

man of the board in 1930. From this position he resigned in 1932. He was also chairman of the board and a director of Common-

fore

Qimncnn lamDC ullll|JdUIL UdIIICd

emigrated to the United States as a boy.

wealth Edison Co., Public Service Co. of Northern Illinois and other died

and was prominent

utilities,

November

many

in

civic enterprises.

He

and located on an

capital of the Straits Settlements iq.v.)

ulllgdpUl C| main port of south-eastern Asia, is island, of the same name, 27mi. long and 14 broad, area 225 sq.mi., at the tip of the Malay peninsula. It is situated at i°2o' north. The population of Singapore island (June 30, 1938) was 710,057. Singapore

is

the greatest British naval base in the Far East and

land and air defences have been considerably strengthened

during recent years. Its garrison consists of about 7,000 the

He

later appointed premier.

time from March to Oct. 1935.

new

father” of the

He was

constitution which

death in

Pilsudski’s

resigned, however, to permit

1935.

dictatorship.

often called the “spiritual

came

into force shortly be-

After assuring

its

operation,

Slawek again retired and disbanded the bloc which had supported the dictatorship. Slawek shot himself on his 60th birthday and died at

Warsaw

the next day, April 3.

25 at Chicago.

CiniTQnnrQ

its

was

Royal Air Force maintains

at Singapore

reconnaissance squadrons.

men and

two bomber and two (W. H. Ch.)

Sleeping Sickness: see British West Africa; Horses; Veterinary Medicine. Slovakia, a republic in Central Europe, bounded on

Qlnuolfio

ulOVdMdi

the N., W., and S. by Germany, on the E. and by Hungary, has an area of 14,848 sq.mi. with a population 2,773,0007 of

whom

the great majority are Slovaks, a Slav people

closely akin to the Czechs.

Their most important minorities are

Germans with about 100,000, and the Hungarians with about 70,000 people. The capital is Bratislava (Pressburg) with a popu-

the

lation of 125,000.

Slovakia formed a part of Hungary before the World

popQin Vianrr ulll Ividng ulation 4,360,020 (estimate of the Chinese Ministry of Information, 1936), is one of the largest, most remote and

(Chinese Turkestan), area 705,769

A

sparsely populated sections of China.

sq.mi.,

large part of this vast

which accounts for the scanty poputowns are Kashgar (80,000), Yarkand the south-west, and Urumtsi (50,000) in the north.

territory consists of desert,

The

lation.

(75,000) in

The

man

principal

latter is the seat of the Chinese Administration.

of the Provincial

Government

not an integral part of China and

is

is

Li Yung.

The

chair-

Sin Kiang

largely inhabited

is

by peoples

S.

of

War

(1914-18). In 1918 Slovakia became a part of the new republic of Czechoslovakia. Subsequent to the pact of Munich in the fall of 1938 Slovakia lost part of

its

territory to

Hungary, but was

constituted as an autonomous province within Czecho-Slovakia.

Under the

leadership of Mgr. Josef Tiso, Slovakia organized a

semi-Fascist regime, introducing lation,

much

of National Socialist legis-

pursuing a strictly anti-Semitic course, but relying on the

support of the Catholic Church to which the large majority of the

The party in power was the Slovak People's Party founded by Father Andreus HHnka. Some extremist mempopulation belongs.

Germany

of Turki

bers of the party tried to establish with the help of

control of

complete independence of Slovakia and to cut all ties with the Czechs. Leaders of this section were Dr. Bela Tuka, Sano Mach

and Mongolian stock. Most of the province is under the the Chinese Administration, which is under strong Soviet influence; but some of the southern districts remain in the (W. H. Ch.) hands of the insurgents.

the

and Dr. Ferdinand Durcansky. With the support of Germany in overcoming Czech resistance; their movement of independence gave the signal for the final dissolution of Czechoslovakia (,g.v.). The Slovak diet met on March 14 and proclaimed Slovakia as an independent republic. Reverend Tiso was elected prime minister. Dr. Tuka, vice-premier and Dr. DuTcansky, foreign minister. The new Government signed a treaty with Germany according to which Germany undertook to protect the political independence and territorial integrity for a period of 25 years. German armed forces received the right at all times to erect they succeeded

Sino-Japanese War:

see

Chinese-Japanese War; Foreign

Missions.

Skating: see Ice Skating. Skin Diseases: see Dermatology. leading slate producers, in order of importance, are

Clato

uldlc. the United States, United Kingdom, France and Germany; the Soviet Union, India, Belgium, Sweden, Australia and Canada account for possibly 10% of the output, and the four leaders the remainder. The United States output, which ranks was 492,690 short tons in 1938, a small increase over 19377 the but still 37% below the pre-depression high. About 71% of as slate, roofing as flour, 5% and granules 24% output was sold as electrical structural and sanitary slabs, flagstones, blackboards, bilswitchboards and insulation, grave vaults, school slates and first,

liard table tops.

The

industry in the U.S.

is

practically self-con-

and imports being negligible. British and French German outproductions have been declining since 1935, while the put has been increasing. tained, exports

born (1879-1939), Polish statesman, was preon Apnl 2. as a youth he became War World the Before occupied with the misfortunes of Poland. part m the he was a leader of the Polish Socialist party and took ,

,,,

deemed necessary by Germany. The Slovak Government pledged itself to organize its own army in close co-operation with Germany and to conduct always its military establishments at a strength

own

policy in such a

treaty.

way

as to correspond to the spirit of the

Thus Slovakia, although nominally independent, was

established as a

German protectorate. A new constitution was On October 26 Reverend Tiso was elected

adopted on July 21.

first president of the republic. Dr. Tuka, the leader of the proNazi extremists, became prime minister. The new State shows on its coat of arms three mountain peaks in light blue on red ground, the central peak crowned with the double cross of SS. Cyril and

Methodius.

Its flag consists of

even stripes

in white, light blue

,

Slawek, Walery

s most intimate “Colonel s famous adviser and formed the

Pilsudski revolution of 19ns.

He was

Pilsudski

and political Group” which supported the marshal after his seizure of dictatorial power in 1926. Slawek entered the Polish Sejm in 1928 and

friend

military plants in certain parts of Slovakia and to maintain there

and

red.

The war between Germany and Poland involved also Slovakia. military agreement between Germany and Slovakia put, on August 18, the whole Slovak Army at the German disposal. The German Army made Slovakia’s border with Poland one of the important starting points for the occupation of Poland. By the German victory over Poland Slovakia regained a small slice of

A

SLOW-DOWN STRIKES — SMUTS. JAN territory with

Poland in the

about 9,000 inhabitants which she had ceded to fall. of

The

1938.

strong

German

influence in Slo-

vakia aroused the opposition of some Slovak circles,

among them

who was afterw’ards named Slovak minister The economic situation of Slovakia was most

of Dr. Karel Sidor,

to the Vatican.

diflficult in the first months, Slovakia is a rather poor and backward country where the progress achieved during the last 20 years had been largely made possible by the financial strength and the progressive economic system of the western parts of Czechoslovakia. Independent Slovakia suffered from a lack of raw materials and by an unfavourable trade balance. The war which

broke out in Sept. 1939 aggravated the economic situation in Slovakia as it did in alt parts connected with the German eco-

nomic system.

(H. Ko.)

and

all its

Strikes: see Detroit; Labour Unions; United

collection, 368,082;

National

numerous

scien-

expeditions in the field; 14 special exhibitions held; visitors,

2;233,345; publications issued, 35; distributed, 69,658 copies. National Gallery of Art: Gallery established by joint resolution of Congress. Art works and building to contain them gift to nation

Andrew W. Mellon. Gallerj' designated as bureau of buc administered by board of nine trustees; David K. E. Bruce, president; Dawd E. Finley, director. At close of

by the

late

Institution,

fiscal

year, superstructure of building completed; expected build-

ing will be completed Sept. 1940; estimated cost, $15,000,000; received from Samuel H. Kress and Samuel H. Kress Foundation Italian paintings

and sculpture said

to be

one of finest private

National Collection of designates art collections administered by

collections of Italian art in the world.

Fine Arts: This name

Slow-Down

613

branches), 99; distributed, 162,030 copies.

Museum: Specimens added to tific

C.

Smithsonian Institution.

Six special e.xhibitions held;

i8th an-

States: Strikes.

nual meeting of Smithsonian Art Commission (formerly National

Smigly-Rydz, Edward

Gallery of Art Commission), held Dec. 6, 1938. Freer Gallery of Art: Added to collections bronze, jade, manuscript, and paintings from China, India, and Egypt. Visitors, 102,936. Bureau of

nine, he studied painting

and philosophy in his youth at Cracow, During the first three years of

met World War (1914-18) he fought against Russia on the eastern front as a battalion and regimental commander in Pilsudsld’s legions. He also served throughout the Russo-Polish war of where he

Josef Pilsudski.

first

the

1919-20 and commanded

the troops that captured Kiev.

From

1922 to 1935, always one of Pilsudski’s most intimate associates, he was inspector of the Polish army. After the death of Pilsudski in 1935 he became virtual dictator of Poland. He immediately

American Ethnology: M. W.

Stirling, chief, directed e.xpedition,

in co-operation with National Geographic Society, to Veracruz,

Mexico, where 9 stone monuments, including one with initialwere discovered. Other field work on American In-

series date,

dians conducted

by the

following

members

of scientific staff:

J. R. Swanton, Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, Jr., Dr. J. H. Steward; linguistic studies conducted by Dr. J. P. Harrington; Henry B.

Dr.

Collins, Jr.,

and Dr. William N. Fenton added to

staff; publica-

tions issued, 6; distributed, 19,527 copies. International

Exchange

(as inspector-

Service: Official agency for United States for interchange with

general) and in July 1936 he was proclaimed the leading citizen of Poland after President Moscicki (q.v.). Just before the Ger-

other countries of governmental and scientific documents; pack-

succeeded the latter in leadership of the

army

man invasion of Poland Marshal Smigly-Rydz was designated commander-in-chief of the army and successor to Pres. Moscicki. Less than three weeks after the war began Smigly-Rydz fled across the border to

Cm'th Pnll

Rumania, where he was interned.

ft

ulUiin UOII656.

who

resignation of William Allan Neilson, had been president of Smith college

ages of such material handled during year, 714,877; weight, 719,694 pounds. National Zoological Park: Added to collection large

number of animals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians brought back by the director from the Argentine; total number of animals in collection, 2,450; visitors, 2,201,080; $90,000 allotted by Public Works Administration for new restaurant building. Astrophysical Observatory: Maintained solar observing stations at Mt. Montezuma, Chile, and Table mountain, Calif. ; began observations of

on Burro mountain,

since 1917, took effect in July 1939- Mrs.

solar constant at station recently established

the college’s board of trustees

Tyrone, N. Mex.; at Mt. Wilson, Calif., observatory measured distribution of energy in spectrum of brighter stars using loo-in.

Dwight M. Morrow of was appointed temporarily as acting president, and in October, Herbert John Davis, professor of English at Cornell university, was appointed fourth president of Smith, to take office in 1940-41. For the first time since its establishment in 1925, the Junior Year Abroad was cancelled beIn the autumn of 1939 a new field house was completed. Enrolment at the college for the academic year 1939—40 was 2,077 students; the faculty numbered 238, and the number of volumes in the library was increased to 266,964. cause of the European war.

The endowment

in

1939 was $6,129,902.

telescope and apparatus specially developed for this purpose;

recomputed

Gallery of Art and Division of Radiation and Organisms. Gallery of Art Activities in 919 .—Smithsonian: Smithsonian for design for competition Commission, set up by Congress, held \

prize proposed Smithsonian Gallery of Art building, and awarded of weekly for best design to Eliel Saarinen; completed third year in co-operaeducational radio broadcasts, “The World is Yours, Broadcasting tion with U.S. Office of Education and National company; established retirement system for employees paid from (Smithsonian Smithsonian private funds; publications issued

solar-constant values

smce 1923. Division of

factors influencing plant growth, and stimulative action of ultra-

(C. G. A.)

violet radiation; published 3 papers.

Ifin Phrktiaan Ulil lollflQII Smuts, uull statesman and soldier, was born May 24 near Riebeek West in Cape Colony. Educated at Cambridge,

“for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. GovernGreeley ing body, board of regents. Executive officer, Dr. Charles Freer also bureaus; Government Abbot, secretary. Directs six

all

Radiation and Organisms: Carried on investigations in the field of radiation in relation to plant growth, especially photosynthesis,

He

he was admitted to the Cape

fought with the Boer

Town

field forces

bar

and

in 1893.

W'as

chief of the rebel forces in the Cape. After the

commander-in-

war he became a

loyal supporter of Gen. Louis Botha’s policy of conciliation

and

co-operation with the British. For his later career as prime minister, see Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 20, pp. 845-6. After

1924 Gen. Smuts was comparatively inactive in South African He was Rhodes Memorial lecturer at Oxford in 1929-30

politics.

Andrews university from 1931 to 1934. Britain’s war against Germany Sept. 3, 1939, brought him back as prime minister after Hertzog had resigned. On September 6 he formed a war cabinet, and the Union proclaimed a state of war with Germany.

and rector of

St.

declaration of

— SNELLING. CHARLES M. — SOCIALISM

614

amended law

fortunately the

Snelling, Charles Mercer cator and mathematician, was born November 3 at Richmond, Va. After graduating from the Virginia Military institute in 1884, he taught mathematics in

able doubt

still

is

so ineptly phrased that consider-

persists as to exactly

how much

relief it will

afford the industries concerned.

The

status of these three industries in the European countries is uncertain. The use of cosmetics has been dis-

various southern schools and in 1888 joined the faculty of the

involved in war

University of Georgia, of which he was acting chancellor in 1925-26 and chancellor from 1926 to 1932. He died September 19

couraged in Germany for many months. In Great Britain the consumption at least of moderately priced products had not been seri-

at Athens, Ga.

ously curtailed in 1939. Inevitably in those countries where the supply of edible fats is a problem, the soap industry must be adversely affected. (H. T.)

Snijders, Cornells Jacobus eral and commander-inchief of The Netherlands’ armed forces during the World War, was born at Nieuwe Tonge on September 29. At the age of 20 he was appointed second lieutenant in the Dutch Army and was promoted through the ranks to general, five days after German troops

Though The Netherlands its army of 450,000 men completely mobilized until 1918. He was raised to commander-in-chief of the army and navy, the first time this rank had been awarded since the 18th century. After the war the Dutch Socialist party succeeded in securing his dismissal and he devoted his time thereafter to civil aviation. He was largely instrumental in the establishment of The Netherlands’ direct

Soccer

Pnnnpi*

made

considerable

headway

OUbbCI •

States during 1939 by virtue of a visit All-Stars. Appearing twice at the Polo Grounds, in

Scots were held to a i-i

tie in

the

first

game

the

United

by the

Scottish

in

New York,

the

against a picked

crossed the Belgian frontier in 1914.

eleven representing the American Soccer League, under the aus-

maintained neutrality throughout the war, Snijders kept

pices of the U.S. Football Association. In a return match, during

air route to the

on

May

East Indies.

Gen. Snijders died at Hilversum

an extra period, the famous tourists defeated the League team 4-2, winning the National (Open) Championship, in a match that was considered the best showing ever made by representative American soccer players against Scotch opponents. In the National Challenge Cup competition of the Association, 64 teams played excellent ball, the winners of the national championship being the St. Mary’s Celtics, of Brooklyn, vanquishing the Manhattan Beer Soccer Club, of Chicago, during a home-and-

26.

home

St. Michael’s

series.

A.C.

Team

of Fall River, Mass.,

won

the national amateur championship during a contest that attracted

Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics.

war

ther spread of

Europe, the two most important developments in these industries in the United States during 1939 were both of a legal or

in

governmental nature. With barely 30 hours’ grace the President signed the Lea bill, postponing the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act’s effective date from June 24, 1939 to Jan. 1, 1940. The task of repackaging and relabelling so many of the products of these three large industries on short nortice and at an arbitrary

date line would probably have taxed the printing and container manufacturing plant of the U.S. beyond capacity, exposing pro-

ducers of the industries affected to unnecessary prosecution for

comply on time as well as to serious and irrelPostponement was not otherwise desirable. Instead of one period in May and early June there were two the second in November and December when trade in the industries was definitely depressed by distributors’ unwillingness to make commitments pending the date of the act’s effectiveness. A significant point about this new law for the consumer to remember their inability to

evant financial

loss.

—

—

—

that, presumably, it can affect only goods sold in interstate commerce. Outside those States which enact parallel laws, then, a manufacturer doing only an intrastate business may ignore the Federal act’s requirements, many of which notably those touchis

—

ing the certification of colouring materials, the identification of manufacturers on their labels, and the elimination of deceptively

—

and designed containers are eminently desirable both to consumers and reputable producers. Further, it is already evident estabthat as with all such laws, enforcement will be easy with irresponsibles and lished, responsible manufacturers, difficult where sized

fly-by-nights are involved.

of major importance was the amendment of is genthe law levying excise tax on perfumery and cosmetics. It is imposed only tax excise an definition, that, by erally accepted

The second event

on the product

itself.

For example, the

excise tax on a Sogah

nor on

of alcohol is on the alcohol alone; not on the drum, total the multitudinous additional charges that enter into the and cosmetics to respect price charged by the producer. Yet, with perfumes the Federal Government has consistently ruled that the

drum

excise tax

must be assessed on the producer’s

selling price.

Un-

II 7 teams, defeating the Galletin S.C, in the finals.

Polar Star Juniors

Apache

won

The

Avella

the national junior championship from the

Juniors.

In the professional circuit of the League, the Brookhattan S.C.

were the American division winners, and the Scots American

won

in the national division.

Qnpialicni

vUbiflIISIIL

S.C.

(J. B. P.)

witnessed little change in Socialist alignment in the United States. The National

Executive Committee of the Socialist party, in its meeting in Milwaukee on December 10 and ii, in looking forward to the 1940 campaign, recommended to the Socialist party National Convention “the nomination of a presidential ticket and an aggressive

campaign N.E.C.,

in

1940 unless, as a result of inquiries initiated by the

develops that there

is serious interest in, and support an independent farmer-labour campaign with which Socialists can consistently co-operate.” The committee voted “full moral, financial and material support to the Finnish workers and farmers and their people’s army.” In a previous session, the N.E.C. reaffirmed the party’s antiwar stand and urged that the United States remain at peace. With the development of the European war crisis, the two committees appointed by the Socialist party and the Social Democratic Fedit

for,

eration to discuss the question of unity suspended negotiations.

The

Social

Democratic Federation N.E.C. declared in favour of

the running of a third party candidate should the Democratic fail to nominate a progressive. In the municipal elections during the year, Jasper McLevy, Socialist Mayor of Bridgeport, Conn, (member of the S.D.F.) was re-elected. Harry W. Laidler was elected one of the two American Labor party councilmen in New York city. In Canada, that country’s Socialist party the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation adopted a war policy at its fall conference, which, in summary, favoured (i) adequate defence of Canada’s shores (2) material aid to the Allied powers; and (3)

party

—

—

preservation of

civil liberties at

home. The conference, on the man power and the sending of

other hand, opposed conscription of

an expeditionary force abroad.

SOCIALIST PARTY— SOCIALIZED MEDICINE In Europe, the Socialist movement was compelled increasingly during the year to concentrate its attention on the war crisis.

When

Great Britain declared war, the National Executive comits support to the war,

mittee of the British Labour party threw

and agreed to the suspension of by-elections maintaining, at the same time, its independence from the Government and its right of criticism. The party declared that it would “use all its authority to build a peace of justice which removes the causes out of which war comes.” It denounced the Government’s refusal to take action on demands for the extension of self-govermnent of the British States of India and urged a capital levy of i% and measures to safeguard labour. The Independent Labour party opposed Britain’s entrance into the war and the system of conscription, as did George Lansbury and some other members of British Labour. The New Fabian Research Bureau during the year merged with the Fabian Society.

The French

Socialist party in

port of the war.

September likewise voted

its

sup-

It opposed attempts to suspend parliamentary

and urged a progressive North African possessions. Many members of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Socialist party and a number of members of the French Socialist party were arrested for their activity

essential reforms,

and to abolish

policy in the country’s

refusal to support the war.

In Belgium, Socialist Premier Paul-Henri Spaak reformed his cabinet in late January. In the general elections on April 2, elected out 1939, 64 Belgian Labour party representatives were of a total of 202, as contrasted with 70 in the 1936 elections. In the same election, the Rexist (fascist) party lost 17 of its 21

The Communists elected nine deputies, the Catholics, 73. Following the elections, Premier Spaak became Minister of For-

seats.

eign Affairs in the

new

cabinet formed

by Hubert

Pieriot, Catholic.

Several other Socialists served in the coalition ministries formed during 1939. The Socialists urged the continuance of Belgian neutrality.

The

Social

Democratic Labour party of Holland during the year

was admitted to the country’s cabinet for the first time in its Inhistory, J. W. Albarda, president of the Labour and Socialist and Dr. van den Tempel, being appointed respectively to the Ministries of Waterways and of Social Affairs in the Socialternational,

ist-Catholic coalition' governments.

National Swiss Socialists elected 51 representatives to the increased and of total 187, Council in the fall elections out of a from 59 their representatives in the Zurich cantonal parliament Federal to 64. Socialists, however, were again refused a seat in the

The

Council. election of In Denmark, the Social Democratic party, in the country, April 2, 1939, again emerged the leading party of the The of out 149. of 64 TOth a representation in the Lower House and representatives four lost party, however, in this election, votes. It faUed failed, for the first time since 1920, to increase its Landsting. It to secure the abolition of the Upper House, or neutrality. Danish preserve sought throughout the year to

December In Sweden, the Social Democratic Government in for RichGuenther reformed its cabinet, substituted Christian de non-Socialists several added and ard J. Sandler as foreign minister, neutrality and of to the ministry, with a view of preserving its in case Government uniting all parts of the country back of the of hostilities. t e e ec In Finland, the general elections of July resulted in increase an of 200, total tions of 85 Social Democrats out of a Progresand Agrarians The of two over the elections of ipS®so-called Patriotic sives, received 56 and 6 seats respectively. The decreased country, the National Movement, the fascistic party of

its

parliamentary representation from 14 to

8.

trade Following the war, the Socialists joined with the

umon

movement

615

in proclaiming the solidarity of the Finnish

class in opposition to the

Russian invasion.

working

In the reorganized

VaYno Tanner, Socialist leader, minister of finance in the became minister of foreign affairs. In Australasia, Socialists and Labourites in New Zealand and Australia gave their support to the British Government, though in each country a minority of the party members opposed sending cabinet,

old cabinet,

their

manpower

to Europe.

(See also

Communism;

Spain.)

(H.

At the beginning of 1939

Socialist Party.

the

year

would

see

it

the

W.

L.)

appeared that considerable

achievement of a reunion of Socialist forces, but negotiations between the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Federation

were suspended because of uncompromisable differences on the war issue. The leaders of the S.D.F. before the outbreak of war in Europe took a strong collective security stand, and after the continuance were in the vanguard of those demanding help for the Allies even under certain possible contingencies to the extent

The Socialist Party with equal firmness America out of war and of steps leading to war, not because it condoned Hitler’s and Stalin’s aggressions, but because it held that America’s best service to herself and mankind would be to make democracy work, mediate for peace, bind up the wounds of war’s victims and afford her citizens a chance to aid those underground movements in Europe which are the best ultimate hope of lasting peace in that continent. This opinion was general among Reading, Pa., Socialists and there Socialist unity was achieved. The Socialist administration in that city lost its campaign for re-election by a very narrow margin. In Bridgeport, Conn., Jasper McLevy and his administration were easily re-elected. His Socialist party in that State has no affiliation with any national Socialist group. In New York State Socialists generally, with the approval of the Socialist Party, joined the American Labor Party as individuals. This was in accordance with the standing decision of the Socialist Party to act electorally with and through any genuine independent labour party. Dr. Harry W. Laidler, long a Socialist leader, was elected under proportional representation to the New York city council as an American Labor Party candidate. During 1939 Roy Burt, after two-and-a-half years of devoted service, resigned as secretary of the party, and was succeeded by Travers Clement of California. (N. T.) of participation in war.

worked

to keep

Socialist Soviet Republics: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. National Health program, which MorlipinD lYICUiwIilC. was prepared for the Interdepart-

mental Committee to Co-ordinate Health and Welfare Activities by its technical committee, was transmitted to President Roose-

by Miss Josephine Roche, chairman, on Jan. 12, 1939. The President, in his message of Jan. 23, 1939, transmitted the report and recommendations on national health to the Congress of the velt

U.S. with a recommendation “for careful study

by the Congress.” Feb. 28, 1939, Hon. Robert F. Wagner, United States Senator from New York, introduced in the Senate of the United States “A bill to provide for the general welfare by enabling the several

On

make more adequate provision for public health, prevenand control of disease, maternal and child health services, construction and maintenance of needed hospitals and health centres; care of the sick, disability insurance and trainmg of personnel; to amend the Social Security Act; and for other purposes.”

States to tion

The Wagner

health

bill

obviously offered a legislative means to

implement the Federal portion of the National Health program.

SOCIAL SECURITY

616

This bill, if enacted into law, would provide appropriations to be used largely for matching State funds under the provisions of

main titles of the bill. These titles were proposed amendments or additions to the Social Security Act. Appropriations were proposed as grants to States for maternal and child welfare; medical services for children and services for crippled and other physically handicapped children; public health work and investifive

gations; grants to States for hospitals and health centres; grants to States for medical care; grants to States for

temporary

dis-

not confined to activities in the Congress of the United States. Although compulsory sickness insurance proposals were defeated in Massachusetts, New York and Rhode Island in 1938, laws pertaining to socialized medicine were enacted in 1939 in Con-

New York, Pennsylvania and Vermont. During 1939 the State medical societies of California, Michigan, Pennsylvania and the Medical Society of the District of Columbia

necticut, Michigan,

adopted State-wide plans for the distribution of medical services to low income groups of the population within their jurisdictions.

The Medical

ability compensation.

The terms under which

Society of

New

Jersey prepared a tentative State-

become

wide proposal for the care of the indigent. Scores of county medi-

available for matching State funds were to be contained in rules and regulations required to be promulgated by the chief of the

cal societies also continued to operate medical service plans for

these proposed grants would

the benefit of indigent or low income people.

(R. G. L.)

Children’s Bureau, with the approval of the secretary of Labor; the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service, with the ap-

proval of the secretary of the Treasury; the Social Security Board,

and the Federal Emergency Administrator of Public Works. These rules and regulations would constitute the measures by which State plans contemplated under this bill would be approved or rejected. Criticism against the Wagner health bill was voiced strongly by the professions and the hospital associations. The American Medical Association pointed out that the Wagner health not safeguard in any

way

bill

does

the continued e.xistence of the private

practitioners; does not provide for the use of the thousands of

vacant beds

now

community makes Federal aid for medical care the rule

available in hundreds of church and

general hospitals;

rather than the e.vception

;

does not recognize the need for suitable

food, sanitary housing and the

improvement of other environ-

mental conditions necessarj' to the continuous prevention of disease; insidiously promotes the development of a complete

system of tax supported governmental medical care; provides compensation for loss of wages during illness, but also proposes to provide complete medical service in addition to such compensation; provides for

supreme Federal control since Federal agents

are given authority to disapprove plans proposed States; prescribes no

method

by

the individual

for determining the nature

and ex-

tent of the needs for preventive and other medical services for

outstanding social security event of

^PPliritV uUwldl wuuUlliya ig^g was nearly 200

amendments

adoption by Congress of

the

to the Social Security Act, which com-

pletely changed the basic principles

old age insurance program.

and direction of the national Whereas the 1935 Act limited its

monthly annuities to the covered workers themselves, the 1939 Old Age and Survivors Insurance plan extended the benefits to the aged wives and aged widows of the insured, to their dependent minor children, to younger widows with minor children to support, and, when there are no other survivors, to aged parents wholly dependent upon the deceased insured persons. Because the new law recognizes the social necessity of providing the greatest protection to the oldest and lowest-paid workers, the

new

benefits are

much more

liberal

than formerly. Annuities

to retired workers at 65, called the “primary” benefits, are com-

puted at

40%

of the

first

entering the system, plus

$50 of the average wage earned

10%

One per

cent of the total

which at

least

of the balance

up

to

is added for each year since 1937 in $200 was earned. Thus, a worker attaining age 65 who averaged $100 monthly in the preceding three years was entitled upon retirement in Jan. 1940, to 40%, or $20, on the first

$50 of his average earnings and to 10%, or $5, on the balance, making a total of $25 monthly. By adding 1% for each of the three years of coverage, or the monthly annuity became $25.75, which will be paid to him each month for the rest of his

which it proposes allotments of funds; is inconsistent with the fundamental principles of medical care established by scientific medical experience and is therefore contrary to the best interests of the American people. The House of Delegates instead would urge the development of a mechanism for meeting the needs for

life.

expansion of preventive medical services, extension of medical care for the indigent and the medically indigent, with local determination of needs and local control of administration, within the

monthly for the couple. She may receive a larger primary

philosophy of the American form of government and without damage to the quality of medical service. It says that any State

since

$250 monthly.

—

Benefits for Wives and Children. ^The wife of an insured worker, upon reaching age 65, is allowed 50% of her husband’s primary benefit, or in the example cited above, a total of $38.63

if

entitled to one in her

child of a retired

primary benefits

worker

until

own

right.

may

receive

benefit

Each unmarried dependent

50%

of the wage-earner’s

he reaches the age of 16, or 18

if

regularly

need for the prevention of disease, the promotion of health and the care of the sick should be able to obtain such aid in a medical emergency without stimulating every other State to seek and to accept similar aid, and thus to have imposed on it the burden of Federal control. The mechanism by which this end which is to be accomplished, whether through a Federal agency to

attending school.

in need of Federal financial assistance can apply, or through a new agency created for this purpose or through responby the sible officers of existing Federal agencies, must be developed Executive and the Congress, who are charged with these duties. In submitting its preliminary report (Senate Report No. 1139,

for the rest of her life unless she remarries. In the example used above this would amount to $19.31 monthly. For every child under 16 or 18 she is entitled to 50% additional benefits. Widows of any age with dependent minor children are entitled to threefourths of the primary annuity for themselves and 50% of the primary benefit for each minor dependent child. Benefits for Dependent Parents. ^If a worker leaves no other survivors, his dependent parents 65 years of age and over wholly dependent upon his support are each entitled to benefits of 50% of the primary benefits. A lump-sum payment not exceeding six times the primary annuity is paid in case no dependent survivor is eligible for any benefits. Maximum benefits permissible under

in actual

any State

76th Congress, ist Session) the subcommittee of the Committee on Education and Labor points out that it is in agreement with the estabgeneral purpose and objectives of the Wagner bill, S-1620,

Health program. It is expected that some proposal to implement the National Health program will be pre-

lishing a National

sented to Congress in 1940. Proposals for legislation in the field of socialized medicine were

Benefits for

Widows and Orphans,

—

^The

new program

also

provides monthly benefits for survivors of insured workers who die after Dec. 31, 1939.

Instead of the meaningless single lump-

sum payments provided by the 1935 Act, a widow aged 65 or over is now entitled to three-fourths of her husband’s primary benefits

—

SOCIAL SERVICE the Act are either double the primary insurance benefits,

8o%

of

average wages, or $85, whichever is the least, while the minimum is $10 monthly. Earnings of $15 or more per month automatically stop the benefits. All the above benefits are paid to or on behalf of insured workers

who earned

at least $50 in one-half of the

calendar quarters elapsing between the end of 1936 and the time of death or retirement, or at least in six such quarters. Orphans

617

persons engaged in war occupations at certain adjustments necessitated

new

by war

home

or abroad and for

conditions, there

was no

Great Britain during 1939; but an important legal decision, clarifying the law as it stood, w'as made. In February the Court of Appeal decided that an employee ivho receives legislation in

and widows are entitled to benefits

scheme is entitled also to be paid wages under his contract of service, and as a consequence a municipal corporation ruled that any employee falling sick should be given

in six of the 12 quarters

a week’s notice and at the same time told that he w’ould be rein-

if the worker had earned $50 immediately preceding his death. The

system was widened in 1939 to include workers in banks, savings and loan associations and other institutions not fully ovTied by the Government, certain maritime workers

and persons employed beyond the age of 65. On the other hand, some small classes of workers have been excluded by the new law.

The 1939 changes halted the scheduled increase in the taxes for the three years 1940-42, keeping them at 1% each for employers and workers for this period. With the increased and extended

sickness benefit under the

stated on recovery.

Under a Whitley Council

ruling

it

was

later

decided that dismissal of ivork people in these circumstances was unnecessary and inadvisable and that existing contracts should be confirmed, any employer not intending to pay wages during sickness making this clear to the employee in writing. There are some 20,000,000 contributors to the health scheme, one-third of whom are women; contributions amount to about £31,000,000 annually, benefits to £36,000,000, administration to £6,000,000

advance in the monthly benefit payments from 1942 to 1940, and the reduction in contributions, the menace of the huge reserves originally contemplated was eliminated. By Sept. 1939, 408,362 lump-sum payments amounting to $22,505,990 had

and

been certified under the 1935 provisions. In August, the average lump-sum benefit certified amounted to $87.04, while the average

65 to 55 and to admit dependents of insured persons to health insurance benefits. The prime minister in July, sanctioning an

benefits, the

of

such payments since April 1937 was $55.11. The total fund reached $1,727,591,400 by

all

assets of the old age insurance

total

accumulated funds to £140,000,000. Renewed efforts amount of and lighten the conditions attaching

to increase the

to old-age pensions were unavailing, as also were strongly sup-

ported campaigns to reduce the pensionable age of spinsters from

inquiry into the old-age pensions position,

made

no was

clear that

it

increase that would impose an undue burden on the exchequer

The inquiry then undertaken was suspended on the outbreak of war, but in November Sir John Simon promised its immediate resumption, and a report was scheduled for early

possible.

Sept. 1939.

Public Assistance.—^The most important amendment

in the old

age assistance program in 1939 increased the State grant for which the Federal Government will allow its 50% share from $30 to $40 monthly. The new law also emphasized the “needs” test for

1940. There are

some 3,900,000 persons drawing pensions

(includ-

ing 650,000 widows and 275,000 dependent children), of

whom

all Federal-State grants and required that personnel be chosen on a merit basis. The Federal subsidy for aid to dependent children

550.000 are non-contributory. Of the £100,000,000 paid annually under the contributory, non-contributory and voluntarj' schemes.

was raised from one-third to one-half of the grants up to definite maxima, as in the case of the aged and the blind, and allowances are permitted for children up to 18 when attending school. During Aug. 1939, old age assistance grants amounting to $36,4i5>257

£14,500,000 is paid by the State for non-contributory pensions, leaving a ‘contributory pension figure of £85,000,000 of which the

were paid to 1,874,651 persons, or an average of $19.43- In the same month 721,232 dependent children received Federal-State assistance costing $9,337,801, the payments averaging $31-20 per family, while 45,214 blind persons received $1,040,180, an average of $23.01 per person. Utopian old age pension schemes were overwhelmingly defeated by the voters of California and Ohio during the November

—

un774,000 Unemployment Insurance. Of the 1939 changes in the the most Act, Security Social the of phase employment insurance yearly wages significant provided that only the first $3,000 of on a selected be personnel should be taxed and that the State as were merit basis. Practically the same inclusions and exclusions were written into the Old Age and Survivors Insurance system of $369>' total A insurance program. made in the

in the

to

Nov. 1939,

of Columbia^

reac e The monthly peak of $44,491,421 (in 4,170,406 checks) an In 1938, October. by in August, dropped to $26,700,000

workers under average of $83.89 each was received by 2,157,522 end of ug. the At 17 of the imemployment insurance systems. Government Federal the by held 1939, the State reserves

amounted to $1,410,448,000. insurance Health Insurance.—Intensification of the health campaign ner of

agRobert ear y York introduced a Federal-State health measure Law [Case]: Social Secu-

rvas recorded during i939- U.S. Senator

New

in 1939.

(See also Child Welfare; Federal; Socialized Medicine.

-

(A. Ep.) from Great Britain.—In the field of health insurance, apart insured of insurance the of an Act providing for the continuance

rity; Legislation,

.

—The annual census

in

July revealed

employment in the general scheme yet recorded 12,912,000 (656,000 more than the previous year), and the lowest unemployment figure since 1929, viz., 1,282,000; this total further decreased before the start of the war, but in December it stood at 1,361,500 (after having been higher), a number the highest

number

in

—

by nearly 500,000 than that for Dec. 1938. The latest statisshow that in 1938 income on the general account W’as £65,895,000, about £927,750 more than in 1937, the increase derived from the classes of workers first made insurable in 1938 being offset by the decrease of employment. Expenditure totalled £62,-

less

elections.

unemployment was paid, to unemployed workers from Jan. 48 States,' Hawaii, Alaska, and the District

exchequer provides £55,000,000, representing an income-tax of

about i2S.zd. in the £. Unemployment Insurance

tics

320.000 (up £19,735,000 in 1937), and a special debt repayment of £20,000,000 was made. The income on the agricultural account rose by £64,900 to £1,942,000, and the expenditure from £700,000 to £993,650. In view of this satisfactory state of affairs benefits were increased (from March 30) and contributions reduced (July 2), these changes to remain in force till July 1942. In 1939 a short amending Act was passed providing for payment of contributions in respect of holiday periods, extending the provision of

payment of dependent’s

benefit,

and prowding

training

courses for unemployed young persons; and after the outbreak

of war the

Unemplo}ment Assistance Board was empowered

to

give assistance, at similar rates as those to be insured, to the

uninsured

who were

in

need through having been evacuated or (L. H. D.)

through other circumstances arising out of the war.

Qnpiul ^on/ipo OUuldl OClilLC*

outstanding events of the year 1939 in the United

the field of social service in

States were concerned again, as in the year 1938. with further

SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS— SOIL EROSION

618

progress towards the adoption of

new measures

fare, public assistance, or social security,

of public wel-

and the development

of the rapidly growing public social services in the various States.

The

bers of people continued to be in need of relief in many parts of the country, and the continued lack of employment for men and willing to work, has created a grave situation,

women, able and

The

assistance ex-

tended to the unemployed and the so-called “unemployables” on relief has been very inadequate in every year since 1935, when the to

FERA

came

to an end.

be provided through the

Federal aid for

WPA, now

Administration instead of the

Works Progress

continued

relief

called the

Works

Projects

Administration.

Reports in Oct. 1939 showed that in nine out of 43 States reporting, there were very low relief averages, ranging from $3.96 to $9.85

per family per month. Destitute people, especially em-

ployable people, have sometimes been left to subsist on the food supplies distributed as “Federal Surplus Commodities.” This long-

continued inadequacy

of

relief,

inadequate

particularly

food,

A

has threatened the health of the people in some areas.

new

experiment in the distribution of “surplus commodities” by means

was

of stamps redeemable at local groceries

satisfactorily carried

out in a few communities, and this e.xperiment

is

Canada and South

Africa.

(G. A. Ro.)

an estimated 1,000,000 players and 105,000 teams playing the game. Played under the supervision of the Amateur Softball Association of America,

^nfthQll uUllUdli.

Softball boasts

game is making remarkable progress. The national championship men’s team of the association turned up in the Covington (Ky.) Boosters after conquering the Columbus (Ohio) team in the finals. The Alameda (Cal.) Girls, who in 1938 won the women’s national championship under the name of the

the J. J. Kriegs, retained their laurels in 1939, defeating the Louis(Ky.) team in the finals, in one of the most thrilling games

ville

on record. The Metropolitan League title,, for which six squads competed, was won by the Newark-Linder team of girls. The Roverettes and the Americanettes representing New York in the women’s contests played their games in Madison Square Garden. The former won 25 and lost 13, and the latter captured 20 and dropped 15. In eight games between the two teams, the Americanettes prevailed, 5-3. The girls’ games brought new thrills indoors.

(J. B. P.)

be continued

to

scale. Direct relief was granted to a considernumber of farm families under the Farm Security Administration. Some improvement in the relief situation, however, has resulted from the removal of large numbers of families and inin

in

num-

continuation of the depression meant that very large

particularly in the urban industrial centres.

product in the recovery of borax from brine lakes in California. Kenya exports about 40,000 tons, and small amounts are recovered

1940 on a large

able

dividuals

from the general

relief rolls to

the three important public

assistance services under the Social Security Act.

During 1939 large expenditures of more than $S, 000,000 for were made through Federal grants to the States for three other important services provided under the

social welfare purposes

Social Security Act, but administered

by the U.S.

Children’s

Bureau, for setting up proper child welfare services; to'assist the States with grants for the care of crippled children,

and for

maternal and child welfare. In 1939 there were 44 States with regular legislative sessions and a large grist of

Many

of these

new

new

legislation.

acts of the State legislatures dealt with the

reorganization of the State welfare services in order to

make

proper administrative provision for the new and developing services; and there have also been changes in the State welfare authority to provide for greater efficiency in three forms of public child welfare, care of crippled children, maternal and assistance

—

child welfare, along with the special services provided

public benevolent institutions.

An improvement

by the

in

great

the social

new State merit systems has been an important development. The rate of progress in the adoption of State civil

services through

service laws has been greatly accelerated. Recommendations of the President’s Interdepartmental Committee on Health Services were incorporated in the bill introduced by Senator Wagner of

New York but not reported back from

the Senate committee until

Federal reorganization, delayed in 1938, made some progress in the creation of the Federal Security Agency and the Federal

Public Health AdminProgress Works Security; Social Services; Relief; {See also Child Welfare;

(E- Ab.)

istration.)

Soil Conservation.

Man-induced erosion continues

to be a

major problem

in every

agricultural region in the world, except in north-western Europe.

In North America erosion by wind and water has reached immense proportions. In the Great Plains region of the United States, wind erosion, caused largely by the destruction of vegetation through overgrazing, cropping and continued drought, has damaged millions of acres of land, much of it beyond immediate reclamation.

In the high-rainfall region of the eastern seaboard,

Piedmont region of the South, sheet and

especially in the

erosion have robbed the land of most of

its topsoil.

States the erosion problem is being attacked on

gully

In the United

many

sides.

The

Agricultural Adjustment Administration pays subsidies to fanners

co-operating in the crop adjustment program, which emphasizes

the substitution of soil-saving for soil-depleting crops.

The

Soil

working in some 500 selected areas throughout the country demonstrating effective erbsion-control practices. Thirty-six States have enacted laws enabling farmers Conservation Service

is

to establish by popular election distinct units of local Government with authority to conduct conservation operations. Farmers work co-operatively through district officials in setting up erosion control measures. The district receives assistance, such as technical personnel, materials, equipment and in some cases labour for installing control devices,

The Canadian

from Federal and State agencies. is a continuation northwards of the Prairie and Great Plains States of

erosion problem

conditions prevailing in

the United States.

came with passage

too late for action during the regular session.

Works Agency.

and

Soil Erosion

Official

action favouring conservation

first

Farm

Rehabilitation Act of 1935 which encourages recipients of drought assistance to adopt apof the Prairie

proved cropping and cultural methods. Strip cropping, cover cropping

check

soil

and fallowing are promoted

to

blowing.

The almost

total

absence of forests and the primitive methods

of farming in some parts of the region explain the tremendous

Societies and Associations: see under

specific

amount of

name,

erosion

damage

in the

Mediterranean basin. Outside of

Italy and the Italian and French mandates in northern Africa, very

by chemical procfrom salt, increasing amounts of sodium carbonate are being recovered from natural brines accumu-

PorhnnotD uSlDundlc.

Originally produced

esses

lated in salt lakes in arid regions.

The United

States output,

now

exceeding 100,000 short tons annually, comes mainly as a by-

effort at erosion control is being made. In Italy a stupendous task of land reclamation and soil conservation has been going on since 1930. It is estimated that one-third of the country will be improved under the Bonifica Integrale during the 14-year little

period ending in 1944.

SOLDIERS’

BONUS-SOUTH AFRICA, THE UNION OF

Rapid deforestation of the Transylvanian Alps since the World

War and

has contributed to the frequent flooding of the River Tisza running through the Plain of Hungary, where

its tributaries

there is also a serious wind erosion problem. erosion

is

Equally serious

progressing in the Rakovnik area of Bohemia and in

the basin of the Borsary river in the Carpathian mountains.

In East Prussia and Poland the shifting of sand dunes is a major problem. In eastern Poland and in central Russia and the Ukraine sheet and gully erosions are quite severe, while wind erosion on the steppes and the expanding area of drifting sand in south-central Asia add to the erosion problems of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. With extension of mechanized co-operative farms into semi-arid sections the problem of wind erosion has greatly increased. Chief erosion-control measure thus far

adopted by the Soviets

The Orient

presents

Soldiers' Bonus: see Adjusted Compensation. Solomon Islands: see Pacific Islands, British; Pacific Islands, Mandated. Somaliland, British: see British East Africa. Somaliland, French: see French Colonial Empire. Somaliland, Italian: see Italian Colonial Empire. South Africa, British: see British South Africa.

the planting of shelter-belts.

is

some of the most

tragic results of erosion,

and some of the best examples of soil conservation. The land around the headwaters of the Yellow river in China is the most severely eroded region in the world, while the terraced hillsides of

Japan illustrate conservation at its best. Continuous overgrazing has been largely responsible for

of the catastrophic erosion that scars the foothills of the

Soutli Africa,

The Union

Hima-

Erosion does not occur to any great extent in Japan or on the European estates in Java. Large-scale sugar cane agriculture and increasing pressure of population have made erosion a

problem in the Philippine islands. In Ceylon, where eroand tea plantations has become very serious, control measures are now progressing rapidly. The Ordinance of lands 193s provides for treatment of badly-eroded lands; no crown serious

recommended erosion control measures, at their own expense. The loss of soil by erosion is nowhere more rapid than in Africa. Veld burning and kraaling, generally employed throughout the tain

:

Cape Town

;

European population: Christian (Dutch Reformed^ Churches 55%; Anglican 19%; Methodists 6%; Presbyterians reUgion:

5%). History. ish

—^The Union

Commonwealth

is

a self-governing

of Nations.

checks system of ridge and basin cultivation that effectively West French and Coast erosion. The governments of the Gold to Africa are protecting existing trees and planting shelter-belts

prevent further extension of mobile sand areas. treIn Australia erosion by both water and wind has caused against eroaction of plan national unified mendous damage. No Governsion has yet been taken. However, the South Australian special for reducing pastoral rents with fence off stock, their reduce to agree consideration for lessees native affected areas and set aside permanent reserves for seeding

ment introduced a scheme

who

Service South Wales a Soil Conservation establishing in owners land with co-operate has been created to

plants

and

trees.

In

New

anti-erosion measures.

proportions In South America erosion has not reached serious plains and of overgrazing regions, in many though deforestation the countriw failure to use manures and fertilizers make some of Storms.) vulnerable to this danger. (See also Drought; Dust

—

Bibliography. ^H. H. Croucher and C. Swabey, “Soil 7 t ^93 7. s«vaV\on in Jamaica, 1937.” Jamaica Dept. Sci. and G. V. Jacks and R. 0. Whyte, Vanishing Land (i939) b Hurbag Pub. Soil Conservation,” Imp. Bur. Pastures and Forage Crops. Bennett, So Series, Bull. 2$ (Aberystwyth, JIarch 1938); H. H.

it

incorporated as a Province. There are in effect two capitals: the

Government Cape Town.

the outbreak of war in 1939.

vides special erosion control services to the farmers. The natives of central and northern Nigeria have evolved a

Brit-

as an integral part of the Union, but this territory has not been

South Africa has adopted a program of Government subsidy for farmers. Since 1935 five Government schemes have operated. In Uganda, where cotton for export is grown on large communal occur fields year after year, gullies two or three feet deep may Soil Conservation Service pro-

Dominion of the

four provinces of which

Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, extend from the southernmost point of the African continent to the Limpopo in the north. The former German colony of South West Africa is administered under mandate

seat of the

In Kenya a

The

consists, the

Union of South Africa, are direct causes of accelerated erosion and have prevented natural recovery of pasture vegetation after droughts. To encourage the installation of erosion control measures,

(legislative capital) (344,-

223); Johannesburg (519,384); Durban (259,606); Pretoria (128,621) Port Elizabeth (109,841). Governor-general: Rt. Hon. Sir Patrick Duncan; languages: English 39%; Afrikaans 56%;

sion on the rubber

above s,oooft. can be alienated except by special governmental approval. All new landowners are required to install and main-

«o

of.

sq.mi.); pop. (est. June 30, 1939) 10,160,000 (Europeans 2,116,500; native 6,997,500; coloured 814,800; Asiatic 231,200). Chief

towns (pop. census 1936)

much

layas.

during single rains.

619

valion; A. W. R. Joachim, “Summary of Legislation or other Governmental Action on Soil Conservation in Various Countries,” Tropical Agriculturist (Ceylon, April 1939); G. Strele, “Fifty Years’ Experience with Mountain Stream Control in Austria” (translated from Wasserkraft und JVasserwirtschait, March 16, 1936, by W. Pundt and J. G. Woodburn); U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service; Soil Conservation Districts tor Erosion Control, Misc. Pub. 293, Gov’t Print. Off. (1939), and Report of the chief of the Soil Conservation Service, Gov’t Print. Off. (1938). (H. H. Be.)

is

at

is

at Pretoria; the seat of the legislature

General Hertzog led the United Party as prime minister, until

The

period was one of considerable

uncertainty owing to doubt as to the position of the Union should

break out. The Government adhered to the declaration by General Herzog after the crisis of 1938 that, in the event of the United Kingdom being involved in war, the attitude of the Union would be decided by the South African parliament. In hostilities

September General Hertzog’s proposal for a modified neutrality was defeated in parliament by 80 votes to 67. General Smuts assumed the premiership and South Africa declared war on Germany. General Smuts’s cabinet contained J. Hofmeyr, minister of finance, and Colonel Reitz, minister of native affairs. Colonel Stallard, the leader of the Dominion Party, became minister for mines, and Mr. Madeley, the leader of the Labour Party, minister for labour and social welfare. General Smuts took an early opportunity of defining the nature of the Union’s participation in the

war: it was, he said, to be conditioned by considerations of geography and the special conditions attaching to South Africa. MUitaiy preparations are to be confined to placing home defence in a high state of efficiency, therefore no encouragement is to be given to citizens of the Union to serve abroad. At the same time the Government promised to give physical support to the Allies in the matter of trade, shipping and finance, also to maintain the defences of Simonstown and to allow the free usage of that naval base by British warships. Only by pursuing such a policy. General Smuts declared, could the Union secure protection for the conveyance of her overseas trade. The Government’s policy found a wide measure of support throughout the country. Colonel Reitz was sent to the United Kingdom to join the ministers from other

SOUTH AMERICA— SOUTH CAROLINA

620 Dominions

in their consultations with the Imperial

Government

on questions of defence. General Smuts had a majority of 17 at the end of the year and appeared to be in little danger of losing

General Hertzog’s party held 38 Negotiations between the two opposition leaders for a fusion of their parties are still proceeding; agreement appears likely to be based more on opposition to Genthe leadership in parliament.

seats

eral

and Dr. Malan’s held

29.

avowed was announced that

Smuts’s policy than on the republicanism which

objective of the Malanites.

is

the

In Jan. 1940 it General Hertzog would be regarded as official leader of the oppo-

and would introduce a motion of no confidence in the Government at an early opportunity. Elections to the Senate took place in November and resulted in a Government majority. The Union continues to enjoy an exceptionally sound financial position; in spite of larger expenditure on defence her citizens face 1940 without fears of heavy increases in direct taxation. It is sition

estimated that gold production in 1939 will establish a record; the total for 11 months of the year was over 11,000,000 ounces.

The Government decided

from the sale of gold in excess of 150 shillings an ounce and some £4,000,000 additional revenue will be secured from this tax. The revenues of both the Government and the State railways are favourable. A program of public works involving the expenditure of some £6,000,000, also expenditure of some £4,000,000 by the National

Road Board,

to appropriate all proceeds

are being carried through in spite of the war.

The

natural and industrial resources are under investigation by a com-

mittee of experts.

Increased exports of wool and other produce

cultivation 9,236; potatoes (1937-38)

European

cultivation 173,-

695; oats (1937-38) European cultivation 86,158; barley (193738) European cultivation 25,809; mohair (1938) ex-port i,goo; copper (smelter production) (1938) 11,100; ground-nuts (1937-

38) European cultivation 8,700; benzol (1938) 1,900; superphosphates of lime (1937) 164,000. Industry and labour (Census

1936-37): establishments 9,987; employees, European 140,203; others 192,565; value of gross output £172,863,087; value of net

Employment index, European (average £79.931.8131925=100) average 1938 174-9; June 30, 1939, 177-0. (W. H. Wn.) South America: see Argentina; Bolivia; Peru; etc.

output

380,070 sq.mi.; pop.

(est.

Dec.

31, Qnilth Alictrolio OUUlli nUolluilui 1938)595,109. Chief town (pop. Dec. 31, 1938), Adelaide (321,412). Governor, Sir Charles Malcolm Barclay-Harvey, K.C.M.G. History. Sir Winston Dugan was succeeded as governor of the State by Sir Malcolm Barclay-Harvey, who arrived in Adelaide on August 12. Extensions to Parliament House costing £250,000 were completed in June and were opened by the governor-general, Lord Gowrie.

—

Pastoral and agricultural conditions were affected to some ex-

by scarcity of rainfall early in 1939 and by falling prices. The Government’s active policy in combatting soil erosion was tent

reflected, in the introduction of a

measure to vary the terms

of

pastoral leases so that lessees should be compelled to preserve a

add to the prosperity of the Union and provide essential supplies for Great Britain in her war effort. During 1939 the Union was visited by the president of Portugal and the Government has ap-

proportion of natural timber on their land.

pointed a minister to represent her at Lisbon. Increasing attention

great progress in manufacturing industries. Existing factories were

is

being paid to the welfare of the native population. (J. L. K.) Education, 1937. State and State-aided: European schools

—

4,471; scholars 381,550; native schools 4,850; scholars 546,225; higher, average number of students 8,707.

Banking and

—Revenue,

Finance.

ordinary

(est.

1939-40)

£44,110,000; expenditure, ordinary' (est. 1939-40) £44,442,014; public debt (Mar. 31, 1939) £278,876,360; notes in circulation (Aug. 25, 1939) £16,712,000; gold reserve (Aug. 25, 1939) £26,910,000; exchange rate (1938) £100-5 S.A. =£100 sterling. Trade and Communication. External trade: imports, total

—

1938 £95,886,917; (Jan.-June 1939) £48,413^783; exports, domestic (including gold ear marked) 1938 £102,906,492; (Jan.-

June 1939) £68,300,483; re-exports 1938 £2,992,613. Communications and transport: roads, fit for motor traffic (1937-38) 85,428mi.; railways, including S.W.Africa (Mar. 31, 1938) i3,62omi.; ainvays, including S.W.Africa (1938): passengers carried 34.162; freight and mails carried 3,005,639^.; mileage flown 1,862,195;

shipping (1938) entered 6,182; net tonnage 24,869,085; cleared 6,190; net tonnage 24,908,024. (Dec. 31, 1938): Motor vehicles licensed: cars and taxis 302,069; buses, vans and trucks 48,212;

yielded good results in arresting sand drift.

and sulphuric acid. In estimating a budget £570,000 for the financial year 1939-40 the Treasurer

announced an increase of 4d. in the £ on income tax. Early in the year it was reported in Adelaide that remains suspected to belong to the ill-fated Leichhardt expedition of 1848

had been discovered in the Simpson desert. An expedition led by Dr. C. T. Madigan crossed the Simpson desert and returned to Adelaide in August with valuable scientific material, but without having found any trace of Leichhardt. (L. R. Me.)

—

Finance. In 1938-39: revenue, £12,303,598; expenditure, £12,700,921; debt outstanding (June 30, 1939) £110,307,250. Communications. ^Roads (March 30, 1939) 22,4i2mi. fit for

—

motor

traffic;

railways (1938),

hicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1938)

10,213.

:

Government 2,557mi.; motor

ve-

cars 60,537; trucks 24,985; cycles

Wireless receiving set licences (Dec. 31, 1938) 111,850.

—

and Manufactures. Wheat 43,428,42360.; barley 8,647,04360.; grapes 189,614 tons; currants i87,332cwt. wool Agriculture

;

86,606,3881b.; butter 22,428,298 pounds.

Industry and labour,

1938: factories 1,980, employees 44,084; gross value of output unemployment (Trade Union returns) average

instruments in use 175,711.

(1937-38) 7-3%-

total 2,535,000; (1938) 1,238,608 metric carats; maize (1938-39) coal (1938) 16,284,000; sheep, number (Aug. 31, 1938) 39.001,-

of

cars, cellulose

deficit of

^36, 239, 937;

—

The year was one

extended, and companies were formed for the manufacture of

motor

cycles 25,314; wireless receiving set licences 189,321; telephones,

Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production. ^Production (in metric tons): gold (1938) 12,161,392 fine oz.; diamonds

Experiments made

with a Russian grass imported from the United States of America

3°)989 sq.mi., including almost 300 sq.mi. of coastal waters. Pop. 193O1 i> 738,765; estimated July i, 1938, 1,875,000. Columbia,

Qnilth Pornlino uUUlll udrulllld

:

481;

the capital, had 51,581 in 1930, and Charleston, 62,265. History. Gov. Burnet R. Maybank has been sparing of par-

320,000; pig iron and ferro-alloys (1938) 294,400; steel (1937) 284,000; silver (1938) 1,135,374 fine oz. manganese ore (metal

dons and has actively though unsuccessfully striven for a State police system. His recommendation to restrict the governor’s pardoning power brought no response. Late in the year 1939 bands labelled K.K.K. in several up-country counties occasionally com-

cattle, number (Aug. 31, 1938) 11, 371.733; wool (1938) cane 94,303; wheat (1938-39) European cultivation 465,200; sugar (1938-39) refined 472,600; iron ore (metal content) (1938)

;

content)

(1938)

238,600; chrome ore (chromic oxide content)

(1938) 79,400; asbestos (1938) 21,900; wine (1937-38) European cultivation 347,091 hectolitres; tobacco (1937-38) European

—

mitted violence against racial or political opponents or supposedly

immoral persons, which brought vigorous investigation and

early

—

SOUTH DAKOTA — SOUTH-WEST AFRICA arrests.

The 1939

legislative session

(January 9 to July i with week-end intermissions) was the longest on record for the State, on account of squabbles over revenue measures, and the continued

growth of local legislation of no more general concern than a town ordinance. The growing need for county legislative bodies is little realized.

—^Whites

Education.

in public schools 1938-39, 266,882;

Ne-

groes, 220,728; expenditures respectively, $15,952,094 and $2,502,437. The text-book rental system was superseded in a few places

by free text-books (long used in some cities). College students were allotted $157,380 for labour or services in their institutions by the National Youth Administration 1938-39. Charities, Correction

and Social

Legislation.

the State hospital (for mentally diseased) 30,

1938, besides 765 on parole.

The

—Inmates

numbered

4,372,

of

June 30, 1939, 1,258. prisoners of all grades are on county chain gangs. Electrocutions, year ending June 30, 1939, ten. The Department of Public Welfare, created May 13, 1937, has distributed since then to the aged, the blind, children, etc.,

45%

$6,456,740,

of which

was Federal funds, and also goods sup-

by the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation valued at $3,227,307. The South Carolina Unemployment Compensation Commission (established 1936) paid to unemployed workers, year ending June 30, i939, $1,782,942. plied

—State

Government’s receipts for the year ending June 30, 1939, were $53,838,838, $6,450,082 being Federal aid. The surplus maintained for several years disappeared under the burden of social security. Total State debt June 30, 1939, $47,3r3,t87, mainly for highways; in addition about $r 7,000,000 conFinance.

tingent liabilities on guarantee of county

highway bonds. Federal

internal revenues collected in South Carolina 1938-39 totalled

Exports totalled $9,270,091;

$10,533,068.

imports $7,866,492,

on same being $r, 169,416. Agriculture and Manufactures. ^How well justified was Governor Maybank’s attack on farm tenancy is shown by the fact

duties

—

that two-thirds of the farmers are tenants, a fourth of

—

enrolment, 139,014. The State debt was $44,869,000 on June 30, 1939. Total receipts $31,231,385.25; disbursements, $30,761,-

The total value of crops produced in 1939 was $75,422,000; mineral production was in excess of $20,000,000. There were

339-34-

no bank

A

failures in 1939. continuation of drought and grasshopper plague brought dis-

tress to farmers

over a wide area. The farm-to-toivn migration

continued. Manufacturing showed a sh’ght gain.

Highway development continued

An

cipal industries.

visited the

estimated

to

be one of the State’s prin-

1,000,000

Badlands and Black Hills

out-of-State (L.

in 1939.

tourists

K. F.)

June

State penitentiary con-

Many

tained,

621

Bushfield, i6th governor, inaugurated, Jan. 3, 1939. ^The school census for 1939 was 163,440; school Statistics.

whom move

Southern Rhodesia: 'see Rhodesia. South Polar Regions: see Exploration and Discovery.

South Sea and Equatorial Islands. ocean, lies in latitude o°49' N., longitude i76°42' W., approximately i,62omi. south-west of Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii. It was discovered by Capt. George E. Netcher of New Bedford, Mass., in 1842, and taken possession of by the United States in

Feb. 1857, by A. C. Benson of the American Guano Company. In 1872, the “U.S.S. Narragansett” surveyed Howland island and

found

it

to be about

two miles long, north and south, one-half

mile wide, 18 or 20ft. high, of coral formation, and w'ith a fringing reef. Baker island lies in latitude o°i3' N., longitude 176°33' W., within 13 nautical miles of the equator.

Jarvis island

is

ap-

proximately i,50omi. south of Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii latitude o°22'37" S., longitude i6o°oi'37"

of the equator,

is

W.

It is 23mi. south

of sand and coral formation; i-g miles east and

west by a

little over a mile wide. It is saucer-shaped, the high beach rim enclosing a basin. These three islands were settled in 1936, after having been uninhabited for many years, by repre-

sentatives of the

Department of the

Interior,

and colonized by Their presence

annually. In several counties there are few white tenants, although generally both races are heavily represented. Federal authorities

placing four young Hawaiians on each island.

estimated 1939 production of South Carolina crops exceeded 1938 by 12%. Value of principal field and truck crops 1939, $117,686,-

to these islands and permitted the recording of meteorological

and

In March 1938, Canton and Enderbury islands of the Phoenix group were similarly colonized and likewise placed under the Interior Department by Executive Order. Canton island is the

000, as against $98,627,000 in 1938.

Cotton yield per acre

wheat, oats, hay, tobacco, sweet potatoes exceeded Farmers voted in December over 96% for Federal

total yield of all

records.

marketing quotas of cotton to continue in 1940. Over i,ooo,oooac.

manufacturing plants June 30, 1939, was $393," 762,649; value of products fiscal year ending that date $382,290,041; average number of employees 133,048; wages (not including all

The Santee-Cooper

salaries)

hydro-electric

$88,365,782. navigation dam being built by a Federal grant of $37, 5°°,°°°

and

K 1

UoKOlSy

North Central State, admitted to the Union “Coyote in 1889, is commonly called the

State.” Area, 77,615 square miles. Population (193S State census), Sioux 675,082. Capital, Pierre, population 4,013. Chief city,

Rural population 33,644. Urban population, 289,751population, including 26,996 Indians, 385,331. adHistory. ^Republicans gained complete control of State

Falls,

—

ministration, one U.S. senatorship, and the State’s two Congressional members. State legislature met in 26th regular session, blood 1939; adopted new code, enacted capital punishment law,

preference basic science law, soldiers’ marriage law; proposed three amendments to State Constitution to be voted on at Nov. 1940 election; 300 laws passed. Harlan John

test before

largest

and most northerly of the Phoenix i7i°43'

W.

It is a coral atoll

islands.

Its position is

composed of a nearly

continuous narrow rim of land from 50 to 600yd. wide, enclosing a triangular lagoon about 8mi. long by nearly 4mi. wide at the

west end. This rim varies in height from 10 to 20ft. and is broken only by three or four lagoon entrances. The construction of local

by Pan American Airways is nearing completion. Test from Hawaii to New Zealand, using Canton as the first stop of the southward flight, were made during the year. Regular service is shortly to be scheduled. Enderbury island lies about 36 miles in the direction S. 67° E. from Canton, its position being 3‘’7' S., i7i°3' W. It is of sand and coral formation, about 3mi. long north and south by about a mile wide. The rim averages facilities

flights

well under way.

ri

data essential to commercial aviation in the Pacific.

2°49'' S.,

are of forests under public supervision.

Capital in

there definitely established the sovereignty of the United States

15 to 20ft. high. All these islands are of coral formation with all are devoid of drinking water and

scarcely any vegetation, and afford all

no means of

subsistence. It

is

necessary therefore to furnish

food, drinking water, and incidental supplies for the main-

tenance of the colonists. This

is

accomplished by sending quarterly

expeditions to the islands from Honolulu.

(E. Gru.)

bill,

South-West Africa: Union

of.

see

Mandates; South Aerica, The

SOVEREIGNS, PRESIDENTS AND RULERS— SPAIN

622

Name and

Country

Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers. The following list includes the names of those positions in their countries

Afghanistan

.

.

Arabia, Saudi

,

Argentina

.

.

.

Australia

.

.

.

Belgium

Bhutan

.... .... ....

Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria.

Canada

i,

1940.

.

.

.

Yugoslavia. Zanzibar ,

Muhammed Zahir Shah, King Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, King Roberto M. Ortiz, President Lord Cowrie, of Ruthven, Governor-General Robert G. Menzies, Premier Leopold III, King Hubert Pierlot, Premier Yigme Wangchuk, Maharaja Gen. Carlos Quintanilla, Provisional President Dr. Getulio Vargas, President

.

.

1934

.

.

1926 1939 1934 1918

.

193s

1938 1932 1939 1938 1936 1936 1912 1938 1939 1936

.

.

Costa Rica.

.

.

L&n

.

.

.

1933 1927 1938 1936

Lord Tweedsmuir, Governor-General W. Mackenzie King, Premier

Cuba Denmark

China

CortSs, President Dr. Federico Laredo Bru, President

Christian X, King Dominican Rep. Dr. Jacinto B. Peynado, President Ecuador .... A. F. Cordova, Provisional President Farouk I, King Egypt Aly Maher Pasha, Premier Dr. Douglas Hyde, President Eire .

.

1938

Eamon

Estonia Finland France

.

de Valera, Premier Konstantin Pats, President Kyosti Kallio, President Albert Lebrun, President Edouard Daladier, Premier Adolf Hitler, Fuehrer and Chancellor George VI, King and Emperor Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister George II, King Gen. John Metaxas. Premier Gen. Jorge Ubico, President Stenio Vincent, President Geo. Tiburcio Carias Andino, President

.... .... ....

Germany

.

.

Great Britain

.

.

....

Greece

Guatemala.

.

Haiti

Honduras Hungary

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

Iceland India Iran Iraq Italy

‘

1933 1937 1932

1933 1936 1935 1931

Admiral Nicholas Horthy, Regent Count Paul Teleki, Premier Christian X, King Marquess of Linlithgow, Viceroy, Governor-General. Reza Shah Pahlevi, Shahinshah Faisal II, King (Regency) Victor Emmanuel III, King

1912 1936 1926 1939 1900

1926

Japan

Hirohito,

Latvia

Nobuyuki Abe, Preniier (resigned Jan. Karlis Ulmanis, President

.... ....

.

.

.

.

_

.

Lithuania

.

.

.

.

Barclay, President Franz Jozef II, Sovereign Prince Antanas Smetona, President Charlotte, Grand Duchess

.

.

Henry Pu

.

Luxemburg Manchoukuo Mexico

Monaco

.... ....

Morocco. Nepal

,

Netherlands

.

.

.

.

Newfoundland

New Zealand. Nicaragua

Norway

.

.

.

....

Oman

...

Palestine

Panama

.

.

....

Paraguay Peru

.

.

.

Philippines.

.

.

Portugal.

.

.

Rumania

.

.

.

.

Yi,

Emperor Kangte

Gen. Lazaro Cardenas, President Louis II. Prince Sidi Maulay Mohammed, Sultan Maharaja Bir Bikram Jang, King

VII,

King

Sayyid Said bin Taimur, Sultan Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael, High Commissioner. Dr. Augusto S. Boyd, President Jos6 Estigarribia, President Dr. Manuel Prado, President Manuel Quezon, President Gen. Antonio Carmona, President Dr. Antonio Salazar, Premier

,

....

Slovakia South Africa

.

.

Josef Tiso, President Sir Patrick

Duncan, Governor-General

Gen. Jan C. Smuts, Premier , Gen. Francisco Franco, Head of Gov t,PrimeMinister Governor-General Symes, George Sir S. Sudan Sweden .... Gustaf V, King Switzerland Dr. Marcel Pilet-Golaz, President . Syria, Lebanon. Gabriel Puaux, High Commissioner Trans-Jordan. Abdullah ibn Hussein, Amir Spain

.... .

.

.

Tvisiis,

.....

Turkey

....

S\d\

Ahmed

II,

1890 1936 193s

Bey

Ismet Inonu, President

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Accession

1933 10^8 1939

see Chinese-Japanese War; Communist Party; European War; France; Germany; Great Britain; Italy; Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich; RibbenTROP, Joachim von; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet Republics: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet Union: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

bumper crops of 1939 in the United was soybeans the other, tobacco. Soybean acreage planted, crop harvested and yield per acre were all larger than ever before. Prices were up sharply, owing to war-made demand for fats and oils in Europe and the smaller supply available from Manchoukuo because of transportation difficulties and the

^nuhPiinQ OUyUbdlld.

States

Avar in China.

;

Acreage harvested for heans, 3,86s, oooac., was

nearly half the acreage planted and the crop was 79,689,000 bushels. The bean crop acreage in 1938 (not including hay crop)

was 2,898,00030. and production 57,665,000 bushels. Yield in 1939 was 20-6bu. per acre; 19-5 in 1938. Prices after the beginning of war ranged about lof? a bushel higher than wheat in Chicago where there was very active trade in soybean futures on the Board of Trade as well as in the spot market, Scandinavian steamers coming to Chicago for cargoes, and 8,6i9,ooobu. being shipped out betAveen October i and November 17. A bushel of soybeans weighs the same as wheat, 60 pounds. (See also Chemurgy.) Soybean Production by 1039 bu.

....

minois Indiana Iowa Ohio North Carolina Michigan .

.

.

.... .

.

.

.

.

.

Mississippi

Arkansas Delaware Virgima. Wisconsin Tennessee

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

States, JP 38

and 1939

1938 bu.

43.080.000 31,866,000 22 . 432.000 8.404.000 9.093.000 5 . 733.000 7.854.000 5.313.000 2.015.000 2.233.000 880.000 560.000 650.000 609.000 612.000 476.000 640.000 484.000 418.000 400.000 262.000 375.000 261.000 112.000 238.000 256.000

Louisiana Pennsylvania .

Kentucky Maryland Alabama

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

South Carolina Georgia

Kansas

.

.

.

....

New York

.

.

Oklahoma

.

.

Texas

West

.... Virginia

.

2939 bu.

1938 bu.

2x6,000 186.000 x8o,ooo 130.000 114.000 112.000 93.000 64.000 42.000 24.000 x6,ooo 12.000

178.000 105.000 168.000 150.000 99.000 91.000 78.000 63.000 34.000 26.000 15.000 12,000

(S.

n-nin u|Jdlll, (est.

0. R.)

March 29, 1939, a totalitarian State; area 194,200 sq.mi. (including Balearic and Canary islands); pop.

Dec. 31, 1936) 25,050,000. Chief towns (pop. 1934); Bar-

Madrid 1,048,100; Valencia 353,000; Seville 238,750. Caudillo, or Chief of State: General Francisco Franco;

celona 1,148,000; 1937 1905 1932 1938 1939 1939 1939 1935 1926

1930

Carol H, King

George Tatarescu, Pretmer Russia .... Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin, President Joseph V. Stalin, Communist Secretary Gen. Maximiliano H. Martinez, President Salvador, El Siam (Thailand) .Ananda Mahidol, King (Regency) Col. Luang Bipula Songgram, Premier .

1936 1931 1938 1926 1919 1934 1934 1922 1927 I9II

Wilhehmna, Queen Sir Humphrey T. Walwyn, Governor Viscount Galway, Governor-General Michael J. Savage, Premier Gen. Anastasio Somoza, President

Haakon

.

Office

Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Gen. Alfredo Baldomir, President Pius XII, Pope Gen. Eleazar Ldpez Contreras, President Peter II, King (Regency) Seyyid Sir Khalifa bin Harub, Sultan. .

Soviet-German Pact:

Missouri

14, 1940)

Edwin

Liberia Liechtenstein

.

1930 1933 igzo

Benito Mussolini, Premier, Chief of Gov’t, Sec’y of State

Emperor

.

.

Accession

Pedro Aguirre Cerda, President Lin Sen, Chairman of National Gov’t Gen. Chiang Kai-shek, President of Yuan Dr. Eduardo Santos, President

Chile

.

.

.

on Jan.

Boris III, King George Kiuss^ivanoff, Premier

....

Colombia

.

holding chief

Name and O^ce

Country

United States Uruguay. Vatican City Venezuela

1936 1935 1935

1939 1936 1939 1933 1907 1940 1938 1928 1929 1938

language: Spanish; religion: Christian (mainly

History.

— (For the war

Roman

in Spain, see Spain, Civil

Catholic).

War

In.)

The

outstanding event of 1939 in Spain Avas the end of the Civil War, in March. The remainder of the year was marked by the reconstruction of the political and economic framework along tarian lines

totali-

and by unspectacular measures for repairing

the

more than two-and-one-half years of war. With the collapse of the Republican Government in Madrid,

ravages of

General Francisco Franco, as head of the victorious F.E.T. (Falange Espanola Tradicionalista, or Spanish Traditiotialist Phalanx), held undisputed control in Spain. Already Great Britain and France had recognized the new regime (Feb. 27), and on i a similar declaration was made by the United States. Immediately upon the occupation of Madrid, General Franco set about to remedy the serious food shortage existing especially in Madrid and other newly-conquered regions. In the capital city, some 1,500,000 rations were being distributed daily at Ibe begin-

April

ning of April by the Phalangist women’s auxiliary, which has social-welfare

responsibilities

in

Nationalist

was begun and

the issue of food cards

taken against hoarding and profiteering.

Spain.

many

In June,

stringent measures

were

At the same time the

Government moved to consolidate its control and maintain order. At Madrid and other erstwhile Republican centres, General Franco established military tribunals, before which Republican civil officials (who are liable to punishment either by property confiscation or imprisonment for a maximum of 15 years) and Republican soldiers were ordered to appear for investigation. Among those arrested was Don Julian Besteiro, 70-year-old former president of the Republican Cortes, who was sentenced to 30 years’ imprisonment in July. Censorship of the press, mails and telegraph continued, and travel in the interior of Spain was forbidden without Government permission.

Meanwhile, as the country remained relatively at peace, except for a short-lived uprising in Asturias in June, the

gradually demobilized.

By

the end of April

army was

many Moroccan

sol-

had been repatriated, and by early June all German, Italian and Portuguese troops had left Spain, except for a few technicians and liaison officers. Already, according to Government statement, 250,000 men had been demobilized since the end of the Civil War. The demobilization of a further 150,000 was ordered for June, and the remaining 200,000 were to constitute Spain’s standing army. Economic reconstruction was a primary concern of the new Spanish Government. In speeches made during a triumphal tour of the country, and in an address delivered at Burgos in June before the National Council of the F.E.T., General Franco announced a goal of national self-sufficiency, to be achieved by the reduction of imports and the intensification and diversification of industry. With respect to foreign commerce, the Government adopted a bilateral-compensation or barter policy and rigidly condiers

trolled

imports through State foreign exchange agencies. Developfishing fleets, an important

ment of the merchant marine and

part of the self-sufficiency program, was encouraged by the grant of a 750,000,000 peseta credit for loans to ship-builders, and a decree of October 24 authorized subsidies to industries of “national interest,” on condition of Government participation in their management. Meanwhile, a plan for general economic recovery, involving especially unemployment relief and the construction of new and improved means of communication, had been formulated in a law of April ii, and, to accelerate the rebuilding program, all males between the ages of 18 and 45 were requisitioned for national service, in the form of either a labour or income

developments under the Franco regime consisted which had been secularized by the Republican Government, and in changes in the universitax.

Social

chiefly in the re-opening of churches

and elementary schools. In July, the Phalangists and Traditionalists, the allied groups composing the F.E.T., were reported in serious disagreement over the course to be followed in economic reorganization. Early

ties

August a decree was published which modified the governmental structure and placed the Phalangist element in a position of political dominance. The decree pronounced all members of the in

army, navy and air corps to be eligible for affiliated membership in the F.E.T. and confirmed General Franco’s absolute political authority, in the exercise of which the Caudillo “answers before God and before History.” Under General Franco, and possessing important administrative and advisory powers, were the general secretary of the party, the national council (whose membership PolUica, Shortly 75), and the Junta after the issuance of the decree, the Government announced a new

may vary between 50 and

ARMOURED TANKS in

filino in

review before Gen. Franco during hit victory parade

Madrid May 19, 1939

623

body of young men, with only one Tradition-

cabinet, essentially a

among its 14 members. The foreign policy of the Franco Government was naturally influenced by the assistance which it had received from Italy and alist

Germany, during the

new Spanish

of the

War, and by the

Civil

totalitarian structure

In the various parades

State.

in celebration

of the Nationalist victory, the foreign legionaries were accorded a prominent place, and, before their departure

from Spain, the

7) that it had joined the AntiComintern bloc. On May 9 Spain notified the League of Nations of its intention to withdraw. The activities of a Spanish mission

Government announced (April

June and the visit of Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano to Spain in July were closely followed by the Spanish press, which published, however, no official statement as to the results achieved. With Portugal, the third country to which Nationalist to Italy in

Spain

WAR

SPAIN, CIVIL

624

is

indebted for aid in the Civil War, the Government con-

cluded a treaty of non-aggression and friendship on

March

1

7

and,

December, a barter agreement contemplating a greatly creased volume of trade. in

The circumstances

of the Civil

War

in-

IN

commercial obligations amounting to more than $50,000,000 were contracted and blocked before the outbreak of the Civil War, and other heavy obligations, of undisclosed amount, were contracted during the war by the present Government, especially with Italy. peseta dropped from 10.35 to the dollar before the European

The war

December 9. A Government decree some 3,500,000 Republican pesetas which had been im-

to 12.55 to the dollar on

releasing

pounded during the Civil War created fear of further inflation. (See also Armies of the World; European War; Minorities; Religion; Socialism.) BiBLioGRAPHY.-|-Charles E. Chapman, A history of Spain (1918); E. Allison Peers, Spain, the Church, and the Orders (London, 1939); Robert Brasillach and Maurice Bardeche, Hisloire de la Guerre d’Espagn’e (Paris,

1939): Arthur Loveday, World war in Spain (London, 1939). (C. E. Ch.; R. H. Sh.) ^9. 1939, aU spam lay in hands of Nationalist General Francisco Franco, and the Spanish Civil War, after two years and 254 days of bitter fighting, was finally at an end. The triumph of

Spain in

Civil

War

in

the

the insurrectionaries was the result largely of material superiority

created in Nationalist

and foreign

aid.

From both

Italy and

Germany, General Franco

Spain a feeling of resentment toward the democracies of Great

received a continual flow of war necessities.

Britain and France, which

and submarines, Germany contributed the Condor legion, a German army unit numbering some 15,000 men. Italy (according to the Forze Annate, an official publication of the Italian army and navy) transported 100,000 troops to Spain between mid-Dec. 1936 and mid-April 1937, sent an air force of

war by

was

a sharp decline in

countries.

both during and after the the normally large trade with those reflected

In April an accord was signed with France providing

and other valuables, including war matewhich had been transported to France by Spanish Republicans. The slow execution of this agreement threatened further to

for the return of gold rials,

strain Franco-Spanish

Spanish army

relations,

as

did

the violent assault

by

on the French consul at Madrid (July 9), for which the Spanish Ambassador to France tendered his Government’s apology. Relations between the two countries shortly imofficers

proved, however, with the return to Spain of £8,000,000 of Republican gold (by the end of July) and of g,ooo cases of valuables

In addition to tech-

nicians, planes

more than 6,000 men and supplied General Franco with tanks, trucks

4,370

and automobiles, 750 cannon and 40,000 tons

of

ammunition. Portugal also aided the Nationalist cause, providing some 10,000 men (according to the Portuguese press). The Republican Government’s chief foreign source of war materials was distant Russia, from which, because of the circumstances of the war, shipments could usually be received only over the Pyrenees,

The repatriation of some 500,000 Spanish refugees in France also engaged the attention of the two Governments. Spain at first limited the number admitted daily, but gradually relaxed its restrictions, offering, in July, to repatriate 60,000 refugees and

while even this channel of communication was not always allowed

Government with the remainder. By December, all but an estimated 140,000 had been returned to Spain. Considerable uneasiness was felt in Spain as a result of developments in European politics during the latter part of the year. The announcement, in August, of the Russo-German pact caused the Government some embarrassment, and the outbreak of the European war (with respect to which Spain declared her neutral-

while the Nationalists enjoyed both political harmony and a con-

on September 4) dealt a severe blow to the country’s reconstruction program and commercial policy. In 1938 and the first

troops, a huge

half of 1939 Germany had been the chief market for Spanish exports, as well as the principal foreign source of supply, and the

blow.

in August.

aid the French

ity

to in

remain open by the French Government. Besides its inferiority materials, the Republican Government had to contend also

war

with a constantly diminishing food supply and internal dissension,

fall

of Barcelona in January

military incidents in

from the disparity between the material resources of the contending sides.

By Dec.

1938, having massed along the

armada

Two

the Segre river, at

Banking

and Finance.—The financial structure has been by the losses in the gold reserve and by the in-

severely shaken

crease of the internal debt, mostly in the

form

of issues of paper

currency; the amount of this currency, although unrevealed,

is

probably very large, but there have been no internal bond issues or closing of banks. There is no funded foreign indebtedness, but

Ebro front some 300,000

Italian planes

and

batteries

bombardment, and drove rapidly the same time advancing upon Tortosa

terrific

south.

were expected shortly to be resumed.

German and

days before Christmas, the Nationalists opened

campaign with a

and transportation, since many industries were faced with a lack of essential equipment which they had ordered or planned to order from Germany. In this situation, the Spanish Government opened trade conversations with Great Britain and France. In December, the Anglo-Spanish conferences were declared to be proceeding satisfactorily, although high Spanish prices were causing some difficulties. Negotiations with France broke down suddenly on December 20, after the near completion of a 600,000,000 franc bi-lateral compensation agreement, but

of

of 9-in. guns. General Franco was ready to deliver a decisive

closing of this trade seriously impaired Spain’s immediate capacity to rehabilitate industry

The campaigns which brought the and Madrid in March 1939 were but a struggle whose outcome already was evident

dition of comparative plenty.

The capture

their

across in the

1939) and Montthe Republican forces

of Borjas Blancas (Jan.

5,

blanch (January ii) threatened to cut off in southern Catalonia and led to the fall of Tortosa on January 13. The Republicans ordered to the front all able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45, militarized all supplementary war industries and food agencies, and began a counter-attack on the Madrid front, near Brunete but to no avail. From the south-west and the north-west the Nationalists pressed hard upon Tarragona, capturing the city, along with Reus, on January 15, after having earlier forced the withdrawal of Republican troops from southern Catalonia. On January 26 Barcelona fell, almost without resist-

—

ance.

On February i, before 62 members of the Republican Cortes meeting at Figueras, Premier Negrin delivered an address urging that the fight be continued in Central Spain if Catalonia were conquered. Meanwhile the Nationalists pressed toward the frontier,

CIVILIAN REFUGEES of Barcelona Jan. 26,

of Loyalisl Spain In the Pyrenees near Clot after the fall

1939

and on March 29 at 2 20 p.m. the Spanish Civil War was officially pronounced to be at an end. {See also Armies of the World; International Law; Italy; History; Lightning War; Reli:

entering the border towns of Puigcerda,

Le Perthus and Cerbere on February lo, tvith which military operations virtually ceased. Already President Azana, Premier Negrin and other Government members had crossed into France, along with hundreds of thousands of military and civilian refugees. The Civil War now moved rapidly to a close. Accorded the

gion; Shaping,

Merchant Marine.) (C. E. Ch.; R.

Spanish-American literature.

recognition of Great Britain and France on February 27, shortly followed by that of other countries, General Franco concentrated

ish

his forces outside

every country an opportunity for expression.

Madrid, which, with the return of Premier Negrin and his cabinet on February 12, had been re-established as

H. Sh.)

America a

the field

state of great activity.

of publication,

thus

Governments have entered

offering

the

creative

forces

of

Besides, the eco-

nomic and poh’tical conditions now existing in the Old World Meanwhile events within Madrid are displacing to the New the centres of Western culture. This presaged the collapse of further Republican resistance. With the is most significant. A new era has commenced for Spanish Amerannouncement on February 27 of President Azana ’s resignation. ica. From Germany, Austria, Poland, Russia, Italy and Spain a Premier Negrin took over control of the Republican army from good number of scientists, philosophers, educators, artists and General Miaja. This was his last important act as prime minister. workers have migrated to Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montexddeo, On March 6, a National Council of Defence, headed by General Santiago, Habana, Bogota. And so have the great publishing Miaja, overthrew the Negrin Government, whose members eshouses of Spain. Buenos Aires is rapidly becoming the literary caped to France, and assumed control of Republican Spain. This centre of the Spanish world. Espasa-Calpe, Editorial Lozada, Edinew move, for which motives were rather obscure, was followed torial Tor and others now in the Argentinian capital are offering on the 7th by a revolt of Communists and supposed adherents of in increasing numbers the w'orld classics of yesterday and of the ousted premier the second rising against the Republican Govtoday and are stimulating literary production to an amazing deernment, which had faced an Anarcho-Syndicalist insurrection in gree. In Spanish America authors now find publishers for their Catalonia in May 1937. By March 13 the revolt had been put books without having to go to Paris or Madrid, and the book down, after heavy fighting, and the Defence Council turned its market is being organized for the first time in history. efforts to the securing of an honourable peace. Generally speaking, the essayists, novelists and poets of SpanBetween March 19 and 26 negotiations by radio and personal ish America, whether they belong to the “right” or to the “left,” interview were conducted with General Franco, who, aside from seem to share a common interest and a common desire: to study ordering the blockade of all Republican ports, had remained inand to understand Spanish American realities and point to their active while his opponents fought among themselves. The Nasignificance and their values. The essayists lead the group, now tionalist commander demanded unconditional surrender. The sur\'eying the economical, political, racial and social conditions Republicans insisted upon the safe evacuation of certain of their in their countries, as Mariano R. Tissembaum in El nivel de vida leaders. A deadlock ensued, and on March 26 General Franco (the standard of life in Spanish America in its relations to opened an offensive in the Toledo and Cordoba sectors which wages), Obdulio Pulido in Voz alta and Ramon Diaz Sanchez in proved to be the final blow. On March 27, Almaden fell and the Transtcidn (studies on Venezuelan conditions), Moises Saenz in Republican air force surrendered, and on the next day 200.000 Mexico integro and Jose Vasconcelos in El Procdnsiil (masterful Nationalist troops, meeting no resistance, entered Madrid, from comments on modem Mexico in its struggles to conquer itself), which the Government had already fled. Twenty-four hours later Juan Luis Merchan in De donde vienen los negros (scholarly disnearly all the provincial capitals w’ere in General Franco’s hands, cussion on the origin of the African peoples that were the capital of Republican Spain.

—

brought

625

SPANISH COLONIAL EMPIRE

626 to

the Antilles)

and Antenor Orrego

in

El pueblo continente

(an original interpretation of the Spanish American soul)

;

of pure fantasy, even

now

out failing to comment on the environment in which they lived and acted, as Luis Alberto Sanchez in Garcilaso Inca de, la Vega,

del

in

Pomar

in

Haya

de la Torre,

el

Indoamericano

and political conditions in Mexico, Honduras', Venezuela and Ecuador. Juan Marin, the famous author of Paralelo picting social

(a sympathetic view of the leader of the revolutionary party of

contemporary Peru)

now

;

criticizing the present conflicting

S3, Sur, wrote in Naufragio and in Orestes y yo two psychological novels of intense interest, and Maria Luisa Bombal in La amorta-

“isms”

aim to control the world of politics and defending the traditions and institutions of Spanish America, as Rafael Arevalo Martinez in Viaje a Ipanda, Moises Vincenzi in Marx en la fragua, Alberto Zum Felde in El ocaso de la democracia, Francisco E. Padilla in Democracia y totalitarismo, Francisco Nunez in De Hegel a Stalin and Vicente Davila in Problemas sociales; and finally, aiming to find the path that Spanish America must follow to protect its great future, as Julio E. Moreno in Hnmaiiidad y espiritualidad, Enrique Molina in De lo espiritual de la vida humana, Jorge Roa in Biologia social, and above all Luis Lopez de Mesa in Disertacidn sociologica, the most comprehensive, bold, profound and brilliant essay ever written about the origin, evolution and destiny of culture in Spanish America. Pure prose fiction does not seem to have attracted special interest among Spanish American writers in 1939. High quality production did not keep up the standards of the immediate past. We have noticed; Cautares y tradiciones del Tucumdn, by Juan Alfonso Carrizo, Los payasos poetas del pueblo, by Armando de Maria y Campos, Medallas antiguas, by Juan Maria Ravelo and Cosas de mi pueblo, by J. M. Fernandez Consuegra, among the writings of folkloric nature; Agua salada, by Jose Fabiani 'Ruiz, Comino Real, by Juan Bosch, Guaranies, by Martin de Goycochea Menendez and Antologia del verdadero cuento chileno, ed. Miguel Serrano, among the realistic short stories, and 20 cuentos, by Jose that

La

Restrepo JaramUlo,

soinbra aJucinante,

jada a strange and powerful symbolical narrative.

True to its well established tradition for excellence, Spanish America produced in 1939 a great number of poetic works of various nature and tendency; Carmen Alicia Cadilla published her Canciones en fiauta blanca, childlike, delicate, exquisite; Lucia Victoria Goitea her Ensueiio gelio Sotela his

Country and Area

Population Estimated Dec. 31, 1937

sq.m, (approx.)

Capital, Status,

(ooo’s

etc.

and Balearic

realidad, erotic, pantheistic; Rosenti-

mental; Antonio Arraiz his Cinco sinfonias and Aspero, noble and sympathetic verse written in defence of the Venezuelan Indians; Isa Caravallo her Vendimia de huracanes, restless, impassioned and courageous defence of the Cuban proletariat; Eugenio Florit his Doble acento, romantic, exquisite; Alberto Hidalgo his Dimension del kombre, pure, spiritual, classic; Maria Raquel Adler her Soneios de Dios and Buenos Aires, ciudad y poesta; Edgardo Ubaldo Genta his La epopeya de America, first canto of an ambitious epic promised by the inspired Uruguayan; Osvaldo Bazil his La cruz transparente, intimate, highly subjective and artistic; and Carlos Garcia-Prada his Liiz que flota en el Olvido, a precious selection of sonnets by 33 Colombian poets in which are to be found some of the most beautiful ever written in the Castillian language, and the song of a nation Colombia so distinguished

—

—

for its poetic expression.

(C. G.-P.)

Spanish Colonial Empire.

2S1OS0

sq.mi.; total population

(est.

Dec. 31, 1937) 26,055,000.

The following

table lists the colonies, protectorates,

Spain together with certain essential

statistics

each of them, including the mother country

Principal

Products (in

metric tons)

Imports and Exports (in thousand pesetas)

omitted) Is.,

y

Apologia del dolor, simple, spontaneous,

by Angelica Palma,

Mies tardia, by Genaro Fernandez Mac Gregor, Cuentos del Mdxico antiguo, by A. del Valle Arizpe, Suefios para la infancia del inuiido, by Feli.x M. Pelayo, Cuentos en el primer solsticio, by Matias Milla Solsona, Mirador, by Jose G. Montes de Oca and Germinal by Marcos Caria Reyes, among the collections of stories

Spain, including Canary Is., 194,200

background somewhat

by Ricardo I. Vasquez; Liberacidn, by Arturo Mejia Nieto; El estanque, by Dora de Aguirre; El puno del amo, by Gerardo Gallegos; Regina Landa, by Mariano Azuela; Resaca, by Cesar Carizurrieta, and Noviembre by Humberto Salvador, are novels de-

Jimenez de Quesada, Julio Jimenez Rueda in Jzia 7 i Ruiz de Alarcdn y sit tiempo, Juan Pablo Echagiie in Seis figures del Plata, Manuel Galvez in Vida de Hipdlito Yrigoyen

and F. Cossio

at times with a

The novel followed in 1939 the trends of the immediate past; Huasteca, by Gregorio Lopez Puentes; La monja de la revolucion,

presenting the lives and characters of leading personalities, with-

German Arciniegas

if

realistic.

etc.,

itself;

Road, Rail and Shipping

Revenue and Expenditure thousand

(in

pesetas)

Madrid, republic. President: General Francisco Franco

Behamonde

AFRICA

IIS

Ceuta and Melilla,

—

,

administered

as part of Spain.

77

exports (1934) raw materials

imp.

899.553.

exp.

(1934) 47.546 14,500

manufactures 12,892

Morocco, Spanish,

75°

8,080

Tetuan, protectorate High Commissioner: General Carlos Asensio

(1936) iron ore (metal content) 579,000; (1934) antimony ore (metal content)

(1936) 60,600 exp. 26,700

(1936)

.

imp.

rds. c. rly.

500 mi. 80 mi.

rev.

and

exp.

50,271

314 Spanish Guinea, including Fernando Po, Rio Muniandfour small islands, 10,380

120

Santa Isabel, colony.

(1934-35) 14,900

cocoa

coffee

Western Sahara, including Ifni, Rio de Oro, and Spanish Sahara, 109,600 .

20

Villa Cisneros, colonies.

fish

and dates

(1930) 17,625 exp. 21,970

imp.

of

appropriate to

(1932) rev,

and

exp.

11,020 (1929) rev.

and 6,947

e.xp.

SPANISH GUINEA— SQUASH RACQUETS Spanish Guinea: see Spanish Colonial Empire. Spanish Morocco: see Spanish Colonial Empire. Spanish West Africa: see Spanish Colonial Empire.

Spain and Hungary have placed paprika (1939 crop) under Government control. Prices are much higher than the opening figures for the previous crop. Other countries are re-

strict

sponding elatedly to

Speiman Fund of New York continued

its

S

s:

culating information regarding advances in administrative prac-

developing

in

new

types

of

organization

and operating

methods, and in actually installing administrative improvements hr governmental agencies. During the year, the Fund appropriated $886,500. of the Board of Trustees is Charles E Merriam; and Secretary, Guy Moffett. (G. Mx.)

The Chairman the Executive

0 |j|uCb> York

Three important occurrences marked the year 1939: (a) Pepper trading on the Produce Exchange of New

attained impressive volume, making that city the dominant

pepper market of the world; (b) Because it consumes annually 50,000 tons of spices the change of food laws (June 25) of the United States will affect quality and labelling everywhere; (c) A

war market began September about 30 days,

when

By October

25,

i

and excited

activity continued

suggestions of peace caused prices to react.

Mounting ocean -freight for some advances.

75%

rates

and war

^nlntrjirn II, ufjlllgul

Inpl Plhc uUCI Llluo

(^^75-1939),

was Columbia

author,

U.S.

bom

in

educator

and

New York

city

May 17 and was educated at university, where he received his doctorate of philosophy in 1899, and at Harvard. From 1899 to 1911 he taught comparative literature at Columbia; in on

the latter year he purchased the Amenia (N.Y.) Times, of which he was publisher for the next 15 years. During the World War (1914-18) he was major of infantry in France. When he returned he helped found the publishing firm of Harcourt, Brace & Company and was for many years its literary adwser. He also founded a movement for mral recreation, was a director of the Horticultural Society of New York, and president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 1913 he established the Spingam medal for “highest achievement ... in any honourable field” by an American citizen of African descent. The 1938 medal was awarded to Marian Anderson, Negro singer. Spingam was the author of many volumes on the history of literature, literarj' criticism, poetry and horticulture. He died at New York city on July 26.

Spirits: see Liquors, Alcoholic. of the rise had vanished.

Madagascar controlled the clove market as Zanzibar sellers meet competition. As the year drew to a close, this situation was reversed and large sales by Zanzibar were made

ul|Uaoil Rflpfinptc ltdbljUClOi which he held

in China did not stop shipments of cassia, although were higher, reflecting the increased cost of transportation by land and sea. Adequate quantities continued to come to the principal consuming markets. There was marked improvement in cassia quality through protection of the bark against deteriora-

Glidden, of

The war

prices

Gingers on a gold basis reached an historic all-time low, the

Leone variety selling during the spring of 1939 at parity with $1.95 per loolb. which price included transportation to steamer, bags, insurance, and ocean freight to New York, Sellers Sierra

and Jamaica gingers had to reduce

their prices to

with the lower value established in Africa.

The

comport

increased pro-

duction of nutmegs in the island of Grenada was well absorbed by the London and New York markets. Prices moved about 35%

above the figure at which the 1939 market opened. Since Jan. 1939, the black pepper market has fluctuated within a range of i-|-{f per pound. It sold for a short time at 3(1 per lb. warec.i.f. New York. As of October i, there were in New York houses 627,281 bags of Lampong black pepper, sufficient with manufacturers’ stocks to meet U.S.A. requirements for about 32

This heavy accumulation resulted from speculative desire hedge against possible monetary inflation. As the year closed, stocks of black pepper in New York warehouses stood at 647,666 bags, up 100,734 bags from Dec. 31, 1938. The crop considerably

years. to

exceeded estimates, amounting to 42,000 tons. The Mustard Seed. Consumption appeared to be increasing. improved qualities of mustard products in countries of large

—

population accounted for

much

of this.

A

high market prevailed

from September as the usual supplies from Poland and Germany became unavailable. The Netherlands embargoed its bountiful imtil spring, 1939 crop and England may not thresh its harvest the 1940 for increased be 1940. Acreages. elsewhere are likely to crop, notably in Denmark, California and Montana.

New York, wore who

feated Stanley Galowin, of

the

finals,

Philadelphia,

won

his

way

the cro^wn and retired as undefeated

exhibited excellent court strategy, de-

New

York, in three straight games in

although the latter team was successful in -winning the

New York

State

title.

contest for the national doubles championship

ticularly

to the title

Germain G.

in 1936. In the three intervening years

champion. Strachan,

The

drying and cleaning.

squash racquets welcomed a notable champion

veteran player as national

when Donald Strachan, of

to all markets.

of India

paprika

(C. A. T.)

risk insurance accounted

preferred not to

tion, better

this strong incentive to increase their

acreages.

program directed at the improvement of the methods

and techniques in the field of public administration. Support was extended to public and quasi-public agencies engaged in cirtice,

627

.

was a par-

keen one, with the -winning team of Hunter H. Lott and

S. Slack, of Philadelphia, retaining their title by beating Galowin and Fred Alexander. Another exciting exhibition was displayed in the Metropolitan doubles championship, won by Don Nightingale and Sam Cochrane, of the University club, in turning back the defending champions, Beekman H. Pool and Conway Hoffman. Bernard H. Bidder, Jr., of the University club is the Metropolitan singles class A champion.

William

The competition for the national professional championship is always watched with -unusual interest by players and followers of

who were quick to acclaim the successful New Yorker, Les Cummings, instructor of the Union club. He won the title in Cleveland, defeating Jack Summers, the coach of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. the game,

Among Jr., of

collegians, the best in the field

was Stanley W. Pearson,

Princeton university, -winner of the national intercollegiate

crown, and the University club’s intercollegiate in-vitation singles

tourney for the second straight year.

Anne Page, of Philabecame the women’s national champion for the third time

Sho-wing her superiority in the game. Miss delphia,

and 1937), defeating Miss Elizabeth Pearson, of strong duo came to the fore in the -women’s national championship, won by Mrs. John Bienvith and Mrs. William H. Adams, of New York. Mrs. Ary J. Lamme, Jr., won the Metropolitan singles championship class A, for the fourth time, (also in 1936

Philadelphia.

and the

A

New York State singles

title

for the second year.

(J.B.P.)

STALIN,

628 Stalin,

J.

Joseph Vissarionovich

secretary of the

Communist party

V.

— STANDARDS.

statLman and general was born in

of the U.S.S.R.,

Georgia and succeeded Lenin as virtual dictator of the Soviet in 1924 (see Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 21, p. 301).

Union

countrymen and most of the world 21, 1939, when announcement was made in Berlin that the U.S.S.R. would sign a ten-year pact of non-aggression with Germany. In retrospect, Stalin had first indicated this momentous shift March 10 when, in his opening address before the i8th Congress of the Communist party at Moscow, he accused France and Great Britain of wishing to foment a war between Russia and Germany. The second indication was the anStalin startled the bulk of his

by

Aug.

his sudden reversal of

nouncement on May 3 that Maxim Litvinov, a bitter anti-Fascist, had been dismissed as foreign commissar and replaced by V. Molotov (q.v.), who as Stalin’s mouthpiece declared on May 31 that Russia would not sign a pact with the Allies unless all countries on western frontier were guaranteed a difficult condition for

—

its

France and Britain to fulfil. Stalin issues few public pronouncements, and the trends of his policy must be garnered mostly from the statements of subordinates and from the Soviet press.

A

flood of conjecture concerning

the effects of the non-aggression pact followed

Upon one

point, however,

its

announcement.

most observers agreed: that

Statin

had

temporarily strengthened the international position and security of

Russia at the expense of the Comintern and, as events turned out, at the expense of

peace in Europe. (See also

Union of Soviet So-

cialist Republics.)

Stamp Collecting:

see Philately.

Standards, National Bureau

of.

3,

Its

the fields of research,

services

in

1901,

is

iTshedX'^XcTtf

part of the Department of Commerce.

Congress March

testing

and commercial

standardization are available to the National and State Govern-

ments without charge, and under certain conditions to the general public. The bureau is made up of the following divisions: electricity, weights and measures, heat and power, optics, chemistry, mechanics and sound, organic and fibrous materials, metallurgy, clay and silicate products, simplified practice, trade standards, and codes and specifications. The regular staff on June 30, 1939, consisted of 950 employees and 80 research associates. The appropriation for the fiscal year 1939 was $2,613,000, including $500,000 for the construction and equipment of a new high-voltage laboratory and $198,000 for continuing the investigation of building materials and structures for low-cost housing.

As part of the

international

program for the redetermination of

the values of the electrical units on an absolute basis, new values for the ohm and ampere have been reported, but developments in

when these new values for the The 29th National Conference on Weights and Measures, which met at the bureau in June 1939, went on rec-

Europe make

it

uncertain as to

units will be adopted.

ord as favouring the quantity standardization of packaged food. Testing of railroad track scales and of motor-truck scales has

been continued, the railroad track scales showing the highest percentage (84-2) of scales within tolerance thus far recorded. The radio sonde or radio weather recorder, developed by the bureau, has been put into regular use by the Navy, weather bu-

reau and other Government agencies. ^Because of its low cost and its availability even in bad weather, ii has supplanted aeroplane flights as a

means

fo:^

The bureau’s part

recording upper dir conditions.

the international research on the properties of steam was completed, and the results are being combined with those from other laboratories to serve as the basis for more precise steam tables. in

NAT'L BUREAU OF

Certain petroleum hydrocarbons are being studied so as to obtain the information needed for synthesizing the best possible fuel for aviation engines.

As a by-product of ruling fine linear scales, a small and sensitive diamond tool has been developed for measuring the hardness of glass and many other materials. The Munson and Walker table for determining reducing sugars was revised to make it more readily applicable to samples of synthetic molasses now being imported in increasing quantities. Iklany radium preparations were tested, including 377 with a radium content of 2,94omg. for the National Institute of Health. These were part of a lot of pg. of radium, the largest single shipment ever received by the bureau.

An important discovery is the fact that the new synthetic material, neoprene, is less permeable to hydrogen, helium and carbon dioxide than ordinary rubber, thus making it particularly suitable for the gas cells of airships.

Several improved analytical methods have been developed for ferrous and non-ferrous metals and for gases. In co-operation with the Bureau of Public Roads a new “Federal yellow” colour was developed for highway signs, and another, which will become standard in all 48 States, is known as “national school bus chrome,” and will be used for painting school buses. A test procedure has been devised for measuring the compressive strength of thin sheet metal. Many sheets are placed together in a pack and are kept from bending by a special apparatus. The results show that the compressive properties of sheet metal are often very different from the an important matter in designing aeroplanes and other tensile properties

—

light structures.

In the hydraulics laboratory, experiments Indian Rock dam for the Engineer Corps of that certain changes should be made in the being incorporated in the full-sized structure

York, Pa., against

were made on a model of the the Army. The work showed stilling basins, and these are which will protect the city of

floods.

The effects of using new and unfamiliar materials in book papers have been determined with the aid of the Government Printing Office. It is now possible to predict approximately how long present-day papers will last under various storage conditions. New test methods for leather have been developed in co-operation with the American Leather Chemists Association, and a technique for measuring acidity, which is a good indication of the probable resistance of leather to atmospheric exposure, has been used successfully. The properties of light alloys have been studied with special reference to the effects of vibration and low temperatures on impact resistance. This work has included the examination of parts of wrecked aeroplanes to aid the Government in determining the causes of these accidents. Because cooling water in air-conditioning systems is used over and over again and becomes contaminated from the impurities in the air, it often is very corrosive. The destruction of piping in these systems is a serious problem. The bureau has suggested certain treatments of the water which will reduce this attack. All the information that can be obtained about pure iron is necessary for the preparation of new alloys having definite properties. Several ingots of iron, which contain total impurities not exceeding j/100 of one per cent, have been cast, and their characteristics are being determined. The technique of making high-quality optical glass for the Navy was improved so that 8,42 2lb. of satisfactory glass were .obtained from 50 melts, as compared with 8,4oolb. from 62 melts in 1938. Investigation of the toxicity of coloured glazes for chinaware showed that only two of these (a green glaze containing copper and lead, and tangerine a lead glaze) constitute a possible hazard. Care must be used, however, to prevent the marketing of undesirable glazes. The bureau has demonstrated that a plastic hydrated lime, having satisfactory keeping qualities, can be produced by autoclave treatment, thus making a large saving possible because of the 8% to 10% increase in yield. Over 7,ooo,ooobbl. of cement were tested for the Federal Government at the bureau’s branch laboratories. The Cement Reference Laboratory, which is maintained jointly by the bureau and the American Society for Testing Materials, started a sixth inspection tour of commercial testing

—

laboratories.

Thirteen new Simplified Practice Recommendations and an equal number of Commercial Standards were printed, and many conferences were held which will lead to additional projects. new code for the protection of the heads, eyes and lungs of industrial workers, and one section of the revised National Electrical Safety Code were issued, A new edition of the bureau’s publication on building codes was published. Five hundred public purchasing officers were supplied with information on the use of specifications in buying supplies, and with lists of manufacturers who are willing to certify that their products conform to certain nationally recognized specifications and commercial standards. The properties of 28 special types of wall, floor and partition construc^ tions, recommended by their sponsors for low-cost house construction, were determined. Rain penetration through masonry walls was measured, and a survey was conducted of the types of roofing materials in use in the eastern section of the United States. Metals, composition materials, building boards, papers, floor coverings, etc.,^ have been tested and reports issued describing their performance. Typical plumbing systems are being studied to show where economies are possible without sacrificing efficiency and with proper safeguards to health. An experimental dwelling was constructed in which service tests can be made on heating systems. Among other features, the heights of the ceilings can be varied to determine the influence of this factor on fuel consumption. Good progress has been made on the new high-voltage laboratory, and it isjexpected that the building will be finished early in 1940. The results of the year’s work were made available through 288 printed publications and articles. In addition 30 mimeographed letter circulars and notes on matters of current interest were prepared and distributed on request. (L. J. Br.)

A

STANFORD UNIVERSITY-STERILIZATION

629

Leland Stanford Junior UniQtiinfnrH IlniuDrcitu OldlllUlU UilIVCiblljf versify). In the year 1939 construction was begun on a new $600,000 building to house the extensive

State Legislation: see Law (Case). Steamships: see Shipbuilding; Shipping, Merchant Ma-

Hoover Library on War, Revolution and Peace. The building is a gift to the university from a number of private donors, including John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and from the American Children’s Fund, Inc. At the Stanford Medical school, in San Francisco, the Ruth Lucie Stem Research Laboratory was built at a cost of $100,000 as a gift from Mrs. Louis Stem, of Palo

Steel: see Iron and Steel.

collections of the

A

further grant for medical research of $75,000 over a period of five years was received from the Rockefeller FoundaAlto.

tion.

The Child Guidance

Clinic

was

established with a gift of

rine.

(1883-1939), U.S. senator, was

Steiwer, Frederick

and Oregon State Agricultural college and the Univerof Oregon. He was admitted to the bar in 1908 and continued

was educated sity

at

From 1927 to 1938, when he resigned he was a member of the U.S. Senate. Though a confirmed Republican, he voted for many New Deal measures

legal practice until 1926.

because of

ill

health,

NRA, AAA and TVA

$10,000 a year for three years from the Commonwealth Fund. The expanding program in basic biological research which has

such as the

been going on for some years was given support through an additional gift of $200,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation. The Klystron was invented and developed by members of the

vention in 1936 which nominated Alfred

Department of Physics as an important apparatus for generating and detecting ultra high-frequency radiation. It promises to be of value not only in aviation but in

many

other

fields.

In spite of existing limitations on the number of students admitted to the lower division and to certain schools, there was an increase in the total

number

of students because of additional

The

admissions in the upper division and graduate years. in

1939 numbered 575; the students 4,345 of

women and

whom

faculty

1,321

were

(R. L. W.)

1,186 were graduates.

St

academy

he was commissioned ensign two years

in 1903,

later

and

served on various ships and at various naval stations from 1903 to 1917.

During the World

William

S.

waters.

He was

Sims,

commander

War

he was on the

staff of

Admiral

of the U.S. Naval forces in European

chief of staff of the Battle Fleet’s destroyer

squadrons from 1928 to 1930 and chief of the Naval Bureau of Ordnance from 1934 to 1937. He was promoted to rear admiral 1939 he was appointed chief of naval operations to succeed Admiral William Daniel Leahy, who on June 6 was appointed governor of Puerto Rico. Stark assumed

Nov.

office

2,

1934.

On March

on August

Stars:

see

i

15,

He

M. Landon

for the presi-

dency and was in prominence also at that time as a possible candidate for vice-president. Steiwer died at Washington, D.C. on February 3.

American physician, educaand author, was bom November 3 at Pittsburgh, Pa., and received his medical degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1889, where for many years he was professor of medicine and vice president. He was the author of a text-book of pathology, numerous articles in medical volumes and periodicals, and was American editor of Nothnagel’s Cyclopedia

^tPIKTPl nilluU AlfrPli OlCilgCL

He

tor,

died in Philadelphia April 10.

Sterilization here applies to the prevention of

Q{'or!li7Qtinn

ulcrillLallUIL reproduction by eliminating the possibility of the fertilization of the female cell (ovum) by that of the male (spermatozoon). In general, this is accomplished by the introduction of a barrier to the passage of these germ cells from the ovary of the female through the Fallopian tubes to the cavity of the

male from the

uterus, or of those of the

deferens.

The term

is

testicle

not to be confused in

through the vas

this consideration, as

being synonymous with contraception or castration. the

same but there

do not

is

The

results are

a difference in that contraceptive procedures

sterilize either the

male or female, while castration preby the removal of

vents the future formation of any germ cells the ovaries or testes, as the case

with the rank of admiral.

in Roosevelt’s first term.

delivered the keymote address at the Republican national con-

of Medicine.

Stark, Harold Raynsford wJ'bSarwSkS Barre, Pa. on November 12. Graduated from the U.S. Naval

bom

in Jefferson, Ore., on October 13

may

be.

This procedure is justified by considerations of pre-existing diseases of such a type as to render reproduction a distinct ma-

Astronomy.

ternal hazard.

Again, certain eugenic considerations

may be

the

determining factor against the production of offspring from a

RtarTuncU OlCldll mayor of Warsaw from 1937 to 1939uldlLjflloM} ^tafan He was educated at the High School of Commerce in Warsaw and joined the Polish

Army

in 1914, in

which he fought

till

the

com-

certain mating.

In these instances of hereditary determinations

either of the parents

may

present the aetiologic factors justifying

the sterilization of the particular individual and that one alone

war with Russia some seven years later. From 1921 to 1924 he was a member of the Polish delegation to the PolishSoviet Commission for Repatriation; in the latter year he entered

should be prevented from reproduction.

the ministry of finance, later becoming (1926-29) deputy director. He was appointed under-secretary of State for finance in 1929.

deferens on each side. This small duct

A

a small segment removed.

pletion of the

government and an expert on utility he was elected mayor of Warsaw in 1937. In 1935 he had the United States to study at first hand the administration

close student of municipal

plants, visited

German

of New York city’s government. When proached Warsaw in Sept. 1939 he organized civilian defence of the city and worked ceaselessly to inspire the population’s resistance and maintain its morale. His refusals to yield the city earned him the sobriquet, “Stefan the Stubborn.” His radio broadcasts of appeal for British and French assistance were heard throughout the world. According to German press dispatches, Starzjmski comthe

forces ap-

mitted suicide on September 28, the day after Warsaw’s surrender, but later reports indicated he was still alive.

In the male sterilization

is

usually accomplished

by

incising

the scrotum, under local anaesthesia, over the course of the vas is

carefully separated

the surrounding structures and doubly ligated. It instances, healing

is

The

incision

is

is

closed and in

rapid and uncomplicated.

from

then cut and

most

Instances have

been reported where males have had supernumerary ducts leading from the testicle. One such case has come under the author’s observation.

In this case, an epileptic, pregnancy followed the

vasectomy and

it

was necessary to operate again and to

tie off

the additional vas.

In the sterilization of the female, a method enthusiastically advocated by some operators is that of cauterization of the openings of the Fallopian tubes into the uterine cavity.

By this method

the lining or endometrium of the uterus and the tubal openings are destroyed

by the

actual cautery

and the subsequent scar

tissue

STEVENSON, JOSEPH R.— STOCK EXCHANGES

630 occludes the tube.

It is necessary to recheck these individuals

after a few months, with X-ray and other methods, to determine

that the tubes are completely sealed.

Special

for

electrodes

introduction

into

the

uterine

cavity

through the vagina and uterine cervix are required. In certain cases where surgery is impossible, because of preeither mental or physical, the use of X-ray be employed. These agents owe their effectiveness

existing disease,

or radium

may

to the fact that

by

be destroyed and in

A number

germ cells of the ovaries may manner reproduction be inhibited.

their use the this

of surgical operations on the uterus and tubes have

been proposed for the purpose of sterilization. These vary from a removal of the fundus of the uterus to a simple crushing and ligation of the Fallopian tubes. All have as the basic principle

New York Stock Exchange made a considerable number of

During 1939 the

Stock Exchanges.

important changes in its rules, and also undertook a series of important studies which might have an important bearing upon the future conduct of the Exchange.

The most

significant of these

may

actions

changes in

be grouped under four main headings, namely, (i) listing requirements, (2) changes with respect to cur-

rent practice, (3) proposed changes designed for the better protection of the public and (4) special studies of certain funda-

mentally important subjects.

—

Changes in Listing Requirements. On January 12, the Exchange announced a revision of listing fees with respect to the following: reduction of initial fee for stock from $120 to $50 per 10,000 shares; a is-year annual continuing fee of $73 per 100,000

a destruction of the patency of these tubes. Pregnancies have been reported following removal of the tubes, the body of the uterus and after operations of various types upon the tubes. Prob-

shares for the

ably most satisfactory, because of the simplicity of technique

connection with minor changes in listed stock on which the annual

and dependability of result, is the Pomeroy-Lull modification of the Madlener operation. In this a loop of the Fallopian tube is crushed at the base and ligated with absorbable material and the loop excised. This technique may be carried out either through an abdominal incision or by the vaginal route. Experimental research on the value of hormones for purposes of sterilization continue. At the present time no definite accomplishment in the field of practical use of endocrine derivatives for this purpose in the human species has been established.

—

Bibiiogbaphy. R. R. MacLean and E. J. Kibblewhite, “Sexual Sterilization in Alberta; eight years’ experience, 1929-May 31, 1937,” Canadian Public Health Jour. (Dec. 1937); P. Popenoe, “Sterilization in Practice,” Survey (June 1938); C. G. and M. K. Bowers, “Sterilization of The Female by Cauterization of The Uterine Cornu,” Jr. Tenn. S.M.A. (Oct. 1938); G. S. McClellan and Lucius E. Burch, “Sterilization of Obstetric Patients in Vanderbilt University Hospital 192S-1937,” Am. J. Obs. Sr Gyn. (Aug. 1938) Councils’ Com. on Contraceptives, “Report on The Use of Roentgen Rays for Contraception,” J.A.M.A. (Nov. s, 1938); Hugh F. Hare, “Radiation Sterilization” Surg. Clin. N.A. (June 1938). (J. R. Bl.) ;

2,000,000 shares, and $50 per 100,000 shares $250 per

first

in excess of 2,000,000; a substitution of a flat fee of issue, in place of the existing fee of

continuing fee

$30 per 10,000 shares

being paid; and a reduction from $120 to $60

is

per $1,000,000 principal amount in the bonds. The Exchange also announced

ment

in

listing fee for short

(May

term

16) the establish-

of “a special division to facilitate negotiations for the listing

of additional securities under the revised policy announced on

Nov. 22, 1938.” Two additional policies were also announced, namely (i) “emphasis upon national interests and quality rather than upon size as a test of listing eligibility,” and (2) to delist any stock issue whose outstanding shares available for trading have become reduced to approximately 2,000 shares, or in the case of bonds to $200,000, par amount. On August i the Exchange also adopted a condensed form of listing application for companies, already having listed issues, when applying for the listing of

new

issues.

Important Changes with Respect tive

March

20, the Securities

to

Current Practice.

—

Effec-

and Exchange Commission amended

short-selling rules so as “to permit a short sale at the price of the last sale,

Stevenson, Joseph Ross

on March i, the son of a Presbyterian minister. He graduated from Washington and Jefferson college in 1886 and from McCormick was born

at Ligonier, Pa.

Theological seminary, Chicago, in 1889, after which he studied for a year at the University of Berlin. Upon his return to the United

was ordained into the Presbyterian ministry, and from i8go to 1894 he was a pastor at Sedalia, Mo. During the next eight years he taught ecclesiastical history at McCormick Theological seminary. He was pastor of the Fifth Avenue church in States he

New York

from 1902 to 1909, pastor of the Brown Memorial church in Baltimore from 1909 to 1914, and president of Princeton Theological seminary from 1914 until his retirement in 1936. In 1915 he was moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A.; he was also president of the International Medical Missionary society and a chairman of the World Conference of Faith and Order. He died August 13 at New York city. city

provided the previous different price was lower than

the last sale,” whereas the previous rule forbade short sales to

be made at or below the restrictions

u.s. biologist

way

sale.

Bona

fide inter-

upon

short-selling.

Rules prohibiting general partners of member firms, doing a margin business with the public, from trading on margin, were

announced on January assumed prior to that

28,

date,

effective July 15.

Margin

positions

however, were not required to be

liquidated.

On April 13, the Committee on Public Relations announced its endeavour “to stimulate interest in advertising among member firms; that, in passing judgment upon the appropriateness of advertising, it was pursuing a liberal, realistic policy, and that its broad philosophy permitted all reasonable latitude.” Action was also taken (May 10) to classify registered employees

into

—

two general groups “registered representatives” and “branch managers” ^instead of the previously used ten group classi-

—

office

Phnrlpc llU|iCll UllallCO Riinprt

last regular

national arbitrage transactions were also exempted from price

fication.

The

change,

and anatomist, was bom in Washington county. Miss., on February aj;- he was educated at the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical college and at Columbia university, where he received his doctorate in 1906. He was

intensive control” of

granted his medical degree by the University of Wurzburg in 1922. After completing his studies at Columbia, he joined the faculty of

ties traders,

it

was explained, makes

member

also important to note that the

quirements to

all

“more

possible a

firms’ registered employees.

It is

Exchange applies examination

classes of registered employees.

On

re-

July 10

announcement was made that 2,800

the medical college of Cornell university and was professor of

securities salesmen and securiemployees of member firms of the Exchange, had taken “comprehensive written examination in order to qualify under the recently amended Exchange rules affecting registered

anatomy there from 1911

employees.”

international attention

by

until his death.

Dr. Stockard attracted

his morphological investigations

his experimental production of monstrosities.

York

city

on April

7.

He

and by

died at

New

Effective April

requirements of

i,

new

member

public were increased

rules

were adopted whereby the

capital

firms doing a general business with the

by about 25%. Exception was made

of

STOCKS firms subject to supervision

by State and Federal banking authori-

Under the new

rules aggregate indebtedness of a member not exceed 1,500% of its net capital (said capital to be not less than $25,000), whereas previously such indebtedness was limited to 2,000% of net capital. ties.

firm

may

Proposed Changes Designed for the Better Protection of the Public. On July 14 the president of the New York Stock Exchange appointed a public examining board “to study the broad problem of customer protection.” The report of this board (rendered August 31) outlined 14 specific recommendations to en-

—

631

Act of 1934 and the Securities Act of 1933. all the recommendations for the time being.

40% all

A

questionnaire study of the desirability of a membership reduction. result showed the inexpediency of the suggestion for the present, only of the membership replying to the questionnaire, and 238 opposing

(4)

The

The SEC, however, opposed

forms of seat reduction.

Stocks and Bonds.

—

New York Stock E.xshown by the huge volume

^The importance of the

change as a major national market

is

of listings of securities. For stocks on Dec.

i, 1939, such listings aggregated 1,230 separate issues, totalling 1,431,642,000 shares with a market value of $45,505,229,000. Listed bonds, on the

hance the protection afforded to customers by member firms. These related to increased capital requirements, enlarged auditing requirements, separating of underwriting from commission busi-

same

ness, segregation of free credit balances, establishment of a reserve

and 651 for bonds. Roughly speaking, the New York Stock Exchange serves as the market place for approximately one-fourth of the total wealth of the United States. Of the afore-mentioned totals, foreign stock listings on December i aggregated only 40,526.000 shares with a market value of $905,549,000, while private and public bonds of foreign nations stood at $4,565,818,000 par value, with a market value of $2,339,138,000. Sales of stock on the New York Stock Exchange for 1939 totalled 262,015,799 shares, and for bonds, $2,048,237,873. For stocks the ratio of stocks to listings amounted to 1-34% for the last month for which data are available. For bonds the ratio of sales to listings for the same month amounted to 2-89%. Volume of stock sales, it will be noticed, was at a rather dull level dur-

fund for the Exchange, service charges, increased Stock Exchange income, fidelity insurance for employees and perhaps for partners,

minimum margins

commodity accounts and

for

member

of financial conditions to

greater disclosure

firms’ customers.

Later (Sep-

tember 13) the board of governors accepted the report, approved its general philosophy, and ordered that appropriate committees be assigned the duty to study the suggestions made and to make recommendations thereon. With respect to two important matters, Exchange action was taken on November 14 and December 2 respectiveljq namely (i) a ruling that aU member firms must make available to customers “on request a statement of financial condition as of a date within four

that notice of such availability

months prior to such request,” and must be sent to customers, and (2)

the establishment of panels of 504 business and professional men in Baltimore, Md., Boston, Mass., Chicago, 111 ., Los Angeles, Calif., Philadelphia, Pa., Pittsburgh, Pa.,

Francisco, Calif.,

from which arbitrators

involving

members of

Richmond, Va., and San may be drawn in cases

Studies by Special Committees of Certain Important Subjects. special mention, namely; .

—Four such studies deserve A

(i) study of Federal securities legisiation, involving the “desirability of equalizing competitive conditions affecting securities traded in over-thecounter and securities listed on organized exchanges.” Cz) A study in collaboration with the at stockholders’ meetings.

SEC.

of the

amount

of stock voted

of National Securities Ex(3) Report of the Washington conference changes, with respect to recommended changes in the Securities Exchange

11

300

WIM

i

OF PRIC

11

250

w u S

200

1 1[

0 CO

1

i

II

—J.

0 (/)

c 1200


.




Russia’s unsuccessful invasion of Finland caused both Ger-

the Allies to consider operations in the Nordic States

many and

each to checkmate the other in any attempt to use this territory for a flank attack. Russia’s strategy is apparently based on two desires.

second

The is

first is

the old Tsarist one to reach the sea.

The

both Europe and Asia by the capitalist

in

1.500.000

tbe United States:

2.000.000

2.500.000

monthly average

of

man-

days Idle

sea the strategy of the Allies has been to use every

Germany

means

This while opposing German through raiding surface ships, submarines, mines, and aero-

to strangle

statistics

of strikes and lock-outs, their causes and results,

economically.

regularly;

The Canadian Department of Labour

published

planes to destroy the sea commerce of the Allies and the warships and aeroplanes protecting them. (See also Blockade; Submarine Warfare.) In the air the military chiefs of all belligerents have shown that a policy which saves pilots and aeroplanes for military action is considered more important than losing them in indecisive raids on cities and various activities in the rear. Up to the close of 1939 nothing decisive happened either at sea or in the air above it and the land. Thus the year closed with no indication of whether the Allied strategy of military defensive and economic offensive or the German one of the use of armed forces to continue a policy initiated in peace will be successful. (See also Am Forces; Armies of the World; European War; Munitions of War; Navies of the World.)

(H.

J.

Re.)

each year. Most of the other nations

some not

at aU.

a report on strikes throughout the world in the

confined to the three countries

anil dllU

see Railroads;

nolt niltc LUunUUldi

I

TEAR GAS V/AS RELEASED

United States.

first

strikes of

Labour Gazette,

March 1937. The most recent statistics then available ended most countries. The present study of labour disputes in 1939 will

in 1935 for

therefore be

mentioned.

The political situation in Germany, Italy, Russia and Japan has made it “inadvisable” in recent years for wage earners to undertake strikes.

There have been more strikes in the United States since 1934 than in Great Britain or Canada, both in absolute numbers and in proportion to population.

Many

of the American strikes have

involved a large number of wage earners and been bitterly fought.

But the intervention of the Government, both the Federal and some State Governments, has brought many of the strikes to an earlier conclusion.

During the of man-days

Streamline Trains:

first eight months of 1937, 1938, and 1939, was 24,147,093, 7,162,720, and 13,765,522

United states, Canada and Britain

publish

current

io disperse workers at Cleveland during a strike of automotive tool and die craftsmen in July and Aug. 1939

the loss respec-

but during April 1939, 4,876,744 and May 1939, 3 5 i 5 7 Si July 1939, also went above a million days, 1,137,025. It was the heavy man-day losses of these three months that caused the time loss on account of strikes to nearly double in 1939 the correspondtively,

,

Great

to-

more important report them less

gether with detailed reports upon the

powers.

efforts

STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS

1.000.000

to put herself in the strongest position to resist pos-

sible future attack in

At

500.000

ing figure for 1938.

,

i

2

AND LOCK-OUTS

STRIKES I— Number

Table

of Strikes, Workers Involyed, and Man-Days Lost,

Table IV

—

637

Causes of Labour Disputes

Great

in

1939, by Months

Britain,

7933— Sepfemfaer 7939 Cause

Monthly Labor

Rezieut,

United States Bureau of Labor

Statistics,

Kov.

wage increases .... Resistance to wage reductions Other wage questions

Demands

Number Con-

Year and

tinued

month

from

preced- month ing or year

In

Ended

Beginning in

effect

at end

ress

in

during

month

month

of

or year

month

.

.

.

.

.

r

•

.

.

.

.

.

-

.

4.740

1,860,621

.

.

2,772

688,376

2,014 2,172

Man-^ idle durIn ing month progress or year during

February'

.

March

.

.

April

.

May

.

.

.

June

.

.

.

120 126 122 138 148 138

July

.

.

.

it 6

,

.

August* September*

305 318 364 369 341 304 371 300

221

203 188 23s 175

1.36

.

298

15s

‘

126 122 138 148 138

172 183

180 216 231 225 168 216 200

of particular classes of people or individuals

ciples

49.963 66,853 41.824 391.129 92,603 57.633 170,186 65.000 36.000

n6 136 ISS 130

71,231 86,168 62,336

imu

419,49s 452.564 122,340 204,757 95.000 90,000

4 20 3

20

IS

7

7

21 12

25 6

15 8

IS S

2

10

8

6

10

7

I

I

I

pM lEl

B H 10 10 2

Gazelle, Februar>’-October 1939.

in

Greof Britain Settled

in

1939

BB

J

F

il

A

M

J

J

14

II

19

18

23

18

24

13

24

30

21

19

18

24 14

35

14

27 IS

22

24 20

17

35 9

7

s

3

5

9

II

3

3

10

Negotiations pending, but

work resumed 900,000 750,000

Compiled from The ^fin{slry of Labour

Table

the record year in

Issues Involved in Strikes in the United States beginning

32%

first

January, March and July 1939

lost,

number of

tive industrial peace

but

Gazelle,

February-October 1939.

shows for the United States the number of

I

strikes,

The year 1937

1933-39.

A period

strikes since 1917.

is still

of rela-

1922-1932 was followed by increased strike

58%

many man-days

as

many

strikes as in 1937

and

In 1939 during the nine months there were fewer strikes than 1938 but twice as as

many man-days

lost.

lost as in 1937.

This was due entirely to the shut down of

the bituminous coal mines of the Appalachian region in April and

July

issue

Percent

Number

Percent

188

100.0

40

100.0 22.3

52

277

23

12.7

42

22.4

S

2.8

5

2.7

6.1

7

3-9

3

X.6

.6

I

.6

X

•5

I

.6

I

.6

1

•5

3

1.7

91 27 19

ssj

107

59.3

16.4 II.7

30

16.8

21

II -7

13

8.4

21

134

32

II . 17.0

6

5-3 3.2

38

20.2

8 9 15

3-2 4.3 4.8 7.9

Number All issues

Wages and Hours

....

Wage increase .... Wage decrease .... Wage increase, hour

Number

Percent

163 41 25

100.0

179

2 S .2 15-4

4

2.5

10 X

decrease decrease, hour increase Hour increase

Wage

Hour decrease

.... ....

Union organizalion

.

.

.

Recognition Recognition and wages. Recognition, wages and hours Closed or union shop Discrimination Other

7

4.3

IS 24 IE 6

Ji

ig.o

32

3-4 ly.g

3 3

1-7 1-7

7

3-9

12.9 7-4

21 12

.

.

3-1

.

.

Miscellaneous

Sympathy 6

iSval unions or factions

4

3-7 2-5

21

12.8

Jurisdiction

Other

Compiled from The lIonlMy Labor Reetm,

Bureau of Labor

because of conflict over the terms of a

6.9

Though the number of strikes in 1937 exceeded the year 1919 number of workers involved was far less. It was not until the bituminous strike of 1939 that strikes, when measured in terms of man-days

were comparable in severity with those of 1919 strikers was inflated by the “great strikes” of such as those in the coal mines, steel and textile mills,

lost,

when the number of

—

telephone industry of

New

England, the general strike at Seattle,

the widespread struggles of clothing workers, longshoremen, the

Statistics.

In 1937 there were definite points of concentrasuch as the automobile and maritime industries, but the year was characterized by labour activity “on all fronts,” including retail trade, hotels, restaurants and other service industries not

printing trades. tion,

affected

by

and a large part of the numbers of people. The years 1938 and 1939 were likewise

strikes in previous years,

strikes involved relatively small

characterized

trially

Number

Disputes Beginning in Period

Fishing and agriculture Coal mining Other mining and quarry’ing

.

.

Woodworking,

furniture, etc.

*.

.

.

distribution, finance

Others Total

Compiled from The Ministry

.

Aggregate Duration in

Working Days of All Disputes

25

6 22

2.200

6S7

240,700

1,064,000

1.300

7

62 54 20 9 17

of I„abour Gazelle.

900

700

Number of Disputes Beginning in Period

in Progress

27,700 3.900 12,000 7.300 4.000 1.000 2,600 30,900 9.200

I, OCXS

136,000

102

Building, etc

Transport

in

in Progress

9

31

....

Involved

All Disputes

266

SO

Engineering Shipbuilding Other metal

Number of Work People

43.000 385.000 45.000 8,000 154.000 34.000 72.000 102.000 10.000 10.000 23.000 1X9,000 45.000 x,ooo 13,000

7

.

Brick, potteiy’, glass, chemicals, etc.

Textile Clothing Food, drink and tobacco

of

Number of Work People Involved in All Disputes in Progress

Aggregate Duration in

Working Days of All Disputes in Progress

9

700

x8

15 26

2,500 20,000 2.500 8.100 5.300 6.100 3,000 1.500 1.300 7,800 1,900 3.100

609.000 4,000 19.000 105.000 28.000 72.000 61.000 28.000 10.000 28.000 89.000 23.000 10.000 36.000

66g

212,800

1,122,000

275

34 24 44 34 30 IS 22

8s 38

by

the wide dis-

tribution of strikes, both indus-

January to September 1938

Januaiy' to September 1939

Industry Group

new agreement

the

the period

os

6.1

19

TJ. S.

May

being negotiated.

Table III— labour Disputes in Great Britain, January to September 1939 and January fa September 193B

Commerce,

A 23 5 29

xo

In 1938 there were only

March

16

B B B BB

J 14

Results of Strikes

activity.

Major

10

4

j

pH Ra

Settled in favour of labour Settled in favour of employers Settled by compromises

—

these should be considered as prelinunary estimates.

January

4

of Labour Disputes

workers involved and days

in

23 10

7

3

V — ReruUs

Table

Strikes involving fewer than 6 workers or lasting less than i day are not include in nor in the following tables. Notices or leads regarding strikes are obtained

— Major

Q Bi i

13

12 15

.

Compiled from Thr ifinistry of Labour

16,872,128 '9.591.949 '5.456,337 '3.901,956 2s.424.857

this table

II

18

M

A

Iti

2

by the Bureau from more than 650 daily papers, labour paj^rs, and trade journals, as well as from all Government labour ^ar^. Letters are written to representatives of parties in the disputes asking for detailed and authentic information. Since answers to some of these letters have not yet been received, the figures given for the late months are not final. TTiis is particularly true with regard to figures for the last 2 months, and

Table

.

Other working arrangements .... Questions mvoU'ing trade union prin-

month

788,648

178 179 196 226

.

Employment

_

1939 .

6 6

Hours

1,168,272 1,466,695 1,117,213

1,693 1,856

F

6

Sympathetic strikes

.

January

.

in strikes

month

month 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938

of strikes

In prog-

Beginning in

Workers involved

M

j

for

141,000

and geographically, and few outstand-

there were but a

ing disputes, like those in the

maritime, automobile and coal industries.

Sit-dowm strikes almost disappeared as a part of the American strike picture in 1938-39.

The

firm position taken

by the

courts on the illegality of such strikes has probably eliminated

them as an

effective tactic of

labour.

The

monthly reports on by the United States Bureau of Labor Statisstrikes

issued

tics indicate that close to

one-

SUBMARINE WARFARE

638 Table VI

— Strikes and Lock-outs

in

year the

Canada 193S

1939

1

1

Month

No. of disputes

No. of employees involved

Time in

loss

work-

ing days

January February

.

.

.

March

7

6

3x4

1.361

17,203

11

3,424 2,023

9

4,170

18 17

15,031 8,804

14,960 42,110 23,652

April

May June

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

10 S

of

employees involved

24 9 14 14 IS 22 16

8,047 24,971 10,293

1,228 2,643 1,628

No.

No. of disputes

.

.

7

December

.

8

392 274

197

2S,oS3

.

.

.

.

Total

.

.

39,265

97

.

Compiled from Canadian Labour

TaWe VW — Trend

22 IS 31

151.560

in

leased in the last

31,939 3.575 9.391 16.449 12,589 12,672 9.76S *?»74S 16,268 18,122 3,150 2,357

149,02s

Gazette.

88 Z16 I2S 191 120 156 278

......

1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 Gazette^

man-

204,238 255.000 317,547 574,519 284,028 276,997 886,393 148,678

45,800 33.a69 34,812 71,905 20,395

March

loss in

working days

10,738 23.390 26,558

147

Canadian Labour

Time

of workers involved

1939.

some question of union recognition, with wages the other major issue. This distribution was characteristic of 1937, igjS and 1939. Tables IV and V show the half of the strikes of 1939 involved

causes of British disputes and their results.

Two

—

contrasts with the

United States situation stand out in Table IV the absence of “union recognition” unless included in “questions involving trade union principles,” and in Table V the large percentage of the strikes which ended definitely in favour of the employers.

Canada had only 97 strikes in the first nine months of 1939, involving but 39,265 workers. [See also California; Detroit;

Michigan; United States.)

_

(D. D. L.)

England declared war on Germany on Sept. 3, 1939. Within nine hours the British liner “Athenia,” bound for Canada with 1,400 passengers, was sunk aoomi. off the Irish coast. Over 100 lives were lost. Had the submarine struck its first blow of the war? Testimony is conflicting but the world had not long to wait for proof that the under sea raider would again be used against merchant shipping. On September 6, four British steamers were sent to the bottom and a fifth was attacked by German submarines.^ Hardly a day passed during the ensuing months without new victims being added to the toll of the submarine and the mine. In

Submarine Warfare.

many

cases

impossible to determine whether sinkings resulted from torpedoes or mines. Even when definitely established that it is

a ship sank after striking a mine

whether or not the

As pointed out submarine

loss should

in the

German

it

is

difficult

be attributed to the submarine.

official

publication, Nauticiis, the

the ideal mine layer due to

The

highest rate of sinkings directly attributable to the subma-

rine occurred during the first three

10 ships were reported sunk the

was on September 17, during the third week, that its first blow to the British fleet, sinking the carrier H.M.S. “Courageous” off the south west coast of It

Ireland with a loss of 515

In the fourth week the submaand did not exxeed this number in 1939 except during the 12th week, when it was eight. The greatest single submarine victory and one of the most daring accomplishments of all submarine warfare was the sinking of the British battleship H.M.S. “Royal Oak” as it lay at anchor in Scapa Flow, Oct. 14, 1939. The hero of this achievement was Captain-Lieutenant Guenther Prien who was decorated with the Chevalier Cross of the Iron Cross Order by the German Reichsfuehrer. Eight hundred and ten officers and men lost their lives

when

the "Royal

the U-18 was

German U-boats had made

sank.

The

Flow

be assumed to be either mines

destroyer of ships and lives in the European war,

its

threat to the

has at no time been as great as in 1917. In April of that

1 All assertions or opinions contained in the above article are the private ones of the writer and ate not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the U.S. Navy Department or of the naval service at large.

scuttled

unsuc-

which

by her crew.

British Admiralty

announced that a feat of almost equal when the British submarine "Ursula” penetrated the closely guarded mouth of the Elbe river and sank a German cruiser of the “Koeln” class on December 14, 1939 although the cruiser was escorted by six destroyers. Sharing honours in the same announcement was the commanding officer of the British submarine “Salmon” who, in the words of the First Lord daring was accomplished

of the Admiralty, “rightly abstained from torpedoing the ‘Bremen’ when that enormous ship was at his mercy.” Before encountering the “Bremen,” the “Salmon” was reported to have destroyed one of the larger German U-boats, and on December 14, to have fired six torpedoes three of which made hits on two 6,000-

German cruisers. Germany denied these claims, but if true, the British submarine service avenged the loss of the “Couraton

Warships Sunk by Enemy Action or by Mines, 1939

Name of Ship

Toimase

Tyfe

BRITISH Royal Oak Courageous

29,150 22,500 16,697

Kawalpindi Uuchess Blanche

1,375 1,360 ^»335 i»3S4

w.

Mastiff^

^20 ^15

Aragonite

Rover T Coen Doon

524^

ability to

the submarine has been the greatest single

in 1914, during one of

rammed by a patrol boat and

soo 200

William Hallett

Kay

of

202 200

Hope

Total: 15 ships of 76,906 tons.

Battleship Aircraft carrier

Armedmerchantman Destroyer Destroyer Destroyer

Submarine Trawler

Minesweeper Converted trawler Converted trawler Converted trawler Converted trawler Converted trawler Converted drifter

'

GERMAN 20~40 submarines

Allies

Oak”

cessful attempts to enter Scapa

which in most cases can

logically

lives.

rine toll dropped to six ships

Admiral Graf Spec* Este

Though

weeks of the present war when week, 10 the second, and 15

first

.

its

third of the

figures simultaneously re-

leased gave a total of 242 vessels of which 134 were British, 12 French, 78 neutral and 18 German.

four months ending Dec. 31, 1939, it is estimated that 38% were sunk by submarines, 35% by mines, and 18% by unknown causes, or submarines.

German

in the early part of 1917.

to determine

perform the task while submerged, thus den5dng to the enemy knowledge of the existence or location of mine fields. Of the 256 merchant ships reported lost in sea warfare in the is

90

was estimated that Germany’s submarine campaign

was destroying daily 7,704 tons of shipping, only one toll

Of

the submarine dealt

Conodoy 1931—1938

Number

disputes 1931 1932 1933

It

neutral.

aircraft

Number of

Year

Official British figures re-

of 1939 listed the war’s toll of merchant

ships since September 3 at 248 vessels, totalling 901,344 tons. the 248 ships, 126 were British, 11 French, 21 German and

the third.

of Lobour Dispufes in

week

loss

work-

ing days

1,627 2,258 2,871 1,741 1.S16 1,428 2.375 2,132 3,146

November

.

Time

4,293

July August September October .

of shipping losses reached 545,200 tons for the Brit-

toll

and 88r,ooo tons for the world.

ish

!

.

.

.

.

!

!

10,000 40o(?) 40o(?)

Unidentified ship

Total:

Unknown.

!

(?)

Pocket battleship Patrol boat Patrol boat

Submarines

FRENCH Pluton**

4,773

Minelaying cruiser

Total; I ship of 4,773 tons. *Scuttled.

**Destr^t^ by accidental explosion. In addition to the ships listed, Poland Russia at least

3.

is

believed to have lost about 9 ships, and

SUBMARINE WARFARE

639

geous” and “Royal Oak” during the same week when the “Exeter,” “Ajax,” and “Achilles” avenged the “Rawalpindi” in battle with

number of those reported destroyed are still in operation. The rate at which Germany can turn out replacement subma-

the “Graf Spee”

rines depends largely on the size boat on which she standardizes. During 1914, the average monthly rate of completion of U-boats was 2-2. This increased to 4-3 in 1915, to 9 in 1916, and then decreased to 7-3 for 1917 and 8-5 for 1918. The largest number produced in any one month from 1914 to 1918 was 15 in Dec. 1916. Had the war lasted the German Admiralty planned to reach a rate of one submarine per day by July 1919. The boats actually built during 1914 and 1918 were larger than any of the three German types now in service. These are: oceangoing, 740 tons, 6 torpedo tubes, 4 forward and 2 aft; seagoing, 500 tons, 5 torpedo tubes, 4 forward and i aft; and coastal, 250 tons, 3 torpedo tubes. Germany built 24 of this latter tj-pe during 1935 and 1936 and conceivably could build them on a mass production basis as reported. The smaller Ijise of submarine not only lends itself more readily to mass production but requires few’er men to operate, the 250 ton boat taking a crew of 23 as compared to 40 for the

Montevideo.

off

German submarine

successes against naval vessels of the Allies

have not equalled those of the

first

four months of 1914,

when

seven British men-of-w'ar, including five cruisers, one seaplane carrier and a gunboat, were destroyed with a loss of over 1,900

The submarine

lives.

pean war was

2

toll

sunk

comparable period of the Euro-

in the

(i

battleship and

i

aeroplane carrier)

damage without loss of 3 additional ships (i battleship, i cruiser and i destroyer). A greater number of Allied men-of-war have been at sea and the number of German submarines at the beginning of the European war was 60 as compared to 28 in 1914, but the use of anti-submarine

with a loss of 1,383

lives, plus

screening vessels has doubtless been largely responsible for the

fewer number of naval

losses. Other factors are, the improvement sound detection devices, better depth bombs and depth bomb-

of

ing tactics, the greater

number

of aeroplanes available for anti-

submarine patrol, better British mines, and the fact that at the beginning of the present conflict the submarine was known to be a weapon capable of great destruction, whereas in 1914 it was looked upon with disdain as an infant tied to the apron strings of

its

mother

directed

its

ship.

Then

submarine

too, the

German High Command

in

1914

effort primarily against naval objectives,

not resorting to unrestricted submarine warfare against commercial vessels until Feb. 1917, whereas the undersea boats were directed against merchant shipping immediately in 1939.

Other pertinent

740 ton type. The problem of training replacement crews is not as great as during the war of 1914. The Germans have perfected submarine training devices for use on land.

means of developing the making a successful attack on the

One

skill

of these machines provides

of the

commanding ofiBcer in making changes

a zigzagging target

Another so accurately simulates the action of a submarine under various conditions of trim and diving plane angles in speed.

as to provide very good training for the diving officer

and crew.

New

considerations are the relative naval and air strengths of the

Similar devices are used at the submarine training school at

two wars. In the first, Germany had a Allies and Germany naval force 36% as great as the Allies compared with 11% in the present conflict. Germany was stronger in the air in both wars, but her air power through greater co-ordination with the submarine

London, Connecticut. In 1918 the final outcome rested on the decision at sea. It may be so again. In 1917 the submarine very nearly won that decision. It did not fail because of Germany’s inability to replace submarines and crews as fast as they were destroyed. The failure was

in the

effort doubtless

has compensated partially for the smaller propor-

instead due primarily to the great reduction in losses of Allied

tion of naval force.

The

German submarine campaign decreased the European war until the middle of No-

effectiveness of the

week of vember when the magnetic mine was employed. This weapon was probably planted by both submarines and aircraft and, in conjunction with the submarine sinkings, brought new highs in shipping losses in the weeks ending November 26 and December 17. In the

after the third

at least 30 vessels were sent to the bottom, an all time high for the European war, but still short of the average of 53 warfare of ships per week sunk during the unrestricted submarine sinkings from all 1917. In the latter part of Dec. 19391 Gercauses dropped to a more normal level, despite the fact that aircraft. ships by surface on attack concentrated started latter

week

shipping incident to the success of the convoy system.

At the beginning of the European war the combined merchant of the Allies aggregated 23,936,000 tons. Thus far the

fleets

rate at

which

this

tonnage has been destroyed has not reached

the proportions of 1917.

It

remains to be seen whether this

rate can be raised to the critical point

by Germany’s

acceleration

of submarine replacement and utilization of her air force to asthe submarine in commerce destruction. There must also be considered any additions to her submarine fleet which Germany may obtain from possible allies. StUl another factor is the sist

measure of the

effect of

Germany’s understanding with Russia in (See also Shippixg, 'Merchant

many had

nullifying the Allied blockade.

Whether or not Germany will be able to increase the rate of threaten destruction of merchant shipping to the point which will rate of dethe on largely depend England with starvation will

Marine.) The outcome is not certain but it is clear that the submarine will play a major role. It is a vessel which is cylindrical in cross section at its mid-length and tapers down in diameter toward

struction of submarines

by the

Allies

and the rate

at

which Ger-

Mr. Churchill can replace her U-boats. In this connection, Dec. on 6, 1939, stated Commons in an address to the House of at the rate of bedestroyed being were submarines German that in excess tween twm and four per week. This was estimated to be with comU-boats replace could which Germany

many

of the rate at

French estimate near the years end the Allies at 40. placed the number of submarines destroyed by number of Geraverage the During the World War of 1914-18, pletely trained crews.

A

war period was undersea craft destroyed during the entire month was 14, one any 3-42 per month, and the largest number in but during month, per was 6-4 1918 average for

man in

May

The Germany had an average of 124 submarines or about in number on hand at the beginning of the European war

1918.

this period

twice the

can sink below the 1939. In view of the fact that the submarine is probable that a surface without necessarily being destroyed, it

both ends.

It is usually

divided into six w’atertight compart-

ments by transverse bulkheads. The bow compartment is the torpedo room and has the torpedo tubes in its forward part with their axes parallel to the axis of the boat. These tubes have doors at both ends which are capable of manual operation from within the compartment. I\Tien the torpedo is to be loaded in the tube the door at the outer end is closed and the inner door opened. The inner door is then closed and the outer door opened when it is desired to fire the torpedo. A shutter or movable section of the bow is also moved clear of the torjjedo path by means of gear operated from within the torpedo room. The torpedo is projected from the tube by compressed air suddenly admitted to the after end of the tube and acting on the conically shaped after section of the torpedo.

The second compartment from forward

is

the fonvard battery

Above:

DROPPING A DEPTH CHARGE

Of a British destroyer land In Sept. 1939

from the deck on submarine patrol out of Port-

WHEN THE BRITISH TRAMP STEAMER “Kensington Court” was torpedoed In the first days of the war, 34 of Its crew were rescued by two flying boats on patrol Left:

remarkable submarine k ?! battleship Royal entered

Oak" by

SMpa Flow

KleMn 1939

a

sinking of the British German U-boat which in the morning of

bay early

GERMAN SUBMARINES

at

SUBMARINE WARFARE Merchant ships sunk Date

in

European war. Sept.

3— Dec.

37,

641

7939

of

Sinking or Report

Ton-

Ship

Where Sunk

nage

of

Sinking

BRITISH

GERAUN

Sept. 3 Sept, s Sept. 7 Sept. 7 Sept. 7

Athenia Bosnia

Pukkastan

4,060 5,809

Sept.

7

Royal Sceptre

4,853

Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept.

8 8 9 10 10 10

Regent Tiger

10,716 5,05s 5,584 2,796 8,641 4,086 4,425

II

Sept. II Sept. II Sept. 12 Sept- 14 Sept. 14 Sept. 15

13,581 2,400 7,242

Manaar Olive Grove

\\ inkleigh

Kennebec

Goodwood Magdapur Rio Claro Blairiogie

Firby

4,869

Garlavon

1,777

Inverliffey British Influence

9,546 8,431

Vancouver City Africa Shell

4,935

706

Off the Hebrides Off Scottish coast Off Lisbon North Atlantic

Off coast of Scotland Off northeast coast of Enijlarid Off east coast of

Southwest of Land’s End West of Ushant island, France North sea (?) Mid-Allantic

Fanad Head Cheyenne

5,200 8,825

(?)

NearEnglishcoast (?)

Off coast of Northern Ireland Off the Hebrides

Near Azores Off Le Havre Southeast of Land’s End Southeast of Cobh

Mozambique

291

Truro

974

(•)

Rudyard Kipling

333

Off Northern Ireland

Sept. 18 Sept. 18 Sept. 19 Sept. 19 Sept, ig Sept. 2

Neptunia

798

(?)

*(?} Bramden Arlita

1,594

(?)

Aviemore

4,060 295 4,863

Sept. 24 Sept. 27 Sept. 30 Oct. 4 Oct. 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 7 Oct. 10 Oct. 12 Oct. 14 Oct. 14 Oct. 17

Hazelside

(?)

co^t

Akenside

Caldew Clement Belgravian

Newton Beech Glen Farg Ashlea

Huntsman Hcronspool

Lochavan Sneaton City of

Mandalay

4,646 287 5,051 3,136 4,651

876

of

Yorkshire

10,183

(?)

Off Nonvegian coast Off Cork, Ireland

Oct. 20

Sea Venture

Oct. 23 Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct.

V hitemantle

23 24 24 24 24

Bronte

Ledbury

(•)

Menin Ridge Stonegate

24 29

Tafna Malabar

30 30 30

Lynx II St. Nidan

Caimmona

Nov. 9

*(?)

Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov.

^•'Bordfjeld

Matra Poiuano

*(?)

*Sirdhana Cresswell

Nov. 19

*BlackhiU

Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov.

Darino

(•)

Arlington Court Pensilva

Torchbearer

q6i

Off English coast Off Leith, England North sea Off English coast Off Singapore Off north coast of

790 2,492

Off east coast of

Off east coast of

1,351 4,915

Atlantic ocean Off Irish coast

(?)

4,258 1,267

Near England

(?)

250

Off east coa.st of

Nov.

21

England England 1,478

Orsa Sea Sweeper

Thomas

Hanliins *Geraldui:

Lowland

329 276 2,494

974

J.

968

Off northeast coast of England North sea North sea Off east coast of

England North sea

Nar\'a bay, off Estonia

NORWEGIAN Sept. 15

*Ronda

Sept. 28 Sept. 28

*(?) Solaas

(?)

North sea

(?)

Sept. 29

Talislaas

,830

Off Marslein.

Oct. Oct.

*Hoegh Transporter

,914

Singapore harbour

Gressholm

621

W. Hansen Deodata N’arangmalm

iPiS ,295 ,618 ,342 ,109 ,083 ,277

Jem Norway

Norway

4

*{?)

North sea (?) Off Nonvegian coast Off west Coast of

Oct. 17 Oct. 21 Oct. 30

Lorenlz

England North sea

Nov. 4 Xov. 1.5

*Sig

(?)

Dec. Dec.

I

*(?) Realf

I

Arcturus

Dec.

4

*(?)

Amc

Kjode

Primula

,024

,214

Sept. 25

Phrj’ne

12 14 14 17 Nov. 4 Nov. 16

W. Emile Miguel

,

North

2,660

|

Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct.

1

1

!

Nov. 20

14,115 io,io3 6,903 S.186 5,874

Bretagne Louisianc

Vermont Baoule

RochelaL ,

1

Nov. 20 Nov. 23

Ruhys

Nov. 27

Simone Michel

Balyes 11

,

Less than 100

(

OUndz

!

*Liann3

* 11 C. Flood

Dec. 17 Dec. 18 Dec. 18

^Slrindheim

321

*{?) Glittre *(?) Glilrcfjell

4OQ

.

,907

(?)

North sea North sea Off English coast North sea Off east coast of Scotland North sea Off east coast of Scotland Off west coast of Britain Off east coast of Scotland Off northeast coast of England Off northeast coast of England North sea (?) (?)

5O8

Off east coast of

Lappen

563

(?)

Dec. 22 Dec. 27

*RudoIf Tor^vood

924 254

North sea North sea

Sept. 24

Gertrud Bratt

Off south Nor-

Sept. 25

Silesia

Off Stavanger,

Sept. 28

Nj-land

Off K\nlsocy,

Sept. 30

Gun

Scotland

of Biscay (?)

English channel

2,921

(?)

Less than lOO 171

4,576

Dec. 15

North Atlantic

Dec. 20

Off coast of

France

Near entrance 1

Sept. 3 Sept. .4

,26a

ocean ocean Atlantic ocean Atlantic ocean

Bay

(?)

^Sainl-Clair B-922

sea, off

English coast Off Irish coast .Atlantic -Atlantic

Off coast of

Netherlands

,674

Off east coast of

21

]

Metallist 1

Off Egersund,

(?)

Nov.

Delphine

Off South Africa Gulf of Bothnia 450 mi. east of

Cape May, N.

,271

England

=*'(?)

2,989 3,324 32,581

North sea

(?)

Off Pentland Firth Off Pentland Firth

Off east coast of

*(?)

*=*Columbus

Sept. 27

Off east coast of Scotland Off east coast of

W

345

Nov. 22

**AdolphLeonhardt Bolheim

Norway

England

1

England

1

(?)

England

England

Gibraltar Gibraltar ocean, Florida est of Gibraltar North Atlantic

W'est of W'e>t of Atlantic east of

250 565

8,003 1,346 7,745 275

2,804

Off east coast of

Scotland North sea

Nov. 20 =*^Vigmore

Nov. 21 Nov. 21 Nov. 22

South Africa

Reinbek

Scotland

England

19 20 20 20

of

Denmark

island, (?)

Near Cape Town,

Off east coast of

Atlantic ocean,

2,327

(?)

3,106 9,521

England

Gotland

*Woodtown

Nov. 15

(?) 2

Carmarthen

Coast 13 13 13 13 14

coast (?) Off Langeland

England

Off coast of Africa Off Irish coast Atlantic ocean Atlantic ocean Atlantic ocean,

Finisterre Off north coast of

4,413 8,465 4,666

300 (?)

Off east coast of

.

South Atlanric Northwest of Cap

1,692 5.317

3,670

off

Off east coast of

* South Atlantic

5.299 7,256

3,528 2,474 5,044

Borkum

ocean Off English

England North sea

(?)

Off Brazilian coa.st Atlantic ocean South Atlantic

west of Spain

Trevanion Clan Chisholm

.\tlantic

North sea Off Bergen North sea Off northeast coast of England North sea Off east coast of

Irish coast

Oct. 18 (?)

South Atlantic,

2,436

England

(?) (?)

west of Spain Oct. 17

8,577

(?)

(Caribbean sea Atlantic ocean Atlantic ocean Off Hoefen, Iceland

Off Land’s End North sea Off east coast of

,

4,222 8,196 5,202 9,205 3,677 7,028

Nov.

Atlantic ocean Off northern coast

West of Scilly isles

Near

island Atlantic ocean

*^enerife

*(?)

Near England

326

1,567 2,694

Baltic sea

**.Adolph W’oermann

^Unidentified trawler **.Antiochia **W'atu£si

Off southeast

(?)

Arkleside

Near Borkum

coast of Africa

Britain

grounds

Kensington Court

8,000

Baltic sea (?)

Off .Argentina OS west coast of

North Atlantic Off Southwest

Devara

Sept. 22 Sept. 22

Mid-Atlantic

**Bertha Fisser

Friederich

**Mecklenburg **Parana

Dec-

Sept. 16 Sept. 17 Sept. 17

Irord !Minto

South .\tlanlic

5,294 2,867 727

4,564 5,889 4,327 7,892 6,038 4,110

**Emmy

Off southeast coast of England Off southeast coast of England Firth of Forth Off southeast coast of England Off southeast coast of England South Atlantic Off South Africa North sea

(?)

6,594

(?)

**Gonzenheim ^Halle

of Biscay

England

(?)

Sept. 16

5,193

Irm *Heldrid Bissmark ^Unidentified Ship (?)

Off east coast of

coast of Ireland Scottish fishing

Kafiristan

Molkenbuhr

England

Bay

(Conl’d)

*Johannes

Atlantic ocean

channel Sept. 15 Sept. 16

Carl Fritzen

I

Somme

to

wegian coast

river

South Atlantic Baltic sea (?)

SUBMARINE WARFARE

642

Merchanf ships sunk

in

European war. Sept 3

— Dec.

31,

7939 (Continued) Date of

Date of

Date of

Sinldng

Sinking or

Tonnage

Ship

Report

^Miere Sunk

or

Ton-

Ship

Report

or

Wbere Sunk

nage

Sinking

GREEK

SWEDISH (Coat’d) Oct. 10

Vistula

1,018

Northeast of Shetland islands

Sept.

1,400 1,241

(?)

Oct. 23

Guslaf Adolf Albania

Nov'. ig

B. 0

1.586

Sept. 13 Oct. 3 Oct. 16 Oct. 20

.

Borjesson

Off Great Grimsby, England Off east coast of

Kosti

4

Katingo Hajipatera Diamantis Aris

Konslanlinos Hadjipateras (?) Nicolaos M. Embiricos Elena R.

England

Nov. 26

Gustav E. Reuter

6,336

Off east coast of

Dec.

Rudolf

2,119

Off east coast of

England 3

(?)

Dec. 10 Dec. 12

\ inga

Nov. 22

LITHUANIAN

M

Near Falsterbo, Sweden

Nov. 15 Nov. 15 Nov. ig

(?)

4.990 4,810

Off Scilly isles

S.962

North sea

5.295 4,576

English channel Off south coast of

Ursus

1.499

Off coast of

Dec. 20

Mars

1.877

Dec. 20

.\doll Bratt

1.323

Off northeast coast of England Off Westterschelling

*(?) Lister

Carl Henckel

Vega

Dec. 21

1,366 l, 3 S 2

North sea Off Nom'egian

1,294

coast Off coast of N^etherlands

Dec. s Dec. 11 Dec. 16

*(?) Paralos

Dec. 10

Kassa

About

Dec. 19

=»=*Uko

1,000 1,050

Thames

Off Estonian coast Off Estonian coast Off Rotterdam

Gulf of Finland

North sea

ITALUN

estuary Off Bergen Off southeast coast of England

3.435 4,708 S.217

Garoufalia

Cknname

Nov. 19 Grazia

Off east coast of

England

Comitas

Dec. 20

Off coast of

Netherlands

DANISH Sept. 30

Vendia

Nov. 3

Canada

Dec. 3 Dec. 8 Dec. g Dec. r6

Ove Toft

Off

1.150

JAPANESE

Hanstholm,

Denmark Off Humber coast, England North sea

ii.ioS 2,135 2,400 1,339

(?) Scotia

^lagnus (?) Jaegcrsborg

(?)

DUTCH

94 S 1,521

Kaunas

England

Netherlands

Dec. 20 Dec. 21

1,607

Nida

ESTONIAN

Denmark Dec. 15

Panevezj’s

(?)

Off east coast of

gi8

*Algol

Dec. 13

Nov. 4

(?)

England North sea South of Copenhagen

1,974 3.792

Tome

Where Sunk

nage

.

Sinking

Sinking

Ton-

Ship

Report

of

of

Dec. 17

Bogoc

Dec. ig Dec. 28

»(?) Jytte

Nov,

21

Terukuni Maru

11,930

Off east coast of

England

North sea North sea

YUGOSLAVIAN

1,254 1,214

North sea

6,374

1,877 1,080

North sea

Off east coast of

England

Off coast of

Scotland

Willem Van Eaijk

Sept. 8 Sept, g

Oct.

Mark

(?) Binnendijk

S

Nov. 16 Nov. 16 Nov. 18

Sliedrecht

(?) Mapia

Simon

1.514 6,873

North sea North sea Off We^Tnouth, England

S.133 9.389 8,309

Atlantic ocean North sea (?) Off Hanvtcb,

526

BoUv'ar

England

Te^

Nov. ig Nov. 19 Nov. 27

*(?) *(?) Safe

Spaarndam

8 ,8 s 7

Off

Nov. 30

Tajandoen

8,159

Dec. TO

Immingham

estuary English channel North sea

379 375

398

Sept. IS

*(?) Alex

van

and

Sunk by submarines or surface Known sunk by mines Believed sunk by mines Known sunk by planes

Suzon

Oct, 11 Dec. 10

Kabinda

2,239 5,182

Dec. IS

*(?)

Rosa

1.146

by manner of sinking

32 lo 3

Believed sunk by planes Scuttled by own crews

12

Total

256

Number

Tonnage

British

126

French

II 23

Polish

1

Firmish Russian

S

441,475 48,038 130,311 14,294 11,919

I

968

167

647 ,c»S

Sweffish

25 19

Dutch

11

Greek Danish

10 9 4

I

68,779 37,020 49,8x2 46,587 23,557 14,532 4,073 2,050 9,339 11,930

I

6,371

Total,

all

belligerents

NON-BELLIGERENT NATIONS Norwegian

Belgian Lithuanian Estonian

3 2 '

Unidentified Total,

all

Grand

total

Sunk mine

2

,

non-belligerents

before start of Finnish-Russian

m North sea).

8g 256

?

274,050 t94 I, 0 SS

war (except one Finnish ship exploded by

tShips of less than 100 tons computed at 50 tons.

planes.

Figures available on the European war are quite at variance with each other. Those appearing in the article and in the tables are based on the weight of published data and are official only where so indicated.

Off coast of England Off northeast

located for operating the ship

when submerged. Air and water

valves are here arranged in manifolds which admit of the transfer of water ballast from one part of the ship to the other or for admitting or expelling water from trimming tanks as required to adjust the buoyancy and trim.

Here are

also located the control

of speed, and the periscope with which observations are made while submerged.

Above

the control

room

the navigating bridge

is the conning tower and on top of that from which the ship is conned when on the

The

usually a steering control station

is

fourth compartment aft

is

the after battery

room

to the forward except that the ship’s galley or kitchen

similar

and the

crew’s living accommodations are located here.

The next compartment aft contains the Diesel engines which propel the ship on the surface and furnish the power for charging the batteries. The engines cannot be run while the boat is sealed for a dive because of the great

Italian

Japanese Yugoslavian

*^unk by

& southeast

In the conning tower there and a periscope.

BELLIGERENT NATIONS 1

German

* Sunk by mine. ** Scuttled by own crew.

Weymouth,

surface.

European war, 1939, by registry

Registry'

Off eastern coast of England

surfacing the boat, the telegraphs for indicating desired changes 127 72

craft

in

is

North sea

mechanisms for steering the ship, manipulating the diving planes, opening and closing the flood and vent valves used in diving or

neutral merchonf ships sunk in 1939,

Merchant ships sunk

Nov. 20 Unidentified Ship Nov. 23 Unidentified Ship

England

submerged are located under the deck, or floor, of this space. The oflflcers’ quarters and radio room are normally in this section. The ne.xt compartment aft is the control room where apparatus

classified

Off

5,965

Opstal

room, so called because half of the large battery cells which supply electrical energy to run the motors which propel the ship when

Belligerent

Off northeast coast of England

BELGIAN

(?)

Thames

UNIDENTIFIED

volume of air which they require. the motor room in which are located the large motors for submerged propulsion and miscellaneous auxiliary machinery such as pumps and air compressors. In case the submarine is one which has an after torpedo room this equipment is located in the other compartments, the main motors

The aftermost compartment

is

being in the after part of the engine room. On top of the submarine proper is a non-watertight superstructure which provides a level deck space and at the same time protects

the large hull and battery ventilation piping which runs

outside of and just above the pressure hull.

:

SUBSCRIPTION BOOKS BULLETIN — SUICIDE The

periscopes can be run

up and do^vn

like

1939

upper end must be above the water to see anything. Submarine speeds on the surface vary for different boats between 12 and 21 knots. Submerged speeds are between 7 and 10 knots. Cruising radii for small boats are as low as i,ooomi. and for large ones as high as 16,000 miles.

All submarines

Germany,

on

their diving planes or fins

\'ia

must run

increases about

per foot depth, hence there

is

-4

of a

a definite

given submarine cannot go without crushing varies for different types

from about

its hull.

250ft. to

they do not exceed this depth submarines can until their contained air

becomes too high

350 lie

This depth

feet.

Provided

on the bottom

in carbon dioxide con-

This depends on the size of the men, amount of carbon dioxide reducing chemical carried and the number of oxygen flasks available. It is usually at least two days. The submarine carries one or more guns on deck but its primary tent or too deficient in oxygen.

boat,

number

weapon

is

&

,

2,900,000

Slovakia

Poland

Sweden

by the reaction of

pound per square inch limit below which any

.

599,480 515,000 470,000 337 »ooo 300,000 259,000 250,000

Italy

water on their surfaces.

Water pressure

.

U.S.S.R 2,600,000 France .... 1,138,920 United Kingdom 605,000 Bohemia, Mora-

while submerged to maintain depth control by the utilization of forces impressed

643

an elevator but the

.... ....

Belgium Netherlands

.

.

Denmark

.

.

.

1938

1939

1938

Rumania

2,350,000 2,400,000 921,277 370^348

.

.

.

Yugoslavia

.

.

.

Hungary

.

.

.

Spain

.... .... Latvia .... Bulgaria .... Lithuania Finland .... Turkey Ireland

579.228 438,409 602,000 322,290 211,838 226,040 201,304

Japan

.

Swit2:erland

.

,

,

.

190,000 141,000 140,000 122,000* 100,000 69,700 56,732 40,000 39 ,«>oo 30,000 17,000 16,300

184,000 95,000 140,337 100,000 56,000 66,679 54,789 41,000 23,790 22,903 16,826 15,000

^Licht's estimate

In Canada production of sugar beets in 1939 was estimated at 628.000 tons and 527,000 tons in 1938. In the United States the 1939 crop of sugar beets was 10,691,000 short tons compared to 11.615.000 short tons in 1938.

Production of beet sugar in the

United States in 1939 and 1938 by States was as follows, in short tons;

of

the torpedo. This

is

a cylindrical self propelling pro-

about 2iin. in diameter and about 20ft. long with a rounded nose and a conical shaped tail. The explosive charge of from 400 to soolb. is contained in the forward section. Propulsion is either by steam turbines or reciprocating engines which drive

California

Colorado Michigan

Montana

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

Idaho

1939

1938

436,000 262.000 160.000 138,000 129,000

337,000 voo.ooo 171,000 142,000 143,000

Nebraska Utah

Wyoming

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Ohio Other States

1939

1938

102,000 100,000 84,000 40,000 156,000

135,000 111.000 106.000 43,000 188,000

jectile usually

Cane sugar production in the United States in 1939 and 1938 and the ten-year (1928-37) average was as follows, by States:

two propellers on concentric shafts. Air at high pressure is converted into steam before reaching the driving engines. The torpedo steers itself and controls its depth by means of two pairs of rudders, one vertical and the other horizontal, mounted on vanes at the after end. The mechanism is started by a lever which is forced aft as the torpedo moves out of the tube. Torpedoes cost about $3,000 each. They may be fired from under the water or on the surface and explode upon striking their target. It was not until Sept. 5, 1914 that a submarine, German U-21, sank a warship with a self-propelled torpedo. Not until early 1917 was the submarine used in unrestricted warfare on merchant shipping. Nearly 400 warships and several thousand merchant ships have since been sent to the bottom by submarines with the

loss of thousands of lives. There are now in the world over 700 of the undersea warcraft and more are being built now than at any previous time. Ton for ton the submarine has become the most dreaded destroyer which plies the seas. (See also Blockade; International Law; Naves of the World; Tactics in the

European War.) Bibliography.— Gibson and Prendergast, The German Submarine War; The Submarine War, E. Keble Chatterton. Danger Zone; David Masters, Admiral of the Fleet Earl

Jellicoe,

The Submarine

Subscription Books Bulletin; CIATION.

Sudan:

see

see

Peril.

491,000 92,000

250,000 32,000

1928-37

Molasses produced, including blackstrap, from sugar cane was

gals. in

1938.

Sugar cane harvested for sugar in Louisiana

in

1939 was estimated at 5,805,000 short tons, compared to 6,741,000 short tons in 1938 and a ten-year (1928-37) average of 3,609,000 short tons. In Florida, 736,000 short tons in 1939 and 882,in 1938, with a ten-year average of 382,000 short tons. The ten-year average of sugar (beet) production in the United States

000 is

8,486,000 short tons.

Production of beet pulp in the United

States in 1939, in 1938 and the ten-year (1928-37) average was estimated by the Department of Agriculture as follows, in short tons;

Moist pulp Molasses pulp Dried pulp

1939

1938

Average 1928-37

1,919,000 158,000 98,000

1,858,000

1,428,000 126,000 82,000

219.000 105.000

(S. O. R.)

1935-37, there was

OlallollwOa an annual average

of 14-5 deaths from

suicide per 100,000 of total population in the United States; for

England and Wales, the corresponding death rate was

see Czecho-Slovakia.

was general substantial increase in sugar production beet crops sugar the harvesting in dllgSr. in 1939 despite delay shortage occasioned by in belligerent countries because of labour production declined the war. In the United States beet sugar of Agriculture as Department the slightly and was estimated by at 511,00° short short tons, for 1939, and cane sugar of beet sugar tons short tons. Production in 1938 was 1,685,000 and 583,000 short tons of cane sugar. The 1939

12-6.

The

highest death rates from suicide in recent years were found in

A

^938 pro-

countries was duction of beet sugar in other leading producing as follows; Agriculture of estimated by the International Institute in short tons

433,000 78,000

American Library Asso-

1,607,000

all

Average

IB. L. A.l

pire.

n

1938

estimated at 33,89i,ooogals. in Louisiana in 1939 and 38,891,000gals. in 1938. In Florida, 4,784,ooogals. in 1939 and 5,497,000-

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; French Colonial Em-

Sudetenland:

1939

Austria, 38-7; Czecho-Slovakia, 27-8; 31-5; and Switzerland, 26-0. Eire, 3-1;

Germany

28-3;

Hungary,

Suicide death rates were lowest in

Northern Ireland, 4-4; and

in

Spain before the

civil

war, 4-3. in the United States are much more prone to suithan are Negroes, the death rates per 100,000 in 1937 being i6-i and 4-8 respectively. Among white persons, males, with

White persons

cide

a death rate of 24-5 per 100,000, are much more liable to suicide than females, who had a death rate of 7-5 per 100.000. There is,

on the whole, a marked increase ing age.

in suicide incidence with

advanc-

SULPHANILAMIDE— SUPERPHOSPHATES

644

been generally observed that suicide, particularly among tends to become more frequent when economic conditions

It has rnales,

conditions improve.

are low, and to decrease in frequency as

There

also a seasonal incidence in suicide, with the greatest

is

and early summer, and the fewest in more prevalent in urban than in rural communities. In regard to social economic status there is some evidence to indicate that suicide is most frequent in both the

number occurring winter.

Suicide

is

in spring

usually

Average Annual Death Rales from Suicide per 700,000

fatal population

certain countries for specified periods of years

Death

Death Country

Austria Australia

Country

Period

...

Canada Czecho-SIovai;ia

Denmark Eire

England and Wales Estonia Finland France

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Hungary

1934-36 1935-37 1934-36 1934-36 1935-37 1935-37 1935-37 1935-37 1935-37 1934-36 1935-37 1933-35 1934-36

38-7 11.3 16.9

Q .2 8.5 27.8 19.2 3-1 12.6

23.8 17.8 ao.s 28.3 31.5

19.34-36

Bibliogbaphy.

—Louis

I.

( 1933 ).

Rates per 100,000

per 100,000

Bulgaria

Germany

Rates

Period

Belgium

Ireland, Northern Italy

Japan

....

Lithuania Netherlands New Zealand

Norway Rumania

.

.

.

....

Portugal

Scotland Spain

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

Sweden Switaerland

United States

1935-37 1935-37 1934-36 1934-36 1935-37 1935-37 1934-36 1934-36 1935-37 1935-37 1933-35 1933-35 1935-37 1955-37

4.4 7.7

21.3 8.4 S.o 10.4 6.6 12.0 10.3

95 4-3 16.0

26.0 14-S

Dublin and Bessie Bunzel, To Be or Not to Be (A. J. Lo.)

Sulphanilamide: see Anaesthesia; Arthritis; Chemistry; Chemotherapy; Dermatology; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of; Epidemics and Public Health Control; Eye, Diseases of; Industrial Research; Medicine; Pneumonia; Surgery; Urology.

United States is the outstanding sulphur proQllinhiir dUl|JIIUIi ducer of the world, with about three-quarters of the entire output; Italy is a poor second, with one-sixth, and Japan third with one-fifteenth; alt other producers are so small as to be negligible so far as the world industry is concerned, although

may

serve to satisfy local needs.

World production reached almost 3,000,000 metric tons in 1929, dropped to 1,625,000 tons in 1932, and recovered to the former level in 1937.

(W. H. Ch.) see

Astronomy,

World’s Sunday School Association is ^liniisV Qphnnic uUIIUujf uullUUIOi a federation of 51 national and international bodies interested in Christian religious education through

Sunday school and allied agencies. At Oslo, in 1936, a survey reported 3^9iSfo Sunday schools in 129 countries, with 3,145,895 teachers and 34,139,624 scholars. There are no Sunday schools the

in Russia

and Turkey.

The conference held

at Madras in Dec. 1938 under the auspices of the International Missionary Council, to consider the world

mission of the church, urged “the continual enrichment of the Sunday school in the teaching program of the church.” Significant

developments during 1939 were the youth leaders’ convention of the National Council of Religious Education of Australia, a na-

youth congress fostered by the National Council of EvanChurches of Mexico, the organization of a Council for Christian Education in Iran, the growth of the “Zoe” Sunday tional

gelical

schools in Greece, the inauguration of evangelical radio broadcasting in Brazil, a religious education institute in Burma, the

meeting of the Bible Lands Union for Christian Education at Choueir on Mount Lebanon, and the appointment of an educational secretary for the

Sulphapyridine: see Anaesthesia; Chemistry, Applied; Chemotherapy; Heart and Heart Diseases; Medicine; Pneumonia; Surgery; Urology.

the production

abroad.

Sun;

highest and lowest classes.

in

and depends to some extent on imports from Rubber and coffee are the main products of the Eufopean plantations. Government coal mines in Sumatra yielded an output of about 830,000 tons in 1928. The output of crude oil in the same year was about 880,000 tons. Limited amounts of gold and silver are also mined. Sumatra at the end of 1937 had i,233mi. of rail and tramway lines and is,6oomi. of highways. sufficient in rice

Italian production has

remained

ivith little

change

A new ruling

Congo Protestant Council.

of the Ministry of Education in China permits re-

and worship in private schools, students being and participate as they choose. The National Committee for Christian Religious Education in China has organized a strong West China section and is vigorously furthering its program, with especial emphasis upon training for lay service. War conditions have hampered the work of the Sunday schools in Europe, especially where children have been evacuated from cities; and it has practically ceased in Austria, Czecho-Slovakia and Poland. The world Sunday school convention planned to be held in Durban, South Africa in 1940 has been indefinitely postponed. A Pan-American Sunday school convention will be held in Mexico in 1941. (L.A. We.) ligious instruction

free to attend

during recent years, while that of Japan has been increasing.

United States production rose to a new high record of 2,742,000 long tons in 1937, decreasing to 2,393,400 tons in 1938; shipments declined even more heavily, and stocks of 4,200,000 tons have ac-

Sunshine:

cumulated at the mines. Exports in 1938 were 588,664 tons, chiefly to Canada, United Kingdom, Australia and Germany.

Super, Charles William

(G.A. Ro.)

tember

12.

see

Meteorology.

After completing his education in America and Gerprofessor of languages at Cincinnati Wesleyan

many he became

college, then professor of

north-west of Java and which, along its north-western coast, is closely adjacent to the Malay lies

Qlimotro

OUllldll d| peninsula,

is

after Java the

largest of the

tion

Sunda

(1930) 8,238,570.

lying between 5° 4'

most important and after Borneo the

islands.

It is

Its area is 163,145 sq.mi.; popula-

almost bisected by the Equator,

North and 5°

59' South.

He was

Greek at Ohio

university, Athens, Ohio.

acting president of Ohio university

president from 1884 to 1901.

Among

from 1883 to 1884 and works are Between

his

Heathenism and Christianity (1899), A Liberal Education (1907), and Pan-Priissianism (1918). He died at Athens, Ohio on October

9.

It contains a long

mountain range called the Bukit Barisan (“array of mountains”), of which Mount Indrapura has an elevation of 13,700ft. and Mount Ophir of 10,483 feet. Sumatra is less advanced and less economically developed than Java, but enjoys the same rights of representation in the Volksraad. The island possesses both agricultural and mineral resources. Native agricultural production is mainly devoted to rice cultivation, although Sumatra is not self-

^linDrnhnCnhQtaC uUpCi pUUupliQlCoa

of the world

is

phosphate rock output used in the production

of superphosphates for fertilizer manufacture, of which there are three standard grades, containing

able phosphoric acid.

16%, 32% and 45% of availWorld production of superphosphates is of

the order of 16,000,000 metric tons, as compared with 12,000,000

tons of phosphate rock.

The

chief producing countries

and

their

percentages of the total are as follows: United States

25%; Japan

'A

9%; France 9%; Australia 8%; U.S.S.R. (Russia) S%; Germany 7%; and Netherlands 3%; totalling 82%. InterItaly

13%;

mediate producers, ranging from 500,000 tons down to 100,000 tons, include New Zealand, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Sweden, Poland, South Africa, and Latvia, totalling 16%. The remaining

among 14 minor countries. United States produc1938 was 3,575,000 short tons, a drop of 19% from 1937, increasing to an estimated 3,800,000 tons in 1939. In 1938 about

3%

scattered

is

tion in

55%

of the phosphate rock output

superphosphates and

34%

was used

in the production of

exported; assuming that a similar pro-

portion of the exports also went into superphosphates, the total so

used would be about three-quarters of phosphate rock output. (G. A. Ro.)

Supreme Court The term has

THE SUPREME COURT

of tlie United States.

differed in vital aspects

from prior terms.

The

IN 1939, In the front rov/, left to right, are Associate Justices Stone and McReynoIds, Chief Justice Hughes, Associate Justices Butler (deceased, November 16) and Roberts; rear row. Associate Justices Frankfurter, Black, Reed, and Douglas

reconstruction of the membership of the court and the disposition of the reconstructed court to re-examine doctrines formerly re-

garded as entrenched have introduced no small measure of uncertainty into the law.

Two more justices were appointed by the President in 1939, Felix Frankfurter, long a professor of law at Harvard, to succeed and widely lamented Benjamin Nathan Cardozo, and WilDouglas, Chairman of the SEC, and formerly professor of law at Yale to succeed the eminent Louis D. Brandeis, resigned. The loss to the bench of Cardozo and Brandeis is inestimable. the late

liam

0

.

Their influence will endure wherever the genius of law is invoked. of Frank Murphy (Attorney-General) on

With the appointment

Jan. 4, 1940 to succeed the late Pierce Butler, President Roosevelt has selected a majority of the Supreme Court. Administrative Law —

significant aspect of developments in Administrative Law has been the enlargement of the scope of the judicial^ review, to include ‘^negative” as well as “affirmative” orders of commissions {Rochester Telephone Corp, v. U.S., 307 U.S. 125). It has affirmed a Circuit Court of Appeals ruling that it would review the Federal Power Commission’s denial of an application for approval of the transfer of properties of one electric power company to another {Federal Power Com. v. Pacific .

Power and Light

^The most

Co., 307 U.S. is^)*

—

Civil Rights ^The Supreme Court gave evidence of carefully scrutinizing the activities of local and Federal governmental agencies in tl^ir relationships with the people and of protecting the latter from encroachments upon court their civil rights by the former. In four important opinions the championed the cause of the people against oppression by instrumentalities court 01 the of the State. In the first of these, the judgment of the highest admission State of Missouri was reversed, and it was decided that denial of L Diversity 01 the of school law the to a Negro who desired to attend Missouri constituted a violation of the 14th Amendment {Gaines, State of Missouri ex rel. v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337)- lu another case it was held to be beyond the power of the Department of Labor for that agency to attempt ceased to to deport an alien whose membership in the Communist Party had be effective before he was apprehended {Kessler v. Strecker, so^ U.o. 22;. The third case saw an act of the Oklahoma Legislature invalidated because their right to vote (Lojie y. it tended to restrict Negroes in the exercise of officials Wilson, 307 U.S. 268). Finally, it was held that the mayor and other to freedom 01 of Jersey City, N.J., had violated the rights of citizens speech and of assembly by enacting and enforcing certain ordinances allegedly In two intended to preserve the peace {Hague v. C.I.O., 307 the other decisions it denounced wire-tapping evidence. In one it resolved eyidence 01 conflict of views growing out of the court’s ruling in 1937 that in view interstate communications obtained by tapping wires is inadmissible applied to **Jtraof the Communications Act of 1934- The same rule is now ol all interception the prohibit state messages. The statute is construed to U.S. 6 i 4 )« In the other case the U.S., .

communications {Nardone

v.

307

extends court holds that the rule is not applicable solely to messages but conversations also to information obtained through the use of intercepted (TFeirr v. U.S., 307 U.S. 621).

constitutional law Constitutional Law.—The court discussed points of marketing pertaining to regulation of intoxicating liquors, labour relations, of engaging in of agricultural commodities, motor carriers, the privilege property business, public utilities, taxation of incomes, transfer of deceden^ and the use of personal property. The court decided 20 cases on due process laws, 4 on full of law, 18 on commerce clause, 8 on equal protection of the of rederal faith and credit clause, 7 on dual sovereignty, 4 on jurisdiction power, 3 on courts, 3 on contract clause, 3 on delegation of legislative one eacm on and Amendment, amendment of the Constitution, 2 on 21st lacto laws, privileges and immunities, compensation of judiciary, ex post 2nd amendment, 4th amendment, 6th amendment, and 15th amendment.

In a case involving the power of States to erect interstate trade barriers to protect or benefit home industries, the court held unconstitutional a Florida statute providing for inspection of imported cement and the payment of an inspection fee of 15^ a hundred pounds {Hale v. Btmco Trading, Inc., 306 U.S. 37 s)- The purpose of the statute, admittedly to encourage the use of the domestic product, was held an unconstitutional burden on interstate commerce. On the other hand, the court sanctioned the applicability of a “use” tax to the use and storage in a State of equipment purchased in other States by interstate railroad and telephone companies {Pacific Tel. and Tel. Co. v. Gallagher,' $06 U.S. 182). In other cases involving interstate trade barriers, the court sustained anti-discrimination acts of Missouri {Joseph S. Finch Co. v. McKittrick, 305 U.S. 395) and Michigan {Indianapolis Brewing Co. Inc. v. Liquor Control Commission of the State of Michigan, 305 U.S. 391) prohibiting the importation into and the sale in such States of liquor manufactured in other States discriminating against liquor manufactured in Missouri and Michigan. The statutes, frequently described as “retaliation” statutes, were held valid under the 21st Amendment over the objection that such amendment could not be construed to sanction State regulation of the liquor traffic which is designed as “an economic weapon of

&

retaliation.”

Labour

—

In labour the court rendered some of its most significant deIn one which attracted wide public attention, the court set forth its pronouncement regarding a sit-down strike. It held that an employer had the right to discharge employees who had taken possession of its buildings in the course of a sit-down strike, even though the strike might have been directly caused by an unfair labour practice. The opinion lays down .

cisions. first

the further rule that strikers who aid sit-down strikers are likewise guilty of unlawful conduct and are in no better position than the sit-down strikers themselves, insofar as the employer’s right to discharge them is concerned {NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., 305 U.S. 590). Breach of a contract by the employees justified the employer’s refusal to bargain collectively {NLRB V. Sands Mjg. Co., 305 U.S. 586); and where the union gave no indication of desire to negotiate, the employer cannot be charged with refusal to bargain collectively {NLRB v. Columbia Enameling and Stamping Co., Inc., 305 U.S. 583). The jurisdiction of the board was e.xtended to the unfair labour practices of an intrastate utility company {Consolidated Edison Co. v. NLRB, 305 U.S. 197); and a garment manufacturer operating on a small scale {NLRB v. Fainblatt, 307 U.S. 609).

—

Taxation . In an epoch-making decision the Supreme Court overruled the ancient doctrine of inter-governmental tax immunity, and held that a State may tax the salary of an employee of the Horae Owners’ Loan Corporation. Doubt no longer remains but that the Federal Government can tax the salaries of State employees {Graves v. O’Keefe, New York ex rel., 306 U.S. 466; State Tax Commissioners of Utah v. Van Colt, 306 U.S. 511). California’s use tax on a utility was upheld as merely an incident of intrastate business and not a tax for the privilege of doing interstate business, which tax would be illegal {Southern Pacific Co. v. Gallagher, 306 U.S. 167; Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Co. v. Gallagher, 306 U.S. 182). Tax for the use of a State highway {Dixie Ohio Express Co. v. State Revenue Commission, 306 U.S. 72) or caravanning {Clark v. Paid Gray, Inc., 306 U.S. 583), i.e. driving or towing cars into State for purposes of sale, was also upheld.

—

^Measures in regulation of trade have been encouraged Trade Regulation by further judicial sanction of the widening scope of the commerce clause. .

In a series of agricultural marketing cases the court gave effect to the “stream” or “current” of commerce theory. It upheld the Tobacco Inspection Act regulating auction sales in tobacco warehouses located in the State of the production of the tobacco, over the contention that the sales constituted intrastate transactions immune from Federal regulation, on the theory that, because much of the tobacco was purchased for interstate transportation, the sales of the tobacco constituted a part of the interstate commerce therein {Currin v. Wallace, 306 U.S. i). The same theory was invoked to sustain, as an exercise of the commerce power, the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of i 937 and milk marketing orders issued by the Secretarj' of Agriculture under the statute. In two decisions {US. v.

Rock Royal Cooperative, 307 U.S. 533: Hood and Sons v. U.S., 307 U.S. 588) the court upheld- price fixing in the Nev/ York metropolitan area and

645

SURGERY handlers the Boston area on the ground that sales of milk by producers to where operating in the same State are transactions in interstate commerce the milk is purchased for delivery in another State, and that, as sold, the consumed in the same State as that in which it was produced and the intrastate transaction is subject to Federal regulation to make effective Auregulation of the interstate commerce. (See also Tennessee VAi-t'EY

(B, WE.;

thority; United States: Supreme Court.)

Methods are being developed for the assay of the hormonal content of blood and urine. These methods should aid in the diagnosis of certain gynaecologic and testicular conditions, such as ch,orioepithelioma, arrhenoblastoma and teratoma. Hormones.

mones, either natural or synthetic, are now available for the treatof such conditions as senile vaginitis and. kraurosis vulvi and

ment Most valuable among developments in surgery durIng ig^g has been the use of sulphanilamide and

n uUr^Cry.

sulphapyridine for the control of postoperative infections.

More

more potent

recently, as a result of the researches of Barlow, a

for replacement therapy in cases in which these hormones are lack-

ing either because of disease or following the surgical removal of diseased, but functioning, glandular tissue.

The outstanding advance

in the field of plastic surgery during

substance, sulphamethylthiazol, has been developed. This can be

1939 was the presentation by Padgett and

taken by the patient without nausea in spite of the increased potency of the drug over sulphapyridine. The destruction of

device for cutting large skin grafts.

staphylococci is

by

this drug,

even when they are in the blood stream,

of their ingenious

this apparatus

a liquid used to cause the skin, from which the graft is to be taken, to adhere to a cylindrical drum. As the drum is rotated an

adhesive

is

adjustable knife, working parallel to the surface of the drum, cuts

amazing.

The use

Hood

With

K

of vitamins, particularly vitamins B,

and

C

as re-

a graft of any thickness desired.

The

securing of grafts of uniform

placement or substitution therapy, both in the preoperative and postoperative management of patients whose vitamin deficiency has been the result of certain gastro-intestinal diseases, has reached

thickness

a pinnacle.

patient) has clearly demonstrated the advantage of such grafts

The tendency of the jaundiced patient to bleed has been definitely shown to depend on a deficiency of prothrombin in the cir-

self)

due to a failure in the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamin K from the intestinal tract. Deficiency in the absorption of this substance will depend partly on eJtclusion of bile from the intestine and partly on injury to the livef, which interferes with the normal formation of the prothrombin. By administering concentrates of vitamin and bile salts to jaundiced individuals it is possible to restore the concentration of prothromculating blood, which, in turn, is

K

bin to normal and to prevent or correct the haemorrhagic diathesis.

K

The existence of vitamin was first noted in 1935. It is a matter of some interest that the structural formula for two naturally occurring forms of this vitamin

is

already

known and

that

these substances have been prepared synthetically; K-i (derived

from

alfalfa) is 2-methyl-3-phythyl-i, 4-naphthoquinone,

(derived from fish meal)

is

and K-2

2,3-difamesyl-i,4-naphthoc}uinone.

thus rendered largely mechanical.

is

Further experience with preserved isocartilage (that is, cartilage at necropsy or from a living individual other than the

removed

over those of autoplastic type (grafts taken from the patient himalso has

it

;

demonstrated their limitations. Isocartilage ap-

more resistant to infection than does cartiremoved from the patient’s own rib (homocartilage) but an appreciable amount of absorption of isografts occurs, parpears to be definitely

lage freshly

ticularly in the presence of infection.

be used

until

it

Isocartilage should never

has remained in the germicidal preserving solution

for a sufficient period of time to insure sterilization, usually about

two weeks. Moreover, cultures of the routinely prior to use.

measures

may

cartilage should be

result in severe infection

and necessitate removal

of the graft. Investigative work of the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgery concerning the treatment of fractures of the neck of the femur by operation and fixation with metal nails or screws has been carefully done and has conclusively proved the advantages of

structure and a number of simple naphthoquinone derivatives have been shown to have antihaemorrhagic

this

activity

comparable to pure synthetic vitamin K. Among these may be mentioned phthiocol (2-methyl-3-hydroxy-i,4-naphthoquinone) and 2-methyl-i,4-naphthoquinone. The former compound

be used for

some biologic interest since it was first isolated from the pigof Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Since vitamin K is probably formed in considerable quantities in the mammalian intestine by

metals. It is also being used in arthroplasty of the hip, that

The vitamin has a quinoid

is

of

ment

bacterial activity, the isolation of the antihaemorrhagic quinone

from a

bacillus

The substance

becomes of considerable physiologic 2-methyl-i, 4-naphthoquinone

in respect to its antihaemorrhagic properties

significance.

extremely potent

is

and

will doubtless

serve as a unit for the measurement of the activity of vitamin K.

Lund and

others have called attention to the value of preoperaand postoperative administration of vitamin C to all patients whose gastric function has been disturbed as the result of abnormal lesions, such as ulcer or carcinoma, especially those whose preoperative diets have been deficient in vitamins. Of further interest in replacement therapy has been the ability tive

method over the conservative treatment with

A new

casts alone.

metal, called Vitallium has been introduced.

This

make

other metal that can be used.

An operation has been described for growths situated low in the sigmoid, in the rectosigmoid, or high in the rectum; the principal feature of this operation is radical removal of the growth and the adjacent lymph nodes, with preservation of the anus. Subsequent procedures are designed to re-establish the rectal continuity.

The

conservative surgical treatment of large staghorn stones in

the kidney tive risk.

is

now accomplished satisfactorily and with low operamany of these stones have been allowed to

Previously

remain

recent report stated that the transplantation of ovarian tissue

from one woman to another has been used in 45 cases and that excessive ovarian tissue was removed from patients with hypermenorfhoea and transplanted into patients with hypomenorrhoea. This procedure

is definitely still in

the experimental stage.

piogifess is Yiting -made in

cm

in place until obstruction,

haemorrhage and renal

insuffidifficult

Total removal of the bladder preceded by bilateral transplanta-

degrees of suprarenal insufficiency are present.

A

to

femur which is placed in the remade or new acetabulum. This metal seems to cause no reaction on the part of the tissues and is tolerated better than any

ciency developed, and cure of the patient was then very or impossible.

cases of Addison’s disease, in which various

is,

a cup to cover the end of the

similar in action to the adrenal cortex. This has been effective in life in

may

and screws in fracture work. It is composed of chromium, cobalt and molybdenum and contains no iron. This metal has been used for many years in dentistry, and has been found to have the least electrolytic reaction of any of the plates, pins,

successfully to transplant beneath the skin crystalline substances

prolonging

made

Failure to observe these precautionary

ioicwi'edge ni Vici-

tion of the ureters, preferably into the

the skin, can

now be accomplished

bowel but occasionally

and otherwise inoperable carcinoma of the bladder, operation

is

into

for certain cases of extensive in

which the

indicated, with a very reasonable operative risk.

The peritoneoscope has been generally accepted throughout the im iliE ^ast two years ani now every ’large mefflca’i centre 'na's

\J.S.

SURINAM — SWEDEN at least

one

man

using the instrument.

It has a definite field of

permits visual inspection of certain intra-abdominal structures through a small opening not more than i or i-s cm. in

usefulness;

it

(See also Medicine.)

diameter.

—

&

a colony of the Netherlands in

north-eastern South America; area, 54,291 sq.mi.; language, Dutch; capital, Paramaribo (pop. 52,760), governor. Dr.

The population on Jan. i, 1939, was 152,589, bean estimated 17,000 bush Negroes and 3,500 Indians in the jungle. The chief city is Paramaribo. In 1937, 29-2% of the popu-

J. C. Kielstra.

sides

lation

was

20-3% Netherlands Indian,

British Indian,

The colony has an appointed governor and an

ity.

There are 137km. of

railroad,

and

fairly

in national-

elected council.

good roads in the coastal

by steamship and bi-weekly air service. On Sept. 4, 1939, a regular air service to Curagao was inaugurated by the Royal Dutch Airlines. Imports, chiefly manufactured products and foodstuffs, totalled 6,866,542 florins in 1937 district.

External communication

(Netherlands,

210

States,

>

(United States, United States, represented nearly

florins

to the

is

22-4%); exports were 7 6 i 3 .64-2%; Netherlands, 22-5%). Bauxite,

38%; United

64%

of the export value.

in 1938 were 6,861,756 florins, exports 6,609,139 florins. In 1938 bauxite production was 377,213 tons, a nominal decline. Other important export products are; gold (440,23 igr. produced in

Imports

1938), sugar, coffee, molasses and in

1938 was 6,506,644

florins,

necessitating a Netherland

rice.

Government expenditure

with revenue only 3,721,863 florins, to cover the defi-

Government subsidy

the florin (value: approx. 53^ cents schools Surinam has U.S.). 132 (43 Government), with 21,851 enrolment in 1939, besides 33 Indian and bush Negro schools in the

cit.

The monetary

unit

Cnipilpn

OnuUCll,

Stockholm (570,771), Goteborg (275,753), Malmo (151,247), Norrkoping (69,737). Ruler; King Gustav V; language Swedish; religion: Lutheran Christian. :

Bibliography. H. R. Arnold, “Resection of carcinomatous rectosigmoid juncture, with reestablishment of intestinal continuity: preliminary report,” Arch. Siirg. (June 1939); M. S. Henderson, “Internal fixation for recent fractures of the neck of the femur,” Surg. Clin. N. Am. (Aug. 1939); M. S. Henderson, “Internal fixation of fractures of the neck of the femur,” Arch. Surg. (Sept. 1937): J. C. Ruddock, “Peritoneoscopy,” Surg., Gynec., Obst. (Nov. 1937); JI. N. Smith-Petersen, “Arthroplasty of the hip; a new method,” Jour. Bone and Joint Surg. (April 1939). (Wa. Wal.)

(Dutch Guiana),

647

173,347 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1937) 6,310,214. Chief towns (pop. est. Dec. 31, 1937):

is

(L-

jungle.

W.

Be.)

History.

—

^In

the budget presented to the Riksdag on Jan. ii,

1939, 238,500,000 kronor, out of a total of 1,363,500,000 kr., was allocated to defence; on March 28 an extraordinary estimate of

66.550.000 kr. was added; on September 9 a supplementary estimate of 360,000,000 kr. was introduced; on September 30 the Government asked for 1,000,000 kronor to provide paravanes for the protection of steamships against mines; and on October 21 supplementary credits amounting to about £22,300,000 were voted for national defence. In May the period of service for conscripts was raised from 200 to 340 days. At a meeting in Stockholm of the foreign ministers of Sweden, Nonvay, Denmark and Finland on May 9 it was declared that “The Northern countries, as hitherto, remain outside all groups of powers that may be formed in Europe, and in the event of war will do everything to avoid being involved.” In September, after the outbreak of war, a

embargoes, including scrap iron, was published; a Bill

was drafted forbidding individuals

list

of export

War Commerce

to incur obligations towards

foreign powers; and, as a result of these measures and of the dan-

ger to neutral ships from

war

action, it

was stated that Swedish The sinking by

shipping had been brought almost to a standstill.

the Germans, on September 28, of the “Nyland,” a neutral ship bound for a neutral port, was the subject of a strong protest to the German Government. On October 18-19 King Gustav met the Kings of Norway and Denmark and the President of Finland in

Stockholm, and in a broadcast to the nation reiterated the determination of the northern countries to maintain their neutrality. In

November

representations were

made

against her blockade of exports from

when

to the British

Government

Germany. Late

in the year,

the Russian attack on Finland developed, Sweden’s sympa-

thy for Finland combined with her anxiety concerning her

own

future led to the opening in Stockholm of a recruiting office for

volunteers for the Finnish

Army, and many thousands of Swedes was ordered on Decem-

offered their services. Partial mobilization

Swanson, Claude Augustus at Swansonville, Va.,

on March

31.

After graduating from high

school he taught for a year to secure funds for further study. He attended Virginia Polytechnic Institute, worked again for two

years as a grocer’s clerk, then finished his undergraduate course at Randolph-Macon college in 1885. The next year he received his degree in law at the University of Virginia, was admitted to the

and began practice at Chatham, Virginia. His first venture into national politics was successful ivhen, in 1893, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. From 1906 to 1910 he was governor of Virginia and from 1910 to 1933 U.S. senator from that bar,

He was appointed chairman of the Senate’s naval affairs committee in 1918 and had acquired an expert’s knowledge of the U.S. Navy when President Roosevelt appointed him to the cabinet United in 1933. When he took office as secretary of the Navy, the States had only warships building. When he died at Rapidan State.

17

the naval forces had been increased by 197 ships either built or under construction. In his six years as secretary he had directed the largest peace-time expansion of naval disforces in American history. Swanson believed sincerely in submathe called he conference Geneva armament at the

camp, Va., on July

—

7,

1932

and urged its proscription ^but once the world began rearming he resolved that the United States should have “the greatest navy afloat.” rine a “sea assassin”

Swaziland:

see

British South Atrica.

ber 5, and on December 27 General Thoemell, the chief of staff, was appointed commander-in-chief of the armed forces. On December 2 the communist journals Ny Dag and Arbetartidningen were suppressed. A British trade mission visited Stockholm in April, and on December 27 an Anglo-Swedish trade agreement was announced. (E. A. Ash.) Elementarj^, number of scholars 587,000; Education 1937 secondary, number of scholars 59,000. Defence Forces 1939 . ^The army consisted of 1,780 officers, 7,282 N.C.O’s and men, and an annual contingent of about 14,300

—

.

—

conscripts. Navy and coast artillery, 450 officers, 4,960 N.C.O’s and men, and an annual contingent of about 4,900 conscripts; air force, 255 officers, 175 N.C.O’s, 1,015 enlisted men, and an annual

contingent of 2,370 conscripts.

—^Revenue, ordinary

Banking and Finance.

(est.

1938-39)

i,-

294.670.000 kronor; expenditure, ordinary (est. 1938-39) 1,294,670.000 kronor; budget estimate, ordinary (1939-40) 1,363,100,000 kronor; public debt (June 30, 1939) 2,633,617,000 kronor; notes in circulation (June 30, 1939) 1,059,000,000 kronor; gold reserve (June 30, 1939) 763,800,000 kronor; exchange rate (Aug.

I7i-i8i kronor=£i sterling. Trade and Communication. Foreign

3I1 1939)

—

trade (merchandise);

imports (1938): 2,081,910,000 kronor; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 1,559,100.000 kronor; exports (1938) 1,843,539,000 kronor; (Jan.-

Aug. 1939) 1,193,100,000 kronor. Communications and transport: roads, main (Jan. 4, 1939) 52,996mi.; railways, open to traffic (Jan. 1, 1939) io,486mi.; airways, distance flown (1938) 1,316,-

SWEET POTATOES — SWITZERLAND

648

i, 57 S> 7 oo gross tons; launched (July 1938-June 1939) 175,200 gross tons; motor vehicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1938), cars 219,201;

074mi.; shipping (June 30, 1938)

motorcycles 43,551

;

wireless re-

ceiving set licences 1,226,858;

through South Africa; United States squads gained the

lion's

share of the laurels at carnivals in Argentina, Ecuador, and Cuba;

a group of Hawaiians gained their

first

team victory

in the out-

door championships of the United States, outscoring

all

teams.

de B. H.)

(L.

mainland

telephone subscribers 788,000.

Agriculture and Minerals. 1938 (in metric

—^Production

tons): oats 1,380,000; (1939) 820,000; 1,279,100;

wheat

(1939) 855,700; iron ore (metal content) 8,500,000; pig iron

and ferro-alloys 714,000;

steel

995,000; timber 35,000,000 cubic metres; wood pulp 3,077,500; rye 404,700; (1939) 387,700; barley 266,500; (1939)

SWEDEN:

Industrial production index

potatoes

233,400;

1,872,500;

coal 431,000; beet sugar 263,-

000; gold 7,280 kilograms. Industry and labour, industrial pro-

duction (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 146; (average July 1939) 156; employment index (1926-30=100) (average 1938) 117-4;

unemployed, trade union returns (average 1938) 74,255; (July

(W. H. Wn.)

31, 1939) 39,074-

Swing Music:

see

Dance; Music, Popular.

other

Italian

242,000,

Roman

Catholic 1,666,000.

History.

—^The

tion;

sweet

of

potatoes

in

the

QllfOOt Dritatnoc uWCul ruldlOuSi United States in 1939 was estimated at 76,i22,ooobu., or 1% under the 1938 crop of 76,647,00060. and 8% above the ten-year average (1928-37) of 70.690,000 bushels. Production by States in 1939 and 1938 was:

Georgia

....

Alabama North Carolina .

Mississippi

.

.

.

.

Louisiana South Carolina Tennessee .

.

.

Virginia

.

.

Texas Arkansas .

New

.

Jersey

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

0,840,000 8 . 774.000 8.667.000 7.740.000 7.592.000 6.900.000 4 1 33 5.000 4,i£4,ooo 3.360.000 2.800.000 2.025.000

1938

1939

bu.

bu.

bu.

1.886.000 1.380.000 1.240.000 1.200.000 1.100.000 1,020,000

2.280.000 1.521.000 1.400.000 1.040.000 1.470.000 1.020.000 500.000

9,225,000 8.560.000 8.748.000 7.743.000 6.930.000 6.468.000 5 459.000 3.570.000 4 350.000 3.225.000 1.470.000 .

.

Kentucky

.

California Florida

.

.

.

....

Maryland

.

Oklahorna Missouri

.

.

.

.

.

.

Delaware nUnois .... Indiana

Iowa Kansas

(See also Potatoes.)

.

.

,

.

.

.

....

700.000 564.000 345.000 300.000 240.000

(S.

1938

648.000 345.000 300.000 375.000

0

.

R.)

Foremost

feats in 1939 were the international record exploits of Richard H. Hough, of the

United States, and the Misses Ragnhild Hveger and Inge Sorensen,

Denmark.

of

Hough

bettered three breast stroke standards, at his best clip-

ping the time for looyd. from imin. 2-isec. to imin. 6/iosec. and 7.3 seconds. Miss Hveger, but one of 16 free style records listed for women, among others cut the figures for looyd. from 59-8sec. to

the holder of

all

and 500 metres from 6min. 3g-isec. to 6min. 34-3 seconds. Miss Sorensen lowered the breast stroke marks for 400 metres from 6min. ig-asec. to 6min. i6-2sec. and 500 metres from grain. 59-7sec.

i-9sec. to first

An occurrence of moment was the Hungarian national water polo team since

7min. 58 seconds.

defeat suffered

by

a

1928. The Magyars, winners at the last three Olympiads, succumbed to Germany in the tournament for the Horthy Trophy. The score was 2 goals to i. A significant feature was the great number of competitive tours undertaken by national teams. In Europe, up to the outbreak of war in September intercountry swimming meets and water polo matches were more frequent than ever, Germany displaying supremacy in the men’s field and Denmark in the women’s. The Japanese invaded Manila to triumph in the championships of

the

Philippines;

Australians

engaged in a conquering trip

50

(48);

:

—Government

Catholic

Coali-

Conservatives 44

(42); Farmers, Traders and Citizens 21 (21); Other Parties: Liberal Democrats 6 (6); Independent Party 9 (7); Young Farmers and Free Democrats 6 (7); Social Democratic Party 45 (50); Dissident Socialists 4 (o); Communists o (2); No Party 2 (4). On December 13 Marcel Pilet-Golaz, head of the posts and rail-

elected president of the -Swiss Federation

He

had been president in 1934. Various measures to strengthen the country’s defences were taken during 1939, such as raising the age of liability to military service from 48 to 60 (April 5), lengthening the period of militarj' training (February 2), and the establishment of compulsory service for all civilians (September 5). In March military precautions were taken all along the frontier; on August 29 full mobilization of the frontier forces was decreed, and on the next day Col. Henri Guisan was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, a post which does not exist in peace time. In April, replying to Germany’s inquiry concerning President Roosevelt’s message, the Government said they knew nothing in advance of that message and that they “place their confidence in the respect of Swiss neutrality, which the Confederation will defend with its army, and which Germany has e.xpressly recognized.” for 1940.

.

.

.

the outstanding events of the year were; the arrest on

the Griish Alp on February 14 of two German frontier guards who were pursuing two Austrians into Swiss territory; and the expulsion from the Social Democratic Party on September 16 of M. Leon Nicole, the extreme Leftist leader. (E. A. Ash.) Education. In 1938; elementary 464,714 scholars; secondary

—

86,190 scholars; university 11,472 students.

100 metres from imin. 9-5sec. to imin.

now

2,330,000;

results of the general election in October were

Radical Democrats

Among uWliniulllgi

Protestant

religion,

69,000;

(previous figures in brackets)

as follows

way department, was Production

5,944 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938)

^

CmiHQrlqnrl

uVillLClIdllU] 4,194,600. Chief towns (pop. Dec. 31, 1938): Berne (cap. 121,976), Zurich (329,780), Basle (162,559), Geneva (123,286), Lausanne (89,632). Government, Federal Council of seven members; president (Jan. 1, 1940), Dr. M. Pilet-Golaz; languages (census 1930), German 2,924,000; French 831,000;

—Revenue,

Banking and Finance (Confederation).

ordinary

(1938) 539,005,000 francs; (est. 1939) 511,800,000 francs; expenditure, ordinary (1938) 578,011,000 francs; (est. 1939) 600,700,-

000 francs; public debt (Jan.

i, 1939, exclg. rlys.) 2,753,315,000 francs; notes in circulation (July 15, 1939) 1,694,987,595 francs; gold reserve (July 15, 1939) 2,466,089,651 francs; exchange rate

(average 1938) 21-37 francs=£i sterling; (Aug. 31, 1939) 18-6519-45 francs=£i sterling.

—

Trade and Communication. ^Foreign trade (merchandise); imports (1938) 1,606,903,000 francs; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 1,167,810,000 francs; exports (1938) 1,316,572,000 francs; (Jan.-Aug. 1939) 998,740,000 francs. Communications and transport; roads motor traffic (1939) 2S,o3omi.; railways open to traf-

suitable for fic

(1939) 3,69omi.; airways (1938): passengers 75 937

carried 1,235 metric tons;

,

motor

less receiving set licences, 548,533

—

goo'^^ ;

vehicles licensed, 124,195; wire;

telephone subscribers, 450,380.

Agriculture and Labour. ^Production 1938 (in metric tons) milk 2,860,000; wheat 212,400, (1939) 173,100; potatoes 823,000;

SYMPHONY ORCHESTRAS— TACTICS tained her women's

title,

WAR

THE

IN

at Toledo.

New York

649 kept

grip on

its

and Princeton university won the Bradley Trophy among the college teams. Outbreak of war in Europe caused cancellation by the International Table Tennis Federation of the 14th world championships scheduled for the Stade de the national team

title

Coubertin in Paris in Feb. 1940, and a shifting of table tennis activity to the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand. There w’ere no changes in the playing rules, but in the U.SA. there was stricter enforcement of rules against “pushing” (purely defensive tactics).

(C. Z.)

"Tacoma":

see

Tactics in

Neutrality; Uruguay.

European War.

tiie

used successfully in the European war have proved that today, as in the past, Napoleon’s dictum, “fire is everything,” still holds.

In other words, other factors, such as leadership, organization, training,

discipline

and supply being the same, victoiy goes to fire while most suc-

the side which delivers the most damaging cessfully resisting the

enemy’s

fire.

The development

of high

speed in the sky, on the ground and at sea has not changed

What has happened summed up as follows:

this.

war to the end of 1939 may be

in the

1. tVhere armies fight in the open, those units win victor}’ which make the smallest targets while doing the most damage to the enemy by their

own

fire.

The more an army tortifies itselt so that it can successlully resist enemy That is, fire, the more the attacker must develop his own fire to succeed. he must have more cannon, of bigger calibre, firing shells with bigger bursting charges than would be true if he were attacking the same enemy in the 2.

SWISS INFANTRYMAN on mountalnside manoeuvre

in

open.

1939

beet sugar 93,100; rye 36,800, (1939) 32, 7°°; oats 25,400, (1939) 25,600; cheese 52,600; butter 30,500. Labour: index of employ-

ment (1929 = 100) (average 1938) 77-9; (June 30, 1939) 82-1; unemployed (average 1938): wholly 8-6%; (June 30, 1939): wholly 4-4%; number unemployed (average 1938) 65,583.

(W.H.WN.)

Symphony Orchestras: see Music. Synthetic Products: see Chemistry, Applied; Cotton; Germany; Industrial Research; Plastics Industry; Rayon; Rubber and Rubber Manufacture; Textile Industry. Syphilis: see

see

fleeting targets. The consequence of this speed is that their own target is within the range of their own weapons such a short time, they have only a fleeting opportunity effectively to fire on it. Also their own speed diminishes their accuracy and therefore their chance of hitting the target during the fleeting opportunity given them.

In SO far as the infantry, cavalry and

artillery are

there has been no drastic change in tactics.

greater deployment in depth than during the

The war

concerned

infantry has a of 1914-18;

makes a greater use of mortars and howitzers because of

Venereal Diseases.

Syria and Lebanon:

3. Ships at sea to survive and win must have the fire power to destroy or drive off enemy surface ships, airships, and submarines. They must have the construction and armour necessary to withstand enemy shells, bombs, and torpedoes. 4. Aeroplanes being unable to carry sufficient armour to survive hits from enemy’s fire attempt to escape it by having enough speed to insure their only being within range for a very short time. In other words, they are

French Colonial Empire; Man-

high angle

fire.

It

still

survives enemy’s

down

fire,

it

their

because the individ-

a small target and scattered by

dates.

ual infantry soldier lying

power politics laid a disrupting Tohlo TonniP European IdDIc IciiniS. hand on international table tennis in 1939. Three leading nations in the sport Austria, Czecho-Slovakia and Poland-T-have disappeared from the map, while in Hungary, the home of'champions, that nation’s famous team was broken up and its members scattered to foreign lands. In the 13th world cham-

has not yet learned to carry the same rifle as the infantry and to use automatic pistols, has but limited use and promptly sufi'ers

is

the thousands over a wide area

—

pionship tournament, held in

March

in Cairo, Egypt,

under pa-

tronage of King Farouk and Queen Farida, Richard Bergmann (Austrian exile in England) won back the men’s singles title from Bohumil Vana (Czecho-Slovakia), and Vlasha Depetrisova •

dethroned Trude Pritzi (Germany) in the women’s singles at about the time Miss Pritzi’s homeland was moving to dismember Miss Depetrisova’s country. Victor Bama (Hungary), and Bergmann won the men’s doubles, undefended by Jimmy McClure and Sol Schiff (U.S.A.), the holders. Hilde Bussmann and Miss Pritzi (Germany) won the women s doubles; Vana and Vera Volubcova (Czecho-Slovakia) won the mixed doubles. The Swaythling Cup for men’s teams went to Hungary, the CorU.S.A., Mcbillon Cup for women’s teams to Germany. In the Clure won the national men’s championship and Emily Fuller re(Czecho-Slovakia)

defeat at the hands of properly

nized forces.

The

artillery is

is difficult

to hit.

Cavalry which

armed horsed cavalry and mechaeven more important than in the

World War (1914-18), because infantry and cavalry are more dependent upon it than was true during that war. Its tactics are based on the principle of quickly furnishing crushing fire against any enemy target which holds up its own infantry or cavalry or which can stop its own tanks and aviation from giving proper support to the infantry and cavalry. The greatest change in tactics results from the great increase in numbers and use of motorcycles, armoured cars, tanks of all kinds and axdation. In general, where an attempt is made to use any or aU of these without adequate support of infantry, horsed cavalry and above all artillery, failure results.

to

enemy

fire.

First,

This because aU are very vulnerable

because they are large targets by compari-

son with infantry or cavalrj' soldiers. Second, because they must come out in the open and cannot be hidden in the folds of the ground, as is true of batteries of artillery. Third, because they are unarmoured or lightly armoured. Even the most heavily

TAHITI— TARIFFS

650

armoured tanks cannot resist artillery fire. Prior to the war of 1914-18, the general conviction was that permanent fortifications on land, except perhaps as a pivot for troops in the open, were things of the past. However, the resisting power of field fortifications and of some of the old French permanent forts during the war of 1914-18 led the French to build the Maginot line, a deep zone of steel and concrete. Opposite it the Germans have built the Siegfried line, a deep zone of steel and concrete. In each case, and in particular in the case of the Siegfried line, the tactical principle followed is that of independent

units scattered both in

width and depth

in

such a

way

as to lend

and prevent the capture of any one, or a group from opening a gap through the fortified zone. (See also Maginot Line; Siegfried Line.) To make any attack more difficult the rearmost part of the defences are out of range of the heaviest guns which could be brought to bear on the fortifications in front of them. Thus, a complete capture of all fortifications within range of the heavy guns of the attackers would not open a breach from front to rear of the fortified zone. Before the balance could be captured the heavy artillery would have to be moved forward and the whole process repeated. It is probable that at the present time this would have to be done three times before a complete break could be made. Along with this fire of the heavy artillery would have to go the fire of lighter artillery and the slow advance of infantry, probably by the old slow siege methods. This consists of digging trenches in the front called “saps” from which other trenches parallel to the front called “parallels” are dug, each one farther forward than the last. The last parallel is the jumping off place for the infantry assault. Mining and counter mining would ineach other mutual support by their

fire

In the combat of warship v. warship, there

The

ship with the heaviest gun

withstand enemy shells

Spee”

the

off

is

power and

The

victorious'.

Uruguayan coast proved

this.

is

nothing new.

sufficient

armour

to

action of the “Graf

With her

iiin. guns, as

long as they were in action, she badly battered an Sin. gun cruiser

and kept two 6in. gun cruisers at a distance. However, her armour was insufficient to resist the fire of the 8in. enemy guns, with the consequence that her fire control for at least some of her iiin. guns was destroyed. This lack of armour was due to the fact that her tonnage was limited to 10,000 tons. Therefore, she could not carry iiin. guns and sufficient armour and have the speed which

The tonnage limitation prevented this. In other words, like Lord Fisher’s battle cruisers of the war of 1914-18, protection through adequate armour having been sacrificed to guns she possessed.

and speed, disaster in battle was the result. (See Blockade; Navies of the World; Submarine Warfare.)

The importance

of correct tactics coupled with first class arma-

ment, training, and leadership,

is shown by the difference between Germany’s highly successful campaign in Poland and Russia’s unsuccessful campaign against Finland. (See also Armies of the World; European War; Lightning War.) (H. J, Re.)

Tahiti: see Pactfic Islands, French, see Formosa, Tajik S. S. R.: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Tanganyika: see British East Africa; Mandates,

Taiwan:

Tonmor I dllgICi

international territory, Tangier

of Morocco,

>

its legislative

is

one of the zones

power being vested

in

an

international assembly following the Convention of Paris of Dec.

The regime

autonomous, under the nominal sover-

evitably be necessary.

18, 1923.

Europe are much less strong and probably could be broken through by the ordinary methods of attack with heavy artillery support. Up to the end of 1939 aviation had not been used on a large scale to bomb cities, industrial plants, and in general the civilian activities of the rear. The probabilities are that, aside from

eignty of the Sultan of Morocco, with France the paramount

The other

fortified lines in

humanitarian reasons, cles that

it

is

generally considered in military cir-

such bombardments cannot have decisive results.

other hand, the strategical

and

maximum number

of aeroplanes

is

this artillery

ground

targets.

Germany, just out of

Mohammedan. Trade,

francs;

exports

11,380,286

(1938) 27,732,709

fr.,

(est.

It is only

the

Mendoub,

Sidi

Me-

(est.

1939) 9.566,548

external (1938) imports 94,francs.

Finance:

revenue

1939)

29,795,500

fr.;

expenditure

1939)

29,547,359

fr.;

public debt

fr-

it was reported that many Italian soldiers, dressed as had entered the zone, and that some thousands of Spanish Falangists were receiving military instruction from them.

In April

civilians,

can operate with reasonable security against

(See also Air Forces.)

has developed the use of transport planes

and machine guns from the rear quickly to points artillery range, where they are disembarked and

Tanks: see Armies of the World: Aeroplanes and Tanks; Lightning War; Munitions of War; Tactics in the European War; European War.

enemy

was expected by professional military people the world combat in the air, as in the World War of 1914-18, the pursuit plane is still necessary to protect the bombers from attack. At sea, aeroplane attacks by bombing from high altitudes and by diving have been made on warships of various categories, including submarines, and upon merchant ships. Where the planes have not had to meet an accurate anti-aircraft gunfire and where the target has not been sufficiently armoured to withstand these attacks, they have been successful. The tactics of submarines have not changed since the war of 1914-18. Mine fields of anchored mines are still being used for protective purposes off seacoasts, as barbed wire is used on shore, to keep an enemy at a distance. Mines dropped by aeroplanes have made their appearance. They have proven effective. over. In

693,830

needed for the

used to reinforce troops already engaged. The use of parachute infantry and machine guns tried out by the Russians in Finland failed, as

gion: mainly

(est.

on the ground, where Undoubtedly another factor is

is

Area 225 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 31, 1938) 60,000. Chief town (cap.) Tangier (pop. 45,000). Administrator; M. Le Fur; languages, official: Arabic, French, and Spanish; reli-

fr.,

has been crushed or silenced by the ordinary

like Italy,

to carry infantry

Sultan’s representative

Et-Tazi.

(1938) 26,262,981

the tremendous improvement in anti-aircraft artillery.

artillery that aviation

The

hemmed

the

tactical support of troops

decisive results can be obtained.

when

On

power.

is

French financier, born on December 31, began his career as an attache in the ministry of public works and advanced through various banking positions until he was appointed, in Jan. 1935, governor of the Bank of France. During his regime he secured the co-operation of the United States and Great Britain in establishing stability of international exchange. When Leon Blum formed his Popular Front cabinet, he “promoted” Tannery, in June 1936, to honorary governorship of the bank. Tannery died at Paris on July 7.

TRnnPrV IpPH i ullllCl Jy UCdll

have relatively lost ground since 1937, and other kinds of restrictions have gained. Japan has progressively tightened her war economy, practically excluding

Tariffe

Tariffs

idllllOi

imports for general consumption. Austria had almost eliminated exchange control, but during 1938 was incorporated in the Ger-

its

man system

of State control of trade, as were the Sudetenland and

TARIFFS Memel. The rest of Czechoslovakia followed. Albania was swallowed in a customs union with Italy in April 1939, and in September Polish trade came under the German and Soviet state controls. Ecuador re-established a system of import licences; Belgium and Chile have extended their quota systems, and so on. Even without examining the spread of clearing and compensation agreements, tariffs appeared relatively less important on Sept, i, 1939 than in 1937, though probably up to the outbreak of war between Germany and the United Kingdom, France and Poland, the trade admitted free of duty or subject to no restriction other than

tariffs,

and excises still considerably exceeded that subject to additional methods of control. The recovery from the depression of 1929-33 had proceeded far enough by 1937 that the commercial policies of most countries were relatively stable. Tariff adjustments since 1937 were unimportant in comparison with the years 1930-1933. There were about the same number of decrees and agreements relating to tariff rates and other control measures, but an increasing proportion of them related to prolongation of quota systems and renewals of short-term agreements of various t3T5es, and usually with Tariff changes were numerous, but minor little or no change. surtaxes

adjustments of

little

making wider and deeper

tariff

reductions.

The United

States also reduced certain rates in agreements TOth Ecuador, Turkey and Venezuela, effective respectively Oct. 23, 1938, May 5

from those 16, 1939, obtaining reciprocal concessions Dec. effective 1939, was 23, Cuba, with agreement countries.

and Dec.

An

important mainly in restoring United States concessions on Cuban sugar and tobacco, concessions made in 1934 but later suspended

with changes in domestic agricultural controls. Nehave been announced with Belgium (for revision of the agreement of 1935) and with Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. Beginning with 1937 commercial policies in Europe have been This backlargely dominated by war and preparation for war. ground meant greater efforts at self-sufficiency and the limitation

in connection

gotiations

of non-essential imports both directly

and by reducing purchasing most important economic

power by higher taxes. Some three agreements had political and military objectives, such as the British agreements with Rumania, Sept. 2, i93^> of and such as the German-Soviet agreement July 12, of the

1939,

August, and the German-Rumanian agreement of Dec. 1939uncertainly but In general, the movement was rather slowly and control of State more higher tariffs, definitely in the direction of

trade,

and

The

totalitarian states

make

military self-sufficiency a definite goal.

Industrial states

bilateral balancing of trade.

seek to stimulate their agriculture, and to build

up manufactures. In some

agricultural states desire

states the

movement

progresses

politick inby deliberate national policy, in others through the who 0 tain producers fluence of farmers and other groups of

governmental support for their

On Dec.

8,

1938 and Sept.

15,

interests.

i939 Australia raised

many

rates

the pre eren of duty at least under the general as distinct from countnes. Empire British from tial schedule applicable to imports ig39South Africa raised some tariff rates on June 22, Dec. of 7, i93 system Zealand’s exchange control and licensing policy inpermanent as a minister was explained by the prime abroad. T e tended to cushion the country from depressions e.g. of comlicensing system has been used to prohibit imports, nonvanous of importation the plete motor cars, and to stop surmounted the very British products which had in some degree

high differentials of the preferential

tariff.

act of Jan.

7,

1939 empowered the Government of the Neth-

erlands to afford “moderate protection” to local industries and

many

tariff rates were raised effective March i and July 10. Belgium increased numerous tariff rates and e.xtended quota restrictions. The Government of India revised the Ottawa agreement with the United Kingdom, abolishing many of the preferential reductions and also reducing the general tariff rates on many articles from 30% or 35% to 25% ad valorem. Minor changes in other countries are too mmierous to mention. War in Europe. ^The war which broke out in Europe on September I produced for some countries maximum' and for others minimum changes in commercial policies. For several years Germany had operated under a strict war economy and large scale

—

military operations required a

An

minimum

of change in commercial

was established to supervise importation, exportation, and domestic sale of forestry and wood products; and ration cards for meats, fats and oils, milk, sugar, coffee, cereal products and eggs were introduced on August 27. The important fact was the sudden stoppage of trade with England and France rather than any alteration of commercial policy or of the maregulations.

office

chinery for the state control of trade.

On

significance predominated.

reductions have been, however, embodied in the trade agreements of the United States, notably in those with the United Kingdom and with Canada, effective Jan. i, 1939. The Canadian agreement revised that of three years earlier, both Significant tariff

parties

An

65T

some neutral counoutbreak of war produced (or offered an excuse for) maximum change in state control of trade and national economy the other hand, in Britain, France and

tries the

and deeply affected commercial policy. The tendency was for this war to start where the last one stopped. The British started the World War (1914-18) with the slogan “Business as usual.” This war began with widespread application of state control over both foreign and domestic trade. For two years in advance the Food (Defence Plans) Department had been developing its war plans, and controls of leading commodities and industries were rapidly instituted. Within a few days, the war economy was almost as closely organized as in 1918 at the end of four years of war. Enforcement of specific measures began as soon as the war appeared inevitable, although exchange control was not established until September 3. On September 4 the Food Ministry undertook to control imports and stocks of foodstuffs and the prices of some staples, and on September 5 many imports were made subject to licence. The rationing of foodstuffs, however, was postponed until Jan. 8, 1940.

For Britain the war regime has moved drastically in the direcand Empire preference. Importation of

tion of self-sufficiency

many

products designated as luxuries has been prohibited, al-

though in certain cases licences may be given even for such luxuries as embroidery, gramophones and crystallized fruit. The American tobacco market was disorganized by prompt refusal of

from Jan. 1940 aU licences for import of tobacco are to be withheld.

foreign exchange for the purchase of tobacco, and

The war

control has temporarily counteracted a

i,

number of the by sub-

concessions contained in British trade agreements both

and by re-establishing Embargoes have been placed on the exportation of extensive lists of foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactures. Separate control offices have been set up for iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, aluminium, coal, wool, sflk and rayon, hemp, flax, jute, leather and hides, paper, timber, molasses and industrial alcohols, dyestuffs, mercury and compounds, machine tools, toluene and cotton. To November 17 the Cotton Control was only collecting data; most of the other controls were regulating exports or imports or both (as well as stituting prohibitions for tariff reductions

Empire preference

in

a more

effective form.

fixing prices, allotting supph'es, etc.).

War

control measures began before the war. In Britain the PriCommittee was set up on August 3. On August 24 many metals and some oils were embargoed and the Bank’s discount rate was doubled; and in the next two days steps were taken toward ority

TASMANIA -TAXATION

652

the control of agriculture and the mobilization of foreign securities. In France an embargo was imposed on exportation of war materials on August 15 and on August 28

manufactures were embargoed.

War

many raw

materials and

measures, particularly em-

bargoes on exportation of certain foodstuffs and raw materials,

were taken by Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Egypt and

Turkey during the last week of August. On September 2 the French established a licence system for all imports, and on September 10 a general system of exchange con-

movement

will

go very far in the face of

a political nature? The example set by these notable trade agreements has not been followed to

growing international

any great

extent,

difficulties of

and even before the outbreak of war

in Europe,

the year 1939 saw more raising than lowering of trade barriers. The year closed with wars in Europe as well as in Asia, and prob-

ably less freedom of commerce than at any time since 1918. The trade agreement program of the United States that

some now

predict

its

is

under such attack

Nonetheless, this war

discontinuance.

and among the millions compelled to ponder the and lasting peace, an increasing number are impressed by the necessity of restoring an ample and secure international trade. (See also Trade Agreements.) will terminate,

trol.

Throughout the British and French Empires, the various dominions and colonies generally followed the lead of the mother countries, though with various delays. Australia, however, instituted exchange control five days ahead of Britain, and New Zealand had established a general licence system and exchange control on Dec. control, 7, 1938. The measures employed were usually exchange licensing of imports, and licensing of exports, but in some places the licences were not required for all products. The effect of the outbreak of war either on the belligerents or on the neutrals was reflected in only a minor degree in changes of

number of changes since the first of September is considerable, but not much more than normal. Many of the rates seem to reflect the need of additional revenue, and tariff rates.

The

total

and coffee, already heavily taxed, have had further burdens imposed on them. Italy has prohibited the sale of coffee, and Hungary imposed a permit tax of 200% of the retail price of tea and coffee. Great Britain increased the duty on tobacco by 2S. per pound (in addition to the 2j. of April 1939), the total duty now being equivalent to some 1,500% ad valorem. On the other hand, the belligerents have removed or reduced tariff rates upon some necessities. For example, the United Kingdom has exempted pig iron, aluminium and certain alloys and manufactures of aluminium. France exempted horses and mules and beans and reduced the tax on rubber. The outbreak of war was the presumable cause of rapid extenmineral

entertain hope that the

liquors, tobacco

oils,

sion of state control over trade in neutral countries.

Most wide-

spread was the introduction of embargoes and licensing systems

Almost every country in Europe and embargoed the exportation of longer or shorter lists of foodstuffs, raw materials, and even in some cases manufactured articles. Eire, Finland and Egypt introduced exchange control and in some countries exchange controls became more rigid. In the first weeks of September Peru, Haiti, Nicaragua and Estonia gave their Governments wide powers to control imports and exports and aspects of the domestic economy. In Brazil the National Economic Defence Council is to control imports and exports and regulate the supply of goods for internal consumption. The Federal Council of Switzerland has established a War Economy Syndicate for foodstuffs and has authorized other syndicates. Almost daily during the first half of September, the Netherlands instituted governmental control of some industry or other. Canada, however, did not establish exchange control until September 15, and the coal administrator was not appointed until October 18, although a sugar administrator had been appointed much earlier. A number of the neutral countries, notably Greece and Nicarafor the restriction of exports.

some others

restricted or

gua, subjected imports to licence systems.

The Netherlands has

monopoly to control imports of fish and fish products; Spain, a monopoly for scrap iron and steel; Ireland, for wheat and corn; and Greece, for sugar, coffee, dried vegetables, and codfish. The Netherlands renewed on October 5 a previous monopoly control of milk, butter, cheese and casein. The trade agreements of the United States with Canada and with the United Kingdom, effective Jan. i, 1939, gave the year established a

1939 a good start in stimulating international trade; but can one

possibility of establishing a stable

(B. B.

sq.mi.; pop. (est.

TnnmQni!) I

ubIllClIllUf

061. Chief towns:

Hobart

March 1939)

238,-

(cap., 64,950) ;Launces-

ton (33,100). Governor: Sir Ernest Clark. tralian

W.)

A

State of the Aus-

Commonwealth.

History.

—The State suffered a severe loss in the sudden death

of the Labour premier, A. G. Ogilvie, on June 10, after a notable career in public life. He had been at one time the youngest K.C.

Mr. Dwyer-Gray, the treasurer, succeeded Mr. Cosgrove was appointed deputy leader and treasurer, and delegated to succeed Mr. DwyerGray in Jan. 1940; T. D’Alton became minister for agriculture, and E. Brooker chief secretary and minister for transport. At its conference in April, the Labour party again urged introin the British Empire.

him

as premier without portfolio.

duction of compulsory military training.

The budget

revealed a

^25,984 for the financial year 1938-39, and estimated a of ;£57,7S4 for 1939-40. Pastoral and agricultural areas

deficit of deficit

were

less seriously affected

than the mainland States by the ad-

verse season, and stock remained in good condition.

Work

began

Boyer on the erection of a new paper mill, and plans were prepared for the development of iron ore deposits near Bumie, and for the establishment of magnesium works. Good progress was made with the pontoon bridge across the Derwent at Hobart. (L. R. Me.) Finance. Revenue (1938-39), £3,639,494; expenditure £3,at

—

635,999: public debt (June 30, 1938), £25,840,807. Communications. Dec. 31, 1937: roads, surfaced 2i,ooomi.;

—

Government 663mi.; private

13 1 miles. Motor vehicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1938); cars 16,648; trucks 4,511; cycles 3,646. Wireless receiving set licences (Dec. 31, 1938) 36,013. Telephones, subscribers (1937-38) 13,482.

railways:

—

Industries. Production 1937-38: primary £8,032,000; secondary £5,445,000. Labour, 1937-38 average; factory employment 13,17° employees; unemployment (Trade Union returns) 7%.

Tlltcph I uloUlIj

lapnh Hlin-n unUuU nUgU

waukee on January

29.

(1888-1939),

American

Masonic

leader and author, was born in Mil-

After spending 17 years (1905-22) in New York city, Boston and

various banking positions at Spokane,

Los Angeles he became in 1923 assistant secretary and assistant editor of the National Masonic Research society at Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The rest of his life was spent in a study of the Masonic movement, and he was the author and co-author of 1 1 volumes on the history of Freemasonry and biographies of several of its prominent leaders. During the World War he was a special agent for the Military Intelligence division of the U.S.A. and in 193S he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the U.S. Army. He died at London on July 17.

ToYOtinn iQAdllUlL

United States the most striking develop-

meat

since 1938 has been the comparative cessa-

—

TAXATION new

tion of

653

taxing legislation, on the part of both Federal and

Summary of

U.S, Sfafe Safes Taxes

State Governments. In the former field this was indicated

absence of final repeal

new

by the by the 1936; and by the

of the undistributed profits tax of

Use Tax

Retail

Retail

taxes and of increases in existing taxes;

tional

ers’ Sales

Tax

Tax

In the

field

new

of State legislation

Alabama

tax proposals.

no new

sales, or

chain store

taxes have been enacted since 1938. In sales tax legislation,

how-

ever, there has

been a considerable tendency toward detailed revision of existing sales taxes, taking the form sometimes of expansion,

sometimes of

restriction, of the

services subject to the tax,

scope of commodities and

and sometimes of the adoption of

“use” taxes to prevent evasion of existing sales taxes.

The one most

active field of State taxation throughout 1939

been that of cigarette taxes ished

One

—which

in itself suggests the dimin-

volume of substantial tax legislation. factor which has potentialities for disturbing the more

or less regular course of events in taxation

ency to

utilize the tax

is

the widespread tend-

machinery to accomplish

specific

ends

social or otherwise. is

policy. Popularized by the Federal Government in its agricultural program, imdistributed profits tax, and elsewhere, it has now been

embraced by numerous grdlips in the

field of State

.

2%0

.

.

.

California

-

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Colorado . Connecticut Delaware .

Florida Illinois

Indiana.

Iowa Kansas

.

and

local taxa-

tion.

But the defeat of so-called “Ham and Eggs” proposals in California and Ohio and of other radical proposals for enlarged pension and relief programs in popular elections in various States would seem to suggest that this movement has passed its crest.

,

2%

Michigan

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

Missouri

.

.

.

3

%

3

%

3 2%’ e.xports valued at $35,050,000; imports from U.S.S.R., $23,532,000, mainly furs $12,127,000, manganese

ore $2,662,000, anthracite $1,125,000. Anglo-Soviet trade (1938); exports to the U.S.S.R., £6,433,573 (Jan.-May 1939, £2,954,234),

mainly machinery £3,353,000,

non-ferrous

metals £1,329,000.

woollen rags £390,000, iron and steel £326,000, vehicles £122,000; imports from the U.S.S.R., £19,543.030 (Jan.-May 1939, £2,932,110), mainly wood and timber £6,316,000, grain £4,187,000, furs £3,630,000, petroleum £1,415,000, canned salmon £1,183,000; ree.xports to the U.S.S.R., £10,985,945 (Jan.-May 1939, £2,129,018), mainly non-ferrous metals £7,783,000, rubber £1,056,000,

centration of Finnish troops in the neighbourhood of Leningrad

wool £995,000, tea £553,000.

was inconsistent viith the treaty. Relations between the Soviet Union and Finland were broken off on November 29, and on the 3olh Russian troops invaded Finland. (See also Estonia; Euro-

26-5 million tons; pig iron, 14-7 million tons; steel, 18 million tons; manganese ore, 2,272-8 thousand tons; oil, 32-2 million tons;

Industry (193S): output of coal, 132-9 million tons; iron ore,

UNITARIAN CHURCH — UNITED STATES peat 26-5 million tons; electric power, 39-6 milliard kwh.; whole industrial production (at prices 1926-27), io6-i milliard roubles.

— (1938)

Transport.

lion tons; length of inland waterways, 90,600km.; passengers car-

by

United Kingdom: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland United Kingdom of.

Length of railways 8s,oookm. (i,ciookm.

electrified); passengers carried, 1,177-8 million; goods, 516-7 mil-

ried, 68-1 million;

goods (1937), 66-9 million tons; freight carried

sea, 30-4 million tons; passengers, 3-1 million; length of air

(1939), ii6,oookm.; passengers carried, 292,700; freight, 45,500 tons; mail, 10,700 tons! Agriculture. In 1938: collective farms, 242,000, embracing

lines

—

18,842,900 peasant homesteads; State farms, 3,961; individual peasant homesteads, 1,309,900; machine tractor stations (1939), 6,358; tractors, 483,500; total sown area, 136,900, oooha., including grains 102,400, oooha., industrial plants ii,ooo,oooha., vege-

Sown

tables, 9,400,oooha., feed-grasses 14,100,000 hectares.

Ilnifod UinicU

United States Bureau of the Census

uldlCO.

estimated the

July

I,

1937, and of 7,440,000 over the 1930 census. Population

may be found in the separate State See also the articles Birth Statistics; Church Membership; Death Statistics; Education; Illiteracy; Indians, figures for individual States

articles.

American Negroes (American) Population, Mo\'ements of and Universities and Colleges for statistical information of ;

;

social conditions.

area

History.

—

(X.)

^While domestic problems like relief, labour, hous-

ing, agriculture, party politics

Yield of grain crops, 854,900,000 quintals; fibre flax, 5 460 i000 quintals; raw cotton, 26,900,000 quintals; sugar beet, 166,800,000 q-uinlals", potatoes, 419,600,000 quintals. AgricnltnT&l pro-

to

i

duction (1937) at 1926-27 prices, 15,069-5 million roubles; livestock production (1937) at 1926-27 prices, 5,053-5 million roubles. cattle,

63,200,000; pigs, 30,600,000; sheep and goats, 102,(See also Fascism; Japan; Propa-

500,000; horses, 17,500,000.

ganda; Religion; United States: Roosevelt and the Dictators.) (S. yak.) Ilnitorifin

Chief

Phiirnh

UnilSriafl unUrGlIa

among

the activities of the

Amer-

lean "Unitarian church during the year

1939 was the relief mission sent to Czecho-Slovakia in co-operation with the American Friends Service Committee, to administer the funds raised by the American Committee for Relief in CzechoWaitstill H. Sharp of Wellesley were sent early in February and remained until September. The Rev. Duncan Hewlett of New Bedford, Massachusetts was also sent to make a survey of Czech refugee needs in Poland. The outbreak of the war made impossible any immediate work in that area but the commission reorganized itself to be prepared to raise additional funds and supply personnel for European .relief missions as soon as opportunities were opened. Because of the outbreak of the war in Europe, plans for the

slovakia.

The Rev. and Mrs.

Hills, Massachusetts,

—

next International Association Congress to be held in Budapest,

Hungary were cancelled. The biennial conference of the American Unitarian Association was held in San Francisco, Aug. 24-27, 1939. The principal speakers were the Hon. Sanford Bates, moderator of the American Unitarian Association, and Dr. Alice Garrigue Masaryk, daughter of the founder-president of Czechoslovakia. Under the extension program, two new churches in Fort

—

Wayne, Ind. and

in

Grosse Pointe,

Mich.—were organized, and association. The regional or-

three others were admitted to the ganization of the association was strengthened by the development of the Southern New England Council of Unitarian Churches and of the association assuming the direcTulsa, torship of the South-Western area with headquarters in

by a former vice-president Oklahoma.

Under the direction of a newly organized Department of Promotion and Publicity, a national radio program was instituted tranoriginating over a Boston station and released by electrical same scription in the South, Mid-West and Pacific Coast. The program was also released on a weekly world-wide short wave of the broadcast. The year 1939 marked the 400th anniversary Unitarians birth in Siena, Italy of Faustus Socinus, leader of the influence spread throughout in the Reformation period, whose

Europe, especially in Poland.

There was peculiar significance versaiy in the churches.

amnH. L.)

to the celebration o 5 this (J-

number of inhabitants on July

1938, at 130,215,000 (later estimates were discontinued until after the 1940 census). This marked an increase of 958,000 over I,

of collective farms, ii7,2oo,oooha.; State farms, 12,411,000 hectares.

Horn

681

and the third term issue continued occupy attention during the year 1939, they were overshadowed to an extent not equalled since the days of the World War (191418) by the pTecario-cs Stale of Evnopeaii peace. The “appeasement” policy at Munich, in Sept. 1938, after Hitler had absorbed Austria, did not deter him from forcibly annexing the Sudetenland and reducing Czechoslovakia to a virtually vassal State. As the year 1939 progressed his demands on Poland to yield Danzig and the Corridor culminated in September in a ruthless invasion of

Poland (after an astonishing alliance between Nazi Germany and Communist Russia) and the rapid extermination of that unhappy State,

now

neighbours.

partitioned, for the fourth time, between its powerful

The

Polish invasion brought Great Britain and France

Germany, thus starting the European war. weeks of the year saw Russia, taking a leaf from Hitler’s book of aggression and roused by the Polish booty to dreams of westward expansion, demanding by arms the virtual reduction of Finland to puppet state and threatening the security of Finland’s neighbours, Sweden and Nor^vay, across the Baltic. Faced thus with actual war in Europe and with the uncertainty as to whether this war would eventually draw the United States into its orbit, as the war of 1914-18 had done, the U.S. Government and people quite naturally grew more and more interested in the political, diplomatic and commercial policies which should conduce to the preservation of neutrality and at the same time not isolate the U.S. in sympathy from the European nations that were fighting against the wanton aggressions and international bad faith of into the lists against

The

closing

the totalitarian despots.

QUEEN ELIZABETH

and Mrs. Roosevelt took a short slght'Seeing tour June 8} lS39f during the British monarchs’ visit to Washington

BY A PORTABLE RADIO installed on the steps of the U.S. CapItoU these Americans, like millions of others, listened to Pres. Roosevelt's speech Sept. 21, 1939, in which he urged Congress to revise the U.S. Neutrality Act.

lowers to criticize or

amend the laws which they had passed The session lasted from January 3 to

so readily at his bidding. Business conditions improved during Ibe year 1939, but not so rapidly as had been predicted at the opening of the year. Autumn

saw an approach to the high levels of 1936. Steel production was up 20% to nearly capacity. Electric power production was at its height. Chain stores registered increasing business. Automobile manufacturers were planning the biggest j'ear since 1933. The Federal Reserve Board’s official index of Dec. 9, 1939, showed an industrial production figure of 125 as contrasted with 119 in

The increase of 5% in November alone doubtless represented the anticipation of a great boom in war orders (especially aeroplanes) which may or may not materialize. At any rate, the scarcity of new 1929, based on the averages of 1923-25.

the

month

of

moderawhich certain elements of big business have called persecution have encouraged private industry to grapple more confidently with the problems which have retarded the economic recovery ryhich the vast resources in man power and materials ought to guarantee. Congress The first session of the 76th Congress, which convened on Jan. 3, 1939, showed the decided gains which the Republicans had made in the mid-term elections of the previous November. The Democratic representation in the House was reduced from 346 seats in the 7Sth Congress to 262, while the Republicans increased from 89 to 169. In the Senate a gain of seven seats raised the Republican representation from 16 to 23. Though the Democrats still had very large majorities in both houses, dissatisfaction in their ranks with some of the major policies of

legislation for the regulation of business

and the

relative

tion of the administration in exercising the control

.

—

the administration (such as relief, the continually growing deficits,

Act and the Wages and Hours Act, and the administration of the National Labor Relations Board) enabled a combination of these dissatisfied elements with the Republicans to stymie the President’s plans. In none of the previous Congresses of the Roosevelt administration had there been shown so strong a spirit of independence of the will certain clauses in the Social Security

of the President, so ready a disposition even

682

among

his

own

fol-

s, and its debates fill 12,000 pages of the Congressional Record. But, unlike the previous sessions, it passed no new major laws. Indeed, the President said in his opening address that the program of the New Deal was virtually completed; “We have

August

moved upon deep-seated problems affecting our national strength and have forged national instruments adequate to meet them.” He confessed that some of these instruments had to be roughly shaped and needed machining down. He had no objection to this process, provided that the “basic principles of the New Deal” were retained. But the “machining dorvn” often bit pretty deeply into the metal. For example, a spending-lending (nicknamed “splending”) bill advocated by the President as an aid to business was by the House, as was a bill permitting the United States Housing Authority to loan $800,000,000 to States and cities for slum clearance and the construction of low-cost ruthlessly thrown out

The President asked for $875,000,000 to continue the work of the WPA until the end of the fiscal year (June 30, 1939). but Congress cut the figure down by $50,000,000. His request for $1,755,000,000 for the same work for the year 1939"40

dwellings. relief

was granted, but Congress accompanied the grant with provisions designed to prevent relief from becoming a “career.” WPA workers might not remain on the rolls for more than 18 consecutive months, and a minimum of 130 work hours a month was prescribed.

Relief to certain classes of “white-collar” workers was

cut down.

out of

The Hatch Act, passed in July, aimed at taking politics by making it unlawful, under a penalty of $1,000 fine

relief

or a year’s imprisonment, for anyone to solicit from persons on

“any assessment, subscription, or contribution for any politSuch changes as were made in the revenue laws were favourable to business. No increase was made in the income tax rates, while the capital gains tax was reduced and the surplus relief

ical

purpose.”

profits tax eliminated.

The

President’s persistent plea for the re-

peal of the arms embargo in the Neutrality Act of 1937 was rejected by the close vote of 12 to ii in the Senate Committee on

Foreign Relations (July 11) after a long and bitter debate.

UNITED STATES On

the other hand, Congress unhesitantly granted the Presi-

dent’s request for the strengthening of national defences, appro-

priating $1,700,000,000 for the military, naval

and

largest peacetime defence budget in U.S. history;

air forces, the

and

appro-

its

priation of $1,194,000,000 for agricultural relief actually exceeded

the President’s recommendation by some $300,000,000—a rare phenomenon. On May i Congress passed the Reorganization Bill

(defeated the previous year) authorizing the President to

sweeping

changes

make

and consolidations in the various Federal by which he gathered 17 in-

boards, commissions and authorities,

dependent and often overlapping administrations into three: the Federal Loan Agency under Jesse Jones, the Federal

Works

Agency under John Carmody, and the Federal Security Agency under Paul V. McNutt. These three men, though not of cabinet rank, were invited frequently by the President to sit with the cabinet. Altogether, the appropriations for the fiscal year 1939-40 were $13,000,000,000, an increase of $2,000,000,000 over the previous year and the largest since the World War. With the outbreak of the European war at the beginning of September, the President, convinced that the arms embargo threatened rather than guaranteed the neutrality of the United States, called Congress in extra session on September 21 to urge again the repeal of the embargo. Calling attention to the unsuccessful efforts which the U.S. Government had made to prevent the outbreak of “the present appalling war,” he declared that the U.S. must lose no time or effort to keep the nation from being drawn into it. He assumed that every member of Congress and the

executive departments was “without reservation in favour of such measures” as would protect American neutrality. The only question was what measures were best calculated to accomplish that end. His plea was for a return to the “traditional and historic American policy” of reliance on international law, which put the land powers and the sea powers on the same footing, and the end of the embargo which penalized the sea powers and was therefore unneutral. He would surround the new policy (or rather the old policy which

had been abandoned

in 1937) with certain safeguards, American merchant vessels.

such as the closing of danger zones to

the prevention of American citizens from travelling on belligerent ships, the “cash-and-carry” provision of the former law and the denial of war

credits to belligerent nations.

He saw

no reason for

other than the revised neutrality legislation in this extra session, in Congress to

and asked the leaders of the two major parties remain in Washington for consultation and advice

until the

meet-

ing of the next regular session in Jan. 1940. After a spirited deduring which a policeman died, was staged in Minneapolis July 10, 1939, as part of a national strike against longer working hours

A RIOT OF WPA WORKERS,

N’O PARKIHG

683

by the unexpectedly large majority of 63 to 30, repealed the arms embargo on October 27, Senator La Follette losing his amendment for a popular referendum on the declaration of war by 17 to 73. The House, on November 2, supported the repeal, and the extra session immediately came to an end. bate, the Senate,

{See also Neutrality.)

—

The Budget ^No progress was made during the year 1939 toward balancing the Federal budget. On the contrary, the ex.

penses for the

year ($9,250,000,000) exceeded the receipts

fiscal

($5,670,000,000) by $3,580,000,000, marking the ninth successive year of deficits and bringing the national debt up to $41,500,000,000. The President’s budget message of Jan. 1939, called for expenditures of some $9,000,000,000 for the

fiscal

year ending June

The addition of three-and-a-third billions to the national debt would bring the figure up to the very edge of the debt limit of $45,000,000,000

30, 1940, with estimated receipts of $5,700,000,000.

fixed

by act of Congress. The constant demand of the opponents

of the administration (and, indeed, of

many

of

its

friends) that at

be made toward balancing the budget meets with arguments both theoretical and practical as to why the spendleast a beginning shall

ing should go on.

continued tional

“pump

income

The

President expressed his conviction that the

priming’’ wUl revive business and raise the na-

to at least $80,000,000,000,

when the increased

tax

wipe out the deficit. This, notwithstanding the fact that the national income declined by about 9% in the last fiscal year and unemployment continued around the 10,000,000 mark. Furthermore, the administration asks as a practical question what items of present expense could be cut down. The revenues will

fixed

suffice to

charges for running the Government and servicing the

public debt

must be met. The national defence program must be Relief must be continued. If, then, the

enlarged not curtailed. reduction of expenses

is

impracticable, there remains only the

hope for increased revenues through taxation. But, with a presidential year approaching, neither a Democratic administration which hopes for a renewal of power nor Senators and Congressmen who look fonvard to re-election will be keen to assess new taxes, The balancing of the budget begins to look like as hopeless a problem as the squaring of the circle. {See also Budget.) The Farm Problem ^Though the elaborate Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, aiming at the attainment of an “ever normal granary” and providing for plebiscites among the farmers of specified crops on the adoption of quotas, was not altered during the year 1939, there was nevertheless much discussion over the ways and means of making the act effective, and there were many plans proposed for further improvement of the farmers’ status. It was .

—

a

UNITED STATES

684

evident that this grave problem was far from being solved, and

would be an important issue in Department of Agrifarm income for the year at $7,625.-

that the agricultural situation

the campaign of 1940.

On Dec.

culture estimated the total

19, 1939, the

000,000, as compared with $7,632,000,000 for the previous year and with $10,479,000,000 for the year 1929. On the other hand, while the appropriations of the department were only $166,000,000 in 1929, they had risen a decade later to the huge sum of $1,213,400.000. Government payments to farmers during 1939 reached

$675,000,000, or an average of $97 a farm. Thus while the farmers’ cash income increased by about 60% since the depression

year of 1932, the Federal outlay for farm relief grew by 312%. In spite of such large expenditures (which led the President in a statement, of Dec. 19, 1939, to declare that the coming session of Congress should provide new taxes for the agricultural deficits),

the problem of undisposed surpluses of farm products remained unsolved. The cotton situation was especially acute. There were some 11,500,000 bales of cotton stored in barns and warehouses of the South, on which the Government has loaned $600,000,000, or over $50 a bale. Various plans have been proposed for disposing of this surplus,

reminding one of the remedies proposed in the Mcbills of a decade and more ago. For example, in

Nary-Haugen

1938 a plan for the Government to set prices for the domestic and other farm products, determined by the U.S.

sale of cotton

cost of production, narrowly failed of passage in the Senate. Another scheme proposed was that farmers be allowed to buy back from the Government 3,000,000 bales of cotton at 5f? a pound and sell it at the current market price of between 8j? and 9ff. Senator Byrnes of South Carolina suggested bartering 2,000,000 bales of cotton and ioo,ooo,ooobu. of wheat for supplies of rubber and tin, which the colonial possessions of Great Britain and the Netherlands have in abundance and which the U.S. might store against eventual needs policy diametrically opposed to Secretary Hull’s anti-bilateral and anti-barter trade pacts. Finally, a conference of 10 cotton exporting countries has been proposed

—

to find a

None

way

of stabilizing the cotton production and trade.

of these schemes, however,

came

to fruition in the Congress

of 1939. About a week before the close of the first session in August, Senator Lee of Oklahoma got before the House Committee on Agriculture a bill to make $350,000,000 available for 40-

year loans at including 32.000.

3%

to tenant farmers for the purchase of farms,

Government insurance of loans made by private agen-

This was to supplement and greatly enlarge the BankheadJones Act of 1937 for the relief of tenant farmers, under which only $35,000,000 had been loaned by the Farm Security Administration to some 8,000 out of several million tenants. Farm tenancy and share cropping, though the latter is somewhat diminishing, cies.

burdened over 40% of the farms of the country, with their 000 residents. It is no wonder that President Roosevelt has called the South, where most of this burden rests, “the country’s number one economic problem.’’ A novel experiment was undertaken in 1939 in the distribution of food supplies to the people. Heretofore the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation has purchased and distributed to the needy large quantities of foodstuffs gratis, much to the embarrassment of the retail food dealers. Beginning in Rochester, N.Y., and spreading to six other cities during the year, a new device was tried. The beneficiaries of relief were allowed to take part of their monthly payments in orange and blue stamps issued by the FSCC, the orange stamps being good for the purchase of food

any kind, and the blue stamps (of which the person received, worth for every dollar’s worth of orange stamps he took) being good for the purchase of certain “enumerated” commodities of which a surplus existed. The grocer or

of

as a kind of bonus, 50/

“WELL,

WHAT ARE WE WAITING

FOR?’’ This cartoon by Messner of The

Rochester Times-Union appeared a few days before Congress passed the 1940 relief bill

June 30, 1939

butcher

who took

at his

bank

payment could turn them in and the Government reimbursed the banker.

these stamps in

as cash,

This scheme, which bids fair to spread further, has several advantages. It encourages the recipient of relief money to spend

on the necessities of life; it permits the his profit on the food sold; and it helps solve the anomalous situation of hungry people living in a land where food is spoiling. Labour Problems; the A.F. of L. and the C.I.O In spite of a larger share of

it

make

retail dealer to

.

—

repeated efforts by the President and by Secretary of Labor Perkins to bring peace between the A.F. of L. and the C.I.O., these rival factions in the labour

union ranks continued their bitter fight through the year 1939. In March the President summoned a conference to the White House (later adjourned to New York)

all

to try to negotiate a “peace with honour” between the factions.

But they proved to be only farther apart than ever. The original rift, resulting from the secession and expulsion of ten unions of the A.F. of L. in the autumn of 1935, and their consequent formation into the Committee for Industrial Organization under the vigorous president of the United Mine Workers of America, John L. Lewis, had been widened by the phenomenal success of the C.I.O. in forming new industrial unions, in detaching unions from the parent A.F. of L., in securing contracts with big business corporations, conflicting views on the rulings of the National Labor Rela-

and by

tions Board.

The A.F.

of L., calling

plained the Board favoured

Board, accused

its

The

it

unduly.

its rival

The

communistic, com-

C.I.O. supporting the

rival of being “aristocratic,” dictatorial

and

was further complicated in Feb. 1939, by a split in the ranks of the C.I.O. itself, when the United Automobile Workers of America, the second largest union in the organization, with some 400,000 members, staged a lively fight bereactionary.

battle

tween the president, officers of

the union.

Homer

Martin, and the majority of the

All that

came out

of the conference of

UNITED STATES March-April was a proposal by Mr. Lewis (promptly spumed by the A.F. of L.) that the A.F. of L., the C.I.O. and the railroad brotherhoods should be merged into an American Congress of Labor, to be governed by an executive board representing the three organizations, but on which neither he nor President Green of the A.F. of L. should serve.

The annual

conventions of the

A.F. of L. and the C.I.O. (the former at Cincinnati on October

2,

San Francisco on October 9) were notable for Mr. Lewis boasting that in five years the membership of the Congress of Industrial Organizations, as the C.I.O. had been renamed, would reach 10,000,000. ^During the first seven months of 1939 the number of Strikes strikes reported by the department of labour averaged 192 a month, as compared with 231 a month in 1938 and 395 in the prosperous year of 1937. The most serious strike was in the bituminous coal field. On April i the contract of the United Mine Workers of America (C.I.O.) with the operators expired, and the latter refused to renew the contract on the terms which Mr. Lewis

and the

latter at

the expression of mutual defiance,

—

.

demanded: namely, the closed shop and the abolition of the The former demand would oblige the companies to hire no workers but members of the U.M.W.A., and the latter demand was for the omission of the penalty of a dollar a day on every worker who participated in a strike wthout the sanction of the union. At Mr. Lewis’ bidding 420,000 miners laid down their tools, and in May the shortage of coal became serious. Subway trains were cutting their schedules by 25%. After a struggle of six weeks, and in spite of the organization of a rival group, the Progressive Miners of America, affiliated with the A.F of L., the

“penalty clause.”

.

United Mine Workers, who comprised over 90% of the bituminous miners, won a complete victory. Eighty per cent of the operators yielded to the demands of Mr. Lewis and signed a two years’ contract. The most conspicuous hold-outs were the operators of Harlan, Kentucky, “bloody Harlan,” where violence continued until

Governor Chandler

summer

down rules by

WPA

whether the

when a number of

act of Congress of July

if

wage

as a beneficiary of

change of July

120 110

100

i

Government

a compromise had been in

Before the

aid.

effect, satisfactory to

The administrator of the WPA, Colonel F. C. Harrington (who had succeeded Harry Hopkins when the latter took the place of Daniel C. Roper as Secretary of Commerce) refused to industries.

give any comfort to the strikers. IVhen failed to report to

some 20,000 of the men

WPA

headquarters for five days they were promptly mailed their “pink slips,” or notices of dismissal. ' President Roosevelt, in words recalling Calvin Coolidge’s rebuke to the Boston policemen, dismissed the matter curtly with the remark “You cannot strike against the Government.” The

striking

WPA

being a non-profit organization supported by the tax-payers, a strike in its ranks was little less than ridiciilous. The bead of the A.F. of L. did not support it, and sympathetic members of Congress,

who had

ing” wage, saw

fit

at first introduced bills to restore the “prevail-

to let

them

Thus ended what the wits called and Lock-outs.) with both the National Labor Re-

die.

(See also Strikes

NLRB —^Dissatisfaction .

(Wagner) Act

of 1935 (which allowed only labour to call for elections to determine which union should bargain with the employers) and the rulings of the National Labor Relations Board

continued through the year 1939. The first of these complaints at the beginning of July, when the board announced that employers as well as workers would be permitted to call for

was remedied an

election. But the charges of unfair discrimination in favour of labour in the rulings of the board persisted. break in favour of the employers came in March with a six to two derision of the

A

Supreme Court

(Justices Reed and Black dissenting) reversing the order of the board to the Fansteel Metallurgical company to rehire men discharged in the sit-down strike of 1937. Chief-Justice

Hughes in reading the opinion declared that the sit-down strike was “a high-handed proceeding rvithout a shadow of legal right.” So clamorous was the criticism of the NLRB by both employers and one faction of labour (the A.F. of L.) that the House, before the adjournment of Congress in August, appointed a committee of five to make an investigation of the board, with the purpose of possible changes in the National Labor Relations Act. The committee mailed tens of thousands of questionnaires to labour unions, employers, law professors and police chiefs, requesting in-

90

formation on the economic

80

sequences of the board’s rulings.

70

question was

the unions, by which a worker received the prevailing wage per hour but worked many fewer hours than the unskilled. So that the actual income of the skilled worker was far less than it would have been had he had steady employment in private industry. The new law required that all WPA workers should put in 130 hours a month, or five six-hour days per week, which, of course, reduced the hourly wage of the skilled worker far below the prevailing union wage; and the argument of the disgruntled workers was that the law would force down wages generally in the skilled

T/;e

130

The

i.

worker should receive the “prevailing” (union) he were employed in private industry, or merely a “se-

wage as

lations

strike of the International Longshore-

WPA

skilled

curity”

Automobile Corporation staged a “slow-doivn” strike patterned on the old “ca’ canny” or slacking policies. The contract of the Corporation with the C.I.O. expired on September 30, and the workers demanded in a new contract a wage increase of lojl an hour, the closed shop, arbitration of disputes by a joint appeals board, and a voice in fixing production schedules. The strike was ended late in November by an agreement on the whole favourable to the company. A wage increase of 3(? an hour was granted, as was the arbitration demand; but the union failed to get either the closed shop or a voice in determining the production schedules. Other strikes worthy of note during the year were one of a month’s duration (July-August) by the tool and die workers of General Motors, which was settled to the advantage of the United Automobile in the plants of the Chrysler

workers on the

skilled

their tools in protest against the revision of the

the “mutiny on the bounty.”

called out the State troops.

Workers of America, and a

of 1939

rolls laid

the year (34 days) began on October 6 ,

The longest strike of when about 50,000 men

685

men’s Association (A.F. of L.) in November, which tied up more than 70 passenger and freight vessels on the Atlantic seaboard. An unprecedented kind of strike was inaugurated in the mid-

effects, the legality

and the

social con-

may have on Congress and the presidential campaign of 1940 remains to be What

effect the report

seen.

60

man MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION In the United Slates; Federal Reserve Board Index, wllhoul adjustment for seasonal variation

—

Labour and the Anti-trust Laws ^Meanwhile no little concern has been created in the ranks of labour by the activities of Thur.

50

Arnold, lately law professor at Yale and author of

lore of Capitalism,

who

is

The Folk-

assistant attorney-general in charge of

the enforcement of the anti-trust laws.

The Clayton Act

of 1974,

UNITED STATES

686

compared to wages

in other industries, the railway

more prosperous

too high, and noted that the afford to

pay the present wages. While not

wages were not

railroads could well legally compelled to

accept the report of the President’s committee, the roads acquiesced and the strike was averted. It was recognized, however, that

something must be done to help the railroads out of a slump which had sent the average price of their bonds down from $95.59

and their stock from $91.56 to $26.06 a share. But contrary to the predictions at the end of 1938, the 76th Congress took scarcely any notice of the railroad probin 1930 to $55.92 in Aug. 1938,

lem. Meanwhile an innovation in railroad travel was bringing in

added revenues and bade fair to rescue the passenger traffic from the doldrums into which it had fallen since 1932. That innovation was the fast streamlined train, like the Burlington “Zephyr,” the Santa Fe “El Capitan,” the Rock Island “Rocket” and now more than 75 others, which, without increase in fares, are carrying thousands of passengers and making substantial earnings. An index of

improving traffic conditions was a reduction in round-trip fares announced by the eastern roads in June 1939, which saved, for example, $14.85 on a round-trip ticket from New York to Chicago. The rate in 1939 was a little less than 2^ a mile, a figure against which the roads protested vigorously when it was imposed by the ICC three years before. {See also Railroads.) The Merchant Marine ^With the establishment of the Maritime Commission in 1936, to replace the United States Shipping Board set up 20 years earlier as a war measure, the U.S. began seriously to tackle a problem of first rate importance for its foreign trade, commercial autonomy and the adequate supply of transports and personnel for the U.S. navy. Under the vigorous chairmanship of Joseph P. Kennedy (later ambassador to Great Britain) an elaborate program was adopted, calling for the construction of 300 merchant ships over a period of 10 years, at a cost of $125,000,000 a year, with generous subsidies by the Government. The report of the Commission to Congress in Feb. 1939, was encouraging. “The long and dangerous decline of our merchant fleet,” it said, “has been checked and the process reversed. Prospects for the return of the American flag to a place upon the seas commensurate with our country’s position as a world power are the brightest in many years.” Up to July i, 1939, contracts for 67 ships costing $185,000,000 had been let, of which 24 were to be built for private account with Government aid, and the .

.

of the Federal Government AND EXPENDITURES ( ( ) ) years ended June 30; with surplus or deficit shown below. Receipts for include $537,355,000 of net transfers to old-age reserve account

RECEIPTS in fiscal

1940

and twentieth sections, seemed to exempt labour orfrom the penalties of those laws. But Mr. Arnold, in the zealous prosecution of his duties, listed a number of practices by the labour unions which he declares infractions of the law. Such are (i) preventing the use of cheaper materials or improved equipment for the sake of creating more jobs, (2) for the same purpose compelling firms to hire unnecessary workers, (3) combining with producers and distributors to fix illegal prices. He

by

its sixth

ganizations

brought indictments against building trade unions

in

St. Louis,

.

.

remainder disposed of to private buyers if they could be found, and if not, to be operated by the commission. Notable among the new .additions to the merchant marine were the “Good Neighbor Fleet” of three finely reconditioned 13,000 ton vessels, the “Uru-. guay,” “Argentina” and “Brazil,” serving the east coast of South

America from Atlantic ports, and the 26,000 ton “America,” the largest ship ever built in American yards, to be put in commission in 1940 as the flagship of the American line; Her cost to the Government will be $17,000,000, but she will be sold to the line for

Detroit and Washington for violations of the anti-trust laws; and

$10,500,000.

he was upheld by Attorney-General Murphy, who contended that “the policy of enforcement should not vary according to individual views of the official charged with enforcement.” If Mr. Arnold draws the unions into the net of the anti-trust laws, one may

also

question whether the Clayton Act will continue to be, in Gompers’

words, “the

Magna Carta

Transportation.

of

American labour.”

The Railroads

.

—^The

business

recession

of

1937-38, added to increased taxes and the competition of buses, pipe lines and water-borne traffic, led the railroads in the summer of 1938 to propose a reduction of

15%

in wages, the

ICC

having

refused to grant them the increase in freight rates which they asked.

The

threat of

wage reduction was answered by counteri, 1938. Meanwhile a fact-find-

threat of a general strike on Dec. ing committee created

by the President reported

(Oct. 1938) that.

—

on the

More than 50 fast cargo carriers and tankers are The U.S. may, therefore, look forward in the near end of the era which saw about 70% of U.S. freight

list.

future to the

and passengers carried on ships flying a foreign flag. The yards at Fore River, Camden, Newport News and San Francisco hummed with activity during 1939. There was, however, one

'fly

in the ointment; the effect which

the cash-and-carry clause in the Neutrality Act will have on

ican shipping.

Not counting

coastwise trade, there are

Amer-

the ships in the Great Lakes and the

now 44 Government owned and

282 pri-

merchant marine. The ban in the Neutrality Act forbidding American ships to carry materials to the ports of belligerent countries (except where there are no hosvately

tilities

owned

vessels in the U.S.

actual or threatened) or to enter the danger zones pro-

claimed by the President,

is

estimated to affect 6,000 American

UNITED STATES

687

by plane between New York and Chicago. On December 2 the huge LaGuardia Field at North Beach on Flushing Ba}', Long Island, was opened, and before the end of the year the daily landings and take-offs mounted to 150, over 2,500 passengers arriving or leaving on the banner day. The 80,000 word report of the Civil Aeronautics Authority to Congress in April declared that the existing airports were inadequate in space, lighting, and equipment,

and recommended the expenditure of $435,000,000 to proidde 3,500 ports of the most modern type. Already Congress had provided for the training of 20,000 young pilots between the ages of 18 and 25 to receive 50 hours of instruction each at an estimated expense of $7,000,000 to the Government. The best of these men were to

be retained for further training for national defence. The most important event of the year in aviation was the inauguration of mail and passenger service across the Atlantic.

At the beginning monop-

of the year Pan American Airways, which has had a virtual

oly of U.S. foreign flying routes, was building six 40-ton Boeing

and negowere made with Portugal and France for landing privileges at the Azores, Lisbon, and Marseilles. Incidentally, England was loath to grant such privileges, because she was announcing planes, designed to carry 74 passengers across the sea, tiations

the early inauguration of the British Imperial Airways’ mail

—

and passenger trans-Atlantic service ^not yet begun, however. On May 20 the Pan American “Yankee Clipper” made the first flight from New York to Marseilles, carrying 100,000 pieces of mail. The passenger service was inaugurated on June 28, ivith a schedule of two (later to be increased to four) round trips a week.

The 35

New York

passengers, leaving

in the afternoon,

woke

the

next morning at the Azores and were in Marseilles before sunset.

In the first 6 months of service clippers made 100 crossings without a mishap and have carried 1,700 passengers and over 40 tons of mail. With the war interrupting the regular trans-Atlantic mail

Dutch, and Scandinavian ships, air an opportune moment. Probably the

U.S. NEUTRALITY ACT, major leflislallve problern of 1939, “looked like serious business" to Hutton of, TAo Philadelphia Inquirer

service, except for the Italian,

seamen and to threaten a loss of over $50,000,000 a year to American shippers. What it will mean in the deterioration of idle ships and the loss of trade routes to foreign competitors no one can say. Immediately after the passage of the act early in Nov. 1939, nearly a score of American tankers changed their registry and the United States Lines petitioned the Maritime Commission for permission to transfer a number of its ships to the flag of Panama and to operate them with no American citizens in the crew. The President took the request under advisement and on November 21 pronounced against the petition. Congress was disposed to cause as little harm to the shipping interests and to

next step in aviation wall be the “air flivver” or inexpensive small plane, on which much promising work has already been done. In

THE

American trade

as possible; but the primarj' consideration

is

the

avoidance of war. A ship under Panamanian registry would still be owned by Americans, and if it was sunk by a submarine the danger to U.S. peace would be hardly less than it would be if the ship were flying the

American

flag.

Some

sort of

compensation to U.S. shippers for their losses (See also Shipping, Merchant Marine.)

Aviation.—This

section

military aviation will

will

come under

treat

of

civil

may

Government be devised.

aviation

only:

the heading National Defence.

by American Airlines, Inc. on Dec. 24, 1939, showed an increase of 44-7% in revenue passenger miles flown durfor the corresponding the first II months of 1939 over the figure passengers carried, ing months of 1938. The report listed 488,664 or 42*4^ of income an $7,45-»-09» nnd as against 329,348 in 193^5 recsplendid The year. previous the of the gain over $5,233,194 the ord for safety and for the regularity of schedules made by At the during maintained 1939was domestic airways in 1938

A

report Issued

more than 400 daily scheduled flights (or one every 3-6 minutes) were being made over the e.xpanding air routes being carried of the country. Some 250 passengers a day were close of the year

transportation has

recording

the

come

triumph

at

of

the

should be paid to Igor Sikorsky, his life in

America, since he

trans-Atlantic

clippers

tribute

who

fled

has devoted the 20 years of from Bolshevik Russia, to the

designing of long distance planes. It was he

who

built the

1

7-ton

clippers used in the trans-Pacific flights.

The Supreme Court

.

—

^At certain

times in U.S. history, as in the

administrations of Jackson, Lincoln, and Taft, the event of death

or retirement has given the President the opportunity to appoint a majority of the members of the Supreme Court. During the first administration of Franklin Roosevelt no vacancy occurred on the

two years he has had no less than five Van Devanter and Sutherland (retired) and Justice Cardozo (deceased) were replaced in 1937-38 by Senator Hugo L. Black, Solicitor General Stanley F. Reed, and bench, but in the such places to fill.

last

Justices

Professor Felix Frankfurter

respectively. In Feb. 1939, the 82-year-old Justice Louis Brandeis, a Wilson appointee of 1916, resigned, and the President nominated in his stead William 0.

Douglas of Minnesota, former professor at Yale and chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, to be the youngest member of the court (40). Pierce Butler of Minnesota, a Harding appointee of 1922 and a conservative corporation lawyer, died in

November. The President deferred the naming of his successor (Frank Murphy) until the meeting of the third session of the 76th Congress in Jan. 1940. The new appointments have naturally changed the complexion of the Court, eliminating all the opponents of the New Deal except Justice McReynolds, the most intransigent of them all. On April 17 the Court by a vote of six to two ruled the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 constitutional. (It will

be recalled that the

AAA

of 1933 was declared unconstitutional

UNITED STATES

688 by a unanimous

decision of the court on Jan. 6, 1936.)

already noted the Court’s reversal in

March

We have

1939, of the Fansteel

order of the NLRB. Another important decision, the next month, upheld the power of the Federal Government to tax the salaries of State employees (more than 2,500,000 in number) and the reciprocal right of the State

Governments

the 1,200,000 Federal employees.

To

to tax the salaries of

those

as a reversal of Marshall’s decision in

who

interpreted this

McCulloch

vs.

Maryland

Panama Canal. The army appropriation of $499,800,000 for the fiscal year 1939-40 was the largest

Rico, Alaska, Hawaii, and the

made by Congress

ever

in time of peace.

Government

authorizing the

A

bill

was

also passed

to purchase large supplies of “strate-

Mineral Supplies), not produced at home in sufficient quantities to carry the nation through a war, and a War Resources Board, with E. R. Stettinius of the United States Steel corporation as chairman, was appointed to cogic” material {See also Strategic

concerned the inter-

ordinate the efforts of business, labour and the Government in

ference of a State with the operations of a Federal corporation by taxing the business transactions of a branch bank of the

supplying the hundred thousand articles which the country would need in time of war. More than $65,000,000 was allotted to the navy, and two new 45,000-ton battleships were authorized, in

(1819)

it

was pointed out that the

latter case

United States, whereas the 1939 law was to tax only the personal incomes of the Federal servants. The Court’s decision in the Joe Strecker case (April 17, 1939) was expected to furnish a precedent

Harry Bridges, an alien labour agitator on the the Communist party. As Strecker that party, the Court supported his had ceased right, though an alien, to remain in the country. On December 29 special investigator J. U. Landis found no cause for the deportafor dealing with

who belonged to to be a member of

Pacific coast,

tion

addition to a large

—The boom

To guard

craft.

against the

in

Interesting events of the year were the speed-

Pacific islands.

breaking

flight of

for the French

of Bridges.

number of auxiliary enemy naval bases

American waters, from which bombing planes might threaten U.S. cities, the navy was directed to “develop and increase our naval facilities” at various points and to establish 12 new naval bases, nine of them on the establishment of

a Curtis-Hawk pursuit plane (built in the U.S.

army)

at the rate of 575 m.p.h.,

and the invention

which was predicted on the outbreak of war in Europe, and was predicated on the enormous increase of U.S. exports during the World War (191418) failed (at least, in 1939) to occur. For the first two months of the war (September and October) U.S. exports showed a rise

of the bakelite “plastic” plane which can be built at a third of the cost of the metal plane.

almost exactly parallel to that of the corresponding months of

edent by running for a third consecutive term?

1914; but in November, in spite of more than a 100% increase over October in the e.xport of aircraft, total exports fell off con-

stitute of Public

Foreign Trade.

in foreign trade

siderably, those to the United

Kingdom, for example, declining

October to $42,439,000. This has been explained partially by the fact that Great Britain is buying as much as possible in her omi dominions (wheat from Canada and wool

from $55,634,000

in

from Australia) and is increasing her imports of food stuffs from South America to cut in on the German trade. But there were other factors at work to keep U.S. trade from swelling to the enormous figures it reached in the World War. We have already seen in the section on the Merchant Marine what a handicap on American trade is imposed by the terms of the 1939 Neutrality Act. It is impossible at this stage (Jan. i, 1940) of the European conflict to predict what effect it wll have on American commerce. If the war develops into a long and serious contest on land, Great Britain, and the other maritime belligerents may well be obliged, in spite of the U.S. ban on foreign loans and the demand for cash payments in American dollars, to come to America for large supplies of war materials and food. Meanwhile, U.S. merchant ships endeavoured to avoid being tied up in port by shifting their routes to permitted shores. The “Washington” and the “Manhattan,” for example, were scheduled to run to Italy; and other lines to serve Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin American ports.

—

The Third Term

Issue.

—With

the approach of a presidential

year, 1940, a question uppermost in the discussion of domestic

Roosevelt break an American prec-

politics was, will President

Opinion in

A

poll of the In-

May

1939 recorded only 33% in far'our of a third term to 67 against it. In August the figures had changed to 40 and 60 respectively, and in October to 43 and 57;

and

an actual majority (52 to 48) voted Europe continued until the nominating conventions met in 1940. Meanwhile, the President himself maintained a Sphinx-like silence on the subject, or passed off the attempts of his supporters to commit him with a humorous remark. As the year closed the outstanding candidates for the Rein the last of these polls

for a third term

if

the

war

in

publican nomination were District Attorney

Thomas E. Dewey

of

New York, Senator Arthur H.

Vandenberg of Michigan, and Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio. The Democrats were embarrassed by

A dozen or so of prominent men, like Farley, Hull, McNutt, Wheeler, Clark, Tydings, and Speaker Bankhead, it was indicated, would respond to the call of their party if Roosevelt declined to run; but up to Jan. I, 1940 only Vice-President John N. Garner actually threw his hat in the ring. A few days before the close of the year the papers announced that “definite information” had come from Washington that the President had told his friends that he did not wish to run in 1940; but, in 1939, no direct word from himself, the silence of their chief as to his intentions. their

like Coolidge’s renunciation

more than a year before

of 1928, formally released his possible competitors.

ment

in the country

was strong against a

the election

The

senti-

Twice Conthat a third term would

third term.

was doubtless the general apprehension Europe (especially after the failure of the Munich “appeasement” policy of Sept. 1938), and of the possible extension of war to the United States, that determined

gress has passed a resolution to the effect

the ready response of the 76th Congress to the President’s re-

quest for unprecedented appropriations for the national defence.

still need to be entrusted to the master hand that framed them, and the belief that President Roosevelt’s popularity with the masses

A

will insure his re-election if

National Defence.

of the outbreak of

^It

war

in

Gallup poll at the beginning of 1939 showed

82%

be inexpedient and fraught with danger to the Republican system. The fear that the nomination of a conservative Democrat might split the party, the conviction that the policies of the New Deal

000 for defence, the President sent a special message to Congress

he is nominated led men like SecreWallace and Ickes, Attorney General Jackson, Ambassadors Kennedy and Davies (on home visits from London and Brussels), and the Democratic governors of several States to urge a third term in spite of the established precedent. Furthermore, it seemed

'(January 12), asking for an additional $551,000,000. The House, in March, voted to increase the army’s air force from about 2,000

poll noted

voters in favour of large increases in the army,

ening the navy, and

90%

84%

of the

for strength-

for a vast enlargement of our air forces.

Shortly after his budget message including more than $r,ooo,ooo,-

5,500 planes, with generous appropriations for anti-aircraft guns, artillerj", tanks, and improvements in the defences of Puerto

to

taries

that a continuance of the

war

in

Europe was

no action of the President proval than his sincere and judicious term. For

likely (as the Gallup

above indicated) to strengthen the sentiment for a in 1939

third

met with more ap-

efforts first to

prevent the

UNITED STATES

689 who were not

time labourers

admitted to

its

servants were

who

included in the original act, were (though farm labourers and domestic excluded); (2) the payments to persons of 65

benefits

still

by the old-age insurance were

w’ere covered

to begin on Jan.

1942; (3) the assessments of 1% on wages and salaries which were to be paid by both employer and 1940, instead of Jan.

I,

i,

worker were “frozen” at that figure imtil 1943, instead of being increased to 1^% in 1940 as was provided in the original bill. The rate of contribution will be 2% each in 1943, 2^% in 1946, and 3% in 1949; (4) the scope of the act was widened to take in the family of the worker. His wife on reaching the age of 65 will receive a pension equal to half of her husband’s, and a widow will get three-fourths her deceased husband’s benefits.

dren under 16 (or

if

Also the

they are going to school, under 18)

chil-

each

will

Under the original act the collections from the assessments in 1938 and 1939 reached the sum of $966,000,000, and it was estimated that a fund of $47,000,000,000 would be built up by 1980. The new amendments of 1939 will receive the half pension.

prevent the accumulation of this huge trust fund in the Treasury, and tend to equalize receipts and payments. It is estimated by the actuaries that until about the year 1953 the collections will exceed the payments by some $7,000,000,000; but that this surplus will then begin to dwindle as more people reach the age of 65, with their claims to larger pensions on account of their longer

CONGRESS the

New

‘‘didn’t

Deal

in

know

Its

own strength”

1939, notes Thornas

in

In

wrecking legislation sponsored by

The Detroit News

years of service. However, the Government

now beyond outbreak of war and then to encourage an acceptable peace. His April letters to Hitler and Mussolini, his success in the revision of the Neutrality Act in November, and especially his letter of December 23 to Pope Pius XII, offering his co-operation in the cause of peace and suggesting that to send to

you

my personal

it

would give him “great

satisfaction

representative in order that our paral-

endeavours for peace and the alleviation of suffering may be assisted” won enthusiastic response throughout the country. As peace envoy to the Vatican the President appointed Myron C. Taylor, who had presided at the Evian conference on the refugee problem, and asked Dr. George A. Buttrick of the Federation of

lel

is

content not to look

About 45,000,000 Social Security Washington in 1939. The Government

the year 1955.

counts were on

file

at

ac-

ex-

pects to pay $114,000,000 during 1940, $430,000,000 in 1942, and so on in increasing amounts. The success of the liberalized law in checking the “wild-cat” pension

schemes was shown by the de-

302 to 97 against the Townsend plan in the House, in June 1939, and the defeat of Downey’s “Ham and Eggs” proposal in California and a similar Bigelow scheme in Ohio by twocisive vote of

to-one and three-to-one votes, respectively, at the

November

(See also Social Security.)

elections.

Housing

—One of

the most disgraceful features of this uneven been the great number of families (estimated at 10,000,000 or about a third of the population) living in habita.

civilization has

the Churches of Christ and Rabbi Cyrus Adler, president of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America to serve as aids by coming to Washington from time to time for counsel. Incidentally, Taylor’s mission will be the first U.S. official connection with the Vatican (if President Theodore Roosevelt’s dispatch of William H.

setting for

Taft to the papal court in igo2 to arrange for the purchase of the church lands in the Philippines is excepted) since the last American minister to the Papal States, Rufus King of Wisconsin, left

the

evident to

Rome

administrator Nathan Straus, has been attacking the evil of the

in 1868.

Social Security

—The Social Security Act of Aug.

.

I 93 S>

which

President Roosevelt declared the most important piece of legislation in his administration, was perhaps the “instrument” of social

improvement most in need of the “machining down” of which the President spoke in his opening message to the 76th Congress. Both

immense scope in providing benefits for the aged, the unemployed and the disabled, and because it was hastened in

because of

its

order to check the alarming spread of unsound pension schemes like those of Dr. Francis E. Townsend, Father Coughlin and the late Senator Huey Long, it stood in need of revision. In the No-

vember

elections of 193^ the voters in half a dozen States

had the

and in California the “$30-every-Thursday” (“Ham and Eggs”) pension for persons over 60 years of age, a scheme sponsored by Sheridan Downey, who won the election to presented,

issue

the United States Senate, failed of adoption by the narrowest of margins. The President sent a special message to Congress in Jan.

Act of 1935, and in the course of the year the following changes were made in the law: (i) certain classes of workers, like bank employees and mari-

t^ 939 recommending

drastic

amendments

to the

human beings. How much the lack home life contributes to the annual crime

tions unfit for

000,000,000, the U.S. homicide rate which

is

of a decent bill

of $15,-

the largest of

all

the civilized countries of the world, and the prolific production of youthful criminals

community

is

impossible to say.

it is

threatened

The United

all.

by the

IVhat danger to

disease breeding slums

States Housing Authority, under

is

its

slums with vigour.

In. a report of Dec. 15, 1939, he listed the elimination of 9,750 “substandard” dwellings in 26 cities and their

replacement by 17,717 new ones, and cited more than 125 lownow under way. The rent problem is the crux of the

rent projects

With

situation.

incomes of

three-quarters of the urban population living on

than $2,000 a year, only 15% of the satisfactory dwellings come within the range of what such families can afford to pay for rent. The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation and the less

Federal Housing Authority have helped thousands to borrow loans guaranteed by the Government to preserve and

money on improve

their habitations

;

but the need for low-cost houses and

In 1925 the U.S. built 937,000 new dwelling units and employed 2400,000 workers in their construction. In 1933 these figures dropped to 54,000 and 656,000 respectively. By 1939 the country had recovered about half the figures of 1925, apartments

is

crying.

but still, even with generous Government aid, the U.S. is far from produdng the accommodations which the growing population

»

needs. is

Besides,

when

it is

considered that the building industry

the largest consumer of lumber, cement,

glass,

brick,

and

UNITED STATES

690

which this upon business recovery and renewed employment. Private interests have made their contribution to the

plumbers’ supplies,

we

realize the depressing effect

no

resolutions were; (i) an agreement

among

common

the American re-

lag in construction has

publics to consult on measures of

solution of the housing problem.

sion by foreign powers, especially the Fascist dictators; (2) the reduction of trade barriers; and (3) the improvement of the

In Oct. 1939, a $13,300,000 project was opened at Long Island city, consisting of 26 Y-shaped apartment houses to accommodate over 3,000 families at rentals of $3.40 a

company

month per room. And the Metropolitan Life Insurance was building “Parkchester,” a

at a cost of $30,000,000

group of 12,269 apartments to house 40,000 people, to be ready for occupancy in the spring of 1940. But even the lowest apartment rents (of $323 month) in the new buildings will be too high for

any but the “middle

class.”

Latin- American Relations

.

—^No progress was made

during the

year 1939 toward solving the crisis caused by the decree of the Mexican government on March 18, 1938, expropriating American

owned lands valued at $23,000,000 and American owned oil interests, over-valued by the companies at $430,000,000 and probably worth about half that amount. For the lands, which President Cardenas has taken to distribute to the landless peasants,

in a seri-

ous determination to carry out the policy of his former chief, the

Madero, compensation has been promised; but oil companies is a right to claim compensation in the Mexican courts for their actual investments. The U.S. State Department made the proposal in August that the operation of the oil wells (which was being badly managed by the native managers) should be entrusted to a board representing the Mexican government, the American oil companies, and three neutral oil experts. But the offer was summarily rejected by Cardenas. On December 2 the Mexican Supreme Court upheld the expropriation of the oil properties by a unanimous vote, denied the companies any right to claim compensation for concessions, and declared that the government might delay recompense for investments for ten years. A few days later the arbitrary policy of Mexico recoiled upon her own head, when a Hull trade agreement with Venezuela reduced by 30% the tariff on a certain quota of foreign oil imported into the United States. Because American importers had boycotted Mexican oil, that country found itself ill-fated President

the only concession to the

but a tiny percentage of the concession. MeanGovernment, pledged to the “good neighbour” policy, had no thought of bringing force to bear on Mexico. President Cardenas’ term in 1939 was drawing to a close, and he is not deprived of

all

while, the U.S.

eligible for re-election in 1940.

Should he be succeeded by a con-

servative candidate, the American oil interests expect

some com-

promise, such as, for example, one suggested recently that the

Mexican government set aside for instalment payments to American companies a percentage of its sales to foreign countries. With the rest of Latin-America U.S. relations during the year 1939 were closer and more cordial perhaps than ever before. The cumulative effect of the “good neighbour” policy, announced by President Roosevelt in his inaugural address of 1933, and implemented by such actions as the repeal of the Platt Amendment, the

withdrawal of the last American marines from Haiti, the negotiation of a dozen trade agreements by Secretary Hull, and the conciliatory attitude of the United States delegations at the PanAmerican Conferences at Montevideo, Buenos Aires, and Lima, has been to remove in large part the fear of “Yankee imperialism” which troubled the minds of the sister republics to the South. A genuine Pan-Americanism (in which the United States is just as much, and not more, of the “Pan” as Bolivia or Honduras) is replacing the quasi-dictatorial interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine which would make the United States the protector of the Latin-American republics. The year 1939 saw many evidences of this community of interests, inspired to a considerable extent by the resolutions adopted by the eighth Pan-American Congress at Lima in the closing days of 1938. The most important of those

protection from aggres-

machinery for the preservation of mutual good relations and peace among the Latin-American countries. The trend away from reliance on the League of Nations to guarantee their “political independence and territorial integrity” and toward a greater confidence in a Pan-American solidarity has been marked. Nine of the LatinAmerican republics (including all the Central American States) had already severed their connection with the League, when Peru, in April 1939, gave notice of its withdrawal, leaving only onehalf of the American States represented at Geneva. As this proc-

from the League has gone on, however, the ties between the United States and her southern sisters have grown closer. Several important South American officials were ceremonially welcomed at Washington during 1939, Foreign Minister Aranha of Brazil coming in February, President Somoza of ess of defection

in May, for example; while loans from the ExportImport bank in Washington to Brazil, Nicaragua, Chile, Cuba, Paraguay were planned to encourage financial stability in LatinAmerica and improve commercial relations there. Latin-America is the richest producer of raw materials of all the regions of the world that are not under the control of some

Nicaragua

88% of the world’s coffee, 42% of 13% of its sugar, and a goodly por-

great foreign power, supplying its silver,

16%

of

its

wool,

tion of its copper, nitrates,

and

United States investments

oil.

in

Latin-America amount to nearly $3,000,000,000, and U.S. trade there in 1939 totalled about $1,000,000,000, far exceeding that of Great Britain or Germany, the nearest competitors. Yet, with the advantages the United States has in location and in political influence in Latin-America, U.S. trade with that region should

be

much

larger than the 18 to

20%

of

its total

events are calculated to further this interest.

foreign trade.

Two

Tr,ade agreements

by Secretary Hull have now been made with ii LatinAmerican governments, the latest being that of May 1939, with Ecuador and of November with Venezuela. Negotiations are also pending with Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. The law of 1934 (renewed in 1937) empowering Secretary Hull to conclude these agreements expires on June 12, 1940. Opposition to its second renewal in the summer of 1940 has developed among three classes; negotiated

the western farmers,

who

resent the competition of foreign food

who always oppose any entering and Senators, always jealous of their privileges, who do not like the delegation of this power to the executive branch and demand that the agreements be ratified by

products; the high protectionists,

wedge

in the tariff walls;

the Senate like any other treaties. Mr. Hull and his associates have pointed to the excellent results of the score of trade agreements, covering countries with which the U.S. does over 60% of its commerce, and declare that a refusal to continue the arrangements would be to send us back to the “anarchy” of the

Smoot-Hawley

days.

dent Roosevelt.

A

They have the enthusiastic support of Presisecond aid to Latin-American commerce is the inauguration of the “good neighbour” fleet of fine steamers (the “Argentina,” the “Brazil” and the “Uruguay”), noted in the section on the

Merchant Marine.

Numerous conferences among the Latin-American

States during

1939 showed a growing solidarity of interests, especially stimulated by apprehension as to what effect the European war may have on the countries on this side of the Atlantic. In February cooperation in air lines was planned. In March an International Congress of American Democracies met at Montevideo to consider

ways and means of strengthening republican nations at

Panama

A

institutions against

conference of 21 American* approved of the Declaration of Panama, on

the threat of Fascist penetration.

UNITED STATES October

2,

fixing a 300-mile limit of the

American shore,

in

which

the belligerent powers were asked not to conduct naval operations.

And

and Uruguay agreed

Brazil, Argentina

to pool their

navies to patrol the 6,ooomi. of the east coast of South America

from the mouth of the Amazon

river

to

Cape Horn.

Hitler

Lima Conference of Dec. 1938, as “the American number one.” But Thomas Ybarra may be nearer the truth

sneered at the failure

when he

“America Faces South”) that “perhaps a bom at Munich.” Foreign Relations: Japan ^The outstanding event of the year 1939 in U.S. relations with Japan, which had been far from harmonious since the isolated protest of Secretary of State Stimson against the Japanese seizure of Manchuria in 1931, was the notification of Secretary Hull to the Japanese government on July 26 asserts

(in

genuine Pan-Americanism was .

—

that the commercial treaty of 1911 would be terminated at the

end of the prescribed time limit of six months (Jan. 26, 1940). This action was an example of President Roosevelt’s warning, in his address to Congress on January 4, that there were “many methods short of war, but stronger and more effective than words,

home to aggressor governments the aggregate sentiments of our own people.” For it was undeniable that Japan, in spite of protests against the infraction of the Nine Power Treaty of 1922 and the Kellogg Peace Pact of 1928, was pushing on ruthlessly toward the conquest of China. Every sign of weakness on the part of the western powers, like the surrender at Munich, enof bringing

couraged her in a new

move

of aggression.

And

the “aggregate

sentiments” of the American people were clearly shown in polls which condemned Japan and advocated a boycott against her

691

Chinese and the enormous potential market of the Celestial Empire. For example, of the total U.S. trade with the Orient in 1939,

% was with Japan, as against only

43

14%

with China. It

is

cer-

American merchants, whatever be the fate of the 1911 treaty, will strive to maintain this trade; but, on the other hand, they will view with alarm any military and naval development of Japan which would give her control over the sources in the far tain that

East (like the Philippines or the Dutch Indies) whence the U.S. draws many indispensable products, like rubber, tin, camphor, vegetable

hemp,

oils,

jute,

chromium and other non-American

commodities.

Roosevelt and the Dictators

made

concessions

—When

it became evident that the Munich conference of Sept.

.

to Hitler at the

1938, failed to deter him from his course of aggression, anxiety over the outbreak of another European war which might involve the United States grew more serious. In March 1939, the Fuehrer

entered the Czech capital of Prague and proceeded, through the military and then the secret police (the Gestapo), to reduce the whole of Czechoslovakia, whose independence he had solemnly

guaranteed, to a vassal state. bania.

A

week

by telegrams

On

April

later President Roosevelt, to Hitler

7,

Mussolini seized Al-

who had

already sought

and President Benes to bring about a

peaceful settlement of the Sudeten

crisis,

Hitler and Mussolini, asking

to agree for a period of 10

them

sent messages to both

years not to attack any of 31 weaker nations which he listed, and promising that, in case they so agreed, he would request these

Germany or Italy. German Reichstag on

nations to give a counter-pledge not to attack Hitler replied in a long speech before the

which led imme-

April 28, in which he justified his behaviour, boasted of the un-

diately to the denunciation of the 1911 treaty were Japan’s threat

conquerable might of the Third Reich, and heaped sarcastic abuse on President Roosevelt as a meddler who had no understanding of the situation. Having extinguished the liberty of Czecho-Slovakia. Hitler’s next step was to demand Danzig and a German zone through the Polish Corridor. As the situation grew tense,

commerce by a majority of over 70%. The

acts

to attack the international settlement at Shanghai on her direct assault a few days later on the British and

cessions at Tientsin, put

all

foreigners in jeopardy.

May

9;

and

French conDespite re-

peated assurances that no harm to foreign interests was intended

and prompt apologies from the civil power in Japan for harm inflicted, it was evident that a determined group of the younger military ofiBcers was in the saddle at Tokyo, who would stop at nothing to establish an exclusive domination over China. Now, the abrogation of the treaty of 1911 would release the United States from its obligation to deal with Japan on “the most fa-

voured nation” basis and open the way, should the U.S. so desire, to lay that embargo on her commerce which Senator Pittman, chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations, has long been advocating. Since Japan has been getting more than half her war materials from the United States, the seriousness of an embargo on arms, ammunition, cotton, steel and scrap metal is evident to her statesmen; it has been rumoured that Secretary Hull and Ambassador Horinouchi in Washington, as well as Ambassador Grew and Foreign Minister Nomura in Tokyo, have been at work on new treaty terms which may improve U.S. relations with Japan.

The Japanese, meanwhile, announced (December 23) their readiness to reopen the Yangtze river as far up as Nanking to foreign ships; and a statement at the same time from the U.S. Treasur>' Department that no tariff discriminations or punitive harbour charges against Japan were contemplated has relieved the merchants of both countries from much of their anxiety over the

proposed abrogation of the treaty of 1911. The matter resolves itself into a question of American indignation over the political

in

China

The United

States

and military aggressions of Japan

versus the interests of U.S. trade with Japan.

Japan’s largest customer, purchasing about 70% of her chief export commodity, raw silk. Next only to Canada and the British Isles, Japan is also the best customer of the United States. United States trade with her is many times that with China, in

is

spite of the manifest

sympathy of the American people with the

the President again interceded, with telegrams (August 24) to Hitler, the President of Poland, and the of Italy, urging

Kmg

arbitration, mediation, or direct negotiation for the settlement of

the dispute.

But again Hitler ignored the pleas for peace, and,

having made a’most unnatural alliance with Soviet Russia, ruthlessly invaded Poland on September i. The unhappy country, caught between the armies of Hitler on the west and Stalin on the was reduced to submission, with frightful slaughter, in a

east,

month’s time. This

final outrage of the Fuehrer brought England and France, the guarantors of Poland, to the end of their patience, and on September 3 they declared war on Germany. The outbreak of the European war also brought President Roosevelt, who, with the unanimous approval of the American people, had made such

extraordinary efforts for the preservation of peace, to call Congress in the extra session (noted above) for the revision of the

Neutrality Law.

As the year

closed,

it

was impossible to answer war be long? Will it

the questions on everybody’s lips; Will the develop, as

it

has not yet, into a death struggle between the totali-

and the democracies of western Europe? Will the U.S. be drawn into it? Will some “incident” involving the loss of American life or property, despite all the safeguards with which tarian dictators

the U.S. has been able to surround them, prove too

much

of a

American neutrality? Will the appeal to save democracy again cause the United States to throw its physical as well as its moral strength into the fight against the dictators? The experience of the American merchant vessel “City of Flint,” stopped in the mid-Atlantic, in October, by a German warship and taken strain on

to the Russian port of

shows how

little

Murmansk, contrary

to international law,

regard for American rights will be

perate belligerents; and the battle resulting in the blowing

oft'

shown by desLa Plata,

the estuary of

up of the German pocket

battleship “Graf

9

1

..

UNITED STATES

692 Spee,” together with the “suicide” of the

German

liner

“Colum-

Jersey coast, and the internment of her crew at Ellis island, in December, show that the war may come still closer to American shores. Eternal vigilance and sane statesmanship

bus”

off

New

the

must be exercised to preserve the blessing of peace for the United States. {See also Anti-Semitism; Armies of the World; Canada; Japan; Democracy; Financial Review; International Law; Mexico; Neutrality; Propaganda; Puerto Rico; Roosevelt,

Franklin Delano; Strategy of the European War;

Virgin Islands'.)

(D. S. Mu.)

—

Transportation. For statistics on transportation and communications see the articles Aviation, Civil; Electric Trans-

portation; Motor Transportation; Motor Vehicles; Post Office; Railroads; Shipping, Merchant Marine; Telephone. Agriculture. ^For the second successive year, agricultural pro-

—

duction declined from the record output of 1937.

The

acreage for

harvest in 1939 was estimated at 317,957,000 as compared with 329,908,000 in 1938. Actual production declined in approximately the

same

ratio.

Notable individual exceptions were corn, which

—^The

Commerce.

Foreign

first ii months of 1939, compared with a favourable balance of $1,036,415,000 in the equivalent period of 1938. Exports in 1939 decreased fractionally, while imports rose more than 15%. Foreign trade in merchandise for the

U.S.A. 1938 exports imports 1939 exports imports

By

of 1938

and 1939 by continents was

Europe

N.America

Asia

$1,213,209 513,559 1,128,877 559,963

$687,211 453,308 729,759 530,535

$463,770 319,404 491,817 609,859

months

first II

,

.

The

in

Year

1,250,955 bu733,166 542,306 1,194,902 785,506 1,146,258 1,053.839

X, 461,123

2,303,747 1,507,089 2,644.99s 2,542,238 2,591,063

756,927 bu. 551,683 526,393 626,344 626,766 873.993 930,801 739 44 S

941,230

.

Germany

14,207 70,191 24,346

practically non-

Commerce

Nov. 1939

in

($8,617,in

Nov.

Aircraft and aircraft parts

exports. first

ii

months o{ 1938

537 in the same period of 1939. Labour. For data on labour in 1939, see the

—

Cotton

Cottonseed 5,784 tons S,8o6 4,282 4,729

Tame Hay 71,827 tons 66,530 55,270 78,138 63,536 73,785 80,299 75,023

5,511 8,426 * 5 , 400

Grain showed

to fourth place.

fell

among

rose from $62,512,000 in the

13,003 bales 13,049 9,636 10,638 12,399 18,946 11,943 11,792

Wheat

Oats

Corn 2,931,281 bu, 2,399,632

1932 1933 1934 193s 1936 1937 1938 1939

$84,926

50,527 103,770 66,684

Petroleum was again the leading export in 1939, while rubber, non-ferrous metals, and coffee were the leading imports. Sugar, the leading import of 1938,

(000 omitted) are as follows:

Oceania

1938).

the sharpest decline

eight years

Africa

$105,206

Nov. 1938). Imports were $2,656,055 ($6,922,373

(more than sibu. per acre) in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa; and tobacco and soybeans, both of which were bumper crops. last

America

$271,174 238,076 285,159 279,808

as follows:

U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic

reported exports of only $2,559 1°

995

S.

Germany were

the end of 1939, exports to

existent.

according to preliminary estimates had record-breaking yields

Production figures of selected crops for the

United States had a favourable

trade balance of $738,381,000 for the

to $88,016,-

American

articles

Rice

Tobacco

41,619 bu. 37,651 39,047 38,784 49,002 53,364 52,303 52,204

1,017,317 lbs. 1.371.131 1,081,629 1,297,155 1.154.131 1,553,40s 1,378,534 1,659,409

Potatoes

• Preliminary.

Livestock shipments at public stockyards were, with the exception of sheep, larger in the first ten

months

of 1939 than in the

comparable period of 1938. Total shipments of cattle through October were 4,990,000 (4,925,000 in the same period of 1938); calves, 2,276,000 (2,058,000); hogs, 5,735,000 (5,539.ooo);

and

sheep, 10,304,000 (10,916,000).

The

following table

average prices received by farmers

lists

on selected dates

for important crops

(all in

cents)

Federation of Labor; Congress of Industrial Organizations;

Labour Unions; Relief; Social Security; Strikes and Lockouts; Unemployment; Wages and Hours. Statistical information

estimates, the total value of

:

Pota-

Eggs

toes

per doz.

per bu. per bu.

Cotton per

of'

on the mineral

in-

the U.S. Department

of the Interior in 1939 pertained to the year 1938 (see also separate articles on minerals and metals). According to preliminary

was $4,354,000,000 Wheat Corn Oats Barley Rye Buckper bu. per bu. per bu. per bu. per bu. wheat

—

Mineral Products.

dustry released by the Bureau of Mines

all

—

mineral production in that year

20% from

a decrease of approximately

Total Imports

1b.

the

and Exports 7932-7939 (ooo omitted)

Oct. average,

1909-13 IS, 1936 IS, 1937 IS, 1938 IS, 1939 •

Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct.

.

-

,

.

88.1

106.8 88.7

64.8 97-9 58.9

.

5 2.2

41.

.

70.3

47.6

38.4 43-1 28.8 22.1 30.3

60.5 84.2 52.0 36.1 42.2

72.0 S0.4 63.8 32.9 45-1

71.

78.3 62.4 54-5 62.7

65.0 97.9 48.5 51.0 66.4

23-8 27.0 25.2 27-1 22.9

12.10 12.23 8.10 8.53 8.73

See also Agriculture and the articles on individual agricultural products.

—

Manufactures. ^The last biennial census of manufactures taken by the U.S. Department of Commerce was published in Dec. 1938 and was for the calendar year 1937. The leading industries according to value of products were in the following order: motor vehicles and parts; steel-work and rolling-mill products; meat packing; petroleum refining; prmting and publishing; clothing (excluding shoes, hosiery and'millinery) electrical machinery and supplies; bread and bakery products; tobacco products; and cot;

ton manufactures.

ments

in 1937

The

total

was 166,793;

earners, 8,569,578

number

of manufacturing establish-

wage amounted to

salaried employees, 1,216,993;

(average

for

year).

Salaries

$2,716,473,756 and wages $10,112,808,089. Total value of

products was $60,710,072,958.

all

U.S.

Year

Export Total

% Increase

% Increase

$x, 6 ri,oi 6

1936 1937 1938 1939 *

.... .... .... •

•

•

.

$1,322,774 1 , 449,559

1.6,4.994 2,132,800 2,282,874 2.4SJ.978 3.349.167 3,094,440 2.809,574

7.6

36.4

-7.6

-

9.6 14.2 23.8 18.3

2,047,48s 2,422,502 3,083,668 1,960,428 2,071,193

.56

27.''

-36.4 15-7

*11 months; percentages of increase and decrease compared with ii months of 1938.

Leading U.S. Exports and Imports

— through Nov.

Imports

Exports Products

.

. . .

.

,

.

.

.

and parts Tobacco and manufactures Fruits and preparations Aircraft

.

.

.

.

•Except precious.

$348,237,265 260,514,643 245,970,611 228,896,040 199,781,113 128,337,363 94 , 441,549 92,875,200 88,016,537 86,145,017 76,822,513

Value

Products

Value

Petroleum and products Industrial machinery Iron and steel products Automobiles and parts Cotton, unmanufactured Non-ferrous metals* Electrical machinery Grains and preparations

7939

Rubber and manufactures Non-ferrous metals*

.

.

Coflee

Sugar and products Paper and manufactures Silk and products Paper base stocks Wool and manufactures Furs and manufactures .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Beverages, alcoholic . Precious stones; imitations .

$154,938,175 148,560,388 125,794,482 121,673,981 115,885,035 114,985,668 78,936,582 67,081,699 50,405,103 40,993,885 46,216,877

— GOV'T DEPARTMENTS — UNIVERSITIES

U. S.

693

$5)413)600,000 of 1937. In 1936 the value was $4,556,800,000. Metals as a group suffered the greatest decline about 40%

United States Government Departments and Bureaus: see Government Departme.vts and Bureaus. Also see under

whereas the non-metals and mineral fuels each declined about 12%. Gold alone among the 10 principal minerals showed an increase in

specific

—

production. Production of pig iron and iron ore had the sharpest decrease, the latter metal dropping from $207,828,213 in 1937 to $74,322,405 in 1938. The leading mineral products of the U.SA. in 1938, each with a total output value of more than $100,000,000

name,

i.e.

Coast Guard,

U.S., etc.

United States Housing Authority: see Housing; Municipal Government. United States Mint: see Coinage. Universal Service: see Armies of the World: Military Service.

were as follows: Mineral

Pig iron

.

.

1937 value

1938 value

Petroleum Bituminous coal Natural gas

$1,390,000,000 655,000,000 500,870,000 356,875.369 Not available 180,600,167 178,143,400 156,535.303 139,255.046 110,2x6,000

;

Coke Pennsylvania anthradte Gold

Cement Stone

Copper (domestic ores only)

$1,513,340,000 864.042.000 528.354.000 731,139,43s 261,003,903 197,598,849 168,158,900 171,414,093 146,213,128 201.988.000

Universities and Goileges. education in the United States is shown by a steady growth in attendance, which is espe(1939) in the junior college and the graduate colFive hundred seventy-five junior colleges, having enrolments totalling 196,710, were listed in 1939, as compared with 554, havcially noticeable

lege.

ing 155,112 students in 1938. Enrolment in private junior colleges

increased

20%;

—

Finance and Banking. Statistics pertaining to the United be found in separate articles such as Banking; Bonds; Budget; Financial Review; Gold Reserves and Gold Standard; Government Expenditures; National Debts; National Income; Stock Exchanges; Stocks; Taxation; Wealth and States will

Income, Distribution of. Defence. ^Following Great Britain’s and France’s declaration of war against Germany, President Roosevelt on Sept. 8, 1939 declared a limited national emergency and ordered that all branches of the U.S. armed forces should be increased in strength. At the end of the fiscal year 1939, the actual strength of the U.S. Army by components was as follows;

—

the

have had greatest development in the Middle and Far West and range in size from less than 100 students to from six to eight thousand. Thirty-two junior colleges enrolled

Regular Army National Guard Organized Reserve

..... ....

Total, U. S.

Army

.

.

.

Warrant

A

by the American Association of Junior Col“Terminal education, at the junior college level, in-

recent statement

leges says;

cludes so-called ‘general’ education, designed to prepare students

and for individual happiness, and semiand perhaps other types of vocational education, designed to prepare students for economic independence.” for social citizenship

professional

Many

colleges are considering

13,032 14,455 116,719

775

144,206

Men

Total

211

174,079 184,825 3,054

187,886 199.491 119,773

986

361,958

507,150

Officers

795.

The

U.S.

Navy

men and

enlisted

at the end of the fiscal year 1939

6,877

officers

Marine Corps had an average ing the year.

New

on the active

had 110,100

list.

enlisted strength of 17,500

enlistments in the

Navy were

The men

U.S. dur-

14,460 from

159,409 applications; re-enlistments were 8o-8i% as compared with 72-21% in 1938. Recorded expenditures of the Navy Department for the fiscal year 1939 were $633,219,988.13; estimated

improving

possibilities of

college studies

This involves a more

and a modification

flexible

of the requirements

for the bachelor’s degree. Post-graduate registration for 1938-39 exceeded 90,000 students, a growth of more than 10,000 within two years. Notwithstanding the current increase in the demand for teachers vvith the

many All three components gained in numbers during the year, and the total net gain was 10,340 men. Expenditures of the U.S. War Department for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939 were $705,062,-

new

the opportunities in general education within the framework of

program of

Enlisted

more than 1,000 students

each.

the four-year liberal arts college. Commissioned Officers

30%. DisUnited States, junior colleges

that of public junior colleges, about

tributed widely throughout

quarters.

A

M.A.

few

or Ph.D. an over-supply

is

feared in

universities are taking definite steps ulti-

mately to improve their methods of selecting students for graduate work. The fact that nearly 200,000 first- and second-year students

now

attend junior colleges accentuates the competitive

first two college years. On the other hand, thousands of junior college students enter conventional

aspects in the enrolments of the

liberal arts colleges at the third-year level, especially in the

and Far West junior

The

Middle

colleges.

Engineers’ Council for Professional Development com-

pleted an examination of facilities for teaching engineering in 140 engineering colleges. voluntary committee of engineering pro-

A

expenditures for 1940, $863,671,083.73. The following is a summary of U.S. vessels, classified under the

fessors not only evaluated the engineering colleges as a whole but

1936 London Naval treaty, as of June 30, 1939:

the resulting report. Professor Dugald C. JaCkson said;

specifically

is

Number (including over-age)

Battleships

Buildin^or Appropriated for

9

89

43 25

for better-sifted engineering students in the engineering schools

and an increased proportion of

Colleges of dentistry are watching with interest the announce-

ment from Harvard of a program 1939 'were the "North Carolina,” “Washington,” “South Dakota,” “Indiana,” “Massachusetts,” “Alabama,” “Iowa” and “New Jersey.” The numerical strength of the U.S. Navy at the end of 1939 is discussed in the article Navies of the World. For additional data on the

The

battleships under construction on July

i,

armed forces, see Air Forces; Armies of the World; rine Corps; National Guard. U.S.

technical-institute students look-

ing forward to the engineering trades.”

plans for post-graduate medical education that will improve the clinical work of specialists in the various fields of medicine.

S

34

Of “The need

their departments.

Medical education during 1939 has endeavoured to perfect

S

15

approved some three-fourths of

Ma-

emphasis

is

which new and medical aspects of leading to a degree in dental medidne rather in dental education in

to be placed on the biological

training in dentistry,

than in dental surgery as heretofore.

The American Association of University Professors and the Assodation of American Colleges (presidents) have given much consideration to formulation of a

more

fundamental to appointment and tenure.

definite set of principles

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

694

In 1939, the National Resources Committee, after an extensive study of research funds available in the United States, reported that, of the total of $200,000,000 expended, $50,000,000

pended for research

was

ex-

servatory vyas opened, and the universities of Ireland, additional

number of scientific subjects were created. {See Cambridge University; London University; Oxford Uni-

teaching posts in a also

versity.)

in the univ9rsities.

—

widest range of activities including general education, vocational

Canada. ^The universities of Canada report the establishment new chairs and the creation of new posts. At Laval university extensive improvements were made to the school of medicine. At McMaster university a contingent of the Canadian O.T.C. was organized and a St. John Ambulance brigade formed for women students. The Government of Iceland made the University of

education and research.

Manitoba a depository for

Bibliography. Depression, Recovery and Higher Education, a report by Committee Y of the American Association of University Professors. The draft of this report was prepared by hlalcolm M. Willey, University of Minnesota (New York, 1937): The Student and His Knowledge, Bulletin No. 29 (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York,

Australasia. ^At the University of Adelaide the Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science was completed. The Universities of Melbourne, Tasmania and Western Australia report the con-

The

and capaci-

individual differences of students, their needs

continued to attract the interest of administrators at every

ties,

made more Hundreds of colleges participated in one or more of the experimental programs in testing and selecting students for the Conditions of admission and graduation were

level.

flexible.

—

1938): The Proceedings oj the Institute Jor Administrative Officers oj Higher Institutions (1939). (W. A. J.)

Great

Britain.

—^The

crises of

1938 were not misunderstood by

of

—

struction of

new

all

books printed in Iceland.

buildings and the addition of posts.

At the

University of Sydney a chair of aeronautics was established. At Victoria university college. New Zealand, a department of political

the universities of Great Britain. During the year preceding the

science and public administration was created.

outbreak of war preparations for the preservation of university

South Africa. ^The universities and colleges in South Africa added to their facilities for the recreation, residence and physical training of students, as well as for the study of and research in South African problems.

life,

teaching and research were under constant consideration.

Evacuation of universities from vulnerable areas, reserved occu-

war time by members of university commandeering of university buildings, military training, postponement of military service, the selection of officers in all

pations, specialist assistance in

—

—Most

India.

staffs,

branches of the defence forces, precautions against

air raids,

the

the Indian

of

regulations, additional courses versities in India,

no

less

universities

report changes in

and the creation of new

posts. Uni-

than those in other parts of the world,

conservation of research teams and emergency legislation were

are also paying increasing attention to the physical welfare of

a few of the numerous questions discussed and settled before the

sible

happenings at the outbreak of war did not materialise, in no

their students. At two universities, Aligarh Muslim university and Nagpur, compulsory military drill has been introduced. Europe. ^The outbreak of war in Sept. 1939 at once disorganized university teaching in many of the countries on the con-

way

detracted from the smooth working of evacuation and other

tinent of Europe. In

beginning of hostilities. In Sept. 1939 the universities of Great Britain were ready for any contingency. That forecasts of pos-

schemes for the preservation of university teaching

—a

national

commended by Government. The by the evacuation plans was the University of London, of which most of the larger colleges were hospitably received by institutions in neutral or non-vulnerable areas; but other universities have plans in readiness should occa-

necessity acknowledged and

university chiefly affected

sion arise.

war

had been In September, uncompleted schemes had either to be curtailed or abandoned. The year 1939, however, is a fresh reminder that the university, if it is to achieve the results for which it has been established, must During the year up

to the outbreak of

universities

proceeding with their program of development.

be a dynamic and not a static institution, must be a “museum for record, a laboratory for discovery and a powerhouse of inspiration.” At Birmingham the Barber Institute of Fine Art was opened.

A new

early in 1940.

gymnasium and physics block should be available At the University of Bristol the dental hospital was

nearing completion and the occupation.

The

new

science wing

Universities of

report reorganization of courses.

was already

in partial

Durham, Leeds and Liverpool At the University of Manchester

a physical education centre was opened

—an

indication, here as

new outlook on the functions of a university in relation to its students. The University of Reading as a receiving centre had to discontinue work on new buildings to house the departments of zoology and psychology. The department of glass

elsewhere, of a

technology of the University of Sheffield has been housed in a

new lish

building.

The

University of Wales was empowered to estab-

a faculty of architecture and

ties for

its colleges

extended their

facili-

—

was reduced

Germany

the

number of

university teaching

and university standards were lowered. In Poland the Universities of Warsaw and Cracow ceased to function as centres of Polish culture. In what was Czechoslovakia students were massacred. In Finland the University of Helsinki was partially destroyed by bombing. From Russia no report has been forthcoming. In Belgium the most important developments reported are from the University of Liege where a school of criminology was created. Reciprocal postgraduate scholarships were arranged with British universities. Similar arrangements were made between British and French universities. In Bulgaria public funds were made available for poor students. In Denmark, centres

to six

in the Universities of

made

Copenhagen and Aarhus additions were

to the teaching staffs in theology, medicine, sociology and

comparative

number

literature.

The

Italian

Government increased

the

of scholarships on a reciprocal basis to students of other

A chair of aerology was established in the University Rome. At the University of Vytautas the Great in Lithuania

countries.

of

large clinics were

record

completed and equipped.

number of matriculated

In Spain, with a

students, the University of Madrid

was reopened. By the removal of the ban on teaching by members of religious orders a large increase in the number of women students was recorded. In Turkey the number of students at the University of Istanbul has now risen to 7,135. study and research have been greatly extended.

Facilities

for

—

South America. In the Argentine a new national university was founded at Cuyo to give special attention to the study of modern languages and to English in particular. In Peru a chair of English was established in the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos.

physical culture. Similarly in Scotland the physical welfare

was a deep concern of all the universities. At Aberdeen a new sports pavilion and swimming pool was constructed; of students

Edinburgh a university certificate of physical ability was inand at St. Andrews alterations were made to the university gymnasium. At all, including Glasgow, where a new ob-

The and

following seven pages carry a selected

colleges in the U.S.

and Canada, with

list

of universities

location, year founded,

endowment and num-

at

chief executive, enrolment, size of faculty,

stituted;

ber of library volumes, for the academic year 1939-40. asterisk denotes 1938-39 data.

An

|

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UNIVERSITY PRO FESSO RS — U ROLOGY

702

University Professors, American Association of: Academic Freedom. Closely associated with radium,

Ilroniiim UlalllUIIK

see

Canada and Belgian

In the field of surgery, continued and more extensive use of transurethral prostatic resection has emphasized the value of this

procedure in the hands of the skilled surgeon. The excellent functional results and the associated low mortality and morbidity rate

Congo are the chief sources of uranium. In 1937, Canada produced 2i2,ooolb. of uranium salts from the treatment of 290 short tons of ore. Exports of uranium ore from Belgian Congo are irregular, being none in 1938 and 1,052 metric tons in

reported by a skilful few indicate this to be more and more the procedure of choice in the treatment of the enlarged prostate gland. Transurethral resection is also being employed more often

1937; the average during the past several years has been about 400 tons; exports of uranium salts from Belgium, where the ore

sphincteric tissue which has been causing urinary retention, this

have been increasing, and reached 150 tons in 1936. The uranium content of ores produced in the United States in 1938 was only 5 1,7051b., while imports of uranium oxide and other salts during the year totalled 376,708 pounds. The chief use is as a

neurogenous

of the ureters into the sigmoidal portion of the colon for the diversion of the urinary stream, has been accepted as the pro-

use for the

cedure of choice in instances of exstrophy of the bladder, irrepara-

is

treated,

colouring agent in ceramics and glass, there being

metal

little

(G. A. Ro.)

itself.

than heretofore in removing small amounts of prostatic and type of retention having been regarded previously as being of

The

origin.

operation of ureterosigmoidostomy, or the transplantation

Probably the most important recent advance in the UlUIUgyi field of urology has been in chemotherapy. In no field of medicine has the value of international co-operation been

Ilrnlnmr

better exemplified than in the development and clinical application of such important chemotherapeutic agents as mandelic acid,

the

hydrochloride

of

2

:4-di-amino-azobenzene-4-sulphonamide

cystitis,

as well as in

carcinoma of the bladder.

Simultaneous

of both

transplantation

ureters,

after a period of a few weeks,

of relieving patients

The

is

who have

followed by total cystectomy

now

regarded as the best method

extensive carcinoma of the bladder.

attention of the urologist has been called to the important

association of unilateral renal disease

and hypertension by

recent

experimental observations with ischemia produced by partial com-

This work has revived the theory

(prontosil), para-amino benzene sulphonamide (sulphanilamide) and sulphapyridine. This group of drugs has revolutionized the

pression of the renal arteries.

treatment of infections of the genito-urinary tract. Sulphanilamide

indicating clinical application of the results of these experiments

and sulphapyridine are the most valuable agents yet discovered for the treatment of gonorrhoea. Recent reports would indicate that sulphapyridine is more effective than sulphanilamide in the treatment of this disease. Sulphanilamide and neoprontosil, however, are superior in the treatment of other types of infection in

the urinary tract. to be

more

Sulphanilamide and prontosil have, been found

efficacious in the treatment of bacillary

than coccic

which associated hypertension with renal have appeared

in recent

disease.

Case reports

medical literature. Nephrectomy for uni-

lateral renal disease caused

by chronic

infection

and for congenital

malposition of the kidney with partial occlusion of the renal vein,

has been followed by disappearance of hypertension. of the urologist

is

called to the

wisdom

Attention

of careful investigation of

the kidney itself before subjecting the patient to extensive sympathectomy and operations on the adrenal body for malignant

On

infections, but, like mandelic acid, the effectiveness of sulphanila-

hypertension.

mide and prontosil

investigation will be necessary to prove that nephrectomy has

tors such as

is

reduced

in the

presence of complicating fac-

stone and hydronephrosis.

Mandelic acid

is

also

widely employed in the treatment of uncomplicated bacilluria and is

usually attended

by

less systemic reaction

than that which re-

been the chief factor

The

administered under the close supervision of a physician. In the

manent place

it

has been found necessary to pay close

Advances

During recent years the recognition of gonoof cultures has been generally employed. Although the fundamental causes of calculous formation in the urinary tract are still unsolved, important pathologic and bacteriologic studies have been reported in recent years which throw some light on causative factors. The importance of infection in some instances of formation of calculi, particularly in the presence of such urea-splitting organisms as the staphylococcus and proteus, would seem to be more clearly established than was formerly the case. Attention has been called to the frequent occurrence of “milk patches” in the renal papillae, which apparently constitute a nucleus for development of calculus. Continued effort to prevent the re-formation of urinary calculi following surgical removal by diet, vitamin A therapy and acidification seems justified, although no definite value has as yet been shown for such treatment as a substitute for surgical intervention.

There has been an increasing degree of appreciation of excretory urography as a diagnostic procedure, with the use of serial, angulated, respiratory and postural urograms.

per-

in the use of endocrinologic substances in the treat-

est in this field.

by means

method a

in this field.

Additional studies of the normal bacterial flora of the urethra and bladder, together with improved media for the culturing of patho-

coccic infection

permanent reduction of the blood

a definite contribution, and the continued use of

is

ment of various

nite contribution.

a

previously had hypertension.

spinal anaesthesia in limited extents has gained the

attention to bacteriologic factors involved in the infected urine.

genic bacteria and detection of urea-splitting organisms, are a defi-

in

who

clinical

use of intravenous anaesthesia for urologic procedures of

short duration

selection of these drugs

the other hand, careful post-operative

pressure of a patient

from the use of sulphanilamide. An appreciation of the toxic manifestations of these drugs makes it imperative that they be sults

I

and intractable

ble vesicovaginal fistulas

selected instances of

lesions in the genito-urinary tract are still in the experimental stage, although there is definitely increased inter-

There has been much

closer co-operation between

the biochemist and the urologist than has been the case before. Much experimental and some clinical use of the male and female

sex hormones has been reported. The use of these hormones in the treatment of prostatic hypertrophy has thus far been disappointing, in spite of a few encouraging reports. Continued use of the anterior-pituitary-like gonad-stimulating substance of the urine

of pregnancy in the treatment

of undescended

testes

is

use-

not unattended with dangers. It is probably most useful during or prior to the age of puberty when, even though surgical intervention may be necessary, use of ful,

although such a procedure

the substance will

make

is

the operation easier for the surgeon. The is of value in the treatment of vulvo-

female sex hormone (oestrin) vaginitis in children.

—

{See also

Chemotherapy.)

tV. F. Braasch, “Pyelonephritis and its treatment,” Obst. (Feb. 15, 1939); Harry Goldblatt, “Experimental hypertension induced by renal ischemia,” Harvey lecture, May 19, 193.8, Bull. New York Acad. Med. (Sept. 1938); Alexander Randall, “The origin and growth of renal calculi,” Ann. Surg. (June 1937): G. J. Thompson and H. C. Habein, “Transurethral prostatic resection; e.xperience with 1.200 patients seventy years of age or more,” Proc. Staff Meet., Mayo Clin(Mav 18. 1938): D. L. Thomson, “Relations between endocrinology and (W. F. Br.) urology,” 7 Urol. (April 1939).

Bibliography.

Surg., Gyncc.

.

&

URUGUAY— UTAH ^ republic on the Atlantic coast of South America, between Brazil and Argentina; language, Spanish;

IlniffllSU

Uiu^Udjf}

president, General Alfredo Baldomir; area, 72,153 square miles.

Population (1933 census); 1,993,234; official estimate (1939), 2,132,888. The percentage of whites in the population is greater than in any American country except Argentina and Canada.

The

Montevideo, 684,036; Paysandu, 40,000; Salto, 30,000; Mercedes, 23,000; Colonia, 12,000. History. Politically, Uruguay was quiet and stable during 1939, with indications of a gradual return to the full exercise of

703

ing sixth in total trade.

—

Cattle-breeding and sheep-raising are the chief and nearly 80% of the land is devoted to grazing. Processing and packing of meat products is an important industry. Wheat, linseed, maize, oats, potatoes are the chief agricultural products. {See Hispaxic America axd the European War.)

Production.

industries,

chief cities are:

—

democracy which had characterized the country during the quarter-century preceding 1930. The country was stilt faced with economic difficulties, but the outbreak of the European war in Sept. 1939 had a generally (although not entirely) favourable

due especially to the increased sale of livestock products.

effect,

To

pro-

was imposed on war-time profits of the pastoral industry. Meanwhile, wool sales increased, and, in November, the British Government purchased £862,938 value of British beef. Acreage for the 1939-40 season was higher for all crops except wheat and vide subsidies for adversely affected industries, a

25%

tax

months of the year, a reciprocal trade agreement with the United States was in process of negotiation, but observers were pessimistic as to the outcome. Uruguay participated in the Panama Conference, and was a birdseed. In the last

from the League of Nations in pocket-battleship “Adthe

leader in the expulsion of Russia

On December

December.

13,

German

miral Graf Spec” engaged in battle with three British cruisers off the Uruguayan coast and fled to Montevideo in a crippled condition.

German demands

for time for repairs were rejected and the

“Spee’s” internment was ordered unless she departed by 17.

vessel left Montevideo,

'When the

of Montevideo.

On December

30, the

its

December

crew scuttled

it

in sight

German merchantman “Ta-

coma,” auxiliary to the “Spee,” was given 48 hours to leave or be interned,

and was interned Jan.

—Education

Education.

is

i,

free

There are

nearly 2,000 elementary and secondary schools, with more than 200.000 pupils. The National university at Montevideo, with 10.000 students, ranks high. In 1937, 87 64% of all education was borne by the State. Montevideo is one of South America s leading

—

^The

monetary unit

is

the peso, valued at 38 cents

The public debt was 350,171,000 pesos in 1938. largely by Communications.—External communication is

U.S. (Dec. 1939).

assuming greater water, with railway, highway and air transport 22,487mi. of highimportance, however. There are approximately is ways of all classes, and i,65omi. of railways (of which 90% comfrequent and Regular under British control and ownership). Aires and wth munication by air is maintained nith Buenos Brazil.

Foreign Trade. ports.

Wool

alone

—

o al ex ^Livestock products comprise 85% pro ucts, a mos Agricultural over 45%totals

^

Rocky Mountain

litoh Uldlli 1896,

popularly

is

State, admitted to the

known

as the

United States in

“Mormon

State”; area,

84,990 sq.mi.; population in 1930, 507,847; in 1939, 520,000 (estimated). In 1930 there were 495,955 native whites, 1,108

Negroes, and

10,784 persons

other races,

of

including

4,012

Mexicans, 3,269 Japanese, and 158 Filipinos. Salt Lake City, the capital, had a population of 140,267 in 1930 and 149,000 (estimated) in 1939. Other cities; Ogden, railway centre (1930), 40,272; Provo, seat of Brigham Young university (1930), 14,766; Logan, 10,061.

History.

—Mormon

population of the capital

is

estimated at

40%

and that of the rural districts at 60%. In recent years the Mormon social security program has attracted national interest. With 21 Democrats and 2 Republicans in the Senate, and 45 Democrats and 15 Republicans in the House, the legislature followed a conservative course, rejecting homestead tax exemption and revamping old-age pension laws so that aid will be based upon age and need rather than age alone. An act to e.\empt personal property from taxation up to $300 was passed, but legislation in the direction of trade barriers, including a chain store tax proposal,

was defeated.

Efforts to prohibit married

ployment resulted only

women from

receiving public

em-

in the adoption of a resolution urging

work

as

much

as possible.

Other laws

provided for a Fair Trade Practices Act for agriculture by which farmers hope to stabilize farm products prices, the relief of business from the average monthly inventory tax

by

substituting a

year-end inventory tax, the control of small-loan agencies by the State banking department, and extension of the eight-hour day

women to aU occupations. Governor: Henrj' H. Blood. Monson was secretary of State; John W. Guy, auditor; Reese M. Reese, treasurer; Joseph Chez, attorney-general; and

46%,

respec and her share of the imports and exports to i6-S% aggreand 18%, declined tively. Imports from the United States States purchases fel United while gated 12% of the total, are chiefly maof all exports. Imports 72-4% to form only foodstuffs and beverages Ex-

4%

chinery, te.xtiles

and

clothing,

and

debt service, exceed imports, but public

nn en

s

n an o ..e payments usually more t respectively 54,were e.xports the first half of 1939, imports and a ran ' with the Lnite 528,000 pesos and 30,055.000 pesos,

and other foreign

capital

E. E.

Charles H. Skidmore, superintendent of public instruction. Education. ^The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, has an

—

enrolment of 4,334, the Utah State agricultural college, Logan, 3,229, and Brigham Young university 2,782. With an enrolment of 138,047 students and a force of 4,631 teachers and principals and 1,000 other employees, the cost of elementary education was as follows; operating cost, $9,557,100.47; capital outlay and debt service, $12,908,713.21. High school diplomas were granted to 7.948-

were 74,394,730 entirely cereals, aggregate J0%. In 1938 imports rst p ace in held Britain Great pesos, exports, 96,355,248 pesos. Germany, formerly each, with 19.8% and 26-1% respectively; place, inweasing er third, supplanted the United States in second by 73-3 /o, bringing purchases her and sales to Uruguay by

ports normally

Be.)

for

cultural centres.

Finance.

W.

U.S.S.R.: see Union op Sovtet Socialist Republics.

State agencies to spread

1940.

and compulsory.

(L.

—

Mining and agriculWith each of the five princi-

Agriculture, Manufacturing, Mining. ture are the State’s chief industries.

pal non-ferrous metals showing an increased value in total output,

metal mines in 1939 produced gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc valued at $62,385,575, a gain of 43% over 1938. Nearly 77% of the total increase was in copper alone.

Manufactured products had an estimated value of more than $200,000,000, of which mining machinery, shipped to various parts of the world, accoimted for $2,300,000.

now in its third decade, has become a major indusDuring 1939 a 442-mi. pipeline was built to carry crude oil from Wyoming fields to Utah refineries. Utah produced more than Sii,ooo,oco worth of sugar beets, and increased activity was noted in the cement and plaster making inOil refining,

try.

UTILITIES

704 dustry,

meat packing, brewing, and canning of

— VATICAN

fruit, vegetables,

and milk.

(F.

If

CITY STATE (Willard Huntington Wright) (1888-

n nino C Q UINCi Va Ui

l 3n

W. Ga.)

1939), U.S. author, creator of the detec-

tive character Philo Vance,

Utilities: see Public Utilities.

He was

Uzbek S.S.R

see

and

Vaccination:

see

(1858-1939), Prince of Denmark, was born at

11

II

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Serum Therapy.

laluCIllar

Bernstorff on October 27, the youngest son of Prince Christian of Gluecksburg, later King Christian IX of Den-

mark.

He was

the brother of Alexandra, queen consort of

Edward VII. Valdemar married

King

Princess Marie of Orleans in

1885 and of this marriage one daughter. Princess Marguerite, and bom. All the latter except Prince Axel married

four sons were

Before the World

commoners and renounced

their royal rights.

War Valdemar was known

as the “uncle of kings,” his

nephews

then being rulers of Great Britain, Denmark, Greece, Norway,

—

and Russia. He himself declined two thrones those of Bulgaria and Albania. After his retirement as admiral of the Royal Danish Navy, he helped manage the East Asia Ocean Steamship Line, of which he was a large stockholder. Prince Valdemar died at Copenhagen on January 14 and was

educated at

St.

was born

in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Pomona

Vincent and

colleges in California,

Munich, Paris, Cambridge, and Harvard. From 1907 to 1913 he was on the staff of The Los Angeles Times as music critic and literary editor; from 1912 to 1914 he was editor of Smart Set. Later he was critic and editor on the staffs of The Forum, The New York Evening Mail, The San Francisco Bulletm and other publications. Meamvhile he had completed nine serious volumes on art, literature, and philosophy, and had published several music compositions. Overwork caused a nervous breakdown in 1923 and at

bed for two years. To pass the time he read detective and in 1926 he started writing his own fiction. First of the “Philo Vance” books to appear was The Benson Murder Case, followed by The “Canary" Murder Case and The Greene Murder Case, all written under the pseudonym of Van Dine. These were popular successes and Philo Vance, though deprecated by his creator as quite an ordinary character, found his way into motion pictures. Van Dine died at New York city April 11. he was

in

stories,

Varnishes:

see Paints

and Varnishes.

buried in Roskilde cathedral.

Poughkeepsie,

Uaepor Pnlloira

New York,

entered upon

its

idoodi uUIICgC}

Uonariiiim

Required as a constituent

tdlldUlUllli

high grade alloy steels and cast irons, vanadium

75th year of instruction in Sept. 1939, having been founded in 1861 and opened in 1865. In the academic

produced in considerable quantities. World production in 1938 was about 3,150 metric tons, of which Peru furnished 47%,

year 1939-40, a three-year interdepartmental major field in primitive cultures was established, under the administration of the

in

certain

types

of

is

United States 25%, South West Africa 16%, and Northern Rhodesia 12%, with small amounts from other sources. There is a growing demand for vanadium catalysts in the production of sulphuric acid and certain organic compounds, as well as in the cera-

mic and dyeing industries. (See also Radium.)

Vandenberg,

Artliur

Rapids, Mich., on

March

(G. A. Ro.)

Hendrick 22.

newly created Division of Anthropology, offering courses in the basis of race, European and American archaeology, primitive languages, social organization and religion, and with biological

opportunities for concentrated study in physical anthropology, cultural anthropology or archaeology. Through a five-year grant from the Carnegie Corporation, a program of summer field work in the archaeology of the American Indian in the Hudson River valley was inaugurated under the direction of Dr. Mary Butler.

From

After graduating from high school

the

Works

Projects Administration the college received a

loan collection of the complete records of the Federal Theatre.

he studied for a year at the law school of the University of Michi-

From

gan but did not complete his course. Instead he began work in 1902 as a political reporter for T/ie Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald. Four years later he became editor of this newspaper. His first important political job was as a member of the Republican State

research based on these records to be supervised by Mrs. Hallie

Central Committee (1912-18); he was also chairman of the Re-

publican State convention in 1916 and 1928. torship of the Herald in 1928

Senate to

fill

upon

a vacancy, and in

He

resigned his edi-

appointment to the U.S. November of that year he was his

elected as a Republican for the regular term.

the Rockefeller Foundation

Flanagan, professor of drama and director of the Experimental Theatre at Vassar and former national director of the Federal Theatre. This research will cover preparation of a report summarizing the four years’ work of the Federal Theatre, publication

of special bulletins describing new techniques in design and production introduced by it, completion of various pieces of theatre research begun by

it

and indexing of Federal Theatre

Re-elected in 1934, he was probably as responsible as any other man for preventing

students, one of which

the total disruption of the Republican Party in the upper house.

the other to one from Italy.

His

political tactics consisted of building a coalition

between

bers of his party and anti-Administration Democrats.

mem-

The

first

major victory of this bloc was the defeat of Roosevelt’s Supreme Court bill in 1937, but it also scored such notable minor victories as defeat of appropriations for the Florida Ship canal and Passamaquoddy bay, and by 1939 it was a powerful opponent to almost all legislative programs of the New Deal. With Borah (Rep,, Ida.), Nye (Rep., N.D.) and Johnson (Rep., Calif.), Vandenberg in Sept. 1939 became the chief opponent of repeal of the arms embargo in the U.S. Neutrality act. Vandenberg was prominently mentioned in 1936 as a presidential possibility and is a leading candidate for the Republican nomination in 1940, having declared on May 29, 1939, that he would accept it. He is author of two

received a grant for theatre

it

Students and faculty raised two

full

was awarded to a

A

records.

scholarships for refugee girl

from Germany and

third refugee scholarship given

.anonymously by two alumnae was awarded to a student from Austria. Through a faculty committee a program was put into effect of bringing to the college a succession of displaced European scholars for a fortnight each as visiting lecturers. (H. N. MacC.)

Qtato lallvdil PItu oilj OldlCi

VfltiPJin

•

Vatican City State, established in

1929 as a sovereign and independent State by the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy. The total area is io8-7ac., adjacent to Rome, and completely encircled

by

Italian territory.

Within

its

confines are the basil-

ica of St. Peter, the papal palace, the Vatican library,

museums

books on Alexander Hamilton and of The Trail of a Tradition

and gardens, together with several smaller edifices. Thirteen buildings in Rome and the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo are recognized parts of the Vatican, and enjoy extra-territorial rights.

(1925)-

The population

is 1,006.

VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS The Vatican City papacy. Over

State constitutes the temporal domain of the

the pope exercises complete legislative, executive

signed by the President Aug.

7,

705

1939, specified that

no export tax

100 men, and by the famous Swiss, Noble and Palatine guards,

would be placed on copra and coco-nut oil shipped to the United States and that beginning with 1940, 440,000,0001b. of Philippine oil would be admitted duty free by the United States, this amount to decrease annually by 5% up to 1946 and then by 3% up to July 4, 1946, the date of Philippine independence. After that the same U.S. tariffs as against other nations would apply. (S. O. R.)

mostly decorative. Being a sovereign State it has its own flag, its own coinage and postal service, its own independent press and

Vegetables:

it,

and juridical rights. Administrative matters are in charge of a commission of three cardinals, according to a decree issued by Pius XII in March 1939, and rmder a layman, as governor. The territory is policed

by the papal gendarmes,

consisting of about

radio station, enjoys diplomatic immunity and receives representatives from foreign nations. The oflicial publication is the Acta ApostoUcae Sedis, with a circulation of some 10,000. The Osservatore Roviano, a semi-official newspaper, with a normal circulation of about 50,000, has increased, since the European war, to 200,000. The Government of the universal Catholic Church is centred in the Vatican. Here the pope exercises temporal and supreme spir-

Here are located the Congregations governing reHere are received the bishops and ecclesiastical dignitaries from every\vhere. Here are accredited ambassadors and ministers from foreign nations, and from here are appointed, by the dual spiritual and temporal powers, papal representatives to the nations. {See Roman Catholic Church Spiritual and itual

power.

ligious matters.

:

Temporal Relations^ As an independent State, and as a spiritual and moral force, the Vatican strove to preserve European peace, and dealt diplomatically with the nations involved. In conflict, as in Russia and Gerchampioned the rights of religion and of its spiritual subjects. With other nations, it aspired to promote friendly relations and to regulate the status of Catholic citizens and subjects. (See (F- X- T.) also Pius XII.)

many,

it

Vegetable Oils

i™

Animal Fats.

anil

from the lowest price level in five years, because of speculative movements and economic developments attendant on the advent of war. Oleo oil and oleostearine advanced about 50%, and cottonseed oil, lard, grease, sardine oil, tallow and com oil about 30%. Of the drying oils, tung and oiticica oils advanced 80% to 100%; linseed about 12%. Teaseed oil, like States in Sept. 1939 rose

tung

affected

oil,

in China,

by the war

tonseed, coco-nut and

com

oils

advanced 60%. Lard, cotfirst weeks of

declined after the

see Corn; Lettuce; Potatoes; Sweet Potatoes; Tomatoes; Truck Farming; etc.

Stimulation of venereal disease con-

Venereal Diseases.

work throughout the United States has been accomplished to a great extent by direct grants-in-aid trol

to the States from the Federal Government through the Public Health Service. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, $3,000,000 was appropriated by the Congress for the control of venereal diseases. Health departments in the 48 States and in

many

made

localities

an additional sum

available

more

totalling

than $4,300,000 for the control of syphilis and gonorrhoea. In developing the national program, each State health department is

and extent of the meas-

responsible individually for the character

ures adopted.

This permits the development of a campaign in

each State which meets local social and economic conditions. Generally speaking, the principles most frequently followed are: (i) organization, within the State or large municipal health

department of an administrative unit charged with the direction of the program this unit to be directed by a properly qualified

—

At present 31 States

full-time venereal disease control officer.

have such medical

ofiicers.

(2) One of the great present needs is to strengthen the methods for obtaining reliable case reports of patients infected with Ejiihilis

and gonorrhoea of the program

in the is

hope of establishing a trend. This phase

The

being given special study in 16 States.

Public Health Service has aided the State health departments in the introduction of the most modem mechanical statistical meth-

ods for collecting and tallying case reports. (3) The development of sufiicient facilities for the adequate treatment of medically indigent patients is a fundamental need for syphilis control. Clinics are important particularly in urban

—

areas,

and should be organized and operated along the most

Today

there are available

more than 2,200

effec-

remained fairly war, but oleo, olive, peanut and steady. The largest production of oils and fats from domestic materials in the United States was estimated for 1939- about

tive lines.

and a five-year average of 7,753,000,000 pounds. World production in 1939 was from also estimated as the largest on record, although figures

tory plan has been adopted which includes the utilization of the services of physicians in private practice. Some State health

linseed

oils

8, 500,000, ooolb. against 8,ooo,ooo,ooolb. in 1938

many

the outbreak of war the

countries were not available. On Britain requisitioned

Food Ministry of Great the United

Kingdom and

all fats

and oils in and fats

also all stocks of oils, oilseeds

the treatment of syphilis and gonorrhoea, as contrasted with r,ooo in 1936.

In rural areas where

clinics are

departments subsidize these physicians for the treatment of indiall States the health department distributes antisyphilitic drugs free to physicians for the treatment of indigent patients. In 1935 a total of 6,500,000 doses of arsenical drugs us 2 d

was sold

in the treatment of syphilis

way

trol of syphilis is as true as for

placed

oils

and

fats

200.000.

2.300.000. to An amendment 2.100.000.

500.000. 145.000.

2.297.000. the Philippine 1.754.000. 323.000. 137.000.

Islands Independence Act, 762.000. 157.000.

250.000.

1938 and 1939

and Fats in U. S., (Estimated by the Department of Agriculture)

Production of Principal Oils

Butter

.

,

Bard

.

.

.

1039

1038

lb.

lb.

000 000

000 000

Cottonseed Oil

.

Soybean

Com Oil

.

OU ,

1,350,000,000 1,678,000,000

000 000

000 000

Oleo Oil

.

,

Oleostearine Fish Oils .

000 000 000

6,oc»,ooo 49,000,000 188,800,000

poo,oco,ooo

000 000

Tallo^v'

(inedible)

Linseed

000

is

Most

now

in

essential for the con-

any other communicable available in

disease.

many

of

State health laboratories per-

form such examinations upon request. A few years ago, only the effectiveness of the syphilis as performed by the originators of the

serologic tests for tests

was known.

Public Health Service has in recent years conducted annually

studies of the efficiency of performance of serologic tests

lb.

lb.

the venereal disease clinics.

The

IQjS

1939

in the United States;

1938, 10,500,000 doses were sold. (4) The principle that early diagnosis

Darkfield microscopic examinations are

oleomargarine.

not feasible, a satisfac-

gent persons. In

naof more than 50 tons held outside the United Kingdom by and Denmark system. licensing a tionals. Trade was put under the Netherlands prohibited exports of most fats and oils. Nor-

70.000. control as 40.000. under the same Government

clinics for

for

Encouragement is also being given to similar studies of tests performed in municipal and private laboratories within the States under the jurisdiction of the health

syphilis in State laboratories.

department. The information available at present shows that the

VENEZUELA— VERMiCULITE

706

quality of serologic test performance in State laboratories 200% to 300% improved over that of three years ago.

is

from

In the

year 1939 a total of 5,500,000 serologic tests for syphilis was performed, as contrasted with 2,000,000 in 1936treatment were increased to meet more (5) Before facilities for nearly the needs, it was estimated that only half of the people fiscal

eluded a petroleum law regulating concessions, an act for the

in-

spection and supervision of insurance companies, and another

providing for free legal counsel for workmen. profit-sharing law, enacted in 1937,

was put

year. Bonuses to employees ran as high as

In November, a catastrophic

The

compulsorj’

into effect early in

12-45%

in

some

the

cases.

completely destroyed the

fire

oil

laboratory methods have been used to find patients with other

town of Lagunillas (pop. 13,922), on Lake Maracaibo, with heavy loss of life and huge property damage. Venezuela’s international relations were featured by cordiality with the United States. Reciprocal exchange of ambassadors (instead of ministers, as formerly) was effected early in 1939. On November 6, a reciprocal trade agreement (effective Dec. 16, 1939) between the two countries was signed. Under it, Venezuela reduced duties on important importations from the United States, while that country halved her tariff on Venezuela petroleum, al-

communicable diseases. This method of case-finding is employed wherever the prevalence rate for syphilis in the group to be sur-

though limiting importation through a quota system. Education. Primary education is compulsory and under Fed-

infected with syphilis sought treatment during the early stage. The number infected and failing to seek treatment immediately is large,

still

ods.

made through case-finding methmake provision for proper conand the number of people brought

but progress has been

Most local

health departments

tact-tracing in early syphilis

under treatment through this means is steadily increasing. The principle of applying serologic tests to discover syphilis groups

in large population

veyed

is

being employed extensively just as

believed to exceed the average prevalence rate for the

is

A

made during 1939 in eduIn 1938 there were 4,142 primary schools, with 231,554 pupils; II normal schools, with 692; and 51 secondary schools

special application of the survey of population groups is

the

employment of

ical

examinations.

and prenatal physDuring 1939 laws requiring blood tests for syphilis before marriage were enacted in 12 States. This increases to 19 the number of States that have such laws. These laws vary to some extent, and it is possible that some may require amendment in the future. All, however, provide fqr the performance of a serologic blood test for syphilis on both applicants for a licence to marry the test being part of a physical examination. In most States these laws are waived when there seems to be no danger of serologic tests in premarital

—

when the marriage is in the Another important law enacted in 15 States during 1939 has been that which requires that a blood test for syphilis be done on every pregnant woman. Seventeen States in all now have such laws. (7) Health departments and unofficial agencies continue to co-

with 3,497 students (in addition to those in 24 private secondarj' schools). Two universities and the geological institute had a combined enrolment of 2,166 in 1939.

Trade and Communication.

operate in the national educational program.

The

press, radio,

and lectures all have their field of usefulness. Generally speaking, the aim of the educational program is to inform the people about the prevalence of syphilis and pictures, printed material,

gonorrhoea, the possibility of preventing infection, the services required should the individual become infected, and the need for Governmental action in providing medical services for indigent patients.

(See also

Chemotherapy; Public Health Services.)

—

Bibliography. “Control of the Venereal Diseases in the United States: Present and Future Plans,” Sup. No. 10 to Vcn. Dis. Injorm. U.S. Public Health Service (1939); “Progress in Venereal Disease Control in the States,” Veu. Dis. Injorm. (Nov. 1939). (T. P.)

—Venezuela has extensive steam-

ship communications (under normal conditions), and adequate external air communication.

There are 993km. of railways, and a good highway system. The principal highways aggregate 2,761km. in length. In the Orinoco valley' transportation is almost entirely fluvial. relatively

transmitting sj^philis in marriage, or interests of the public welfare.

moving

Considerable advance was

cation.

U.S. as a whole.

(6)

—

eral control.

of

In 1938 there were 21,880 telephone stations in service, a gain 12% over 1937 and more than 36% over 1936. Telegraph

1938 was over 30% greater than in 1935. Imports totalled 311,871,006 bolivares in 1938 (United States, 56-2%; Germany, 11-9%; Great Britain, 7%), a slight increase. Machinery, electrical apparatus, and similar commodities aggre-

traffic in

gated

23%

of

imports, textiles

all

16%. Exports were 888,240,443 in

22%,

foodstuffs

and

bolivares, of which

beverages,

93-2% were

petroleum products, with

Some 72%

of

all e.xports

coffee, gold, and cacao also important. went to Curagao in 1938, 13-7% to the

United States.

—

Production. Venezuela is the third largest petroleum producer in the world, with a 1938 output of 28,071,371 metric tons, al-

10% of the world’s total, and the highest Venezuelan production in history. Practically all the petroleum is exported. Taxes derived from it furnish around a third of the national revenue. The chief agricultural product is coffee, with cacao

most

second.

UonP 7 llpl!) lCllc£UCld|

^ federal republic in Northern South America; language, Spanish; capital, Caracas; president,

Eleazar Lopez Contreras. tion

The

by the 1936 census was

area

is

393,976 sq.mi.; the popula-

3,467,839, including 103,492 Indians.

The

principal cities, with their populations, are: Caracas, 203,432; Maracaibo, 110,010; Valencia, 49,214; Barquisimeto, 36,-

The monetary

Finance.

The

national debt

nal,

and

world.

is

The budget

Bibliography.

429; Nirgua, 30,706; Carupano, 30,163; Maracay, 29,759; Rio Caribe, 29,696; Bocono, 25,315; Ciudad Bolivar, 25,134; Puerto Cabello, 22,213; San Cristobal, 21,874; Cabimas, 21,753; Cum-

La Victoria, 21,372. La Guaira, the port of Caracas, has a population of 9,717History. Under the “Three-Year Plan” inaugurated in 1938, Venezuela continued economically prosperous and politically ana, 21,623;

—

stable throughout 1939.

A

contract involving expenditure of 22,-

479,233 bolivares (nearly $7,000,000) for new docks and other harbour improvement at La Guaira was made with a Netherlands firm steps were taken for the modernization of Caracas, and en;

couragement given to immigration. Important new

legislation in-

unit

is

the bolivar (value: $.31 U.S.).

appro.ximateIy 3,000.000 bolivares, all interprobably the lowest per capita of any' country in the is

for 1939 called for 335,261,000 bolivares.

—

E. Fergusson, Venezuela

Its utilization for

marked increase

(New York,

1939). (L, yv. Be.; R.

W.

H.)

house insulation has led

to a

in the production of vermicu-

a type of mica which expands enormously when heated, thus giving a cellular structure with a large amount of air space. United States production was 20,700 short tons in 1938, a decrease of about 22% from 1937, some of which is exported to Great Britain and continental Europe. Following the successful application in the American market, attempts deposits

lite,

have been made to exploit Union and South Africa. The chief producing centres in the United States are Montana, Colorado and Wyoming, which makes freight charges a big factor in Eastern consumption. in the Soviet

:

VERMONT — VETERANS* ADMINISTRATION A

two-inch layer ot expanded vermiculite

attic heat loss

is

reported to reduce

by 75%, and a four-inch layer by 92%.

State

fourteenth

Vermont,

of

be added to original

the

United States,

thirteen, popularly

city,

to

first

known

as

both urban and rural. Capital, Montpelier, 8,000. Largest

Of the

Burlington, 26,000.

State’s population 118,766 are

30%;

urban, or

358,965 whites; 568 coloured; 315,904 nativeborn; 43,061 foreign-bom. History. During 1939 the milk price situation continued to

—

occupy the attention of the extensive dairy interests of the State. new milk inspection and licensing law covering retail milk deal-

A

and a new Bang’s disease control law came into effect. Rural areas paid more in motor vehicle registration fees, motor fuel taxes and other motor vehicle imposts than urban areas. Motor

War War of

decade

if

will

summer home

develop-

State air service has been materiaOy expanded

during the year.

The governor was George D. Aiken; William H. Rawson C. Myrick, secretary; Thomas

Wills, lieutenant-governor;

H. Cave, treasurer. Education. ^The public school system of the State

—

is

under

the supervision of a State commissioner of education and local union superintendents, the revenues being derived mainly from

A

plan for equalization of educational

being worked out. Vocational training is at present School largely to agriculture and home economics.

opportunity confined

is

and equipment are being improved and teacher courses and requirements strengthened. There are six colleges and universities, three junior colleges, two State normal schools and a

buildings

State agricultural school.

Charities

—

and Correction.

and corrective and women’s reformatory,

^The charitable

stitutions consist of a State prison

inin-

hospitals for the insane, a school for feeble-

dustrial school, two minded and a home for

has

new

children. The public welfare department appropriations of $5,000 a year for 1940 and 1941 to aid

adult crippled

and $10,000 for a psychiatric

163, gi2

54,339

II2

60

218,251 172

Spanish-American Service connected Non-service connected

1,686

Special acts

Total Spanish-American

165,710

55,882

221,592

342,072 52.936

99,822 12,220

441,894 65.156

395,008 34.1S5

112,042 9,41s

43,600

600,944

239,674

840,618

World War (War Time) Service connected

Non-service connected

Total World War Regular establishment

Grand

total

Insurance.

—

^As of

Term and Automatic Insurance were

$38,393,938.70. As of June 30, 1939, there were 605,716 United States Government life insurance policies in force, having a face value of $2,561,712,315.

As of the above date monthly payments were being made, from the United States Government life insurance fund, to 10,495 permanently and totally disabled veterans. Emergency Officers’ Retirement Pay. ^As of June 30, 1939, there were 1,813 emergency officers receiving retirement pay for disabilities incurred during the World War. The annual disbursement for this form of benefit during the fiscal year 1939 approximated $2,991,326.30. Guardianship. ^The Veterans’ Administration, in order to safeguard all monies paid by the Government in the form of pensions and compensation to incompetent or minor beneficiaries, main-

—

—

tains a close supervision of all guardianship activities.

The following summation shows the number of fiduciaries under supervision as of June 30, 1939, subdivided by types of beneficiaries

Incompetents

have begun issuing reports giving a more accurate picture of State resources. Old age assistance gets the largest increase in appropriations during the next two fiscal years. The State tax de-

partment reported a decrease of $815,530.10 in the appraisal valugeneral ation of real estate and a drop of $I 4 334 -I 5 in the total largely due was reduction The State. the property grand list of expendito property losses incurred in the 1938 hurricane. !

WPA

by tures were $3,046,782.02 in Federal funds and $1,112,082.86 on farm State and local units. Banks report a decrease in loans obligations lands, a heavy gain in holdings of U.S. Government of Stabilization them. by O'wned and a reduction in real estate bank deposits is indicated by the smallest decline in deposits in the last ten years.

been reasonIndustries.—Industries, including mining, have Such ably steady in their output and employment during 1939for the coming is experiencing State is

growth as the most part from within through the development of industrial

its

own

natural

as applied to Indications are that chemical research in this trend. part important an may play agricultural

Minors

Total

68

18,643 8,962

61,326 9,068 587

4,582

27,605

70,981

\''eterans

Others

Guardianship for Legal custodians for

38,169

4,514

38

awards

587

Fiduciaries acting for wards of wars:

officers

production

168 6,776 6t,43t

2*525 3,5«6

Cml

clinic division.

Finances.—The State Treasury reported a balanced budget at the end of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1939. State financial

resources.

168 4,251 57,915

1812

Indian

the beneficiaries of 19,097 deceased veterans. The disbursements for the above benefits during the fiscal year 1939 approximated

the present trend of high class

State and local taxes.

Total

is predicted that Vermont’s sub-marbe reduced to a minimum in the next

continues.

ment

Veterans

travel service, developing the State as

Motor coach

a playground, increased. It

problem

Deceased

June 30, 1939, benefits provided for under being paid in monthly instalments to 11,134 permanently and totally disabled veterans and to

vehicle inspectors travelled 911,038 miles in State cars at a cost

ginal land

LiWng Veterans

Mexican

ers

of $28,517.

following

erans and deceased veterans whose dependents were receiving pension or compensation benefits as of June 30, 1939:

the “Green Mountain State”; area, 9,564 sq.mi.; population according to the U.S. census of 1930, 359,611, with slight increase since,

summation shows the number of vet-

Veterans’ Administration.

(G. A. Ro.)

707

The

Institutional

Total

all

38,794

—

Hospital and Domiciliary Care. ^As of June 30, 1939, 54,117 beneficiaries were receiving hospital care and 15,426 were receiving domiciliary care authorized by the Veterans’ Administration.

Of the number under hospital care, 4,979 were receiving treatment for tubercular ailments, 31,216 for neuropsj'chiatric disand surgical conditions. There were 288 patients under observation, 58 were receiving temporary hospitalization, and 273 non-veteran patients were eases, 17,922 for general medical

not

classified as to

The

table

type of disease.

on the next page does not include loans made to

veterans secured by U.S. Government life insurance policies. The total amount includes $1,179,002,368.67 made available by deduction for allotment from the pay of World War veterans while in service,

from amoimts collected as premiums on the various

forms of Government insurance, and amounts

in other trust funds.

VETERANS OF FOREIGN WARS — VETERINARY MEDICINE

708

Total Disbursements to June 30,

One

7939

Compensation and pensions: World War

$

5, 831, 444-82 3,838.

9,692>,849, 075*74

All other wars

170,.,862,379-65

Regular establishment

Payment to participants in yellow Military and naval insurance U.S. Government life insurance

148,013-75*

fever experiments

Adjusted service certificates Adjusted service and dependent pay Adjusted service and dependent i»y 1937 and 1938

Loans

to veterans for transportation Hospital and domiciliary facilities and service (Constr.) Vocational training Allotments and allowances Marine and seamen’s insurance . . . , ^ Salaries and expenses (general administration) Administrative expenses, Adjusted Compensation Payment Act, 1936 . . . , . Printing and Bmding National Industrial Recovery Act. V.A. 1933-39 Public Works Administration Act of 1938 (dJlotment to V.A.)

2,127 ,399,95^55 378 .378,768.63 3,739,,878,169.54* 52 986, 457-12 999,947.32 76, *03-36 109,,627,^59-65

35 ,078,013.20