A grammar of formal written Japanese

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HARVARD-YENCHING INSTITUTE STUDIES V

olum e

V

A GRAMMAR OF FORMAL WRITTEN JAPANESE W. P. LEHMANN AND

LLOYD FAUST

SUPPLEM ENT: KOKUJI BY

R. P. ALEXANDER

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS C a m b r id g e , M

assach u setts

1951

C O P Y R IG H T , 1 9 5 1 , BY T H E H A R V A R D -Y E N C H IN G IN S T IT U T E

P R IN T E D IN T H E U N IT E D ST A T E S O F A M E R IC A

UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA LIBRARl

FOREWORD This volume, the f i f t h o f the Harvard-Yenching I n s titu te Studies, is financed from the residue o f the funds granted during the war by the R o c k e fe lle r Foundation fo r the p u b lica tion o f Chinese and Japanese d ictio n a rie s. This series is d is tin c t from the Harvard-Yenching In s titu te Monograph S eries and co n s is ts prim arily o f bibliographical studies, grammars, reference works, translations, and other study and research aids.

v

603359

PREFACE This grammar has been written as a p ra ctica l description o f one o f the styles o f modern Japanese which is relatively restricted in use. It is based on a large number o f o f f i c i a l Japanese docu­ ments and communications; consequently, that use of this sty le is stressed rather than i t s use for s c ie n tific or a r tis tic materials. In the schools o f Japan i t is taught only after the essentials of the c o llo q u ia l have been mastered. We therefore presuppose a knowledge o f C olloquial Japanese fo r users o f this grammar, and have attempted to make our description and terminology correspond to that o f the grammars listed below. Various grammars o f C o llo q u ia l Japanese are now re a d ily accessible. Elementary Japanese fo r University Students by Serge E lis s e e ff and Edwin 0. Reischauer (Cambridge, 2nd ed., 1942) is an introduction esp ecia lly to those forms o f the colloq u ia l found in lite ra ry texts. Elementary Japanese fo r College Students by the same authors and Takehiko Yoshihashi (Cambridge, 1944) is more general in choice o f vocabulary and texts, with greater emphasis on practical and s c ie n tific vocabulary. Spoken Japanese by Bernard Bloch and Eleanor Harz Jordan (Washington, 1945) devotes more atten tion than the grammars mentioned above to analysis o f the language, but u n lik e them, teaches n e ith e r the kana nor the ch aracter systems o f w ritin g . Grammars that may be used fo r reference are: Modern Conversational Japanese by Joseph K. Yamagiwa (New York, 1942), especially for the examples; Handbook o f Japanese Grammar by Harold G. Henderson (Boston, 1943), especially for the fu ll discussion o f p a rticle s . Older grammars and other works on the language are lis te d in a convenient bibliography, A S elected L is t o f Books and A r t ic le s on Japan, compiled by Hugh Borton, Serge E lis s e e ff, and Edwin 0. Reischauer (Washington, 1940), pp. 73-80. Of these, An H istorica l Grammar o f Japanese by George B. Sansom (O xford, 1928) gives an e x c e lle n t h is t o r ic a l study o f Japanese, e s p e cia lly the C la ssica l S ty le. With the material in one o f the grammars lis te d above and in this grammar the reader should be able to read most texts in the Formal Written S tyle. Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English D iction a ry, ed. by Y osh itaro Takenobu (Amer. e d ., Cambridge, 1942), w ill provide most o f the necessary lexicographical help, although the D aijiten o f M. Ueda (Amer. ed ., Cambridge, 1942) may occasionally be necessary for an unusual word. To loca te ch aracters and character compounds, B egin n ers' D ictionary o f Chinese-Japanese Characters by Arthur Rose-Innes (Amer. e d ., Cambridge, 1942) is u su ally adequate, although Ueda’ s D aijiten may again be necessary for rare characters and compounds. We thank those who have helped us in w riting this grammar by th eir use o f i t and th eir suggestions for it s improvement. It owes most to Serge E lis s e e ff and Edwin 0. Reischauer. They and

Joseph K. Yamagiwa have read i t in its present form and improved i t greatly. We hope that i t may contribute to an appreciation of an a r t i s t i c though d i f f i c u l t form o f the language, and help i t to survive in an unsympathetic century. W. P. Lehmann Lloyd Faust

v iii

CONTENTS

1

1 Introduction 1.1 1.2

Levels o f Language C h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f the Formal Written Style

2 The Sounds and Systems o f Writing 2 .1 2.2 2 .3 2 .4 2 .5 2 .6 2.7

The Sounds o f Japanese Structure o f S y lla b le s Systems o f Writing Romanization Kana Changes that Occur in Compounds and Methods of in d i c a t in g Sound Combinations in Kana W riting in Characters

3.6 3.7

Terminology The Noun Simple Nouns Nouns Commonly Followed by Forms o f SU Nouns Commonly Followed by NARU or Another Modi­ f i e r In d ic a to r Nouns Used as Pronouns Numerals and Numerary Adjuncts

4 The Forms o f the Verb 4.1 4 .2 4.3 4.4 4 .5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18

Terminology The D iffe r e n c e s Between the C o llo q u ia l and the FWS Verb-systems The Two Primary I n f l e c t i o n s , the Classes o f Verbs, and Their Stems l/-Verbs S I - Verbs Formation o f Primary I n f l e c t i o n Forms Chart o f Primary I n f l e c t i o n s Secondary I n f l e c t i o n s Negative Causative Passive P o t e n t ia l The BESI- Form The MAZI-Form D es id era tive The ARI(NARI/ORU)-Forms A n alytic Chart of Verb Forms Order o f I n f l e c t i o n s

5 The Uses o f the Verb Forms 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5 .9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13

Uses o f the Conclusive and the A t tr ib u t iv e Forms Tenses Moods The Tenseless Forms The Secondary I n f l e c t i o n s Uses o f the Negative The Causative The Passive The P o t e n t ia l The BFST-Form The D esid erative The ARI(NARI/ORU) - Forms Forms o f the Copula

6 P articles 6.1 6.1A 6 . IB 6 .1C 6 .2

3 3 4 5 5 7

8

11

12

3 The Noun 3.1 3 .2 3.3 3 .4 3 .5

1 1

P o s tp o s itio n s Simple P o s tp o s itio n s Compound P o s tp o s itio n s P o s tp o s itio n s That Have Developed From Nouns Conjunctions

IX

12

13 14 14 15 20

21 28 28 29 30 30 35 36 38, 39 38 40 41 42 43 44 45 45 46 47, 49 47 50 50 52 55 57 58 59 59 60 62 62 63 64

66 68 68

69 81

88 96

7

Adverbs

99

8 Syntax

101

8 .1 8.2 8 .3 8.4 8 .5 8 .6

101 106 110 112 113 114

Sentence Patterns Determination o f Su bject Modifi ers A p p os ition a l C onstructions Quotations Use o f Borrowings From English

9 Word Formation 9.1 9.2 9 .3 9 .4 9 .5

ng

The Make-up o f the Japanese Vocabulary Compound Nouns S u f fix e s and P r e fix e s T ra n s itiv e and I n t r a n s it i v e Pairs o f Verbs Verb Compounds

10 Epistolary Style 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

116 117 120 123 124

126

Verbs o f ES P o s tp o s itio n s in ES P o l i t e Words and Phrases in ES Syntax o f ES Use o f Characters in ES

126 130 131 132 133

Appendix I. Nouns Commonly Followed by NARU or Other Modifier Indicators

135

Appendix II. L ist o f Verbs

138

Appendix I I I. The Japanese Forms o f Borrowings From English

i 44

Index

I 49

Supplement: Kokuji

x

1

INTRODUCTION 1 .1

L e v e ls o f Language

In modern Japanese, as in English, there are various levels of language; the accepted standard language used in daily speech is d ifferen t from that used in newspapers, which in turn d iffe r s from that used in formal w riting. Spoken English d iffe r s from formal English c h ie fly in the se le ctio n o f vocabulary; slang and con­ tractions are permissible in speech but not in formal writing. In Japanese the contrasts are much greater; the levels d iffe r not only in vocabulary, but a lso in form. We d is tin g u is h between the c o llo q u ia l and the learned language, each o f which con sists o f various le v e ls. We base this distin ction primarily on the in fle c ­ tion ; a ll le v e ls o f the learned language use the c la s s ic a l verb system. Levels o f the c o llo q u ia l are ‘ d a ily s p e e ch ,’ ‘ formal speech,’ and the ‘ colloq u ial written s ty le ’ used in popular maga­ zines, novels, e tc. Various levels of the learned language are the 'c la s s ic a l and sem i-classical s ty le s ’ found in ancient literature, religious w ritings, and in poetry, the ‘ formal written style (FWS),’ and the ‘ formal epistolary style (ES).’ * This grammar is a description o f FWS. Before the occupation FWSwasusedin technical works, many dictionaries and encyclopedias, essays, seme newspaper ed itoria ls and magazine a rticle s , government documents such as Imperial re scrip ts, and n otices o f a ll kinds. Since the occupation FTVS has been used much le ss w idely; fo r example, the new C on stitu tion o f Japan is in the ‘ c o llo q u ia l w ritten s t y l e . ’ 1.2

Characteristics o f the Formal Written S tyle

FWS is a modern form o f cla ssica l Japanese. I t is characterized in morphology by use o f c la s s ic a l Japanese forms, p a rticu la rly : (a) c la s s ic a l verb in fle ctio n s with greater wealth o f forms than the c o l l o q u i a l , such as s e r i :s e r u , s i t a r i :s i t a r u , s i k i : s e s i , s i t a r ik i:s i t a r is i for colloqu ial sita ; (b) compound postpositions in place o f simple postpositions such as ni oite for de or ni to indicate loca tion , ni ta isi for ni to indicate the person affected by the action o f a verb; (c ) other cla ssica l forms such as ikanaru for donna 'what kind o f , ’ ikani for dfi ‘ how.’ In syntax i t is characterized by: (a) long and complicated sentences; (b ) frequent omission o f postpositions used primarily to indicate the function o f words in a sentence, such as ga and o. •The language used in some publications, such as newspapers, has both classical and colloquial forms; i t may be called the ‘ semi-colloquial s t y l e . ’

1

In vocabulary i t is characterized by a preponderance o f words borrowed from Chinese. The Japanese vocabulary may be divided into two parts: native Japanese words and Chinese borrowings. For nearly a ll characters used in w riting Japanese there are two or more readings: the native Japanese readings, usually ca lled kun; Chinese borrowings, usually ca lled on. The on o f a character is usually used in preference to its kun in FWS. For example, the kun o f the character is minato 'h a rb o r'; the on is ku ‘ harbor. 1 When using the colloqu ial one would usually use minato; when using the FWS one would use ko, usually in a compound, such as kowan yiJfW harbor,’ kfigai '/farff 'ou tside a h arbor.’ Moreover, on compounds, v erb a lized by pu ttin g a fte r them forms o f su, are ch a ra cteristica lly used in place o f kun expressions; for example, the colloquial kuni e kaerimasu J|g[ ' ) - ? 7 ‘ I return to my native country’ would in FWS be expressed by the compound kikoku su IgSj ^ ' I return to my native cou n try.' Thus the irregular verbs sinu f L 7 ‘ d ie ’ (on s i ) and kuru >tX 'come' (on rai) have v irtu a lly been replaced by compounds o f which one element is the on, e . g . , byGsi su 'd ie o f an i l l n e s s , ’ raihlT su ‘ come to v i s i t . ’ Often on are used rather than in flected kun, such as sin ‘ new’ for colloqu ial atarasii .y y( ‘ new.’

2

%

2

THE SOUNDS AND SYSTEMS OP WRITING 2 .1

The Sounds o f Japanese

Texts in the formal w ritten s ty le , when read, have the same sound system as colloqu ial Japanese; but the FWS is rarely used as an oral means o f communication. Material similar in style to the FWS may be found in speeches or le ctu r e s, which generally are written in the style we refer to as formal speech. In such docu­ ments the colloqu ial verb system is used rather than the cla ssica l verb system, but elements o f the FWS are included to accord with the type o f form ality' that the speaker wishes. The FWS is used orally only when materials written in i t are read aloud. On such occasions the FWS follows the pronunciation o f the colloq u ial with the changes in pronunciation generally found in slow speech, such as more complete enunciation o f commonly dropped syllab les. Hence we sh all give only a b r ie f sketch o f the Japanese sound system. Moreover discussion of accentuation and marking o f accents in FWS texts would be purely th eoretica l; for FWS texts, i f read aloud, would vary with the reader’ s d ia le ct; consequently we do not give accentuation patterns. 2.1A

The Sound-system, and a C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f I t

The sound-system o f Japanese is simple. Japanese has fiv e vowel / i e a o u/ and fifte e n consonant / p b t d k g s z h m n y r w n/ phonemes.* In the accompanying chart examples are given illu stra tin g the pronunciation o f the phonemes in various phonetic environments; learned pronunciation patterns used by some speakers in some borrowings, such as [tsjsk k u ]j [tjskku] for /tyekku/ ‘ Czech,’ are here disregarded. •Phoneme is a convenient word referring to sound-classes determined by phonetic characteristics and distribution. For example, although the i n it ia l sounds of the words for ‘ one’ hitotu and ‘ two’ hatatu usually are ICl and CfJ respectively, they belong to the same phoneme because they are pronounced somewhat alike, and the pronunciation [ ^) ] never is found before [ i j , or before any vowel other than t UrJ, while f Q Y is not found before t lD)- Likewise the other consonants o f these words, though pro­ nounced va riou sly as l t.) and l t s ] > belong to one phoneme because o f their similar pronunciation and tneir d istrib ution ; [ t s ] i s found only before I mj, a n d [ t j is never found there. Recognition of such soundclasses greatly sim plifies learning of verb forms; thus the changes in the second consonant phoneme o f the verb motu ‘ hold’ are non-phonemic. Before d ifferen t vowels there are d iffe r e n t pronunciations for the / t / l before / u / i t is pronounced [ts]> /■Otp/ f nptsai]; before / ! / i t is pro­ nounced t t f ] , / “ t i / i rrn+Ji] • and before / ■ / and / * / i t is pronounced I t j , /motaHa/ [ mntnfn]. To indicate phonemic transcription we enclose words in virgules, e . g . , /motu/; to indicate phonetic transcription we enclose them in brackets, e .g .. [ mntftn].

3

toneme Pronunciation Before

Examples

Phonetic Value [i]

/s e s i/

[s e /i]

/s it a r i/

[Jitari] [ssyo]

/a /

1—1 1-- 1 p CO 1 1 1 1

[ssri]

/o /

1—1 0 1_1

/s e r i/

/seyo/

/
/

m

/baai/

[baai]

/m/

[m]

/mo/

[mo]

/tame/ /t in / /tu ite /

[tarns]

_ _ _

n /

/dake/

[daks]

/n i/

[ni]

/naki/

[naki]

[g]

/gotosi/

[goto/i] [warp] [hodo]

/a o e/

/n / A/ medially,.in the Tokyo dialect

[8 ] [ /]

/siV /s it a r i/

/z /

/e a o u/ / i y/

[ Z]

/sezu/ /zyoo/

/y /

/a o u/

2 .2

[j]

/yori/

[jo ft ]

■M

/s e r i/

[ssri]

[w]

/wa/

[wa]

[m]

/konban/ /ando/ Aan/

[n] Cfl] or [P]

[dgpo]

1 -- 1

/P b m/ / t d n/ elsewhere

[ssan]

&

/n /

/a /

_

/» /

_

/r /

[sm] 1-- 1

/e a o u/ n y/

•H

/s /

[9 i] [(faff)] or or [ft S

/hodo/ /h i/ /hun/

_

[h] [9] [4>] or [h] or [ f ]

1 1

/a o e / / i y/ /u /

/h /

1-- 1

/waga/

T?1 1 u o 1—1 1CO1

_

/g /

_

/d /

i—i i—i i i ip i ip-i

M

[V iQ ] [tsaiits]

S1 1 o

_

[ts ]

1-- 1

1-- 1 c+l 1

/a o e/ / i y/

i—i i eJU 1 11

/t /

_ _

/e /

[ando] [kojj] or

S tr u c tu r e o f S y lla b le s

A syllable in Japanese may be defined in terms o f accent; any element which may receive pitch accent is a syllable.

4

Syllables then are composed o f vowel or /fi/, o f consonant plus vow el, or o f consonant plus / y / plus vow el. Thus, hobasira /h o b a s ir a / ‘ m ast,’ k on n iti /k o n n i t i / ‘ to d a y ,’ Ukami /ookam i/ ‘ w o lf,’ kyoryoku /kyooryoku/ ‘ co-operation’ are a ll made up o f four syllab les. A ll syllables that occur are liste d in the follow ing chart, in phonemic transcription. i pi

bi

ti

—

ki

gi

si

zi

hi

mi

m

—

ri

e pe

be

te

de

ke

ge

se

ze

he

me ne

—

re

a pa

ba

ta

da ka

sa

za

ha ma na

ya

ra

wa

0 po

bo

to

do

ga go

so

zo

ho

mo no

yo

TO

—

u pu

bu

tu

— ku g“ su zu hu mu nu yu pya bya tya — - kya gya sya zya hya mya nya —

ru

—

ko

pyo byo tyo —

kyo gyo syo zyo hyo myo nyo

—

pyu byu tyu

kyu■gyu syu zyu. hyu myu nyu

—

—

n

rya - - -

ryo — ryu —

Vowels may be doubled* or followed by other vowels, e . g . , /k o i/ ‘ com e,’ /k o e / ‘ v o i c e ,’ /k o a g e / ‘ loading and u n loa d in g,’ /k o o / ‘ thus’ and /kou/ ‘ ask.’ Only the consonants /p t k s / may be long, e . g . , /hoppoo/ ‘ northward,’ / n i t t e i / ‘ a day’ s w ork,’ /n ik k i/ ‘ d ia r y ,’ / n i s s i / ‘ time. ’ 2 .3

System s o f W riting

While the sound-system o f Japanese is comparatively simple, the methods o f w ritin g Japanese are very complex. Three d iffe r e n t systems are in use: rom anization, that i s , s p e llin g in Latin le t t e r s ; kana, that is , s y lla b ic s p e llin g with symbols derived o r ig in a lly from Chinese ch a ra cte rs; and w ritin g by means o f characters. 2 .4 Rom anization Two methods o f romanization are widely used, the Nipponsiki and the so-called Hepburn. Most dictionaries and grammars o f Japanese and most books and materials written by foreigners about Japan use the Hepburn romanization. The Nipponsiki romanization was adopted *It may be debated whether one should speak of ‘ doubled’ or ‘ long’ vowels. For on the basis of duration one may assume a long o in /lmooto/ ‘ younger s i s t e r ' and two short ° vowels, or a doubled o, in /ooame/ ‘ heavy r a i n .’ I f , however, accentuation is taken as c r it e r io n , theo of imfrto may be analyzed as a doubled vowel with no change in accent, the oo of fame as a doubled vowel with change o f accent. K. Jimbo has presented an excellent and concise discussion of Japanese accent in “ The Word-Tone of the Standard Japanese Language, ’ ’ B u l l e t i n o f the School o f Ori ental and African Studies 3 (1923-25). 659-67.

5

with slig h t m odifications by the Japanese government in 1937 and a fter 1937 was used in government documents, on maps and other o f f i c i a l m aterials, as w ell as in many n o n -o fficia l w ritin g s. Since the occupation, however, the Hepburn system is again vying for o f f i c i a l favor with a s lig h t ly modified form o f Nipponsiki known as Kunrensiki. We shall use the Nipponsiki romanization in this book, with the modification that we separate /n / from a following vowel or / y / by an apostrophe, e . g . , kan’ yi1 ‘ in v ita tio n ,’ (.but kanyu ‘ entrance,’ ) kan'in ‘ government o f f i c i a l . ’ Because there is no ambiguity when /n / is fin a l in words, as in /o n / and /kuii/, or when a consonant fo llo w s , as in /senpaku/ ‘ s h i p , ’ we c i t e such words without apostrophes: on, kun, senpaku. 2 .4 J

N ip p on sik i Romazi

This form o f romanization is very similar to the phonemic trans­ crip tion 'g iv en above. In Nipponsiki the phoneme / n / is not d is ­ tinguished from /n /;, consequently i t is not clear from i t whether genan is the s p e llin g o f /genan/ ‘ o rig in a l p la n ’ or o f /genan/ ‘ man-servant.’ Actually there are few words that may be confused because o f the ambiguity o f the n-symbol. Furthermore, in Nippon­ siki only double / i / is written with i repeated; the other double vowels are w ritten with one symbol marked with a macron, e .g ., Niigata but Tdkyo. The follow in g se le ctio n illu s tr a te s some o f the d ifferen ces between our phonemic transcription and Nipponsiki Romazi. /sy oty oo wa kootuu zyookyoo no tame z!yu u sitin iti s i t i z i no hutuu ressya nite syuppatu suru ni tuki zyunbityuu n ari/ ‘ We are in the midst o f preparations since the Company Pres­ ident is leaving by the seven o ’ clock local train o f the seventeenth because o f travel con d ition s.’ * Nipponsiki: Syotyo wa kZttU zydkyS no tame z y u s itin iti s i t i z i no hutu ressya nite syuppatu suru ni tuki zyunbityu nari. 2 . 4B

Hepburn Romaji

That the Hepburn system o f romanization is sim ilar to Nippon­ s i k i is c le a r from the rom anization o f the same te x t below according to the Hepburn system: Shocho wa kStsu jokyo no tame j ushichinichi s h ic h iji no fu tsu ressha n ite shuppatsu suru ni tsuki jumbichu nari. It d iffe r s , however, from the Nipponsiki in using three additional symbols, c / j , and in writing fourteen o f the one hundred and one possible syllables d ifferen tly . These are, in both systems: ti/ c h i; tu/tsu; tya/cha; tyo/cho; tyu/chu; si/shi; sya/sha; syo/sho; syu/shu; z i/ ji; zya/ja; zyo/jo; zyu/ju;

6

hu/fu. /n / is written m before /p b m/. It may be noted that Nippons iki Rfimazi shows b etter than the Hepburn the structure o f the Japanese sound system. The Hepburn system is at f i r s t ea sier for any one used to English sp ellin g ; for him the spelling natsu looks more sensible than matu. For one who has used both systems a while the advantages o f the Nipponsiki in showing the structure of the verb and in other ways illu stra tin g sound relationships outweigh the immediate advantages of the Hepburn system. It is also obvious that Nipponsiki transcription is more like the kana spelling; consequently i t is easier for Japanese to learn. 2 .5

Kana

Kana spelling is a traditional Japanese syllab ic spelling with forty-eigh t symbols abbreviated from characters. There are kana for the following syllables: a ka

sa

ta

na

ha

ki

si

ti

ni

hi

ma y a mi - -

a ka

su

tu

na

e

ke

se

te

o

ko

so

to

i

ra

wa

ri

wi

ha

ma yU ra

--

ne

he

me

—

re

we

no

ho

mo yo

ro

wo

n

*

The kana were standardized about a thousand years ago. They f a i l to represen t more than h a lf o f the s y lla b le s in modern Japanese; on the other hand there are symbols for three syllab les, wi we wo, which are no longer found in standard Japanese. They ‘ The order o f the kana syllables given in this chart is that usually given in Japanese grammars. It is the arrangement made by Buddhist monks, The order taught in Japanese schools is given below becaus times used for enumeration like our ‘ abc. i wa u a

ro ka wi sa

ha yo no ki

ni ta o yu

ho re ku me

he so ya

to ma

ti tu ke we

ri ne hu

nu na ko mo

hi mi si It is often written as a poem for mnemonic purposes: iro wa nioedo, waga yo tare zo ui no oku yama

tirinuru wotune naran? kyo koete,

asaki yune misi

ei no sezu.

ru ra e se

wo mu te su

The poem and the following translation are taken from B. H. Chamberlain,

A P r a c t i c a l I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Study o f Japanese Writ ing (Moji no shirube), (London 1905, 2d e d .), pp. 210-11.

“ Though gay in hue, (the blossoms) flu tter down, alas! Who then, in this world of ours, may continue forever? Crossing today the uttermost limits of phenomenal existence, I shall see no more fleetin g dreams, neither be any longer intoxicated. ’’

7

make no provision for /g z d b p /, for long consonants, for s y l­ la b les composed o f consonant plus / y / , or fo r double vow els. Various conventions fo r in d ica tin g these have been developed. Examples illu stra tin g these conventions w ill be liste d in romanized kana sy lla b le s rather than in eith er hiragana or katakana char­ acters. In most texts written in kana, /g z d b/ are indicated by means o f kana characters o f the ka column, sa column, ta column, and the ha column marked with two slan t lin e s , ca lle d the n ig o ri sign, placed at the upper righthand corner o f the kana; / p / is indicated by means o f the kana characters o f the ha column marked with a c ir c le , called the han-nigori sign. For example, go in hiragana i s w ritten tty' , g i , gu < ' , 6a (i" , p a {± “ , e t c . ; ga in katakana is written fj'' , ha,\ , pa,*? , e tc . In some p oetica l texts, in the writing o f laws prior to the occupation, and in texts dealing with religious matters, these d ia critics are often omitted; ha n might there in dicate /h a n /, /b a n /, or /p a n /; the reader is expected to supply the correct reading. Some archaic kana s p e llin g s have been retain ed in modern Japanese, even though the pronunciation has changed. The most important such spellings are those used for common postpositions; thus l i ( H is used to write the pa rticle wa, (he) to write e, £ (wo) to write o. 2 .6

Changes that Occur in Compounds and Methods o f I n d ic a tin g Sound Com binations in Kana

Shortcomings o f the kana are e s p e c ia lly n oticea b le in com­ binations o f consonant follow ed by / y / , in in d ica tin g doubled vowels, and in the writing of compounds, that is , words made up o f two or more lex ica l elements. When the kana syllabary was devised, such combinations apparently were not found in the language; at any rate the methods of indicating them are awkward. To read kana with ease one must know both the changes that sounds may undergo and the methods o f writing sound combinations.* 2. 64

Voicing in Compounds

Syllables with n igori, that is voiced /k s t p /, are found in simple Japanese words, e .g ., go ‘ f i v e , ’ but are esp ecia lly common in the second elements o f compounds. Many words which do not have nigori when used alone have i t in compounds, e .g ., koku ‘ country,’ sangoku ‘ three cou n tries.’ ‘ Since the occupation, e ffor ts have been made to reform the methods of writing Japanese. An account o f the attempted reforms in the kana and character methods of writing Japanese and a report on their success may be found in “ Reforms in the Language and Orthography o f Newspapers in Japan," by J. K. Yamagiwa, Journal o f the American Ori ental S o c i e t y 68 (1948). 45-52.

8

When two elements are combined to form a word, the f ir s t phoneme o f the second element, i f /k s t h/, commonly undergoes voicing i f the f i r s t element ends in /n /; for example, sendatu ‘ leader’ is from sen and tatu ; sinzan ‘ newcomer’ from sin and san; sanbasi ‘ p ie r’ from san and hasi; sinpai ‘ worry’ from sin and hai. No rules have been formulated for the presence or absence of nigori or han-nigori. Any attempted formulation would be very complicated; in sanko 'th r e e (t h in g s )’ is found the san o f sangoku ‘ three co u n trie s,’ but here the k is unchanged; the k o f kan ‘ o f f i c i a l ’ is voiced in hangan ‘ judge’ but not in bunkan ‘ c i v i l o f f i c i a l . ’ Voicing may also occur in compounds, the f i r s t member o f which does not end in n; samazama ‘ various’ from sama plus sama. 2 . SB

Consonant L engthen ing in Compounds

/p t k s / may be lengthened in Japanese. Lengthening of these consonants is indicated in kana by a preceding tu; batten ‘ develop­ ment’ in kana is s p e lle d ha tu te n. In some fon ts the kana character tu which is used to indicate lengthening is smaller than the tu indicating a sy lla b le . In others, one kana symbol is used for both purposes; the function o f tu in such texts can only be determined by knowledge o f the word and context: ka tu te may there represent katute ‘ formerly’ or katte ‘ selfish n e ss.’ When compounds are formed o f which the f ir s t element ends in tu and the second begins with /k t s h/ the tu is not pronounced and the /k t s h / are lengthened ( /h / is always lengthened as / p / ) . Hakko ‘ publication’ is from hatu and ko; hatten ‘ development’ from hatu and ten; hassei ‘ outbreak’ from hatu and s e i; happyS ‘ announce­ ment’ from hatu and hyo. Lengthening may also result when the f i r s t on ends in t i ; nikkS ‘ sunshine,’ n i t t e i ‘ day’ s w ork,' N issi ‘ Sino-Japanese, ’ Nippon ‘ Japan’ are compounds o f the element n iti. When compounds are formed o f which the f i r s t element ends in ku and the second begins with /k / or /h / the ku is not pronounced and the / k / or /h / are lengthened, /W again as / p / . Hakkd ‘ corona’ is from haku and kS; doppo ‘ unique’ from doku and ho. Lengthening may also result when the fir s t element ends in k i; hikkomu ‘ withdraw’ is from hiki and komu; hipparu ‘ draw’ is from hiki and haru. Many such changes are found when numbers are compounded with numerary adjuncts. See 3.7B. 2.6C

S p e llin g o f Consonant p lu s /y/

Clusters o f consonant plus / y / are usually indicated in kana spelling with the kana representing the consonant in question plus i, followed by the kana representing y plus the vowel in question. For example, tya ‘ te a ’ is sp elled in kana, t i ya; kyU ‘ sh riek ’ ki ya a; kyo ‘ c a p i t a l ’ k i yo u; kyu ‘ c l a s s ’ ki yu u. Other

spellings for clusters o f consonant plus y are given below in the discussion o f the spelling o f double vowels. 2.6D

S p e llin g o f Double Vowels

There are various methods o f indicating double vowels in kana spelling. Until very recently one did not find consistency in the spelling o f Japanese words; various writers used various spellings. Hence i t is more e ssen tia l to know the reading o f various kana combinations than to know the ‘ co r re ct’ sp ellin g o f words. See, however, 2.6 fn. In recently borrowed words, length o f vowels is indicated by a long line drawn after any kana; puru ‘ pool’ is spelled pu — ru. H is generally spelled with kana ending in i plus i: atarasii ‘ new’ is sp elled a ta ra s i i ; or plus h i: iik ir u ‘ a ffirm ’ is spelled i hi ki ru. Ee is spelled with kana ending in e plus i or hi, rarely e, he or wi: e . g . , se i ‘ system’ ; se hi ‘ fo r c e .’ Aa is spelled with kana ending in a plus ]/ , haeru ju' , nama , ki . The reading o f any character may usually be determined without qu estion , and the meaning may be consulted in d ic t io n a r ie s . Occasionally, however, the characters o f a compound may be reversed, and the resulting compound may not be listed in diction aries. Doko ‘ action’ cannot be found in d iction a ries, but kddd ‘ action’ is an accepted word. While the w ritin g o f texts in characters gives rise to some d iffic u ltie s , i t has the merit o f clearly distinguish­ ing the word in question from other possible homonyms.

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3

THE NOUN 3 .1

Term inology

Study o f the Japanese language has been complicated by differen t analyses o f the language and d ifferen t sets o f terminology. Some descriptions o f Japanese are based on the analysis of the language which is used in Japanese schools; such descriptions use the native terminology or translation o f native terminology. Other scholars, attempting to describe Japanese in terms of Latin, take over termi­ nology from the descrip tion s o f Latin: nouns follow ed by p o st­ positions are represented as paradigms. S t i l l others introduce wholly new terminology. Because o f such d ifferen ces i t would be d i f f i c u l t to co r re la te our term inology with, that found in the various grammars o f the co lloq u ia l language. We assume that any user o f this grammar has studied spoken Japanese, and we w ill use, when possible, the terminology used in available description s of the colloq u ia l language. To avoid confusion, however, we shall b riefly define the terms we use. See also 4.1. In FWS we distinguish four classes o f words, or parts o f speech: nouns, verbs, p a rticles, and adverbs. 3.1A

Nouns

Most uninflected words belong to this cla ss; any uninflected word that may d ire ctly precede such postpositions as ga, o, y ori, or any form o f the copula is a noun. 3 . IB

Verbs

A ll inflected words belong to this group. Unlike many linguists we do not set up two groups, verbs and a djectives, but rather two classes o f verbs: the present conclusive o f the one ends in u, o f the other in s i. It is true that verbs following these in flection s in general fa ll into s p e c ific categories o f meaning: verbs ending in u are generally verbs o f action; verbs ending in s i are generally verbs o f state. Qi the other hand many verbs ending in u are verbs o f state: narabu ’ be in a row,’ odoroku ‘ be su rp rised .’ But the two sub-classes overlap en tirely when in flected . To verbs ending in si are added in flection s ending in u.‘ takakarasimu ‘ heighten’ from takasi ‘ be high’ ; and to verbs ending in u are added in fle ctio n s ending in s i: to r ita s i ‘ want to take’ from toru ‘ ta k e.’ Because o f this overlapping o f in fle ctio n we class together a ll in flected words. 3.1 C

Par t i d e s

In this class belong a ll words whose primary function it is to

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indicate relationships between other words: noun and noun, noun and verb, verb and verb , or e n tire cla u se and cla u s e . Many FWS particles are in form stereotyped verbal phrases or forms o f nouns s p e c ia liz e d in meaning. In s y n ta c tic a l usage, however, they correspond to simple p a r tic le s ; for example, mine 'meaning' and yOsi ‘ g is t ’ are used like to in setting o f f quotations; oyobi, the indefinite form o f the verb oyobu ‘ extend t o ’ is used like to ‘ and.’ 3 . ID

A dverbs

To this class belongs a small number o f words which are used to modify some other word, eith er a m odifier or a verb; adverbs never stand d irectly before the postpositions e, ga, made, o, yori, rarely i f ever before forms o f the copula, nor do they undergo in flection . 3 .IE In a count of the words on twenty-two randan pages o f Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English D ictionary, 87 per cent o f the entries were nouns, 9 per cent verbs, 3 per cent adverbs, and less than 1 per cent p a rticles.* In a count o f the words in a continuous text the percentage o f p a rticles and verbs would be higher, that o f nouns and adverbs lower. 3 .2

The Noun

The noun o f FWS corresponds in form and use to the noun in colloquial Japanese. Like the noun in the colloq u ial i t undergoes no in fle c tio n ; i t is not declined fo r gender, number, or case. Its re la tio n to other words is in dicated by p a r t ic le s , and by position in the sentence. Most nouns used in FWS are borrowings from Chinese. In Chinese there is no in fle ctio n and many words function equally as nouns, verbs, or modifiers depending on their position in the sentence. Many borrowings from Chinese retain such m ultiple functions in Japanese. Some are used as verbs as w ell as nouns; son, Chinese sun, may mean ‘ l o s s , ’ or, when followed by forms o f su, to lo s e .’ Some borrowings are used as modifiers as well as simple nouns; when followed by forms o f naru, son means ‘ lo s in g .’ When used as verbs, such nouns are generally followed by forms o f su or an equivalent: syuppatu means ‘ departure,’ syuppatu su means ‘ to depart.’ When used as m odifiers, such nouns are usually followed *This count was made on the basis of the definitions given above, not the c la ss ifica tio n used in the dictionary. The dictionary cla ssifica tion s are not defined, but seem to correspond to the functions in English of the Japanese form listed. For example, takai is listed as an a d j., takaka as an adv.; sin ‘ novelty’ as a noun, sin ‘ new’ as an a dj.; oyobi as a con­ junction. In our count takai was listed as a verb, sin as a noun, oyobi as a particle.

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by forms o f nari or another modifier indicator: zannen ‘ r e g r e t,’ zannen naru ‘ re g re tta b le .’ Nouns are used primarily in only one or the other o f these two functions; i f used commonly as verbs, they are not used as modifiers; and i f used commonly as modifiers, they are not used as verbs. Of the nouns found in the above count 80 per cent were used so le ly as nouns, more than 10 per cent as verbs as w ell as nouns, more than 8 per cent as modifiers as well as nouns, and le s s than 1 per cent as pronouns and numerary adjuncts. In the following selection we find these various types o f nouns. T atoi ikani kyodai naru y u k e ite k i iryoku to h oritu a ri tomo zinrui sono mono ga aitagai ni sinwa subeki seizyo sizen tek i ni sententeki ni gubi suru ni arazunba kokka wa k ess ite sonzai suru koto o ezarubesi. Sinwa, gubi, and sonzai are nouns used as verbs; kyodai, yukei, aitagai, sizen, and senten are nouns used as modi­ fie r s ; iryoku, horitu, zinrui, mono, seizyS, kokka, and koto are used as simple nouns. Such functions o f individual nouns are described in dictionaries; they cannot be determined from the form o f the noun in question, but only from it s usage. 3 ,3

Simple Nouns

Four fifth s o f the Japanese nouns, according to the count made above, are never followed by forms o f su or by modifier indicators, but are always used as nouns. Unless otherw ise in d ica ted in dictionaries nouns in Japanese are simple nouns. It is as d i f f i c u l t to set up classes o f meanings that conform with usage o f nouns as to set up classes o f form. Horitu ‘ law’ is never used with su in the meaning ‘ le g a liz e ’ ; kangei ‘ welcome’ on the other hand when follow ed by su means ‘ to welcome.’ Nor is horitu used with naru or taru to mean ‘ le g a l’ ; hituyo ‘ necessity’ on the other hand is commonly used with naru to mean ‘ necessary.’ I t may be noted that nouns denoting liv in g beings or concrete objects rarely are used as modifiers or verbs. Ningen ‘ man’ is not. used like the English verb ‘ to man (the sh ips)’ ; syomotu ‘ book’ is not used lik e the English verb ‘ to book.’ Nouns used as verbs are generally nouns denoting a ction , such as benkyd ‘ stu d y,’ k e tte i ‘ d e cisio n .’ Nouns used as modifiers are generally nouns denoting qu alities, such as konnan ‘ d i f f i c u l t y .’ 3 ,k

Nouns Commonly F ollow ed by Forms o f SU

Many nouns may be used as verbs by su ffixin g in flection s o f the verb su. KenkyU ‘ investigation’ is used as noun in sono mondai no kenkyu hituyS nari ‘ investigation o f that problem is esse n tia l’ ; and as verb in sono mondai o kenkyu su ‘ he w ill investigate that problem.’ In FW5 such nouns generally take the place o f kun verbs. Susumu

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‘ to advance’ is commonly replaced by sinko ‘ advance’ followed by forms o f su, such as sinks seri ‘ they advanced.' Tasuku ‘ to aid’ is generally replaced by enzyo ‘ a id ,’ such as enzyo seri ‘ aided.’ Since on nouns are generally made up o f two elements they are often more s p e c ific than kun verbs. The follow ing are a number o f com­ pounds made with kai, the on reading o f ffi] hiraku/aku ' t o open’ ; hiraku might be used when expressing in the colloq u ia l FWS sentences containing these compounds: kaisi su ‘ to b egin ,’ kaihd su ‘ to open,’ kaisetu su ‘ to e sta b lish ,’ kaihii su ‘ to open a l e t t e r ,’ kaitu su ‘ to open for t r a f f i c , ’ and others. Such nouns may be followed by any in flection o f su; for example, kenkyu s i t a r i ‘ s tu d ie d ,’ kenkyU subesi ‘ should s tu d y ,’ kenkyEL seraretasi ‘ please study,’ kenkyu sio ri ‘ is studying.’ Their uses are clea rly indicated and defined in d iction a ries; for the use o f recent borrowings as verbs, see 8. 6. Nouns usually followed by forms o f su may retain their verbal force even i f they are used s y n ta c tic a lly as,nouns. Thus they may be m odified by adverbial rather than by a d je ctiv a l phrases; for example, expressions lik e daitoryo to kaidan no sai ‘ at the time o f the conference with the P resid en t’ are often used in preference to daitoryo to no kaidan no sa i. Another example is : tSti ni o it e kosyo no baai ‘ in the event o f negotiations h e re .’ Such adverbial m odifiers are commonly temporal; rainen zosen no senpaku ‘ the ships which w ill be b u ilt next year’ ; meizi sizyunen kityo no tanaka ‘ Tanaka who returned to Japan in 1907.’ One may occa sion a lly encounter constructions in which nouns usually followed by forms o f su are followed by no but modified as though followed by a verbal form o f su; fo r example, sihainin o s ite hokoku no sai ‘ when we had the manager report’ ; i t is clear from o s ite that no substitutes for sesimuru/sesimetaru. While the indefinite form o f kun verbs is used before certain p a rticle s, s i, the in d efin ite form o f su, is omitted when nouns usually followed by forms o f su precede such p a rticle s ; compare ari sidai 'a s soon as there i s ’ and torisira be kata ‘ in order to investigate’ with syuppatu sidai ‘ as soon as he leaves’ and kenkyu kata ‘ in order to in vestigate.’ 3.5

Nouns Commonly Followed by NARU or Another Modifier Indicator

Many nouns may be used as m odifiers by s u ffix in g to them p a r t ic le s or verb forms, or even w ithout any s u f f i x . These su ffixes may be called modifier in d ica tors. M odifier indicators are: for adjectival use:

naru, no, taru;

for adverbial use:

ni, n ite, to, to s i t e .

Nouns used as m od ifiers are ra re ly used as simple nouns.

Tekito usually is used with nari/naru to mean ‘ suitable’ ; humei is usually used with no/ni to mean ‘ u n cle a r.’ Some, however, lik e konnan may be used as noun (in constructions like konnan idai nari ‘ the d i f fic u lt ie s are great’ ) or as a m odifier (in constructions like konnan naru zyZtai ‘ d i ffic u lt conditions’ ). Some o f these nouns are used principally to modify nouns, others to modify verbs, but the majority may function either adjectiva lly or adverbially. Whether the m odifier functions a d je ctiv a lly or adverbially is indicated by the m odifier indicator placed a fte r i t , and often merely by the context. Examples are: adjectival usage

adverbial usage

ikan naru. ‘ regrettable’

ikan ni ‘ with regret'

danko taru ‘ firm’

danko to/to s ite ‘ firm ly’

sikyii no ‘ immediate’

sikyii ni ‘ immediately’

muzyoken no ‘ unconditional’

muzySken n ite ‘ unconditionally.’

Examples without modifier indicator are: sikyO. denpS ‘ urgent telegram’

sikyii henzi su ‘ w ill reply im­ mediately. ’

Nouns used as m odifiers may stand in three p o s itio n s : attributive, in adverbial, and in predicative position. (attributive) Sore wa akiraka naru setumei ni arazu. is not a clear explanation.’ (a d verb ia l) Akiraka ni setumei suru koto o yd su. necessary to explain c le a r ly .’ (predicative) Sono setumei akiraka nari to zonzu. that that explanation is c le a r .’

in

‘ That is ‘ I t is

‘ We consider

With many nouns one m odifier in d ica tor is regularly used to indicate adjectival use, another to indicate adverbial use. Nouns that are followed by no when used a d je ctiv a lly generally are not used with naru; nouns that are followed by to when used adverbially are not used with ni. With some nouns, however, more than one of the modifier indicators may be used; both hituyo naru and hituyO no ‘ necessary’ are used, and both soto ni and so t5 ‘ considerably’ are used. The various patterns for indicating modifiers are given below; lis t s o f nouns which follow each pattern are given in Appendix I, when not in this section . Certain formations generally follow certa in patterns; nouns ending in —zen or —ko have taru/to as m odifier in d ica tors. We have not attempted to state ru les for determining the pattern for any given noun; any such rules would have so many excep tion s, or such narrow a p p lica tion , as to be

16

p ractically useless. For most nouns the pattern has been established by usage and is indicated in d iction aries. 3.5A

M o d ifie rs w ith NARU/NI

Nouns which are follow ed by naru when used a d je c t iv a lly regularly are followed by ni when used adverbially. Naru is the a ttrib u tiv e present form o f nari (n i a ri) and means ‘ which i s , ’ e . g . , daizi naru mono ‘ a thing which is important; an important th in g .' The co lloq u ia l na is derived from naru; nouns used with na in the co lloq u ia l are followed by naru in FWS. Examples are: Honkan e daizi naru syorui o sShu sera reta si. important documents to this o f f i c e . ’

'P lease send

Myoniti syuppan siezaru wa zannen naru mono to su. that I cannot s a il tomorrow.’

‘ I regret

Zyunbi wa zyUbun naru mo hikO wa tenko huryO no tame getumatu made ni enki subesi. ‘ Although preparations are adequate, because o f the inclemency o f the weather the flig h t must be postponed to the end o f the month.’ Narubeku sumiyaka ni henzi a rita si. as p o s s ib le .’

‘ Please answer as quickly

Dokeikaku wa hutekitS nari to omowaru. plan is unsuitable.’

‘ We believe that that

The colloqu ial konna ‘ this kind o f , ’ soruia ‘ that kind o f , ’ and anna ‘ that kind o f , ’ correspond to FWS konaru, sonaru, and anaru, but these are rarely used. Ikanaru, ikani ‘ what sort o f ’ take the place o f colloq u ial do yu yo na, do. For example, kongo eido kan no kankei wa ikanaru mono narubeki ya to situmon s e r i. ‘ He asked what the future relations between England and Turkey would b e .’ Kaku ‘ such’ is followed by naru or no when used a d jectiva lly ; when used a d verb ia lly i t is follow ed by ni or is used without modifier indicator. Kaku no gotoki seisaku o toriezu. ‘ We cannot adopt such a p o lic y .’ The nouns o f this group may be followed by no instead o f naru when used a d jectiv a lly , and occasionally no modifier indicator is used i f the context makes the a d je ctiv a l function cle a r. Ni is sometimes omitted when they are used adverbially. 3.5B

M o d ifie rs w ith NO and NI

Nouns which are follow ed by no when used a d je c tiv a lly are followed by ni when used adverbially, or often by no postposition i f the meaning is clear from the context. They may occasionally be used without the p o s tp o s itio n no when used a d je c t iv a lly . Examples are:

17

Tekigi no syudan o torazarubekarazu. measures.’

‘ We must take suitable

Moyori no minato ni nyuko sum wa hituyo nari. sary to enter the nearest p o r t.’ Kore wa zitu ni igai n aritari.

‘ i t is neces­

‘ This was truly unexpected.’

Totuzen bengosi wa homon s e r i, ‘ The lawyer called unexpectedly. ’ Some nouns of this group, e . g . , muryo ‘ g r a t is ,’ musiken ‘ with­ out examination,’ nuzei ‘ ta x -fr e e ,’ muzySken ‘ without co n d itio n ,’ totyu ‘ en route’ are usually followed by n ite when used adverbially. For example, Kikantyd wa to ty u n it e b yosi s e r i . ‘ The c h ie f engineer died o f illn ess en rou te.’ 3.5C

M o d ifie rs w ith NO and No M o d ifie r In d ic a to r

Some nouns, prim arily those r e fe r r in g to time and degree relationships, are used ch iefly to modify verbs. When not followed by a p ostp osition , they stand in adverbial rela tion sh ip s; when used a d je c t i v a l ly , they must be follow ed by no. This group includes a ll words for days, weeks, months, and years. ZyCirai no tSri kamotu wa hassG zumi nari. shipped as they were in the p a st.’

‘ The goods have been

Syowa sitin en sangatu t u ita ti mansyukoku wa dokuritukoku to s ite setu ritu sera reta ri. ‘ Manchuria was established as an inde­ pendent country March 1,1932.' Rainendo no bei kStetu seisangaku wa hassenmanton izy5 ni oyobubesi to zonzeraru. ‘ We think that the American stee l output in the next fis c a l year w ill be more than 80,000,000 ton s.’ Some modifiers o f this group, e . g . , genti ‘ the actual p la ce ,’ k i t i ‘ t h e r e ,’ saki ‘ mentioned b e lo w ,’ sikyu ‘ im m ediate,’ t o t i ‘ here,’ zenki ‘ aforementioned,’ and zetta i ‘ absolute,’ usually omit both no and ni. The function o f such modifiers may be determined from the word order and the context. Examples are: Genti sihainin no meirei ni sita gai haihu wa kaku no gotoku z is s i s i t a r i . ‘ The d istrib u tio n was carried out as follow s in accordance with the orders o f the manager h ere.’ Sihainin no meirei ni sita ga i gen ti haihu wa kaku no gotoku z is s i s i ta r i. ‘ The d istrib u tion was carried out here as follows in accordance with the orders o f the manager.’ 3.5D

Nouns with TARU and TO

A few nouns, e . g . , danko ‘ fir m ,’ kakko ‘ s te a d y ,’ kakuzen ‘ d e fin it e ,’ manman ‘ f u l l , ’ zyunzen ‘ a bsolu te,’ normally used only

18

as m odifiers, are followed by taru when used a d jectiv a lly , and by to or to s i t e when used a d v e rb ia lly . Taru is the a ttrib u tiv e present form o f tari, a contraction o f to ari. For example, Danko taru s o ti ni idezaru baai ‘ I f we do not take firm a ction , . . . ’ 3.5E

M o d ific a tio n w ithout M o d ifie r I n d ic a to r s

In addition to nouns used as modifiers many compound phrases are found where juxtaposition is the only indication o f subordinate relationship. Examples are: kaigun sydkO ‘ naval o f f i c e r , ’ mokuteki t iik i ‘ destination’ ; these are like the English expressions ‘ senate building, government service, e t c . , ’ and w ill usually be clear from the context. 3 .5 F

O ther M o d ifie r C o n s tr u ctio n s

While the nouns described above are ch a ra cte r istic a lly used with modifier indicators, other nouns may be followed by no, naru, taru, and occasionally inflected forms o f these. Examples are: Tanaka no yUzin ‘ my friend, Tanaka’ Syuhu naru Tokyo ‘ Tokyo, the ca p ita l’ Mokutekiti taru Tokyo 'Tokyo, the destination’ Zen daigaku sQtyO no soryo naru Tanabe hakase sakunen yori sugaku kyozyu ni zyuzi sioru mono nari. 'Dr. Tanabe, the oldest son o f the former president o f the university, has been professor of mathematics since last yea r.’ Keizai tyosa iinkai no daihytisya taru Wada si nenmatu made ni kityS suru hazu nari. ‘ Mr. Wada, representative o f the Economic Investigation Conmittee, is expected to return to Japan by the end o f the year. ’ Zyunen izyb kaisya no daihybsya narisi Inoue si rokugatu muika zisyoku s e r i. ‘ Mr. Inoue, who was representative o f the company for more than ten years, resigned on June 6. ’ In such constructions there is a d is tin ctio n in use between no, naru, and taru. No and naru in d ica te simply a modifying relationship. Taru, however, gives an im plication o f a temporary rela tion . The d istin ction between naru, no and taru is the same as that between ni and to; see the discussion under the pa rticle to. I f one compares the above examples, one w ill note that naru (no) indicates a permanent relationship—Tokyo is and w ill continue to be the ca p ita l as far as the w riter knows, and Tanabe w ill always be the eldest son; taru indicates a temporary relationship— Tokyo w ill be only for a short time the destination o f a trip , and one is a representative for a rela tively short time.

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3 ,6

Nouns Used as Pronouns

A number o f nouns have come to be used in Japanese as pronouns. Some o f them are nouns indicating location, e .g ., tohb '( t h i s side) we’ ; others are expressions o f politen ess, e .g ., boku ‘ (servant) I ’ ; others are expressions combining location and politeness, e .g ., kakka '(under the cou n cil chamber) your e x c e lle n c e .’ The com­ monest nouns o f th is type are lis t e d below in order o f th eir honorific connotations, with an indication in parentheses o f their use. In careful w riting they are, i f p ossib le, avoided, and in their stead syntactic constructions are used. For these, see 8.2. First■ Person

Second Person

tin

(o f emperor)

heika

( o f emperor)

yo

(m ilitary)

kakka

(h on orific)

honkan

(dignified)

kikan

(dignified)

tShd

(formal)

kihS

(formal)

(colloq u ia l)

boku

( familiar)

senpS

( formal)

kare

wagaho, ware, wareware (wagai ‘ our’ ) watakusi

Third Person

anata

(colloq u ia l)

To refer to a third person, nouns pertinent in a sp e cific con­ text are generally used. Gaimudaizin i»a ryokoku kankei ni kansi daigisi to kaidan s ita r i, ‘ The Minister o f Foreign A ffa irs con­ ferred with the Parliament members with regard to the relations o f both co u n trie s.’ In a further reference to the Foreign Minister the noun daizin might be used alone. I f , however, another minister were introduced into the discussion, the bound form* ds might be prefixed to daizin to avoid ambiguity; e .g ., Dodaizin wa naimudaizin ni h a n si... ‘ The (same) Minister, in contrast with the Minister o f Internal A f f a i r s . . . ’ In such compounds the f i r s t bound form may be either do ‘ the same’ or tS ‘ the one in question’ ; the second has a sp e cific meaning, such as ‘ man, o f f i c i a l , country,’ or what­ ever may be referred to. When referring to a person one might use: donin, dosi ‘ (the same person) he, she, they’ ; or tonin, to s i ‘ (the person under discussion) he, she, they’ ; when referrin g to an o f f i c i a l , one might use dSkan; when re fe rrin g to a country, dakoku. As illu strated by the compound dSdaizin, the second part o f the compound may be a free form. The bound form, hon ‘ this, the’ is used sim ilarly to make com­ pounds referring to the f i r s t person; e . g . , honsi ‘ (th is person) •Bound form is a term designating word elements that are not used alone; i t contrasts with the term ‘ free form, ' which is used to designate any element that may stand alone.

20

I ’ ; honkan ‘ (this o f f i c i a l ) I , ’ and so on. Zibun ‘ on eself’ is a reflex iv e which can be used with any o f the nouns mentioned above; i t usually refers to the subject o f the sentence. Kiho zibun no zyunbi o nasazarubekarazu. own preparations.'

‘ You must make your

TohS wa zibun no keikaku o zikkB sen to su. point o f carrying out our own plan.’

'We are on the

The elements used in FWS demonstratives are the same as those of the collo q u ia l; in interrogatives, izu is used rather than do. In c la s s ic a l Japanese ko ‘ th is thing ( c l o s e ) , ’ so ‘ that thing, this thing (farth er away),' and a ‘ that thing’ may be used alone as nouns. In FWS they are generally compounded with other e l e ­ ments: with re when referring to things, with ko when referring to places, with t i / t t i when referrin g to places or d ire ctio n s, and with no when used to modify nouns. These compounds are lis te d below: ‘ th is.. . ’ ‘ this, th a t...’ ‘ that. . . ’ ‘ which, what... . . . thing’

kore

sore

are/kare

izure

. . . place’

koko

soko

asoko

izuko

. . . direction’

kotti

sotti

atti

izuti

(adjectival)

kono

sono

ano

izure no/dona

Toti ‘ this place, the place in question,’ k it i ‘ your place, th ere,’ doti ‘ the same p la ce’ are commonly used instead o f koko, soko, asoko. As in the colloqu ial kono, sono, and ano may stand for kore no, sore no, are no as well as fo r koko no, soko no, asoko no; thus sono syomotu may mean ‘ his book’ as well as ‘ that book.’ Other interrogatives are: dare/tare ‘ who,’ nani ‘ what’ (nan in compounds, e . g . , nanzi ‘ what time’ ), itu ‘ when,’ naze ‘ why.’ All o f the interrogatives but naze are sim ilarly modified in meaning when followed by ka and no; e .g ., tare ka ‘ someone,’ tare mo ‘ any­ one; everyone.’ See also ka and no in chapter 6 . Japanese has no relative pronouns. Attributive clauses corres­ pond to relative clauses o f other languages. See 5 .IB. 3 .7

N unerals and Nunerary A djuncts

FWS uses the numeral system o f collo q u ia l Japanese. The kun numerals: h ito tu hutatu n ittu y o ttu itu tu nuttu nanatu yattu kokonotu to are rela tiv ely rare; the on numerals are given below. There are no i r regularities in the numeral patterns; numerals from 20 to 99 can be made on the pattern o f those from 10 to 19, and

21

these repeat in the numerals above 100. below any other numeral can be made

From the numerals given

1

iti

14

zyu si

87

hati zyu s i t i

2

ni

15

zyB go

98

kyU zyu hati

3

san

kyU zyu kyu

16

zyB roku

99

4 si

17

zyu s i t i

100

hyaku/ippyaku

5

go

18

zyB hati

101

ippyaku i t i

6

roku

19

zyU kyu

212

ni hyaku zyu ni

7

s iti

20

ni zyU

323

sanbyaku ni zyfl san

8

hati

21

ni zyU i t i

434

s i hyaku san zyU si

9

ku/kyu

32

san zyu ni

545 go hyaku s i zyu go

10

zyu

43

si zyu san

656

roppyaku go zyu roku

11

zyu i t i

54

go zyu si:

767

s i t i hyaku roku zyu s i t i

12

zyu ni

65

roku zyu go

878

happyaku s i t i zyu hati

13

zyU san

76

s i t i zyu roku

989

kyii hyaku hati zyu kyu

1,000

issen

10,000

i t i man

2,000

ni sen

30,000

sanman

100, 000,000

oku

3,000

sanzen

100,000

zyuman

1,000,000,000

ty5

8,000

has sen

1, 000,000

10, 000,000

sen man

hyaku man

The kun numerals yo/yon are often used fo r s i, ahd nana fo r s i t i in any of the combinations given above. The usage varies from person to person, but consistency in any one numeral—e . g . , si zyu s i or yon zyu yon ‘ forty -fou r’ — is usually observed. 3 . 7A

Numerary A d ju n cts

As in the colloq u ial, numerals must be followed by an auxiliary, or a numerary adjunct, when a count o f a r tic le s is given. Such auxiliaries may be quantity nouns, such as hukuro ‘ bag,’ yon/kori ‘ b a le ,’ kiroguramu ‘ kilogram ,’ kirometoru ‘ kilom eter,’ hun ‘ minute (o f time, latitude, e t c . ) , ’ en ‘ yen ,’ e t c ., e .g ., kome hitohukuro 'one bag o f r i c e , ’ namagomu hakkon ‘ eight bales o f crude rubber.’ With some quantity nouns the ob ject counted is so obvious that i t need not be mentioned; hyaku en is more coimion than kin hyaku en for ‘ a hundred yen (o f money).’ I f an a u xiliary is not used, a numerary adjunct must follow the numeral. S p e cific adjuncts are used with s p e c ific categories o f things; in counting fish one uses bi, e . g . , sakana gobi ‘ fiv e f is h ’ ; in counting books one uses satu, e . g . , d a iz iten gosatu ‘ five d ictio n a rie s .’ The following is a l i s t o f numerary adjuncts found in FhS texts

22

and the categories with which they are used in counting.*

bi

fish

X

bu

sets o f books, newspapers, e tc.

dai

vehicles, tables, chairs (sometimes also a ircra ft)

i gyo

columns (o f figures), lines (o f writing)

hatu

shots, rounds

hiki

tzl

animals

hon

X

long cylin drical objects

hu

W

letters

kasyo

places, plots o f land

ken

houses

ki

a ircra ft, machines, instruments

kire

s lice s

Jt

ko, ka

I M kumi

ij.

mai

-iX -

maki

%

mon

n

mune

A.

ninmae

soku

fla t objects, sheets persons cannon, torpedo tubes human beings portions ( o f food, drink, e tc .)

^

$ $83 ffl

seki so

sets o f objects

buildings

&

nin

satu

pieces o f luggage or cargo, army units, pieces in general

reels o f wire, e t c ., volumes, s cr o lls

mei

ryo

*

railway cars, locomotives books, volumes ships

t@ L

ships, boats

X

pairs o f shoes, socks, boots, and other footwear

to

58

head ( o f ca ttle, horse)

tu

it

le tte rs , manuscripts

tyaku

%

suits co n t.

*Numerary adjuncts found rarely, or only in literary texts, like for scenes of a play, are not lis te d ; these may be found in the supple­ ment to An English-Japanese Di ct i o na r y o f the Spoken Language by Ernest M. Satow and Masakata Ishibashi, 4th ed. by E. M. Hobart-Hampden and Harold G. Parlett. (Amer. ed., South Pasadena, 1942.)

23

tyo

r i fle s , small caliber guns, knives, to o ls, jin rik ish as, candles, Chinese ink

wa

birds, hares

3.7B

Compounds o f Numerals and Numerary A djuncts

Numerary adjuncts usually combine with numerals to form a com­ pound. In such compounds the sound changes described in 2.6 take place with the numerals i t i ‘ on e,’ san ‘ th re e ,’ roku ‘ s i x , ’ hati ‘ e ig h t ,’ zyu ‘ t e n ,’ hyaku ‘ hundred,’ sen ‘ thousand,’ man ‘ ten thousand,’ and with the interrogative, nan ‘ how many.’ When numerary adjuncts beginning with / h / follow the numbers i t i , roku, zyu, hyaku, the numeral loses i t s fin a l sy lla b le and the / h / becomes /p p /! ippon ‘ one (lon g c y lin d r ic a l o b j e c t ) , ’ roppatu ‘ six sh o ts,’ zippun ‘ ten m inutes,’ hyappukuro ‘ a hundred b a g s.’ When they follow san, sen, man, or nan, t h e ,/h / becomes / b / , except in hu where i t becomes /p /: sanbiki ‘ three (anim als),' senbyo ‘ a thousand b ags,’ manbatu ‘ ten thousand rounds,’ nanbon ‘ how many (lo n g c y l i n d r ic a l o b j e c t s ) , ’ but nanpu ‘ how many ( le t t e r s ). ’ When numerary adjuncts beginning with /k / follow the numerals i t i , roku, hati, zyu, hyaku, the numeral loses it s fin a l syllable and the / k / becomes /k k / : ikkasyo ‘ one ( p l a c e ) , ’ rokken ‘ six (houses),’ hakki ‘ eight ( a i r c r a f t ) ,’ zikkumi ‘ ten ( s e t s ) , ’ hyakko ‘ a hundred (p ie c e s ).’ When they follow san, sen, man, or nan, / k / becomes / g / : sangumi ‘ three ( s e t s ) ,’ sengen ‘ a thousand (h ou ses),’ mangi ‘ ten thousand (instruments),’ and nangen ‘ how many (h ou ses).’ When numerary adjuncts beginning with / s / follow the numerals i t i , h a ti, zyu, the numeral loses i t s fin a l s y lla b le and / s / becomes / s s /: issatu ‘ one (b o o k ),’ hasseki ‘ eight (s h ip s ),’ and zisso ‘ ten (sh ip s)’ ; when they follow san, / s / becomes / z / ; sanzo ‘ three (s h ip s ),’ but usually sanseki ‘ three (s h ip s ).’ When numerary adjuncts beginning with / t / follow the numerals i t i , hati, zyu, the numeral loses its fin a l sy lla b le and the / t / becomes / t t / : ittyaku ‘ one s u i t , ’ hatto ‘ eight ( c a t t l e ) , ' z ittu ‘ ten ( l e t t e r s ) .’ Wa is changed to ba after san and nan, to pa when combined with roku, zyu, and hyaku. 3.7C

The P o s it io n o f Numerary A djuncts and O ther Words I n d ic a tin g Q uantity

Compounds o f numerals and numerary adjuncts normally follow the noun counted. I f they precede i t , the numerary adjunct must be followed by no: sekitan san ton ‘ three tons o f c o a l ,’ but san ton no sekitan ‘ (the) three tons o f c o a l .’ Words denoting quantity such as zyakkan ‘ some,’ subete ‘ a l l , ’ tasu ‘ many,’ and zenbu ‘ a l l ’ have the same position as numerary adjuncts; they must be followed

24

by no when they precede the word they govern. For example, Kamotu wa zenbu soko yori has so s e r i. ‘ They have shipped a ll the freight from the warehouse.’ In this sentence zenbu cannot modify soko since i t is not followed by no; i t refers to the preceding kamotu just as i f i t were a numeral with an adjunct. When used with nouns follow ed by wa, ga or o, the numerary adjunct or other quantity indicator may follow the postposition, as in the sentence given above, or i t may stand between the noun and the postposition, or with no may precede i t . The three possible positions are illu strated in the following examples: Sekitan zenbu o u ritari, Sekitan o zenbu u ritari.

‘ They sold a ll the c o a l.’

Zenbu no sekitan o u ritari. The f i r s t o f these is the most common construction in FWS; the second is the usual pattern o f the c o llo q u ia l, though o f course with a colloquial verb form. 3. 7D

C on tra stin g A djuncts

The uses o f most o f the numerary adjuncts are covered by the explanations given above. A few o f them may be used with con­ trasting meaning and then indicate fine differences in meaning. Mei is more p olite than nin for referring to people. So in contrast to seki is used o f small ships, such as sailing v e s s e ls : Unsosen n is e k i to hokake-bune sanzo wa honko n ite teihakutyii n ari. ‘ Two fr e ig h te r s and three s a il boats are at anchor in this harbor.’ Ko/ka like the tu o f hitotu, hutatu, e t c ., may be used for any noun; i t is the adjunct used when a noun does not belong to a class that has a s p e c ific adjunct, and is the one printed in comnercial lis ts where a great diversity o f objects is numbered. 3.7E

A d juncts R e fe r r in g to Time

When referring to time some other numerical adjuncts are used. To indicate separate occasions one may use kai ‘ tim e,’ e .g ., ni kai ni watari ‘ fo r two tim e s,’ dai ni kai no tumini ‘ the second shipment.' Do, tabi, and hen are similar in meaning, but are less commonly used; itid o , h ito ta b i, and ippen a ll mean ‘ one time, once.’ Zi means ‘ time’ in the sense o f ‘ order, sequence,’ e .g ., sanzi konsu ‘ a cubic r o o t .’ Ka and n i t i are the adjuncts used when re fe rrin g to days. When fewer than ten days are involved, ka may refer to a s p e cific day, e .g ., ituka ‘ the f i f t h , ’ or to a number o f days, e .g ., ituka ‘ five days,’ while n iti refers only to a number o f days, e .g ., go n iti ‘ five days.’ Kan may be used after the adjunct to distinguish

25

length o f time from a date, e .g ., yoka kan 'f o r eight d a y s.’ In expressions like ‘ fiv e or six days’ the adjunct n it i must always be used, go roku n iti. Days o f the Month

NT/

Number o f Days

1st

tu ita ti, it in i t i

1

it in i t i

2nd

hutuka

2

hutuka, ni n iti

3rd

mikka

3

mikka, san n iti

4th

yokka

4 yokka, yon n iti

5th

ituka

5

ituka, go n iti

6th

muika

6

muika, roku n iti

7th

nanoka

7

nanoka, s i t i n iti

8th

yoka

8

yoka, hati n iti

9th

kokonoka

9

kokonoka, ku n iti

A

4

y

0 -'

10th

toka

10

toka, zyu n iti

When more than ten days are involved, only on numerals followed by n i t i , e .g ., zyu iti n iti ‘ eleventh, eleven days,’ are used with the following exceptions: 14th

zyilyokka

14

zyilyon n iti

20th

hatuka

20

hatuka, nizyu n iti

24th

nizyH yokka

24

nizyuyon n iti

Misoka may occasionally be used for ‘ th ir tie th ’ but i t more com­ monly means ‘ the last day o f the month.’ 3 .7 F

P er c e n ta g e s and F ra ctio n s

Percentages are expressed by the adjuncts bu ‘ one per cen t’ and wari ‘ ten per cent’ ; nibu ‘ two per c e n t,’ niwari ‘ twenty per cen t,’ niwari gobu ‘ twenty-five per ce n t.’ Fractions are expressed by placing bun after the denominator and modifying the numerator with the resultant compound plus no; ‘ two th irds’ is sanbun no ni (two o f three parts), one fourth is yonbun no i t i . Che half, however, is hanbun. 3. 7G

O rdinals

Ordinals are formed as in the c o llo q u ia l with the follow in g s y lla b le s : dai, ban, go, and the kun s y lla b le me. Frequent patterns are: dai san ban, dai san go, san ban, san go, dai san ‘ the th ird .’ Me is used ch ie fly with kun numbers, or a fter other ordinal adjuncts or other sy lla b les: hutatume ‘ second,’ ni barune

26

‘ second,’ rokugome 'the sixth word.’ When referring to years nen is used alone to express ordinals; meizi itinen ‘ the f i r s t year o f M eiji, 1868 A.D .’ ; taisyo ninen ‘ 1913 A.D.’ ; syowa sannen ‘ 1927 A.D.’ Besides these there are some sp ecia lized ordinal adjuncts, none o f which is common; sei is used when referrin g to the suc­ cession o f kings, e .g ., Rui zyuyon sei ‘ Louis the Fourteenth.’

27

4

THE FORMS OF THE VERB 4 .i

Term inology*

Because a great variety o f nomenclature has been used in d is ­ cussing the verb, definitions are given below o f the terms relating to verbs used in this grammar. BASE

The unchanging part o f the verb: to r- is the base o f toru ‘ t a k e ,’ uk- o f uku ‘ r e c e i v e ,’ haya- o f hayasi ‘ is f a s t , ' a ta ra si o f atara si ‘ is new .’ Che verb, u ‘ g e t ,’ has a zero base.

STEM

A verbal element used as basis for further in fle c ­ t io n s : t o r i - is the in d e f i n i t e stem o f to rn ; torare- is the in d efin ite stem o f toraru, the pas­ sive o f toru. There are six stems: con clu sive, a ttribu tive, in d efin ite, im perfective, p erfective, and imperative. The Japanese names for these are: syusikei, ren ta ik ei, ren’ yokei, mizenkei, izenkei, and m eireikei. Forms are made from the attributive stem in cla ssica l Japanese, but these are extremely rare in FWS; hence we have put in parentheses the attributive stems lis te d below.

STEM-SUFFIX That part o f a stem which follow s the base: i o f tori is the stem -suffix o f the in d efin ite stem o f toru. FORM

Any free form used independently: tori used independ­ ently is the indefinite form o f toru. In virtu ally a ll verbs the conclusive and indefinite forms do not d iffe r from the conclusive and indefinite stems, e . g . , toru ' ta k e ,’ the conclusive form, may conclude a sentence, and toru-, the conclusive stem, may be used as a basis for the b esi-form, torubesi ‘ should ta k e.’

PRIMARY A com prehensive term fo r the forms made from INFLECTION secondary in flection s as well as from simple verbs: the forms o f the three tenses, o f the four moods, and the two tenseless forms. Compound in fle ctio n s in which the fin a l element is SECONDARY INFLECTION in turn in fle c t e d as i f i t were a simple verb: *We discuss FWS verbs in two chapters— chapter 4, the forms, chapter 5, their uses. Translations given a fte r verb forms in chapter 4 are primarily intended to identify the forms; the various uses of any p artic­ ular form are given in chapter 5.

28

negative, causative, passive, potential, b esi-form, mazi-form, d esid era tiv e, and a ri(n a ri/ oru )-forms. TENSE

Any in flection which indicates time relationship of an action or state: present, past, and future. But see also 5.2.

PRESENT TENSE

The simple in dicative form o f a verb, even though th is form may have a time value other than the present: torn ‘ ta k e,' hayasi ' i s fa s t ’ are present tense forms.

PAST TENSE

Any form which normally indicates an action or a state in past time, regardless of whether i t corres­ ponds to the English past, perfect, or past perfect, or even the present: to r it a r i ‘ to o k ,’ hayakariki ‘ was fa s t’ are past tense forms.

MOOD

Any form which in d ica tes manner o f an a ction or state: hypothetical, conditional, concessive, and imperative.

TENSELESS FORMS

Any form that derives i t s tense or mood from the tense or mood o f the next verb not in a tenseless form: the indefinite and the te-form.

4 .2

The D i f f e r e n c e s Betw een the C o llo q u ia l and the FWS V erb -system s

The verb system o f FWS is e s s e n t ia lly that o f c l a s s i c a l Japanese; some cla ssica l forms such as the nu-past, however, rarely occur in FWS. The FWS verb system d iffe r s from that o f the colloq u ial in the following respects: (A) The past and future tenses, like the negative, causative, and some forms o f the a r i-fo r m s , have d iffe r e n t endings from those o f the colloq u ial. (B) Various in fle c t io n s , such as the h ypoth etica l, are not found in the colloq u ia l. (C) The functions o f the c o llo q u ia l in d ica tive (con clu sive) are divided between two forms, the attributive and the conclusive. The conclusive is used in FWS only at the end o f sentences; quota­ tions followed by to, statements followed by tomo ‘ even i f ’ and to iedomo ‘ although’ are treated as fu ll sentences, as occasionally are questions ending in ya. The attributive is used before nouns with which i t stands in a ttrib u tiv e relationship and before a ll postpositions except those liste d above, and those preceded by the in defin ite form. (D) The in d efin ite form is used fo r most o f the functions o f

29

the colloq u ia l te-form (c h ie fly verbal) as well as for the func­ tions o f the colloqu ial indefinite form (ch iefly nominal): hanasi may mean ‘ speaking, having spoken, he speaks, e t c . , ’ as w ell as ‘ speech, conversation’ ; hanasite is rarely used. (E) When further in fle ctio n s are added to stems, contractions never occur; the third past o f toru is to rita ri not t o t t a (r i ), I f then one knows the stems o f any given verb, and the stem to which any in fle c tio n is added, he w ill be able to make any form. The indefinite stem o f idu ‘ go out’ is id e-; the causative ending -simu is added to the indefinite stem; thus the conclusive present causa­ tive o f idu is idesimu 'cause to go o u t .’ The future ending -n a lso is added to the in d e fin ite stem; the in d e fin ite stem o f idesimu is idesime- ; therefore the conclusive future causative of idu is idesimen ‘ w ill cause to go o u t.’ 4 .3

The Two Primary I n f l e c t i o n s , the C la sses o f V erbs, and T heir Stems

There are two primary in flection s for verbs o f FWS; the stemsu ffix o f the one in the conclusive present is u/ru, o f the other s i, unless the base already ends in s i ; a second s i is then not added. We shall refer to verbs o f the f ir s t group as u-verbs, and to verbs o f the second group as si-verbs. Examples o f u-verbs are: toru ‘ take,’ miru ‘ s e e ,’ keru ‘ k ic k ,’ oku ‘ get up,’ uku ‘ re c e iv e ,’ torasimu ‘ cause to ta k e,’ toriu ‘ can take’ ; examples o f si-verbs are: y o s i ’ is g o o d ,’ a si ‘ is b a d ,’ to ru b esi ‘ should t a k e ,’ torita si ‘ wants to take.’ Each group is made up o f various classes o f verbs, (/-verbs may be divided into five classes, si-verbs into two classes. The class o f any verb may be determined by it s base and by it s stem-suffix in the present conclusive and attributive forms. 4 .4 k.hA

U-Verbs C la ss 1

To cla ss 1 belong a ll verbs with base ending in a consonant (see below for sub-class eigh t) and with conclusive and attribu­ tive forms alike. The BVS conclusive form o f class 1 verbs is like the colloquial conclusive: FWS toru ‘ ta k e,’ colloqu ial toru ‘ take.’ Class 1 verbs may be lis te d in eight sub-classes according to the fin a l phoneme o f the base: /b g k m r s t w/. The examples used to show the stems o f these are: tobu ‘ f l y , ’ isogu ‘ h urry,’ yuku ‘ g o ,’ sumu ‘ l i v e , ’ toru ‘ ta k e,’ mosu ‘ speak,’ matu ‘ w a it ,’ and kau ‘ buy.’

30

Conclusive

tobu- isogu- yuku- sumu- toru- mosu- matu- kau-

(Attributive

tobu- isogu- yuku- sumu- toru- mosu- matu- kau-)

Indefinite

tobi- isog i- yuki- sumi- to r i- mosi- mati- kai-

Imperfective

toba- isoga- yuka- suma- tora- mdsa- mata- kawa-

Perfective

tobe- isoge- yuke- sume- tore- mdse- mate- kae-

Imperative

tobe

isoge

yuke

sume

tore

niose

mate

kae

Class 1 verbs have only four d iffe r e n t stems; the conclusive and a ttrib u tiv e, lik e the p e rfe ctiv e and imperative, are a lik e. The perfective and imperative stems d iffe r in a l l other classes, the conclusive and attributive in the fourth and fift h . The base o f the f i r s t seven su b -cla sses remains unchanged regardless o f the follow ing vowel. (The changes in pronunciation in sub-classes 6 and 7 are non-phonemic; the variants o f / s / before / i / and o f / t / before / u / and / i / are regular pronunciations o f the / s / and / t / phonemes, see 2 .2 .) Verbs o f sub-class 8, however, have a base ending in a consonant that is found only before / a /; the five stems ending in other vowels fa il to show the /w /. Forms in which the im perfective stem is used are: future kawan ‘ w ill buy,’ h ypothetical kawaba ‘ i f I should b u y ,’ and the negative kawazu ‘ does not buy,’ causative kawasimu ‘ makes buy,’ and passive kawaru ‘ is bought’ with their further in flection s. For a l i s t o f verbs belonging to class 1 see Appendix II. 4.4B

C la sse s 2 and 3

To cla sses 2 and 3 belong a l l verbs with base ending in a vowel and with conclusive and attributive forms alike. They d iffe r from each other only in the vowel o f the base; verbs o f class 2 have / i / , o f cla ss 3 / e / . Because o f their sim ila rity the two classes have been combined by some scholars into one class. The FWS conclusive form o f cla ss 2 and 3 verbs is lik e the co llo q u ia l con clu sive: FWS miru ‘ s e e , ’ c o llo q . miru; FWS keru ‘ k ick ,’ colloq. keru. Very few verbs belong to these classes; a ll non-compounds belonging to classes 2 and 3 have only two syllables in the conclusive present. We shall li s t a ll of them, even though some are used only in c la s s ica l, not FWS, texts. A ll other verbs, not o f cla ss 1, with co llo q u ia l conclusive ending in iru and eru belong to FWS classes 4 and 5. Verbs belonging to cla ss 2 are: hiru ‘ d r y ,’ hiru ‘ sn eeze,’ iru ‘ sh o o t,’ iru ‘ c a s t ,’ iru ‘ b e ,’ kiru ‘ wear,’ miru ‘ s e e ,’ niru ‘ resem ble,’ and niru ‘ b o i l ’ ; examples o f compounds with class 2 verbs as second members are: h ik iiru ‘ command,’ kaerimiru 'look back,’ and kokoromiru ‘ t r y . ’ Only keru ‘ kick’ belongs to class 3. The old class 3 verb neru ‘ s le e p ,’ or it s cla s s ica l variant inu, is not found in FWS.

31

Conclusive

mini-

keru-

(Attributive

miru-

keru-)

Indefinite

mi-

ke-

Imperfective

mi-

ke-

Perfective

mire-

kere-

Imperative

mi-

ke-

4 . 4C

C la sses 4 and 5

To classes 4 and 5 belong a ll verbs whose conclusive form ends in /u / and attributive form in /u ru /; bases may end in either vowel or consonant. Classes 4 and 5 d iffe r only in the stem -suffix o f the in d efin ite, im perfective, p e rfe ctiv e , and imperative stems: cla ss 4 verbs have / i / , cla ss 5 verbs / e / ; lik e c la s s 2 and 3 verbs they may be combined into one cla ss. The in defin ite, imperfe c tiv e , and imperative stems o f sugu ‘ surpass’ are su g i-; hence sugu is a class 4 verb. The in defin ite, imperfective, and impera­ tive stems o f nobu ‘ speak’ are nobe-; hence nobu is a class 5 verb. The FWS conclusive form o f cla ss 4 and 5 verbs is d iffe r e n t from the colloq u ial conclusive; in the conclusive present class 4 verbs have a stem -suffix /u / in FWS, but / i r u / in the collo q u ia l: FWS sugu ‘ surpass,’ colloq . sugiru; class 5 verbs have /u / in FWS, but /eru/ in the colloquial: FWS uku ‘ re ceiv e,’ colloq . ukeru.* Class 4 verbs are liste d in seven sub-classes with base ending in /b g k r t y z / and one with base ending in vowel. Examples are: obu ‘ w ear,’ sugu ‘ p a ss,’ iku ‘ l i v e , ’ oru ‘ come down,’ oyu 'grow o l d ,’ otu ‘ f a l l , ’ hazu ‘ be ashamed,’ and motiu ‘ u s e .’ The six stems and colloquial conclusive o f five o f these are: Conclusive (Attributive Indefinite

sugu-

otu-

oyu-

hazu-

suguru-

oturu-

oyuru- hazuru-

motiuru-)

sugi-

o ti-

o i-

m otii-

hazi-

motiu-

cont. ‘ Since romanized dictionaries are made on the basis of the colloquial one must convert a ll FWS conclusive present forms to colloqu ia l conclu­ sive present forms to look them up. To find the various meanings of the FWS verb kaku ‘ hang’ one must look up the colloqu ia l form kakeru ‘ hang.’ I f there is any doubt about the class of a verb i t may be resolved by finding forms built on the imperfective, perfective, or imperative stems; oku ’ get up’ must be a class 4 verb because i t s negative is o k iz u ; the class 1 verb oku ‘ put’ has okazu as negative. There may occasionally be doubt about the class of a verb whose colloqu ia l conclusive ends in ru. One can determine the class of such a verb from colloqu ia l diction aries by finding its past form or any other form beginning in / t / ; i f its stem is modified—e .g ., simetta, past of simeru ‘ become damp’ —i t is a class 1 verb; i t its stem is not modified, one can determine from its stem-suffix to which of the other classes i t belongs. There are three verbs simeru listed in Kenkyusha: simeru ‘ become damp,’ simeru ‘ occupy,’ and simeru ‘ t i e . ’ Simeru ‘ become damp’ is a cla ss 1 verb because it forms a past simetta; simeru ‘ occupy’ and simeru ‘ t i e ’ are class 5 verbs because their te-form, simete, does not show contraction, and has a stem-suffix e.

32

Imperfective

sugi-

o ti-

o i-

hazi-

motii-

Perfective

sugure-

oture-

oyure-

hazure-

motiure-

Imperative

sugi-

o ti-

o i-

hazi-

motii-

Colloquial

sugiru

otiru

oiru

haziru

motiiru

The base o f seven o f these sub-classes remains unchanged regard­ less o f the following vowel. (The changes in pronunciation in the su b -cla sses ending in / t / and / z / are non-phonemic, c f . 2 . 2 .) Verbs o f the sub-class ending in / y / , however, have a base ending in a consonant that is found only before / u / and not before / i / ; the conclusive and attribu tive and forms b u ilt on the conclusive and p e rfe ctiv e stems have / y / , the other forms do n ot. Verbs belonging to class 4 are listed in Appendix II. 4.4D

The I n f l e c t i o n o f C lass 5 Verbs

The in fle ctio n o f class 5 verbs is important not only because o f the large number o f class 5 verbs, but also because the causa­ tiv e , p a ssiv e, and p o te n tia l follow i t . Class 5 verbs may be l i s t e d in tw elve s u b -cla sse s accord in g to the fin a l vowel or consonant o f the base; besides these there is the verb a ‘ g e t’ which has a zero base, or to put it d ifferen tly has stems lik e the stem -suffix o f cla ss 5 verbs. Examples are: atau ‘ grant’ (fo r vowel bases), nobu ‘ s t a t e ,’ idu ‘ go o u t ,’ agu ‘ g iv e ,’ hu ‘ p a ss,’ aku ‘ open,’ simu ‘ occupy,’ tazunu ‘ look f o r , ’ ‘ be stormy,’ nosu ‘ re co rd ,’ atu ‘ guess,’ kikoyu ‘ be h eard,’ mazu ‘ m ix.’ Hie stems and co llo q u ia l conclusive of s ix o f these, and o f the causative, passive, and potential are:

Conclusive (Attributive Indefinite Imperfective Perfective Imperative Colloquial Conclusive (Attributive Indefinite Imperfective Perfective Imperative Colloquial

uurueeuree-

iduiduruideideidureide-

huhuruhehehurehe-

atu.aturuatea teaturea te-

kikoyukikoyuru-) kikoekikoekikoyurekikoe-

eru

deru

heru

ateru

kikoeru

mazumazuru:mazemazemazuremaze-

-simu -simuru- sime - sime -simure- sime

-(ra )ru -(ra)ruru-(r a )r e -(r a )r e -(ra )ru re-(r a )r e -

-a-uru-) -e -e -u.re-e -

mazeru

- simeru

-(ra )reru

-eru

33

The base o f most o f these sub-classes remains unchanged, regard­ less o f the follow in g vowel. (The changes in pronunciation in the sub-classes ending in / h / and ft/ are non-phonemic; c f. 2. 2.) For a l i s t o f class 5 verbs see Appendix II. 4.4E

Irregular Verbs

Besides the fiv e classes there are four irregu lar verbs and their derivatives: ari ‘ b e ,’ su ‘ d o ,’ ku ‘ come,’ and sinu ‘ d i e . ’ A ri, nari, from ni ari, and ta ri, from to a ri, are irregular only in the present conclusive form; the conclusive stem, aru-, would be the regularly expected form. In a ll other forms, a ri, nari, and tari follow the in flection of class 1; they do not, how­ ever, have a past in -ri/ru, Nari is also irregular in the fo r ­ mation o f the te-form; the regular forms narite and ni a rite may be found, but the usual forms are the suppletive n ite (co llo q . de) and ni s i t e . Oru ‘ be’ is sometimes found with a conclusive form o ri, but in a ll other respects is in flected like a cla ss 1 verb, and has a past 1, oreri:oreru . Su follows the in fle ctio n o f class 5, but is irregular in it s in defin ite stem; this is usually s i - , but the regular in d efin ite stem se - is used in the formation o f the attributive past 2, sesi. Unlike class 5 verbs su has a past 1, s e r i : seru. Ku and sinu are almost never used in FW3. Kitaru ‘ come’ takes the place o f ku; si su ‘ d ie ’ and various compounds such as byosi su 'd ie o f illn e s s ’ take the place o f sinu. The stems o f the irregular verbs, and their colloq u ial conclusives are: Conclusive

aru-

su-

ku-

sinu-

(Attributive

aru-

suru-

kuru-

sinuru-)

Indefinite

a ri-

s±~*

k i-

s in i-

Imperfective

ara-

se-

ko.-

sina-

Perfective

are-

sure-

kure-

sinure-

Imperative

are

se-

kUr

sin e-

Colloquial

aru

suru

kuru

sinu

h.hK

Japanese C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

Japanese scholars have named these classes on the basis o f the vowels o f the stem -su ffix es. Class 1 has four d iffe r e n t vowels (dan) in the stem -suffix, u i a e; hence i t is called yodan Classes 2 and 3 have only one vowel; i, the vowel o f class 2 stemsuffixes, is high in the usual Japanese order o f vowels, a i u e o, ‘ The irregular stems are underlined.

34

and consequently class 2 is ca lled kamiitidan, , i.e .f one high vowel; since the vowel o f c la s s 3, e, is lower, i t is called simoitidan, , i . e . , one low vowel. Classes 4, with i and u, and 5, with e and u, have two d iffe re n t vowels and therefore are ca lled resp ectiv ely kaminidan, , i.e ., two high vowels, and simonidan, , i . e . , two low vowels. The various classes are occasionally designated by translations of these terms: quadrigrade or 4 -step , unigrade or upper 1-step and lower 1-step, bigrade or upper 2-step and lower 2-step. Japanese dictionaries iden tify the class o f a verb by writing a fter i t one o f the five terms, e .g ., aku ( ). 4 .5

S i-V er b s

The class o f any si-verb may be determined from its attributive present form, and o f most si-verbs by their colloqu ial conclusive. The attribu tive present o f cla ss 2 si-verb s ends in s ik i, e .g ., atarasiki from atarasi ‘ is new,’ compare hayaki, from the class 1 si-verb hayasi ‘ is f a s t . ' Class 2 si-verb s may also be d is tin ­ guished from class 1 si-verbs by their colloquial conclusive ending - s ii, e .g ., atarasii ‘ is new,’ isogasii ‘ is busy’ ; class 1 si-verbs never have a base ending in si in the colloqu ial. The FWS conclusive o f si-verb s is d iffe r e n t from that o f the colloq u ial; class 1 verbs have - i added to the base in the c o llo ­ quial, e .g ., hayai, but si in FAVS, hayasi; class 2 verbs have - i added to the base in the co lloq u ia l, e .g ., atarasii, but no ending in FWS, atarasi. The conclusive and indefinite forms o f the s i-in fle c tio n verbs d iffe r from their conclusive and in defin ite stems. A ll stems are extended with forms o f the irregular verb, a ri. The in flection o f si-verbs, therefore, is that o f ari except in the conclusive and attributive present, the hypothetical, and the in d efin ite. Note that the perfective stem has the / a / o f are- changed to / e / . Examples o f the forms, stems, and colloq u ial conclusive o f s iverbs are: CLASS 1

CLASS 2

Forms: Duel. Attrib. Indef.

hayasi hayaki hayaku

-tasi -taki -taku

-besi -beki -beku

atarasi atarasiki atarasiku

-mazi -maziki -maziku

Stems: Concl. Indef. Imperf. Perf.

hayakaruhayakarihayakarahayakere-

- takaru-takari-takara- takere-

-bekaru-bekari-bekara-bekere-

atarasikaruatarasikariatarasikaraatarasikere-

-mzikaru-mazikari-mazikara-mazikere-

hayai

-tai

—

atarasii

-m i

Colloquial

For lis t s o f si-verbs see Appendix II.

35

4 ,6

Formation o f Prim ary I n f l e c t i o n Forms

A ll verbs o f FWS may be in fle cte d fo r three tenses: present, past, fu tu re;for four moods: hypothetical, conditional, concessive, and imperative; and for two tenseless forms: in d efin ite and te form. The tenses are further in fle cte d for position: conclusive and a ttrib u tiv e. The hypothetical and conditional are in fle cte d for present and past tenses. 4.6-4

Formation o f the P r e s e n t Tense

The conclusive present form o f verbs belonging to the u -in fle c­ tion is made by adding -u to the base o f class 1, 4, and 5 verbs: torn, oka, uku; and -ru to the base o f class 2 and 3 verbs: miru, keru; ari is irregu lar in it s formation o f the con clu sive. The conclusive present form 'of verbs belonging to the s i-in fle c tio n is made by adding -s i to the base o f class 1 verbs: hayasi; and zero to the base o f class 2 verbs: atarasi. The a ttrib u tiv e present form o f verbs belonging to the uin fle c tio n is lik e the con clu sive present in cla ss 1, 2, and 3 verbs: torn, miru, keru; in cla s s 4 and 5 verbs i t is made by adding -uru to the base: okuru, ukuru, Aru is the a ttrib u tiv e present o f ari and suru o f su. The a ttrib u tive present form o f verbs belonging to the s i-in fle c t io n is made by adding -k i to the base: hayaki, atarasiki, 4.6B

Formation o f the P a st Tenses*

Four past tense forms are rela tiv ely comnon in FWS: past 1 has concl. - r i , a ttrib . -ru added to the perfective stem; past 2 has concl. -k i, a ttrib . -s i added to the -indefinite stem; past 3 has con cl. -t a r i, a ttrib . -taru added to the in d efin ite stem; past 4 has concl. -ta rik i, a ttrib . ta risi added to the indefinite stem. Past 1 is made only from cla ss 1 verbs o f the u -in fle c tio n , and from su. Examples are: concl. to r e r i; a ttrib . toreru ‘ took’ ; materi: materu ‘ waited’ ; kaeri: kaeru ‘ bought’ ; se ri; seru ‘ d id .’ Past 2 is made from a l l verbs; the conclusive, however, is rarely used. Examples are: concl. to r ik i; a ttrib . tor is i ‘ took’ ; miki; misi ‘ saw’ ; ok ik i: ok isi ‘ got up’ ; ukeki: ukesi ‘ received’ ; ariki; a risi ‘ was’ ; s ik i: sesi ‘ d id ’ ; hayakariki: hayakarisi ‘ was fa st’ ; atarasikariki: atarasikarisi ‘ was new.’ Past 3 is made from a ll verbs o f the u -in fle c tio n . Examples are: co n cl. t o r i t a r i ; a ttr ib . to rita r u ‘ took ’ ; m ita ri: mitaru ‘ saw’ ; o k ita r i; okitaru ‘ got up’ ; u k eta ri: uketaru ‘ receiv ed ’ ; a rita ri: aritaru ‘ was’ ; s ita r i: sitaru ‘ d id .’ Past 4 may be made from any verb o f the u -in fle c tio n ; i t is , ‘ For the origin of these forms see Sansom, H is to r ic a l Grammar o f the 182 f f . , and 211 f.

Japanese Language, pp. 177 f f . ,

36

however, ra re. Examples are: t o r i t a r i k i : t o r i t a r i s i ‘ took ’ ; uketariki: uketarisi ‘ received’ ; s ita r ik i: s ita r is i ‘ d id .’ C lassical Japanese had s t i l l other past tense forms, some o f which are used occa sio n a lly in FWS. They are: 5; addition o f -nu:nuru to the in d e fin ite stem; examples are torin u: torinuru ‘ took’ ; arinu: arinuru ‘ was.’ Past 6: addition o f -tu.-turu to the indefinite stem; examples are mitu: mituru ‘ saw.’ Past 7: addition of -k eri:k eru to the indefinite stem; examples are: arikeri: arikeru I was. f 4 . 6C

Formation o f the Future Tense

The future is made from a ll verbs by adding -n to the imperfective stem for both conclusive and attributive forms. Examples are: toran ‘ w ill take,’ min ‘ w ill s e e ,' okin ‘ w ill get u p,’ uken ‘ w ill receiv e,’ sen 'w ill d o ,’ aran ‘ w ill b e ,’ hayakaran ‘ w ill be f a s t ,’ atarasikaran ‘ w ill be new.’ In the older stage o f the cla ssica l verb system the future ending was -mu; this ending is s t i l l used occasionally in FWS, e . g . , aramu but read aran. 4 . 6D

Form ation o f the Mood Forms

The hypothetical present is made by adding -ha to the imperfective stem o f verbs o f the u -in fle c tio n . Examples are: toraba ' i f I should t a k e ,’ miba ‘ i f I should s e e , ’ ukeba ‘ i f I should re ce iv e ,’ araba ‘ i f i t should b e ,’ seba ‘ i f he should d o .’ Verbs o f the s i-in fle c t io n make the hypothetical by adding -ba to the in defin ite form; hayakuba ‘ i f i t is f a s t , ’ atarasikuba ‘ i f i t is n ew ,’ very o fte n w ith euphonic -n - b e fo re -b a ; hayakunba, atarasikunba. Rarely one may see hypothetical forms made from s iin fle c t io n verbs on the analogy o f u -in fle c tio n verbs, such as hayakaraba. More common than eith er o f these forms are phrases made up of the attributive present followed by baai ’ case’ or ni o ite wa ‘ i f ’ : hayaki baai 'i n case i t is f a s t ,’ samuki ni o ite wa 1i f i t is c o l d .’ The h yp oth etical past is made only in the u - in fle c tio n by adding -taraba to the in d e fin ite stem; examples are: toritaraba ‘ i f he took ,’ sitaraba ‘ i f he d id .’ The conditional present is made by adding -ba to the perfective stem o f a ll verbs. Examples are: toreba ‘ when/since he ta k es,’ mireba 'when/since he s e e s ,’ ukureba ‘ when/since he r e c e iv e s ,’ areba ‘ when/since i t i s , ’ sureba ‘ when/since he d o e s,’ hayakereba ’ when/since i t is fa s t ,’ atarasikereba ‘ when/since i t is new.’ The conditional past is made only in the u -in flection by adding -sik a ba or -ta r e b a to the im p e rfe c tiv e stem. Examples are: torisikaba ‘ when/since he took ,’ sitareba ‘ when/since he d id .’ The concessive is made by adding -domo or -do to the perfective stem. Examples are: toredo ‘ though he may t a k e ,’ ukuredomo ‘ although he re ceiv es,’ suredo ‘ although he d oes.’

37

The imperative is lik e the imperative stem in class 1 verbs o f the u -in flection and a ri; examples are: tore ‘ ta k e,’ are ‘ b e .’ I t is made by adding -yo to the im perative stems o f a ll other u -in flection verbs; examples are: ukeyo ‘ re c e iv e ,’ seyo ‘ d o .’ FWS does not have an imperative ending in - ro lik e that o f the c o l ­ loquial. 4 . 6E

Form ation o f the T e n s e le s s Forms

The in d efin ite form is the same as the in defin ite stem o f a ll it-verbs: to ri ‘ ta k in g ,’ mi ‘ s e e in g ,’ ke ‘ k ic k in g ,’ oki ‘ gettin g up,’ uke ‘ receiv in g ,’ ari ‘ b ein g,’ and si ‘ doing.’ The indefinite form of si-verbs is made by adding - ku to the base: hayaku ‘ fa s t ’ and atarasiku ‘ new.’ The te-form is made by adding - t e to the indefinite stem o f a ll verbs. Examples a re: t o r i t e ‘ t a k in g ,’ mite ‘ s e e i n g ,’ ukete ‘ r e c e iv in g ,’ a r ite ‘ b e in g ,’ s i t e ‘ d o in g ,’ hayakute ‘ f a s t , ’ and atarasikute ‘ new.’ 4 .7

Chart o f Primary I n f l e c t i o n s

In the following chart the forms of class 3 u -in flection verbs and forms o f ku ‘ come’ and sinu ‘ d ie ’ are omitted. Forms o f these verbs can be analyzed or made on the analogy o f the forms lis te d with the help o f the data given in 4.3 and 4.4. 4 .8

Secondary I n f l e c t i o n s

We have used the term secondary in flection s to refer to in fle c ­ tions which may be made from any verb, and are then inflected lik e simple verbs. Causatives may be made from any verb: torasimu 'cause to ta k e,’ ukesimu ‘ cause to r e c e iv e ,’ hayakarasimu ‘ cause to be fa s t’ ; such causative forms are then in flected lik e class 5 u-verbs through the forms o f the primary in fle ctio n : torasimetari ‘ caused to take,’ ukesimen ‘ w ill cause to re ce iv e ,’ hayakarasimureba ‘ since he causes to be f a s t . ’ Sim ilarly fcesi-forms may be made from any verb: to ru b es i ‘ may t a k e ,’ ukubesi ‘ may r e c e i v e , ’ hayakarubesi ‘ may be fa st’ ; such b e s i -forms may then be in flected lik e c la s s 1 s i-v e r b s ; torubekereba ‘ when he may ta k e .' The causative, passive, and poten tial are in fle cte d lik e cla ss 5 uverbs. Many o f the a r i - forms and negative forms are in fle c te d like the irregular verb ari. The 6esi-form and the desiderative are in fle cte d lik e class 1 si-v e rb s, the mazi-form like cla ss 2 si-verbs. T heoretically the secondary conjugations may be in fle cte d in a ll forms given in 4.7. Actually many possible forms are rarely i f ever used; in place o f them analytic constructions of a ttribu ­ tive forms followed by p a rticles are used. A ttributives followed by baai or ni o i t e wa are used in preference to h yp oth etica l

38

PRIMARY INFLECTION U-Verbs 1 torn (take)

2 mini (see)

4 okiru (a rise)

5 ukeru (receive)

toru toru

mini mini

oku okuru

uku ukuru

miki mi si mitari mitaru mitariki m itarisi

okiki okisi okitari okitaru ok ita riki o k ita risi

ukeki ukes i uketari uke t am uketariki uketarisi

toran

min

okin

uken

Prs Past

toraba toritaraba

okiba miba mitaraba okitaraba

ukeba uketaraba

Prs Past 1 2

toreba torisikaba toritareba

mireba misikaba mitareba

okureba okisikaba okitareba

ukureba ukesikaba uketareba

Concessive

toredo

miredo

okuredo

ukuredo

Imperative

tore

miyo

okiyo

ukeyo

tori tor ite

mi mite

oki ok ite

uke ukete

Class Colloquial

Past 1 2 3 4 Future Moods: Hypothetical Conditional

Tenseless forms: Indefinite T e-form

C A

C toreri A toreru C toriki A to r is i C to rita ri A toritaru C to rita rik i A to r ita r is i C&A

PP

Tenses: Present

*Si-Verbs Irregular suru aru (do) (be)

1 hayai (is fast)

2 atarasii (is new)

ari aru

su suru

hayasi hayaki

atarasi atarasiki

_ _

--

seri seru

ariki a risi aritari aritaru arita rik i a rita ris i

siki sesi sita ri sitaru sita rik i s ita r is i

hayakariki hayakarisi

aran

sen

hayakaran

atarasikaran

araba aritaraba

seba sitaraba

hayakunba

atarasikunba —

areba arisikaba aritareba

sureba sesikaba sitareba

hayakereba

atarasikereba ---

aredo

suredo

--

—

are

seyo

--

--

ari a rite

si s ite

hayaku hayakute

atarasiku atarasikute

— atarasikariki atarasikarisi

—

—

--

—

—

—

—

—

forms: hayakarazaru baai ' i f i t is not f a s t ’ in preference to hayakarazunba. Attributives followed by toki are used in prefer­ ence to conditional forms: torasimetaru toki is used in preference to torasim etareba or torasim esikaba 'when he caused to t a k e .’ We sh a ll give fo r each secondary con ju ga tion the forms that occur commonly; any other, i f encountered, may be analyzed on the basis o f the forms given in 4 .7 and o f the data given in this chapter. 4 .9

N eg a tiv e

The negative is formed by the addition o f -zu, -nu, and the other endings lis te d below to the im perfective stems o f verbs; e . g . , the imperfective stem o f tom ‘ take’ is tora -; the attribu­ tive past negative ending is za risi; the attributive past negative form o f tom is torazarisi ‘ did not ta k e.’ Like the s i-in fle c t io n (see 4 .5) the negative has conclusive and in defin ite forms which d iffe r from the conclusive and in d ef­ inite stems. Examples o f the forms and stems are: Endings

I/-Verbs

Si-Verbs

zu

torazu

hayakarazu

Attributive

zo.ru/nu

torazaru/toranu

hayakarazaru/hayakaranu

Indefinite

zu

torazu

hayakarazu

Stems: Conclusive

zaru-

torazaru-

hayakarazaru-

Indefinite

zari-

torazari-

hayakarazari-

Imperfective

zara-

torazara-

hayakarazara-

Perfective

zare-/ne- torazare-/torane- hayakarazare-

Imperative

zare-/ne- torazare-

hayakarazare-

-nai

hayaku nai

Fbrms: Conclusive

Colloquial

torarni

The FWS negative d iffe r s from that o f the colloquial in termi­ nation; -nai is never used in FWS. On the other hand the in d ef­ in it e FWS form o f a few verbs is used in c e r ta in id io m a tic expressions in the colloq u ial: sezu 'n ot doing,’ taezu ‘ constantly.’ Conclusive present negative forms o f the verbs given in 4.7 are: torazu ‘ does not t a k e ,’ mizu ‘ does not s e e ,’ okizu ‘ does not a r is e ,’ ukezu ‘ does not r e c e iv e ,’ arazu ‘ is n o t ,’ sezu ‘ does n o t,’ hayakarazu ‘ is not f a s t ,’ atarasikarazu ‘ is not new.’ Since the endings are a lik e fo r a l l verbs, examples only o f torazu, sezu, and hayakarazu w ill be given below; any other forms may be made on the pattern o f these.

40

Present

C A 1 2

torazu torazaru toranu

sezu sezaru senu

hayakarazu hayakarazaru

Past

C A

torazariki torazarisi

sezariki seza risi

hayakarazariki hayakarazarisi

torazaran

sezaran

hayakarazaran

Future Hypothetical

Prs Past

hayakarazunba sezunba torazunba torazaritaraba sezaritaraba f

Conditional

Prs 1 2 Past

hayakarazareba sezareba torazareba seneba toraneba torazarisikaba sezarisikaba

Concessive

torazaredo

sezaredo

--

Indefinite

torazu

sezu

hayakarazu

Te-form

torazarite

seza rite

--

None o f the mood forms are common; in th eir stead analytic forms are used. Negative forms may be made from secondary conjugations as well as from simple verbs, for example, torasimezu ‘ he does not cause to ta k e .’ These in turn may be in fle c te d in the various forms given above. Other conclusive present negative forms of secondary conjugations are: conclusive present negative passive torarezu ‘ i t is not taken’ ; p o te n tia l siez u ‘ he cannot d o’ ; fcesi-form ukubekarazu ‘ he w ill not re ce iv e ’ ; siorazu, situ tu arazu ‘ he is not d o in g ,’ kenkyutyu narazu ‘ they are not i n v e s t i g a t i n g .’ Negative forms o f the desiderative are almost never used. 4 .1 0

C ausative

The cau sative i s formed by the a d d ition o f -simu to the imperfective stems o f verbs ( - sesimu is added to class 2 u-verbs); -simu is in flected through a ll forms as a regular verb o f class 5. For the stems o f simu see 4.4D. The causative ending -(s a )s e r u is rarely used as causative termination in FWS, but -sim (er)u may occa sion a lly be found in the colloq u ial. Conclusive present causative forms o f the verbs in 4.7 are: torasimu ‘ cause to ta k e,’ misesimu ‘ cause to s e e ,’ okisimu ‘ cause to a r i s e ,’ ukesimu ‘ cause to r e c e i v e ,’ arasimu ‘ cause to b e ,’ sesimu ‘ cause to d o ,’ hayakarasimu ‘ cause to be f a s t , ’ atarasikarasimu ‘ cause to be new .’ Since the endings are a lik e for a ll verbs, examples only o f torasimu, sesimu, and hayakarasimu w ill be given below; any other forms may be made on the pattern o f these.

41

torasimu torasimuru

Present

C A

Past 2

C tor asimeki A torasimesi C torasimetari A torasimetaru

3

sesinu sesimuru

hayakaras imu hayakarasimuru

sesimeki sesimesi sesimetari sesimetaru

hayakarasimeki hayakarasimesi hayakarasimetari hayakarasimetaru

Future

torasimen

sesimen

hayakarasimen

Hypothetical

torasimeba

sesimeba

hayakarasimeba

Conditional

torasimureba

sesimureba

hayakarasimureba

Imperative

torasimeyo

sesimeyo

hayakarasimeyo

Indefinite

torasime

sesime

hayakarasime

The causative is not made from any o f the secondary conju­ gations; in cla ssica l Japanese, forms like seraresimu ‘ cause to be done’ were used, but they are not found in FWS. The causative may be followed by the follow ing secondary con­ ju g a tion s: n ega tive, sesim ezu ‘ do not cause to do’ ; p assive, sesimeraru ‘ be caused to do’ ; potential sesimeu, ‘ be able to cause to do’ ; d e s id e r a t iv e , sesim e ta si ‘ he wants to cause to d o’ ; desiderative o f passive, sesim eraretasi ‘ I want you to cause to d o’ ; b esi-form , sesim ubesi ‘ he w ill cause to d o’ ; a ri-fo r m s , sesimeoru ‘ is causing to d o .’ A ll o f these are inflected like the last element. 4 .1 1

P a ssiv e

The passive is formed only from u-verbs by adding -ru to the imperfective stem o f cla ss 1 verbs and -raru to the imperfective stems o f verbs o f the other classes. -f?u and -raru are in flected through a ll forms o f the primary in fle c t io n as regular cla ss 5 verbs; their stems are listed in 4.4D. The FWS passive d iffe r s from the c o llo q u ia l passive ju s t as class 5 verbs d iffe r from collo q u ia l forms: FWS passive toraru, c o llo q . to ra reru ; compare the c la s s 5 verb FWS uku, c o l l o q . ukeru. Conclusive present passive forms o f the verbs in 4.7 are: toraru ‘ is taken’ ; miraru ‘ is seen ’ ; ok iraru ‘ is awakened’ ; ukeraru ‘ is re c e iv e d '; seraru ' i s d on e.’ Examples o f forms of toraru, ukeraru, and seraru w ill be given below; any other forms may be made on the pattern o f these. Present

C A

toraru toraruru

ukeraru ukeraruru

seraru seraruru cont.

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torareki toraresi toraretari toraretaru

ukerareki ukeraresi ukeraretari ukeraretaru

serareki seraresi seraretari seraretaru

Future

toraren

ukeraren

seraren

Hypothetical

torareba

ukerareba

serareba

Conditional

torarureba

ukerarureba

serarureba

Indefinite

torare

ukerare

serare

Past 2 3

C A C A

Seraru is the regular passive o f su in FWS, but saru (c o llo q . sareru) is also used, especially with on-nouns. The passive may be made from the causative as w ell as from simple verbs: sesim eraru''be caused to d o .’ The passive may be followed by the: potential, serareu ‘ can be done’ ; 6e s i-fo r m , sera ru b esi ‘ should be done’ ; d e s id e r a tiv e , seraretasi ‘ we want you to do’ ; ari-form s, serareoru, seraretutu ari ‘ is being don e.’ A ll o f these are in fle cte d lik e the la st element. 4 .1 2

P o t e n t ia l

The p oten tia l is formed only from u -in fle c tio n verbs by the a ddition o f -u to the in d e fin ite stem. -U is in fle c te d as a regular class 5 verb; i t is identical with u (c o llo q . eru) ‘ get’ ; for the stems see 4.4D. In the co llo q u ia l, potential forms are made only from class 1 verbs o f the u -in fle ctio n ; in FWS they are made from a l l verbs o f the u-in fle ctio n . Conclusive present potential forms o f the verbs used in 4.7 are: toriu ‘ can take’ ; miu‘ can see’ ; okiu ‘ can a rise ’ ; ukeu ‘ can receive*; ariu ‘ can be’ ; siu ‘ can d o .’ Examples o f toriu, ukeu, and siu only w ill be given; any other forms can be made on the pattern o f these. toriu toriuru

Present

C A

Past 2

C torieki A to r ie s i C torieta ri A torietaru

3

ukeu ukeuru

siu siuru

ukeeki ukeesi ukeetari ukeetaru

sieki s ie s i sieta ri sietaru

Future

torien

ukeen

sien

Hypothetical

torieba

ukeeba

sieba

Conditional

toriureba

ukeureba

siureba

T e-form

to riete

ukeete

s ie te

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The p oten tia l may be made from the causative: sesimeu ‘ can cause to do’ ; and from the passive: serareu ‘ i t can be done.’ The p o te n tia l may be follow ed by the n ega tive: siez u ‘ he cannot do’ ; by the besi-form: siubesi ‘ he w ill be able to do’ ; and by the desiderative: s ie ta s i ‘ he wants to be able to d o .’ These are inflected lik e the last element. Compounds with kanu ‘ to be unable to, to be prevented from ,’ added to the in d efin ite stem are sometimes used rather than the negative p oten tia l; for example, torikanu ‘ he is prevented from taking’ may be used with approximately the same meaning as toriezu ‘ he cannot take.’ A ll compounds ending in kanu are inflected like class 5 verbs. 4 .1 3

The BESI-Form

The besi-form is made by the addition o f -b esi to the conclu­ sive stems o f verbs. -Besi is inflected as a class 1 si-verb: for its stems see 4.5. The b e si-fo rm is ra re ly used in the c o llo q u ia l standard language, but is used in various d ia lects. In the standard c o llo ­ q u ia l, forms lik e to ro , miyo, tabeyo, desyo, toru desyo, and various phrases like yo desu are used where b e s i-forms are used in FWS. Conclusive present besi-form s o f the verbs used in 4.7 are: torubesi ‘ may take’ ; nirubesi ‘ should see’ ; okubesi ‘ should a rise ’ ; ukubesi ‘ should receive’ ; arubesi ‘ should be’ ; subesi ‘ should do’ ; hayakarubesi ‘ should be fa s t’ ; atarasikarubesi ‘ should be new.’ Examples o f torubesi, subesi, and hayakarubesi w ill be given below; other forms can be made on the pattern o f these. torubesi torubeki

Present

C A

Past

C torubekariki A torubekarisi

subesi subeki

hayakarubesi hayakarubeki

subekariki subekarisi

hayakarubekariki hayakarubekarisi

Hypothetical

torubekunba

subekunba

hayakarubekunba

Conditional

torubekereba

subekereba

hayakarubekereba

Indefinite

torubeku

subeku

hayakarubeku

Besi-forms may be made from the negative: subekarazu ‘ should not do’ ; causative: sesim ubesi ‘ should cause to d o’ ; passive: serarubesi ‘ should be done’ ; poten tia l: siubesi ‘ should be able to d o .’ B e s i-forms may follow the negative: sezarubesi ‘ may not d o .’ There generally is a difference in meaning between negative besiforms such as subekarazu and besi-form s o f negatives, such as sezarubesi. Forms with the negative follow ing the besi element

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g e n e ra lly mean ‘ must n o t . . . ’ ; forms with b esi fo llo w in g the negative may have any o f the meanings o f -b e s i; see\5.10. The common form used to express o b lig a tio n — fo r example, sezarubekarazu ‘ must d o ,’ torazarubekarazu ‘ must take’ — is a negative o f the 6esi-form o f the negative. 4 .1 4

The MAZI-Form

The mazi-form is made by the addition o f -mazi to the conclu­ sive stems o f verbs. -Mazi is in fle cte d like a class 2 si-verb ; its forms and stems are listed in 4.5. The mazi-form is the mai-form o f the colloquial and when used, indicates negative p rob a bility; e .g ., torumai ‘ w ill probably not take.’ Since i t is rarely used in FWS only a few examples w ill be given: prs. con cl. torumazi ‘ w ill probably not take’ ; prs. a ttrib . sumaziki ‘ may not do’ ; prs. in def. ukumaziku ‘ may not r e c e iv e .’ In its stead negative forms o f -b esi are used. 4 .15

D e s id e r a tiv e

The d e sid era tiv e is made by the a ddition o f - t a s i to the indefinite stems o f u -in flection verbs. -Tasi is inflected like a class 1 si-verb; its forms and stems are given in 4.5. The desiderative is lik e the desiderative o f the co lloq u ia l with the d iffe re n ce in form o f a l l s i - i n f l e c t i o n verbs: - t a s i, -ta k i; colloq . -ta i. Conclusive present desiderative forms o f the verbs in 4.7 are: to r ita s i ‘ wish to take’ ; mitasi ‘ wish to se e ’ ; o k ita si ‘ wish to a rise ’ ; uketasi ‘ wish to receiv e’ ; a rita si ‘ we should like there to be’ ; sita si ‘ he wishes to d o .’ Examples o f to rita s i, uketasi, and s ita s i are given below; any other forms can be made on the pattern o f these. Present

C A

torita si toritaki

uketasi uketaki

sita si sitaki

Past

C A

toritakariki toritakarisi

uketakariki uketakarisi

sitakariki sita karisi

Hypothetical

toritakunba

uketakunba

sitakunba

Conditional

toritakereba

uketakereba

sitakereba

Indefinite

toritaku

uketaku

sitaku

The desiderative is made from the causative, sesim etasi ‘ he wishes to cause to do’ ; passive, seraretasi ‘ should like to have done, please do’ ; passive o f the causative, sesimeraretasi ‘ please have d o . ’ I t i s r a r e ly i f ever follow ed by other secondary in fle ctio n endings.

45

A. 16

ARI(NARI/ORU)-Forms

Four a r i - forms are made in FWS. Two o f these are in fle cte d verb forms, two verbal phrases. Since they end in ari, nari, and oru, they are in flected through the primary forms like these verbs. A ri-form 1 is made by adding -oru to the in d e fin ite stem. Since the FWS in d e fin ite has the function o f the co llo q u ia l te form, and oru is used in FWS where iru is used in the co llo q u ia l, th is form is the eq u iv a len t o f the c o llo q u ia l - t e iru form. Conclusive present ari-forms of.th e verbs in 4.7 are: torioru ‘ is taking’ ; mioru ‘ is lo o k in g ’ ; okioru ‘ is a r is in g ’ ; ukeoru ‘ is receiving’ ; sioru ‘ is d oin g .’ The conclusive o f these forms may end in -o ri as well as -oru; see 4.4E. esi-form, usually abbreviating i t to ari-form.

46

a tta ck in g .’ ^ri-form s may be made from causatives: sesimeoru, sesim earu, sesim etutu a ri ‘ they are causing to d o , ’ and from passives: serareoru ‘ is being done,’ serareoreri ‘ was being done.’ 4 .1 7

A n a ly tic Chart o f Verb Forms

Chart II is an analytic table attempting to summarize a ll the data given on the previous pages. The stems are liste d ; likewise a ll terminations. The s ix ‘ stems’ o f a ll verb in flection s have been arranged in two groups according to usage; the f ir s t four may be used as free forms, the last two are used only as stems. To use Chart II i t is necessary to know which terminations may be added to any given stem; for example, the past form ukeri cannot be made, even though this is not stated on the chart. I f such exceptions are known i t is clear which endings may be added to any given stem; con versely i t may be determined to which stem any given ending must be added. For example, given any p erfectiv e stem, with class 1 u-verbs, one of three endings may be added: -ba, -ri/ru, or -do; with other u-verbs only one o f two: -ba or -do. Conversely given the ending -b e s i, one may conclude that the pre­ ceding stem must be the conclusive. 4 .18

Order o f I n f l e c t i o n s

The order in which compound in fle c t io n s are added is w ell established. Examples have been given after the various l i s t s o f forms made in the secondary in fle ctio n s . The follow ing chart is given to sum up: 1.

Stem (torn -, t o r i-, tora-, e tc .) 2.

Secondary conjugations in the following order: a. causative b. passive c. potential d. desiderative e. besi-form or mazi-form. {-b e si may also follow the negative) 3.

Negative. 4.

(1) (1) (1)

Forms o f the primary in flection (in 4 .7 ).

Examples are: (1) to r i- (4) ki tora- ( 3) zari- ( 4) ki ‘ he did tora- (2) sime- (3) zari- (4) tora- (2a) sime- (2b) rare- (2d)

47

he took’ not take.’ ki ‘ he didn’ t have . . . take.’ tasi ‘ we want you to have . . . take.’

One can get to know the structure o f the FWS verb system by making other forms on these patterns. I t w ill greatly sim plify mastery o f the system to learn that compound in fle c tio n s are no more d i f f i c u l t than short ones to i n fl e c t : torasim eraretasi is inflected ju st lik e hayasi, sesimerareu ju st like u.

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Chart I I o f Japanese Verb Forms Stems and Present Forms U-Verbs Conclusive Attributive Indefinite Imperative

1 toru toru tori tore

2 kiru kiru ki kiyo

3 keru keru ke keyo

4 oku okuru oki okiyo

5 uku ukuru uke ukeyo

Si-Verbs ( 1) ari aru ari are

(i) sirui sinuru sini sine

(5) ku kuru ki koyo

i (5) su hayasi sure hayaki si/se hayaku seyo (hayakare)

Imperf. stem tora ki ke oki uke ara sina ko se tore kire kere okure ukure are s inure kure sure Perf. stem (Indef. stem) (Ccncl. stem)

hayakara hayakere hayakari hayakaru

Inflections Added to the Above Conclusive as Stem Wazi-Form Besi-Form -besi -mazi Conclusive -maziki Attributive -beki -beku -maziku Indefinite ... Imperative — -mazikara Imperfective -bekara -bekere -mazikere Perfective (cf. hayas i )

Indefinite as Stem Ari-■Forms Te- Form -tutu ari -ori -ari -tutu aru -ora -ara -tutu ari -ori - ari - te

...

—

- tutu ara -ora -ara -tutu are -ore -are

Indefinite as Stem (additional forms) Conclusive Attributive Indefinite Imperative

-tari -ki -taru -si -tari — — (-ke)

Past Forms -keri -nu -keru (-nuru) C-nil ... | '-ne)

Desiderative Potential - tasi -a (-to.) (-turu) -taki -aru -taku -e l~te) — (~te) -eyo

(-kera) (-na) (-te) -takara Imperfective -tar a -se -tare -sika -kere \-nure) (-tore) - takere Perfective (cf. hayasi)

-e - ure

Imperfective as Stem Passive

Conclusive Attributive Indefinite Imperative

Causatives

Negative Forms -zu -zaru -(ra)ru -simu -(sa)su -(rajruru -simuru -(sa)suru -rui -zaru -zu -zari -(rajre -sime -(sajse -(ra)reyo -simeyo -(sa)seyo -ne -zare

Imperfective -(ra)re -sime - ( sa)se Perfective -(rajrure -simure -(sa)sure

Future Hypothetical -n (mu) -n (mu) — —

-zu -zara — -ne -zare -ne

-ba

Perfective as Stem Conditional Conclusive Attributive

Past -ri -ru

-ba

49

Concessive -do or -domo

5

THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS The in flection s and methods of formation of the verb forms o f the FWS verb system and its d ifferen ces from the co llo q u ia l verb system have been given in chapter 4. The uses of FWS verb forms are discussed below. As in the c o llo q u ia l, verb forms do not indicate gender and number, or d istin ction o f person: torn may mean ‘ I, you, we, they take; he, she, i t takes’ ; hayasi may mean ‘ I am early; you, we, they are early; he, she, i t is e a rly .’ Subjects o f verb forms may be present in the sentence when necessary to avoid ambiguity: Taisi wa raigetu Tokyo ni zairyu subesi ‘ The ambassador w ill be staying in Tokyo next month.’ ; or for stress: Tanaka san wa syokko o kantoku subesi ‘ Mr. Tanaka is to supervise the workmen. ’ ; but verb forms are often found without any e x p lic it subject: myoniti syuppan su ‘ I am sa ilin g tomorrow.’ For ways o f indicatin g the subject see 8. 2. 5 .1

Uses o f the Conclusive and the A ttr ib u tiv e Forms

The FWS verb system is unlike the co llo q u ia l verb system in having for the ends o f sentences a special form in the present and past, the conclusive. The functions o f the colloq u ial ‘ conclusive’ are divided between two forms; the FWS conclusive is used only at the ends o f sentences; the FWS a ttrib u tiv e is used before nouns and p ostp osition s. In form the conclusive d iffe r s from the attributive except in the present o f cla ss 1, 2, and 3 u-verbs and in the om -form ; these, however, are rare as compared with the present o f su ‘ do’ and the various secondary in fle c tio n s , where the conclusive and a ttrib u tiv e forms d i f f e r . Consequently there ra rely is doubt about the in terrelation sh ip o f clauses in FWS; e . g . , Kihei butai wa zensin seru teki butai o haiboku sesim etari ‘ The cavalry units routed the enemy units which had advanced.’ is c le a r ly d is t in c t from Kihei butai wa zensin se ri teki butai o haiboku sesim etari ‘ The cavalry units advanced; they routed the enemy u n its .’ 5 . 1A

Uses o f the C on clu sive

The conclusive is used only to complete sentences: e .g ., Taisi totyaku sita ru mune nobetari ‘ He stated that the ambassador had arrived. ’ Quotations followed by to, and occasionally questions followed by ya, are treated as complete sentences. With to the example given above would be: Taisi totyaku s ita r i to nobetari ‘ He stated that the ambassador had a rriv e d .’ or ‘ He stated: “ The ambassador

50

has a r r iv e d .’’ ’ With ya the sentence might read: Taisi tStyaku s i t a r i ya to sitamon s e r i ‘ He asked: ‘ ‘ Has the ambassador a r ­ rived ?” ’ P ostpositions compounded with to, such as tomo and to iedomo, are also preceded by the conclusive. (See these in chapter 6 .) Hie conclusive form, unlike the attributive, is never used as a noun. 5 . IB

Uses o f the A t t r ib u t iv e

The attributive form may be used before nouns or postpositions. I t then in d ica tes a subordinating relation sh ip o f a verb to the noun or postposition, but does not define that relationship further. The relations vary widely, as illustrated below. When used before nouns, the attributive form may have as subject the word i t m odifies, e .g ., kosyo suru daihyosya ‘ the representa­ tives who are negotiating’ or ‘ the negotiating represen tatives.’ I t may have as o b je c t the word i t m odifies, e . g . , hasso sita ru syokuryohin ‘ the provisions that we se n t.’ It may indicate a loca ­ tion o f the noun modified, e .g ., kosyo seru basyo ‘ the place where they were n egotiating.’ It may indicate the use to which the noun is put, e . g . , hogeki suru syagekiho ‘ the mortars with which we bombard.’ It may indicate the type o f action expressed in the noun, e .g ., sdko o kentiku seru syudan ‘ the way in which he erected the warehouse.’ While these attributive constructions may seem to vary widely, their meaning rarely is unclear, because sp e cific verbs and nouns are limited in use by their meaning. Kosyo suru daihyosya can only be ‘ agents who negotiate’ not ‘ agents who are negotiated, e t c . ’ Of the various types o f a ttrib u tiv e relation sh ips only the attributive preceding it s object may need comment, for in Japanese this construction is rela tiv ely common. I f one remembers that in Japanese, subjects o f verbs are usually persons, not personified inanimate o b je c t s , one w ill be able to analyze c o r r e c tly such con stru ctions; the phrase: tuho sita ru kaisya would mean ‘ the company which we n o t i f i e d ,’ not ‘ the company which n o tifie d u s .’ It may be assumed that attributive forms o f transitive verbs w ill, unless preceded by an o b je ct follow ed by o, generally have the word they precede as object: hasso seru zappin ‘ the goods which we sen t,’ toritaru syudan ‘ the measures which we to o k .’ As is clear from the examples, such a ttrib u tives take the place o f rela tiv e clauses o f English and ocher languages. The in terp reta tion o f clauses ending in a ttr ib u tiv e verbs before particles may be determined from the meaning o f the pa rticle. For example, Sekitan o baibai siezaru ni tuki kotetu o kyokyu sum koto o ezu ‘ Since we are unable to buy coal we cannot supply the s t e e l .1, or ‘ We cannot buy co a l; therefore we cannot supply the s t e e l.’ Konnan arubeki mo keikaku o zikko subesi ‘ Although there may be d i f f i c u l t i e s we shall carry out the p la n .’ The types o f relation sh ip expressed by any given p ostp osition are discussed

51

under that postposition in chapter 6 . Attributive forms may be used as nouns. For example, Myoniti hiko suru wa hukano nari ‘ I t i s im possible to f l y tom orrow.’ Clauses ending with attribu tive forms may function syn ta ctica lly as nouns; e . g . , Konsyu Sado y o r i kaiko suru wa hukanfi nari ‘ Travelling by sea from Sado w ill be impossible this week.’ This might a lso be stated as follow s: Konsyu Sado y o ri no kaiko wa hukano nari A sea voyage from Sado w ill be impossible this week.’ The sentences are roughly iden tical in meaning; in the f i r s t the emphasis is on the action, in the second on the fa ct. Patterns lik e the f i r s t are very common in FWS te x ts ; e . g . , Syatyo no totyaku seru wa humei nari, ‘ Whether the company president arrived is u n c le a r .’ or ‘ We do not know whether the company president arrived. ’ 5 .2

Tenses

FWS has three tenses: present, past, and future. The Japanese tense in fle c t io n s d i f f e r somewhat in th eir meaning from verbal in flection s that indicate time relationships alone. For example, the English past tense in fle ctio n ‘ he shipped’ means ‘ a shipment was made some time before now’ ; and, in general, English tense in fle c t io n s in d ica te time r e la tio n s h ip s . The Japanese verb in flection , however, indicates completeness or incompleteness o f an action, that is , aspect as well as time. The present tense indicates action that has not been completed; hasso su means ‘ sending has not been completed; he sends, is sending, w ill send.’ The past tense indicates action that has been completed; hasstf s ita r i means ‘ sending has been completed; he sent, has s e n t .’ Instead o f past tense forms, one conmonly meets in FWS constructions with zumi ‘ completed’ ; hasso zumi nari ‘ he has sen t’ in dicates completed action, and is roughly id en tica l in meaning with hasso sita ri. The future tense indicates uncertainty or future improbability; kosytT sen ‘ n eg otia tion s w i l l very lik e ly take p la ce; he w ill n eg otia te.’ In spite o f this differen ce in meaning the Japanese present tense w ill usually correspond to the various usages o f the English present tense forms, the Japanese past to the English past, and the Japanese future to the English future. 5.2A

A sp ect in Verb Forms

There are, however, some uses o f Japanese tense forms which can be understood only on the basis o f the Japanese aspect system. This system applies to both the colloq u ia l and FWS forms; i l l u s ­ trations are therefore given here from both sty les. One o f these is the use o f the negative forms. To tra n slate ‘ we have not

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shipped’ one would say hasso sezu (not se z a rik i). The sending has not yet taken p la ce, that i s , i t has not been completed; conse­ quently a present tense form, implying incompleted state, is used, The past tense o f the negative is used to indicate an action that had been completed by a certain time; hasso sezariki ‘ we had not shipped.’ The c o llo q u ia l hfi ga ii construction uses the Japanese past tense where English uses the present; Kore o yonda ho ga ii ‘ It is better to read t h i s . ’ Here the past tense is used because the comparison is not v a lid unless the a ction has been completed. Similar are constructions with hakkiri ‘ c le a r .’ To say ‘ a defin ite answer’ one must use the past tense; hakkiri sitaru kaito, that is , an answer which has been made clear. It is often important to know the exact meaning o f a verb to understand it s usage. Verbs that indicate a sin gle or punctual action are put into the past tense when a durative or continuous meaning must be expressed. Kaku (c o llo q . kakeru) means to ‘ put on.’ To translate a ‘ man wearing glasses’ one says ‘ a man who has put on glasses (and therefore has them on )’ megane o kaketaru hito. Therefore the meaning and usage o f a past tense form o f the uin flection is often lik e that o f a present tense form o f a si-verb: for example, hana no takai me no kubonda h ito ‘ a man with high nose and hollow e y e s .’ Compare the further colloq u ia l examples before no n i: Hana ga saita no ni mi ni ikarenakatta ‘ Although the flowers were blooming he could not go to see them.’ Tenki ga ii no ni ikarenakatta ‘ Although the weather was good he could not g o .’ Similarly the FWS past tense form in the follow ing sentence indicates state, not past time: Romazi n ite kakeru Nihongo no hon o yomiezu ‘ I cannot read Japanese books written in Romaji.’ 5.2B

Use o f P resen t Tense Forms

Present tense forms, o f secondary in fle c t io n s as w ell as simple tense forms, are used to in d ica te the occurrence o f an action or the existence o f a state. They also may indicate future action or state, especially when a noun or adverb indicating time stands in the sentence. Raisyu made hiko suru o kinzu ‘ Flying is prohibited until next week.’ Huzi-san wa Asamayama y o ri takasi ‘ Mt. Fuji is higher than Mt. Asama.’ Kono denpo o utazu ‘ I w ill not send this telegram.’

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Beikoku to kankei o atukarasimuru n o t i . . . ‘ A fter improving relations with A m erica...’ Kano nari to omowaru ‘ We think that i t is p o s s ib le .’ Sono syudan o toriu ‘We w ill be able to take such measures.’ Hikbki n ite ryoko sita si ‘ He wishes to travel by plane.’ Nihongo ni zyotatu subesi ‘You must make progress in Japanese.’ Kozi via sinkotyu nari ‘ The construction is under way.’ Raisyu syuppan su ‘ We w ill sa il next week.’ 5 . 2C

Use o f the P ast Tense Forms

Past tense forms are used to indicate that an action has been completed or that a state has existed in the past. HSkoku via zyubun nari ya situmon seri ‘ He asked whether the report was adequate.’ Teki ga kyodai naru heiryoku o motte santi homen y o ri ukai sesi to k o ro ... ‘ The fa ct that the enemy has with a powerful force detoured from the mountain a r e a ...’ Tegami o uketari ‘ We received the l e t t e r .’ . . . zisyoku s ita r is i d a ig is i... ‘ the MP who r e s ig n e d ...’ Meirei o hassezarisi sy5 k o... ‘ The o ffic e r who had not issued the order.. . ’ Taisi o kiso sesimetari ‘ They had the ambassador return to the Soviet Union.’ Zairyo o konyu sieta ri ‘ We were able to buy the m aterial.’ Taikyaku sioreru b u ta i... ‘ The units that were r e tr e a tin g ...’ In most constructions the four past tenses may be used in te r­ changeably. Past 4 is rare. Past 1 is made only from class 1 uverbs and from su. Verbs that make both past 1 and past 2 seem to show a contrast in use between them, acontrast that is found as well between past 2 and past 3. Past 1 and 3 may indicate that an action has been completed and that it s e ffe c t s are continuing: Sina hassG se ri ‘ We sent the goods (and they are on their w ay).’ Past 2 may indicate that the action has been performed: Sina hasso siki ‘ We sent the goods (and that’ s th a t).’ Its use would then be limited to situations expressing action completed in the past. It is doubtful whether this distin ction is observed by many presentday w riters o f FWS, fo r other patterns denote completion o f an action: e . g . , Sina hasso zumi ‘ We have sent (completed sending) the goods.’ It is interesting, however, to note that only past 2 i s used with s i-v e r b s and the n eg a tiv e, that i s , with verbs indicating state. The past o f such verbs indicates a state that

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had been completed sometime in the past: samukariki ‘ i t had been c o l d ,’ haito se z a r is i riek i ‘ p ro fits that had not been shared.’ Such past forms are not common; the past o f si-v erb s is rarely seen, that o f b e s i - forms and the desiderative is extremely rare, and only the past o f negatives is rela tively frequent in occurrence. 5.2D

Use o f the Future Tense

The future is rare except in the -n to su construction and before ga tame. When used elsewhere i t is equivalent to the English future. Syori o en ya to situmon se ri ‘ They asked: “ W ill we achieve victory?’’ ’ The future before, to su implies that the action o f the verb is about to take pla ce. Such constructions then may be variously translated: ‘ to be about t o . . . , to be on the point o f . . . , to intend t o . . . , to attempt t o . . . ’ ZySyaku o tyoin sen to su ‘ We are about to sign the tre a ty .’ Gomu o kawan to seb a ... ‘ I f he is going to buy the ru b b e r ...’ The -n to su construction is equivalent to the collo q u ia l -o to suru construction: uiataro to suru... ‘ intend to c r o s s .. . ’ 5 .3

Moods

FWS has four moods: hypothetical, conditional, concessive, and imperative. Of these the hypothetical and conditional are the most frequent in occurrence; verb phrases follow ed by mo or ga are generally used in place o f the concessive, and circumlocutions in place o f the imperative. 5.3A

The H y p o th e tica l and the C on d ition a l

The d iffe r e n c e in meaning between the h y p o th e tica l and conditional may be equated with the difference in stem; the ending in both forms is the same, -ba. The hypothetical is formed on the imperfective stem, the conditional on the p erfectiv e stem. The former im plies not yet e ffe c t e d a ctio n , the la t t e r , e ffe c te d action. The hypothetical form gives an u n fu lfille d condition or one which is merely assumed; the conditional a fu lfille d condition or one which is assumed to ex ist or actu a lly e x is ts . Consequently the hypothetical corresponds most c lo s e ly with an if-c la u s e in English, the con d ition a l with a when-clause or a sin ce-cla u se. The difference in meaning between the two forms is illu strated in

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the fo llo w in g s e n te n ce s. Arne huraba miti warukarubesi ‘ I f i t rains, the roads w ill be bad. ’ Ame hureba miti warusi ‘ When i t rains, the roads are bad.’ or ‘ Since i t rained, the roads are bad.’ or ‘ I f i t rains, roads are bad.’ KSgeki seba sySri o en ‘ I f we attack, we w ill w in.’ Kogeki sureba syfiri o etari ‘ Since we attacked, we won.’ Tenko huryo naraba syuppatu hukano narubesi ‘ I f the weather should be unfavorable, i t w ill be impossible for us to lea v e .’ Tenko huryo nareba syuppatu hukano nari ‘ Since the weather is unfavorable, i t is impossible for us to leave.’ Tenko huryo nareba syuppatu hukano nariki ‘ Since the weather was unfavorable, i t was impossible for us to lea v e.’ The hypothetical has been lo s t in c o llo q u ia l Japanese; it s uses have been taken over by the form corresponding to the FWS conditional. When writing FWS some authors confuse the two forms and use the c o n d itio n a l where proper usage would demand the hypothetical. Both the hypothetical and conditional are being replaced more and more by analytical constructions, especially in the past tense. Attributives followed by baai, ni o ite wa, less commonly toki via, replace the hypothetical; attributives followed by to k i, sai, or ni tuki replace the conditional. More conrmon than sydri seba ‘ i f he should manage’ is syori suru baai ‘ in case he should manage’ ; more common than syori sureba ‘ when/since he manages’ is syori suru to k i ‘ when he manages’ or sy o ri suru ni tuki ‘ sin ce he manages. ’ 5 . 3B

The Use o f the C o n cessiv e

The concessive is rarely used. When found i t may be trans­ lated ‘ a lth o u g h ...’ as in kore wa motiron no koto naredomo.. . ‘ although this is s e lf-e v id e n t ...’ For constructions that replace the concessive form, see ga and no in the l i s t of postposition s, chapter 6 . 5 . 3C

The Im perative and C ircu m locu tion s f o r I t

The imperative is rare, except in a rhetorical use. . . . t o seyo ‘ le t us assume t h a t . . . ’ ; Kokoromi ni rniyo ‘ Let us make a t e s t . ’ An imperative with th is meaning may be made even from si-v e rb s, hayakare ‘ le t i t be fast— though i t be f a s t , ’ but is rare outside o f poetry.

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In commands and requests circum locutions are used such as: tanomu ‘ we req u est,’ kou ‘ we a sk ,’ aritasi ‘ we should like there to b e ,’ seraretasi ‘ we should like i t to be done,’ ita s ita s i ‘ we should like you/him to d o ,’ ainaritasi ‘ we should lik e there to b e ,’ aiwazurauiasitasi ‘ we should lik e to trouble you t o . ’ (These c i r ­ cum locutions have been arranged in order o f th e ir in creasin g honorific fo r c e .) Examples are: Hasso tanomu ‘ S e n d ...’ Hokoku seraretasi ‘ Please rep ort.’ Zyunbi ita s ita si ‘ We want this arranged.’ Yotei ainaritasi ‘ We should like this scheduled.’ 5 .4

The T en s e le s s Forms

FWS has two tenseless forms: the in d efin ite and the te-form. The te-form is much less common than in the co llo q u ia l; most o f its uses are taken over by the indefinite. The tenseless forms express verbal meaning without tense or mood; they take their tense and mood from a following non-tenseless or f i n i t e verb form. Various coord in a tin g or subordinatin g relationships may ex ist between the tenseless forms and a following fin ite form. When the relationship is coordinating, the tense and mood o f the in definite form is taken from the fin al inflected verb o f the s e r ie s . Teki hiko butai raisyu si tasu no bakudan o toka si zyudai naru songai o ataetari ‘ An enemy a ir unit attacked, dropped many bombs, and in flic te d severe damage.’ When the relationship is subordinating, the type o f rela tion ­ ship w ill usually be clea r from the context. Suzuki wa kityo si syatyo to kyogi subesi ‘ Suzuki is to return to Japan to confer with the president o f the company.’ A purpose r e la tio n s h ip seems clea rly indicated; compare the follow ing sentence: Toka syuppatu s i zyu n in iti Nagasaki totyaku se ri ‘ He l e f t on the tenth and arrived at Nagasaki on the tw e lfth .’ Likewise the causal re la ­ tion sh ip between the two follow in g clauses is c le a r : Kato wa sakuzitu nyuin s i konniti no kaidan ni sanka siezariki ‘ Kato was unable to attend today’ s conference because he entered the hospital y esterd a y .’ In many cases the exact rela tion sh ip between such clauses is unclear, and several interpretations may be possible; one must s e le ct then the interpretation best fit t in g the general contexts 5.4^4 D ifference Between the TE-Form and the Indefin ite When the te-form occurs in FWS, i t indicates a closer relation ­ ship to the next verb than does the in d e fin it e form, and i t

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connects only the two a d join in g clau ses; i t a lso im plies that something happened after the action expressed by i t was completed. The te-forms in the follow in g example illu s tr a te the differen ce between the in d efin ite and the te-form. Sakuzitu bakugeki s i t e teki ni taiha o atae honzitu hohei zensin s i t e k i t i o senryo seri ‘ Yesterday we bombed and i n f l i c t e d great damage on the enemy; today the infantry advanced and occupied th eir b a ses.’ The same relationship e x ists between in d efin ite and te-forms o f compound p o s tp o s itio n s , such as ni kansi and ni k a n s it e ; the te-form always indicates a clo se r connection with the following verb. 5 .4 B

A dverb ial Use o f the I n d e f i n i t e

The in defin ite form may also be used adverbially; this is the ch ief use o f the in defin ite o f si-verbs. Hayaku hasso seri ‘ They dispatched i t q u ick ly.’ , narubeku sumiyaka ‘ as rapidly as p o s s ib le .’ The comnon use o f the in defin ite as f ir s t member o f verbal compounds may have i t s orig in in this use o f the in d efin ite; kakikaku ‘ to begin w ritin g ,’ sikaku ‘ begin to d o ,’ tirikakaru ‘ begin s ca tte r­ i n g .’ Many in d e fin ite forms such as mattaku ‘ com pletely’ and taezu ‘ constantly’ are used primarily as adverbs, as are some teforms such as hazimete ‘ fo r the f i r s t tim e .’ For others see chapter 7. 5.4C

Nominal Use o f the I n d e f i n i t e

Many indefinite forms are used as nouns; such are: torisirabe ‘ in vestigation ,’ toriatukai ‘ treatment,’ nariyuki ‘ cou rse.’ Most of the indefinites used as nouns are well established, and w ill be listed under separate headings in diction aries. This is also true o f indefinite forms o f si-verbs used as nouns, o f which only a few like oku ‘ a great number’ and tikaku ‘ neighborhood’ are conmon. Two verb forms, the a ttributive and the in d e fin ite , are used as nouns, but w ith a d iffe r e n c e in meaning. The a ttr ib u tiv e emphasizes the action, toriatukau ‘ tr e a tin g ,’ the in d efin ite the fact, toriatukai ‘ treatment.’ 5 .5

The Secondary I n f l e c t i o n s

FWS has eigh t secondary in fle c t io n s : n egative, cau sative, passive, p oten tia l, 6esi-form , mazi-form, d esid era tiv e, and the ari-forms; the mazi-form is almost obsolete. The endings o f the various secondary in fle c tio n s are added to a p articu lar stem o f primary verbs, or of other secondary in fle ctio n s as described in chapter 4, and are then in fle cte d in turn in the various primary in fle c tio n s . The prin cipal uses o f the various secondary in fle c ­ tions are described below.

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5 .6

Uses o f the N egative

FWS, like the colloq u ia l, has no negative pronouns or adverbs. Negative statements are expressed by use o f the negative in fle c ­ tion o f verbs or the negative verb nasi ‘ there is n o t .’ Zaidoku zyotai rakkan o yurusazaru omomuki nari ‘ We hear that conditions in Germany do not warrant optimism.’ Honken wa imada kaiketu sezaru mo... ‘ Although this matter has not yet been s e t t l e d . .. ’ Kore ni sasitukae nasi ‘ There is no objection to t h is .’ In the w ritten s ty le negative con stru ction s are generally simpler than in the c o llo q u ia l; when they have a d ir e c t o b ject, this is indicated by the postposition o. The negative in flection s make unnecessary many o f the phrases used in the co llo q u ia l in negative sentences; benkyo simasen desita, like benkyo sinakatta, is benkyo sezariki ‘ he did not study’ in the written style. 5. 6A

The Double N egative

Negatives cancel each other in Japanese; two negatives express an emphatic p o s itiv e . Such constructions, and expressions lik e tokarazu ‘ not fa r ’ fo r ‘ n e a r,’ are common; osore nasi to sezu, lite ra lly , ‘ not making out that there is no fe a r,’ means ‘ there is some fear’ ; kibo sukunakarazu ‘ Our hopes are g rea t.’ 5. 6B

'Must' C on s tr u ctio n s

Two negatives are also used to express obligation, necessity, or in e v it a b ilit y , but the idiom commonly employed is d iffe r e n t from that o f the colloq u ial. The usual idiom in FWS is - zarubekarazu ‘ one should not n o t’ as compared with -nakereba naranai o f the c o l l o q u i a l ; compare torazarubekarazu ‘ one must ta k e ’ with toranakereba naranai. Kamotu wa k i t i yo ri unso sezarubekarazaru sidai nari ‘ The goods must be shipped from th ere.’ Another phrase used to translate ‘ must’ is -zaru o ezu ‘ one cannot not’ as in the sentence: Sikyu henden sezaru o ezu ‘ We must reply by telegram at o n ce .’ Another similar con stru ction is : hoka nasi ‘ there is no a lte r n a tiv e t o . . . ’ as in the sentence: Sikyu ni syuppatu suru hoka nasi ‘We must depart at on ce.’ 5 .7

The Causative

The causative though d ifferen t in form has the same function as

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the causative o f the colloqu ial and follows the same constructions. In causative con stru ction s with a d ir e c t o b je c t, o is used to indicate the d irect ob ject, o s ite (colloq u ia l n i ) to indicate the person caused to perform the action, that is , the indirect object; e . g . , Keisatusyo o s i t e sinraisya o tyosa sesimetari ‘ We had the p olice department in vestigate the new a r r i v a l s .’ In causative constructions without a d irect ob ject eith er o or o s i t e may be used to indicate the person caused to perform the action. Keisatusyo o (o s i t e ) tyosa sesimetari ‘ We had the p olice department make an in vestigation .’ The causative is often used in order to make a ctive verbs o f verbs in dicating a sta te, e .g ., atusi ‘ be thick, c o r d ia l,’ nari ‘ b e ,’ or o f verbs that have a passive meaning, e . g . , zermetu su ‘ be wiped o u t.’ Yugi o atukarasimuru z y o t a i ... ‘ Conditions that w ill promote (make cordial) friendly r e la t io n s ...’ Zyokyo o ryoko narasimuru kibo nari ,]tie hope to improve condi­ tions. ’ Tanaka butai o zenmetu sesimetari ‘ They wiped out the Tanaka units. ’ Such causative con stru ction s fo llo w the sy n ta ctic patterns o f simple verbs; e . g . , zenmetu sesim etari ‘ they wiped o u t , ’ lik e gekimetu seri ‘ they wiped o u t,’ has a d irect object indicated by o.

I

5 .8

The P a ssiv e

Uses o f the passive may be divided into three types; none o f these correspond exactly to the uses o f the English passive. 5.8A

L i t e r a l Use o f the P a ssiv e

The passive may be used in describing a situation in which the ‘ s u b je c t’ s u ffe r s the r e s u lt o f an a ctio n performed by some s p e c ific a lly mentioned agent, or in some way is d ir e c tly acted upon by an agent. This use is somewhat lik e the use o f the passive in English, but i t is a mark o f bad s ty le to use such passives o fte n in Japanese; unlike the English p a ssiv e , the Japanese passive must always have the agent mentioned and implies unpleasantness for the subject. Examples are: Unsosen wa sensuikan ni y o r i g e k itin seraretari ‘ The cargo ship was sunk by a submarine. ’ Ano mura wa bofu ni yori hametu seraretari ‘ That v illa g e was destroyed by a storm.’

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ITie subject acted upon is indicated by wa, ga, or by position alone. The agent is indicated by ni o i t e , i f a person, ni yori, i f inanimate, or ni. (See these postpositions in chapter 6 .) The difference between the English passive and this use o f the Japanese passive i s c le a r ly indicated by the formation o f the passive in Japanese from intransitive verbs as well as from transi­ tives. A co llo q u ia l example is : Ka.t5 san wa otosan ni sinareta ‘ Mr. Kato su ffe re d the death o f h is f a t h e r .’ A FWS example: Sihainin wa kantokusya ni oite dOmei-higyo seraretari ‘ The manager was embarrassed by the strike o f the foremen.’ As in the c o llo q u ia l, passive verbs may a lso have a d irect o b je ct with o, as in the sentence: Kimura ga kenpeitai ni o i t e zidosya o tyohatu seraretari ‘ Kimura’ s car was (or Kimura had his car) comnandeered by the m ilitary p o lic e .’ 5.8B

The P o t e n t i a l Use o f the P assive

The passive may also be used with potential meaning; in FWS, however, the regular potential form may be made from a ll verbs o f the u -in fle c tio n , and as a resul't the passive has only a lim ited use in th is sense. The use o f the passive with verbs meaning ‘ think, b e lie v e ’ to mean ‘ I/we think’ is a development o f this usage. Such forms, e. g . , zonzeraru, omowaru, sikd seraru, mitomeraru, handan seraru, suisatu seraru, s u i t e i seraru, mean ‘ one is able to b e lie v e ’ and are generally used to avoid f i r s t person pronouns, for they are a humble way o f saying ‘ I/we think, I/we b e lie v e .’ 5.8C

The P o l i t e Use o f the P a ssive

This use is very common with the d esid era tive, to take the place o f the imperative; see 5.3C. Kikan wa tuho seraretasi ‘ We should like you to re p o rt.’ or ‘ Please re p o r t.’ Tuho sesimeraretasi ‘ We should lik e you to have them r e p o r t .’ o r ‘ Please have them rep ort.’ See also 8.2C. When high dign itaries, such as the emperor, are the subject o f verb forms, a l l forms are given in the passive as a token o f deference. The postposition ni o ite , for example, then becomes: ni okarete, or even ni okaserarete. 5 . 8D

S u b s t i t u t e s f o r the P a ssive

It may be noted here that the f i r s t use o f the passive is re la tiv e ly rare becuuse for most tra n sitiv e verbs, both kun and on, there are intransitive variants, or words related in meaning, which indicate a state resulting from the action expressed by the tran sitive verb. The pairs o f kun verbs are usually formed from the same base, e . g . , aratamu ‘ to a l t e r , con v ert, r e v i s e ’ and

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aratamaru 't o undergo a changei be r e v is e d .’ For others see chapter 9. Such pairs o f on compounds are related in meaning, and generally have one element o f the compound in corimon, e .g ., henko su ‘ to a lter, modify’ and henka su ‘ to change ( i n t r .) , turn in to’ ; gekitin su ‘ to sink (tr a n s .)’ and tinbotu su ‘ to sink (in tra n s .), to be sunk.’ Accordingly when no s p e cific agent is mentioned, the passive in flection o f a transitive verb is rarely used, and in its stead the a ctiv e in fle c t io n o f the in tr a n s itiv e (or passive) variant is used. For example, Yusosen wa Nihonkai ni o ite tinbotu seri ‘ The transport was sunk in the Japan S e a .’ (Context would indicate whether this meant ‘ was sunk’ or ‘ went down.’ ) Verbs lik e uku ‘ receive’ and kbmuru ‘ su ffer, incur, receiv e’ may be used rather than the passive when no agent i s mentioned; for example, Tdtyaku no tutyo o uketari ‘ We were n o tifie d o f the a rrival’ ; Yokohama wa daisongai o komuritari ‘ Yokohama was greatly damaged. ’ 5 .9

The P o t e n t i a l

In FWS, p o te n tia lity is expressed almost exclu sively by the use o f the various tenses o f the p oten tia l conjugation ; e .g ., Syuppatu sieta ri ‘ We were able to lea v e.’ ; Honken wa kaiketu siuru moyo nari ‘ I t looks as though we w ill be able to solv e th is m atter.’ ; Kakaru koto ariezaru mono nari ‘ That is something which cannot b e .’ U may a lso be used as an independent verb with a substantive clause as it s ob ject; Syuppatu suru (koto) o etari ‘ We were able to le a v e .’ ; Domei o toku koto o ubesi ‘ We w ill be able to break the a llia n c e .’ This is especially common in negative constructions; yu o ezu ‘ one cannot say’ is more common than iiezu. U is a transitive verb, and unlike the colloquial dekiru, takes a d irect o b je ct with o; the FWS potential, unlike the colloq u ia l potential in -eru, always takes a d irect object with o, as il l u s ­ trated below. Colloquial

FWS

Tegami ga kakeru Tegcuni o kakiu ‘ He can write a l e t t e r .’ Tegami ga kakenai Tegami o kakiezu ‘ He cannot write a l e t t e r .’ Tegami o kaku koto ga dekinai Tegami kaku (koto) o ezu. ‘ He cannot write a le t t e r .’ 5 .1 0

The BESI-Form

The 6 esi-form has a wide range o f meanings extending from

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simple future, p o te n tia lity , o b lig a tio n , to command; because o f its variety o f meaning the i>esi-form can be interpreted adequately only in con text. The various meanings are li s t e d below with illu stration s. (A) Probability: ‘ he probably w ill, we suppose he w i l l . . . ’ Bunka no do iyoiyo takakarubesi ‘ The degree o f specialization w ill probably become even grea ter.’ Ikkoku no bungaku to o tyosa sureba sono kuni no tokusei o hakken suru koto yoi narubesi ‘ When we examine such things as the litera tu re o f a country i t w ill probably be easy to discover the characteristics o f that country.’ Raisyu syuppan siubesi ‘ We should be able to sa il next week.’ This use o f besi often corresponds to: ‘ is to, are t o . ’ Taisi raityo subesi ‘ The ambassador is to come to Japan (we suppose the ambassador w ill come to Japan).’ (B) Obligation: ‘ ought to, m u st...’ Raigetumatu made t o t i gaikokuzin tyosa subesi ‘ We must investigate the foreigners here by the end o f next month.’ (C) Command: ‘ must, are t o . . . ’ Kono mizu o nomubekarazu ‘ Do not drink this water.’ (D) P otentiality: ‘ can be, m ay...’ narubeku hayaku... ‘ as fast as can be, as fast as p o s s ib le ...’ (E) Promise: ‘ w ill, intend t o . . . ’ Sassoku syokuryohin hasso subesi ‘ We w ill send the foodstuffs at once. ’ For use o f the negative b e s i - form to express ob liga tion , see 5.6B. 5 .1 1

The D e s i d e r a ti v e

The desiderative is used as in the colloquial to express desire; with tra n s itiv e verbs i t always takes an o b je c t follow ed by o. Dosi wa Osaka e hiko ryoko s ita s i ‘ He would lik e to go by plane to Osaka. ’ The d e s id e r a tiv e is used very commonly a fte r verbs with h on orific meaning to indicate a request. A number o f such forms are lis t e d in 5.3C; they are used in FWS to take the place o f colloquial itadaku and morau expressions.

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Yakuhin o hasso se r a r e ta s i ‘ We would lik e you to send the medicines. ’ Hatizi k i t i tyaku y o tei naru ni tuki hoteru tehai aritasi ‘ I plan to arrive there at 8 o ’ clock; please arrange for a h o t e l.’ . . . goassen ainaritasi ‘ Please give your a s s is ta n c e ...’ In such forms the h on orific verb usually in dicates that the person addressed is asked to perform an action. I f , however, the person asked to perform the action is e x p lic itly mentioned, such forms cannot be translated ‘ we should lik e you t o . . . ’ but ‘ we should lik e . . . to d o . . . ’ ; e . g . , Dokan wa rnigi kosyo ni sanka seraretasi ‘ We should lik e him (that o f f ic i a l ) to take part in the above-mentioned n egotia tion s.’ This usage is rela tively rare. 5 .1 2

ARI(NARI/ORU)-Forms

The various ari-forms may d iffe r in meaning; th e -tutu ari form always denotes continuing a ction , as do the - o r i and -tyu nari forms except when made from certain in tran sitive verbs. The use o f the indefinite stem followed by -ari is given separately below. But in the sentence: Kogyd kakutyo wa zyunbityu nari ‘ They are preparing fo r in d u stria l exp a n sion .’ Zyunbi s i o r i or zyunbi situtu ari could be used without change o f meaning. Other examples are: Ima syokuryohin o yuso situtu ari ‘ We are now transporting the foodstu ffs. ’ Hakodate ni haken suru koto wa koryotyu nari ‘ We are consider­ ing whether we w ill send him to Hakodate.’ Zyotai ryoko narasimuru ni doryoku s i o r u ... ‘ They are working to improve c o n d itio n s ...’ 5.12A

ARI-Forms o f I n t r a n s i t i v e Verbs That I n d i c a t e S ta te

As in the c o llo q u ia l, the ari-form s o f certain in tra n sitiv e verbs may indicate a state o f being resulting from completion o f the action. For example, the colloq u ia l dekakete iru means ‘ has gone out, i s away from home’ not ‘ is goin g o u t’ ; s im ila r ly semariori usually means ‘ has approached, is n ea r.’ On the other hand, arukiori always means ‘ is walking.’ The intransitive verbs with this meaning o f state in the - o r i and -tyu nari forms, are direction al words indicating motion in a s p e c ific d irection such as ‘ enter i n t o , ’ ‘ depart from ,’ or action which has a goal such as ‘ descend t o , ’ ‘ return t o . ’ A few examples with -ori are:

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Kun verbs:

On verbs:

agariori

‘ has

noboriori

‘ has

oyobiori

‘ has

sagariori

‘ has

semariori

‘ has

nyu, .. siori ‘ has (nyuko, nyuin, e t c .)

verge o f ’ :e r e d ..., is i n . . . ’

r a i. . . siori ( raityo, e tc .)

‘ has come t o . . . , is here i n . . . ’

sessiori

‘ has

syugo siori

‘ has

totyaku siori

‘ has

zyoriku siori

‘ has

i konai ni syugo siori the school grounds.’ Unsosen nyuko s io r i ‘ The freighter is in p o r t.’ The tyu nari form in d ica tin g sta te is used c h ie fly with on words in which the f i r s t element denotes motion toward an objective (see the on’ s in 9.2C) and the second element denotes that ob jec­ tive; such words are: nyuin ‘ enter a h osp ita l’ ; kityo ‘ return to Japan (o f an o f f i c i a l ) ’ ; raid ‘ come to Europe.’ Examples are: Suzuki son wa kityotyu nari ‘ Mr. Suzuki is back in Japan.’ Unsosen wa nyukotyu nari ‘ The freighter is in p o r t.’ Taisi wa raikyotyu nari ‘ The ambassador has arrived here in Tokyo.’ 5.12B

The ARI-Form Used to I n d i c a t e S ta te

With tra n sitive verbs a state o f being, resu ltin g from com­ pletion o f the action, is expressed by adding in flection s o f -ari to the in d efin ite stem. Sekitan no suryo tukoku siari ‘ The quantity o f coal has been reported. ’ This form corresponds to the c o llo q u ia l verb phrase o f te-form followed by forms o f aru. In this form the d irect ob ject o f the transitive verb is made the subject o f the verb and is followed by the p ostp osition ga, wa, or none whatsoever. The present form corresponds to a p e rfect passive in English, the past to a past perfect passive: Tegami kakiaritari ‘ Hie letter had been w ritten .’

65

5 .1 2 C

The various uses o f the a ri-form s are summarized below: - ari-

transitive verbs

state o f being

-ori

transitive verbs

continuing action

-ori

intransitive verbs o f direction

state o f being

-ori

other intransitive verbs

continuing action

-tutu ari

a ll verbs

continuing action

-tyu nari

transitive verbs

continuing action

-tyu nari

intransitive verbs o f direction

state o f being

-tyu nari

other intransitive verbs

continuing action

5.12D

Use o f SIARI in M i l i t a r y Language

Siari and sim ilar forms are comnonly used in m ilitary language where in cla s s ic a l Japanese sio r i would be used. This substitu­ tion is in accordance with the common use o f ari fo r o r i in m ilitary language, even when animate ob jects are discussed. In reading m ilita ry Japanese one cannot assume that s i a r i , on any in d e fin ite stem follow ed by - a r i , w ill have the passive force described in 5.12B. Each form must be interpreted from the context and on the basis o f the con stru ction . For example, s ia r i con­ structions w ill be found with object followed by o; Unsdsen o motte syokuryohin o yusd s i a r i ‘ We are sending the p r o v is io n s by freighter. ’ In this sentence the o indicates that yuso siari is used as an active verb. On the other hand, the absence o f o, and the context, indicate a passive force for the siari in the following sentence: Nikko Maru nite syokuryohin yus

‘ Regarding, in referen ce to, in connection w it h .’ Hunso no kaiketu ni kansite wa kaidan subesi ‘ We w ill hold a meeting in reference to the solu tion o f the s t r i f e . ’ Higyo zyotai ni kansuru k i z i k e is a i sezu ‘ He did not publish a rticles concerning the strike situ a tio n .’

ni mo kakawarazu

‘ In sp ite o f . ’ Tenko huryo ni mo kakawarazu syuppatu s e r i ‘ They l e f t in sp ite o f the bad weather.’

ni kakawarazu

‘ Irrespective o f . ’ Tenko huryo ni kakawarazu syuppan su ‘ We w ill sa il irrespective o f inclement weather. ’ The d i f f e r e n c e in meaning between ni mo kakawarazu (p a st, c e r ta in ) and ni kakawarazu (future, uncertain) is occasionally disregarded.

ni motozuki ni motozuku

‘Based on, according t o . ’ Sireikan no meirei ni motozuki kodo sub esi ‘ They are to a ct in accordance with the orders o f the Comnander.’

— ni mukai ni mukatte isj t

‘ Against, towards.’ Hoppo ni mukatte zensin seri ‘ They advanced northward.’

(ni) muke

‘ For’ (in dicates destin a tion ). Siatoru Maru wa Yokohama ni muke syuppan s e r i ‘ The S ea ttle Maru sailed for Yokohama.’ Hakodate muke no Huzi Maru... ‘ The Fuji Maru, bound fo r H a k odate...’

ni oite ni okeru

Following nouns. 1. ‘ In, a t . ’ Takes the place o f colloquial tie and ni meaning‘ in, a t . ’ Sensuikan wa ran'in hdmen ni o i t e katudo sio r i ‘ Submarines are active in the DutchEast Indies s e c to r .’ Syorai ni o i t e . . . ‘ In the fu t u r e ...’

‘ To, fa c in g .’ Zenkoku ni mukatte sengen seri ‘ He made a proclamation to the whole country.’

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‘ (Which is ) in, on, among’ (a ttrib u tiv e o f ni o i t e ) . Roma seinanpo ni okeru hohei butai teki o g e k i t a i s e r i ‘ The in fa n try u n its (which are) southwest o f Rome repulsed the enemy.’ Sengo ni okeru z y o t a i... ‘ postwar c o n d itio n s ...’ Ni okeru must be ca refu lly distinguished from ni o i t e ; the sentence beginning Roma,. . , with ni o it e in place o f ni okeru, would be translated: ‘ Infantry units repulsed the enemy southwest o f Rome.’ 2. ‘ By, by means o f, through’ (indicates animate agent in passive constructions). Kore wa taisi ni oite kosyo serarubeki mono nari ‘ This ought to be negotiated by the ambassador.’ (ni okarete ni okaserarete)

3 . ‘ As fa r , as fa r a s . . . i s con cern ed’ (w ith active verb; equivalent to colloquial wa or ni wa; in th is usage ni o i t e is often follow ed by wa. The passive forms are used o f the emperor and members o f the imperial family, or rarely o f some other high d ig n ita r y ). Eikoku k btei heika ni o k a r e t e wa z e n -s e k a i ni t a i s i en zetu o hoso sera reta r i ‘ His Majesty, the King o f England, broadcast an address to the whole w o rld .’ This usage is e s p e c ia lly common with words meaning ‘ b elieve, think, able t o ’ e tc . Gaimusyogawa ni o ite wa kore tek ito nari to siko su ‘ The foreign ministry considers th is su itable. (As far as the foreign ministry is concerned, one considers this su i t a b l e . ) ’

ni o ite wa

F ollow ing verbs. ‘ I f . ’ Follows a clau se indicating a condition and usually introduced by mosi. Mosi Takoma Maru syuppan sezaru ni oite wa hiko sezarubekarazu ‘ I f the Tacoma Maru does not s a il, we must f l y . ’

ni ozi

‘ In proportion to, according to, in answer t o . ’ Tokai daisyb ni ozi kyuzyutukin o hasso seri ‘ We sent r e l i e f funds in proportion to the size o f the c i t i e s . ’

ni s a isi(te )

‘ When, at the time o f . ’ Kiken ni s a i s it e wa kaidan subesi ‘ They are to con fer in time o f danger.’ Huin seru ni s a i s i . . . ‘ when we signed i t . . . ’ (No) sai may be used in the same way as

ni sitagai

‘ In accordance with, in obedience t o . ’ Syukan ni sitagai Yasukuni zinzya made mairan to su ‘ In accordance with the custom I intend to go to v is it the Yasukuni sh rin e.’

ni t a i s i ( t e ) ni taisuru

1. ‘ To, towards, against, fo r ’ (indicates indirect o b je c t ). Syokikan wa kare ni ta is i hokoku seri ‘ The secretary made a report to him.’ 2. ‘ In reference to, as regards.’ Migi ni ta is ite wa tyui sezaru o ezu ‘ We must exercise care in reference to the above.’ Migi ni taisuru t y u i... ‘ care with reference to the a b o v e ...’ 3. 1In contrast to, as against, p e r .’ Furansu no syosa no bokan ni t a i s i t e wa Beikoku ni o it e wa tasu o yu su ‘ America has many a ircra ft carriers against the few o f France.’ Tesuryo wa hyaku en ni ta isi go en nari ‘ The commission is 5 yen per 100 yen.’

ni tomonai ni tomonau -

‘ Attendant upon, accompanying, w ith .’ Genzai senso ni tomonau konnan sukunakarazu ‘ There are many d iffic u lt ie s attendant upon the present war.’

ni tori ni totte

‘ To, f o r .’ Wagaho ni tori bungo zyukuti daizi naru mono nari ‘ Mastery o f the cla ssica l language is essential for u s .’

ni tuki(te) ni tuite

Following nouns. 1. ‘ Concerning, in regard to, with reference t o . ’ Gaizin mondai ni tuki g ir o n s e r i ‘ They had an argument about the problem o f foreign ers.’

ni tuite no

2. ‘ Per’ (follow ing units o f measure). I t i rittoru ni tuki zyu e n ... ‘ 10 yen per l i t e r . . . ’ (ni tuki)

ni ture • = *it t ni watari

Following verbs. ‘ Since, because, as, owing t o . ’ Senro wa zisin ni yori higai o komuritaru ni tuki kotu tozetu s e r i ‘ Since the tracks were damaged by the earthquake, tran sportation was interrupted.’ ‘ Following, with, a s .’ Kodo hattatu ni ture s i n -s e tu b i o kuhu su ‘ We devise new equipment with the progress of the operations.’ ‘ for, during, extending over. ’ Sanzippun-kan ni watari sodantyu naritari ‘ We were negotiating

85

for th irty m inutes.’ Sankai ni watari zyoriku s e r i ‘ They landed three tim e s.’ Suhyaku mairu no sensen ni w a t a r i . ‘ over a fron t o f sev era l hundred m i l e s ...’ ni yoreba

‘ According to. ’ Pari Eibun sinbun ni yoreba dbnin raisyU totyaku suru omomuki nari ‘ According to the Paris English language newspaper he w ill arrive next week.’ Quotations introduced by ni yoreba are usually concluded by omomuki nari (in the co llo q u ia l, so desu) ; from this pattern the length o f such quotations may be determined.

ni yori

1. ‘ By, through’ (in d ica tes inanimate agent o f passive con stru ction s). Soko wa ta ifu ni yori a r a s a r e ta r i ‘ The warehouse was damaged by a typhoon.’ Kutikukan wa suirai ni y o ri g e k itin seraretari ‘ The destroyer was sunk by a torpedo.’

~ S L ') > i i ’i ^

$ ')

>

& *)

2. ‘ By reason o f, on the basis o f . ’ Sengen ni yori tugi no doko meihaku naritari ‘ Subsequent actions were clear On the basis o f his statement.’

ni zyozi(te) ni zyozuru

‘ Taking advantage o f , under, i n . ’ Yaan ni zybzi zensin seri ‘ They advanced under cover o f darkness.’

*

0

ni zyunzi(te) -

■M # &

o hazime ( to s i te ) • * ^

• /

o motte o motte suru 1 #

f

‘ In proportion t o . ’ Kokuho ni zyunzi toria tukai aritasi ‘ Please transact according to the laws o f the cou n tries.’ ‘ And,’ Kato ta isi o hazime taisikan’ in wa. . . ‘ Ambassador Kato and the o f f i c i a l s o f the e m b a ssy ...’ 0 hazime i s used a fte r the f i r s t word or words in a l i s t , putting special stress on that word or those words. 1. ‘ By means o f, through, b y .’ Dobu wa tetudo zidosya to o motte suru un’ yu o tukasadoru ‘ That bureau supervises tra n sp orta tion by means o f railways, motorcars, and the l i k e . ’ 2. ‘ In, at, on, as o f . ’ Taisyoku o m otte... ‘ on his re tir e m e n t...’ Zyugatu muika o motte konin ni hoseraretari ‘ He was appointed as the successor as o f October s ix th .’ Following verbs. ‘ Because, since, because o f . ’ Tenki waruki o motte syuppan siezu ‘ We cannot

86

s a il because the weatheV is bad.’ o nozoki 3 tfc*

o site 3 -y f

o tuzi ?j$ L -y to aimati to aimatte \

‘ Except for, with the exception o f . ’ Komugiko o nozoki syokuryohin zenbu hasso aritasi ‘ Please ship a l l the p ro v isio n s except fo r the wheat flo u r .’ Indicates person who is caused to perform an action , e s p e cia lly with a causative verb which takes an o b je c t with o. Ninpu nimei o s i t e syokuryohin o hakobasimetari ‘ We had two co o lie s ca rry the food s u p p l i e s .’ O cca s io n a lly the causative form may not be used; only o s i t e w ill then indicate the causative meaning. Mikka Tanaka o s i t e daizin o oho no ue. . . ‘ After we had Tanaka c a ll on the minister on the t h i r d ...’ ‘ Through.’ Taisikan o tuzi zyoho o sohu subesi ‘ He i s to send the in form a tion through the embassy. ’ ‘ Hand in hand w ith .’ Sim ilar in meaning to to tomo ni, but in dicates a clo se r connection. Hikotai no bakugeki to aimati hohei wa zensin se ri ‘ Hand in hand with the bombing o f the a ir units the infantry advanced.’

to iedomo .» ^

‘ Although, although i t i s . . . ’ Husyosya wa sukunakarazu to iedomo z i n t i o senryo s e r i ‘ Although casualties were high, they occupied the p o s it io n .’ Itimei to iedomo ekkyo kinzu ‘ I t is forbidden even for a sin gle person to cross the border.’

to s ite to suru

‘ In the capacity o f, a s .’ Tokubetu gakusei to s i t e nyugaku s i ta r i ‘ He entered the school as a sp ecia l student.’ Mokuteki to suru kyoryoku... ‘ cooperation, which we have as our o b je c t i v e ...’

\ :s 3 to site wa > :/ J 7s tote } 7

‘ As fa r a s . . . i s concerned’ (emphatic wa). Wagaho to s i t e wa sasitukae nasi ‘ As far as I am concerned there are no o b je ctio n s .’ ‘ On the grounds that, because.’ Ryoho ni huri nari tote zyoyaku o to rik esita ri 'They cancelled the treaty on the grounds that i t was disadvan­ tageous to both p a rtie s.’

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6.1C

P o s t p o s it io n s That Have Developed From Nouns

Some postpositions have developed from nouns which have become specialized in usage and meaning. After nouns they are preceded by no or ga, which connect the postposition to the noun i t governs; a fter verbs most o f them d ir e c tly follow the a ttrib u tiv e , a few the indefinite form: hokoku no ue ‘ after reporting’ or hokoku seru ue ‘ after I reported.’ Either construction may be used, but they d iffe r slig h tly in meaning; constructions with no must get their tense from the main verb, while constructions with verb forms have a sp ecific tense o f their own. In th is group we have a lso included some words resembling nouns in form, such as nagara; they ra rely are preceded by the a ttrib u tiv e form. A lso lis te d here is g o to si, which is from a noun, koto/goto, to which verbal endings have been added. The usages of these are described below. (no) aida

‘ D uring, w h ile , b e tw e e n .’ I n d ic a t e s an interval in time or space. In general, postposi­ tions which may be used o f time may also be used o f space. Yokohama ni oru aida. .. ‘ While he was in Yokohama...’ Tokyo to Nagoya to no a id a ... ‘ Between Tokyo and Nagoya.. . ’ Cf. kan. For the use o f aida in the ep istola ry style see chapter 10 .

ate

‘ Addressed to, t o . ’ Daizin ate no hokoku... ‘ the report addressed to the m in is te r ...’

(no) ato (ni)

‘ A f t e r . ’ See a lso go and n o t i. Roku s i t i n i t i a to n i . . . ‘ a f t e r fiv e or s i x d a y s . . . ’ Totyaku seru a t o ... ‘ After we a r r iv e d ...’

a (no) baai (ni) V) &

bakari />"

‘ In case, i f . ’ Kosi no totyaku suru baai n i . . . ‘ i f the minister a r r i v e s ...’ Sissaku no baai ni wa kaitiku subesi ‘ in case o f an error we w ill r e b u ild .’ 1. ‘ Only, j u s t . ’ Less common than nomi. bakari n i t e . . . ‘ only in S hikoku...’ 2 . ‘ A b o u t.’ Less common than k oro, Ikkagetu bakari... ‘ about one month.. . ’

betu (ni)

M

Sikoku k u ra i.

‘ By, according t o . ’ Raigetu Simizu hatu yotei sen syuppatu hi betu ni tuti aritasi ‘ Please le t me know, by s a ilin g dates, the ships scheduled to s a il from Shimizu next month.’

88

dake /

>r

dori

Basic meaning ‘ extent’ ; with small numbers i t means ‘ o n ly ,’ with large numbers ‘ as much a s .’ Tada sarmei dake nari ‘ There are only three men.’ Itiman doru dake g u n p y o ... ‘ As much as ten thousand dollars in warnotes.. . ’ See tori.

(to) dOzi (ni) I*]

‘ At the same time as, simultaneously w ith .’ Syatyo wa kaikeigakari to dozi ni zisyoku se ri ‘ The company president resigned at the same time as the treasurer.’ ‘ A ft e r .’ See ato and noti. Totyakugo hunin su ‘ After I arrive I -w ill proceed to my p o s t.’

goro

See koro.

gotosi -y

G o t o s i ex p resses the idea o f s im ila r it y , resembling colloqu ial yo. I t is from an obsolete noun goto, to which the endings - s i , -k i, -ku are added. When used after nouns gotosi is preceded by go. or no. Ga or no may also precede gotosi when i t is used w ith v erb s, or i t may stand d ire ctly after the verb. ‘ Like, a s .’ Hokoku wa sa no gotosi ‘ The report is as fo llo w s.’ Sa no gotoki hokoku... ‘ a report lik e the follow in g .’ Izen no gotoku hokoku seri ‘ We made a report as we had done b e fo re .’ Bakugeki no gotoki gunzi kodo ni tomonai zyOsei masumasu konnan to nareri ‘ The situation became more and more d i f f i c u l t w ith the advent o f m ilit a r y measures such as bombings.’ Especially in m ilitary language, in flection s o f g o t o s i frequently take the place o f c o llo q u ia l usages o f yo ‘ l i k e . ’ Gotosi corresponds to yo desu ‘ i t seems’ ; g o t o k i to yo na ‘ s im ila r ’ ; gotoku to yo ni ‘ as i f , lik e , t h a t .’ Abe syoi ika yaku z y u siti mei ga g o to si ‘ Apparently ( i t was) Lieutenant Abe and about sixteen men under him .’ In an extension o f this use (ga) g otosi and mono ga (no) gotosi frequently replace omomuki nari. Niton hasso seru nomi naru ga gotosi ‘ We hear that they sent only two ton s.’ Beihikoki wa saipanto yori k ita risi mono no gotosi ‘ The Ameri­ can planes apparently came from Saipan.’ Syuppan suru gotoki tehai aritasi ‘ Please make arrange­ ments to have i t d e p a r t .’ Kore o s i y o suru gotoku koryo seraretasi ‘ Please plan to make use

89

o f t h i s . ’ Dobu e wa kibu ate sohu suru gotoku ir a i su ‘ We sh a ll request that o f f i c e to send them to your o f f i c e . ’ gurai

See kurai.

hatu

‘ Leaving, leaving from.’ Used after the place o f dep a rtu re: Z y u rok u n iti Yokohama h a t u . . . ‘ Leaving Yokohama on the s i x t e e n t h . . . ’ Such phrases ending in hatu often modify fo llo w in g nouns; Z yurokuniti Yokohama hatu se n p a k u ... ‘ Ships leaving Yokohama on the s ix te e n th ...’ Hatu may a lso be used alone as a m od ifier; hatu-sen ‘ the departing ship’ ; zyurokuniti (no) hatu-sen ‘ the ship departing on the s ix te e n th ,’ li t e r a ll y ‘ the sixteenth d ep a rtin g-sh ip .’ This use is found with other on which are used as post­ positions; compare, taiheiyo-tyu ‘ in the P a c ific ’ ; tyu-taiheiyo ‘ the m id-Pacific’ ; senso-zen ‘ before the war’ ; zen-daizin ‘ the former m inister.’

%

hodo

1. ‘ About, around.’ Sankagetu hodo kyogi seri ‘ They have conferred about three months.’

&

2. ‘ A s ...a s , l i k e . ’ Honnen no hikoki seisan wa kyonen hodo oki mono nari ‘ This year’ s a ir c r a ft production is as large as la st year’ s . ’ (no) hoka

‘ In a d d ition t o . ’ Abe s i hoka san m e i .. . ‘ three men besides Mr. A b e ...’ Hikoki o kenkyu s io r u hoka sik en s i t u t u ari ‘ In a d d itio n to studying the airplane we are testing i t . ’

9Y

fa ika

‘ Under.’ Tanaka tyui ika zyusiti m ei... ‘ the sixteen men under F irst Lieutenant Tanaka.. . ’

(no) kage (ni)

‘ Thanks t o , because o f . ’ Has h o n o r i f ic connotations. Kokumin no aikokusin no kage ni syori o en ‘ We shall gain the victory because o f the patriotism o f the p eop le.’

4

kagiri Ik

kan

F'A

•)

‘ As long as, as far a s .’ Dekiru kagiri teiko su "Me shall r e s is t as long as p o s s ib le .’ Sono taido hozi suru k a g ir i... ‘ as long as he maintains that a t t it u d e ...’ ‘ During, f o r . ’ See aida. Sanzi kan ‘ for three hours.’ Saru zyunenkan Kyoto ni zairyu seri ‘ He has lived in Kyoto for the past ten years.’

90

‘ Between.’ Sendai Aomori kan no kotu tozetu seri ‘ T ra ffic between Sendai and Aomori has been interrupted. ’ kata %

keiyu &

&

Is equivalent to suru yo ni; see yo ni. Kata is used d ir e c tly a fter uninflected on compounds and the indefinite form of kun verbs, as is sidai. Hi5koku kata irai s e r i ‘ I asked him to r e p o r t.’ Torisirabe kata kunrei seri ‘ He instructed us to investigate. ’ ‘ Via, going v i a .’ Used a fter place-name or route; see hatu. Nagasaki keiyu senpaku.. . ‘ ships going via Nagasaki.. . ’

kekka

‘.As a re su lt o f, owing t o . ’ Sono konnan no kekka Kyoto e tenkyo s e r i ‘ Because o f those d i f f i c u l t i e s he moved to K y o to .’ Kyodo seru k e k k a ... ‘ as a r e s u lt o f our c o o p e r a t i n g ..., because we cooperated.. . ’

koro, goro

‘ About.’ Used o f a point in time. Sanzi koro syuppan su ‘ He w ill s a il about three o ’ c l o c k .’ Yokka g o ro ... ‘ about the fo u r t h ...’

koto

Indicates commands on the standard procedure that w ill be followed in operations; see 10. 2.

kurai, gurai

‘ A bout.’ Used o f extent o f time. Sanzikan kurai taizai seri ‘ He stayed about three hours.’ Yokka gurai... ‘ about four d a y s ...’

(no) mae (ni)

See zen. ‘ In front o f, b e fo r e .’ Taisikan no mae ni syugo s i ta r i ‘ They assembled in front o f the embassy.’ Syuppan suru mae hon o uru mikomi nari ‘ I intend to s e ll the books before I depart.’

M

name h w

nado

‘ T hat.’ Follows a quotation or statement o f a' th ird person in d ic a tin g that th is was the general g ist o f what was said or what happened; compare omomuki. Kosi totyaku seru mune nobetari ‘ He stated that the minister had a rriv e d .’ See also 8.5A. ‘ Such things as, and so forth, e t c . ’ The on to is more common in FWS; see also ra. Kome sakana nado hasso a rita si ‘ Please ship such things as rice and f i s h . ’ See also the specialized use o f

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nado discussed in 8 . 4A. nagara k. r 7

1. ‘ W h ile.’ Following in d e fin ite form o f kun verbs or uninflected verbal on words. Tekisuto o kenkyu nagara kotoba o anki su ‘ While he studies the text he memorizes the words.’ The subject o f the nagara con stru ction is always that o f the main verb. 2. ‘ Although, in sp ite o f . ’ F ollow in g nouns which are commonly used as m o d ifie rs . Binbo n a g a r a . .. ‘ alth ough he i s p o o r . . . ’ Zannen nagara,,. ‘ sorry to say, to my r e g r e t ...’ 3. ‘ Both, a ll togeth er.’ Following enumerations o f nouns. Hatimei n a g a r a .. . ‘ e ig h t p eop le together.. . ’

nai

‘ Within, i n . ’ Domondai wa zydyaku no han'i nai ni arazu ‘ That matter is not within the scope o f the trea ty.’ Dokoku n a i... ‘ inside T u rk ey...’

A nomi

‘ O nly.’ Nisyukan nomi zanson seri ‘ They sur­ vived only two weeks.’ Beigun Saipanto o senryo seru nomi nari ‘ The American forces only occupied Saipan.’

(noj noti

‘ A fte r .’ Ninen no noti sinnyu seri ‘ After two years they in vaded.’ Kitaku seru n o ti hakken s ita r i ‘ We found i t a fter we had returned home.’ See ato and go; noti is generally used to imply a rela tively long interval o f time.

omom.uk i

Indicates that what precedes is hearsay or the g is t o f a statement o f a third person; compare mune. I t i s e q u iv a le n t to so (desu) o f the c o llo q u ia l. Simonoseki bakugeki seru omomuki nari ‘ We hear that Shimonoseki has been bombed.’ — omomuki nari is also commonly used a fter a ni yoreba construction; in this usage i t indicates the end o f the report. Sinbun k i z i ni yoreba naikaku sozisyoku seru omomuki nari ‘ According to a newspaper a r t ic le the cabinet has re s ig n e d .’ See also 8.5A.

M l

omomuki o motte VA-T

‘ On the grounds that, saying th a t.’ Indicates that what precedes is the gist o f a third person’ s reasons or explanation for some further action; see tote. Tusyo wa konnan naru omomuki o motte

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sin-zyoyaku o teian seri ‘ He proposed a new treaty on the grounds that trade was d i f f i c u l t . ’

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‘ E t c .’ See nado and to . Tanaka Sumisu ra syuppan seri ‘ Tanaka, Smith, and the others l e f t by b o a t.’ After many nouns ra indicates a plural: karera ‘ they,’ warera ‘ we.’ ‘ When.’ See ni sa isi, Totyaku no s a i . . . ‘ at the time o f a rrival, when we a rriv e (d )’ ; totyaku suru s a i . . . ‘ when we arrive’ ; totyaku seru s a i .. . ‘ when we a rrived.’

sidai >*• %

‘ As soon a s .’ Follows the in defin ite form o f kun verbs and the noun form o f uninflected verbal on in contrast with sidai nari, which follows the a ttr ib u tiv e , see 8. 1G. Oho sidai denpd su ‘ I shall wire as soon as I c a ll on him.’ Torisirabe sidai tu ti su. ‘ As soon as we in v estig a te we shall inform you.’

(no/ga) tame (ni) 1. ‘ On account o f, for the sake o f, because o f . ’ A fte r nouns one can determ ine on ly from the context whether tame means ‘ because o f , ’ or for the sake o f , ’ that is , whether i t re fe rs to a past action, or to a future one. Syori no tame ni sensi subesi ‘ They w ill die in battle for the sake o f v ic t o r y .’ Irai no tame ni assen s i t a r i ‘ Because o f his request I assisted them.’ Kore ga tame ni hani.ai su. ‘ For th is reason I am opposed.’ Senryo no tame no zituzyo wa konnan nari ‘ Circumstances as a result o f the occupation are d iffic u lt . ’ 2. ‘ Because.’ Follows the present tense forms of verbs indicating state, such as ari, nari, ori, any present ari-form , or any past tense forms. Konnan naru tame imada k ettei sezu ‘ Because i t is d i f f i c u l t , we have not yet d e c id e d .’ Tuho ni se ssioru tame ni zenzen humei no zyotai ni ari ‘ It is a completely unclear situation, because we have received no r e p o r t s .’ Yoiki kakuho seru tame kogeki siu ‘ We can make the attack, because we have secured the strategic area.’ 3. ‘ In order t o . ’ A fter the present o f verbs indicating action , and the future o f a l l verbs. YSiki kakuho suru tame kogeki subesi ‘ We shall

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attacK in order to secure the stra te g ic a re a .’ Kanzen ni kyoryoku sen ga tame hituyo naru syudan o z is si seraretasi ‘ Please carry out the necessary measures so that we may cooperate f u l l y .’ to

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tokoro

ft

I *• I

‘ Such (th in gs, persons) as, e t c . ’ See nado and ra; lik e ra, to often in d ica tes a p lu ra l. Sekitan sekiyu to hasso s e r i ‘ We have shipped coal, o i l , and so on .’ Tokoro is used between clauses to indicate a break in the sen ten ce; in t h is usage i t is s im ila r to ni tuki and ga. Tokoro, however, always indicates a bigger break in the sentence than do they. The clause which precedes tokoro usually is an introductory statement describing an existing situation or an action which has taken p la ce. The clause which follow s i t draws con­ clu sion s or gives addition al information about the preceding statement. Tokoro may be trans­ la te d : ‘ th e re fo re , however, whereupon, and’ ; often a break in the sentence or a mark o f punc­ tuation represents i t adequately. (The i l l u s ­ tra tion s given here are much sh orter than the sentences in which one normally finds tok oro.) Z y o t a i zyudai n a ri to mitomeraruru to k o r o zenryoku o tukusite syori ni doryoku seza.ru o ezu ‘ We realize that the situation is grave. We must exert a ll our e ffo r ts for v ic t o r y .’ Irai sitaru tokoro imada kaito nasi ‘ I made a request, but there is no reply as y e t .’ Tokoro is also conmonly used as a nominalizer; see chapter 8. 1G.

(to) tomo (ni)

‘ Together with, at the seme time as, a n d .’ Usually connects the word i t follow s with pre­ ceding nouns. Taisi wa daizin to tomo ni kan’ in to kosyotyu nari ‘ The ambassador and the minister are conferring with the government o f f i c i a l s . ’ Kdsi to tomo ni oho no s a i . . . ‘ when I and the minister went to c a l l . ’ Tomo ni can be used without the to to mean ‘ and, as w e l l . ’ Hikozyo hikoki tomo ni songai komuritari ‘ The airdrome and the airplan es as well suffered damages.’

(no) tori dori

‘ Just as, in accordance w ith .’ Keikaku wa sa no t o r i ‘ The plan is as f o l l o w s .’ Zikan d'ori

totyaku seri ‘ They arrived on schedule.’

it tyaku

J T

(no) ue (ni)

‘ A rriving.’ Follows the same constructions as hatu. Gozi Hakodate tyaku r e s s y a ... ‘ The train arriving at Hakodate at 5 :0 0 .’ ‘ During, while, in the course o f, in, among.’ H onnen-tyu ‘ d u rin g t h is y e a r, th is y e a r . ’ Taiheiyo-tya ‘ in the P a c ific, ’ hikotyu ‘ in flig h t. ’ Placed before words tyu means ‘ mid-, ce n tr a l.’ Tyu-Taiheiyd ‘ m id -P a cific. ’ 1. ‘ Besides, in addition t o . ’ Hasso suru ue ni kyoka tehai aritasi ‘ Besides making the shipment please arrange for perm its.’ 2. ‘ A fter, on, above.’ Kyogi no ue henden aritasi ‘ A fter consideration please reply by w ir e .’ or ‘ Please consider and reply by w ire .’

yo (ni)

M''H Kasuri—Minute marks o f various forms woven into cloth , or cloth with such a pattem j^a splashed pattern. The “ thread” radical p lu s5,r meaning “ to regu late.” No. 123 Ueda No. 9,065 120 - 15 KO-—Found in the compound jj&^KOKETSU or KOkECHI sign i­ fying cloth with minute white spots on a ligh t brown background. The “ thread” radical plus the p h o n e tic^ KO. No. 124 Ueda No. 9,320 128 - 8 Shika(to)—Clearly; d istin ctly ; p ositively. The “ ear” ra d ica l.^ p l u s m e a n in g “ ce rta in .” rhk No. 125 Ueda No. 9,471 130 - 8 ‘T l SUI—The pancreas. The “ fle s h ” radical plus the phonetic-^- SUI. This may be a graphic variant o f No. 127* Although not classed as a kokuji by Ueda, i t is so termed by Goto Asataro , author o f “ Moj i no Kenkyu

•” n& No. 126 Ueda No. 9,517 130 - 9 OlzK SEN-A gland. Suji—Muscles; tendon; sinew; nerves. ^ The “ fle s h ” radical plus a portion o f the phonetic yf4--read SEN and suji and meaning “ a thread; a li n e .” 127 Ueda 9,556 130 - 12 VC4 No. 1: H T SUI—•The pancreas. SUI. The flesh ” radical plus the phonetic

Cf. No. 125.

Jh-

No. 128 Not in Ueda 137 - 2 . Ranchi—A launch. Tlie “ boat” radical-^" plus the katakana / ra. Jfb>l No. 129 Not in Ueda 137 - 4 ~^V j NAIKATEI—Motorboat; power boat. Derived through contraction from the Chinese character compound and con sistin g o f the “ boat” radical portion o f the third character and the whole o f the f i r s t character. ■b No. 130 Not in Ueda 137 - 4 ■’ r J c SUIRAITEI—Torpedo boat. Derived through contraction from the Chinese character compound . I t con sists o f the “ boat” radical portion o f the third character and the whole o f the fir s t character.

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& No. 131 Ueda No. 9,683 137 - 8 Utsuke—Foolish; absent-minded; empty; inattention. The “ boat” radical plus ^ “ empty.” Cf. No. 158. No. 132 Ueda No. 9,698-c 137 - 11 Sori—A sledge. The “ boat” radical p lu s!^ meaning “ snow." No. 133 Ueda No. 9,771-b 140 - 4 Susa—Chopped straw or hair mixed with pla ster in order to keep i t from cracking. The “ grass” radical plustyj meaning “ to cut, to d ivid e." No. 134 Ueda No. 9,857-b 140 - 6 Tororo—The grated yam (used as food). The “ grass" radical p l u s • No. 135 Not in Ueda 140 - 7 G0Z4—Matting, mat. The “ grass” radical plus phonetic element

The

GO.

Cf. No. 138.

No. 136 Ueda No. 9,951-b 140 - 9 Kutabire—Fatigue; exhaustion; weariness, grass” radical p l u s ^ j meaning “ pillow . "

No. 137 Ueda No. 10,000-g 140 - 9 Sukumo—D yestuff made from the fermentation o f the leaves o f the indigo plant. The “ grass” radical plusjjj^ meaning “ dyeing, colorin g." *.+■ 140 - 10 j g No. 138 Ueda No. 10,045 GOZ4—Matting, mat. The “ grass” radical plus the phonetic^-. Z4. Cf. No. 135. No. 139 Ueda No. 10,109 140 - 12 n j Akebi, KAI—Akebia, a genus o f woody climbing plants, natural order Berberidaceoe. Akebia quinata is a hardy vine, with darkgreen digitate leaves and small purplish flowers. Akebi—-The name o f a princess mentioned in the M an'yoshu. See Ueda for explanation o f alleged reason for the name o f the princess being written with this character. _ The "g ra ss” radical plus phonetic element |-$f] read KAI and akeru. No. 140 Ueda No. 10,381-e 142 - 6 Ebi—A lobster; a shrimp. The “ worm” (or “ in s e c t” ) r a d i c a l ^ plus_/tL meaning “ old . ” Ebi is frequently written by means o f the compound which also contains the character meaning “ o l d . ”

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No. 141 Not in Ueda 142 - 11 Awabi—An abalone; a sea-ear; an ear-shell. The “ worm” (o r “ in se ct") radical plus^'J . Cf. No. 145. No. 142 Not in Ueda 142 - 11 Ku.ra.ge—A je l l y - f i s h ; a medusa; an acaleph. The “ worm” (or “ in s e ct” ) radical p lu s^ j,

it

A,JJL No. 143 Not in Ueda 142 -12 Mategai—A razor-shell. The “ worm” (or “ in s e ct” ) radical plus 3 ; . No. 144 Ueda No. 10,550 142 - 12 TO, himushi, hitorimushi—A tiger moth; a fir e - f l y . The “ worm” (or “ in sect’O radical plus the phonetic-^- TO. Possibly a con traction o f ^ ^ ^ - ^ o n e o f the two common ways o f w ritin g h i( tori)nuishi. Not in Ueda No. 145 .143 - 13 Awabi—An abalone^ a sea-ear; an ear-shell The “ worm rorm” (or “ in sect” ) radical plus . Cf. N ] o. 141. No. 146 Ueda No. 10,669 145 - 6 Kamishimo—Dress worn on ceremonial occasions by men during the Tokugawa Era, divided into upper and lower portions, both o f the same co lo r . The “ c lo t h ” ra d ica l pi us the characters _L- , read kami and meaning “ upper” and , read shimo and meaning “ lower. ” No. 147 Ueda No. 10,700 145 - 6 'TTJ Yuki—The kimono sleev e-len g th , measured from the middle rear seam o f the kimono to the end o f the sleeves. The “ c lo t h ” radical plus the p h o n e tic^ - yuku. No. 148 Ueda No. 10,735 145 - 8 Tsuma— Skirts o f a garment. , The “ clo th ” radical plus the p h o n e tic ^ tsuma, meaning “ w ife .” No. 149 Ueda No. 10,775-b 1 4 5 - 11 'I T Chihaya—A narrow band o r cord with which the sleeves are drawn or girded up; a white hempen garment worn by a Shinto p r ie s t e s s . ^ The “ c lo t h ” radical plus ^ meaning “ to en d.”

#

MM No. 150 Ueda No. 10,811 145 - 18 /V ^ :-Tasuki—A cord used for girding up the sleeves. The “ clo th ” radical plus^c_meaning “ to raise, to assemble, or to gather t o g e t h e r .” This may be a variant graphic form o f the

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—

Chinese characteiypgp- read tasuki in Japanese. No. 151 Ueda No. 10,969-a 149 - 5 J DENSHIN—Telegraph. Derived through amalgamation o f portions o f the Chinese characters DENSHIN. ^r No. 152 Ueda No. 10,969-b 149 - 5 Lj, DENSHIN—Telegraph. Derived through amalgamation o f the same portions o f the Chinese ch a ra cte r s '^ DENSHIN, but with th e ir r e la t iv e p o s itio n s reversed. v

No. 153 Ueda No. 11,061 149 - 8 a OSE—A command; orders; one’ s statement. GOJO-—The command o f a superior. The “ speech” r a d ic a l" ^ plus the phonetic decide; to rule; to be fixed. ”

JO, JO. meaning “ to

No. 154 Ueda No. 11,405 154 - 8 KANJO—An account; a b i l l ; to count; a calculation. The “ s h e ll ” r a d ic a l ^ plus meaning “ long. ” The “ s h e l l ’ ’ element i s frequently found in characters associated with money. In Japan, KANJO is usually written with the compound-^/ Hie b isy lla b ic “ on” reading o f the single character may have led Ueda to cla s s ify i t as a kokuji. I t is read CHANG4 in Chinese and has the same meanings. I t may, o f course, have been imported to China from Japan.

siL

Vfo

No. 155 Ueda No. 11,554 157 - 6 Fumu—To step on; to tread on. Of the several Chinese characters read fumu in Japan, Ueda regards this one, made up o f the “ fo o t ” radical and “ w est,” to be a kokuji. I t is found in Chinese d ictio n a rie s with the reading CH’ UAI4 and with the same meaning. No. 156 Ueda No. 11,718 158 - 4 Segare—My son. The “ body” radical ^ plus^j^ meaning “ part. ” No. 157 Ueda No. 11,725 158 - 7 Nerau—To aim at; to watch; to shadow; to follow ; to be on the lookout for. Korau—To endure; to bear with patience; to be submissive. Shinobu—To endure. Shinobi—Stealth; a spy; a scout. The “ body” radical plus meaning “ to bear with pa tien ce.”

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No. 158 Ueda No. 11,730 158 - 3 'A-Z- Utsuke—Foolish; absent-minded; empty; inattention. The “ body” radical plus ^2 meaning “ empty; v a in .” Cf. No. 131. No. 159 Ueda No. 11,731 158 - 8 S h itsu k e— Breeding; upbringing; tra in in g ; d is c ip lin e ; culture; in stru ction in p oliten ess. The “ body” radical plus^fb meaning “ flow er. ” No. 160 Ueda No. 11,733 158 - 9 Shitsuke—Same meaning as No. 159. The “ body” radical meaning “ beautifu l. ” No. 161 Ueda No. 11,739 158 - 17 » Yagate— (a ) P re se n tly ; in a sh ort time; b e fo r e lon g, (b ) Almost; nearly. (c ) No more than; nothing but; a fte r a ll; in the long run. The “ body” radical

Derived from the Chinese character compound y f Jp- DENSHA, and composed o f the second ch a ra cter and a p o rtio n o f the f i r s t character.

Formed from elements taken from the same Chinese character compound as No. 162, but with the position o f the elements reversed. No. 164 Ueda No. 11,926 162 - 1 Suberu—To s lip ; to slide; to glide. Suberi—Slide; slip ; skating. Suberasu—To le t s lip , glid e, make a dip. The “ movement” radical plus a straight line used ideographically. No. -------165 Ueda 11,928 162 - 2 v ----------------------No. ----, ^- ^ meaning “ to enter.

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No. 240 Ueda No. 14,433 196 - 5 Shigi—The Snipe. The “ bird ” plus W meaning “ r ic e -fie ld . ” No. 241 Ueda No. 14,459 196 - 6 Toki—The Japanese Crested Ib is. The “ b ir d ” ra d ica l plus , meaning “ year, ” and which in some contexts is read tok i. No. 242 Ueda No. 14,460 196 - 6 % Chidori—Plover; Sanderling. The “ bird” radical placed within the ch a ra cter^ meaning “ to g o .” Probably a graphic variant o f the Chinese character^fy which is read chidori in Japanese. No. 243 Ueda No. 14,479 196 - 7 •"J Ikaruga—The Grosbeak; the Japanese Hawfinch. Known also as mamemawashi in Japanese. The “ b ird ” radical plus ^ meaning “ horn; angle; c o m e r .” M No. 244 Ueda No. 14,480 196 - 7 .-v? Kashidori—The Japanese Jay o f the species Garrulus. The “ b ird ” radical plus . No. 245 Ueda No. 14,485 196 - 8 -d-d Jsuka—Swinhoe’ s C rossbill. Isuka ni—Zigzag. ^ The “ b ird ” radical p l u s ^ meaning “ to change.” No. 246 Ueda No. 14,507 196 Kikuitadaki—Eastern Goldcrest. The “ b ird ” radical plus .

-8

4 # No. 247 Ueda No. 14,924 196 - 12 ""J BAN—Moor-hen; water-hen. The “ b ird ” radical plus the phonetic BAN.. No. 248 Ueda No. 14,686 200 - 7 MARO—Found in personal names, only as a s u ffix to masculine Formed through v e r t ic a l com bination o f the p h o n e tic a lly used Chinese characters j&L MA and & RO. &

No. 249 Ueda No. 14,814 209 - 3 Kaka, kaka—Vulgar word for “ my w ife .” The “ nose” radical ^ plus-#' meaning “ woman.” Cf. Chinese chara cte r'w ® , with elements x j meaning “ mouth” and “ nose, ” with the same meaning and read kaka and kakS in Japanese.

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