A Grammar of the Classical Newārī

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D et Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Publikationer i 8’°:

Oversigt over Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Virksomhed, Historisk-fllologiske Meddelelser, Archacologisk-kunsthistoriske Meddelelser, Filosoflske Meddelelser, Mathematisk-fysiske Meddelelser, Biologiske Meddelelser. Selskabet udgiver desuden efter Behov i 4'° Skrifter med sarame Underinddeling som i Meddelelser. Selskabets Adresse: Dantes Plads 35, Kebenhavn V. Selskabets Kommissionaer: Ejnar Munksgaard, Narregade 6, Kabenhavn K.

pet Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. H istorisk-fllologiske

Meddelelser. X X V I I , 3.

A GRAMMAR OF THE CLASSICAL NEWARl BY

H A N SJ0R G E N SE N

K0BENHAVN

EJN A R MUNKSGAARD 1941

TABLE OF C O N TEN TS P reface.................................................................................................................. ' ■P"g*3 Introduction........................................................................................................... The main Characteristics of the NewSrI Language.................... . The Peculiarities of MS N .........................................................................."‘ O ^ Phonology ............................................................................................................... g The Sounds of the Newfiri L anguage.................................................... g Sound C hang es................................................................................................ jj Accidence and Syntax......................................................................................... jg N o u n s.................................................................................................................. jg Form etc. of the N o uns........................................................................ jj Meaning and Use of the Cases........................................................... 2 ] Pronouns .. ..................................................................................................... 29 Personal Pronouns............................................................................... . 29 Demonstrative P ro n o n n s...................................................................... 32 Reflexive and Reciprocal P ronouns.................................................. 37 Interrogative P rononns.......................................................................... 38 Indefinite P rononns................................................................................ 39 Pronom inal Adjectives............................................................................ 41 N u m erals........................................................................................................... 42 V erbs.................................................................................................................... 47 Form and Inflection of the V e rb ...................................................... 47 Conjugation of the V erb........................................................................ 55 A uxiliaries.................................................................................................. 57 Meaning and Use of the Verbal F o rm s......................................... 59 Auxiliaries and Periphrastic Forms of the V e rb s ..................... 75 Adjectives........................................................................................................... 89 Form of the Adjectives.......................................................................... 80 Verbal Forms from Adjectival Bases............................................... A d v erb s............................................................................................................. 81 Postpositions.................................................................................................... 89 Nouns w ith Postpositions ................................................................... 89 Verbal Forms w ith Postpositions...................................................... 91 C onjunctions.................................................................................................... 93 Additional Chapters on S y n ta x ............................................................... Index.......................................................................................................................... 103

Printed in Denmark. Bianco Lunos Bogtrykkeri A/S.

PREFACE he present gram m ar is a quite independent w ork, biased exclusively on original NewSrl m anuscripts. W here I have in this w ay arrived at the sam e conclusions as m y predecessors1, they m ay seem fairly well corroborated; and where m y views differ from theirs, I m ay urge in my favour th at I have had access to m uch m ore copious materials, and th at I have pursued the study of the language for a considerably longer space of tim e. It is a descriptive gram m ar, not a com parative one. I have entirely abstained from references to the cognate languages. O n the other hand, it w as to a certain degree bound to becom e a historical gram m ar, since the m anu­ scripts, on w hich it is based*, range from the fourteenth to the nineteenth century, an d the natural changes in the language during this period have to som e extent been reflected in them .

T

1 For the authorities on New&ri I refer the reader to the list in L'ngu. Survey of India, vol. Ill, part 1, p. 215, and to my Vicitrakarnikivadinoddhrta (Royal Asiatic Society. Oriental Translation Fund. New Series, vol. XXXI), p. 1 f.—Since then I have published: A Dictionary of U>e Classical Newiri. D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selskab. HisL-fil.Medd. XXIII, !■1936.—Linguistic remarks on the Verb in NewSrl. Acta Orientalia, vol.XIV. Pp-280—5.—BatfoaputrlkSkathS. A Newflrf recension of the ShphasanadvSWmsatlkS. D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selskab, HisL-fil. Medd. XXIV, 2.1939. ’ See Dictionary, introduction pp. 4—6. Instead of MS B 0- c. p. 5) edition of It is quoted in this grammar. 1*

4

N r. 3. H ans J orgensen :

I have aim ed at brevity, and I hope th at this has not too m uch interfered w ith clearness and com pleteness. In the introduction I have sum m ed up the characteristic features of the language, and I beg the reader to make him self acquainted w ith it before turning to the gram­ m ar itself. It is m y pleasant duty to offer respectful thanks to the T rustees of the Carlsberg F oundation for financial aid, by w hich this institution has rendered possible the collection of the m aterials for the present w ork and the treatment of it. Oksbel Mark, den 17. August 1940. H ans J org ensen .

A Grammar of the Classical NewSri.

5

IN T R O D U C T IO N The main Characteristics of the Newari Language. — Preliminary Remarks. ary roots of the language are m onosyllabic.— T heC omprimpounds are frequent, bu t derivations are rare.—

Inflection is effected by m eans of suffixes. T hose of the verb have to som e extent fused w ith the final consonant of the root; form s like kah, yak, biwo and others cannot be analysed from a NewSri point of view.— T here are tw o numbers, singular and plural.— T here is no gram m atical gender; bu t the language distinguishes between living beings and inanim ate objects by m eans of generic particles, -hma for living beings, and -gu, -guli, rarely -gwo, for inanim ate objects. T hese m ay be added to adjectives, pronouns, numerals, and the nom inal form s of th e verb. M oreover nouns denoting inanim ate objects are indifferent as to number, and certain case-endings, as e. g. gen. in -s, loc. in -yake, are found only w ith nouns denoting living beings. —The pronoun of the first person has both an exclusive and an inclusive plural.— T he higher num bers are counted by tens. T he num erals are com bined w ith nouns by m eans of class-w ords.— T he adjectives are closely related to the verb. T here are no form s of degree. T he verb states, th at an action takes place. W hen the action is transitive, the agent is expressed by m eans o f the

6

N r. 3. H ans J brgensbn :

agential or instrum ental case; w hen it is intransitive, the pure stem serves as subject. T he sam e form expresses the object or end-point of a transitive action. An exam ple may illustrate this, rajan dhu syatam “ through the king ligerkilling (took place)” ; raja wonam “ king-going (took place)” ; — or, according to ou r m ode o f expression “the king killed the tiger” ; “the king w ent'’.— T here are no personal endings; th e different persons, how ever, as subject or agent in som e degree prefer different verbal form s; the 1st and 2nd persons, singular and plural, as opposed to the 3rd person prefer the 1st form in -o and the 6th form .—There is no clear distinction of the various tenses, bu t more so of the aspects and m odes of action.— A passive voice does not occur, and w ould hardly be com patible with the nature of th e language. T he first o f the above examples m ight as well be understood to m ean “th e tiger w as killed by th e king” . T he indifference of th e verb as to voice is evident also from the use of the nom inal form s, which, w hen attributive, m ay qualify both the subject and the object of an action. E. g. cala nawo dhu “the tiger which eats the gazelle" and dhun nawo cala “the gazelle which the tiger eats”, or “ w hich is eaten by the tiger”. The form s A 6 and A 7 are m ostly, but not exclusively, used in the latter w ay; hence their apparently passive character, w hich is not inherent in them .— F inite form s are rare, but the verb abounds in adverbial and nom inal form s. The rath er com plicate use of the latter m ay be further illus­ trated by th e following exam ples, dhun cala nawo “the tiger eats the gazelle”, dhun cala nawo thay “ the place w here the tiger eats the gazelle” , dhun cala nawoya phal “the result of the tiger’s eating the gazelle” . T he structure of the sentence is characterized by an

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

7

almost total absence of subordinate clauses. O nly relative clauses occur.

The Peculiarities of MS N. In N, a MS of the N aradasm fti from AD 1699, are found traces of w hat seem s to be a different dialect.— T he chief instances are as follows, a (noun). T he ending -san of the agential, is m ore frequent th an in the other MSS.— b (pro­ noun). A dem onstrative thwolo “ th is”, thwolota “ all th is” only occurs here.—c (verb). T he form A 4 has som etim es the endings I -mja, II -ca, III -ja besides the usual ones; the form A 8 of I m ay have the ending -nd, -tjid for -n; the conditional of the sam e class -ipdasa for -nasa. T he conjunctive participles in -afian and -kale only occur here; likewise the causative in -ka-ka-I. Once a causative semjake occurs for sinake .— T he form A 5 is m ore frequently found as nom en actoris, and A 6 as nom en actionis.— F o r the auxiliaries da-t, kha-t, pha-t are frequently found the alter­ native form s doa-t, da-t; phva-t, pha-t, and, rarely, kha-t. — d. F or the postposition sinwoqi is used penivoqt; for the conjunction nwoni often arp. — O ther peculiarities have been pointed out in the gram m ar.

8

N r. S. H ans J 0 r g e n s b n :

§ 1— 2

PHONOLOGY

The Sounds of the Newari Language. 1

2

T he N ew ari MSS are w ritten in the NaipSlI or Nagarl characters. But it seem s evident th at the phonetic system of the language is only approxim ately expressed in this w ay. Not all sounds, represented by the characters used, are found; on the other hand, the language no doubt pos­ sesses sounds w hich are not, or only very imperfectly, expressed in the MSS. From the inconsistencies of the spelling, the m odern notes, and MS AH in latin characters (Diet. p. 6) it is to som e extent possible to form an idea of the actual phonetic system of the language. Note. For what follows cf. Conrady’s Grammatik ZDMG Bd. XLV, pp. 9-18, and his Wflrterbuch, ib. Bd. XLVII, pp. 545 ff.

Consonants. A occurs as an independent sound before vowels: iia “five”, yana “doing” .— In som e w ords, w here in the younger MSS it m ay be represented by ng o r n, it seem s to denote a kind of palatal nasal. See § 10 c. Note 1. it I have found only once before a vowel, V*54b.4 kana for kanga (i.e. kane). Cerebrals, s, and s are not found. In loan-w ords they are interchangeable w ith dentals, s, and kh, and in Ne. w ords they are som etim es w ritten instead of these letters.

§ 3 -4

A Grammar of the Classical NewSri.

9

Mote. 2. It seems that, at least dialectically, s is pronounced i before i, e, y. Cf. Kirckpatrick sheema for simS, sheni for sine, sheatd for syato. t and I are freely interchangeable, also in loan-w ords. The m odern notes and AH have only I in Ne. w ords, so this will be the sound actually spoken. A som ew hat different sound perhaps occurs w here the older MSS have (ft d for /, r. See § 10 c. v, w hich in som e MSS is not distinguished from b, is no doubt really w, as it is spelt by H odgson and in AH. Vowels. 3 a seems to be the only vowel w hich is found both short and long. 7, Q are used in the MSS, b u t they are freely interchangeable w ith i and u, also in loan-w ords. In AH, w here the length of a is carefully m arked (ri), the other vowels never have the m ark of length; only / is written initially (Imd, ltd), w here the MSS frequently have .yi for i. ~ Note. In V1 one frequently finds a (besides aip) for a before nasals; a in this position might be supposed to have a sound differing from that of the usual a. On the whole, it seems evident that the difference between a and U is not merely one of quantity. . D iphthongs. 4 ai and aa do not occur in Ne. w ords; bu t other d ip h ­ thongs seem to exist, as m ay be inferred from the spelling (Conrady, Gramm.' p. 11). W hile m any w ords have an Unchangeable e and o (e. g. me “a tongue” , cone “ to sit”, too-ca “a child”), in not a few e alternates w ith ya , ye, and o w ith va, or (esp. in V1 and N) do. Such w ords are g. thene: th ya n i: thyene “to arrive”, p et: pyat “a belly”, 'ten: -syan: -syen suffix of the agential; soya:sivaya “ to

10

Nr. S. H ans J 0rg b n sb n :

§5

look”, jone : jvane “to seize”, one: vane : vone “ to go”, the suffix -o : -va : - do. F or e : ya AH has alw ays e, H P 82 m ostly e, but note dhunkyi p. 20° for dhunake.— F or o : Da AH has mostly o after consonants (so alw ays tho “th is”), wa after vowels, rarely wo. In the notes to H P 82 wo, wa occur, rarely o ( thwohmo “th is” , womha and wamha “th a t”, wono “went”, wand “ to go”, khoye “ to w eep” . Cf. also Kirckpatrick soo-6n “three” = so, soa).— I w rite e and wo. e will be a variety o f e (ie?), w hich cannot be defined m ore closely, wo a diphthong, consisting of u and a m ore obscure vowel (cf. M inayeff uo, ua, ue). In som e o f th e MSS in NaipSlI characters a combin­ ation of o and a occurs initially and after vowels, where the other MSS have va. In these cases I w rite wa (i. e. ua). AH has m ostly woa. But it is possible, th at Da has the sam e sound also after consonants; at least it is worth noticing th at d is found only before a; and cf. godlicha “ a heel” AH 41a. Note. In some words e: ya seems to denote a sound like 6 (Conrady, Worterbuch p. 556). Cf. also Kirckpatrick beushe = bese(m), peumpa = pen-pval.

5

According to the foregoing the as follows. V o w e ls. a a i a e o. D iphthongs e wo C o n s o n a n ts . G utturals k kh g gh n hfi P alatals c ch j jh (n An?) D entals t th d dh n hn s L abials p ph b bh m hm

sounds of NewSrI are

wS. y

hy

v (?)

h I hi (/?)

5 6 -7

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

11

All vowels m ay be found w ith an a n u s v 9 r a , no do u b t 6 denoting a nasalization. It is used in a som ew hat irregular way. In V1 it is very frequent; here every vowel has the jnusvSra before a nasal (b u t cf. § 3 note), and it often occurs finally, w here th e other MSS have no anusvSra.— A final nasalization, though m ostly the w eakened form of a particle (§ 202), seem s to be inherent in som e w ords and suffixes, as e. g. latp “a ro ad ”, sirp “ w ood”, therp “as, like”, nwom “even, also”, -sem the suffix o f the agential and of the 10th form o f the verb. B ut these w ords are frequently found w ithout the anusvara. See also §§ 9. 76. 118. 132 note. F in a l a a n d i. M odern form s like khipa “ rope”, jhango 7 "bird”, khva “ ho t” m ake it highly probable th at th e w ords, spelt khi po ta, jhaqi ga la, khva ka in th e MSS, were pronounced khipot, jhaipgal, khvak. So also the endings of the instrum ental and locative w ere •n and -* ( khipotan , lahatas; cf. khipatS LSI, Idhdti H P 82), th a t of the 5th form of the verb -k (cf. jilhd "p ro ud " AH = jehlSk, lit. “saying I”). In a few w ords and form s, how ever, w here the MS V1 has -a, the final -a w as no doubt pronounced; e. g. ana, thana, gana “there, here, w here” , sala “a horse”, ieta “to m e” (and so also -yata, the ending of the dative), cona “he sat", th e 1st form of the verb. Form s like pochi “naked”, chhengoo “ skin”, imung "name of a plant” (in AH) for pwocili, cheguli, imuni (or unun) seem to prove th at a final i w as silent or only slightly pronounced in som e words. Note. That a final a was mostly silent, is corroborated by the few instances w hereaviram a is found: sat,“100” (N 15b.2), ur, sima “ficus Indica” (H'52b.ll), and a few others. Note also hna shma “seven” C’299.

12

8

9

N r. 3. H ans J brgbnsbn :

§ 8 -10

I n i t i a l a n d f in a l C o n s o n a n ts . Initially only single consonants occur, or consonants + y or v before a. E.g. jya “ w ork”, syaya “ to kill” ; kvak “h o t” , mvaya “to live”. At the end of a w ord are found only single consonants (k, t, p, ri, n, m, y, I, s) and in N nd,(only in the 8th form of the verb, § 100, 8). Note. In Ne. words ks and jn sometimes occur; but the former stands for khy or ch, the latter for gy.

Sound Changes.

P arallel form s. a : e. lane : lene “ to w ait”, h a l: hel “ a leaf”, nane: fiene “to hear” . a : a. tane : tane “to vanish” (rarely found, but cf. § 3 note). S :v a or ya (rare), m ale: moale “ to be necessary”. hma-ca : hmya-ca “a daughter” . i : yi. O nly initially: ita : yita, im unl : yimuni “a plant”. See § 3. s : c. sas: sac “a sinew ”, kw os: kwoc “ a bone". c : t. sacan: safari “ a falcon”, ci-jak: ti-jak adv. “quiet”. In the causative o f verbs of the II. class: yacake: yatake. A spiration of consonants, j i : jh i “ ten”, kanas: kahnas “to-m orrow ”, Ivat : loath “ bill of a b ird”. N asalization of vowels, ecu : emca “ bright”, sala, satfa: saipla, satjida “ a horse”. Note. In some of these cases we may have to do with forms from different dialects. 10 O lder and younger form s, a. V o c a lic c h a n g e s. o > a . pot> -pat, e .g . khipot> khipat “a rope”. tole> tale “as long as”, hm os-kha> hm as-kha “ a peacock”. w o> a. nugtvod > nugal “a h eart” (on l see below).

jq

A Grammar of the Classical NewSri.

13

iafpkhwo > lamkha “ w ater” , nworji > natji “ even, also” (less frequently nurrt). e> i • ie> j* " I” * me > mi “fire” . e> i- sega > siya “to know ” , pega > piga “ to sow ". o> u. hmoga> hmuya “ to dig”, sole>sule “to hide”. lote>tute, tuti “ a leg” . jvo> u. thwole > thnle “to possess”, w o > a "th a t”, a > 0. Certain form s, like khaqiti for khanati “a hoe”, fWoinke for twonake “to cause to d rin k ” seem to show th at

„ may disappear. Note. This change, and that of o, wo > a, takes place only under certain conditions (in unstressed syllables?).— In certain words, as me “a tongue”, dine “to sleep”, coai “to sit”, jwone “to seize” the vowel does not change. b. fin a l c o n s o n a n ts . k, t, I are dropped. m alak> mala “lightning”. lahat> ifflia “a han d ”, bahal> baha “ a shoulder”. Nasals becom e an anusvara. svan > svam (rare) “a flower”. T he ending of the instrum ental case is som etim es ■ifi (e. g. samudrarji H* 69b.3). s, c, and (only in loan-w ords) g > g . sas> sag “a sinew ”, Ihnas> hnag (Vi) “ seven”, tuac> tvag “ a friend”, rog> log disease” . Note 1. In the younger MSS there is a tendency to substitute m for other nasals at the end of certain words (e.g. tutSn: tutam “a stick”, kwolcih: kalOm “a granary”). This may be due to the fact that the scribe on account of the said change has become uncertain as to the correct orthography of these words. Note 2. ci-bhUs for ci-bhay “a little”, which occurs a few times in younger MSS, will be a hyper-correct form. c. o th e r c o n s o n a n ta l c h a n g e s . c> g . khvaca> khvaya “d eaf”, lgaca> lyaga “young”.

14

Nr. 3. H ans J b r g en sen :

§ 1 1 -1 2

4 ,d > l,r . nugwo4>nugal “ a heart”, mod, mod>mol “ a head” , twoql-te> twol-ti “to leave”, saijla>sala “a horse”, dine>lin£ “to cut off” . ft > w, 0 before o, u. noya > woya “ m ad” . T he adjectival ending -hu is in the younger language -u(rp): hyanu> hyau(rp) “red”, khinu> k h i’u “dark". n > ny, n before other vowels (ny only before a). na > nya “ a fish” , tiaya > nyaya “ to buy” , nifi > nih “good, healthy”. T he verbal ending -na becom es in the later language -nya, na (yanya, yana), -n becom es -n (con ).— In the same w ay h fi> h n y, hn: hfiaya> hnyaya “ to m ove”, hned>hnel “ sleep”.— A m ixed orthography is found: nyaya, hnyaya. Note 1. Owing to the last mentioned changc, the younger MSS have not rarely erroneous spellings, such as cone, coiiasa, conaki.—In a few words, like rid “five”, na “horn” n does not change (see § 2). Note 2. It must be borne in mind that the older forms also occur in the younger MSS besides the younger ones. Some of the latter, especially those showing changes io the final consonants, are on the whole but rarely found. 11

C h a n g e s d u e to s e n te n c e s tr e s s . Some shortened form s, as e. g. do, du : dawo, ta : taya, te : taya (§§ 110. 112), ca, la, ba for ca, la, ba (§ 80), -am for -nioom (§ 202) have no doubt originated in an unstressed position in the sen­ tence. T o the sam e cause m ust be ascribed the weakening of daya, phaya, khaya from duaya, phvaya, khaya (§ UO)-

12

T he F o rm of the L oan-w ords. I shall not here exhaust this subject, but shall give m erely the m ain peculiarities of form and spelling in the loan-w ords from S anskrit (tatsam as). E penthesis (svarabhakti). sanan “a b ath ” (snana), silok “a verse” (iloka), bisamay “surprise” (vismaya), byakat

§ ‘2

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

15

“manifest” ( vyakta ). Mostly k becom es g before /: muguti “release” ( mukti ), ragat “blood” ( rakta ). r is frequently om itted after, less frequently before consonants; thus e. g. pa-, pati for pra-, prati-. On the other hand, a superfluous r is often added before conso­ nants: sarbd “ a sound” ( iabda ), ryas “ fam e” ( yasas ).— This r is found even in Ne. w ords: rjuyuno “ he will be­ come” (V1 12b.6), laiprkha “ w ater” (ib. 32a.3), darttanava (note It) “ w hen being” C*84. Aspiration and loss of aspiration, jaubhan “y o u th ” (yauvana ), bilambh “ delay” ( vilamba), kator “ difficult” (ka(hora), adik “ very m uch” (the usual form ; adhika ). y > j. jatn “exertion” ( yatna ), sarpjukt “ provided w ith”

(samyukta).

k > g . Besides the instances quoted above, aneg “m any” , the usual form for aneka. Shortened form s, bac “a w ord" (vacana), tap “au ­ sterity” ( tapas). More radical changes occur in saheti “a friend” ( suhrd ), tadasi “such" ( tadfia ). The sound changes and orthographical variations of the Ne. words, also occur in the loan-w ords, jel (Jala) “ w ater”, Hemalaya (Hi0), opay ( upaya ) “a m eans", purn ( purna ) “full”, mfgyandr ( mrgendra ) “ ruler of anim als”, agyan (qjfiana) “ ignorance”, khyama ( ksama ) “ forbearance", pa(m)chi (paksin ) “ a bird”, sikhy ( siksa ) “a pupil”, iari hmo-jga “ farm ing”.— ca “child” form s a kind of diminu­ tival nagar-ca “a sm all tow n”, rani-ca “ a princess”. A characteristic feature is the synonym ous com pounds, con­ sisting of a Ne. word and a loan-w ord, w hich are identical

17

A Grammar of the Classical NewSrl.

in m eaning: la-hat “a han d ”, p&-li “a foot”, bala-thu “an arrow” .

Note 1. A good many polysyllables are perhaps nothing but obscured compounds, especially nouns like hnas-pot “ear”, hni-pot “a tail”, an-gwod “a wall” (besides an), khicQ “a dog” and similar words. Note 2. To some nouns, denoting living beings, especially terms of relationship, may be added -hma, apparently without change of meaning. Gender. 15 NewSrl has no gram m atical gender. The natural gender is expressed by m eans of different w ords or qualifying affixes, sa “a cow ” , doha “ a bull”, thwo-sa: id.; mes “ a buffalo”, thu-mes “a buffalo bull” ; ba-cal-khani “a m ale sparrow”, md-cal-khuni “a fem ale sparrow ”, ma-khicS “a bitch”. Note. In Aryan loan-words the original generic forms have been preserved, though not always used correctly. N um ber. 16 Nouns, denoting living beings have tw o num bers, singu­ lar and plural; nouns denoting inanim ate objects are in­ different as to num ber. T he usual plural endings are -pani and -to, -ta. a. -pani is the usual suffix of loan-w ords and of ad­ jectives and participles, w hen used su b s ta n tia lly (and of pronouns, see §§ 38.51). raja-pani “ kings”, putr-pani “sons”, toh-pani “those who are sitting” . It is less frequently found with pure Ne. w ords: kay-pani “ sons” , jhaipgal-pani “ birds” . b. -to, •ta is the usual suffix of Ne. w ords: mocSto "children”, misato “ w om en”, salato “ horses”. In rare cases ^ is added to loan-w ords: majhito “ferry-m en” (H® 99b.3). 0. Kgl. Dunake V ldtnsk. Sclskab. Hlat.-fll. Medd. JtXVll.B.

2

18

Nr. 3. H ans J 0 rg e n se n :

§ 1 7 -i8

c. Rarely, and m ostly in younger MSS, are loan-words like jan, gan, lok used as suffixes of the plural, even -lokpani, as jan-lok-pani “ people" B 118. 15. d. W here it is necessary, to m ark the plural of nouns denoting inanim ate objects, w ords like dakwo, samast, sakale “ all” , aneg “ m any” are added. Note 1. The modern form -pim for -pani is found in a few instances.—Plural forms of words, denoting inanimate objects, are very rare. B 86.5 has lvahaqi-ca-to “pebbles”. 17 T he plural m ay have the m eaning “ and com panion(s)”, as Damanak-pani-syarfi H® 60B.3 “ D am anaka and his com­ panion (colleague)”, thva kanya-pani B 88.25 “ this girl and her com panions”.— In a few instances -pani is used as a term of respect: Raghupatan-pani “ Laghupatana” (H 8 47a.5). T he plural ending is w anting w here plurality is ex­ pressed in other w ays; thus alw ays after num erals, and m ostly after nouns denoting “m any, all”. Cases. 18 T he follow ing cases are found: N om inative, Agential, Genitive, Dative, Locative, Ablative, Instrum ental, Sociative, Directive.— T he case endings o f nouns denoting living beings differ to som e extent from those of nouns denoting inanim ate objects. 1. N o m in a tiv e . T his case has no ending, but repre­ sents the pure stem . 2. A g e n tia l. Form ed only from nouns denoting living beings. T he ending is -seip, -sen. -sem is the older form; the n of -sen m ay be due to analogy; the instrum ental in -n frequently takes the place of the agential.— A few in­ stances of -san are found.

g jg 20

e

k

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

19

3. G e n itiv e . In the singular the usual ending is -yS; in the plural the ending is alw ays -s (-panis; -las, -tos). plouns denoting living beings m ay take -s also in the sin­ gular (rarely -saya); as e .g . rajas H *55*.8, candramas 78".2, brahmanas Ca 101 = brahmanaya C1. 4. D a tiv e . T he ending is -ta, added to the genitive (-yS-to, -s-la ). In the singular -sta is rarely found, e. g. raj&sla C1 69.— A few instances of -yatan occur, especially in N. 5. L o c a tiv e . N ouns denoting living beings, have the ending -Are, added to the genitive (- ya-ke , -s-ke, -sa-ke). . Other nouns have -s (see § 7). 6. A b la tiv e . T he ending is -yaken. 7. I n s tr u m e n ta l. T he ending is -n (cf. §§ 7 .10b). 8. S o c ia tiv e . T he ending is -ivo; in a few cases it is added to the genitive (*ya-wo , -sa-wo). In the plural the ending is -panisawo. 9. D ire c tiv e . Nouns denoting living beings, take the ending -Iwom, those denoting inanim ate objects m ostly -jo(/7j), -ta. The younger MSS have a few instances of -tu. The ablative, instrum ental, and directive do not occur in the plural. From the plural in -to only an agential and a genitive is form ed. Nouns ending in a consonant have a before case endings 19 beginning with a consonant. T he m, w hich is found at the end of som e nouns (see § 6) is m ostly dropped before case endings, but not alw ays, cf. e. g. dahamya “of a lake” H2 77a.5, luahams “on a stone” B 134.25. Table of Declension. 20 1. S in g u la r, che “ a house”, lahat “a h an d”, raja “a king” . 2*

20

Nom. che Agent. Gen. cheya Dat. (cheyata) Loc. ches Abl. ( cheyaken) Instr. chen Soc. chewo Dir. ( cheto, -ta )

N r . 3.

H

ans

J

srcensbn

lahat lahataya lahatayata lahatas ( lahatayaken) lahatan lahatawo ( lahatato, -ta)

§ 21—22

:

raja rajasem, -sen, -san rdjaya, rajas rajaijata, rajasta rajayake, rajasake (rajayaken) rajan rajawo, rajasawo

rajatwom

2. P lu r a l, rajapani “ kings", misato, -ta “ w om en”. misato, -ta Nom. rajapani Agent, rajapanisem, -panisen misataserp, -toseijf, -tasen, -tosen misatas, •tos Gen. rajapanis Dat. rajapanista Loc. rajapanisake Soc. rajapanisaivo 21

Rem arks. In the pi. -to is preferred in the nominative, -ta before case-endings.—A few instances occur of a gen. pi. in -pani, and accordingly a dative and locative in -panita and -panike.— The following irregular forms of the instrum , m ay be noted: na'unlnin, na’uninan from na'um “ the wife of a barber”, lawotininan from lawotinl “a lowcaste w om an”, raksasinan, raksasininan from raksasi “an ogress”, all of them in B.— To the agential, the locative in -s, and the instrum ental the particle -a/71 is frequently added, especially in the younger MSS.

22

T o the above m entioned cases m ay be added a defe­ rential v o c a tiv e in -s; bho rajas “Oh king!” (H l 86b.4). T atsam as m ay preserve the S anskrit vocative ending: he sakhe “O friend I” ; rajan is frequent in the younger MSS.

A Grammar of the Classical NewSri.

21

Note- Occasionally other Sanskrit endings are found, as e. g. deie grQme nag are Vi 49.14 “in a region, in a village, in a town”. Meaning and Use of the Cases. T he N o m in a tiv e , or perhaps better Casus indefinitus, 23 is used. a. for the subject of intransitive verbs, thva Bikramadit ntjd thava rajy vanam B 107.4 “king V ikram aditya went to his kingdom ”. b. for the object of transitive verbs. 6mo dhu jin mocake dlmno B 24.15 “ I have killed this tiger".— The following verbs are transitive in NewSrl: kane “ to tell”, kene “to show”, bhramalape “ to roam about in ”, adei biya “to give an order to”, cinta yaya “ to take care o f”, and others. c. as an Accusative of effect, chan ama rajahams raja giito H2 75b.l f. “w hy did you m ake this flam ingo a king?” d. as an Essivus. kutani cha-hrna dayakao. dut chotam S 147°.2 “they procured a procuress, and sent her as a messenger” . e. as an Accusativus m odalis. hmutu jnkva caku Bh 54b.3 “sweet only as to the face” , jim -ni ku bya B 20.5 f. “twelve cubits w ide” . f. to denote tim e and space, jim-ne dor da tapasya yfinava B h * lla.5 “ perform ing austerities during twelve thousand years” , cibhay bu vahao H l 77a.4 “having gone some w ay” . g. as an Allative. Rabanadvip vaiiava Bh 8b.7 “having gone to R avapadvipa”.— Here, how ever, m ostly the Locative •'s used. h. in cases like ba baya “to divide into parts” (cognate object).

22

N r. 3. H ans J o r g k n s k n :

§ 2 4 -2 6

24

T he A g e n tia l is used for the subject (or agent) 0f transitive verbs. It is used not only w ith the verbum finitum , but also w ith the other verbal form s. As the lnstru. m ental frequently takes the place of the Agential, it will be dealt w ith here, w hen used in th is sense.— Examples: thathe rajasyam ajna biyava H l 90a.2 ‘‘w hen the king had said so . . jin suamin doh yak-guli chutfi ma khana Vi 43.6 “ I do not see that (m y) husband has comm itted anv crim e” , rani-can kva sol oay&va B 130.19 “the princess went to look dow n, and . . . ” (see below § 205). jen bhasm raksa m a yatasa. chan gathe mvacake V® 17b.3 ‘‘unless I had guarded her ashes, how would you have revived her?”

25

A causative m ay take tw o Agentials, as m ostly both the agent of the causative and that of the sim plex is expressed by this case, thva raja-can thna thayas sipayipanisen thay thayas piyakao tayao S 155b.2 “ w hen the prince at this place everyw here had placed soldiers as guards” (lit. “had caused s. to guard”), padapya ma salasa. gurunani padapyake P 62".6 “ when he cannot read him self, (he) may let the guru read”. Note. B ut also s a r p p a y a l a d u d u tv a n a k u s a r p H ’74b. 5 “even if o n e m akes a serp en t d rin k m ilk” .

26

T he G e n itiv e m ay he a. possessive, jhamgalaya che B 59.30 “the nest of the bird” , mocatos kos Hl 42a.5 “ the bones of the young ones". mantriya kay B 28.7 “ the m inister’s son". b. subjective, sicayaken bhatiya bhay H2 103u.6 “the cat’s fear of the dog”. c. objective, oya bilahan V1 10b.2 “ through the longing for her” , dhanaya lobh “greed for riches”, dhuya bhail

^20

A Grammar nf the Classical Newari.

23

p j j 1.2 “fear of a tiger” , mis adin N 39b.2 “dependence on |he husband” . d. descriptive, nana prakaraya sastr “ w eapons of m any kinds”. ?u karm P 3“.6 “cerem onies lasting six m onths” . e. partitive. u\ dakinis cha-hma V1 21b.l “one of these Oakinis” (note the singular!). f. Genitivus generis, luya sikhal H*34b.l l “a golden string” (= lu-sisal Ha 65b.5). naya bhandar M 4a.5 “an iron vessel”. g. the Genitive is used w ith verbs. W ith daya it deno­ tes “to have, to possess". Ihva baniyaya ekapulri dava B 19.16 “ this m erchant had one daughter”, rajaya svata gun dayu C* 67 “a king will have three virtues” . (daya may be w anting; oya stri pe-hma V1 110".3 “he had three wives”).— W ith juya it denotes “ to becom e the property o f ’. rajy dhan sarppatti. thva brahmanaya julo B 27.20 “the kingdom and the treasures have becom e the property of this brahm an”. M etaphor, pakfipanis ahaqikar juyao cofia H*74b.4 “the birds had becom e haughty”.— It is used, though rarely, w ith verbal expressions like pariksa yaya “to investigate into”, nirup yaya “ to exam ine”. h. But frequently the Genitive is found with verbs and verbal expressions in the following w ay: barakhunis robh oahava H l 13b.4 “the pigeons becam e greedy, and .. deblya manas atyant kop ydnSo Vi 53.18 “ the goddess be­ came very angry in her m ind, and . . kufiniya hnetjlan cayaoa H 333b.10 “ the procuress woke from her sleep, a n d .. thwo Nidhan gfhapatiya manas bharaparam Vi 106.12 “the householder N idhana thought in his m ind” , simhaya pya-tyan&va H8 35b.2 “the lion having becom e hungry .. thoa sabaraya jhayava H 1 94b.2 “ the savage grew tired, and . . In the last exam ples the genitive plainly is used

24

Nr. 3. Hans J 0 ROBNSEN:

§ 2 7 -2 8

for the subject. Cf. also Vi 87.3 f. “thivopani ni-hmasayarp thathiha aisvary Ifita “th ese tw o h av e o b ta in e d su ch splend­ our". i. F inally the G enitive m ay be u sed a s a derived noun: thao cheya-pani P 60b.l “h is h o u se m a te s” . 27

T he D a tiv e is used a. as an indirect object w ith v erbs a n d verb al expres­ sions like biya “to give” , lawo hlaya “ to e n tru s t to ”, dhaya “to say to”, nvaya “to b lam e” , seba yaya "to ren d er a ser­ vice”, krodh yaya “ to be ang ry w ith ” , bibaha yaya “to arrange a m arriage fo r” . Note, bibaha yaya “to m arry” takes a direct objcct, seba yaya “to be a servant to, to be in the service o r ’ the locative. b. less frequently, and m ostly in th e la te r language, as a direct object, thva nauy&ta sasti yaya tena betas B 98.3 “ w hen he w as going to p u n ish th e b a rb e r” , chal-polayala syanava. chal-polaya dakva rajy kaya M 21a.4 “ I shall kill you, and take y o u r w hole k in g d o m ” . c. it m ay have th e m ean in g “ for, for th e p u rp ose of, to the advantage o f” , chela ka-huna V 2 74a.2 “ ta k e for you!” nirogiyata au§adhiya chu prayojan H 2 12b.5 “ w h a t is the use of m edicine for a h e a lth y o n e” , jetaip stri su juyiva V128a.5 “w ho w ill becom e w ife to m e ? ’* jhajhesta gak Hl 86a.5 “ sufficient for u s” . d. in rare instances it is used a s a n A llativ e: rqjayala oanam B 113.7 “ he w ent to th e k in g ” .

28

T he L o c a tiv e is used a. as a locative p ro p er (A dessive, In essiv e). rdjaghalas khuya thaku B 77.12 “ it is difficu lt to steal in th e king’s palace” , tadato pusmiyuke con V2 36a.6 “ fo r a lo n g time

g 28

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

25

s[,e lives w ith her husban d” . Also m etaphor, apadas “in times of distress” . b. Verbs, like kaya “to take”, khuya “to steal”, sene “to learn”, phone “to beg”, nene “to ask” are in N ew ari constructed w ith the Locative, rajayake beta phonaua B 113.29 ‘‘asking leave of the king” , misake bitt kaya N 41b.3 “to take property from a m an”. c. it is used as an Allative. asam khy rajapanike dut choyava M9'’-3 “sending m essengers to innum erable kings”. pvarasam da hara H l 80®.5 “(the m ouse) w ent into its hole”, m antriya ches uanam V* 47B.3 “ he w ent to the house of the m inister” . d. it may denote tim e, ratris “in the night", gvachinam belas “at som e tim e” . c. in rare cases it has the m eaning of a Dative, rajayake m pn bilam V2 60®.4 “ he gave a dream to the king”, thavake hitan hlak H1 46b.2 “speaking for the benefit of him self". f. it is used w ith verbs like abhyas yaya “to study”, udyam yaya “ to apply oneself to”, jojalape “to appoint to”, bhok puya “ to do reverence to” , sesem taya “to com m it to one’s charge”, socan yaya “to m ourn for”.— lawo hlaya “to hand over to” takes the Locative of nouns denoting inanimate objects, but the D ative of those denoting living beings (cf. above §2 7 a ): candalaya lahatis lao hlanao bio Vi 42.7 “deliver him into the hands of the C airfSlas”.— hlaya “to say to” m ostly lakes the Locative. g. m iscellaneous instances of the Locative, chanake cofi ka'uli B 117.18 “ the cow ries, w hich are in your possession". garbhas daya “to be gravid”, khvalas day a “to beat in the face", ihava bisvasas con-hma H®68“.2 “living in reliance on me” , j i stridharmas conao coha Vi 45.27 “ I live accordto the duty of w om en”.— m ikhas khobhi pvapal yanao Vi 176.1 “ filling her eyes w ith tears” .

26

Nr. 3. H ans J b r u h n s k n :

h.

§ 2 9 -3 0

the Locative m ay be used as a partitive genitive:

ji bos chi bo N 21a.7 “ one part out of ten”. 29

T he A b la tiv e is used a. as an Ablative proper, thivo-guli tej mebayaken ola ma khu Vi 90.13 “this splendour cam e from nobody else”. ak&san meghaySken jarabrsti juyaua co Bh *12a.l “ from the sky, from the clouds the rain w as com ing” . b. to denote the cause or reason w hy. lobhay&ken “from greed” , je punyay&ken Hl 70b.l “on account of m y merits”. c. in a few instances as a Locative, kumitrayaken bisvas ma du C1 297 “there is no reliance on a false friend”. Note. But mostly the instrumental is used for the ablative (g 30 d.e.f).

30

T he I n s tr u m e n t a l is used a. to denote the instrum ent of an action, khica chahma sikhalan cifiava B 83.3 f. “tying a dog w ith a rope". Ivathan kvatu kvanao H2 76a.8 “pecking vehem ently with their beaks", samastam balabant juyuvam dhanan H l 64b.4 “everyone becom es pow erful through riches”. b. as a Prosecutivus. meba-gii lanatn boixava B 111.7 “leading him another w ay". c. to denote state and condition, mrg bera began H l 49a.2 “ the gazelle escaped in a hu rry", chu khoalan thava che i>ane B 97.14 “ w ith w hat kind of a face will (you) go to your hom e?” sukhan cone “to live in happiness”. d. to denote the starting-point (Ablative), pvaran pi-ha vayava H 126a.2 “com ing out of his hole”, ji paradesan uaya B 119.12 “ I com e from a foreign country” . e. to denote the cause and reason, w hy. lobhan “from greed” , ajhanan “from ignorance” . f. to denote the term inus a quo. thanin hnas hnu '

'g 31—33

A Grammar of the Classical NewSri.

27

34*.l “seven days from to day” , sii can P 59b.7 “after the lapse of six nights” . g. in the following instances: julan buy a “to lose at play”, bisyatp takon la damja N 38b.4 “to be content with what is given” , prajnan chn prayojan C* 23 “ w hat is the use of knowledge?” daman naya B 119.17 “ to buy w ith m oney”. With the w ords sampann, sam jukt “ provided w ith", saiptnst “content w ith”, poapal “ full o f”, and the like. h. the Instrum ental as Agential see §§ 24. 25. The S o c ia tiv e has the m eaning “ with, together w ith”. 31

lithya. maniripanisava sam adhal yataip V* 33b.l “afterw ards

he held a conference with his m inisters”.— It is used with verbs like loya “ to be in accordance w ith”, sam bandh yaya “to have intercourse w ith”, liseip wone “to keep up w ith” and sim ilar verbs. Also w ith biruddh “ objectionable to” (V‘ 570.3: lokavo birurddh “ objectionable to people), sam and tuly “ like”, e. g. chuva sam juro H 1 64b.5 “he becam e like a m ouse”. Mostly we find a double sociative. Padmabatioa Mani- 32 cudavo ni-hm a M 28b.8 “ both P adm avatl and M aoicuda”. miua misaua conanas H2 37b.2 “ w hen husband and wife are together” , nayava nasava p riti yaya H 1 33a.3 f. “to form a friendship between eater and food” , putraoa mitraoa tuly bharaparp C1 21 “considering the son like a friend” , guruua. sisyayaoa antal-am ib. 255 “the difference between teacher and pupil”. The D ire c tiv e seem s originally to have had the m eaning 33 of an A llative: sri Mahadebatvam bi-jyanava B 80.31 f. “repairing to M ahadava” ; but w ith nouns denoting living beings it m ostly has the m eaning of a Dative, rajasyarp Bimusarmatoip . . . rajaputr-pani rava hlaratp Hl 10b.2 “the

28

N r. 3. H ans J orgensen :

§ 3 4 -3 6

king entrusted the princess to the care of Vijriusarm an”, It m ay also denote a direct object: Kfsnasyam Nandatvarp bohava Bh 40b.4 “as K{*§pa had fetched N anda”. The form -tu is m ostly found w ith dhyabalape “ to think of”, swoya “ lo regard, to look a t” . 34

W ith nouns denoting inanim ate objects, the Directive is used as follows: a. of place “ up to, as far as”, gal-potato vas-luimip B 106.2 “w hen he had gone (into the river) up to his neck". dvalato ten beras V2 27a.6 “com ing up to the door”, yojan chi bhutvarp yanava Bh 13a.3 “ having led him as far as one m ile”. b. of tim e “for, till the end of, during”. Ha dato “during five years”, gva belato. je. thava svam i mvata. thva belalam jeip m vak H2 81b.6 “as long as my husband was alive, I too was alive” (lit. “ for w hat tim e . . . ” ). Note. It must be said, however, that one may be in doubt as to whether -hvom etc. is a case-ending and not a post­ position; cf. N 53*. 4 .i "a bell”.— M etaph. ni gol akhal P 24B.3 “ tw o syllables”. pa for parls of the body o r ornam ents, found by ne pa tuti Cl 231 “ tw o legs” .— Also su pa hnas-pot H283b2

“six ears” .

pa(nt)ti id. mikha ni pamli M 33”.2 “ tw o eyes”. ma for trees, simd cha ma H l 12n.3 “a tree” . pu for objects of a longish shape, sa cha pu B 131.4 “a h a ir”, ga cha pum V2 8b.3 “ a clo ak” , slok ni pun H1 3h.j

“w ith tw o verses” . ca, la (cf. § 7 a) are used as class-w ords in ca ca chi B 76.23 “ one night” , mas la chi Vi 58.28 “ one m onth". Note also instances like da jh i da Vi 123.10 “ ten years", cak cha cakan H ^ M “w ith one w heel” . 83

T he suffixes -hma, -guli, -ta, though no real class-words. are used in m uch th e sam e w ay. 1. -hma is used w ith great frequency for living beings. brdhmaij-pani sva-hma Vs 17*\l “ three b rah m an s", mes cyd-hma S 151b.6 “ eight buffaloes”, thva-pani ne-hma “ these tw o". 2. -guli is rarely found, except in cha-guli (§ 8 0 ). Il refers by preference to large objects, like sea, tow n and the like. pe-guri samudr C1 293 “ four oceans” . N ote na-tjuli mikha “ five eyes” Na 14a.l. 3. -ta is used b y vprgference of ab stract ideas, and after enum erations of objects w hich w ould require differenl class-w ords. khu-ta dokh H 1 23a.3 “ six faults” , cha-ta g*11! C1 21 “one virtue” , mam. babu. thava svabhab. thva sva-la H l 24b.5 “ m other, father, his ow n nature, these tliree”." But also pya-ta tisa “four o rn am en ts” B 66.18.

87

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

45

Note, ne-hma, ni-hma; ne-guli, ni-guli may mean "both” ; ni-guli also “a pair”. — In instances like rGja mantri nihmast nam Vi 50.3 f. the meaning is something like “both the king and the minister”.—On cha-ts as an indef. pron. sec § 74. In connection w ith num erals nouns rarely take a plural 84 ending (an ex. § 83,l), but pronouns are rarely found without, thva-pani sivo-hma “these three”, cha-pani ne-hma “you two”. Ordinals. 85 As stated above (§ 77) the ordinary num erals are m ostly used as ordinals also, ra chiya Bh 8".7 “of the first m on th”. m-guli potal P l l b.2 “ the third hell”.— But in connection with nouns denoting living beings special ordinals are formed by m eans of -hm a-hm a. ne-hm a-hm a Indra H* 74b.2 “a second Indra” . iia-hm a-hm a brahmai) M 8b.6 “a fifth brahman”. Note. Words like hiiawo, hiiapa, adi may be used to denote “the first”. Rarer form s. 86 a. F ra c tio n s . A few instances are found in N. pyatn bos chi bo 2a.5 “a fourth p art” (lit. “one part out of four”). b. D is tr ib u tiv a . Form ed by m eans of duplication chi chi-gudi rasfras N 50a.2 “in each realm ”, ni-hm a ni-khe nane B 35.15 “ we will both go each in his direction”, pe hnu hnns (spelt hnu2s) “ once in four days” (Vd 19a.6). Other num erical D erivatives. 87 a. -de(n), -bol (rare) “ -fold” , buddhi juraiji mi-janayii pe-dya H2 65b.2 “ (her) cunning is four tim es that of a m an” . b. -bdl, -pol, -hnatp “tim e” , sat-chi-bar Vi 84.24 “a h u n ­ dred tim es”, sva-pol “ thrice” , cha-polan “ all at once” (Vi *18.15). cha-hnam “once” N 31b.7.

46

Nr. 3. H ans J o rg en sen :

§ 8 8 - 89

c. -tarin(arji). cha-t&rinarp H* 16b.6 f. “ all at once" (only exam ple). d. -khe. cha-khe "aside, ap art” . pe-khen\ “in four direc. tions” (B 59.31). e. -bhin. only cha-bhin “ aside, ap art”. f. D ubious is - te in ne-te sva-te “ thw ice or thrice (?)” Vd 36a.5. 88

F inally we m ay m ention the w ords ba “ a h a lf , ty. . . ma “ in no w ay whatever” . The form -them of the suffix is rarely found w ith these bases; but it is the usual form after thwo-, wo, u; thwoto, gwoto, show ing that it has here preserved its original inde­ pendence as a postposition (see § 195). va-thyaip yaya H 1 38a.3 “ it m ight be done like th a t” .— gwoto-thirp is found

86

N r. 3. H ans J b r g e n s b n :

§ 1 8 3 — ig g

only in the phrase gwoto-them dhalasa “ so it is said” = §a tat ha coktam. 183

The m ost frequent form is u-therp in the sense “like alike, in the sam e w ay” , sukh duhkh dhaya-gnli u-theij. thuka Vi 163.5 “ w hat are called luck and m isfortune are alike” . W ith the sociative banaba. cheva u-thyaip Cl 168 “ a wood and a house are alike” .

184

To these form s m ay be added the verb iiane “to be alike". Anamgasenao u-the hah m akha V2 75b.5 “ she is certainly like AnafigasenS” . am a-the hah raja H2 40°.4 “a king like him ; such a k in g ".—thathe hanakarp = thathe thathe hale “ under these circum stances” . Note. Adverbs of manner may also be expressed by mean, of prakdr “manner”; thwo prakaran, thwote prakiiran “in this manner, so, thus”.

185

T he suffixes -khe, -kan are rarely found. W ith -khe only ukhe thukhe “ hither and th ith er” ; w ith -kan only amakan “ here, hith er” .

186

O ther pronom inal adverbs, awo “ now ” (from the base a, cf. amo. awo is found in a few instances), Swo-tole, awonatp hha “ till now ” , awonarp li “ from now, henceforth"; thwonarp li, lithem, rarely liwo, lis “ alter this, thereupon"; thanarp li, wonarp li, thathinarp li, and the irregular instru­ m ental of thw o: thwoyan or thwoyan li(wo) id.— thwoten “ therefore” .— thwolas “ in this w ay", wolas “ in this case” ; thalaqi li, wolain li “ after th is” ; wola-hnam “ at this time", gwola-hnam “ at w hat tim e?" (both in N only); gwolanam “at any tim e, alw ays” , . . . ma “ never” . thama-the-thamanam; thama-them; rarely thawo-thethamanaqp “ of one’s ow n accord”.

g jg 7 —189

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

87

‘‘to the other side (of a river)”, itas "on the other side". " on or *° ^ i s side” ; ita thita “ on both sides” . “so" before adjectives is expressed by m eans of the q u a lita tiv e dem onstratives (§ 6 0 ). thathini daridr B 21.21 “so poor", thathi-gva sundali V2 46b.7 “ so beautiful” = thathiiiiii sundari V1 75®.2.— Note thathim-gwo (not -hma); the literal m eaning is “ beautiful like that". i and thi are com bined w ith verbal bases in the follow- 187 ing way: i-ha thi-ha joyu N 12a.3 “ he will go up and down" or “ to and fro” , yi-sar thi-sar yartava Bh 133b.3 “dragging to and fro” ( sal- “ to drag, to pull”), thethe ann Sdin. yi-bi thi-bi yanamn H 1 54®.1 “ giving food and other things to each other” = ann thithirp i-bil thi-bil yanava H312b.4 ( bi-l “ to give”). N on-pronom inal A dverbs. The m ost im portant are the following, mele "elsew here” ; 188 thani “ to-day” , m ore frequently thaniya dinas, prasthabas and the like, thani-tole "u n til to-day” , thanin nisem “ from to-day”, hmegwo, younger hmigivo, hmiga “ yesterday” , kanas, kahnas “ to-m orrow ”.-—ta “ a long tim e; far off” .— bhati "a m om ent” , nananaqi “ soon” .— li-potas “ afterw ards” . asa, rarer asa "then , under these circum stances”, hanivorp, hanam “ again; further’’, twom, tu “ju st, even” , ni (em pha­ sizing). ja “ after all” , napam "com pletely ”.— yathenam "nevertheless, how ever” , mebanaip “ otherw ise” , makha “cer­ tainly” . thukd (affirm ative).— Som e form s of juya, esp. julasani are used w ith the m eaning “ as for”, or m erely as em phasizing particles, especially in the younger M SS.— Interrogative adverbs are chan, chay "w h y ?” T he following adverbs hna “ before” , li “ after” ; kwo, ku 189 “dow n”, tha “ up” ; du “ into”, pi “ ou t” are used in close 10

88

Nr. 3. H ans J o r g e n s e n :

§ 190—191

connection w ith verbs, form ing a k in d o f lo o ser com pounds. hnd haya “ to go in ad v an ce” , hha luya “ to agree” ; ft thene “ to re tu rn ”, li phiya “ to o v ertak e” ; kw o tine “ to fall do w n” ; tha kaya “ to raise” ; da bvaya " to leap in to ”, du kaya “ to d raw in ; to ad m it, a d o p t” ; p i tine “ to tu rn out”, p i thane " to give aw ay, to b e tra y ” .— W ith o u t change of m eaning we find li-ta, kwo-ta, tha-ta, du-ta, pi-ta; and be­ fore verbs of m otion hna-ha, li-hd, kwo-ha, tha-ha, du-ha,

pi-ha.

Note, ha in the last mentioned form s is identical with the root ha-l “to go, to move”; du-hB ivoya - du haseqi woya. 190

F rom th e adverbs in § 189 are derived o th ers like liwone "b eh in d ” ; du-wone o r dune “ in sid e” ; piwone or pine “ outside” ; hnaco “ before” ; lico “ later, a fte rw a rd s"; himpa “ first”, lipa “ beh in d” ; liserp “ b e h in d ” (m o tio n ). Note. Some of the adverbs in §§ 189.190 are also used as post­ positions. See next chapter.

191

A dverbs from L oan-w ords. T he instrum ental case of m any S ansk rit w o rd s is used as an adverb, matron “ only” ; niscayananx "c ertain ly ” ; ksaifamatranant “ a m om ent” ; atyantan “ very m uch” ; duhkhanarp “ unhap pily” .— Less frequent are Sa. adverbs. ati or atin(am) “ very” , sada o r sadan “ alw ay s” , maha “ great” is used as an adverb w ith the m eaning “ very” . Pronouns w ith karanas, rarely karanan ; nim ittin; hetun are used instead of N ew arl adverbs esp. in th e younger MSS. E. g. Ihwoya karanas for thwoten “ th erefore” ; chu or chuya nimittin for chu, chuyata "fo r w h a t purp ose, w hy?” ; chu hetun for chay, chan “ for w h at reason, w h y ?” . See also §§ 181 note, 184 note.

§ 192—194

A Grammar of the Classical Newari.

89

Adjectives m ay be form ed from m any adverbs, m ostly 192 by means of the genitive-ending- yd. avaya Ihas Bh 23a.4 “the present place” ; hhacoya brahman-pant V1 26b.3 “ the brahmans of before”, i. e. “ the above m entioned br.” ; hmegvaya ra H260a.3 "th e m eat from yesterday” ; even hrtam nisyarpya samast brtlantar-kha B 98.6 “ the events from the beginning”, lit. “ of since before”.—O ther adject­ ival forms are piurone-guli “ outer” ; hhaivo “ first” ; piwo “foremost” ; lithu “ the latter”, hhalhu “ the form er” .

P O S T P O S IT IO N S Besides the gram m atical cases, postpositions are used to 193 express case-like relations of nouns. V erbal form s w ith postpositions are used as subordinate clause-equivalents like the conjunctive participles and other verbal form s. Not a few of the postposilions are loan-w ords, m ostly cases of foreign nouns.— A noun usually takes a case* ending before a postposition. Nouns w ith P ostpositions. 1. of N ew ari origin. 194 a. w ith the genitive, hnawone (also hnawone, hnewone) “before, in the presence of” , liwone “ behind”, liwonen "from behind” , duwone, less frequently dune “ in the in ­ terior of, inside” , piwone, rarely pine “ outside” , bhin “ to” (rajayS bhin uayaoa H3 38b.9 “ going to the king”), hun, hunin “ on account o f” . b. w ith the instrum ental, kwo “ from . . . dow nw ards” ; hna “ before” (tem poral), tham “ from ” (han tham “ from the root”), pi “ out o f” , li “ after” (tem poral); //yd, lithan id. c. w ith the sociative. napa “ together w ith”. d. w ith the locative, du “ into” .

90

N r. 3. H ans JeRGBNSBN:

§ 195—igg

e. w ith various cases, liwo w ith gen. o r loc. “ behind” w ith instr. “ after” (tem poral).— lisem w ith gen. or l0c “ behind” , w ith the pure stem “ along” : khusi lisem “along the river” .— deivone “ outside, out o f” w ith gen. or pure stem .— kwos "below , under” ; also “ near, in the vicinity o f” ; m ostly w ith gen., rarer w ith pure stem .— nisim “since” has before it the loc. or the pure stem , m ostly with the particle -a m : thivo belas-am nisyam M 39a.6 “ since this tim e” ; thaniya din-am nisyam Vi 102.29 f. “ since to-day”. It is also found w ith the m eaning “ from ” : naor-caya pvaratft nisem. sarppaya pvaratoqi H® 101b.6 “ from the hole of the ichneum on to th at of the snake” . A nother postposition is them “ as, like” , kay svaya mitr thf/arp C187 “ one m ust look upon a son as a friend". thva-hma hamsaganas bohor thyaqi H 1 71b.l f. “ he is like a crane am ongst sw ans” . Rarely w ith the genitive: Palasuramaya therp V1 110b.5 “ like ParaSurSm a” ; but bhatn-jaya thya. buddhi datasa S 142b.6 “ if (your) cleverness is like th at of the parrot” .— Form s of nane “ to be like” may be added” , tapasvi thyam nanam M 24®.5 “ he w as like an ascetic” , therp fianakam, m ore rarely nanakaua = thein.— them is also used after adverbs, m ostly w ith the genitive: sadaya thyarp “ as alw ays” . Note. Here we may mention the word thin, also thirp, thiiphma, thirp-gwo, though properly speaking no postposition. je-pani thirp “people like us”, cha thirpn sumitr M12b. 2 “a friend like you”. Note Indraya thin sarjipati C1139 ‘‘a fortune like that of Indra”. 196 2. of foreign origin, agras “ in front of, before (local)”. anusaran "conform ably to” , uparas “ for the sake o f”. karanas "o n account o f” , dvalan "throu gh, by m eans of”. nimittin (also °ttan, °ttis, °tt) “ for the sake o f”. T h e se 195

§ I 97

A G ra m m a r o f th e C lassica l N ew S ri.

91

a|Ways take the genitive.— W ith the pure stem we find talas ‘‘under, below” (but also genitive: lasayd talas “ under the couch” B 107.28). patini "everyw here in, on” ( kaca paiim ‘‘on every b ran ch ”, din patiiri "every day”), bahikan “without”. sahit(an ) "together w ith” .— U sually the genitive lakes bahiris "outside” ; samipas “ w ith, near; to” ; samip “to” The two latter are m ostly used deferentially w ith nouns denoting persons of high rank.— bina “ w ithout” is placed before a noun in the locative or instrum ental case: bind paladhas V1 38b.3 "w ithou t justice” . Note, “without” is usually expressed by ma dagakaqi (§ 131). raja ma dagakam “without a king”. In a few cases bins ... ma dayakatp.

Verbal Forms with Postpositions.

Of NewSri origin are li, hha, nisem, them. 197 1. li is constructed w ith various form s of the verb. U sually with the 10th form in in a few instances -sen; less frequently w ith the 9th form , m ostly the alternative form in -an; rarely w ith the instrum ental or sociative of the 6th form, or both com bined: -won.— It is the usual w ay of expressing a te m p o r a l clause w ith "after” .— woseijx li “ after he had com e” , ku tinam li “ after he has fallen dow n” C1 8 = ko tafian li C2. babu moyan li “ after the father had died” V* 55b.4 = babu moyavan li V1 90b.4. It also occurs in the sense “ as, since”, chan jin dh&ya7uli kha ma nesem li. chao napa cone ma eo Vi 75b.3 f. ‘since you do not listen to the w ords I speak to you, I io not w ant to stay w ith you” . 2. hha. after a form in -wolam, N - wolan (cf. § 103.7) Beans “ before” , ma is alw ays added, che ri ma hS-uaram 'iha H 1 93b.3 “ before he had returned to his hom e” , puru-

92

Nr. 3. H ans J brgensen

sauo ehe ma ya-valan hha do moca N 38b.5 “ a girl, Wh0 is not yet m arried to a m an” (lit. “ a girl existing before she is . . It m ay occur w ith other form s: sury uday. ma juvan hfia V1 44b.2 f. “ before the sun had risen” .—In ^ there also occurs a construction w ith B 6 (in -andn ), and w ith -kdlen (§ 103.8). 3. niseip w ith the 10th form m eans “ since, from the m om ent” , je svami osya nisya jen. sunam purus ma kay& V*74b.l “ since m y husband w ent aw ay, I have received □o m an ”. 4. therp w ith the 5th and 6th form s expresses co m para* tiv e clauses, sukharp ma cintarapa thyaip jayarapwa. daiban haya thya H 1 7 4 \2 “ happiness does not arise as one expects, (but) as Fate sends it”, rajan ajna dayaku the. j&cakayd la-hatis lao hlaya dhuno Vi 69.9 f. “ I have delivered you into the hands of the beggar, as the king had ordered it” .— W ith the 3rd or 4th form it m eans “ as if”. Kfsnatvaqi grasarape thya vayava Bh 62“.7 “ com ing as if he would devour Kpso3”Note. In P nisem and therp are used in a somewhat different way: garbhas con-guli nisgarp “since his birth” 7“. 5, jat juoa thgam “as soon as he is born” 4*. 1. 198 Postpositions of foreign origin. T he three w ords arthan, karapas, nimittin w ith the 4th form express f in a l clauses, w ith the 5th and 6th form s c a u s a l clauses. T he genitives of the said form s also occur .— nag raksalape arthan je coM Va 79a.5 “ I am here, in order to protect the n3gas”. pyatyakaya karanas papatp yaylo H* 108b.6 “ he will commit sins, because he is hungry” .— W ith the 3rd form the m eaning m ay be causal, e. g. je pran moyu arthan. thava bhochisam pran mocakala V2 29b.5 “ he destroyed the life of his fam ily, because m y life w as going to be destroyed".

§ 199—201

A Gram mar of the Classical Newari.

93

It means “ lest” in a sentence like: ma henioya nimittin ffrukd dhaya m a chasyam coha S 147a.5 " I w as staying (here) not daring to speak, lest you m ight not listen to m e” . belas w ith various form s of the verb expresses te m p o r a l 199 clauses, thva sabaran thathya pas chusyarp taya beras H 1 I3b.2 “ when the savage had thus set up his snare”, raja-ca agnisamskar yaya dhakam . tal laku belas B 113.24 “ while they were m aking preparations, (w ith the intention) to burn the prince” . T he 6th form is preferred, w here the 1st or 2nd person is the subject, e. g. ji-pani banaknda oha belas Vi 39.31 f. “ w hen we were going out hunting” .—j i cai}dalay5ta lava hlayu belas B 136.1 “ w hen they are about to deliver me to the Can male, form 109. 110, use 159.

A Grammar of the Classic a New3r

use 115. 127 b a. 130. 133. 134. 138. 144. 204, in relat. clauses 207. — conj. p. in .awo 127 b. 157 e. 161.163.164. — relative p.,form 100,5,6,7; use 115. 121b. 122 b. 124 a. 126 a. 128 a, in relat. clauses 207. passive voice Introd. past 124d^. 126dp, conj. part, of p. 127 b a, habitative of p. 121 a a. perfect 162, descriptive p. 163 b. periphrastic forms of the verb 112. 154-166. personal pronouns 37ff., as sub­ ject or object 116. — seeded. phaya, auxil., form 109. 110, use 152. plural 16.17, of pers. pronouns 43—45, p. ending wanting 16. possessive pronouns 48. postpositions, with nouns 194— 196, with verbal forms 197 —199. 204, of foreign origin 196. 198. 199. present 124 da. 126 da. preverbs 92 a. prosecutivus 30 b. q qualitative pronouns 60. quantitative pronouns 59. questions, dependent qu. 209.

107

relative clause-equivalents 115. 207. relative clauses 207. relative pronouns see interroga­ tive pr. repetition of words 217. — cf. duplication, reported speech 212. root as verbal form 104. 150. s -sakal plur. ending 39. 44. -sane 103. 143. sane as auxil. 166 note. “self” 63. sentences, compound s. 204. sentence stress 11. singular 16. siniuorp 215. — cf. comparison of adjectives, sociative, form 18,8, use 31, double s. 32, s. of verbal forms 123 e. 127 b; before postpos. 194 c. sound changes 9. 10. subject, of imperative 119, 4th form as s. 122cp, genitive as subject 26 h, attraction of s. 205. — see intrans. verbs, subordinate clause-equivalents 115. 193. substantival clauses 210. superlative 215 b. t

-ta, suffix of pronouns 57, of r numerals 83. reciprocal pronouns 64. tathe as auxil. 164. reduplication, of nouns 14 a, of tatsama 12, vocative of t. 22. taya as auxil., form 110, use 161. verbs 100,12. tene, as auxil., form 109, use 160. reflexive pronouns 62. 63.

1 08 Nr. 3. Hans J 0 rgk n sen : A Grammar of th e Classical Newiri

temporal clauses 197. 199. — cf. “as”, “when”, “while”, “till”, terms of relationship 14 a, and note 2. terms of respect 17. 92 note. teya, auxil., form 109.110, use 158. -thiirp) forms adverbs of man­ ner 182. -thi(rp), -thin forms qualitative pronouns 60. 69. “till”, conjunction 144. -to, -ta plural suffix 16 b. -tote 103. 144. transitive verbs, agent of t. v. 24, object of t s, 23 b, periphr. forms of t. v. 154. -tunurp 103, 145.

verbal phrases 92. verbs, primary v. 91, derivated v. 93. 94. compound v. % — see classes, vocative, deferential v. 22. — see tatsama. vowels 3. 5, nasalization of v.y, changes of v. 9, changes of v. 10 a. w

“when” 133. 138. 139. 146. - cf. temporal clauses. “while” 134. 144. 147. — cf. temp. cl. "without”, prepos. 131.196 and note.; conj. 132. -toola 103. 147. ivone as auxil. 166. j woya as auxil. 166. j

v verbal bases in adverbs 187. verbal forms, from nouns 113, from adjectival bases 176; y compound v. f. 103.107, use -yanarp 122c6. — cf. “in order 143—148. — see cases, to”. verbal nouns 115. 121c. 122 c. yane as auxil. 165. 124 c. 126 c. 128 b.

Indleverct til Selskabct tlen 5. O ktober 1940. F w rdig fra T rykkeriet den 19. M«J 1941.

HISTORISK-FILOLOGISKE m e d d e l e l s e r

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2

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S. f 1.

2. 3. ,>. 1. 2. 3. i 5-

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D A N S K E V ID E N S K A B E R N E S S E L S K A B

BIND XVIII (K r. 15.00): Rr. 0. Hanulf, Svend: Gudernes Misundeise og StrafTeretiens Oprindelse i Athen. Studier over seldre gr&sk Mentalitet. 1930 .... 7.40 Hammerich, L, L.: Visiones Georgii. Visiones quas in Purgatorio Sancti Patricii vidit Georgius miles de Ungaria. A.D.MCCCLIII. 1931...........................................................................................................12.60 BIND XIX (K r. 19.10): Faijumische Fragmente der Fteden des Agathonicus Bischofs von Tarsus herausgegeben und erklSrt von W. E ricrssn. 1932 3.40 Christensen, A rth u r: Les Kayanides. 1932.................................. 7.00 Pedersen, H olger : Etudes Lituaniennes. 1933............................ 2.70 J6 nsson, F innur : Den islandske gramma tits historie til o. 1800. 1933 ......................................................................................................... 6.00 BIND XX (K r . 21.60): Blinkenberg, Andreas: L’ordre des mots en franca is moderne. Deuxifime partie. 1933 ........................................................................ 7.60 J