A Grammar of Classical Japanese 3929075687, 9783929075687

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A Grammar of Classical Japanese Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer

2009 UNICOM EUROPA

Published by LINCOM GmbH 2009.

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A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (http://www.ddb.de)

Photograph: Martin Knieling. The photograph shows an ‘omamori’ ， a Japanese amulet o f Yasaka Shrine in Kyoto.

For Professor Emeritus Satoshi Oide and to the memory of his wife Sumiko

Abbreviations and Symbols Abbreviations are taken mostly from English terms such as nouns (N) and verbs (V). Those which do not have their equivalents in English grammar have shortened forms of their Japanese linguistic technical terms such as K for /ce/yous^/'-adjectives, KD for keiyoudoushi-adiectiwes, or R for renfa/s/?/-adjectives.

Abbreviations AC ADJ ADV AUX C CF CJ CL CNJ Cp ED EMJ EXC FJ HA I INJ I’s T J K K-ADJ

author’s composition (Examples are my own sentences.) adjective adverb 則詞） auxiliaries (/odous/?/:助動詞） century; consonant; sentence constituent (bunsetsu: X ip ) classifier (/bsmvs/?/:肋狄詞） Classical Japanese clause conjunction (setetvzo/avs/?/:接统 詞） a constituent is a predicate Edo Period (1603-1867) Early Modern Japanese exclamative ftyto-yos/7/ ( 副助詞 ：adverbial postposition) Heian Period (794-1185) interlocutor interjection (/canfous/?/:間投詞） those in the interlocutor’s territory lexical items of Japanese origin; jo s h / ( : postposition) /ce/y〇£； s/?/-adjective (/ce/yoizs/?/:形容詞） /ce/yous/?/-adjective (/ce/y〇 (； s/?/:形容詞） ka-hen ka-gyou-henkaku-katsuyou-doush 丨•（力行复 條法用動詞） kami-ichi kami-ichi-dan-katsuyou-doushi ( 上 一 故 法 用 動 詞 ） kami-ni kami-ni-dan_katsuyou-doushi ( 上二汉 法用重わ詞) KD /ce/y〇ivdc^s/7/-adjective (/ce/y〇t/dousA7/:形容動詞） KD-ADJ /ce/y〇i/dot7S/?/-adjective (/ce/y〇[； do/7s/7/:形容動詞） KJ kaku-joshi ( : case-marking postposition) KKj kakari-joshi ( : syntactic-semantic type of postposition) KM Kamakura Period (1192-1333) Kanbun-taikei ( 漢 欠 大 系 ) KTJ /cantou-ゾ os/?/• ( 間投肋詞： modality-expressing postposition of Type 2) lit. literal (translation) LOJ Late Old Japanese MJ Middle Japanese

jV

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Abbreviations and Symbols

MM MNZ MSJ N

Muromachi Period (1338-1573)

全集) Modern Standard Japanese noun (me/s/?/:名詞） ；nasal [N] na-hen ra-gycxi-hen/cato-Zcatet/ycル-doi/s/?/ ( ナ行变 将浩用動詞） NKBT Nihon-koten-bungaku-taikei ( 3 本古典:欠 字 大 糸 ) NR Nara Period (710-784) 〇J Old Japanese P predicate (jutsugo: ) PP postposition (/osA?/:助詞） PFX prefix (seffou-go: 接頭語） ProN pronoun (dai-meishi: ) ProperN proper noun (koyuu-meishi: ) PseudoN pseudo-noun (/ce/sわ//c/-me/s/7/:形式名詞） QTF quantifier as in numeral quantifier (sui/s/?/:狄詞） R 厂 eA7te/s/7/-adjective (厂 enfa/s/7/:連休詞） R-ADJ reA?fa/s/?/-adjective (renfa/s/?/:連休詞） ra-hen ra-gyou-henkaku-katsuyou-doushi ( ラ行文條法用幼 P I) RF referent S sentence ( b w : 文 ） ；subject (s/?t;go:主語） sa-hen sa-fify〇i7-/7e/?/ca/a/-/catei/yot/-d〇(ys/7/ ( サ行变 格浩用勁詞） SFX suffix shimo-ichi shimo-ichi-dan-katsuyou-doushi —H 法用重/]詞 ） shimo-ni shimo-ni-dan-katsuyou-doushi (下二汉 法用劾 P i) SJ shuu-joshi : modality-expessing postposition of Type 1) SNKBT Shin-nihon-koten-bungaku-taikei (4 f[3 本古典欠竿大系 ) SP speaker SP’s T those in the speaker’s territory SZJ setsuzoku-joshi ( : conjunctive postposition) T territory V vowel; verb (c/oush/:動 詞 ) yodan yocteA?-/catet/y〇[7-d〇iys/7/•(四R 活用動詞） YT Yamato Period (end of the 3rd C to 8th C)

Motoori Norinaga ZenshO

Symbols 〇 • 11 0 < >

【 】 [

]

example sentence morphological demarcation of lexemes demarcation of verse units nil sentence construction; specific expressions; verbal inflection endings a lexical item written with Chinese characters in Classical Japanese dictionaries phonetic symbols

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Abbreviations and Symbols

phoneme inflection category inflectio 门 forms agglutination morphology other remarks pronounced the inflection form mizenkei ( ) the inflection form 厂 er?y〇i//ce/•(連用形） the inflection form •けf 止 形 ） the inflection form 厂 er7fa/7ce/(連イ本形） the inflection form /zen/ce/ (已券、 形） the inflection form me/'厂 e/7ce/(命令开多）

Tables Chapter 1 : Introduction 1 2

Classification of Classical Japanese A list of literary works used in the examples

5 6

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology 3 Hiragana graphemic units 4 Katakana graphemic units 5-1 Man’ydgana ( 万案假 ^ l ) used for hiragana 5-2 /Wan’ydfifana ( 万葉仮名 ）used for /cafa/cara 6 Words with long vowels in Classical Japanese 7 Long vowels 8 Words with ゐ [tqi] and 夂 [tqe] 9 Pronunciation of は ，ひ， ふ ，へ ，ほ according to their position in a word 10 11

Sounds /wa, i, u, e, 〇/ and their orthography Pronunciation of voiced s-/z- and f-/d- columns in Classical Japanese

12 12 13 13 15 16 18 19 20 21

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax 12 13 14 15

Word classes of Classical Japanese Inflection forms of Classical Japanese Inflection forms of Modern Standard Japanese Inflectional and noninflectional word classes

26 33 33 34

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 4.3 16

N ouns ( M e /W [ 名 詞 ：N】 ） Classification of nouns

40

4.4 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

P ronouns (Da/me/s/?/ [ 代 名 詞 ：ProN]) Classification of pronouns Personal pronouns in the Nara Period Personal pronouns in the Heian Period Personal pronouns in the Kamakura Period Personal pronouns in the Muromachi Period Personal pronouns in the first half of the Edo Period Personal pronouns in the second half of the Edo Period Demonstrative pronouns in the Nara Period Demonstrative pronouns in the Heian Period Demonstrative pronouns in the Kamakura Period Demonstrative pronouns in the Muromachi Period Demonstrative pronouns in the first half of the Edo Period Demonstrative pronouns in the second half of the Edo Period

43 46 47 49 50 52 53 55 56 58 59 60 61

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Tables

30

Reflexive pronouns

4.5

Adjectives (ADJ)

31 32 33 34 35 36

65 66 67 68 69

37

Three kinds of adjectives and their features Classification of keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es based on inflection The keiyoushhad\ect\\/e inflection of Classical Japanese Morphology of the proper inflection of /ce/yous/7/-adjectives Morphology of the /ca厂 /-inflection of Zce/y〇i;s わ /-adjectives Complementarity of the proper inflection and /car/-inflection of keiyoushiadjectives The /can-inflection of the keiyoushi-ad\eci\\/e imi*ji ( v' A T : extraordinary,

excellent) 38 39 40

The inflection of oho(=o)*shi ( # l : many, much, plenty, a lot) The inflection of na*shi ( -^ L : none) The inflection o i keiyoudoushi-ad]eci\\/es

70 73 73 74

4.6

Phonological changes

41

Phonological changes in Classical Japanese

4.7

Verbs (Dot/sh/[ 動詞： V]) Verb types 87 Vero inflection terminology and abbreviations in Classical Japanese 88 Verb inflection terminology and abbreviations in Modern Standard Japanese 88 Verb inflection endings 90 Sentence termination forms of Modern Standard Japanese 91 Verb inflection endings of ‘3A’ and ‘3B’ 91 Vbdan-inflection demonstrated by hanas*u : to speak) 94 A list of /ca/77/-n/-verbs 96 Ka/77/-A7Hnflection demonstrated by s w " ( 過ぐ ：topass "//7?eT) 97 S/7//77〇 -n/-inflection demonstrated by osor^u ( S : to fear) 99 Kami-ichh\r\i\ect\on demonstrated by rrriru ( ^ : to see) 100 A list of kami-ichi-yerbs 101 S/7/'/77〇 -/c/?/-inflection demonstrated by k*eru : to kick) 102 Ka-/?eA?-inflection demonstrated by k*u ( ^ : to come) 104 Sa-/7en-inflection demonstrated by s*u (i~ : to do sth) 106 Morphology of verbal compositions using the verb s*u ( i - ) 107 A/a-/?er7-inflection demonstrated by ( 死 ぬ ：to c//e) 108 只a-/7en-inflection demonstrated by ar*/ (あり/ ^ " り/ 在り：to わe to live, etc.) 109 A list of ra-hen-werbs 110

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

4.8 61 62

Auxiliaries (Jodot/s/7/• [ 肋動詞： AUX]) Auxiliaries in Classical and Contemporary Standard Japanese Functions of auxiliaries in Classical Japanese

64

70

80

123 128

viii

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Tables

63 64 65 66 67 68

Conflation of semantic functions Auxiliaries and their inflection categories and types Auxiliaries, their agglutinations, and inflection forms Concordance of inflection forms, categories, and type of auxiliary Japanese terms for semantic functions of auxiliaries Auxiliaries and their semantic functions

130 131 133 139 148 150

4.9 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

P o stp o sitio n s (Jos/?/• [ 助 詞 ：PP]) A list of Classical Japanese PPs A list of Modern Standard Japanese PPs Categories of PP Multifunctionality of PPs Functions of case-marking PPs (Ka/o/-)os/7/ [ 将劝 詞]) Functions of syntactic-semantic type of PPs (Ka/ca"-y〇 s/7/• [ 係助詞】 ） Kakari-musubi no housoku (係 0 結びの法赛 ]\) Functions of adverbial PPs (Ry/oy-yos/?/ [ 副助詞]) Conjunctive PPs (Setef7zo/〇 y-ybs/7/•[接統助詞]) Functions of Type 1 modality-expressing PPs (Stot/-70s/?/ [ 終助詞]) Functions of Type 2 modality-expressing PPs (KaA?to(/-yos/7/ [ 間投助詞]) A summary of the functions of PPs

166 167 168 170 175 179 180 184 188 191 194 195

4.10 A dverbs (Rv/ozs/?/[ 副詞： ADV]) 81 Adverbial derivations 82 Adverbs used in agreement with specific auxiliaries or postpositions

208 215

4.11 C o n ju n ctio n s (Sefstyzo/o/sW [接統詞： CNJ]) 83 Semantic groups of conjunction 84 Examples of conjunctions

222 223

4.12 In terje ctio n s (KaA?fous/7/• [ 間投詞：INJ 】 ） 85 Examples of interjections/exclamatives

228

4.13 Numeral q u a n tifie rs (Smys/?/[狄詞 ：Numeral QTF]) 86 Traditional Japanese and Sino-Japanese ways of counting 87 Examples of classifiers in Classical Japanese

237 238

Chapter 5: Honoratives 88 89 90

Hojodous/v• ( 補 助 動 詞 ) Honorative verbs _ 1 :Sonkeigo ( 貧歌！ 吾）and kenjougo ( 謙 讓 語 ) Honorative verbs — 2: Te/ne/go ( 丁車語）

Chapter 6: Rhetoric 91 /Wa/a/ra-tof〇 iba ( 枕詞 ）and their referents

255 256 257

261

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Tables

Homophonous pairs of kake-kotoba ( PhP])

92 93

吻〇 ( 李語）

94

Kireji•(切 れ 字 )

jx

262 270 272

Figures Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology 1

Pronunciation and orthography in Classical Japanese

22

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 4.7 2 3 4 5 6

Verbs (Dot/s/?/• [ 動 詞 ： V]) The reorganisation of Japanese verbs U-onb丨n (ウ 音 反 ) /-o/?b/n ( イ音R ) Hatsu-onb丨n ( 撥 音 民 ) Soku-onbin ( 從 音 敗 ') Ku-gohou (ク 語 法 )

93 114 115 116 117 119

4.8 8 9

Auxiliaries (Jodous/?/[ 助 動 詞 ： AUX]) Auxiliaries of Classical Japanese in cross section Inflection categories and types

122 162

4.9 10

P ostp o sitio n s (Jos/7/•[劝 詞： PP]) しayers of analysis of Classical Japanese postpositions

163

7

4.10 A dverbs (Z^/o/sA?/• [ 副詞： ADV]) 11 しayers of analysis of Classical Japanese adverbs

207

4.11 C o n ju n ctio n s (Seteiyzo/ovs/?/[接貌詞： CNJ 】 ） 12 し ayers of analysis of Classical Japanese conjunctions

219

4.12 Interjections (Kantoiis/?/• [ 間投詞：INJ]) 13 Types of exclamative/interjection

228

Chapter 5: Honoratives 14

Classification of honorifics

Chapter 6: Rhetoric 15 Genres of w/a/ca ( 和歌）and types of rhetoric

243

259

Chapter 7: Conclusions 16

The structure of processing foreign elements into Japanese

281

Preface This book aims to give the reader an overview of a grammar of Classical Japanese and to enable him/her, after mastered the areas dealt with in each chapter, to read Classical Japanese texts. This monograph further has the objective of making the main morphosyntactic features of Classical Japanese accessible to linguists with little or no prior experience of the Japanese language. Many years of theoretical research and practical experience in teaching Classical Japanese to students of various nationalities and at levels ranging from elementary to advanced have given me the incentive to write this book, in which I have likewise tried to unite theory and practice. Looking back on my teaching experience, it has always been a great joy to see students beginning to understand Classical Japanese. It is particularly rewarding when they start to read and derive pleasure from kanbun texts that isy Classical Chi­ nese texts to which diacritics have been added so that they can be read in Classical Japanese without prior knowledge of Chinese. In fact, I have even had Chinese nativespeaker students who enjoyed reading Classical Chinese literature in Classical Japa­ nese. However, most of the students I have taught, especially those familiar with Modern Japanese, were initially under the impression that Classical Japanese is extremely difficult and something mysterious and impossible for them to even begin to under­ stand. However, after taking an elementary course in Classical Japanese, they are all astonished to discover that it is as if they were simply learning a new foreign language, which is precisely the case, and it is for this reason that I have always taught the courses within a second language acquisition (SLA) framework. This book is based on many years of both practical teaching experience and re­ search. It introduces the student step-by-step to the different areas of grammar and illustrates these with examples taken from the Japanese classics, which at the same time familiarise the student with a number of different genres. It can be read not only by learners of Japanese but also by those who have no knowledge of the language, as many examples are written in roma-ji (Latin — literally Roman _ alphabets) and in this sense, is also designed — as mentioned above — for linguists who wish to acquaint themselves with the morphosyntax (the agglutination features are described in detail) of Classical Japanese. Each of the sections/subsections on adjectives, verbs, auxiliaries and postpositions contains tables summarising the material dealt with (Tables 33, 45, 68 and 80, respec­ tively). These tables will help the reader to carry out grammatical analyses of Classical Japanese sentences in order to understand their meanings precisely and correctly. They should be used as basic tools for reading original Classical Japanese literary works. Finally, I sincerely hope that this book on the grammar of Classical Japanese will enable the reader to enter a new world and discover new ideas, thoughts and stories, and to share the experiences of this ancient people. At the same time, mastering Clas­ sical Japanese enables the reader to have an access to the kanbun (>11^1), i.e., to the world of classical Chinese literature and ancient wiritings written by Japanese in the

xjj

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Preface

kanbun-s\y\e. This will further give the reader possibilities to compare culturally differ­ ent thoughts described in those Japanese literary works ranging from the 7th to 19th century as well as in those Classical Chinese works with the time span of the 8th cen­ tury BC to the 18th century. This might well also give the reader a different perspective not only on Japanese culture but also on his/her own culture. This diacronic approach is intended to support this aim as it makes it possible to see the present state of lan­ guages, literature, society and cultures within the entire historical framework.

Neunkirchen 2009 Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer

Acknowledgement I should like to thank all those people who gave me their kind support while I was writing this book. My greatest thanks go to Sumiko Oide and Prof, emeritus Satoshi Oide, who is a Nicolaus Cusanus (1401-1464) scholar and honorary member of the Cusanus Reseach Institute at the University of Trier, where a generous donation on his part made it possible for the Oide Foundation to be set up. Prof. Oide also made an endow­ ment to the Japanology Department of the University of Trier so that we could found Oide Publications, where we have been able to publish many language teaching mate­ rials and linguistic monographs. The present book was also published within this frame­ work. The main aim of Oide Publications is to introduce Japanese culture to those wishing to learn more about Japan. There is a special emphasis on acquisition and knowledge of the languages of Japan as a means of access to the culture. I sincerely hope that this grammar book will contribute to this aim. I am also indebted to the Japanology Department at the University of Trier, which stresses the importance of a sound basis in the language and where linguistics-based teaching of the classical to modern languages of Japan plays a major role. In 2001 I was asked to teach kobun (Classical Japanese) and kanbun (Classical Chinese in Clas­ sical Japanese translation) and I have been doing so ever since. This has given me the opportunity to carry out research on the teaching of classical languages within the frame­ work of foreign language teaching. This research has always been accompanied by practical teaching of the language so that I have been able to obtain immediate feed­ back from my students on the methodology, content and structure of the teaching of Classical Japanese. And this has enabled me to develop special concepts for the し 2 acquisition of Classical Japanese. In other words, I am trying to find a cross section of three fields: classical Japanese literature, general linguistics with a focus on the mor­ phology and syntax of Classical Japanese, and applied linguistics with reference to foreign language teaching. I am obliged to students who took my courses and asked me many interesting questions on Classical Japanese. All these factors contributed to my decision to set up a project to develop a grammar of Classical Japanese. Members of my project proofread my original manuscript and gave me valuable suggestions and advice, while IleanaAguir-Weichselgartner and Angela Oakeshott proof­ read with a focus on English grammar and turn-of-phrase. Toshio Onuki and Yu Takahashi checked the manuscript primarily for the content of the grammatical descriptions and Benedikt Grosser read it from the point of view of the learner. He made many valuable suggestions as to how the text may be written so that the reader gains a relatively easy access to Classical Japanese. Anett Eberitsch, 日ke Erikson, Barbara Lorenz, and Pia Schmitt carried out a morphosyntactic analysis of the story

(げ吹童チ）in the

( 室町物語:14th to 17th C) and translated it into German. I have used the results of their analysis in this book. Wolfram Windolph and Horst Plambeck gave me wonderful support, helping me with computer programmes and advising me on producing the manuscript. Wolfram

xiv

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Acknowledgement

Windolph gave most generously of his time to show me how to use software for publi­ cation purposes. My colleagues Hilaria Gossmann and Stanca Scholz-Cionca gave their constant support, and Irmgard Maringer always ensured my working conditions well as comfort­ able as possible. I am obliged to Martin Knieling who has given me permission to use the photograph he took in Japan. My thanks also go to the LINCOM publishing company, who publishes monographs in various disciplines of linguistics including Japanese linguistics and minority languages, for giving me the opportunity to publish this book. I would like to express my special thanks to Angela Oakeshott for the many interest­ ing discussions we had on differences between English and Japanese expressions. These offered me new insights into different perceptions of the world(s), which find differing linguistic expression. Likewise, discussions with Richard Pestemer on various motivations of language change yielded new perspectives, which were invaluable for my analysis of these changes. Both of them have thus contributed a great deal to the clarity of my descriptions and treatment of Classical Japanese as they appear in this book. Last but not least, my thanks go to Shizuyo Katsuki, Richard Pestemer, and Maxmilian Pestemer for their understanding and constant support. Without the help and encour­ agement of all these people and institutions, I would not have been able to accomplish this book.

Contents Abbreviations Tables Figures Preface Acknowledgement

ijj vi x xi xiii

Chapter 1 : Introduction 1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Transcription Transcription of Classical Japanese Transcription of proper nouns Morphological segmentation Classification of Classical Japanese しinguistic terminology Literary works Example sentences

1 2 3 3 5 6 6 9

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.3.1 2.4.3.2 2.4.4 2.4.5 2 4.6

Phonemes and phonograms 11 The vowels A, e, 6/ 14 Hiatus and long vowels 15 Consonants 16 The nasals / ji, g , n / 16 The phonograms ゐ [uqi] and 幻 tqe] 17 The graphemes < は ，ひ， J 、，へ ， >and exceptions in pronunciation 17 The graphemes くは，ひ， ふ ，へ ，| i > with their nominal pronunciations 19 The grapheme < ふ > with the pronunciation of [o] 19 The double consonants /kw/ and /gw/ with the vowel [a]; くわ[ktqa] and ぐわ[guja] 20 The consonants [る] and [cte] with the vowel[ i ] : じ[るi] and ち • [d:^i】 21 The consonants [z] and [dz] with the vowel[m 】 ：ず [zrn] andっ• [dzrn] 21 — Excercise — 22

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax 3.1 32 33 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3

Word classes Agglutination Sentences Sentence constituents Omission of constituents Predicates

25 25 27 27 28 29

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Contents

3.3.4 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5

Sentence length Inflection forms Inflectional and noninflectional word classes Some differences between adjectives in Classical and Modern Standard Japanese Classical expressions used in Modern Standard Japanese .

31 32 34 35 35

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 4.1

Different interpretations of Japanese Grammar

37

4.2

General features of Classical Japanese lexemes

38

4.3 4.3.1

Nouns (ZWe/sh/• [ 名詞：N]) Noun conversions

39 40

4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3

Pronouns (Da/me/s/?/[ 代名詞： ProN]) Classification of Japanese pronouns Main features of pronouns Personal pronouns from the Nara Period (710-784) to the Edo Period (1603-1867) The Nara Period (710-784) The Heian Period (794-1185) The Kamakura Period (1192-1333) The Muromachi Period (1338-1573) The Edo Period (1603-1867) Demonstrative pronouns from the Nara Period (710-784) to the Edo Period (1603-1867) The Nara Period (710-784) The Heian Period (794-1185) The Kamakura Period (1192-1333) The Muromachi Period (1338-1573) The Edo Period (1603-1867) Reflexiv© pronouns

43 43 44

4.5 Adjectives (ADJ) 4.5.1 Rer?fa/s/7/-Adjectives ( 連怵詞 [R]) 4.5.2 Ke/yousA7/-Adjectives ( 形容詞 [K]) 4.5.2.1 Adjustability of ke/youshi-adjectives 4.5.2.1.1 The proper ke/youshi-inflection 4.5.2.1.2 Morphology of the /car/'-inflection of ke/yoush/-adjectives 4.5.2.2 Semantic differences between ke/yoush/-adjectives of ku- and shikuinflection types A syntactic difference between the proper inflection and the /can4.5.2.3 inflection

65 65 66 68 68 69

4.4.3.1

4A.3.2 4A.3.3 4.4.3.4 4.4.3.5 4.4.4 4.4.4.1

4.4A.2 4.4A.3 4.4.4A 4A.4.5 4.4.5

45 45 47 48 49 51 54 55 56 57 58 60 63

71 72

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Contents

4.5.2.4 4.5.3 4.5.3.1 4.5.3.2 4.5.3.3 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.3.1 4.6.3.2 4.6.3.3 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.4.1 4.7.4.2 4.7.4.3 4.7.4.4 4.7.4.5 4.7.5 4.7.5.1 47.5.2 4.7.5.3 4.7.5.4 十/.6 十/,.7 4.7.7.1 4.7.7.2 4.7.7.3 4.7.7.4 4.7.8 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.1.1 4 8 .1 .2 4.8.1.3 4.8.14

Exceptional inflections Ke/y 〇tydous/?/-adjectives ( 形容動詞[KD 】 ） Inflection forms of /ce， y 〇iyc/oi/s/?/-adjectives ( 形容動詞[KD]) Evolution of /ce/ym/dous/7/-adjectives ( 形容動詞[KD]) Examples of /ce/y〇i ； d 〇i/s/7/-adjectives ( 形容動詞[ KD]) Phonological changes U-onb/n ( ウ 音 of keiyoushi-adjectives /-or7b/n (イ音使）of /ce/y〇us/7/-adjectives /■/ateu-oz?わ/V?( 撥音使 ）of the auxiliary rar»/ ( なつ） ，and of the keiyousm- and keiyoudoushi-ad]ec{\\/es Hatetz-onb/n ( 撥音R ) of the auxiliary nar*/ ( なつ） Hatsu-onbin ( 撥 音 of kefyoudoushf-adjectives Hafst/-o/?b/>7 ( 撥音R ) of /ce/yoizs/7/-adjectives of the /ca"-inflection Verbs (Dous/7/[ 動詞： V]) Inflection forms and their abbreviations Morphological change A comparison of types of verbal inflection in Classical Japanese and Modern Standard Japanese Regular verbs Vbdan-verbs ( 四R 活用動詞） Ka/77/-n/-verbs ( 上二R 法用動詞） S/7/r7?o-;?/-verbs (下二R 活用動詞） fCam/-/c/?/-verbs ( 上一R 浩用動詞） Sわ //770-/c/7/-verbs ( 下一段法用動詞） Irregular verbs Ka-hen-verbs ( 力行变 将活用動詞） Sa-/?er?-verbs ( サ行变 将浩用動詞） A/a-A?e/7-verbs ( ナ行变 将活用動詞） 尺a-/?e/7-verbs ( ラ行变 将活用動詞） Morphological analysis of verbs Phonological changes in verbs U-onb/n ( ウ 音 霞 ) l-onbin ( イ 音 叹 ) Hatsu-onbin (撥 音 Soku-onbin ( )

Ku-gohou ( ク語法 ) Auxiliaries (Jodous/?/• [ 肋動詞： AUX]) General features of auxiliaries Morphology Semantics Components of morphosyntactic, semantic and pragmatic functions Conflation of functions

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Contents

Auxiliaries and inflection categories Auxiliaries and inflection forms Auxiliaries, agglutination, and complementarity Some remarks on auxiliaries Japanese technical terms

131 132 138 144 148

Postpositions (Jos/?/• [ 助 詞 ： PP】 ） Categories of postposition Salient features of Classical Japanese postpositions Multifunctionality Polysemy Co 门cord Modality The syntactic difference between the modality-expressing PPs of Types 1 and 2 Case-marking PPs (Ka/oy-yos/?/• [ 将助詞】 ） Syntactic-semantic type of PPs (Ka/can-yos/?/• [ 係助詞]) Concord of syntactic-semantic type of PPs: Kakari-musubi no /?0(VS〇 /〇/ ( 係り結びの法則） Ellipsis of referents Adverbial PPs (Futo-y 〇s/?/[ 則助詞]) Conjunctive PPs (Seteuzo/oz-yos/?/• [ 接貌助詞]) Type 1 modality-expressing PPs (S/?uiy-y〇 s/7/• [ 終助詞 ]) Type 2 modality-expressing PPs (KaA?f〇iv-yos/7/[ 間投助詞])

163 164 165 165 172 172 173

Adverbs (Fiy/ovs/?/[ 副詞： ADV]) Morphosyntactic classification of adverbs True adverbs Derivational adverbs Conversions Compounds Other morphological forms of adverb Adverbs in agreement with other lexical items Semantic categorisation of adverbs and adverbials Multifunctionality and polysemy

207 207 207 208

Conjunctions (Sefs(7zo/o/s/7/• [ 接続詞： CNJ]) Salient features Morphological categorisation of conjunctions Semantic classification of conjunctions Examples

219 219

Exclamatives/lnterjections (Kantot/sh/[ 間投詞： EXC/INJ]) Works on Japanese grammar

227 227

173 174 177 178 182 183 186 190 194

211 211 212 212 214 217

220 221 221

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Contents

4.12.2 4.12.3 4.12.4

xix

4.12.5 4.12.6

Classification of exclamatives/interjections Interjections and literature Phonological and morphological features of exclamatives/ interjections Semantic features Examples

227 228 230 231 232

4.13 4 .1 3 .1 4.13.2 4.13.3 4.13.4 4.13.5

Numeral quantifiers (Sm /sh/[ 狄詞：Numeral QTF]) A short history of numeral quantifiers Numerals and counting systems Classifiers (Josuushi [3 /j^ iP i : CF]) Morphosyntactic functions of numeral quantifiers Examples

235 235 236 238 239 240

Chapter 5: Honoratives 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.4 5.4.1

Classification of honorifics in Classical Japanese Characteristic features of honorative verbs Honorifics: some examples Multiple honorifics Hojodoushi (棉 M 觔 P i) Multiple honorifics: some examples Honorifics expressing the highest degree of respect Other verbal compounds expressing a high degree of politeness

243 244 245 246 247 248 250 251

Chapter 6: Rhetoric 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.2.7 6.2.8 6.2.9 6.2.10

Waka (

:

Classical Japanese poems)

Rhetoric in waka ( ：Classical Japanese poems) Makura-kotoba ( 沈 詞 ） Kake-kotoba ( 科 詞 ） Jo-/cotoba ( 斤詞）

Engo ( 緣 語 ) Honka-dori (本 取 取 0 ) K akushi-dai(m 題 ) Onku ( 折 句 ） Ktigr/re ( 句切れ） K 々o (李語） K/re_//• ( 切れ字）

259 260 260 262 263 265 266 267 267 268 269 271

Chapter 7: Conclusions 7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2

A short summary A summary of analysis しanguage contact Language change

273 273 274 276

An Introduction to a Grammar of Classical Japanese: Contents

XX

7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.4 7.5

General characteristics of Japanese language Simplicity vs. complexity Multifunctionality, polysemy, and contextuality Pragmatic markers Language filtering for adjustment Teaching Classical Japanese as a second language ( し 2) Concluding remarks

Terminology References Index

279 279 280 280 281 282 282

283 291 303

Chapter 1 Introduction This monograph is a descriptive work on a Classical Japanese Grammar with the aim of giving the reader an overview of its linguistic features. This will enable the reader to gain access to the world of the Japanese classics, which cover from the 7th to 19th century time span. The grammar elaborated in this book is a description of the lan­ guage used in the 9th to 10th centuries. Although many diachronic linguistic changes occurred from the Nara Period (710-784) until the Edo Period (1603-1867), by learning the grammar presented in this monograph the reader will be able to read classical Japanese literature. This work is written not only for learners of Classical Japanese, but also for linguists and scholars who are interested in the salient linguistic characteristics of a language and its variations in ancient Japan. This book is organised into six chapters. The first chapter is an introduction dealing with some basic description systems employed throughout this book, such as the tran­ scription system (see Subsection 1.1 ff.), the morphological segmentation system (see Subsection 1.2), and other arrangements. Phonetic and phonological characteristics of Classical Japanese are described in Chapter 2 according to the graphemic system of an ancient Japanese language. Some exercises for reading classical Japanese texts in classical orthography are incorporated at the end of Chapter 2 so that the reader has easy access to subsequent chapters. Chapter 3 explicates its morphosyntactic fea­ tures with an emphasis on intrinsic inflection systems of inflectional lexemes, such as nominal predicates, adjectives, verbs, and auxiliaries. Various word classes and their phonological changes where relevant are elaborated in detail in Chapter 4: nouns (see Subsection 4.3), pronouns (see Subsection 4.4), adjectives (see Subsection 4.5), pho­ nological changes (see Subsection 4.6), verbs (see Subsection 4.7), auxiliaries (see Subsection 4.8), postpositions (see Subsection 4.9), adverbs (see Subsection 4.10), conjunctions (see Subsection 4.11), exclamatives/interjections (see Subsection 4.12), and numeral quantifiers (see Subsection 4.13). A special chapter is dedicated to the honorifics of Classical Japanese (see C hapter 5) which give a large number of pragmalinguistic signals in the analysis o f classical writings. Chapter 6 explains ten different kinds of rhetorical techniques used in Classical Japanese texts, while Chapter 7 contains a short summary and concluding remarks.

1.1 Transcription This monograph uses two different transcription systems. On the one hand, sounds are transcribed which fully correspond to the orthographic system for Classical Japanese. This means that long vowels are written with two vowels without using the prolongation diacritics 〇 or (八 ）above vowels. Therefore，instead of ‘6’ this prolonged sound is transcribed as ‘ou’ ， fwou’ ， ‘au’ ， ‘wau’， ‘〇 〇’，or ‘wowo’ depending on the words. The voiceless bilabial fricative [cj)] with the vowel /u/which represents the kana S [?da/ ( 近 代 ：‘modem tim es’ from 1603 onwards). This book uses the four-way division which is widely used in Japanese literature (cf. Yoshida 1972: 58). As can be seen in the above explanations, the Japanese terms kodai or kindai (ifc K ) are used differently regarding the different divisions. Therefore, the reader should be aware that Table 1 is the basis for referring to epochs used in this book. Abbreviations of Classical Japanese variations and historical epochs are given in parentheses. These are used throughout this book.

1.4 Linguistic terminology For readers who are not familiar with English linguistic terminology, short explanations are given in parentheses. I have given explanations after specific linguistic terms re­ peatedly in early chapters, but reduced them in later chapters. It should be mentioned that some technical terms are used in this volume which are defined differently in Japa­ nese and English. 'Sentence* and predicate* are two such examples. For this reason, I have included a special section Terminology at the end of the monograph to aid the reader who might have difficulty understanding some technical terms. Japanese technical terms are used intentionally where there is no English equivalent，for instance in verbal inflection forms (i_e.，m/ze/i/ce/•[未然形]，厂en’you/ce/•[連用 形]，shwsh/Tce/•[終止形]，renfa/7ce/•[連休形],/ze/i/ce/•[已然形】 ，and me/re/Tce/ [命令 形])，or with adjectives (such as /ce/y〇us/7/•[形容詞]，/ce/youc/ous/?/[形容動詞]，and 厂 enfa/s/7/ [連休詞])，or some grammaticalised verbs (such as /70yodot/sh/’ [補助動詞]).

1.5 Literary works Literary works, stories, or tales are used to explain grammatical features of Classical Japanese. The following is a chronological list of such sources used in this book:

Table 2: A list of literary works used in the examples

へ _ノ ...-入 .—■.へ .'...'.

關

■-

Year o f completion / Remarks

Author

712 A collection of stories recited by Hieda no Are ( 棘田阿札） .

Ono Yasumaro (ed.)( 太安麻呂）

(万葉集）

End of 8th C. An anthology of poems.

Otomo no Yakamochi et al.

Taketori-monogatari

End o f 9th C.

unknown

905

Ki no Tsurayuki et al.(紀貫之)

! ____________

Kojiki

(古爭犯 ) Man’ydshQ

j

(竹取物語） Kokm-waka-shu

Chapter 1 : Introduction

Tosa-nikki

7

Around 935.

Ki no Tsurayuki

First half of 10th C.

unknown

946-986?

unknown (Minamoto 门0 Shitag6 [ 源使 ]? )

Around 974.

Fujiwara Michitsuna no haha ( 藤原道綱の句:）

Beginning of 11th C.

Sei Sh6nagon (清

Early 11th C.

Sugawara Takasue no musume (， 賞原 孝■標の女）

Mid-11th C.

unknown

Beginning of 12th C.

unknown

First half of 12th C.

unk 门 own (Minamoto no Takakuni [源险

( 土伖日記）

Ise-monogatari

(ィf 勢物語） - Nishi no kyou no wo(=o)nna ( 西の京'

の女） -yA/ovfagaw/a ( 芥 丨丨丨） - Tsutsu丨c/uts^j3 ( 简 丼 筒 ）

- Tsukumogami no wo(=o)nna ( つくも# :

の女） Ochikubo-monogatari ( 落窪物語）

Kagero-Nikki ( 靖蜍日記）

MaKura no soshi ( 枕萆子〉

Sarashina-nikki ( 更趿 日記）

Tsutsumhchunaaonmonogatari ( 婕中納言物語）

Okagami

(大鏡） Konjaku-monogatari

(今普物語） - Soroba no chi ( サとばの血）

Shin-kokin-wakashu

国 ]? ) 1205

Fujiwara no Teika ( “ •原文炙）etal.

First half of 13th C.

unknown

Mid-13th C.

unk 门own

( 新古今和歌集）

Uji-shQi-monogatari ( 宇治桧遺物語）

Heike-monogatari ( 平家物語)

Chapter 1 :Introduction

8

---------------------- 3~ Tsureduregusa

Around 1330.

Yoshida Kenko ( 吉田兼好）

A compilation of short stones. From 14th C to 17th C.

unknown

- Monokusataro ( 物くさ太邦）

Between 14th and 17th C.

unknown

- Ibuki-ddji• ( 彳 f 吹 t 子 )

Between the end of 16th C and the beginning of 17th C.

unk 门 ow 门

- Daikokum ai( 大募、 舞)

Some time between the end of 16th C and the beginning of 17th C.

unknown

( 使然萆） Muromachi-monogatari ( 室町!f勿語）/ 〇togf/z6s/?/ ( 御伽萆チ）

unknown

- Benkei-monogatari ( 弁襃物語） Nariagan ( なりあがり）

15th C? A story from the kydgen ( 狂言）theatre.

unknow 门

Meido no mkyaku

Mid_17th C. A story from th e ゾ theatre.

Chikamatsu Monz36mo 门

( 冥途の飛牌） - Ninokuchimura

( 浮靖璃）

( 新口村） Koshoku-ichiaai-otoKo ( 好色一代男）

1682

lhara Saikaku ( 井原西鶴）

Oku no nosomichi ( 奥の細道）

1689

Matsuo Basho

Edomumare uha(=wa)Ki no /cabaya/c/ (;エ严 生絶 気樺晚)

1785

Santo Kyoden ( 山東末伝）

Kusazdshi-shG ( 茸J又紙

Between 17th and 19th C.

unknown

Around 1812.

Motoori Norinaga ( 本居宜長）

集） - Neko no ko no koneko ( ナ子子子子子） Tamakatsuma ( 玉勝間）

3 The transcription should be pronounced [zra]; due to Classical Japanese orthography, *du ( つ'' [dzin])’ is used to differentiate it from ‘zu ( ず [zm])’. However, when we read classical texts aloud, we make no phonetic distinction between the two; both have the same phonetic sound, [zrn] (see 2.4.5 and 2.4.6).

Chapter 1 :Introduction

9

1.6 Example sentences Most of the example sentences are taken from the well-known classical works of Japa­ nese literature listed in Table 2. As far as the orthography used in this monograph is concerned, I have taken the sentences as they are written in the books referred to, but with the following exceptions: the use of the graphemes o ( ^ )/wo ( i ), mu ( V )/n ( ん） ，and つ （ tsu [tsra])/ つ （ [?]); the use of /car?//; reduplication markers; punctuation. The sources of the examples are indicated by means of a special notation system. Some kana graphemes deviate from those in the originals for the reason that the original way of writing does not correspond to the traditional classical orthography. For example, in some words o ( お ） ，which should be written wo ( を）as in vvofo/co (をと こ：man), appears. In this case, I have changed o ( ち’ ）to i/i/o ( を） . Likewise，I have used mu ( V ) for the speculative/volitional auxiliary even though original texts used n ( ん）which represents the actual pronunciation; the use of / ? ( ん）is observed in the works written from the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) onwards. I have chosen this method so that the reader can follow the basic phonological rules explained in Chapter 2, since any deviations/alterations might confuse those not yet familiar with specific phonologi­ cal regularities. Due to the phonological changes which occurred during the history of the Japanese language (see 4.7.7 - 4.77.4), the orthography and the actual pronunciation of words do not necessarily coincide. The glottal stop [?] is one such example. Contemporary Japanese uses the grapheme つ （ tsu [tsra])，but in a smaller size ( っ）to distinguish it from the sound made up of the voiceless alveolar affricate [ts] and the vowel [in]. How­ ever, the use of the smaller size only started to appear in the Edo Period (1603-1867), and earlier works almost always use つ （ tsu [tsm]) in the standard size for the glottal stop [?]. similarly, as the use of Chinese characters — kanji — was not stable from the Nara Period (710-784) to the Edo Period (1603-1867), the reader will see such /can/7 whose original meanings have been discarded — being used as phonograms. This means that such kanji deviate from the contemporary orthography of Japanese. The Chinese character 成 is an example of this; it is mostly used for the 厂 en’yotz/ce/ ( 連用形： V2) of the yoc/an-verb nar*u (^ k ^> \ to become) and is written nar^i ( j^C 0 ). It is however used in some tales for the declarative auxiliary nar*i ^ : to be) which is usually written with kana. Or, in Example 156, the verb notamah*u(=u notam auf=6])( 宜ふ：to say sf/?) is written の給ふ. Also, as will be seen in example sentences in this book, there are many /cany/'with different okuri-gana (iM. 0 : the kana part of lexemes comprising kanji and kana) from contemporary Japanese. The kanji is an instance: in some works it is meant to be read tamahu(=u ^ tamauf=ol): in others, however, it should be read tama followed by the kana ^ hu(=ul thus having the final form of 給ふ (tamahuf=ul). Special attention needs to be paid to the fact that this book uses no reduplication diacritics which are specific to Classical Japanese for the reason that the example sentences are all written horizontally, whereas the diacritics can be used only vertically. Therefore, in those words or phrases which involve reduplications this is rendered by repetition of the grapheme(s), for example ひとびと(hito*bito: people)， 、、 "く (bka*oa\

Chapter 1 :Introduction

10

how), or

l (vu*vu9shi\ gracious, deign; ominous; extraordinary; bad; brave; creepy). As the original classical works used no punctuation such as commas and full stops, copied versions of the same stories display varying punctuation systems depending on the publishers. The punctuation used in my examples is all based on the books listed in the bibliography at the end of this monograph. Some sentences in the books referred to are too long to use as examples. In such cases, I have shortened the sentence by deleting some sentence constituents, which have, however, been replaced in the En­ glish translation. Each transcribed example sentence is followed by the source — in abbreviated form (see Abbreviations and References) _ and page number in parentheses. Thus, the notation (SNKBT 54: 201) denotes the following source: The Shin-nihon-koten-bungaku-taikei 54: Muromachi-monogatari-shu Volume 1t page 2 0 1 . In order to foreground particular grammatical features, I have sometimes composed my own example sentences, and these are marked with the abbreviation AC (author’s composition).

Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology This chapter describes Japanese graphemes (graphic elements used in written or printed language) by referring to phonetics (the study of sounds in human speech) and phonol­ ogy (the study of sound systems of human languages, and their properties) in Classical Japanese.

2.1 Phonemes and phonograms Classical Japanese of the Nara Period (710-784) has twenty-one phonemes (the smallest units in the sound system of a langugage): eight vowels /a, i, u, e, o, T, e, 6/ (Doi 1993: 37; Watanabe 1997: 58) and thirteen consonants /k, g, t, d, b, s, z, n, m, r, h, j, w/ (Ono 1980: 142). Tables 3, 4, and 5 show a syllabary of Classical Japanese graphemes which are called kana ( ) . Kana are further divided into two types: hiragana ( が な / 平 仮 名 ：see Table 3) and /cafa/cara ( カ タ カ ナ / 片 仮 名 ：see Table 4) 4 Most of them consist of a consonant and a vowel showing a CV-phonotactic feature (structure of sequential sound units, namely consonants and vowels; C stands for consonants and V for vowels). There are also five vowels /a, i, u, e, 〇/ showing a V-phonotactic structure, and the nasal n ( ん ：[ji],[g ] or [n |)，which is made up of a single consonant having a C-phonotactic feature. Chikushima (1981: 251-278) explains in detail which man’ydgana ( す 案 仮 名 ）served as the basis for generating /?/厂aga/?a (ひ W な / 平 做 名 ：see Table 5-1) and Zcate/caA?a ( カ タ カ ナ / 片 仮 名 ：see Table 5-2)_ /War? (万 家 仮 名 ）are Chinese characters which were used as phonograms (graphic symbols in a written system of a language which represent sounds). Tsuru (1977: 254) writes that they first appeared at the beginning of the Heian Period (794-1185). There are four kana in Tables 3 and 4 which are extinct in Modern Japanese: wi ( ゐ [tqi]) and we ( 夂 [iqe]) in /?/>*agana，and their corresponding /cafa/cana 斗 and ェ ， respectively. The nasal n ( ん ：[ ji ]，[g] or [n |) is outside the system of /car?a-graphemic units due to the fact that this sound came into Japanese through language contact with Chinese (Watanabe 1997: 80-84). Watanabe describes how the use of this speech sound goes back to the Heian Period (794-1185); however, the graphemic use of n ( ん ：：[ j i ] ，M or [n |) is found in literary works from the subsequent Kamakura Period (1192-1333) (ibid.: 88).5 As can be seen in Table 3, there are three blank places in the syllabary for yi, ye, and wu. Documents from the 7th century have many different kanji (Chinese characters) used as A7?ar7V(3gfa/?a ( ^ ■葉 仮 名 ）（ Inukai 1989: 68). For instance，Tsuru (1977: 240248) lists nine different tables of /Tjanydgana ( 万 案 仮 名 ）which are used in various 4

For English monographs describing the history of kana and their features see Seeley (1991) and Habein (1984); for Japanese monographs see Hayashi (1989: 19-40), Endo (1989: 84111),Iwabuchi (1989: 112-132), and Otsubo (1977: 249-299). 5 Watanabe (1997: 84-93) surmises that the nasal A7 ( ん：[ji】，[g] or [n sound system prior to the Heian Period (794-1185).

])

existed in the Japanese

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

12

Table 3:

H irag an a

k a

u e

S

t n

h m

y

r

W

あ か さた な は ま や ら わ a

i

graphemic units

ka

sa

ta

na

ha

ma

い さ しち に ひ み shi chi ni

hi

ki

1

くす つ ぬ ふ む

u

ku

hu

'一 .

mi

i

su tsu nu

ya

mu

ke

se

te

ne

he

wa

0 ゐ ri

wi

vp る yu

之 け せ て ね へ め e

ra

ru

れ 表

me

re

we

〇 お こ そ と の ほ も 上 ろ を 0 ko so to no ho mo yo ro wo Table 4:

K atakan a

k a

i

u

t

n

h

m

y

r

W

7

a

ra

wa

、 ィキ シチ 二 ヒ 、

9

斗

i

ri

wi

ka

ki

sa

ta

na

shi chi ni

ha

hi

ma

ya

mi

ソヌ フ ム ュ ル ク ク ス 、 ku

su tsu nu

hu

mu

エ ケセ テ ネへ メ e

0

S

ア 力 サ 夕ナハ マ ャ ラ

u e

graphemic units

ke

se

te

ne

he

me

yu

ru

レ re

we

才 コ ソ 卜ノ ホ モ 彐 口 ヲ o ko so to no ho mo y〇 ro wo

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

13

Table 5-1:Ma/i Vdga/ia ( 万 案 仮 名 ） used for Ai/ragana k

a

h

m

y

r

W

ka

sa

ta

na

ha

ma

ya

ra

wa

ki shi chi

ni

hi

mi

ri

wi

宇久 寸 川奴 不 武 由 留 u

e

n

以 幾之知 仁 比美 • 利 為 i

u

t

安 加 左 太 奈 波 末 也 良和 a

i

S

ku

su tsu

nu

hu

mu

yu

ru

■ ； -■ 礼 患 衣計世 天祢部 女 e

ke

se

te

ne

he

me

re

we

0 於 己 曾止 乃 保毛 年 呂遠 o

ko

so

to

no

ho

mo

y 〇 ro

无

wo

Table 5-2: Ma/i’ydgana ( T 葉 做 名 ） used for Zcafaka/ia k

a

n

h

m

y

r

W

sa

ta

na

ha

一一

比

ki shi chi ni

hi

ma

ya

ra

wa

卜猶利 井 mi

ri

wi

宇久 須 州奴 不牟 由流 u

e

ka

伊 幾之千 i

u

t

阿 加 散 多 奈 八 末 也 良和 a

i

S

ku

su tsu

nu

hu

mu

yu

江 介世天 祢部 女 e

ke

se

te

ne

he

ru ：

礼 患

me

re

we

0 於 己 曾止 乃 保毛 與 呂乎 o ko so to no ho mo 〇ro wo y

n

14

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

literary works or history books such as S(y/7co/7^r?( 推 古 遺 文 ：7th C) ，Koy/7c/• ( 古 争 | 己： 7 1 2 ) ，A//T7〇ds/?o/c/• ( 日 本 書 紀 ：720)，Man ( 万 余 集 ：at the end of the 8th century )， S/?o/ay-/7/h〇A7g/•( 统 日 本 紀 ：797) ，Mhon/cd/c/•(日 i 後 紀 ：840)，and Sho/oi-n/770n/o3/c/•(統 日 本 後 #己：869). Tsuru， s tables show that many different /ca/?ゾ 7 were being used for the same sounds. For instance, the (an anthology of poems:万 葉 集 ）uses thirtyfive different /cany7 for s/7/ ( L [列 ：斬 志 え 師 士 訢 四 子 思 司 芝 き 皆 寺 時 指 此 至 次 死 イ 思 爭 詞 信 鍾 :色 飾 式 拭 权 礙 為 羊 蹄 石 ） ，whereas the S/?〇/〇/-A7/A7〇ng/•( 鐃 日 本 #己）uses simply four different /car?y/for the same sound sh/ ( 斬 志 え 自 ）. This is partly due to the fact that the go-or?( 吳 音 ：ancient sounds o f Chinese characters spoken in the southern part of China, which reached Japan at the beginning of the 7th C) was used in Kq//7c/• ( 古 ， 1己：7 1 2 ) and ( 万 葉 集 ：at the end of the 8th C)，whereas the /can-o/7 ( 漢 音 ： ancient sounds of Chinese characters spoken in the capital city of the Tang Dynasty in 7 th to 9th C; Zcar7-〇A7 [ 漢 音 ] was introduced to Japan around the 8th to 9th C) was used in the Mhonsho/c/• ( 日 本 書 紀 ：720) (Tsuru 1977: 222). When we concentrate on the sounds /yi, ye, wu/, for which there are no kana in the Tables 3 and 4, we see that the Tsuru’s lists of m anydgrara ( 万 葉 仮 名 ）used in the above-mentioned works，excluding those of A//770z?/c6/c/ ( 日 本 後 紀 ：840) and the Sho/o//?/7?or?/cd/c/ ( 統 日 本 後 紀 ：869)，have no graphemic units for either /yi/ or /wu/，but have /ye/. Only the A//77or?/c6/c/• ( 日 本 後 紀 ：840) has no graphemes for /yi ，ye ，w u/，and the S/7〇/〇7-A?//7〇n/c6/c/• ( 绫 日 本 後 紀 ：869) has no m anydgana ( 万 案 仮 名 ）for /y i ，yo, w i ， wu/. Watanabe (1 9 9 7 :111)notes that there was no sound /wu/, and therefore no pho­ nogram for it. Therefore, it can be assumed that in 7th century the sound /ye/w as being used, but this disappeared later on. As there were no phonograms for the sounds /yi, wu/ in the above-mentioned works, it is to be inferred that no distinctions were made between /i/ and /yi/ from 7th century onwards. This means that phonological changes occurred, but the writing system stayed the same. Whether these speech sounds /yi/ and /wu/ existed before this time is not clear, for there are not enough written docu­ ments extant prior to this time.

2.2 The vowels ff, e, 61 As described in 2 .1 , man'ydgana ( ^ ) were used for the Japanese sound sys­ tem in the Nara Period (710-784) and the Heian Period (794-1185). If we compare the sound system s of Modern Standard and Classical Japanese, the form er has no phonograms for the sounds w/and we. W o (i) \s still used in Modern Japanese, but a distinction between the pronunciation o ( ^ [〇]) and wo ( i [ujo]) is no longer made today. Classical Japanese, however, uses different characters for the grapheme pairs / ( い ）and i/w• ( ゐ ） ，e ( え ）and i/i/e ( 幻 ，and o ( お ）and wo ( を ） • Accordingly, different Chinese characters were used for these sounds within the system of manydgana ( ^ 業 仮 名 )， which were first used as phonograms from mid-5th century (Tsukishima 1982: 369). Watanabe (1997: 85) construes from this that the vowels f\, e, 6/ existed in the Nara Period (710-784) and that these phonemes (the minimal units of sounds) later disappeared. How exactly these vocalic phonemes were pronounced is still unknown, but there are two main different interpretations; they were pronounced either as vowels A, e, 6/, or as approximants (consonant speech sounds which are made with a mini­

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

15

mum degree of constriction), i.e., semivowels or semiconsonants /ji, je, jo/ (Watanabe 1997: 45).

2.3 Hiatus and long vowels Sequential combinations of vowels /au/f /iu/, /uu/, /eu/ and /ou/, which were pronounced with a hiatus (two vowels are pronounced clearly with a short pause in the middle as opposed to diphthongs [a combination of two vowel sounds in which the second vowel changes its sound slightly]) changed to long vowels during the Heian Period (794-1185) (Nakada 1989:110-120). Hence, au, oh〇(- 〇), 〇u, wou and wowo are to be pronounced as 6 [〇:], iu as yu [jm:], uu is a long vowel u [u:], and finally eu is pronounced as yd [jo:] Table 6: Words with long vowels in Classical Japanese No. Vowel combi­ nation 1 . au

Examples in transcription

Examples using Japanese graphemes with English equivalents

kau (N)

ぅ、う

yau (N)

や う

(♦ : perfume，incense) (№1: strong) (講 ：lecture)

(奋 2 . iu

iu 9nari (ADJ)

4. eu

コ

ー

[yo:】 / ヨ

ー

air, look; situation; reason; method) ：effect) [junnafi]/ユ ー ナ リ

ku*u (V)

く う （食 う ：to

[k ra :]/ ク

euna^shi (ADJ)

えうな

yoriudo (N) UU u

[ko:]/

Q な 0 : excellent， elegant) X Q う ビ （寄 ん .•clerk in the palace)

y〇

3.

( 棟 ：！ /i/ay/ appearance,

' ~■： ■.■■.■ "■..：. '…… … ■■.

いうな

ea 〇

L ( 要 な L : ivse/ess,

U〇jrjra:do]/ ヨリュード、

ー

U〇:nagi]/ ヨ ー ナ ン

inefficient)

y〇

reuri (N)

れ う り （料 理 ：mea/,

coo/c/>?gf/

[fjo :fi]/ リ ョ ー リ

settlement) 5. oho(=o) oho(=o)*shi (ADJ) 〇 6 . ou 0

ouna (Tsl) otouto (N)

l i l ( ^ L : many, much,

[o:qi]/オ ー シ

a lot) ち’ う な （4區 ：a/? お と う と （妹

o/d ivoma/?) • 弟： younger

[o:na ]/オ ー ナ [oto:to]/ オ ト ー ト

sister，younger brother) 7. wou 6

wouwou (1NJ)

をつをう（ yes;

8 . w ow o

wowo*s/7/ (ADJ)

をを

〇

the crying sound of humans)

[〇:〇:]/オ ー オ ー

L (雄 雄 L : d ra w )

[o:Gi]/オ ー シ

masculine, manly)

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

16

Table 7: Long vowels Originally hiatus-type

Pronunciations after phonological change

double vowels

1 ranscription

Long vowels

In katakana

1.

au

あ う /ア ウ

6

[〇:]

オー

2.

iu

い う /イ ウ

yG

[jra:]

ユー

ゐ う /ヰ ウ

3.

uu

う う /ウ ウ

〇

[u： ]

ウー

4.

eu

え う /エ ウ

y〇

D〇： l

3—

5.

oho

お ほ /オ ホ

6

[0 ： ]

才一

お う /オ ウ

6

[0 ： ]

オー

を う /ヲ ウ

0

[0 ： ]

オー

を を /ヲ ヲ

6

[〇： ]

オー

夂 う /エ ウ

6 . ou 7.

wou

8 . wowo

as shown in Tables 6 and 7. The column ‘Pronunciations after phonological change’ in Table 7 indicates pronunciations of double vowels using first transcription, then pho­ netic symbols, and finally the transliteration in katakana. Prolonged pronunciation is designated by drawing a horizontal stroke (—) when writing characters from the left to the right. The stroke is to be written from top to bottom, when words, phrases, or sen­ tences are to be written vertically. The reader should be aware that Classical Japanese does not use this graphemic sign ，i.e_, the stroke (— ） ，for the prolongation of vowels. The second type of vowel combination /iu/ is still seen in Modern Japanese in the verb /••t;( 言 う ：to say sf/?) which is pronounced as [jm:]. Long vowels of the third type /uu/ and fifth type /ou/ still exist in Contemporary Standard Japanese, as in jiyu u [^ijra:] ( 自 由 ：/"ree; freedom) and otot/sa/? [oto:saN]( お 父 さ ん ：fa 奶 e り.

2.4 Consonants Classical Japanese has the consonant phonemes /k, s, t, n, h, m, y, r, w/. There are three phonemes which require special attention because the orthography using these phonemes and their actual pronunciation differ due to the phonological changes which occurred from the middle to the end of the Heian Period (794-1185) (Watanabe 1997: 78). These phonemes are the nasal /n/ (see 2.4.1), the approximant /w/ (see 2.4.2), and the voiceless glottal fricative /h/ (see 2.4.3, 2 .4.3.1,and 2.4.3.2).

2.4.1 The nasals /ji,g , N/ The grapheme ん for the nasals /g ，j i ，n / is not included in Tables 3, 4, 5-1 ， and 5-2, as it came into the Japanese phonological system through language contact with Chinese (ibid.: 80-84) prior to the Heian Period (794-1185). This is the reason why many Classical Japanese texts up to the Edo Period (1603-1867) lack the character ん /g ，j i ，n /. However, there are special cases in which the nasa 丨ん /g ，j i ，n / has to be pronounced even if it is not written as a component of a word in classical texts. The speculative verbal suffix na-(0-)m e-ri 0 ) is such an example; it has to be read na-n-me-ri

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

17

ん め り ）by inserting the nasal n [g] after na ( な ） . Sentence 0 2 contains this expression. It is from the story Sotoba no c h i^ [The blood at the pagoda]) from the Ko/7/a/a/-A770/?ogafa厂/ ( 今 普 物 語 ；in the first half of 12th C). 〇

2 : Ou(=o)na (...) suzuma*mu(=n) ga tame na*meri to omohe(=e) domo, suzum.u koto mo na*shi. (SNKBT 34: 374) N o/d

to gef a かes/?わreeze.AUX3B speculative.PP attributive.PseudoN

in order to.AUX3B declarative.0.AUX3A speculative. PP citation marker. V4 to think. PP concessive.V3B to get a fresh freeze.PseudoN nominalisation.PP emphasis.K3A to not be there. 4匾(...）泠マムガ為ナ メ リ ト思へドモ、凃厶爭モ與シ。 Young men thought tnat an old woman was climbing the mountains, probably in order to get a fresh breeze，but she didn’t even do so (...)

2.4.2 The phonograms h. [iqi] and

[iqe]

The /7/ragana-phonograms (graphemic symbols which represent speech sounds) h [iqi] and ^ [rqe】 ，and their /cafa/cana-equivalents 斗 and エ ，respectively, no longer exist in Modern Japanese. This is due to the fact that in the process of language change the phonetic differentiations between v' [i] and with their nominal pronunciations The phonological feature mentioned in Subsection 2.4.3 is not applied to certain words; in such cases, I I ，ひ ，ふ ，へ ，and I I are pronounced as [ha 】，fci]，[恤 】，[he】 ，and [ho] even if they take the middle or the end position of a word. These phonologically irregu­ lar words, however, are very limited in number Some examples are given below:

ahur*u

[ara]

hu8 フ

ふ

[ra】or [〇】

u/o

ゥ

へ

[he]

he

へ

へ

[e 】

e

エ

ほ

[ho]

ho

ホ

1 1 [〇]

0

才

ふ

/才

In some lexical items, the /cana hu ( J 、）in the middle of a word is pronounced as o [〇】（ see 24.3.2).

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

20

2.4.3.2 The grapheme < 3' > with the pronunciation of [o] The following examples designate a further irregular feature in the pronunciation of the kana ^ (hu [$m]). It is pronounced o [o] when used in the middle of a word. あふぐ

[aogm]9

ahu(=o)g*u

抑ぐ

to look up to/at

to respectsb，to worship，

to venerate sb/sth あふひ 才

ahu(=o)hi(=i)

cb^' ^ ahu(=o)r^u

[aoi]9

蒸

geranium

[aorm ]9

爝ら

to flatter, to jolly, to allure, to entice, to spur (horses)

たふる

[taorm]9

tahu(=o)pu

例ら

to fall, to tumble，to collapse

The phonological irregularities of the Japanese graphemic system and their sounds discussed so far — namely the phonetic-phonological relation between the kana graph­ emes I I , , and |1 , and their actual pronunciations — can be summarised as follows: three columns of the graphemic system (see Table 3) are involved: the vowelcolumn (a, i, u, e, o), the ^-column, (ha, hi, hu, he, ho) and the iv-column (waf wi, 0, we, wo). Wa [ma] can be written with the kana 11 or ^ ; / [i] is represented either by v' , ひ ，or ゐ ；u [in] is written with the /ca/?a う or ふ ；for e [e] there are three different graphemic alternatives, namely x. , ^ , or ^> ; and finally o [o] can appear with ^ , -3', [1 or, . Table 10 based on Tezaki (1966: 20) clarifies these features. Table 10: Sounds /wa, i, u, e, 〇/ and their orthography

Vowel-column H-column l/V-column]

Pronunciation

0

は

b

[xqa] / ワ

い

V

ゐ

[i] / イ

i

ふ

0

[ra] / ウ

L

へ

お

ふ/

[e ]/^ li

[o] / 才

を

2.4.4 The double consonants /kw/ and /gw/ with the vowel [a]: and ぐ わ [gnja]

く わ

[kiqa】

The double consonants /kw/ and /gw/ appear only in front of the vowel [a], so Classical Japanese only possesses the sounds [ktqa] and [gtqa]. These sounds came into the kw + a

k+a

gw + a

くゎ

力、

ぐわ

[kiqa]

[ka]

[gnia]

g+a

[ga]

9 The vowel sequence combination [ain] should not be pronunced as [〇:] as explained in Sub­ section 2.3. but with a hiatus as indicated above.

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

21

Classical Japanese phonological system through language contact with Chinese (Okumura 1972: 105-108). They are written くわ and ぐ わ ，respectively. However, owing to phonological change, these graphemes began to be pronounced as ゲ [ka] and [ga] from around the end of the 16th century (Okumura 1972: 245). These sounds stabilised at the end of the 17th century in Edo, but were still used in Kyoto (Morita 1977: 270-271). Nevertheless, the fact that these graphemic differentiations existed allows us to infer that these sound distinctions were made in ancient times. Some ex­ amples are given below: くわうごう

kwa(=ka)u(=o:)gou(=〇:)

[ko:go:]

くわ《、く

kwa(=ka)kaku

[kakakin]

ぐわぃじん

gwa(=ga)ijin

[gai^iN]

ぐ わ ん I 二ち

qwa(=ga)n}nichi

[gagnitei] ( 元^B : January 1st)

(M -危 •. the first wife o f the emperor) 象 ：traveller)

[

外 ん ：foreigner)

2.4.5 T he c o n s o n a n ts [^ ] a n d [d ^ ] w ith th e v o w e l [i]: 1 [^ i] a nd V [d ^ i] When reading classical texts there is no distinction made in the pronunciation of the kana 1 [^i] and [d^i] (see Table 11); both are pronounced [^i] as is the case in Modem Standard Japanese. The fact that different man’ydga/ia ( 万 葉 仮 名 ：Chinese characters used as phonograms) were used for the kana r and suggests that a phonetic distinction was made between the two (6 no 1977: 149-151). This is supported by the fact that documents using しatin alphabets written by European Christian missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries also used two different letters. Some examples are given below: じM

( 時 ：f/me)

じM

( 字 •. letter，character) : the seal o f an emperor or a ru le r)

じM ち.'[d糾

( :

V [d?i]

(特

• even [such as in a poem competition or in a board game ‘go’] )

(

:

こレち '

[dるi]

earth, land, ground; material for cloth) romance)

Table 1 1 : P ro n u n c ia tio n o f v o ic e d s -/z - a n d t-/d - c o lu m n s in C la s s ic a l J a p a n e s e Z-colum 门 D-column ざ

[za]

じ[幼 ご

[zra]

だ

[da]

ち.'_

]

づ

[dzm]

せ- [ze]

て

[de]

[zo]

ど

[do 】

ゲ

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

22

2 _4.6 T h e c o n s o n a n ts [z] a n d [d z ] w ith th e v o w e l [m ]: ず [zra] a n d づ [dzra] No distinctions are made between -f' [zm] and ^ [dzra] when reading Classical Japa­ nese texts: they are both pronounced [zrn]. It can, however, be assumed that there must have been a phonetic distinction and these were thus written with different kana. Some examples are give below: ず

[ z r n ] ( ず ：the auxiliary verb — verbal suffix — for forming a negation)

づ

[d z m ](

出

：to express [emotions]，to appear [emotional expressions on the face])

-7 [dzm] ( E l: picture, map, description, situation, real intention) Figure 1 based on Tezaki (1966: 20) shows that some graphemes have different pro­ nunciations in Modern Standard and Classical Japanese: the z-column /za, ^i, zm, ze, zo/ ( ざ ，L• ，ず ，ぜ ，干 ）and the d-column /da ，dW ，dzxn，de ，do/ ( だ ，ぢ ，つ’ ，丫 ，と•) of the kana system, the double consonants /kw/ and /gw/ with the vowel /a/, as well as the nasa けn/ ( ん ） . Figure 1 : Pronunciation and orthography in Classical Japanese

------------------------------------------------------------- Orthography in Classical Japanese (KoteA?-/ca/?azi;/ca/• [ 古 典 仮 名 遣 い ]) 71 K

V

1'

つ­

ず

くゎ

ち、

ぐゎ

V

ji

今 今

ん

zu

[zm]

ka

[ka]

ga

[ga]

n

[ji][g ] [n ]

nI/ Orthography in Contemporary Japanese

(GeA7da/go-/caA7azu/ca/• [ 現 代 語 仮 名 遣 い ])

Exercise O Read the following words containing the vowel sequence of/au/: 1. あ う ざ （ 扇） 2. あ ふ み （ 近江） 3. い は ふ （ 祝ふ） 4 . う た ふ （ 歌ふ） 5 . お な ふ （補 ふ ）

fan 〇m i (a proper name: name of a place) to celebrate to recite to compensate; make up for sth

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

6 . «' う べ （W) 7 す ふ （買 ふ ) 8. 4 ' う や う （ 斯う棟) 9. 5 や う （末 ） 10. さ う L (苯 子 ） 11• 亡 ぶ ら ふ （ 候ふ） 12. た う げ （ 峠） 13. た ふ と ぶ （ 貧ぶ） 14. な う （ 脑 ） 15. ま う 1■ ( 申 す ） 16• ま ふ （舞 ふ ) 1 7 . ま ら う ど （客 人 ） ❷

head to buy in such and sucn a way Kyoto, capital city booklet, short story to go; to visit] to come; to be there] to serve sb pass (mountains) to respect brain to say sth to dance visitor

Read the following words containing the vowel sequence of/iu/:

1 • い ふ （言 う ） 2 . い う が な り （優 雅 な 、り） 3 • 丨 こ う わ （柔 和 ） 4 . レさ L つ （久 L つ） 5 . 上 0 う と （寄 / 0

❸

fosaysf/7

elegant gentle, mild, meek it has Deen a long time since … Civil servant in the emperor’s palace or in the shogunate in the Kamakura (1192-1333) or the Muromachi Period (1338-1573).

Read the following words containing tne vowel sequence ot /uu/:

1 • 〈 ぅ （空 ） 2 • く ふ （食 ふ ） 3• く る ふ （狂 ふ ） 4 .す く ふ （ 敌 ふ） 5• ゆ ふ （結 ふ ） 6 • ゆ ふ （夕 )

empty to eat to go mad to rescue to bind evening

Read the following words containing the vowel sequence of/eu/. 1 . 之う な ！ ■ ( 要 な L) unnecessary, unimportant, insignificant, useless 2 . けう ず （掌 ず ） to show filial piety to parents 3. け ふ ( 今 日 ） today 4. せう と （兄 人 ） brother 5. マ.う づ' ( 手 水 ） water for washing hands 6 . マふ (蝶 ） butterfly 7. れう 0 (料 理 ） meals, cooking 8. 太 ふ ( 醉 う ） to get drunk

〇

Read the following words containing the vowel sequence of/ou/: 1. K う な （ 娘） an old woman 2 . K と う と （弟 • 妹 ） younger brother or sister

❺

23

Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology

24

3.

お も ふ （思 ふ )

4 . 5. 6.

さ の ふ （ 咋日)

❻

と ふ （問 ふ ） を ふ （ 終ふ）

to think", to remember, to wish\ to long tor, to love\ to worry] to speculate yesterday to ask to end sth

Read the following words containing the

1 . あ ふ 、’ （葵 ） 2. あ ふ ぐ （ 仰ぐ） 3 . あ ふ る （溢 る ） 4 . あ や ふ I■ ( 危 L) 5 . う へ （上 ） 6 . う る ふ （憂 ふ ） 6 . お J へ （沖 逻 ） 7. ^ ia 1 ( 川 8. i& m 9. (»'〇 1 0 . « 、ひ （具 ） 11 . ¢ 、ひ な L ( 甲 吏 無 L) 1 2 . « 、ヘ レ （宽 ） 1 3 . い丨1 ( 顔 ） 1 4 .こ ひ （ 姓） 1 5 .た ふ る （ 倒 6) 1 6 . は な は だ （基 だ ) 1 7 . は は （母 ）

は

，ひ ，ふ

，へ ，l i

:

geranium to look up to be full dangerous on/above sth to worry offshore many, much, a lot hedge，fence river seashell in vain] nothing special bamboo water pipe face carp to fall very，extraordinarily mother

O Read the following words containing the double consonants of/gw / or /kw/: 1• 2. 3. 4.

fruit signature anniversary o f sb’s death

くわ（ 果） くわあふ（ 花押） くわい5

(回 忌 ）

く わ い せ ん （回 聆

•延躲 ）

5 . ぐ わ い じ ん （ダト人） 6 • ぐ わ い ビ （ダト土) 7 • ぐ わ い ぶ ん （外 聞 ) 8 . く わ う せ ん （黄 泉 ） 9. く わ げ つ （花 月 ） 10. く わ 亡 （ 過羡)

a kind of ship used for transporting goods in the Edo Period (1603-1867)

other, other people, stranger areas remoted from the capital city rumour, appearance, formality, fame, reputation fountain/spring in the earth] the underworld (the world o f the dead) flowers and the moon luxury, extravagance

Chapter 3 Morphosyntax Chapter 3 describes the general characteristics of words and sentences in Classical Japanese compared to Modern Standard Japanese. The morphosyntax which is explained in this book refers to the Classical Japanese of the Heian Period (794-1185). First, word classes are presented (see 3.1) followed by some main morphosyntactic characteristics such as agglutination (see 3.2), and sentence structures (3.3 ff.). Subsection 3.4 deals with the inflection forms of inflectional word classes. Classical Japanese shares certain common linguistic features with Contemporay Japanese such as agglutination (see 3.2), but inflections of adjectives, verbs, and auxiliaries (jodoushi [ 助 動 詞 ] ) differ slightly between the two (see 3.4.2). Subsection 3.5 introduces some expressions which are still used in Modern Standard Japanese.

3.1 Word classes This book categorises twelve different word classes as shown in Table 12. Abbrevia­ tions are given in parentheses. The word classes of Classical Japanese can first of all be classified into two groups: inflectional (keiyoushi-ad\ecW\/es [K-ADJ]10; keiyoudoushiadjectives [KD-ADJ]10; verbs [V]; auxiliaries [AUX]), and noninflectional types (nouns [N 】；pronouns [ProN 】；re/?fa/sハ/-adjectives [R-ADJ 】；postpositions [PP 】；adverbs [ADV]; conjunctions [CNJ]; exclamatives [EXC]/interjections [INJ]; numeral quantifiers [QTF]) as shown in Table 12 (see also 3.4.1 and Table 15). Four out of the twelve word classes are inflectional which are marked with (+) in Table 12. ReA?fa/s/?/-adjectives (R-ADJ) are derivatives from verbs and, therefore, can also be treated as inflectional. However, they appear solely with an attributive function and are thus always used in a specific inflectional form called renfa/Tce/ ( 連 体 形 ：see 3.4 and Table 13)，i. e_，they are used exclusively as noun modifiers. For this reason, this book regards this word class as noninflec­ tional.

3-2 Agglutination Agglutination is a linguistic phenomenon whereby two or more morphemes (a mor­ pheme is a minimal unit of word structure exhibiting a specific meaning) are combined ■n a sequence. In the case of written Japanese using kana and Chinese characters kanji on a graphemic level, one can say that almost all words are formed by agglutina­ tion. We can see this in the following example sentence in Modern Standard Japanese: 〇 3-1:丨てほんのこマんぶんがくをよみたわった。 （ AC ) 日本の古典文字を捷み•たり、った。

The transcription o f the Japanese double vow els /o u / and /u u / (see Tables 12 and 13) should be pronounced as th e long vow e ls [ 〇:] and [ra:J, re sp e ctive ly : [k e ijo ： ci], [k e ijo :d o ： ai], [d o ： ai], [d る0do:c； i], and [d るosm :ai].

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

26

Table 12: Word classes of Classical Japanese Inflection

English terms

Japanese terms

1.

nouns (N)

meishi ( 忌

2.

pronouns (ProN)

daimeishi ( 代

)

-

3.

keiyoushi-adi\ect\\/es (K-ADJ)

keiyoush丨 • （形 容 P I)

+

4.

keiyoudoushi-ad)ectNes (KD-ADJ) /ce/youdoi/s/?/ ( 形 容 動 詞 ） 11

5.

re/7fa/s/7/-adjectives (R-ADJ)

厂 e/?fa/s/?/ ( 連ィ本詞）

-

6.

verbs (V)

doushi ( 動

+

7.

auxiliaries (AUX)

jodoushi( 肋

8.

postpositions (PP)

ybsh/'( 助 詞 ）

-

9.

adverbs (ADV)

fu/ovsA?/( 1 リ詞）

-

10 .

conjunctions (CNJ)

setsuzokushi ( 接

11.

interjections (INJ)

/car?tous/?/( 間 投 詞 ）

-

12.

numeral quantifiers (QTF)

josuushf ( 劝

-

)

詞

詞

-

右 詞

)

動

+

P i)

统

狄 詞 ）

+

P1)

-

N.B.: (-): noninflectional; (+): inflectional.

Nihon no koterrbungaku o yomitakatta.

I wanted to read classical Japanese literature. Sentence O 3 -1— whether it is written using solely hiragana (a type of kana) in the first line, or using hiragana and kanji in the second line — gives no visual help in distinguish­ ing different lexical items. In contrast, the sentence in the transcription (the third line) has five components, and its English translation (the fourth line) seven. This book de­ fines the agglutination in Japanese as a sequence of primarily inflectional and partly noninflectional lexemes which make up a unit of components within a sentence. There­ fore, in the case of Sentence O 3-1, only the predicate shows an agglutination. The following is its morphological analysis: O 3-2: Nihon no koterrbungaku o y o m 卜ta*kat*ta. (AC) N Japan.PP attributive.N classical literature (N classics^ literature).PP object marker. V to reacf.AUX desiderative (to i^an〇.Inflectional ending.AUX past or perfect. Sentence O 3-2 consists of firstly an object (kotenbungaku: classical literature) marked by the postposition o, and which is modified with a noun (Nihon : Japan) whose attribu­ tive syntactic function is marked by the postposition no, and secondly the agglutinated predicate yomitakatta (sb wanted to read sth). 11

T he m o rp h o lo g ica l se g m e n ta tio n o f

keiyoudoushi-ADJ is d iffe re n t fro m M odern S tandard

Japanese so th a t th is w ord class is treated as inflectional in C lassical Japanese (see 3.4.2 and 4.5 .3 ff.).

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

27

Other inflectional compounds also show an agglutination, such as the following Kadjective compound oto/co*ppo/( 男 っ ぼ い ：わehave //7ce a man; /??a/7/y).

otoko*ppoi [otoko?poi] N man.SFX with the K-adjectiv-inflection; marker of inclination.

3.3 Sentences Both Modern and Classical Japanese sentences (see Terminology for the Japanese definition of Sentence*) have for the most part similar syntactic characteristics. How­ ever, there are also some features which are specific to Classical Japanese. The syn­ tactic similarities and dissimilarities are explained in the following subsections.

3.3.1 Sentence constituents Japanese sentences consist of sentence constituents (abbreviated as C) whose sequential order is relatively free apart from one exception: the predicate (see Termi­ nology for the Japanese definition of predicate*) has to be placed at the end of a sen­ tence in written Japanese (see 3.3.3). This is shown in the following diagram: 回

回

回

□

同

祖

C: C onstituent; Cp: T h e constituent is a predicate.

Constituents C1, C2, C3, and Cn can be syntactically scrambled (moved to the right or to the left); the position of Cp is, however, fixed. Word classes, except auxiliaries (AUX) and postpositions (PP), can take an independent position as a consituent (C) within a sentence in Classical Japanese, as listed below. ①

nouns (N) with, or without PPs12

②

adverbs (ADV) including adverbials

③

conjunctions (CNJ)

④

exclamatives (EXC) / interjections (INJ)

(D numeral quantifiers (QTF) as nouns or adverbs ⑥

verbs (V) as predicates with or without agglutinated auxiliaries (AUX) or PPs

⑦

K-adjectives (K) as predicates13 with or without agglutinated auxiliaries or PPs

⑧

KD-adjectives (KD) as predicates13 with or without agglutinated auxiliaries or PPs

M odem S tandard Japanese requires postpositions after nouns in order to m ark the syntactic functions w ith w hich these nouns are used in a sentence. C lassical Japanese frequently om its the subject marker, to p ic marker, o r o b je ct marker.

13 D

B oth

keiyoushi-

and

keiyoudoushi-ad\ect\\/es

h ave a du a l fu n c tio n : an a ttrib u tiv e and a

P redicative fu n ctio n . W hen used as attributes, th e y ca n n o t be in d e p e n d e n t co n stitu e n ts o f a sentence, as they m odify nouns. In this case, those nouns m odified w ith K- and KD -adjectives, together w ith postpositions, represent a constituent. F or exam ple, in the sen te n ce

utsukushiki

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

28

We can see how each constituent looks like by analysing Sentence O 4 from the Kagerdn/7cW ( 靖 轉 日 記 ：middle of the 10th C). 〇

4 : Miyako wo(=o) ide te N capital city.PP ablative (place of departure).V2 to leave.PP temporative (consecutive). too*ka amari to N/QTF ten days (numeral 'ten'-CF fordays).SFX approximity (about).PP citation marker. mou(=6)s»u ni

Echizen no

V3B to say.PP temporative. ProperN Echizen.PP attributive. Tsuruga no tsu ni ProperN Tsuruga.PP attributive.N harbour.PP locative: allative (place of arrival). tsuki*ni*keri. V2 to amVe.AUX2 perfect.AUX3A past. H 邾 を 11 出 ず マ 11十 日 余 つ と 11 申す丨てI I 越 前 の | 敦 贺 の I 津丨こI I 着 き ド け つ 。

About ten days later, after leaving the capital city, he arrived at the harbour o f the town Tsuruga in the Province o f Echizen. Morphosyntactically speaking, there are eight constituents in the above sentence. Semantically, however, there are six when the place of arrival, namely Echizen no Tsuruga no tsu is regarded as one semantic unit consisting of a noun tsu ( : harbour) with its attributes Echizen no : o f Echizen) and Tsuruga no : in Tsuruga)] the place of arrival is further marked by the allative marker postposition /? /( !- ) .

3.3.2 Omission of constituents Just as in Modern Japanese, constituents may be dropped as long as they can be retrieved within a given context. The following sentence from the Ochikubo-monogatari ( 落 窪 物 語 ；946-986?)14 illustrates this linguistic feature. O 5: Ko no sau(=o)zoku domo ito yoshi. Yoku nuhi(=i)*oho(=o)se*tari. (SNKBT18:13) ProN this.PP attributive.N garment, costume.SFX plural marker.ADV \^eAy.K3Agood. K2 goodM2 to sew.V2 honorative.AUX3A perfect.

hana o miru (臭 V $ 花 を 化 ら ：I see a beautiful flower / beautiful flowers), \n which utsukushiki ( l J : beautiful) functions as a noun modifier, one can see two constituents utsukushiki hana o ( 美: V $ 花^ . .a beautiful flower / beautiful flowers) and miru ( L ち .•to see). 14

When exactly and by whom this literary work was written is unknown. There is a theory that

Minamoto no Shitagau(=6)( 源 順 ）wrote this story about a princess who was mobbed by her mother-in-law, but finally found her happiness by marrying a sakon no seu(=vo)shau(=6)( 左 i t の 少 将 )，a high government official of the Defense Ministry to the Left (sakon’wef=elhu [左 近 衡 府

]).

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

29

この装束ビもいとよ L 。 よく縫ひおほせたつ。 (The costume) is very well made. (You, Princess Ochikubo,) sewed it very well. Here we have two sentences both of which drop their syntactic subjects, which are indicated in parentheses in the translation. The subject of the first sentence is *the costume’ and the second subject is the second person ‘you’， meaning Princess Ochikubo, the main character of this story. There are cases in which even predicates are omitted in order to achieve specific rhetorical effects. This is a technique used frequently in poetry; by inverting a predicate, or even omitting it, the writer conveys deep or intense emotion. We can see such an example in the work of Oku no hosomichi ( ：1689) written by Matsuo Basho ( 松 尾 芑 策 ：1644-1694) towards the end of his life when he made a trip to Northern Japan. His following haiku a short poem using only 17 morae [a mora is a unit of sound length corresponding to one kana in the Japanese writing system]) ends with a noun:

O 6 : Araumi ya Sado ni yokotahu(=u ^ au[=o1) ama«no«gawa (NKBT 46: 91,168) N wild sea.PP exclamative.ProperN Sado.PP locative.V3B to lie.H The Milky Way 荒海や伖渡丨二よこたふ天河

Lit.: Oh! Wild sea! Above (the Island of) Sado The Milky Way is lying This poem describes the beauty of nature by contrasting the wild roaring sea in the dark and the beautiful, calm luminous Milky Way over Sado. This message is expressed in the following translation:

Over the wild, roaring sea o f Sado The great luminous Milky Way

3.3.3 Predicates There are four ty p e s15 of predicate in Classcial Japanese as is also the case in Modern Standard Japanese. Classical Japanese predicates in the affirmative in the present tense are shown below: ①

Nominal predicate:

②

K-adjective predicate:

③

KD-adjective predicate: < KD

④

Verbal predicate: < V3A > 17

くN

nar»/> o 「く N fa/W> 16

く K3A

> 17 (KD3A) >17or < KD faW (KD3A) >17

5 Syntactically speaking, there are two more types of predicate: < N + PP + tar*i / nar*i >, and < an adverbial ending with the conjunctive PP fe ( "T ) + ta H /n a n i >.

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

30 We

see these predicates in the following examples from a short story,

童 チ ）in

•(イf 吹

the Muromac^-monogafan• ( 室 町 物 語 ） 6 7 118: 1

❶

Nominal predicate: < N nar*/ > or < N far*/ >

O

7: O s o r o #s h ik i

arisama nar*i.

(S N K B T 5 4 :1 8 9 )

K3B

terrible.H situationA\JX3A

恐ろ

L

declarative.

5 肯棟なり。

It was terrible. (Lit.: It was a terrible situation.) ❷ K -A D J p re d ic a te : < K 3 A >

O 8: S a k e w o (= o ) n o m *u k o to

obitada*shi.

(S N K B T 5 4 :1 8 9 )

N " c e w /n e .P P object m a rke r.V 3 B fo d"/7/c.P seudoN n o m in a lis a tio n .K 3 A a /of.

湄 を 欽 L ’事 ^ び た だ

L

。

He drank a tremendous amount o f rice wine. ❸ K D -A D J p re d ic a te : < K D n a r* / > o r < K D far*/' >

O

9: U n n o k ih a (= w a )m e k o s o N ^ e . P P a ttrib u tive .N

muzan*nare.

end.PP

(S N K B T 5 4 :1 9 3 )

e m p h a s is .K D 4

cruel.

運の極めこサ無慚なれ。

His fate was so cruel. /H e had such a cruel fate. ❹ V e rb a l p re d ic a te : < V 3 A >

0

10: Z a s h ik i ni

tahu(=o)re*hushi*tari.

(S N K B T 5 4 :1 9 3 )

N room w ith a 'tatam i' flo o r.P P lo ca tive .V 2

座 狄 5 I: 倒 れ 炚

L

to fa//.V 2 to lie down.AUXZA

perfect.

たり。

He fell onto the floor o f the room. 16

T here are sentences w hich do not fo llo w this syn ta ctic rule so th a t specific rhetorical effects

m ay be created. F o r instance, om ission of the copula na 厂• / ( な ” predicate m ay occur. T his is know n as

taigen-dome ( f r f

o r far*/ ( た ”

o f the nom inal

term ination o f a sentence w ith

3 noun o r 3 n o u 门 equivalent).

17

T he abbreviation * 3 ^ refers to an inflection form

shuushikei

w ith w hich a sentence

or a clause can end (for details see 3.4).

18

Muromachi-monogatari

_

is th e nam e o f an anthology o f short stories w hich cover

the tim e span from th e m iddle o f th e 14th century to the 17th century. M ost o f the authors are unknow n. T h is c o lle c tio n o f sh o rt sto rie s is a lso ca lle d sense.

ofog/-z6s/7/•(御知萆チ）jn a b ro a d e r

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

31

3.3.4 Sentence length Sentence length varies among different classical works. The Kq/7/c/ ( 古 爷 ！己 ：712) has relatively short sentences, whereas some passages of the Genji-monogatari ( ^ 11th C) are very long. Some even cover a whole page, and many different actions by different agents are described in one long sentence. Time described in a sentence can cover a long period. The following is, for example, a long sentence from the aforementioned /6a/c/-d6y7( げ 吹 童 子 ） . 〇

1 1 :Saru hodo ni Oonogi*dono ha(=wa) ko no yoshi wo(=o) kikoshiTneshi, 00 ki.ni odoroki*tamahi(=i), ikasama kore ha(=wa) nin’gen ni te ha(=wa) aru*bekara«zu, oni no taguhi(=i) naru*beshi, kare moshi toshi wo(=o) he*te ba tsuuriki mo ide»ki tsutsu, jin’rin wo(=o) horoboshi yo no wazaha(=wa)td(=i) wo(=o) nashi*tsu»beshi, ikani mo shi te kore wo(=o) gai*se baya to oboshi te, hisoka-ni hakarigoto wo(=o) megurashi, Yasaburau(=o) wo(=o) vobi*tamah»u(=u vobi»tamau yobi*tamo) tokoro ni yo no tsune no arisama nara*nu koto wo(=o) hadi te mawi(=i)ra»zu. (SNKBT54: 191)

such.N time.PP te m o ra tiv e .P ro p e rN O nog/*SFX 'd o n o 1: polite address fo rm .P P topic this.PP attributive. N situation.PP object m arker. V 2 to hearM2 honorative. K D 2 very much.\/2 to be surprised.\/2 h o n o ra tiv e .A D V how.ProN this.PP to p ic m arker. R

m arker. P ro N

N WAnan /?e/A7fir.AUX2 d e d a ra tiv e .P P m a n n e r.P P e m p h a s is .V 3 B to b e .A U X I potential

(can, could).A\JX2 negation.N demon.PP attributive.N /c/>7d.ALIX3B fo /}e .A U X 3 A specu­ la tiv e {should).ProH he.AD\/ /7.N year, time.PP o b je c t m a rk e r.V 2 to p a s s .A U X I p e rfe ct.P P co n d ition a l.N supematualpowers.PP additive (fo o j.V 2 » V 2 to arise.PP te m p o ra tive (s im u lta n e o u s n e s s ).N mankind.PP o b je c t m a rk e r.V 2 to destroy.N world.PP a ttrib u tive .N disaster.PP o b je ct m a rke r.V 2 to do sth.A\JX3A p e rfe c t.A U X 3 A sp e cu la ­ tive (should).AD\/ how.PP e m p h a sis.V 2 to do sth.PP c o n se cu tive .P ro N this.PP object m arker.N *V 1 fo Z ^ rf.P P d esiderative.P P citation m arke 「.V 2 fo f/7/>7/c.PP c o p u la tive .K D 2

secretly.N trick, intrigue.PP

o b je ct m a rk e r.V 2

to contemplate.Proper N Yasaburd.PP

object m arker.V 2 to//?w fe.V3B h o n o ra tive .P se u d o N tem porative (as, vvわ⑼ ) .P P te m p o ra tive .N uvoryd.PP a ttributive.N びs i/a /m a tte rs .P P attributive.N sfafe,s/fiyaf/〇A?.AUX1 A U X 3 B n e g a tio n .P s e u d o N nom in a lisa tio n .P P object m a rke r.V 2 fo わe asharr/ed o f sf/7. P P cause o r re a s o n .V I

to con?e.A U X 3A

negation.

さるほビ丨て大罗 予木殿はこのよL を ？こ L め L 、大 J 給 ひ 、いゲさま是は人 間にマは有ペグらず、鬼 の た ぐ ひ な る ベ L 、彼 も I 年を綠マば通力も出て•米つつ、 人 倚 を 滅 ぼ L 也 の わ ざ は ひ を な L つ べ L 、いり、 も L マ こ れを害せばやとおぼ L マ、レサり、 Iて謀をめぐら L 、弥三部をロチグ姶ふ延I二世の常の會棟ならぬことを恥 ぐマ参らず。

I he nme has passed and one day Master Onogi heard this story. He was shocked to hea门 t. He thought that Yasaburd could not possibly be a human，but must be 9 kind ora devil. When he becomes older, he will obtain supernatural powers, will oestroy mankind, and w ill probably cause disasters in the world. Therefore, Master dnogi thought that he must k川 Yasaburd. He secretly contemplated a

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

32

strategy and invited Yasaburo to his palace. However, Yasaburo was very much ashamed o f being so extraodinary and thus did not come to the palace. The classical Japanese sentence above has sixteen predicates: kikoshbmes*u (to hear)] ndorokHamah9u(=u ■=> odorokHamau ■=> odorokHamo) (to be surprised)] ani (to be)] taguhi(=i) nar^i (to be a kind of...)] h*u (to pass time)] ide»k*u (to arise)] horobos^u (to exterm inate)] nas*u (to do)] s*u {to do sth)\ gabsu (to hurt)] obos*u {to think)] meguras*u (to contemplate)] vobHamah*u(=u yobHamau ^ yobHamd) (to order sb to come to … ansama naM (to look likey, had*u (to be ashamed o f...); and m a ^ ( , u (to come). On the other hand, there are only three different syntactic subjects: Oonogidono (Master d no g i)，tsuuriki (supernatural powers), and Yasabur班 [(=6) (Yasaburd [the name of the hero of the story]). The English translation of this sentence has seven sentences with altogether sixteen clauses, whereas the Japanese original has one sentence with fifteen clauses. This shows that the development of a story is contained in one large unit, without any termi­ nation of the thinking process. The above story follows a temporal sequence, so the reader can follow the incidents which happen in sequence. There are, however, cases where there is no temporal linear sequence in a sentence or in a paragraph describing numerous different incidents, so that the reader has to move mentally from one time to another, or to come back to the initial point of time, as if he/she were in a time machine. This description style is not linear, but m ultidirectional and also includes reverse directions. It has to be mentioned however that the length of a sentence varies depending on the time when a literary work was written, on authors, and also on genres.

3.4 Inflection forms Each inflectional word class has six inflection forms: mizenkei ren'youkei 用 形 ）， ( 終 止 形 ），/*enfa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ），/zen/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ）and me/re/Tce/ ( 命 令 ) (see Table 13). Inflections are systematic both in Classical and Modern Standard Japanese. However, due to diachronic language change, their systematic features are different in that Modern Standard Japanese has lost some of these inflections. First, the mizenkei ( ) of Classical Japanese has split into two different forms (inflection forms T and ‘6’ as explained below) in Modem Standard Japanese; consequently, a new sixth form has appeared, which does not have a separate name in Modern Stan­ dard Japanese and is, therefore, still called mizenkei ( ) in School Grammar (see Table 14). Secondly，the s/?i/us/?/7ce/( 終 止 ffh inflection form 3A) and the renfa//ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：inflection form 3B) of Classical Japanese merged into one form in Modern Standard Japanese (cf. 4.7.2). These features of language change began around the middle of the Heian Period (794-1185) and prevailed at the end of this period (Watanabe 1997: 98). For this reason, literary works from the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) on­ wards, especially those from the Muromachi Period (1338-1573), frequently use the 厂 enfa/7ce/ ( 連イ本f l j : 3B) to end sentences, instead of the grammatically ‘proper’ inflection form of sW(ys/7/7ce/ ( 終 止 形 ：3A). Keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es have six different inflection forms (K1 to K6 as shown in Table

Chapter 3: Morphosyntax

33

Table 13: Inflection forms of Classical Japanese Inflection Forms

一

ベ'

Word class abbreviations

..

f 1 . mizenkei ( 朱

然 形 ）

Verbs

K-adjectives

KD-adjectives

AUX19

V 1 (V 6)

K1

KD1

AUX1

K2

KD2

AUX2

K3A

KD3A

AUX3A

2 . /-e/?y〇u/ce/ ( 連 用 形 ） V2 ( 終 止 形 ） V3A

3. 4.

厂 enfa//ce/ ( 連 休 形 ）

V3B

K3B

KD3B

AUX3B

5.

/•ze"/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ）

V4

K4

KD4

AUX4

V5

K5

KD5

AUX5

6 . meireike丨（命

令 形

)

Table 14: Inflection forms of Modern Standard Japanese ■•

Inflection forms

■■ ■■■

_ 1 . mfzenke丨（朱

Word cla 、L 。 ヤ れ こ ヤ こ こ ろ

" けれ。

Its only the caterpillar that moults (and becomes a beautiful butterfly)! The prin­ cess is studying how it moults! She is such a clever princess. (How clever she is!)

4.4.4.3 The Kamakura Period (1192-1333) T h e u s e o f /co ( - ) in th e fu n c tio n o f a d e m o n s tra tiv e p ro n o u n d e c re a s e d . In s te a d ,

kore

( こ れ ）w a s fr e q u e n tly u s e d fo r th in g s w h ic h w e re in th e te r rito ry o f th e s p e a k e r K o 厂e ( こ れ ）c o u ld re fe r to b o th p la c e s a n d p e rs o n s . K o n a fa ( こデょ、た ）w a s e m p lo y e d in th e s e n s e o f ‘th is s id e ’，w h e re a s t o e /?/•(こ t ) in d ic a te d o n ly a d ire c tio n m e a n in g /?e厂e o r /n

this direction

(o p . c it.: 145 ).

T h e re w e re n o s p e c ia l c h a n g e s in p ro n o u n s d e s ig n a tin g re fe re n ts w h ic h a re in th e te rrito ry o f th e in te rlo c u to r. Ik e g a m i (o p cit.: 1 4 7 ) w ro te th a t n o e x a m p le h a d b e e n fo u n d fo r th e u s e o f

sochi (

) in th e lite ra tu re h e h a d e x a m in e d fro m th is p e rio d .

A s m e n tio n e d in th e e a r lie r s u b s e c tio n 4 .4 .4 .2 , th e /co *s o » a -p a ra d ig m w a s e s ta b ^sh e a in th is p e rio d , th u s in c re a s in g th e n u m b e r o f d e m o n s tra tiv e p ro n o u n s in d ic a tin g th in g s , p la c e s , a n d d ire c tio n s w h ic h lie o u ts id e th e te r rito rie s o f b o th th e s p e a k e r a n d th e in te rlo c u to r. T a b le 2 6 s h o w s th a t th e /co*so*/ca-paradigm w a s in th e p ro c e s s o f b e in g re p la c e d b y th e n e w p a ra d ig m .

Interrogative pronouns /di//co ( 、，つ • こ ）and /du 厂a ( 、、つ' ら ）were not used so frequently. Likewise, the use of do/co ( ど こ ）was becoming rare (ibid.: 155 ). The following sentence is taken from the story of the He/Tce-A770n o g a fa "( 平 ’ 篆物語 l^he Story o f the Taira Clan]: mid-13th C):

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.4: Pronouns

58

Table 26: Demonstrative pronouns in the Kamakura Period ①

SP’s T

kore

Thing

ko

Outside both

④

Interrogative

idukata (in which direction)

anata achi

iduchi (in which direction)

so

kare

idure (what) nani (what)

soko

are kashiko

kochi Human

③

sonata kanata

konata

Direction

® l's T

sore are

koko

Place

iduku (where) doko (where)

ashiko asoko sore 丁 ;— Time

j

itsu (when) •--------------------------------------

Abbreviations: SP’s T: those in the speaker’s territory; I’s T: those in the interlocutor’s territory.

O

Kare ni tsune ha(=wa) yoriajvi(=i) yoriahH(=i) Heike horobosa*rnu(=n)zuru hakarikoto wo(=o) zo megurashi.keru. (SNKBT 44: 46)

26:

ProN there.PP lo c a tiv e .A D V always.PP e m p h a s is .V 2 to gather, to get together.\J2 to fo g e f f 〇sref/7 e r.P ro p e rN

conspiracy.PP

7"a/ra c /a n .V I c /e s fro y .A U X 3 B v o litio n a l.N

object m a rke r.P P e m p h a sis.V 2

to contemplate.AUX3B

past.

d 、れ 丨 二 常 は よ り あ ひ よ り あ ひ 、 平 家 ろ ぼ さ ！; ず る は り 、り こ と を f 延 ら L け ろ 。

They often gathered there and contemplated a conspiracy to destroy the Taira clan.

4A A A The Muromachi Period (1338-1573) During this period there was a tendency for demonstrative pronouns to also function as personal pronouns. For example, /coc/7/ ( こ ち ）in the meaning of 的 /s c//>ecf/o/7 was also used as the first person pronoun. Konata indicated the first person, or the second person, or was used for Japan (ib id .:145). Ko 厂e ( こ れ ）was also used for the first person, or the third person. The difference between the pronouns indicating places in the territory of the speaker, nam ely /co/co ( こ こ ）and /co/cora ( こ こ ら ） ，w as that /co/co ( こ こ ）was relatively precise, whereas /co/co厂a ( こ こ ら ）covered a larger area with the meaning of aro^7d/?e 厂e (op cit.: 145). Koc/?/•厂a ( こ ち ら ）indicated both directions and places. The use of the pronoun sochi % ) indicating directions, or the second person pronoun, was found frequently in the study by Ikegami (ibid.: 147). So/co け こ ） ，sonafa ( ヤな、た ） ，and so 厂e ( 亍 れ ）were still prevalent. A new expression so/co厂a ( サ こ ら ） indicating places arose in this period. The use o f so ( サ ）as an independent pronoun

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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4.4: Pronouns

59

Table 27: Demonstrative pronouns in the Muromachi Period

Direction

®SP， sT

②

l， sT

konata kochi

sonata sochi

③

Outside both

achi atchi

④

Interrogative

dochi (in which direction; which)

atsuchi(=atchi) Human

kore

Thing

kore

sore sore

Place

koko

soko

are

nani (what)

kare

nan (what)

asoko

doko

kashiko kochira

sokora

Time

itsu (when)

A bbreviations: S P ’s T: those in the sp e a ke r’s territory; I’s T: those in the in terlocutor's territory.

disappeared, but it was still used with the postposition no ( の ）as a compound in an attributive function to modify nouns having a morphological structure of < so*no»N >, such assor?o28m o n o g a fa "( サ の 物 語 ：治 /sstory). The dominance of the /co«so*a-paradigm was conspicuous in this period. Only the pronouns /care い 、れ ）and ZcasA?//co い 、L こ ）still existed in this era, and they were occurring less frequently. Instead, aso /(〇 ( あ 予 こ ），ac/7/ ( あ ち ） ，and are ( あ れ ）were often used. A derivative of achi (b % ), namely atsuchi(=atchi)( あ っ ち [a?tei])，was a new pronoun of this period. Interrogatives using the initial mora do ( と. ）were becoming stronger than those with the two-moraic lexeme /c/u ( ぃっ ' ）. Therefore ，/du/o;( ぃ づ く ）and ( 、、ィ れ ） were still present, but were disappearing. Consequently, the /co*so#a*do-paradigm, which still exists nowadays, was established in this period. The following passage from the /cydger? theatre ( 狂 言 ： traditional short dramas with comic elements played during the no theatre [f/i]) which had established its status as a genre of theatre in the mid-15th century. The title of this drama is Nariagari 0

^ ：social climber, parvenu, upstart). ^ 27: M idom o ha(=wa) tanau(=o)»da hito no o»tachi wo(=o) mo»t te itsu no ma ni yara ko no yau(=o) na30 tsuedake ni na*t*ta 29

hazu*ja ga

Sono ( 予 の ）js categorised in the word class of reが a/sh/ ( 连 イ本詞）according to the School Grammar of Modern Standard Japanese. 29

厂 a ( た ）is a morphologically changed form of the past AUX fa厂• / ( た り ）；the mora パ（り ）of its s/?ut;s/?//ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：AUX3A) ( た り ）and the mora ny ( る ）of its reが a//ce/ ( 連 体 形 ： AUX3B) tar*u ( た ろ ）have been dropped.

( な ）derives from the declarative AUX nar*/ ( な つ ）；the mora 厂w ( る ）of its renfa/7ce/ (連 k 形 ：AUX3B) narw ( な る ）has been deleted. This is also the present-day form.

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4.4: Pronouns

Table 28: Demonstrative pronouns in the first half of the Edo Period

D ire ctio n

H um an

① S P ’s T

② I’s

kochira

sochira

achira

sochi sotchi

achi

kotchi kochi kochira

T

③ O u ts id e

b o th

④ In te rro g a tiv e dochira (in which direction) dochi (in which direction)

atchi

sochi sochira sochitora sotchi sonata

T h in g

dore (whaf)

kore

sore

are

koko

soko

asoko

kokora

sokora

nani (what) — ----------P la c e

doko (where)

kochira itsu (when)

T im e

Abbreviations: SP's T: those in the speaker's territory; I's r：those in the interlocutor^ territory. ProN /.PP topic marker.V2 phonologically changed form (fo as/c).AUX3B past (phonologically changed form).N person, man (here: master).PP attributive.PFX honorative.N sword.PP object marker.V2-so/c£7-or?6/>7 (to carry, to have).PP manner.V2 to be there. AUX3B29 past.PseudoN speculative.AUX3B declarative (phonologically changed form). PP adversative.ProN when.PP attributive.N instant, moment.PP temporative. PP uncertainty.ProN this.PP attributive.N manner, s/fwaf/o/?.AUX3B30declarative. N bamboo cane, bamboo stick.PP resu\taW\/e.\/2-soku-onbin (to become) A\JX3A29 past. み ど も は 頼 う だ 人 の お 太 刀 を 持 っ マ い た は ず l： • ゃ が 、い っ の ま |二 や ら こ の や う な杖 竹 に な っ た 。 / thought I was holding the holy sword of my master with me, but it has changed to a bamboo cane like this, and I didn’t notice it at all. T h e a b o v e e x p re s s io n /Ysi/ a?o m a /? /y a 厂a ( 、、つ の 間 I 二 や ら ）lite ra lly m e a n s /

which momentit could have been, th u s

厂a f

g e n e ra tin g th e m e a n in g th a t s o m e b o d y d id n o t

ta k e a n y n o tic e o f s o m e th in g .

4.4.4.5 The Edo Period (1603-1867) T h is s u b s e c tio n e x p la in s d e m o n s tra tiv e p ro n o u n s w ith o u t d iv id in g th e p e rio d in to firs t a n d s e c o n d h a lv e s a s w a s th e c a s e in th e p re v io u s e x p la n a tio n s . T h is m e th o d w a s c h o s e n in te n tio n a lly to d e m o n s tra te lin g u is tic c h a n g e s in d e m o n s tra tiv e p ro n o u n s b y to p ic a lis in g th e s p e a k e r ’s te r r ito r y ，in te r lo c u to r ’s te rrito ry , o u ts id e b o th a n d u n k n o w n te rrito rie s . T a b le s a re , h o w e v e r, s e p a ra te ly p re s e n te d (s e e T a b le s 2 8 a n d 2 9 ).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.4: Pronouns

61

Table 29: Demonstrative pronouns in the second half of the Edo Period

Direction

.

I's T

© SP's T

②

kochira

sochira

③

Outside both

achira

© interrogative

]

dochira (in which direction] which)

achi kokoira

atchi

dotchi (in which direction' which)

dore (whaf)

sokoira

kotchira sochi

Human31

sonata Thing

kore

sore

are

Place

koko

soko

asoko asuko

kokora

sokora

nani (what)

マ：

doko (where) dokoira (approx, where) dokora (approx, where)

sokoira Time

itsu (when)

Abbreviations: S P 's T: those in the speaker's territory; Ts T: those in th e in te rlo c u to r^ territo ry

Places within the territory of the speaker were referred to by the pronouns /co/co (こ /co/co厂a ( こ こ ら ） • Koc/?/厂a ( こ ち ら ）was used for directions towards the speaker, or in comparative sentences. Ko 厂e ( こ れ ）referred to things. Koto/?/ ( こ つ ち [ko?t(；i]) was a direction marker. Koc/7/.( こ ち ）and toe/?/厂a ( こ ち ら ）were also observed in the function of the first person pronoun，and /conafa ( こ な た ）as the second person pronoun. In the latter half of this era, new expressions appeared. Ko/co/ra ( こ こ い ら ） indicated places，whereas /cofc/?/ra ( こ つ ち ら [ko?tdr*a】 ）signalised directions (/>? f/?/s way, in this direction), or it was used for comparative sentences {which o f the two). The so-group demonstrative pronouns refer to directions, people, things and places in the territory of the interlocutor Beside the pronoun so/co ( t こ ） ，a new expression so/cora ( ヤ こ ら ）for indicating places appeared in the first half of the Edo Period. So/cora ( ヤ こ ら ）indicated a larger place in the sense of a 厂ot/nd fhere instead of 厂 e. A new use of the pronoun sochira (*? % is also mentioned in Ikegami (1972: 149). It was used not only for directions (in that direction), but also for the second person (you), or for comparative sentences (w/7/c/? o f f/7e fwo). Pronouns soch/ ( サ ち ），sofc/?/ ( ヤつ ^ ), and sonata ( t fz ) were also found as second person pronouns meaning you. Soc/?/tora ( t ち と ら ）was an expression for the English second person plural ‘you’. Sore ( ャ れ ）referred solely to things. In the latter half of this period, a new demonstrative pronoun so/co/ra ( 予 こ い ら ） こ）or

P ronouns used fo r h u m a n s are not lim ited to th e se tw o. T hose used in the firs t h a lf o f this Period continued to be used.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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一

4.4: Pronouns

also appeared, and its meaning was almost the same as so/cora ( ナ こ ら ） . A significant change in this period is that the demonstrative pronouns sochi ( *t ^ ) and sonata ( i な た ）lost their original demonstrative function, and were employed exclusively as personal pronouns meaning you (op. cit.: 149). There were no significant differences for the use of demonstrative pronouns which denote things, directions, and places outside territories of the speaker and the interlocutor throughout this period .パso/co ( あ ヤ こ ），ac/7/厂a ( あ ち ら 〉，afc/?/ ( あ つ ち ）were used frequently. In the first half of this period, achira ( b% ^> ) was more popular than acA?/ ( あ ち ）or afch/ ( あ つ ち ）（ibid.: 152). A new expression asi//co ( あ す こ ）which was a derivative of aso/co ( あ ヤ こ ）also appeared in the second half of the period. Some changes can be observed among the interrogative pronouns of this period. In the first half of the Edo Period (1603-1867) /dure ( い づ れ ）was in most cases used as an adverb in the sense of some f/Vr?e /ater. /duremo ( い づ れ も ）was gradually disappearing so that the interrogatives with the initial morpheme idu ( v' ) as a pronoun had almost become extinct. The interrogative pronouns of the do-type had emerged, such as do/co ( ど こ ：vW?e r e )，d o fc /7/ ( ビ つ ち ：州/?/c/? fwo), d o 厂e ( ビ れ ：w/?/c/?)， and dochira ^ ：which o f the two). In the latter half of this period，new interrogatives such as do/co/•厂a ( ど こ い ら ）and do/cora ( ビ こ ら ）appeared, both meaning app 厂ox/mate/y The expression doc/?/ ( ^ ) was almost extinct. The temporal interrogative itsu ( v' ：when) and nani ( ^ I - : whaf) were used throughout the Edo Period (1603-1867). The following sentence is from the jo ru ri ( : the traditional puppet theatre which had been established at the beginning of the Muromachi Period [1338-1573]). The title of this drama is /We/do /?〇 /?/7cya/o;( 冥 途 の 飛 柙 [77?e Ccxvr/e 厂 from f/?e 厂ivo"c 〇: 1711) and is written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon ( 近 松 門 左 衝 H :1653-1724): O 28: Mazu konata ha(=wa) kokora ni mishira*nu o*hito ja 32ga. Donata nare*ba, kono33yau(=o) ni32nengoro*ni shi te kudasar«u to34. (NKBT 49:184) The first sentence:

anyhow, anyway.Prof4 you.PP topic m arker. ProN around here.PP locative. V1 to knowsb by sight.A\JX3B n e g a tio n .P F X h o n o ra tive .N man, p e rs o n .A U X 32declarative. P P adversative (but).

ADV

The second sentence: ProN who.AUXA declarative ( to ^ e ).P P re a s o n .R 33f/7/s.N manner, way.PP32 m anner. KD2

kindM2 to do, to behave.PP manner. V 3 32 benefactive

(to do sth in favour o f sbJ.PP34

interrogative. 32

This example sentence reveals many linguistic changes so that the inflection forms of some lexemes cannot be analysed according to the grammar of Classical Japanese described in this monograph. 33 Ko/?o ( こ の ）belongs to the word class of renfa/s/?/•(連 休 詞 ）according to the School Grammar of Modern Standard Japanese. We can observe here that this morphological change has continued for over five hundred years.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 先 づ こ な た

L

II

一

4.4: Pronouns

こ こ ら I て 見 知 ら ぬ お 人 l： •ゃが。 何 方 な れ ば 此 の や う

63

It念

比 ろ

|z

マ下さると。

Anyhow, I have never seen you around here. Who are you? For what reason have you been so kind to me? The following sentence is an essay written by Motoori Norinaga ( 本 唇 宜 長 ：17301801)in the collection of his essays ya/77a/cateu/77a ( 玉 勝 間 ：1795-1812). My following English translation in parentheses gives a message which is not written explicitly in the Classical Japanese sentence given below. 〇 29: Mata ono ga shi nado no waro*ki koto wo(=o) ihi(=i)araha(=wa)s*u ha(=wa), ito

mo kashiko*ku ha(=wa) are do, sore mo iha(=wa)*zare ba, yo no gakusha sono35 setsu ni madohi(=i) te naga«ku yo«ki wo(=o) shir*u go na*shi (...) (M N Z 1 :8 8 )

furthermorePro\A IP P attributive.N teacher.PP exam ple m arker.P P subject marker. wrong.N things.PP o b je ct m a rke r.V 3 B express sth clearly.PP topic m a rk e r A D V very much.PP em phasis. K 2 intelligent, wise, clever. PP e m p h a sis.V 4 to be. PP con ce s­ sive (but, however).ProH it.PP additive (foo).V1 to s a y .A U X 4 n e g a tio n .P P condition.N w o rld .P P a ttrib u tive .N scientist, scholar.R35its.H theory.PP re a so n .V 2 to waver, to get lost.PP copulative .K 2 for a long time.K3B right, correct.PP object m a rke r.V 3 B to know.H end.K3A to not be there (...) CNJ K3B

又、お の が 師 な ど の わ ろ

5

ことをいレあらはす

II、

い と も 々 、L こ く は あ れ ビ 、

ヤ れ も い は ざ れ ば 、 世 の 字 會 ヤ の 説 |て ま ど ひ マ 、 長 く よ

f

を 知 ろ ご な

L

(...)

Furthermore, it is a very clever (plausible) thing to point out the errors made by the teacher/master. On the contrary, if one does not (even try to) say anything about those mistakes at all, scholars in the world would still be lost without knowing (for ever) wnether tne (existing) theories are right or wrong. They wHI never eventually get to know the truth. (Therefore, it is a good thing to be critical and even to criticise wrong theories o f your teacher/master.)

4.4.5 Reflexive pronouns The lexical items listed in Table 30 are considered to be nouns in the Japanese School Grammar. However, they all refer to the speaker or the interlocutor himself/herself. Their English equivalents are myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, and themselves. Thus, they are categorised as reflexive pronouns in this book on the basis of their semantic meanings. As can be seen in Table 30, the number of these reflexive pronouns is limited. T his in te rro g a tiv e u sa g e o f th e PP to ( と ）is o b se rve d fro m the Edo P eriod (1 6 0 3 -18 6 7 ) onwards. S 〇/?o ( 1 の ）b e longs to the w ord class o f renfa/sh/ ( 连 怵 詞 ）according to the School G ram m ar 〇f M odern S ta n d a rd Japanese.

64

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

Table 30: Reflexive pronouns l'i"'IHIfflT1f11111ll" "WffBIHW ' Period

一

4.4: Pronouns

Reflexive ProN

ono

Nara Period

710-784

Heian Period

794-1185

onore

Kamakura Period

1192-1333

onogajishi

Muromachi Period

1338-1573

Edo Period

1603-1867

onore

onodukara onore unu jibun temehe(=e) tenden ware ( う ぬ ）was used for the second person pronoun (you) in the first half of the Edo Period (Ikegami 1 9 7 2 :159), but later its usage was limited to the function of a reflexive pronoun in the second half of this period . Temehe(-e)( マ め へ ）was also in use as the second person pronoun in the second half of the Edo Period. Tenc/e/?( マん T * ん ）was an expression used in the second half of the Edo Period, l/l/a 厂e ( わ れ ） already existed in the Nara Period (710-784), but only gained its status as a reflexive pronoun in the Edo Period (1603-1867). び/わ㈤ （じ ぶ ん ） ，w hich still exists in Modem Standard Japanese, first appeared with the semantic function of a reflexive pronoun in the latter half of the Edo Period (1603-1867).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.5: Adjectives

65

4.5 Adjectives (ADJ) Japanese adjectives, both in Classical and Modern Standard Japanese, are divided Into three categories depending on their morphosyntactic features: rentaishi-a6\eci\\/es ( 連 钵 飼 [R 】 ：see4.5.1) ，/ce/yoi;s/?Aadjectives ( 形 容 詞 [K]: see4_5.2), and /ce/youdoas/7/adjectives ( 形 容 動 詞 [KD]: see 4.5.3). The first type is neither inflectional nor predicative (words which can take the syntactic position of predicate in a sentence) whereas the latter two are inflectional and predicative. The common feature of these three types of adjective is that they can be used to modify nouns as shown below:

Table 31:Three kinds of adjectives and their features Predicative use o f K-ADJ

Predicative use of KD-ADJ

R-ADJ

Himegimi mime katachi utsuku*shi. Un no kiha(=wa)me muzan*nar*i. non-predica­ 雄 君 み め 々 、た ち 美

1。

運の極め無彳斬なリ。

tive

The princess is beautiful.

The end o f his/her fate is cruel.

K-ADJ as a modifier

KD_

R-ADJ as a modifier

utsuku*shiki himegimi

muz3n*n3r*u u门 门 o kiha(=wa)me

aru himegimi

無慚なる運の極め

或雄君

a cruel end o f his/her fate

a certain princess

美

L S雉 君

a beautiful princess

4.5.1 R ente/sA ?/-A djectives ( 連 休 詞 [ R]) Renfa/srt/-adjectives are grammaticalised expressions (those which have gained a new independent syntactic and semantic function in a process of language change). The expression sam ( さ る ）is, for example, used as a noun modifier meaning ‘such’. It is derived from the verb sar*/ ( さ り ）which means someWng/somejbody /s andsuc/7, and sar*u ( ^ ^ ) is an inflected form called rentaikei : an inflection form abbreviated as ‘3B’ [see 3.4 and Table 13】 ）and is placed in front of nouns to modify them. Other reA?fa/s/7/-adjectives are other particular verbs in the renfa/7ce/ ( 連 体 形 ： V3B), 〇r compounds comprising a verb and an auxiliary. Some of these morphological structures are explained below: ①

ara*yuru ( b らゆ 6 / 所 噜 ：all kinds o f...) V1 of the verb ar*i (to be there) AUX3B of the spontaneous auxiliary yu.

Lit.: things which are there ②

ih^(=wa)*yuru い 、U ゆ 6 / 所 謂 • i.e.; so-called •") V1 of the verb ih*u(=u ^ iu[=yu [jai:]]：to sayJ.AUX3B of the passive auxiliary y u

Lit.：sth which can be said so and so ...

66 ③

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.5: Adjectives

kakar*u ( め、 ぃら / 斯ぃ ら .• such) \/3B of the verb kakafi (斯 9 . to be such and such; sb/sth is of this kind) Lit: sb/sth who/which is such and such ...

④

( さ る / 然 ろ ：sue/?) V3B of the verb saW ( 然 り ：fo

si/c/? ar?cf suc/7)

Lit: sb/sth who/which is such and such ... ⑤

shikar^u ( い 、i / 然' ら • such) V3B of the verb s/7/7car./_ ( 然 0 : to jbe st/c/7 a/7d stvc/7)

Lit: sb/sth who/which is such and such ... The following is an example from the story of /jbt//c/-c/6y7 (ィf 吹 童 子 ）in the 驗 ; 厂omach/Ar?〇A7〇g afar/( 室 町 物 語 ：between the14th C and the 17th C): O 30: Saru hodo ni, Shuten-dou(=o)ji ha(=wa) sanze no sho*botoke ni kiraha(=wa)re (...)(SNKBT54: 211)

R such.N time.PP temporative.ProperN Shuten-ddji.PP topic marker. N/QTF three worlds, i.e., the past, the present, and the future (numeral for world or generation). PP attributive.PFX plural marker.N Buddha.PP agent marker.VI to hate.A\JX2 passive (...) さ る は ビ I t 、溷 天 童 チ

11三 世 の 諸 イ ム ド 嫌 は れ 、（ ...)

The time passed in this way and Shuten-doji was detested by various gods of all times (, i. e., the future, the present, and the past), and... 4.5.2 K e /y o i/s /? /-A d je c tiv e s ( 形 容 詞 [K]) K e /y o ty s /? /-a d je c tiv e s a re m o r p h o s y n ta c tic a lly d iv id e d in to , in itia lly , tw o m a in g ro u p s :

] ) s u c h a s a/ca*s/7/ ( 赤 L : 厂ec 〇, a n d th e s/?/7〇y -in fle c tio n ty p e (sAi/ff£>-/cateay 〇(7 [ シ ク 活 用 ] ) s u c h a s fa/?o*s/7/ ( 杂 L : e/?ferfa/>7-

th e /o v -in fle c tio n ty p e (/c a -/c a fs (iy o i/ [ ク 活 用

ing, amusing) a n d im bji ( v' A T ：extraordinary, fantastic, excellent, impossible, awful, dreadful). T h e s e a re fu r th e r d iv id e d in to th e p ro p e r in fle c tio n a n d th e /c a n -in fle c tio n as s h o w n b e lo w (s e e T a b le

32). J u s t a s w ith a n y o th e r in fle c tio n a l w o rd s , th e r e a re s ix (K 1,K 2, K3A, K3B, K4, a n d K5) a s

d iffe r e n t in fle c tio n fo r m s o f/c e /y o i/s /7 /-a d je c tiiv e s s h o w n in T a b le s

33 to 39.

Table 32: Classification of Zce/yoc/sAi/'-adjectives based on inflection ❶

Kiy-inflection

K e /y o a s /7 /-a d je c tiv e s ❷

S/7//〇y-inflection

①

Proper inflection

②

Ka 厂/-inflection

0 Proper inflection ②

Kar/-inflection

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions M ost

keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es

4.5: Adjectives

e n d w ith th e /c a n a -p h o n o g ra m

(shi [a i]),

l

67 a lth o u g h a

[^], i.e ., 1' (/'/' [^ i]) , s u c h a s im i9ji ( \ yA 1' ：extraor­

fe w h a v e its in itia lly v o ic e d p h o n e m e

dinary)

一

a s s h o w n in T a b le 3 7 . T h e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o is o f a p h o n o lo g ic a l

n a tu re in th a t th e fo r m e r e n d s w ith th e v o ic e le s s p a la ta lis e d a lv e o lo -p a la ta l (p o s ta lv e o la r) fric a tiv e [q] a n d th e la tte r w ith th e v o ic e d p a la ta lis e d a lv e o lo -p a la ta l (p o s ta lv e o la r) fric a tiv e

[^]. Keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es w ith th e s/?/-ending o u tn u m b e r th o s e w ith th e y /-e n d in g . T h e m o rp h o lo g ic a l d iffe re n tia tio n b e tw e e n

ku- a n d

s/7/7ct/-inflection c a n b e m a d e in th e fo l-

lowi门g manner ①

F irst, fin d th e c o n te m p o ra ry /ce/ycH； s /? /-a d je ctive w h ic h p h o n e tic a lly a n d g ra p h e m ic a lly c o rre s p o n d s to th e c la s s ic a l /ce/yotys/7/-adjective.

②

S e c o n d , c h a n g e th e c o n te m p o ra ry /ce， y 〇i/s/?/ in to its a d v e rb ia l fo rm : < /ce/yotzs/?/s te m +

③

ku >.

S h o u ld it h a v e a n e n d in g o f th o s e w h ic h e n d w ith

-ku

-shiku,

it b e lo n g s to th e s/7 //a 7 -in fle c tio n , w h e re a s

b e lo n g to th e /c a -in fle c tio n ty p e o f

keiyoushi.

C la s s ic a l

C o n te m p o ra r y J . - ^

A d v e rb ia l f o r m - ^

In fle c tio n ty p e

aka*shi

aka*i

aka*ku

/civ-inflection

#

都 、、

亦く

tano*shi

tanoshi”

tarw shiku

杂

奈

奈Lく

l

L

い 、

s/?/kty-inflection

Table 33: The /re/yous/iz-adjective inflection of Classical Japanese In fle c tio n

K iy -ln fle c tio n eg.

F o rm

SA?/7a/-lnflection

a/ca*s/7/( # l : red)

P ro p e r

K a r/'-In fle c tio n

in fle c tio n

eg.

utsuku9shi (

P ro p e r

l

: beautiful) K a r/-ln fle c tio n

in fle c tio n

K1

0

K2

aka*ku

aka.kari

(utsuku*shi*ku)36 utsuku*shi*kara utsuku9shi9kari utsufwshhku

K3A

aka*shi

0

utsuku9shi

0

K 3B

aka*ki

aka.karu

utsuku*shi9ki

utsuku*shi9karu

K4

aka*kere

0

utsukum shbkere

0

K5

0

aka*kare

0

utsuku*shi*kare

(aka*ku)36 aka.kara

0

Mizenkei ( ) of keiyoushi-ad)eci\\/es (K1) existed in the Edo Period (1603-1867). It was used with the juxtaposed ba ( ば ）一 the voiced form of the topic marker PP ha(=wa): < ^ iy 〇ushi-sien}*kum ba >. 6no (1988: 161) states that it was used incorrectly. For this reason, t h e （未 然 形 ）is in brackets.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.5: Adjectives

68

4.5.2.1 Adjustability of Ice/yoc/sAji-adjectives Languages change synchronically and diachronically. By integrating loan words from foreign languages, language changes just like natural phenomena in that it adopts new things and thus adjusts itself to a new environment. Ke/yoas/?/-adjectives have taken, for example, three steps in order to attain their status as an independent word class. These changes are described in the following subsections.

4.5.2.1.1 The proper keiyoushiAnflection At the beginning of the development of the Japanese language, qualitative features of things, situations, or humans were expressed by using nouns. For example, there was an expression /7ana a/ca na 厂 /(花赤なつ）which consists of a subject (わana [花]:,/oi/i/e厂 ) and a nominal predicate (aka nari 0 ]: sth is red). Aka nari 0 ) is made up of a noun aka ( t^ ：the colour red) and a declarative auxiliary nar*i ( ^ : to be).

0 3 1 :Hana aka nar*i. (AC) N flower.N the co/oi/r red.AUX3A declarative (to be). 花#なつ。

A/The flower is red / Flowers are red. (Lit.: A/The flower is the colour red.)37 しater

in the development，there arose a new word class, ‘adjectives’，which are made up of a noun and the suffix shi: < N*s/7/ >. Many such adjectives were formed according to this morphological structure, such as akam shi ( # l : red), waka*shi ( % 1 : young), and tan〇9shi l : interesting). As they were a new word class, their inflection was not yet complete，as shown below (see Table 34); there were no inflection forms for the mizenkei ( : K 1 ) and meireikei ( : K 5 ), indicated by the symbol ‘0 ’. As there was no direct way of negating a keiyoushi-ad\ec\\\/e which carried out

Table 34: Morphology of the proper inflection of k eiyo u sh i-ad jectives K ひinflection

S /? /_ n fle c tio n

K1

0

0

K2

K-stenr/o;

K-sXetr\*shiku

K3A

K-stenrs/?/

K-stenrrs/7/

K3B

K-stem*/c/

K-stenrs/?/7c/

K4

K-stenr/cere

K-stem-s/?/7cere

K5

0

0

37

一

A s m entioned in S ection 4.3, Ja panese nouns do not differentiate betw een the gram m atical

categories 'plural/singular* o r 'definite/indefinlte*. T herefore, there are several possible transiatio 门 s fo r S6门 ts 门 C6S c o 门 taining 门 ouns.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.5: Adjectives

69

morphologically by agglutinating the negation auxiliary zu ( ず ）to the m/zen/ce/• ( 未券、 as ‘1’) ，i.e .，< K1*z“ >，nor of making an imperative form m e /re//ce/ ( 命 令 形 ：abbreviated as ‘5’)， negations or imperatives were made in the following manner:

形 ：abbreviated

〇 32: Hana aka*ku ara*zu. (AC) N "ower. K2 adverbial.V1 of the verb a "/ ( あ り ：to /?e)*AUX3A negation. 花

# くあらず。

A/The flower is not red. /Flowers are not red. Lit.: A/The flower is not ‘being red’. / Flowers are not ‘being red’. Sentence O 32 has three components: a subject (/7ana)，the 厂en’yo/v/ce/( 連 用 形 ：K2form) of aka0shi ( # l ) in the adverbial function with the meaning of to be in a state of わe/ng red, and the predicate composed of the verb ar*/’ （あ り ：to be) and the negation auxiliary zu (^f \ not). The third and last step o f this linguistic evolution within Classical Japanese involves a phonological change which is now explained in the following subsection.

4.5.2.1.2 Morphology of the /rar/-inflection of ^e/yoiysfti-adjectives The last step in the linguistic change in keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es was characterised by a deletion of the vowe け u/ from the expression above: ‘akakuarazu ( しit.: sf/7 /s nof />? a

state of being red)\ thus having the expression ^aka-kara-zu (sth is not red)'. This opened up a new way of inflecting keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es in conjunction with auxiliaries which require the mizenkei (inflection form *1*) or meireikei (inflection form l5') for agglutina­ tion. This new inflection type is called the '/car/-inflection, of/ce/yous/7/-adjectives which lacks the inflection forms s/7m/s/7/7ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：K3A) and /zen/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ：K4) (see Table 36).38 Thus, the proper inflection and /can-inflection can now work complementarily. The proper inflection has no m/ze/i/ce/( 未 然 形 ：K 1)or me//B/7ce/( 命 令 形 ：K5) which

Table 35: Morphology of the kari-in flectio n of /ce/yous/ii-adjectives し:.:.'...;'.:::.:;

K1 K2 K3A K3B

Kt/-flection

Shiku-f\ecX\on

Kstemkara

Kstem' shikara

Kstemkari

Kstem' shikari

0

0

K4

KStem• 0

K5 —

Kstem'kare

論

KStem.sh,karu 0 Kstem， s/7//(are

K-adjectives oho(=o)*shi ( ^ l / } l : many, much, plenty, a lot) and na*shi ^ L : sf/7 or s/) /s nof f/?ere) are exceptions. Both of them have all six /car/-inflection forms (see 4.5.2.4).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.5: Adjectives

7〇

Table 36: Complementarity o f the proper inflection and /carl-inflection of keiyoushiadjectives

K1

0

K1

taka.kara

K2

taka*ku

K2

taka*kari

K3A

taka*shi

K3A

0

K3B

taka*ki taka*kere

K3B

taka.karu

K4

K4

0

K5

0

K5

taka*kare

can be now compensated for by the /can-inflection forms of K1 and K5. On the other hand，in the /car/-inflection there is no stoi/s/i/Zce/• ( 終 止 形 ：K3A) or /zen/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ： K4) which can be substituted by the proper inflection. Table 36 shows the feature of com plem entarity using the /ce/yoas/7/-adjective taka*shi ( ^ l : tall, high, noble, aesf⑽ /c). As for the inflection of the ta "-typ e /ce/yo⑽わ/-adjectives, it bel^^ hen-type ( ラ 变 ）of verbal inflection with the inflectional endings ‘a—*(i)*u-(e)*e’ （ see 4.7, 4.7.5.4 ff. for detailed explanations, and Figure 9 in Subsection 4.8). Sentence O 33 below has keiyoushi-ad\eci\\/es with both the proper inflection and the /car/'-inflection which at the same time represent both ku- and s/?/7c^-inflections; oho(=o)*kara ( , 々、ら ）is the m/zen/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：K 1 ) o f the /ce/yous/?/-adjective ohof=ohshi ( 多 l : many, much) of the ^-in fle ctio n type which is inflected according to the /cart-inflection，whereas /rara.sh/ ( 悲 L : sad) is the s/u/asW/ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：K3A) of the proper s/7//〇y-inflectioir O 33: Zeni oho(=o)*kara«zu. Ware kana*shi. (AC) N money.K1-/can-inflection (rmyc/?).AUX3A negation. N /.K3A-proper-infection (sad). 鉸多力、らず。 我 悲 L 。

There isn’t much money. I’m sad. As mentioned in Subsection 4.5.2, /ce/yoas/7/-adjectives with they/-ending, such as Table 37: The /can-inflection o f the /ce/yousAi/'-adjective im i*ji ( v' A 1 : extraordinary,

excellent)

K1 K2 K3A K3B K4 K5

Stem

Proper inflection Kar/-infIection

imi im i im i

jbku

im i imi imi

0

jbkara ji*kari

ji jh k i jbkere

jbkaru

0

j'rkare

0 0

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

4.5: Adjectives

一

71

( v' A T : e x tra o rd in a ry , e x c e lle n t; a w fu l, sa d , te rrib le ), belong to the s h ik u Inflection. The suffix s h i ( l ) begins with the voiceless palatalised alveolo-palatal (postalveolar) fricative whereas the initial sound of the suffix j i ( 1 ) is the voiced palatalised alveolo-palatal (postalveolar) fricative: [gi] and [^i]. Table 37 shows its inflection. im h ji

4.5.2.2 Semantic differences between /cei/of/sm-adjectives or Ku- and shikuinflection types Semantically speaking, keiyoushi-a6\ect\\/es of the /c^y-inflection generally describe objective situations or characteristics of things such as taka*shi ( ¢ 7 1 ：tall), hiro*shi (tuV wide), or kiyo*shi ( ^ l : clear). On the other hand, /ce/yoi/s/?/-adjectives of the s/7 /to-inflection involve in most cases humans* subjective emotions such as sabi*shi ( 氣 い • lo n e fy ) ， h a d u k a *s h i ( 和つ、 、 l : b e a s h a m e d o f), a n d ta n o -s h i ( 条 い • am u sin g ).

The following examples of k u - and sA?/7civ-inflection k e iy o u s h i-a 6 \e c t\\/e s highlight this feature: ❶

Keivousni-ad\ecW \/es a k a .s h i

re d

広

L L

h iro .s h i

wide; Dig, la rg e

清

L

kiy 〇9sh i

c le a r

暗

L

k u ra *s h i

d ark

亦

m

(space)

n a *s h i

none, n o t th ere

o m o s h irv s h i

interesting

ta k a .s h i

high, e x p e n s iv e

苦

L L

w a k a .s h i

yo u n g

幼

L

w o (= o )s a n a *s h i

im m atu re, yo u n g

h

1

y a s u *s m

easy, calm , g e n tle

面 白 高

❷

of the /ci；-inflection

L

K eivo u s h i-a 6 \e c t\\/e s 汊 ま

L

L 和つV L 腹 立 た

of the s/7/to-inflection

a s a m a *s h i

am azin g ; s h am efu l; stupid; horrible

h a ra d a ta msh i

annoying, irritating, vexatiou s

h a d u k a .s h i

s h a m e fu l

战

L

iya *s h i

lo w

悲

L

k a n a *s h i

sad

苦

ku ru *sh i

pitiful; h a rd

惜

L L

o *sh i

pitiful

寂

L

sabhshi

lo n ely

tan o m o *s h i

a m u sin g

(social status);

unsop h isticated ; m e a n ,

contem ptible, n a s ty

奈 も

L

嬉

L

美

L/

愛

L

(situations);

u nco m fortab le

u re *s h i

happy, th an kfu l

u ts u k u .s h i

beautiful; dear, b elo v e d ; pretty, cute, sw eet; excellent, fine, nice, s p len d id

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.5: Adjectives

72

The reader should be aware that this semantic differentiation between subjectivity and objectivity is of a general nature and so is not applicable to all keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es. W L ) and t/teu/oysW( 美 L )，for example, involve both objective descriptions of things and persons as well as human emotions as shown above.

4.5.2.3 A syntactic difference between the proper inflection and the kariinflection The K2-form (re^youkei ]) of the proper inflection can be used in 0 a copula­ tive function in order to conjoin sentences with the meaning of and, or also has ® an adverbial function modifying the predicate. On the other hand, the K2-form (re^youkei [連用 flJ】） of the /ca厂 /-inflection has neither of these two syntactic roles; it is used solely to agglutinate other inflectional lexical items, such as auxiliaries, to /can-inflection forms. Sentence O 34 from the L!//-sA^/-/7?〇A7〇gafar/ ( 宇 治 袷 遺 物 語 ：in the first half of the 13th C) has the /ce/V〇(is/7/-adjective ato/cafar7a*s/?/ ( 跡り、たな L : 的 ere /s /?〇 frace o尸 sth) in the ren'youkei K2) of the proper inflection and is used with a copulative function. It also contains the /ce/yous/?/-adjective na*shi l : sb/sth is not there) in the /ca厂/-inflection, to which the past auxiliary /cer*/'( け 0 ) in the /zer?/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ：AUX4) is attached.

O 34: (...) kobu atokatana*ku Kai»nogohi(=i)»taru vau(=o)•门 i tsuyatsuya na*kari*kere ba, ki kora»n koto mo wasur*e te ihe(=e) ni kahe(=e)ri*nu. (SNKBT 42:12) ( . . . ) N lump, node.K2-proper inflection (without any trace)M2-i-onbin (to scratch). V2 to wipe.AUX3B perfect.AUX2 appearance (it looks like ...).ADV not at all.K2-kariinflection (sb/sth is not there).A\JXA past.PP reason.N free.N/1 to cut.A\JX3B volitional. PseudoN nominalisation.PP emphasis.V2 to forget.PP copulative.N house, home. PP direction.V2 to go back home A\JX3A perfect. (…）こぶ跡” た な く 、6 、いのごひたるやう丨二、 つ や つ や な 《、りければ、木こらん 爭 も 忘 れ マ 、 家J こ帰りぬ。

As there was no lump (on his cheek any more) as if it had been scratched off (from his cheek), the old man forgot (completely) that he had wanted to cut trees and went back home. Sentence 3 35 involves the /ce/y〇(7s/7/_-adjective w/aro.s/?/ 厂 en’yoiv/ce/•(連 用 形 ：K2)

(舞

ふ ：to

(惡

L : jbac〇 in the

where it is used adverbially to modify the predicate m a h *u (= u )

dance).39

O 35: Ko no tabi ha(=wa) waro.ku mau(=o)39*tari. (SNKBT 42:13) ProN this.PP attributive.N time.PP topic marker.K2-proper inflection (bad, badly)\/2-u-onbin (to dance)39.AUX3A perfect.

39 Owing to a phonological change known as i /- o/?6/a7 ( ウ 音 便 ： see 4.7.7.1)， the verb ( 舞 ふ ） is written as mau ( 舞 う ） in the original text.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

Table 38: The inflection of oho(=o卜shi

一

73

Table 39: The inflection of ra .s /i/ ( 無 L :

(9 V \ many, much, plenty, a lot) Inflection Stem form

4.5: Adjectives

none)

Kan-inflection

Inflection Stem form

Kan-inflection

「 K1

o h o (= o )

k a r*a

K1

na

k a r*a

K2

o h o (= o )

kar^i

K2

na

k a r*\

K3A

o h o (= o )

/car*/

K3A

na

/car*/

K3B

o h o (= o )

k a ru

K3B

na

kar^u

K4

o h o (= o )

kane

K4

na

k a r*e

K5

o h o (= o )

kar^e

K5

na

k a r*e

このたびはわろく舞たり。 You d a n c e d b a d ly this time.

4.5.2.4 Exceptional inflections The keiyoushi-a6]ect\\/es oho(=o)9s h i( 蚤 い many，much, plenty, a lof) and na.shi (無 [ : none) are exceptional in that their /can-inflection forms are complete; all six inflection forms K1 to K5 exist (see Tables 38 and 39) ，i.e.，s/?m7s/7//ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：K3A) and /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ：K4) also exist. Sentence 〇 36 is from the (徒 然 萆 ： a compilation of essays; around 1330) written by Yoshida Kenk6 ( 吉 田 兼 好 ：1283?-1352?). 〇 36: Shoshin no hito hutatsu no ya wo(=o) mots*u koto na»kare. (SNKBT 39:168)

N beginner.PP attributive.N person.N/QTF two (numeral two*CF for things).PP attributive. N arrow.PP object marker.V3B to carry; to have.Pseu6oN nominalisation.K4

Don’t be 初/じの人、 二 つ の 夭 を 持 つ こ と な わ れ 。

Beginners shoud not have two arrows. /Don't take two arrows if you are a beginner (in archery)! (If you have two arrows, you’ll always think that you’" have a second chance.)

4.5.3 Ke/yoc/doi/s/iハadjectives (形容動詞[ KD]) Language contact with Chinese brought about a new type of adjective in the Heian Period (794-1185): the /ce/yoiydous/?/-adjectives (形 容 動 詞 )• They are compositions comprising a noun and the declarative auxiliaries (Jodoushi [ M i/jp ] ]) nar^i 0 ) or tar^i (たつ） ，w hich are used as copulae (linking verbs): < N nar*/> or < N ter*/>_ The copuiae /?a” /•( な り ）and faW ( た り ）correspond to the English verb to jbe with the semantic function of declaratives. The first type < N nar*/ > is called the na 厂/-inflection of ^eiyoudoushi-adieciw/es, and the latter composition, namely < N tar^i >, is known as the ^/-inflection. Most nouns used for the composition < N nar^i > are of Japanese origin, and have, therefore, the /cun-reading (kun-yomi [P \it^ t ：words pronounced using Japan^se lexemes]), whereas those employed in the composition < N tar^i > are of Chinese

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

74

4.5: Adjectives

origin, and are read accordingly with the on-reading (on-yomi ：words pro­ nounced in the Sino-Japanese reading]). It has to be taken into consideration, however, that there are some exceptions which do not correspond to this etymological distinction. Moreover, KD-adjectives with the nart-inflection outnumber those with the far/inflection. < N tar^i >

< N nar^i >

介

介

Chinese origin

Japanese origin

4.5.3.1 In fle c tio n fo rm s o f/fe /y o u d o u s W -a d je c tiv e s ( f l j 容動 詞 [ KD]) Note that the nouns (N) of keiyoudoushi-corr\pos\i\or\s < H*nari > or < H*tari > have lost their status as nouns since the new word class, i.e., keiyoudoushi-adiecWs/es, was established. In Classical Japanese, components of < N*nan> and < H*tari> are bound morphemes. Table 40 demonstrates the inflection of keiyoudoushhad\ecW\/es by means of the examples odayaka*nari 0 : reasonable, modest) and doudou*tari ( 堂 々 た つ ：d/gn/f/ed, maゾesf/c). A/ar*/( な り ）and 始产 / ( た り ）both have a ra-/?eA? inflection with its inflectional endings < a-i-i-u-e-e > (see 4.7 and 4 . た5.4 for details), and they both originate from the declarative auxiliaries nar*/• ( な つ ）and far*/ ( た つ ） . As can be seen in Table 40 the renyoukei (KD2) has two different forms for each inflection type 0 and i.e., © < KD-stem*/?/ > and (D < KD-stem*nan > for the nariinflection, or ® < KD-stenrto > and ® < KD-stenrter/ > for the far/'-inflection. The first forms < KD-stem* n i > or < KD-sterrrfo >, respectively, are used adverbially, whereas the second renycu/Zce/• ( 連 用 形 [KD2]) forms く KD-stenT/?ar/> o 「く KD-sterrWar/’ > are used when auxiliaries (AUX) are to be agglutinated to it. Sentences O 37 and O 38 show such an agglutination using the past tense auxiliary ker*i ( i t 0 ). Table 40: The inflection of keiyoudoushhadiectiw es

A/an-inflection eg. odayaka^nari

Examples of AUX, PP, or N that can be agglu-

Tan-inflection eg. doudou*tari :… ー ニ . .

■

...

Stern

①

②

Stem

①

②

tinated to KD1 to KD5

KD1

odayaka

0

nar*a

doudou

0

tar^a

z*u (AUX negation)

KD2

odayaka

ni

nar»i

doudou

to

ta fi

keni (AUX past)

KD3A

odayaka

0

nar*i

doudou

0

tar*i

(lexicon form; term inative)

KD3B

odayaka

0

nar*u

doudou

0

tar^u

koto (PseudoN nominalisation)

KD4

odayaka

0

nar*e

doudou

0

tar*e

ba (PP reason)

KD5

odayaka

0

nar^e

doudou

0

tar*e

(imperative)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 〇

Adverbial

〇

37: Odayaka«nl*nari*ni*keri. (AC)

一

4.5: Adjectives

75

KD2 calmM2 to become.A[JX2 perfect.AUX3A past. 穩 や り 、I : な

9 1 :け 0 。

It has become calm. ❷

Past tense

O 38: Odayaka*nari*keri. (AC) KD2 calmAUX3A past. 穩 や グ な 0 けり。

It was calm. 4.5.3.2

Evolution of /cefyoc/doi/sAi/-adjectives (形容動詞 [ KD])

The nan-KD-adjectives developed from the morphological composition of a noun, the renyoukei (AUX2) inflection form of the declarative auxiliary nar^i ( 0 ), namely ni ( I -), and the verb ar*i (to be): < N + n/+ a n i >. By deleting the vowel /i/ of < N.n/.an >, we can extract the form n a " ( な り ） . < N ni ari > yasuraka ni ari

yasuraka*nari

N in a state of being peaceful.A\JX2 declarative. V3A-ra-hen

KD3A

(to be) 安 ら 《、i : あり

安 ら 《、なり

sth is in a state o f being peaceful

sth is peaceful

On the other hand, the KD-adjective of fan-inflection is made up of a morphological composition < N + to + an>. 7b ( と ）is the re/?V〇i//ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：AUX2) of the declarative auxiliary far*/ ( た 0 )• The vowe け〇/ of < N.to_ari > is deleted, and thus く N te " > is generated. < N to

ari >

dau(=6)dau(=o) to ari

dau(=6)dau(=6)*tari

N /n a state of being majestic A\JX2 declarative. V3A-ra-hen

(to be)

KD3A

堂々とあり

堂々たり

sth/sb is in a state o f being majestic

sth/sb is majestic

This linguistic evolution has brought about a new way to inflect keiyoudoushi-ad\ectives as independent bound lexemes, which has also given them a stable lexicological status as an independent word class within Classical Japanese. Just as in the case of keiy〇ushi-a6\ect\\jes (see 4.5.2.1 ff.), language is here again adjusting to a new envi­ ronment.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.5: Adjectives

76

4.5.3.3 E x a m p le s o f /fe fy 〇(ic /o c /s /i/-a d je c tiv e s ( 形 容 動 詞 [ KD]) Some examples of KD-adjectives of the nari- and fan-types are given below. One should be aware that the meanings of Classical Japanese keiyoudoushi-ad\ecWwes and their corresponding keiyoudoushi-s6]eci\\/es o f Modern Standard Japanese are not necessarily the same, as can be seen in the following examples. Nonetheless, there are also keiyoudoushi-ad\eci\\jes whose m eanings have not changed, such as niha(=wa)ka (#(,: suddenly). It should also be mentioned that dictionary entries of keiyoudoushi-ad]ecX\\/es comprise only the nominal part, i.e., the copulae nar^i ( ^' 0 ) or far*/ ( た り ）are omitted as follows: あ ？ らり、 【明 ら り 、】 （ 形動ナリ）

As the nominal part of the Keiyoudoushi-ad\eci\\/e < N*tari > is a lexeme of Chinese origin, the tari-keiyoudoushi-ad\eci\\jes can frequently be found in kanbun texts (texts written in Classical Chinese which are read in Classical Japanese with the help of diacritics). Sentence O 39 is from the W-s/7 〇/-mo/7〇gafa/7'(宇治桧遺物 語 ：in the first half of the 13th C), and Sentence O 40 is from the story of Abiv/c/-ddy7( イf 吹 童 : 子 ）compiled in the Miyromac/7/-mor?ogfafa厂/ ( 室 町 物 語 ：14th to 17th C). ❶

A/ar/- KD-ad iecti ves

anagachhnari ( 強 ち な り ）

one-sided, egoistic; abnormal, extraordinary; single-minded; inadequate

aha(=wa)re*nari ( ika*nari

0 ) lonely, sad, hard; beautiful, moving, impressive

( 、、り、な、つ ）

how tnmgs are (an interrogative KD-adjective)

itadura*nari ( 棟:らな 9 )

in vain, useless; empty (feelings); Tree

/ ^ ( = y 句厂av?a厂/•( 清 ら な り ）

pure, clear, clean; snowy

odayaka.nari( 低 や め 、な Q 、

reasonable, modest

oho(=o)ki9nari ( 大 5

big, extraordinary

なつ）

oroka.nari( 愚力、な 9 )

irresponsible; stupid; immature, inrenor

m arrw nari ( & 芙

serious; honest; diligent; healthy; practical

な

0)

m迅 [(=d).nan•(猛 な 0 )

brave, courageous, gallant

yutaka.nari ( 1

rich

力、な

0)

O 39: Kore mo ima ha(=wa) mukashi, migi no kaho(=o) ni oho(=o)ki*naru kobu a fu okina ari*keri. (SNKBT42: 9) P ro N 治 /s .P P e m p h a s is .N f/7e p 厂 esenf, m w .P P to p ic m a rk e r.N f/?e p a s f.N 厂 /g/?f.PP

face.PP lo c a tiv e . KD3B manS/2 to be; to e x /s f.A U X 3 A past. a ttrib u tiv e .N

b /g .N

lump, node.\/3B to be; to have.H an old

これも今U 普 、 右の顔丨二大なるこぶある翁ありけつ。

Once upon a time, there lived an old man with a big lump on his right cheek.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions ❷

4.5: Adjectives

77

7~an-KD-adiectives (峨 峨 た つ ） /?e/zen*far/( 平 然 た つ ）

soaring, rising above .“ ，higher tha n ... calm, impassive, nonchalant

kakko*tan• ( 雍 溜 た 0 )

firm, decided, steady, definite, solid

mou(=d)mou(=6Hari (

つ）

vuu(=u)vuu(=u)9tari (

vague obvious

厂 e/c/zewfar/( 歷 然 た つ ）

〇

一

たつ）

calm, composed

40: Sangaku gaga*to sobie*tare ba tori mo kakeri*gata*shi. (SNKBT 54: 212) N mountains.KD2 soaring in the s/cy.V2 to soar, to rise above, to be higher than A\JX4 resultative (being in a certain state).PP cause or reason.N bird.PP emphasis.V2 to fly

up to ....SFX-keiyoushi-\nf\ec{\on (difficult to ...). 山缶峨峨と聳えたれば、 .％も朔りがたし

The mountains rise above the sky so that even birds cannot fly up to the top o f them.

.

'

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.6: Phonological Changes

79

4.6 P h o n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s From around the middle of the Heian Period (794-1185)40 there were phonological changes in inflections (W atanabe 1997: 78) of fo u r word classes: 0 keiyoushiadjectives, (D the speculative auxiliary nari ( ^ 0 ), ® keiyoudoushi-ad\ect\\/es of the nar/-inflection, and finally © verbs (see 4.7.7). They are known as onbin ( -f-R ), and there are four different types : ① ( ウ音イ更）involves the vowe けu/，② /-〇/7わ/>7 ( イ 音イ更）the vowel /i/，③ hafsu-o/7わ/>?(撥音使）is connected with the nasal /n /，and ④ soku-onbin occurs with the glottal stop [?] which is written orthographically with the small /cana phonograph feu ( つハツ ） . The first type, ii-o/7わ/>7 ( ウ音イ更）and the second type ，/-onb/n ( イ 音 7 ( イ 音 使 ）the renfa/Tce/ ( 連イ本形：K3B) of /ce/yotys/7/-adjectives and the rer?y〇ii/ce/ ( 連 用 iTJ: V2) of verbs are phonologically affected 42 The third type /7atet/-〇A7b/A? ( 撥 音 R ) involves, on the one hand, the re/7fa/7ce/( 連 休 形 ：3B) of three word classes: first, auxiliaries which have the ra-hen-\jerba\ inflection (AUX3B) (see 4.7.5.4), such as the declarative auxiliary nar^i ( U 0 ); secondly, keiyoudoushiadjectives of the narZ-inflection (K3B); and thirdly, keiyoushi-a6\eci\\/es of the kariinflection (K3B) (see 4.5.2.1.2, 4.5.2.3, and 4.5.2.4), which also belongs to the ra-henverbal inflection group. On the other hand, hatsu-onbin further includes the 厂 e/?V〇i//ce/•(連用 V2) of verbs, as shown in Table 4 1 .The last type so/ov-onb/n (促 音 イ更）is observed among yoda/?-verbs，namely in their 厂 e/7V〇iv/ce/• ( 連用开多：V2). On the whole, there appear to be two factors which may well have led to the phono­ logical changes mentioned above: internal factors, i.e., phonological processes such as assimilation (a speech sound is influenced by neighbouring sounds within a word, thus creating a new sound), deletion (omission of a sound segment), insertion (addition of a new sound element in a word), and other processes; or external reasons such as language contact. Okumura (1972: 70-71) assumes that in the case of Japanese, both internal and external factors are involved. In sum, onbin-changes presumably occurred, first of all, through contact with the Chinese language. However, phonological changes 40

Shimonaka ([1954]1976: 34) asserts that these phonological changes had begun much earlier and were already becoming stabilised in the Heian Period (794-1185). 41 Some nouns which have the sound gt; (7 ( ウ 音R ) . Sentence O 41 from the Tsurezuregusa around 1330) written by Yoshida Kenk6 ( 吉 田 敢 好 ：1283?_1352?) has a /ce/yous/?/-adjective s/?/ro*s/?/ ( 白 L : w/7/te) in its u-onbin-fom: 0 4 1 : Migiha(=wa) no kusa ni momidi no chiri-todomari teshim o ito sh iro n i(= 6 ) oke.ru ashita, yarimizu yori keburi no tats»u koso wo(=o)ka*shikere. (SNKBT 39: 97) N pond.PP attributive. N grass. PP locative. N a red autumn leaf.PP subject marker.V2 to fa//.V2 to stop, to stay, to be still.PP copulative.N frosf.ADV very much. K2-u-onbin (white). V4 to fa//.AUX3B resultative (state).N morning.H stream.PP ablative (from).N mist. PP subject marker.V3B to rise, to go up.PP emphasis. K4 moving, impressive. 汀 の 萆 丨 二 紅 葉 の 散 り と ど ま り マ 、霜 い と 白 う お け る 朝 、遣 水 よ

0煙の立つこ予

をり、L け れ 。

It's early in the morning and the view I (can) see is very im pressive. A red (autumn) le a f floats down and is stopped by the grass at the edge o f a pond. Some very white frost lies on the (beautiful red) leaf. (White) mist from the stream is dispersing.

4.6.2 ハonb/Vi( イ 音 使 ） of /ceか〇asW-adjectives The re/?fa//ce/• ( 連 休 形 ：3B) of the /ce， y 〇iys/?/-adjectives (K) also shows a phonological change. The /ce/y〇6； s/7/:adjective /c/yo*s/?/ (清 L : c/ear, p/ire) of the /oy-inflection type is an example: its rente/7ce/• ( 連 体 形 ：K3B) is /c/w/c /•(清 J ). The deletion of the consonant /k/ of the inflection ending kiyo*kif gives rise to the form kiyo*i v'). The i-onbin of the s/7/7ay-inflection type is also shown below using the keiyoushi-a6'\ect\\/e tano*shi L : amusing, interesting). As can be seen, the i-onbin-fonr\ of keiyoushi-ad\eci\\/es has the vowel /i/ at the end of its morphological structure. As the last kana grapheme, which appears on a graphemic level in writing the i-onbin of keiyoushi-ad\ect\\jes is / ( い ），this type of phonological change ist called /-or7b/>?( イ 音 使 ）• Diachronic change

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

82

4.6: Phonological Changes

Pronunciation

,-onbin

K3A

K3B

kiyo*shi

kiyo*ki

l=>

[kijoi]

kiyoi

... 5 よ L

S ょ丄

tano.shi

tano*shiki

さょ11 ■=>

tanomsh^t

キヨイ

«=>

[tanoQii]

tanoshu た の

L

た の

L

たの

________ ____

タノシイ

of/ce/yotys/?/-adjectives clearly shows that the lexicon form (the entry form in dictionar­ ies) of Contemporary Standard Japanese of so-called /'-adjectives originated from this /•-onわ/>7 ( イ 音 使 ）which took place about one thousand years ago. Sentence つ 42 is taken from MppoD-e/fa/gura ( 日 本 氷 代 致 ：1688) written by lhara Saikaku ( 井 原 西 鶴 ：1642-1693). This work belongs to the genre iz/c/yo-zds/?/ ( 浮 世 萆 子 ）which represents the literature of c/7〇n/r?( 町 人 ： merchants and craftsmen) in the Edo Period (1603-1867). My following English translation includes contextual informa­ tion which is not implicitly expressed in the following Japanese sentence. O 42: Komesashi no saki wo(=o) arasohH(=i), waka*|}i(=i广 mono no i k i b ^ o M t i ) , tora hus*u take no hayashi to mi*he(=e)43(...) (NKBT 48: 42) N 'komesashi (a sharp bamboo stick used to determine the quality of rice in straw bags).PP attributive.N tip, point.PP object marker.V2 to compete.K3-i-onbin (yot;ng)43.N person. PP attributive.N vitality.N tiger.\/3B to lie.N bamboo.PP attributive.N grove.PP content. V243to look alike. (...) 米 亡

L の 先 を あ ら ヤ ひ 、 若 ひ 者 の 勢 、 虎 炚 竹 の 抹 と 見 へ 43(...)

The vitality o f young men who are competing to determine the quality o f rice by sticking the ‘komesashi (bamboo sticks)’ into rice straw bags is astonishing. It looks as if these vital men were trying to hunt in a bamboo forest where there are tigers lying (...) 4.6.3 Hatsu-onbin o f the a uxilia ry nar*i{^ 0 ), and o f the keiyoushh and keiyoudoushi~adiectiwes This type of phonological change concerns four different word classes: 0 the rentaikei ( 連 休 形 ：3B) of the declarative auxiliary rar*/• ( な り ），i.e., AUX3B

( な る ）；② the

厂 er?fa/7ce/• ( 連 体 形 ：3B) 形 ：3B) (連 用

of the r7ar/-type-/ce/youc/ousA7/-adjectives; ③ the /"er?fa/7ce/•(連ィ本 o f Zca/7-inflection type /ce/yot/s/7/-adjectives; and finally ④ the 厂 : 2) of verbs whose stems end with one of the consonants /b, m, n/ (for details

see 4.7.7.3). The nasal /n/ is involved in all of these four types of phonological change.

43 The orthography of the original deviates from the correct use of kana phonograms, namely wa/cai• ( 若 い ）and /77/e ( 見 え ） .

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.6: Phonological Changes

83

In the case of the first three types mentioned above, their rentaikei : AUX3B, KD3B, or K3B) ends with the grapheme る /ru/，which changes to the nasal ん /n/. The Japanese technical term for this nasal is わateu-on ( 撥 音 ） • Thus, phonological change of this type is called hatsu-onbin The following subsections describe the わ/>?(撥 音 便 ）of the first three relevant word classes listed above.

4.6.3.1 Hatsu-onbin (

o f the a u x ilia ry nar*i ( ^ 0 )

)

The diagram indicated below with the steps one to five shows the phonological change of the declarative auxiliary nar^i ( V 9 ). The speculative auxiliary m eni ( ^ 0 ) can be agglutinated to the rentaikei : 3B) of inflectional words which have the ra-henverbal inflection44 (see 4.7 ff., especially 4.7.5.4), to which the auxiliary nar*i ( ^' 0 ) belongs (see Step 1 ) . The standard composition of the declarative auxiliary nar * / ( な 0 ) and the speculative auxiliary mer»i 0 ) makes up the morphological structure of the expression nam vner/ ( な る め り ：see Step 2); as the auxiliary n?er*/_ ( め り ）can be agglutinated to the rentaikei : 3B) of inflectional words which have the ra-henverbal inflection,44 the auxiliary nar*i 0 : AUX3A) changes its form morphologically to A?ar«(i (AUX3B). Due to the phonological change of hafsty-OTわ/>?(撥 音 使 ） ，the mora ru ( る ） ，which represents a graphemic unit within the Japanese writing system, is deleted from the compound ( な、 A めり） ，and is subsequently substituted with the nasal ん /n / ([g])，and thus the form n a w m e 厂/ ( な ん め り ）is generated (see Step 3). The nasal ん /n/ ([g]) is not written orthographically in classical texts from early periods (see Step 4) because this phoneme (the smallest unit of sound) came into the Japanese phonological system through language contact with Chinese in the Nara Period (710-784) (Watanabe 1997: 80-84). Therefore, orthographically it is na*m eri(^' めつ） ，but the nasa 丨ん /n/ ([g]) has to be pronounced ，i.e.，/?avner/ ( な め つ ）has to be

Step 1 ゆ

Step 2 々

S/7i/iysA7//ce/forms ( 終 止 形 ：3A) before agglutination

Standard inflection forms after agglutination

AUX3A speculative nar^i + AUX3A speculative mer*i

AUX3B nar^u .AUX3A mer^i

な り + めり

なるめり

Step 3 ゆ

Step 4 ゥ

Step 5

Hatsu-onbin form

Graphemic form

na'a + m e r*i

na*09meri

なんめ

9

な め

0

Actual pronunciation

naTiTneri [nagmeri] ナンメリ

In the cases of all other verbal infection types (see below), the speculative AUX mer*i ( ^ the s/?£7£ys/7/7ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：3A)，to which meW ( め つ ）can be agglutinated (see Table 65 in Section 4.8). Verbs which form the morphological structure < V3A + mer*i >: yodanり ）requires

V ( m )，kami-niA/ ( 上 二 ），shimo-ni-V

(下 二 ） ，kami-ichi-V

hen-V ( 力 变 ) , sa-/?en-V ( サ 吏 )，and /ia-わenA/ ( ナ 交 ).

( 上 一 ），shimo-ichi-\/ ( T

一） ，ka-

84

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.6: Phonological Changes

pronounced n a ^2*n ie r/( な ん め り ：see Step 5). One finds the graphemically-phonetically matched form of A7avz*me/V ( な ん め り ）in documents or literary works more frequently from about the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) onwards, and this tendency increases in the Muromachi Period (1338-1573). Written documents from the Edo Period (1603-1867) generally use the n a s a l( / n / ( [ ji] , [ g ] ，[N】 ). Sentence 3 43 is from the ZWa/o/ra r?o sdsh/ ( 枕 萆 子 ：around 1001)，written by Sei Sh6nagon ( f 青少系内言 ：it is not known when she was bom and when she died), i.e .， Kiyohara Motosuke no Musume ( 清 原 元 辅 の 女 ：^?e daughter o f K/yohara /Wotosu/ce). My translation contains the missing contextual information in the following Japanese sentence. O 43: Ara*nu«na*meri. (SNKBT 25:15) V1 to /?e.AUX3B negation.AUX3B-/7afsty-on/)//7 of the declarative AUX nari.AUX3A speculative. あ ら ぬ な A め リ 〇)

あらぬなめり。

It is probably not (our dog) ‘Okinamaru’. 4.6.3.2 Hatsu-onbin (

)

o f keiyoudoushhadm ]ectiwes

Keiyoudoushi-adiecWwes of the nar/'-inflection type are composed morphologically of a noun and the auxiliary nar^i (^ ' 0 ) (see 4.5.3 and 4.5.3.1),as shown in Step 1 below: < N*nar/ >. Therefore, the hatsu-onbin occurs in the same manner as explained above (see 4.6.3.1)— as schematised in Steps 2 and 3 below — because the auxiliary nar^i ( ^' 0 ) inflects in the ra-/?en-verbal pattern (see 4.7.5.4).

Step 1 0 Shuushike丨•（終 土 形

Step 2 ^ KD3A)

anagachhnam. h なが％なo extraordinary, etc.

Step 3 ゥ

Renfa//ce/( 連 体 形 ：KD3B)

Hatsu-onbin ( 鞭 音 展 )

anaaachi.nar*u h なが％なら

あな、 >ぐ ち な ん

anagacni*na*[i

Sentence O 44, using the keiyoudoushi-ad\ect\\/e anagachi*nari ( b ^ ^ 0 * extraordinary, egoistic, unappropriate, one-sided, single-minded), and the speculative auxiliary mer*i ( ^ 0 ) demonstrate this phonological change.

O 44: Otoko anagachi*na»meri. (AC) N /7?ar7.KD3B-/?afs^-o/7/)/y7 (extraordinary).AUX3A speculative. 男 あ な が ち な め り 。 〇=>男 あ な が ち な 丄 め り 。）

A man seems to be extraordinary. 4.6.3.3 Hatsu-onbin

) o f fce/y〇£/sA?/-adjectives o f the fcari-inflection

The declarative auxiliary naW ( な つ ）can also be placed after the renfa/Tce/ ( 連 休 形 ：

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

4.6: Phonological Changes

85

3B) of the /can-inflection type keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es (K3B) by forming the composition < K3B + AUX3A nar*\ >: < -kar^u + nar*/ >. The mora i> /ru/ of -karu ( t) N^ _ ) is deleted, and instead the nasal ん /n / is inserted in its place, thus form ing < ( 〜 ?) 、ん な り ）>• We will see this phonological change in Sentence 3 45 using the びs/7/-adjective /c/ws/7/ ( 清 L : dear) whose 厂 enfa/Zce/• ( 連イ本形：K3B) of the /ca/Vinflection type is kiyo*karu ( ^ ^ ' ^>). Through deletion of the mora b /ru/ from kiyo»karu ( テ青り、る ）and insertion of the nasal ん /n/ in its place, the form /c/yo/cav?( デ青?)、ん ）is formed. Subsequently, the declarative auxiliary na” / ( な り ）is agglutinated to it: kiyo*kaT fnar*i(•;黄いんな 0 ).

Step 1 «=> K3A of proper inflection

kiyo*shi

Step 2 *=> «=>

K3B of /caninflection

kiyom kam ru_

潰し

Step 3 >=> «=>

Hatsu-onbin

Final form K 3B +A U X 3A nan

kiyo*kam n

kiy〇9ka*n*nari

清々、ん

潰 "ん な り

O 45: Ko no kaha(=wa) no mizu kiyo*kaTi*nari. (AC) ProN this.PP attributive.N nVer.PP attributive.N waterK3B-hatsu-onbin (c/ea〇.AUX3A declarative. この； 丨丨の水清り、んなり。

The water o f this river is clear.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.7: Verbs

87

4.7 Verbs (Doi/sAi/ [ 動 詞 ：V]) There are nine different inflection types of verb in Classical Japanese (see Table 42): five regular inflection types (se/7ca/ay-/cafst/y〇iy-d(xys/?/•[正 将 浩 用 動 詞 】 )，and four irregular types (/7e/?/ca/ai-/cafst/y〇(y-dous/7/[ 变 将 活 用 動 詞 ]). This section describes the inflection forms of each type, subtype, or group, as well as verbal phonological changes, which were briefly touched upon in Section 4.6. Regular verbs outnum ber irregular verbs, and they can, first o f all, be further divided into two subtypes based on the criterion of whether or not their corpora (collections of lexical items) are large or small. The first subtype has three different inflection groups: yodan-Zcafsi/you-c/ows/?/( 四 R 浩 用 動 詞 ：yodan-verbs，see 4.7.4.1 )，Zcan7/V7/da/?-/cafsuyot/-doas/7/(上 二 段 洽 用 動 詞 ：/ca/T7/-A7/-verbs，see 4.7.4.2 )，and s/7/n7〇-/?/-c/aA?/cateivyow-doi/s/?/ ( 下 二 R 浩 用 動 詞 ：s/7/A77CM?/-verbs，see 4.7.4.3). Among these verbs yodan-verbs ( 四 ）and s/7/V770-n/'-verbs ( 下 二 ）both have a large corpus, whereas the number of frequently-used kami-ni-werbs ( X — ) is limited to about twenty (see Table 49). The second subtype has two inflection groups, and both of them have a limited number of verbs: /ca爪 /-/ch/-dan-/cateuyou-do ⑽わ/•(上 一 段 洽 用 動 詞 ：/ca™-/c細 ^

4.7A .4)，and shimo-ichi-dan-katsuyou-doushi ( 下 一 故 法 用 動 詞 ：shimo-tchi-verbs，see Table 42: Verb types Regularity

Types

Regular verbs

①

yodan-katsuyou-doushi

Abbreviation

yodan-V ( 四

）

四R 活用動詞 ②

kami-ni-dan-katsuyou-doushi

kami-niA/ (

二 、

上二段活用動詞 ③

shimo-ru-dan-katsuyou-doushi

shimo-niA/ ( 下

二

)

下二段活用動詞 ④

kami-ichi-dan-katsuyou-doushi

kami-ichi-\/ ( 上 一 ）

上一R 活用動詞 ⑤

sfvmo-ichi-dan-Katsuyou-doushi

shimo-ichi-V ( 下 一 )

下一R 活用動詞 丨 「 「 egular

verbs

⑥

ka-gyou-henkaku-katsuyou-doushi

⑦

sa-gyou-nenkaku-katsuyou-doushi

ka-hen-\/ [力 D

力行变 将法用動詞

sa-/7en-V ( サ 交 ）

サ行变 将活用動詞 ⑧

na-gy〇Lhhenkaku-katsuyou-doushi

⑨

ra-gyou-henkaku-katsuyou-doushi

na-/?eA7-V ( ナ 变 ）

ナ行变 将浩用動詞

ラ行变 将活用動詞

ra-/?en-V ( ラ 变 ）

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

88

47.4.5). There are approximately twenty most frequently used kami-ichi-werbs (J=-—); some of them are listed in Table 53. On the other hand ，sh/>no-/c/?/-verbs ( 下 一 ）are only very seldom to be found and most textbooks of Classical Japanese cite only one

shimo-ichi-\/erb: k.eru ( 戴

ら

：to kick).

The number of irregular verbs is limited and verbs belonging to this type are divided into four inflection groups: to-gfy 〇(y-l?en/ca/«7-/catetyy〇(i-dotys/7/ ( 力 行 变 将 活 用 動 詞 ：lea/?er?-verbs，see 4.7.5.1 )， • ( サ 行 变 将 浩 用 動 詞 ：sa/?en-verbs, see 4.7.5.2) ，fia-sry〇6y-A?eA7/ca/ay-/cafsuyoi/-ctous/7/ ( ナ 行 变 才 谷 浩 用 動 詞 ：/iaわen-verbs， see 4.7.5.3)，and final丨 y ra-sryou-/?en/ca/ay-/catet7you-dcHys/7/ ( ラ 行 变 将 活 用 動 詞 ：ra-rten-verbs, 4.7_5.4).

4.7.1 In fle c tio n fo rm s and th e ir a b b re via tio n s As mentioned in Section 3.4, there are six inflection forms (see Table 13) for all four inflectiona l w ord classes (see 3.4.1 and Table 15), i.e., /ce/yous/7/-adjectives, /ce/youdous/7/-adjectives，verbs (dotys/7/[ 動 詞 】 )，and auxiliaries (/odous/?/[ 肋 動 詞 ]). The six inflection forms are ① m/zen/ce/•( 未 然 形 )，② renyoty/ce/•(連 用 形 )，③ sl7Ut/sh/7ce/ ( 終 止 形 ），④ renfa/7ce/ ( 連 体 形 ），⑤ /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ），a n d ⑥ me/re/Tce/ ( 命 令 形 ） . Classical Japanese has high inflectional regularity in all inflectional word classes while Modern Standard Japanese has lost, for the most part, this systematic characteristic. Verbs are the exception. This loss demonstrates the diachronic tendency of language change from morphological Complexity* to ,simplicity,. This book employs special abbreviations for word classes and inflection forms when explaining their morphological structures in the following manner: first, a capital letter, or capital letters o f each word class is/are indicated: lV for verbs, 'K 1for keiyoushiadjectives, ‘KD’ for /ce/youd〇£vs/7/-adjectives，and ‘AUX’ for auxiliaries. Secondly, an abbreviation of each inflection form, which is marked by numbers ‘1’ to ‘5’，is attached to them; the number ‘1’ stands for m/zen/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ），‘2’ for ren’yoti/ce/•( 連 用 形 ），‘3A’ for s/?mvs/7/7ce/•( 終 止 形 ），‘3B’ for renfa/7ce/ ( 連 体 形 ），‘4’ for /zer?/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ） ，and finally, ‘5’ for me/re//ce/• ( 命 令 形 ）（ see Table 43). As shown below, the abbreviations of verbal inflection forms begin with the number ‘1’，and end with the number ‘5’ in Classical Japanese. The number ‘3’ is divided into ‘3A’ and ‘3B’ so that there are altogether six different inflection forms. As for the verbal

Table 43: Verb inflection terminology and abbreviations in Classical Japanese

Table 44: Verb inflection terminology and abbreviations in Modern Standard Japanese

Inflection form

Abbreviation

Inflection form

Abbreviation

nvzenkef ( 未 然 形 ）

V1

m/zen/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ）

V1

厂 en’yoiy/ce/( 連 用 形 ）

V2

厂 en ’you/ce/ ( 連 用 形 ）

V2 V3

shuushike 丨 •（終

V3A

s/7i；tvs/7/7ce/ ( 終 止 形 ）

reWa/Tce/ ( 連 休 形 ）

V3B

/•zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ）

V4

/•zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ）

V4

me/re/7ce/( 命 令 形 ）

V5

me/re/7ce/ ( 命 令 形 ）

V5

m/zen/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ）

V6

土形）

一

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

89

inflection of Modern Standard Japanese, there are also six different forms; and their abbreviations are ‘V1’ ，V2’ ，‘V3’ ，‘V4’ ，V 5 ’，and ‘V6’ 45 There are two specific inflectional differences between Classical and Modern Standard Japanese. The first difference involves the m/zen/ce/ ( 未 穿 、 f lj: V1). In Classical Japanese, the semantic functions of contemporary V 6 (see Table 44)* were all covered by the mizenkei ( 未が、 开多：V1). This means that due to language change there appeared a new verb inflection form V6* in Modern Standard Japanese. There is still no technical term in School Grammar for this new form so that the V1* and V 6 1are both termed mizenkei ( 未穿、 fl 多）even though the morphological forms are in part46no longer identical. The second disparity concerns the verbal inflection forms shuushikei V3A) and renfa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：V3B) o f Classical Japanese (see Table 43). Morphological distinction between the two was fading away in the Heian Period (794-1185), for the rentaikei : V3B) was gradually taking over the syntactic functions of the stowsh/Zce/•(終 止 形 ：V3A) (Watanabe 1997: 97-104). Thus, from around the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) the rer?fa/7ce/ ( 連 钵 形 ：V3B) was frequently placed at the end of sentences (Onoe 1993: 13), although the proper sentence structure requires the shuushikei ( : V3A) for terminating sentences 47 For this reason, is divided into A and B in Classical Japanese, but not in Modern Standard Japanese in this mono­ graph. This method was taken in the first instance to highlight diachronic changes in the morphology of the Japanese language. Secondly, the author assumes that the readers of this monograph have mostly learned or are still learning Modern Standard Japanese. It would be easier for the reader to see changes based on the present inflection forms. The following subsection explains how this morphological change took place.

4.7.2 M o rp h o lo g ic a l change Table 45 shows the inflection endings of each verb type; it is elaborated on the basis of a reference book written by Nakamura et al. (2001: 13). The first line indicates the verbal inflection types in abbreviated fo rm : 四 （ yodan-V ), 上 二 （ /caAr?/-A7/-V)，下 二 （ s/?/mo-

ni-V)，上

一 （ kami-ichi-V )，下 一 （shimo-ichi-V)，力 交 （ka-hen-V)，サ 交 （sa-hen-V )，十 复

(na-/?er?-V)，and finally ラ 变 （ra-/?en-V). The subsequent second to seventh lines show the verbal endings of each inflection form starting with the m/zen/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ：V1)and ending with the me/re/Zce/ ( 命 令 形 ：V5). There is a bold vertical line (|) in the middle to distinguish between the regular (on the left hand side) and irregular inflections (on the right hand side). Within the regular verbs, the double vertical line (||) distinguishes the frequency of use within the regular verbs in classical works o f literature. There are Verbal inflections of Modern Standard Japanese are explained in detail in Katsuki-Pestemer (2008: 5-9). This difference occurred exclusively in the consonantal verbs of Modern Standard Japa-

芯: reA?fa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：3B) is used at the end of sentences when specific adverbs or adverbial Postpositions are used in front of them (see 4.9.4.1).This is called kakari-musubi no housoku ( 係 り 結 Z/の 法 則 ）and is used stylistically for emphatic expressions.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

90

Table 45: Verb inflection endings

V\

へ

yodan V3

kamini

shimo- kami- smmo- kahen ni ichi ichi

sahen

nahen

rahen

下

上

下

力

サ

ナ

ラ

二

二

一

-■

吏

交

交

交

上

V1

a

i

e

i

e

0

e

a

a

V2

i

i

e

i

e

i

i

i

i

V3A

u

u

u

iru

eru

u

u

u

V3B

u

urn

uru

iru

eru

uru

uru

uru

u

V4

e

ure

ure

ire

ere

ure

ure

ure

e

V5

e

iyo

eyo

iyo

eyo

o(yo)

eyo

e

e

N.B.:①：Inflection categories;②：Inflection forms m a n y y o -d a n -v e rb s ( 四 ）a n d s/7/Vr7〇-A?/verbs ( 下 二 ）to b e fo u n d ，a n d /cam /-r?/-verbs (上 二 ：s e e 4 .7 .4 .2 a n d T a b le 4 9 ) a re a ls o u s e d fr e q u e n tly e v e n th o u g h th e ir n u m b e r is

lim ite d to a b o u t tw e n ty . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c o r p u s o f /ca 爪 /- /c/?/ ( 上 一 ）o r s/7/>77〇-/c;/7/• ( 下 一 ）is re la tiv e ly low .

We will now focus on the inflection forms shuushikei 3A) and rentaikei ( i t which are marked with a grey zone in Table 45. The s/?(vi/s/7/7ce/ (終 止 形 ：3A) is primarily used for terminating predicates while the renfa//ce/• ( 連 体 fl 多：3B) has the main syntactic-semantic function of modifying nouns. As mentioned above, from around the middle of the Heian Period (794-1185)，the s/?mvs/7//ce/•( 終 止 形 ：3A) was gradually being replaced by the rentaikei : 3B) for terminating predicates. In other words, the rentaikei : 3B) gained a new function of terminating sentences without losing its original attributive function. This morphosyntactic change in the Japanese language still applies. This is the reason why the so-called shuushikei : 3) of Modern Standard Japanese can be used both as sentence terminator and noun modifier. With respect to the morphological changes which occurred within the shuushikei ( 終 止 形 ：3A) and the renfa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：3B)，Table 46 first shows how contemporary 休 形 ：3B)

verbs of each inflection type came about in comparison to their equivalents in Classical Japanese. Classical verbs used here are: hanas*u : to speak), sug9u : to pass, etc .)，osopi/ ( 恐 る ：to fea り，/77ソ>17 ( 見 る ：to see), /c.e/i;( 蹴 る ：to /c/c/c),卜 1/ ( 米 ： to come), s * i;( す ：to c/o)， （死 ぬ ：to d/e)， and ar*/’ （有 9 /在 0 : to be). The reader should be aware that, owing to morphological changes, demarcations between the stem and inflection endings of classical and contemporary verbs do not necessarily coincide. Table 47 shows results of analyses based on Table 46. Four inflectional types have retained their shuushikei 3A) form in the contemporary standard language of Japan ，i.e.，yodaA7-V ( 四 ），/caAr7/-/c/7/-V ( 上 一 ），s/?/A77〇-/c/7/-V ( 下 一 ），and /ia-A?e/?-V (ナ ). There are six inflectional types which have not changed their inflection ending of

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.7: Verbs

91

Table 46: Sentence termination forms of Modern Standard Japanese Vo-dan-V

Kami-ni-V

Shimo-niA/

V 3A or

V3A&B

V3B

V3B

V3B

hanas9u

sug*uru

osor*uru

V3

hanas*u

sugbru

osore*ru

Kami-ichi-M

Shimo-ichiA/

V 3A or

V3A&B

V3A&B

V3B

n riru

h e ru

V3

m卜ru

ke-m

Ka-hen-M

Sa-hen-\f

Na-hen-\/

Ra-hen-M

V 3A or

V3B

V3B

V3A

V3B

V3B

k*uru

s9uru

shin*u

ar^u

V3

h u ru

s9uru

shin*u

^CJ

1/1SJ CJ

MSJ

]

、 CJ

MSJ

Abbreviations: CJ: Classical Japanese; MSJ: Modern Standard Japanese; V3A: shuushikei ( 終 止 形 ）of Classical Japanese; V3B: renfa//ce/ ( 連 休 形 ）；V3: sA7m/s/7//ce/ ( 終 止 形 ）of Modern Standard Japanese. the renfa/7ce/( 連 钵 形 ：3B): yodan-V ( 四 ），/ca/7?/:/c/?/-V ( 上 一 ），s/?//7?o-/c/?/-V ( 下 一 ），/cahe/?-V ( 力 变 ），sa-/?en-V ( サ 变 ） ，and ra-/?en-V ( ラ 变 ）_Three inflection types have not changed either form of the sか ywsA?/te/• ( 終 止 形 ：3A) and the renfa//ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：3B): yodan-V ( 四 ），kami-ichi-V ( 上 一 ')，and shimo-ichi-V (下 一 ） . There are two inflection categories which have changed their original inflection endings of the re/7fa/7ce/•(連イ本 形 ：dB): /cam/:r7/-V ( 上 二 ）has changed its ending from -mu to -/Viy， and thus has shifted

Table 47: Verb inflection endings of f3A’ and f3B，

\ ®\ IS V3A

yodan 四

v^

kami- shimo- kaichi ichi hen

sa-

na-

ra-

hen

hen

hen

上

下

上

サ

ナ

ラ

二

一

下 一

力

二

交

文

交

变

u

u

iru

eru

u

u

u

+

+

_

+

+

_

+

u

uru

uru

iru

eru

uru

uru

uru

u

-

+

+

-

-

-

-

+

iru

eru

u -

V3B

kami- smmoni ni

N B .:①：Inflection types;②：Inflection forms; - : unchanged; + : changed

i

-

92

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

4.7: Verbs

to the /can7/’-/c/7/-V ( 上 一 ）；the sh/7770-r?/-V ( 下 二 ）has changed its renfa/Tce/• ( 連 钵 形 ： 3B) form from -uru- to -eru} and thus moved to the shimo-ichiA/ ^ T The above m orphological analysis clearly shows that the present sentence terminating form called shuushikei ( : 3), which also has an attributive function, did not arise simply through extinction of the classical shuushikei 3A). Rather, it has come to exist through conflation of both the shuushikei ( : 3A) and the 厂 ente/7ce/• ( 連 休 形 ：3B) of Classical Japanese.

4.7.3 A co m p a ris o n o f typ e s o f verbal in fle c tio n in C la ssica l Japanese and M odern S tandard Japanese As explained above, there are nine different types of verbal inflection in Classical Japanese: yoc/an-V ( 四 ），/cam/-n/-V ( 上 二 ），s/?/>T7CM7/-V ( 下 二 ），/cam/Wc/i/’-V ( 上 一 ）， s/?/7770-/c/7/-V ( 下 一 ）， ( 力 变 ），sa-hen-V ( サ 变 ），/?a-/?eA?-V ( ナ 变 ），and rahen-\J ( In contrast, Modern Standard Japanese has five verb types48: godankatsuyou-doushi (godanA/ consonantal verbs); kami-ichi-dan-katsuyoudo ⑽ か • (the new/ca 爪 /-/c/?/-V[ 上 一 R 法 用 動 詞 ] : the /nz-vocalic verbs); s/?/z770-/c/7/-dan/catei;yoiy-dousA7/ (the new S/7/V770-/CA7/-V [ 下 一 狀 法 用 動 詞 】：the em-vocaiic verbs); fragfy〇£v-/?eA7/ca/a;-/catetyy〇£7-dous/7/ (/ca-/7eA?-V [ 力 行 交 将 活 用 動 詞 】：the irregular verbs); and finally ，sa-gfyoty-/?e/7/ca/〇7-/catetyyoty-d〇iys/?/(sa-/?e;?-V [ サ 行 变 将 法 用 動 詞 ]: the irregular surti-verbs). The reduction of four classical verb types was stirred by the above-mentioned change with respect to the use of • ( 終 止 形 ：V3A) and the renfa/7ce/ ( 連 体 形 ：V3B) (Watanabe 1997: 98; Kawabata 1993:184-216). Through the conflation of the shuushikei ( 終 止 形 ：V3A) and the renfa/Tce/• ( 連 体 形 ：V3B) ，yodan-V ( 四 ）and ra-/?e/7-V ( ラ 变 ） came to have the same inflection forms with their endings of < a-i-0-u-e-e > 49 Also nahen-\J ( whi ch has only two verbs (shitru : to die] and itru [f±. Therefore, these three inflection groups were later categorised in one group, i.e., the present godan-verbs (consonantal verbs). The classical kami-ichi-\/ ( 上 一 ）and /cara-/?/-V ( 上 二 ）which have the similar endings of < i-i-0-iru-ire， iyo > and く 卜卜0-uru-ure-iyo > ，respectively, merged to form the new /can7/-/c/?/-verbs (the /mvocalic verbs) of Modern Standard Japanese. In the same manner, the shimo-ichi-^J ( 下 一 ）and s/?/V?7〇-A7/-V ( 下 二 ），as they have the similar endings of < e -e-0-e 「u-ere-

eyo > and < e-e-0-uru-ure-eyo >, respectively, were united in one separate group, the new shimo-ichi-werbs (the eru-vocalic verbs). Two irregular categories of Modern Standard Japanese, namely /ra -わe/?-V ( 力 变 ）with the endings < o-i-0_uru-ure-o(yo) > and sa-/?er?-V ( サ 变 ）with the endings く e-i-0-uru-ure-eyo >，retained their independent positions as irregular verbs. Watanabe (1997: 98) depicts these inflectional changes of verbs as shown in Figure 2. 48

T ranslations o f ca tegories o f c ontem porary verbs given in parentheses are not literal trans­

lations, but the term s used by K atsu ki-P e ste m e r (op. cit.). 0 w a s used to indicate the conventional

shuushikei

tion has disappeared in M odern S tandard Japanese.

3A) w hose independent inflec­

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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4.7: Verbs

93

Figure 2: The reorganisation o f Japanese verbs

4.7.4 R egular ve rb s This subsection explains the four types of regular verbs: yodan-verbs ( ^ : see 4.7.4.1), /ca/77/-A7/-verbs ( 上 二 ：see 4.7.4.2), s/?/>7?o-/?/-verbs ( 下 二 ：see 4.7.4.3), /cam-/c/7/-verbs ( 上 一 ：see4.7.4.4) and sWmo-/cW-verbs ( 下 一 ：see4.7.4.5). 4.7.4.1 V b d a n - v e r b s ( 四 段 浩 用 動 詞 ） This book uses the abbreviation yodart ( 〇a) for yo-dan-katsuyou-doushi 活用動詞） ，which means This term signifies that four vowels /a, i, u, e/ from the top to the bottom of the /cana-graphemic system (see Tables 3 and 4) are activated so that they have the inflection endings of < a-i-uu-e-e >. Phonologically speaking, it is assumed that there were eight vowels in Classical Japanese /a, i, Y, u, ii, e, o, 6/, as explained in Section 2.2. Three of them A, u, 6/ are extinct in Modern Standard Japanese. Therefore, when we read classical texts we pronounce each kana in the same way as those of Modern Standard Japanese. For this reason, five vowels /a, i, u, e, 〇/ are used for verbal inflections in this book. Table 48 gives the inflection of the yoda/7-/catei/yoi/-dous/7/ (yoc/a/?-V:四 R ;舌 用 動 ^ j) with the example of the verb hanas*u ( i t i ' : to speak). Various agglutination forms of inflectional lexical items using yoc/an-verbs ( ^ ) are shown below. Example sentences are from the 7"a/cetor/-A770nogaten• ( 竹 取 物 語 ：end of the 9th C) and are in part modified in order to highlight the agglutination. Missing contextual elements are suppie-* The classical s/7/AT7〇-/c/7/-verb

( 下一）

( 就 る ：fo /c/c/c) w as first integrated into the new

s/7/mo-/c/7/-verb ( T -^ ) group. Then, however, this ve rb began to inflect w ith a yo dan-inflection •n the Edo Period (1603-1867) so th a t its

shimo-ichHnf\eci\on and

yoda/7-inflection coexisted.

S in ce th e M e iji P e rio d (1 8 6 8 -1 9 1 2 ), th e n e w fo rm o f y o d a n -in fle c tio n , n a m e ly

godan-

inflection, has sta b ilise d (K aw abata 1993: 209). T his m o rp h o lo g ica l asp e ct is indicated in the diagram by a dotted line.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

94

Table 48: Ybc/a/?-inflection demonstrated by Zianas*!/ ( 詁 す ：to spea/c)

Inflection Stem form

Inflectional ending

Examples51of AUX, PP, or N that can be agglutinated to the inflection forms T to ‘5'

V1

hanas

a

ztv (AUX negation)， (AUX potential [can]; AUX honorative; AUX passive; AUX spontaneous)

V2

hanash

i

tar^i

(AUX perfect), ker^i (AUX past), ts9U (AUX past)

rru (AUX perfect), V3A

hanas

u

(lexicon form; terminative)

V3B

hanas

u

koto

V4

hanas

e

ba (PP temporative; PP iterative; PP cause or reason)

V5

hanas

e

(imperative)

(PseudoN nominalisation)

merited in my translations. Also, yoc/an-verbs ( ^ ) are listed and printed in bold type in each example. ❶

s/7/r^ ( 知 ろ ：to /cnoiy); ah*u(=u 0 ih*u(=u ■=> ( 言 ふ ：to say)

( 婚 ふ ：to marry); omoh*u(=u)( 思 ふ ：to Wn/c);

。

46: yo no kashiko.ki hito i w i tomo, huka.ki kokorozashi wo(=o) shir*a de ha(=wa), ahi(=i)*gata*shi to om oh*u(=u)” to ih*u(=u [u[=yu]). (SNKBT 17: 9) (...) N world.PP attributive.K3B noble.H man, person.ADX3A declarative.PP conces­ sive. K3B deep.N feeling; intention} mind; heart.PP object marker.V1 to know. PP negation.PP emphasis.V2 to mar/y.SFX-K-inflection-type (K3A; difficult to ...). PP citation marker.V3A to think.PP citation marker.V3A to say. 「 (•■•)世: の ？ ) 、L こ き 人 な つ と も 、深

f 心さ •• L を 知 ら で は 、婚 レ が た L と 思 」と 言 ふ 0

Princess Kaguya says/said: “However noble a man might be in this world，I don’t think I canju s t marry him without knowing how serious he is. (L it: without know­ ing him deep in his heart.)v ❷

oha(=wa)s*u ( K l i 彳 to come and visit); mau(=o)s9u ( tam aui^ol)( 給 ふ ：honorative: expression of respect)

申 す ：to

say); tamah*u(=u

3 47: (...) so no oha(=wa)s«u ram«u(=n) hitobito ni mau(=6)shi*tamah*e(=e)” to ih*u(=u). (SNKBT 17:10) H(.. ) ProN this, that.PP attributive.V3A to come and w's/f.AUX3B speculative.N people, (tiere: noble men).PP addressee.V2 to say.V5 honorative (expression of respect). PP citation ma「ker.V3A fo say. 51

Most of the auxiliaries have more than one semantic function, and there are many other lexemes which can be agglutinated to each of the inflection forms *1' (mizenkei to '5* {meireikei [ ]). Table 48 shows only some representative examples. Detailed explana­ tions of auxiliaries and postpositions are given in Subsections 4.8 (Auxiliaries) and 4.9 (Postpositions), respectively.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

95

「 (…）于 の お は す ら L 、人 々 Iて 申 給 へ 」 と 言 ふ 。

Princess Kaguya said: uTe\\ it to the men who will be visiting me." ❸

ih*u(=u & iu[=y 〇】）（言

ふ

t〇 say，to name, to calf)

O 48: (...) higashi no umi ni Hou(=o)rai to ihu(=u A jy[=yG]) yama arumari (...) (SNKBT17:11) ( . . . ) N east.PP attributive.N sea.PP locative (place of existence).ProperN Horai. PP citation marker.V3B to be called, to name, to say.N mountain.\/3B to be there, to exist.A\JX3A hearsay.(...) (…）東 の 海 I二 蓬 莱 と い ふ 山 あ る な り （ ...)

It is said that there is a mountain called Horai in the Eastern Sea. O ih*u(=u «=> iu[=yu])

to say, to name, to call)\ kahe(=e)r*u ( 'If ^ : to go back home)

O 49: Kaguya-hime nani ka katakara»rnu(=n) (...) to ihe(=e) ba, mina kahe(=e)ri*nu. (SNKBT17:12) ProperN Princess Kaguya.ProN what.PP rhetorical question marker.K1 difficult, hard. AUX3B speculative^...).PP citation marker.V4 to say.PP temporative.N all, everyone.M2 to go back /?〇A7?e.AUX3A perfect. り、ぐ や 雄 何 0 、々、た 《、ら 1 ；と 言 へ ば (...）皆*J 帚0 ぬ。

A ll the noble men went back home when Princess Kaguya said, {tHow can it be difficult (to fulfil the tasks /Ve given you)!" 4_7_4.2 K a /n /-m - v e r b s ( 上 二 段 活 用 動 詞 ） Ka/77/-n/-dan-/catei/yoty-d〇(ys/7/ (上 二 R 活 用 動 詞 ) ，which is abbreviated to /cam/n/-verb ( means two-step-higher-inflection verb. When we focus on the vowel /u/ which is in the middle of the vowel sequence /a, i, u, e, 〇/ of the Japanese graphemic /cana-system (see Tables 3 and 4), the vowels /i/ and /u/ are the upper two vowels52 from the middle position when kana is written ver­ tically, and these two vowels are activated in the kami-ni-yerbs ( ) with their inflectional endings of < i-i-u-uru-ure-iyo >. The grammatical term kamin/-da/7 ( 上 二 段 ：t/joperfwo steps) derives from this. Table 50 shows the verbal inflexion of/ca/77/-n/-verbs ( 上 二 ）with the example of the verb （過 ぐ ：to

a

u e o

pass [time]). The number of verbs belonging to this group is limited. There are about twenty kam/-n/-verbs ( 上 二 ）frequently found in classical texts (Ono 1988: 34). Many of the 52

u in th e m id d le o f th e vo w e l s e ­ u and th e vow el above, i. Similarly, 'lo w e r tw o s te p s 1inflection (see 4.7.4 .3 ) like­ w ise includes the u in the m iddle o f the vow el se quence and the vow el below it, e. It sho u ld be noted th a t th e te rm 'u p p e r two* in clu d e s th e

quence, i.e.,

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

96

/cam/V?/-verbs ( 上 二 ）listed in Table 49 are used in the Ma/o/ra /?〇 sdsh/ (枕 萆 子 ：around 1 00 1) written by Sei Sh6nagon ( 清 少 納 言 ：the latter half of the 10th C — beginning of the 11th C).

The following examples are from the Ta/cefo/v-rnonogafa厂/ ( 竹 取 物 語 ：end of the 9 th C) and demonstrate different agglutinations of /cam/-/?/-verbs ( 上 二 ） . O mits*u ( 滿

to be full of, to abound)

つ

O 50: (...) ya no uchi ha(=wa), kura»ki tokoro na*ku, hikari michi^tari. (SNKBT 17: 4) ( ...) N house.PP attributive.N inside.PP topic marker.K3B cfar/c.N p/ace.K2 to not be there.light, ray, beam, blaze.W2 to be full of, to be filled with.A\JX3A resultative (state). (...) 屋 の う ち は 、 く ら 5 所 な く 、 光 つ み ち た つ 。

There are/were no dark places in the house and it is/was filled with light. ❷

inab*u ( 铸

ぶ

to reject，to refuse，to decline)

O 5 1 :Ko no tabi ha(=wa) ikade ka inabi»mau(=6)sa*mu(=n). (SNKBT 17:18) ProN this.PP attributive.N case, time.PP topic marker.ADV how.PP rhetorical question. V2 fo re/lwse, fo ded/ne.VI to say; honorative (expression of modesty).AUX3B speculative.

Table 49: A list of kam i-ni-y/erbs hacbu ( 和 hin ab， u

：to be ashamed o f …) ぶ • to become provincial/rustic] to be peasantry, to be pastoral)

づ

ih u く ：to live) in a tfu ( 锜 ぶ • to reject，to refuse，to decline) koh*u(=u) ( ^ - 3 ': to love sb) mits*u ( 滿

つ

to be full of, to abound)

ob»u

: to w ear[sth around the waist]; to contain)

ohu

(起く ：to

opu

(飞

ち

ots*u ( 落

/释

つ

wake up; to get up) ら • to go down， to get off, to get out o f

to leave; to resign)

• to fall)

o y i/ ( 老 ゆ ：to gef o/d [animate beings])

oz*u ( 怖つへ• to fea り shinob.u [ S iぶ • to endure，to stand，to tolerate, to keep sth secret.，to hide) shinob.u (J思スこ• to adore: to yearn) sug， u ( 過 ぐ ：to pass [time], to live, to exceed，to surpass, to outdo) tsuk.u (尽く to run out o f t o drain) uranvu ( '\k V : to have a grudge against...) wab*u ( m : to worry about … to be embarrassed] to be in trouble] to be desperate) w[(=i)nakab*u # -5 '：to become provincial/rustic] to be peasantry, to be pastoral)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

Table 50: Ka/m’-n/_inflection demonstrated by

(過

ぐ

97

：fo pass /if/meT)

Inflectional ending

Examples of AUX, PP, or N that can be agglutinated to the inflection forms ‘1 ,to ‘5’

sug

i

zi ；(AUX negation)，厂a r * ( A U X potential [can]; AUX honorative; AUX passive; AUX spontaneous), ba (PP conditional)

sug

i

Inflection Stem form

V2

4.7: Verbs

一

far*/ (AUX perfect)，ter*/ (AUX past)，

rru (AUX perfect), ts*u (AUX past) V3A

sug

u

(lexicon form; terminative)

V3B

sug

uru

koto (PseudoN nominalisation)

V4

sug

ure

ba (PP iterative; PP temporative; PP cause or reason)

V5

sug

iyo

(imperative)

こ

の

た

び

辛

び

申

さ

u

。

How can I reject the marriage proposal (o f the prince) this time! ❺

ih u ( H

. to live)

O 52: Yo no naka ni iki te nani ka se*mu(=n) (...) (SNKBT17:19) N world.PP attributive.N in.PP locative (place of existence).V2 tolive.PP copulative (anc〇.ProN what.PP rhetorical question.VI to c/o.AUX3B speculative^...) 世: の 中 （ て生5 マ な

H

、せ ！；（...）

What sense does it make to live in this world! (Lit: What sense will it make that I live in this world!) Q tsuhu

(艮

< • to run out of

to drain，to give out)

w 53: Aru toki ni ha(=wa) kate ts u k i te kusa no ne wo(=o) kuh[(=i)*m 〇no to shi*ki. (SNKBT 17:19) R certain.H time.PP temporative.PP topic marker.N food.V2 to run outof....PP cause or reason.N grass.PP attributive.N root.PP object marker.N food (V2 to eaf»N things).PP resultative.V2 to make.A\JX3A past. ある時m ： u 、マ つ ？ マ 萆 の 报 を く ひ も の と l

5。

At one time I ran out o f food and I ate grass roots. (Lit. : ... and I made grass roots my food.) ❺

‘

(下

6 /阵

ち

：to get out o f •••)

54: (...) hune yori o ri te “Yama no na wo(=o) nani to ka mau(=6)su” to tohu(=u). (SNKBT 17: 20) (...) N boat.PP ablative.V2 to get out of....PP copulative (and).M mountain.PP attribu­

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

98

tive. N name.PP object marker.ProN what.PP content marker.PP interrogative.V3A fo say.PP citation marker.V3A to ask. (...) 舟 よ り 下 つ マ 「山 の 名 を 何 と り 、申」と 問 ふ 。 / got out o f the boat and asked, ltWhat is the name o f this mountain?11 ❻

sug.u ( 遇

ぐ ：to

exceed, to surpass)

〇

55: lsshau(=o) no hadi, kore ni sugur*u ha(=wa) ara»ji. (SNKBT 17: 25) N the whole life.PP attributive.N shame.Prob\ this.PP criterion marker.V3B to surpass. PP topic marker; emphasis.V1 to beA\JX3A speculative; negation. 一 生 の 恥 、 こ れ i二 過 ぐ る は あ ら r 。

There would be no shame which surpasses this. / This is the worst shame I would ever have.

4.7A3 S/i/zno-m-verbs ( 下 二 段 活 用 動 詞 ） Shimo-ni-werb ( T — ) stands for shimo-m-dan-katsuyou-doushi ( T — ify p i) which means two-steps-lower-inflection verb. This technical term de­ rives from the fact that its inflection affects the vowels /u/ and /e/, which take the two positions downwards beginning from the centre position of the vowel /u/ in the Japanese graphemic system. The inflection endings are therefore < e-e-u-uru-ure-eyo > as shown below. Many verbs belong to this category. Table 51 shows its inflection forms using the verb osor^u ( ^ 6 : to feat). Some examples from the Ta/cefo"-爪 o n o g a fa "( 竹 取 物 語 ：end of the 9th C) show how W n7 〇-A7/-verbs ( 下 二 ）are used:

Q nagaru

■to flow, to run [liq u id 】 ，to stream)

O 56: (...) Kuramochi no miko, chi no nagarunu made teu(=yo)ze*sase*tamahu(=u

ゆ

ty6[=cho]ze»sase*tamau[=6]). (SNKBT 17: 25) (...) ProperN Prince Kuramochi.PP attributive.N prince.N blood.PP subject marker.V3B fo s ケearn.PP limit (£7A7f//).V1 fo formenf, fo pi/A7/’s/7.AUX2 causative.V3A honorative (respect). ( . . . ) く ら も ち の 皇 子 、 血 の 流 る る ま て *調 ぜ 亡 せ 給 。

Prince Kuramochi made his followers punish craftsmen until their blood streamed ❷

u ( 得 ：to get，to obtain); tonsuts*u ( Y 〇檢 つ ：to rob and throw away), n/g.u ( 壶 to run away, to escape)] us*u : to disappear)

ぐ

:

O 57: Roku e^shi kahi(=i) mo na*ku, mina tori»sute»sase»tamahi(=i)*te*kere ba, nige*use*ni*keri. (SNKBT 17: 25) N reward.W2 to obtain ADX3B past.N avail, worth... ing.PP emphasis.K2 to not be there. ADV everything, allM2 to rob.\/2 to throw away.AUX2 causative {to make).\/2 honorative (respect).AUX2 perfect.AUX4 past.PP cause or reason.V2 to run awayM2 to disappear. AUX2 perfect.AUX3A past.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

Table 51: S/i/mo-n/'-Inflection demonstrated by o sor*u Inflection Stem form

一

4.7: Verbs

: to fear)

Inflectional ending

Examples of AUX, PP, or N that can be agglutinated to the inflection form *1^0 f5,

zu (AUX negation), rar*u (AUX potential [can]; AUX honorative; AUX passive; AUX spontaneous), ba (PP conditional)

V1

osor

e

V2

osor

e

99

tar^i (AUX perfect), ker^i (AUX past), tsmu (AUX past)

itu (AUX perfect),

V3A

osor

u

(lexicon form; terminative)

V3B

osor

uru

koto (PseudoN nominalisation)

V4

osor

ure

ba (PP iterative; PP temporative; PP cause or reason)

V5

osor

eyo

(imperative)

祿 得

1 ¢ 、ひ も な く 、 み な と つ 捨 マ さ せ 姶 マ け れ ば 、 逃 げ う せ I 二 け つ 。

Because the prince made his followers rob the craftsmen o f their rewards (given by Princess Kaguya) and made them throw these away, the craftsmen had run away and disappeared. It was (after all) in vain that they had received rewards (from Princess Kaguya). ❸ [；( 得 ：togef, to o6fa/n)

O 58: Wo(=o)una wo(=o) e*zu nari*nuru nomi ni ara*zu (...) (SNKBT17: 25) N woman.PP object marker.VI to get.A\JX2 negation.V2 to realise (dream, hope). AUX3B perfect.PP exclusiveness (only)A\JX2 declarative.V1 to^e.AUX2 negation.(...) 女 を 得 ず 成 ぬ る の み 丨 一 、あ ら ず （ …）

Not only did the prince not succeed in getting the woman (Princess Kaguya), but a ls o ... ❹

okos， u ( 遺_オ ■to bring sth to me)

^ 59: Hinezumi no kaha(=wa) to ihu(=u)*naru mono, kah[(=i) te okos*eyo. (SNKBT 17: 26) N f/re moひse (a fictitious animal).PP attributive.N s/c/>?.PP citation marker.V3A fo say,

to call, to nameA\JX3B hearsay.N thing.\/2 to buy.PP consecutive.V5 to bring sth to me. 火凰の皮といふなる物、 買ひマおこせよ。

Buy a tnmg wmch is called the 'skin o f the fire mouse7and bring it to me ! ❺

wo(=o)r^u

斤 ら •. to

break)

: 6 0 : (...) o.koshi ha(=wa) wo(=o)re*ni«keri. (SNKBT 17: 48) ( ...) PFX honorative.N hip, waist.PP topic marker.V2 to break.A\JX2 perfect.AUX3A past.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

100 御腰

(1 をれ丨二けつ。

The prince (fell down from the ceiling and) broke his hip bones. 4.7_4.4 Ka/nWc/ii-verbs ( 上

一 段 活 用 動 詞 ）

The inflection of this type has the vowel [i] in the endings of its inflectional forms, starting with the /7?/ze/?/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：V1)dow n to the me/re/Zce/( 命 令 形 :V5)，with the endings < 卜卜iru-iru-ire-iyo > ( s e e 「 able 52). As only one vowel，namely [i]， is activated, and it is situated above the vowel [u] which is the middle of the vowel sequence /a, i, u, e, 〇/ in the case of vertical writing, it is called kami-ichidan-Zcatei/yowdous/?/• ( 上 一 段 活 用 動 詞 ）which literally means 厂 inflection verb. We use an abbreviation kami-ichi-\/ ( ) for this type of inflection. All /caA77/-/c/?/-verbs ( 上 一 ）have the ending -/>u and their number is limited. Also, those compounds using a /caAT7/-/c/?/-verb ( 上 一 ）in the latter part of the morphological composition < V2*V3A > — such as oki*wi(i)ru ( 起 き ゐ h : to get up and stay still), mi*wi(=i)ru (1 わち： to stare at)， and hanare*wi(=i)ru (維れ7f s わ as sW?) belong to the ma-column ( マ ），na-column ( ナ ），/?acolumn ( / n ), and wa-column ( 7 ), respectively. The above-mentioned third step in determ ining /ca/?a-columns is generally not applied to the irregular verbs, i_e., fca-/?e/?， verbs ( 力 幻 ，sa-/?e/?-verbs ( サ 幻 ，na- わenverbs ( ナ 变 ），and ra-hen-verbs ( フ 变 ），because these technical terms already indicate that the Ira-column ( 力 ），the sa-column ( サ ），the /ia-column ( ナ ），or the racolumn (フ j is activated. The learner should be aware that the special term for irregular verbs primarily designates inflection types (see Table 42), whereas the third step deals with determination of graphemic columns activated through inflection. Summarising the methods of morphological analysis so far, we can now extract inflectional information from the verb /ca/fu (書く ：fo iv/vYe) by following the above three steps; it is a transitive (fe) yoda/7-verb ( ^ ) with the inflectional endings < a-i-u-ue-e >，and the /ca-column ( 刀 ）of the /cana-system is activated Thus, on the graphemic level of the /cana-system, where each kana comprises a consonant and a vowel (C V )— excluding vowels /a, i, u, e, 〇/, long vowels /R /56, the nasal /n/, and the glottal stop /Q/56— when we inflect the verb ZcaAfi/ ( 嘗 く ：to wnte), we have the 6 、， 5 ， く ， く ，け ，け （ /ca-/c/-/〇y-/〇y-/ce-/ce). All these different pieces of information are indicated in dictionaries as follows: 々、く 【書 く 】 （他 力 四 ）（り、

•く •く

•け•け）

A ZcaA?7/-/c/7/-verb ( 上 一 )，such as ( 着 る ：to w ears び?)，with the inflectional endings < i-i-iru-iru-ire-iyo >, will have the kana graphemes ki ( J ), /c/ ( J ), kiru { t kiru ( J ^ ), kire ( J ), and kiyo ( J 1 ) in its inflection. The following is the dictionary entry for this verb: 5 る 【着 る 】 （他 力 上 一 ）（J • 5 • 5 る • S る • f れ • J よ ） Intransitive sA7/>77〇-/7/-verbs ( 下 二 ） ，such as /c/’r*a ( 七刀る ：fo cW o //)，have the inflectional endings < e-e-u-uru-ure-eyo >. Accordingly，their inflection forms are graphemically 厂e ( れ ），厂e ( れ ），厂u ( る ），ni/x/ ( ろ る ），/x/re ( ろ れ ） ，and reyo ( れ 上 ） . The dictionary entry is, therefore, as follows:5.

/R/ is a phonological symbol used as a phoneme in Japanese linguistics which indicates long vowels.しikewise ，/0 / stands for a glottal stop [?] which is shown graphemically by a small 1っ /ッ The verb /c/fu ( 七刀る）can also be used as a transitive yodan-verb ( 四 ） • In this case, its morphological content and meanings are different: $ る 【 七刀る】（他ラ 四 ）（ら• つ• る • る•れ •^ It means to cut, to make a final decision, to divide, to set a deadline, etc.

112

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs 5 る 【切 る 】 （自 ラ 下 二 ）（れ • れ • る • る ろ • る れ • れ 上 ）

In the case of irregular verbs, there is no indication made in dictionaries as to which column is activated, as this is clear from the terms, e.g. ，sa-/?e/7-verbs ( サ 变 ） ，which means sa-colum n-irregular verb. The verb s*u ( i" \ to do sth), for instance, can be used both as an intransitive or a transitive verb with different meanings. This is indi­ cated as follows: す 【為 】 （l l サ 幻 す 【為 】 （他 サ 变 ）

We have so far seen three steps in the differentiation of verbs : ① transitive ，intransitive，or /7q/od〇i ； s/7/ ( 補 助 動 詞 ）；② type of inflection; and finally ③ affected column of the syllabary. The fourth and last step is to define the inflection form of each verb, such as m/zen/ce/•(未 然 形 ：V1 )，厂e/?V〇u/ce/(連 用 形 ：V2 )，s/uyush/Tce/(終 止 形 ：V3A)，厂e/7fa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：V3B), /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ：V 4)，and finally me/厂e/7ce/'( 命 令 形 ：V5). This is not indicated in dictionaries, as the entries for verbs are always in the shuushikei V3A). For this reason, this inflection form is called the ‘lexicon form’ in many textbooks of Modern Standard Japanese. In Sentence O 80, namely ou(=d)na aras/?/ osor*e*zt/ ( 磲 風 恐 れ ず ：ar? o/d woma/? does not fear a storm), we will demonstrate this procedure. This sentence contains the verb osor^u ( S ^ : to fearsth) which has the following dictionary entry:

6

【恐 る 】 （自 ラ 上 二 • 四 • 下 二 ）（リ • り • る • る ろ • る れ • リ よ ）

( ら • り • る • る • れ • れ ） （れ • れ • る • る る • る れ • れ よ ）

This means that the verb osor^u (iS ^ ) belongs to three different inflection types, namely /caAr?/-A?/-verbs ( 上 二 ) ，yoda/7-verbs ( 四 ） ，and s/7//77〇-r?/:verbs ( 下 二 )，all with the same meanings such as to fear, to worry about, or to be in awe of. This is due to language change in that the first two inflection types, i.e., the /cam/'-n/'-inflection ) and yodaninflection ( 四 ） ，were observed before the Heian Period (794-1185)， while from around the 9th century, it gradually changed to the shimo-ni-\nf\ec\\on ( T —). A morphological analysis is given below: 〇

80: Ou(=o)na arashi osore.zu. (AC) N an old woman.N storm.\/i to fear.AUX3A negation. 羅嵐恐れず。

An old woman does not fear storms. Ou(=Q)na (# ), meaning an old woman, is a noun, and is in the subject position. Arashi ( ^ ) is a noun used as an object of the sentence and means storm. Case marking postpositions such as ga ( ^ : subject marker) and w o(=o)( を ：object marker) are often omitted in Classical Japanese, as is the case in Sentence O 80. However, the context gives the reader cues as to which syntactic function nouns have in a particular

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

113

sentence. The predicate of the sentence osor*e*zu ( 恐 れ ず ）is made up of the verb (iS ^>) in the mizenkei V1), designating the meaning of to fear. Finally,

〇sor*u

the negation auxiliary zw ( ず ）in thes/?[viys/?/7ce/■(終 止 形 ：V3A) is agglutinated to it. The reader needs to pay special attention to the fact that the tense system is not the same as in English so the above sentence can also be translated as an old woman did not fear storms. Tense (non-past; past) and aspect (perfect ，progressive, etc.) are not always morphologically marked so that they have to be retrieved from the context. This means that the shuushikei 3A) can express something which happened in the past. 4 .7 .7

P h o n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s in v e r b s

Four different phonological changes which occurred in Japanese have already been explained in Subsection 4.6: ( ゥ音イ更），/-or?b/A7 ( ィ 音 便 ），hateiz-onto ? ( 撥 音 R ), and soku-onbin The first two morphemic changes are observed in yodanverbs ( ^ ); the third hatsu-onbin ( occur s in yoda/?-verbs ( ^ ) and na-henverbs ( ナ 幻 ; the last so/oy-onjb/n ( 從 音 R ) appears in yodan-verbs ( 四 ）and ra-/?e/7verbs ( ラ 变 ） ■In other words, yoc/an-verbs ( 四 ）are involved in all these four types of phonological change. These verb changes are known as the te-form ( テ 形 ）in the SLA or L2 (second language acquisition) of Modern Standard Japanese. This subsection also introduces a further phonological change called Acii-gro/7〇t/ ( ク l 音 法 ：see 4.7.8 )， which is used for nominalising sentences.

4.7.7.1 U-onbin

(ウ 音 慠

)

Should a yoc/an-verb stem ( ^ ) end with one of the consonants /h/, /b/, or /m/,58 the last mora of their 厂er?’yot//ce/•( 連 用 形 ：V2)，namely /?/( レ ），6/ ( び ） ，or n?/ ( A ) ，changes to the vowe けu/ ( う） ■These forms are used when a lexical item (a verb, an auxiliary, or a postposition) that requires the renyoukei (V2) is to be agglutinated to the verb. Uor?jb/>7 is the term used as the last grapheme of the t/- 〇 A7jb/>7 is ( う） . There are very few instances of the u-onbin of verbs in Classical Japanese texts, whereas it is very frequently observed in /ce/yot/sA?/-adjectives ( 形 容 詞 ：see 4.6.1). Figure 3 shows the process of this phonological change.

4_7.7.2 /-onb/Y?( ィ音ィ更） VVhen the stem ending of yodan-verbs ( 四 ）is one of the consonants /k/ ，/g/ ，o r/s /，such as /ca/fu ( 書 く ：幻 wr/fe)，oyoflft/ ( 泳 ぐ ：to si/wV7?)，and ( 指 す ：to po/nf af わ; to appoint sb to sth), there occurs a deletion of the consonants [k], [g], and [q] in their Those yoda/?-verbs ( ^ ) with their stem-endings /b/ and /m/ also show the hatsu-onbin ( 撥 音 使 ：see 4.7.7.3). Some of the gocfan-verbs ( 五 ）of Contemporary Standard Japanese, which also have the stem-endings /b/ and /m/, still have the hatsu-onbin and not the ( ウ音使） ，jn their re/?y〇i//ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：V2)_ We can, therefore, infer that the proper renV〇a/ce/(連 用 形 ）prevailed initially，and was later replaced by both their t/-〇A7わ//7- and 〇n6//?-f〇rms during the transitional period. Finally, the /?afsa-or7b//?( 撥音 •使 ）survived this Ian9uage change and this is the form which exists today.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

114

Figure 3: (/•onbiVi ( ウ 音 使 ）

V2

u ta h ru (= u i=>utauf= 61 l=>ut6 ) ( 取 ふ ：to sing)

u ta M M )( 取

to b w ( 飛 ぶ ：to/7y)

fob*/’ （飛 び ）

(2 (^=

ひ ）

or fei]

び /b i/o r[b i] み

■=> う /u/

/mi/ or [mi]

厂 e/?V〇t//ce/•( 連 用 形 ：V2);

i.e. /ca/c*/( 書 5 [kaki]), o y o fif/( 泳 ぎ ’ [ojogi])，and sa s/W (指 L [sa 如 ）change to /ca*/ ( 書 い ），oyo./’ （泳 い ） ，and sa*/• ( 指 い ）. Or, on a graphemic level, the graphemes ki ( J ), gi ( i - ), and shi ( l ) change to the grapheme / ( v' ) . Figure 4 summarises this change. The following examples are from the /■/e/7ce-mo/?ogafa/7• ( 平 家 物 語 ：mid-13th C). S enten ce。 81 shows the /-o/?jb/77 of the verb Zcalfi/ ( 書 く ： fo wr/te); S e n te n ce 。 82 deals with the verb ( 既 ぐ ：to fa/ce o/f [clothes]); Sentence O 83 has the /-onib/n of the verb vokodahef=e)sas*u (涉、だ へ 良 彳 • to hold sth horizontally around one’s waisf).

O 81:(...) tomowe(=e) ka• 卜taru hude no diku. (SNKBT44: 8) (...) N comma-shaped pattern.\/2-i-onbin (to draw/[design]).AUX3B resultative (state). N brush.PP attributive. N handle. (...)鞘 絵 書 い た ろ 筆 の 軸

(...) the handle o f a brush, which is decorated with drawings in comma-shaped patterns. O 82: Tsuranuki nu*i de hadashi ni nar»i, hashi no yukigeta wo(=o), sarasarasara*to hashiri*wataru. (SNKBT 44: 241) N 'tsuranuki (a kind of leather shoe)\\/2-i-onbin (to take offj.PP consecutive.N bare foot.PP resultative.V2 to become.N bridge.PP attributive.N girder.PP locative (place of motion).ADV lightly and quickly.\/2 to run.\/3A to cross over. つらぬ

J ぬ い て •は だ U て な 0 、 橋 の ゆ ？ げ た を 、 さ ら さ ら さ ら と は L O わ た る 。

He took o ff his shoes and then he lightly and quickly ran across the girders o f a bridge barefoot

O 83: (...) koshi no katana wo(=o) yokodahe(=e)sa-i te sechiwe(=e) no za ni tsuranar.u (...) (SNKBT 44: 9) (...) N waist.PP attributive.N sword.PP object marker.V2-/-oa7/)/>7(to hold sth horizontally

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.7: Verbs

115

Figure 4: /-〇/?わ//1 ( イ音ィ更）

M2-i-onbin

V3A

V2

ZcaAfu ( 書 く ：to mvte)

k a k - i( t i )

女a

oyog*t/ ()永 ぐ ：to si/wm)

oy 〇f l r / ( 泳 ざ ）

sas*u

sash*i (

o y o /( 泳 い ） '''" 細 •(指 、 ”

( 指 彳 ：to

point a t...)

Phonological level Deletion /ku/ /gu/ /su/

0

^

l )

/( 書 い ）

Graphemic level Insertion

m

き /ki/

/i/ /i/

ぎ /gi/

or [ki] or [gi] l /shi/or[Q i]

af wa/sf/eve/).PP manner.N jbamjft/ef,

ぐ

い

/i/

feasf.PP attributive.N seaf.PP locative.\/3A

tosit down next to each other.(...) (...) 腰 の 刀 を 橫 だ へ さ い マ 節 会 の 座 I二 っ ら な る （...）

(...) Tadamori held his sword horizontally at waist level and sat down next to other guests at a banquet. 4_7.7_3

撥音イ更）

Hatsu-onbm

is applied to those yodan-werbs ( ^ ) whose stem ends with one of the consonants /b/ ，/m / ，o r/n /， 59and is also applicable to na-/7e/?-verbs ( ナ 变 ）whose stem ends with the nasal In/. The last mora of their ren'youkei V2), namely bi ( レ’ ），爪 / ( み ） ，and n/ ( I二 ） ，changes to the nasal /n/ ( ん ） • Figure 5 illustrates tms phonological change. Hatsu-onbin also occurs with those inflectional lexemes which end with the grapheme ri/ ( る ）in their 厂e/7fa/7ce/•( 連イ本f l j : 3B) when placed in front of the speculative auxiliaries ibe-s/?/ (ベ L ) ，mer*/ ( め り ） ，and nar»/ ( な り ） ，or the declarative auxiliary nar»i ( 0 ): < ...ru*beshi >, < ...ru*m eri >, or < ...ru*nari >. The grapheme ru ( ^ ) changes to the nasal /n/: < ...m beshi >, < ...m m eri >, or < ...m nari >. The nasal /n/ which can be expressed using the grapheme n ( ん ）is usually not written in Classical Japanese texts. Therefore, one sees expressions such as a*m eri(b^> 0 : sth seems

to be there] sth/sb seems to be

or naTneri ( な

め

1) • sth seems to become ."•，sth/sb

seems to he •")• They derive from a .m v n e 厂/ ( あ る め り ）and /7a.ny/7?e/V ( な る め つ ）， respectively. When reading such expressions, one has to pronounce the nasal /n/ even if it aoes not appear graphemically. Some examples are given below. Sentence O 84 is from the Heike-monogatari 襄 物 語 ：mid-13th C).

59

See Footnote 58.

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negah>a(=wa)ku ha(=wa) hubo wo(=o) wa ga omohi(=i) no mama ni yashinaha(=waVshime*tamahe(=e)” to (•") inori.keru ni (...) ゅ

(SNKBT 55: 60)

60

This story is also known under the title of Da/efst;-/77onogafar/ ( 大 悦 物 語 ：T7?e Sfory and was written some time between the end of the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) and the beginning of the Edo Period (1603-1867) (Tokuda 1992: 56). The author is unknown. D a ie tsu ),

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

4.7: Verbs

119

Figure 7: K£i-go/?o«y ( ク 語 法 ） Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

Step 4:

Ku-gohou ( ク

购

iha(=wa)ku osoraku

日べ

■

恐らく

omoha(=wa)ku

思はく

negaha(=wa)ku

願はく

V2 to consult, to look up^-ku-gohou (to wish).PP topic marker.N parents.PP object marker.N /.PP attributive.N expecfaf/〇A7.PP attributive.PseudoN aff/7e mercy of.AUX2 to ねe.V1 to support sb.AUX2 causative.V5 honorative (respect).PP citation marker.(".). V2 to prayAUX3B past.PP temporative.(...) 「 抑 ざ 願 は く は 、 父 母 を 我 が 思 ひ to express special honorific attitudes of the speaker towards his/her referent. In this sense, they function as ‘pragmatic auxiliary verbs’. There are also

-

Descriptions and explanations of auxiliaries in Classical Japanese in this section are based °n the analyses conducted by the author of this book using the following articles and mono­ graphs: Hayashi (1972), Hida (1972), Iwabuchi (1972), Kaneda (1972), Kitahara (1972), K〇bayashi (1982)，Miyaji (1972)，Nishio (1972)，Niiyama (1972)，6no (1988)，Sakurai (1972)， Suzuki (1972), Tokieda ([1954]1978), Tsujimura (1972), Yamaguchi (1988), Yamaguchi (1972), Matsumura (2001)，and Nakada (1983). 62 T, 1nere are differing numbers of inflectional suffixes, i.e.,yodows/7/ (助 動 1司)，or ‘auxiliaries， ， as s〇me linguists include grammaticalised inflectional suffixes, and others do not. Ono (1988) defines 35 lexical elements asyodotys/7/(肋 動 詞 )，Kindaichi and Okubo et a l.(1999) list 36, and haizumi et a l.(1977) classify 31 ゾoc/ot/sわ/•(肋 動 詞 ） .

Chapter 4: Descriptions of Word Classes — 4.8: Auxiliaries

122

Figure 8: Auxiliaries of Classical Japanese in cross section ①

A list of auxiliaries in alphabetical order (see Tables 61 and 68)

0

Inflection categories (see 4.8.2 and Tables 64 and 66)

③

Inflection forms (see 4.8.3 and Table 65)

④

Agglutination types (see 4.8.4 Tables 65 and 66)

⑥

Semantic functions (see 4.8.1.2,4.8.13, Tables 62 and 68) ⑤

Japanese technical terms for semantic fimctio 门 s of AUX (see 4.8.6 and Table 67)

semantic differences between the morphologically independent honorative verbs and the bound honorative verbs. Because of these morphosyntactic and semantic distinc­ tions between the two, this book excludes hojodoushi ( ) from the word class

of jodoushi( 幼動 p ]). This section gives the reader an overview of auxiliaries in Classical Japanese. General characteristics are first described in 4.8.1. The auxiliaries are then analysed from different perspectives as shown in Figure 8, such as their inflection categories and types (see 4.8.2), their concrete inflection forms (see 4.8.3), or agglutination types (see 4.8.4). By reshuffling the auxiliaries according to different criteria, we can throw light on a cross section of the word class jodoushi ( : auxiliaries). Subsection 4.8.5 de­ scribes irregularities found among auxiliaries. Japanese technical terms for semantic functions are also given in Subsection 4.8.6 (see Table 67). Table 68 provides a sum­ mary of auxiliaries and indicates their morphological features and semantic functions.

4.8.1 General features of auxiliaries This subsection describes the main characteristics of auxiliaries of Classical Japanese from a morphological (see 4.8.1.1) and semantic perspective (4.8.1.2 and 4.8.1.3).

4.8.1.1 Morphology Japanese inflectional sufFixes can be morphologically agglutinated to both noninflectional word classes such as nouns, and inflectional word classes such as keiyoushi-3 d\ectives (see 4.5.2), keiyoudoushi-ad\ec{\\/es (see 4.5.3), verbs (see 4.7), and other auxil­ iaries. Their inflections reveal highly systematic morphological structures. This is sig­ nificantly different from the auxiliaries of Contemporary Standard Japanese, whose systematic inflectional features are almost unintelligible, for in most cases only their reA7’yot//ce/(連 用 形 ：AUX2) and •( 終 止 形 ：AUX3A) have been retained. Only some auxiliaries of Modern Standard Japanese, which inflect like verbs — such as re*ru

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

123

Table 61:Auxiliaries in Classical and Contemporary Standard Japanese Classical Japanese 1■ jberav7aW ( ベ ら な り ）

2. be*shi (ベ l ) 3. grofo/ovnar*/ ( ご と く な り ） 4. gofo*s/?/( ご と ！ ■) 5.

(ふ ）

6.7/( 1') 7. kenru(=n ) ( け U / け ん ） 8. /ce厂a*s/7/•( け ら L ) 9. /cer*/ ( け リ ） 10. /c/( J ) 11. maho*shi( i |1 l ) 12. m av /•(ま U )

Contemporary Standard Japanese 1. b” s/7/ ( ベ L ) 2. da ( だ ） 3. dear^u ( X b ^>) 4. desu ) 5. /r?/fa， /( みたい） 6. ma/ ( ま い ） 7.

n(ん广

8. A?a*/ ( な、、、） 9. m/ ( ぬ ） * 10. rare*ru 11. 厂as /?/./(ら L い 12.

厂e•厂tv ( れ ろ ）

13. ma*s/?/•(ま L )

13. sasevu ( さ せ る )

14. /77er*/(め り ）

14.

15. mmu(=n)( む / ん ） 16. mu(=n)z*u ( む ず / ん ず ）

15. (せる） 16. sow da ( サ う だ ）

17. n a r * /( な り ：speculative; hearsay)

17. s*u ( i ' )

18. nar*i( V 0 : definitive/declarative) 19. t r u ( ^ ) 20. ra n ru (= n) ( ら む / ら ん ）

18. fa ( た ） *

21■ rar^u (ら 6 ) 22. ra， sfv■(ら L ) 23. ra y u ( ら ゆ ）

24_ M ( 0 ) 25. r^u( 6 )

）

（さ す ）

19. fa” • （た い ) 20. ( ぅ） 21. you ( よ ぅ ） * 22. y o w d a (上うだ） 23. z u ( ず )* _ _

.

N.B.: The auxiliaries of Modern Standard Japa­ nese marked with an asterisk (*) are not mor26. ( さす） pholoaically demarked using a dot (•) between 27. shinvu ( L tJ ) the stem and the inflectional ending because 28. s*u ( : honorative) they are used only in these inflection forms in 29. s*u ( - f : causative; honorative; today’s usage•しikewise，some other contem­ passive) porary auxiliaries, which are morphologically 30. far*/ ( た つ ：aspect [perfective/ changed forms (e.g•バa [ た ] of the Classical resultative]) Japanese fa/W [た 0 ]，my [ ぬ ] of the Classi­ 31. fa r*/ ( た り ：definitive/declarative) cal Japanese zw [ ず ] , or yoa [ 棵 ]) are also not demarked. 32. te*s /7/ ( た L ) 33.

(っ）

34. yau(=d)*nar*i ( や う な り ） 35. y u (^p ) 36. zt/ ( ず ）

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(れる） ，rareTty ( ら れ る ），s e v i/ ( せ ろ ） ，sasevu ( さ せ る ），

(す） ，and

( さす）

— have complete m/ze/7/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ：AUX1) to me/re/Zce/• ( 命 令 形 ：AUX5) inflection forms.00 As far as the decrease in both the total number of auxiliaries (see Table 61) and inflectional forms is concerned, there is a general diachronic tendency from mor­ phological 'complexity* to morphological simplicity,. The same propensity was also observed in pronouns (see 4.4 ff.), and in adjectival (see 4.5 ff.) and verbal inflections (see 4.7 ff.). Another feature is a rigid morphological agreement between auxiliaries and lexical items which can be agglutinated to them. This linguistic phenomenon restricts the syntaqmatic (a relation of constituents in linear order) arrangement of auxiliaries in two directions: forwards restrictions, or backwards restrictions. In the case of backwards restrictions, auxiliaries cannot be attached to any inflection forms (i.e. ，/r?/ze/7/ce/ [ 未 然 形 ：1] ，reA?V〇t//ce/ [ 連 用 形 ：2], shm;s/?/7ce/• [ 終 止 形 ：3A】 , 厂 enfa/te/ [ 連イ本形：3B], /zeA7/ce/_ [ 已 然 形 ：4 ]，and me/re/Tce/ [ 命 令 形 ：5]) of inflectional words (i.e., K-adjectives, KD-adjectives, auxiliaries, and verbs). For example, the auxiliaries ( る ）and 厂 ( ら ろ ）can only be attached to m/zen/ce/ ( 未,然f l j : 1 ) ，/c/ ( 5 ) or /cer*/( け つ ）to rer?V〇(7/ce/•( 連 用 形 ：2) ，be*s /?/(ベ L ) and ； 77a/?o*s/?/( i ほ L ) to sht/us/7//ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：3A), while the declarative auxiliaries z?ar*/( な り ）and tar*/ ( た つ ） can only be agglutinated to r e n t a i k e i : 3B) or nominal lexemes. Auxiliaries not only specify the inflection forms to which lexemes can be attached, but also define which inflection categories these lexemes must belong to: keiyousmadjectival inflection, keiyoudoushi-a6\ect\\/a\ inflection, verbal inflection, or irregular inflection (see Figure 9). Further, they also determine which inflection types within these inflection categories are to be used: K-/fii-type ( • ^ ク ）or K-s/ii7fi/-type ( 开J シ ク ）；KD/?a/*/-type ( 形 動 ナ リ ）or KD-far/-type ( 形 動 タ リ ）；yodan-V ( 四 ），/ca/77/-n/-V ( 上 二 ） ,

shimo-niA/ ( 下 二 ），kami-ichi-V ( 上 一 ），shimo-ichiA/ ( 下 一 ），ka-hen-V ( 力 复 ) ，sa-henV ( サ 变 ），na-A?en-V ( ナ 变 ） ，o r ra-/?er7-V ( ラ 交 ） • For example, the auxiliary 厂 ( ら る ）can be agglutinated to lexemes which have the verbal inflection of/ca/77/-/c/7/-V (上 一 ），kami-ni-V

(上

二 ），shimo-ichi-V

( 下 一 ），shim o-ni-\/ ( 下 二

） ，ka-hen-V

( 力 复 ），び

sa-/7en-V ( サ 变 ） . On the other hand, the auxiliary ( る ）can be attached only to verbs of yodan-V ( 四 ），/?a-/?e/7-V ( ナ 交 ）and /*a-/?en-V ( ラ 变 ） . Most auxiliaries can be agglutinated to inflectional word classes, but some require, as mentioned above, nouns or noun equivalents to which auxiliaries can be added. In short, each auxiliary requires a specific inflection form, category, and type of antecedent lexical item for agglutination. Subsection 4.8.4 explains this feature of auxiliaries and Table 66 provides an overview of the relation between auxiliaries and agglutinations. With forwards linkage, many of the postpositions are involved, as they can be placed after auxiliaries. In other words, auxiliaries have to be in a specific inflectional form6 3 63 Owing to morphological changes，the morphological segmentation of verbs or auxiliaries

with verbal inflections of Standard Modern Japanese differs from that of Classical Japanese. Only the consonantal verbs have retained the segmentation of Classical Japanese, i.e., the stem ends in front of the last vowel /u/. The demarcation of the vocalic verbal stem and its inflectional ending lies in front of -ru in Modern Standard Japanese, as shown in Table

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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125

Concord: forwards restriction depending on the postpositions which follow. The conjunctive PP ba ( If) , for example, requires the mizenkei 1 ) in front of it to mark conditions; the conjunctive PP te ( マ ）can be attached to the 厂e/?V〇ty/ce/ ( 連 用 形 ：2) to express consecutive actions, or causes/reasons; inflectional lexemes have to be in the izenkei ( J : 4) if the same conjunctive PP ba ( I f ) mentioned above is to be agglutinated to them in order to express a point in time, causes or reasons, or recurring activities. Table 80 in Section 4.9 dealing with postpositions indicates this forwards syntagmatic relationship between auxiliaries and postpositions under the heading 'Agglutination*.

4.8.1.2 Semantics The main semantic characteristics of auxiliaries are their multifunctionality and polysemy. Semantically, they cover a wide range of grammatical or semantic categories, such as expressing speculations (can, could, may, might), tense (simple past, present perfect, future), aspect (perfective, resultative, iterative, etc.), passive, causative (to let sb do sth; to make sb do sth), desiderative (to want, to wish), cohortative (le fs do sth), hearsay (should; I've heard th a t...), negation (not), potential (can, could), honorative (could, would), irrealis should), and many others (see Table 62). Auxiliaries are polysemous as most of them have more than one semantic function. B e*shi(< l ) exemplifies this feature, having eight different semantic roles. Likewise, ( U / ん ）and ra n ru (= n ) ( らむ / ら ん ）both have seven different semantic tasks. Some have the same morphological forms with completely different semantic func­ tions, or ways of agglutination. N ar*i(U 0 ) is such an example. This can be used as a declarative auxiliary when attached to a rente//ce/• ( 連 休 形 ：3B) of inflectional words or to nouns and noun equivalents; it can function as a speculative auxiliary if agglutinated to a s/7mys/?/7ce/ ( 終 止 形 ：3A) of inflectional lexemes — excluding those of ra- わen (ラ ) words. Some auxiliaries are semantically conflated in that more than two different semantic functions are involved in one lexeme (see 4.8.1.4). The auxiliary ma*// ( ま ^ ) has, for example, a dual semantic case of negator and speculative at the same thus meaning sth may not happen, or sb may not do sth. Similarly, kem*u(=n)(け むハすん ）simultaneously expresses past tense and speculation so that the meaning of sth/sb must/may/might have been such and such is expressed. R anru(= n)(ら L、/ ら ん）has, on the one hand, a grammatical function, expressing future tense, and, on the °ther hand, a semantic function, designating speculation, so that it expresses the mean， n9 of sth will probably happen in the future, or sb will probably do sth in the future. Due to these features of grammatical and semantic multifunctionality, the given

126

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

context determines the meanings of auxiliaries as they are used in sentences. This demonstrates the high contextuality of Classical Japanese, which has been carried over into Contemporary Standard Japanese.

4.8.1.3 Components o f morphosyntactic, semantic and pragmatic functions By analysing the semantic polysemy and grammatical multifunctionality of auxiliaries, we can extract their functional components as shown in Table 62. They are divided into 0 deontic m odality (expressions which have som ething to do with obligation, command, or prohibition), (D emotive modality (expressions of desire, will, hesitation, etc.), CDepistemic modality (expressions of speculation, or hearsay), 0 morphosyntactic markers (grammatical categories such as aspect, causative, comparative, counterfactual, passive, tense, etc.), and © pragmatic markers (honorifics, or euphemisms). Due to this wide range of functions and their complexity, it is, however, not easy to make clearcut differentiations between these five groups of grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic roles. Nevertheless, the classification employed in Table 62 will serve as an orientation as to the purposes for which Classical Japanese auxiliaries can be used. Each classifi­ cation is briefly explained below. The first category ‘deontic modality’ deals with the notion of ‘necessity’，which can be expressed in the form of suggesting that one does something together (cohortative: lets do sth)t an obligation (obligative: sb must/should do sth), giving advice to someone to do something (/f/s ねeffe 厂 you’d he がe厂…；one shoa/d •••)，or a prohibition (prohibitive: dor?Y c/o stf?). The second category ‘emotive modality’ deals with the emotions of the speaker. The emphasis of an assertion or statement of the speaker can encode many different emo­ tions. The context makes clear which concrete emotion of the speaker is being ex­ pressed in a given situation. It could be astonishment, anger, surprise, disgust, happiness or one of many other feelings. The speaker’s wish to do something, or his/her hesitation because he/she does not know what to do or to say, can also be marked by auxiliaries of this group. The third group expresses epistemic modality ，i.e., the notion of ‘possibility’ in the sense that something can/may/might happen, or that the speaker assumes that some­ thing is true based on what he/she knows and/or believes. Johnson (2003) divides epistemic modality into ‘suppositionals’ and ‘evidentials’ depending on the intensity of the speaker^ belief or conviction about his/her assumption. If the speaker is less con­ vinced of his/her statement, it lies in the domain of suppositionals. However, should the speaker have evidence for his/her speculation, it has to do with evidentials. A distinction between suppositionals and evidentials is also clearly made in Contemporary Standard Japanese. Classical Japanese speculative auxiliaries have, however, a particular fea­ ture which those o f Contemporary Standard Japanese do not have, i.e., semantic conflation. This characteristic will be explained in Subsection 4.8.1.4. The fourth group deals with auxiliaries which function as morphosyntactic markers. Many of them are so-called grammatical categories such as aspect (time structure of an activity or state described in a sentence, such as the beginning or end of an event, or

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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4.8: Auxiliaries

127

an event in progress), causative, imperative, passive, potentialis, tense, and many others. The last group is pragmatic markers, which indicate a stance of the speaker to­ wards his/her interlocutor in a given discourse. Auxiliaries rar^u ( ^ 6 ), r^u ( 6 ) , sas^u ( ) , shinru ( l L ' ), and smu ( ) deal with honorifics. By using these honorative auxiliaries in the predicate, the speaker expresses his/her respect towards and thus highlights the person who is the subject of the sentence. Auxiliaries of this group can also indicate that the speaker is being indirect. An analysis of the auxiliaries in Table 62 shows without a doubt that their main function is to mark morphosyntactic relations, with sixty auxiliaries being used in this way. The second most frequent function is epistemic modality (twenty-two auxiliaries), emotive modality is in third place with fourteen auxiliaries, followed by eleven pragmatic markers, while nine auxiliaries indicate deontic modality. On the whole, modality components are very numerable. There are several definitions of the term ‘modality’. It is defined as a speaker’s psychological attitude (Johnson 2 0 0 3 :1 );an opinion or attitude of the speaker based on the observations of logical behaviour (Lyon 1977: 452, in [Johnson 2003: 2]); the expression of an agent’s judgement or impression (Masuoka 1989, in [Johnson 2003: 28】 ) .As Johnson points out, the term ‘modality’ encompasses a wide range of concepts (ibid.: 2). Hence, this book includes the expression of emotions in the category of lmodality,. The speaker has particular attitudes or emotions, which are expressed in what he/she says，and for this reason the term ‘emotive modality’ is used. The sentiments expressed depend on the context, so that they can be anger, sadness, hesitation, hopes and wishes, fear, happiness, just to mention a few. Pragmatic markers also express attitudes of the speaker towards the interlocutor or the referent. Accordingly, one can conclude that half of the auxiliaries of Classical Japanese fulfil modality functions in a sense that they indicate attitudes or emotions of the speaker to propositions he/she is expressing, or in the case of pragmatic markers, they indicate the attitudes of the speaker to the interlocutor or the referent. The other auxiliaries indicate morphosyntactic func­ tions for forming specific sentence structures such as causatives, comparatives, conditionals, passives, or potentialis. Thus, if we summarise the functions of auxiliaries, we have five main groups: deontic modality, emotive modality, epistemic modality, morphosyntactic markers, and prag­ matic markers. As can be seen from Table 62, they primarily indicate morphosyntactic roles (60 functions). Secondly, they also deal with speculative assumptions, having twenty-two epistemic modality functions which express probabilities with regard to actions, events, matters and things. In addition, there are six pragmatic marker auxilia­ ries which are used to avoid direct statements. Thus, Classical Japanese auxiliaries involve a rich variety of linguistic strategies to avoid making direct statements in discourse.

128

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一

4.8: Auxiliaries

Table 62: Functions of auxiliaries in Classical Japanese ①

Deontic modality (9) • cohortative (1) • giving advice (5)

• imperative (1) • obligation (1) • prohibitive (prohibition)(1) ②

be*shi ( ベ い mam ji ( 1 l )

1

Emotive modality (14> • desiderative (wish) (3) • emotive (exclamative: astonishm e n t)(1) • emotive (emphasis) (2) • hesitation (1) • plan (1) • volitional (intention) (6)

③

… （U / ん ） be*shi ( l ); ma*y/ ( 4 ^ )； ( U / ん ）； muf=n)z.u ( む ず / ん ず ）； (ぬ） •(ベ L )

ma わo*sA?/• ( ま ほ L ); ( た L ); 3 ^ (= 6 ル 8广/ ( や う な つ ） /cer*/ ( け つ ） (っ）

（ぬ ）；

ma*shi ( i l ) be*shi ( ^ L ) ibe*s/7/(ベ L );ノ 7( L ); /r?av7( ま IT ); ( む / ん ）； mu(=n)z*u ( U ず / ん ず ）；/?*1/ ( ぬ ）

Epistemic modality (22) • appearance (1) • hearsay (4)

yau(=o)nar^i ( や う な 、つ ）

• resemblance (1) • speculative (speculation, assumption) (16)

goto*sh丨 • （ご '^ L ) beranah ( ベ ら な 0 )•，be*shi ( ベ 1

/ce爪 •i/(r=/7)( け む / け ん ） ；/cer*/ ( け つ ） nar*/ ( な つ ）：厂a/7?〜(=nバ ら む / ら ん ）

ゾ 7 ( じ ）；

パ け む

)•，

/ け ん ）；

kera.shf ( け ら L ); may/ ( i V ); (ま

L ); mer»/ ( め り ）；

rtTU(=n) ( V /

ん )■，mu(=n)z*u

ん ず ）；r?aW( な り

(U彳 /

） , A7〜 （ぬ ）；

厂 a/77*i/(=A7)( ら む / ら ん ）;厂a*s/?/ (ら

tar*i ( f : 0 、.，ts*u ( っ

© Morphosyntactic markers designating various semantic functions (60) • agentless happenings (3) • aspect (11) ■adjectival (1) • durative (continuity/ duration)(1) • habitual/iterative (1)

厂

( ら る ）；

ter*/ ( た り ）

h*u (-3') h*u (-3')

L );

、

( る ）；y u ( ゆ ）

_

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

129

■ perfective/terminative /?〜 （ぬ ）；r*/ ( り ）；far*/ ( た り ）；炫 ル （っ (an end; termination) (4) ■progressive (1) ■ resultative (3) /c/( 5 ) ; r * / ( つ ）；farv• ( た り ） • cause/reason (2) ram*u(=n) ( ら L’ / ら ん ）；ra*s/?/ ( ら L ) • causative (3) sas*u ( ^ ); shirrru ( l L ' ); s9u ( i " ) • citing examples (2) gofo.s/?/ ( ご と L )， • va 以 =d)nar>/ ( や う な り ） • comparative (3) gotolw nar^i ( ご Y くな 〇 )] got〇9shi ( Y L ); • conditionals (2) • copulative (3) • irrealis (counterfactual) (3)

vau(=d)nar^i ( や う な り ） n ru (= n ) ( し’ / ん ）； (ぬ " • 1/ (

ぬ ）；far*/

gotolw naM

(

(ご

）

(

た り ）；

Y

）

っ ）

くな 〇 )•，

ma*shi ( t L ); vau(=o)nar*i ( や う な つ ） • declarative (2) • existence (sth/sb e x is ts )(1) • interrogative (3) ■general question (1) ■ rhetorical question (2) • negation (3) • passive (4) • potentialis (6)

r?ar*/ ( nar*/ (

■past: a point of time in the past (4) ■past: retrospect (thinking about events or situations in the p a s t)(1) ■ present (2) ⑤

な つ ）

ranru(=n) (ら L’ / ranru(=n) (ら U /

らん） ら ん ）; nru(=n)

y/( r ) ; ma *//(ま r ) ; z w ( ず 厂 ( ら ふ ）； ( る ）； (

(U /

ん ）

） す ）；y

t;(

ゆ ）

be*s/v■(ベ L ); mayi ( i V ); rar^u ( らも） ； 厂 ayu

• temporative (tense) (9) ■future (2)

な り ）；fa/W ( た り ）

( ら ゆ ）；

( る ）; y i / ( ゆ ）

nru(=n) ( L V ん ）； rwj(=n)z*u ( L’ ず / ん ke nru(= n) ( け U / け

ず ） ん ）；

/cera*s/7/ ( け ら L ); /cer*/ ( /cer»/• ( け り ）

け り

） ; /«• ( 5 )

mer*/ ( め り ）；ra rrru(= n) ( ら む / ら ん ）

Pragmatic markers ( 1 1 ) _________ • euphemism (avoiding making definitive statements) (6)

ke n ru (= n ) (け tJ /

• honorative (5)

rar*u ( ^ 6 ); r*u ( 6 ); sas*u ( t i shirrru ( l L ' ); s*iy ( -f )

け ん ）；

/ce厂 • ( け ら L ); mer*/ ( め つ ）； n ru (= n ) ( む / ん ）; ranru(=n ) (ら L’ / ら ん ）； vau(-d)nar*i ( や う な 9 ) ' )；

^ B.：The number of auxiliaries in each function is given in parentheses. Due to the multifunctionality 〇f auxiliaries, one and the same item can belong to many different morphosyntactic and semantic function groups.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

130

4.8.1.4 Conflation o f functions

A componential analysis of auxiliaries highlights a further feature, namely the conflation of functions. Table 63 shows that eight out of thirty-six auxiliaries have more than one semantic function. Most of them have dual functions. The speculative auxiliary kenru(=n) (けむ/ けん） ，fo r example, is also a tense marker so that the speaker expresses his/ her assumption about something which took place in the past. The other speculative auxiliary ranru(=n) ( ^ V l L ) marks a present tense so that the speaker is expressino his/her speculation over something which is taking place at present. There are also semantic conflations of ‘speculation’ and ‘negation’ such as y7 ( じ ）and ma*// ( ま IT).

Table 63: Conflation of semantic functions Auxiliary

Components

jbe-s/?/• ( ベ L )

0 potential + speculative

sb might be able to ... gotokunar^i (

ご 't: くな

0)

①

resemblance + counterfactual

sth/sb looks like, as i f ... n

①

〇

speculative + negation

sth/sb will probably n o t... ②

/cem.i/pA?)( け L' / け ん ）

①

volitional + negation / am not willing to ... hearsay + indirect speech

1have heard th a t... ma*ji ( i T )

0 potentialis + speculative + negation

it is probably the case that sb can n o t... ②

speculative + an emphatic negation

sth/sb will definitely n o t... 厂

(

ら

/ らん）

①

speculative + interrogative + cause/reason + present tense

why is sth probably happening? / why would sb probably do sth? ②

speculative + present tense

sth/sb must be n o w ... (D speculative + cause/reason + present tense

the reason for sth is probably... ④

speculative + rhetorical question

is sth/sb •••? (No, it/he/she isn’t) ra9s h i( ^ l )

0 speculative + cause/reason

sth is definitely the reason fo r... vau(-6)nar*i ( や う な り ）

①

appearance + counterfactual

sth/sb looks like as if...

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

131

Some have triple functions. Furthermore, ram.u(= n ) ( ら U / ら ん ）is even involved in four semantic functions as shown in Table 63.

4.8.2 Auxiliaries and inflection categories As mentioned in Chapter 3 (see also Tables 12 and 15), there are four inflectional word classes in C lassical Japanese: keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es [K]), keiyoudoushiadjectives ( 形 容 動 詞 [KD]), verbs ( 動 詞 [V]), and finally auxiliaries ( 助 動 詞 [AUX]). Kadjektives, KD-adjectives, and verbs have their own inflection categories, whereas auxiliaries can be categorised into one of these three inflection categories plus an irregular category (see Figure 9): 0 keiyoushi-ad\ect\\je inflection (see Tables 32 and 33),② /ce/y〇(； d 〇£ys/7/-adjective inflection (see Table 40 )，③ verbal inflection (see Table 45), and ④ irregular inflection. As can be seen in Table 64, there are no auxiliaries with

the shimo-ichi-V (

下 一 ），kami-ichi-V

( 上 一 ），kami-ni-V ( 上

二

） ，or ka-hen-V ( 力

炎

)

inflections.

Table 64: Auxiliaries and their inflection categories and types © Keiyoushi-adiectNe inflection /a/-inflection ( 形 ク ）

be*shi (ベ 1

)，gotcfshi (ご

Y 1

)，ta ， sh i ( f こ L

)

s/7/to-inflection ( 形 シ ク ） maho*shi ( t i l l ) , ma9ji ( i T )

重カナリ） beranar*i ( ベ ら な 1) ) ，gotokunari ( ご

na 厂/^inflection (

( = ra-/?en-V [ ラ 交 ])

Y

くな

0

)，

nar^i ( U 0 ), vau(-d)nar*i ( や う な 、り）

far/-inflection ( 形 動 タ リ ） far*/ ( た り ） ( = ra-/?e/7-V [ ラ 交 ]) L ③ Verbal inflection

]

yocten-V ( 四 ）

/?•£；( ふ ） ： /Ce/77*W=A7)(け U / け ん ） ：A77^(=A7) ( L' / ん） ：厂aA77*l/(=A^ (ら L’ / らん） ： (す）

shimo~m-V ( 下 二 )

厂ar*u ( ら る ）；

(

( さ す ）；

sa-hen-\/ ( サ D na-hen-V ( ナ ra-hen-V (

复

ラ复

mu(=n)z*u ( U

丨 rregu 丨 ar

(っ）

/ んず）

rru ( ^ )

)

/cer*/( け り ） ；mer*/ ( め 9 ); r?ar»/(な り ） ；r * / ( つ） ； far*/ ( た つ ）

inflection ( 特 殊 ） ゾ 7 ( じ ），/ce厂

^-----

ゆ ）；

)

^--------j

ず

る 〉；厂 a y u ( ら ゆ ）；y t / ( (彳） ； ( L む ）；

ra.shf (

(けら L ) ，/c/( S ) ，ma.s/?/(ま L )，

ら い ，zu

(ず )

132

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

4.8.3 Auxiliaries and inflection forms Auxiliaries have inflection forms just like any other inflectional word classes such as keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es (see 4.5.2), keiyoudoushi-ad\ecW\/es (see 4.5.3), and verbs (see 4.7): m/zen/ce/( 未 然 形 ：AUX1), re/?V〇i//ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：AUX2), s/?mis/7/7ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：AUX3A )， 厂 eWa/te/•(連 休 形 : AUX3B)，/zer?/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ：AUX4)，and finally me/re/7ce/(命 令 形 ：八1 ^5 ). There are, however, some exceptions in that some auxiliaries are not equipped with all these inflection forms. For example, the auxiliaries j i ( T ), nru(=n) (V / た ），mu(=n)z*u 1；ず / んず) ，/ パ け LV け ん ） ，/ce厂a*s/?/(けら L ), ranru(=n ) ( らL 、/ らん ） ，and ra*s/7/ (ら L ) do not have m/zen/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：AUX1) ，厂 er?V 〇i//ce/ ( 連 用 : AUX2)，or me/re/Zce/ ( 命 命 形 ：AUX5); in the case of the auxiliaries (ま L )， W ( J )，and /cer*/ ( け つ ）， the inflection forms re/?V〇£7/ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：AUX2) and me/re/7⑻ • （命 令 形 ：AUX5) are missing; the auxiliaries ta*shi ( / c l ) , be*shi( < l ), and ma*ji ( t T ) are without meireikei ( 命 令 形 ：AUX5); the speculative auxiliaries mer*/ ( め り ）and nar*/ ( な つ ）do not possess m/zen/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：AUX1) or me/re/Tce/• ( 命 令 形 ：AUX5); the auxiliary goto*s /?/(ごと L ) lacks rn/zen/ce/( 未 然 形 : AUX1), /zer?/ce/• ( 已 然 形 : AUX4), and me/Vie/7ce/(命 令 形 : AUX5). Table 65 shows this inflectional irregularity. The use of this table is explained below. Inflection forms ‘AUX1 (A7?/zeA?/ce/• [ 未 然 形 】 )’ to ‘AUX5 (/ze/7/ce/ [ 已 然 形 ])’ are indicated horizontally in Table 65. The shuushikei ( : AUX3A) occurs twice: at the beginning in the form in which it appears in dictionaries; and in the middle according to the sequence of inflection forms ‘ 1 (m/zer?/ce/ [ 未 然 形 ])’ to ‘5 (/zen/ce/ [ 已 然 形 】 )’. The last column indicates the inflection type of each auxiliary (cf. Table 64). This can be traced by analysing the auxiliary endings. The AUX r*u ( ^> ) has, for example, the sequential ending < e-e-u-uru-ure-eyo >, the s/7/n7〇-n/-inflection. Likewise, the AUX m*u ( L ' ) has a yodan-inflection with its (a)-(i)-u-u-e-(e) sequence; the mizenkei ( 形 ：AUX1 )，厂 en’yoa/ce/ ( 連 用 形 ：AUX2), and me/•厂 e/7ce/ ( 命 令 形 ：AUX5) are ，however, missing due to language change. The auxiliaries in Table 66 are also arranged according to their agglutination. Auxil­ iaries of the first group O can be agglutinated to the mizenkei ( : K1/KD1A/1/ AUX1); those of the second group ❷ can be agglutinated to the 厂 (連 用 形 ： K2/KD2A/2/AUX2); the third group © includes those which mainly require the shuushikei ( 終 止 形 ：K3A/KD3A/V3A/AUX3A) to be placed in front of them; the fourth group ❹ involves those which primarily require the re/?fa//ce/ ( 連 体 形 ：K3B/KD3B/V3B/AUX3B) to be placed in front of them; nouns or noun equivalents such as nominalised sen­ tences can also precede auxiliaries of this type; the fifth and last group 0 lists an auxiliary which can be attached either to the m/zen/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：K1/KD1/V1/AUX1) or to the /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ：K4/KD4/V4/AUX4) depending on the inflection type of the antecedent lexeme. Auxiliaries listed in Table 65 are arranged for the most part alphabetically albeit with some exceptions: some auxiliary pairs have the same functions and work complementarily, for instance, 厂a/^t/ ( ら る ）and ( る ）， ( さ す ）and (す） ，and 厂 （ら y^) and y u these are listed as one unit so that they are not necessarily in alpha­ betical order. The main semantic functions of each auxiliary are also listed in Table 6v in order to provide the reader with an orientation as to which purpose each auxiliary can be used for. A complete list of such functions is given in Table 68 at the end of this section-

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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133

Table 65: Auxiliaries, their agglutinations, and inflection forms64 ❶ Auxiliaries

which are agglutinated to the m/zen/ce/ ( 未 然 形 ：K1/KD1/V1/AUX1)

AUX3A

AUX1

AUX2

AUX3A

AUX3B

AUX4

AUX5

h.u

h*a [1

h*i

h*u

h9u

h*e

h*e

ひ

ふ

ふ

へ

へ

ふ

I Inflection | type

yodan

Semantic Tunctions: 0 aspect (durative); ® aspect (iterative) 0 0

ji r

0 0

ji

ji

r

r

(ji) ( r )

0 0

irregular

Semantic functions: © speculative + negation; ② volitional + negation

maho* shi ill l

maho* shiku

0

maho* shi

0

まli

mah〇9 shikara

mah〇9 0 shikari i[ l U M 0

ill l

L く ま li L

maho* shiki まl

maho* shikere

il J

まl

K-shiku 形容詞

0

it けれ0 0

Lr る0

0

maho* shikaru まほ

0

シク

ra-hen

Semantic functions: 0 desiderative 1 ;© desiderative 2

ma*shi ま

L

ma*shika 0 ま

U 、

0

rrw sh i ま

L

mamshi ま

ma*shika 0

L

ま

U 、

irregular

0

(nw se) (ませ)

Semantic functions: ① hesitation; ② irrealis 1 (counterfactual); ③ irrealis 2 (counterfactual); ④ speculative

nru(=n) 0 VI L 0

0 0

nru(=n)

nru(=n)

U /ん

t ；/ ん

nve め

0 0

yodan 02

Semantic functions: 0 cohortative; (D conditional; ③ euphemism ; ④ giving advice; ⑤ rhetorical question; (D speculative; ® volitional

mu(=n)z*u L 'ず / んず

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

muz*u L 'ず nz*u

muz*uru

muz^ure

1；ず ろ

1；ず れ

nz*uru

nz*ure

んず

んずる

んずれ

0 0 0 0

sa-hen

Semantic functions: ① giving advice; ② speculative; ③ volitional —

64

The concrete semantic functions of each auxiliary are given in Table 68; the main purpose of Table 65 is to show the inflection forms of each auxiliary.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

134

AUX3A

rar*u らる

AUX3A

AUX3B -

AUX4

AUX5

Inflection type

rar*e

ranu

ranuru

rar^ure

rar»eyo

shimo-ni

られ

らる

らるる

らるれ

られ上

AUX1 …

AUX2 ' ご.

rar*e られ

‘.

下二

Semantic functions: (D agentless happenings; (D honorative (respect); ® passive; © potentialis r*t/

r*e

r*e

r*u

れ

れ

る

r^uru h h

r*ure

r*eyo

shimo-ni

るれ

れ上

下二

0 0

0 0

shimo-ni

Semantic functions: © agentless happenings; ② honorative (respect ) ; ③ passive ; ④ potentialis

ra y u らゆ

ra*e

ra*e ら

え

ら

0 0

え

0 0

下二

Semantic functions: © potentialis

yu

e

e え

え

yu

y u ru

y u re

0

shimo-ni

ゆ

ゆろ

ゆれ

0

下二

Semantic functions : ① agentless happenings ; ② passive; ③ potentialis

sasmu

sas*e

sas.e

sas*u

sas*uru

sas*ure

sas*eyo

shimo-ni

さす

させ

させ

亡す

さする

さすれ

させよ

下二

Semantic functions: 0 causative; © honorative 1 ;® honorative 2

S9U

s*e

す

せ

s*u

s*e せ

す

s*uru す

s»ure

s*eyo

すれ

せよ

ろ

shimo-ni

Semantic functions: © causative; ® honorative 1 (respect); (D honorative 2 (humbleness); © honorative 3 (respect);© passive

shinru l V

shinre l db

shinre

shinru

Lめ

shinruru shinrure shinreyo

l L'

LU ろ

L t ：れ

shimo-ni

L めよ

Semantic functions: © causative; © honorative 1 (respect); ③ honorative 2 (humbleness)

s*u

s-a さ

sh*i

smu

L

す

smu す

s*e せ

s*e

yodan

せ

四

Semantic functions: © honorative (respect)

zu

________

•

0

irregular

0

特殊

zar*e

zar*e

ra-hen

ざれ

ざれ

ラ变

0

0

0

irregular

0

0

0

(na)

(n i)

0

nu

(な） zar*a

(U ) zar»/

ぬ

zar*u

ざら

ざり

0 0 0

ざる

0

zu

zu

0

ず

ず

Semantic Tunctions: ① negation

ne れ

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions ❷ Auxiliaries

一

4.8: Auxiliaries

135

which are agglutinated to the re/7 V〇£v/ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：K2/KD2/V2/AUX2)

AUX3A

AUX1

AUX2

AUX3A

AUX3B

AUX4

AUX5

Inflection type

k e m *u

0

0

k e m .u

k e rr ru

k e n re

0

yodan

(= n )

(= n)

U /け ん け め

け！ ；/

0

けん

Semantic functions: 0 hearsay + euphemism (indirect expression); (D speculative of the past; ③ speculative + cause/reason

kera*shi け ら

L

0 0

0

m

0 0

け ！; / け ん け

k e ra *s h i け ら

L

kera^shi け ら

L

0

k e ra .s h i け ら

L

0 0

irregular

Semantic functions: © speculative of the past (indirect experience );② euphemism keni け

0

(ke r*a )

(けら）

0 0

ker^i け

9

k e r*u

k e r*e

ける

けれ

0 0

ra -h e n

Semantic functions: ® emotive/exclamative; © hearsay; ③ temporative (past);④ temporative (retrospect) ki

(se)

(せ）

0 0

ki

shi

J

L

sh ika い 、

0 0

irregular

Semantic functions: ① aspect (resultative); ② temporative (past) ITU

rra

rri

n *u

rru ru

n 9u re

iv e

ぬ

な

I-

ぬ

ぬろ

ぬれ

れ

n a -h e n

Semantic functions : ① aspect (perfective); ② copulative (listing happenings); 0 emotive (emphasis) tar^i

tar*a

ta 卜i

tar*i

tar*u

far*e

ta n e

ra -h e n

たり

たら

たり

f: 0

たる

たれ

たれ

ラ变

Semantic functions: 0 adjectival; ® aspect (perfective); (D aspect (resultative); ® copulative (listing actions) ta*shi た

L

0 0

ta .k u

ta»shi

たく

た

ta *k a ra

ta *k a ri

たぐら

P m

0 0

L

ta^ki

ta^kere

た ？

たけれ

0 0

ta^karu

0 0

0 0

た^!、る

K-ku 形容詞ク ra -h e n

Semantic functions: 0 desiderative 1 ;0 desiderative 2 ts*u つ

t， e

tme

ts*u

ts*uru

ts*ure

tmeyo

sh im o -n i

マ

マ

つ

つる

つれ

マよ

下二

Semantic functions: 0 aspect (perrective); © copulative (listing items );③ emotive (emphasis)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

136

4.8: Auxiliaries

❸ Auxiliaries which are agglutinated to the

• ( 終 止 形 ：K3A/KD3A/V3A/ ‘___________ ______________________________________

AUX3A)

Exception: When the following auxiliaries are agglutinated to the ra-/7en-inflection words，they are attached to the re/7fa//ce/ ( 連 体 形 ：K3B/KD3B/V3B/AUX3B).

AUX3A

AUX1

AUX2

AUX3A

AUX3B

AUX4

AUX5

Inflection type

beranar*i

0

ベら

0

(berarri)

beranar^i

beranar*u

bera nar*e

0 0

( ベ ら I て） ベら

ベら

ベら

なり

なる

なれ

なり

KD-nari 形容動詞 ナ リ

（ =

ra-hen

Semantic functions: © speculative

be*shi ベ

L

0 0

be*ku

be.shi

ベく

ベ

be*kara

be9kari ベ t 、へ

0 0

べゥ、ら

L

be*ki ベ

be*kere

5

ベけれ

be*karu ベり、る

0 0

0 0 0 0

K-ku 形容詞ク

ra-hen

Semantic functions: © giving advice; © obligation; ® plan; ® potentialis; (D potentialis + speculative; © speculative 1; ⑦ speculative 2 ; ⑧ volitional

rrw ji t r

rrw jiku

0 0

まじく

ma*ji t r

majikar^a majikar^i 0 ま

ir " ら

ま

rrw jik i まじ

J

mayikere 0

K-shiku

ま l：け れ

形容詞シク

majikar^u 0

0

ま

m

0

0 0 0

ra-hen

Semantic functions: ® giving advice/inappropriateness; ② potentialis + speculative + negation ; ③ prohibitive; ® speculative + strong negation; (D speculative + negation; ⑥ volitional + negation

mer*i めり

0 0

mer^i

mer*i

mer*u

mer*e

めり

めり

める

めれ

0 0

ra-hen

0 0

ra-hen

0 0

yodan m

ラ交

Semantic functions : ① euphemism ; ② speculative

nar*i な 0

0 0

nar*i

nar*i

nar*u

nar*e

なり

なり

なる

なれ

ラ变

Semantic Tunctions: ① hearsay ; ② speculative 1; ③ speculative 2

ram.u i t ：/ らん

0 0

0 0

ranru(=n) ranru(=n) ranve らU らん

/

らむ/

らめ

らん

Semantic functions : ① euphemism ; ② hearsay ; ③ speculative; ® speculative + interrogative + cause/reason + presenttense; ⑤ speculative + present tense ; ⑥ speculative + cause/reason + present tense ; ⑦ speculative + rhetorical question

—

^

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

-

ra*shi ら

L

0 0 0 0

ra*shi

0 0 0 0

ら

L

4.8: Auxiliaries

ra*shi

ra.shi い

ら

ra.shiki

0 0

一

ら い

L

0 0

0 0 0 0

137

irregular 特殊

Semantic functions: 0 epistemic-speculative; © epistemicspeculative + cause/reason; ® speculative O Auxiliaries which are agglutinated to the re/7te//ce/ (連 休 形 ：K3B/KD3B/V3B/AUX3B), nouns, or postpositions N.B_: Auxiliaries be 厂anar*/ ( ベ ら な 、り ），ねe.sW ( ベ L ) ，m ay/ ( ま C ), meW ( め つ ）， speculative narv• ( な つ ），ra n ru (= n ) (ら L’ / ら ん ），厂a*s/7/ ( ら L ) also belong to this group and can be used only with inflectional words of the ra-/?en-inflection type; words of other inflection types require the shm/sh/Zce/•(終 止 形 ：K3A/KD3A/V3A/AUX3A)_ For inflection forms, see the auxiliaries under the shuushikei (© ). AUX3A

AUX1

AUX2

AUX3A

AUX3B

AUX4

AUX5

Inflection type

goto*shi 0 ごと

L

0

got〇9ku ごとく

goto.shi ごと

L

goto*ki ごと

5

0 0

0 0

K-^u65

形容詞ク

Semantic functions: ® comparative; 0 giving examples; ③ resemblance

nar*i

nar^a

なり

なら

nar*/ な 0

nar*i な 0

nar*u

nar-e

nar*e

なる

なれ

なれ

KD-nari 形容動詞

+ gotoku- 0

ni

nar.U

I二

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

ra-hen

ご

0

と 〈なり

Semantic functions : ① declarative ; ② existence

far*/

tar* a

たり

/?er7-inflection words, and to the /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ：K4/KD4/V4/ —_AUX4) of the /odan-inflection w ords:_____________________________ _________ ❺

AUX3A

AUX1

AUX2

AUX3A

AUX3B

AUX4

AUX5

Inflection type

r*/

r*a

r*/

r*t

r^u

r*e

r*e

ra-hen

ら

り

れ

ラ变

つ

り

る

れ

Semantic functions : ① aspect (perfective );② aspect (progressive); ce/(3A:終 止 形 ），❹厂enfa/Zce/ (3B:連 休 形 )，❺ /ze/7/ce/( 4 : 已 然 形 ） ，or ❻ me/re/7ce/(5: 命 令 形 ） ■Furthermore, particular inflection types can be placed in front of auxiliaries: yodan-type ( 四 ） ，/can?/-n/-type ( 上 二 ），shimo-ni-tfpe (下 二 ） ，kami-ichi-type

( 上 一 ），shimo-ichi-type ( 下 一 ），ka-hen-type

( 力 交 ) ，sa-/?en-type ( サ 变 ) ，na-/7er?-type ( ナ 交 )，and ra-A?er7-type ( ラ 变 )■This is indi­ cated in the second column of Table 66 and is schematised Delow: Agreement

1> Inflection form to be agglutinated (the first column) Inflection category/type (the second column) V________________________________________________ J Table 66 shows rigid relationships governing the inflection forms (the first column), the inflection categories/types (the second column), and the auxiliaries (the third column). For example, the auxiliary r*u{^>) can be agglutinated to the m izenkei( 1 : ^ 券、 形 ）of verbal inflection types yoc/ar?-type ( 四 ），/ia-/?er?-type ( ナ 变 ） ，and ra-hen-type ( y l L ) , whereas the auxiliary rar*u ( t ^ ) with the same morphosyntactic require­ ments and semantic functions as r^u ( 6 ) can be attached to the mizenkei (1: of all other types of verbs ，i.e•，/ca/r?/-/c/7/-type ( 上 一 ），/cam/-A7/-type ( 上 二 ），^?//770-/c/7/type ( 下 一 ），s/?//770/7/-type ( 下 二 ），/ra-/7e/7-type ( 力 变 ） ，and sa-/7e/?-type ( サ 变 ） ■The auxiliaries rar*u ( ^ ^ ) and n u ( ^ ) thus work — morphologically — complementarily. This same morphological complementarity is observed with the auxiliary pairs ra y u ( ^ ^ ) and y u ( ^ ), and sas*u ( t ) and smu ( i ' ). However, their semantic func­ tions are not necessarily identical, as can be seen in Table 66. In short, there is a complementarity between auxiliary pairs; verbal inflection types determine which of the two is to be agglutinated to the same required inflection form. There is another form of complementarity whereby the same auxiliary can be comple­ mentarily agglutinated to different inflection forms depending on the inflection types. The auxiliaries he 厂anar*/• ( ベ ら な り ），わe.s/?/• ( ベ L ), mav'/• ( ま じ ） ，meW ( め り ），the speculative ra/W ( な り ），rarrru(=n) (ら L' / ら ん ） ，and ra.sh /•(ら L ) are complemen­ tary in that inflectional lexical items of all inflection categories can be placed in front of these auxiliaries in their shuushikei 3A), excluding those of the ra-hen-\r\^\ection type, which require the rentaikei : 3B). The reader should be aware that the auxiliaries listed in Table 66 are arranged for the most part alphabetically with some exceptions; the above-mentioned auxiliary pairs,

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

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4.8: Auxiliaries

139

Table 66: Concordance of inflection forms, categories, and types of auxiliary Agglutination forms

Inflection types

Auxiliary

Semantic functions

❶

y o d a n (^ )

h9u* ふ

© aspect (durative: continuity) © aspect (iterative: repetitions of actions and events)

all nine verbal inflection types

ji

①

r

②

all nine verbal inflection types

maho*sm ill l

all nine verbal inflection types

rrw shi*

all nine verbal inflection types

nvu(=n)*

0 cohortative ② conditional ③ euphemism ④ giving advice ⑤ rhetorical question ⑥ speculative ⑦ volitional

all nine verbal inflection types

mu(=n)z*u*

①

t ；ず / ん ず

②

Mizenkei < 1 + AUX >

ま

L

[qz]

kami-ichi ( 上

一、

/cam/V?/( 上 二 ）

ram i* らろ

shimo-ichi ( 下 一 ） shimo-ni ( 了 二 ） ka-hen ( 力 复 )

speculative + negation volitional + negation

© desiderative 1 ② desiderative 2 ® hesitation irrealis 1 (counterfactual) ③ irrealis 2 (counterfactual) ④ speculative ②

giving advice speculative ③ volitional © agentless happenings ② honorative (respect) ③ passive ④ potentialis

sa-/?en ( サ 变 ）

yodan ( 四

r*u*

）

(ナ 交 ） ( ラ变 ）

kami-ichi ( 上

一

)

/ca爪 /-/?/ ( 上 二 ）

shim oichi ( 下 一 ） shfmom• ( 下 二 ) ka-hen ( 力 又 ) (サ 变 ）

|厂a y 67*

0 agentless happenings ② honorative (respect) CD passive ④ potentialis ①

potentialis

140

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.8: Auxiliaries

Mizenkei

yoc/ar?( 四 ) na-/7en ( ナ 交 ）

ra-hen (

ラ复

© agentless happenings ② passive

yu*

③

)

potentialis

aspect (perfective) aspect (progressive) ③ aspect (resultative: state)

sa-hen ( サ 复 ) (yodan [ ^ ]: in this case < izenKei + r*/ >)

r*/*

①

ク

②

kam i-ichi ( 上 一 ) kami-ni ( 上 二 ) shimo-ichi ( ヤ ー ） shimo-ni ( 下 二 ) ka-hen ( 力 复 )

sas*u*

0 causative

さす

②

honorative 1 (respect)

0 honorative 2 (humbleness)

(サ 变 ）

yodan ( 四 ) n a - h e n ii- ^ )

s*u*

0 causative

ヤ

②

shinvu l V

0 causative

honorative 1 (respect) (D honorative 2 (humbleness) ④ honorative 3 ⑤ passive

ra-rten ( ラ ！！）

ail nine verbal inflection types

③

honorative 1 (respect) honorative 2 (humbleness)

S .U *

①

honorative (respect)

all nine verbal inflection types

zu

①

negation

all nine verbal inflection types

kerrru (=n)* [keij]

hearsay + euphemism (indirectness) ② speculative of the past ® speculative + cause/reason

all nine verbal inflection types

kera*shi*

© speculative: speculation

け ら L

about sth which happened in the past ② euphemism

all nine verbal inflection types

ker*i

①

け0

②

all verbal inflection types except sa-hen-V and Ka-hen-V

ki(i

yodan ( ^ )

②

sa-hen ( サ 炙 ）

❷

Ren’youkei

①

け 1；/ けん

(連 用 形 )

emotive/exclamative hearsay ③ temporative (past) ④ temporative (retrospect)

r

0 aspect (resultative: state)

② temporative (past)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

Ren’y oukei (連 用 形 ）

Sa-herhV. se (V1) + s/?/(AUX3B); se (V 1 )+ shika (AUX4);

4.8: Auxiliaries

141

•---------------

sh/(V 2) + /c/(AUX3A).

Ka-hertA/: /f〇 (V1) + s/?/(AUX3B); ko (V 1 )+ shika (AUX4); /c/(V2) + s/?/(AUX3B); /c/(V2) + s/?//fa(AUX4).

❸

Shuushikei (終 止 形 ） < 3A + AUX>

all nine verbal inflection types

n*u ぬ

aspect (perfective) 0 copulative (listing items) ③ emotive (emphasis)

all verbal inflection types except the ra-henA/ and th e A U X /s .( i( つ ）

ta M 66*

①

たり

②

all nine verbal inflection types

ta.shi

all nine verbal inflection types

ts*u* つ

aspect (perfective) ② copulative ③ emotive (exclamative)

all verbal inflection types except the ra-henA/: < 3B + beranaM >

beranar*/

①

speculative

all inflection types excluding the ra-hen-V. < 3B + be-shi >; in the case of the kamnchiA/, there is also the aggluti­ nation form of < V1 + be*shi >

be*shi

①

L

②

giving advice obligation plan potentialis potentialis + speculative speculative 1 speculative 2 volitional

た

L

①

adjectival (features) aspect (perfective) ③ aspect (resulative: state) ④ copulative 0 desiderative 1 desiderative 2

② ①

ベらなり

ベ

③ ④

© ⑥ ⑦ ⑧

all inflection types except the ra-henA/: < 3B + ma*ji >

66

The auxiliaries

（つ

mayi まじ

giving advice/inappropriateness ② potentialis + speculative + negation ③ prohibitive 0 speculative + strong negation (D speculative + negation ⑥ volitional + negation ①

[tsm 】 ）and r*/’ （り [fi]) cannot be affixed to fa” /.(

たり

[tari]).

142

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

all verbal inflection types except the ra-henA/: < 3B + m eN >

Shuushikei

all inflection types except the ra-/7en^V: < 3B + nar*/ > all verbal inflection types except the ra-henA/: < 3B + ramm u(=n) >

4.8: Auxiliaries

mer^i

①

めり

②

nar^i なり

© hearsay ② speculative 1 ③ speculative 2

ranru(=n)

① euphemism

らtJ / らん

② ③

_

® ⑤ ⑥ ⑦

❹

ra.shi

ra-hen-\/

beranar^i ベらな0

①

speculative

ra-henA/

be*shi

①

L

②

giving advice obligation plan potentialis potentialis + speculative speculative 1 speculative 2 volitional

epistemic-speculative epistemic-speculative + cause/reason ③ speculative ① ②

ベ

③ ④

ta N : < N/3B+

©

AU X >;

⑦

goto*shi and gotoku.narh

⑧

also < N +

no/ga + gotoshi/ gotokunari >

(indirect statement) hearsay speculative speculative + interrogative + cause/reason + present tense speculative + present tense speculative + cause/reason + present tense speculative + rhetorical question

all inflection types except the ra-/?en-V: < 3B + ra*shi >

Rentaikei (連 体 形 ）

Declarative nar*i and

euphemism speculative (7f seems ///ce

⑥

KD-inflection of the r?a厂/-type

goto*ku* nari

① ②

ごとくな0

K-inflection of the /〇;type

ra-hen-y

goto*shi

comparative giving examples ③ resemblance ①

L

②

ma*ji i r

①

ごと

comparative resemblance + irrealis/ counterfactual

giving advice/inappropriateness ② potentialis + speculative + negation

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

Rentaikei

prohibitive 0 speculative + strong negation ⑤ speculative + negation ⑥ volitional + negation

ra-henA/ < nominals + nar^i >

mer*i め 1 ) nar*i な

ra-henA/

0

㈣ 】

ra-henA/

ra*shi ら

< nominals + ta n i >

L

ta ri た

yodan [ ^ ] (s a -h e n [^ -f^ ]: in this case < mizenkei + r»/>)

②

euphemism speculative

①

declarative

②

existence (sb/sth 丨 s here/ there)

①

ram*u(=n) 0 euphemism (indirect state­ ら ら ん

Izenkei

143

③

❺

4.8: Auxiliaries

ment) hearsay ③ speculative © speculative + interrogative + cause/reason + prese 门 t tense ⑤ speculative + present tense (D speculative +cause/reason + present tense ⑦ speculative + rhetorical question ②

epistemic-speculative epistemic-speculative + cause/reason ③ speculative ① ②

© declarative

0

w 67*

aspect (perfective) ② aspect (progressive) ③ aspect (resultative: present state) ①

N .B .：• A u xilia rie s m arked w ith asteriks (*) have particu la r fe a tu re s and are fu rth e r explained in S ubsection 4.8.5. • T he K-/car/-inflection, KD-nar/'-inflection, and KD -far/-inflection have the verbal

ra-hen-

inflection (see Figure 9).

Some linguists claim that the A U X r*/ ( つ ）is not agglutinated to /zer?/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ：‘4’）but to ( 四 ）as their /zen/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ：‘4’）and me/re/Zce/•(命 令 ガラ：‘5’）have the same morphological forms.

⑺e/re/Zce/• ( 命 令 形 ： ‘5 ’ ）o fyoda/7-verbs

144

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.8: Auxiliaries

such as 厂 ( ら る ）and ( ろ） ，are listed as one unit. Accordingly，they are not in alphabetical order. The fourth column in Table 66 designates the representative semantic functions of each auxiliary. A complete list of such semantic functions is given in Table 68. Those auxiliaries marked with an asterisk (*) in Table 68 — h.i/ (ふ )，kenvjj パ け I V け ん )，ぬ 厂 ( け ら L ), /c/ ( J ), ma*s/7/ ( ま L ), nru(=n) ( L 7 ん ) ，rrru(=n)zu ( t J ず / ん ず ），厂a 厂 っ （ ら ふ ）/ 厂 ( る ），厂a y u ( ら ゆ ）/y .t/ ( ゆ ），厂•/ ( つ ），sas.iy ( さす） ( す ）， ( す ），fa/W ( た つ ），and （っ ）一 require further explanations as totheirusag e.T hesearegivenin theT ollow ingsubsection.

4.8.5 Some remarks on auxiliaries ❶ L im ite d te m p o r a lit y :厂 a y t/ ( ら ゆ ） /y u ( ゆ ），

( す ），/ 7*iy ( ふ ） ，a n d m a .s /? / (ま L )

Some of the auxiliaries were used only in specific eras. For example, the auxiliaries 厂 a y i/ ( ら ゆ [rajrn]) and （ゆ [jm ])，which have many different functions, such as marking Japanese grammatical categories of passive, potentialis and spontaneity (agentless happenings), or ( す [sra]) in the honorative function，or /t u ( ふ |$m]) in the semantic functions of iterative and durative, were used around the time of the Nara Period (710-784) (Ono 1988: 65-66). In the same way, the auxiliary m a*shi(t. I [ma^i]) in the function of speculative and volitional expressions (a will or an intention) is found in literary works from the middle of the Heian Period (794-1985) onwards (ibid.: 53-60). ❷ D iffe re n t in fle c tio n s a n d s e m a n tic fu n c tio n s d u e to d iffe re n t te m p o ra lity : T h e a u x ilia ry

sm u(

( 彳）

i - [s in ]) h a s tw o d iffe re n t in fle c tio n ty p e s : th e y o d a n -in fle c tio n ( ^ )

a n d th e s/?//77〇-/7 /-in fle c tio n ( 下 二 ）■

（彳 [s m ]) o f th e y o d a n -in fle c tio n ( 四 ）w a s u sed

in th e N a ra P e rio d (7 1 0 -7 8 4 ) a n d p o s s e s s e s o n ly th e h o n o ra tiv e fu n c tio n , w h e re a s th e a u x ilia r y o f th e

shimo-ni-type

( T ^ ) , w h ic h w a s u s e d fr o m th e H e ia n P e rio d (7 9 4 -

1 1 8 5 ) o n w a rd s , h a s c a u s a tiv e a n d h o n o ra tiv e fu n c tio n s . © D iffe re n t a g g lu tin a tio n s d u e to d iffe re n t in fle c tio n ty p e s : A s c a n b e s e e n fr o m T a b le 6 6 , th e a u x ilia ry

r*i

( 0 [ r i] ) h a s d iffe r e n t a g g lu tin a tio n s

d e p e n d in g u p o n th e in fle c tio n ty p e o f a w o rd to w h ic h r*/ ( if a

yodan ( ^

r^i( 0 ) 0

[r i]) is to b e a g g lu tin a te d ;

) in fle c tio n a l w o rd o c c u rs in fr o n t o f th e a u x ilia ry r* / (

[ri]), it is a ffix e d to

th e /zer?/ce/•( 已 然 形 ：V 4 /A U X 4 ), a s s h o w n in S e n te n c e 3 9 0 . S h o u ld r * / ( り [ f i ] ) ，h o w e v e r, b e a g g lu tin a te d to a s a -/7 e n -in fle c tio n ( - ^ * ^ ) w o rd , th is

sa-hen w o rd

h a s to b e in

th e m /zez?/ce/(未 然 形 ：V 1 /A U X 1 ). T h is is d e p ic te d in S e n te n c e O 9 1 . S e n te n c e O 9 0 is fro m th e /6 (； /c/-d6y7 ( ィ f 吹童:子）c o m p ile d in th e

(室 町 物 語 ：14th

to 1 7 th C ). T h e ir s tru c tu ra l d iffe re n c e s a re s h o w n b e lo w : O 9 0 : (...) H iy o k u n o k a ta ra h i(= i) w o (= o ) n a s h i* ta m a h e ( = e )* ri. (S N K B T 5 4 :1 8 7 ) ( . . . ) N Hiyoku (a non-existent bird w hose body is h a lf fem ale, half m a le ).P P attributive.N marriage.PP o b je c t m a rk e r.V 2 to d o .V 4 h o n o ra tiv e ( y o d a n - V ) .A U X 3 A p e rfe c t. 比 翼 の 語 ら ひ を な

L給 へ り 。

They married happily.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries 〇

145

9 1 :Miko no monose-ri. (AC) N princePP subject marker.V1 to be bom (sa-/7e/7-V).AUX3A perfect. 御子のものせつ。

A prince is bom. 〇

A phonological change and its graphemic respresentation: nru(=n) ( U / ん ）

As explained in Subsection 4.6, there were phonological changes in Classical Japa­ nese. In the case of the auxiliary n ru (L'[mra]), the phonological phenomenon of hatsuonわ/a? ( 撥 音 使 ）（ see 4.7.7.3) can be observed, as （L 、[mm]) changed to the nasal /n/ (ん Lji]，[g】，〇「[n ]) from the middle of the Heian-Period (794-1185) (Watanabe 1990) 68 This further changed to the vowe け u/ ( う [ra]) in the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) (Ono 1988: 56). Contemporary Standard Japanese still has the same morpheme for expressing speculative, cohortative, and volitional meanings. In the same manner, the mora mu ( V [min]) of the auxiliaries muz*u ( U ず [mmzm]) and kenru ( け む [kemra]) has changed to nz-u ( ん す [gzm]) and /ce-A?( け ん [keg] or [keisr]), respectively. In other words, the bilabial nasal [m] has changed to the alveolar nasal [n]. Regressive assimi­ lation (a sound is influenced by the following sound) can be observed in the case of rntvz.i/ ( L’ ず [mrazra]). ❺

Auxiliary pairs and their c o m p le m e n ta rity: 厂 yu ( ゆ ） ，and ( さす） /s w ( す ）

( ら る ）/r*u ( る ），厂a y u ( ら ゆ ） /

As already mentioned in Subsection 4.8.4, the use of auxiliaries rar*u ( ^ ^ [rarra]) and r^u ([rm]), which have the same morphosyntactic functions (passive, honorative, spontaneity [agentless happenings], and potentialis), are differentiated by the inflec­ tional words to which these are attached: the words of the yodan ( ^ ) , na-hen and ra-hen ( y f ^ ) inflection types require the auxiliary r*u ( h [rm]), whereas those of

kami-ichi ( 上 一 ），kami-ni ( 上 二 ），shimo-ichi ( 下 一 ），shimo-ni ( 下 二 ），ka-hen

(力

D ,

and sa-A?er?(サ 变 ）require the auxiliary ( ら る [fa rm ]). Similar morphological complementarity can be observed in the differentiation of the auxiliary pairs 厂ay£7 ( らゆ [rajxn]) and y u ( ^ [jin]), and sas*u ( ^ ^ [sasui]) and s*u ( [sm]) (see Table 66). ❻

A new composition: /ce厂

( けら

L)

The auxiliary /cera*s/7/ ( けら L [kex*ad]) first appeared at the end of the Heian Period (794-1185) (Tajima 1983: 573) and was frequently used in the Edo Period (1603-1867) (Kindaichi 1998: 351). This word is a composition of the past tense marker auxiliary 厂• / ( け り [keri]) in the 厂 er?fa//ce/ (AUX3B: /cer»u け る [kex*m]) and the speculative auxiliary ra*shi ( ^ L [ragi]) in the shuushikei (AUX3A: ra*shi ^ l [raai]), thus forming 3 rnorphological composition of < ker^u + ra*shi >. The deletion of the mora ru { ^> ) o i ( け る ）gave rise to the form < /cera.s/7/ ( け ら L ) >.

Shimonaka (1964: 34) contends that the phonological changes were completed in the middle Heian Period (794-1185).

が the

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

146 ❼

4.8: Auxiliaries

Aspectual auxiliaries and their agglutinations: r*/ ( り ）and far*/ ( た り ）

The auxiliaries r*/ ( 0 [ri]) and tar*i ( /c 0 [tari]) have the same two aspectual functions, namely resultative aspect and perfective aspect. Morphologically, r*/ ( 0 [ri]) is of lim­ ited affixational use in that it can be agglutinated only to the sa-hen ( ^ ^ . ) and yodan ( 四 ）inflectional words. On the other hand, the auxiliary far */•(た 9 [tax*i]) can be used for lexemes of all verbal inflection types excluding those o f the ra-hen inflection ( ラ 交 )• Also, as mentioned above in Footnote 66, the auxiliaries （っ [tsra】 ）and r»/ ( つ [fj]) cannot be affixed to far*/ ( た り [ta ri]). Consequently, r*/ ( 0 [ri】 ）with its limited usage has disappeared and tar^i ( fz 1 [tari]) has continued to exist. The past tense marker ta ( fz. [ta]) o f Contemporary Standard Japanese has its origin in tar*i ( tz つ [tafi 】 )；its second mo「 a " ( 々 [fiD w asdropped. O Irregularity of the auxiliary/c/( i ) Special attention has to be paid to the use of the past tense marker auxiliary ki ( f ), which has the inflection forms of < (se)-0-ki-shi-shika-0 >. This auxiliary generally requires the ren’you/ce/ (連 用 形 ：K2/KD2/V2/AUX2) to be placed in front of it for agglutination: < renyoukei (l2f) + ki ( J ) >. Should it be attached to words o f the sa-heninflection type and the /ca-hen-inflection type, its agglutination shows irregularities. In other words, when the 厂er?fa/7ce/ ( 連 体 形 ：AUX3B), or /zer7/ce/• ( 已 然 形 ： AUX4) of the auxiliary ki ( t ) — i.e., s h i( L : AUX3B), or shika ( L : AUX4), respectively — is to be used, the antecedent sa ，/?en-V ( サ 变 ） ( す ）does not appear in the re/?V〇i//ce/ (連 用 形 ：V2 = s/7/)，but in the m/ze/7/ce/( 未 然 形 ：V 1 = se) instead: < se (V1-sa-/7er?-V) + sA?/’ （ AUX3B) > ;< se (V1-sa-/7e； 7-V) + s/7//ca (AUX4) >• However, when a sa-/7en~verb is placed in front of the s/w/wsWte/ ( 終 止 形 ：AUX3A) of the AUX /c/ ( 5 ), a regular inflection takes place: < shi (V2-sa-/?eA?-V) + ki (AUX3A) >. A similar irregularity also applies to the yodan-\/ ( ^ ) ending with the mora -s*u ( ) such as mau(=6)s*u ( 申 す ：to say, to /•nfom7); its /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ：V4) is used in front of s/7/. ( L : AUX3B) and sh/Zca ( I■ り、： AUX4): mau(=d)se9shi (V4-AUX3B) and mau(=6)se*shika (V4*AUX4) (see Sentence O 92). Similar irregularities are observed in the agglutination o f ka-hen-\/erbs and the auxiliary /c/( J ); the antecedent fca-/7e/7-V ( 力 变 ） ( く ）appears either in the

ren'youkei

M2 = ki), which is a regular inflection, or irregularly in the mizenkei ( 未 然 形 ：V 1 = to ) when the renfa/7ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：AUX3B), or /zer?/ce/( 已 然 形 ：AUX4) of the auxiliary ki ( i ) — i.e., shi ( L : AUX3B), or shika ( l : AUX4), respectively 一 is to be juxtaposed: < ko (V1-sa-/?eA?-V)//c/ (\/2-ka-hen-\/) + shi (AUX3B) >; < ko (V1-sa-/7enV)//c/ . There is no syntagmatic distribution of moras ki9ki ( J 5 ) designating the re n ’you/ce/ ( 連 用 形 ：V2) o f the /ca-/7eA?-V ( 米 ）and the s/?t/(；s/7/7ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：AUX3A) of the auxiliary /c/ ( 5 ), which is actually a regular inflection. Consequently, many classical works of literature have the morphological sequence of ( 米 け つ ：V2 to co/77e.AUX3A past), /c/_4a"( 米 た つ ：V2 fo co/77e.AUX2 perfect),

(来

た り け り ：V2

fo co/77e.AUX2 perfect.AUX3A past)，or /c/v7u ( 米

ぬ ：V2 ぬ

come. AUX3A perfect) to express the meaning that something/someone came/has come somewhere，or /位

(

言

one has said something.

ひ

っ

：V2

to say sf/7.AUX3A perfect) to indicate that some-

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

4.8: Auxiliaries

Incorrect (regular inflection)

Correct (irregular inflection)

shi*shi ( l l : sb did sth) V2 of the V s*u ( ).AUX3B of the A U X/c/( i )

se*shil ) V1 of the ( す ）.AUX3B of the

shhshika ( l V 力、： sb did sth)

se*s わ//ca ( せ い 、） V1 of the ( す ）.AUX4 of the AU X /c/( J )

V2 of the V （す ）.AUX4 of the AUX to• い ）

147

AU X/c/( J )

Correct (regular inflection)

shhki ( l i : sb did sth) V2 of the V s-u ( -f ).AUX3A of the AU X/c/( J ) Correct (regular inflection)

khshi ( 米 い sb came)

Correct (irregular inflection)

V2 of the V /cw ( 采 ）.AUX3B o f the A U X /c/( i )

L : sib came) V1 of the /c.u ( 米 ）.AUX3B of the AU X/c/( J )

ki*shika ( ^ l ^ : sb came) V2 of the V /cuy ( 米 ）.AUX4 of the A U X /c/( J )

ko*shika ( 束 Vt r 、 V1 of the fcn;( 米 ）.AUX4 of the AUX k i ( i )

•(米

1

ki*ki ( i i \ sb came) V2 of the V （く ） .AUX3A of the A U X/c/( J )

Sentence O 92 is taken from the Da/Zco/cmna/ ( 大 黑 舞 ：TOe Danc/ng God 〇, 8udd/7/sn?; 16th or 17th C) in the Mu 厂omacA7/-n7〇nogafa 厂/• ( 室 町 物 語 ：between 14th and 17th C) which contains the above-mentioned irregularity. ^ 92:Mata, Dai-shun to mahu(=u •=> mau[o])se*shi hito mo ita*t te kau(=6)kau(=o) no hito nar*i. (SNKBT 55: 58) CNJ also, furthermore.PFX great.ProperN Shun (the name of a Chinese legendary emperor: ca. 22nd C BC).PP citation marker.V4-yoda/?-verb (to be called).AUX3B past.N person, man.PP additive (too, as well).\/2-soku-onbin (to reach an extreme poinf).PP manner. N piety.PP attributive. N person, mar?.AUX3A declarative. 又、 大 舜 と 申 せ

L 人 も い た っ マ 孝 ■行 の 人 な つ 。

Furthermore, a man named Great Shun isMas a man o f extreme great piety.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

148

一

4.8: Auxiliaries

4.8.6 Japanese technical term s

As learners of Classical Japanese are expected to work using Classical Japanese dictionaries, it is useful to know the Japanese technical terms. Table 67 gives a list of such Japanese expressions. Learners should be aware, however, that not all dictionar­ ies and reference books of the grammar of Classical Japanese use the same terminol­ ogy. This book uses the term 'speculative* for expressing assumptions or speculations. Japanese distinguishes, however, between a variety of speculative expressions using different lexical items which are integrated in the grammar. As a result, Classical Japa­ nese differentiates between the putative expressions suitei and suiryou (# * !:). The former denotes a high possibility that things speculated will actually occur, and that the speaker has a firm basis for this assumption. On the other hand, the term suiryou ( 推 量 ）expresses only the speaker’s subjective assertion: he/she is not sure of its validity. Johnson (2003) distinguishes the two by using the linguistic term evidentials for

suitei ( 推■炎 ')and suppositionals for suiryou

(推

•

Table 67: Japanese term s for sem antic functions o f auxiliaries

(in alphabetical order) Japanese technical terms

Eng 1ish eq uivalents

dante丨（研

declarative; (definitive) assertion (sth is

)

文

such and such) hearsay (/Ve heard th a t...)

denbm ( 伝 聞 ）

c/outou ( 同 等 )

comparative (sf/7 o r s ね /s same a s ...) exclamative; emotive (Oh!) euphemism / appearance (sth/sb looks

e/'fan ( 詠 嘆 ） enkyoku ( )

like

sth/sb appears to b e ...)

gfe/?7/7-r/yat/-si///yoti ( 原 因 •理 •由 • 推 量 ） speculative of cause/reason (speculation

about reasons for causes o f sth) (sth is probably so because ...) impossibility (it is not possible to ...) copulative; listing sth (and...) comparative / appearance (sth orsb is ju st lik e .") volitional (/ am willing to / want to ...)

/n//car?cKy ( 不 可 能 ）

hefretsu ( 1 歹、 1) hfkyou ( 比 ’J L) /_sW(意 忘 ）

jfhatsu ( t

)

癸

hanjitsu-kasou ( 艮 芙 假 思 ) /ca/co ( 過 去 ）

kako-suiryou

去 推 ■量

)

spontaneity (spontaneous, agentless happenings) irrealis, counterfactual past tense past speculative (speculation about happenings in the past) (sth/sb

was probably...) Zcanot/ ( 可 能 ）

kanryou ( 完

了

')

potential; potentialis (can; jbe ab/e to •..) aspect: perfective (sb has done sth)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

kan’yuu ( 妨

諸

)

/cate/ ( 仮 文 ）

kibou kinshi ( 禁 土 ) kyoui ( 钱 意 ) meirei ( 命 令 ) re/)/( 例 示 ）

shieki ( 棟J 殳 ) shikaigai-genzai-suiryou ( 1

界外見在

推 量 ）

4.8: Auxiliaries

149

cohortative (le fs ...) conditional (if...) desiderative (/ want to ...\ l w ish ...) prohibitive (Donlt ...!) emphasis imperative citing examples (for example ...) causative (sb causes sb to do sth) present speculative (speculation about present happenings, which the speaker cannot see directly)

(sth/sb is probably... now) sonkei(

uchikeshi-suiryou (tT 消 推 量 ')

honorative / honorifics (expression of politeness) existence of sb or sth (sth/sb is there) aspect: resultative (a result of ocurrences, happenings or acts) aspect: stative (sb or sth is in a certain situation) speculative (suppositionals) {probably, maybe, likely; sth/sb m ight...) negative speculative (sth/sb is probably

suite丨（推 ■定 )

n o t s b will probably not do ...\ sth will probably n o t...) speculative (evidentials: speculations

sonza/( # 在 ） sonzoku ( #1 ¢.)

siy/Vyou ( 推 量 ）

based on firm grounds) fame 厂a/• ( た め ら い ） te/c/toiy ( 通 当 ） toiyzen ( 当 然 )

uchikeshi(tT •消 ) uchikeshi-ishi (tT 满

意忘

)

uchfkeshf-touzen ( tT う肖当然) ukemi ( 受 身 ） yo fe /( 于 发 ）

(surely, definitely，for sure) hesitation (fm not sure ...) suggestion, advice (it is better to ...) obligation (sb must sb should...) negation (not) negative volitional {sb is probably not willing to do sth) obligation not to do sth (... should n o t ...) passive expressing a plan (sb is planning to ...\

it is planned to ...)

)

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一

4.8: Auxiliaries

Table 68: Auxiliaries and their sem antic functions (in alphabetical order)

SI inflection category; [3 inflection forms; □ agglutination; 画 morphology; □ other remarks

1.ber _ M

(ベ 切 0

)

)

S Inflection category: KD-inflection of the na/*/-type ( 形 動 ナ リ ） H Inflection forms: < 0*(berani)*beranari*beranaru9beranare*0 > □ Agglutination: < 3A + beranar^i > for all verbal inflection types except ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-/7eA7-verbal-inflection + beranar*i > 國 Morphology: a compound of the speculative AUX •(ベ L ) and the declarative AUX r?ar*/ ( な り ）：< be ( ベ ：stem of be*s/7/) + suffix 厂a ( ら ）+ AUX nar*/ ( な □ Other remarks: At the beginning of the Heian Period (794-1185) this auxiliary was first used in /car?わ(yn texts. i3e厂 • ( ベ ら な り ）was later employed in spoken language by males until the end of the Heian Period (794-1185). ①

speculative (/Y seems as が …；/’/?? si/ 厂e

2. ibe*s/?/ ( ベ

…；st/厂e /y ...)

〇

0 Inflection category: K-inflection of the /ru-type ) 0 Inflection forms: < bekara»beku9beshi9beki*bekere*0 > □ Agglutination: < 3A + be9shi > for all inflection categories and types except ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-/7eA7-verbal-inflection + be*shi > ①

giving advice (it’s better to ••••，it would be better to •••; you had better …)

②

obligation (shot/た/;/77i/sf)

③

p\an (it is planned to •".， be supposed to

0 potentialis (can; be able to ...) ⑤ potentialis + speculative (potential possibility: n?/gr/7f be ab/e to …；w///pro/?aわ/y

be able to ...) ⑥ speculati\/e 1 (probably] sure/y] absolutely, it seems as if ® speculative 2 (must be should be ...) ⑧

volitional ( m////; s/?a//; 6e go/ng to …） 3

3. gotoku-nar'i ( c Y < V ^ )J @ Inflection category: KD-inflection of the nar/-type ( f lj 重カナリ） 0 Inflection forms: < gotokunara* gotokunari*gotokunari9gotokunaru*gotokunare9

gotokunare > □ Agglutination: < 3B + gotokunar^i > < N + PP no/ga + gotokunar^i > < . . . PP ga + gotol U Morphology: a compound of the speculative AUX goto*shi( z" Y [ ) and the declarative AUX nar*/ ( な つ ） . ① ②

comparative わ /s same as …） resemblance + irrealis/counterfactual (が/7/s わた)o/cs///ce/as が…）

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4.8: Auxiliaries

151

4/sr 〇to ，s/?/.( ご r I ).

—

S Inflection category: K-inflection of the /riz-type ( 形 ク ） 0 Inflection forms: < £d*gotoku*gotoshbgotoki*0*0 > □ Agglutination: < 3B + goto*shi >, < N no goto*shi >, or < N ga goto»shi > 0 comparative (sth/st: is exactly like

sth/so is the same as ...)

© giving examples (fo r example，for instance，such as ...) sth/sb resembles ...) ③ resemblance (sf/7/5 b is sim ilar to 5. "•“(ふ )

S Inflection category: verbal inflection of the yodan-tyjpe ( ^ ) 0 Inflection forms: < Aa*hi*hu*hu*he*he > □ Agglutination: < 1-y 3dar7-verbal inflection + hm u> □ Other remarks: Thii5 auxiliary was used in the Nara Period (710-784). In the following Heian Period (794-1185) it had lost its function as an auxiliary, but was used as a verbal suffi x for forming verbal compounds, such as katarah*u(=u)

(i=>katarau[=6])( 語 し

レ.to

talk about sth with sb).

① aspect (durative: cc ntinuity) (sb/sth continues to ...\ sth is continued) ② aspect (iterative: re petitions of actions and events)

e .ァ （n 回 Inflection category: irregular-type-inflection ( 特 殊 ） H Inflection forms: < Q □ Agglutination: < 1 + j i > for all inflection categories and types □ Other remarks: The /ze/7te/_ ( 已 然 ：HV4) ゾ 7 ( IT) was used in the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) in connection with the linguistic phenomenon of concordance kakari-musubi no hou'5〇/〇7 ( ff 、9 結 び の 法 則 ：see 4.9.4.1 and Table 75). ① speculative + negat ion (may not ...\ does/is/will probably n o t...) ® volitional + negatior (/ am not willing to ...\ l will n o t the subject is the first

person) 7. k e rrru ^ n ) (け U / け ん [keg 】 ） ® Inflection category: verbal inflection of the yodan-type ( ^ ) H Inflection forms: < 0*0*kemu*kemu*keme90 > □ Agglutination: < 2 + kerrw(=n) > for all inflection categories and types 0 hearsay + euphemism (indirectness: the speaker is expressing sth indirectly by expressing it as hearsay) (/ have heard t h a t i t is said t h a t s b told me

that …) ② speculation about past events/actions (sf/7 pr 〇jbaib/y happened

sb p 厂 o わab/y

did sth) ③ speculation about a reason/cause ，time, or place，in the past (this auxiliary is

used with interrogatives) (why did sth happen

why did sb do sth ...)

/cera*s/?/ (けら l ) 0 Inflection category: irregular-type-inflection ( ^----------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- -

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152

H □ d is

Inflection forms: < 0*0*kerashi*kerashi9kerashh0 > Agglutination: < 2 + kera*shi > for all inflection categories and types Morphology: A shortened form of the compound keru9rashi 6 ^ 1 ) which made up of AUX3B ( け る ）and the speculative AU X 3A 厂a*s/?/•(ら L ).

0 speculative of the past (indirect experience) ② euphemism (the speaker is referring to sth which happened in the past in an indirect way in order to avoid making definitive statements) 9. /cer*/ ( け つ ） S Inflection category: verbal inflection of the ra-hen-t/pe ( y lL ) 0 Inflection forms: < (kera)*0*keri»keru9kere*0 > □ Agglutination: < 2 + ker*i > for all inflection categories and types emotive/exclamative (the speaker is astonished about sth which he/she has suddenly noticed for the first time) ② hearsay (the speaker is relating facts which he/she actually heard or experienced directly, but expressing them as hearsay as if he/she were not sure about their validity) (D temporative (past tense: the speaker is expressing sth which he/she has un­ expectedly realised/noticed) 0 temporative (retrospect: the speaker is looking back at sth which has hap­ pened in the past) ①

10.W ( J ) Inflection category: irregular-type-inflection ( 特 殊 ） 0 Inflection forms: < (se)*09ki*shi*shika*0 > □ Agglutination: < 2 + k i> for all inflection categories and types except ka-henV and sa-hen-V: < ko (1-/ra-/7eA7-verbal inflection type) + shi (AUX3B)/s/7/7ca (AUX4) > < ki (2-ka-hen-\/erba\ inflection type) + shi (AUX3B)/s/7/7ca (AUX4) > < se (1-sa-/7en-verbal inflection type) + shi (AUX3B)/s/7/7ca (AUX4) > < shi (2-sa-/7en-verbal inflection type) + ki (AUX3A) > 回

© aspect (resultative: sth has happened and a situation resulting out of it still exists; this usage is observed from the end of the Heian Period [794-1185] onwards) ② temporative (past tense: the speaker retrospectively makes a statement about sth which he/she directly experienced in the past)

11.ma/?o*sh/•(ま |i L ) Inflection category: K-inflection of the shiTcii-type ( 形 シ ク ） 0 Inflection forms: < 0/mahoshikara*mahoshiku/mahoshikari*mahoshi/0*

回

m ahoshiki/m ahoshikarvm ahoshikere/0.0 > □ Agglutination: < 1 + maho*shi > for all inflection categories and types □ Other remarks: maho.s/?/ ( ま | i L ) was frequently used in the Heian Period (794-1185)，but was later replaced by the auxiliary •(た L ) from the Kamakura Period (1192-1333).

m

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153

® desiderative 1 (the speaker wants or wishes to do sth: / want t o / wish ...) ® desiderative 2 (the speaker wants sb else to do sth: / want sb to ...] I wish

sb would do sth) 12. m a y ij i T ) Inflection category: K-inflection of the s/i/Tca-type ( 形 シ ク ） 0 Inflection forms: < 0/majikara*majiku/majikari9m aji/09majiki/majikaru* 回

m ajikere/0.0 > □ Agglutination: < 3A + ma*ji > for all inflection categories and types except ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-A?en-verbal inflection + ma*ji > ①

giving advice/inappropriateness (/f /s beffe 厂r?of to •••; /’f /s nof app 厂opnafe fo

sb should not do sth) ②

potentials + speculative + negation (/f /s p 厂obab/e

③

is probable that sb will not be able to ...) prohibitive 〇t fs not a /b 而 d to ft is prohibited to "•)

stf? /s A7〇f poss/'We •••; /Y

speculative + strong negation (/Y/s oi/f o f fhe qftvesf/o/7 f/?af s 治 or sb i/W//...) speculative + negation (sf/? o厂sわ w/7/ n o f...) (D volitional + negation (/ am not willing to / will n o t...) ④ ⑤

. T3‘:

ま

® Inflection category: irregular-type-inflection ( 特ク朱） 0 Inflection forms: < mashika/(mase)m 0*rnashi9mashbmashika»0 > □ Agglutination: < 1 + ma^shi > for all inflection categories and types □ Other remarks: The m/zer?/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：AUX1) mase ( ま せ ）was used in the Nara Period (710-784) whereas mashika ( i l was employed from the Heian Period (794-1185) onwards. © hesitation (the speaker is at a loss as to what to do, and cannot make a deci­ sion: what should I do?) Interrogatives such as ikani ( v' ' I - ) , nani ( ^ ' I - ) , or the exclamative PP ya ( や ）are used. ® irrealis 1 (counterfactual: should sth be should sb do sth] ifsth/sb w ere...) ③ irrealis 2 (counterfactual: /f woti/d have beer? /7r?e /fsf/? had happened; /f ivoiv/d

have been fine if sb had done sth) ④

丄 4.

speculative (/f /s probab/e f/?af •..) This usage began in the Middle Japanese period.

mem

(め

0)

}

0 Inflection category: verbal inflection of the ra-hen-type ( y lL ) 0 Inflection forms: < 0 9merbmeri»mer^mere*0 >. B Agglutination: < 3A + mer^i > for verbal inflection types except ra-hen-\J including K-inflection of/car/-type and KD-inflection of nanand /an-type: < 3B-ra-/7e/?-verbal inflection type >

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4.8: Auxiliaries

□ Other remarks: This auxiliary appeared in the Heian Period (794-1185). ①

euphemism (the speaker is trying to avoid making a declarative statement; instead, he/she expresses her/his opinion as if sth were not certain) (it could

be that ••••，it might be •••) ②

speculative (a speculation based on the speaker’s own visual observation: /Y

looks as i f . i t seems as i f ...) 、 5.

叫 （む/ ん 1 # ^ づ '

.1

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the yodan-type ( ^ ) Inflection forms: < 0 90*mu*mu*me*0 > Agglutination: < 1 + nvu(=n) > for all inflection categories and types Other remarks: From the Kamakura Period (1192-1333). The use of the kana ん [g 】 /[N] is also found in works of literature.

S 0 □ □

cohortative (/efs do s 的） ② conditional (/ァ…） (D euphemism (the speaker is trying to avoid making a direct declarative state­ ment, and expresses sth as if sth were not certain) ④ giving advice (this expression is used with the PP /coso [ こ ヤ ] so that the predicate ends in the izenkei [ : AUX4]; the subject of the sentence is the second person pronoun) (you had b e t t e r y o u s h o u l d i t is better for ①

you to …) (D rhetorical question (the interrogative PP /ca [ or ya [ ^ ] are used for this usage and the predicate ends with the /zen/ce/ [ 已穿、 : AUX4] me [ め 】） ⑥

specu\ati\/e (it is probable that sth will probably happen, sb will probably do sth) (the subject of the sentence is usually the third person pronoun or an in­

animate object) ® volitional (/ am willing to 16.越 = 哝

/ w ill...) (the subject is the first person pronoun)

〜 （じ ず /基 ず [興 ])厂

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the sa-/7eA7-type ( サ 交 ） B Agglutination: < 1 + mu(=n)z*u > for all inflection categories and types □ Inflection forms: < 0*0*muzu*muzuru9muzure90 > □ Other remarks: This auxiliary appeared in the Heian Period (794-1185), and was first used in colloquial language. Later it was also used in written language. 回

© giving advice/appropriateness (it is better to ②

be better...) speculative (it is probable that sth)

③

volitional (/ am i/v77//>7fir to ...;/ iv/// •..) 零 寺

it is appropriate t o i t would

sth w川 probably happen, sb will probably do

^

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the fa-/?en-type ( ラ 变 ） H Inflection forms: < 0 m nari*nari*naru*nare*0 >

回

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155

□ Agglutination: < 3A + nar*i > for all verbal inflection types excluding ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-/7en-verbal inflection + nar^i > 0 hearsay ® speculative 1 (the speaker is expressing a speculation based on her/his acoustic perception) ③

speculative 2 (the speaker is expressing a speculation based on her/his judgement of the situation he/she observes) (it seems as if...)

1 8 . n a f i ( な 0 ) _____________ Inflection category: KD-inflection of the /ia/7-type (形 動 ナ リ ）（ = ra-/?en-V [ ラ交 】 ) Inflection forms: < nara*nari*nari*naru9nare9nare > Agglutination: < N/3B + nar^i > Other remarks: This auxiliary is used in (奇口文 ：texts which are written Classical Japanese in contrast to those in Classical Chinese, i.e., kanbun [^1 文 ] ) . (cf. fa r*/[ た り 】 ） 回

0 □ □ in

0 declarative (the speaker is making a declarative statement: sth/sb is ...) ② existence (the speaker is expressing a place where sth/sb exists: in this function, n a H 0 ) is agglutinated to a noun indicating a place, and it takes the 厂 enfa/Zce/ form ( 連 イ 本 : 3B), thus having the morphological construction < N-place«nani*N > in an expression such as Kyou naru hito [% ^ h A : a per­

son who is in Kyoto]) 19. m u ( ^ )

_________________ J—

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the na-/?en-type ( ナ 变 ） 0 Inflection forms: < na9ni*nu*nuru*nure9ne > □ Agglutination: < 2 + rru > for all inflection categories and types □ Other remarks: The auxiliary r r u ( ^ ) is generally agglutinated to intransitive verbs, (cf. [ つ ]) 回

aspect (perfective: as intransitive verbs are used, the idea is expressed that an event has ended by the time of speaking [sth has happened]) ② copulative (this use was first observed from the Middle Japanese era onwards, and occurs in the syntactic construction of < ...nu ...my >; different happenings or actions are expressed by listing them as examples) (this and ①

that happen or happened, one does this and thaf) (D emotive/speculative (emphasis: the speaker is sure of sth: surely, absolutely,

certainly) 2 0 ra m ^ = A7；(ら I ；/ ら ん [x*ag ] ) 一

S Inflection category: verbal inflection of the yodan-type ( ^ ) 0 Inflection forms: < 0 90TamuTamuTame* 0 > S Agglutination: < 3A + ranru(=n) > for all verbal inflection types except ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-/7e/7-verbal inflection + ranru(=n) > ①

euphemism (the speaker avoids making a direct statement by referring to sth as if sth were such and such)

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4.8: Auxiliaries

(D hearsay (/ have heard t h a t s b told me th a t...) (D speculative (the speaker is expressing an assumption about sth) 0 speculative + interrogative + cause/reason + present tense (the speaker is wondering about the reason for sth which he/she is now observing) (why is

it that...?) ⑤

speculative + present tense (the speaker is expressing her/his assumption about sth in the present that he/she cannot directly observe) (sb must be

now ...\ sth must be n ow ...) (D speculative + cause/reason + present tense (the speaker is speculating over the cause or reason for sth in the present) (f/?e reason fo 厂s 的 coi//d be bec a u s e i s probably because ...) ⑦ speculative + rhetorical question (for this usage the interrogative PP ya [ や ] is used and the predicate ends in its /zer?/ce/ [ 已 然 形 ：AUX4] rame [ ら め 】 ） 2 1 .r a ^ ( ^ )

]

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s/i/m o-nM ype ( t 二 ） 0 Inflection forms: < rare*rare9raivraruruTarure*rareyo > □ Agglutination: < 1-/ca； T7/-r7/-/s/7/y77〇-A7/-//caA77/-/cA7/-/sA7/>7?o-/c/7/-/lfa-/7eA7-/sa-/7e/7-verbal inflection type + ra ru > 回

0 agentless happenings (happenings without a human or nonhuman agent: sth

happens，or happened) honorative (the speaker expresses his/her respect to the referent) passive ④ potentialis (sb can do sfA7) ② ③

22. ra^shi { % \ )

l

Inflection category: irregular-type-inflection ( 特 殊 ） 0 Inflection forms: < 0*0TashiTashi/(rashiki)9rashh0 > □ Agglutination: < 3A + ra*shi > for all verbal inflection types except ra-hen-V. < 3B-ra-/7en-verbal-inflection + ra*shi > □ Other remarks: This auxiliary was used primarily in the Nara Period (710-784); for example, the izenkei ( : AUX4) rashiki ( (7 l J ) in particular appears only in the documents from this period. 囫

0 epistemic speculative (the speaker expresses his/her assumption about sth he/she observes on a sound informational basis: definitely, absolutely, highly

probable) ②

epistemic speculative + cause/reason (the speaker gives a reason for sth he/ she observes based on reliable information he/she has acquired: sth is defi­

nitely the reason for sth) ③

speculative (the speaker expresses his/her assumption without giving a reason for it)

23. ray-u { 回

^

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s/i"n o -/i/-typ e ( 下 二 ）

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4.8: Auxiliaries

157

0 Inflection forms: < rae*rae«0»0*0*0 > □ Agglutination: < ^kami-ni-/shimo-ni-/kami-ichi-/shimchichi-/ka-hen-/sa-hen-\/erba\ inflection + ra y u > □ Other remarks: This auxiliary was used in the Nara Period (710-784), and was replaced by 厂ar*ty ( ら る ）from the subsequent Heian Period (794-1185). It is generally used in com bination with the negation auxiliary zu ( - f ), such as ner»ae*zu t - f : sb cannot sleep ：< V1 to s/eep.AUX1 potentialis.AUX3A negation >). ①

potentialis (s/) ca/7 do sf/?)

2 4 .r*/( ” Inflection category: verbal inflection of the ra ，/?en-type ( ラ 变 ） H Inflection forms: < raTi*ri9ru* re*re > □ Agglutination: < 4-yodan-\nf\e ction + r*/ > < 1-sa-/7en-infl ection + r»/ > □ Other remarks: The usage c)f this auxiliary is limited in that it can be agglutinated only to the yodan- and s a-/7en-inflection verbs. 回

aspect (perfective: sth has happened and the effects of it are still continuing) aspect (progressive: an act“Dn is in progress) ③ aspect (resultative: a result of an action or a happening is expressed as a present situation; in other w(Drds, the situation caused by sth still exists) ①

②

25. r * u ( i ) Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s/i/m o-/i/-type ( 下 二 ） 0 Inflection forms: < r e - r e w r j/vrure*reyo > □ Agglutination: < Vyodan-lna-hen-/ra-hen-\/erba\ inflection type + r*u> 回

© agentless happenings (agen tless happenings are expressed: sth happens, or

happened) honorative (the speaker exp resses his/her respect towards the referent) ③ passive ④ potentialis (s ね ca/? do sf/?) ②

26. sas-u ( さ す ） 0 Inflection category: verbal in flection of the s/i/zno-m.-type ( 下 二 ） S Inflection forms: < sase*sas(B9sasu*sasuru*sasure*saseyo > □ Agglutination: < ^-kami-nh/sh imo-ni-/kami-ichi-/shimo-ichi-/ka-hen-/sa-hen-\zerba\ inflection + >as»u > © causative (sb lets sb do sth; sb makes sb do sth; sb forces sb to do sth) honorative 1 The speaker is expressing h s/her respect towards the referent. ③ honorative 2 The speaker is expressing hi s/her humbleness towards the referent in order to signal his/her politeness. In th is usage, ( さ す ）is used with the honorative verb Zc/7coyu ( 聞 こ ゆ ：to say s th, to inform sb o f sth)\ the compound kikoe*sasu ②

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4.8: Auxiliaries

[ 聞 こ え さ す ] means to say sf/?，or to />7foA7n o,sf/7 which is the highest expression of humbleness and indicates the speaker’s politeness towards the referent) 27. shim*u ( I V ) _ _ _ _ _ _ Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s/ii7no-n 厂type ( 下 二 ） 0 Inflection forms: < shime*shime9shimu*shimuru9shimure9shimeyo > □ Agglutination: < 1 + s h in ru > for all inflection categories and types 口 Other remarks: This auxiliary was frequently used in the Nara Period (710784). Later in the Heian Period (794-1185) it was used in wakan-konkou-bun ( 和 漢 没 交 文 ：written texts using Classical Japanese as well as Classical Chi­ nese expressions), or in /canbun-Zo/ndo/ov-bt/n ( 漢 文 I ” 丨說 文：Classical Chinese texts which were read in Classical Japanese by applying diacritics and adding Classical Japanese postpositions and kana to the original Chinese texts) written by men. 回

© causative ② honorative 1 (respect) ③ honorative 2 (humbleness)

l

(す）

B 0 □ □

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the yodan-type ( ^ ) Inflection forms: < samshi9su*su9se9se > Agglutination: < 1-yodan-/sa-/7eA?-verbal inflection + > Other remarks: This auxiliary was used in the Nara Period (710-784).

①

honorative (respect)

2 9 • 抑 （す ）

-

'

j

^

Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s / ii7110-n/-type ( 下 二 ） 0 Inflection forms: < se*se*su*suru9sure9seyo > □ Agglutination: < 1-yoda； 7-/na-/7e/?-/ra-/7e/7-verbal inflection + > 回

© causative ② honorative 1 The speaker expresses his/her respect to the referent. In this usage, s»u ( - i ) is agglutinated to the honorative verbs, such as tamah9u(=u ^ tamauf= 〇]) ( 賜 ふ ：to sf/? to sb), or notamah*u(=u •=>notam auf=ol) ( 宜 ふ ：to say s 的 to sb， to inform sb o f sth): く tamaha(=wa)s*u (賜 は 彳 ）>， or < notamaha(wa=)s*u ( 宜 は す ）>• The mghest degree of politeness is expressed. ③ honorative 2 The speaker expresses his/her humbleness towards the referent. In this usage, s*u ( i -) is agglutinated to the honorative verbs mair^u send), or mau(=d)s*u ( 今 彳 • to say sth to sb， to inform sb o f sth), or tatematsur*u ( 奉 ら ： to give): mairas*u ( 参 ら 彳 ） ，mau(=o)sas*u ( 申 さ す ） ，o r fatemafs “ 厂as (奉らす） .

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ 4.8: Auxiliaries

159

honorative 3 The speaker expresses his/her respect towards the referent. In this usage, the honorative hojodoushi ( ：verbs which fulfil specific syntactic and semantic functions, for example, that of politeness markers), such as tamah*u(=u •=> tam auf=dj)( 給 ふ ），oha(=wa)shimas*u ( お は L i す ），/r?as/7/mas*u ( 1 l i i - ) are attached to s*u ( ): < V1 •se9tamahu(=u) > < V1*se* ohashimasu >, and < \/1 9se*mashimasu >. Or it is attached to the honorative auxiliary rar^u ( ^ 6 ). ⑤ passive (in some cases s w [ す ] is used to express the passive instead of using the passive auxiliary r*u [ 6 ]) ④

30. far*/ ( た り ） Inflection category: verbal inflection of the ra-/7er?-type ( ラ 变 ） 0 Inflection forms: < tara*tari*tah*tarytare*tare > □ Agglutination: < 2 + tar^i> excluding ra-hen-V. < AUX2-verbaNnflection type + far*/ > excluding the AUX (っ） 圍 Morphology: Tar*/ ( た り ）is a compound of the conjunctive PP te ( マ ）and the ra-hen-verb ar*/ ( あ つ ）forming fe.a/7• ( マ *?)り ） • By deleting the vowel /e/， one can extract the form fap/ ( た 0 ). 回

adjectival (features/characteristics of things/persons are expressed as a per­ manent situation) ② aspect (perfective: the speaker expresses the idea that sth has happened) ③ aspect (resultative: the speaker expresses the idea that a situation, which occurred through an action or a happening, is still continuing) ④ copulative (this usage is observed from the Middle Japanese era onwards; the speaker is listing different actions or happenings as examples) ①

0 Inflection category: KD-inflection of the te/v*-type ( 形 動 タ リ ）（ = [ ラ交】 ) 0 Inflection forms: < tara*tarHari9ta rvta re 9tare > □ Agglutination: < N + tar^i > 國 Morphology: Tar*/( た り ）is a compound made up of the case marker PP to ( と ）and the ra-/7en-verb ar*/• ( 有 り ）：く t あ つ ）>• By deleting the vowel / 〇/，the lexeme farW ( た り ）is extracted. □ Other remarks: This auxiliary is used in kanbun ( : texts written in Classical Chinese in contrast to those in Classical Japanese wajbun [ 和 文 ])• (cf. nar*/ [ な り ]). ____ © declarative (sth i s s b is ...) 32. ta*shi( f z i ) _______________ Inflection category: K-inflection of the /cii-type ( 形 ク ） 0 Inflection forms: < 0/takara*taku/takari9tashi/0*takiAakaru9takere/090 > □ Agglutination: < 2 + ta*shi> for all verbal inflection types except the ,______ perfective-aspectual auxiliaries ( っ ）and (ぬ） 回

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

160

□ Other remarks: This auxiliary appeared in the /nseZ-y/c/a/ Period ( 院 政 時 代 ： 1086-1186), and spread widely in the Kamakura Period (1192-1333). Although it was used more frequently than the desiderative auxiliary mah〇9sni ( i |1 l ), which occurred in written language, the use of ta*shi ( / c l ) was limited in colloquiaManguage. In the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) ，fa.sh/ ( た L ) changed morphologically to the contemporary expression f a " ( た い ） . © desiderative 1 (the speaker [the first person] wants or wishes to do sth) ® desiderative 2 (the speaker [the first person] wants sb else to do sth or wishes that sb else would do sth)

33. ㈣ （っ )________________ Inflection category: verbal inflection of the s/?/mo-n/-type ( 下 二 ） 0 Inflection forms: < te*te9tsu*tsuivtsure*teyo > □ Agglutination: < 2 + ts*u > for all inflection categories and types □ Other remarks: The auxiliary ( っ ）is generally agglutinated to transitive verbs, (cf. rru [ ^ ]). 回

aspect (perfective: an action carried out by an agent has ended) copulative This usage is from the Kamakura Period [1192-1333]. Its syntactic construetion has two s/7(7us/7/7ce/•(終 止 形 ：3A) inflection forms: . The vowe けu/ was deleted, and thus za"/• ( ざ つ ）is extracted. □ Other remarks: As for inflection forms of zu ( < ) , there are three different groups: the zi/-inflectional group and the nti-inflectional group which inflect ir­ regularly, and the zar/'-inflectional group with the ra-hen verbal inflection. Other auxiliaries are generally agglutinated to the zar/-inflection group for negations. © negation N.B.: Inflection forms are indicated by numbers 1 (爪/ze/?/ce/:未 然 形 ) ，2 (厂en’you/ce/:連用形)， 3A (s/7t/ws/7/>ce/:終止形） ，3B (ner?fa//ce/:連 休 形） ， 4 (/zer7/ce/:己然 形 ） ， and 5 (me/re/Tce/: 命令形） .

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.8: Auxiliaries

162

Figure 9: Inflection categories and types Inflection categories

Inflection types , proper type K-loi-type

① (^

K-Inflection

(本 活 用 ）

(形 ク ） 、IrarZ-type ( カ リ 活 用 ） 69

)J
; < 3B + kara >

fro m ...) na

な

①

ni

|v

additive (Ziy/t/7e/7?7〇厂e) addressee ③ agent of causatives ④ agent of passives (D allative ([to be] reached: i n a t ...) (D appearance (sb/sth looks like ...) ⑦ cause/reason (わecause .") ⑧ comparative (a criterion for a comparison: based on in comparison with ... than ...) ⑨ direction ( t o ...) ⑩ emphasis @ final: purpose {in order to ...) © function (as ...) © honorative

attributive (YT/NR)

① ②

< N1 + r?a + N2 > < N + /7/ > ; < 3B + ni >

Abbreviations: YT: Yam ato Period (ca. 350-8th C); NR: Nara Period (710-784); HA: Heian Pe­ riod (794-1185); KM: K am akura Period (1192-1333); MM: M urom achi Period (1338-1573); ED: Edo Period (1603-1867).

176

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _

4.9: Postpositions

® illative (a place [to be] reached: getting in to ...) © instrumental (instrument) ® locative (a place of existence: in ...) @ resultative (result)76 ⑱ temporative (time)

nite

I: マ

0 cause/reason (because ...) ® function (as in the function o f...) ③ instrumental (instrument) 0 locative (the place of an action) (D temporative (at the age o f ...\ a t...)

< N + nite >; < 3B + nite >

no

の

© apposition ② attributive ③ copulative (listing items/matters; from MM onwards) ④ nominalisation ⑤ noun substitutes ⑥ resemblance ([sjb/sf/? /oo/cs] //7ce ...) ⑦ subject marker (D termination marker of makura-kotoba ( 枕 詞 ：see 6 .2 .1) and70-totoba ( I f P i: s e e 6.2.3)

< ADV + no >;

agent of causatives ® comitative (partner [with $b]) ® instrumental (instrument)

< N + shite >

shite

l T

①

te

1

(see to [ と ] below; te [ マ ] was a dialect form in the Eastern province) (YT/NR)

to

Y

© appearance (just like ...) ② citation (... 0 comitative (partner: with sb) ④ comparative (a criterion for comparison;

< K-stem + no > ; < KD-stem + no >; < N + no >

< N + to >; < 3B + to >; < sentence (3A) + to>

compared w ith ...) ⑤

copulative (listing things)

⑥

emphasis

(!) manner ⑧

resultative (result)76

< V2 to V3B + N > < onomatopoeia/ mimetics + to > < N/3B + to >

76 The linguistic technical term resultative is differentiated into two dinstinct functions in this monograph: a case marker of a result of certain actions or happenings, or an aspectual marker of an ongoing situation arising from certain actions or happenings.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

tote

r -r

cause/reason (わecat/se .") citation marker ③ final (/•/? order fo "•) 0 function (in the name o f...)

< N + tote >; < 3B + tote >; < sentence + tote >

① ②

wo(=o)

を

①

ablative (starting point) ② locative (a place where a movement occurs) ③ object marker © perlative (through ...)

< N + wo(=o) >; < 3B + wo(=o) >

yo

よ

0 ablative (starting point) ② comparative (a criterion for com parison:... tha n ...) ③ instrumental (instrument) ④ perlative .") (YT/NR)

< N + yo >; < 3B + yo >

yori

よつ

①

ablative (starting point) ® cause/reason {because ...)

< N + PP >; < 3B + yori >

③

177

comparative (marker of a criterion: ... th a n ...)

instrumental (instrument) perlative (fhroi/firf? •••) ⑥ temporative (as soon as •••; t/pon ".) ④ ⑤

S y n t a c t ic -s e m a n t ic t y p e o f P P s (/) — ends in the rentaikei ( i t 怵 形 ：V3B) ( お ( i さ る る ）.

4.9.4.2 Ellipsis of referents There are cases in classical texts in which a sentence contains a referencer, but no corresponding referent. In other words, a corresponding predicate is intentionally omit­ ted. This phenomenon known as ellipsis is a special stylistic device used to highlight a great intensity of the emotions expressed in poems or statements. In such cases, the

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

183

p re d ic a te c a n u s u a lly b e re c o v e re d b y e x a m in in g th e c o n te x t. S e n te n c e O 1 0 9 fro m th e K 〇A7_/a/a/-/77〇A7〇g r a f a " ( 今 普 物 語 ：th e firs t h a lf o f th e 12 C ) d e p ic ts th is rh e to ric a l te c h n iq u e . T h e m is s in g e le m e n t, n a m e ly th e p re d ic a te /c/7c*u (聞く ：to わ

is s h o w n in

p a re n th e s e s . O 1 0 9 : K ii n o k o to n a ri to

namu(=n) k a ta ri* ts u ta h e (= e )» ta r*u

to

ya (k ik -u ).

(SNKBT 34: 376) N sth strange/odd/queer.PP attributive.N thing.A\JX3A declarative.PP citation marker. PP emphasis. V2 to tell stories from generation to generation (V2 to tell sthm \/2 to con­ vey). AUX3B resultative (a state of being ..J.PP citation marker.PP emphasis + specula­ tive. (V3B to hear). 奇 異 ノ 爭 也 ト ナ ム 語 リ 伝 へ タ ル ト ヤ （聞 ク ）。

We have heard that this very strange story has probably been transmitted in this way from generation to generation. O 109 h a s tw o /ca/ca 厂/-y〇s/7/ ( イ豕助詞），n a m e ly nam u(=n)(な U / な、ん ） (や ） . B o th o f th e m r e q u ir e t h e ir r e f e r e n ts in t h e renfa/T ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：V 3 B )

S e n te n c e and ya

b e c a u s e o f th e m o rp h o s y n ta c tic g o v e rn m e n t, n a m e ly 結 び の 法 則 ：s e e

(^ V )

kakari-musubi no housoku (\% 1

4.9.4.1 a n d T a b le 7 5 ). T h u s , th e firs t /ca/car/-yos/7/ ( 係 助 詞 ）namu(=n)

re fe rs to th e p re d ic a te

katari9tsutahe(=e)* tar*u ( 0

tz h

:

sth has been

frar?s/T?/Yfec〇 in th e renfa/Zce/ ( 連 体 形 ：V 3 B ), a n d th e s e c o n d Zca/cary-yosh/• ( 係 助 詞 ）ya ( や ）re fe rs to th e p re d ic a te /c/Zc.u ( 聞 く ：to in th e rer7fa//ce/• ( 連 体 形 ：V 3 B fo rm ) w h ic h d o e s n o t a p p e a r in th e s e n te n c e . T h e in te n tio n a l d ro p p in g o f th e v e rb

kik*u

( M

く ）le n d s e m p h a s is to th e e m o tio n s e x p re s s e d .

4.9.5 Adverbial PPs (Fuku-joshi [ I ' J ]) A d v e rb ia l P P s re fe r to p re c e e d in g no u n s. T h e s e n te n c e c o m p o n e n t < N + a d v e rb ia l P P > m o d ifie s p re d ic a te s , o r o th e r a d v e rb s , in o rd e r to g iv e s p e c ific m e a n in g s s u c h a s

even, furthermore, about, for example a n d not only ... but (also) N

only,

... (s e e T a b le 7 6 ).

A -i,--------PP

P re d ic a te

or

N

a S o m e e x a m p le s (s e e S e n te n c e s

ADV

PP

a 0 110 a n d O 1 1 1 ) a re ta k e n fro m th e Ibuki-doji


tamauf=tamo1) sahe(=e) asama*shiku urame*shiku (...) (SNKBT 54:196) ProperN Yasaburo.PP object marker.V2 to c/ece/Ve.V3B honorative.PP not only but also....KZ shameful.K2 reproachable (...)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

184

弥 三 郎 を た ば 々 、り 姶 ふ さ へ あ さ ま

L く 恨 め L く （...）

The princess thought that it was not only a shame and a reproachable act that her father had deceived (her husband) Yasaburd，but also (...) O 111:(...) noyama wo(=o) hashiri-ariki te muma, ushi wo(=o) uchi.tataki nado, osana.ki mi ni ou(=o)ze*nu akugyau(=o) wo(=o) nom i koto to shi»kere*ba (...) (SNKBT54: 198) (...).N fields andmountains.PP locative (a place where movement occurs).V2 to runV2 to go.PP copulative.N /?〇厂se.N coi/v.PP object ma「ker.V2 emphasis.V2 to M .P P 尸〇厂 example.K3B young.N body.PP criterion.V1 to correspond.A\JX3B negation.N bad things.PP object marker.PP only.H act, job, work.PP resultative.V2 to c/o.AUX4 past.PP cause or reason ( … ） (...) 野 山 を 走 り 麥 5 マ 馬 、 牛 を う ち 叩 ？な ど 、 幼 5 身 に 应 ぜ ぬ 惡 行 を の み 事 と L け れ ば 、（ …)

Yasaburd ran and walked around in the fields and in the mountains, and he beat horses and cows terribly. He did only bad tnmgs which dia not match his young age. For this reason (...)

Table 76: Functions of adverbia 丨PPs (Fw/ciz-yos/?/ [ I リ助詞 ]) Postposition

Functions/Meanings

bakari

0 approximation {about...] approxim ately...] c irc a ...)

l i 'V り

②

dani gana

だ丨二

がな

emphasis + limitation (o n ly ...; exclusively...)

® emphasis (only if ...\ ①

②

< various words + bakari >; < N + bakari >; < 3B + bakari >

even...)

< N + dani >; < 3B + dani >

implication/suggestion/ allusion

< N + gana >; < interrogative + gana >

indefinite expression

(something, somebody, somewhere] sometime)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

ka

も、

© indefinite expression

(something] somebody] somewhere, sometime)

4.9: Postpositions

185

く N + ka >; < 3B + ka >

(KM, MM and ED)

kashi

6、L

①

emphasis

< ... sazolyomolnahof=〇) + kashi >

made

まで

①

approximation

< various words + made >

approximately ...\ circ a ...) ②

conditional + emphasis

(even if •".，even though "•) ③

emphasis (even ."J

④

exclusiveness (o/?/y •")

⑤

< various words + made >

limit (i/nf/7 •••; i/p to …；

as much a s ...) nado

など

0 citing examples (such as

< various words + nado >

for e x a m p le th in g s lik e ...) emotive (contempt; scorn; disdain: su ch ...)

< various words + nado >;

③

emphasis

Used with negated predicates.

④

euphemism (indirect state­ ments)

< various words + nado >; < sentence + nado + to ... >

①

emphasis (espec/a//y)

< various words + nomi >

②

exclusive 门 ess

②

nomi

のみ

< S6nt6门 C6 + nado + fo ... >

(e x c lu s iv e ly o n ly ...) sahe(=e)さ へ

①

addition (,tvrf/7em7〇厂e .")

® emphasis (even ...)

< N + sahe(=e) >; < 3B + sahe(-e) >

shi

l

①

emphasis

< N + shi >; < 3B + shi >; < 2 + shi >; < ADV + shi >; < PP + shi >

shite

Lマ

© emphasis

< ADV + shite >; < PP o/ni/yori/kara + shite >

sura

すら

0 emphasis (even ...)

< N + sura >; < 3B + sura >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

186 4 _9 _ 6

Conjunctive PPs (Setet/zofoiづos/i/[ 接 統 助 詞 ])

By using conjunctive PPs, clauses can be conjoined and many different meanings can be expressed. Table 77 highlights this polysemous feature. The following diagram shows the syntactic construction of conjunctive PPs. Depending on the conjunctive PPs， Clause 1 (C し1 ) is a subordinate or coordinate clause, and Clause 2 (C し2) is the main clause. j

Clause 1

紅、 ， ，

- 一*^

PP

Clause 2

j - ----------------- /.

We will analyse Sentence O 112 below, which is taken from the /わ(7/c/-d6y/ ( 彳f 吹童 : the /Wi/rornac/?/-rn〇A?ogafa厂/ ( 室 町 物 語 ：between 14th and 17th C), to see how the conjunctive PP (sefsiyzo/oy-yosh/ [ 接 绫 助 詞 ] ) iba ( ば ）is employed. Sentences in the quotation indicated b y「 」： the first of these is a simple sentence with the /ce/yotzs/?/predicate modashigata*shi l : difficult to ignore), whereas the second is a complex sentence composed of two clauses (Clauses 1 and 2: see the diagram below). Clause 1 is connected by the conjunctive PP ba ( [ 1 ) which marks a reason or a cause for something. The quotation is indicated by the citation marker PP tote ( と マ ），and the main clause is respresented by Clause 3. チ ）in

■ Clause 1

ba

9

•

Clause 2

tote

3 112: “Chichi no oho(=o)se mo modashi*gata*shi. So no uhe(=e), atari no mono»domo mo osore kanashime ba, wa ga te ni kakahe(=e)*oku koto ha(=wa) ashi.karu.beshi” tote, Hie no yama no kita no tani ni zo sute*rare»keru. (SNKBT 54: 200) The first sentence: N father.PP attributive.N order.PP emphasis (as well).\/2 to ignore.SFX keiyoushi-properinflection (difficult to do sth). The second sentence: CNJ furthermore (ProN this.PP attributive.PseudoN above/on).V\ surroundings. PP attributive.N peop/e.SFX plural.PP emphasis (as welf)M2 to fearMA to be unhappy. PP cause or reason.ProN /.PP attributive.N hand.PP locative.V2 to have.\/3B to keep. PseudoN nominalisation.PP topic marker.K3B /car/-inflection (/?ac〇.AUX3A speculative. PP citation marker.ProperN /~//e.PP attributive.N /77cxyA7fa/>7.PPattributive.N A?orf/?.PP attributive.N valley.PP locative.PP emphasis.V2 to abandon.A\JX2 honorative.AUX3B past. 「父 の 仰 せ も 黙 た く 爭 は S い 、る べ

L 。 其 上 、 逻 り の 者 ど も も 恐 れ 悲 L め ば 、 我が手丨て把へ置

L 」と マ 、 日 吉 の 山 の 北 •の 谷 丨 二 〒 •捨 マ ら れ け る 。

The princess thought: “I can not ignore the order o f my father. Not only this，but people around us are scared o f Yasaburd and are unhappy (about the situation). Therefore, it is bad to keep my son Yasaburo with me,vso she abandoned her son in tne northern valley o f the Hie Mountains.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

4.9: Postpositions

The following examples are from the Yoshida Kenkd ( 吉 田 兼 好 拕 8 3 ? -1353?). 〇

187

( 徒 然 萆 ：around 1330) by

113: (...) kari no yadori to ha(=wa) omohe(=e) do, keu(=yo) aru mono nare. (SNKBT 39: 86) ( . . . ) N sth provisional.PP attributive.N dwelling, shelter.PP content marker.PP emphasis.V4 to think, to consider.PP concessive (although, even though).^ interest, appeal, attraction.\/3B to be.N thingA\JX4 declarative. (...) 仮 の 宿 り と I I 思 へ ビ 、 興 あ る 物 な れ 。 (...) Even though I know that his house is only my provisional shelter, it is a nice house.

0 114: Naga»ku tom o, yosodi ni tara*nu hodo nite shina*n koso, meyasu*karu»bekere. (SNKBT 39: 83-84) K2 long.PP concessive {even if).N forty (the numeral 40).PP criterion.VI to be enough, to reach ADX3B negation.N degree, grade.PP temporative (at the age of...).V1 to die. AUX3B speculative.PP emphasis.K3B /can-inflection (desirable).AUX4 speculative. 長 く と も 、 四 十 (二 足 ら ぬ ほ ビ 丨 て マ 死 な ん こ ヤ 、 め や す 6 、ろ べ け れ 。

The desirable age to die should be around forty. (L it: A t an age which does not reach forty should be a desirable age to die even if it is that long.) 0 115: Kaminaduki no koro, Kurusuno to ihu(=u ■=> iu[=yu]) tokoro wo(=o) sugi te, aru yama.zato ni tadune.iru koto haberi.shi ni, haruka.naru koke no michi wo(=o) humiwake te, kokoro*boso*ku suminashi*taru iho(=o)ri ar.i. (SNKBT 39: 88) N October.PP attributive.N approximate time.ProperN Kurusuno (a place).PP content marker.V3B to say, to name, to ca//.N place.PP perlative (a passing point).V2 to pass.PP consecutive.R a certain.^ mountain village (N mountairrN w//age).PP illative (a reach­ ing point: getting into ...).V3B to visit sb in a remote place (V2 to ws/f*V3B to get into). PseudoN nominalisation.V2 to be; there isA\JX3B past.PP temporative.KD3B far reach­ ing.H moss.PP attributive.N a path.PP perlative (a passing point).V2 to go through.PP consecutive. K2 lonely (N heart*\

②

conditional (が…）

③

copulative (a/?d •")

< 4 + ba>

④

iterative

は

]

厂…）

® temporative (when...)

de

て

0 negation (w ithout... -ing);

< 1 + de >

do

ビ

0 adversative {b u t...) Q) concessive (although ...)

< 4 + do >

domo

ども

0 adversative (b u t...) ② concessive + conditional

< 4 + domo >

(even i f ...) 0 adversative (b u t...) (D copulative (and...)

ga kara

4 、ら

①

②

< 3B + ga >

cause/reason (わecause •••; a s fo r...)

< 3B + kara >

emphasis (as /ongr as …；

< 3B + kara + ha(=wa) >

now th a t...) mo

も

①

concessive (although.")

® conditional (even if...)

< V3B + mo >; < AUX3B-verbal inflection +

mo > © cause/reason (because ...) ® concessive (although...)

< 3B + monokara >

monono t

monowo(=o)

①

monokara も の り 、ら

ものを

nagara

な力くら

②

cause/reason (because ..J concessive (even (/?oug/7 ..J

< 3B + monowo(=o) >

© concessive (although ...)

< N + nagara >; < K-stem + nagara >; < KD-stem + nagara >; < K3A-s/7/7o/-inflection + nagara >; < V2 + nagara >

(D stative (unchanged situation)

< N + nagara >; < V2 + nagara >

③

temporative (two actions taking place at the same time)

< V2 + nagara >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

^ni

丨 ：

① additive (幻 / ^

189

< 3B + ni >

厂爪。厂e;

moreover) © adversative (b u t...) ③ cause/reason (becat/se ■••) ④ iterative (vWienever...) © temporative (when as ...)

shite te

L "T マ

® copulative (and...)

< K2/KD2/AUX2 + shite >

© cause/reason (because...) ② concessive (a肋

< 2 + te>

even though...) consecutive (a/?d 0 copulative (and...) ③

.")

⑤

stative Obe/ng ..•)

< K2 + f e >

concessive (a肋 017g/7 •••)

< KD3AA/3A + to >; < AUX3A -KD- and -verbal inflection + to> ; < K 2 + to> ; ; < V1 + zu ( ず ：AUX2 negation) + to >

to

と

①

tomo

とも

© concessive (although...)

0 conditional (even if...)

< KD3AA/3A + tomo >77; < AUX3A-KD- and -verbal inflection + tomo >77; < K2 + tomo >; < AUX2-Kinflection + tomo >; < V1 + zi/ ( ず ：AUX2 negation) +

tomo > tsutsu

っっ

① concessive (even •") (D continuation (continue to ...) ® copulative (and ...) ④

emotive (used to express that

⑤

repetition (aga/>? a/7d aga/l?) temporative (two actions taking place at the same time)

< V2/AUX2 + tsutsu >

sb is emotionally moved; oh!) ⑥

WQ(=〇)

を

© cause/reason (because ...) ② concessive .") ③ copulative (a n d .")

< 3B + wo(=o) >

77 The following inflection is also observed from the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) onwards: < V3B/KD3B/AUX3B-verbal- and -KD-inflection + tomo >.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

190

4.9.7 Type 1 modality-expressing PPs (Shuu-joshi [ ^ t iP l] ) As explained in 4.9.2.4.1, the first type of modality-expressing PP is placed at the end of a sentence, and is hence known in Japanese technical term as s/7ui/-yos/7/ 力i 司） meaning final postpositions. This term, then, is clearly based on syntactic criteria. Se­ mantically, on the other hand, they express emotions and attitudes of the speaker or the stance of the speaker towards his/her utterance. The context determines what sort of emotions, attitudes or stances the speaker is expressing with the modality-expessing PPs. Example O 116 一 taken from the Ab(i/c/-d6y/•(ィf 吹 童 子 ）in the MfiromacW-rnoTOfirafary' ( 室 町 物 語 ：14th to 17th C) — involves two such final PPs, namely baya ( ば や ）and /caya い 、や ） . Baya ( ば や ）is a compound comprising the (接 绫 劝 詞 ） ba ( I f ) and the kakari-joshi ( ) y a ( ^ ) and has gained a new status, a shuuy〇s/?/ ( 終 助 詞 ) ，which marks intense desire on the part of the speaker. Kaya ( り、や ) ，on the other hand, is composed of the interrogative ゾos/7/.( 秀力售司 ）/ca ( 6 、）and the exclamative ZcaA7toi/-yos/7/ ( 間 投 助 詞 ）ya ( や ） . In Sentence O 116, this compound denotes the intense emotional desperation and sorrow of the princess.

O 116: (...) higoro no kanashi*sa wo(=o) mo nagusame*baya to omohe(=e) ba, kasane*te ukime mise*mu(=n) tote kayau(=o)*ni notamahnj(=u kaya (...) (SNKBT 54:196-197)

々

notamau[=o])

( . . . ) N e w y d a y .P P attributive.N sad/?ess.PP object marker.PP emphasis.V1 to console oneself.PP desiderative.PP citation marker.V4 to think.PP concessive.ADV aga/n.N su/fer/ngf.VI to ma/ce sわ sf/7.AUX3A speculative.PP citation marker. KD2-nar/'-inflection (such).\/3B tosay.PP exclamative.(...) (...) 日 頃 の 悲 L さ を も 慰 め ば や と 思 へ ば 、重 れ マ 憂 き 目 見 せ ！；とマ々、やう丨二のた まふ々、 や （...）

/ want to console myself, but now my father is again saying such a thing. Is he oomg it to make me suffer more? (...) (How could he do such a thing to me!) Sentence O 117 is from the 7"a/ceto厂/-monogater/ ( 竹 取 物 語 ：the end of the 9th C) and has the shuu-joshi kana ( ). Kana ( ) is an independent lexical item and is a compound made up of two s/7mv-yos/7/ ( 养 力 詞 ）/ca ( 6、）and na (

な

） ，both expressing strong emotions.

O 117: Ure*shiku mo notamahu(=u ■=> notamau[=o1) mono kana. (SNKBT 17: 8) K2 nice, happy, wonderful.PP emphasis.V3B to say.PseudoN exclamative. PP exclamative. うれ

L く も の た ま ふ 4勿力、な 。

How nice of you to say that!

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

4.9: Postpositions

Table 78: Functions of Type 1 modality-expressing PPs {S h u u -jo s h i [

191

])

Postposition

Functions/Meanings

Agglutination

baya

0 desiderative (/ want to ...)

< V1 + baya >;

emphatic negation (from the end < ara + baya > of the 12th to the end of the 16th C) ® volitional (/ w ill...) < V1 + baya >; (HA)

ga

①

が

②

emotive tag question; confirmation

< sente 门 ce + ga >

(... isn’t it?，... doesn’t it?; ...hasn^it?) fKM, MM, and ED) gamo

がも

①

gana

f

①

す i

desiderative (/ s わ to do sf/?; < N + mo gamo >; / wish sb would do sth for me) ; Gamo ( が も ）is used in conjunc- < ADV + mo gamo >; tion with the /ca/car7_y〇s/7/( 係 助 詞 ） < AUX2-declarative + mo ( も )：< … /770 gra/770 ( も ) >. mo gamo > desiderative (/7o/?/y / cou/cf

< N + gana >

have...：1 wish 1h a d ...) h a (= w a ) は

© emotive

ka

ち、

①

kamo

いも

© desiderative (/ wish ...)

emotive

< N + ha(=wa) >; < sentence + ha(-wa) >; < K3B/KD3BA/3B/AUX3B + ha(=wa) > < N + /ca >; < 3B + /ca > < V2 + nt/ + kamo >

②

emotive

< N + kamo >;

③

interrogative

< 3B + kamo >

④

rhetorical question

< V1 + me + kamo >; く … mono

kana

、な

①

emotive

くN

+ kamo >

+ ka >;

< 3B + kana >

kashi

L

© emphasis © tag question; confirmation

kaya

いや

© emotive ② interrogative ③ rhetorical question

< ADV/INJ + kashi > < sentence + kashi > < N + kaya >; < 3B + kaya >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

192

< V2 + koso >

koso

こ *t

© desiderative (/ want sb to do sth\ please do sth for me) (YT/NR)

made

まて

①

emotive (from KM onwards)

< se 门 tence + made >

mo

も

①

emotive (YT/NR)

< sentence + mo >; < constituent + mo >

moga

も力く

© desiderative (/ wish ...) (YT/NR)

< N + moga >; < K2 + moga >; < AUX2 + moga >; < ADV + moga > < PP ni + moga >

も㈣

® desiderative (/ wish ...) (YT/NR)

< N + mogamo >; < K2 + mogamo >; < AUX2 declarative + mogamo >; < ADV + mogamo >; < PP + mogamo >

もがな

® desiderative (/ wish ...)

< N + mogana >; < K2 + mogana >; < AUX2 negation + mogana >; < AUX2 declarative +

mogamo

moga门 a

78

mogana > monokaha(=wa)

①

もの々、 |1

monowo(=o)

② ①

ものを

na

な

emotive (being impressed) rhetorical question

< 3B + monokaha(=wa) >

emotive (regret; anger; disappointment)

< 3B + monowo(=o) >

0 cohortative (le fs ...) ②

desiderative (/ i/vanf fo...; /

< V1 + na >;

sb to do sth) ③

州ar?f

< 3A/5 + na >;

emotive

< 3B/4-kakari-musubi + na> ④

prohibitive (Don’f." /)

< V3A/AUX3A + na >, except ra-A?e/7-inflection;

⑤

tag question; confirmation

< 3A/5 + na >; < 3B/4-kakari-musubi na>

78

S o m e g ra m m a ria n s such as M iy a k o s h i (2 0 0 3 ) do n o t a c k n o w le d g e th is m o rp h o lo g ic a l

interpretation saying th a t m og a m o ( t が も ）is a co m pound o f the s/?(； iy-yos/7/ (条令J力^ ] ) m oga

(

も が ）and the

7 oW

( 終 肋 詞 ）m o

(

も） .

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _ ⑥

nam u(=n)なむ’ /

①

I-

193

volitional (/ w///".) (YT/NR)

< V1 + A7a >;

desiderative (/ hope f/?af s/) does

< 1 + namu(=n) >

sth for me)

なん

ni

4.9: Postpositions

© desiderative (/ want sb to do sth]

< ^ + n i>

1wish sb would do sth for me) (YT/NR)

n is h ig a 丨てL が

0 desiderative + irrealis (/ wish 1 < V2 + nishiga > could...) (used from HA onwards)

nishigana

© desiderative + irrealis (/ wish 1

< V2 + nishigana >

could.")

I二 い )

< sentence + no >

; in the cases of AUX s*u ( -f )/sas*u ( ^ す ） IshirtTu

( l V )l

( る） /rar*t/ ( ら る ）； < \/1-ka-hen and sa-hen +

so > te

T

①

emotive (ED)

< sentence + te >

teshika* 1 い 、/ teshiga T l

①

desiderative (/ i/uanf to •••) (used in YT/NR; in HA teshika [ マ L 6 、】had phonologically changed to teshiga [ T [ ^ ])

< 2 + teshika >

teshikamo

0 desiderative (/ want to (YT/NR)

マ い 、も

teshikana* teshigana T U 、な /

1

いくな

/ wish ...) < 2 + teshikamo >

© desiderative (/ want t o 1wish ...) < 2 + teshikana > (used in YT/NR; in HA teshikana [ マ い 、な ] had phonologically changed to teshigana [ t l ])

tomo

とも

© assent (of course ...) (from MM onwards)

ya

や

① ②

interrogative rhetorical question (HA)

< 3A + tomo > < 3A + ya >; < 4 + ya >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

194

4.9: Postpositions

Type 2 Modality-expressing PPs (Kanfotz-yos/if [ 間 投 助 詞 ])

4 .9 . 8

PPs of this category also express emotions o f the speaker. They are placed after

any sentence constituents，such as nouns ，nominals，verb phrases, or adverbials. N / nominals / constituent ；PP Sentence O 118 from the //)u/c/-d6y/• ( げ 吹 童 子 ）in the Mt/romac/7/，A77〇/7〇gafaAy ( 室 and 17th C) contains the exclamative Zcanfoi/vos/?/• ( 間 投 助 詞 ）

町 物 語 ：between14th

yo ( ょ ） . 〇

118: (...) u(M)au(=6)ryau(=6), kijin ha(=wa) kegaraha(=wa)*shi, ide yo ide y o n to sainami*tamahu(=u sainami*tamauf=6]) yuhe(=e) ni so no tokoro wo(=o) ba nige*sari*keri. (SNKBT 54: 204) (...)N nymph.N god.PP topic marker.K3A not pureMb to go away.PP exclamative.V5 to go away.PP exclamative.PP citation marker.V2 to taunt.\/3B honorative.N reason. PP cause or reason.ProN this.PP attributive.N place.PP locative (a place where a move­ ment occurs).PP emphasis.V2 to run away.\/2 to leave.A\JX3A past. 「魍 魎 、鬼 神 は 穢 ら は

L 、 出て•よ出て •よ」と さ い な み 給 ふ ゆ へ 丨 二 、其 所 を ば 逃 •げ 去

りけり0

Nymphs and gods taunted (Shuten-doji): "You are not pure! Go away, go aw ayr For this reason, he fled from this place. Table 79: Functions of Type 2 modality-expressing PPs (Ka/ito£i-y〇s/?/[ 間 投 助 詞 】 } Functions/Meanings

Postposition

koso

こそ

calling sb with intimacy (my

①

Agglutination < a person^ name + koso >

dear...) (HA) ni

I二

①

emotive

; < N + sahe(-e) + n i>

wo(-o)

ya

y〇

を

や

上

①

emphasis

< constituent + wo(=o) >

②

emotive

< 3B + wo(=o) >

①

calling sb

< N + ya >;

②

copulative (listing things)

< 3B + ya >;

③

emotive

< constituent + ya >

© calling sb ②

< a person’s 门 3m6 + yo >

emphasis (the topic of a statement < constitue 门 t + yo > or declaratives are emphasised)

③

emphasis (in the case of

< 5 + yo >

prohibitives and imperatives) ④

emotive

< constituent + yo >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _

4.9: Postpositions

195

Table 80: A summary of the functions of PPs fpostposition/Function

Agglutination

( T b a U i)

)

KKJ: see ha(=w a)( は ）

< 4 + ba>

SZJ : ① cause/reason ②

< ^ + ba>

conditional

copulative (and 0 iterative (whenever...) ⑤ temporative .") ③

2. bakari FJ:

0 )

j

0 approximation (about

approximately •".，circa …) ②

3. 一

emphasis + limitation (o n ly e x c lu s iv e ly ...)

m ゃ )

< 4 + ba>

< various words + bakari >; < N + bakari >; < 3B + bakari >

l

SJ : ① desiderative (/ wa/7f to ...)

< V1/AUX1-verbal inflection + baya >

②

emphatic negation (from the end of the 12th to the end of the 16th C)

< ara + baya >

③

volitional ( / m////…）（HA)

< V1/AUX1-verbal inflection + baya >

4. dani ( fc I - ) FJ : ① emphasis (on/y が …；ever? •••)

< N + dani >; < 3B + dani >

5 .c fe ( て.） KJ : ① cause/reason ② instrumental ③ locative (the place of an action) 0 stative (a situation) ® temporative (time) (from the end of HA)

< N + de >

Abbreviations: KJ: /ca/cw〇sW ( 将 助 詞 ） ；KKよ /ca/car/-yos/7/ ( 係 助 詞 ）；FJ: づos/7/ ( I 丨 力 詞 ） ; SZJ: sefstyzo/oi-yos/?/( 接 绫 助 詞 ）；SJ: s/^iy-yos/?/• ( 終 助 詞 ）；KTJ: づos/7/( 間 投 劝 詞 ） ；1: m/ze/7/ce/( 未 然 形 ) ；2: reA?V〇[v/ce/( 連 用 形 )；3A: s/7t/£；s/7//ce/•( 終 止 形 ) ；3B renfa//ce/•(連彳本形) ；4: /zen/ce/ ( 已 然 形 ）；5: me/ns/Zce/• ( 命 令 形 ）；YT: Yamato Period ( 大 和 時 代 ：ca. 350-8th C); NR: Nara Period ( 奈 良 時 代 ：710-784); HA: Heian Period ( 平 安 時 代 ：794-1185); KM: Kamakura Period ( 鎌 倉 時 代 ：1192-1333); MM: Muromachi Period ( 室 町 時 代 ：1338-1573); ED: Edo Period ( 江 严 時 代 ：1603-1867).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

196

S Z J : ① negation (vwf/ioiif … -//7勿 ； 6 .d o (^ )

)

S Z J : ① adversative ..•) © concessive {although ...) 7加

< 1 + c/e >

（ど も ）

< 4 + c/o >

]

S Z J : ① adversative (6W •••) ② concessive + conditional

< 4 + domo >

(even if 8. ga ( KJ:

)

)

0 appearance (like ...) ② attributive ③ ④

< N + ga >; < 3B + ga >

noun substitute subject marker

S Z J : ① adversative •••) © copulative {and...)

< 3B + ga >

S J : ① emotive ② tag question; confirmation

< sentence + ga>

(••• isn’t it?] ... doesn’t it? ,... hasn’t it?) (KM/MM/ED) 9. ga/7?o(が も ）

j

S J : ① desiderative (/ to do sf/7; / wish sb would do sth for me) Gamo ( ^ ) is used in conjunction with the /ca/cary-yos/?/( 係 助 詞 ）mo ( も） ：< ■■■ mo gamo ( も が も ）>. 10. g a n a ( が な ）

< N + mo gamo >; < K2 + mo gamo >; < ADV + mo gamo >; < AUX2-declarative +mo

gamo >

)

F J : ① implication/suggestion/allusion ② indeTinite expression (somef/7/>?g;

< N + gana >; < interrogative + gana >

somebody] somewhere] some­ time) S J : ① desiderative (/fon/y / cou/d...)

< N + gana >

11. ha(=wa) ( l i [tq;a]); ba ( II* ) ) K K J : ① conditional ( / f “.） © contrastive (..., b u t...) ③ emphasis ④ topic marker

< K2 + ha(=wa) >; < V1 + zu + ha(=wa) > < various words + ha(=wa) >; < ssnte 门 C6 + ha(-wa) >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

4.9: Postpositions

197

When the object is marked by

ha(-w a [

は！ )，ha(=wa [はリ

changes to ba ( ば ）： < ... wo(=o) ba ( 〜 を ば ）>. < N + ha(=wa) >; < sentence + ha(=wa) >; < K3B/KD3BA/3B/AUX3B +

SJ : ① emotive

ha(=wa) > ^ 2 .h e (= e )(^ [e ]) KJ:

}

© addressee (D allative (a point [to be] reached: in /a t...) ③ direction

< N + he(=e) >

13./ca ( り KKJ : ① interrogative ② rhetorical question (kakari-musubi: + 3B)

< various words + ka >; < 3B + ka>

FK: 0 indefinite expression

く N + ka > ; < 3B + ka>

(something] somebody, some­ where] sometime) (KM, MM and ED) SJ : ① emotive

< N + ka >, < 3B + ka >

1 4 ./camo( 4 、も ） KKJ : ① interrogative ②

interrogative + reason

< N + kamo >; < 3B + kamo > < 4 + kamo >

(is it because ... ?) (YT/NR) SJ : ① desiderative (/ w/s/7 •")

< V2 + ni/ + kamo >

② emotive (D interrogative

< N + kamo >; < 3B + kamo >

® rhetorical question

< V1 + me + kamo >; < ... mono + kamo >

1 5 ./ca n a (? )'^ ) S J : ① emotive

< N + /ca >; < 3B + kana >

J 6 .k a r a ( T T ) K J : ① ablative (starting point) ② cause/reason (because...) ③ instrumental (instrument) ④ perlative (f/7rougr/? •••) ⑤ temporative (as soon as ivpo/7

fro m ...)

< N + kara >; < 3B + kara >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _

198

S Z J : ① cause/reason

…；as

4.9: Postpositions

< 3B + kara >

fo r...) ②

emphasis (as /ong as

now

< 3B + kara + ha(=wa) >

that "•) M .k a s h i{H ' l )

]

F J : ① emphasis

< ... sazo/vomo/naho(=〇) + kashi >

S J : ① emphasis

< ADV/INJ + kashi >

(D tag question; confirmation

< sentence + kashi >

1 8 ./; < 3B + kaya >

S J : ① emotive ② interrogative ③ rhetorical question 19. to s o ( こ ”

j

< various words + koso >

K K J : ① adversative (b W ...) ②

conditional + adversative

< ^ + ba + koso >

(if A, then B, but not C) < ... mo + koso >

® emotive (anxiety) ④

< various words + koso >

emphasis

(kakari-musubi: + 4) S J : ① desiderative (/

s わ fo do s 的；

< V2 + koso >

please do sth form e) (YT/NR) K T J : ① calling sb with intimacy (my dear...) (HA)

< a person's name + koso >

20. made ( i t ) F J : ① approximation (aibotyf

< various words + made >

approximately...] circ a ...) (D conditional + emphasis

< 1 + nw + made + m o >

(even if...] even though ...) emphasis (even •") exclusiveness (on/y " J ⑤ limit (w f //...; i/p to ③

< various words + made >

④

as much a s ...) S J : ① emotive (from KM onwards)

< se 门 tence + m a d e >

K K J : ① additive (as we//, a/so, too)

< various words + mo >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

(D copulative (listing things) ® conditional + desiderative (/ wish

一

4.9: Postpositions

199

< various words + mo >

if only 1could...) emotive (being moved) ⑤ emphasis (e v e n .") ⑥ euphemism (resemblance: //7ce •..) ④

S Z J : ① concessive (a/f/7〇6/gr/7.") ® conditional (even i f ...)

< V3B + mo >;

S J : ① emotive (YT/NR)

< sentence + mo >;

< AUX3B-verbal inflection +

mo > < constituent + mo > 22. m o g a ( t r ' ) S J : ① desiderative (/ i/ws/7.") (YT/NR)

23. mogamo (

< N + moga >; < K2 + moga >; < AUX2 + moga >; < ADV + moga >; < PP ni + moga >

もがも）

S J : ① desiderative (/ vws/7 •••) (YT/NR)

24. m o g a n a ( i^ ^ )

< N + moga mo >; < K2 + mogamo >; < AUX2 declarative + mogamo >; < ADV + mogamo >; < PP + mogamo >

)

S J : ① desiderative (/ w/s/7...)

< N + mogana >; < K2 + mogana >; < AUX2 negation + mogana >; < AUX2 declarative +

mogana > 25. monokara ( t

]

のいら）

SZJ: 0 cause/reason (because ...) ® concessive (although ...) 26.

バもの

SJ:

m

< 3B + monokara >

[monokanja]) j

© emotive (being impressed) rhetorical question

< 3B + monokaha(=wa) >

②

27 . 爪 ODOA70 ( も の の ） SZJ: 0 adversative (b u t...)

< 3B + monono >

28. m onow o(-o)( も の を [monoo])j SZJ: © cause/reason (because ...) ® concessive (even though ...)

< 3B + monowo(=o) >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

200

SJ:

© emotive (regret; anger; disappoint­ ment)

< 3B + monowo(=o) >

29. n a ( ^ ) KJ : ① attributive (YT/NR)

< N1 + na + N2 >

SJ : ① cohortative (/ef’s •••) © desiderative (/ want to...] 1 want sb to

< V1 + na >; < AUX1-verbal inflection + na>

do sth) ③

emotive

< 3A/5 + na >, < 3B/4-kakari-musubi + na>

④

prohibitive (Don’f

< V3A/AUX3A-all verbal inflection types + na>, except ra-/7en-inflection: < V3B/AUX3B-ra-A7e/?-verbal inflection + na>

© tag question; confirmation

30. nado ( FJ:

⑥

volitional (/ w///.") (YT/NR)

な

/)

< 3A/5 + na >; < 3B/A-kakari-musubi + na> < V1 + na >; < AUX1-verbal inflection + na>

厂

© citing examples (such as

< various words + nado >

for example things like saying such a s ...) ②

emotive (contempt; scorn; disdain: such ...)

< various words + nado >; < sentence + nado + to ...>

③

emphasis

Used with negated predicates.

④

euphemism (indirect statements)

< various words + nado >; < sentence + nado + to ...)

3 1 .nagara ( ^

)

厂

SZJ : ① concessive (a"/?〇£ig/7 …）

< N + nagara >; < K-stem/KD-stem + nagara >; < K3A-s/?//〇7-inflection + nagara >; < V2 + nagara >;

②

stative (unchanged situation)

< N + nagara >; < V2 + nagara >

③

temporative (two actions taking place at the same time: ... while ...)

< V2 + nagara >

32. n am u(-n)(な U / な ん [nag】or [naN】 )j KKJ : ① emotive (emotions)

< various words + namu(=n) >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions ②

一

4.9: Postpositions

emphasis

(kakari-musubi: + 3B) S J : ① desiderative (/ hope 的が sb does

< 1 + namu(=n) >

sth for me) K J : ① additive 厂 e) ② addressee ③ agent of causatives ④ agent of passives ® allative (a point [to be] reached: in ...] a t ...) ⑥

< N + /7/ >; < 3B + ni >

appearance (sb/sth looks like ...)

cause/reason (because.") ⑧ comparative (a criterion for a comparison: based on in comparison with ... than ...) ⑨ direction (to •") ⑩ emphasis @ final: purpose (in order to ...) @ function (as /n f/?e /ivncf/on o 尸…） © honorative ⑭ illative (a place [to be】reached: geff/hfif in to ...) ⑮ instrumental (instrument) ⑯ locative (a place of existence: /n .") @ resultative (result) ⑱ temporative (time) ⑦

S Z J : ① additive (/i;r#7eA77?o厂e; moreover) ② adversative ...) ③ cause/reason (because.") ④ iterative 厂…) (D temporative (when as ...) SJ:

< 3B + ni >

0 desiderative (/ want sb to do sth] < 1 + n/ > 1 wish sb would do sth for me) (YT/NR)

; < N + sahe(-e) + ni >

K T J : ① emotive 34. nishiga (1" l t> (used from HA onwards) 34. nishigana( i- l

)

S J : ① desiderative + irrealis (/ w/s/7 / coty/d...) < V2 + nishigana >

201

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

202

36. nite KJ:

4.9: Postpositions

) © cause/reason (because ...) ② function ( a s f t / n c f / o r ? 〇厂..） ③ instrumental (instrument) ④ locative (the place of an action) © temporative (at the age o f ...\ a t...)

37. no ( の ）

< N + nite >; < 3B + nite >

]

KJ : ① apposition ② attributive ③ copulative (listing items/matters) (from MM onwards) © nominalisation ⑤ noun substitutes ⑥ resemblance ([s/)/sf/7 /oo/cs] //7ce ...) ⑦ subject marker ⑧ termination marker of ma/o/ra-Zcofoba ( 枕 詞 ：see 6_2.1) andyo-Zcotoba ( 斤 詞 ：see6.2_3)

< N + no >; < ADV + no >; < K-stem + no > ; < KD-stem + no >

SJ:

< sentence + no >

0 desiderative ② emotive ③ interrogative (suspicion) ® tag question; confirmation (from the end of MM onwards)

38. nom 丨 • （の み ） FJ : ① emphasis (espec/a//y) ® exclusiveness (e x c lu s iv e ly o n ly ...)

< various words + nomi >

39. saM (=e バ さ へ [sae]) FJ : ① addition (fu/ther/??。厂e ...) ② emphasis (e\/e/7 •••) 4 0 .幼 / け FJ:

）

< N + sahe(=e) >; < 3B + sahe(=e) >

]

© emphasis

< N + shi >; < 3B + shi >; < 2 + shi >; < ADV + shi >; < PP + shi >

41.s/7/fe( t -r ) KJ:

0 agent of causatives ② comitative (partner [i/wfh 5わ]) ③ instrumental (instrument)

FJ : ① emphasis

< N + shite >

< ADV + shite >; < PP o/ni/yori/kara + shite >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions _

SZJ: 0 copulative (a n d ...)

4.9: Postpositions

203

< K2/KD2/AUX2 + shite >

_4 2 . s o ( f )

]

KKJ: see zo ( Y ) below S J : ① prohibitive (Don’f "./) So ( ) is used in conjunction with the AD V na ( な ）： く na

< V2 + so >; < AUX2 + so > in the cases of AUX s*u ( -f )/

sas*u

... so! >

(セ

iy s h in T u ( l V )/pij

( )/rar^u ( ^ ^>); < M^-ka-henand sa-/7er?-inflection + so >

43. st/ra ( す ら ） ® emphasis (even ...)

FJ:

44. te ( T ) KJ:

< N + sura >; < 3B + sura > |

(see to [ と ] below; te [ マ ] was a dialect form in the Eastern province) (YT/NR)

S Z J : ① cause/reason (わecat/se ...) ② concessive (a"/701yg/?; e\/e/? though ...) ® consecutive (and then ...) ④ copulative (ar?cT") ⑤

stative

.")

S J : ① emotive (ED)

< sentence + te >

45. fes/?//ca ( T t 々、） • tes/7/ga (マ L が ） j S J : ① desiderative (/ to ".) (YT/NR) (HA: teshika [ T l ?)' ] had phonologically changed to teshiga [ 1 L ]). 46. tesW fram o( マ い 、も ）

]

< 2 + teshikamo >

S J : ① desiderative (/ " a n fto ".) (YT/NR) 47. teshikana ( t

l «

< 2 + teshika >

teshigana ( T L

))

S J : ① desiderative (/ to ...) (YT/NR) Teshikana ( T l ) phonologically changed to teshigana ( T l )： the voiceless velar plosive [k] changed to the voiced velar plosive

< 2 + teshikana >

[g]• ’

48. to ( r ) KJ:

]

CD appearance (just as ...) ® citation (... th a t...) (D comitative (partner: with sb)

< N + to >; < 3B + to >; < sentence (3A/B) + to >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.9: Postpositions

204

'

comparative (a criterion for compari­ son: compa 厂ed " 肋 •"） © copulative (listing things) ④

⑥

emphasis

< V2 + to + V3B + N >

© m anner

< onomatopoeia/mimetics +

to > ⑧

< N + to > ,< 3B + to >; < sentence (3A/B) + to >

「 esultative (result)

SZJ: © concessive (although ...)

49. _

< KD3AA/3 + to > ;< AUX3AKD- and -verbal inflection + to >; ; < AUX2-K-inflection + to >; < V1 + zu (< : AUX2 negation) + to >

〇( ど 荚 ）

S Z J : ① concessive •••) © conditional (even i f ...)

< KD3AA/3 + tomo >; < AUX3A-KD- and -verbal inflec­ tion + tomo >; < K2 + tomo >; < AUX2-K-inflection + tomo >; < V1 + zu : AUX2 negation) + tomo >

S J : ① assent (ofccx/rse ...) (from MM onwards)

< 3A + tomo >

50. tote ( 1 1 )

]

K J : ① cause/reason (わecat/se •") © citation marker (D final (in order to ...) ④ function “ A7 name of...) (っっ）

< N + tote >; < 3B + tote >; < sentence (3A/B) + tote >

j

SZJ: 0 concessive (even though ...) Q continuation (continue to ...) (D copulative (a n d ...) ④ emotive (exclamative: /)e/A7g moved •••) ⑤ repetition (aga//? a/7c/ aga/V?) ⑥ temporative (two actions taking place at the same time)

< V2/AUX2 + tsutsu >

52. wo(=〇) ( i [〇]) K J : ① ablative (starting point) ② locative (a place where movement occurs)

< N + wo(=o) >; < 3B + wo(=o) >

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一 ③ ④

4.9: Postpositions

object marker perlative (fhrougr/?...)

S Z J : ① cause/reason (because...) ② concessive (ever? fhcx/g/?.") ③ copulative (a n d .")

< 3B +_wo(=o) >

K T J : ① emphasis

< constituent + w〇(= 〇) >

②

emotive

< S6门 tencg + wo(=o) >

5 3 .則 や ） K K J : ① interrogative ② rhetorical question (kakari-musubi: + 3B)

< various words + ya >; < 3A + ya >

S J : ① interrogative ② rhetorical question (HA)

< 3A + ya > ;< 4 + ya >

K T J : ① calling sb ② copulative (listing things) ③ emotive

< N + ya >; < 3B + ya >; < constituent + ya>

54. yo ( よ ）

]

K J : ① ablative (starting point) ② comparative (a criterion for com parison:... th a n ...) ③ instrumental (instrument) ④ perlative (治r 〇i ； g/7 ..•) (YT/NR)

< N + yo >; < 3B + yo >

K T J : ① calling sb

< a person’s name + yo >

②

emphasis (the topic of a statement or declaratives are emphasised)

® emphasis (in the case of prohibitives and imperatives) ④

emotive

< constituent + yo > < 5 + yo > < constituent + yo >

55. 揮 -( ょ り ）

K J : ① ablative (starting point) ② cause/reason (わecause •") ③ comparative (marker of a criterion: ... th a n ...) ④ instrumental (instrument) ⑤ perlative (沩 厂oi/gr/7...) ⑥ temporative (as soon as t/pon "•)

< N + PP >; < 3B + yori >

205

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

206

一

4.9: Postpositions

56. zo( f ) ；s o ( f lYT-N R )

KKJ:

①

declarative

< sentence + zo >

(D emotive (anxiety)

< ...mo + zo + 3B>

emphasis (so v^y: YT/NR) (kakari-musubi: + 3B)

< various words + zo >; < sentence + zo >

③

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.10: Adverbs

207

4.10 Adverbs (Fii/o/sAi/[ 則 詞 ：ADV]) Adverbs are free morphemes and they modify primarily predicates (nominal, keiyoushiadjectival, keiyoudoushi-adiedwal, and verbal predicates). There are also adverbs which modify other adverbs, or adverbs which modify adverbial constituents describing direc­ tion, degree, time, and manner. Furthermore, Classical Japanese has adverbs which intensify assertions, or which pose questions (see 4.10.2). Adverbs and adverbials have the same feature as postpositions, namely a high degree of context dependency, due to their multifunctionality and polysemy (see 4.10.4). Adverbs can be classified accord­ ing to either morphosyntactic characteristics (see 4.10.1), or semantic features (4.10.3).

Figue 11:Layers of analysis of Classical Japanese adverbs

4.10.1 Morphosyntactic classification of adverbs Morphosyntactically speaking, there are five adverb types: ① true adverbs (see 4.10.1.1 )， (D adjectival and verbal derivations (words which are derived from other word classes by adding affixes: see 4.10.1.2); ® nominal conversions (words which have changed their word class without changing their morphological form: see 4.10.1.3); © compounds which comprise different lexical items (see 4.10.1.4); and finally (D adverbs which are used in agreement with specific auxiliaries or postpositions (see 4.10.2). In the first four types morphological word formation is involved, whilst the last type is of a morpho­ syntactic nature. Each of these types are elaborated in the following subsections.

------------------------------------------------------ ①

true adverbs

②

derivations

③

co 门 versions

④

compounds

⑤

adverbs used in agreement with predicates

4.10.1.1 True adverbs Adverbs other than derivations, conversions, or compounds are true adverbs. Their morphological forms have not changed from their original forms such as ito ( い と ： very, extremely), although /to ( v' ^ ) is no longer used today. Some adverbs of Classi­ cal Japanese have the same morphological appearance as those of Modern Standard

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.10: Adverbs

208

Japanese, but their meanings have since changed. Sentence O 119 is from the Ibukic/6y/( ィf 吹 童 子 ）in the /Wi； 厂 o/77acA?/-n?o/7〇gfafa"( 室 町 物 語 ：between 14th and 17th C). This sentence involves such an adverb, namely sunaha(=wa)chi ( す な は ち ） ，which means soon, or right away in Classical Japanese whereas its meaning in Modern Stan­ dard Japanese is this is to say, this means, or that is. O 119: Mime katachi utsuku-shiku oha(=wa)shi*kere ba, sunaha(=wa)chi ko no hime*

gimi wo(=o) mukahe(=e) te Yasaburau(=o)*dono no tsuma to sadame te, hiyoku no katarahi(=i) w 〇(=〇) nashi*tamahe(=e)*ri. (SNKBT 54:187)

(beautiful).\/2 to be.A\JX4 p a st.P P ca u se / soon, right away.ProU this.PP a ttrib u tive .N princess.SFX a d d re ss form .

N a p p e a ra n ce .N //giyre.K2-s/7/7c(； -inflection re a s o n .A D V

P P o b je ct m a rk e r.V 2 fo rece/Ve

sわ as a わ " d e .P P c o p u la tiv e .P ro p e rN

厂 6.SFX

to decide, to determine, to choose.PP copulative. N a bird whose body consists of a male and a female bird.PP a ttributive.N wedding.PP object m a rke r.V 2 to c/o.V4 honorative. AUX3A perfect. honorative a d d re ss fo rm .P P attributive.N i^/7e.PP resultative.V 2

みめ?)、た ち 美 L

く お は い す れ ば 、す な は ち この雄君を迎へ マ 弥 三部殿の妻とさ

だ め マ 、 比翼の語らひ を な

L給 へ つ 。

As the princess was such a beautiful woman Yasaburo soon decided to marry her. They had a very happy marriage. (L it: As her appearance and figure were beautiful, Yasaburo soon received her at his palace and made her his wife, m eir mamage was very happy.) 4.10.1.2 D e riv a tio n a l a d v e rb s As for derivations, there are Ke/yot/s/7/-adjectival, /ce/youdoi/s/7/-adjectival, and verbal types. The first type has the morphological form of < K-stem + ku> for K-adjectives of the to-inflection, or < K-stem + shiku > for those of the s/i/to-inflection. In other words, they are in fact their respective ren'youkei ( i t : K2) inflection forms, for instance

yasu.ku of yasu.shi ( あ l • easy, calm, cheap), and takuma.shiku of takuma.shi ( 1 L : strong, tough, sturdy). The second type refers to KD-adjectives of nari- and tariinflection. In the case of KD-adjectives of the 厂/-inflection, its adverbial form is composed of the KD-stem and n/• ( ド ）which is the • ( 連 用 形 ：KD2), such as

samazama.ni ( i 家々 i て variously, differently) of samazama* nari ( 棟 々 な 0 : various， different). The fan-inflection type o f KD-adjective comprises a stem and to ( ^ )：< Kstem + fo >. Gaga 々o ( 峨 々 と ：sfeep/y [involving mountains]) of sfaga.ter/ ( 峨 々 た つ ：

steep [involving mountains]) exemplifies this type. Where verbal adverbs are concerned, Table 81:Adverbial derivations Word class ①

K3A-/〇y-inflection

/7aya*s/?/( 早 L • 速 L )

huka.shi ( •;茱 l )

Adverb form

Meanings

K 2 :< K-stem+ t o > ( 平く

huka.ku ( 深

•速 く ）

く ）

quickly; early deeply

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions

一

/fa-sh/• ( 長 L )

/Ya*/〇y ( 甚 く ）

kara.shi( 辛 t ) oho(-o)m s h i( 多 L ) semuf=n)katana*sm

kara*ku ( 辛 く 、 oho(=o)*ku ( 多 く ） semu(=n)katana*ku

(せ

1 ；々、た

な

L)

② K3—

(せ H

4.10: Adverbs

209

extremely, very much desperately a /or, much, plenty desperately

、た な く ）

K 2 :< K—

a*shi/

hushighnari ( 不 思 議 : な つ ） keu(-vd)ra9nari ( 清 ら な つ ） kiyoyakaT iari(Jtやめ、な 0 ) niha(=wa)ka*nari ( 後 な つ ） oho(=o)khnari ( 大 5 な つ ） sozorvnari ( ラ 气 ら な 0 ) ④

瞧

办

—

s o z o r o v 7 / ( サゲろ丨二）

unexpectedly, incredibly beautifully, clearly, purely beautifully suddenly extremely] largely ridiculously

KD 2:< KD-stem + to >

bibhtari ( 微 敦 た 0 ) chichi*tari(選炎すこ 0 ) en’e w fa r/ ( 延

hushighni ( 不 思 議 ^ ) keu(=vo)ra*ni ( 清 ら 1二） kiyoyakaTii ( 潰 や H 二） mhaf=wa)ka*ni ( 俄 J 二） oho(=o、 khni ( 大 J 丨二）

延 た つ）

shinshirTtari ( 深 :;系:た 0 ) yuuyucMari ( 悠:悠 ■た り ）

b/b/4o

(微 微 と ）

chichi.to ( 選

炎

Y)

e /7’ e/?#o ( 延 延 と ）

shinshirHo ( 深 yuuyuu»to (

't : ) Y)

深

insignificantly, slightly slowly prolongingly calmly, quietly, tranquilly comfortably, easily

< V2 + fe >

ah*u(=u)( 敢 ふ ：to endure, to stand) kahe(=e)r*u ( 却 る ：to reverse) katTu ( ヤ ぬ ：to worry about the future; to expect sth) kasan-u ( 重 ぬ \ to repeat; to heap, to pile) ⑥

( 見 ろ ：fo ( 行 く ：to

(敢 へ マ ）

by force] not at all

kahe(=e)rbte ( 却 り マ ） kahef=e)*t.te (却つ1 )

on the contrary

/car?e*te ( 于 マ ）

beforehand, in advance, before once again

kasane*te ( 重

れマ）

V3A

m*/n/

ahe(=e)9te

see) go)

m /nvAT7/>u ( 見 る 見 ろ ）

yukwyukLj (行く行く）

seeing...] while seeing... in the future, eventually

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.10: Adverbs

210

o n e fo rm is c o m p o s e d o f th e 厂e n ’yoi//ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：V 2 ) a n d th e p o s tp o s itio n te ( マ ） ，a n d th u s h a s th e m o rp h o lo g ic a l fo rm < V 2 + te >.

( 于 マ ：b e /b re h a m i, //? a c ^ a n c e )

b e lo n g s to th is g ro u p , a n d it is m a d e up o f th e v e rb kaivu ( *^. T a b le 81 g iv e s fu r th e r e x a m p le s . T h e fo llo w in g s e n te n c e s a re ta k e n fro m th e /bi//c/-doi/y/•(げ 吹 童 子 ）in th e M i/ro m a c/? /m o n o g a f a " ( 室町物冒音：1 4 th a n d 1 7 th C ) a n d s h o w c o n c re te u s a g e o f d e riv a tio n s u s e d a s a d v e rb s : O K -d e riv a tio n s (K 2 )

O

120: Y a s a b u ra u (= o ) (...) o s a n a ^ k i to k i y o ri s a k e w o (= o ) k o n o m i te

oho(=o)*ku n o m i*

ta m a h e (= e )* ri. (S N K B T 5 4 : 188)

Y a s a b u r o . y o u n g . H time.PP to love.PP c o p u la tiv e . ADV K -/ca-inflection

rice wine.PP o b je ct m arker. to drink.\/4 h o n o ra tive .

P ro p e rN

a b la tive.N

V2

(K2: a /o f).V 2

A U X 3 A perfect. 弥 三 郊 （... ）幼 5 時 よ / } 画 を 好 み マ 多 く 飲 み 給 へ / } 。

Yasaburo loved rice wine from a young age and drank it a lot. ❷ K D -d e riv a tio n s (K D 2 )

〇 121 ：Y a s a b u ra u (= o ) s u n a h a (= w a )c h i ide»ahi(= i) ta im e r rs h i, iro iro n o c h in b u ts u w o (= o ) to t o 门 o h e (= e ),

sam azam a.ni m o te n a s h i.h a b e ri.k e ri. (S N K B T 5 4 :1 8 8 )

P ro p e rN YasaburoADM right awayM2 to go out.\/2 to meetM2 to meet and talk to (N meeting*\/2 to d o ).N various things.PP attributive.N exquisite things.PP object m arker.V 2 to arrange. ADV KD -nan-inflection (K D 2 : with a special attention] especially).\/2 to treat sb; to entertain sb.\/2 honorative expressing m o d e s ty .A U X 3 A past. 弥三部 す な は ち 出 あ ひ 対 面

L、

色々の珍物を調へ、 さ ま ざ ま丨 :：も マ な

L侍 け

つ。

Yasaburo went out o f his residence right away and welcomed Onogi (his father-inlaw). He arranged various exquisite meals (to offer him) and thus treated him with special attention. O

1 2 2 : H ie n o y a m a (...) g a g a « to s h i te k e h a (= w a )* s h ik i m in e a r*i. (S N K B T 54: 204)

Hie.PP a ttrib u tiv e .N m o u n t a i n K D -fa r/'-in fle ctio n to do.PP m anner. K 3 B steep.N r/d g e .V 3 A to be there.

P ro p e rN V2

比 叡 の 山 （ ...）峨 々 と

L

マ け は

L

(K D 2 :

5 峰あつ。

The Hie mountains (...) were steep and there was a steep ridge there.

steep).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.10: Adverbs ❸

211

Verbal derivations (...) ko no sugi no ki, asahi ni shimo no toke«shi*gotoku*ni kie*gie to nari te use-ni-keri. (SNKBT 54: 209)

〇 123:

(...) ProN this.PP attributive.N cedar.PP attributive.N free.N the rising sun in the morn­ ing. PP cause/reason.N frost.PP subject marker.V2 to thaw.A\JX3B past.AUX2 appearance. AUX2 declarative. ADV to disappear gradually (V2 to disappearM2 to disappear).PP resultative.V2 to become.PP consecutive.V2 to disappear.A\JX2 perfect.AUX3A past. (...)此 わ の 木 、 朝 日 （ 二霜の解け

U

I

口く て 消 え 消 え と な つ マ 失 せ 丨 二 け つ 。

This cedar disappeared gradually ju s t like frost which thawed because o f the rising sun in the morning. 4.10.1.3 C o n v e rs io n s The third type are nominal conversions which derive trom nouns and are used as adverbs without changing their morphological form. There are many adverbs of this type. Most of them are temporal expressions such as mukashi ( ^ ) which means as a noun past, but as an adverb once upon a time, or in the past Sentence O 124 is again taken from the /ibW -dq/，（イf 吹 ： I : ナ ）and contains a nominal conversion.

O 124: Mukashi, Ahu(=u Au[=o])mi no kuni ni Ibuki no Yasaburau(=o) to mau(=o)shi te yuyushi*ki hito ari*keri. (SNKBT 54:187) ADV once upon a f//7?e.ProperN dmi.PP attributive.N province, land.PP locative. ProperN Ibuki.PP attributive.ProperN Yasaburd.PP citation marker.V2 to be named. PP copulative.K3B extraordinary.^ personal to be there AUX3A past. 音 、 近江国丨ニイf 吹 の 弥 三 部 と 申 マ ゆ ゆ

L 2人ありけつ。

Once upon a time, there lived an extraordinary man named Yasaburo in the Province o f Omi. 4.10.1.4 C o m p o u n d s

The last type of adverb are compounds, such as mofo.yo厂/ ( も と よ り ：f厂om f/?e ゎ 印 价 o"gf/na//y; o , course;かom anc/enf "mes) which is composed of the noun mofo (も と ：o/Tfg/V?) and the ablative case marking PP yo 厂 / ( よ り ）designating a starting point. Sentence O 125 is also taken from the Abu/c/’-ddy/•(イf 吹 童 子 ） . 〇

125: (...) m otoyori tsuuriki wo(=o) e*tari*shika ba, ichi-ya no hodo ni suu-juu-i no sugi no ki to na*t te, ka no tokoro ni hahi(=i)»habi*koreTi. (SNKBT 54: 209) (...) ADV first ofall.N supernatural powers.PP object marker.V2 to gain A\JX2 perfect. AUX4 past.PP reason.N/QTF one night (numeral 'one,#CF for counting nights).PP attributive.PseudoN d u r in g over ....PP temporative.N/QTF ca. 50 to 60 metres (PFX so/r?e*numeral ‘ten’.CF for measuring w idth;1 ‘j’ is ca. 33 cm).PP attributive.N Japanese cedar.PP attributive.N tree.PP resultative.V2-/7atety-〇A7/)//?-inflection (to become).

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PP manner. ProN there.PP attributive.N place.PP locative.V2 to grow.M2 to spread all over. V4 to grow denselyA\JX3A perfect. (…）も と よ つ 通 力 を 得 た つ 〔力、ば 、 一 夜 の ほ ど Iて 狄 十 囲 の わ の 木 と な っ マ 、 々、の 所丨二生ひはびこれり。

(...) It is not necessary to say so, but Ibuki-doji gained supernatural powers from the very beginninq. Therefore, he turned into a cedar whose trunk was about 50 to 60 metres thick, and he (thus) occupied the place (as a cedar) and ms branches grew in all directions. These compounds are formed in numerous different ways. The adverbial itsushiKa ( v' l : sometime] without being noticed, imperceptibly, soon) is, for example, composed of the interrogative pronoun itsu ( v1 ：when), the emphatic adverbial PP s/7/ ( L ) and the /ca/car/-y〇sh/ ( 係 助 詞 ：syntactic-semantic case marker PP) /ca ( い ）in the interrogative function. Another adverbial ikanishite (\ l : how\ by any means] somehow) comprises three lexical elements: the ADV ikani( \ ' how), the verb s*i/ ( 彳 ：to c/o sf/?) in the re/?y〇tv/ce/ form (連 用 形 ：V2 )，and the conjunctive PP te ( マ ） . The adverbial expression /dty/cofomona./o/ ( い づ ’ こ と もな' く ：some/701v; w/Yhowf any reasoa?) is made up o f the interrogative pronoun /dt/to ( い つ こ ： 厂e)， the case marker PP to ( と ） ，the /ca/ca厂/-ノos/7/ ( 係 助 詞 ：syntactic-semantic case marker PP) mo ( も ）， and 厂e n y 〇(7/ce"連 用 f f j : K2) of the /ce/V〇6vs/7/-adjective ( 無 L : to A?of ねe び?ere).

4.10.1.5 Other morphological forms of adverb Apart from the types of adverb mentioned so far, namely true adverbs, derivations, conversions, and compounds, there are also other morphological types. As the aim of this monograph is to give the reader an introduction to — as opposed to a complete description of — Classical Japanese, further detailed explanations are omitted. Instead, simply one such adverb, i.e., ikasama however one tries... sth/sb is not...), is introduced. Ikasama is the stem of the keiyoudoushi-ad\ec\.\\/e of the nar/-inflectiontype //casama.na 厂/ ( ネロ何棵へ、り ：/?oi/v sf/? o厂sib /s), and adverbs of this type are in general grammaticalised forms of lexemes. Sentence O 126 from the Ibuki-doji ( 童 子 ）contains an example of this kind of adverb. O 126: (...) Ikasama kore ha(=wa) ningen ni te ha(=wa) aru*bekara*zu (...) (SNKBT54: 191) (...) ADV /7〇M/ever/7a厂d one f/7/Ms.ProN f/?/s.PP topic marker.N a /?iy/77a/?.AUX2 fo/je.PP manner.PP emphasis.V3B fo わe.AUXI speculative.AUX2 negation (...) (...) い ?)、さ ま 是 は 人 間 に マ は 有 べ 4 、ら ず （•••）

(...) However hard one thinks he (Yasaburd) cannot be a human (...) 4_10.2 Adverbs in agreement with other lexical items Some adverbs agree with specific lexical items such as auxiliaries or postpositions.

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The auxiliaries used are © those expressing negations such as zu ( - f ), or ® specula­ tive auxiliaries which are conflated with negation (probably n o t...) such as j i ( T ), G) speculative auxiliaries (probably ...) such as nru(=n) ( L’ / ん ） ，and ④ those which express the appearance of persons and things (sth/sb looks like ...) such as goto^shi (ごとい.

The postpositions used in agreement with specific adverbs are Type 1 modalityexpressing PPs (shmvyos/?/[終 J力詞 ] : see 4.9.7). Semantically speaking, they predominantly designate ① the semantic case o f ‘prohibitives (prohibition)’ such as na ( な ）， ② rhetorical questions _ for instance — /ca ( り、） ，③ counterfactuals — e.g., tomo ( Y も）一 , or 0 desideratives (wish) such as baya and shigana ( l as shown in Table 82. Sentences O 127 and O 128 are from the /ibi//c/-ddy/•( げ 吹 童 : 子 ）in the Mt/厂omac/7/n?or?ogafar/•( 室 町 物 語 ：between 14th and 17th C). The first example shows the combination of < ikanimo _ baya > which expresses a strong desire to do something. The second sentence includes the adverb fst/ya-fsuya ( つ や つ や ）in agreement with the negated predicate which contains the auxiliary zu ( ), i.e., < tsuya-tsuya — zu >, and expresses an emphatic negation. O 127: (...) ikanimo sh*i te kore wo(=o) gai*se baya to obosh*i te (...) (SNKBT 54:191) (...)ADV somehow.\/2 to do.PP manner.ProN this (man).PP object marker.VI to kill.PP desiderative.PP content marker.V2 to 沩 //7たPP copulative (...) (...) い い I : も L マ こ れ を 窨 せ ば や と お ぼ L マ （ …)

Onogi thought that he definitely wanted to kill him (Yasaburd) somehow (...) O 128: (...) ato ni ha(=wa) sanrin wo(=o) kari-motome temo tsuya-tsuya tori, kedamono nakari*keri. (SNKBT 54:189) ( ...) N after that.PP temporative.PP topic marker.N woods. PP locative.V2 to huntM l to look for ...\ to seek.PP concessive.ADV emphasis.N birds.H animals.K2 to not be there A\JX3A past. (...) 後 ド は 山 抹 を 狩 り も と め マ も つ や つ や 烏 、 け だ 物 な 力 、つ け り 。

(...) A fter that there was not a single bird or animal to hunt in the woods. The following sentences are taken from the Tosa-n/Zc/c/ (土 佐 日 f 己 ：777e D/a/y o f a W p from Tosa) com pleted around 935 by Ki no Tsurayuki ( 紀 貫 之 ：868?-945?). Sentence O 129 uses the agreement < ADV na 一 PP so > with which an emphatic prohibition is expressed, and Sentence O 130 has the combination of < ADV e — AUX zu > which indicates strong negation. O 129: Kehu(=u «=> keu[=yo]), nami na tachi so. (SNKBT 24: 25) ADV tocfay.N waves.ADV prohibitive.V2 to beat. PP prohibitive.

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今 日 、波 な 立 ち 亍 。

Waves, don’t be turbulent today! 130: Wasure*gata»ku kuchiwo(=o)*shiki koto oho(=o)*kare do e tsukusa»zu. (SNKBT24: 123)

O

V2 to forget.SFX-K-shiku-\ni\ec\.\on (difficult to ...).K3B regrettable.N things. K4 a lot, many, much.PP concessive.ADV negation.VI to do sth thoroughly.A\JX3A negation. 忘 れ 難 く 、 口 愔 L き こ と 多 り 、れ ど 、 え 尽 く さ ず 。

There are so many things which I cannot forget and which I regret, but I cannot write them all (in my diary).

4.10.3 Semantic categorisation of adverbs and adverbials We have so far seen how adverbs and adverbials are morphologically differentiated. Adverbs can also be categorised according to meanings, such as © ablative adverbs or adverbials, which give information about the source of something , ② degree adverbs or adverbials that describe intensity of quantity，degree or extent, ③ intensifier adverbs or adverbials, which modify predicates or other adverbs or adverbials giving them par­ ticular emphasis, @ interrogative adverbs or adverbials used in the sense of how, when, w//7ere，and 州ゎ〇,⑤ manner adverbs, whose function is to depict the ways and manner in which things or actions are performed, © and finally temporal adverbs, which give information about the time of actions and events. Some concrete examples are given below: ①

ablative ADV (source)

® degree ADV (intensity of quantity; degree; extent) ③

intensifier ADV (emphasis)

© interrogative ADV (questions) ⑤

manner ADV (ways and manner)

⑥

temporal ADV (time)

❶

Ablative adverbs/adverbials

motoyori ( ❷

もY

X 0 originally)

Degree adverbs/adverbials

si/jbete(

a//toge approx/mate/y; a///>7a//;r7fafa//[in conjunction with a

総べマ： 的 er; predicate in the negative])

〇

tada ( すこすシ. directly] right away, only) masu-masu : more and more) vau(=6)vau(=6) [j〇:j〇: ] (' 斯 う ： yaya ( や や .•gradually] at last] step by step, a little)

stepbystep;

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Table 82: Adverbs used in agreement with specific auxiliaries or postpositions

Functions/Meanings

< ahe(=e)te + AUX zu >

あ へ マ 〜 ず ：emphasis

(A?of afa//;

by no means) < atakamo + N + PP no + AUX goto^shi) >

あ た 4 、も 〜 の ご と

L : appearance

(sth/sb is as if...) < e + mizenkei lV + AUX zu >

え〜ず

< ikade + mizenkei

い?)、で 〜 tJ

: rhetorical question

いり、ず 〜 マ

L が な ：desiderative

+ AUX nvu >

< fkade + ren’youkei l2’ + PP te + PP shigana > < ikanimo + mizenkei

+ PP baya >

：negation (caA?A7c^...)

(only if 1could...) いい

| : も 〜 ば や ：desiderative (/

definitely want to achieve or do sth somehow) < isa + mizenkei lV + AUX zu) >

い さ 〜 ず ：speculative

(how/ w/7//f

be?) < na + ren'youkei l2' + PP so > except ka-hen- and sa-hen-V. < na + mizenkei lV + PP so>

な〜ヤ

< sarani + mizenkei lY + AUX zu >

更に〜ず

In the case of verbal inflections: < tatohi(=i) + V3A/KD3A/AUX3A + PP tomo >

たとひ〜とも

：prohibitive (Don’f ” ./)

：negation (n o fa f a //..■) ：irrealis (even / f ...)

In the case of K-adjective inflections: < tato[v(=i) + K2 + PP tomo >, or < tatotii(=i) + V1 + AUX2 zu + PP tomo >

< tsuya^tsuya + mizenkei lV + AUX zu >

つ や つ や 〜 ず ：emphasis

(n o fa fa ",

absolutely n o t...) < yomo + mizenkei

+ AUX j i >

よも〜

IT : speculative + negation

(it is surely out o f the question th a t...) In the case of verbal inflections: < yoshi + V3A/KD3A/AUX3A + PP tomo >

X l ~ ^ t : conditional (even if sth is / sb does sth ...)

In the case of K-adjective inflections: < yoshi + K2 + PP tomo >, or < yoshi + V I + AUX2 zu + PP tomo > < yume + mizenkei lV + AUX zu >

ゆめ〜ず

：emphasis + negation (sf/?

is definitely not ...) < yume + shuushikei l3A + PP na>

ゆめ〜な

：emphasis + prohibitive

(Don’t you dare do sth ...)

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Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.10: Adverbs

intpnsifier adverbs/adverbials

geni( : as a matter o f fact] actually, really) isasaka ( : very little, a few, a little] not at all [in conjunction with a predicate in the negative]) /f〇 ( v' ^ : very] really, absolutely] not so much [in conjunction with a predicate in the negative])

kotoni ( ことじ、：especially) makoton 丨 •（誠 J ン • really) tsuyatsuya : not at all [\n conjunction with a negated predicate]) yoni ( -tt I - : very much] extremely：extraordinarily] not at all [in conjunction with a predicate in the negative]) ❹

Interrogative adverbs/adverbials

idukotomona-ku ( \ 、づ’こ乂 もな く ：somehow, without any reason) ikani ( • how\ why) ikanishite ( v' ^ ' I - l t : how] by all means] somehow) ❺

Temporal adverbs/adverbials

kanete ( 今 1 : already] before, previously, beforehand) mukashi ( 眚 ：once upon a time.，in the past) notsu(=t)to ( の つ と ：stydde/7/y [no?to]) shibashi ( 暫 い • for a moment; momentarily) sunaha(=wa)chi ( 才 な i l % : right away, soon) tsuneni ( 常い、..always.，forever) tsu]/jd(=i)ni (つ l て • in the endt finally] until the very end.、never) yagate ( 麻 1 : to continue to be/do] continuously] right away, immediately] soon) ❻

Manner adverbs

kaku ( 斯 く . thus, in this way) kay§u(=d)ni い 、やう l 二：thus, in this way) sa ( セ ：in this way) shika ( V tr • in this way) tsukuduku to (〇：'ti .to b e in contemplation] absent-mindedly] carefully, quietly, deeply, keenly, heartily) harubaru ( 造 々 ：far away) hisokani ( 笼 ぬバニ：secretly) zehinaku ( 良 非 な く • forcibly) Sentences O 131 and O 132 will highlight semantic differences of various adverbs or adverbials used in the ( ィf 吹 童 子 ）in the Muromac/7/，/r7〇A7〇gafa " ( 室 町 物 語 ：14th to 17th C). Sentence O 131 involves an intensifier adverb yi ； A7?e*yiyn7e ( ゆ め ゆ め ）which is used in agreement with the negation auxiliary z i ; ( ず ） .

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O 131: (...) Kavau(=o) no koto wo(=o) ba yum e*yum e shiri*tamaha(=wa)«ne ba, Yasaburau(o)*dono ha(=wa) itsumo no sake ni yohi(=i)*hushi*tamahe(=e)Tu to omohi(=i) te, kinu hiki*kaduke*okaTe«tari. (SNKBT 54:194) (...)N this manner.PP attributive.N thing.PP object marker.PP topic marker.ADV-ADV jby no r7?ea"s.V2 fo /C/70W.V1 honorative.AUX4 negation.PP cause/reason.ProperN Yasaburo.SFX address form.PP topic marker.N sth usual.PP attributive.N rice wine.PP cause/reason.V2 to get drunk.\J2 to lie downMA honorative.AUX3B resultative (present situation).PP content marker.V2 to think.PP copulative.N clothing.\/2 to pull.\J2 to cover.V1 fo /ea\/e sf/? as /f /S.AUX2 honorative-AUX3A perfect. (…）う、や う の 爭 を ば ゆ め ゆ め 知 り 給 は れ ば 、弥 三 部 殿 は い つ も の ： :® I て 醉 レ g人 L 5 ¢ 、づ け 置 r れ た り 。

給へると思レマ、衣 引

As the princess did not know this fact at all, she thought that (her husband) Yasaburd had drunk rice wine as usual and thus fallen asleep. Therefore，she took his garment and put it on him. The rollowing sentence has an intensifier adverb ahe(=e)te ( あ へ マ ）which is used with a negated predicate, thus having the meaning of not at all.

O 132: (...) Ahe(=e)te otoh*u(=u)ru keshiki mo na.ku kanashime.ru arisama mo na.shi. (SNKBT 54: 201) (...)ADV not at a//.V3B to get weaker.^ appearance.PP emphasis + additive (foo).K2 to not be there.\/4 to be sad.AUX3B resultative (situation).N appearance/state/situation.PP emphasis + additive (foo).K3A to be not there. ( ...) あ へ マ 衰 ふ る 景 色 も な く 悲 L め る 會 棟 も な L 。

(...) There was no sign o f Shuten-doji (Alcohol Drinking Child) becoming weak, and also no sign o f his being sad at all.

4.10.4 Multifunctionality and polysemy Adverbs or adveroials are multifunctional and polysemous. The same adverb or adver­ bial can have different meanings depending on the context and on its grammatical usage. Tsuw[(=i)ni hou[=o])shi (...) tsuvyi(=i)ni nyuutou#shi te kenmitsu no ryou(=o)shuu, we(=e)ntei wo(=o) kiha(=wa)me, au(=o)gi wo(=o) tsutahe(=e) te kiteu(=cho)»se*raru. (SNKBT 54: 209) ProperN Priest Saicho (ProN Saichom H priest).ADW finally.\J2 to reach China (N reach­ ing China*M2 to do)PP consecutive. N mundane and esoteric Buddhisum.PP attributive.N

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both schools.N depth.PP object marker.V2 to master.H secret.PP object marker.V2 to deliver, to convey.PP consecutive. to return home after achieving one’s mission (N returning to Japan*\J2 to do).AUX3A honorative. 最澄法師つゐ丨二入唐L マ 頭 蛮 の 両 宗 、调 底 を 究 め 、 奥 義 を 伝 へ マ 1 )帚 朝 せ ら る 。

Priest Saicho finally reached China (the Tang Dynasty), mastered both schools of mundane and esoteric Buddhism， plumbed the depths (= understood the deeper mysteries) o f these schools，taught their secrets，and returned to Japan. O 134: Amata no soma»domo kore wo(=o) kiri»tawo(=o)sa*mu(=n) to sure domo tsuwi(=i)ni so no kou nari*gata*shi. N many.PP attributive.N l/i/oocfctvfter.SFX plural marker.ProN f/7/s.PP object marker.V2 to c(yf.V1 to 〇yfdovw?.AUX3A volitional.PP content marker.V4 fo c/o.PP concessive.ADV until the very end.ProN this.PP attributive.N e/fecf.K3A difficult to realise (V2 to become e/fecf/Ve*SFX-/ca-inflection [difficult to ...]). あ ま た の 杣 ビ も こ れ を 切 り 倒 さ L 'と す れ ど も 、 つ ゐ ド サ の 功 な り が た

L。

However hard many wood cutters tried to cut dov\m the tree，it was not at all easy/ it was impossible. (Lit. However hard many wood cutters tried to cut down the tree, it was difficult to realise it until the very end.)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.11:Conjunctions

4.11 Conjunctions (Sefsi/zo/ri/sAi/• [ 接

219

繞 詞 ：CNJ])

Word classes such as ‘conjunctions’ did not exist in traditional Japanese language studies. This class was first created during the Edo Period (1603-1867) through language contact with Dutch. Haguri Y6sai ( 明 栗 洋 齋 ）translated a Dutch grammar into Japanese and this was published in 1814 with the title (敉 論 新 法： / \ A/ew G ram m ar/br yeac/?ers) (Ide 1973: 46). He used the term sefsus/?/(接 詞 ）for conjunctions. Later Tsurumine Shigenobu ( 鶴 条 戍 申 ：1788-1859)，a scholar of the Japanese language, introduced this word class into Japanese by using the term setsuzokushi ), which is still used in todays School Grammar. Thus, by refer­ ring to Dutch grammar, Japanese language scholars created a new word class which semantically corresponds to English ‘conjunctions’. Japanese counterparts to English conjunctions are mostly formed by using conjunctive postpositions or compositions made up of a number of different words. Consequently, English translations given in this sec­ tion for Japanese Conjunctions* do not necessarily belong to the English word category, 'conjunctions*. This subsection deals with the salient features of conjunctions (see 4.11.1), and their categorisations based firstly on morphology (see 4.11.2) and secondly on semantics (see 4.11.3).

Figure 12: Layers of analysis of Classical Japanese conjunctions

4.11.1 Salient features Conjunctions are free morphemes and are, syntactically, generally placed at the begin­ ning of sentences and both subordinate and main clauses in order to link statements. Many conjunctions are compounds comprising different lexical items which have been grammaticalised. For example, saruhodoni (is ^ |1 - ) means later, soon, or by the way, and it is composed of sar*u ( ^ ^> ：V3B to be such and such), hodo ( U z :N time, situation, area, status, age, etc.)t and n/ ( I - : AUX2 declarative) or n/ ( I - : PP manner or temporative)^ ^ Many such compounds, however, still retain the original meanings of their components so that it is sometimes difficult to decide whether such expressions should be included in the word class ‘conjunctions’ or not. Morioka (1973:10 ) and Kyogoku (1973: 90) also describe difficulties in defining Japanese conjunctions. Ethymological analyses of conjunctions show that there are mainly two types of conjunction: those of Japanese origin, and those of Chinese origin (Kyogoku 1973: 93).79 79 A// ( ( て ）can be grammatically interpreted twofold as explained above.

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The former are very limited in number The latter came about through language contact with Chinese in the 4th to 7th centuries. During this period Chinese texts were read in Classical Japanese with the help of diacritics — kanbun ( 漢 欠 ..Classical Chinese texts). Chinese conjunctions thus influenced Japanese, which subsequently enriched the vocabulary of Classical Japanese with new Sino-Japanese conjunctions. しexical items which belong to the word class ‘conjunctions’ are multifunctional in that many Classical Japanese conjunctions also belong to the classes of adverbs and exclamatives/interjections (see 4.12 ff.), thus demonstrating their polysemous charac­ ter. For instance, mata ( i /c ) belongs to two word classes, namely adverbs and con­ junctions. As an adverb it has the meaning of once again, in the same manner, as one expected, or besides, whereas as a conjunction it means furthermore, and, besides, or, btyf, hoM/eveA'，or Likewise, sate ( 亡 マ ）is an adverb meaning as /f /s，or besides, and at the same time it can be a conjunction with the meaning of and, there/b 厂e，or by fhe way. Sate ( 亡 マ ）is also categorised under exclamatives/interjections ， and is used to express the speaker^ astonishment at something unbelievable. As ex­ plained above, one single conjunction generally has more than one meaning, and these meanings can be semantically completely different. Safemo ( さ マ も ） ，comprising the adverb safe ( さ マ ）and the /ca/ca厂/-y〇s わ/ (イ系助F ] ) 爪 〇 ( も ） ，for instance, designates either by the way, or even though. This wide range of semantic functions is a property of both Modern and Classical Japanese conjunctions. As a consequence, the context determines the meaning with which a conjunction is being used — and this is often open to interpretation.

4.11.2 Morphological categorisation of conjunctions Kyogoku (op. cit.: 90-93) analyses conjunctions o f the Heian Period (794-1185) and classifies them morphologically into three independent groups: derivations, conversions, and compounds. Some concrete examples are cited below: ❶

Derivations

There are two kinds of derivation observed in conjunctions: verbal and adverbial types. Derivation type

Morphological structure

Verbal

narabini ( 1 び l て ：and also) < V2 of the verb narab*u ( i l : to line, to queue) + PP n/ (1 - ) >

Adverbial

tadashi [

fi

す こ

V . however)

< ADV tecfa ( た だ ：〇A?/y，anyway, af /eas〇 + adverbial PP s/7/' ( L ) > ❷

Conversions

There are lexical items which originally belonged to a word class other than conjunc­ tions, but which can also be used as conjunctions with different meanings. Oyobi (>51 V : and also, furthermore, besides) is a good example of this in that it is, morphologically speaking, the 厂en’you/ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：V2) of the verb ( 及 ぶ ：f〇 厂eac わ s 的；to

catch up with] to match] to be comparable with).

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Compounds

There are compounds using the pronouns /ca ( 冷、：/f, f/7at 的 ose)，/co ( こ：/Y,的 /s, f/?ese)， sa ( さ ：/1 fわaf, fhose) and so ( t : /Y, fhaf，fhose )，and the adverb s/7/7ca ( L 6 、：

way). kakute ( tr く1•• thus) koreniyorite (これ l 二上1) ~x • thus，due to this reason) saha(=wa),aredo ( さ は あ れ ビ ：/?owe\/er) sareba ( セれば：therefore; by the way) shika’aruni ( l め、 h ろl て：therefore) sorrwsomo ( ラ も う も ：in the first place，after alf) Kyogoku and Matsui (1973: 90-136) analyse the diachronic changes of Japanese conjunctions from the Nara Period (710-784) to the Meiji Period (1868-1912). Conjunc­ tions used in the Nara Period (710-784) are difficult to trace as not enough documents from tms period have been found. Most of those that do exist are written in Classical Chinese. Or in the field of lyric poetry, poems are of an emotional nature and _ as might be expected — do not contain logical argumentation so that they contain only few conjunctions; the /Wan’y tare*tamau[=o]). (SNKBT 54: 204) The first sentence: (ProperN Yasaburo).(...).KD2 as an adverb (variously).K3B dreadful.^ servants.PP example marker.PP object marker.V2 to use] to employA\JX3A past. The second sentence: CNJ however.ProN this.PP attributive.N place.PP topic marker.N golden rock.PP content marker.V2 to name; to be called.PP copulative.N a holy being.PP attributive. N a holy place.A\JX4 declarative.PP cause/reason.N the great goddess.PP attributive. N children (PFX honorative#N child*SFX plural marker).V1 to descend from heaven. AUX2 honorative.V2 honorative.PP consecutive.N appearance.PP object marker.V2 to descend.\/3A honorative. (...)さ ま ざ ま 丨 二 恐 ろ L

5 眷 属 な ど を 使 ひ け り 。 U 、るに此所丨 1 金 ； 5 と申マ潰泽

の霊地なれば、太神の御チたち天下らせ給マ跡を垂れ給ふ。

Yasaburo had various dreadful servants working for him. However, this place was called ‘Golden Rock’ and was a holy place for souls，and therefore the children of tne goddess Amaterasu-dmi-kami appeared in this place. © Copulatives Two sentences (S1 and S2) can be linked by means of a copulative conjunction with the meaning of and to form one sentence with two co-ordinate main clauses (CL1 and CL2), each of which carries the same weight: < S1/C L1,C JT (and) S2/CL2 >. Many Japanese conjunctions are, however, used at the beginning of new sentences and function as a transition between two sentences/clauses in order to strengthen the cohe­ sion of the information units contained in the foregoing and following sentences/clauses: < S i . > < CJT (and) S2. >. Some such conjunctions contain further morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) denoting fherefore, or /b 厂f/7/s reason, and are, hence, conflations. Examples can be translated as and therefore, and thus, and for this

reason. O 137: (...) Koko ni mata, Ahu(=u Au[=o])mi no kuni Shiga no koho(=o)ri no juunin ni Mitsu no Momoe to ihu(=u ^ M =yu]) hito, danshi wo(=o) hito*ri motaTe*keri. (SNKBT 54: 207) (...) ProN here.PP locative.CNJ anc/.ProperN OmiPP attributive.N /a/?dProperN Shiga.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.11: Conjunctions

225

PP attributive.N county.PP attributive.N inhabitant.PP locative.ProperN Mitsu.PP attributive.ProperN Momoe.PP citation marker.V3B to say, to be named.N person. N boy.PP object marker.ADV/QTF one person (numeral 'one^CF for humans).V1 to have.A\JX2 honorative.AUX3A past. ( . . . ) ここ丨t 又 、近 江 国 滋 贺 群 の 往 人 I t 三 津 の 育 技 と い ふ 人 、男 子 を 一 人 持 た れ け つ 。

And here in the county o f Shiga in the land o f Omi there was an inhabitant with the name o f Mitsu no Momoe，and she had a son. O Disjunctives If new information is given as an alternative, disjunctive conjunctions are used. O 138: (...) kokuu ni hi*tsuki»hoshi no san no hikari araha(=wa)re, aruhi(=i)ha(=wa) Shaka, Yakushi, Mida no sonzou to henj«i, aruhi(=i)ha(=wa) i*t*tai to nar*i (...) (SNKBT 54: 210) (...) N empty sky.PP locative.N sun.N moon.H star.PP attributive.N three (the numeral 3).PP attributive.N light.\/2 to appear.CNJ or.ProperN Sakyamuni Buddha.ProperH YakushiBuddha.ProperN Amitabha Buddha.PP attributive.N holy statue.PP resultative. V2 to change.ClU or.N/QTF one body, one figure (the numeral 1*CF for statues).PP resultative.V2 to become (...) (...) 虛 空 (：日 月 星 の 三 の 光 あ ら は れ 、 或 ひ は 狀 邂 、 薬 師 、 弥 陀 の I 像 と 交 U•、 或 ひは一林となり（ ...）

(...) There appeared shining lights o f the sun, the moon, and the stars, or they changed into the statues o f Sakyamuni Buddha, Yakushi Buddah, and Amitabha Buddha, or they (all) changed into one body (...) ❺

Manner

Manner conjunctions refer back to statements or assertions made earlier and apply the meaning of in this way to the whole procedure or state of affairs. If we compare the word order of the following Japanese and English sentences, we see that the English translation of Sentence O 139 expresses manner by means of an adverb at the end of the sentence, whereas the Japanese conjunction is used at the beginning. O 139: (...) HSateha(=wa) Oho(=o)nogi ni tabakara*re*keru koso kuchiwo(=o)*shi»keren tote odori*agari*agari»seTare*shi»ga (...) (SNKBT 54:194) ( ...) CNJ in this way.ProperN Onogi.PP agent marker.VI to deceiveA\JX2 passive. AUX3B past.PP emphasis.K4-/can-inflection regrettable.PP citation marker.N (V2) jump. N (V2) jump.N (V2) jumpM^ to do.AUX2 honorative.AUX3B past.PP concessive (...) ( . . . ) 「さ マ は 大 野 木 Iてたばり、ら れ け る こ t く （ •••)

を

L けれ」 とマ、躍 り 上 り 上

つせられLが

Although Yasaburo jum ped around furiously thinking what a shame that he was deceived by Onogi in this way (...)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.11: Conjunctions

226 ❻

Temooratives

Temporal conjunctions are used in order to express that a certain time has passed as shown in the following examples.

O 140: S aruhodoni, Shutendou(=o)ji ha(=wa) sanze no sho-botoke ni kiraha(=wa)*re (...) (SNKBT 54: 211) CJN soon.ProperN Shutendoji.PP topic marker.N/QTF three worlds (i.e., past, present, and future) (the numeral 3*CF for worlds, or generations).PP attributive.PFX plural marker.N わ(yddha.PP agent marke「.V1 to/7ate.AUX2 passive (…） さる|

i ど Iて、 酒 吞 童 子 は 三 世 の 緒 イ ム Iて 嫌 は れ （...）

Soon Shutendoji ( li t : Alcohol Drinking Child) was hated by Buddhas o f the past, present and future (...) ❼

Topic change

A new topic can be introduced by using conjunctions which mark this. O 141:Kakute ko no chigo tsuki.hi kasanar.u mama ni itsushika seijin*shi*tamahe(=e)Ti. (SNKBT 54:197) CNJ by the w/ay.ProN this.PP attributive.N small cMd.N months and days (i.e., time) (N m onths day).V3B to accumulate (i.e., to pass [time]).PseudoN describes sth that changes along with sth else.PP tempo rati ve. AD V some day, one day.M2 to become an adult (N adult*\/2 to do).V4 honorative.AUX3A perfect. ゲ く マ 此 见 、 月日力、さ な る ま ま 丨 二 い っ L 力、 祆 人

L給 へ つ 。

By the way, time has passed and this small boy has become an adult O 142: Sareba ko no Yasaburau(=o) ha(=wa) lbuki-daimiyau(=o ゥ Ibuki-daimivo (=myo])jin no mi*yama wo(=o) tsukasador*u hito nar*e ba (...) (SNKBT 54:190) CNJ by the w/ay.ProN this.PP attributive.ProperN Yasaburo.PP topic marker.ProperN the Great God Ibuki.PP attributive.PFX honorative.N mountain.PP object marker.V3B to administer.^ manA\JX4 to be.PP reason (...) さ れ ば 此 弥 三 郎 は 怦 吹 大 蜊 神 の 御 山 を っ 力 、さ ど る 人 な れ ば （…）

By the way, this man Yasaburd is an administrator o f the mountain which belongs to the Great God Ibuki-Daimyojin, and for this reason (...) O 143: Satemo hime*gimi ha(=wa) Yasaburau(=o)«dono ni wakare«tamahi(=i) te nageki* tamahu(=u ■=> nagekitamau[=o]) koto kagiri*na*shi. (SNKBT 54:195) CNJ by the way.N princess.SFX honorative address form.PP topic marker.ProperN Yasaburo.SFX polite address form.PP addressee.V2 to say goodbye.\/2 honorative.PP consecutive.V2 to grieve.\/3B honorative.PseudoN nominalisation.K3A unlimited (N

limit*K3A to no be there). さマも雄君は弥三郊殿ド別れ給

0 マ、 嘆 f 姶 ふ 爭 限 0 な L。

As for the princess, she grieved incredibly when she lost Yasaburd.

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

227

4_12 Exclamatives/lnterjections (/(a/ifoi/sAi/[ 間 投 詞 ：EXC/INJ]) Japanese interjections are free morphemes and express emotions of the speaker such as happiness, sadness, anger and many other kinds of feelings. The Japanese techni­ cal term for this word class is kantoushi and this book uses the English terms exclamative and interjection synonymously. There are certain difficulties involved in defining this word class, and there is still no concrete agreement among Japanese linguists on such a definition. The following short history o f this topic describes the situation.

4.12.1 Works on Japanese grammar Yamada Yoshio (1908 in Suzuki [1 9 7 4 :151])describes in his book Nihon-bunpo-ron ( 日 本 文 法 論 ：777e Theory o f Japanese G厂amma 厂）how this word class first appeared in Japanese grammar through language contact with European languages. For this rea­ son, there are numerous definitions of the word class Jinterjections, or ,exclamatives, as described in detail in an article by Suzuki (1974: 138-168). He introduces fifteen differ­ ent grammar books written by various Japanese linguists during the time from the Edo Period (1603-1867) to the Showa Period (1926-1989). Representative works among them are Ge/?firo-yo/7s/?(i-r〇A?( 言 語 四 種 論 ：The Theory o f Four l/Vbrd C/asses, 1824) by Suzuki Akira ( # 木 腺 ：1764-1887), Goga/〇y-s/?/>7Sわo ( 語 学 新 書 ：A /Vew 8 0 0 /c oa? L//7grtz/sf/cs，1833) by Tsurumine Shigenobu ( 鶴 条 戍 申 ：1788-1859)，Go/?6-s/7/>7a/7 ( 語 法 指 南 ：An /n かoc/ivcto/? to 1891) by Gtsuki Fumihiko ( 大 橄 文 彦 ：18471928)，/W?o/7-bi;/7p6-r〇A?( 日 本 文 法 論 ：77?e 77?e〇Ay o f Japanese Grammar，1908) written by Yamada Yoshio ( 山 田 幸 雄 ：1875-1958)，/~(/(371//?-"//7〇/?-わ(7叩 6 ( 標 孝 日 本 文 法 ： 7776 Standard Japanese Grarnma/; 1924) by Matsushita Daizaburo (松 下 大 三 部 ：1878-

1935), Kokugo-hd-ydsetsu (風 語法要i t _• Descriptions o f the Uses o f the National Language, 1933) by Hashimoto Shinkichi 1882-1945), and Nihon-bunpd-kdgo/?en ( 日 本 文 法 口 語 A Grammar o f Spo/cen Japanese, 1950) by Tokieda Motoki (時 :1900-1967). These grammars have different interpretations where the classi­ fication of lexical items — including those expressing emotions — are concerned.

4.12.2 Classification of exclamatives/interjections As there are many different interpretations of the word class ^exclamatives* or 'interjec­ tions1, these items are likewise classified in a large number of different ways. Suzuki (1973: 171), for example, classifies interjections into two groups: emotional interjec­ tions expressing astonishment and feelings of being moved on the one hand, and, on the other, volitional interjections which are addressed to the interlocutor to draw his/her attention to the speaker, or to give him/her answers. Using Kamio^ Theory of Informa­ tion Territory (1997), one can say that Suzuki^ differentiation between the two lies in the fact that the former takes place within the territory of the speaker himself/herself in the sense that the speaker^ emotions are directed to himself/herself. The latter is di­ rected towards the interlocutor, and therefore the speaker^ emotions are transmitted outside of his/her territory. One can also speak of a monologue-dialogue differentiation. Ono (1988: 95-96), however, distinguishes two kinds in Suzukifs second group so that

228

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

he proposes altogether three types of interjection on the basis of semantic features: those expressing the speaker’s inner feelings of being touched/moved; those which are addressed to the interlocutor to draw his/her attention to the speaker himself/herself; and those which give the speaker’s answers or reactions to statements made by the interlocutor This book uses Ono’s triple classification. Table 85 lists some examples given in Ono (1988) and Morita (1973). Figure 13: Types o f exclamative/interjection

4.12.3 Interjections and literature When reading classical texts, readers should be aware that interjections have gone through many different stages of language change and that there are interjections which predominate in each period: in the Nara Period (710-784), the Heian Period (794-1185), the Kamakura Period (1192-1333), the Muromachi Period (1338-1673), or the Edo Pe­ riod (1603-1867). Apart from this differentiation, there are further differences in the kind, Table 85: Examples of exclamatives/interjections ❶

Emotions within the speaker’s territory: being moved (〇/?，a/as, a/?) aa ( あ あ ：since the Heian Period [794-1185]) ahai[=wa)ya \ the speaker realises sth in a sense that sth makes sense

[aha, I see]) a ra ( あ な ：from the Nara Period [710-784] onwards) ara ( b ^ : appeared in the Heian Period [794-1185]) a 厂a*a厂a ( め ら あ ら ：expression of surprise, nervousness or being in suspense) a/ya ( あ つ ゃ ：since the end of 8th C) aware ( あ わ れ ：from the Nara Period [710-784] onwards and also used frequently in the Heian Period [794-1185]) /?afc/7a ( は っ ち ゃ ：used when sth was not expected at all [lV/?af/]) う ：surprise)

hou(=o) (

( ふ う ：the speaker is surprised and speechless [0/7, no/; 0/?, m y good-

ness!]) otto (1^ Y : an expression used when sb suddenly remembers sth) suha(=wa)va ( す は や ：used frequently in the Heian Period [794-1185] to express surprise)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

® Drawing attention to oneself (w/7af/; //sten//

229

/7ey/; exci/se me/)

do 厂e ( と れ ：cohortative or imperative) e/• ( え い ：used frequently in the Heian Period [794-1185]) e/e/、ot/ ( え い え い も つ ：a variation of e/，used frequently in /cydger? dramas) e/ya 打o ( え い や っ と ：a variation of e/，used frequently in Zcydgen dramas) ide ( T : used in the Heian Period [794-1185], has a cohortative meaning) ikani ( v : used in the Nara Period [710-784] in the sense of how, but in the Heian Period [794-1185] to indicate an extraordinary degree of sth) /za ( い ざ : cohortative, suggesting that the interlocutor and the speaker do sth together) to re ( こ れ [l/l/afch ouf/; 8e c a r e _ : an expression still used today) /co厂e./core ( こ れ こ れ [IVafc/? oi/f/; Be ca 厂e/i;//]: an expression still used today) The reduplication gives an exclamative more emphatic nuance than /co厂e (こ れ ） • to ya ( こ や ：used in the Edo Period [1603-1867]) mau(=o)shi ( ま う L : used to draw attention to the speaker himself/herself; m osrvm oshil も L も l ] is an expression still used today when telephoning

[hello]) na ( ^ : often used in kydgen dramas) nau(=o)( な う ：often used in /cydger? dramas) sabae ( 亡 ば え ：yes; used by gir 丨 s or small children in the Edo Period [1603-1867]) yaa ( や あ ：used in the Nara Period [710-784]) n/aa ( わ あ ：used frequently in Aydge/7 dramas) wa/ya/ ( わ い や い ：used frequently in /cydger? dramas) ya 厂 ( や れ や れ ：a variation of yaa) yayo ( や よ ：used in the Heian Period [794-1185]) v a u (-d ) ( や う ：used in the Edo Period [1603-1867]) © Responding'to the interlocutor _________________________________ ____________

ina ( v'

: No!\ this expression is also found in the literature of the Nara Period [710-784]) /ya ( 、、や ：A/o/; originating in the Heian Period [794-1185], this expression is still in use today) /ya/?7〇/?aya ( い や も は や ：A/o/; used in dramas) iyam ou(=d)( い や も う ：/N/o/; used in /cydgen dramas) /e ( い え ：A/o/; this expression is still used today) /7e ( い い え ：A/o/; from the Edo Period [1603-1867】 ，and still in use today) iiya ( v' v' -f3 ：No!: used in kydgen dramas) /yae ( い や え ：A/o/: used in the Edo Period [1603-1867] by women from pleasure quarters) ou(=d)( お う ：

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Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

use and frequency of interjections depending upon the genres in which they occur. As interjections are emotional expressions, they appear in works in which spoken language is used. Thus, a large number of interjections are used in kyogen ( f r T ) texts 一 short dramas with comic elements which were popular from the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) to the beginning of the Edo Period (1603-1867). Numerous examples are also to be found in the so-called /c/r7s/?/fa/?-/5i/A7Sfa/a/ ( キ リ シ タ ン 文 字 ：C/?nstian literature), which appeared between the mid-16th and mid-17th centuries, when Christian missionaries came to Japan. These are religious books either written in Japa­ nese or Japanese translations of Portuguese or Spanish originals or (reference) books describing colloquial Japanese written by Christian missionaries in Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese, or Japanese using the Latin alphabet (Shimonaka 1976). Later in the Edo Period (1603-1867)，namely from 1635 to1858 ,8〇when national policy brought about Japan’s seclusion from the rest of the world， feudalism developed and four rigid social classes were established, namely the samurai (aristocratic war­ riors), farmers, tradesmen, and merchants. During this period the Japanese economy developed and the monetary system was first introduced. Along with this development the merchants — due to their strong economic influence — gained a considerable amount of power. These social and economic changes are also reflected in the Japa­ nese literature. The merchant class produced many famous writers whose stories mainly describe the everyday life of cnonin ( : those belonging to the class of tradesmen and merchants). The language used in these stories was colloquial and contained a large number of interjections, and — because the society of the time was a feudal one — these interjections were finely differentiated according to gender, social classes, age, and occupations.

4.12.4 Phonological and morphological features of exclamatives/interjections One of the main phonological features of exclamatives used in Classical Japanese is the fact that many of them have the sounds /a, wa/80 81 followed by /sa, shi, su, se, so/, /ha ，hi, hu ，he, ho/ and /ya ，yu ，yo/ (Morita 1 9 7 3 :184). The interjections aa ( あ あ ）， a/?/7are (あ っ |1 れ [a?par*e])， 82ar7a ( あな、） ，aya ( あ や ），i/i/aa ( わ あ ） ，w a ff ( わ っ [iq a?】 : 80

There are different views on when the national seclusion policy began and ended. I have taken as the beginning of this policy the year 1635 when the first Seclusion Edict (sakokurei [鎖国令】 ）was issued by Tokugawa lemitsu ( 德 川 家 光 ：1604-1651); and I have taken as the year of termination of this policy the year 1858; the year Japan and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (A7/c/7/jbe/-s/7d/c6~fs/}sわ [ 日 米 修 好 通 尚 条 約 ] ) which resuited in the opening of many ports of trade in Japan. It has to be mentioned, however, that the first step towards this policy was already taken in 1616 when all foreign ships, apart from those from China, were allowed to sail into only two harbours, namely Nagasaki and Hirato. 81 Speech sounds which correspond to graphemes are given between two slashes: / /; /wa/ is, therefore, pronounced as [tqa] and /ha/ as [ha]. 82 The diacritic symbol ( 0) used to indicate the voiceless bilabial plosive [p] was first used in the Muromachi Period (1338-1573) and it was observed to be becoming more and more wide­ spread from the Edo Period (1603-1867) onwards (Habein 1984).

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions 一

4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

231

an expression of astonishment)，saa ( 亡 あ ），/?an?o ( は も ）， ( はれ） ，haya ( は や ） are examples. There are many variations on the original proper interjections which arose through the ellipsis of consonants, vowel changes, employment of the glottal stop [?], or vowel lengthening. Morita (1973: 186) gives, for example, four variants of the interjection ana ( b ^ ' ：Oh!) found in works from the Nara Period (710-784): ananiya ( あな、I こ や ），ananiwe(=e)va ( あな丨て;i や ），a/7an/yas/7/ ( あな丨てや L )，and anan/yos/?/ ( J：l ). 〇r the exclamative ei ( ) appears in fifteen variants in kydgen dramas such as e/e/Waa ( 之 、，之 、、わ あ ），e/yafto ( 元 、、や っ と ），eiyattou(=o)( 元 、、や っ と う） ，and others (ibid.: 195). Apart from the above-mentioned interjections, there are many exclamatives which have the mora /co ( こ ） ，w hic h corresponds phonetically and sem antically to the demonstrative pronoun to ( こ ： Excl amat i ves ot this kind are，for exam ple ， koreha(=wa)( こ れ は ），korehaf=wa) •korehaf=wa)( こ れ は こ れ は ），koreha(=wa)*ikani ( こ れ は い 6 、l 二），koreha(=wa)*sate ( こ れ は さ マ ） ，and /roya ( こ や ）（ M orita 1973: 196). The principle of the /co-so-a-do-paradigm (a set of substitutional relationships among Japanese pronouns which begin morphologically with the mora /co [ こ 】 ，so [ 予 ]，a [ あ ]，o r do [ と ])，which is based on the concept of speaker’s territory/interlocutor’s territory, can also be applied to interjections beginning with the sound /co ( こ ） ，as they refer to the emotions of the speaker, i.e., they are in his/her territory. Morita (ibid.) points out other key sound components of interjections in his study; they are r?a ( な ），mau(=o)shi (申 L )，//ca ( 如 何 ） ，/de ( い て )，/sa ( い さ ），sa ( さ ） ，/7afa ( は た ），/?afe ( は マ ） ，do 厂e ( ど れ ），oo ( お お ），〇/ ( お い ）， ( う う ） ，/?a ( は ） ，/?a/• ( な v' ) , shika ( ^ ), ina ( ^ ), and /ya ( v He also gives many examples of their de­ rived forms or compounds in his study (ibid.: 1973).

4.12.5 Semantic features As mentioned in 4.12.2, there are three semantically different types of interjection. The first group expresses human emotions caused by unexpected actions, happenings, or things. The speaker is surprised or astonished at some unexpected information he/she has obtained and he/she expresses it as pleasure, joy, delight, exuberance, or anger, rage, sadness, horror, fear, anxiety, suspicion, and many others. According to Kamio's Theory of Information Territory (1997), these are the em otions which are taking place within the inner territory of the speaker. In the second type of interjection the speaker is sending a message — in interjection form — to the interlocutor with the aim of attracting his/her attention. Such interjections are usually something like Listen!, What did you say!, What in the world is this!, Oh no!t and a whole host o f others, depending on the context. Hence, the speaker’s emotions could be negative, e.g., criticism, swearing, surprise, astonishment, scorn, mockery or derision, or they could be of a positive nature, expressing the speaker^ encourage­ ment, or his/her empathy with the interlocutor in forms which convey joy, happiness, pleasure, and the like. Pragmatically, interjections can be imperatives saying that the interlocutor should do something. They can also be cohortative if the speaker is sug­ gesting carrying out a joint action. This all depends on the situation where actual con­ versation is taking place, and also on the prosodic components such as intonation,

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Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.12: Exclamatives/lnterjections

accentorpro m in enceofutteredin terjectionsThe third type of interjection is also directed towards the interlocutor by way of giving him/her yes-no answers, greetings, or cheering him/her. In the case of yes-no answers, the English equivalents could be your are right, thafs it, yes, or thafs not true, you are wrong, this is not correct, and other ways of saying or •no*. Greetings and leavetakings also belong to the Japanese interjections. Some of these are saraba ( ^ ^ H : goodbye) used in dramas，or 卿 迎 ⑼ 仰 厂 a ( さ や う な ら ：goodbye) which was used in Kydto, or ( す ん な ら ：goodbye) which people in Edo (today’s T6ky6) used (Morita 1973: 206). Morita’s diachronic study (ibid.) makes clear that semantic meanings of interjections are shifting from the first type (inner emotional expressions taking place within the ter­ ritory of the speaker) to the interactional types, i.e., the second type (interjections ad­ dressed to the interlocutor to catch his/her attention) and the third type (interjections uttered by the speaker as a response to the interlocutor).

4.12.6 Examples The following examples are from Edomumare uha(=wa)ki no /cabaya/c/ (•;エ 广 生 絶 気 樺 嫂 ：1785) written by Sant6 Ky6den ( 三 東 束 伝 ：1761-1816). The reader should be aware that this story was written in the Edo Period (1603-1867) and the language used in the following examples is different from that of other example sentences we have seen so far. For example, in these sentences there is no inflectional distinction between the s/7iviys/7/7ce/• ( 終 止 形 ：3A) and renfa//ce/ ( 連 休 形 ：3B), as the language used in the Edo Period (1603-1867) was different from Classical Japanese of the Heian Period (7941185). SA?mys/7//ce/•( 終 止 形 ：3A) had almost been taken over by re/7fa/7ce/( 連 体 形 ：3B) by this time (see 4.7.2), and some predicative lexemes had gone through further mor­ phological changes. For instance, the declarative auxiliary da ( tz ) used in Sentence 144 went through three such steps. The original expression was ni*te*aru ( I - 1 ^ ) which comprises three lexemes: the renyoukei flj: AUX2) of the declarative aux­ iliary nar^i ( ^ ' 1 : to be sth/sb)t PP fe ( T ) for expressing manner, and the rentaikei (連 体 形 ：V3B) of the verb ar*/ ( あ つ ：to jbe fhere) in the sense of s/ich and sac/?. The first step was a change of/7/*fe ( I - ^ )to de ( X ) , and from here de*aru ( ~f f ) 6 ) developed. De.anv ( て•あ る ）further changed to dea ( て*あ ）by deleting the mora /ru/ ( る） . The third and final step was the deletion of the vowel /e/ from d空a ( て’ あ ）which brought about the new declarative auxiliary da ( tz ). This auxiliary is still used in Mod­ ern Standard Japanese. Also, Sant6 Ky6den ( 三 東 束 伝 ：1761-1816) uses the language of c/76/7/V?(町 人 ： tradesmen and craftsmen) in the story, i.e, it is written in the Edo (Tokyo) vernacular of that era. For this reason, many modality-expressing postpositions, both shuu-joshi (終 助 詞 ：see 4.9.7) and /ca/7foひ;/os/7/ ( 間 投 助 詞 ：see 4.9.8), which convey the speaker’s emotions, are used in the story. These are placed at the end of nouns, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Interesting enough, this structural feature is reflected in the morphology of interjections, which have such modality postpositions among their constituents. In

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233

other words, expressions using modality-expressing postpositions have been grammaticalised and are used as interjections. This can be seen in Sentences O 144 and Z> 145. They involve the PP sa ( ^ ), which renders the nuance that the speaker is looking down on something or somebody. Sentence O 144 also contains the interjection nan/sa (な I二さ）which is a compound of the interrogative pronoun nani ( ^ : what) and the modality-expressing PP sa ( ^ ), which was used in the Edo Period (1603-1867) by c わ6n/>?( 町 人 : tradesmen and craftsmen).

O 144: “Nanisa. kata mo nai koto da no sa. Minna koshirahe(=e)goto sa. (••_)” (NKBT 59:141) The first sentence: INJ what!.b\ form.PP emphasis.K3B-/-oa?/)//7 (to not be f/?ere).PseudoN nominalisation. AUX3B phonologically changed form in declarative function.PP nominalisation.PP look­ ing down on sth or sb. The second sentence: ADV everything, a//.N invention (stories), lie.PP looking down on sth/sb.(...) 「な I 二さ、 々、た も な い 亭 だ の さ 。 み ん な こ

L ら へ 爷 さ 0 (...)」

“What in the world is he saying! There is no such thing. Everything is a lie !” The following example has two interjections kore ( こ れ ）and maa ( まア) . Emotivity is also expressed through the interjectional PP ro ( ろ ）which marks emotions of various kinds. A graphemic characteristic of this work is that small katakana grapnemes are also used for words which are usually written in h/ragana : ま ア （ maa) instead of ま

b (maa). O 145: uKore*sa, maa hanashi te kure*ro.

(NKBT 59:145)

INJ hey! (ProN this*PP intimacy).INJ pleaseM2 to let sb go.PP consecutive.V5 to do me a favour.PP exclamative. 「こ れ さ 、 まアはな、L マ く れ ろ （ •••)」

ltHey, please let me go! (...)" The following example is from a short story ‘Neko no ko no koneko ( 子 子 ナ す 子 子 ： A /c/Yfen, a caf’s c/7//c/)’ from the Ki/saz(3s/7/-s/7〇 ( 萆ヌ又紙集：printed texts with drawings for children and commoners, a large number of which appeared from the Genroku Period [ 元 禄 時 代 ：1688-1704] until the beginning of the Meiji Period [1868-1912]). The story is about the owner of an inn and a monk, Toyo (Touf=61vauf=61), who was staying there. As Toyo told him that he liked painting pictures, the owner asked him to paint something on his brand new folding screen. When he finished his painting, the owner became very angry with him. The following translation includes explanations which are not written explicitly in the original text.

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234

O 146: (...) muma no kutsu ni sumi wo(=o) tsuk*e te byau(=o)bu he(=e) uchi*tsuke* kere ba, aruji, koto*no»hoka haratat»e ikar*u. HUchi*tsuke*shi sumi ha(=wa) kani no we(=e) nar*iMto ih*u(=u). “Nanno kore ga kani nara*n. Moto no shirahari ni shi te kahe(=e)shi-tamahe(=e)Mto (...) (SNKBT 83: 98) The first sentence: ( . . . ) N horse.PP attributive.N stoe.PP locative.N ink.PP object marker.V2 to put. PP consecutive.N folding screen.PP direction.V2 to bang (V2 to hit*\/2 to phnt) A\JX4 past.PP reason.N ownerAD\/ extraordinarily (N thing*PP attributive^ beyond sth).\/2

to get angry.MZ/K to get angry. The second sentence: HV2 to bang (V2 to hit*\/2 to print).A\JX3B past.N ink.PP topic marker.N crab.PP attributive.N drawing. AUX3A declarativeM.PP citation marker.V3A to say.(...) The third sentence:

“INJ whaf/.ProN

的/s.PP

subject marker.N crab.AUX1 declarative”.AUX3A speculative.

The fourth sentence: N original.PP attributive.N blank white folding screen.PP resultative.V2 to do.PP copulative.V2 to bring sth back to the original state.\/5 honorative^.PP citation marker.(...) (...)馬 の沓 I 二 墨 を つ け マ 屏 職 へ 打 つ け け れ ば 、主、殊の外腹立マ怒る。「 打ちつ け L 墨は蟹の桧也」といふ。「 何のこれが蟹ならん。元 の 6 張 I 二L マ 返 L 姶へ」と (...) ( . . . ) / oyo put the ink on a horse shoe and banged it against the folding screen.

When the owner saw this he became extremely angry. Toyo said, uThe painting made by banging the inked horseshoe onto the screen is a picture of a crab.” The owner replied ，“What! Are you saying that this is a crab? You should restore the folding screen back to the original white again!" (...)

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.13: Numeral quantifiers

235

4.13 Numeral quantifiers (S m /s /i/ [ 狄 詞 ：Num eral Q TF】 )83 Numeral quantifiers are expressions used to indicate a quantity of things, such as /

travelled for thirty-seven davs, or forty-five people lived in this village. Both Classical and Modern Standard Japanese indicate the quantity by using numerals (kazu [ # ： ]) such as one, two, or three, and counting units which are called josuushi (3 /j^.P i：clas­ sifier [CF]). Therefore, Japanese numeral quantifiers comprise numerals and classifi­ ers as counting units and each noun requires a specific counting unit. For instance, ka ( 日 ）is used for counting days, ゾ/ ( 終 ）for days taken to cover a distance, f a " ( 人 ）for counting humans, and tose ( j^.) for expressing human age, or tose ( ^ ) for designat­ ing the duration of years in Classical Japanese. Therefore, English sentences above are expressed in Classical japanese as miso-ka amari nanu-ka tabi shi.tarhkeri ( 三 十 七 日 祙 L た つ け つ ），or /co /7〇 sato n/ voso-tari amari it-tari no hito sumi*ni*keri ( この里丨てI I 四 十 五 の 人 佐 み 丨 二 け り ），respectively. The morphosyntactic structure of numeral quantifiers is elaborated in Subsection 4.13.2, and their syntactic functions are explained in Subsection 4.13.3. As for the ety­ mology o f the numerals themselves, Classical Japanese has two lexically different types84: those of Japanese origin and those from Chinese which through lanquaqe contact (see 4.5.3) were incorporated into the Japanese counting system. Before we deal with these linguistic features, a short history of this word class is given in the following subsection.

4.13.1 A short history of numeral quantifiers Just as with many other word classes, the technical term suushi (# ：W: numeral quan­ tifier) arose through language contact with European languages. At the end of the Edo Period (1603-1867) the Dutch grammar Grammatica o f Nederduitsche Sprachkunst which was published in Leiden in 1822 was introduced in Japan. When this book was translated into Japanese, translators found ten different word classes: Zelfstandige

naamwoorden, Lidwoorden, bijvoegelijke naamwoorden, Telwoorden, Voornaamwoorden, Werkwoorden, Bijwoorden, Voovzetsels, Vogewoorden, and Tusschenwerpsels (Miyachi 1972: 60). Translators used for the fourth word class, Telwoorden, the term suushi ( : numeral quantifier). しater when Japan signed treaties with the European countries after more than 200 years of seclusion, English grammar books were introduced. In these books, there were eight word classes and is no special category dealing with numeral quantifiers.

go

Both Japanese and English quantifiers refer to amounts or quantities of things. However, both their morphologia丨components and their morphosyntactic usage are different.

84 Apart from these two types of numeral, Contemporary Standard Japanese has a third type which has arisen through language contact with European languages.しoan words from English make up the majority of them. Haarmann (1989: 163-203) analyses the use of foreign numerals in Japanese. Although the data used in his study is now about twenty years old, the general tendency depicted in this study is, in my view, still valid.

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一

4.13: Numeral quantifiers

C o n s e q u e n tly , th e re a ro s e s e v e ra l o th e r te rm s fo r n u m e ra l q u a n tifie rs s u c h a s (狄

司

suuryoushi

：n u m e 厂 a /c /u a n f/ 万e rs ). S o m e g ra m m a ria n s c a te g o ris e d n u m e ra l q u a n tifie rs a s

a k in d o f a d je c tiv e w ith th e n a m e o f

kazu-keiyoushi

H o w e v e r, w h e n th e lin g u is t O ts u k i F u m ih ik o

: numeral adjectives). ( 大 槻 文 ;f * : 1847-1928) p u b lis h e d h is b o o k J a p a n e s e G ra m m a り in 1897, th e g ra m -

/Japanese ways o f counting ( Traditional Japanese way of counting

Sino-Japanese way of counting

towo(=o)

とを

10

30

hata / hatachi mi-so

はた/はた

40

yo-so

上ヤ

50 70

i(-s 〇) mu-so nana-so

80

ya-so

やヤ

90

kokono-so momo

ここの十

yo-ho(=o) i-ho(=o) ya-ho(=o) chi yorodu

よ ほ

10 20

60

100 400 500 800 1000 1,0000

20

juu ni-juu

ir

30

san-juu

さんじゅう

40

yon-juu

よんじゅう

い け ）

50

go-juu

ごじゅう

L' ヤ

60

roku-juu

ろくじゅう

70

nana-juu

ななじゅう

80

hachi-juu

U t, r ^

90

kyuu-juu hyaku

き ゅ う L’• ゅう

なな

'

100 [joo]

v M i [i〇] や

| i [jao 】

% よろづ

400 500 800 1000 1,0000

yon-hyaku go-hyaku hap-pyaku sen ichi-man

じゅう

二

ゅう

ひゃく よんひゃく ごひゃく

|i

っびゃく

せん いちまん

Chapter 4: Word Class Descriptions — 4.13: Numeral quantifiers

238

Some examples are given below to illustrate the traditional Japanese way of count­ ing. English translations are given in parentheses. 11 22 34 45 56 166 3,6568 179,2470

towo(=o) amari hito-tsu (10 and 1) hatachi amari huta-tsu (20 and 2) mi-so amari yo-tsu (30 and 4) yo-so amari itsu-tsu (40 and 5) i-so amari mu-tsu (50 and 6) momo amari mu-so amari mu-tsu (100 and 60 and 6) mi-tsu yorodu amari mu-chi amari iho(=o) amari muso amari ya-tsu (3,0000 and 6000 and 500 and 60 and 8) momo yorodu amari nana-so yorodu amari kokono-tsu yorodu amari huta-chi amari yoho(=o) amari nana-so (100,0000 and 70,0000 and 9,0000 and 2000 and 400 and 70)

When we read Classical texts aloud we can for the most part read numerals just as in Modern Standard Japanese, as numerals of Chinese origin have been integrated into the counting system of both Classical and Modern Standard Japanese. In contrast to the original Japanese way of counting numerals, the Sino-Japanese way of counting the numeral ‘179,2470’ is shown below: 179,2470

hyaku-nana-juu-kyuu-man ni-sen yon-hyaku nana-juu ひゃくななじゅう

J ゅうまん丨てせんよんひゃくななじゅう

We can see that the Sino-Japanese way of counting numbers is more economical than the traditional Japanese way, and it is most likely for this reason _ simplicity as against complexity _ that the traditional Japanese way has fallen into disuse. 4.13.3 C la s s ifie rs (Josuushi [ M P i [CF]) Classifiers (/osm7s/7/ [J 力# :1司] ) give information about types of things which are being counted as shown in Table 87. Apart from this, there are also nominal compounds comprising numerals and classifiers, such as chHho(=o)-aki( 斗 五 可 伙 ）whose literal meaning is *one thousand (chi) and five hundred (iho『=ol) autumuns’ and designates ‘eternity’，or iuu-ni-hitohe(=e)( 十 二 单 ） ，the special robe which was worn by court ladies in the Heian Period (794-1185) and which literally means 'twelve (layers of) gar­ ments1. Miyachi (op. cit.: 56) points out that there are also quantifiers whose morphological formations are of both Japanese (abbreviated as JP) and Chinese (abbreviated as SJ for Sino-Japanese) origins. The following table showing quantities of humans or days amounting to between one and five in Classical Japanese gives the morphological structure and origin of each example. As will be seen, some are made up of items of purely Japanese origin (JP), some are of Sino-Japanese origin (SJ) alone, and some reflect the mixture of the two (JP and SJ).

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4.13: Numeral quantifiers

239

Number

1

2

3

4

5

Humans

hito-ri

huta-ri

san-nin

yo-nin

go-nin

(JP.JP)

(JP-JP)

(SJ-SJ)

(JP.SJ)

(SJ.SJ)

ichi-nichi

hutsu-ka

m ik-ka

yok-ka

■tsu-ka

(SJ.SJ)

(JP.SJ)

(JP.SJ)

(JP.SJ)

(JP.SJ)

Days

4.13.4 Morphosyntactic functions of numeral quantifiers Syntactically, Japanese numeral quantifiers can be used both as nouns and as adverbs. Sentences 3 147 and O 148 from the ❶

•(げ 吹 堂 子 ）illustrate

this feature.

As 3 noun

O 147: Ware ha(=wa) ko no yama no wau(=o) to nar«i te go-go-hyaku-sai no buppou wo(=o) mamoru*beshi (...) (SNKBT 54: 205) ProN I.PP topic marker.ProN this.PP attributive.N mountain.PP attritutive.N king/ruler. PP resultative.V2 to become.PP consecutive.PFX after.H/QTF 500 years old (numeral ‘500’.CF for age).PP attributive.N p/7//oso/?/7y of 8i;dcf/7/OT7.PP object marker.V3A to keep, to sustain.AUX3A obligation^...) 我 は 此 山 の 王 と な 0 マ後五可歲 のイム法を守るベ

L

....... .

/ w ill become the ru le r o f this mountain and w ill sustain the philosophy o f Buddhism which has existed for five hundred years since the death o f Buddha (...) © As an adverb O 148: (...) Mitsu no Momoe to ihu(=u) hito danshi wo(=o) hito-ri mota#re*keri. (SNKBT 54: 207) (...) ProperN Mitsu.PP attributive.ProperN Momoe.PP citation marker.V3B to say, to be named.N person.H boy.PP object marker.ADV/QTF one person (numeral 'one' *CF for humans).V1 to haveA\JX2 honorative.AUX3A past. (SNKBT 54: 207) 三津の百技とぃふ人、 男子を一人持たれけつ。

A woman with the name o f Mitsu no Momoe had a son. Morphologically speaking, numerals of Japanese origins are bound morphemes, whereas those of Chinese are free morphemes. Therefore, numerals of the latter type can be used as an independent syntactic unit. Sentence O 149 is composed of a subject ‘ichi’ and a nominal predicate ‘moto no kazu r w i ’. O 149: Ichi moto no kazu nari. (AC) N one.N origin, beginning, start.PP attributive.N number.AUX3Ato be. 一元の狄なつ。

‘One’ ist the original number.

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4.13: Numeral quantifiers

4.13.5 Examples 1?16 7"〇5ヨ -/7/欣 / ( 土

佐 日

1己 ：3 「〇 1111〇1935)\/\/他 6 门 匕 ヅ 1The speaker was referring to a tanka 7-7 sequence: miso-moji amari hito-moji (

see 6.1) having thirty-one morae with a 5-7-5— 文字） ；/?/1〇-/??〇/7 is missing in his utterance.

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4.13: Numeral quantifiers

241

Table 87: Examples of classifiers in Classical Japanese

Quantifier: < numeral + classifier > ..... ■ ...... づ7 ( 歲

：for age)

nanaso-ji ( 七 十 戴 ：seventy years old); yaso-ji 十 氣 ：eighty years old)

-/ca ( 日 ：for days)

towo(=o)-ka ( 十

日 ：ten

days);

/7ateu-/ca ( 二 十 日 / 廿 日 ：

days);

miso-ka ( 三 十 B : thirty days); yoso-ka ( 0 : forty days) ] i-ka ( 五 十 3 • fifty days) -kahe(-e)h ( 退

つ

: for turns, or returns)

kokono-kahef=e)ri (

つ •. nine

-koto (*1" ：for assertions)

mu-koto ( tn T

-ku

ik-ku ( — 句 •. one poem)

: for poems)

：saying

turns)

sth six times)

-kusa ( ^ : for plants)

nana-kusa ( 七 车 ：seven plants、 ' chi-kusa ( キ 茸 ■: one thousand plants' many/various plants)

-meguri ( @ 0 : for rounds, tours)

ya-m eguri( /V® 0 : eight rounds)

-michi ( ^ : for roads, and ways)

huta-michi ( —^ : two ways)

-mojiAmonji (

ichi-m onji( —欠 字 .•one letter)., nana-moji ( : seven letters)] iihu(=u ^ jiufivu=/u])-monji ( 十 文 字 ：te/7 letters)] miso-monji ( 三 十 欠 字 ：thirty letters)

:

for letters,

graphemes)

-shiki ( fe : for colours)

go-shiki [ H

-sudi ( ^ : for strings, fibres, lines etc.)

m i-sudi{ 三

-fab/ ( 度 ：for frequency)

hito-tabi ( —良 ..once)' to-tabi ( 十度i • ten times)

-foW ( 時 ：for time)

yo-fok/• ( 四

-tose ( 年 ：for years)

itsu-tose ( 五 ■ 年 five years); mu-tose ( : six years)

• ( 月 ：for months) ヴ〇 ( 從

：for nights)

-yo ( 世 ：for worlds)

five colours) 筋

• three strings)

時 ：at

itsu-tsuki( 五

只

4 o’c/ock)

five months)

hito-yo ( —氣 ：one night); huta-yo ( 二 氣 • two nights), mi-yo ( 三 氣 • three nights) mi-yo ( 三 ^ : : three worlds [past，present， and future])

Chapter 5 Honoratives This chapter explains the main features of the honorifics of Classical Japanese. First, in Subsection 5.1, three different types of honorifics are elaborated. This is followed in Subsection 5.2 by a discussion of their main common features. Subsection 5.3 deals with multiple honorifics, and in Subsection 5.4 ways of designating the highest degrees of politeness are explained.

5.1 Classification of honorifics in Classical Japanese Honorifics can be expressed by using affixes, nouns, verbs, or auxiliaries (jodoushi [Jifj ifjp ]]). There are three different types of honorific as shown in Figure 14: first, teineigo ( 丁 車 語 ）to express politeness to the interlocutor, therefore called ‘addressee honorjfics ’ ；second ，son/ce/go ( 萆 敬 語 ）to designate the speaker’s respect towards the topicalised person, i.e., the referent; and finally, kenjougo (# 1 ^1 1 ： ) to signalise the speaker^ humble attitudes towards the topic person, i.e., the referent, in order to ex­ press the speaker^ politeness. The last two kinds are called Yeferent honorifics,, for the speaker’s politeness can also be directed towards persons who are not directly involved in a conversation. Japanese honorifics used in Classical Japanese are based on the hierarchical relation of the speaker to the addressee or referent. lemeigo ( T #-1^： ), for example, expresses general politeness towards the inter­ locutor by placing the speaker and the interlocutor on the same hierarchical level. This is done by maintaining a certain mental distance between them, thus respecting both their mental territories. This relationship is expressed with the formula < the speaker 0 the interlocutor >. The syntactic subject of the honorative fe/ne/go-verbs can be the speaker or the interlocutor. In the case of the s 〇A?/ce/fif〇 ( 萆 敬 語 ） ，the speaker is giving a signal Figure 14: Classification of honorifics

244

Chapter 5: Honoratives

to the interlocutor that he/she is mentally elevating the hierarchical position of the refer­ ent, which has the formula < the speaker ^ the referent >. This means that the referent is higher in position than the speaker. The subject of the honorative sonkeigo-werbs is always the referent. On the other hand, the other referent honorifics, namely kenjougo (IIM竅語 )，have the function of indicating that the speaker is sending a tacit message to his/her interlocutor that he/she is lowering himself/herself in the hierarchy in relation to his/her referent: < the speaker ^ the referent >. Elevation or lowering of hierarchical positions takes place in the mind of the speaker and the interlocutor. To put it differently, displacement of the speaker in a hierarchical order occurs in his/her mental space. In the case of referent honorifics, i.e. ，son/ce/go ( | 敬 語 ）and /cerv01/go ( 謙 讓 語 ） ，the referent and the interlocutor can be one and the same person. Tables 89 and 90 show honorific verbs categorised according to the above-mentioned three groups: teineigo (丁 車 語 ： expression of general politeness)，sor?/ce/go ( 貧 敬 語 ：expression of respect) and kenjougo : expression of humbleness).

5.2 Characteristic features o f honorative verbs The first feature is the polysemy and multifunctionality of honorative verbs since the same honorative verb can be used semantically and pragmatically for different pur­ poses. This means that it can be used as a kenjougo ( # 1 ^ 1 ^ : expression of humble­ ness), or as a sonkeigo ( : expression o f respect) with each having different meanings. The verb tatematsur*u ( ^ ^ ) exemplifies this polysemous character. It is usually used as a kenjougo ) in the sense of to give sth. However, the same verb is used as a sonkeigo when used in the sense of to dine, to wearsth, or to ride on a vehicle. In the same manner, the verb mair^u ( ^ ^ > ) belongs to three different semantic categories: as a kenjougo ( 謙 諫 語 ）it expresses the speaker’s humbleness towards the referent with the meanings of to go, or to visit temples or shrines] it can be a teineigo ( T ) for conveying a general politeness towards the interlocutor, and in this case it means to go, or to come] however, when used in the sense of to dine, to wear, or to do sth, it is a sonkeigo ( ) . The context is, there­ fore, the final determiner for deciding in which semantic function a honorative verb is used. The second characteristic is their morphological and semantic diversity. There are verbs which belong to two different inflection categories with each having different mean­ ings depending on the inflection type. For instance, the verb tamahuj(=u tamaujo]) ( 給 ふ ）belongs to two different morphological groups: it is one o f the yoc/an-verbs ( ^ ) with the inflection endings < a-i-u-u-e-e >, and at the same time it is a shimo-niverb ( T — ) with the inflection endings < e-e-u-uru-ure-eyo >. When it is a yoc/aA7-verb ( 四 ）and is used as a bound morpheme — the second compositional element of verbal compounds in the morphological formation < V2 + V3A > — , it functions as a sonkeigo ( 貧 敬 語 ）so that respect of the speaker towards the referent is expressed. However, when it is used as a proper verb with a shimo-ni-\/erba\ inflection ( T — ), it means to receive sth, to get sth, or to eat sth. In this case, the verb tamah*u(=u ■=> tam au\=o\)(給 ) is a kenjougo ( ) and designates humbleness of the speaker towards the referent.

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Thirdly, the degree of politeness can be varied by using a single honorative verb, or a single auxiliary, or by employing more than one honorative lexical item so that honorative lexemes can be agglutinated to one another. There are many different patterns of agglutination. This will be further introduced in Subsections 5.3 and 5.4. The fourth characteristic of honorifics in Classical Japanese is the restrictions on their use. Certain honorative verbs, for example, are used only for specific persons. These are mainly those used for emperors and their familiy members. The main verb sou(=d)s9u ( : to tell sb sth, to inform sb o f sth), for instance, can only be used when the referent is an emperor; the main verb keis*u : to tell sb sth, to inform sb o f sth) only when the addressee is an empress (kou[=6]gou[=o] ■=> kogo [ ]), the wife of the emperor (chut/guw [ 中 官 ])86, the em peror’s mother (kouf=o]taigouf=d] /a3te/g6 [ 皇 太 后 ])，the crown prince (kouf=kdltaishi ■=> [ 皇 太 子 ])，or high priests (kouf=61souf=61 〇 /c6sd [ 高 憎 】 ).

5.2.1 Honorifics: some examples Sentence O 153 is from the Saras/7/na， A7/7c/c/•( 更 級 日 1己）written by Si/graiva厂a Ta/cast/e r?o Musivme ( 管 原 聿 標 の 女 ：^ 7e 厂o f Ta/casiye Si/gan/ara) in the early 11th century. In her diary, the author is describing a legend she heard. Here the abovementioned third and fourth characteristics of honorifics, namely variation in degree of politeness and usage restrictions are seen. Three honorative expressions are employed.

O 153: “(•■■) haya kahe(=e)ri te oho(=o)yake ni ko no yoshi wo(=o) sou(=6)s*eyo.Hto oho(=o)se*rare*kere ba, iha(=wa)»m»u(=n) kata na.ku te nobor.i te mikado ni kaku namu(=n) ari.tsuru to soush卜kere ba ，uih*u(=u) kahi(=i) na»shi (SNKBT 24: 376) (...)ADV quickly.\/2 to return.PP consecutive.N emperor.PP addressee.ProN this. PP attributive.N content, message.PP object marker.V5 to inform (kenjougo).PP citation marker.VI to say (sonkeigo).AUX2 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX4 past.PP reason.VI to say sthA\JX3B should.H way, means.KZ to not be there.PP consecutive or reason.V2 to go to the capital city.PP consecutive.N emperor.PP addressee.ADV si/ch amysi/c/?.PP emphasis.V2 fo わe.AUX3B perfect.PP citation marker.V2 to say (kenjougo).AUX4 past.PP reason.V3B to say sth.H way or means.K3A to not be

there •(…) 「(•••）は や ぃ ヘ リ マ 、お ほ や け （ 二 こ の 上 L を 奏 せ よ 〇」と お ほ せ ら れ け れ ば 、ぃ は ！： 方 な く マ 、 の ぼ り マ 、 み^ 、ビ | 二、 公くな、む あ り つ る と 奏 い す れ ば 、 「ぃ ふ ゲ レ な

U

")」

Female consorts had different names depending on the periods. From the Nara Period (710784) to the beginning of the Heian Period (794-1185), ( 中 官 ）was the mother of an emperor who was not entitled to an empress. Until the mid-Heian Period, the same term was used in the meaning of /cougow (呈 后 ：emp厂 ess).しater, under the reign of Fujiwara no Michinaga ( 藤 原 道 長 ：966-1028), ( 中 官 ）meant an emperor’s wife who was given an equal hierarchical position to that of /cotygfofi ( 皇 后 ：empress).

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As the princess told the warrior, u(...) Return to the palace right now and inform the emperor o f this!", he did not know how he should respond to her. Therefore, he travelled back to the capital city and informed the emperor: “It was like this.” The emperor did not know how to react to this answer from his daughter. The kenjougo-\/erb sou(=o)s9u ( 泰 才 ：to tell sb sth, to inform sb o f sth) \s used \n two places. Due to the restrictive use of this verb, one can infer that the missing addressee is the emperor. The first honorative verb sou(=o)su ( 秦 彳 ：to tell sb sth, to inform sb ofsth) has an imperative form (V5: m e ir e ik e i[^ ^ ^ ]) which is used by the princess. This signifies the power constellation of < the samurai ^ the princess >. The agent of this action is the samurai (warrior) in that he is going to say something to the emperor. Therefore, the hierarchical relation is < ^ the samurai ^ the emperor >. The next son/ce/go-verb oho(=o)su ( ^ p i - : to tell sb sth, to inform sb o fsth) denotes the respect of the author for the heroine of the story, i.e., the princess, thus having the constellation of < the author the princess >. As this honorative verb is followed by the honorative auxiliary rar^u ( ^ ^> ), the author is expressing her strong respect for the princess by using double honorifics (see 5.3 below). As a result, the degree of polite­ ness is even higher. The subject of the last kenjougo-\/erb sou(=d)su ( 秦 彳 ：to tell sb sth, to inform sb ofsth) is the samurai, and he is expressing his respect for the emperor by lowering himself in order to elevate the emperor. Consequently, this verb denotes the hierarchical relation of < ^ the samurai ^ the emperor >. Sentence O 154 thus shows that four persons (the princess, the author, the samurai, and the emperor) are involved with honorifics within a single sentence although no specific syntactic subjects are mentioned in the sentence. Dropping of sentence constituents, as can be seen here, is frequent in Classical Japanese texts. The English translation, however, con­ tains a syntactic subject, a syntactic object — and a place (the palace) — which are not explicitly mentioned in the Classical Japanese original. This translation method has been chosen so that the reader can reconstruct the morphosyntactic form of the lexical items used. Some supplementary phrases or clauses are also given in the translation in order to clearly delineate the story. Sentence O 154 is from the Okagami ( 大 鏡 ：the beginning o f the 12th C). Two kenjougo-werbs are used: O 154: M awi(=i)ri te souse*mu(=n). (SNKBT 21:52) V2 to go (kenjougo).PP consecutive.V1 to say sth (kenjougo).AUX3A volitional. まいりマヤうせむ。

/ will go to the palace and tell this to the emperor.

5.3 Multiple honorifics Different types of honorative verbs or auxiliaries, i.e., teineigo ( T - f - l f : expression of general politeness), sonkeigo expression of respect), and kenjougo expression of humbleness), can be agglutinated to one another. This complex pragmalinguistic information is encoded in each of the honorative lexical items. Ono (1988: 102)

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gives some patterns of double or triple honorifics as shown below. Honorative constitu­ ents can be main verbs, hojodoushi ( : see 5.3.1), or auxiliaries (see 4.8 ff.). The syntactic subject of son/ce/go ( 萆 敬 語 ）is a referent，that of /cenybiigfo ( 謙 讓 語 ）is the speaker himself/herself，and that of te/ne/go ( 丁 車 語 ）can be either the speaker or the interlocutor. Therefore, it is important to identify who is directing which kind of hon­ orifics to whom when reading and interpreting classical texts. Furthermore, as was shown in Sentences O 152 and O 153, it is often the case that there is no indication of the syntactic subject or object, so that these have to be deduced from the context — one of the reasons why Classical Japanese is said to be highly contextual. Some con­ crete examples of double and triple honorifics — the most frequent of which are listed below — follow in Subsections 5.3.2 and 5.4 after the introduction of the hojodoushi 助動詞） ，which also has honorative functions. ❶

Double honorifics < kenjougo + sonkeigo > < kenjougo + teineigo > く sonkeigo

+ teineigo > < sonkeigo + sonkeigo > © Triple honorifics < kenjougo + kenjougo + sonkeigo > < sonkeigo + sonkeigo + teineigo > 5_3.1 A/q/odoas/i/ ( 補 助 動 詞 ） There are honorative verbs which can be used both as main verbs, or as a kind of auxiliary verb. The latter type is called hojodoushi and signals attitudes and relationships of the speaker to the interlocutor or the referent. Therefore, they function as pragmalinguistic markers. Hojodoushi ( ) share the same semantic functions as the honorative auxiliaries (/odoi/s/?/[ 助 動 詞 ] : see 4.8 ff.; Table 68)，such as 厂 ar*t/ ( ら る ）， ( る ）， ( さ す ）， ( す ），and s/7/>77*fi ( L L ' ) which function as respect indicators. For this reason, some grammarians such as Hayashi (1972) do not differentiate /?q/oc/oi/s/7/ ( 補 助 動 詞 ）from yoctous/?/’ （助 動 詞 ：a[yx/7/ar/es)，arguing that their classification is based solely on semantics. This book, however, differentiates be­ tween these two kinds of lexeme on the basis of their morphological differences as hojodoushi ( ) can be used both as free and bound morphemes whereas jodoushi : auxiliaries) can function only as bound morphemes since they are intrinsically inflectional suffixes. Just like honorative main verbs, hojodoushi are categorised in the same three different types of honorific: sonkeigo ( : expression of the speaker^ re­ spect towards his/her referent), kenjougo expression of the speaker^ humble­ ness towards the referent), or teineigo ( T : the speaker^ expression of his/her politeness towards the interlocutor). Table 88 shows /7〇y〇dot/sA7/ ( 補 J力 動 詞 ）which are frequently used in classical texts. As can be seen, they are verbal compounds with the morphological structure of < V2 + V3A (hojodoushi) >.

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5.3.2 Multiple honorifics: some examples There follow some examples of the multiple honorifics listed above. They are taken from the Oc/?/7a/ibcK77〇/7〇grateA7 ( 落 窺 物 語 ：the latter half of the 10th C) and the Ta/ceto/fmonogatari ( : the end of the 9th C): < sonkeigo + sonkeigo >; < sonkeigo > and < kenjougo + sonkeigo >; and < kenjougo > and < kenjougo + sonkeigo >. 〇 く sonkeigo

+ sonkeigo >

Sentence O 155 has a combination of double honorative lexemes consisting of the honorative verb obos*u ( : to think) and the honorative auxiliary r*t/ ( ^ ), and both of them are son/ce/go ( 貧 敬 語 ) . The author is expressing his respect towards Princess Ochikubo, the heroine of the story, by using two honorative lexical items.

O 155: Yau(=o)vau(=o) mono omohi(=i)*shiru mama ni, yononaka no aha(=wa)re ni kokoro’u.ki wo(=o) nomi obosa*re*kere ba, kaku nomi zo uchi*nageku. (SNKBT18: 4) ADV gradually.^ things.\/3B to understand, to grasp (V2 to think*\/3B to know ).Pseu6oM gradual change.PPtemporative.N world.PP attributive.N sorrow, sadness, unhappiness. PP cause/「 eason.K3B-/o;-inflection (/7ard, sac〇.PP object marker.PP o/7/y.V1 fo f/7/M (sonkeigo).AUX2 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX4 past.PP reason.ADV so.PP only.PP emphasis.V2 emphasis.V3B to lament. や う や う も の 思 レ 知 る ま ま ド 、 世 中 の あ は れ (て 心 う

5

を の み お ぼ さ れ け れ ば 、

々、く の み デ う ち 嘆 く 。

Princess Ochikubo came to fully understand what was going on. As she only thought o f sad things in her life，she lamented (over her misfortunes) a geat deal ju s t as her (following) poem was said. ❷

< sonkeigo > and < kenjougo + sonkeigo >

The following example (Sentence O 156) has three honorative expressions: the honora­ tive verb notamah.u(=u notamauf=61)( . The subject of this action is the Chuunagon: the Chuunagon said that (...). The second honorific expression mau(=d)s*u ( 申 す ：to say sf/7) is a /cervougro ( 謙 讓 語 ），which designates a humble attitude of Princess Ochikubo towards her father, namely the Chuunagon (a high court officer): < the princess ^ the Chuunagon >. The subject of this action is therefore the princess: the princess said that (...). The last honorative auxiliary renu >6) is an expression of the respect of the author towards Princess Ochikubo, thus displaying the hierarchy < the

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author ^ the princess >. Rer^u ( ^ ^> ) refers to the action on the part of the princess, this being that she is saying something to her father, the Chuunagon. It can be seen in the following short sentence that three agents are involved, and that each person is expressing her or his politeness towards the persons involved in the story by using the appropriate honorative expressions such as son/ce/go 敬 語 ）and ) . In other words, a wide array of pragmalinguistic interactions are taking place in the mind of each protagonist in the story.

kenjougo (

。

156: “(•••）Kakute nomi imas.uru ga itoho(=o)*shi ya” to shiku te, mono mo mau(o)sa*re*zu. (SNKBT 18:12)

notamah*e(=e) do, haduka*

( ...) A D V in this way.PP emphasis.V3B to be.PP subject marker.K3A to feel sorry for sb.PP exclamative.PP citation marker.V4 honorative (sonkeigo); to say.PP concessive. K2 to feel ashamed of sth.PP reason.N thing.PP emphasis.VI honorative (kenjougo); to say.AUX1 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX3A negation. 「(•■•)力、く マ の み い ま す る が い と ほ

L や 〇」 と の 給 へ ビ 、 は つ ”々、L

くマものも申

されず。

The ‘Chuunagon’ said，“(•••）I am so sorry to see how you a re ， ” but Princess Ochikubo was so ashamed o f herself that she did not say anythinq. ❸

< keniouao > and < keniouao + sonkeiao >

C)no (1988: 102) gives the following example from the Ta/cetoA7-mo/7〇gafaA7 ( 竹 取 物 語 : the end of the 9th C), in which a kenjougo-pref\x and verbs in a honorative combination of < kenjougo + sonkeigo > are used.

O 1s,: (...) oho(=o)yake ni on-humi tatematsuri-tamah*u(=u ウ au[=6])(SNKBT 17: 73) (...).N imperial court.PP addressee.PFX honorative (kenjougo).N letter.^2 to give (kenjougo).V3 A honorative (sonkeigo). (...) 朝 婕 Iて 御 文 た マ ま つ り 給 。

Princess Kaguya gives a letter to the emperor. The letter written by Princess Kaguya is to be given to the emperor. The honorative prefix on (1^) is an indicator of kenjougo expressing humbleness on the part of the princess towards the emperor: < ^ the princess the emperor >. Thus, humble­ ness can refer not only to humans, but also to things or belongings associated with the person involved. The verb tatematsur*u : to give) is a kenjougo ( ) and thus expresses again the humbleness of the princess to the emperor: < む the princess ク the emperor >• The last verb tamah*u(=u tama*u=o 0 fam d)(絵 ふ ）is an honorative /7〇yodot;s/?/( 補 助 動 詞 ）and is used as a son/ce/go ( 貧 敬 語 ）expressing the respect of the author for the princess: < the author ク the princess >. As can be seen, there are three persons involved in this short sentence: the

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princess, the emperor, and the author. The agents (subjects) and the addressees (the emperor and the princess) and the author himself are all not explicity mentioned in the sentence, but can be detected with the help of honorifics in their given context.

5.4 Honorifics expressing the highest degree of respect Certain honorifics are directed only towards emperors and their family members — the restrictive feature mentioned in Subsection 5.2. They are double honorifics (see 5.3) made up of two parts, namely honorative auxiliaries s*u ( ), sas*u ( ^ i " ), or shinru ( l tJ ) as the first composition element, and the honorative hojodoushi ( ) tamah.u(=u ゥ tam au[=o])( 給 ふ ）as the second component, which functions as a sonkeigo ( Some morphological agglutination possibilities (Compound-types 1 to 3) are given below: ①

Compound-type 1 :< V1 *se*tamahu(=u) V1 •se*tamau(=o)( 〜 せ た ま ふ ）> Before inflection

After inflection

< V3A + s»u + tamah*u(=u) > V3A + AUX3A +V 3 A

< V1 •se*tamah*u(=u ■=> tamau[=d]) > V1.AUX2.V3A

In general, y o d a n -( 四 ），na-/7eA?-( ナ 变 )，and ra-/7en-verbs ( ラ 复 ）are used in front of the compound -se*tamahiu(=u)} i.e., \JVyodan-, na-hen-, and ra-hen-yerbs. However, some writings of the Nara Period (710- 784) use the other honorative auxiliary ( す ）which requires a yoda/7■ ( 四 ）and sa-わen-verbs ( サ 变 ）（ see Table 68). ②

Compound-type 2: く V1 •sase9tamah»u(=u ■=> tam auf=dl)( 〜 さ せ た ま ふ ）> Before inflection

After inflection

< V3A + sas*u + tamahm u(=u) > 0 V3A + AUX3A +V 3 A

< \/1 9sase9tamah9u(=u ゆ tam auf=dl)> V1*AUX2*V3A

Kam i-ni-( 上 二 ） ，shim o-ni-( 下 二 ） ，kam i-ichi-( 上 一 ） ，shim o-ichi-( 下 一 ） ，ka-hen( 力 幻 ，and sa-/7e/?-verbs ( サ 变 ）are placed in front of the compound -sase.

tamahu(=u tamauf=o]), i.e., \/1-kami-ni-, shimo-ni- , kami-ichi- , shimo-ichi-, kahen-, and sa-/?e/7-verbs. ③

Compound-type 3: くV1 9shime*tamah*u(=u ゆ tamau[=6] ) ( 〜 L め た ま ふ ）> Before inflection

After inflection

«=t> < V1 •shime9tamahm u(=u ■=> tamau[=6]) > V3A + AUX3A +V 3 A V1*AUX2«V3A All the inflection types can appear in V1 position. Sentence O 158 is an example from the /Wa/ovra a?o s6s/7/(枕 萆 子 ： the beginning of

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the 11th C) written by Sei Sh6nagon ( 清 少 納 言 ：the latter half of the 10th C to the beginning of the 11th C). There are two morphological components with the double honorifics sase*tamahu(=u sase*tam au[=6])( 亡 せ た ま ふ ）and se*tamahu(=u se9tam au[=d])( せ た ま ふ ） . The first verbal compound can designate an expression of politeness on the part of Narimasa, or of the author, or of both Narimasa and the author, and this polite stance is directed to the ( 中 官 ：an empero厂’s w/fe). The second honorative verbal compound can be the expression of a respectful stance on the part of Narimasa, or of the author, or of both of them, and this is addressed to the vehicle with which the ( 中 官 ：a/? empero 厂’s iv/fe) was carried. This is also an example of respect forms being addressed not only to humans, but also to their belongings. O 158: Daijm Narimasa ga ie ni miya no iae*sase*tamahni(=u •=> au[=o]) ni, hingashi no mon ha(=wa) yotsuashini nash.i te, sore yori mikoshi ha(=wa) ira«se«tamahu(=u ■=> au[=6]). (SNKBT 25: 9) N high court officer.PvoperH Narimasa.PP attributive.N house.PP direction.N wife of the emperor.PP subject marker.VI to come.Al}X2 honorative (sonkeigo).V3B honorative (sonkeigo).PP cause/reason.N easf.PP attributive.N gate.PP topic marker.N cyotsuashi,style gate.PP resultative.V2 to make; to let.PP copulative.ProN that.PP perlative.N vehicle.PP topic marker.VI to enter.A\JX2 honorative (sonkeigo).V3A honorative (sonkeigo). 大 進 生 ！! が ， 篆丨て官の出させ姶ふ丨こ、東 の 門 は 四 足 ド な

L マ、ヤ れ よ 0 神輿はい

らせ給ふ。

As the {chuuguu (wife o f the emperor)' was to come to the house o f Narimasa who was a ‘daijin (a high court official)’，he changed the east gate into a ‘yotsuashi’style gate (a special architectual style)，and the vehicle o f the lchuuguu’ went through this gate.

5.4.1 Other verbal compounds expressing a high degree of politeness Apart from the above-mentioned honorative compounds, there are also other forms of verbal compounds which are frequently used when the emperor and his family are the agents of actions, or when their situation is described. The following morphological compositions of compounds are frequently found in Classical Japanese texts. They are to a large extent made up of two son/ce/go-honorative verbs: the first verb in the renyoukei (V2: i t ffl flj) designates specific meanings, such as to hear or to say, while at the same time a honorative meaning of respect is encoded in it; the second verb in the s/?mys/?/7ce/ (V3:終 止 形 ）functions as a hoyodoas/?/•(補 J力 動 詞 ) ，i.e.，an indicator of son/ce/go ( | 敬 語 ：expression of the speaker’s respect towards the referent). The verbs /c/7cos/?/*/77es*t/ ( 聞こ L 召 す ：to /7eaA)，or 〇ibos/7/*n7es^ ( 思 L 召 す ：to f/?/A7/c) belong to this group (see following explanations). Some are made up of a verb and an auxiliary (/odoi/s/?/• [ 劝 動 詞 ] ) such as notamahaf=wa)*s*u ( 宜 は す ：fo say sf/7) whose morphological components are explained below. Six such honorative verbal compounds are listed below:

252 ①

Chapter 5: Honoratives

Zc/7cosA)/T?7es.t/ ( J こ L め す / 聞 こ L 召 す ：to /?ear) < V kikos^u + V mes^u >: K/7cos*u ( 聞 こ す ：to to say sf/?) is an honorative verb used in the Yamato Period (c. 350 - 8th C) and Nara Period (710-784). Later, the honorative hojodoushi ( ) mes^u ( ), which indicates respect on the part of the speaker to­ wards the referent, was agglutinated to it.

②

mas/7/vnasw ( ま L ま す / 坐 L ま す ：fojbe

厂 e)

< V mas*u + V mas*u >: The first masu ( i ) is an honorative verb with the meaning of to be there, to go, or fo come. The second m as.u ( ま す ）is a /?q/od〇(7s/?/ ( 補 助 動 詞 ），implying respect on the part of the speaker towards the person concerned. ③

notamaha(=wa)m s9u (

のたまはす

/ 宜 は す ：to s a y が/7)

< V notamah9u(=u nata Notamah9u(=u notamau

6]) + AUX smu >: ( 宜 ふ ：to say sf/?) was originally a compound of the verb /7〇r*i/ ( 告 る ：fo fe//，to />?/b/777) and the s 〇A7/ce/gr〇-/7〇yod〇(ys/7/ ( 補 助 動 詞 ） tamahu(=u tama9u f= o l) ( 給 ふ ），i.e.，norHamah*u(=u ^ nori*tamani[=d] ) (告つ ^ ^ 3 ': to tell, to inform). Subsequently, the mora *ri ( ^ y from norbtamah^j(=u norHama9uf=6J) was deleted and the free morpheme notamah*u(=u notama^u ( 宜 ふ ：fo say s 的）created. Later， the sor?/ce/go-auxiliary ( す ）was added, providing the verbal compound notamahaf=wa)*s*u ( i n i ' ：to say sth). ④

（お ぼ L め*t ハ 思 1 召 彳 ：幻的/>?/〇

< V obos^u + V mes*u >: The honorative verb obos*u ( : to think) was originally a compound, omoha( 思 は す ：fo f/?//7/c)，comprising the verb omoh9u (= u )( 思■ふ •. to think) and the honorative auxiliary ( す ）indicating respect on the part of the speaker towards the referent. This changed phonologically over time to become obos*u ( 思 す ：to tf7/r7/c). Finally, the h 〇y〇cfoush/• ( 補 助 動 詞 ） ( S す ）indicating the speaker’s respect towards the referent was attached to this verb. ⑤ 〇他 (=1/^^/?/*/7735川 （お は

L ま す / 御 座 L i す ：f〇 わe 的ere, to go, to come)

< V oha(=wa)s*u + AUX mas*u >: This is a compound made up of the honorative verb oha(=wa)s»u ( お は す ：fo jbe 沩 ere, to go, to come) and the /?oyodous/7/•(補 J力 動 詞 ）m asw ( ま す ）both designating respect on the part of the speaker towards the referent. ⑥

sA7/ros/7/*/r7es*u ( L ろ L め す / 知 ろ L 召 す / 頜 ろ L 召 す / 治 ろ L 召 す ：to /〇701/i/; t o 厂e/g/7) < V shir*u + AUX s*u> ^ V shiras^u ^ V shiros*u + < V mesm u >: The verb s/7/r*u ( L る / 夕口る/ 今頁る/ 〉 、 台 る ）has several different meanings depending on the /cany/ employed: to /ca?cw ( 知 る / 頷 る ） ，fo 厂ecogn/se ( 知 る / 頜 る ） ，fo

experience ( 知 ら 丨 银

も） ，to

take care o f ( 银

ち丨 '冶 ら

） ，to reign

(银 ら 丨 治

6 ) ，etc.

Chapter 5: Honoratives

253

By agglutinating the honorative auxiliary s9u ( ), the verb shiras^u ( f l ^ i" />^ ¢7 i * ) was produced with the meaning of to reign with connotations of politeness. Subsequently, phonological change took place and a new verb shiros*u -f / f 頁ろす / 治 ろ す ）was generated. To this the honorative hq/odous/?/(補’助 動 詞 ） ( S ^ ) was attached, so that the verb shirom shbmes*u ( l ^ L i " ) comprises a main verb, an honorative auxiliary (jodoushi [M ih P i ]), and an honorative hojo(褅 助 動 詞 ） .

Sentence。 159 is an example from the Ta/ceto"-/77onogafa" ( 竹 取 物 語 : the end of the 9th C). An honorative verbal compound, /c/7cosh/>T?es*(y ( 聞こ L S す ：to hear), and an honorative verb, notamah9u(=u ^>au[=6]: to say sth), are used. The subject of these verbs is an emperor, who is omitted in the following sentence. By using these verbs the author expresses his respect for the emperor: < the author the emperor >. 〇

159: Sate, Kaguya-hime, katachi no yo ni ni*zu medeta*ki koto wo(=o), mikado kikoshi*m eshi te, naishi Nakatomi no Fusako ni notam ah*u(=u •=>au[=o]), (...) (SNKBT 17: 50) CNJ we// now,, /ater.ProperN Pr/ncess Kagfiyya.N appea厂a/?ce.PP subject marker.N world.PP locative.VI to be similarto sth.A\JX2 negation.K3B seldom, rare.PseudoN nominalisation-PP object marker.N fo/7ea厂(sonkeigo).PP copulative.N cow/t /ady.ProperN Nakatomi no Fusako.PP addressee.V3A to say sth (sonkeigo). さ マ 、 う、ぐ や 雄 、 う、たちの世丨ニイ以ずめでた 3 こ と を 、 御 門 聞 こ

L め L マ、 内侍

中臣のf 子にのたまふ、（ ...）

Later，the em peror heard that Princess Kaguya was so attractive that nobody could find such beauty elsewhere. Therefore, he told the court lady Nakatomi no Fusako that (...) Sentences 〇 160, 0 161 and 〇 162 are from the Okagami the beginning of the 12th C) which describes the history of fourteen generations of the imperial family from the year 850 to 1025. There are many forms and types of honorifics used in this work. 〇

160: (...) mada mikado ide*sase«oha(=wa)shismasa*zari*keru saki ni (...) (NKBT21: 51-52) (...)ADV notyet.U emperorS/2 to leaveA\JX2 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX2 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX1 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX2 negation.AUX3B past.N before.PP temporative.(...) (…）ま だ 御 り 、ビ ぃ て さ せ お l i L ま さ ざ つ け る さ 5 I : (...)

(...) before the emperor left here (...) 〇

161: Sayake.ki kage wo(=o) mabayu*ku oboshi*m eshi*tsuru hodo ni (...) (NKBT21:52)

Chapter 5: Honoratives

254

K3B bright.^ light.PP object marker.K2/ADV dazzling.\/2 to think (sonkeigo).AUX2 honorative (sonkeigo).AUX3B perfect.PseudoN time.PP temporative.(...) さ

や

け

M

、げ

を

ま

ば

ゆ

く

お

ぼ

L

め

Lつ

る は ビ 丨 二 （...)

When the em peror thought that the bright light o f the moon was dazzling (...) O 162: lka*ni oboshi*m eshi«nara*se«oha(=w a)shi*m ashi*nuru zo. (NKBT 21:52) KD2 how sth /s.V2 to come to think (V2-sonkeigo-AUX2-sonkeigo»V1 to become). AUX2 honorative (sonkeigo).\f2-hojodoushi (V2-sonkeigo-AUX2-sonkeigo).AUX3B perfect.PP emphasis. い 0 、| 二 お ぼ L め

L な ら せ お は L ま L ぬる

How did you come to think this way? The examples given in this section make several points clear. First, there are de­ grees of politeness which are realised by the principle of Jthe greater the number of the honorative lexemes, the higher the degree of politeness'. Secondly, the use of honorifics was obligatory in Classical Japanese: this is completely different from the honorifics of Modern Standard Japanese, where each speaker can decide to use them or not. Nowadays they are usually simply strategies employed with the aim of improving lin­ guistic interaction. There are also far fewer lexical and grammatical ways of expressing politeness in Modern Standard Japanese.

Chapter 5: Honoratives

255

Table 88: /yq/odous/i/( 補 助 動 詞 ） ①

So/7/ce/go ( 尊■敬 語 ：the speaker’s expression o f respect towards the referent)

V2 + asobas*u

)

V2 + /m asw ( い ま す / 坐 す ） V2 + imasugar^i I i± ^t ^

)

/A7?as(；/caW( い ま す り 、9 ) and /rnasogar*/• ( い ま ナ が り ）are phonological variations. V2 + /77as/7/>77as*i/ ( ま L ま す / 坐 L ま す ） V2 + ( ます/坐 す ） V2 + mes*u ( S i - ) V2 + oha(=wa)shimas*u ( お は L ま す ） V2 + oha(=wa)s9u ( お は す / 御 座 "t ) V2 + tamah*u(=u ^=> tama.uf= d l) ( 檢 ふ / 賜 う ）

Tamah*u(=u tamaujf=6]) can function both as main verb and hojodoushi ( # ） . It is also a son/ce/go ( 謙 讓 語 ）when it inflects as a yodan-V ( 四 ），but a kenjougo ( ) when it has a sh/mo-ni-inflection ( T — ) as shown below.

肋動詞

②

Kenyowgo (!# ： 業喪語： the speaker’s expression of humbleness towards the referent)

V2 + /fa s n /( 致: す ） V2 + /c/7coesas.u ( 聞 こ え 亡 す ） V2 + /c//coyu ( 聞 こ ゆ ） V2 + m asw ( ま す / 申 す ） V2 + mau(=o)s*u ( 申 す ）

V2 + may^[(=i)ras*u ( 参 ら 彳 ） V2 + tamah»u(=u ^ tam a*uf=dl)( 給 ふ ） Tamah9u(=u ^ tama*uf=61) has a s/7/>7?o-n/-inflection in its kenjougo (

)

function. V2 +

(奉る）

V2 + tsukamatsur^u ( 任

.

.

(D Temeigo ( J

ち

')

.■

.....

,

: expression of general politeness towards the interloctitor)

V2 + haber*i ( f#* ^ ) Used until the end of the Heian Period (794-1185), later replaced by sau[=6]rau[=d])( イ 1旲 ふ ）or saburahu(=u °> saburauf=ol) ( 候 ふ / 待 ■ふ ） . V2 + itas*u ( ) V2 + sau(=6)rahru_(=u ^ sauf=6Jra9uf= o l) ( 候 ふ ）

sau(=6)rahu(=u

V2 + saburah9u(=u ^ sabura9u f= d l) ( 候 ふ / 侍 ふ ）

256

Chapter 5: Honoratives

Table 89: Honorative verbs一 1 :SonAre，go ( t Neutral verbs

atah*u(=w=> atazu[=d])

敬 語

） and /renyoi/go ( 謙

Sonkeigo ( 育 取 語 )

K _ £ / g f 〇( 謙 攘 語 ）

(Expression of respect)

(Expression of modesty)

tamah.uf=u ウ tama*uf=61)

tatematsur*u ( 奉

( 々■ふ ：fog/Ve)

ら）

(賜 ふ / 給 ふ )

tamahaf=wa)s*u

)

ar*i ( f) 0 : to be there)

oha(=wa)s*u ( €

wo(=o)r*i ( 居

oha(=wa)shi*masmu

り ：to

議語）

ibe

there] to sit)

(お は

mawi(=i)ras*u ( 参 haber^i

はす）

らす）

1)

sa b u ra ^u f^u ^ sabura*uf=dl)( さ ぶ ら ふ ）

L ます） ( ます）

mashbmas*u ( 1 l i i " ) fmas*u

(い

t i~ )

fmasukar^'( い 玄 彳 め 、0 ) /7c*t/ ( 行 く ：to go)

oha(=wa)s*u ( お は す ）

mawi(=i)r*u (

oha(=wa)shi9mas*u

mau(=d)d*u ( 5• つつ ••

(おは

L ます）

[mo:zm])

sar*u ( i : h \to leave) ih u i(= u ) ( 言 ふ [jm :]: fo say)

まゐる）

makapu oha(=wa)s»u ( お は す ）

(玄

mau(=d)s*u

notamah*u(=u ^

$、ろ ） (申す

[mo:sm])

notam aujf^o])( 宜 ふ ） mau(=6)shbaa*u( 申 L 上 ぐ ） notamaha(=wa)s*u /c//coyu ( 聞 こ ゆ ） (室はす）

/c//coe*sas*u ( 聞 こ え さ *t )

sau(=6)s*u ( 奏 keis.u ( 洛 彳 ） omoh9u(=u)( 思

ふ ：to

think)

060sn/ ( お ぼ す ）

oboho(=o)s9u

(思

す ）

Z0A7Z〜 （# ず ） |i す ）

oboshi*mes*u ( ,® l S

omohi(=iHamah*u(=u ^ )

omoHama*ur=61) (思ひ姶ふ）

/c/7c*6/ ( 聞 く ：to /7eaり

/c//cos*u( 聞こ 1")

kfkoshhmes.u ( 闐 こ [ s * u ( i : to do)

aso わ

芬彳 ）

( あ彳ばす）

uke*tamaha(=wa)r»u ( 承 る ） kiki*tamah9u(=u •=> kikitam a.uf=dl)( 聞 5 給 ふ ） ita s .u い

、すこヤ）

tsukamatsumj ( つ 。、玄つ 6 ) tsukauf=d)matsur^u ( つぃう まつる）

Chapter 5: Honoratives 爪•/〜 （見 る

：to see)

257

mitamah*u(=u ゆ mitama^u[=6])( 御

g o.ranz， u (J卸 ) misonaha(=wa)s*u ( A t なはす）

給ふ）

/?a//ce/7s〜 （枰 見 す ）

tamaha(=wa)r*u ( 賜 る / 給

sazuhu ( 欠 く） morah*u(=u

る）

mora*u[=61)( も ら ふ ） (to receive, to obtain) ( 知 る / 領 る / 治 る ： shiroshi*mes*u ( l ^ l S

to know] to reign)

オ

• to know] to reign)

shiri*taman*u(=u shim tam aujf=6]) ( 知 り 賜 ふ ：to /C/7 CW)

"•u ( 夜 ：to steep)

00 dorwgom opu も

yob*u

(りf ぶ

.• to invite;

(大 既 ご

6 )

mes-u (

召 す ')

to calf)

Table 90: Honorative verbs 一 2: 7"e/rre/go (丁 車 語 ） Neutral verbs

.

Tefneigo (了 拳 語 ) (Expression of politeness towards the interlocutor)

ar*/ ( あ り ） ; wo(=o)H ( を つ ） habeM ( 待 り ） to be there, to be

sau(=o)rah*u(=u >=> sdrau(-d) soro) ( ^ - 3 ') saburahnt(=u ふ）

saburau(=o) 0 sajbt//^ バ 候 ふ / 侍

Chapter 6 Rhetoric The first part of this chapter describes the forms of Classical Japanese poems, which are called l/^a/ca (和 歌 ：C/ass/ca/Japanese poems) (see 6.1). Subsequent subsections deal with various types of rhetoric which are used to highlight specific expressive effects in these works (see 6.2 ff.).

6/1 Waka ( 和

取

：Classical Japanese poems)

Classical Japanese poems vi/a/ca ( 和 歌 ）have existed since the Nara Period (710-784) and are quite different from the Chinese style poems which are called kanshi ( 'M tf). They are known as yamafo-Wa ( 大 和 歌 / # f 欠 ：Japanese poems) and /ca厂a-ufa ( 唐 歌 ： C/7/r?ese poems), l/l/a/ca ( 和 歌 ）in the broad sense is divided into four main genres: c/?〇(i/ca ( 長 歌 : long poems), fa/7/ca (銀 歌 : short poems), sedoty/ca ( 疲 頭 歌 )，and /cafaufa ( 片 歌 ).

Chouka (

：long

poems) have in general several reduplications of a 5-7-mora sequence and end with 7-7-mora verses. Tanka : short poems), on the other hand, have a fixed style of a 5-7-5-7-7 sequence of altogether 31 morae comprising five units. Because of the thirty-one morae represented by kana graphemes, it is also called miso-hito-moji (三^ - 一 文 字 ：/r?/so-/?/to is a Japanese way of counting the numeral ‘thirtyone ’ ，and r7707•/•means ‘graphemes’). This form arose around the time _ in the middle of the 8th century — when the Manydshu ( : an anthology of poems) was com­ piled. As the genre tanka ( : short poems) is the most widely used form of poem, and both the chouka ( : long poems) and sedouka ( eventually disappeared，the general meaning of l/ua/ca ( 和 歌 ）has been narrowed to fan/ca ( 銀 歌 ：

poems). Sec/oty/ca ( 旋 頭 歌 ）are poems consisting o f six units with the 5-7-7-5-7-7 moraFigure 15: Genres o f lvalca ( 和 歌 ）and types of rhetoric ①

ma/o/ra-Zcofoba ( 枕 詞 )

②

/ca/ce-/cotoba ( 掛 詞 ）

(^)jo -k o to b a (/fP l) ④

engo ( 緣 語 ）

⑤

A?or7/ca，do 厂/ ( 本 歌 取 つ ）

⑥

kakushi-dai (J& 題 )

"/ /( 0

⑦

〇

⑧

kug丨 re (

〇

析

句 ）

句切れ

)

shichi-go-chou ( 七 五 ■M') ⑨

/c/go( 李 語 ）

⑩

k ire ji( 切

れ字

)

Chapter 6: Rhetoric

260

sequence. This form was frequently used in the Nara Period (710-784), but had almost disappeared by the Heian Period (794-1185). Kateufa ( 片 歌 ）literally means a ‘half poem, for the reason that it uses only half as many morae as a sedouka ( ) , having the mora-sequence of merely 5-7-7. In rare cases, there is also the morasequence of 5-7-5 among ZcateWa ( 片 歌 ） • Kafaufa ( 片 歌 ）take the form of questionanswer-dialogues. Poems of this style can be frequently found in the Nihon-shoki ( B ^ 書 纪 ：720) or Koy7/c/( 古 爭 記 ：712). The following example has a mora-sequence of 5-7-5-7-7, i.e., a tanka and is taken from the M anydsrtfi ( 万 葉 集 ：the end o f the 8th C). Three versions in Japanese graphemes are provided: first, in manydgana ), second, in a kanji/cana-maゾ 7/7nbtyn ( 漢 字 仮 名 交 じ つ 文 ： sentences written with a mixture of/car?y/ and /ca/?a), and third, in kana only with unit demarcation marks (U).

O 163: Kohi(=i)*suru ni shim*suru mono ni aramase ba a ga mi ha(=wa) chi*tabi shini* kaera#mashi (SNKBT 3:16) V3B to fall in love (N /o\/e*V3B to do).PP temporative (time).V3B to die (N c/eaf/7*V3B to do).PseudoN nominalisation.AUX2 declarative.V4 toexpect.PP iterative.ProN /.PP attributive.N わody; topic marker.ADV/QFT one f/mes (numeranooo’* CF for actions).V1 fo d/e f/rnes (V2 fo d/e*V1 to repeat).AUX3A irrealis. 恋 為 死 為 物 有 會 我 身 牛 遍 死 反 恋する丨：死 (二 す る も の （ 二 あ ら ま せ ば あ が 身 は 牛 度 U 二々、え ら ま

L

こひする丨て U

え

U : す る も の に U あ ら ま せ ば i f あ が み ■は

ち

た

ら

ま

L

If it were true that one would die whenever one fell in love with someone, I would have diea a thousand times by now.

6.z Rhetoric in waka (

:

Classical Japanese poems)

There are ten different main rhetorical devices used in wa/ca ( 和 歌 ：Classical Japanese poems ):① ma/a/ra-/cotoiba ( 枕 詞 ：see 6.2.1 )，② /ca/ce-/cotoわa ( 科 詞 ：see 6.2.2 )，③ yo/cofoわa ( 序 詞 ：see 6.2.3 )，④ e/7go ( 緣 詞 ：see 6.2.4 )，⑤ /?o； 7/ca-dor/ ( 本 歌 取 9 : see 6.2.5 )，⑥ /ca/ovs/7/-da/• ( 隱 題 ：see 6.2.6 )，⑦ o厂/to ( 析 っ 句 ：see 6.2.7 )，⑧ tog/•厂e ( 句 切 れ ： see 6.2.8 )，⑨ /c/go ( 季 語 ：see 6.2.9)，and ⑩ Zc/rey/• ( セ刀れ字 ：see 6.2.10).

6.2.1 Makura-kotoba ( iftP i) Makura-kotoba

is an attribute used to modify nouns, verbs, or expressions used in poems (see examples in Table 91). It generally consists of five morae (units of time; with each kana representing one mora), i.e., words consisting of five kana graphemes and is used in order to draw special attention to a specific word or expression used in a poem. As vua/ca ( 和 歌 ）has in general a limited number of 31 morae， 87 ma/oyra-Zcotoわa ( 枕 1司 ）is often used to fulfill this prerequisite• 丨 t also lends a poem dignity, thus the theme emphasising. 87 Some poems have however, exceptional.

makura-kotoba (

)

made up of four or six morae. Such forms are,

Chapter 6: Rhetoric

Table 9 1 : Makura-kotoba ( '

akikaze no (J欠 队 asatsuyu no ( 訊

adusayumi ( 梓 wood)

harubi no

(泰

)

Referent

の •. autumn

弓

and their referents

*

露 の ：dew

261

fu k， u ( < く • to blow) yamabuki ( : Japanese rose)

wind)

in the morning)

• bow made out of ‘A zusa’

B の .•the sun in spring)

in o chi( 命 ：life) ke ( y% : V1 of the shimo-ni-werb k*u [ ] ; to be extinguished) h ih u ( 弓] to stretch) iru ( M - to release a bow) h a ru ( 弓k ち ：to stretch) gen ( 我 .•string) ya ( ^ : bow) oto ( - f - : sound, noise) Kasuga ( # 0 : Kasuga [the name of a place in Nara])

kakitsubata ( め、t

karakoromo ( 療

つばすこ：iris)

农 ：Chinese

safcu (吹く • to bloom) niho(=o)h*u(=u)( 匂 ふ ：to have a scent, to smell) himo ( 紙

clothes)

：string ，lace)

/cvn/ ( 着 る ：to

paf on)

tats.u ( 叙 つ .•to cut cloth) sode ( 袖 ：sleeve) suso ( 梅 .•tail，train) tobutori no ( 银

ぶ鳥の

wo(=o)shidori no ( 鴛

Asuka ( A hayaku ( 逢

• flying bird)

变 の ：mandarin

duck)

：a

place name)

quick，fast)

wo(=o)shi ( I t l [K3A]: sth is a pity) uk/• ( 憂 5 IK3B]: hard, painful, distressful)

Makura-kotoba ( itP i) can be categorised into three main groups according to the topics or themes they refer to : © semantic relevance, © graphemic-semantic relevance, and (D phonetic relevance. The first group, namely ^semantic relevance*, has three further subdivisions: those which have a clear semantic relevance, those which have association components, and those which are synonyms.The first group of makura/cotoba ( ; f t i 司）shows a clear semantic connection between ma/o/ra-Zcotoba ( 才;t 詞 ）and its modifying words or expressions, such as akikaze no ( RSI. ¢7) : autumn wind) which refers to the verb fu h u ( < ：to blow). However, makura-kotoba ( ) of the graphemic-semantic and phonetic types are hidden in graphemes or sounds so that it is not easy to trace the semantic relation­ ships between the makura-kotoba (ttW ) and their referents. For example, tobutori no

Chapter 6: Rhetoric

262

(飛ぶ、 ％の ： ^y/ng わかc〇 refers to Asuka ( 明 日 香 / 飛 '烏 ）and the semantic reference to them is hidden in graphemes. Asuka is a place in the south of Nara where in the 6th century there was, for a period of approximately one hundred years, a palace belonging to the imperial family. As can be seen above, the name of this place can be written in two ways using different Chinese characters. The second way of writing Asuka is made up of two Chinese characters meaning to fly (^ i) and b ird (^ ), thus relating a seman­ tic relationship between the two, the makura-kotoba and its referent. This is an example of the graphemic-semantic type. The third type deals with homophones (lexi­ cal items which have the same pronunciation but different meanings). Wo(=o)shidori no ：mandarin duck), for example, refers to the keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/e wo(=o)*shi ( t f l ) which means that sth is a pity or a shame expressing the speaker's sympathy or empathy for somebody.

6.2.2 Kake-kotoba (#1^]) Kake-kotoba ) are homophones used as puns playing on the two or more differ­ ent meanings of the item. The following poems illustrate this: O 164: Tsuki matsu mushi no kowe(=e) su*nar*i. (Ono 1988: 105) N r77〇 〇 A?.V3B to w a it.l^ 'm a ts u m u s h i1c ric k e t.P P attributive.N c h irp in g .\/3 A to do sth. AUX3A speculative. 月待つ虫のこ；

なつ。

Crickets that are waiting for the moon (to shine) are probably chirping. The verb mats*u (1#*^ : to wait) and the noun mushi ( i : insect), which can also be interpreted as /T7afst//7?t/sA7/(:^虫 ： ar e homophones. The following poem by Ono no Komachi ( ) is from the Kokin-wakashu ( 和 歌 集 : the beginning of the 10th century) comprising three units. A mark (U) is placed at the end of each unit in order to show the structure of the following i/i/a/ca (身口胃欠) . The first unit has, exceptionally, six morae instead of five in the mora-sequence of 5-7-5-7-

Table 92: Homophonous pairs of kake-kotoba (#1^1)

anz.u ( 案:イ ：to worry about sth/sb) anzu ( 香 • apricot) ( 綠 る ：to pass pime]) o ( 枯 れ ぬ ：to

( 阵 る ：to 厂a/n)

w肋 e 厂ed [plants]) o /ca厂e*A7i/ ( 離 れ ぬ ：to /?a\/e jbeer? ,a 厂

away) ( 往な、は :/77 ねac/gone) /ziaiba ( 因 幡 ：/naba [the name of a province])

matsu ( 松 • pine tree) mats*u ( 待

つ

：to waff)

nagame ( 晚 め • view，sight) 〇 nagame 雨 •. a long period o f rain) yoru ( 氣 ：night) y o m ( 寄 ら ：to call in .，to visit)

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O 165: Hana no iro ha(=wa) U utsuri*ni*keri na Tf (SNKBT 5:49) N flower.PP attributive.N colour.PP topic marker.V2 to change.A\JX2 perfect. AUX3A past.PP exclamative. Itadura.ni U wa ga mi yo ni hur.u

nagame se.shi ma ni U

KD2/ADV empty.H IP attributive.N body.N at present.PP tercvpora\.\\/e.\/3A to rain. N continuous rainingM2 to do sth.A\JX3B past.N time.PP temporative. 花 の 色 は う っ り に け つ な い た づ ら |て わ が 身 よ 丨 て ふ る な が め せ

L ま丨： ：

Alas! The colours o f the flowers have changed During a long period o f pounng ram Leaving a feeling o f emptiness behind The last unit has the homophonous word nagame which allows a dual interpretation, either nagame ( or nagame ( : a long period o f rain). In the same manner, the other homophonous lexeme can be interpreted as ( P李 る ：fo rain), or hur^u ( H ^ : to pass [time]). Therefore, the poem can also be interpreted in the following way:

Alas! My appearance has changed Thinking back to my empty life While my life passes by When we read poems which use the rhetorical device of kake-kotoba (PbPI), it is best to give two separate interpretations as shown above. Table 92 gives some homophonous pairs. There are also /ca/ce-/cotoiba (择 |4司）pairs whose homophony includes a part of the word. For example, nebur^u :to sleep) and nebu no hana ( : the name of a flower) have the common homophone neibu. Or the verb /Tc-u (4 亍く ：to go) makes a pair with the name of the place Ikuno ( i f f ). 6.2.3 Jo-kotoba ( I f P i)

Jo-kotoba

have more or less the same syntactic and semantic functions as ma/oyra-Zcofoba ( 枕 詞 ）in that they evoke certain associations. In other words，the use of jo-kotoba ( / f i^ ]) makes the poem more immediate so that it creates a greater im­ pression on the reader. There are, however, four main differences between makura/cofoba ( 枕 詞 ）and 70-/cofoba ( 序 詞 ）（6 n o 1 9 8 8 :106). One of them is the length of morae: makura-kotoba ( ) generally have five morae whereas jo-kotoba ( I f P i) have more than six. The second difference deals with specificity: ma/o;厂a-/cotoiba ( 枕 1^1) and the words they refer to are in a bound relationshp, i.e., a certain makura-kotoba (枕 1司）refers to a specific expression or word; ゾo-/cotoba (斤 詞 )，on the other hand, can be used freely. The third difference involves the semantic link between a makura-kotoba ( 枕 1司）and its referent: ma/o/ra-tofo わa ( 枕 1司）are grammaticalised forms and there is therefore no semantic relationship between them and their referents, whereas jo-kotoba ( I f P i) and the words they refer to are semantically closely related to each other. This

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means that the reader of Classical texts need not always consider the literal meanings of a ma/oyra-Zcotoわa (才jfe詞 )，but in the case of ayo-Zcotoba ( 序 詞 ）its literal meaning has to be taken into consideration if the main point of the poem is to be understood. The following is a w/a/ca ( 和 歌 ：Classical Japanese poems) from the /War?yds/7/7 ( 万 葉 集 ： the end of the 8th C) which expresses the author’s intense longing for his sweetheart O 166: Ashihiki no yama^dori no wo(=o) no shidari*wo(=o) no naganaga*shi yo wo(= 〇) hitori ka mo ne*mu(=n). (SNKBT 3:109) ProperN Ashihiki.PP attributive.N birds in the mountains (N mountain9^ bird).PP attributive.N tail.PP attributive.N hanging tails (N hanging9^ taif)PP subject marker.K3A /ong.N night.PP object marker.ADV alone.PP exclamative.PP exclamative.VI to s/eep.AUX3A speculative. /3 山 為 之 尾 ;5 四 垂 尾 乃 長 氷 夜 乎 一 鴨 将 v 宿 L ひさの山、 、 ％ の 尾 の L だ り 尾 の 長 な が L 喪 を レ と り ゲ も 寝 ！：

足日木 あ

The very long night Alone I sleep (The night is so long, ju st like trie long tails o f mountain birds.) The jo-kotoba of the above poem is ashimki no yamadori no wo(=o) no shidariwo(=o) r?o ( あ L ひ 5 の 山 '鳥 の 尾 の L だ つ 尾 の ），with seventeen morae_ By using the expression shiaanwo(=o) ( L だ つ 尾 ）which means ‘Iona hanging tails’, the poet wanted to make the association with the very long night. It is interesting to note that the makura/cotoiba (枕 詞 ）as/?//?//c/ (足 引 5 : dragg/>?g /egs) is also integrated into thisy 〇-/cotoiba (序 1司） ，w hich calls for the word yama ( 山 ：/77〇ar7fa/n), i.e.， two different kinds of rhetorical devices are used in this short expression. We will see another example of a poem by Toneri no Otome ( 舍人士良子 ）from the /Wa/?yds/7〇 ( ^ ■葉 集 ：the end of the 8th century). 〇

167: Masurawo(=o) no satsuya tabasami*tachi«mukahi(=i)*iru Matokata ha(=wa) mir*u ni sayake*shi. (SNKBT 1:54) N a brave man.PP attributive.N arrow.\J2 to carry sth in s^s arms.\J2 to stand.M2 to face.V3B to s/?oof.ProperN Matokata.PP topic marker.V3B to see.PP temporative. K3A refreshing. 大夫え得物夭手抻

立向衬

流鬥

方波見尔潰潔之

ま す ら を の さ っ 矢 た ば さ み 立 1；向 ？ ) 、ひ 身 寸 る ま と 形 は 見 る |二 さ や け L

The view o f Matokata So clear and refreshing! The jo-kotoba ( f f p ] ) of this poem is ,masurawo(=o) no satsuya tabasam itachimukaj2i(=i)iru ( ま す ら を の さ っ 矢 た ば 亡 み 立 ち 向 ?)、ひ 村 ろ ） ’ and this means literally fa brave man is standing with a safst/ya-arrow under his arm in front of his target and shoots this arrow*. Satsuya ( ^ ^ in the jo-kotoba designates a special kind

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of arrow, which evokes an association with mato ( ^ : target) so that this jo-kotoba ( / f 1司）matches the name of a bay ‘Matokata’ which appears a little later and contains the homophone mato. 6.2.4 £ /ig o ( 緣 語 ） E>?go ( 緣 語 ）are words which evoke many different associations simultaneously. This can occur either semantically or phonetically. When engo ( ) is used, readers are amused to find those hidden words which are incorporated — implicitly — into a poem. Each of these hidden words generally implies further associations. The following example given by Ono (1988: 107) and his explanations given in the table below illustrate this. The poem of Ariwara no Motokata ( 有 原 元 方 ）in the Ko/c/>7-i^a/ca-s/7〇 ( 古 今 和 歌 集 ：the beginning of the 10th C )，contains a highly sophisticated rhetoric as the noun nami ( y k : wave) evokes four different associations as explained below: O 168: Ahnj(=u) koto no nagisa ni shi yor«u nami nar*e ba uram *i te nomi zo tachikaeri*ker*u. (SNKBT5: 194) V3B to meef.PseudoN nominalisation.PP attributive.N beach. AUX2 declarative (to be).PP emphasis.V3B to beat against the shored waveAUX4 declarative (to be).PP cause/reason.V2 fo bea厂a g/xycfere.PP manner.PP exclusiveness (〇A?/y)PP emphasis.V2 to go high.M2 to go back.A\JX3B past. 逢ふ事のな

y さ 丨二l 寄 ろ 浪 な 、れ ば う ら み マ の み r 立 ち ウ、え り ける

You I will not see The night is approaching Only with a lament do I return The table Delow shows four engo (# :!!： ) are evoked by the noun nami (>R: wave), and as can be seen, these lexical items which associate with waves are skillfully hidden in the poem. Furthermore, each of these engo ) includes a kake-kotoba (#1^1). This poem is extremely sophisticated, using as it does two rhetorical techniques at the same time. ①

nag丨 sa ( 请

：beach)

②

yopty ( 寄 ろ ）

Naki

5 : sth or sb is not there) and nagisa (>f : beach) are /ca/ce-/cof〇jba ( 枓 詞 ） •

Yor*u

: to beat against the shore) and yoru ( ^ : are homophones and used as /ca/ce-/cofoわa ( 掛

詞 )• ③ 厂am v ( 恨 / r )

び厂a m / ( 沛 見 : the

name of a place) and t//ia/77V (恨 み [V 2】 :

to lament) are homophones functioning as kake-kotoba ④

/caer*/ (') 帚 つ ）

Kaen•(返 0 : tfc/e Iwaves]) and ka e h (掃 0 D/2]: to go back home) are homophones used as kake-kotoba ).

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266 A

further example is the expression

〇爪〇/2/丫= /)( 嫉 ゆ ろ 思 ひ ：sfror?g

pas-

sion [lit.: burning passion]). The mora hi ( l ^ ) of the noun 0/770/7/ ( ,® i i ) implies the homophone h i ( X ) meaning fire and thus they are closely related to kake-kotoba ( # 1司）• As h/ ( ひ ）in the sense of 行厂e ( 火 ）has a close semantic connection with the verb m o y u ( 游 ゆ [V3A 】：to わ^/爪 ) ，わ/ ( 火 ：行re) is an engo ( 緣 語 ）of (•腐 ゆ る ：V3B of the verb moy9u [0 y ^ : to burn]), i.e., the noun hi ( X : fire) is hidden in the expression 〇爪〇生丫= /) ( 孅 ゆ る 思 ひ ）. Here, in the short expression /7 7 0 0/770か丫=/)(燃 ゆろ思ひ） ，we have a highly sophisticated use of rhetorical techniques.

6_2.5 Honfca-dor/( 本歌取つ） /■/on/ca-dor/ ( 本 歌 取 り ）is a rhetorical device used to give the reader an impression of profundity by integrating parts of other famous poems into a poem. Hon/ca ( 本 歌 ）means ‘original poem’ and do" ( 取 つ ）comes from the verb for*i/ ( 取 ろ ：fo fa/ce sf/? 尸厂〇H7 here: to /ncorpo 厂ate sf/7 //7to •••) in its re/7y〇iv/ce/• ( 連 用 形 ：V2) with an initial phonological change o i rendaku : sequential voicing), and means incorporation. By using well-known passages in a poem, one can widen the scope of its meanings. The following poem in the S/7/n-/co/c/>?-wa/cashf}(析 古 今 和 歌 集 ：compiled in 1205) incorporated a passage of a famous poem from the ( 万 案 集 ：8th century) (6 n o 1988: 107): /■/on/ca ( 本 歌 ）in the /WanydsM ( 万 葉 集 ）：

O 169: Kuru«shiku mo huri-kuru ame ka Miwa no saki Sano no watari ni ie mo ara*naku ni (SNKBT1: 205)

K2 hard.PP emphasis.V3B to rain (V2 to ra//7*V3B to come).N rain.PP interrogative. ProperN /W/Wa.PPattributive.N cape.ProperN Sano.PP attributive.N ferry.PP locative.N house.PP additive (foo).V1 to be thereA\JX2-ku-gohou of the negator AUX zu.PP con­ cessive.

苦 L くも阵 り米る雨々 、 三輪の崎狹野のわたり I二， 襄もあらなく I二 How hard it is! The rain at the Cape Miwa No house to stay A t the Sano Ferry Honka-dori ( 本 歌 取 り ）in the S/?/>7-/co/c/>7-vva/cas/7/}( 折 古 今 和 歌 集 ）： O 170: Koma tome te sode uchi«harah«u(=u) kage mo na*shi Sano no watari no yuki no yuugure (SNKBT 11:199) N horseSJ2 to stop.PP consecutive.N s/eeve.V3B to whisk (V2 emphasis*V3B to whisk). N sheiter.PP additive (foo).K3A to not be fA?ere.ProperN Sano.PP attributive.N ferry.PP attributive.N snow.PP attributive.N evening. 狗 と め マ 蚰 う ち :fムふ？ ) 、け' もな、L 佐 野 の わ た り の

No shelter to stop my horse

f の夕暮

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267

No shelter to pat snow from my sleeves The dusk full o f falling snow At the Sano Ferry

6.2.6 Kakushi-dai ( R IM ) Kakushi-dai literally means bidden themes*. They are used in a poem in such a way that a reader may have difficulty finding them. It is a kind of word play using hom­ onym (words having the same sounds and same kana graphemes but with diffrent meanings). Those hidden words refer to concrete names of places or persons. The following poem from the

( 古 今 和 歌 集 ：905) provides an example of this:

O 171: Ashihiki no yama tachi*hanare*yuku kumo no yadori sadameniu yo ni koso ari*kere (SNKBT 5:142)

Ashihiki {(n\akura-koioba').PP a ttributive.N mountain.\/2 toleave.\/2 toleave.\/3B to cloud.PP attributive. N a place tosettle downortos to p .V I tosettle, todec/de. A U X 3 B n egation.N world.PP lo c a tiv e .P P e m p h a sis.V 2 to be.AUX4 exclam ative. N

go.N

あ

L

ひ 5 の山 た

t

はなれ行く雲の宿りさだめぬ世にこサ會りけれ

A cloud is leaving the mountains Where it will stop Nobodv knows Such is life The name of a flower ya/77afac/?/6a/7a ( や ま た ち ば な / 山 ； f l) : a 厂d/s/a Japon/ca) — indi­ cated in bold type — is hidden in the above poem.

6.2.7 O r ik u ^ lj^ ) O厂/7〇y ( ネ 斤 句 ）is a more sophisticated kind of /ca/〇7s /?/-da /• ( 隱 題 ）where the morae of a hidden word are scattered through the poem. In this sense, it is also a kind of word play using anagram (a new word is produced by arranging certain kana graphemes used in a poem). C)no (1982:108) cites the following poem by Ki no Tsurayuki ( 紀 貫 え ：868?945?) from the Ko/c/n-wa/cas/i/}( 古 今 和 歌 集 ：905):

〇 172: Wo(=o)gura«yama mine tachi*narashi*naku shika no he»ni»kemu(=n) aki wo(=o) shir*u hito zo na*ki. (SNKBT 5:144)

Ogura-Mountains.N ridge.\/2 tostand.\/2 to walkaround.\/3B tocry.N deer.PP to pass (tim e ).A U X 2 p e rfe c t.A U X 3 A s p e c u la tiv e o f th e p a s t.N autumn.PP o b je ct m a rk e r.V 3 B to know.N person.PP e m p h a s is .K 3 B tonot be there. P ro p e rN

s u b je c t m a rk e r.V 2

ふ倉山みれ立

な ら い l く鹿の备 丨 二けL 、秋 を

L

On the ridges o f the Ogurayama Mountains Walking around and crying sadly a herd o f deer Long lasting autumn season No one knows

ろ人

f なS

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268

The author of the poem was deeply moved by the sad cries of a herd of deer. This poem also contains the hidden message ‘o-mi-na-£i^(=e)-shi ( お み な へ L / 女 郎 花 ：paf/7>7/a scaWos/ァ〇"a)， which is the name of a yellow flower which blooms in autumn. This suggests that the author was also stirred by the beautiful yellow flowers, which probably covered the mountain slopes where he had his moving encounter with the deer. K i /g/re ( 句 切 れ ） Ktyg/厂e ( 句 切 れ ）means the division of a poem into two parts according to morae and meanings. In other words, a poem can basically be divided into two parts, each of which contains an idea. A tanka ( f or example, consists of five units. If the first idea ends after the first unit, it is called s/?o-/o/g/厂e ( 初 句 切 れ ：the break after the first unit). Likewise, n /-/ 〇yg/re ( 二 句七刀れ ）means that an idea ends only after the second unit, whereby a 5-7 sequence as the key rhythm is generated. Poems of this kind are called go-shichi-chou five-seven rhythm). In a tanka of the san-kugire (三句七刀れ）type, the idea is completed after the third unit, so that seven-five key rhythm is produced. For this reason, this type of fa/?/ca ( 銀 歌 ）is known as sA?/c/7/-go-c/7〇ty ( 七 五 調 ) ，‘ seven-five rythm ， . In addition, there are poems without such a division, rmv/oyg/•厂e ( [no demarcation]). Some examples of kugire ( ) are shown below. The following example is taken from the S/7//7-/co/c/；7-M/a/cas⑹ (新 古 今 和 歌 集 ：1205). 6.2.8

O 173: Miwatas»e ba hana mo momiji mo na«kari*keri U ura no tomaya no aki no yuhu(=u)gure (SNKBT 11:117) V4 tolook out over ...PP temporative.N flower.PP additive (foo).N autumn tints.PP ad­ ditive (too).K2 tonot be there.AUX3A past.N bay.PP attributive.N simple hut.PP attribu­ tive. N autumn.PP attributive. N dusk. 見 わ た せ ば 花 も 紅 葉 も な ?)、り け 0 渖 の と ま や の 伙 の ヌ 暮

Looking out over the bay Straw huts standing along the beach No flowers and autumn tints were to be seen The autumn dusk The first three units give a clear message that the author could not see flowers or autumn tints when he was looking out over the bay. This tanka has, therefore, a san-kugire a demarcation after the third unit) with a seven-five basic rhythm, i.e., shichi-go-chou ( ) . みわたせば

1st unit (5 morae): 2nd unit (7 morae): 3rd unit (5 morae):

な "け つ

4th unit (7 morae): 5th unit (7 morae):

あ 5 のゆうぐれ

はなも も みCも

うらのとまやの

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The following poem is from the /■/e/Zce-monogafar/( 平 家 物 語 ；the mid-13th C) and js an example of a s/?o-/〇yg7>e ( ネ刁句七刀れ） . O 174: Sazanami ya H Shiga no miyako ha(=wa) are.nhshi wo(=o) mukashi nagara no yamazakura ka na (SNKBT 45: 50) N n'pple.PP e x c la m a tiv e .P ro p e rN Shiga (the nam e o f a p la ce ). PP a ttrib u tiv e . N capital c/Yy.PP to p ic m a r k e rV 2 fo fa// //?to ru//?.A U X 2 p e rfe c t.A U X 3 B p a s t.P P co n ce ssive.N

past.PP c o n tin u a tio n . PP

a ttrib u tiv e . N

cherry blossoms in the mountains.PP inte rro g a ­

tive. PP exclam ative. さ ざ な み や

忘 贺 の邪はあれ

丨二

L

を

H

、

L

な が ら の

山

ざ く ら 々 、な

Ripples on the shore The capital city in Shiga has fallen into ruin Blooming as in the past The mountain cherry blossom The above poem has also a seven_five base tone

[七

五 調

]):

1st unit (5 morae ) : さ ざ な み や 2nd unit (7 morae): L が の み や こ は 3rd unit (5 m o ra e ): あ れ I 二 L を 4th unit (7 morae): L ' り、L な が ら の 5th unit (7 m orae): や ま ざ く ら 々 、な The author is describing the ruins of the once magnificient capital city, in contrast to the beautiful blooming yamazakura ( J j/Kc ：mountain cherry blossoms) which symbolise the everlasting beauty of nature. 6.2.9 W g o ( 季 語 ）

Haiku ( # ^ ) is a poem comprising seventeen morae with their sequence of 5-1-5. This genre uses words which indicate a specific season. They are known as /c/go ( 季 語 ） and the w riter^ intention, when he/she uses them, is to bring about a particular asso­ ciation and thus an emotional response. Some examples are listed in Table 93. K/go ( 平 I 吾）are based on the moon calendar and also on customs in ancient times so that they do not necessarily coincide with the present seasons (see below). For example, spring in the moon calendar lasted from our present-day months of January to March; April, May and June were summer, July to September autumn, while winter Moon calendar

Contemporary months

spring

January, February, March

summer

April, May, June

autum 门

July, August, September

winter

October, November, December

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270

began in October and ended in December. As for the customs, nowadays the tanabata festival takes place in the sum m er on July 7th, whereas it was celebrated in the autumn. A rta//ai ( 徘 句 ）contains usually one such Wgo ( 李 語 ） . The following fta/Zo;( 徘 句 ） from the O to no /7〇som/c/?/• ( 奥 の 紳 道 ：mid-17th C) by Matsuo Bash6 (松 尾 芑 策 ；16441694) shows how /c/go ( 李 語 ）can be used. E x a m p le 。 175 has sam/cfa厂e ( 五 月 雨 ： early summer rain) as its seasonal word indicating the summer season. 〇

175: Samidare wo(=o) atsunre te haya*shi Mogami-gawa (NKBT 46: 87) N early summer rain.PP object marker.V2 to collect.PP copulative (and).K3A quick, /asf. ProperN the Mogami River. 五月雨を集めマ早

L 最上丨 M

Fast streams of the Mogami River Torrents of early summer rain The /c/go ( 李

語

）in Example O 6 (which has already been cited in Chapter 3) is

Table 93: K/go ( 李 語 ） Season

•

haru ( ^ : spring)

suzume no ko ( 雀 の 十 ：young sparrow) zansetsu ( 我 賀 ：remaining snow)

natsu ( X : summer)

kahe(=e)ru ( : frog) mugi no aki ( 复 の 伙 ..ripening wheat in autumn) samidare (玉~ 雨 ：early summer rain) shimizu ( ホフh : spring water, clear water) takenoko ( ^ : bamboo shoof) uri ( A : melon)

aki ( i k : autumn)

ル ??a

(

李語）

no gai/i/a ( 天の丨丨丨：f/7e M/7/cy IVay)

kari ( : wild goose) kiri ( 無 • mist) suika ( 西 A • water melon) sumahu(=u sumaut-ol)( 相 撲 ：‘sum6 ’ ） tanabata ( 七 夕 • the ‘Tanabata’ Festival) tsuki ( FI • the moon) huyu ( ^ : winter)

daikon ( 大 i 良 • Japanese radish) kaji ( 火 争 • fire) kamo ( 号烏• duck) negi ( % : leek) ochiba ( 落％ fallen leaves) samusa ( 寒 セ ..cold, frost) shigure ( 時 雨 • shower of rain)

Chapter 6: Rhetoric

271

/\/7?a no gaiva ( 天の丨11 : f/?e ZW/7/cy l/Uay) indicating the season of autumn. 〇

6: Araumi ya Sado ni yokotahnj(=u) Ama no gawa (NKBT46: 81,168, and 169)

N wild sea.PP exclamative.ProperN Sado.PP locative.V3B fo//e.ProperN the Milky 荒海や伖渡丨て横たふ天川

Oh! Wild sea! Above (the Island of) Sado The Milky Way is lying Some haiku ( ) have more than two seasonal words, and some kigo ( pear in changed grammatical forms.

)

ap­

6-2_10 K /re y7 ( セ 刀 れ 字 ）

Kireji

) designates specific interjectional postpositions, auxiliaries, inflectional adjectives, and verbs used in poems. They mark the end of a morphological unit within a poem, thus, creating an emotional impact. Some examples are shown in Table 94. The following /7a/7o/( 悱 句 ）by Matsuo Bash6 ( 松 尾 芑 策 ： 1644-1694) contains the k ire ji( 切 れ 字 ）ya ( や ） . O 176: Yo no hito no mitsuke*nu hana ya noki no kuri (NKBT 46: 77) N world.PP attributive.N people.PP subject marker.VI to findAUX3B negation. N flower.PP exclamative.N eaves.PP attributive.N chestnut. 世 :の 人 の 見 付 ぬ 花 や 衧 の 果

Chestnut flowers over the eaves Nobody knows Example O 176 expresses Basho^ intensive emotions when he unexpectedly found beautiful chestnut flowers above the eaves of a house. His joy at finding these beautiful chestnut flowers is emphasised by the use of the /c/re_/7 ( 切 れ 字 ）ya ( や ）after the noun

hana ( 花

：flower).

In the following ha/to ( # 句 ）Bash6 ( 芑 策 ）uses the Zc/revV ( 切 which is an auxiliary indicating the perfective aspect. 〇

れ 字 ）far*/

(

た つ） ，

177: Atsuki hi wo(=o) umi ni ire*tari Mogami-gawa (NKBT 46: 89) K3B /7〇f.N day.PP object marker.N sea.PP illative (a point to be reached: geft/>?g

into ...).V2 to f/ovi/.AUX3A resultative (state).ProperN the Mogami River. 暑 *さ 日 を 海 丨 て い れ た り 最 上 川

A hot day Into the sea The Moqami River running

Chapter 6: Rhetoric

272 Table 94: Kireji ( 切 れ 字 ）

Postpositions

ka い 、) k a n a い 、な ya

、

(や ）

yo ( よ ） z〇 ( r ) Auxiliaries

j i ( て) ker^i ( i t 9 ) H7〜 (= A 7 ) ( む

/ ん）

n.u ( ぬ ) 厂 a / 7 7 * i/ ( = n ) (ら

. . . … ぐ：.: .

U / らん）

… （り ） far*/ ( た り ） (つ） zu ( ず ）

K-adjectives/

K-adjectives and verbs are used either

Verbs

in the s/iws/7/7ce/ ( 終 止 : K3A/V3A) or in the me/re/Tce/• ( 命 令 形 ：K5/V5).

By using the auxiliary far*/ ( た り ）as a Zc/>ey/• ( 七刀れ字），the author is expressing his intense feelings when he saw the water of the Mogami river flowing into the sea on a very hot summer day. The following poem by Bash6 ( 芑 策 ）has a verb in the imperative form ，and thus functioning as a Zc/’厂e_//( 七刀れ字） . O 178: Samidare no sora huki*otose Ooigawa (NKBT 45: 73) N s/7〇 we厂 of厂a/r?PP attributive.N s/(y.V5 to わ/owaway (V2 fo わ/ow*V5 fo d厂op).Pr〇perN

the 6 i River さみだれの空吹^;とせ大井;丨丨

Pouring summer rain Blow away the clouds in the sky 0, gushing River d i The author could not continue his trip due to heavy rain which made it impossible for him to cross the River Oi. There was no bridge at that time and people could only reach the other side by ferry or by allowing themselves to be carried by others. He was very impatient at not being able to continue his trip and therefore wished that the River Oi would blow the clouds away and bring an end to the rain.

Chapter 7 Conclusions 7.1 A s h o rt su m m a ry This book provides the reader with a basic knowledge of a grammar of Classical Japa­ nese. The main objectives of the monograph are, on the one hand, to enable students of Japanese studies to read classical texts, and on the other, to elucidate to linguists the morphosyntax of Classical Japanese (hereafter abbreviated as CJ). Students who have already studied Modern Standard Japanese (hereafter abbreviated as MSJ) will be able to see both diachronic linguistic changes within the Japanese language and at the same time close relationships between society and language. Linguists — with or without a wide knowledge of Japanese — will be able to obtain an insight into the morphosyntactic mechanism of agglutination, which is one of the primary features of the Japanese language. Chapter 1 offers the reader the preliminaries on the basis of which this book is written: different transcription sytems — each for specific purposes; the special method of linguistic morphological segmentation applied to example sentences; types of CJ (Old Japanese, Late Old Japanese, Middle Japanese, and Early Modern Japanese); key linguistic technical terms needed to understand the explanations given in the book; primary sources used for examples in the volume; and some basic explanations on how example sentences are constructed. Chapter 2 pinpoints the phonetic and phonological features of CJ and explains the graphemes — kana and kanji — used in CJ. Chapter 3 surveys the main features of CJ words, sentence structures, and inflection systems. Concrete in-depth descriptions of lexical items — categorised in nine different word classes — begin in Chapter 4. First, some specific characteristics of nouns (see 4.3) and pronouns (see 4.4) are explained. Subsequently, three inflectional word classes — including phonological changes — are presented: adjectives (see 4.5), phonological changes (see 4.6), verbs (see 4.7), and auxiliaries (see 4.8). Following these inflec­ tional lexemes, other noninflectional words are analysed: adverbs (see 4.10), conjunc­ tions (see 4.11), exclamatives/interjections (see 4.12), and finally numeral quantifiers (see 4.13). Chapter 5 deals with honorifics, and Chapter 6 with CJ rhetoric.

7.2 A su m m a ry o f a n a lysis This monograph was written, for the most part, on the basis of a comparison with MSJ. Some particular features have become apparent in the following lingustic topics in the history of the Japanese language: language contact (see 7.2.1), language change (7.2.2), and general characteristics of the Japanese language (7.3). The analyses of a gram­ mar of CJ also provide some ideas for teaching this subject as a second language (see 7.4). Some concluding remarks are given at the end of this chapter (see 7.5).

274

Ghapter 7: Gonclusions

7.2.1 しanguage c o n ta c t In the history of Japanese, language contact with Chinese is, in my view, of the greatest significance. The adaptation of Chinese elements in the fields of graphemes, phonol­ ogy, and morphology illustrates this. With the introduction of Chinese documents, the Chinese characters /canゾ/• ( 漢 字 ） were introduced to Japan in the fifth century 88 An attempt was made to use Chinese characters as phonograms in order to write Japanese texts; these characters are called ( 万 案 仮 名 ）（ see 2.1, 2.2, Tables 5-1 and 5-2). Chinese characters subsequently made it possible for Japanese to develop the Japanese phonograms katakana ( カ タ カ ナ ）and ハ/厂agana ( ひ ら が な ）89 In addition, contact with Chinese yielded an enrichment of vocabulary and stylistics. As numerous adjustments had to be made in order to adapt Chinese to Japanese, which, typologically, do not belong to the same language family, many creative techniques were developed, whereby the foreign ele­ ments were first processed in a filter and then incorporated into the Japanese linguistic structures. These linguistic strategies are basically still used to accommodate Japa­ nese to changing new environments to this day. When Chinese words were introduced into Japanese, they were first adjusted phonologically to the indigenous Japanese speech sounds, which constitute the basic phonotactic structure of CV (a combination of a consonant and a vowel as a unit of sound), with each such unit representing a mora (a unit of time). Chinese sounds adopted at the end of the Heian Period (794-1185) were the nasal /n/ in the coda-position (the end of a sound unit) of a lexeme (see 2.1), the glottal stop [?], and the palatalised sounds /kya, kyu, kyo, gya, gyu, gyo/ (Nakao 1972: 27). Although the principal feature of CV-structure was changed in the case of the nasal In/, or the glottal stop [?], which lack the vowel part of the CV-structure, all these sounds were adjusted to the Japanese mora-system so that they are pronounced as one time unit. Today, this is also the case with new speech sounds from English, such as [ d i] ( デ ィ ）for 迦 s/g/?，[ti] ( 7■ ィ ）for c/t/a"を ，and [ta ]( トゥ ）for 拉 day; each of these makes up one mora. As for the morphological development, many creative neologisms were made by combining Japanese and Chinese lexcical items. Hybridisations of this kind are still found in contemporary Japanese using lexemes of different origins: mainly Japanese, Chinese and English. These coinages, however, still possess the basic morphological structure of Japanese. With respect to the graphemic form of loan words from European languages, these are now generally written using katakana. However, katakana were not used for bor­ rowings in the beginning. There has been a large influx of European words into Japa88 Contact with Chinese characters took place at a much ealier time: — namely in the first century. They were engraved in swords and other utensils, which were brought from China to Japan. It is thought that initially they could not have been recognised as graphemes designat­ ing meanings. 89 Kobayashi (2004) claims that the kana-iyjpe graphemes must first have been invented in Korea. His assumption is based on a number of old documents found in 2000 in South Korea.

Chapter 7: Conclusions

275

nese on two major occasions.909 1The first occurred in the latter half of the19th century at the time of the Meiji Restoration (M e,/s/7//?: 胡 治 維 新 ），which caused many changes in the political and social structure of Japan. The 264 years of Tokugawa shogunate, which was a feudal regime, was terminated in 1867 and Japan began diplomatic rela­ tions with foreign countries, especially with the US and European countries. This led to a considerable influx of English words into Japanese. These foreign words were trans­ lated semantically into Japanese using Chinese characters based on the formation principles of the Six Writings (rikusho: ): pictograms (shoukei: ), ideograms (shiji: ideogramic compounds (kaii: ), phono-semantic compounds (keisei: ), derivative cognates (tenchuu: and phonetic borrowings (kashaku: they were then incorporated into the Japanese morphosyntactic structure. Due to the syntactic differences between the two languages, diacritics were employed to read classical Chinese texts. This generated a new written language in a particular speech style viz. the kanbun-sty\e^ which was regarded as highly sophisticated. As for the use of graphemes in writing, the /cany/-/car7a-n7ay/77-bi;r7 (漠 字 仮 名 交 IT り 文 ）was developed which is a standard way of writing Japanese today: this style contains Chinese characters, katakana 9 and hiragana ( ^ ). Even the Latin alphabet is found in contemporay Japanese texts as shown in Sentence 179.

O 179: Taberu toki wa renji de atatameru dake de OK. (Source: www.asahi.com/shopping/food-drink/special/TKY200808110178.html of August 25th，2008) V3 to ea たN f/r/?e.PP topic marker. N 爪/crowave oven.PP instrument.V3 fo \^a/T77.PP only.A\JX2 declarative.N OK. 食べると

5 はレンジr 温めるだけr ok.

When you want to eat something you ju s t need to warm it using a microwave oven. Sentence O 179 contains four different kinds of grapheme — kanji ( 漢 字 ），hiragana ( レ ら が な ），/cafa/cana ( カ タ カ ナ ）and Latin letters — used for lexical items of two different origins — Japanese and English — which are imbedded perfectly in the Japa­ nese morphosyntactic structure. The second such occasion is the beginning of the ‘internet era’ and present-day globalisation. Today, numerous foreign borrowings — mostly from English — are used extensively in many fields, such as politics, economics, literature, cooking, sport, and music. These are now written using /cafa/cana ( カ タ カ ナ ） • Some of them have been semantically adjusted to Japanese so that their original meanings have changed. On 90

しanguage contact with Portuguese and Spanish in the 17th century did not affect Japanese so much, as the contact of Christian missionaries with Japanese people was very much limited. 91 This corresponds to Latin in the Middle Ages in Europe in that it was the language of schol­ arship and was used by the influential classes of society.

276

Ghapter

了：

Go门 elusions

the whole, it can be said that the intake of many foreign elements has only been pos­ sible because they were first processed to match the basic structures of Japanese phonology, morphology and syntax. In other words, these structures have not been susceptible to changes even though there has been an influx of foreign elements. It also has to be mentioned that the introduction of Western linguistics in the middle of the 19th century led to new methods of linguistic research in Japan. As mentioned in previous sections (see 4.1,4.11, and 4.13.1), efforts were made to categorise Japa­ nese lexemes on the basis of W estern grammatical theories. Phonemes were also used as the smallest unit of phonological and morphological analysis. This made it possible to shed new light on the structure of Japanese, as the smallest unit used until that time had been qraphemes each made up of two phonemes at the most. The transfer of knowledge from China, therefore, had a considerable cultural and linguistic influence on Japan, and this in its turn brought about the opportunities to document the Japanese cultural heritage.

7.2.2 Language Change Language change is universal, but the ways in which languages change are not always the same among languages. This volume described a grammar of CJ which illuminated diachronic changes of various kinds: graphemic and phonological (see Chapter 2; 4.6 ff.; 4.7.7 ff.) as well as morphosyntactic changes (see 4.5.2; 4.5.3; 4.7.2; 4.7.3). The following is a short summary of these changes — in the case of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, auxiliaries, postpositions, conjunctions, exclamatives/interjections, and honorifics — compared to MSJ. All of these word classes show the above-men­ tioned adjustment mechanism. They are dealt with in the order in which the word classes are described in Chapter 4. ❶

Nouns

Nouns indicate things, matters, animate and inanimate beings. They change along with new temporal, local and social environments. Therefore, classical texts contain a large number of lexemes which are no longer used today. There are, however, also words which are still used today, but which have undergone semantic changes of various kinds. One such change is degeneration (a neutral or honorative meaning becomes pejorative): kisama ( : thou, honorable master) which means you is used nowa­ days to convey that the speaker despises the interlocutor or to express his anger to­ wards him; omahe(=e) ( : yout thou) was used for noble people in ancient times, but is now used either when the speaker disdains the interlocutor, or when he/she wants to signal his/her closeness to the hearer. ❷

Pronouns

Japanese pronouns are, morphosyntactically speaking, particular nouns which indicate directions, places, people and things. We have seen in Section 4.4 that social struc­ tures and pronouns are closely related. They function as pragmatic indicators in that sociolinguistic registers — such as gender, social class, hierarchy, occupation and age

Chapter 7: Conclusions

277

- are involved. An increase in pronouns was observed in the Edo Period (1603-1867); this was most probably due to the hierarchy-based way of referring to the speaker himself/herself/themselves (/, we) and the interlocutor (you). There was also a territorial shift of the second person pronouns to the first person pronouns such as ore ： you /), onore you ■=： > /), and ware ( b ^ : you ■=> /). What led to this shift is a topic on which further research has to be carried out. There were not many third person pronouns in Classical Japanese; the meanings of he/she were basically expressed using nouns which designate places in the sense of over there. This shows that the main focus of discourse was placed on the speaker and the interlocutor, and those who are outside of their territories were peripheral. ❸ Adjectives

Adjectives gained a new status as an independent word class when nouns, which de­ scribe features and the nature of things and people, were coined with the suffix shi ( L ) ，i.e., the /ce/yoi/sh/_adjectives ( 形 容 詞 ）■This opened up a new way of inflecting these lexical items so that they could be agglutinated to other lexemes. This word class evolved and filled the missing inflection forms using the /can-inflection so that in this way the original proper inflection and the /ca厂/-inflection worked complementarily (see 4.5.2). This is a classic example of what linguistics calls paradigm generation. By means of the same device, a new adjective class _ originating from language contact with Chinese 一 was created, namely the /ce/y〇(idoi/s/?/-adjectives ( 形 容 動 詞 ） of the fan-inflection type. Chinese adjectival words, which do not inflect, were combined with the Japanese declarative auxiliary fap/• ( た り ） . In this way，originally noninflectional lexemes were made inflectional in order to adjust them to the morphosyntactic struc­ ture of Japanese. CJ, thus, made a clear morphological differentiation between indig­ enous Japanese lexemes and imported foreign words. This distinction is still observed in MSJ. This means that foreign lexemes went through a filter of morphological pro­ cessing in order to be incorporated into Japanese. As adverbs can be formed from adjectives, this distinction between indigenous and foreign lexemes is also applied to adverbs. Many /ce/y〇£ys/7/-adjectives ( 形 容 詞 ）have been semantically narrowed such as kana*shi ( l : cute, attractive, interesting, sad) with many different meanings; it is now used in the sense of sad. On the other hand, sugo*shi (^$：l : awful) is an example of elevation (a neutral or negative meaning becomes positive), as its cognate sug 〇9i ( 凄 い ）in MSJ means sp/end/d. 〇 Verbs

In CJ, there were nine different inflection types, which were reduced to five in MSJ (see Figure 2). This is an indication of linguistic simplification in the interest of language efriciency. There are also other changes in inflection forms. The sentence terminating form s/7t/iys/?/7ce/( 終 止 : V3A) and the attributive reA?fa/7ce/•( 連 体 形 ：V3B) were united into one form in MSJ (see 4.7.2)，whereas the CJ ™*ze/?/ce/• ( 未 然 形 ：V 1)w as divided into two different forms V1* and V 6 5(see Tables 43 and 44) in MSJ. The total number of inflection forms has, therefore, not changed. However, the unification of two forms (V3A

278

Ghapte 「 了 ： Go门 elusions

and V3B) is an instance of morphosyntactic simplification while a clear distinction of two distinct semantic functions through two different inflection forms (V1 and the newly developed speculative and cohortative form N/6) represents semantic simplification. The sa-hen-verbs end with the vowel /i/ in their s/7m/sW/ce/ ( 終 止 形 ：‘3A’ ）in CJ ， whereas all other verbs end with the vowe けu/. In MSJ ，however，all verbs including the cognates of the sa-/7er?-verbs end with the vowe け u/ in their • ( 終 止 形 ：‘3’). Therefore，we can see that morphological efficiency is achieved through this inflectional unification in MSJ. Additionally, new verbs were created from compounds made up of Chinese and Japanese lexcial items; Chinese noninflectional words, whose semantic meanings cor­ respond to Japanese verbs, are coined using the inflectional Japanese verb s*u ( i \ to do, to carry out) (see 4.7.5.2 and Table 57). ❺ Auxiliaries

The number of auxiliaries decreased their number from 36 (CJ) to 23 (MSJ). Many CJ speculative auxiliaries were discarded, their corresponding semantic functions now be­ ing covered by grammaticalised expressions comprising postpositions, verbs and the contemporary auxiliary na*i ( v' ) such as ni9chigai*nai ( r - % : must, should, mighf), or ka*mo*shirem nai Nt l v' ：can, may). There are also expressions made up of nouns and the contemporary declarative auxiliary da(tz), such as hazu da だ ：s/7〇ty/c〇, sou da ( 予 う だ ：may), and you da ( 上 う だ ：s/7〇"/d ，/r7/sf/7f). As for tense ， the temporative auxiliaries far*/ ( た つ ），/c*en• ( け つ ），r*/ ( つ ）and /c/ ( 5 ) of CJ disappeared; instead, the present-day auxiliary ta ( fz ), which derived from the classical auxiliary fa 厂• / ( た つ ） ，is used. 7"a ( た ）fulfils the functions of past tense marker and perfective aspect marker. The perfective and resultative aspects, which CJ auxiliaries had, are now expressed using compounds such as te*aru ( T #) ^ ), te9iru ( "T v' te.o /o ;( マ お く ）， (マ L ま う ） ，in which the conjunctive postposition fe ( マ ） and the verbs ( ある） ，/ ( い る ），o/c.t;( お く ） ，and sh/ma.ty ( L ま う ）are combined. In other words, the simplification of particular auxiliaries caused the generation of new forms to cover those which had been discarded. A systematic structure of inflection, i.e., AUX 1 (爪 /zen/ce/• [ 未 然 形 ：T ]) to AUX5 (爪 e/ra/ce/ [ 命 令 形 ：‘5’】 )，has also, to a large extent, disappeared in MSJ. Research has still to be undertaken into the mo­ tives for these changes. ❻ Postpositions

The number of postpositions has increased from 56 (CJ) to 80 (MSJ). One reason for this increase might be that the list of CJ postpositions was limited both in place and time; they are based on the language used in the Western part of Japan and in the Heian Period (794-1185). There is also a social restriction in that the existing written materials were produced by and accessible to only those in positions of power at that time. Hence, the number of lexical items appearing in classical texts is highly restricted as regards both time and place. On the other hand, the MSJ list of postpositions is also derived from vernaculars repesenting different sociolects and styles. Over 1000 years have passed since the time the CJ described in this book was used; however, the basic

Chapter 7: Conclusions

279

semantic functions of postpositions have not changed. Present-day postpositions inelude many grammaticalised expressions, which were presumably generated in order to adjust to new language environments. ❼ Conjunctions

Some classical conjunctions such as sate ( ^ T : w e l l b u t n o w n o w th a t ...) and narabini ( i l I -: a n d a n d at the same time] besides ...) are still used, but their use is limited to formal writing. There are also semantic changes of various kinds such as narrowing, elevation or degeneration among these still existing conjunctions. A large number of classical conjunctions have been replaced with grammaticalised expres­ sions today. However, the basic semantic functions shown in Table 83 have not changed. ❽ Exclamatives/lnterjections

Although many of the exclamatives of CJ have disappeared, some such as the Middle Japanese expression otto ( お っ と [o?to]: oops) are still used today. In the case of some exclamatives/interjections, there is a territorial shift from the interlocutor^ terri­ tory (drawing attention to the speaker) to the speaker^ territory (emotions within the speaker's territory), such as waa { b b \ What?, Listen! in CJ; Oh in MSJ), or yareyare ( や れ や れ ：l/l/haf?，/_/ster?/ in CJ; 0/7 no/, 0/7 we// in MSJ). ❾ Honoratives

A significant change is observed in the use of honorifics. CJ has rigid hierarchy-based honorative expressions and their usage was of an absolute nature, i.e., the honorative expressions are fine-grained and differentiated by the hierarchical relations between the speaker and the referent. On the other hand, the use of honorifics in MSJ is not compulsory, and these polite expressions serve primarily to enhance human interac­ tions by indicating mutual respect in discourse. In other words, in ancient times, the distinction between higher, equal, or lower positions of people involved in discourse was made by rigid social conventions, but now it is rather a matter of choice which form one wishes to use. Nowadays, as far as honoratives are concerned, there are fewer distinctions between different degrees of politeness: evidence for the influence of social structures on language.

7.3 General characteristics o f Japanese 7.3.1 Sim plicity vs. complexity Many word classes show a propensity for a morphological shift from complexity to sim­ plicity. Both the verbal and the adjectival inflections have become much less compli­ cated in MSJ, as their paradigmatic inflection structures have — to a great extent — disappeared. The tense and aspect system has become morphologically much simpler. For instance, the auxiliaries /c/ ( 5 ) ，/ce/W ( け り ）， （っ ）， ( ぬ ），ter*/ ( た つ ）， kerrru(=n ) (け U / け ん ），ram9u(=n ) (ら L' / ら ん ），厂a*s/7/ (ら L ) ， ( < ^ 0 ) ，A?ap/ (^' 0 ) all have something to do with tense and aspect. Today, we use only the contem­ porary auxiliary ta (fz ) which functions as the past tense and perfective aspect marker.

280

Ghapter 7: Gonclusions

Likewise, most of the speculative auxiliaries in CJ (nru(=n) [ U / ん ] ，m*u(-nzu) [ L’ ず / ん ず ]， 力 [ じ ] , ke n ru (= r\) [け L V け ん 】 ， [ ベ L ] ，ma*/7 [ ま じ ]，ra n ru (= n ) [ らし、 / ら ん ] ，厂 a*s/7/•[ら L ] ，m erv.[ め り ]，and /?ar*/ [ な' つ ] ) have disappeared; only the contemporary auxiliary rashi*i (b l v'), which derived from the CJ ra*shi ( ^ l ), and beki (ベ J ) deriving from the CJ ねe*s/7/ ( ベ L ) are used for attributive expressions，are employed in MSJ. Fewer lexical items for expressing tense or aspect, or for expressing speculations mean at the same time higher context dependency for understanding utterances. In general terms, this means that a shift to morphological simplicity and a change to semantic complexity are taking place at the same time. Reduction of speculative auxil­ iaries, or dropping of postpositional syntactic markers such as ga subject marker), ha(=w a)( は ：topic marker)，and wo(=o) ( i : object marker), render utterances se­ mantically more complex, resulting in higher context dependency. All these features show that language is just like a living being; when there is a change in an entity and something is discarded, something new is generated and the language is adjusted to the new environment. Therefore, the notions of simplicity and complexity are just like the two sides of a coin; the same linguistic phenomena can be viewed differently depending on the side from which these linguistic developments are observed.

7.3.2 M ultifunctionality, polysemy, and contextuality Multifunctionality in the sense that the same lexical item can have more than one syn­ tactic function can be observed in the use of adverbs, conjunctions, and numeral quan­ tifiers. Some adverbs can function as conjunctions; numeral quantifiers can be used as nouns or adverbs in a sentence. Polysemy, which designates different semantic roles of sentence constituents, can be observed in the use of honorifics. For example, as mentioned in Subsection 5.2, there are some honorific verbs which belong to more than one type of honorific expression, i.e., the sonkei-go respect expression), kenjougo ( 謙 譲 語 ：expression of deference), and te//7e/-gf〇 ( 丁 車 語 ：general interactional politeness on a mutal basis). In the case of postpositions, each postposition generally has more than one syntactic or semantic function; some even have more than five such functions. Multifunctionality and polysemy imply a very considerable degree of context dependency in CJ, a feature which is still retained in MSJ.

7.3.3 Pragmatic markers We have seen in this volume that pronouns, postpositions, and exclamatives/interjections function as pragmatic indicators. They designate social classes, gender, occupa­ tions, and other registers. There was a change in the development of Japanese in that from the Meiji Period (1867-1912) onwards these lexemes began to mark gender (Inoue 2006), whereas there was virtually no such differentiation in CJ until the Edo Period (1603-1867). From the 17th to the middle of the 19th centuries, there arose a language of court ladies called /?y66d-/cofoba ( 女 房 詞 ），or a specific language of women in the pleasure quarters named yujo-go (Endo 2006). At present, a reverse change is taking place in comtemporary spoken Japanese because there are fewer and fewer distinctions between male and female speech.

Chapter 7: Conclusions

281

7.3.4 しanguage filtering fo r adjustment Many linguistic changes have occurred: old linguistic items were discarded and new linguistic forms generated so that language might adjust to new linguistic environments. These features are applicable to both CJ and MSJ. This was possible because foreign elements went through a filtering process and were adapted to the innate structures of Japanese. This process is shown in Figure 16. There are also stable parts within Japanese, i.e., phonological, morphological and syn­ tactic structures. This could be one of the reasons that many linguists say that — com­ pared to German or English — one has a relatively easy access to CJ even though there is a time span o f more than one thousand years between CJ and MSJ. These creative adjustment devices were first established through language contact with Chi­ nese in the 5th century and are used to this very day.

Figure 16: The structure of processing foreign elements into Japanese

[>

Incorporation of processed linguistic elements into Japanese Phonological, morphological and syntactic structures length of speech sounds based on the mora unit

phonemes

graphemes

1manydgana

writing of Japanese using

(万葉仮名)

man’ydgana ( 万 案 假 ^ l )

1invention of hiragana ( ひ ら が な > and

katakana ( カ タ カ ナ ）

lexemes

Classical Chinese

kanji-kana-majin-bun (漢字仮名交じり文） employment of katakana for European lexemes

■ invention of new adjectives usi门 g Si门 oJapanese lexemes

keiyoudoushi-ad\ecW\/es of

■ translations of European words using Chinese characters

neologisms

■ invention of diacritics

the fan-inflection

■ reading Classical Chinese texts in Classical Japanese with the help of diacritics

282

Chapter 7: Conclusions

7.4 Teaching Classical Japanese as a second language (L2) My teaching experience of MSJ and CJ as L2 (second language), and Japanese lin­ guistics have convinced me that it is best to give the learner a new linguistic input which represents a continuation of his/her language learning process. In other words, the learner has already acquired knowledge of how different languages including his/her own mother tongue are structured, and if new elements are introduced on the basis of this previously acquired linguistic knowledge, learning this new language system be­ comes easier. Should certain linguistic structures or semantic meanings not exist in the し1 (the first acquired language)， it must be explained to the learner how such expressions or structures differ between the し1 and し2. This can be done by giving them sufficient information why they differ. Such differences have a great deal to do with human cognition of various world(s). In the case of CJ, the learner will develop an interest in this new language when he/she is given enough information about historical backgrounds, social structures, ways of living, and finally ways of thinking and feeling. This assumption is based on the view that cognition takes place by comparison and judgement. I therefore stress that the teaching of all languages — including classical languages — should have a firm cultural and linguistic base, which, it is hoped, will enhance the learner’s sensibility towards different cultures.

7.5 Concluding remarks A diachronic analysis of Japanese shows very clearly that language is a living thing which adjusts itself to new environments by employing creative linguistic strategies. New linguistic elements go through a filtering process before they are integrated into the phonological and morphosyntactic structures. We have also seen that linguistic strategies are employed to differentiate between indigenous and foreign elements. A language also reflects historical development(s). For example，initially the Western part of Japan was the centre of political and economic power and culture, and thus the language of this region dominated literary works. The Nara (710-784) and Heian Peri­ ods (794-1185) were dominated by nobles and clergymen, whereas in the Kamakura (1192-1333) and Muromachi Periods (1338-1573) politics and culture were centred on the samurai c\ass. Later in the Edo Period (1603-1867), merchants gained economic power in society so that it was their language which was predominant during this pe­ riod. We have also seen that these social and political power relationships are mani­ fested in pronouns and honorifics. Language, therefore, reflects historical interactions in many different ways. This means, at the same time, that we can also construe the ways of perceiving surrounding worlds ancient people might have had by analysing the language used at that time. On the whole, a high degree of flexibility in adapting foreign elements to Japanese without changing its basic linguistic structure and by means of creative filtering has made Japanese linguistically stable. Similarly, geographic condi­ tions — namely that Japan is surrounded by sea and had less direct contact with other countries and people — might have been one of the reasons why CJ and MSJ differ to a relatively small degree.

Terminology Owing to the particularities of the Japanese language, some new technical terms are used in this book. In normal usage they are mainly adjectives, but this book treats them as nouns. This was necessary, because the cases used in Latin, Greek, German, English and other languages do not cover all the functions that part of Japanese lexical items bear. New terms have enabled a systematic description of the syntactic and semantic roles of the Japanese lexemes mentioned in this book. Also definitions given in some monographs, which correspond to the functions of Japanese lexical items, are provided predominantly in their original forms; in this case, the references are given in parentheses. Part of the following explanations is taken from Katsuki ([2003] 2008).

ablative A case expressing the source, which is expressed by from (Blake 1997: 202). acronym A shortened lexical item made up of the initial letters of an expression such as JR for Japan Railways. additive A syntactic and semantic marker designating an addition to something/ somebody. The English adverb too bears this function. Heine and Kuteva (2002:16) also use this term, adhortative See hortative. adverbial In the case of Japanese, an adverb phrase using the verbal TE-form, a postpositional phrase, or other entries (constituents/entities) which function syntactically and semantically as an adverb. adversative A sem antic function marking an opposition to something. English conjunctions such as but, however, and although have this function, affix The general term for prefix, suffix, and infix. affricate A consonantal sound which begins with an alveolar plosive such as [t] and [d] and followed almost simultaneously by a fricative such as [s], [f], [q], or [^]. agent An animate being (a human/an animal) who/which performs an action, agglutination A linguistic feature of affixing morphemes so that they form sequences. For example, in the case of Japanese, many auxiliaries can be attached to a verb one after the other. agreement The term used to describe the relationship between items in a sentence based — in English — primarily on number, person and gender: e .g .，M y b 厂ofhe 厂(3rd person singular) loves (3rd person singular) his (3rd person singular, masculine) baby sister. In the case of Classical Japanese, certain adverbs or postpositions determine which inflection forms have to be used for the predicate. allative A case marking a destination, a goal, or a place sb reaches. A case expressing to (Johnson 1971:4; Blake 1997: 202). Many of the Japanese allative functions involve the English meanings of at, or in, i.e., a point to be reached, allophone A variant of a phoneme. anagram A type o f word play used in Japanese poems with the name of 〇"■/〇; ( 析 句 ). A new word is produced by arranging certain kana graphemes used in a poem, approximant A consonantal speech sound produced by slightly narrowing the vocal tract without completely blocking a flow of air; phonemes such as [I], [r], [j] and [w] are

284

Terminology

included in this category.

aspect A grammatical category which marks the types of temporal features, such as stative (an unchanged situation), iterative (recurrence), progressive (an action in progress), durative (continuation of an action/a situation), habitual (a habit), perfective (an action is completed), imperfective, inceptive (beginning of an action), etc. aspective A semantic case designating aspectual features as mentioned under aspect above.

assumptive A semantic case marking an assumption, attributive The specification of a noun. aversive A label sometimes used for a case indicating what is to be avoided. Another term that has been used is evitative. auxiliary In the case of Japanese, auxiliaries are inflectional suffixes designating various m eanings such as negation, wish, past, passive, causative, honorative, speculation and many others. benefactive A semantic case denoting an animate object which receives a benefit from an action (Starosta 1973: 66; Anderson 1971: 27). bound form A morpheme (the smallest unit of meaning) which can only be used as part of a lexeme and could not be used alone. case A system o f marking dependent nouns for the type of relationships they have to their heads within a sentence. Originally applied to inflectional systems, but currently used for other case systems as well, such as adpositional (postpositional/prepositional), or other linguistic devices for marking cases. Japanese has a postpositional case system, case grammar A grammatical analysis dealing with syntactic and semantic functions, i.e., cases of entities within a clause/sentence. Charles Fillmore's model (1968) of Generative Grammar was a basic case theory in which semantic roles or 'deep cases' were analysed. This and other similar approaches to grammar are referred to collectively as 'case grammar'. case marker An affix that marks a case. In the case of Japanese, postpositions have this function. causative A grammatical construction which conveys the meaning that sb causes sb to do sth. classifier A lexeme indicating which class a noun belongs to. In Japanese, classifiers are used with numerals in order to indicate what type of thing the numeral refers to (see 4.13.3). cohortative See hortative. comitative A semantic case expressing an animate partner involved in an action. In Japanese, this is marked with the postposition fo ( と ） • Anderson (1971:4) and Blake (1997: 202) also use this term. comparative A semantic case marking the object of comparison. compound A type of word formation in which two or more lexical items are combined. concessive A semantic function expressing although. concord See ‘agreement’. conditional A semantic case designating conditions, contrastive A semantic case marking a contrast. conversion A word whose morphological composition is unchanged, but is used

Terminology

285

differently semantically and syntactically. copulative The syntactic function of listing or coordinating items. da-dearu-sty\e A predicate style in Modern Standard Japanese which is the opposite of the desu-masu-s\y\e. Many Japanese textbooks written in English use the term 'informal style' for the da-deara-style, and the terms 'formal style' or 'polite style' for the

desu-masu-sty\e. deixis A term used in pragmatics for the words used to refer to people, things, places, times, etc. in a given situation or context. With Japanese, differentiations are made among temporal, local, personal, directional, social and informational deixis. deontic modality The kinds of modality expressing obligation, permission and prohibition. derivation A word which is derived from other word classes, but is used differently semantically and syntactically; its morphological components are partially changed, desiderative A semantic case designating a wish by somebody. desu-masu-sty\e A predicate form in Modern Standard Japanese, disjunctive An expression denoting a choice between one of the two given possibilities, such as A o 厂B. durative An aspectual concept indicating an action or a state which stays unchanged over a period of time. emotive A semantic-pragmatic case indicating emotions of an animate object, entry A constituent within a sentence. epistemic modality The kind of modality expressing assumptions based on knowledge and belief. In English, epistemic properties are expressed with modals such as must, may, might, etc., which denote probability or possibility. essive A case indicating location. The more common term is locative (Blake 1997:

202). evidential A speculation based on convincing evidence, evitative See aversive. exclam ative A lexical item which expresses human emotions, viz. interjection, free form A morpheme which can be attached to/detached from other morphemes, fricative A type of consonant which is articulated by constricting the flow of air from

the lungs. As the air passes through the constriction a kind of friction is produced, final A case indicating an aim or a purpose. finative A case denoting something which is striven for (Tarvainen 1985: 26). genitive A case marking a possessor of something. gram m atical case A case that encodes purely syntactic relations of entities to one another within a sentence. graphem e The smallest contrastive unit of writing. graphem ics The study of writing systems. hatsu-onbin A phonological change in the Japanese language (see 4.7.7.3). Hepburn-system A transcription system developed for Japanese by J. Hepburn (18151911), which was first introduced in his publication tVa-e/-gf〇r/V7-s/7«}se/• ( 和 英 語 抹 集 成 ） • in 1886 (Ogawa et a l. 1989: 507). hiatus The interruption of a sound between two vowels, such as co-operation. hierarchy A classification involving ranking into successively subordinate levels, e.g.,

286

Terminology

a person hierarchy: 1st>2nd>3rd. hojo-doushi A grammaticalised verb in Japanese which is used in compounds and expresses primarily honorative meanings. hom onym In the case of Japanese, words which have the same sounds and same kana graphmes but with different meanings. It is a form of word play used in Japanese

poems and is called kakushi-dai ( 聰

題

：1hidden theme’） .

In the case of Japanese, words which are pronounced in the same way, but are written with different graphemes and therefore have different meanings, honorative A case indicating polite attitudes of the speaker towards the interlocutor or the addressee. honorific A pragmatic marker designating the speaker’s respect for his/her interlocutor, hortative A case which designates an exhortation meaning let's. The speaker urges his/her interlocutor to act in a certain way along with the speaker. Some linguists use the term adhortative (Aitchison 2001:113) or cohortative. This book uses cohortative. /-adjective Keiyoushi-ad\eci\\/e: An inflectional category of Japanese adjectives. They are predicative. illative A place to be reached through the movement of getting into somewhere, inflection A system for marking a word with grammatical categories, such as case, number, aspect and tense. In Japanese, inflections occur when inflectional suffixes (called 'auxiliaries' in School Grammar), postpositions or nouns are agglutinated to verbs, keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es or other inflectional suffixes. In contrast to English, they do not mark case, number, or gender, but they can designate other functions such as aspect and tense. instrumental A case expressing the means by which an activity is carried out (Blake: 202). The case of the inanimate force or object causally involved in the action of state identified by the verb (Fillmore 1968). Tarvainen uses the term instrumentative (Tarvainen 1985:1). intensifier An expression used to emphasise a statement. i-onbin A phonological change in Japanese (see 4.7.7.2). irrealis A semantic function expressing some kind of unreality. English uses the term ‘counterfactual’. iterative An action or happening which occurs repeatedly. kakari-musubi no housoku A grammatical agreement in Classical Japanese in which specific lexemes determine the inflection forms of the predicate; it exercises a forwards restriction (see 4.9.4.1). kana Japanese graphemes which are the simplified forms of specific Chinese characters and are used as phonograms. kanbun Classical Chinese texts to which small special symbols, numbers and kana graphemes have been added so that one can read them in Classical Japanese. keigo A Japanese term for honorifics. fre/yousAi/-adjective A kind of inflectional adjective in Modern Standard and Classical Japanese (see 4.5.2). The term /-adjective is frequently used in second language teaching. keiyoudoushi-ad'\ect\\/e A kind of inflectional adjective in Classical Japanese (see 4.5.3). The term na-adjective is frequently used in second language teaching. hom ophone

Terminology

287

kenjougo A kind of honorific which designates the speakers humble attitudes towards the interlocutor or the addressee. ku-gohou The nominalisation of verbs in Classical Japanese involving a phonological deletion process (see 4.7.8). lexeme An item of vocabulary. light verb A verb which is not used in its intrinsic meaning but is used to convert a word into a verbal form. In the case of Japanese light verbs, however, their intrinsic meaning of to do is still contained in most cases. The Japanese sa-/?eA?-verbs ( サ 变 ）of Classical Japanese as well as the suru-\/erbs of Modern Standard Japanese have this characteristic: by combining the verb s*u (Classical Japanese) or suru (Modern Standard Japanese) with a noun, a large number of verbal compounds can be formed, e.g., sasen，s*u ( 左 遂 彳 • to degrade sb, to demote sb，to relegate sb) or chekku-suru (to check), etc. local cases Cases encoding roles relating to position/location or change of position such as source, path, destination (Blake 1997: 202). locative The case which identifies the location or spatial orientation of the state or action identified by the verb (Fillmore 1968). A case denoting a place (Tarvainen 1985: 30). modality Sentient feelings or stances of an animate object towards something/somebody. m odifier An element of a sentence which describes something more concretely. mora A term used in metrical phonology meaning a unit o f phonological length. In traditional metrics, a mora is the smallest unit of metrical time. m orphem e The smallest segment of meaning. m orphology The study of word structure. m orphosyntax The study of word and sentence structure. m ultiple case The term used for the appearance of more than two case markers attached to a noun. na-adjective Keiyoudoushha&\ect\\/e: a category of Japanese adjective and a term used in Modern Standard Japanese. They are not inflectional. In combination with the copula da/dearu/desu, it can form the predicate of a clause/sentence. nom inalisation A linguistic structural change in which a sentence is changed to a noun by using specific linguistic devices. In the case of Japanese, a sentence can be nominalised by the postposition /?〇 ( の ）or pseudo-nouns such as /coto ( こ と / ♦ ) • In Classical Japanese, the to-gro/701/ ( ク 語 法 ）is also used (see 4.7.8). object A syntactic case which refers to the direct object. paradigm The set of substitutable relationships a linguistic unit has with other units in a particular context (Crystal 1999: 249). A set of linguistic forms that have a vertical relationship. For example, in the sentence My mother has bought a new coat, any one of the lexemes can be replaced by another of similar, contrasting or more specific meaning:

mother sister father

has

bought purchased decided on

a

new red winter

coat jacket jacket

288

Terminology

The so-called ko-so -ka -syste m o f Classical Japanese pronouns as well as the pronominal ko-so-a-do-system of Modern Standard Japanese are examples of such a system. paradigmatic relationship The vertical relationship demonstrated above, perfective An aspect form which implies attainment of the terminal point of an action or situation. p erlative A case encoding a path. Blake (1997: 204) defines this term as a case expressing through} across, or along. Anderson (1971:4) uses the terms prosecutive for a movement which goes through somewhere, and prolative for a path. phonem e The smallest segment of sound which can make a difference in meaning. Phonemes are marked using two slashes such as /t/, /p/, etc. phonetics The study of speech sounds; concerned with their classification, production, perceptionandacousticanalyses. phonogram A symbol in a writing system which represents a speech sound, phonology The study of sounds/phones and their relationship to one another, phonotactics Sequential arrangements of phonological units such as vowel and consonant phonemes within a morpheme/lexeme/word. plosive A consonant which is produced by stopping the airflow from lungs in the vocal tract. polysem y The characteristic of having more than one meaning, possessive A case marking a possessor/owner of something, potentialis A grammatical category which expresses that sb can do sth. pragmatics An area of linguistic study which deals with factors influencing the choice of language the speaker selects in a social context and its influence on the addressee, predicate A constituent of a clause/sentence in Japanese. It is placed at the end of the clause/sentence. It represents a comment on the topic, which is usually mentioned at the beginning o f the clause/sentence. Verbs, /ce/yoas/7/-adjectives, and nouns/ keiyoudoushi-a6'\ect\\/es in combination with the copula da/dearu/desu can form a predicate in Japanese. predicative A constituent which can form the predicate of a sentence, progressive An aspectual feature expressing incomplete action in progress at a time in the present, past or future. prohibitive A semantic case designating a prohibition. prolative A term used by John Anderson (1971:4) encoding a path with the meaning of alonglover. pronoun A lexical item which can substitute a noun. proxim ative An aspectual function designating that somebody is on the verge of doing something. purposive A case marking a purpose. quantifier A lexical unit indicating quantities of something. quantitative A semantic function marking a quantity of something. quotative A semantic function indicating a citation/quotation. rentaishi-ad\ect\ve A non-predicative category of Japanese adjectives, therefore only used as an attribute of nouns. restrictive A semantic function marking a restriction.

Terminology

289

resultative A case marking either a result of an action/a happening/a change, or an on-going situation/state brought about by actions/happenings. Blake (1994: 207) points out that the translative case in Finnish refers to the end point of a change of state. In this sense, both terms resultative and translative designate the same semantic function, scram bling A syntactic phenomonon in which sentence constituents change their position within a sentence. sem antic case A case that encodes the purely semantic relations of entities in a

S6门t0nc©. sem antic feature A semantic component of a lexeme. A sememe, sentence A composition using different constituents. Syntactic subjects, syntactic

objects, adverbials/adverbs, postpositional phrases, counter units, and predicates are such constituents o f Japanese sentences. As far as word order is concerned, the predicate has to be placed at the end of a sentence, but the rest of the constituents can be arranged in a variety of ways (so-called scrambling) depending on what the speaker wants to stress. Also, omission of such constituents is feasible, whereas, the predicate cannot be deleted. This book sometimes does not differentiate between the term clause and the term sentence. Both of them are referred to as 'sentences'. Therefore, the main sentence corresponds to the main clause, and the subordinate sentence means subordinate clause in English grammar. This facilitates explanations of Japanese sentence structures. sociolect A language specific to certain social groups, such as a language spoken among children, young/older, uneducated/educated people, or those belonging to various groups of occupations. soku-onbin A phonological change in Japanese (see 4.7.7.4). speculative A semantic case marking a speculation. stative An aspect form indicating a state of affairs. superlative A semantic case denoting the highest/largest of something. suppositional A speculative expression which is subjectively motivated. suprasegm ental features The aspect of the sound-system of a language above the level of the phoneme (known technically as a segment) such as stress, intonation, tone and pitch. syntagma A set of linguistic forms/items which are related to each other in sequence, i.e., horizontally. The word order in Kore wa hon desu is an example: this sentence has a meaning only when the entities occur in this sequence. syn tag m atic relation The relationship between the items of a text at syntactic or surface-structural level. syntactic case A case that marks a syntactic relationship to other entities/constituents of 3 sentence. syncretism A linguistic phenomenon in which more than two functionally distinct roles, whether it is of a syntactic or semantic nature, are integrated in one form, syntax The study of rules and regularities, which govern the arrangements of words or clauses, in order to form statements conveying meaning. taigen-dome A stylistic technique of ending the nominal predicate without the copula ( な 0 ) or faW ( た り ）in Classical Japanese, or da ( だ ），desty ( ず す ）or deanv ( で あ る ) in Modern Standard Japanese.

290

Terminology

TE-form A verbal inflection form used to create many different sentence structures; this term is used primarily in the second language teaching (L2) of Modern Standard Japanese. Te ( T ) is a conjunctive postposition which has many semantic functions. In Classical Japanese, it is placed after the 厂enV 〇u/ce/• ( 連 用 : K2/KD2/V2/AUX2) of all inflectional words; in Modem Standard Japanese, the go-dar?-verbs ( 五 段 浩 用 動 詞 ） have their own particular inflections when the conjunctive postposition te ( マ ）is agglutinated to them. teineigo A kind of honorific which is addressed to the interlocutor, tem porative A case marking time. This term is used by Tarvainen (1985: 31). topic The theme of a statement. Tarvainen uses the term th e m a tiv e (Tarvainen 1981: 16). topic raising The presentation of the theme of a statement. typology A linguistic discipline dealing with classification of languages based upon

their structures. For example, when we take word order as a basis for classification, Japanese is a SOV (subject-object-verb)-language, whereas English is a SVO (subjectverb-object)-language. u-onbin A phonological change in Japanese (see 4.7.7.1). V1 to V6'-inflection Verbal inflection used to create many different sentence structures or nominal compounds. This is one of the two key verbal inflection systems — 'V1 to V6'-inflection and TE-inflection — in Modern Standard Japanese, volitional Involvement 一 an ‘all of will’ 一 in an activity on the part of the agent. waka Japanese poetry; a special form of a poem composed of thirty-one morae.

References References are divided into two sections: firstly, monographs and articles used for the grammatical descriptions and analyses in this book; secondly, primary sources used for the example sentences in the book. English translations of titles — which are given in parentheses 一 are based on the contents of each article or monograph and are not direct translations; they are all this author’s own. The Hepburn transcription system is used for Japanese names and expressions; the long vowels are, therefore, marked by the vowel lengthening diacritic (A) above vowels: a, /, u, e, and 6; the capital city of Japan is however written conventionally without this: Tokyo. Should a monograph have been published as a new edition or as a reprint, the year of publication of the first edition is indicated in square brackets [ ] within the round parentheses ( ) ; i.e., the notation ([1954]1987) means that the work first appeared in 1954, but that the 1987 edition was used for this monograph. Publications in Japanese are indicated in two ways: first in transcription in the しatin alphabet and then in Japanese graphemes わ/厂aga/?a and katakana and in Chinese characters, kanji. Date of publication and page numbers are given after the transcribed title. Articles and monographs appear in the Japanese quotation m a rk s :「 」for articles a n d 『』for monographs.

I. References used in the monograph Aitchison, Jean ([1 9 8 1 ]2001): Language Change. 3rd. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Anderson, John M . (1971): The Grammar o f Case. Towards a Localistic Theory. Lon­ don and New York: Cambridge University Press. Blake, Barry (1994): Case. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, David (1997): The Cambridge Encyclopedia o f Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Endo, Kunimoto (1989: ): •Hiragana no kino no rekishi (A history of the functions of hiragana)\ In: Kenji Morioka et al.: Koza Nihongo-gaku 6: Gendai-hyoki to no shiteki-taisho (Lectures on Japanese Linguistics Volume 6: Contemporary Orthog­ raphy in a Diachronic Approach), 84-111. Tokyo: Meiji-shoin. 遠 藤 •蚤 基 「レ い 《な の 機 能 の 歴 史 」 （ 森 岡 健 二 他 編 集 『講 座 日 本 語 学 f 現代表t己 との史的対照』 胡治書院）

Endo, Orie (2006): A Cultural History of Japanese Womens Language. Ann Arbor: The Regents of the University of Michigan. Pp. 40-56. Fillmore, Charles (1968): The Case for Case*. In: Bach and Harms (eds.): Universals in Linguistic Theories. New York: Holt, Rinehard, and Winston. Pp. 1-88. Fillmore, Charles (1987): Case Grammar. Heidelberg: Groos. Haarmann, Harald (1989): Symbolic Values o f Foreign Language Use. From the Japa­ nese Case to a General Sociolinguistic Perspective. BerlirrNew York: Mouton de Gruyter Habein, Yaeko Sato (1984): A history o f Japanese written language. Tokyo: University ot lokyo Press.

References

292

Hayashi, Oki (1972): Tenka no jodoshi (Grammaticalised auxiliary verbs)*. In: Suzuki, Kazuhiko & Hayashi, Oki (eds.): Hinshibetsu Nihonbunpo-koza 8: Jodoshi II (Japa­ nese Grammar Classified by Word Classes. Volume 8: Auxiliary Verbs II), 167198. Tokyo: Meiji-shoin. 抹 巨 樹 「 輕化の肋動詞」（ 鈐 木 一 彦 、抹 巨 樹 『品 詞 別 日 本 文 法 講 座 5 肋 動 詞 （丨丨)』 明治書院）

Heine, Bernd & Kuteva, Tania (2002): World lexicon o f grammaticalization. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Hida, Yoshifumi (1972): *Kanry6 no joddshi (Auxiliary verbs designating the perfect tense)1. In: Suzuki, Kazuhiko & Hayashi, Oki (eds.): Hinshibetsu Nihonbunpo-koza 8: Jodoshi II (A Japanese Grammar Classified by Word Classes. Volume 8: Auxiliary Verbs II), 25-69. Tokyo: Meiji-shoin. 飛 田 良 文 「完 了 の 助 動 詞 」 （ 鈐 木 一 ;f 、 抹 巨 樹 『品 詞 別 日 本 文 法 講 座 < 5 助 動 詞 (11)』 明 治 書 院 ) Ide, Itaru (1973): 'Setsuzoku-shi to wa nani ka (What are conjunctions?)*. In: Suzuki, Kazuhiko & Hayashi, Oki (eds.): Hinshibetsu Nihonbunpd-koza 6: Setsuzokushi* Kandoshi (A Japanese Grammar Classified by Word Classes. Volume 6: Conjunc­ tions and Exclamatives/Interjections), 65-88. Tokyo: Meiji-shoin. 井 出 至 「 接繞詞とは何り、 」 （ 錄 木 一 寿 、 抹 巨 樹 『品 詞 別 日 本 文 法 講 座 6 接 統 詞 • 感動詞』明治書院）

Ide, Risako & Terada Tomomi (1998): T h e historical origins o f Japanese w om ens speech: from the secluded worlds of court ladies and play ladies'. In: Ide, Sachiko & Hill, Beverly (eds.): International Journal o f the Sociology o f Language 129. Womens Languages in Various Parts o f the World. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. P p .139-156. Ikegami， Akihiko (1972): ‘Daimeishi no hensen (Diachronic Changes of Pronouns)’ 」 n: Suzuki, Kazuhiko & Hayashi, Oki (eds.): Hinshibetsu Nihonbunpo-koza 2: Meishi* Daimeishi (A Japanese Grammar Classified by Word Classes. Volume 2: Nouns and Pronouns), 124-162. Tokyo: Meiji-shoin. 池 上 秋 考 「 代名詞の变 遷」 （ 錄 木 一 彦 、 抹 巨 樹 『品 詞 別 日 本 文 法 講 座 2 名 詞 • 代 名詞』 明治書院）

Inoue, Kazuko (1989): Nihon-bunpo-sho-jiten (A Concise Lexicon of Japanese Grammar). Tokyo: Taishukan. 井 上 和 子 『日 本 文 法 小 爭 典 』 大 修 館

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2. Primary sources for example sentences used in the monograph Abbreviations for the books below are indicated in parentheses, such as (SNKBT 62); SNKBT is an acronym (a shortened form of an expression using the initial letters of each word) and stands for the title of the book S/?/>7-yV/770A?-/coteA7-btyA7ga/ay-fa//ce/ (新日 本 古 典 文 学 大 系 ：A New Anthology of Classical Japanese Literature) while the numeral 62 indicates the volume number. I have used the abbreviation ed. or eds. for ‘editor(s)’ in this section of references. However, these are not used in the conventional English sense as they refer to the scholars who annotate the literary work referred to. Arai，日 z6 and Kojima，Noriyuki (eds.) (1992): S/?/n-/7/tor7-/coten-bunga/o/イa/7ce/ 5; Ko/c/nwaka-shu. Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten. 折 井 栄 簌 • 小 烏 憲 之 校 洋 『新 日 本 古 典 文 学 大 系 5 古 今 和 歌 集 』 岩 波 書 店 (SNKBT 5)

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302

R8f6「 6 门 C6S

Shin-kokin-wakashu. Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten. 田中裕•赤瀬信吾校： ;主 『新 日 本 古 典 文 学 大 系 析 古 今 和 歌 集 』 岩 波 書 店 (SNKBT11) Watanabe, Minoru (ed.) (1991): Shin-nihon-koten~bungaku-taikei 25: Makura no soshi Tokyo: Iwanami-shoten. 渡 边 笑 他 『新 日 本 古 典 文 学 大 系 2 5 枕 萆 子 』 岩 波 書 店 （ SNKBT 25)

Index A abbreviations iii additives (CNJ) 222-223 adjectives 65-77 differences between adjectives in CJ andM SJ 35 keiyoudoushi-ad]ect\\/es 73-77 keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es 66-73 r e /7fa /s /7/-a d je c tiv e s 65-66 a d ju s ta b ility o f

keiyoushi-ad\ectNes

68 -

71 adverbial postpositions 183-185 functions 184-185 adverbials See adverbs, adverbs 207-218 ablative adverbs/adverbials 214 agreement with other lexical items 212-215 compounds (ADV) 211-212 conversions (ADV) 211 degree adverbs/adverbials 214 derivational adverbs 208-211 intensifier adverbs/adverbials 216 interrogative adverbs/adverbials 216 manner adverbs 216 morphosyntactic classification (ADV) 207-212 multifunctionality (ADV) 217-218 polysemy 217-218 semantic classification (ADV) 214217 temporal adverbs/adverbials 216 true adverbs 207-208 adversatives (CNJ) 224 agglutination 25-27; 138-144 (AUX) anagram 267 auxiliaries 121-162 agglutination 138-144 AUX be 厂anar*/ ( ベ ら な り ） 150

AUX ( ベ L ) 130 , 150 AUX gofo/oyrar*/( ご と く な つ ） 13〇 150 AUX gofers /?/( ご と L ) 151 A U X （ふ ） 144,151 AUX;7( U* ) 1 3 0 , 1 5 1 AUX kem*u(=n) ( け U / け ん ） 130, 151 AUX /cera*s/?/ ( け ら L ) 144, 151-152 AUX/cerv• ( け り ） 152 AUX/c/( f ) 144,152 AUX (ま |i L )152-153 AUX ma•ノ• / ( ま じ ） 153 AUX ma*shi ( t l ) 1 4 4 ,153 AUX m e W ( め り ） 153-154 AUX nru(=n) ( L’ / ん ） 1 4 4 ,154 AUX n a r* /( な り ） 154-155 A U X n a W ( な り ） 155 hafsu-onb/n ( 撥 音 便 ） 82-84 AUX r r u ( ^ ) 155 AUX ram.uf=n) ( ら tJ / ら ん ） 155156 AUX rar^u h ) 144,156 AUX 厂a*s/?/(ら L ) 130,156 AUX 厂a y a ( ら ゆ ） 144, 156-157 A U X r* /(” 144,157 A U X p u ( る ） 144,157 AUX （さ す ） 144, 157-158 AUX shim^u ( I t ：) 158 AUX ( - t ) 144,158 A U X s *fv ( す ） 158-159 A U X fa W ( た り ） 144,159 AU X te/W ( た り ） 159 AUX ta ， shi•(た V ) 159-160 AUX ten;( っ ） 144,160 AUX vau(-6)nar^i ( や う な 、り ） 130 160-161 AUX y u ( ^ ) 144,161 A U X z 〜 （ず ） 161 complementarity 138-144

Index

304

concord (AUX) 124-125 conflation of functions 130-131 functions 128-129 general features of auxiliaries 122125 inflection categories 131,162 inflection forms 132-137 inflection types 139-143,162 limited temporality 144 morphology 122-125 morphosyntactic markers 126-129 pragmatic markers 126-129 semantic functions 150-160 semantics of auxiliaries 125-127

B t o ( ば ）（P P ) 179 ,1 8 8 , 195,196-197 bakari( ) (PP) 184,195 baya ( [ 1 > ) ( P P ) 191,195

C case-marking PPs 168, 174-177 functions 175-177 chouka(-k^) 259 c/?t/iy/co ( 中 古 ） 5 chause/ ( 中 世 ） 5 classical expressions used in MSJ 35-36 classifications adjectives 65 adverbs 2 07,21 4-217 auxiliaries: functions 128-129 auxiliaries: inflections 1 3 1 ,162 Classical Japanese 5-6 conjunctions 220-221, 221-226 exclamatives/interjections 227-228 honoratives 243 phonological changes 79-80 postpositions 164-165, 168-169 pronouns 43-44 rhetoric 259-260 verbs 87 classifiers (CF) 238-239

c o m p le m e n ta rity

70;138-144 (AUX)

c o m p le m e n ta rity o f p ro p e r in fle c tio n a n d /ca n -in fle ctio n o f /ce/y o i/s /7/-a d je c tiv e s

69-71 compounds (ADV) 211-212 compounds (CNJ) 221 co 门cord adverbs 212-214 auxiliaries 124-125 postpositions 178-183 conflation of functions ( A U X ) 130-131 conjunctions 219-226 additives (CNJ) 222-223 adversatives (CNJ) 224 categorisation 220-221 compounds (CNJ) 221 conversions (CNJ) 220 copulatives (CNJ) 224-225 derivation (CNJ) 220 disjunctives (CNJ) 225 examples of conjunctions features (CNJ) 219-220 manner (CNJ) 225 morphological categorisation (CNJ) 220-221 semantic classification (CNJ) 221226 temporatives (CNJ) 226 topic change (CNJ) 226 conjunctive PPs 186-189 consonants 16, 20-22 consonants [?>] and [cfe] 21-22 contents xv-xx co 门versio 门s adverbs 211 conjunctions 220 nouns 40 copulatives (CNJ) 224-225 counting system 236-238

D dan/• ( だ I t ) ( P P ) 184,195 de ( ず ）（P P ) 175,188,195

Index

degree adverbs/adverbials 214 demonstrative pronouns 54-64 deontic modality 126-128 derivations (ADV) 208-211 derivations (CNJ) 220 descriptions of word classes 37-242 adjectives 65-77 adverbs 207-218 auxiliaries 121-162 conjunctions 219-226 exclamatives/interjections 227-234 nouns 39-41 numeral quantifiers 235-241 postpositions 163-206 pronouns 43-65 verbs 87-119 disjunctives (CJN) 225 do ( ど ）（PP) 188,196 c/o /770 ( ビ も ）（ P P ) 1 8 8 ,196 double consonants /kw/ and /gw/ 20-21 E ellipsis of referents 182-183 emotive modality 126-128 engo ( 緣 語 ） 265-266 epistemic modality 126-128 example sentences 9-10 examples conjunctions 223 classifiers 241 engo 265 exclamatives/interjections 228-229, 232-234 kami-ichi-verbs ( 上 一 ） 101 /cam/•ィ7/-verbs ( 上 二 ） 96 keiyoudoushi-adjectives 76-77 keiyoushi-adjectives 71

kigo 270 kireji 272 makura-kotoba 261 quantifiers 240 ra-/?e/?-verbs 110 exclamatives 227-234

305

classification (EXC/INJ) 227-228 examples (EXC/INJ) 228-229, 232-234 interjections and literature 228 morphological features (EXC/INJ) 230-231 phonological features (EXC/INJ) 230-231 semantic features (EXC/INJ) 231232 exercise (orthography) 22-24 F features auxiliaries 122-125 conjunctions 219-220 exclamatives/interjections 230-232 honoratives 244-245 pronouns 44-45 figures x ftz/oy-yos/?/ ( 1リ 助 詞 ） 16 8 ,183-185 functions adverbial postpositions 184-185 auxiliaries 128-129 case-marking postpositions 175177 conjunctive postpositions 188-189 modality-expressing postpositions Type 1 1 9 1 -1 9 3 modality-expressing postpositions Type 2 194 numeral quantifiers 239 postpositions 195-206 quantifiers 239 syntactic-semantic postpositions 179

G ga ( が ）（P P ) 175,188 , 191,196

gakkd-bunpd ( 字 炊 欠 法 ） 236 gamo ( が も ）（P P ) 191,196

gana ( 力くな）（PP) 184, 191,196

Index

306

genres of wa/ca ( 和 歌 ） 259-260 go-s/7/c/7/-c/7〇i ；( 五 七 調 ） 268-269 graphemes 17-20

H ha(=wa) ( I I ) (PP)

179, 191, 196-197 Haguri Y6sai ( 羽 果 坪 齋 ） 219 Hashimoto Shinkichi ( 橋 本 進 吉 ） 236 /?afsu-onbin ( 撥 音 使 ） 82-85; 115-117 座 ( へ ）（P P ) 175,197 hiatus 15-16 /7〇yod〇6/s/7/( 補 肋 動 詞 ） 247, 255 /7〇r?/ca-c/or/( 本 歌 取 り ） 266-267 homonym 267 honoratives 243-257 classification 243 features 244-245 hoyodous/?/( 補 助 動 詞 ） 247, 255 honorative verbs 256-257 /cenyoi/go( 謙 譲 語 ） 243 multiple honorifics 246-250

sonkefgo ( 貧 敬 語 ） 243 teineigo ( 了 年 語 ） 243 the highest degree of respect 250251 verbal compounds 251-254

inflections abbreviations of inflection forms 88 categories ( A U X ) 131,162 exceptional inflections 146-147 inflection categories and types 162 inflection forms T t o ‘5’ 32-33 auxiliaries 132-137 keiyoudoushi-3d\eci\\/es 74-75 verbs 90, 94, 97, 9 9 ,1 0 0 ,102, 1 0 4 ,1 0 6 ,108,109 inflectional and noninflectional word classes 34

ka-hen inflection 104 kami-ichi inflection 100 kami-m inflection 97 keiyoushhad\ect\\je inflection 67-71 na-hen inflection 108 ra-hen inflection 109 sa-hen inflection 106 shimo-ichi inflection 102 shimo-ni inflection 99 yodan-inflection 94 interjections See exclamatives. interrogative adverbs/adverbials 216 introduction 1-10 /-onW/7(イ 音 伏 ） 81-82; 113-115 irregular verbs 102-110 irregularity (AUX) 146-147

J Japanese grammar 37-38 Japanese technical terms 148-149 ゾo-/cofoわa ( / f 詞 ） 263-265 ゾosmvs/7/ ( 助 狄 詞 ） 238-241

jo u d a i( 上

代

）5

K t o ( ぃ ）（P P ) 1 7 9 ,1 8 0 ,1 8 5 ,191,197 允a -/7e n in fle c tio n ( 力 变 沽 用 ） 104 verbs ( 力 变 活 用 動 詞 ） 102-105

kakan-jos/v• ( 係 劝 詞 ） 168, 174-177 kakari-musubino housoku ( 係 結 び の 法 178-183 /ca/ce-/cotojba ( 掛 詞 ） 262-263 /ca/〇y-70s/7/ ( 将 助 詞 ） 168,174-177 則 ）

kakushi-dai ( 德 题 ） 267 Zcam/WcA?/inflection ( 上 一 R 活 用 ） 100 /cam/-/c/7/verbs ( 上 一 R 活 用 動 詞 ） 100102 a list of /cam/-/ch/' verbs ( 上 一 ） 101 /can?/-n/inflection ( 上 二 R 活 用 ） 97 /cam/-n/verbs ( 上 二 段 活 用 動 詞 ） 95-98 a list of /ca/77/-n/verbs ( 上 二 ） 96 /camo い 、も ）（P P ) 1 7 9 ,1 9 1 ,197

Index

/cara け 、な ）（P P ) 191,197 /cantoiy-yos/7/ (間 投 劝 詞 ） 194 /ca厂a い 、ら ）（P P ) 17 5 ,18 8 ,197-198 /can-inflection 69-71 (the) /canMnflection of /ce/yous/?/-adjectives 69-71 semantic difference between the proper and /can-inflection 71- 72 syntactic difference between the proper and /can-inflection 72- 73 /c a s W (^ l ) ( P P ) 185,191,198 /catet/te ( 片 歌 ） 259 /caya い 、や ）（P P ) 191,198 /ce/y o u d 〇L/s /7/-a d je c tiv e s ( 形 容 動 詞 ）

73-77 evolution of keiyoudoushi-ad\eci\\/es 75 examples of Ke/yotydoiys/7/-adjectives 76-77 /?ateiy-o/7わ//7 ( 撥 音 使 ） 84 inflection forms of keiyoudoushiadjectives 74-75 Zce/yoiis/?/しadjective ( 形 容 詞 ） 66-73 examples 71 exceptional inflections 73 /7atei/-〇A?/)/n( 撥 音 使 ） 84-85 /ca厂/-inflection 69-71 to-inflection 71 proper keiyoushi-'m^ecWon 68-69 semantic differences between /ce/yo iys/7/-a d je c tiv e s o f

ku- a n d

s /7/7c t/-in fle c tio n ty p e s

71-72 s/7//cu-inflection 72-73 kenjougo ( ) 243 /c/go ( 李 語 ） 269-271

kinsei( 近

世

）5

Zc/rey/• ( 切 れ 字 ） 271-272 a list of • ( 切 れ 字 ） 272 K6-nihon-bunten ( 広 日 本 文 典 ） 236 /coso ( こ ャ ）（PP) 1 7 9 ,180,192, 194 ， 198

307

/oyg/re ( 句 切 れ ） 268-269 to-gro/701/ ( ク 語 法 ） 118-119 /cty-inflection 71

L L2 282 language change 276-279 lexemes 38 lingustic terminology 6 literary works 6-8 long vowels 15-16

M made (ま 丫 ）（P P ) 1 8 5 ,1 9 2 ,198 ma/〇yra-/cofoba ( 枕 詞 ） 260-262 referents 261 manner (ADV) 216-217 manner (CNJ) 225 m anydgana ( T 葉 が な ） 11-13

me丨 reikei ( 命 令 形 ） 32-33 m izenkei( 朱 然 形 ） 32-34 爪o

( も ）（P P ) 1 7 9 ,1 8 8 ,1 9 2 ,198-199 modality deontic modality (AUX) 126-128 emotive modality (AUX) 126-128 epistemic modality (AUX) 126-128 postpositions 190-194 modality-expressing postpositions of Type 1 1 9 0 -1 9 3 functions 191-193 modality-expressing postpositions of Type 2 194 functions 194 moga い が ）（P P ) 192,199 /7?ogra/77〇 ( も が も ）（PP) 1 9 2 ,199 mogana ( も が な ）（PP) 192,199 mono/cara ( もの々、ら ）（P P ) 1 8 8 ,199 m onokaha(-wa)( ものり、は ）（PP) 192 ， 199 /770A 70A 7 0 ( も の の ）（ PP) 1 8 8 ,199 monowo(=o)( も の を ）（PP) 188, 192 ， 199-200 Morishige Satoshi ( 森 重 敏 ） 236

308

Index

morphological analysis of verbs 110-113 morphological categorisation (CNJ) 220-

221 morphologcial change 89-93, 113-119 morphological features (EXC/INJ) 230231 morphological segmentation 3-5 morphology of auxiliaries 122, 124-125 morphosyntactic functions (QTF) 239 morphosyntactic markers ( A U X ) 126-129 morphosyntax 25-36 multifunctionality (ADV) 217-218 multifunctionality ( P P ) 1 6 5 ,170-171 multiple honorifcs 246-250

N r a ( な、）（P P ) 175,192-193, 200 な ビ ）（ P P ) 185,200 nagra厂a ( な が ら ）（PP) 188, 200 na-hen inflection 108 /?a-/7eA7 verbs ( ナ 变 沽 用 動 詞 ） 107-108 パ な t ：/ な ん ）（ P P ) 17 9 ,180 ， 193, 200-201

nado (

nari-ke丨 youdoushf-adjectives リ浩用）

nasals

(形 容 動 詞 ナ

73-75

16-17

n / ( l て）（PP) 1 7 5 -1 76 ,1 89 ,193,201 n/sWga ( I : い ” （P P ) 193, 201 n/shigana ( 丨二 l が な ）（P P ) 193, 201 /7/fe ( に マ ）（P P ) 176, 202 r? o ( の ）（P P ) 176,19 3,202 A7〇m/’ （の み ）（P P ) 185, 202 noun 39-41 noun conversion 40-41 numerals 236-238 numeral classifiers 238-239 numeral quantifiers 235-241 classifiers (CF) 238-239 counting system 236-238 examples (CF) 241 examples (QTF) 240 morphosyntactic functions 239 numerals 236-238

(a) short history (QTF) 235-236 O omission of constitutent 28-29 o/Vto ( 折 句 ） 267-268 Otsuki Fumihiko ( 大 槻 文 ;f ) 236

P personal pronouns in the Edo Period 51-54 in the Heian Period 47-48 in the Kamakura Period 48-49 in the Muromachi Period 49-51 in the Nara Period 45-47 phonemes and phonograms 11-14 phonetics and phonology 11-22 phonogram 11-14 phonograms ゐ _ and 夂 [ t q e ] 17 phonological changes keiyoudoushi-ad\ec{\\/es 82-83 keiyoushi-ad\ect\\/es 79-85 /?ateu-〇A7わ/>?(撥 音 使 ） 84-85

/-onb/n ( イ

音反）

81-82

u-onb/>7 ( ウ 音 便 ） 80-81 n a W ( な り ）（ AUX) 82-84 verbs 113-119 わ (撥 音 使 ） 115-117 /•-OA7わ/A7 ( イ 音 R ) 113-115 ku-gohou ( ク 語 法 ) 118-119 soku-onbin ( 此 音 反 ) 117-118 (v-or?わ/>7(ウ 音 R ) 113 phonological features (EXC/INJ) 230-231 polysemy (ADV) 217-218 polysemy ( P P ) 172 postpositions 163-206 a list of CJ postpositions 166 a list of MSJ postpositions 167 adverbial postpositions 168, 183185 case-marking postpositions 168 ， 174-177 functions 175-177

Index

categories o f postposition 164,168 concord 172, 178-183 conjunctive postpositions 1 6 9 ,186189 ellipsis of referents 182-183 features of postpositions 16 5 ,172173 fuku-joshi( $ 、 丨劝 P I ) 168,183-185 functions 195-206 /ca/car/-yos/7/ ( 係 助 詞 ） 16 8 ,177183 /ca/ov-yosわ/ ( 才备 助詞） 168,174-177 /ca/7foiy-yos/7/( 間 投 助 詞 ） 194 modality 173 modality-expressing postpositions 1 6 9 ,190-194 Type 1 1 9 0 - 1 9 3 Type 2 194 multifunctionality 1 6 5 ,170-171 polysemy 172 PP 6a ( ば ） 1 7 9 ,1 8 8 ,1 9 5 ,196-197 PP 6a/ca/7(ば 6 、り ） 1 8 4 ,195 P P 6aya ( ば や ） 191,195 P P d a n i ( f z ^ ) 184,195 PP cfe ( r ) 1 7 5 , 188, 195-196 PP do ( ど ） 188,196 PPcfomo ( ど も ） 188,196 P Pg a ( が ） 175,188 , 191,196 PP gamo ( が も ） 191 ，196 PPgana ( が な ） 184,191,196 PP ha(=wa) ( i t ) 179, 191, 196197 PP/2^(=e パ へ ） 175,197 PP/ca ( り、） 1 7 9 ,1 8 0 ,1 8 5 , 191,197 PP/camo ( り、も ） 179, 1 9 1 ,197 PP /cana ( 々、な ） 1 9 1 ,197 PP/cara い 、ら ） 1 7 5 ,188,197-198 PP/cas/?/け 、L ) 185,191,198 PP/caya い 、や ） 191,198 PP/coso ( こ 于 ） 179, 180, 192, 194, 198 PP made ( ま ず ） 185,192,198 PP mo ( も） 179,188 , 192,198-199 PP moga ( ^ 192,199

309

PP mogramo (

もがも）

1 9 2 ,199

PP mograra ( も が な ） 1 9 2 ,199 PP monokaha(=wa)( も の m ) 1 9 2 ,199 PP mono/ca厂a ( も の り 、ら） 188,199 PP monono ( も の の ) 1 8 8 ,199 PP monowo(=o)( も の を ） 188, 192, 199-200 PP r?a ( な ） 1 7 5 ,192-193, 200 P P ra d o ( な ど ） 185,200 PP nagara ( な が ら ） 188, 200 PP nam u(=n)(な L 7 な ん ） 179, 180, 193, 200-201 P P n / ( I : ) 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 , 189,193,201 PP nishiga (( - l 193, 201 PP n丨 sh丨 gana ( Iて l が な ） 193, 201 PP nite ( U t ) 175,202 PP no ( の ） 1 7 6 ,193,202 PP no 爪 /•( の み ） 185,202 PP sahef=e)( さ へ ） 185, 202 P P s A ? / ( l ) 185,202 PP shite ( l 1 ) 1 7 6 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 9 , 202203 PP so ( サ ） 1 7 9 ,193,203 PPsu 厂 a ( す ら ） 185,203 P P te ( マ ） 176, 1 8 9 ,193,203 PP teshiga ( t l ^ ) 193,203 PP teshigana ( T l ) 1 9 3 , 203 PPfes/7//ca (マ U 、） 193,203 PP teW /cam o( マ い 、も） 193, 203 PP teshikana ( 1 L ^ ) 1 9 3 , 203 P P to ( と ） 176, 189, 203-204 P P to m o ( と も ） 189,193,204 PP to te ( と マ ） 177,204 PP ( っ っ ） 189, 204 PP 腔 (=〇パ を ） 1 7 7 ,189, 204-205 P P y a ( や ） 1 7 9,18 0,193 , 194,204, 205 P P y o ( よ ） 177,194,205 P P y o " ( よ つ ） 177,205 P P z o ( デ ） 1 7 9 ,180,205

setsuzoku-joshf• ( 接 统 M p ] ) 1 6 9 ， 186-189 ゾ os/7/ ( 終 劝 詞 ）

190-194

Index

310

syntactic differences between the modality-expressing PPs of Types 1 and 2 173 syntactic-semantic PPs 168, 177183 pragmatic markers (AUX) 126-129 predicates 29-30 pronouns 43-64 classification of pronouns 43 demonstrative pronouns 54-64 features 44 in the Edo Period (1603-1867) S I54; 60-63 in the Heian Period (794-1185) 4748: 56-57 in the Kamakura Period (1192-1333) 48-49; 57-58 in the Muromachi Period (13381573) 49-51; 58-60 in the Nara Period (710-784) 4547; 55-56 personal pronouns 45-54 reflexive pronouns 63-64 (the) proper /ce/yoas/7/-inflection 68-69

Q quantifiers 235-241 st/i/s/7/ ( 狄 詞 ） 235

R ra-/7eA7 verbs ( ラ 变 活 用 動 詞 ） 108-110 a list of ra-hen verbs 110 references 291-302 reflexive pronouns 63-64 regular verbs 87, 93-102 厂 ©A?fa//ce/( 連 休 形 ） 32-34 厂 er7fa/s/7/-adjectives ( 連 体 詞 ） 65-66 厂 er?’you/ce/• ( 連 用 形 ） 32-33 rhethoric 259-272 anagram 267 chouka ( ) 259 engo ( 緣 語 ） 265-266

examples (engo) 265 examples (kigo) 270 examples (kireji) 272 examples (makura-kotoba) 261 homonym 267 homophonous pairs of kake-kotoba 262 hon/ca-dor/( 本 歌 取 り ） 266-267

jo -ko to b a (Z fP l) 263-265 kake-kotoba ( ^W \ ) 262-263 kakushi-dai ( 德 題 ） 267 /cafaafa ( 片 歌 ） 259 /c/go ( 李 語 ） 269-271 /c/rey/(切 れ 字 ） 271-272 tog/re ( 句 切 れ ） 268-269 ma/cmB-/coto6a ( 枕 詞 ） 260-262 or770/ ( 祈 句 ） 267-268 sedou/ca ( 旋 頭 歌 ） 259 tanka 259 wa/ca ( 和 歌 ） 259-260 厂 //ovs/?o(六 書 ） 275

S sa㈣ = e )( さ へ ）（P P ) 185,202 sa-/?en inflection ( サ 发 活 用 ） 106 sa-/7en verbs ( サ 变 活 用 動 詞 ） 105-107 sec(oi//ca ( 疲 頭 歌 ） 259 semantic classification (ADV) 214-217 semantic classification (CNJ) 221-226 semantic features (EXC/INJ) 231-232 semantic groups of conjunctions 222 semantics of auxiliaries 125-127 sentence 27-32 sentence constituent 27-29 sentence length 31-32 sentence termination forms of Modern Standard Japanese 89-92 seteizzo/oy-yos/?/ (接 繞 助 詞 ） 169,186-189 setetyzo/ov-sA?/• ( 接 繞 詞 ） 219-226 s h i ( l ) { P P ) 185,202 s/?/n7〇-/c/7/inflection ( 下 一 R 活 用 ） 102 s/?/>77〇-/c/7/verbs ( 下 一 段 浩 用 動 詞 ） 102 s/7/>77〇-n/inflection ( 下 二 段 活 用 ） 99

Index

311

s/?//T7〇-r7/verbs ( 下 二 段 活 用 動 詞 ） 98-100

V

shite ( I T ) ( P P ) 176,185,189, 202203 s/7ty(y_y〇s/?/ ( 終 助 詞 ） 190-194 sM^s/?//ce/•(終止形） 32-34 (the) Six Writings 275 so ( ヤ ）（PP) 1 7 9 ,193,203 soku-onb丨 n ( 從 音 1良 ) 117-118 so/?/ce/go ( 耸 敬 語 ） 243-244 sura (

す ら ）（PP)

185, 203

st/tiyos/7/ ( 狄 J力 詞 ） 235 siyuryot/s/7/ ( 狄 量 詞 ） 236 siyt/s/?/ ( 狄 詞 ） 235-241 symbols m-v syntactic-semantic type of postpositions 179-183 functions 179 T tables vi- ix

tanka ( m ^ )

259 far/-te/yoi/d 〇(/sA?/-adjectives ( 形 容 動 詞 夕 リ 活 用 ） 7 5 ,7 7 te ( マ ）（P P ) 176,189,193, 203 technical terms 148-149 temporatives (CNJ) 226 terminology 283-290 _ / g a ( マ げ ）（PP) 193, 203 fes/7/gfana (マ な ）（ PP) 193, 203 tesW/ca ( マ い 、）（P P ) 193,203 teshikam o(^( l ) (PP) 193, 203 te s h /k a n a (1 い 、な ）（P P ) 193, 203 to ( と ）（P P ) 1 76,189,203-204 to m o ( と も ）（P P ) 189,193,204 topic change (CNJ) 226 tote ( と マ ）（P P ) 177,204 transcription 1-5 tsutsu ( っ っ ）（P P ) 189, 204 U iy-o/?b/V?( ウ 音 R )

80-81;113

verbal compounds (honoratives) 251-254 verbs 87-119 honorative verbs 256-257 inflection endings of ‘3A， and ‘3B’ 8992 inflection endings of verbs 90 inflection forms and their abbrevia­ tions 88-89 irregular verbs 102-110 /ca-/?eA7 verbs ( 力 行 变 将 活 用 動 詞 ） 102-105 /c a m /-/c /7 /v e rb s ( 上 一 R 活 用 動 詞 ）

100-102 /can7/-A7/ verbs ( 上 二 R 活 用 動 詞 ） 9598 a list of kami-ni verbs 96 morphological analysis 110-113 morphological change (V) 89-93 na-/7e/7 verbs ( ナ 行 变 将 活 用 動 詞 ） 107-108 phonological changes ( V ) 113-119 ra-hen inflection ( ラ 行 变 将 法 用 動 詞 ） 108-110 regular verbs 87, 93-102 reorganisation or Japanese verbs 93 verbs ( サ 行 交 将 活 用 動 詞 ） 105-107

s/vmo-fchf-verbs ( 下 一 H 102

舌用動詞)

s/7/777〇-n/-verbs ( 下 二 R 浩 用 動 詞 ） 98-100 types 87 types of verbal inflection in CJ and MSJ 92 (the) verb s*u ( i - ) 1 0 5 verbal compositions using the verb s w ( す ） 107 yodan-verbs ( 四 R 活 用 動 詞 ） 93-95 vowels A, e, 6/ 14-15

312

Index

W wa/ca ( 和 歌 ） 259-260 genres of ( 和 歌 ） 259 歷 (=〇パ を ）（ PP) 177, 189, 204-205 word classes 25-26 works on Japanese grammar 227

Y ya ( や ）（ P P ) 179,180,193 , 194,205 yo ( よ ）（ P P ) 177,194,205 yoda/?-inflection ( 四 R 浩 用 ） 94 yocfan-verbs (四R 浩用動詞） 93-95 y o "( よ” （ P P ) 177,205 Z

z o ( r ) ( P P ) 179,180,206

LINCOM Studies in Japanese Linguistics

In this series 01 Xiangdong Liu

The discourse functions of the modal auxiliaries wake da and no da in Japanese

02 Benjamin M. Rosenthal

The Japanese Aspectual Construction -T E 1- (-TE 丨 RU) A Context-Free/Context-Sensitive Approach

03 Noriko Katsuki-Pestemer

A Grammar of Classical Japanese