Classical Japanese : a grammar 9780231135245, 2004059376

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Classical Japanese: A Grammar

Haruo Shirane

Colum bia University Press New York

Columbia University Press wishes to express its appreciation for assistance given by the Japan Foundation Japanese-Language Institute, Urawa, toward the cost of publishing this book. Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York Chichester, West Sussex Copyright © 2005 Columbia University Press All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shirane, Haruo, 19 5 1 Classical Japanese : a grammar / Haruo Shirane p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-231-13524-5 (cloth : alk. paper) 1 . Japanese language—Grammar, C la s s ic a l.2. Japanese language—Verb PL531.3.S55 2005 495.6'5—dc22 2004059376

I. Title.

© Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. Printed in the United States of America c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Frontispiece: From Namura Johaku, Onna chohoki (Record o f Im portan t Treasures f o r Women) This page from the Onna chohoki, an extremely popular educational and encyclopedic guide for women first published in Genroku 5 (1692) by Namura Johaku (1674-1748), illustrates some of the pursuits that the author considered appropriate for women: {clockwise fr o m top) practicing calligraphy, cutting fabric and sewing clothing, spinning thread, weaving, playing the koto, and reading books. The preceding text notes that women should read uThe Tale o f Genji, The Tales o flse, the Hyakunin isshu, the Kokinshu, and the M anydshii" (By permission of Nakajima Takashi)

In M em ory o f My Beloved Father, G en Shirane (1 9 2 4 -2 0 0 5 )

Contents P reface

xix

A cknow ledgm en ts

xxiii

Elements o f the Book

1

Grammatical Terms and Translations Major Historical Periods Romanization

4

4

Source and Text Abbreviations

6

Translations of Ranks and Titles

Part I

1

8

Inflected Forms

1 . Basic Grammatical Terms and Concepts 1.1 Subject and Predicate

11

1.2 Sentence Structure

11

1.3 Autonomous and Dependent Forms

12

1.4 Inflected and Noninflected Forms 1.5 Inflected Autonomous Words

13

14

1.6 Inflected Dependent Forms

14

1.7 Noninflected Dependent Forms

15

1.8 Noninflected Autonomous Words 1.9 Modifying Words

17

2. Orthography and Pronunciation 2.1 Table of Fifty Sounds 2.3 Sound Changes

15

16

1.10 Parts of Speech

2.2 Voiced Sounds

11

18

18

19 19

2.4 Pronouncing Historical kana

20

2.4.1 w-Row Pronunciation

20

2.4.2 /z-Row Pronunciation

20

2.5 Pronouncing Long Sounds 2.5.1 0 -Vowels

21

2.5.2 /-Vowels

21

2.5.3 w-Vowels

21

21

viii

Contents

2.5.4 e-Vowels

22

2.5.5 o-Vowels

22

2.5.5A The Iroha Poem

3. Verbs

22

24

3.1 The Six Inflected Forms

24

3.1.1 The MizenkeU or Imperfective Form

24

3.1.2 The Ren'yokeiy or Continuative Form

24

3.1.3 The Shushikeif or Final Form

25

3.1.4 The RentaikeU or Attributive Form 3.1.5 The Izenkeif or Perfective Form

25

3.1.6 The Meireikeiy or Imperative Form 3.2 Regular Verbs

27

3.2.2 Kami-ichidan Verbs

28

3.2.3 Shimo-ichidan Verb

30

3.2.4 Kami-nidan Verbs

32

3.2.5 Shimo-nidan Verbs

34

37

4.1 Irregular Verbs

37

4.1.1 Nahen Irregular Verbs

37

4.1.2 Rahen Irregular Verbs

39

4.1.3 Kahen Irregular Verb

42

4.1.4 Sahen Irregular Verbs

44

4.2 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 4.3 Supplementary Verbs

46

47

4.4 Sound Changes in Verbs 4.4.1 /-Sound Change 4.4.2 w-Sound Change

48 48 48

4.4.3 Nasalized Sound Change

48

4.4.4 Compressed Sound Change

5. Adjectives and Adjectival Verbs 5.1 Adjectives

25

26

3.2.1 Yodan Verbs

4. Irregular Verbs

25

49

50

50

5.1.1 Adjectives Ending in ku

50

5.1.1A okari and nakari

52

5.1.2 Adjectives Ending in shiku

53

5.1.2A Adjectives Ending in ji

55

5.1.2B The Mizenkei of Adjectives plus wa {ha)

Contents

5.1.2C lh e Rentaikei of onaji 5.1.3

55

Summary of Adjectival Inflections

5.2 Adjectival Verbs

56

57

5.2.1 nari Adjectival Verbs

57

5.2.2 tari Adjectival Verbs

59

5.3 Two Modifying Functions

62

5.3.1 The Rentaikei Attributive Modifier

62

5.3.2 The Renydkei Continuative Modifier

62

5.3.2A Sound Changes in Adjectives and Adjectival Verbs

6. Negative and Recollective Auxiliary Verbs 6.1 Negative zu 64

64

6.1 A zu-wa 65 6.1B Nara-Period na and ni 6.1C naku-ni

68

6.2 Auxiliary Verbs ki and keri

6.2.1 ki 6.2.2 keri

66

68

68 71

6.2.3 Distinguishing Between ki and keri

73

7. Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary Verbs 7.1 Auxiliary Verbs nu and tsu 77 7.1.1 nu

77

7.1.2 few

79

7.2 Resultative-Continuative Auxiliary Verbs フ .2.1

tari

7.2.2 n

88

8.2 tari

91

and ri

85

88

9. Auxiliary Verbs o f Speculation and Supposition 9.1 mw

94

9.2 muzu

99

93 kemu

100

9Aramu

103

9.5 rashi

107

9.6 mashi

9.7 beshi

109 112

82

82

8. Copular Auxiliary Verbs 8.1 nari

76

94

Contents

X

9.8 meri

117

9.9 Hearsay nari

118

9.10 Summary of the Basic Functions of Speculative Auxiliary Verbs

10. Negative Speculative, Desiderative, and Comparative Auxiliary Verbs 123 10.1 Negative Speculative Auxiliary Verbs ji and maji 123 10.1.1 ji

123

10.1.2 maji

125

10.2 Desiderative Auxiliary Verbs tashi and mahoshi 10.2.1 tashi

130

10.2.2 mahoshi

132

10.2.2A aramahoshi

103gotoshi

134

134 10.3A gotoku-nari

103B yd-nari

136

136

1 1 . Passive-Causative Auxiliary Verbs 11.1 ruy raru

140

11.2 sut sasu, shimu

147

11.3 Summary of Auxiliary Verbs

151

Part II Noninflected Forms 12. Case Particles

155

1 2 .1 0

156

12.2 no

158

12.3 0

159 12.3A o-ba

12.4 ni 12.5 e 12.6 to 12.7 yori 12.8 kara

161

162 166 166 170 171 12.8A kara-ni

12.9 shite

173

12.10 nite

175

13. Conjunctive Particles 13.1 ba 178

178

172

140

130

121

Contents

13.2 t〇ytomo

180

13.3 dof domo 13.4 nh 〇

xi

182

184

13.5 ga

187

13.6 tef shite

189 13.6A zu-te

191

13.6B te-wa

191

13.6C Conjunctive Particle te plus Supplementary Verb 13.7 de

193

13.8 tsutsu

194

13.9 nagara

195

13.10 mono-Oy mono-kara, mono-no, mono-yue 13.11 Summary of Connections

14. Bound Particles 14.1 wa

197

199

201

201 14.1 A wa as Final Particle 203 14.IB The Ren'yokei plus wa 14.1C o-ba

14.2 mo 14.3 zo

203

204

205 14.2A mo at the End of a Sentence

207

14.3A zo at the End of a Sentence

209

207

14.4 namu {nan) 14.5 ya {yawa)

211 212

14.5Ay^ {yawa) as Final Particle 14.6 ka (kawa)

213

214 14.6A ka (kawa) at the End of a Sentence

14.7 koso

215

217 14.7A A Bound Ending Without a Bound Particle

15. Adverbial Particles 15.1 sura 221 15.2 dani

222

15.3 sae

224

15.4 nomi 15.5 bakari

226 228

15.6 nado

231

15.7 made

233

221

220

192

xii

Contents

15.8 shit shimo

235

15.9 Note on Adverbial Particles Versus Adverbs

16. Final and Interjectory Particles 16.1 Final Particles

237

238

238

16.1.1 kaf kana

238

16.1.1A kamo

239

16.1.2 Exclamatory na

240

16.1.2A mono-o

241

16.1.3 Negative Imperative na 16.1.4 5〇

242

243

16.1.5 kashi

244

16.1.6 namu

245

16.1.7 baya

246

16.1.8 gana, mogana

247

16.1.8A mogat mogamo 16.1.9 teshiga, teshigana 16.1.10 nishiga, nishigana 16.2 Interjectory Particles 16.2.1 ya

251

16.2.2 ッ〇

252

16.2.3 o

248

249 249

250

253

16.3 Bound Particles at the Ends of Sentences

254

17. Nouns, Pronouns, Adverbs, Interjections, Conjunctions, and Attributive Words 255 17.1 Nouns

255

17.2 Pronouns

256

17.2.1 Personal Pronouns

256

17.2.2 Demonstrative Pronouns 17.3 Adverbs

256

259

17.3.1 Circumstantial Adverbs 17.3.2 Degree Adverbs 17.3.3 Correlated Adverbs 17.4 Interjections

263

17.5 Conjunctions

264

17.6 Attributive Words

266

259

259 260

xiii

Contents

Part III Honorifics 18. Honorific Expressions

271

18.1 Noninflected Honorifics 18.1.1 Prefixes

271

18.1.2 Suffixes

271

18.1.3 Nominals

271

272

18.2 Honorific Supplementary Verbs 18.3 Honorific Verbs

272

273

18.3.1 tamau (tamo)

274

18.3.1A tabu

274

18.3.2 owasu

276

18.3.2A owashimasu 18.3.2B masu

277

277

18.3.3 notamo (notamau) 18.3.3A osu 18.3.4 obosu

278

278

279

18.3.4A oboshimesu 18.3.5 kikoshimesu

280

18.3.6 otonogomoru

183.7 goranzu 18.3.8 mesu

280

281

282 283

18.3.9 asobasu

284

18.4 Honorific Auxiliary Verbs 18.4.1 rut raru

285

285

18.4.2 suf sasUy shimu

285

19. Humble and Polite Expressions 19.1 Humble Verbs

287

19.1.1 tatematsuru 19.1.2 kikoyu

287

288

289

19.1.2A Nonhumble kikoyu 19.1.3 mdsu (mausu) 19.1.4 haberi

293

19.1.5 saburo (saburau) 19.1.6 mairu 19.1.7 makaru

294

294 295

19.1.7A makazu 19.1.8 tamau

292

297

296

290

Contents

XIV

19.2 Mixing Honorific and Humble Forms

298

19.3 Summary of Key Honorific and Humble Verbs 19.4 Polite Verbs

300

19.4.1 haberi

301

19.4.2 saburo (saburau)

303

19.4.2A soro (saurau)

20. Nara-Period Grammar 20.1 Auxiliary Verbs

308 308

20.1.1 yw, rayu

308

20.1.2 su

310

20.1.3 hu

312

20.2 Case Particles

313

20.2A yut yurif yo

313

tsu

314

20.3 Final Particles

315

20.2.2

20.3.1 kamo 20.3.2 na

315 316

20.3.3 namo 20.3.4 ne

305

317 317

20.3.5 mogat mogamo 20.3.6 mo

318

319

20.3.7 koso 20.3.8 shika

320 320

20.3.9 teshika 20.3.10 50

320 321

20.4 The Bound Particle so

321

Part IV Appendixes Appendix 1 . Review o f the Six Inflections A1.1 The Mizenkeif or Imperfective Form

325 325

A1.2 The Ren'ydkeU or Continuative Form

327

A1.3 The Shushikei, or Final Form

331

A1.4 The Rentaikeif or Attributive Form A1.5 The Izenkei, or Perfective Form A1.6 The Meireikei, or Imperative Form Appendix 2. Overview o f Sound Changes A2.1 /-Sound Change

339

332 336 338 339

Contents

A2.1.1 Verbs

339

A2.1.2 Adjectives

340

A2.1.3 Auxiliary Verbs

340

A2.1.4 Nouns, Adverbs, and the Like A2.2 w-Sound Change

340

341

A2.2.1 Verbs

341

A2.2.2 Adjectives

342

A2.2.3 Auxiliary Verbs A2.2.4 Nouns

342

342

A2.3 Nasalized Sound Change A2.3.1 Verbs

342

343

A2.3.2 Verbs Followed by Auxiliary Verbs A2.3.3 Adjectives

343

A2.3.4 Auxiliary Verbs

344

A2.4 Compressed Sound Change A2.4.1 Verbs

344

344

A2.5 Unmarked Nasalized Sound Changes A2.5.1 Before meri

346

A2.5.2 Before Hearsay nari

Appendix 3. Prefixes and Suffixes A3.1 Adjective and Verb Prefixes A3.1.1 nama-

349

A3.2 Honorific Prefixes A3.2.1 mi-

349

350

A3.2.2 dmi-, onyon-j oA3.2.3 go-

351

A3.2.4 gyo-

351

352

A 3.3.1 -bu

352

A3.3.2 -datsu

352

A3.3.3 -gari

352

A3.3.4 -garu

353

A3.3.5 -gatera A3.3.7 ~kanu A3.3.8 -ku

348

349

A3.1.3 uchi-

A3.3.6 -ge

348

348

A3.1.2 sashi-

A3.3 Suffixes

346

353

353 354 354

350

345

343

xvi

Contents

A3.3.9 -meku

355

A3.3.10 補 .

355

A 3.3.11 -sa

356

Appendix 4. Supplementary Verbs A4.1 ari Group

357

357

A4.1.1 ari

357

A4.1.2 ori

358

A4.1.3 iru

359

A4.2 Honorific Group

359

A4.2.1 Honorific Supplementary Verbs A4.2.2 Humble Supplementary Verbs A4.2.3 Polite Supplementary Verbs A4.3 Realization Group

360 360 361

361

Appendix 5. Rhetorical Techniques in Japanese Poetry A5.1 makura-kotoba A5.2 jokotoba

365

A5.3 kakekotoba A5.4 engo A5.5 kugire

364 366

367 368

A5.6 taigendome

369

Appendix 6. Easily Confused Elements Appendix 7. Auxiliary Verb Combinations A7.1 Combinations with tsu 387 A7.1.1 te-keri A7.1.2 te-ki A7.1.3 te-mu

388 389 389

A7.2 Combinations with nu

390

A7.2.1 na-mu

390

K 72.2 ni-keri

391

A7.2.3 ni-kemu A7.2.5 nu-beshi A7.2.6 nu-nari

387

387

A7.1.4 tsu-beshi

A7.2.4 ni-ki

371

391 392 392 393

A7.3 Combinations with Resultative-Continuative A7.3.1 ta-narij tan-nari

394

Contents

A73.2 tara-mu

394

A7.3.3 tari-keri

395

A7.3.4 tari-tsu

396

A7.4 Combinations with ri A7.4.1 ra-mu

396

396

K7A,2 ra-zu

396

A7.4.3 ri-ki

397

A7.5 Combinations with Hearsay nari A7.5.1 beka-nari

397

397

A7.5.2 na-nari

398

A7.5.3 za-nari

398

A7.6 Combinations with Copular A7.6.1 na-meri

398

398

A7.6.2 nari-keri

399

A7.7 Combinations with ms/z/ A7.7.1 kerashi

399

A7.7.2 narashi

400

399

Appendix 8. Conjugational Shifts

401

A8.1 The Disappearance of Conjugation Types A8.2 The Growth of the Rentaikei Form A8.3 New Adjectival Forms

405

41 I

Tables of Grammatical Forms Table 1 .Verb Conjugations

495 495

Table 2. Adjectives and Adjectival Verb Forms Table 3. Sound Changes

498

Table 5. Auxiliary Verb Types and Functions Table 6. Auxiliary Verb Connections

500

501

502

Table 8. Main Functions of Inflected Forms

515

496

497

Table 4. Auxiliary Verb Conjugations

In d ex

401

406

Part V Grammar Exercises

Table 7. Particles

xvii

510

Preface The purpose of Classical Japanese: A Gram m ar is to make bungo (literally, ''literary languagew), or classical Japanese, accessible to as many people as possible. Bungo first appeared in the sixth and seventh centuries and was used to write a wide variety of texts up until World War II. A knowledge of it, therefore, is absolutely essential to anybody interested in seriously studying Japanese religion, philosophy, literature, art, history, or culture. This book offers a systematic introduction to the grammar of classical Japanese and also serves as an advanced reference for those reading classical, medieval, or early modern texts or documents. It goes beyond other textbooks of its type in providing not just a set of grammatical rules to be memorized and followed but also a historical con­ text and a critical framework for understanding the Japanese language. It presents classi­ cal Japanese and modern Japanese as part of a larger linguistic and social continuum, highlighting the deep connection between classical and modern Japanese. This book was deliberately written from the perspective of a literary and historical scholar and is intended to reach as broad an audience as possible by not using linguistic terms that would be difficult or incomprehensible to nonspecialists. Objectives This book is intended for both intermediate students of modern Japanese and those who already have experience reading classical Japanese but want a deeper understanding of the complexities of the language. In order to serve both types of readers, those sections of each chapter that are marked “Advanced Study and Reference” are for students who already have had one or more semesters of classical Japanese and those that are marked “Historical Notes” are intended mainly for advanced students but also may be helpful to beginners of classical Japanese. Both inside and outside Japan, most students encounter classical Japanese only after spending many years learning modern spoken Japanese, thus making it the last stop on an arduous journey. The intent of this textbook is to make classical Japanese more accessible, to be learned after only one or two years of modern Japanese. One of the difficulties of writing a book that is intended as both a textbook and an advanced reference is that it must be comprehensive enough to address the most complex grammatical issues and yet simple enough for beginners. As an advanced refer-

ence, all the functions of the grammatical units are explained with examples. But since there are too many functions for a beginning student to absorb, only the first two or three most important usages are described, with the rest referred to the sections marked “Advanced Study and Reference• ” Less frequently used grammatical forms are explained in these sections as well. To make classical Japanese easier for the beginner to absorb, the main focus of Classical Japanese is mid-Heian Japanese, that of the tenth and eleventh centuries, which became the canonical form of classical Japanese starting in the Kamakura period (11851333). In the "Historical Notes'' sections, this Heian Japanese is placed in the larger his­ torical continuum beginning in the Nara period (710-784) and continuing into the modern era. Occasionally, grammatical examples are taken from the Man'ydshuy which was compiled in the eighth century, but grammar exclusive to the Nara period is generally avoided and placed in a separate chapter entitled “Nara-Periodiarammar.” Structure Classical Japanese: A G ram m ar is divided into four broad parts. The first introduces the subject and describes the inflected forms, which are the most difficult and complex part of classical Japanese and include verbs, adjectives, adjectival verbs, and auxiliary verbs. When students have a good grasp of these inflected forms, they will be able to read a wide range of texts. The second part deals with noninflectea rorms, such as nouns, adverbs, particles, and conjunctions. Compared with the inflected forms, the noninflected forms are rela­ tively easy to learn, so teachers may have the students read some of these chapters on their own rather than going through them in detail in class. The third part of the book covers honorifics, which require a return to inflections as well as Nara-period grammar, the latter being necessary for anyone wanting to read early texts. The fourth part is a series of appendixes that review and illustrate in more depth the key aspects of classical grammar (six inflections, sound changes, prefixes/suffixes, supplementary verbs, poetic techniques, compound auxiliary verbs, and conjugational shifts). For example, the appendix discussing the six inflections differs from chapter 2, in which the six inflections are first introduced, m that it reveals the relationships among the different grammatical units covered in part I. The Tables of Grammatical Forms are very important, as they summarize the principal grammatical rules and also parts I, II, and III. The tables also are provided as a separate unit that students can carry around with them.

Preface

XXI

Finally, the key points of Classical Japanese are reinforced through the grammar exercises in part V, which thus form an essential pedagogical component of this book. Using Authentic Texts All the examples, exercises, and readings in this book are based on authentic classical Japanese, drawn from more than thirty different texts found in the Nihon koten bungaku t a ik e i,102 vols. (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1957-1968). Each gives the volume and page number from the Nihon koten bungaku taikei where it appears. Classical Japanese avoids using, as some textbooks do, contrived examples, in the strong belief that this practice is very misleading. Classical Japanese was a living lan­ guage that changed radically over time. Thus to make up classical Japanese sentences un­ connected to a specific time in history is to fabricate something that never could have existed. The difficulty with using authentic texts, however, is that no matter how well chosen the sample sentences are, beginners often have difficulty understanding them be­ cause they contain grammatical elements and vocabulary that they have not yet learned. For this reason, the grammar and the vocabulary of the sample sentences have been heavily annotated. The original text also is romanized, and a fairly literal English transla­ tion is provided. In the original text, the key grammatical units being discussed are underlined; in the romanized text, they are in caps; and in the English translation, they are in italics. Occasionally I have made minor orthographic changes in order to make the text easier for beginners to read. Furigana, in the form of historical kan af have been added to the top of almost all the kanji, or characters, and sometimes kanji have been used in­ stead of the original hiragana in order to make it easier to identify the words. The katakana, which is the primary writing system in the Konjaku m onogatari shu^ have been changed to hiragana. Sometimes new kanji have been substituted for old kanjU and some of the sound changes (onbin) have been converted back to their original readings so as to minimize confusion. But in no instances has the original grammar been changed. Pedagogical Guidelines Both readers and teachers should be aware that the sample sentences in the first half of the book contain grammatical forms that have not been formally introduced. For example, negative auxiliary verbs appear before they are described in detail in chapter 10. Although this cart-before-the-horse phenomenon has been kept to a minimum, it is the inevitable result of using authentic classical Japanese texts. An English translation and notes have been provided for the sample sentences. It is best for readers and teachers to

concentrate on the grammatical points being discussed and to wait for later chapters to learn about these as-yet-unintroduced grammatical elements. Those students who can­ not wait can skip ahead to the relevant grammatical points, finding them in the table of contents, the tables, or the index. Quizzes are useful for learning the rules of inflection and conjugation found in part I and should be used along with the exercises. The sample sentences in part I of Classical Japanese G ram m ar can also be used as texts for reading. After finishing most or all of part I, on inflected forms, the teacher or reader should begin using materials from the Classical Japanese Reader. This is a companion volume containing texts from the Nara through the Meiji periods, as well as vocabulary and grammar notes. Part II of Classical Japanese Gram m ar explains noninflected forms that are much easier to understand, since many of the forms are similar to those found in modern Japanese and are not inflected. Accordingly, some of these chapters may be assigned for reading or homework, with only a quick review in class. Part III, on honorifics and Nara-period grammar, should be read in conjunction with texts from the honorifics and Nara section of the Classical Japanese Reader.

Acknowledgments I owe thanks to a number of friends, colleagues, students, assistants, and testers—Paul Atkins, Lewis Cook, Torquil Duthie, Peter Flueckiger, Thomas Harper, David Lurie, William McClure, Hisako Miyakoshi, Mari Nagase, Satoko Naito, Jamie Newhard, Chie Nozaki, Misao Okubo, Isao Okuda, Henry Smith, Kendon Stubbs, Tomi Suzuki, Loren Waller, and Paul Warnick—who either gave me direct assistance or offered invaluable comments and assistance. I owe a special debt to Steven Carter and Sonja Arntzen, the readers for Columbia University Press, and to Timothy Wixted, whose trenchant and extensive criticism improved the earlier manuscript immensely. I was very fortunate to have the assistance of Machiko Midorikawa, who checked the manuscript and its sources. I must give special thanks to Anne Commons, who did a meticulous job of edit­ ing and correcting the manuscript over a number of summers. In Japan, I was aided by Iwabuchi Tadasu (Waseda University), who happily answered my seemingly endless questions. I wish to thank Waseda University and my sponsor, Horikiri Minoru, for allowing me to stay as a visiting scholar in 2002/2003 and to use Wasedas library and facilities while completing the advanced phases of this book. At Columbia University Press, I would like to thank Irene Pavitt, Margaret Yamashita, and Jennifer Crewe, the editorial director, who has done so much for the field. I would like to acknowledge my debt to the following studies, textbooks, dic­ tionaries, and references: Ono Susumu, Nihongo no bunpo: Koten-hen (Kadokawa shoten, 1988); Yamaguchi Akiho and Akimoto Morihide, eds., Nihongo bunpd daijiten (Meiji shoin, 2001); Kitahara Yasuo et. al, eds., Nihon bunpo jiten (Yuseido shuppan, 1981); Suzuki Kazuhiko and Hayashi Oki, eds., Hinshibetsu Nihon bunpd kozay 10 vols. (Meiji shoin, 1972-1973); Matsuo Satoshi, Kobun kaishaku no tam e no kokubunpd nyumonyrev. ed. (Kenkyusha shuppan, 1973); Yamaguchi Akiho et.al., Nihongo no rekishi (Tokyo shuppankai, 1997); Yamaguchi Akiho, ed., Koten bunpd hikkeU Bessatsu kokubungaku, v o l.38 (Gakutosha, 1990); Komachiya Teruhiko, ed., D okkai no tam e no shin koten bunpd, rev. ed. (Tokyo shoseki, 2001); Koike Kiyoharu, Kiso koten bunpd (Asakura shoten, 1994); Nichieisha henshujo, ed., Shin koten bunpd sabunooto (Nichieisha, 1996); Suzuki Kazuo, Ito Haku, Toyama Eiji, and Koike Seiji, eds., Zen'yaku dokkai kogo jiten (Sanseido, 1995); Kindaichi Haruhiko, ed., Zen'yaku yorei kogo jiten (Gakken, 199b;; Yamada Toshio and Yoshikawa Yasuo, eds., K adokaw a hikkei kogo jiten (Kadokawa shoten, 1988); and Ono Susumu, Satake Akihiro, and Maeda Kingoro, eds., Iw anam i kogo jiten (Iwanami shoten, 1990). All publishers are in Tokyo unless otherwise noted.

Elements of the Book Grammatical Terms and Translations English term

Japanese term

Romamzation

Chap. sec.

Subject

主語 述語 自立語 付属語 用言 体言 修飾語 名詞 代名詞 副詞 感動詞 接続詞 連体詞 助詞 未然形 連用形 終止形 連体形 已然形 命令形 動詞 形容詞 形容動詞 助動詞 活用 変格活用 自動詞 他動詞

shugo

1.1

jutsugo

1.1

jiritsugo

1.3,1.5,1.8

fuzokugo

1.3,1.6-7

yogen

1.4-6

taigen

1.8,17.1-2

shushokugo

L9

meishi

17.1

daim eishi

17.2

fukushi

17.3

kandosm

17.4

setsuzokusm

17.5

rentaishi

17.6

joshi

1 2 -1 6 ,20.2- 3

mizenkei (MZ)

3.1.1

ren'yokei (RY)

3.1.2

shushikei (SS)

3.1.3

rentaikei (RT)

3.1.4

izenkei (IZ)

3.1.5

m eireikei (MR)

3.1.6

doshi

3

keiyoshi

5.1

keiyodoshi

5.2

jodoshi

6-11,20.1

katsuyo

3-11

henkaku katsuyo

4.1

jidoshi

4.2

tadoshi

4.2

Predicate Autonomous word Dependent form Inflected form Nominal Modifying word Noun Pronoun Adverb Interjection Conjunction Attributive word Particle Imperfective form Continuative form Final form Attributive form Perfective form Imperative form Verb Adjective Adjectival verb Auxiliary verb Conjugation Irregular conjugation Intransitive verb Transitive verb

.

Elements of the Book

2

English term

Japanese term

補助動詞 Four-grade conjugation 四段活用 Upper one-grade 上一段活用 Supplementary verb

conjugation

Komamzation

Chap. sec.

hojoddshi

4.3, A4

vodan katsuyo (yodan, YD) 3.2.1 kam レichidan katsuyd (kami-icnidariy I

日 向 （a province in Kyiishii) is pronounced ひ ゅ う が （ Hyiiga).

きふ

急なり（ sudden) is pronounced さ ゆ う な り （ kyii-nari). い

g ふ （to say) is pronounced ゆ つ （ yii). 2.5.3 u-Vowels

When a 以-vowel (as in ん以， yw, etc.) is followed by m or /zび， it is pronounced う う （ Q). to eat) is pronounced く う （ kii). ゅ ’ 結 ふ （to tieバs pronounced ゆ う （ yti).

2.5

22

Orthography and Pronunciation

2.5.4 e-Vowels When an e-vowel (as in ket tef heyetc.) is followed by u or huyit is pronounced X ^ (y〇)け ふ

今白（ today) is pronounced き よ う （ ky6). えう

襄 (important part) is pronounced よ う (y6). てふ

_ (butterfly) is pronounced ち よ う （ ch6).

2.5.5 o-Vowels When an o-vowel (as in o, kof etc.) is followed by either u or huf it is pronounced ぉう⑹. ぉふ （to pursue) is pronounced お つ > （ ,6). 、 追

Advanced Study and Reference 2.5.5A The Iroha Poem

Sometime between the middle and the late Heian period, someone composed the い ろ は う た , (伊 呂、 波 歌 )，/ro/za poem, which later became one ofr the models for the くうかい

forty-seven-A^wa system. The poem has traditionally been attributed to Kukai 空 海 (774-835), the founder of Japanese Shingon Buddhism. The iroha poem uses fortyseven kan a in a seven-five pattern without repeating any of them. いろはにほへとちりぬるをわかよたれそつねならむうゐのおくや まけふこ え て あ さ き ゆ め み し 系 ひ も せ す. If the kana are voiced (using dakuten) and characters are added, we get a five-seven syllabic imayo (popular) song.

S は S へ ど !(り ぬ る を ，我 が 世 誰 ぞ 常 な ら む •i 為 の 奥 山 今 自 蝱 ぇ あ さ ゆ め み 系

て，浅 き 尊 見 じ 酔 ひ も せ ず •か 〇vra mbe-ゐ c/z/rfm/ra

y o 加re zo

tsune nara-mu. Ui no okuyam a kvd koe-te, asaki yume mi-)i ei mo sezu. Even if the colors (iro) (of the world) are brilliant (nioe-do)f they end up fading {chiri-nuru)\ In our world {wa ga yo)f who is immortal {tsune-nara-mu)7. (No

Pronouncing Long Sounds

23

2.5

one.) Today, crossing over (koe-te) the distant mountain (okuyama) of illusion {ui)f I do not intend to see {mi-ji) shallow {asaki) dreams (yume) or to be intoxicated (e/ mo se-zw).

is the

of the ツ

verb mow, “to be

brilliant,wand the conjunctive particle do. Chiri-nuru o is the ren'yokei of the 少

verb c/z/rw, “to scatter,” the

of the perfective auxiliary verb

and the interjectory particle o. Tsune nara-mu is the noun tsunef apermanence,>, the mizenkei of the copular nari, and the rentaikei of the speculative auxiliary verb mu. Mi-ji is the mizenkei of the kami-ichidan verb miru, ato see,wand the 汝e/ of the negative intentional auxiliary verb ノ 之 . mo

is the

ツ

of the yodan verb eu^ ato be intoxicated,wthe bound particle mof the mizenkei of the sahen verb suf and the shushikei of the negative auxiliary verb zu.) Note that in the voiced version the Zro/za poem uses the M/-row kana / ゐ （ 斗)， e 象 （ エ)， and o を （ ヲ） for the same sounds as 0 -row kana V、 ，え， and お.

Verbs 3 .1 The Six Inflected Forms Verbs, adjectives, adjectival verbs, and auxiliary verbs have six inflected forms: the mizenkei (imperfective form), ren'yokei (continuative form), shushikei (final form), rentaikei (attributive form), izenkei (perfective form), and m eireikei (imperative form). みぜんけい

_

3.1 •I The M/zen/ce/•(未然形 )， or Imperfective Form

The m/zew/rd (literally, “not-yet>realized”） form generally indicates action that has not yet taken place. It is followed by an auxiliary verb of intention (/7, mu, muzu), conjecture (mashi)} desire {mahoshU namu)y or negation (zw); by the conjunctive particle of hypothesis (ba)) or by the final particles of desire (baya} namu). Because the negative zu often follows the mizenkei, it is sometimes called the negative form.

月なく， 着も障らず•Tiwん /似ん“， ywん /mo

几4-zw.

There is no (naku) moon (tsuki)f and the snow (yuki) does not fa ll (fura-zu). (Saras/zma, NKBT 20:515) CFMm-zw is the

of the verb /wrw, “to fall,” and the

shushikei of the negative auxiliary verb zu.) れんようけい

3.1.2 The Ren’y6ke/•( 連用形 )， or Continuative Form

The ren'yokei (continuative) form indicates that the action or process expressed by the verb is either taking place or has already taken place. The ren'yokei is often followed by an auxiliary verb (ki} kerit kem u} tsuy nuf and tari) that indicates that the action has already occurred or been carried out. The ren'yokei also is followed by a conjunctive particle (tef tsutsuy nagara) indicating simultaneous or continuative action. For this reason it is sometimes called the conjunctive form. 雨まことに降りぬ•Ame

m

The rain truly (makoto ni) fell (furi-nu). [Makura, sec. 99, NKBT 19:151) (Furi-nu is the

ん eZ of /wrw, “to fall,” and the s/zws/zZ/reZ of the auxiliary verb

indicates the completion of action.)

which

The Six Inflected Forms

3 .1.3

25

3 .1

The ShiisWfce/•( 終止形 )， or Final Form

The shushikei (final) form marks the end of the sentence and indicates that the action is taking place in the present (except when marked by a temporal marker like m ukashit along ago^) The shushikei can also be followed by an auxiliary verb {beshi, meri, ramu, rashi, hearsay/suppositional nari) expressing speculation about the present. いささかに雨降る • ム

似

“ me

The rain (ame) falls (furu) little by little (isasaka-ni). (Tosaf NKBT 20:38) れんたいけい

3 .1.4

The Renta/ke/•( 連体形 )， or Attributive Form

The rentaikei (attributive) form directly modifies a nominal (noun, pronoun) or an implied nominal. 雨まじへ雪降る夜 •

所aルァ“ んび⑽ひッ仏

An evening (yo) in which snow (yuki) falls (furu)y mixed (majie) with rain {ame). (MYSf vol 5, no. 892, NKBT 5:99) いぜんけい

3_ 1.5 The /zenke/•( 已然形)， or Perfective Form

The izenkei (literally, whereas an adjectival verb can be preceded by an adverb or a ren'yokei ぉだ

modifier, but not vice versa. For example, /to calm) is possible, but ito yume nari

|

ん0 war/ い と 穏 や か な り （it is very

(it is a very dream) is not. If a word can

be translated into modern Japanese by adding na to the stem, it usually is an adjectival

Adjectival Verbs

5.2

61

verb. For example, odayaka-n a (calm) is a modern Japanese adjective in the rentaikeiy whereas yum e na is not possible.

Historical Note The nari adjectival verbs were originally created from a combination of a noun, the case particle ni, and the rahen verb ari (to be), which indicated the existing state of the noun. Thus shizuka ni ari became shizuka-nari} which indicated the state or existence o f ' quietw[shizuka). Tari was similarly created from a noun, the case par­ ticle to, and the rahen verb ari (to be). Thus, dodo to ari became dodo-tari, which indicated the state or existence of “dignity” （ ゴ6ゴ6). These adjectival verbs were created to supplement adjectives. The nari adjectival verbs are similar to adjectives in that in both cases the suffix sa can be added to the stem to turn them into nouns, as in shizuka-sa (quietness) and sabishisa (loneliness, from the shiku adjective saDishi). Although nari adjectival verbs first appeared in the Nara period, they were not significant. But they became extremely prominent in the Heian period, when they were used to supplement adjectives. Likewise, tari adjectival verbs first appeared in the Heian period but were insignificant compared with nari adjectival verbs. Gen­ erally speaking, nari adjectival verbs come from Yamato (native Japanese) words, and tari adjectival verbs derive from Chinese compounds and are used in kanbun kundoku (L.hmese-style) writing, Tari adjectival verbs rarely appear in Heian w akay m onogatari (tales), or womens nikki (diaries). But they do appear frequently in medieval gunki m onogatari (military tales) and Edo-period haibun {haikai prose), both of which incorporate Chinese-style writing. From the Muromachi period, the copular auxiliary verb nari began to be replaced by the copular d a (/£). The nari adjectival verb also appeared with a da ending, and s/zfewkwan•(静 か な り ） gradually gave way to

ゐ （ 静 か だ ).

Modern Japanese has only one adjectival verb form, which derives from the nari adjectival verb form, commonly referred to as the una-ty^e adjective.wThe pri­ mary example is shizuka da, which is conjugated as smzuka daro{u) (mizenkei),

5.3

62

Adjectives and Adjectival Verbs

shizuka n i/ shizuka d e / shizuka da{tta) (reWyokei), shizuka d a {shushikei)f shizuka na {rentaikei), and shizuka nara(ba) (kateikei, or conditional). Today, foreign loanwords are frequently turned into adjectival verbs, as some, in the

汝

and

(ノヘンサムな， hand-

( ロ マ ン チ ッ ク な ，romantic).

D odo-tari appears in modern Japanese as the attributive modifier dodd-taru (rew化//:e/，dignified) and the adverbial る態 k

どうどう

イ0 (re«’ydんe/， with dignity), as in 堂々 た

(dignified/poised attitude) and 堂 々 と 戰 う （to fight with dignity/poise).

However, since the tari form appears in only these two conjugations, in modern Japanese it is not considered an adjectival verb.

5.3 Two Moditying Functions Adjectives and adjectival verbs function as modifiers. In the rentaikei (attributive) form, they modify nominals and noninflected words. In the ren'yokei (continuative) form, they modify inflected words such as verbs. れんたいしゆうしよくご

5.3.1 The Rentd/Tce/’ Attributive Modifier ( 連 体 修 飾 語 ）

赤 き 雲 A/C4i 家んぞく 、 ヽ、 、 こ の よ う な 満 足 な こ と は ご ざ ら ぬ ./ ぐ⑽〇如 似 肌 肌 ^ んw 似 ん 0 如 丽 gozara-NU. This Kind of (kono yd na) satisrying thing {manzoku na koto) does not exist {gozara-nu). (Notmng is as satisrying as this.) (Kyogen, KitsunezukayNKBT 42: z88)

is the mばew/ぐa of the 少

polite verb が zarw, “to be,” and the

snushikei ot the negative auxiliary verb nu.) This negative auxiliary verb nu and its sound-change variation n (Ay), both of which follow the mizenKei, lasted into the modern period. An example of modern い

Kansai dialect is the sentence /んル” （ 行 か ん ）（ m/z⑼んeZ of 汝

“to go,” and negative

か

“I will not go”） or んa ん 書 力 、 ん

ん

eZ of

ん “to write,” and negative い

ul will not write"). In the Kanto area, this nu became nai な い ，I will not go).

as in ikanai

6.2

68

Negative and Recollective Auxiliary Verbs

Advanced Study and Reference 6JCNAKU-/V/(なくに） Naku-ni is a compound consisting of the mizenkei of the ancient form of negative zu} the nominalizer kuy and the particle ni. Naku-ni always follows the mizenkei. In the Nara period, when na {mizenkei of zu) was followed by the nominalizer kuf it became the negative nominal似たw, the equivalent of the modern Japanese: •••ない

こ と （not having). The particle m* (which may derive from the case particle m, the conjunctive particle nit or the ren'yokei of the copular auxiliary verb nari) was then aaded to create a compound. When nakuni is used like a conjunctive particle, it can be a concessive conjunction, meaning “though (something) is not” （ Mod. Jpse:

♦

ないことなのに）or a causal conjunction, meaning “because (something) is not” (Mod. Jpse: •••ないことだから） •At the end of the sentence, it functions like a final particle, meaning “my, how (something) is not” （ Mod. Jpse: ••.ないこ

とだなに).

In the following example, naku-ni functions as a concessive conjunction: み山には松の雪だにj

え な く に , 都 は 野 辺 の 若 菜 摘 み け り • Af如

m wa matsu no yuKi aam kie-NAKU-NIf mivako wa nobe no wakana tsumi-Keri.

Though even (dani) the snow (yuki) on the pines {matsu) has not disappeared {kie-naku-m) in tne deep nills (miyama), m tne capital {miyako) they are gather­ ing {tsumi-keri) young herbs {wakana) in the fields {nobe)\ (KKSt Spring 1 , no. 18, NKBT 8:108) {Kie-naku-ni is the mizenkei of the intransitive shimo-nidan verb kiyut ato disappear/' and the compound naku-ni)

6.2 Auxiliary Verbs Kl and KERI じよどうし

The auxiliary verbs (助動 g司） /:/and ZrerZ pertain to recollection or past tense. 6.2.1 K/( き） The auxiliary verb ki follows the ren'yokei and has a special conjugation. After kahen and sahen verbs, ki takes a special form.

Auxiliary Verbs ki and keri

MZ

(せ ）

RY

〇

SS

き

RT

し

IZ

し しか

MR

〇

6.2

69

たいけんかいそう

L Personal past, recollection (体 験 回 想 )•The speaker describes some event that occurred in the past based on the speaker's personal experience. ul had . . . wMod. Jpse: •••た . 京 よ り 卞 り し 時 に ，み な 人 ，字 ど も な か り き • 办 あヒ)し a-rashi

mashi

9.6

109

寒 か る ら し samukarw-rashi 4 寒 か ら し samuka-rashi

The following is an example: 鳴 く 鹿 は 吾 夜 は 鳴 か ず い 寝 に け ら し も •A/"a/(ws/z汝a 丽 ん の 丽 似

zu ine-n レKE-RASHI mo. The aeer who cry (naku shika) are not crying \naka-zu) tonight {koyoi). Tney

must have fallen asleep {ine-ni-ke-rashi mo)! (MYS, v o l.8, no. 1511, NKBT 5: 3

1

1

) ぐ

ぐ以ot the s/z/所omdaw verb

mo is tne

“to sleep,”

the ren yokei of the perfective auxiliary verb nuf the abbreviatea auxiliary verb compound ke-rashi， and the

Nara-period final particle mo} which is

exclamatory.)

Helpful Tips Rashi takes up something based on firm evidence and speculates on the cause for that phenomenon. In contrast to ramUy which expresses a highly suojective position, with the speaker imagining what a particular situation might be like, rasm speculates on a present situation based on objective evidence.

9.6 MASH / (まし） M ashi follows the mizenkei and has a special conjugation. 切

か

ほ〇〇〇〇〇

し し し し

か

IFR

ま 〇 ま ま ま 〇

z m m

r y ss rt iz

The mizenkei form m ase is primarily a Nara-period usage. はんじつかそう

1 . Counterfactual speculation (汉 吴仮想 )•Expresses speculation about something counter to fact. This m ashi is often found in combination with the conjunctive

9.6

10

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

particle わa, marking a hypothetical situation: “If it were the case that

Mod.

Jp se: も し ••.だ と し た ら .••だ ろ う . 論 に S き あ ら ま し か ば ，映 ら ざ ら ま し 冗 ^ 洲 ポ か 0 ん

am -AL45H//04-

ba utsura-zara-MASHL I f there were (ara-mashika-ba) colors (iro) and shapes (katachi) in a mirror (kagami)y it would not reflect (utsura-zara-mashi). (Tsurezuret sec. 235, NKBT 30:278) {Aramashika-ba is the mizenkei of the intransitive rahen verb an t ato be,wthe mizenKei or the auxiliary verb mashi, indicating counterfactuality, and the conjunctive particle bay indicating a hypothetical situation. Utsura-zara-mashi is the mizenkei of the yodan verb mなMrw, “to reflect,” the

of the negative auxiliary verb zm, and the

shushikei of the auxiliary verb mashi) はんじつきぼう

2. Desire for a hypothetical state

A subcategory of counterfactual specu­

lation, this expresses a desire for a hypothetical state, implying a regret or dissatisfaction with the actual state: “If only . . . ” “How I wish that:’ Mod. Jp s e : も し •• • だったらよかったのに. ゆめ

し

夢 と 知 り せ ば さ め ざ ら ま し を •％所 6 如 s/z/r/づ ゲI had known

二 se-わaj it was a dream (yMme),丄would not have woken up (same-

zara-mashi o)\ (Ono no Komachi, KKSf Love 2, no. 552, NKBT 8:213) {Shiri-se-ba is the rew’ydんeZof the

ゴ verb s/nrw, “to know,” the

のof the •saZ/ewverb

to

do,'7and the conjunctive particle baf which inaicates a Hypothetical state, ^ame-zaramashi o is the mizenkei of the shimo-nidan verb samu, ato awaken,wthe mizenkei of the negative auxiliary verb zut the rentaiKei of the hypothetical auxiliary verb mashit and the interjectory particle o.) み る 人 も な き 山 里 の 桜 花 M の 散 り な ん 後 ぞ 咲 か ま し . Miru hito mo naki

yam azato no saKurabana hoka no chin-na-n nochi zo saka-MASHi. How I wish the cherry blossoms (sakura-bana) of the village {yamazato) without people to view them [miru hito mo naKi) would bloom (saka-mashi) after those in other places {hoka) have scattered (chiri-na-n). (KKSy Spring 1 ,no. 68, NKBT 8:116) is the

of the

verb saんw, “to bloom,” and the hypothetical

auxiliary verb mashi. Chin-na-n is the ren'ydKei of the yodan verb chiru, ato scatter,

mashi

9.6

the mizenkei of the perfective auxiliary verb nUj and the rentaikei of the speculative auxiliary verb mu, with a nasalized sound change to n.)

Advanced Study and Reference More on MASHI まよ

3. Hesitation, indecision (迷 V、 ). Used for indecision about choice or action. This usage of m ashi always appears with a doubt word such as ya or ka (interrogative bound particle) or ikani (how, what). This usage began in the Heian period: “Should I

Mod. Jpse: •••しよう力、しら.

心 う き も の は 世 な り け り . い か に せ ま し /ぐ 0ん ⑽ •所⑽ 0 丽

M 似.

keri. Ikani se-MASHL Painful (kokoro-uki) things are (the nature of) marriage (yo). What (ikani) should I do (se-mashi)? (Tsutsumi} Haizumi, NKBT 13:420) (Se-mashi is the mizenkei of tne sa/zewverb 5M, “to do,” and the auxiliary verb い ら へ や せ ま し •Jrae ya se-A4ASHL

Should I give {se-mashi) an answer (irae) or not (ya)? (Tsutsumi} Hanada no nyogo, NKBT 13:414) (Ya se-mashi is the interrogative bound particle ya, the mizenkei of the sahen verb suf ato do/' and the rentaikei of the auxiliary verb mashi.) M ashi often appears in the following combinations: + ま し か ば … まし ■MZzewたeZ + せ ば •••ま し MteewんeZ +

. ••まし

The m ashika in m ashika-ba is used only to indicate hypothetical situations. M ase} the Nara-period mizenkei of m ashif survives in the Heian perioa, mainly in waka. An example is わ が 背 字 と 二 人 見 ま せ ば 幾 許 か こ の 降 る 雪 の 嬉 し か ら ま し. Waga seko

toju tari mi-MASjz-ba iKubaku Ka ko-nojuru vuki no ureshikara-MASHi.

9.7

I 12

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

I f I were looking (mi-mase-ba) (at this) together (futari) with my (waga) hus­ band {seko)f how so {ikubaku) happy (ureshikara-mashi) I would be about this 〇 MYS, v o l.8, no. 1658, NKBT 5:354) (AfZ-rn似e-

(んo-ra) falling snow (/krM

ba is the ren’ydkei of the kami-ichidan verb mine， “to see’，’ the mizenkei of mashi， and the conjunctive particle baf which is hypothetical.) The Difference Between MU and MASHI

M ashi is thought to have emerged from the speculative auxiliary verb mu. It is simi­ lar to mu in that it is speculative, but unlike the speculative mu, which is concerned with whether or not something is real, mashi is speculation counter to fact or reality. By the late Kamakura period, m ashi often became indistinguishable from the speculative mu.

9.7 B£SH/( べ し ） Beshi follows the shushikei (except after rahen, when it follows the rentaiKei) and has a ku adjectival conjugation. MZ RY SS RT IZ MR

〇

ベから

ベく べし べき

ベかり

ベけれ

〇

〇

〇

〇 ベかる

Beshi indicates firm expectation derived from a judgment based on circumstance, expe­ rience, or reason. The main functions of beshi—conjecture with confidence, intention, appropriateness, advice, command, and potential—all derive from this sense of besm as rationally justified expectation. かくしんすいりょう

1 . Conjecture with confidence (確 信 推 量 )• This is the primary use of ゎ以/z/ and follows inflected forms that describe circumstances in the third person: “for sure, “no doubt• ” Mod. Jp se: き っ と … だ ろ う . 潮 満 ち ぬ ♦風 も 吹 き ぬ べ し 所 /ぐ似e mo/wん

beshi

9.7

I 13

The tide (shio) has risen (michi-nu). The wind (kaze) willblow fo r sure (fuki-nu-beshi). (Tixsa， NKBT 20:30) the

the

んe/ of the auxiliary verb

如んが of the ツ0ぬ 《verb/wんw, “to blow,”

•ん以•of

which expresses certainty, and the

the auxiliary verb beshi) おぼ

なげ

こと

\/、 みじく 思 し 嘆 く 專 あ る べ し •Imijiku oboshi-nageku koto aru-BESHL

No doubt there is (aru-beshi) something (koto) that you are agonizing over {oboshinageku) greatly {imijiku). {TaketorU NKBT 9:58) (Oboshi-nageku is the ren'yokei of the “to think,” and the 厂 6«如/ん以of tne

honorific yodaw verb

verb

が ん “to

agonized Aru-beshi is the rentaikei of the rahen verb ari} ''to exist,wand the auxiliary verb beshi.) い し

^ •つ い

2. Strong intention, resolve (意 志 ，決 意 )•Expresses a strong sense of determination or will with regard to the speaker's action. This beshi occurs in the shushiKei form: “I will,” “I intend to:’ Mod. Jpse: •••つもりだ. 「 毎 度 た だ 得 失 な く ，こ の 一 矢 に 定 む べ し と 思 へ 」• ル⑻•ゐ to ia toん奶Zz/如-

naku, kono hito-ya ni sadamu-BESHI to omoe. "Each time (maido) do not (naku) think of hitting or missing (toku-shitsu)f just (tada) think {omoe) that (you) will hit it for certain {sadamu-beshi) with this (ko no) one arrow {hito-ya)!7(Tsurezure, sec. 92, NBKT 33:164) む

k

よ

み

まう

さう ら

か の 人 の 墓 所 を 見 せ 申 し 候 ふ べ し /ぐ ル ⑽ み 加 ⑽ 所 奶 0 服 •犯^加かづかか

BESHI. I will show you (mise-moshi-sord-beshi) the grave (musho) of that (ka-no) person (hito). (No play, SumidagawayNKBT 40:392) とうぜん

ぎ む

3. Appropriateness, natural expectation ( 当然)，obligation, duty (義 務 )•Indicates what is natural, appropriate, or expected based on circumstance or reason. It may express a sense of duty or obligation: “It is only appropriate that,” “it is only proper that,” “should,” “obliged,” “have no choice but to• ” Mod. Jpse: •••は ず だ ， •• • ねばならない. 人 の 滅 の 逼 し と く す べ き を ，え 詠 み 得 ぬ ほ ど も 心 も と な し /*•如 ⑽ 说 a ⑽

kaeshi toku su-BEKI o, e yom i-e-nu hodo mo kokoro-moto-nashi.

9.7

14

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

In replying {kaeshi) to a person's poem (hito no uta)f it is only proper to do it {su-beki) quickly {toku); and when (hodo) you cannot compose a poem (e yomi-e-nu), it is nerve-racking (kokoro-moto-nashi). (Makura, sec. 160, NKBT 19:213) (Su-beki o is the

•ん以•of the

んe/ of

verb sw, “to do,” the

and the conjunctive

particle o. E yomi-e-nu is the negative potential adverb e, the ren^okei of the yodan verb

“to compose a poem,” the

of the

verb

“to be able,”

and the rentaikei of the negative auxiliary verb zu.) こ

たま

ひと

子 } ! な 10 給 l べ き } \な め り •K 〇to nari-tam au-BEKI hito na-meri. "You appeared to be (na-meri) a person who should become {to nari-tamau-beki) (my) child.>, (Taketorif NKBT 9:29) (To nari-tamau-beki is the case particle to, the re«’ツ^ :e/ of the jo ゴ0 パverb

んeZ of the honorific supple-

“to become,” the

mentary verb tamaw, and the 厂⑼to/re/ of the speculative auxiliary verb feesm. Afamer/ is a nasalized sound change to パa-merZ from

the

of copular

nariy and the shushikei of the speculative auxiliary verb meri.) y きとぅ

4. Advice, recommendation (適 当 )• Not as strong as a command, in the third person: “It is recommended that (you) •• • ，” “(you) should,” “it is best that (you) •••” Mod. Jpse: •••の が よ い . 秦 の 作 り や う は ，夏 を む ね と す べ し •/e⑽

ら

^ ■ ，似 _

0 m⑽ e to 似 -

BESHL When it comes to the way (yd) of building (tsukuri) a house (ie)f you should (su-beshi) think primarily (mune) of summer (natsu). (Tsurezure} sec. 55, NKBT 30:135) (Mune

to su-besm is the noun mune, "primary objective,Mthe case particle to, indicating the objective of the following verb, the 以必///んd of the

verb sw, “to make,” and the

auxiliary verb beshi.) めいれい

5. Command (pp^). Usually a command that cannot be refused, implying a hier­ archical relationship between the speaker and the addressee. It usually occurs in the s/z反s/z汝e/ or in the negative m/zew/cei form (わe/rara-zw): “You must •••” “Do it!” Mod. Jpse: •••せよ.

beshi

I 15

9.7

頼朝が首 1を は ね て ，わ が 遵 の 前 に ■ く べ し 伽 ^ 腳

妒 ん 0ル■也腿が

h aka no m ae ni kaku-BESHI. Cut off (hane-te) the head (kubi) of Yoritomo and hang it (kaku-beshi) in front (mae) of my (waga) grave {haka)\ {Heiket vol.6, Nyudo shikyo, NKBT 32:409) かのう

6. P o ten tial(可肯巨) . This わes/z/ often appears in the negative form as in わ “can (not).” Mod. Jpse: •••こ と が で き る （ で き な い )• はね

、 そら

と

、

、 、

羽 な け れ ば ，空 を も 飛 ぶ べ か ら ず • パ^ ^

sora 〇 m o 加わw-

BEKARA-zu. Since they dia not have (nakere-ba) wings (nane)f they could not fly [toou-bekara-zu) in the air (50m). (Hojokiy NKBT 30:32) (Tobu-bekara-zu is the shushikei of the yodan verb tobu} '*to

the mizenKei of the potential beshi, ana the negative auxiliary verb

zu.)

Advanced Study and Reference More on BESHI よてい

7. Schedule (卞定 )• Indicates something that is already arranged: “to be scheduled,” “to be expected:’ Mod. Jpse: •••ことにな っ て い る • 住むf e より出でて, 舟 に 乗 る べ き 所 へ 备 る •

•/ゴeA/w 狀

ni noru-BEKI tokoro e wataru. We left {ide-te) the fort (tachi) where we had lived {sumu) and crossed {wataru) to the place {tokoro) where we were scheduled to board (noru-beki) a boat ifune).

{Tosaf NKBT 20:27)

Helpful Tips There is a certain overlap between the speculative auxiliary verbs mu and beshi. In both cases, the person (first, second, or third) determines the function. Here is a summary of the main parallels:

9.7

116

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

mu

beshi

First person

Intention

Third person (s/he)

Conjecture

Second person (you)

Appropriateness Invitation

Strong intention, resolution Conjecture with confidence Appropriateness Invitation, command

Advanced Study and Reference Sound Changes in BESHI

w-sound change:ベ < (RY) 4 ベ う （pronounced み如びょう） /-sound change:べ き （ R T )-> ベい Nasalized sound change: ベ か る な り （RT + hearsay /wn*)— ベ か ん な り —> ベ かなり ベ か る め り （RT + auxiliary verb merZ)— ベ か ん め り 4 ベかめり

Historical Note The negative form of beshi {bekara-zu) rarely appears in Heian-period classical prose. Instead, the auxiliary verb maji (^negative intentional, negative speculation, etc.) is used. But the negative beshi does appear in medieval texts ^such as the Hojoki and Isurezuregusa) and survives in modern Japanese. Beshi is generally thought to come from the adverb ube (W), ''truly, ‘as と うぜん

expected” （ Mod. Jp se: ま こ と に 当 然 で あ る )， with the w dropping out. that the statement that follows is only natural or only to be expected.

んe asserts

men

I 17

9.8

9.8 MEW ( めり） M eri follows the shushikei (except atter rahenf when it follows the rentaikei) and has a rahen conjugation. 〇 めめめめ〇

MZ RY SS RT IZ MR

In the renyokeiy m eri is followed by the auxiliary verbs ki and tsu} but this appears very rarely. すいてい

1 . Supposition (推 定 )•Based on visual evidence: “It appears that.” Mod. Jpse: •• • のようにI える. あ

すだれ

、 、

はな

簾 垂 す こ し 上 げ て ，花 た て ま つ る め り •Swrfare似んos/zZ

/za似 ^ ^

MERL (The nun) raised slightly (sukoshi agete) the curtains (sudare) and appeared to be making {tatematsuru-meri) an offering of flowers (hana) (to the Buddha). [Genji, Wakamurasaki, NKBT 14:183) (These are Genji's thoughts as he looks into a building from the outsiae.; ぇんきょく

i

2. Circumlocution, indirection (^ e f t ). Tms usage became prevalent from the midHeian period: “It appears that •••” “It seems that •••’’ Mod. Jpse: の よ う だ ，らしい • いまやう

む げ

な、

今 様 は ，無 下 に い や し く こ そ 成 り ゆ く め れ •/mの^

m /yas/z汝m んoso

nar レ1v uku-MtRE, As for contemporary fashion (imayd)f it apvears (mere) to nave gradually oecome (nariMuku) absolutely (mu^e ni) vulgar (iyashiku). (Tsurezuref sec. 22, NKBT 30:108) (Koso nariMuku-mere is the emphatic bound particle kosof the shushikei of the yodan verb nariyuku} ato become gradually,wand the izenkei or the auxiliary verb meru.) ボ 納 言 の 乳 母 と こ そ 人 い ふ め る は ，こ の 字 の 後 負 な る べ し • 從 加 ％ ^

menoto to koso hito iu-MERU wa, ko-no ko no ushiromi naru-beshi.

m?

118

9.9

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

(The person) that people (hito) seem to call {iu-meru) Wet Nurse (menoto) Shonagon is probably (naru-beshi) the supporter {ushiromi) of this (ko-no) child (ko). (Genjiy Wakamurasaki, NKBT 14:185)

Historical Note It is generally believed that mer/ derived from a combination of the verb mか “to see,” and the ra/zew verb

“to be:’ Aft-arZ ( 見 あ り ） or m k-an•(見 え あ り ） became merん

Meri rarely appeared until the mid-Heian period, when it became very popular and was frequently used for circumlocution. Meri appears mainly in prose and infrequently in waka. Beginning in the Kamakura period, meri faded very rapidly and remained in use only in the neoclassical style.

Advanced Study and Reference When meri follows the rentaiKei of a rahen conjugation, the ru in the rentaikei undergoes a nasalized {hatsu-on) sound change to n (A^) ana is often eliminated altogether. あるめり— あんめりj

あ め り （It appears to be)

多 か る め り - > 多 か ん め り 4 多 か め り （It appears that there are many)

9.9 Hearsay N A R I The hearsay nari follows the shushikei (except after a rahen verb, when it follows the rentaikei) and has a rahen conjugation.

り り る れ

〇なななな〇

MZ RY SS RT IZ MR

Hearsay tiori

9.9

I 19

で^ぶん 1 . Hearsay (伝聞)• To communicate something (rumor, conversation, story, etc.)

that one has heard from someone else: “I hear that … ” “They say that … ” Mod. Jpse: •••と聞いている，•••ということだ，.••そうだ. 男 も す な る 白 記 … 〇如如所0 似イ^

ひ wぬ …

The diaries (niki) th s tl hear men (otoko) keep {su) . . . (Tosa, NKBT 20:27) {Su-naru is the

汝e/ of the sa/zewverb

“to do,” and the rew如汝eZof the hearsay

侍 従 の 大 納 言 の 御 む す め な く な り 給 ひ ぬ な り •/與 ⑽ ふ ^m m

wo oル

musume naku nari-tam ai-nu NARL I hear that the daugnter {on-musume) of Jiju, the senior counselor (dainagon), has passed away [naku-nari-tamai-nu-nari). (Sarashina, NKBT 20:491) (Naku-nari-tamainu-nan is the ren'yokei of the yoaan compound vero naku-narUj ato die, the ren yokei of the honorific supplementary verb tamau, the shushikei of the perfective auxiliary verb nUy and the hearsay auxiliary verb nari.) 2. Aural supposition (推 足 )• To make a judgment or assumption based on sound (voice, conversation, etc.) or on the surrounding circumstances: “It sounds as if … ” “It seems that … ” Mod. Jpse: •••よ うだ，… らしい .

しづまりぬなり• Shizumarレnu-NARI. It seems that (things) have quieted down {shizumari-nu-nari). (Genji, Utsusemi, NKBT 14:113) {Shizumari-nu-nan is the renyokei of the yodan verb shizumarUj M to quiet down,Mthe shushikei of the perfective nUj and the auxiliary verb nari) ょ

あそ

夜 ふ く る ま で 遊 XSを ぞ し f t ま ふ な る • Yofukuru m ade asobi o zo shi-tam au-

NARIL It sounded as if they played music {asobi wo zo shitamau-naru) until (made) the night (yo) grew late (fukuru), (Genjit Kiritsubo, NKBT 14:41) (Fukuru is the rentaikei of the shimo-nidan verb fuku, wto grow late.wShitamau-naru is the ren'yoKei of the sahen verb su, ato do,wthe shushikei of the honormc supplementary verb tamauy and the rentaikei of auxiliary verb nari.)

120

9.9

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

Advanced Study and Reference More on NARI

3. Direct hearing. Used when nari follows a verb (such as nakuy wto singM ) related to sound or voice. “I hear •

、き

，

ぉ と 、

Mod. Jpse: • • • が 聞 こ え る ，•••音 が

する.

霧デこちてまぞ鳴くなる •Kiri tachi-te kari zo naku-NARU.

A mist (kiri) rises (tachi-te)t and I can hear the sound of the wild geese (kari) crying (naku-naru). (KKS, Autumn 1 , no. 252, NKBT 8:151) (Tachi-te is the 厂 ew’vd/ceZot the

verb

“to rise,” and the conjunctive particle な•

naru is the shushiKei of the yodan verb naku^ "to cry,Mand the rentaikei of the hearsay nari.) Sound

しhange

When the hearsay/suppositional nari follows the rentaikei of a rahen verb, the ru at the end of the rentaikei undergoes a nasalized (hatsu-onmn) sound change, and sometimes the nasalized sound « (Ay) is pronounced but not written: あるなり

4 あんなり4 あなり（ 厂 ⑼加ん以•o f 似 心 パ verb ar/， “to have”）

議 か な る な り - > 静 か な ん な り - >静 か な な り レ^ ^ / たd of adjectival verb s/zZzmんa war/，“quiet”）

Helpful Tips すいてい

Rashh nariy and m en all are concerned with supposition

Rcishi expresses a suppo­

sition based on external evidence; nari expresses a supposition based on hearing; and meri expresses a supposition based on seeing. Be Careful! Do not confuse the hearsay nari with the following: 1 . The copular nari. The copular nari follows nominals and the rentaikeU and the hearsay 似厂/ follows the

rentaikei).

咖 （except after a

verb, when it follows the

Summary of the Basic Functions of Speculative Auxiliary Verbs

9.10

121

When the shushikei and rentaikei of the verb are the same, as in yodan verbs, distinguish the two by context. For hearsay narif look for evidence being gathered aurally. 2. The ren'yokei and shushikei of nari adjectival verbs (such as shizuka nari). 3. The reバ>(5如/of the

verb

“to become:’

Historical Note ね

It is generally believed that

came from the phrase 狀 -an* (音 あ り ） ，literally, “to

have {rahen verb ari) sound {ne)!f In the ancient period, this nari almost always followed verbs related to sound, indicating the hearing of sound. From this original meaning of “to hear,” war/ evolved to mean an inference based on sound, and from this inference based on sound, nari came also to indicate hearsay. In the Heian period, the hearsay nari was used widely in wabunt or classical Japanese prose, and rarely appeared in kanbun-sty\e writing. Then, starting in the medieval period, the hearsay nari gradually faded from spoken Japanese.

9.10 Summary of the Basic Functions of Speculative Auxiliary Verbs Function

Auxiliary verb

Modern Japanese

Speculation

muymuzu

… ァころう（speculation about future)

kemu

♦• • た ん こ ろ つ （speculation about past)

ramu

备 ご ろ は … て い る だ ろ う （speculationabout present)

rashi

•••らしい，•.•に ち が い な い （supposition based on external evidence)

meri

•••の よ う に 見 え る （supposition based on appearance)

beshi

き っ と •••だ ろ う ，き っ と •.•に ち が い な い (speculation with confidence)

masm

も し •••な ら • • • だ ろ う （counterfactual speculation) (If it were the case that … ）

nari

.••よ つ

だ （It seems that •••)

122

9 .10

Auxiliary Verbs of Speculation and Supposition

Function

Auxiliary verb

Modern Japanese

Intention

mu， muzu

. • . よう，… す る っ も り だ (I w ill. . . )

beshi

鯰

kemu

••♦た と い ウ （past event) (I heard that •••)

ramu

… そ う だ ，… い る と い う （I hear th at … ）

nari

•••と い う こ と だ ，•••そ う だ •（I hear that •••)

mu

•••よ つ な (It seems that •••)

ramu

•♦•よ う な （It seems that ••.)

meri

•••の よ う だ ，… らしい •（It appears that •••)

kemu

•••た と い う ，… た と か い う （It seems th a t… happened … ）

Hearsay

Circum­ locution

ね

(は

“

0

^

もりだ—

g

10

Negative Speculative, Desiderative, and Comparative Auxiliary Verbs 10 . 1 Negative Speculative Auxiliary Verbs Jl and MAJI 10.1.り/(じ） Ji follows the mizenkei and has a special conjugation. MZ RY SS RT IZ MR

〇 〇 じ じ (じ） 〇

In the izenkeif ji appears only with the emphatic bound particle koso. y

う ち •し す い り ょ う

1 . Negative speculation ( f j f 肖推 量 ） •Expresses the speaker’s or writer’s conjecture with regard to someone else’s situation. Usually in the third person: “probably not:’ Mod. Jpse: •••な い だ ろ う . 上 ま ふ し 、 、

うらや

法師ばかり羨ましからぬものはあらじ•视

_

▲•んara -⑽

mono wa ara-JL Probably nothing [ara-ji) is as {bakari) unenviable (urayamashikara-nu) as being a priest {hoshi). (Tsurezure, NKBT 30:90) (The adverb bakari indicates degree. Urayamashikara-nu is the mizenKei ot the shiku adjective urayamasnij "enviable, and the reパ加/ん e/ of the negative zm, modifying

“person.” Ara-パis the

of

the rahen verb ari, "to be,wand the auxiliary verb ji.) いつしやう

锋 ぢ

、 •^

一 生 の 取 )，こ れに M ぐ る は あ ら じ •Isshd no haji， kore ni suguru wa ara-JI.

It is a shame (haji) of a lifetime {issho). Probably nothing (ara-ji) will exceed {suguru) this (kore). (Jaketori, NKBT 9:41) (Suguru is the rentaikei of the kami-nidan verb swぎ “to exceed,” modirymg the implied nominal

“thing.” ）

124

10.1 Negative Speculative, Desiderative, and Comparative Auxiliary Verbs

かかる病に住む人，心 に 思 ひ 痛 す こ と は あ ら か し • /ぐ aん ara

m*

sumu hito, kokoro ni omoi-nokosu koto wa ara-JI kashi. A person (hito) who lives {sumu) in this kind of (kakaru) place (tokoro) would prob­ ably have nothing {ara-ji) to regret (kokoro ni omoi-nokosu)\ {Genjif Wakamurasaki, NKBT 14:179) (Ara-ji kashi is the mizenkei of the rahen verb ari} ato be,wthe auxiliary verb jif and the emphatic final particle kashi.) y

うち • し い し

2. Negative intention (打消意志)•Expresses the intention of the speaker and occurs in the first person: “I will not … ” Mod. Jpse: •••な い つ も り だ ，… まい . 京 に は あ ら ち 東 の 方 に 吾 む べ き 国 求 め に と て # き け り • Af如 to m ⑽

ara-JI, Azuma no kata ni sumu-beki kuni m otom e ni to-te yuKi-keri. UI don't want to be (ara-ji) in the capital {miyako). In the east (azuma) I will find (motome) a province (Kuni) where I can live {sumu-beki)1,1he thought (to-te) and left. (Zse, sec. 9, NKBT 9:116) (Am-ノ Zis the m/z⑼んd of the

verb an’， “to be,” and the

negative intentional ji. To-te is the citational case particle tof the implied ren'yokei of the 少

verb omow, “to think,” and the conjunctive particle te.)

Helpful Tips When the action or situation pertains to the speaker or writer, the ji is a negative intentional. When the action or situation pertains to another person, ji becomes a negative conjecture. Person

Function

ji

First person

ji

Third person

Negativeintentional Negative conjecture

Historical Note In the Heian period, ji was used in both spoken and written Japanese, but beginning in the Kamakura period its usage faded, and it was used only in neoclassical-style writing. In conversational Japanese, the negative intentional/speculative auxiliary

Negative Speculative Auxiliary Verbs ji and maji

verb maノ i ( まじ）and its sound-change version

10.1

125

( まじい)，which became mm.

( ま い ） in the Muromachi period, replaced ノ l In the Edo period,ガ appeared only in w aka and neoclassical prose.

I0.I.2MAJ/( まじ）

Rr

M aji follows the shushikei (except after raheny when it follows the rentaikei) and has a shiku adjectival conjugation.

m

くきけ じ じ じ じ まままま 〇

zm r y ss r t iz

まじから まじかり

〇 まじかる

〇

〇 〇

M an usually indicates that based on experience or logic, certain things will not or should not take place. It is stronger and expresses more confidence tnan ji does. 1 . Negative speculation (打 消 推 量 )： “no doubt will not:，” “is highly unlikely:’ Mod. Jpse: •••ないにちがいない. さ て 冬 ^^れ の け し き こ そ ，缺 に は を さ を さ 劣 る ま じ け れ ^ な /

が re m?

keshiki koso, aki ni wa osaosa otoru-MAJIKbRE. Well {sate)j certainly (koso) a withered winter (fuyugare) landscape {keshiki) would not at all {osaosa) be inferior {otoru-majikere) to that of autumn {aki). ^rsurezure, sec.19, NKBT 30:106) {Osaosa is a correlative adverD rollowed by a negative, meaning a[not] at all^ Majikere is the izenkei of majiy which is in the izenkei due to the emphatic bound particle koso.) 「 念 仏 に 勝 る _ 候 ふ ま じ と は ，な ど 申 し 給 は ぬ ぞ 」

わ“ 加 爪 •所似a r a ん加〇

soro-M AJI to wa, nado m oshi-tam aw a-nu zo. aWhy (nado) don't you say (mdshi-tamawa-nu zo) that lit is very unlikely that (soromaji) it is superior to (masaru) chanting the name of the Buddha {nenbutsuyV (Tsurezurey sec. 222, NKBT 30:269) {Soro-maji is the shushikei of the polite yodan verb sordj "to have,wand the shushikei of mail)

126

10.1 Negative Speculative, Desiderative, and Comparative Auxiliary Verbs

y

うち • し い し

2. Negative intention (fJ7 肖意志)•The speaker/writer expresses resolve or intention not to do something: “I have no intention of,” “I am determined not to •

Mod.

Jpse: ••♦まい，•••し な い つ も り だ . ただ务 は見るまじ•

丽

m/ra-MA//.

Right now (tadaima) I will not read (miru-maji) (the letter). (Makura, sec. 82, NKBT 19:117) わ が 身 は 女 な り と も ，敵 の 手 に は か か る ま じ •肌 ゆ ? mZ M/a⑽

如

kataki no te m wa Kakaru-MAJi. Though my position (waga mi) is that of a woman [ouna nari-tomo)} I am determined not to fall into {kakaru-maji) the hands {te) of the enemy {kataki). (Heike, v o l.11, Sentei minage, NKBT 33:336) t

うち ； )■しと户 ぜん、

ふ了きとう

3. Inappropriateness (打 消 当 然 ) ,negative recommendation (不 適 当 )•The speaker/ writer expresses the opinion that this is not appropriate, that this should not occur. Recommends not taking a certain action: “JLt is not appropriate,” “should non, it is better not:’ Mod. Jpse: •••べ き で は な い • 妻 と い ふ も の こ そ ，男 の 持 つ ま じ き も の な れ Afe

⑽

motsu M AJIKI mono nave. It is not appropriate for a man (otoko no) to possess {motsu-majiki mono nare) a thing called (to iu mono) a wife {me). {Tsurezure, sec. 190, NKBT 30:247) 夢 を 人 に 聞 か す ま じ き な り と ，言 ひ 伝 へ け る •ル ^^ 0 ル•加

爪

ぐ

/

nan to u-tsutae-keru. It has been said (ii-tsutae-keru) that one should not tell {kika-su-maji) people (hito) about ones dreams (yume). {Uji shuU vol.13, no. 5, NKBT 27:367) {Kika-su-majikiis the

of the transitive yoaaw verb ん "〇 /， “to hear,” the

of

auxiliary verb suy which is causative, the rentaikei or ma)iy ana tne shushikei ot the copular auxiliary verb nari.) 4. Negative potential (不% 能 ) : “cannot.” Mod. Jpse: •••で き な い に ち が い な い . ■こよひ

まゐ

今 宵 は え 参 る ま じ •/ぐの^ •wa e m似

Negative Speculative Auxiliary Verbs ji and maji

127

10.1

I cannot go {mairu-maji) tonight (koyoi). (Makura, sec. 25, NKBT 19:65) (E mairuma// is the adverb e, “able,” the な concessive (although), as in 悲 し く て も ，泣 か な か っ た （ a /淡似ど/z he w a s sad, he did not cry).

l3.3DO， D〇yVIO ( ど，ども） D o a n d dom o are conjunctive particles that follow the izenkei.

1 . Direct concessive. A concessive connection based o n an existing or actual situ­ ation. T h e content of the following clause is contrary to w h a t one w o u l d expect f r o m that of the previous clause: “ but,”“ though,”“ although•”M o d . Jpse:

•••けれ

ど ち • のこ あさひ か 残 る と い へ ど も 朝 日 に 枯 れ ぬ •愚 如 w t o 化D O M O a s a / z Z m •んare-似 .

Though they say {ie domo) that (the morning glory) remains (nokoru), it ends up withering (kare-nu) in the morning sun (asahi ni). {H6jokit NKBT 30:24) {Kare-nu is the ren'vdKei or the shimo-mdan verb karut "to witner,wand the shushiKei or the per­ fective auxiliary verb nu.) 鶴 は ，い と こ ち た き さ ま な れ 兰 ，卩 I く 声 の 雲 井 ま で f t こ ゆ る ，い と め で た し Tsuru wa ito kochitaki sam a n a re D O , nak u koe no kum oi m a d e kikoyuru ito m edetashi.

Though the crane {tsuru) has a very [ito) overbearing (kochitaki) appearance {sama)f it is very (ito) admirable (meaetashi) that its singing [naku) voice {koe) can be heard (kikoyuru) as far as {made) the clouds {kumoi). [Makura, sec. 4 1 ,NKBT 19:89-90)

do, domo

(/ぐ (9c/zZ以/:/似

were

the noun

“appearance,” the

13.3

is the re故a/ん e/ of the

183

adjective

の•of the copular

“overbearing,” “to be,” and the conces-

sive conjunctive particle do.) をとこち な 、^ f 穿が 、 、 、 、 男 ，血 の 涙 を 流 せ ど も ，と ど む る よ し な し Otoた0 c/z/⑽ 似 m /ゐ 0 似 科 se D O M O , todo m uru voshi nashi.

Though the man shed {nagase-domo) tears [namida) ot blood (c/z〇, there was no (nashi) way (yoshi) to keep her (in this world) (todomuru), {Isef sec. 40, NKBT 9:134) is the

ot the transitive /camfmdaw verb toゴ omM, “to keep.’’)

Helpful Tips T h e conjunctive particle ba indicates a logical, expected connection between the content of the previous phrase a n d that of the following phrase. This logical, expected connection is based o n either a hypothetical situation ( w h e n following the m izenkei) or an existing/actual situation (following the izenkei). B y contrast, the conjunctive particles to/tom o a n d do /d o m o indicate a concessive connection in w h i c h the relationship is contrary to logic or expectation. Like ba, this c on­ cessive connection is based o n either a hypothetical situation (to/tomo) or an existing/ actual situation {do/dom o).

Hypothetical situation

Existing/actual situation

Logical connection

^ (following m izenkei)

^ (following izenkei)

Concessive connection

と，とも

ど，ども

Historical Note D o a n d dom o have identical functions a n d in the N a r a period were used equally fre­

quently. B y the Heian period, however, do tended to be used in w o m e n s kana litera­ ture, a n d dom o tended to be used in kanbun-style texts like Konjaku m onogatari shu a n d H eike m onogatari. In the K a m a k u r a period, do disappeared, but dom o continued to be used widely. In the M u r o m a c h i period, the conjunctive particle keredom o (but, although)

13.4

184

Conjunctive Particles

emerged, and in the Edo period this keredomo replaced domof which disappeared almost entirely f r o m everyday conversation. K eredom o c o m e s f r o m the izenkei ending of an adjective plus dom o, as in I、 まげ

、 、

hageshikeredom o (激 し け れ ど も ， though rough). いま

は

、 、

A n example of the m o d e m Japaneseんereふ m o is今 は 晴 れ て い る け れ ど も ， ふ

だ

い つ 降 り 出 す か わ か ら な い • 77z o m ぎ/z (the skies) are n o w clear, w e d o n ’ tknow when it will begin to rain.

l 3. 4N/ ，0 ( に ，を ） N i and o are conjunctive particles that follow the rentaikei.

1 . C au sal. A logical connection based o n an existing or actual situation: “ since,” “ because.”M o d . Jpse: •••の で ，•••た め に • 母 ，物 語 な ど 求 め て ，炱 せ 給 ふ ] ^ ， げ に お の づ か ら 慰 み ゆ く • 价 心 m onogatari nado m otom e-te m ise-ta m au NI, ge-n i onozukara nagusam i-yuku.

Since (ni) my mother sought out {motome-te) tales (monogatari) and such and showed (mise-tamau) them to me, truly {ge-ni) they naturally [onozukara) brought me comfort. {Sarashinay NKBT 20:492) [Mise-tamau is the renyokei of the shimom•ゴ aw verb

“to show,” and the

of the honorific supplementary verb

tamau) わ が 弓 の 力 は 強 き 竺 あ ら ば ，ふ と 射 殺 し て ,首 の 玉 は 泰 り て む •

が

y u m i no chikara wa tsuyoki Oy tatsu ara-ba, fu to ikoroshi-te kubi no tam a wa tori-te-m u.

Since (o) the power {chikara) of my (waga) bow (yumi) is strong (tsuyoki)r if there is (ara-t)a) a dragon (tatsu), I will immediately (futo) shoot and kill it (i-koroshi-te) and be certain to take {tori-te-mu) the jewel in the neck (kubi no tama). (Taketori, NKBT 9:47)

is the

of the transitive

verb ton/, “to take,” the

mizenKei of the auxiliary verb tsuf expressing confidence, and the auxiliary verb muf expressing intention.)

ni,

〇

13.4

185

2. Concessive. Indicates a reversal of expectations, a concessive connection based o n an existing or actual situation: “ despite the fact that,”“ even though.”M o d . Jpse: •••の に ，•••け れ ど ♦

よろこ XJて 待 つ \こ，ftXSftZT 過 ぎ ぬ れ ば • • • Yorokobi-te matsu NI, tabitabi

sugi-nure-ba … Though (she) waited joyfully (for him), each time (tabitabi) he ended up passing by {sugi-nure-ba) ^without seeing her) and as a result. . . (Isef sec. 23, NKBT 9:127) 八重桜は奈良のみ雜にのみありける！

この K ぞ m に S く歳り S るなる.

Yaezakura wa N ara no miyako ni nomi ari-keru O, konogoro zo yo ni oku narihaberu naru. The double-petaled cherry tree (yaezakura) existed (ari-keru) only (nomi) in the capital {miyako) at Nara, out (o) it is said (naru) that recently (konogoro) there are many in the world (yo). (Tsurezure, sec. 139, NKBT 30:207) (Nari haberu naru is the

ren^dkei of the yodan verb naru} ato become,w the rentaikei of the rahen polite supplementary verb haberi, and the rentaikei of the hearsay auxiliary verb nari.) 3. Temporal/sequential.A simple connection between the content of the preceding clause a n d tfiat of the foUowing clause: “ and,”“ when,”“ upon:’M o d . Jpse: " • が ,… と，••♦た と こ ろ . 怪 し が り て 寄 り て 見 る に ，筒 の 中 '光 り た り • Ayas/z妙 n •ィe

m かm M ,

tsutsu no naka hikari-tari. (The bamboo cutter) grew curious (ayashigari-te)yand when he approached (yori-te) and looked in \miru ni)f a light was shining (hikari-tari) inside (naKa) the bamDoo tube {tsutsu). (Taketoriy NKBT 9:29) 藁一$

あ り け る を ，夕 べ に は こ れ に 执 し • 術 ra /zto tswん⑽ e a./rera O,

yube ni wa kore nifushi. He had one {hito) bundle {tsukane) of straw (wara)} and in the evening (yube) he slept

(Jushi) on it. (Tsurezure, s e c .18, NKBT 30:104) 火 の 中 'に う ち く べ て 焼 か せ 給 ふ に ，め ら め ら と 焼 け ぬ • ///

kube-te yaka-se-tam au NI, m eram era to yake-nu.

m

m c /zZ-

13.4

186

Conjunctive Particles

When the (Abe minister) placed it (uchi-kube-te) in the middle (naka ni) of the fire (hi) and burned it (yaka-se-tamau ni)f it crackled (meramera to) and was consumed in flames {yake-nu). {TaketorU NKBT 9:44) (Uchi-kube-te is the emphatic prefix uchu the reバ’少6/:以• of the s/zZmo-m*ゴ particle 從•

is the

verb /:wわw, “to place in fire,” and the conjunctive んe/ of the transitive

ゴan verb

“to burn,”

the ren'yokei of the honorific auxiliary verb sUj and the rentaikei of the honorific supplementary verb tamau.)

Advanced Study and Reference 4. Additional: “ o n top of that,”“ in addition.”M o d . Jpse:. •.そ の 上 に さ ら に ，•• • のに加えて. 縫もi

く_ け き 。

4 れをさへ i げ 籍 へ れ ば S S も，いたく i れ に け り .

す

Kiri mo fukaku tsuyukeki NI, sudare o sae age-tamae-re-ba on-sode mo, itaku nure-n レken. The mist (kiri) was thick (fuKaKu)f and (the ground) wet with dew (tsuyukeKi); and on top o f that (ni) (when Genji) raised {age-tamae-re-ba) the blind (sudare), his sleeves became extremely (itaku) wet {nure-ni-keri). (Genji, Yugao, NKBT 14:142) (Age-tamae-re-ba is the renyokei of the transitive shimo-maan verb agu} ato raised the izenkei of the honorific supplementary verb tamau, the izenkei of the perfective auxiliary verb ri} and the conjunctive particle ba.)

Historical Note Ni began as a case particle, marking time or place, a n d later evolved into a conjunctive particle, appearing for the first time in the N a r a period a n d c o m i n g into full use in the Heian period. Historically, o began as both a case particle a n d an exclamatory particle. O as a conjunctive particle e m e r g e d from as early as the N a r a period but did not c o m e into full use until the Heian period. T h e usage of o as a conjunctive particle faded by the e n d of the M u r o m a c h i

go

13.5

187

p e rio d an d d isap p eared a lm o st co m p letely in th e Ed o p eriod . In sp oken Japanese, its co n ce ssiv e fu n ctio n w as ev en tu ally re p la ce d by th e co n ju n ctiv e p article

noni (even

th o u g h , d esp ite th e fa c t th a t), as i n 呼 ん で い る の に 返 事 も し な い （ e v e w 纟/zo叹 /z I call h im , he d o e sn ’t an sw er).

13.5 GA ( が ） Ga is a co n ju n ctiv e p a rticle th a t follow s th e rentaikei. 1 .

concessive, contrary to expectation. A co n cessiv e c o n n e ctio n b ased o n an existin g o r a ctu a l situ atio n : “but,” “th o u g h :’ M o d . Jpse:

•••が， •••のに， ♦••けれども.

昔 よ り お ほ く の 白 拍 子 あ り し が ，か か る 舞 は い ま だ 見 ず •Mwks/zZyorZ (5んw

no shirabyoshi ari-shi GA, kakaru mai wa imada mi-zu. From the distant past, there have been many shirabyoshi dancers, but we had never seen {imada mi-zu) tms kind of dance [kakaru mai). {Heikeyv o l.1 ,Gio, NKBT 32:95) (An•づ が is the

of the

verb arZ, “to be,’ the rentaikei or the

recollective auxiliary verb kit and the conjunctive particle^ .)

2. Temporal/sequential connection. A sim ple co n n e ctio n : “and,” “w h en • ” M od. Jpse:

•••たところ， •••が.

M M S 箕 芘 い ま だ 尖 ' ® に て お は し け る 立 , 笑 き に I れ I がれけり. Kiyohara kd sono koro imada dainagon nite owasm-keru GA,

ooki

ni osore-

sawaga-re-keri. At the time {so-no koro)f the Kiyomori minister (kd) was still a senior counselor

ydamagon), and he became the object of considerable attention. (Heike} v o l .1, Kiyomizudera enjo, NKBT 32:113)

われは,蛇 ra 土ひ百年をi ぎてのむかし a にてさ#ひにし空, A のために福み を の こ し て ，务 は か か る 鬼 の 身 と な り て 候 •

w a ん チ ⑽ s/z/別 - / ^

nen o sugi-te no mukashi-bito ni， te saburai-n レshi-GA， hito no tame ni urami o nokoshi-te , ima wa kakaru oni no mi to nari-te saburd.

13.5

188

Conjunctive Particles

I have lived for these past four or five hundred years and am an ancient person, and because of a person, I have lingering resentment, and I have now turned into (to nari-

te-saburd) this (kakaru) demon (oni). (Uji shuif no. 134, v o l.10, n o .10, NKBT 27:326) (Ni-te-saburai-ni-shi is the ren'yokei of the copular nari, the conjunctive particle te, the ren'yokei of the polite supplementary verb saburd, the reWyokei of the perfective auxiliary verb nu, and the rentaikei of the recollective auxiliary verb ki.)

Historical Note Ga first started as a case particle and then turned into a conjunctive particle. Although ga w a s used as a conjunctive particle as early as the late Heian period, it w a s not used widely until the K a m a k u r a period. Ga as a conjunctive particle almost never appears in Genji monogatari or M akura no soshi. Therefore, in texts from the mid-Heian period and earlier, ga should be considered to be a case particle. In m o d e r n Japanese, ga functions as a conjunctive particle that follows the shushikei a n d can function as a direct concessive, as in つら V 、力'、 力'、 まんしよう（ it is painful，わ let us bear it).

Helpful Tips B e careful not to confuse the conjunctive articles g a f nif a n d o, w h i c h follow the rentaikei, with the case particles ga, nif a n d o, w h i c h follow nominals and the rentaikei. Pattern

Type of particle

Example

N o m i n a l + ga/n i/o

Case particle

? ら 、す 浦を過ぐ（ to pass through the bay)

rentaikei (nominalizer) + ga/m /o

Case particle

rentaikei (non-nominalizer) + ga/m /o

Conjunctive particle

たぐひなき竺頼みにて (relying o n the unprece­ dented [depth of his affections]) わが穹のち;fi3は 謹 き 竺 ，I I あ らは p m c e the p o w e r of m y b o w is strong, it there is a dragon)

te, shite

13.6

189

13.6 TE, S H I T E ( て ，して ) Te a nd shite are conjunctive particles that follow the ren'yokei. T h e y have basically the s a m e functions. Shite frequently follows the ren'ydkei of the negative zu and the ren'yokei of the copular auxiliary verbs tari and nari, 1 . Temporal/sequential connection: “ and then•”M o d . Jpse: • • • して，そ れ か ら . 粟 津 に と ど ま り て ，師 走 の 二 日 ，京 に 乂 る • A 腿

m toゴ

麵

血

臓

似

no futsuka, miyako ni iru. W e stopped {todomari-te) at Awazu, and then on the second day of the Twelfth M o n t h (shiwasu no futsuka)} w e entered the capital (miyako ni iru). (Sarashina, N K B T 20:489) あはずして今宵明けなば春の日の震くや人をつらしと® はん.

SHITE koyoi ake-n a-ba haru no hi no nagaku va hito o tsurashi to omowa-n. If w e do not meet {awa-zu-shite)} and this evening (koyoi) ends up turning to d a w n (aKe-na-ba), I will probably think {omowa-n) of you {hito) as coldhearted {tsurashi) for a long time (nagaku), as long as a spring day. (Iわる けが悪いのではない（ It is not wecewarzYy that only he is bad).

15.9 Note on Adverbial Particles Versus Adverbs In contrast to adverbs (jukusm), such as Kiwamete (extremely), w hich are a u t o n o m o u s w o r d s that modify an inflected predicate ^sucn as a verb, adjective, and adjectival verb), adverbial particles are not a u t o n o m o u s words. That is, they cannot stand alone, and their full m e a n i n g b e c o m e s clear only w h e n they are with the phrases that they modify. For example, the adverbial particle shi cannot be translated by itself.

Helpful Tips Because the functions of adverbial particles have changed over time, s o m e adverbial par­ ticles n o w have the functions formerly held by other adverbial particles. For example, the m o d e r n Japanese term sae n o w has the functions formerly carried out by dani and sura. T h e following table gives the functions and m o d e r n Japanese equivalents of classical adverbial particles.

Classical adverbial particle

P rim a ry functions w ith m o dern Japanese equivalents

dani

M i n i m a l need (だ け で も ),minimal example (さ え ）

sura

M i n i m a l example (さ え ）

sae

Addition (ま で ),minimal example (さ え ）

nomi

Limitation (だ け ，ば か り )，emphasis (と く に ）

bakari

Approximation (あ た り ，ご ろ )，extent (ほ ど ，ぐらい)， limitation (だ け ）

m ade

Extent (ま で )，unexpected degree (ほ ど ，ぐ ら い ）

nado

E x a m p l e (な ど ）

shi, shimo

Emphasis

16

Final and Interjectory Particles 16 .1 Final Particles しゆうじよ=し Final particles ( 終助言司) c o m e at the e n d of the sentence a n d express the position or attitude of the speaker/writer or m a k e a direct request of the listener/reader. In contrast to adverbs, wh i c h modify only an inflected phrase, final particles modify the entire sentence. T h e primary functions of final particles are exclamatory, prohibitive, emphatic, and desiderative.

Function

Final particles

Exclamation Prohibition

k a ，kan at na，m ono-o nayso kashi nam uybay ay (mo)ganaf teshiga{na)t nishiga{na)

Emphasis Desire, wish

For those final particles (wa, m oy zot ka/kaw a, ya/yaw a) that also appear as b o u n d particles, see chapter 14.

16.1.1 K A , K A N A (か， かな)

T h e final particles ka and kan a follow nominals or the rentaikei.

1 . Exclamation (詠 噗 )•Mod. Ipse: •••よ，… だ な あ . 上 に う つ せ み の 世 に も 似 た る か •ひ加 脱 洲 * H o w it resembles N K B T 8:117)

爪•附0 爪•ィa r a /ぐん

(ni-taru Ka) the ephemeral world [utsusemi no yo)!

no. /3,

(Ni-taru ka is the ren^dkei of the intransitive kami-ichidan verb niru7

“ to resemble,” the

of the continuative auxiliary verb 加厂ら a n d the final

particle ka.)

啦 り な く 遠 く も 来 に け る か な ♦尺喂>7し似んw 献 w m o H o w so endlessly far N K B T 9:117)

/C47VA.

{kagirinaku toku) w e have c o m e {ki-ni-keru kana)! (Isef sec. 9,

{Ki-ni-keru is the ren'yokei of the kahen verb ku} the ren}yokei of the

Final Particles

16 .1

239

auxiliary verb nu} which is perfective, and the rentaikei of the auxiliary verb keri, which is exclamatory.) くる ふ あめ 苦 し く も 降 り く る 雨 か •/ぐwms/zZ/rw m o / w n •-んwra a m e /C4.

Unfortunately (kurushiku mo)t rain is falling (furikuru ame ka)! (MYSf vol.3, no. 265, NKBT 4:155) Be Careful! D o not confuse this exclamatory final particle with the interrogative or rhetorical question b o u n d particle k a f w h i c h can also c o m e at the e n d of the sentence.

Advanced Study and Reference I6.UAKA/V10 ( かも） T h e final particle kam o follows the nominal or the rentaikei and is the Nara-period equivalent or kana. 1 . Exclamation. M o d . Jpse: •.• ことよ， . . •7こなあ.

天の窻ふりさけ皇れば, 春日なる■ 達のK にf t でしI 空土. Ama no hara funsake-m ire-ba, Kasuga naru M ikasa no Mama m ide-shi tsuki KAMO. When I Iook afar (furisake-mire-ba) at the Droad sky (ama no hara)f (I see) the moon (tsuki kamo) that has come out (ide-sni) from Mikasa Mountain in Kasuga/ (Abe no Nakamaro, KI 山 田 さ ん が ，み ん な に そ う お っ し ゃ る • Mr. Y a m a d a tells (ow/zarw) everyone

(mina) that (so). In the following example f r o m classical Japanese, the honorific verb oわ

“ to

think,”s h o w s respect toward the Shining Princess: こ れ を 聞 き て ，か ぐ や 姬 す こ し あ は れ と 思 し け り •

0 ん认 ん私/ぐ叹 ル

yahim e sukoshi aw are to OBOSHI-keri. Hearing (kiki-te) this (kore)f the Shining Princess [Kaguyahime) felt (oboshi-keri) some {sukoshi) compassion (aware). {Taketori， NKBT 9:53) (Oboshi-keri is the of the yodaw honorific verb

“to think,” and the

of the

recollective auxiliary verb keri.) T h e m o s t frequently used honorific verbs are tam au (tamo) o w 似“（ お は す ，to be),⑽加所瓜/

to give),

(の た ま ふ ，to speak), a n d 〇わ〇似（ お ぼ す ，to

think). T h e m o s t frequently used honorinc verbs r r o m the Heian period o n w a r d are the following:

g ぼ す ,お ぼ し め す

T o think

_ しめす

To hear

聞 し め す ，め す

T o eat

ご_ ず

T o see

&

T o do

ます

T o give

しろしめす

T o know, to govern

る

i ごもる

笑

む 浴

た ま ふ ( Y D ) ，た ぶ

T o sleep

る

To say

く来

I I す ,の た ま ふ

る

To be, to go, to c o m e

るううくうるる

お は す , お は し ま す ，ま し ま す ,い ま す

M o d ern Japanese

ぃ行

English

いぃ言 思 1 き 聞 く 食 *見 す ¥ し知

H o n o rific ve rb

274

18.3

Honorific Expressions

18.3.1 T A A W ；(TAM6) (IIふ,M ふ）

Tamau is an honorific transitive yodan verb. 1 . To grant, bestow (from superior to inferior). The honorific form of the transitive あた

あた

verb afaw (与 ふ ，to give). Mod. Jpse: お 与 え に な る .

s/nmo-mW训

仁 和 の み か ど ，み こ に お は し ま し け る 時 に ，人 に わ か な た ま ひ け る 翰 ぅ た .

Ninna no mikaaoy miko m owashimashi-Keru t〇Ki m, hito m w akana TAMAlKERU on-uta. An honorable poem (on-uta) (composed when) Emperor Ninna was (owashimashikeru) a prince (miko) and bestowed (tamai-Keru) voung herbs (wakana) on a person (hito). (I

い か な る 所 に か ，こ の 木 は さ ぶ ら ひ け ん •Ikanaru tokoro ni k a ，ko-no ki wa

SABURAI-ken. In what kind (ikanaru) of place (tokoro) did this tree exist (saburai-ken)? (Taketori, NKBT 9:37) 5.

Polite supplementary verb . Follow s th e

ッ0ん以•o f th e v erb . M o d . Jpse: •••ま

す ,•••で ご ざ い ま す . た し か に ま も り 侍 ら ん •わ ら は べ ぞ の ぼ り さ ぶ ら は ん . ァ似/^ルポ

habera-n. W arawabe zo nobori-SABURAWA-n. I will watch it [mamori-habera-mu) for sure (tashika ni). The children will no doubt {zo) climb on it {nobori-saburawa-n). (Makuraf sec. 87, NKBT 19:133)

Polite Verbs

305

19.4

Advanced Study and Reference l 9.4 .2AS^)Rd (SAURAL〇 ( さうらふ，候ふ , S ふ） Soro (saurau) is an intransitive yodan verb with both h u m b l e and polite functions. In the early medieval period, saburd (saburau) w a s transformed into soro} w h i c h has the s a m e functions as saburo. 1.

To serve a superior. Humble verb: “ to be in attendance upon.”M o d . jpse:お

在えする. 繪 上 の 小 庭 に か し こ ま つ て ぞ さ ふ ら ひ け る ♦ 7^ か

kashikom atte zo SORAI-keru. [The retainer Iesada] respectfully {kashikomatte) was in attendance on his master (sorai-keru) in the small garden (ko-niwa) in the palace. (Heikef vol.1, Terijo no yamiuchi, NKBT 32:85) 2. To exist. Polite verb. Polite equivalent of ar/: “ to have, “ to be,”“ to exist.” M o d . Jpse:ご ざ い ま す ，あ り ま す . し か し か の 宮 の お は し ま す 比 に て ，御 佛 事 な ど 候 ふ に や . Shikashika

no miya no owasnimasu Koro niteyon-butsuji nado SORO-m ya. When such and such (shikashiKa) a prince (miya) comes, will they have (soro) a Buddhist memorial or something (nado)? {7surezuref sec. 44, NKBT 30:125) the rewto細

of が

他

“to have,” the

ん以

or the copular

似

n,

and the interrogative bound particle ya.) 3. Polite supplementary verb. Follows the ren'ydkei of the m a i n verb. いちもん

うんめい

つ

さn

ひ

一 pう の 違 命 は や 尽 き 候 ぬ •/c/zZmofz⑽ ⑽ me/ w a ツ“

The fortunes (unmei) of the whole clan (ichimon) were quickly (haya) exhausted (tsuki-sdrai-nu). (Heiket vol.7, NKBT 33:103) (Tsuki-sdrai-nu is the ren'ydkei of the

verb fewんw, “to exhaust,’’ the

ot the supmementary verb

sordj and the shushiKei ot the auxiliary verb nUj which is perfective.)

306

19.4

Humble and Polite Expressions

Historical Note In the N ara period, there were only honorific a n d h u m b l e verbs. Beginning in the Heian period, s o m e of these honorific a n d h u m b l e verbs, in particular haberi, ato be,”were converted for use as polite verbs. These polite verbs were generally used in conversation and in letters, in w h i c h respect is paid to the listener or reader. F r o m the e n d of the Heian period, the h u m b l e verb

“ to serve,”

b e c a m e a polite word, "to be,'' a n d eventually displaced haberi as the primary polite verb. S a わwrd (さ ぶ ら ふ ）then w e n t through a phonic change in the medieval period to b e c o m e soro {saurau)ywhich h a d the s a m e functions as saburo. These t w o forms also acquired gender associations. In 7/dんe

如r/ a n d n 6 d r a m a , 似みwrd (さぶ

らふ）is used by w o m e n , and sdrd ( M w r a w ) (さ う ら ふ ）is used by men. Starting in the M u r o m a c h i period, gozaru acquired the function that saburo h a d earlier, with the s a m e h u m b l e a n d polite functions. Gozaru w a s the polite equivalent of 0 r/，“ to be,”“ to have.” 末 廣 が り と 申 す 物 は ，つ い に 見 た こ と も ご ざ ら ぬ .

が r/加 mdsw

mono wa, tsui-ni m ita koto mo GOZARA-nu. In the end I did not have {gozara-nu) the opportunity (koto) to see the thing that is called suehirogari (fan). (Kyogen, Suehirogari, NKBT 42:52) Prominent examples or polite verbs in m o d e r n Japanese are desu and しず

gozaimasu. Desu is the polite f o r m of the copular da, as in

(it is quiet).

Gozaimasu (which c a m e f r o m gozaru) is the m o s t polite f o r m of the m o d e r n verb “rw，“ to be, to have:’G o z 似 似

functions as both a polite verb，as in 花 が ご ざ い ま

す （ there む a flower), and a polite supplemental verb, as in 花 で ご ざ い ま す （ it w a flower), in v/mch gozaim asu follows the ren'ydKei of the copular da. Polite adjectives also can be created by adding どoza/masw to the

如んe/ of an /-adjective, as in 局つ

こ

(ベ か め り ） ，p r o n o u n c e d み 丛

-meri

(ベ か ん め り ）

2. Following the rahen verb ari. •(あ る め り ）4

•(あ め り ），p r o n o u n c e d の !-m m ♦(あ ん め り ）

今 ひ と き は 心 3も 癌 き つ も の は 春 の 気 色 に こ そ あ め れ . I ma hitokiwa

kokoro mo ukitatsu mono wa haru no keshiki m koso A-MERE. It appears that (a-m ere)

what makes the heart {kokoro) flutter {ukitatsu) one degree

hisher {ima hitokiwa) is the sight (keshiki) of spring (haru). (Tsurezure, sec.19, NKBT 30:104) 3. Following the copular nari. •(な る め り ）4

似 -m m •(な め り ） ，p r o n o u n c e d 腦 沒 - m e n •(な ん め り ）

字 と な り 給 I べ き }\ な め り •Ko to nari-tam au-beki hito NA-MERL

(She) appears to be (na-m eri) a person (hito) who should become (nari-tam au-beki) (my) child {ko). (Taketori, NKBT 9:29) A2.5.2 Before Hearsay NARI

T h e u n m a r k e d nasalized s o u n d c h a n g e occurs w h e n the hearsay/suppositional auxiliary verb nari follows the rentaikei of a rahen conjugation s u c h as the auxiliary verb tari, the verb ariyor the copular nari. ( T h e hearsay nari follows the shushikei except after a rahen verb, w h e n it follows rentaikei.) 1 . Following the auxiliary verb tari. r a r M - w a n •(た る な り ）-X a - 似 n •(た な り ） ，p r o n o u n c e d 加沒 - m m •(た ん な り ）

Unmarked Nasalized Sound Changes

A2.5

こ の 寺 に あ り し 源 '氏 の 君 こ そ お は し た な れ •

347

なra m ’

kim i koso owashi-TA-NARE. They say (nare) ta). {Genjiy

that lord Genji, who was (ari-shi) at this temple (tera)j came (owashi-

Wakamurasaki, NKBT 14:211) [Owashi-ta-nare is the rentaikei [taru] of

the perrective auxiliary verb tarij and trie izenkei of the hearsay n a n .) 2. Following the verb ari.

Aru-nari (あ こころ

る な り ）—

>

> a-warZ (あ

ひとす

な り ） ，p r o n ounced

a を war/ (あ

と こ ろ

心 は づ か し き 人 住 む な る 所 に こ そ あ な れ /ぐ み 似 び ん 似 /

ん な り ）

^

州…

naru tokoro ni koso A-NARE. It seems to be {a-nare) a place (tokoro) where they say (naru) dazzling people (kokorohazukashiki hito) dwell {sumu). (Genjif Wakamurasaki, NKBT 14:179) (Ni koso a-nare

is the ren'yoKei or the copular narit the bound particle kosof tne rentaiKei ot the sup­ plementary verb ariy and the izenkei of the hearsay/suppositional auxiliary verb nari.) 3. Following the copular nari.

N aru-nari (な

る な り ）4

似 ^ war/ (な な り ） ，p r o n o u n c e d 似

さ て は ，倉 の に は あ ら で ，海 月 の な な り •

な-vra，初

•(な ん な り ）

m? m

vva ara-也

kurage no NA-NARL Well (sate-wa), it seems to be (na-nari) (a bone) from a jellyfish (kurage), not that {ni wa ara-de) from a fan (ogi). (Makura, sec. 102, NKBT 19:157)

Appendix 3 Prefixes and Suffixes せっとうご せ ^ びご 1 Prefixes (接 頭 語 ） and suffixes (接 尾 語 ） are attached to the beginning and to the end of a i

word, respectively. Prefixes do not inflect but suffixes sometimes do when they function as part of a verb or adjective. Because prefixes come at the beginning of a word, they do not change their grammatical category. But because suffixes come at the end of a word, they often change their grammatical category. For example, an adjective may be changed into a noun, or a noun into a verb. Noun prefixes can be divided into three types:( 1 ) honorific prefixes, which elevate the level of the word; (2) meaning prefixes, which change the meaning of the word; and (3) phonic prefixes, which change the sound of the word. Honorific prefixes: o n -m o n o g a ta ri (御 物 語 ，0呢 w对 tale),

(御 寺 ，a 喂 ws亡

temple) はつゆき うひかうぶり Meaning prefixes: h a tsu -y u k i (初 雪 ,ル が snow),逆 ■んdtor/ (初 冠 ， が cap) よ

Phonic prefixes:

night) (The sa makes the word easier to say and

sa-yo

more phonically pleasing.)

A 3 .1 Adjective and Verb Prefixes な ま A 3 . 1.1

/ V A M A _ ( な ま ，生 ）

The adjective prefix n a m a - means 1 . “Somehow or other, somewhaL” n a m a -m u ts u k a s h i

^

b,

so m eh o w

bothersome)

2. Preceding nouns, it m e a n s “ immature,”“ incomplete,”“ half.”

Honorific Prefixes

にようばう

n am a-nydbd (な

_

A3.2

349

ゴlady-in-waiting), nam a-saburai

ま 女 房 ，m e 印

さぶらひ

おぼ

(なま

>

, im m ature samurai;, nam a-oboe

/z^//-remembered)

A3.丨 .2 SASH/-( さし，差し） T h e verb p r e n x sashi- strengtnens the m e a n i n g or a w o r d and/or adds euphony. あ

あ

sash レagu ( さ し 上 ぐ ，to raise high), sashi-ataru ( さ し 当 た る ，to face directly), い

かく

sashi-iru ( 己 し 入 る ，to enter into), sashi-kakusu ( 己 し 隠 す ，to cover o n e ’ s face), >す

わ

sashレsugu ( さ し 過 ぐ ，to be excessive), sashレwaku ( さ し 分 く ，to differentiate) A3.1.3 UCH/-( うち）

T h e verb prefix wc/z/- c o m e s f r o m the

’ y d んe/ of the verb

“ to hit.”t/c/z/ has at least

three different meanings. 1 . A d d s the m e a n i n g of “ a little”or “ lightly”to the verb. ，

uchi-miru ( う

み

ち 見 る ，to see

，

0 toi/e)，uchi-kiku ( う

き

ち 聞 く ，to listen a /治 ん )，

い

uchi-iu

( う ら g ふ ，to say a //び/e)

2. A d d s the m e a n i n g of “ completely”or ‘ widely”to the verb. >

く も

uchi-kumoru ( っ ち —

>

た

る ，to cloud over c o m パ が e/y)，uchi-tayu ( っ ち 絶 ゆ ，to

disappear completely) 3. A d d s a sense of vigor or force to the verb.

uchi-izu i つ

レ 、

レ 、

ち 出 つ ，to g o out Wgoraws/y )，uchi-iru ( う ち 入 な ，to enter

说

hesitation)

A3.2 Honorific Prefixes O n e of the difficulties in p r o n o u n c i n g classical Japanese is k n o w i n g h o w to read the honorific prefix 御 ，as it c a n b e read variously as

(おん:U (お) ,が （ご)，o r 以〇 ( ぎ ょ )♦

(み )，d m / (お ほ み )，

(お (ま ん )，cm

A 3.2

350

Prefixes and Suffixes

A3.2.I Ml- ( | l) T h e p re fix

mi- w as origin ally u sed to d esign ate high p laces. A s a n o m in al p refix, mi is

o ften u sed w ith w o rd s re la te d to th e em p ero r, ro yal fam ily, god s

(kami)f an d b u d d h as to

c re a te w o rd s su ch as th e follow ing: み こ

miko ( 御 于 ，p rin ce, p rin cess) みこと

mikoto ( 御 言 , w o rd s o f th e e m p e ro r) み か

mikari ( 御 狩 り ， h u n tin g by th e e m p e ro r) みやすどころ

miyasudokoro ( 御 息 所 ， m o th e r o f a child o f an e m p e ro r) みかど

mikado ( 御 門 ， g ate to im p erial p alace, e m p e ro r) みゆき

miyuki ( 御 幸 ， im p erial p ro ce ssio n ) みこし

mikoshi ( 御 輿 ， ca rria g e for th e god s) みたま

mitama ( 御 霊 ， sp irit o f a god) mitake ( 御 岳 , high m o u n tain , fro m w h ich a g o d d escen d s) minori ( 御 法 ， B u d d h ist law) A3.2.2 0 • ( 大御 ) , 叫

御

)， O N -(逾 ) ， 0- ( | l)

Mi-, dmi-f on, on-} an d o- all are prefixes for Y a m a to w o rd s o r w o rd s th a t originally d e­ rived fro m n ative sp ok en Japanese. In th e N a ra p erio d , d ( 大 ） w as p laced in fro n t o f mZ ( 御 )， so th a t, fo r exam p le, miArado ( 御 門 ） b e c a m e dmiArWo ( 大 御 門 ） and

omikami

• ( 御 神 ， h o n o rab le g od ) b e ca m e

g re a t h o n o rab le g od ), giving ev en m o re r e s p e c t to th e n o m in al. T h e

co m p o u n d h o n o rific p refix d/w• ( お ほ み ） th e n b e c a m e nasalized, an d th e n

( お ほ ん )， w ith th e /w. being

on b e c a m e on (fP ), w ith th e m iddle vow el d ro p p in g o u t. T h e resu lt

w as h o n o rific w o rd s like おんぐし

ongushi ( 御 櫛 , co m b ) おんみ

迎 册 / ( 御 身 ，body ，th o u ，you)

Honorific Prefixes

351

A3.2

お

Even tu ally ev en th e

n d ro p p e d o ff th e on, leaving only o (t® ). T h e resu lt w as

w o rd s like おまえ

这 所從（ 御 前 , a g od , b u d d h a, o r p e rso n o f high statu s) おむろ

omuro

ro o m )

In th e M u ro m a c h i p e rio d , th e use o f th e h o n o rific p refix によう@

w o m en 's sp e e ch , p a rticu la rly w h a t is called

nyobo-kotoba (

^

o b e ca m e p a rt o f

| fp ]), th e polite sp eech

ことば

o f lad ie s-in -w a itin g a t th e im p erial p alace. M an y o f th ese “fem in in e” w ord s are still used, in clu d in g おかず

okazu iMWiy side dishes) おふる

ofuru

u sed clo th es)

A3.2.3 GO-(御） T h e p re fix が - ( 御 )， w h ich d eriv ed fro m an old er C h in ese read in g fro m th e W u ( 具 ) d y n asty ( 2 2 9 - 2 8 0 ) , is u sed fo r g rap h s an d co m p o u n d s th a t are o f C h in ese o rigin o r have C h in e se -d e riv e d p ro n u n cia tio n s.

gozen ( ® S i ，food ) goten

re sid e n ce) ごらん

四 raw ( 御 覧 ，100king) ごへい

gohei ( 御 幣 ，S h in t6 w an d w ith w h ite p a p er strips) ぎよ

A3.2.4 GW-(御 ） Gyo- is a n o th e r C h in e se -d e riv e d p refix u sed for w o rd s o f C h in ese origin and C h in esed eriv ed p ro n u n cia tio n s. ぎよはい

gyohai ( 御 杯 , sakd cu p receiv ed fro m a p e rso n o f high statu s) $ ょせい

gyosei ( 御 製 , p o e m c o m p o se d by an e m p e ro r

Helpful Tips T h e g e n e ra l ru le is th a t if th e m o d ified w o rd has a C h in ese-d eriv ed read in g th e n th e re a d in g is re a d in g

(an d

{on-yomi)}

gyot in ra re ca se s), and if th e m od ified w o rd has a Japanese

{kun-yomi), th e n th e c h a r a c te r is onyony o, o r mi.

A 3.3

352

Prefixes and Suffixes

A3.3 Suffixes A 3.3J-B U (ぶ）

The suffix -bu follows a nominal or the stem of an adjective to create a kami-nidan verb •

み や 、 、

exhibiting the quality of that noun or adjective—for example, miya-bu (雅 ぶ ， to act eleあ ら 、 、

•

“court” or “capital” )，ara-bu (荒 ぶ ， to act “wild,”

gantly, to show the qualities of the

arashi), and otona-bu ( お と な ぶ ， to act mature, like an “adult;，” 御 年 の 程 よ り は ，お と な び 美 し き 御 さ ま に て •

/zorfo yorZ vra，

⑽

otonaBI utsukushiki on-sama ni-te. H e (the c r o w n prince) had an appearance (on-sama) that wa s m o r e mature {otonabi) and adorable (utsukushiki) than (normal) for that age (on-toshi no hodo). (Genjif Sakaki, N K B T 14:376)

A3.3.2 -DATSU (だっ） The suffix -datsu follows a nominal or the stem of adjectives and adjectival verbs to た

create a yodan verb. Datsu comes from the verb tatsu (立 つ ， to manifest). 1 . To have the characteristic of. Mod. Jpse: め く ，の よ う で あ る . くち

む ら さ き だ ち す こ る 雲 … Murasaki-DACHI-taru kum o… A cloud {kumo) with a lavender-ZooA' (murasaki-dachi-taru) . . . [Makuray s e c .1, N K B T 19:43) ( D a なw changes the n o u n mMmsa/rZ, “ lavender,”into a verb,

datsuy "to appear lavender [color] which is in the ren yokei,) A3.3.3-GAW (がり，許） The suffix -gari follows a nominal or pronoun to indicate the place that one is going to. It ゆ

is often followed b y verbs such as 、 ゃ

ッara (逼 る ，to

かよ

んw (f了 く ，to g o ), んayow (通 ふ

，to

commute), and

send).

tSt)、し,紀の有常がりいきすこる l こ• Mukashi， Ki no Aritsune-GARI iki-taru nL A long time ago, (a m a n ) went to the place o f (gari) Ki no Aritsune. (Iset sec. 38, N K B T 9:133) (/Ayし^zra m* is the

of the

verb i•ん w, “ to go,”the

the auxiliary verb tarit which is perfective, and the conjunctive particle ni.)

故//:eZ of

Suffixes

353

A3.3

A3.3.4-G則 （ がる） The suffix -garu follows nominals, the stem of a ku adjective or an adjectival verb, or the shushikei of a shiku adjective to create a yodan verb. 1. To feel that particular quality (of the n o u n or adjective)— for example, kuyashigaru (く や し が る ，to feel “ resentful,”んm ツ似如)，aware-garu (あ は れ が る ，to feel >

めづら

Kpathos,w aware), a n d mezurashi-garu ( 珍 し が る ，to find “ n e w ”or “ unusual,” ，

ぉも>

mezi/ras/zZ). M o d . Jpse: •••の よ う に 思 う • ひ ろ げ て 御 覧 じ て ，い と い た く あ は れ が を せ )給 て • • • 所 ^

^

炉爪ヮ/シ纪

ito itaku aware-GARA-se-tam ai-te . . . H e opened (hiroge-te) (the letter), looked at it (goranji-te)} ditidfelt the pathos {aware-

gara-se-tamaite) very {ito) deeply {itaku) . . . {Taketori, N K B T 9:66) (Aware-garu combines the n o u n aware, apathos,w witn the suftix garu to create a verb that m e a n s “ to feel pathos:’ )

A3.3.5-GATERA (がてら）

T h e suffix -gatera follows the ren'yokei of a verb a n d indicates that w h a t follows takes place at the s a m e time as the action of the verb. This is also considered a conjunctive particle: “ while•”M o d . Jpse: • ♦ • し な が ら . 我やどの! みがてらにくる人はちりなむ後ぞこひしかるべき•

ゐ

no hanami-GATERA ni kuru hito wa chiri-na-mu nocm zo Koisnikaru-beku A s for the person w h o c a m e (kuru hito) while viewing the flowers (hanami-gatera ni) at m y house iwaga yado)f it is only after the flowers have scattered (chiri-na-mu nocm

zo) that I will no doubt long for that person {koshikaru-beki). (Mitsune, KI 士 野 (Ikuno),行 く （ go),圭 く （ live) うら

うらみ

つらみ 4 恨 み （ resentment),湳 見 （ gazing at the shore, bay) おき 4

起き（ get up),置 き （ leave, form) おと

おとづ

お と — > 音 (sound),訪 れ (visit) かる 4 4 る （ wither), メ(jる （ cut), _ る (leave) しのぶ 4 徳 ぶ （ long for),忍 草 （ fern, literally, “ long-suffering grass” ） た

た

たつたがは

た つ -^ 立 つ （ stand),裁 つ （ sew),竜 田 川 （ Tatsuta River) な き -> 無 き （ not),渚 （ shore) な

なみ

な み -^ 無 み （ since not, not having),波 （ wave) は

はる 4

はる

張る（ stretch),春 （ spring) ひ

ひ

おも

ひ —> 日（ sun),火 （ fire),思 ひ （ melancholy thoughts) みをつくし

み

つ

みをつくし—> 潭 標 （ channel buoy),身 を 尽 く し （ exhaust oneself) _よ

よ

よ 一 >俠

よ

（ night),世 （ world, society),即 （ space between joints in reed/bamboo)

A5.4 EN G O Engo

associated words, are w o r d s that are not linked grammatically but are asso­

ciated by m e a n i n g ana by close cultural a n d poetic associations. Engo give a p o e m deeper connotations a n d a d d e d interest.

浅 緑 糸 よ り か け て 白 露 を 珠 に も ぬ け る 春 の 柳 か • A sa-m idori ITO YORIKAKE-TE shira-tsuyu o tam a ni mo NUKE-RU haru no yanagi ka. TwininQ (yorikaKete) the light green {asa-midori) (branches) into threads (ito) and passing t h e m [nuke-ru) through the white d e w {shira-tsuyu) to m a k e beads (tama)—

A5.5

368

Rhetorical Techniques in Japanese Poetry

the spring (haru) willow (yanagi)\ (I 袖 （ sleeve),棲 （ hem),着 る （ wear),張 る （ stretch),裁 つ （ sew) そで

なみだ

袖 （ sleeve) 4

なが

涙 （ tears),流 る （ flow)

たけ

ふ

し

よ

は

竹 ( b a m b o o ) 節 (joint),節 (space bet w e e n joints),葉 (leaf),さ ら さ ら (swishing) なみ

た

よ

かへ

うら

なぎさ

おと

波 ( w a v e s ) 立 つ (rise),寄 る (approach),返 る （ return),浦 (bay),渚 （ shore),音 (sound) 弓 （ b o w ) 張る（ stretch),引 く （ pull),射 る (shoot) 火 （ fire) 4 燃 ゆ （ burn),焦 が る （ smolder),消 ゆ （ disappear)

A5.5 K U G I R E < T h e thirty-one-syllable w aka consists of five phrases, or stichs {ku しよく

5/7/5/7/7 pattern. These five ku are called the shoku しく

shiku

usually in a

に く

niku

さんく

sanku

けっく

a n d kekku GIp ^p J), respectively. W h e n the p o e m stops or breaks temporally く ぎ

in the middle, this is referred to as a /:呢/re (句切れ)， or phrase break. If the poem breaks

taigendome

after the first んw ，it is referred to as a

369

A5.6

がre (初 旬 切 れ ，first-phrase break), a n d if it と く ぎ

breaks after the second /:w, it is called a m*んm がre (二 句 切 れ ，second-phrase break), and so forth. 春 過 ぎ て 夏 来 る ら し / 白 妙 の 衣 乾 た り / 天 の 香 具 山 • 价 ra s郇 -te

kitaru-rashi / shirotae no korom o hoshitari / A m a no Kaguyama. It definitely appears (rashi) that spring has passed (sugi-te) and s u m m e r (natsu) has arrived (kitaru). T h e y are drying (hoshi-tari) the white h e m p [shirotae) robes

(koromo) at Heavenly K a g u M o u n t a i n [Ama no Kaguyama). {MYSf vol.1 , no. 28, N K B T 4:27)

This Man'yoshu p o e m breaks after the second phrase (nikugire) a n d the fourth phrase

(shikugire). T h e syllabic pattern (prosody) is thus 5/7, 5/7, 7, w h i c h is considered a robust r h y t h m a n d is characteristic oiM an'yoshu poetry. 忘 れ じ な な に は の I火 の 夜 は の 空 嵐 浦 に 住 む 月 は み る と も • 肌

パ

似

/

naniwa no aki no yowa no sora / kotoura ni sum u tsuKi wa m iru tomo. I will not forget it [wasure-ji na). T h e night (yowa) sky {sora) of a u t u m n (aki) at Naniwa. Even if I see [miru tomo) a m o o n (tsuki) that lives/snines bright {sumu) in a different (koto) bay {ura). (SKKSj A u t u m n , no. 400, N K B T 28:107)

This p o e m breaks after the first phrase (shokugire) a n d the third phrase (sankugire) to create a 5, 7/5, 7/7 pattern. This so-called 7/5 pattern is typical of w aka from the

KoKinshu onward. A5.6 T A I G E N D O M E たいげん

W h e n a w a k ends with a n o m i n a l (体 言 )，it is referred to as a

^

たいげんど

なe m f o m e (体 言 止 め )，or

a nominal ending, a major characteristic of classical poetry of the Shinkokinshu (ca. 1205). T h e w o r d s that w o u l d normally follow that nominal are abbreviated or inverted よ

(placed at the beginning instead of at the end), creating connotations or overtones (余

やま

はる

まつ

と

た

ゆき

たまみ,づ

山 ふ か み 春 と も し ら ぬ 松 の 戸 に 絶 え だ え か ゞる 雪 の 玉 水 . 份所a / « ん

haru to mo shira-nu matsu no to ni taed ae kakaru YUKI NO TAMAMIZU. T h e water droplets (tam am izu) from the s n o w (yuki) falling {kaKaru) little by little (加 erfae) o n the pine (mdtsw) door (to) (of this lodge) where the mountain

is

A5.6

370

Rhetorical Techniques in Japanese Poetry

so deep (fuka-mi) that I do not k n o w (shira-nu) if spring (haru) (has arrived). (Shikishi Naishinno, SKKS, Spring 1,no. 3, N K B T 28:39) (Fuka-mi is the stem of the

ku adjectivefukashi, "deep；and the suffix mi, indicating cause.) In this p o e m , everything modifies the nominal, yuki no tam am izu (water droplets f r o m snow), which ends the sentence. T h e taigendome leaves out the predicate a n d implies a larger scene, w h i c h is the late arrival of spring at a lodge deep in the mountains. T h e s n o w has slowly b e g u n to melt, causing droplets to fall o n the pine door, the first sign of the arrival of spring.

Appendix 6 Easily Confused Elements

ka

Possible

C hap ,

readings

sec .

D o u b t or question bound particle

14-6

Points to w atch fo r

Exam ples

いづれの3 を 笑 に S き. Izure no vam a KA ten m chiKaKi. Which m o u n t a i n is close to heaven? (Taketori, N K B T 9:66)

Rhetoricalquestion bound particle

14.6

Final particle

16.1.1

圣きとし圣けるもの，いづれ空 歌 を -ま ざ り け る . Iki to shi ike-ru monoyizure KA uta 0 yom a-zan-Keru. O f all living things, w h i c h does not recite poetry yuta)? (Not one. T h e y all do.) (KKSf Preface, N K B T 8:93)

i しくも A りi る雨空. Kurushiku mo furi-kuru am e KA. Ah, the rain that falls without m e r c y (kurushiku)! (MYS} vol 3, no. 265, N K B T

This ka appears in the middle or end of a sentence, expres­ sing doubt or posing a question. This ka appears in the middle or end of the sentence, posing a rhetorical question.

This ka c o m e s at the e n d of the sentence, following nominals or the rentaikeU and has an exclamatory function.

4:155)

kere

Izenkei or kr o w yodan

3.2.1,

-709

わす

がひよ

孝

お

お き し ら

忘れ貝寄せ来て置けれ沖つ白 なみ

verb and

m eireikei of auxiliary verb ri

Wasuregai yose-Ki-te oKE-RE oki tsu shiranami. Bring in the arorgetting shells' (wasuregai) and leave t h e m (on shore), o h white waves {shiranami) offshore (oki)\ (MYSt vol.15, no. 3629, N K B T 7:70)

Oke-re is the izenkei of the yodan verb okuf "to leaved and the meireikei of the auxiliary verb n.

A6

372

Possible

C hap .

readings

sec .

Izenkei of an

5.1

adjective

Easily C onfused Elem ents

Exam ples

あやしうこそものぐるほしけ n

.

Ayashu koso monoguruhoshiKERE. Strangely {ayashu), I feel as if I a m going mad. (TsurezureyPreface, N K B T

Points to watch for T h e kere is part of the izenkei of the shiku adjective

monoguruhoshiy “ m a d :，

30:89)

Izenkei of

6.2.2

recollective auxiliary verb keri

その跡大きなる堀にてありけ れ ば ...

Sono ato oki-naru hori m-te a n KERE-ba ... Since there h a d been [ni-te-ari-Kere-oa) a big ditch (hori) w h e r e {ato) it h a d b e e n ••• (r似 rezwre, sec« 45, N K B T 30:126)

Izenkei of

10 .2.1

desiderative auxiliary verb tashi

B り た け れ ば ，ひ と り つ い * ち て行けり.

Kaeri-taKERE-ba hitori tsui tachi-te yuki-Ken. M n c e he wanted to return (kaeri-takereba), he eot u p quickly (tsuitachite) and went. (Tsurezure, sec. 60,

T h e auxiliary verb keri follows the ren'ydkei of the rahen s u p p l e m e n ­ tary verb ari, ^to be,w w h i c h follows the ren'ydkei of the copular navi a n d the conjunctive particle

te. T h e auxiliary verb tashif w h i c h follows the ren'yokei a n d is conjugated like a ku adjective, here is followed by the conjunctive particle

ba.

N K B T 30:140)

Izenkei of desiderative auxiliary verb

m ahoshi

10 .2.2

い と 御 覧 ぜ ま ほ し け れ ど ...

Ito m ran ze-m anoshiK tR tdo .. .H e wanted very m u c h (ito) to see (goranze) (his son Genji), b u t ... {Genji, Kiritsubo, N K B T 14:32)

T h e auxiliary verb mahoshiy wh i c h follows the mizenkei, is conjugated like a shiku adjective.

Easily Confused Elements

Possible readings

Izenkei of

Chap, sec. 10.1.2

negative speculative auxiliary verb maji

Examples さ て 冬 枯 の け し き こ そ ,親 に は をさをさ_ るまじけれ.

Sate.fuyugare no keshiki koso} a ki ni wa osaosa otorumaノ 7/ぐ Well,a withered winter scene is not at all inferior (otoru-majiKere) to that of autumn. (Tsurezure, sec.19, N K B T 30:106)

Ren'yokei of sahen verb

4.1.4

あ や し き _ を 1 つ つ •••

Ayashiki w aza o SHI-tsutsu ... W h i l e doing strange things (waza ) ... (Genjif Kiritsubo,

“ to d o ”

N K B T 14:29)

Rentaikei of

6.2.1

recollective auxiliary verb ki

373

A6

まはりをきびしくかこひたり し こ そ •••

M aw ari o kibishiku kaK〇i-tariSHI koso ... (Since) they h ad tightlv (Kibishiku) encirclea (kakoi-tari) the border (mawari) (of the garden)... {Tsurezure,

Points to watch for T h e auxiliary verb maji follows the shushiKei and has a shiku adjective conjugation. Here it is in the izenkei because of the emphatic b o u n d particle koso.

T h e sahen verb su is in the ren'yokei here because of the conjunctive particle tsutsuy'whiled T h e auxiliary verb ki follows the ren'yokei. T h e rentaikei [shi) of ki implies a nominal, “ that:，

sec.11,N K B T 30:99) Emphatic adverbial particle shi

15.8

醫离る凌はs もなく筆く上ぁ れば…

Yukifuru yo wa sube mo naku sam uku SHI are-ba ... Since the night wrien the s n o w reil w a s hooeiessiy [sube mo naKu) cold ... (MYS, vol.5, no. 892, N K B T 5:100)

T h e adverbial par­ ticle shiy e m p h a ­ sizing the preceding phrase, follows a nominal, the ren'ydkeU and other words.

A6 Easily Confused Elements

374

shika

Possible readings

Chap. sec.

Izenkei of

6.2.1

recollective auxiliary verb ki

Points to watch for

Examples

縄 を ひ か れ た り し か ば .•• Nawa o hika-re-tari-SHIKAba . . . bince he h a d pulled in (hiKare-tari-shika-ba) the cord ... ^lsurezurej sec. 10 , N K B T 30:98)

Rentaikei of recollective auxiliary verb ki plus bound particle ka

6.2.1, 14.6

つかさかうぶり

こ ころ

おぼ

官爵の心もとなく覚えし 空. Tsukasa koburi no kokorom otonaku oboe-SHI KA. D id you feel impatient (kokoromotonaku) (waiting) for (the a n n o u n c e m e n t of) official positions (tsukasa koburi)? (Eigaf vol.10, N K B T 75:335)

Nara-period final particle

20.3.8

天飛ぶ雲にありてしか. Am a tobu kumo ni ari-teSHIKA. I wish that I were a cloud {kumo) flying (tobu) in the sky {ama). (MYS, vol.11,no.

shika

2676, N K B T 6:221)

shite

Emphatic adverbial particle shi plus doubt bound particle ka

14.6， 何しか秦けむ.

Case particle

12-9

15.8

----

Nani SHI I