A Reader in Syriac Based on the Entertaining Stories of Gregory Bar ʿEbrāyā 9781463244903

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̈ ̈ ‫ܕܬܘܢܝܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܐ‬ ‫ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬ A READER IN SYRIAC BASED ON THE

ENTERTAINING STORIES

OF GREGORY BAR ʿEBRĀYĀ

Gorgias Handbooks

57

Gorgias Handbooks provides students and scholars with reference books, textbooks and introductions to different topics or fields of study. In this series, Gorgias welcomes books that are able to communicate information, ideas and concepts effectively and concisely, with useful reference bibliographies for further study.

̈ ̈ ‫ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܬܘܢܝܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܐ‬ A READER IN SYRIAC BASED ON THE

ENTERTAINING STORIES

OF GREGORY BAR ʿEBRĀYĀ

John Hayes

gp 2023

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2022 by Gorgias Press LLC All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

‫ܒ‬

1

2023

ISBN 978-1-4632-4489-7

ISSN 1935-6838

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A Cataloging-in-Publication Record is available from the Library of Congress. Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE The purpose of this modest volume is to aid beginning students of Syriac in

acquiring facility in reading the language. It contains thirty short reading selections

with an analysis of the grammar and vocabulary of those texts. The stories are all taken from the Book of Entertaining Stories of Gregory Bar ʿEbrāyā (1226–1286).

The idea for this book grew out of my experience in teaching the language. I

started teaching with Wheeler Thackston’s Introduction to Syriac, and then at his Lesson 8 I began to supplement Thackston with John Healey’s Leshono Suryoyo. I

continued using both until the end of the academic year. However, I felt that the

students would enjoy more “real” Syriac, so at Lesson 9 of Thackston we began to read some of the stories from Bar ʿEbrāyā’s work, taken from the edition of Budge

(1897). These stories are both self-contained and amusing, and the students enjoyed

them. Some of them have been used in previous anthologies of Syriac, going as far back as 1784.

For this Reader, I have selected thirty of Bar ʿEbrāyā’s stories, chosen on the basis

of grammar and human interest. I assume that students have a basic level of Syriac

grammar, principally the strong verb in the perfect and imperfect, and also a rudimentary knowledge of Syriac vocabulary. The first selections are fairly heavily

glossed. I have particularly focused on the syntax of Syriac, since this is difficult to

study from the teaching grammars, and because it is the syntax that makes Syriac particularly challenging and interesting. I have written the volume for students

working on their own, without a teacher, and so have tried to anticipate such students’ questions.

Each Text follows the same format. First comes a list of vocabulary. This is meant

to expand upon the information presented in elementary textbooks. Then comes the

text in Estrangela. This is followed by a word-by-word analysis of the more

problematic forms in the text. After this comes a discussion of the story itself; an

examination of the larger linguistic issues raised in the text; and lastly some

comparative language notes, talking about cognates in Hebrew and in Arabic and about loanwords. After every five Texts comes a review of some larger issues of Syriac morphology and syntax. The first ten Texts use a fair amount of transcription; after

that, transcription appears less frequently. When it is particularly useful to focus on

the pronunciation, Syriac forms are placed within slashes. After these Texts comes v

vi

A READER IN SYRIAC

translations of the Texts; an index of the vocabulary; and lastly a concordance of the

Texts.

As mentioned above, this work arose out of my teaching of Syriac. I would like

to especially thank the following four individuals for their intellectual camaraderie over the last three years: Leah Macinskas-Le, Kaveh Niazi, Harley Jay Siskin, and Terri Tanaka.

I would also like to thank both the British Library and the Special Collections

Department of the University of Leeds for graciously providing eminently readable

scans of all the stories. I would also like to thank Delio Proverbio for pointing me to the on-line version of the Vatican manuscript.

Lastly, may I also express my gratitude to Melonie Schmierer-Lee of Gorgias

Press, who most professionally has helped shepherd me through the publication process.

Leeds Syr Ms. 3. Page containing the first Entertaining Story. Used with the permission of Leeds University Library.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

̈ ‫ܟܬܒܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܬܘܢܝܐ‬ Introduction

1

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ܒ‬ ‫ܓ‬ ‫ܕ‬ ‫ܗ‬

Text 1

Wisdom from the mouth of Socrates

Text 3

A lunatic body-shames a noble

23

A good day for a thief

39

Text 2 Text 4 Text 5

The Persian ruler Khusraw bad-mouths the Kurds Men make all the rules

Review Lesson One

Roots

7

17

31 43

States

44

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܘ‬ ‫ܙ‬ ‫ܚ‬ ‫ܛ‬ ‫ܝ‬

Text 6

Another thief

47

Text 8

A philosopher makes a profound statement

55

Text 7 Text 9

Text 10

Words of wisdom from a teacher

Never boast about killing a prophet

Another philosopher makes a sexist comment

Review Lesson Two

Conjugations

Quadriradicals

49 59

69

73

74

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܝܐ‬ ‫ܝܒ‬ ‫ܝܓ‬

Text 11

Frying up some dung

77

Text 13

No more teachers, no more books

85

Text 12

A goat taunts a wolf

ix

81

x

‫ܝܕ‬ ‫ܝܗ‬

A READER IN SYRIAC Text 14 Text 15

Saint Ammon rejects marriage

A Byzantine king threatens an Arab king

Review Lesson Three

Participles with enclitic pronouns

89

97

103

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܝܘ‬ ‫ܝܙ‬ ‫ܝܚ‬ ‫ܝܛ‬ ‫ܟܟ‬

Text 16

Be careful what you advise the king

107

Text 18

Can a child be born to a 70-year-old man?

121

Text 17 Text 19 Text 20

How many lunatics are there in Emesa? The King of Farters gives a boast

Don’t make fun of a woman with disheveled hair

Review Lesson Four

Nominal sentences

117 123

127

133

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܟܐ‬ ‫ܟܒ‬ ‫ܟܓ‬ ‫ܟܕ‬ ‫ܟܗ‬

Text 21

Be careful who you throw stones at

Text 23

A royal councilor interprets a dream wisely

Text 22 Text 24 Text 25

A traveler narrates a coincidence Short people have rights, too Weavers have a bad press

Review Lesson Five

Verbs with object pronouns

135 139 151

157

161

167

‫ܬ‬ ‫ܟܘ‬ ‫ܟܙ‬ ‫ܟܚ‬ ‫ܟܛ‬ ‫ܠ‬

Text 26

An Abbess struggles against fornication

Text 28

When your number is up, your number is up

Text 27 Text 29 Text 30

171

A merchant travels to China

175

Listen carefully to your doctor

191

Watch out for ravens!

187

195

‫ܬ‬ Translations of texts

Vocabulary index

Concordance of texts

199

205

219

INTRODUCTION Gregory Bar ʿEbrāyā

‫ ܓܪܝܓܘܪܝܘܤ ܒܪ ܥܒܪܝܐ‬was one of the most prolific of

all writers in Syriac. He was born in 1226, in a small village named ʿEbrā, located in

modern-day eastern Turkey, close to the important city of Melitene. Earlier

scholarship thought that his name meant “Son of the Jewish man,” and that he came

from a Jewish family, his father apparently having converted to Christianity. Modern scholarship says that his name simply means that his family came from ʿEbrā. His

baptismal name was apparently “John,” but at the time of his ordination as bishop he adopted the name “Gregory.” In English, he has traditionally been referred to by a Latinized form of his name, “Bar Hebraeus” or “Barhebraeus.” While this form of his name is still used by some scholars, others prefer to use a more closely Syriacal

form of his name, “Bar ʿEbrāyā” or “Bar ʿEbrōyō”; “Bar ʿEbrāyā” is used here. In the

course of his long priestly career, he ended up as “Maphrian of the East

‫ܡܦܪܝܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܡܕܢܚܐ‬,” that is, second-in-command of the Syrian Orthodox Church. He died in

1286, in Iran.

Bar ʿEbrāyā wrote extensively, on history, grammar, theology, Biblical exegesis,

the sciences, and other subjects. Because his writings are so voluminous, and they treat so many diverse topics, he is sometimes said to have ushered in a “Syriac Renaissance.” One of his most well-known compositions bears the title

‫ܟܬܒܐ‬ ̈ ̈ ‫ܕܬܘܢܝܐ ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬, The Book of Entertaining Stories. These are short pieces that Bar

ʿEbrāyā assembled from many different sources and translated into Syriac. A few are

re-workings of texts that were originally written in Syriac. Many are actual “stories,” but his book also includes such genres as sayings of Indian sages and the relationship

of external bodily characteristics to mental characteristics. Some stories and sayings

are anchored to particular individuals and places, but most are the type of folk story or folk wisdom that circulates in many cultures.

Bar ʿEbrāyā put the collection together towards the end of his life, when he had

intimations of his mortality. He says that the stories will be a way “to wash away

grief from the heart” as a “consolation to those who are sad.” This work of his is

probably the only piece of Syriac literature that might be known to non-specialists.

It has been translated into many languages, including such diverse languages as Czech, Ukrainian, and Malayalam.

1

2

A READER IN SYRIAC These stories were edited by E. A. Wallis Budge in 1897, in The Laughable Stories

Collected by Mâr Gregory John Bar-Hebraeus. Budge based his work on two

manuscripts. One manuscript, containing all of the stories, was previously held by the India Office and is now in the British Library (Syriac 9). This is in an East Syriac hand, with many vowel marks and diacritics. The other manuscript, which is missing

a number of the stories, was originally in Budge’s private possession. It is now at the

University of Leeds (Syriac 3). This is in a West Syriac hand, with a smattering of vowel marks, some of which were added by a later scribe. Budge also translated the

stories into English (except for some stories that Budge felt were prurient and so he had them translated into Latin by one of his colleagues). This work, however, does

not represent the best of Budge’s scholarship. Budge occasionally mixed up the two

manuscripts in his notes and did not always cite the variants. There are a fair number of typos.

A third manuscript, containing all the stories, is held in the Vatican Library

(Vat.sir 173). This is in rather an ugly West Syriac hand, with the usual smattering

of vowel marks. Excerpts were published by Moralez in 1886. Budge was aware of

this manuscript, but was not able to use it for his publication.

This Reader is not a re-editing of the stories. However, all the stories have been

checked against the three manuscripts. Complete scans of the British Library manuscript and the Leeds manuscript were provided by those institutions. The

Vatican manuscript is available on-line, in the form of scans of a microfilm of the

original. Budge used the Leeds manuscript as his base text, even though it is incomplete. I have been more ecletic in the text, and so the resultant version differs at

times from that in Budge.

The texts are presented in the Estrangela script, using fonts developed by Beth

Mardutho, specifically the “Estrangela-Talada” font. Words occurring in the voca-

bulary lists and elsewhere are provided with West Syriac vowel marks. These are far easier for beginning students than are East Syriac vowel marks. The linea occultans and the syāmē dots have been consistently supplied.

The transcription of Syriac used here differs in some details from that commonly

in use. Because students of Syriac may be interested in Semitic linguistics, etymological short /u/ is differentiated from etymological long /ū/. Thus “com-

mandment” ‫ ܦܘܩܕܢܐ‬appears as puqdānā, but “virgin” ‫ ܒܬܘܠܬܐ‬as btūltā. Short /i/

and long /ī/ are similarly differentiated. Spirantization of the bgdkpt letters, although largely predictable, tends to cause problems for students for a long time, so it is

consistently marked in transcription, by underlining. The transcription as a whole reflects what might be called the “American Academic Pronunciation” of Syriac, which more closely approaches East Syriac than West Syriac. How close this pronun-

INTRODUCTION

3

ciation is to that of a speaker living in Edessa in the thirteenth century, or one living in the ninth century, is hard to say.

The language of the Stories can be described as good Classical Syriac. Bar ʿEbrāyā

spoke what might be called a late form of Syriac as his native language. He also spoke Arabic fluently and composed some of his works in Arabic. He also knew Persian and apparently Armenian. At the time when Bar ʿEbrāyā translated the stories into Syriac, however, Syriac had largely been displaced by Arabic as a spoken

language. Scholars argue today about the size of the native Syriac-speaking

community during his lifetime, and about the degree to which that language differed from Classical Syriac. To some degree the language of Bar ʿEbrāyā is a written

register only, not a spoken one. But Bar ʿEbrāyā certainly knew his craft well; his reputation as a grammarian of Syriac attests to this. There is nothing in the syntax

of the stories that would cause a speaker of Syriac from the eighth century to take

umbrage. There are a few forms that deviate somewhat from the norm, but this is

sometimes due to the almost conversational register of some of the stories; at other times these forms may be used for conscious rhetorical affect.

It is assumed here that a reader will have access to a decent grammar of Syriac.

There are four pedagogical grammars of Syriac in current use. When a question about

grammar arises, it often helps to check each. These are Thackston (1999); Coakley-

Robinson (sixth edition 2013); Healey (2005); and Muraoka (second edition 2013).

Thackston is a classic teaching grammar: the Syriac verb is introduced in the very first chapter. Many long reading passages in Syriac are given. There is also a key to

the voluminous exercises. This key, however, which was not done by Thackston, is rife with errors and will only serve to confuse students. Coakley is a re-working of a

textbook that was originally written by Robinson in 1915. It presents the grammar

topic-by-topic; the verb first appears in Chapter 8. It can serve as a very useful review

for those who have worked through Thackston and who would like to see the grammar presented in a very structured way. Healey is somewhat in-between. Some

of the first illustrative sentences involve rather difficult syntax and might scare away beginning students. But it has the advantage that the exercises are recorded on CD,

so that one can actually listen to Syriac; no other grammar does this. A fourth grammar is Muraoka. It is expressly designed “for Hebraists.” It would be difficult for total beginners to use. It has some short reading passages, nicely glossed.

The standard reference grammar of Syriac is that by Nöldeke (2001). This is an

English translation of a work originally published in German in 1880, and translated into English in 1904, with supplementary material. It is not for beginners, nor is it

designed to be read page-by-page. It is written in rather an old-fashioned style, with

4

A READER IN SYRIAC

English wording that now seems quaint. It also suffers from the lack of an index. But it has numerous illustrative examples, citing many many Syriac texts.

A work of different scope is Kiraz (2010). This is a collection of verbal paradigms.

It is more thorough than those in the other grammars and is quite useful. The print,

unfortunaterly, is quite small in size. The forms registered in Kiraz sometimes differ from those registered in Thackston, in particular verb forms with attached object pronouns. Those in Kiraz are more accurate.

There are now three Syriac-to-English dictionaries. The oldest is Payne Smith

(1903); it is frequently reprinted. It is based on a larger Syriac-to-Latin dictionary assembled by her father. It is user friendly, meant, as she says, “chiefly for begin-

ners.” Under ‫ܐܓܘܪ‬, for example, it helpfully points out that this can represent the

first-person singular imperfect of the root {ʾ-g-r} or the root {g-w-r} or the root {g-

r-r}. This kind of information can be very helpful for a beginning student. Sokoloff

(2008) is a translation from the Latin and a thorough revision of an earlier Syriac-

to-Latin dictionary. Unlike Payne Smith, it offers illustrative examples of the vocabulary, based upon the latest editions of Syriac texts. It includes far more etymological information than does Payne Smith, and that information is also much more accurate. Because a great deal of the print-space of Sokoloff is devoted to

citations and to etymology, there are actually more definitions in Payne Smith. She

also cites more idiomatic expressions than does Sokoloff. For most run-of-the-mill Syriac texts, Payne Smith is perfectly serviceable. But for more technical texts, such as philosophical tractates, or for specialized vocabulary, including words for plants

and minerals, Sokoloff is absolutely necessary. And for anyone interested in etymological matters, Sokoloff is the only choice. Going beyond these English-to-

Syriac dictionaries means going to the native Syriac dictionaries, usually Syriac-to-

Syriac, and this is a specialized field in itself, and not for the faint-of-heart.

The most recent dictionary is that by Brock and Kiraz (2017). This is expressly

designed as a handy paperback, one that can easily be lugged around. It has the advantage that it also includes vocabulary from Modern Literary Syriac, which neither Payne Smith or Sokoloff do.

The most recent edition or printing of these works is listed here: Brock, Sebastian P. and George A. Kiraz. 2017. Pocket Gorgias SyriacEnglish Dictionary. Piscatawy, NJ: Gorgias Press. Gorgias Handbooks.

Coakley, J.F. 2013. Robinson’s Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar. Sixth edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This is usually cited as “Coakley-Robinson.”

INTRODUCTION

5

Healey, John F. 2005. Leshono Suryoyo: first studies in Syriac. Piscatawy, NJ: Gorgias Press.

Kiraz, George Anton. 2010. Verbal Paradigms in Syriac. Piscatawy, NJ: Gorgias Press. Gorgias Handbooks 16.

Muraoka, Takamitsu. 2013. Classical Syriac for Hebraists. Second edition.

Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. Subsidia et Instrumenta Linguarum Orientis 6.

Nöldeke, Theodor. 2001. Compendious Syriac Grammar. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.

Payne Smith, Jessie. 1999. A Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock.

Sokoloff, Michael. 2008. A Syriac Lexicon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns and Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

Thackston, Wheeler M. 1999. Introduction to Syriac. Bethesda, MD: IBEX Publishers.

In 1992, an institution called “The Syriac Institute” in English and “Beth

Mardutho” in Syriac (‫ܡܪܕܘܬܐ‬

‫“ ܒܝܬ‬House

of Learning”) was founded in New

Jersey. It has as its goal “the establishment of a Syriac studies center affiliated with

leading universities that globalizes Syriac studies through the Internet.” One of its on-going projects is an on-line searchable thesaurus of Syriac. This is currently at

simtho.bethmardutho.org. As more and more corpora are added to this thesaurus, it will become of inestimable worth for the study of Syriac syntax and style.

̈ ‫ܟܬܒܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܬܘܢܝܐ‬ THE BOOK OF ENTERTAINING STORIES ‫ ܐ‬TEXT THE FIRST ‫ܐ‬ The beginning section of the Book is entitled “Useful sayings of the Greek philosophers.” The first five stories invoke Socrates. This is Story 1 in Budge. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܣܘܩܪ ܺܛܝܤ‬ ̣

Sūqrāṭīs ‘Socrates’. This is the most common spelling of the name in

Syriac. Foreign proper names are often spelled in a variety of ways.

ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܐܡܪ ܁ ܶܐ ܰܡܪ‬ ܶ

ʾemar nēmar ‘to say’, from the root {ʾ-m-r}, a first-ʾālap root. The

ܳ ܶ ܶ ܰ passive ‫ ܐܬܐܡܪ‬ʾetemar ‘to be said’ occurs in Text 3. A ‫ ܡܐܡܪܐ‬mēmrā, ‘memra’ in English, is a genre of homily in verse.

̄ ‫ܐ ܳܢ ܳܫܐ‬

nāšā ‘human being, person; someone’.

̄ was originally pronounced ‫ܐ ܳܢ ܳܫܐ‬

something like /ʾenāšā/ in Syriac, but the segment /ʾe/ dropped away early on, so

ܳ ̄ ܳ ̄ linea occultans over the ʾālap to mark the loss of the segment /ʾe/. ‫ ܐܢ ܳܫܐ‬does not

that in Classical Syriac the word was pronounced /nāšā/. It is written ‫ܐܢ ܳܫܐ‬, with a derive from a verbal root. Such nouns are called “non-derived”; they are discussed at Review Lesson One.

ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫ܰܬ‬ ‫ܝܕܐ‬

talmīdā

‘follower, disciple’, a loanword from Akkadian talmīdu

ܳ ̇

ܶ ܺ

‘apprentice’. For the more basic ‘pupil’ or ‘student’, ‫ ܳܝܠܘܦܐ‬yālōpā (from ‫ ܝܠܦ‬ʾīlep ‘to learn’, Text 7) is used.

ܰ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܝܟ ܳܢܐ‬

ʾaykannā ‘how, how come, how is it that’, an interrogative. Many inter-

rogatives, demonstratives, and prepositions in Syriac and the other Semitic languages 7

8

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܰ

are composed of smaller particles, including /ʾay/, /k/, and /n/. ‫ ܐܝܟ‬ʾak is ‘like’;

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaykā is ‘where’; ‫ܝܟ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaykannā is ‘how’. ‫ܝܟܐ‬

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܚܙܐ ܁‬ ‫ܚܙܐ‬

ḥzā neḥzē ‘to see’, from {ḥ-z-y}, a last-weak root.

ܳ ‫ ܶܚ‬ḥezwā is ‫ܙܘܐ‬

ܺ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥzī ‘to be seen’ occurs in ‫ܬܚܙܝ‬ ܳ ܶ ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܡ‬metḥazyānā ‘visible’ in Text 15. Text 30; ‫ܙܝܢܐ‬

‘appearance, form’ (Text 22). The passive form

ܳ ‫ ܳܐܬܐ‬ʾātā ‘sign, mark; miracle’ (fem). Most likely, this is a non-derived noun. The ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܘ‬ plural ‫ ܐ ܬܐ‬ʾātwātā can mean ‘description’ (Text 22 and Text 27). ܳ ܳ ‫ܥܩܬܐ‬ ʿāqtā ‘sadness, sorrow’, from {ʿ-w-q}, a middle-weak root. The plural is ܳ ܳܳ ‫ܥ ̈ܩܬܐ‬ ʿāqātā. The verb is not common in the pʿal. It is frequent ܺ ‫ ܶܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬ʾettʿīq ‘to be grieved’; this occurs a few lines below.

ܺ ܰ ‫ܢܦ ܶܢܐ ܁ ܰܦܢܝ‬

in the ʾetpʿel:

ܳ

pannī npannē ‘to reply’, from {p-n-y}, in the paʿʿel. The pʿal ‫ ܦܢܐ‬pnā

ܳ

means ‘to return’. ‫ܦܘܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ punnāyā is the noun ‘answer, reply’ (Text 7).

̇ b-hay d ‘because’, a conjunction. It is made up of ‫ܒ‬, ‫ ̇ܗܝ‬, and ‫ܕ‬. ‫ܒܗܝ ܕ‬ ‫ ܶܡ ܶܕܡ‬meddem ‘something, anything’, an indefinite noun and pronoun. It does not occur in the emphatic state. ‫ ܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬means ‘nothing at all’; ‫ܡܕܡ‬ kinds of things’.

‫ ܡܕܡ‬means ‘all

‫ ܡܕܡ‬is a most quintessentially Syriac word; it does not appear in

the other Semitic languages. Its etymology is unsure.

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܩܢܐ ܁‬ ‫ܩܢܐ‬

qnā neqnē ‘to acquire, possess’, from {q-n-y}. The collective noun

ܳ ‫ ܶܩ‬qenyānā means ‘possessions’. ‫ܢܝ ܳܢܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaynā ‘which’, an interrogative. ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܺ ܺ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾettʿīq nettʿīq ‘to be grieved’. ‫ ܰܟܕ‬kad ‘when, while’, a conjunction. ܳ ‫ܐ‬ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾebad nēbad ‘to perish, get lost, disappear’, from {ʾ-b-d}. ‫ܒܕ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܒܕ ܁ ܶܐ ܰܒܕ‬ ʾabdānā means ‘destruction’. In the Peshiṭta to John 17:12, Jesus refers to Judas as

ܶ ܳ ‫ܒܪܗ ܰܕ‬ ‫ܐܒܕ ܳܢܐ‬ breh d-abdānā, ‘son of destruction’, that is, someone ‘lost’. The adjecܳ ܰ ‫ ܰܐ ܺܒܝܕ‬ʾabbīd hawnā, a construct phrase, means ܳ ܺ ܰ tive ‫ ܐܒܝܕܐ‬ʾabbīdā is ‘lost’. ‫ܗܘܢܐ‬ ܶ ܰ ‘lost of mind’, that is, ‘insane’. The ʾapʿel, ‫ ܐܘܒܕ‬ʾawbed, is transitive: ‘to lose something; to make perish’ (Text 22 and Text 30).

TEXT THE FIRST

9

̄ ‫ ܕܐܝܟܢܐ ܠܐ ̇ܚܙܐ‬.‫ܬܠܡܝܕܘܗܝ‬ ̄ ‫ܣܘܩܪܛܝܤ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܡܢ‬ ̇ ̄ ‫ܒܗܝ ܕܠܐ ܡܕܡ ܩܢܐ‬ ̇ .‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ‫ ̇ܗܘ ܐܝܢܐ‬.‫ܐܢܐ‬ ̣ .‫ܒܟ ܐܬܐ ܕܥܩܬܐ‬ ‫ܕܐܬܬܥܝܩ ܠܗ ܟܕ ܢܐܒܕ‬ Analysis 1

Syriac manuscripts regularly mark the beginning of a new section of a text by

using red ink for the first word or words. This practice makes it easy for a reader to

scan through a manuscript to search for some section or other. Modern-day editors of Syriac texts do not use color, because it is too expensive to print. Instead, editors often use overlining; this is what Budge did. Here, a bold font is used.

The Stories open in a number of different ways. Here the first word ‫ܣܘܩܪܛܝܤ‬

is a heading that does not have a direct syntactic connection with the following sentence. A literal translation might be: “Socrates. One of his followers said to him…” This is a common way to open the stories.

̄ nāš ‫ܐ ܳܢܫ‬

̄ nāšā means ‫ܐ ܳܢ ܳܫܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ̄ ̄ “human being,” but ‫ ܐܢܫ‬means “one; an individual.” ‫ ܠܐ ܐܢܫ‬is “no one” and ‫ܟܠ‬ ܳ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ is “everyone.” ‫ ܡܢ‬often has the meaning “belonging to the class of.” The sense is a noun in the absolute state. In the emphatic,

then is “one of his followers.” The Stories have several ways to say “one of.” In Text

2, ‫ ܚܕ ܡܢ‬is used.

ܰ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܬ‬is /talmīdaw/, “his followers.” The writing -waw-hē-yod for the third̄ ‫ܝܕ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬

person masculine singular possessive pronoun on a plural noun represents an archaic

pronunciation. In Imperial Aramaic this would have been pronounced /talmīdōhi/.

By the time of Classical Syriac, the ending was pronounced /aw/, while the spelling

reflects the earlier pronunciation. A linea is written over the hē to mark both it and

̄ ܰ ܺ ܰ The overall syntax is (1) verb (‫ܐܡܪ‬ ̣ ); (2) prepositional phrase (‫( ;)ܠܗ‬3) subject ܳ ̄ (...‫)ܐܢܫ‬. This is classic Syriac syntax. The short prepositional phrase comes

the following yod as unpronounced: ‫ܬܠܡܝܕܘܗܝ‬.

immediately after its governing verb, putting the subject at the end of the sentence.

.

is a “phrasal” dot. These are not the same as our periods, which mark the end

of a sentence. Phrasal dots are used, in rather a willy-nilly fashion, to mark the major

syntactic components of a sentence or passage. Here the dot helps to demarcate the following direct speech.

The particle ‫ ܕ‬has many functions. Here it is used to mark the beginning of direct

speech. Like English quotation marks, this use of

‫ܕ‬

only occurs in the written

language; it would not have been used in speech. Unfortunately, Syriac has no word that marks the end of direct speech. This can sometimes lead to confusion. The following word is the interrogative

ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaykannā, here meaning “How ‫ܝܟ ܳܢܐ‬

come?” The word-initial glottal stop of /ʾaykannā/ drops and its vowel /a/ moves to

10

A READER IN SYRIAC

the /d/, producing a pronunciation /daykannā/. The vowel mark for /a/ is written

ܳܰ ܰ ܳܶ ̇ ‫ ܚܙܐ‬ḥāzē is an active participle from a last-weak root. Last-weak roots are the

above the dālat: ‫ܕܐܝܟܢܐ‬.

most common of all weak roots, so they merit extra study. The superlinear dot above the

‫ ܚ‬is the “active participle” dot. This is a type of

“disambiguation dot,” of which Syriac has many. It serves to distinguish the active

participle from the perfect: the consonantal shape of both is however, usually bears a sublinear dot:

‫ ̣ܚܙܐ‬.

‫ܚܙܐ‬.

The perfect,

The active participle dot is, then,

somewhat redundant, but it can be helpful to a reader. It is more often written than not. It typically occurs over the first root consonant.

̄ ‫̇ ܳܚ ܶܙܐ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬

ḥāzē-nā illustrates the most common way to indicate present tense in

Syriac: the active participle in the absolute state followed by the enclitic form of a pronoun. The enclitic form of /ʾenā/ is /nā/, written ʾālap. This is all made negative by

̄ , with ‫ܐܢܐ‬

a linea over the

‫ܠܐ‬. The construction active participle + enclitic

copula can have either a right-now sense (“I see you now”) or a general sense (“I see

you all the time”). To capture the general sense here, English might throw in a “never”: “How come I neverܳ see in you.” 2

The

‫ܕ‬

in

̇ ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܥܩܬܐ‬ ‫ܳܐܬܐ‬

ʾātā d-ʿāqtā is used to express a genitive, “sign of

sorrow.” This is the most common formulation of a genitive. The construct state is

used for nouns that are closely bound, such as “hand of the man” or “door of the

house.” Even in most such cases, however, the construct state can be replaced by ‫ܕ‬.

As is the case with English “of,” ‫ ܕ‬can express many different kinds of logical relationship: “book of the man,” “idea of freedom,” “sign of sorrow,” and so on. The dot on top of the

ܳ ܳ

‫̇ܬ‬

is another disambiguation dot. Here it is used to

ܳ ܶ

distinguish the noun ‫“ ܐܬܐ‬sign” from the verb ‫“ ܐܬܐ‬to arrive,” even though the

two words are hardly likely to be confused in texts: one is a noun and the other a verb. Other pairs of words use this dot for the same purpose. The word for “king”

̇

malkā can be written with a dot above: ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬, and the word “advice” melkā with a

dot below:

‫ ̣ܡܠܟܐ‬.

In general, this use of the disambiguation dot seems quite

random. Here, for example, it is present in the Leeds manuscript but not in the British

Library manuscript or the Vatican manuscript. The placement of this disambiguation dot within a word can vary widely. Here it is written over the middle letter of the

̇

word, ‫̇ܬ‬.

The independent pronoun “he” /hū/ is written ‫ ̣ܗܘ‬with a dot below. The demon-

̇

strative pronoun and adjective “that” /haw/ is written ‫ ܗܘ‬with a dot above. Because

“he” and “that” can easily be confused in texts, this particular disambiguation dot is

used quite regularly.

TEXT THE FIRST

11

̄ ‫ ̇ܚܙܐ‬. In ‫ ܐܬܐ ܕܥܩܬܐ‬is the unmarked direct object of the participle ‫ܐܢܐ‬

general, indefinite direct objects in Syriac are not marked in any way. Definite direct objects tend to use the marker

‫ ܠ‬when the object precedes the verb; otherwise it

would be easy to mix up the subject and object functions. When the definite object follows the verb, the use of

‫ ܠ‬is optional.

This is followed by a phrasal dot, helping to mark the end of the direct speech. The initial ‫ ܘ‬in

‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ strikes most native speakers of English as unnecessary. But Syriac prefers to link sentences with a conjunction of some kind. ‫ ܘ‬is the most neutral conjunction, used essentially by default. The following ‫ ̣ܗܘ‬explicitly marks a change of subject, back to Socrates.

ܺ ‫ܰܦܢܝ‬

is a verb in the paʿʿel. In the perfect of last-weak verbs, the third-person

masculine singular in the pʿal ends in /ā/: /pnā/, written with ʾālap: paʿʿel, they end in /ī/, written with yod:

‫ܦܢܐ‬. In the ‫ ܦܢܝ‬/pannī/. This makes the pʿal and the

paʿʿel of last-weak verbs unambiguous in the perfect.

The perfect pʿal is usually marked by a sublinear disambiguation dot. This dot is

not normally used with the paʿʿel (or any conjugation other than the pʿal) because

paʿʿel active participles begin with /m/, and so can’t be confused with the perfect.

And because of the difference in meaning, a paʿʿel perfect cannot usually be confused

with a pʿal perfect (assuming that the reader knows his or her Syriac vocabulary well). Occasionally, however, a writer or editor will add the sublinear dot to a paʿʿel form.

The phrase

‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣

occurs throughout the Stories, sometimes followed by a

phrasal dot, other times not.

Direct speech is most often introduced in Syriac by ‫ܕ‬. However,

‫ ܕ‬can also be

omitted, as here. The use of the verb ‫ ܦܢܝ‬signals up-coming direct speech.

̇ is a common conjunction that means “because.” ‫ ܕ‬by itself can also have ‫ܒܗܝ ܕ‬

this meaning. Syriac writers, however, tend to prefer longer constructions over shorter ones.

Syriac-to-English dictionaries do not have the print-space to register all the pos-

sible translations for such complex conjunctions and other linking words and

phrases. It helps to build up a list of these on one’s own. I keep my own list on the back inside cover of Payne Smith. 3

The particle

‫ ܠܐ‬can be used to negate verbs, nouns, and adjectives. ‫ ܡܕܡ‬is a ‫ ܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬means “nothing.” From the ܳ ܳ ܰ root {š-m-ʿ} “to hear” comes the nice long noun ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܶܡܫܬܡܥ‬meštamʿānūtā “obedience.” ‫ ܠܐ ܡܫܬܡܥܢܘܬܐ‬is “disobedience.” ܶ qnē is the passive participle from ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ܳ qnā “to acquire.” Syriac has a few ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ̄ ܶ passive participles that have acquired an active sense. ‫ ܩܢܐ ܐܢܐ‬means “I possess.” very common word for “something,” and so

12

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܺ

In some cases it is easy to see how this development happened. ‫ ܪܟܝܒ‬rkīb first meant “mounted” on an animal, then “riding” an animal.

‫ ܰܐ ܺܚܝܕ‬ʾaḥīd “holding” occurs in

Text 9. This originated from a reciprocal sense: “being held” > “holding.” Something

ܶ

similar probably happened with ‫ܩܢܐ‬. In Text 29, a man is described as “possessing”

ܶ ) stomach cramps. ܳ ̄ ‫ܩܢܐ‬

(‫ܗܘܐ‬

A passive participle can be followed by the enclitic copula, exactly like the active

̄

ܶ

̄

ܶ ܳ

participle: ‫ ܩܢܐ ܐܢܐ‬qnē-nā is parallel to ‫ ̇ܚܙܐ ܐܢܐ‬ḥāzē-nā.

‫“ ܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬nothing” functions as the direct object of the participle, preceding it.

This is good syntax; it puts a little extra focus on ‫ܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬. The meaning is “I possess

nothing.” English, however, prefers to put the negative with the verb: “I don’t possess anything.”

. is another phrasal dot. Here it helps us to see the two main parts of a rather

long sentence.

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaynā is an interrogative meaning “which.” Most interrogatives in Syriac ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ̇ can be followed by ‫ܕ‬, turning them into relative adverbs. ‫ ܗܘ ܐܝܢܐ ܕ‬haw ʾaynā d loosely means “for the sake of which.”

ܺ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾettʿīq is from the root {ʿ-w-q}, the same root seen in the noun ‫ܥܩܬܐ‬. The verb is in the ʾetpʿel stem. Because this is a middle-weak root, it behaves differently than a strong root. The ‫ ܐ‬marks the first-person imperfect. This is followed by ‫ ܬ‬written twice. This is the mark of the ʾetpʿel of a middle-weak verb. The sequence ‫ ܬܬ‬is pronounced as a long stop: /tt/. Rather distressingly, the first-person imperfect looks exactly like the third-person

ܺ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬. This is generally the case with verbs with an infixed /t/. Thus ܶ ܶ ‫ ܐܬܩܛܠ‬ʾetqṭel can represent both “he got killed” and “I will be killed.” In theory,

perfect:

it can also represent the imperative “get killed!” but fortunately passive imperatives hardly ever occur.

Some Syriac grammars state that the ʾetpʿel of middle-weak verbs does not exist:

it has been replaced by the ʾettapʿal. Thus the glossary in Thackston labels ‫ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬ as ʾettapʿal. It is easier, however, to understand the two forms (ʾetpʿel and ʾettapʿal) as originally different. But, by historic Syriac, due to sundry phonetic contractions and

assimilations, in middle-weak verbs they had fallen together in shape and meaning.

Payne Smith and Sokoloff label

‫ ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬as ʾetpʿel. Another example of such a ܺ ܶ middle-weak verb is ‫ ܐܬܬܢܝܚ‬ʾettnīḥ “to rest,” from the root {n-w-ḥ}. ܶ ܺ The sequence ‫ ܕܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬is pronounced /dettʿīq/, vocalized ‫ܕܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬. This ܳ ܰ ܰ is similar to the writing ‫ܕܐܝܟܢܐ‬. ‫ ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬is the main clause verb, preceding a temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬. It is more common to put a clause with ‫ ܟܕ‬in front of its main clause. Here the ‫ܟܕ‬-clause is at

the end for rhetorical effect.

TEXT THE FIRST

13

ܶ ‫ ܠܗ‬leh is “for which,” referring back to ‫ܡܕܡ‬. ܰ In narrative prose ‫ ܟܕ‬most commonly means “when,” introducing a past-tense

verb in a temporal clause. It can also be followed by an imperfect, as here. In such

ܶ

cases, it ranges from “when” to “if.” The use of ‫“ ܟܕ‬when” instead of explicitly ‫ܐܢ‬ “if” suggests that everything will, in fact, get lost.

In the imperfect of verbs whose first root consonant is a glottal stop (such as

‫ )ܐܒܕ‬the glottal stop drops and the short /e/ lengthens to /ē/. If the second root

consonant is a bgdkpt consonant, this consonant is spirantized. Thus /neʾbad/ >

ܶ

ܰ ‫ܢ‬. The ‫ ܐ‬is now a vowel letter that marks /ē/. Such writings /nēbad/, written ‫ܐܒܕ‬

have the advantage that the root structure is preserved: all three root consonants show on the surface. If Syriac were written more phonetically, without the now silent

‫ܐ‬, this root structure would no longer be evident. The story

This is a typical “entertaining story,” with a somewhat clever remark attributed

to Socrates. Whether or not Socrates actually said such a thing, it is impossible to

say. As said above, the first five stories in this collection invoke Socrates. Bar ʿEbrāyā presumably put these particular stories at the beginning of his collection because of

the prestige that the Greek philosophers had in Syrian culture. Socrates’ words in the story, however, do not seem particularly Socratic in their wisdom. The moral of the story is a commonplace. One thinks of “I’ve got plenty of nuttin’” from the American opera Porgy and Bess or “Who steals my purse steals trash” from Othello. One

wonders where the story comes from. Bar ʿEbrāyā is never specific about his sources. The language The morphology and syntax of the story are straightforward. The story begins

with the name “Socrates,” syntactically unconnected to what follows, serving as a

heading. The verb forms illustrate the typical Syriac use of tenses. The perfect is used to narrate an action in the past (‫ܐܡܪ‬ ̣ ). The participle followed by an enclitic

̄ ‫) ̇ܚܙܐ‬. The imperfect is used for

pronoun is used for ongoing present action (‫ܐܢܐ‬

future action (‫)ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬. Lastly, the particle ‫ ܕ‬is used in several different ways: to

introduce direct speech (‫ ;)ܕܐܝܟܢܐ‬to mark a genitive (‫ܕܥܩܬܐ‬

̇ component of a complex conjunction (‫)ܒܗܝ ܕ‬.

‫ ;)ܐܬܐ‬and as a

This text also illustrates the varied uses of the disambiguation dot. It can be used

to differentiate an active participle from a perfect:

‫̇ܚܙܐ‬

~

‫ ̣ܚܙܐ‬. That is, it ̇ differentiates two different verbal forms from one root. In the case of ‫ ܡܠܟܐ‬malkā ~ ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ̣ melkā, it differentiates two nouns from the same root. But in the case of ̇ ‫“ ܐܬܐ‬sign” ~ ‫“ ̣ܐܬܐ‬to come,” it differentiates two unrelated words that just happen to be written the same. So why bother? In other texts, however, and

14

A READER IN SYRIAC

especially in poetry, which can have much variation in syntax, this particular use of

the dot can be helpful. In general, the presence or absence of disambiguation dots,

and many other diacritical marks in Syriac, depends on the whim of the gods or on

the whim of a modern-day editor. A useful principle is that a reader should never expect to find any particular dot, but to be grateful when one appears. Similarly, it is

sometimes easy to understand why a phrasal dot is present, but it would be difficult to predict whether one would be used or not. Different manuscripts of one text can

differ wildly in their use of this dot.

In earlier Aramaic, a nominal phrase such as “sign of sorrow” would have been

expressed as a construct phrase. But one of the characteristic features of Syriac is

that the construct state has become much reduced in scope, becoming replaced by a phrase in ‫ܕ‬. In origin, this ‫ ܕ‬was a demonstrative: “sign of sorrow” was literally “sign, that of sorrow.”

The trickiest bit of morphology here is the imperfect ʾetpʿel/ʾettapʿal form

‫ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬. In the singular, the forms are: 1 common 2 masc 2 fem

3 masc 3 fem

‫ܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩܝܢ‬ ‫ܢܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ܬܬܥܝܩ‬

/ʾettʿīq/

/tettʿīq/

/tettʿīqīn/

/nettʿīq/

/tettʿīq/

In theory, the 2m, 2f, and 3f forms should begin with a sequence of three ‫ܬ‬s: the

first ‫ ܬ‬marking the person, and the next two built into the conjugation. This would

produce, for example, never to be written.

‫ܬܬܬܥܝܩ‬.

This sequence, although quite amusing, seems

ܶ

The other somewhat unexpected bit of morphology is the passive participle ‫ܩܢܐ‬

qnē with an active sense. This use of

ܶ is not uncommon. The nominal phrase ‫ܩܢܐ‬

ܶ qnē šmayyā warʿā describes God as “Possessing Heaven and ܳ ܰ ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܪܥܐ‬ ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ ܰܘ‬ ܶ ܳ̇ Earth.” The active participle ‫ ܩܢܐ‬qānē means “being in the process of acquiring.” Manuscripts As stated above, the Leeds manuscript (hereafter, LeedsMS) of the Stories is

written in the West Syriac ductus and the British Library manuscript (BLMS) in the

East Syriac ductus. The Vatican manuscript (VatMS), not used by Budge, is also in

the West Syriac ductus. Budge transcribed his text into Estrangela. I also chose to use

Estrangela for the Reader. There are several reasons for preferring Estrangela over West Syriac or East Syriac. Historically, Estrangela is the oldest. Graphically, the

letters are (subjectively) easier to read. Doctrinally, Estrangela existed before the

TEXT THE FIRST

15

schism between the Western and Eastern churches. Choosing West Syriac or East Syriac can be interpreted as a theological preference. Choosing Estrangela nicely avoids this issue. Many editions of Syriac texts have been and continue to be printed in Estrangela.

The LeedsMS is the base manuscript used by Budge. The Frontispiece is a

reproduction of the page of the LeedsMS that contains this first story. Even though

the LeedsMS is in the West Syriac ductus, it uses a certain number of East Syriac vowel marks, alongside scattered West Syriac vowel marks. It is not uncommon to find this combination in manuscripts.

An editor of a Syriac text, particularly one that exists in multiple manuscripts,

has to make several editorial decisions. What if one manuscript uses a dot or a linea,

but the others don’t? Mentioning such variation in a textual apparatus is hardly worth the effort or the print space. Some editors routinely add all the expected marks.

This is basically what I have done here. Other editors routinely omit them. Other editors follow their base manuscript. Some editors do not explicitly state their

editorial principles. A similar question arises with vowel marks. Should an editor

bother indicating any of them? Budge used the West Syriac LeedsMS as his base. This has a scattering of vowel and other marks, some of which were done by a later hand

than the hand that penned the manuscript. The East Syriac BLMS has far more vowel marking. Budge decided to basically reproduce the West Syriac LeedsMS notation of

vowels, even though the East Syriac BLMS is far more complete in its notation of vowels. Here, I have omitted all these vowel marks. Manuscript variation In this story the LeedsMS and the VatMS use the conjunction ‫ܕ‬

‫ܒܗܝ‬. The BLMS

uses just ‫ܕ‬. Both formulations are good Syriac. Such variation shows us that different

constructions have the same meaning. The question of whether to use one or the

other is a matter of individual style in Syriac, not of grammar. Cognates

The two Semitic languages that a student of Syriac are most likely to have studied

are Hebrew and Arabic. Both Syriac and Hebrew are North-West Semitic languages,

and so they share much vocabulary that they inherited from an earlier stage of

Semitic. However, there are also some striking lexical differences between the two

languages, where the two use different words for the same concept. Arabic is a little further removed from Syriac, but also has much vocabulary in common with it.

Sometimes one root or word has the exact same meaning in all three languages. In

other cases, each language goes its own way.

16

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܶܐ ܰܡܪ‬in

Syriac and ‫ ָא ַמר‬ʾāmar in Hebrew both mean “to say.” In Arabic,

ʾamara means “to give an order.”

َ�َ � �‫أ‬

ܳ in Syriac is the unmarked, normal verb for “to see.” In Biblical Hebrew, ‫ָחזָ ה‬ ‫ܚܙܐ‬

ḥāzā is only used in poetic and other specialized contexts. The unmarked verb for

“to see” is ‫ ָר ָאה‬rāʾā, which does not occur at all in Syriac. Arabic also uses ‫ ر َأ� ى‬raʾā.

ܳ ‫ ܳܐܬܐ‬in Syriac corresponds to ‫ אוֹת‬ʾōt in Hebrew and ‫ آيَة‬ʾāya in Arabic. The latter

makes its way into English in the noun ayatollah, a Shii religious title meaning “sign of God.” The “ultimate” etymology of ‫ ܐܬܐ‬and its cognates is unsure.

ܺ ܳ ‫ ܰܦܢܝ‬is the usual Syriac verb for “to reply.” Hebrew uses ‫ ָﬠנָ ה‬ʿānā instead. ‫ܥܢܐ‬ ܺܰ in Syriac also can mean “to reply,” but it is less common than ‫ܦܢܝ‬. ܳ Syriac ‫ ܩܢܐ‬corresponds to Hebrew ‫ ָקנָ ה‬qānā. In Hebrew, the verb also has the

meaning “to create,” used only of God; God is called the “Creator” (‫ קוֹנֶ ה‬qōnē). In Arabic, ‫ قَنَا‬qanā is “to acquire.”

ܰ ܶ

Syriac ‫ ܐܒܕ‬corresponds to Hebrew ‫ ָא ַבד‬ʾābad. The verb spans the same meanings

as Syriac, ranging from “getting lost” to “perishing.” In Arabic, َ �َ� �‫ أ‬ʾabada is “to roam

in a state of wildness.” For whatever reason, the noun

adverbial accusative, ‫ أ� �َ� ًا‬ʾabadan is “never.”

�َ � �‫ أ‬ʾabad is “eternity.” In the

Loanwords

Syriac absorbed words from many languages. In the following Stories, words from

Akkadian, Arabic, Greek, Hebrew, Iranian/Persian, and Sumerian will occur. In other

Syriac texts, loanwords from such diverse languages as Armenian and Turkish are found. These words entered into Syriac at different times. Many words passed from Akkadian into Imperial Aramaic several centuries before Christ, and from there into

the Aramaic dialect that emerged as Syriac. Others, particularly the Arabic and

Iranian/Persian words, entered Syriac directly. These are all called “loanwords,” even if the Sumerian and Akkadian words had become a part of Syriac centuries before Syriac emerged as a language in its own right.

A root {l-m-d} meaning “to study” does not exist in Syriac. This tells us that

ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫“ ܰܬ‬follower, disciple” is a loanword from Akkadian, via Imperial Aramaic. ‫ܝܕܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ܰ Words such as ‫ ܬܠܡܝܕܐ‬became such a part-and-parcel of Syriac that they generated ܶ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܶ verbal forms. ‫ ܬܠܡܕ‬talmed is “to instruct; to make a disciple” and ‫ܐܬܬܠܡܕ‬ ʾettalmad is “to become a disciple.” These verbal formations are treated in Review Lesson Two.

ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܬ‬also passed from Aramaic into Biblical Hebrew, where it is attested ‫ܝܕܐ‬

exactly once: ‫למיד‬ ִ ‫ ַתּ‬talmīd. However, it is widely used in Modern Hebrew. In Arabic,

‫ تِ��ِيذ‬tilmīd, also a loan from Aramaic, today means “apprentice” or “pupil.”

‫ ܒ‬TEXT THE SECOND ‫ܒ‬ Story 95, from a section of the Book entitled “Useful sayings of the Persian sages.”

This story invokes the Sassanian shah Khusraw II, who ruled from 590 until 628 in

the ancient city of Ctesiphon. Khusraw is also the protagonist of Text 24. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܟܘܣܪܘ‬ ̣

Kusrāw ‘Khusraw’, a Persian name. The name is spelled in English in a

bewildering number of ways.

ܰ ‫ܢܫ ܶܐܠ ܁ ܰܫ ܶܐܠ‬

ܶ ܳ ܳ ܳܳ ܰ ‘to ask for something’. ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ‬ ̣ šuʾʾālā is ‘question’ (Text 7). ‫ ܡܫܐܠܢܐ‬mšaʾʾlānā is

šaʾʾel nšaʾʾel ‘to ask questions, enquire’. In the pʿal, ‫ ܫܐܠ‬šel is usually

‘interrogator’.

ܳ ‫ܰܚ ܺܟ‬ ‫ܝܡܐ‬

ḥakkīmā ‘wise’, from {ḥ-k-m}. This is an adjective of the paʿʿīl pattern,

the most common pattern used for adjectives. As with most adjectives, ‫ ܚܟܝܡܐ‬can

be used as a noun, ‘wise person’. In courtly contexts such as Text 2, the sense is

ܳ

ܰ

‘advisor’ or ‘councilor’. ‫ ܶܚܟܡܬܐ‬ḥekmtā is ‘wisdom’. In the pʿal, the verb ‫ ܚܟܡ‬ḥkam

means ‘to know; to become wise’. It can also mean ‘to have sex’. At Matthew 1:25, it

̇ ܳ

says that Joseph ‫ ܠܐ ܰܚܟܡܗ‬lā ḥakmāh, “did not have sex with her”.

ܳ ‫ ܒܪܐ‬brā

‘son’. The plural is

ܰ̈ ‫ܒܢ ܳܝܐ‬ bnayyā, in /ā/. Such plurals are discussed

at

Review Lesson One. Oddly, the singular has the consonant /r/ but the plural has the

consonant /n/. To judge from comparative data, the /n/ is more original. The feminine ‘daughter’ is

ܳ ‫ܰܒܪܬܐ‬

bartā. Its plural is

ܳ ̈ܳ ‫ܒܢܬܐ‬

distribution of /r/ in the singular and /n/ in the plural.

ܰ̈ ܳ ‫ܒܢ‬ ‫ܝܢ ܳܫܐ‬

bnaynāšā ‘people’.

ܰ ‫ܒܢܝ‬

bnātā, with the same

bnay is the construct plural of

ܳ ‫ܒܪܐ‬

brā ‘son’.

̈ is grammatically a plural. Its syāmē dots can appear almost anywhere. ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܣ ܺܓ‬ ‫ܝܐܐ‬

saggīʾā ‘many, numerous’, an adjective of the paʿʿīl pattern from the root

{s-g-ʾ}. The original glottal stop disappears in many forms, even in intervocalic position. In most native reading traditions of Syriac, the adjective is pronounced /saggīyā/. The glottal stop is usually retained in the American Academic Pronunciation of Syriac, and so is kept here in transcription. The verb ‘to become numerous’

17

18

A READER IN SYRIAC

appears in the perfect as both

occurs in Text 17.

‫ ܰܐܘ‬ʾaw ܳ ‫ܶܫ‬ ‫ܐܕܐ‬

ܺ . ‫ ܰܣ ܺܓܝܐܘ ܳܬܐ‬saggīʾūtā ‘multitude’ ܳ and ‫ܣܓܝ‬ ‫ܣܓܐ‬ ̣

‘or’, a very common particle. šēdā ‘demon’, a loanword from Akkadian šēdu. It is used in this text in

rather a non-specific sense. The ʾālap in

‫ ܫܐܕܐ‬is a vowel letter, marking the /ē/. This use of ʾālap arose from such spellings as ‫ ܢܐܒܕ‬nēbad, discussed at Text 1.

‫ ܶܐܢ‬ʾen ‘if’, a common conjunction. ܳ ‫ ܟܘ‬kurdāyā ‘Kurd, Kurdish’. It is occasionally spelled ‫ܩܘܪܕܝܐ‬. ‫ܪܕ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܫܘ ܳܩܐ‬ ̣ šūqā ‘market place’, a non-derived noun. ‫ܫܘ ܳܩ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ šūqāyā This adjective derives from ‫ܫܘܩܐ‬, but it takes on a pejorative sense. Payne Smith glosses it as ‘huckster, petty trader’. Sokoloff prefers ‘unbridled person’. Budge translates the plural here as ‘common folk of the bazaars’. It is translated here as ‘market riffraff’.

̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬ḥšab neḥšob ‘to count, reckon, consider’, from {ḥ-š-b}. In Modern ܰ ‫ܚܫܘܒ ܁‬ ‫ܚܫܒ‬ ܳ ̇ Literary Syriac, ‫ ܳܚܫܘܒܬܐ‬ḥāšōbtā is ‘calculator’ and ‘computer’. The passive verb is ܶ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥšeb ‘to be reckoned’ (Text 6). ‫ܬܚ ܰܫܒ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥaššab is ‘to think, plan, plot’ ‫ܬܚܫܒ‬ (Text 16).

̈ ̄ ̈ ‫ܕܒܢܝܢܫܐ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ ܐܢܘܢ ܐܘ‬ ‫ܡܘܗܝ܂‬ ‫ܚܟܝ‬ ‫ܟܘܣܪܘ ܫܐܠ ܠܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ̈ ̈ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ܂ ܕܐܢ ܠܟܘ̈ܪܕܝܐ ܘܠܫܘܩܝܐ ܒܒܢܝܢܫܐ ̇ܚܫܒ ܐܢܬ܂‬ ̣ ‫̈ܫܐܕܐ܂‬ ̈ ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬ Analysis 1

ܶ

ܰ . In some stories, The first word ‫ ܟܘܣܪܘ‬is the subject of the following verb ‫ܫܐܠ‬

such as Text 1, the first word in the story is not connected syntactically to what follows. In other stories, such as this one, it functions as a subject.

ܶ

ܰ takes a direct object as its complement, here with ‫ܠ‬, even though The verb ‫ܫܐܠ‬

‫ ܚܕ‬is indefinite.

̄ ; Text 2 uses ‫ܚܕ ܡܢ‬. Both uses are quite common. ‫ܐܢܫ‬ After a phrasal dot, ‫ ܕ‬introduces direct speech. This takes the form of a nominal ̈ sentence: ‫ ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬is the subject and ‫ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬the predicate. ‫ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬is a masculine plural adjective in the absolute state. The most common Text 1 used ‫ܡܢ‬

use of the absolute state is to mark the predicate, as here. When used as predicate,

TEXT THE SECOND

19

such masculine adjectives do not use the syāmē dots. ‫ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬is directly followed

̇ ܶ

by the third-person enclitic pronoun ‫ ܐܢܘܢ‬ʾennōn, functioning as usual as a copula. As will be seen throughout this Reader, Syriac offers much variety in syntax. In

a declarative sentence, it is more common to put the adjectival predicate first. Thus,

̈ ‫ܣܓܝܐܝܢ ܐܢܘܢ‬. In a question, however, the noun often comes first. ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬

Syriac does not have any special marker for the comparative or the superlative.

Here it is the context that tells us that

simply “numerous.” 2

‫ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬means “more numerous” and not

̈ . ‫ ܰܐܘ‬links ‫ ̈ܫܐܕܐ‬to ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬

The answer to Khusraw’s question takes the form of a conditional sentence. Con-

ditional sentences come in many varieties in Syriac. Here the protasis is marked by

‫“ ܐܢ‬if.”

The apodosis, consisting of a nominal sentence, is unmarked, that is, not

introduced by any particle. The verb in the protasis is

ܳ ̄ ‫ ̇ܚ ܶܫܒ ܰܐܢܬ‬ḥāšeb-ʾatt. This is

another example of an active participle, complete with superlinear dot, followed by

̄ ܰ

an enclitic pronoun, here that of the second-person masculine: ‫ܐܢܬ‬.

̈ ̈ ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬

ܶ ܳ

The ‫ ܠ‬in front of both ‫ܟܘ̈ܪܕܝܐ‬ ̣ and ‫ܫܘܩܝܐ‬ ̣ marks them as direct objects of ‫̇ܚܫܒ‬

̄ ‫ ܰܐܢܬ‬.

The preposition

‫ܒ‬

before

means “in the category of”: “Do you

consider X and Y to be in the category of Z?” The protasis starts with the particle

‫ܐܢ‬, the two direct objects come next, then

the prepositional complement, then the participle. This word order puts some focus on the Kurds and the market riffraff. 3

The (unmarked) apodosis is the equational sentence

̈ . ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ‬

This

replicates the question that Khusraw asked, but without using the enclitic copula.

This is for rhetorical flourish, ending the text in the predicate adjective. A writer in Syriac can vary the syntax in many ways. Observing such variation is one of the pleasures we get in reading Syriac. The story This story seems like a gratuitous insult to the Kurds. Khusraw was at home in

the royal court, in an urban setting. Kurds were by-and-large tribal and nomadic. Throughout much of pre-modern Middle Eastern history, it was not uncommon for

city dwellers to consider nomads to be uncouth barbarians, whereas nomads considered urban folk to be effete and cowardly. Bar ʿEbrāyā was the product of an

urban setting. He undoubtedly found this story amusing, which is why he included

it in his collection. It is too bad that we do not know the source of such an entertaining (?) story.

ܳ ‫ܫܘ ̈ܩ ܶܝܐ‬ ̣ are ܳ portrayed in a negative light. In Story 236, a Muslim ܺ ܺ ‫ ܺܫ‬šīṭīn, “contemptible.” ܳ ܶ ̈ ̣ as ‫ܝܛܝܢ‬ ܰ sage (‫ )ܚܟܝܡܐ‬labels the ‫ܫܘܩܝܐ‬ Similary, the

20

A READER IN SYRIAC

The language In Text 1, the first word, a proper name, is syntactically unconnected to what

follows. Here however the first word, also a proper name, serves as the subject of a following verb.

ܳ ܳ ܳ ܰ of many compounds. ‫ܠܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܒܪ ܓ‬bar gālūtā “son of exile” means “an exiled person.” ܳܳ ܰ As was mentioned at Text 1, ‫ ܰܒܪ ܐܒܕܢܐ‬bar ʾabdānā “son of destruction” means ܶ ܳ ܰ someone who is “lost” or “hopeless.” In Text 14, ‫ܫܥܬܗ‬ ‫ ܒܪ‬bar šāʿteh, “son of its

The construct singular of ‫ ܒܪܐ‬brā “son” is ‫ ܰܒܪ‬bar. This is used in the formation

hour,” is an adverb meaning “immediately.”

̈ Syriac has created the handsome verbs ‫ܪܢܫ‬ ܰ ‫“ ܰܒ‬to incarnate” and ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬ ܳ ܶ ܰ ‫ܬܒ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܒ‬ ܰ ‫“ ܶܐ‬to become incarnate”: ‫ܪܢܫ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܒ ܰܣܪ ܰܘܐܠ ܳ ܳܗܐ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܠܬܐ ܶܐ‬ ‫ܪܢܫ‬ ‫“ ܡ‬The word From

became flesh and God became man.”

ܶ

“To ask” in the pʿal is ‫ ܫܐܠ‬/šel/, going back to /šʾel/. The glottal stop is totally

elided, but the ‫ ܐ‬continues to be written. In the paʿʿel, the glottal stop is long and so

ܶ

ܰ /šaʾʾel/. stays: ‫ܫܐܠ‬

‫ ܰܟܕ‬kad “when” appeared in Text 1. Text 2 uses the conjunction ‫ ܶܐܢ‬ʾen. This implies “maybe yes, maybe no.” Text 3 uses ‫ܠܘ‬ ̣ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾellū. This is used in The conjunction

counterfactual conditions, that is, conditions that are manifestly not true.

Conditional sentences occur all the time. The one here is typical. The protasis is

ܶ

introduced by ‫ܐܢ‬, while the apodosis is unmarked. The lack of an apodosis-marker

can lead to confusion in long sentences. Manuscript variation

̈

In the first line, the BLMS reads ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬

‫ܣܓܝܐܝܢ ܐܢܘܢ‬. The LeedsMS and the ̈ VatMS read ‫ܣܓܝܐܝܢ ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬, without ‫ܐܢܘܢ‬. The first usage is somewhat more common, but both are good Syriac.

Also in the first line, the LeedsMS reads

‫“ ܐܘ‬or,” but the BLMS and the VatMS read ‫ ܐܢ‬. It is rare for a solitary ‫ ܐܢ‬to mean “or”; ‫ ܐܘ‬is almost always used. But ‫ ܐܢ‬... ‫ ܐܢ‬can mean “either...or,” deriving from “if...if.” The use of a solitary ‫ܐܢ‬ derives from this. Cognates

‫ ܰܫ ܶܐܠ‬has cognates in Hebrew ‫ ָשׁ ַאל‬šāʾal and Arabic ‫ سَأ� َل‬saʾala, both of which

mean “to ask.” But only in Syriac is there a regular distinction between the pʿal “to ask for something” and the paʿʿel “to ask about something.” The root “to be wise” {ḥ-k-m}, seen in

ܳ ‫ ܰܚ ܺܟ‬ḥakkīmā is common to Syriac, ‫ܝܡܐ‬

Hebrew, and Arabic. The adjective “wise” takes the pattern paʿʿīl in Syriac but pāʿāl

in Hebrew: ‫ ָח ָכם‬ḥākām. Arabic uses the pattern faʿīl,

��ِ‫ �َك‬ḥakīm.

TEXT THE SECOND While

‫ܒܪܐ‬

21

“son” in Syriac (and Aramaic in general) shows an /r/, in both

Hebrew and Arabic it has /n/: ‫ ֵבּן‬ben and ‫ ا� ْن‬ʾibn. Somewhat similarly, the word for

“two” is

ܶ ‫ܬܪܝܢ‬

trēn in Syriac and in Aramaic in general, but the other Semitic

languages show /n/: Hebrew ‫ ְשׁנַ יִ ם‬šnayim and Arabic

‫ إث ْنَان‬ʾitnān. When a pheno-

menon only occurs in two words, it is almost impossible to figure out why it hap-

pened. There is still no satisfactory answer why the original /n/ shows up as /r/ in

Aramaic.

Syriac

ܳ ‫ ܰܣ ܺܓ‬is a very common word; it is used in all varieties of Aramaic. ‫ܝܐܐ‬

Forms from the root {s-g-ʾ} appear in Biblical Hebrew, but only in the book of Job.

This is a hint that the words there are Aramaisms, that is, they are direct borrowings from Aramaic, or they are Hebrew words influenced by Aramaic. For words meaning “many,” Hebrew uses the root {r-b-y}. Arabic uses an entirely unrelated word, katīr.

��ِ ‫كَث‬

‫ܫܘ ܳܩܐ‬ ̣ has its cognate in Hebrew ‫ שׁוּק‬šūq, which is rare and only occurs in late

books. Arabic ‫ سُوق‬sūq is quite common, and works its way into English as “souq.” It

has been suggested that the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic words are all borrowings

from Akkadian sūqu, which usually means “street.” But there is no obvious way to show this. Some scholars are more wont to see Akkadian loanwords in the various

Semitic languages than are other scholars. But in the absence of definitive evidence,

including irregular sound correspondences and unusual shifts in meaning, it is best

to assume that the Akkadian words are cognates to the Syriac words, not their

ancestors.

Loanwords

ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫“ ܰܬ‬follower,” a loanword from Akkadian, occurred in Text 1. In Text 2, ‫ܝܕܐ‬ ܳ ܶ another borrowing from Akkadian appears, ‫ ܫܐܕܐ‬šēdā “demon.” In Akkadian, šēdu is a particular kind of demon. The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary glosses it as “a spirit

or demon representing the individual’s vital force,” whatever that means. In Syriac

ܳ ‫ ܶܫ‬often has rather a generic sense, as in Text 2. Other times it is more specific. ‫ܐܕܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ܳ In Text 26, one Mother Sarah in Libya battles against ‫ܢܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܶܫܐܕܐ ܕܙ‬šēdā d-zānyūtā the “demon of fornication” for seven years before she defeats him. The ultimate

origin of the Akkadian word šēdu is not known. It does not look Sumerian, but no

Semitic etymology appears likely.

The word appears twice in the Hebrew Scriptures, as ‫ ֵשׁד‬šēd. At Deuteronomy

32:17, Moses rails away about the Israelites making sacrifices to such demons. Since

the word is so rare, it is hard to say what it means exactly.

‫ ܓ‬TEXT THE THIRD ‫ܓ‬ Story 621, from a different section of the Book, entitled “Stories of crazy people and lunatics.” There are a surprising number of such stories. Vocabulary

ܰ ‫ܐܡܪ ܁ ܶܐ ܶܬ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ ܶܬ‬ ‫ܐܡܪ‬

ʾetemar netemar ‘to be said’, the ʾetpʿel of

‫ ܶܐ ܰܡܪ‬, used to

express the passive. The expected form is /ʾetʾmar/. But with all first-ʾālap verbs, the glottal stop drops and a compensatory /e/ appears, resulting in /ʾetemar/ with three short vowels. The ʾālap, however, continues to be written. This writing keeps the root structure visible. The same phonetic change happens with the masculine participle.

ܶ ܶ ܰ ܶ ܳ slightly different vocalic structure, is /metamrā/ ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬. ܰ

An expected /metʾmar/ becomes /metemar/ ‫ܡܬܐܡܪ‬. The feminine, which has a

ܳ ‫ܰܕ‬ ‫ܝܘܐ‬

daywā ‘demon, evil spirit’, a loanword from Old Persian. Beelzebub is said

ܳ ‫ܰܕ‬ ‫ܝܘ ܳܢܐ‬

daywānā ‘lunatic’. Formations in /-ān/ are discussed below. People whom

ܶ ̈ܰ ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬rēšā d-daywē ‘the Prince of Demons’. to be ‫ܝܫܐ ܕܕܝܘܐ‬

we would consider today to be suffering from some form of mental illness were thought to be possessed by sundry kinds of demons.

‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬is often translated as ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܕܝܘ‬

‘demoniac’, a word hardly used in English outside of Biblical contexts.

daywānūtā is ‘madness’.

ܳ ‫ܶܪ‬ ‫ܝܫ ܳܢܐ‬

rēšānā ‘noble’, with a range of meanings, including ‘chief’, ‘prince’, and

‘ruler’. This derives from the word for ‘head’ /rēšā/. This latter is a non-derived noun. It can be written both with a yod

ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬or without a yod ‫ ܶܪ ܳܫܐ‬. Similarly, /rēšānā/ ‫ܝܫܐ‬

often appears without the yod, as in Text 3. In manuscripts and many printed works, it can be difficult to determine if a beginning stroke represents a yod or the initial

tick of a shīn.

/rēš/ ‘head’ derives from /riʾš/. At an early stage of Aramaic, the glottal stop

became totally elided and so is not written. In the writings that use yod, the yod is a vowel letter for /ē/.

ܳ ‫ܰܫ ܺܡ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

šammīnā ‘fat’, another adjective of the paʿʿīl pattern, from {š-m-n}.

ܳ ‫ ܫܘ‬šumnā is ‘body fat’. The verb ‫ܫܡܢ‬ ܶ šmen is ‘to become fat, ripen’. ‫ܡܢܐ‬ ̣ 23

24

̇ ‫ܐܘ‬

A READER IN SYRIAC ʾō This is an interjection that introduces a vocative. But it can also express

astonishment, grief, or reproach, all depending on context. Another example occurs at Text 20.

ܳ ‫ܕܡܘܬܐ‬ ̣

ܳ ܺ ܳ ‫ܕܘ‬ ܳ ‫ܕܘ‬ ‘to be like’. ‫ܡܝܐ‬ ̣ dumyā is the ‘likeness’ of something. ‫ܡܝܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܠܐ ܶܐܬܚܙܝ‬

dmūtā ‘image, form, likeness’, from {d-m-w}. The verb ‫ ܕܡܐ‬dmā means

ʾetḥzī dumyā means ‘the like of it has not been seen’.

ܳ ܺ ‫ܚܙܝܪܐ‬

lā

ܳ ܺ ‫ܚܙܝܪ ܳܝܐ‬ ܳ ḥzīrāyā is ‘gluttonous’. At Matthew 7:6, Jesus says: “Do not throw your pearls” ‫ܩܕܡ‬ ܶ ܺ ‫“ ܚܙܝ̈ܪܐ‬before pigs.”

‫ܠܘ‬ ̣ ‫ܶܐ‬

ḥzīrā ‘pig’. This can mean a male ‘boar’ or a ‘pig’ of either gender.

ʾellū ‘if’, a conditional particle that is used in counterfactual situations.

Depending on the context, this can mean situations that are manifestly not true in

the present or situations that were not true in the past. ‫ ܐܠܘ‬contrasts with ‫( ܐܢ‬Text 2), which is neutral: ‘maybe it’s the case, maybe not’.

ܳ ‫ܰܙ‬ ‫ܒܢܐ‬

zabnā ‘time’. Its etymology is uncertain. In addition to its use as a full noun,

ܰ it occurs in several adverbial expressions. ‫ܙܒܢ‬

ܰ is ‘frequently’; ‫ܒܟܠܙܒܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܙܒܢ‬ is ‘always’. ܺ mšīḥā ‘Messiah’. This is the passive participle from ‫ܡܫܚ‬ ܰ mšaḥ ‘to anoint’. ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܝܚܐ‬ ܺ ܳ ‫ ܡܫ‬mšīḥāyā means ‘Christian’. The adjective ‫ܝܚ ܳܝܐ‬ ‫ ܳܣܟ‬sāk ‘at all, ever’, an adverb. In origin, it is a noun in the absolute state: ‫ܳܣ ܳܟܐ‬ ܳ is ‘end, limit’. This derives from the middle-weak verb ‫‘ ܣܟ‬to come to an end’. ܳ ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬šbaq nešboq ‘to leave’. This can shade into ‘to abandon’. ‫ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܒܘܩ ܁‬ ‫ܫܒܩ‬ ܳ ‫ܕܫܘ‬ ‫ܒܩ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣ ktābā d-šubqānā is a ‘writ of divorce’.

̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܥܘܠ ܁ ܥܰܠ‬

ʿal neʿʿol ‘to enter’, from {ʿ-l-l}. This is the paradigmatic geminate

ܶ ܰ

verb. The ʾapʿel ‫ ܐܥܠ‬ʾaʿʿel is ‘to bring in’ (Text 22). The name of the city of Maloula

in Syria, where, it is claimed, “they speak the language of Jesus,” derives from this root. The name is written today ‫ܡܥܠܘܠܐ‬. This means a mountain ‘entrance’ or ‘pass’

in the local variety of Western Neo-Aramaic. The Classical Syriac equivalent is

ܳ ‫ ܰܡܥܠ ܳܢܐ‬maʿʿlānā.

̈ ̄ ‫ܕܝܘܢܐ܂ ܚܙܐ ܪܫܢܐ‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ܠܗ܂‬ ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ ܕܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̣ ‫ܐܢܫ ܫܡܝܢܐ܂‬ ̣ ̄ ̄ ̇ ̄ ‫ܕܐܘ ܐܢܬ ܕܒܕܡܘܬ ܚܙܝܪܐ ܫܡܝܢ ܐܢܬ܂ ܐܠܘ ܕܝܘܐ ܕܒܝ ܒܙܒܢܐ ܗܘܐ‬ ‫ܕܡܫܝܚܐ܂ ܠܐ ܣܟ ܫܒܩܟ ̄ܗܘܐ ܘܒܝ ܥܠ‬

TEXT THE THIRD

25

Analysis 1

ܳ

ܰ ܶ

This story opens differently than do the first two stories. ‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬metamrā is

the feminine ʾetpʿel participle from

‫“ ܶܐ ܰܡܪ‬to say.” The ʾetpʿel, as usual, expresses a

passive voice. The passive voice is used when the identity of the subject is either unknown or not important. Here

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬is used impersonally, that is, with no

explicit noun or pronoun as subject. It can be translated into English with a passive, “it is said.” English can also use a third-person plural, “they say” where “they” does not refer to any specific persons. “People say” would also work. The feminine participle is used because in general Syriac uses the feminine in “neutral” contexts.

The use of the participle instead of a finite verb in the perfect implies that the

story is still being told today. Several of the stories begin in similar ways. Texts 9 and 14 also start with ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬.

‫ ܕ‬introduces the complement to ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬: “It is said that...” ̈ The phrasal dot after ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬separates the subject from its verb ‫ ̣ܚܙܐ‬. ̄ follows the noun ‫ܪܫܢܐ‬, standing in apposition to it. This usage ‫ܐܢܫ‬

is not

uncommon, particularly in the later phases of Classical Syriac. Several of the Stories

ܳ ܰ ̄ ‫ܒܪܐ‬ ̄ can also follow a feminine noun. For example, Text ‫ܐ ܳܢܫ‬ ‫“ ܓ‬a man.” ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ܳ ̄ ̄ ̄ ܰ 20 writes ‫“ ܐܢܬܬܐ ܐܢܫ‬a woman.” ‫ ܐܢܫ‬functions almost like an indefinite article,

use

helping to make it clear that we are not talking about some specific nobleman who

̄

had previously been mentioned. In this sense, ‫ ܐܢܫ‬is only used with animate nouns.

ܶ ܶ

ܶ ܶ

ܳ ܳ

For inanimate nouns, ‫ ܡܕܡ‬is used instead. Text 7 has ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬ ̣ šuʾʾālā meddem, “some question or other.”

̄ here comes between the noun ‫ ܪܫܢܐ‬and its adjective ‫ܫܡܝܢܐ‬. One might ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ have expected to find ‫ ܐܢܫ‬following the noun-adjective. While that construction is ̄ possible, ‫ ܐܢܫ‬tends to occur as close to its noun as possible. In the case of a construct ̄ ܳ ܰ phrase, however, ‫ ܐܢܫ‬tends to come after the entire phrase. Story 337 has ‫ܰܒܪ ܡܠܟܐ‬ ܳ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ bar malkā nāš, “some prince or other.” ̇ 2 ‫ ܕ‬introduces direct speech. It is followed by the interjection ‫ܐܘ‬. When ‫ ܕ‬is followed by a word beginning with a glottal stop, the glottal stop usually drops, and its vowel moves forward to the ‫ܕ‬:

‫ܕܐܡܪ‬ ̣ “that he said” is pronounced /demar/, ܶ ̇ ܰ vocalized ‫ܕܐܡܪ‬. The vocative particle ‫ܐܘ‬, however, has a lot of oomph, and so ̇ is read /d-ʾō/. ‫ܕܐܘ‬ This is then followed by a complicated nominal phrase: “You who are fat, in the

likeness of a pig,” that is, “You who are as fat as a pig.” The basic phrase is “you who are fat.”

̄ ‫ܐܢܬ‬

pronoun

̄ ‫ܐܢܬ‬, copying

is the subject pronoun.

‫ܕ‬

introduces a relative clause.

‫ܫܡܝܢ‬,

an

adjective in the absolute state, functions as predicate. This is followed by the enclitic

the initial pronoun. The end of the phrase is pronounced

/šammīn-ʾatt/. This is all interrupted by “in the likeness of a pig.”

26

A READER IN SYRIAC “In the likeness of a pig” is expressed by a construct state. This is common with

‫ܕܡܘܬܐ‬. It is also possible to use ‫ܕ‬. Text 30 has demons appearing “in the likeness ̈ of men,” ‫ܒܕܡܘܬܐ ܕܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬, that is, “looking like men.” “Likeness (of)” is /dmūt/. Preceded by the preposition /b/, this produces

/badmūt/. Preceded by the relative /d/, the result is /dbadmūt/. It takes much practice to produce such sequences fluidly when reading Syriac. The phrasal dot after the second

phrase is so long.

̄ ‫ܐܢܬ‬

is useful, because the initial vocative

‫ ܐܠܘ‬introduces a contrary-to-fact conditional sentence in the past: “If the demon ‫ܕܝܘܐ ܕܒܝ‬ ̄ ‫ܒܙܒܢܐ ܗܘܐ ܕܡܫܝܚܐ‬. The subject is ‫ܕܝܘܐ‬. The predicate is, essentially, ‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬. As ̄ is often the case, ‫ ܗܘܐ‬means more than simple “was.” “Had lived” would be a good ̄ translation here. ‫ ܗܘܐ‬is still the enclitic form, not the full form ‫ܗܘܐ‬. The full form

had lived…he would not have left.” The protasis is a rather long phrase

is usually used to mean “to become” or sometimes “to take place.”

‫ܕܝܘܐ‬

is modified by the relative clause

‫ܕܒܝ‬,

about as minimalist a relative

clause as one can get: “the devil that is in me.” In English, it is possible to delete a

relative pronoun. We can say “the devil that is in me” or “the devil in me.” In the

latter case, the prepositional phrase functions essentially as an adjective modifying a noun. In Syriac, this is not possible; a complete relative clause has to be expressed: “the devil that is in me.”

“At the time of the Messiah” is expressed as ‫ܕܡܫܝܚܐ‬

‫ܒܙܒܢܐ‬, the usual way of

expressing the genitive. Here the genitive, in good Syriac fashion, is interrupted by the enclitic

‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬. It is not uncommon to find

kinds of things.

genitive phrases interrupted by all

Lastly, when ‫ ܐܠܘ‬is used for conditional sentences in the past, it is common to

find the perfect tense in both the protasis and the apodosis.

A phrasal dot is used after ‫ ܡܫܝܚܐ‬because the protasis is lengthy. The dot helps

to introduce the apodosis “He would not have left you.” 3

As was mentioned in Text 2, Syriac typically does not mark the apodosis of a

conditional sentence. The apodosis here begins with the particle ‫ܠܐ‬, which negates

the following verb. ‫ ܠܐ‬and its verb are interrupted by the emphatic adverb ‫ܣܟ‬. The sense of such adverbs depends on the context; here ‫ ܣܟ‬means “at all, ever.” This is

ܳ ‫ ܰܫ‬, which is continued by the enclitic form of followed by a verb in the perfect ‫ܒܩܟ‬ ̄

“to be,” ‫ ܗܘܐ‬-wā. In non-conditional sentences, forms such as

‫ ܫܒܩ ̄ܗܘܐ‬šbaq-wā

usually have the sense of an English present perfect, “has left.” Conditional clauses in ‫ܐܠܘ‬, including that here, also like to use this construction. “He left” is

ܰ /šbaq/. Here the verb has an object pronoun, “He left you,” ‫ܫܒܩ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܫ‬/šabqāk/. Verb forms with attached object pronouns occur all the time in ‫ܒܩܟ‬

TEXT THE THIRD

27

Syriac. In general, it is relatively easy to recognize such forms. It is, however, much more difficult to produce the correct vocalization. The presence of the pronoun entails

changes in the vocalic structure of the verb, often bringing the verb back to an older form. Here the form is /šabqāk/, which goes back to a more original /šabaqak/.

ܶ

ܰ /šabqeh/. Similarly, “he left him” is ‫ܫܒܩܗ‬

The object pronouns are probably the most difficult forms in Syriac to master.

They can occur on any verb form: all the active conjugations; strong and weak roots;

perfect, imperfect, and imperative; any person, number, and gender. Many forms have two (or more) variants. The discussion of such pronouns occupies fifteen pages

in Nöldeke’s grammar.

The second verb in the apodosis is

‫ ܥܠ‬ʿal, a geminate verb from {ʿ-l-l}. This

particular verb is the most common geminate verb, so it is easy to recognize in texts.

In the case of unvocalized unfamiliar verbs, however, it can be easy to mix up geminate verbs with middle-weak verbs, such as ‫ ܩܡ‬qām.

̄

Since ‫ ܗܘܐ‬was already used with ‫ܫܒܩܟ‬, there is no need to repeat it after ‫ܥܠ‬. English can say “entered me” or “entered into me”; Syriac uses

‫ܒ‬.

This is a

common use with verbs of motion. Once something reaches a place, it is then in that

place.

The story Today we would label this story as “body-shaming”: a lunatic pokes fun at a fat

nobleman. Would he have insulted a fat commoner, if any existed at the time? What

is interesting is the self-referentiality: the ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬recognizes that he is possessed of a

‫ܕܝܘܐ‬. And he cleverly makes allusion to a biblical story, a story that any reader of Bar ʿEbrāyā would instantly recognize.

The language One of the formations that Syriac uses to create new nouns and adjectives is a

ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬rēšānā “noble” derives from the word for “head,” ‫ܝܫ ܳܢܐ‬ ܶ ܳ ‫ ܪ‬rēšā. /-ān/ is also used to derive ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬daywānā “lunatic” from ‫ ܕܝܘܐ‬daywā ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ܰ “devil,” a loanword. It can also form nouns from verbal roots. From ‫“ ܦܪܩ‬to redeem” ܳ ܳ ‫ ܦܘ‬purqānā “salvation.” A nice adjective is ‫ܫܡ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ comes ‫ܪܩܢܐ‬ šmayyānā ̣ suffix /-ān/. In this Text,

“heavenly.” A further use of this /-ān/ will be discussed at Text 7.

Syriac is traditionally described as not having a definite or indefinite article. But

̄ ‫ ܚܕ‬and ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ in ‫ ܪܫܢܐ ܐܢܫ‬are certainly approaching the function of indefinite articles. A few such ̄ cases already occur in Biblical Aramaic. In Story 420, “a king” is expressed as ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬. It ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬. In Story 421, “a king” is ‫ܡܠܟܐ ܡܕܡ‬. And in Story 422, as ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ this text shows how Syriac is starting to bend the rules. Both ‫ ܚܕ‬in ‫ܡܢ‬

is impossible to see any difference in meaning.

28

A READER IN SYRIAC As said above, Syriac cannot use a prepositional phrase as an adjective. English

can say “the man who is in the house” or “the man in the house.” In Syriac, this has to be expressed as a relative clause in ‫ܕ‬. In Text 16, “fear of you” is worded as “fear

which is from you,” ‫ܕܡܢܟ‬.

Syriac has several types of impersonal construction, typically using a participle

or an adjective. This story begins with the participle

‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬, followed by a clause in ‫ܕ‬. One way to analyze this construction is to understand ‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬as the

predicate of the sentence, while the subject of the sentence is the clause that follows

‫ܕ‬:

“That a lunatic saw...is being said.” The clue to recognizing an impersonal

construction is to find a participle or adjective at the beginning of a sentence, with no obvious nominal or pronominal subject, followed by ‫ܕ‬. After the vocative particle

̄

̄ ‫ܐܘ‬, the nominal phrase begins with ‫ ܐܢܬ‬and ends

with ‫ܐܢܬ‬. This is good Syriac syntax.

This Text introduces the conditional particle

‫ܐܠܘ‬.

Conditional sentences in

Syriac come in rather a bewildering variety of types, as they do in many languages of the world. The one seen here is a counterfactual condition set in the past. This is

̄

expressed by the conditional particle ‫ ;ܐܠܘ‬a protasis with a verb in the perfect ‫;ܗܘܐ‬

̄

an apodosis with a verb in the perfect ‫ ܫܒܩܟ‬followed by ‫ܗܘܐ‬. This is a common

type of conditional sentence. In Story 472, a weaver is asked by some random people

ܰ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܐܠܘ ܰܡ‬, “If you were king (what would you want).” Another instance ‫ܗܘܝܬ‬ of ‫ ܐܠܘ‬occurs in Text 11, but in a present tense context: “If I had...” Verb forms with object pronouns, such as ‫ܫܒܩܟ‬, cause much pain to students

of Syriac. It is impossible to learn too many of them at one time; trying to do so only produces anger. They will be treated in some detail in Review Lesson Five. It helps to

first memorize the forms with third-person masculine verbs in the perfect, since these

are the most common forms to occur in texts. The other forms can be looked up as

they occur, and hopefully put into memory. It is useful to study such forms from the

root {k-t-b} because all three root consonants are bgdkpt letters, and all possible

“problems” show on the surface. This does have the disadvantage that some of the

predicted forms are nonsensical. What would “He wrote you,” where “you” is a direct object, mean? The simplest forms are: He wrote it

He wrote it

He wrote you He wrote you He wrote me

ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܟ‬ ܶ ̄ ‫ܰܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬

/katbeh/

/katbāh/

/katbāk/ /katbek/

/katban/

TEXT THE THIRD

29

The third root consonant, /b/, is read as a stop. Thackston, however, reads it as

a spirant: katbeh. This reading is less common than the reading as a stop. The forms in the imperfect will be introduced in Text 16.

it is also possible to use ‫ ܠ‬+ pronoun, instead of the object pronoun: ܶ In Syriac ܶ ‫ ܰܫ‬. Both constructions are equally common. It is also ܰ ‫ ܫܒܩ ܠܗ‬instead of ‫ܒܩܗ‬ ܶ ܶ ܰ . This is a typical possible to use both constructions at the same time: ‫ܫܒܩܗ ܠܗ‬ Syriac formulation. As was mentioned earlier, Syriac writers prefer longer con-

structions over shorter ones. Manuscript variation

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬at the beginning of the story is the reading of the LeedsMS. The ܺ ‫ ܳܐܡܪܝܢ‬, the active participle in the plural. The VatMS is not

BLMS begins with

legible. Both forms mean the same thing: “it is said” ~ “they say.” The choice of one

construction or the other is a matter of style, not grammar. In the Stories, ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬

ܺ

ܳ ̇ For the initial vocative phrase, the LeedsMS reads ‫ ;ܕܐܘ‬the BLMS and the VatMS ̇ ̇ simply ‫ܐܘ‬. The presence of the vocative participle ‫ ܐܘ‬makes the marker of direct speech ‫ ܕ‬unnecessary. This is a common type of variation. is the more common opening, but Text 30 uses ‫ܐܡܪܝܢ‬.

Cognates

ܶ

The word for “head” in some Semitic languages, including Syriac ‫ܪܝܫܐ‬, is built

from a base /riʾš/. In other Semitic languages, it is built from a base /raʾš/. Arabic, for example, has

‫ ر َأ� س‬raʾs. In Proto-Hebrew, an original /raʾš/ lost the glottal stop,

becoming /rāš/, which by normal rule became /rōš/, although the ʾalep is still

written: ‫רֹאשׁ‬. It is hard to say why two different bases for “head” existed, /raʾš/ and

/riʾš/. Were they dialectal variants in Proto-Semitic?

ܳ ‫ ܰܫ ܺܡ‬, occurs in Syriac, Hebrew, and ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܳ Arabic. “Body fat” is ‫ܫܘܡܢܐ‬ ̣ šumnā in Syriac, ‫ ֶשׁ ֶמן‬šemen in Hebrew, and ‫ �َم ْن‬samn The root {š-m-n} “to be fat,” seen in

in Arabic.

The original Semitic word for “pig” may have been something like /ḫinzīr/, with

a nūn. The “ultimate” origin of words for many animals is unknown; where and in

how many different places were pigs first domesticated? It appears in Syriac as

‫ ܚܙܝܪܐ‬ḥzīrā and in Hebrew as ‫ ֲחזִ יר‬ḥazīr. Arabic preserves the nūn: ��ِ �ْ ��ِ ḫinzīr. In the

oldest Akkadian it appears as ḫuzīru, but this became replaced by šaḫû, a loan-word from Sumerian šaḫ.

ܳ

The etymology of ‫ ܰܙܒܢܐ‬is unsure. Some derive it from Persian and others derive

it from Akkadian. Biblical Hebrew has a a handful of cases of ‫ זְ ָמן‬zmān, but only in

late books, so it is probably a loanword from Aramaic. It already shows up in Biblical

30

A READER IN SYRIAC

Aramaic. It is also a loanword in Arabic, where it takes the forms

‫ زَم َان‬zamān. Syriac

ܰ ‫ܡܫܚ‬

mšaḥ “to anoint,” seen here in the noun

cognates in Hebrew ‫ ָמ ַשׁח‬māšaḥ and Arabic ‫ح‬ َ َ‫ مَس‬masaḥa.

ܳ ܳ

ܳ

‫ زَم َن‬zaman and

ܺ , ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܝܚܐ‬

has its exact

ܳ

The noun ‫ܣܟܐ‬, the adverb ‫ܣܟ‬, and verbal forms from ‫ ܣܟ‬are not uncommon

in Syriac, but their cognates in Hebrew and Arabic are not clear.

ܰ “to leave” has no cognate in Hebrew. For “to abandon,” Hebrew uses a ‫ܫܒܩ‬

root {ʿ-z-b} instead. At Matthew 27:46, when Jesus cries out from the Cross, he says in Aramaic λεμα σαβαχθανι, “Why have you abandoned me?” The Hebrew original

in Psalm 22 has ‫ ַﬠזַ ְב ָתנִ י‬ʿazabtānī. The Greek reproduces a local Galilean Aramaic verb form from the root {š-b-q}. Since Greek lacked both a /š/ and a /q/, it could only

inadequately reproduce the Aramaic.

Suffixed object pronouns are common in the Semitic languages. In Arabic, rather

a conservative Semitic language, they are alive and well. “I saw him” is

ُ ‫ر َأ� ي ْت ُه‬

raʾaytuhū. In the earliest layers of Biblical Hebrew, they are also used: “I saw him” is

‫יתיהוּ‬ ִ ‫ ְר ִא‬rʾītīhū. But by the time of mainstream Biblical Hebrew, they are replaced by

independent object pronouns. “I saw him” is now ‫יתי אוֹתוֹ‬ ִ ‫ ָר ִא‬rāʾītī ʾōtō. These independent pronouns are the only forms to occur in modern Hebrew. Loanwords As noted above, ‫ ܕܝܘܐ‬is a loanword from Old Persian. A few such words entered

into Imperial Aramaic and then eventually into Syriac.

‫ ܕܝܘܐ‬appears to be one of

these early borrowings. Others entered directly into Syriac from various Iranian

languages that were spoken contemporaneously with Syriac.

ܳܳ ܰ

ܰ ܰ

ܶ

From ‫ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, Syriac produced the useful verb ‫ ܐܬܕܝܘܢ‬ʾetdaywan, “to suffer from

demoniacal possession.” This is a “quadriradical” verb, that is, one formed from four

root consonants. Such verbs are discussed in depth at Review Lesson Two.

‫ ܕ‬TEXT THE FOURTH ‫ܕ‬ Story 515, from a section of the Book dealing mostly with ‘jokesters’. The Syriac word

is

‫ ܡܝܡܣܐ‬mīmsā, from Greek μῖμος. In Syriac its meanings range from ‘actor’ to

‘buffoon’ to ‘idler’.

Vocabulary

ܶ ̄ ‫ܐܚܪ ܳܢܐ‬

ḥrēnā ‘other’. The word was originally /ʾaḥrēnā/, from {ʾ-ḥ-r}, but the

glottal stop and its vowel dropped in pronunciation, producing /ḥrēnā/. The loss of

̄ ܶ ܳ ܳ ̄ ̄ of ‫ܐܢ ܳܫܐ‬, seen in Text 1. ‫ ܐܚܪܢܐ‬is the masculine singular emphatic. The feminine ܳܶ ̄ is ‫( ܐܚܪܬܐ‬Text 22). ܶ ܳ ̄ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ ̈ܫܐ‬neššē ‘women’. This non-derived noun serves as the plural for ‫ܬܬܐ‬ ‫ ܐܢ‬ʾatttā

the glottal stop is marked by a linea over the ʾālap: ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬. This is similar to the case

‘woman’, discussed below. This is apparently the only noun in Syriac whose singular

and plural come from unrelated bases. Most Semitic languages have a few cases like

ܶ̈ ܶ

this. ‫ ܢܫܐ‬ends in /ē/, not the expected /ātā/. From this plural comes the adjective

‫ ܶܢ ܳܫ ܳܝܐ‬neššāyā ‘feminine’.

ܳ ‫ܫܒ ܳܒܐ‬

šbābā

‘neighbor’. The etymology is unsure, perhaps from Akkadian.

ܳ

ܳ šbābūtā. ‘Neighborhood’ is ‫ܒܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܫܒ‬

‫ܶܡ ܽܛܠ‬

meṭṭūl ‘concerning; because of’, a preposition. In the oldest Syriac it is

written ‫ܡܛܘܠ‬, but by Classical Syriac times it is almost always written without the

‫ܘ‬. ‫ ܡܛܠ‬is a quintessentially Syriac word. Like ‫ ܶܡ ܶܕܡ‬it does not appear in the other Semitic languages. Its etymology is quite dubious. Some try to connect it with the

root {ṭ-l-l} ‘to cover’. ‫ ܡܛܠ ܡܢܐ‬meṭṭūl mānā ‘because of what’ is an interrogative, ‘why’. ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕ‬is a conjunction, ‘because’.

ܳ ‫ܰܓܒܪܐ‬

gabrā ‘man; husband’. This is the most neutral word for ‘man’, but it also

can have the connotation of ‘strong, virile man’. ‘manliness, vigor, power’.

ܳ ܺ ‫ܰܫܠ‬ ‫ܝܛܐ‬

ܰ

ܳ ‫ܒܪܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܓ‬

gabrūtā means

ܰ ܰ

ܶ ܺܳ ܰ ܳ ܳ ʾeštallaṭ is ‘to gain rule over’. Used as a noun, ‫ ܫܠܝܛܐ‬means ‘ruler’. ‫ܫܘܠܛܢܐ‬ ̣ šulṭānā

šallīṭā ‘permitted, lawful’. ‫ ܫܠܛ‬šlaṭ is ‘to have authority, rule’. ‫ܐܫܬܠܛ‬

is ‘authority’.

31

32

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܙܒܢ ܁‬ ‫ܙܒܢ‬

zban nezben ‘to buy’. This is one of only two strong verbs in Syriac whose

ܶ

ܶ

ܰ ʿbad ‘to do’, with the imperfect ‫ ܢܥܒܕ‬neʿbed. imperfect vowel is /e/. The other is ‫ܥܒܕ‬ ‫ ܰܙ ܶܒܢ‬zabben is ‘to sell’ (Text

The paʿʿel

27). It is surprisingly difficult to remember

which Syriac verb means ‘to buy’ and which means ‘to sell’.

ܳ ‫‘ ܰܙ‬time’, seen in the previous ܰ ‘to buy’ has nothing to do with ‫ܒܢܐ‬ ‫ܙܒܢ‬ ܳ Text. {z-b-n} ‘to buy’ has Semitic cognates. The etymology of ‫ ܰܙܒܢܐ‬is unsure. The verb

ܳ ‫ܰܐܡܬܐ‬

ʾamtā ‘handmaiden, maidservant, slave girl’, a non-derived noun. It is

difficult to find an adequate translation into English. It basically means a slave girl who besides doing chores is used for sex. In Story 419, a merchant purchases an

ܳ ‫ܰܐܡܬܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܐ ̈ܡ ܳܗܬܐ‬

for 60,000 (!) pieces of silver. The plural is

ʾamhātā. This

represents a common tendency in the Semitic languages for non-derived nouns with

only two consonants to receive an extra consonant in their plural.

ܶ ‫ܕܡܟ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܕܡܟ‬

dmek nedmak ‘to sleep’. This can have sexual connotations. At

ܰ

ܰ

̄ ‫ ܕܡܟ ܥ‬dmak ʿam, “sleep Genesis 39:7, Potiphar’s wife gives an order to Joseph: ‫ܡܝ‬ ܳ ܳ

with me.” In Modern Literary Syriac, ‫ܕܡܟܐ‬

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܥܒܕ ܁‬ ‫ܥܒܕ‬

‫ ܶܒܝܬ‬bēt dmākā is a ‘hotel’.

ʿbad neʿbed ‘to do, make, work’. In this text it is used in a very physical

ܳ ܰ sense. ‫ ܥܒܕܐ‬ʿabdā is ‘slave’ (Text 13).

ܳ ‫ ܽܟ‬kullmā ‘everything; whatever’, written ‫ ܟܠܡܐ‬and ‫ܟܠ ܡܐ‬. ‫ܠܡܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬ṣbā neṣbē ‘to like, want’. ‫ܒܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܨܒܐ ܁‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܨ‬ṣebyānā is ‘will, volition’ (Text 27). ‫ܨܒܐ‬ ܳ ̄ ‫ ܰܐܢܬܬܐ‬ʾatttā ‘woman; wife’. The Syriac base for this non-derived noun is /ʾant/, going back to an older /ʾant/. The nūn of the base has assimilated into the /t/ of the base. This assimilation is marked by the linea over the nūn. This is then followed by

the feminine ending /tā/: /ʾant-tā/ > /ʾatttā/.

ܳ ܰ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

ʿaynā ‘eye’, a non-derived noun. It also means a ‘spring’ of water. As with

most parts of the body that come in natural pairs, it is feminine. The denominative

ܳܳ ܰ

ܶܰ

verb ‫ ܥܝܢ‬ʿayyen is ‘to look at’. The adjective ‫ ܥܝܢܢܐ‬ʿaynānā is ‘having large eyes’.

ܶ ܳ ‫ܶܢܓܠܐ ܁ ܓܠܐ‬

glā neḡlē ‘to reveal, show’. The passive

ܺ ‫ܶܐܬܓܠܝ‬

ʾetglī is ‘to be

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܶܓ‬gelyānā is ‘revelation’. The last book of the Greek Scriprevealed’ (Text 16). ‫ܠܝܢܐ‬ ܰ ̇ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܶܓ‬Gelyānā d-Yōḥannan. tures is known in Syriac as ‫ܠܝܢܐ ܕܝܘ ܰܚܢܢ‬ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬malkā ‘king’, from {m-l-k}. ‘Queen’ is ‫ܠܟܬܐ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ‫ ܡ‬malktā. ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ‬malkūtā

is ‘kingdom’ (Text 19). The root {m-l-k} contains the ideas of ‘to rule’ and ‘to advise’.

Text 16 uses the verb

ܰ ‫ ܡܠܟ‬mlak

ʾetmallak ‘to seek advice’.

in the sense ‘to advise’ and the verb

ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܡܠܟ‬ ‫ܐ‬

TEXT THE FOURTH

‫ܰܕ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬

33

ܳ ܳ ̄ ܺ ܳ ܺ root include ‫ ܕܝܢܐ‬dīnā ‘judgment’ (Text 6) and ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬mdittā ‘city’ (Text 10). This dayyānā ‘judge’, from {d-w-n}. ‘To judge’ is ‫ ܕܢ‬dān. Other nouns from the

latter originally meant a place in which justice was administered.

ܺ ‫ܢܣܝܡ ܁ ܳܣܡ‬

sām nsīm ‘to place, put’. This forms its imperfect in /ī/ not /ū/. It is

the only common middle-weak verb to do so. Payne Smith registers the verb under

{s-w-m}; Sokoloff under {s-y-m}.

ܶ ̈ܳ

The noun ‫ ܣܝܡܐ‬syāmē, meaning the two superlinear dots that mark plurals of

nouns and of some verbal forms, originally meant ‘placements (of the dots)’, but then came to mean the dots themselves.

̇ ‫ ܳܢ‬nāmōsā ‘law’, a very old loanword from Greek νόμος. ‫ܡܘ ܳܣܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܰܒ‬badgōn ‘therefore, and so’, an adverb. The etymology is unsure. ‫ܕܓܘܢ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܢ‬napšā ‘soul, self, breath of life’ (fem). ‫ܦܫܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܺܐܝܬ ܶܒܗ ܰܢ‬ʾīt beh napšā means ‫ܦܫܐ‬ ‘he still lives’. Most commonly the plural is

derivation of

ܳ ‫ ܰܢ ̈ܦ ܳܫܬܐ‬,

but

‫ܰܢ ̈ܦ ܶܫܐ‬

also occurs. The

ܰ ‫ ܢܦܫܐ‬is unsure. Does it derive from a verbal root {n-p-š}, seen in ‫ܢܦܫ‬

npaš ‘to breathe’, or does the verb derive from the noun?

ܳ ܶ ‫ܐܓܪܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܣܢ‬ ̣

snēgrūtā ‘advocacy, defense’, from Greek. συνήγορος ‘advocate,

defender’ appears in Syriac as

ܶ . The ʾālap is purely a vowel letter. /-ūt/ ‫ܣܢܐܓܪܐ‬

is the marker of “abstract nouns,” discussed at Text 7.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܛܠܘܡ ܁ ܛܠܡ‬

ܳ ̇ ܳ ܶ ܶ is a ‘tyrant’. The passive ‫ ܐܬܛܠܡ‬ʾeṭṭlem is ‘to be wronged’ (Text 24).

ṭlam neṭlom ‘to oppress, do wrong to’. ‫ܛܠܘܡܐ‬, on the pattern pāʿōl,

̇ ̈ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܚܕܐ ܡܢ‬ ‫ ܕܡܛܠ ܡܢܐ ܓܒܪܐ ܫܠܝܛ‬.‫ܠܫܒܒܬܗ‬ ‫ܫܐܠܬ‬ ‫ܢܫܐ‬ ̣ ̇ ̇ ‫ܥܡܗ ܘܢܥܒܕ ܟܠܡܐ‬ ‫ܠܗ ܕܢܙܒܢ ܠܗ ܐܡܬܐ ܘܢܕܡܟ‬ .‫ܕܨܒܐ‬ ̇ ‫ܘܐܢ̄ܬܬܐ ܠܐ ܫܠܝܛ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̣ .‫ܠܗ ܕܬܥܒܕ ܡܕܡ ܡܢ ܗܠܝܢ ܥܝܢ ܒܓܠܐ‬ ̈ ̇ ‫ܐܡܪܬ‬ ̈ ̈ ‫ܕܡܠܟܐ‬ .‫ܘܣܝܡܝ ܢܡܘܣܐ ܓܒ̈ܪܐ ̄ܗ ̣ܘܘ‬ ‫ܘܕܝܢܐ‬ ‫ ܡܛܠ‬.‫ܠܗ‬ ̣ ̄‫ܘܠܢܫܐ ܛܠܡܘ‬ ̄ ̈ ‫ܒܕܓܘܢ ܠܢܦܫܗܘܢ ܥܒܕܘ ܣܢܐܓܪܘܬܐ‬ Analysis

̄ ̄ of the Stories begin with ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬, used in a variety of ways. Here the sense is “some 1

The bolded word ‫ ܐܚܪܢܐ‬is “other,” in the masculine singular emphatic. Many

other jokester” has related the following story; over a dozen stories in this section of

the book begin exactly this way. As in the case of Text 1, this first word does not have any syntactic connection with what follows.

34

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܚܕܐ‬introduces the subject. Text 3 began with ‫ܚܕ ܡܢ‬, using the masculine ‫ܚܕ‬. ̈ . ‫ ܚܕܐ‬is used, because of the following ‫ܢܫܐ‬ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܫܐܠ ̣ܬ‬šaʾʾlat is “she asked.” The dot underneath the ‫ ܬ‬is used in Estrangela to

Here the feminine ‫ܡܢ‬

mark the third-person feminine perfect. Sometimes it is present; sometimes not. Texts

in East Syriac script use two dots instead of one:

‫ ; ݀ܬ‬this is sometimes

found in

Estrangela texts. West Syriac texts often combine the sublinear dot with a dot slightly

to the left of the ‫ܬ‬: ‫ ̣ ݀ܬ‬.

“Neighbor” in the masculine is /šbābā/. The feminine is /šbābtā/. “Her neigh-

bor” is /šbābtāh/. The particle cluster, producing /lašbābtāh/. The direct speech marker

‫ܠ‬

needs a helping vowel before the consonantal

‫ ܕ‬introduces a long interrogative sentence.

‫“ ܓܒܪܐ‬man” stands in extraposition at the beginning of the sentence. It is then

resumed by ‫ܠܗ‬. Literally, this is: “a man: it is permitted to him that…” This type of extraposition happens all the time in Syriac. Here it puts focus on the word “man.”

There are many names for this construction, including extraposition, fronting, and

topicalization. 2

The adjective ‫ ܫܠܝܛ‬is used here impersonally, that is, without an explicit noun

or pronoun as subject. Unlike

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬in Text 3, which is grammatically feminine, ‫ ܫܠܝܛ‬is most often used in the masculine. The grammatical subject of ‫ܫܠܝܛ‬ is the sentence that begins ‫ܕܢܙܒܢ‬. ‫ܫܠܝܛ‬, in the absolute state, is the predicate: “that he buy is permitted.” Impersonal forms such as ‫ ܫܠܝܛ‬are typically continued by ‫ܕ‬ and an imperfect verb. English can also use an infinitive: “It is permitted for him to buy.”

The ‫ ܠܗ‬after ‫ ܕܢܙܒܢ‬is “for his use.”

‫ ܟܠܡܐ‬functions as a relative pronoun, “whatever,” and so is followed by ‫ܕ‬. As the superlinear dot shows, ‫ ̇ܨܒܐ‬is an active participle: “whatever he wants.”

The participle here expresses a timeless sense. As usual in the third-person, it is not followed by the enclitic pronoun. 3

as

̄ ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬now takes the place of ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬, and the sentence uses the same syntax ̄ above, but with the negative ‫ܠܐ‬. The use of ‫ ܘ‬before ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬strikes native

English speakers as a little weak; we would probably translate it here by an

adversative, such as “but.” In Syriac, however, ‫ ܘ‬can have all sorts of uses; translation

depends on context.

ܶ ‫ ܥܶܝܢ ܰܒܓܠܐ‬is an adverbial complement, not directly connected syntactically ܶ ܶ with the previous phrase. ‫“ ܥܝܢ‬eye” is in the absolute state. ‫ ܓܠܐ‬is the passive ܳ participle of ‫ܓܠܐ‬, and is also in the absolute state. The literal meaning is “an eye

being in a state of having been opened.” Taken together, this means “in plain sight,” “in public,” a common enough expression. Does this mean that she can get away

TEXT THE FOURTH

35

with such acts if they are done away from the public eye? This particular phrase can

ܶ ܶ ܶ b-ḡelyā. ܳ ‫ܒܓ‬ reversed. A simpler way to say it is ‫ܠܝܐ‬ 4 ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̣ switches the subject, back to the neighbor. No direct speech marker is used. ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕ‬functions as a conjunction meaning “because,” followed by a nominal

appear in various guises, including ‫ ܰܒܓܠܐ ܥܝܢ‬, with the order of the two elements

sentence. English might throw in a dummy subject, “It’s because.”

̈ ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ and ܳ ܳ ̈ ܰ ̈ ܰ ̈ ‫ ܕܝܢܐ‬followed by a construct phrase ‫“ ܣܝܡܝ ܢܡܘܣܐ‬placers of law.” ‫ ܣܝܡܝ‬sāymay ̈ is the construct of the plural active participle ‫ ܣܝܡܝܢ‬sāymīn, from the middle-weak ܳ verb ‫ ܣܡ‬sām “to place.” In construct with ‫ܢܡܘܣܐ‬, this produces “lawgivers.” The ܶ ܳ singular is ‫ܣܐܡ ܢܡܘܣܐ‬. This is a not uncommon expression. ̄ Now comes the predicate of the nominal sentence, ‫ ܓܒ̈ܪܐ ܗ ̣ܘܘ‬gabrē-waw. ‫ ܓܒ̈ܪܐ‬is in the emphatic state. In general, adjectives functioning as predicates are in the absolute state, as in ‫ ܫܠܝܛ‬above. Nouns functioning as predicates are in the ̄ emphatic state, as here. ‫ ܓܒ̈ܪܐ‬is then followed by the enclitic ‫ܗ ̣ܘܘ‬. ܰ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܢ‬is often used to form a reflexive pronoun. In ‫ ܠܢܦܫܗܘܢ‬the noun is singular 5 ‫ܦܫܐ‬ but the pronoun is plural. This is because each individual has one ‫ܢܦܫܐ‬. ̄ The sense of ‫ ܥܒܕܘ‬here is “they have made advocacy for themselves,” that is, The subject of the nominal sentence consists of two simple nouns

“they have rationalized their acts.” The

‫ܠ‬

in front of

‫ܢܦܫܗܘܢ‬

expresses a direct object.

expresses an indirect object. In front of

̈ ‫ܢܫܐ‬

it

The story This story seems quite contemporary, even though Bar ʿEbrāyā put it to writing

in the thirteenth century. Perhaps “timeless” would be a better way to describe it. One wonders where the story came from. The language

‫ ܫܠܝܛ‬is vocalized here as /šallīṭ/, on the pattern paʿʿīl. In the case of adjectives ‫ܦܥܝܠ‬, that is, with a yod after the second radical, it is not always easy to

written

tell if the word should be vocalized as paʿʿīl (the most common adjectival formation

in Syriac) or as pʿīl (usually the passive participle of the pʿal, but also the pattern of

a few simple adjectives). Thus Thackston vocalizes

‫ܫܠܝܛ‬

in its meaning as

“permitted” as šlīṭ. It can be difficult to determine which reading is to be preferred, because Syriac-to-English dictionaries often do not list passive participles, since their

form and their meaning are predictable from the verb. Payne Smith labels the two

uses of pʿīl as a “passive participle” and a “participial adjective,” while paʿʿīl is a “verbal adjective.” She is not always consistent with these labels, however.

36

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܰܕ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬is of the pattern paʿʿāl. This pattern indicates a person who does something ܳ ܰ for a livelihood or professionally or habitually. ‫ ܓܢ ܳܒܐ‬gannābā is “thief,” but the pattern implies not a person who steals something one random day, but rather

ܳ

someone who steals for a living. ‫ ܰܚ ܳܝܛܐ‬ḥayyāṭā is “tailor.” This pattern paʿʿāl is called

the “noun of profession.” A related pattern is pāʿōl, which also marks nouns that indicate a person doing some activity regularly.

̇ ‫ܳܚ‬ ‫ܙܘ ܳܝܐ‬

ḥāzōyā is “seer.”

̇ ‫ܳܦ‬ ‫ܪܘ ܳܩܐ‬

pārōqā is “saviour.” A few adjectives are formed the same way. Thus, from the root

{m-w-t} “to die,”

ܳ ̇ ܳ ̇ ‫ ܳܝ‬yādōʿā is “learnèd, expert.” ܳ ‫ܕܘ‬ ‫ܝܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܡ‬māyōtā is “mortal.” ‫ܥܐ‬

The pattern pāʿōl is sometimes called the “nomen agentis” in Latinized English. The pattern paʿʿāl seems more productive than the pattern pāʿōl. Payne Smith registers a

few cases where a noun appears in both patterns: “builder” appears as both

̇

bannāyā and ‫ ܳܒܢܘ ܳܝܐ‬bānōyā.

‫ܰܒ ܳܢ ܳܝܐ‬

The word for “judge”

‫ ܕܝܢܐ‬dayyānā is sometimes written with a superlinear ̇ disambiguation dot ‫ܕܝܢܐ‬, while “judgment” dīnā is written with a sublinear disambiguation dot ‫ܕܝܢܐ‬ ̣ . These dots can be helpful in unvocalized texts, but usually the context clears up which meaning is meant.

̈

“Lawgivers” appears here as ‫ܣܝܡܝ ܢܡܘܣܐ‬, a construct phrase. The construct

is used far less commonly in Syriac than in the other Semitic languages; Syriac prefers

‫ ܕ‬instead. It is only used when the two nouns are closely bound together, as here. Some dictionaries give this phrase its own entry. At Matthew 5:9, a similar construct ܰ ̈ ܳ ܳܳ phrase is used: ‫ ܥܒܕܝ ܫܠܡܐ‬ʿābday šlāmā “peace-makers.” is only used before nouns. With a pronominal suffix, it takes the form ܳ ܽ ‫ܡܛܠ‬ ܶܳ ܶ ‫ ܡܛܠܬ‬meṭṭūlāt: ‫ ܶܡ ܽܛܠܬܗ‬meṭṭūlāteh “because of him.” A few other prepositions beܳ ܰ ܰ have the same way. “Like” is ‫ ܐܝܟ‬ʾak before nouns, but ‫ ܐܟܘܬ‬ʾakwāt with suffixes. Extraposition, as in the case of ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬here, is very common in Syriac. The clue

to recognizing this construction is to find a noun or personal name at the beginning of a sentence, with no obvious verb or other word for it to govern.

‫ܫܠܝܛ‬

is used in this story in an impersonal sense. Syriac has many kinds of

impersonal constructions. English uses a dummy pronoun “it” in such cases: “It is permitted...” It is called a “dummy” pronoun, because it does not refer to anything. The story includes a sentence beginning with ‫ܕ‬

‫ܡܛܠ‬. Strictly speaking, this is

an incomplete sentence. English might preface it with “It’s”: “It’s because.” This is a common use of

know.”

‫ܡܛܠ ܕ‬. Text 29 has ‫“ ܡܛܠ ܕܠܐ ̇ܝܕܥ ̄ܗ ܶܘܝܬ‬It’s because I didn’t

‫ ܥܝܢ ܒܓܠܐ‬might be considered an “idiom,” that is, a phrase whose meaning is

more than the sum of its parts, and which has to be listed in the dictionary. The VatMS, in fact, writes it as one long word:

‫ܥܝܢܒܓܠܐ‬. Syriac does not have many

such idioms, and so their usage adds a certain liveliness to the text. It would have

TEXT THE FOURTH been perfectly possible to use the simple adverb have been boring.

37

ܳ ‫ ܰܓ‬galyāʾīt, but this would ‫ܠܝ ܺܐܝܬ‬

Manuscript variation

ܺ ܺ ܶ ܳ ‫ ܰܫܠܝܛ ܠܗ‬is followed by ‫ ܰܫܠܝܛ ܠ ̇ܗ‬. This latter reading of the BLMS. The ܳ is ܺ the ̇ ܰ story is not preserved in the LeedsMS. Instead of ‫ܫܠܝܛ ܠܗ‬, however, the VatMS reads ܳ ܺ ܰ . ‫ܝܛܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܰܫܠ‬is the feminine adjective in the absolute state, meaning “a simply ‫ܫܠܝܛܐ‬ ܺ ܰ ̇ܳ ܳ ܺ ܰ —are good woman is not permitted.” Both constructions—‫ܫܠܝܛ ܠܗ‬ and ‫ܫܠܝܛܐ‬ Syriac, and mean about the same thing. The BLMS has two parallel impersonal forms;

the VatMS uses one impersonal form and one nominal sentence. Which reading is

“best”? That is not easy to say. Parallelism in Syriac is quite common, but too much parallelism can be tedious. Cognates

ܳ ‫ ܰܓܒܪܐ‬is the unmarked word for “man” in Syriac; it can also mean “husband.”

The Hebrew cognate to this is ‫ גֶּ ֶבר‬geber, which has a connotation of “strong.” ‫גִּ בּוֹר‬

gibbōr is specifically a “strong man.” The unmarked word for “man” in Hebrew is ‫ִאישׁ‬ ʾīš. Arabic uses a completely different word: ‫ رَ� ُل‬rajul. Thus all three languages use

different words for “man.”

Words from the root {š-l-ṭ}, such as

ܳ ܺ ‫ ܰܫܠ‬, ‫ܝܛܐ‬

are common in all varieties of

Aramaic. Several also occur in Biblical Hebrew, but only in late books, so they may

well be Aramaisms. The root appears as {s-l-ṭ} in Arabic. Our English word sultan

comes ultimately from Arabic “person with authority.”

ܳ

‫ سُلْطَان‬sulṭān meaning originally “authority” then

ܰ

Nouns cognate to ‫ ܐܡܬܐ‬exist in several Semitic languages. Biblical Hebrew

has ‫ ָא ָמה‬ʾāmā and Arabic has ‫ أ� م َة‬ʾama. Syriac

ܰ is a very general word for “to do.” It can also mean “to make.” Its ‫ܥܒܕ‬

Hebrew cognate is ‫ ָﬠ ַבד‬ʿābad, which has more of a sense of “to make.” The unmarked word for “to do” is ‫ ָﬠ ָשׂה‬ʿāśā, which is not used in Syriac. Arabic become specialized to mean “to worship.” As said above,

َ ‫ ع َبَد‬ʿabada has

̄ ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬goes back to a base /ʾant/. In Hebrew, this turns into

‫ ִא ָשּׁה‬ʾiššā. In Arabic, ‫ ُأ� ْ� َى‬ʾuntā has the sense of “feminine.” The unmarked word for “woman” is

‫ � َْ�أ� ة‬marʾa.

The words for “women” in both Hebrew and Arabic are quite similar to that in

Syriac: ‫ נָ ִשׁים‬nāšīm and

‫ �ِ� َاء‬nisāʾ. The long consonant /šš/ in ‫ ܢ ̈ܫܐ‬is secondary,

ܶܶ

helping to preserve the short /e/ vowel. Similarly, the Syriac word for “language” is

ܶ ‫ ܠ ܳܫ ܳܢܐ‬leššānā, while Hebrew has ‫ ָלשׁוֹן‬lāšōn and Arabic has ‫ لِسَان‬lisān.

In Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic the word for “eye” also means “spring” of water:

Syriac

ܳ ܰ‫ ܥ‬ʿaynā, Hebrew ‫ ַﬠיִ ן‬ʿayin, and Arabic ‫ �َ� ْن‬ʿayn. One can only speculate ‫ܝܢܐ‬

38

A READER IN SYRIAC

why the word has both meanings. Is an eye suggestive of a spring, or a spring suggestive of an eye? “King” is

ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬in Syriac. Hebrew has �‫ ֶמ ֶל‬melek, which goes back to a base ‫ܠܟܐ‬

/malk/. The Arabic base is slightly different,

�ِ‫ م َل‬malik. While the root {m-l-k} in

Syriac contains the ideas both of “to rule” and “to advise,” �‫ ָמ ַל‬mālak in Hebrew and

� َ َ ‫ م َل‬malaka in Arabic only have the idea of “to rule.”

ܳ ܰ

“Judge” is ‫ܕ ܳܝܢܐ‬. This has an exact cognate in Hebrew ‫ ַדּיָּ ן‬dayyān. The same form

appears in Arabic, but it is only used of God: ‫ ا�� َ َ� ّان‬al-dayyān, “the Judge.” It is thus

a loanword into Arabic from some variety of Aramaic.

ܳ ‫ ܰܢ‬has its cognates in Hebrew ‫ נֶ ֶפשׁ‬nepeš from /napš/ and Arabic ‫ نَفْس‬nafs. ‫ܦܫܐ‬

Since the Hebrew word can also mean “throat” (but not the Syriac or Arabic words),

an old suggestion is that the original meaning was “throat” thence “breath” thence

“breath of life” thence “life” thence “soul.” Loanwords

‫ ܢܡܘܣܐ‬and ‫ ܣܢܐܓܪܐ‬are loanwords from Greek. While a few such loanwords are old borrowings (such as ‫)ܢܡܘܣܐ‬, others entered into Syriac relatively late (including ‫)ܣܢܐܓܪܐ‬, at a time when many Greek texts were being translated into

Syriac. Greek words that appear in Syriac, especially long complicated ones that do not “look” Semitic, can use a variety of vowel letters to attempt to capture the Greek pronunciation. They do not always follow the usual rules for the spirantization of bgdkpt letters.

Just as Syriac generated verbs from Akkadian and Persian loanwords, so it also

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetnamwas is “to ܰ ‫ܬܢ‬ ‫ܡܘܤ‬ ܰ ܰ ܶ become law” and ‫ ܐܣܬܢܓܪ‬ʾestangar is “to have one’s case pleaded.” It is hard to occasionally generated verbs from Greek loanwords.

say how integrated such words were into the Syriac language, or whether they should be regarded as loan-translations or scholasticisms that hardly any speaker of Syriac would have understood.

‫ ܗ‬TEXT THE FIFTH ‫ܗ‬ Story 661, from a different section of the Book, containing stories of thieves and

robbers.

Vocabulary

ܶ ‫ܬܓܢܒ‬ ‫ܶܐ‬

ʾetgneb ‘to be stolen’. The pʿal is

frequently in this section of the Book.

ܰ gnab ‘to steal’. This verb occurs ‫ܓܢܒ‬

ܳ ‫ܶܟ‬ ‫ܣܦܐ‬

kespā ‘silver, money, coin’, a loanword from Akkadian kaspu. The genitive

ܳ ܺ ‫ܰܡܪܝܪܐ‬

marrīrā ‘bitter’, an adjective from the geminate root {m-r-r}. The verb ‫ܡܪ‬

phrase ‫ܕܟܣܦܐ‬

ܺܳ ‫ ܬܠܬܝܢ‬tlātīn d-kespā is ‘thirty pieces of silver’.

mar is ‘to be bitter’.

ܳ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܪܝܪ ܰܢ‬, with ‫ܦܫܐ‬

ܰ ‫ܬܡ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ‫ܪܡܪ‬

ܰ

ʾetmarmar is ‘to become embittered’. The phrase

the adjective in construct, describes someone who is ‘bitter of

ܶܳ

soul’, that is, ‘sad’. ‫ ܡ̈ܪܪܐ‬mrārē are ‘bitter herbs’.

‫ܳܗܢ‬

ܳ

ܳ , the masculine form of the demonhān ‘this’, a not uncommon variant of ‫ܗܢܐ‬ ܶ

ܳ also appears strative adjective/pronoun. Similarly, the feminine demonstrative ‫ܗܕܐ‬

ܳ. (somewhat rarely) as ‫ܗܕ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܘܡܐ‬

yawmā ‘day’, a non-derived noun. It denotes the twenty-four hours from

ܳ ܳ ܺ

evening to evening. For ‘daytime’, the curious form ‫ ܐܝܡܡܐ‬ʾīmāmā is used. ‘Night’ and ‘nighttime’ are

ܳ ܶ‫ܠ‬ ‫ܠܝܐ‬

lelyā (Text 14).

ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܘܡܐ‬

has two plurals,

‫ܰܝ ̈ܘ ܶܡܐ‬

and

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yawmān is ‘today’. The ‫ ; ܰܝ ̈ܘ ܳܡܬܐ‬the latter is the more frequent. The adverb ‫ܘܡܢ‬ ܳ . It is not the /-ān/ afformative that was discussed segment /ān/ may come from ‫ܗܢ‬ at Text 3.

‫ܰܓ ܳܢ ܳܒܐ‬

gannābā ‘thief’, a noun of profession on the pattern paʿʿāl.

gannābāʾīt is ‘furtively’.

ܰ ‫ܠܘ‬

‫ ̄ܗ ̣ܘ‬.

‫ܰܓ ܳܢ ܳܒ ܺܐܝܬ‬

law ‘is not’, a negative particle, a contraction of ‫ ܠܐ‬with the enclitic pronoun

ܳ ‫ܽܟ‬ ‫ܠܢܫ‬

kullnāš ‘everyone’. It is also written ‫ܟܠ ܢܫ‬.

39

40

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄ ‫ ܕܝܘܡܐ ̄ܗܘ ܡܪܝܪܐ‬.‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܟܕ ܐܬܓܢܒ ܠܗ ܟܣܦܐ ̇ܐܡܪ ̄ܗܘܐ‬ ‫ ̇ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܓܢܒܐ ܕܠܘ ܥܠ ܟܠܢܫ‬.‫ܗܢ ܝܘܡܐ‬ Analysis

̄ is rather vague here, but the sense is “some other man.” This serves as ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ ̇ the subject of ‫ܐܡܪ‬. ܰ In Text 1, ‫ ܟܕ‬was followed by an imperfect. Here it is followed by a perfect. This 1

is a very common use, particularly in narrative prose.

ܶ ‫ܬܓܢܒ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetgneb is the ʾetpʿel, used, as usual, to express a passive. Its subject is ̄ . ‫ܟܣܦܐ‬, not ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ The particle ‫ ܠ‬has several functions in Syriac. It can indicate an action that is to someone’s benefit or to someone’s detriment. The traditional Latin term is dativus

commodi sive incommodi. English uses the terms “dative of advantage” and “dative of

disadvantage.” An illustrative use of the dative of disadvantage occurs in Text 13:

ܶ ‫ܡܝܬ ܠܗ‬, mīt leh, “he died.” In Text 5, the context shows ‫ ܠܗ‬to be the dative of

disadvantage, loosely meaning “to his detriment.” It is not easy to translate such

usages into English. Here, “from him” is good English, but does not reflect well the Syriac.

̇

̄

The use of the participle ‫ ܐܡܪ‬with ‫ ܗܘܐ‬implies that the man did not complain

out loud just once, but rather went around moaning and groaning to his neighbors.

‫ ܕ‬introduces direct speech.

The next sentence, only five words long, illustrates the complexities of Syriac

syntax. The subject is ‫ܝܘܡܐ‬

‫ܗܢ‬, at the end of the sentence. The predicate is ‫ܝܘܡܐ‬

‫ܡܪܝܪܐ‬, at the beginning of the sentence. Since the first word of the predicate is a

noun, it is in the emphatic state. The two words of the predicate are interrupted by

‫ ̄ܗܘ‬. The meaning thus is: “This day, it is a bitter day.” The sequence ܳ ܺ ܰ ̄ ̣ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܝܘܡܐ ܗ ̣ܘ ܡܪܝܪܐ‬is pronounced /yawma-w marrīrā/. 2 The following ‫ ܐܡܪ‬is dotted as an active participle, not as a perfect, in both preserved manuscripts. The verb ‫ ܐܡܪ‬frequently appears as an active participle,

the enclitic

even for events which only occurred one time in the past. Presumably the thief only

said this out loud once. ‫ ܐܡܪ‬is the only verb to use its participle in this fashion.

Because the emphatic state is used in Syriac to indicate both definite and in-

definite nouns, the question arises, is ‫ ܓܢܒܐ‬the self-same thief who stole from the

man, or some other random thief? One would think that it’s the same thief. Otherwise, one would have to assume that an inordinate number of thieves were living in whatever place the story is set.

The negative particle ‫ ܠܘ‬has several uses. Here it is used to negate an incomplete

sentence; this is a common use. ‫ ܠܘ‬also occurs in Text 12 and in Text 15.

TEXT THE FIFTH

41

The story This story makes the thief sound almost witty. There is no expressed sympathy

for the man who got robbed... The language

A few basic Syriac nouns contain a diphthong /aw/ or /ay/. The two most com-

mon are /yawmā/

ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܘܡܐ‬

“day” and /ʿaynā/

ܳ ܰ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

“eye”. In the construct and

̇

absolute of such nouns, the diphthong contracts into a long vowel: /yōm/ ‫ ܝܘܡ‬and

ܶ /ʿēn/ ‫ܥܝܢ‬. Although

the construct of these nouns reduces the diphthong, the full

form magically appears with the pronominal suffixes: /ʿayn/ “my eye,” /ʿaynāk/ “your eye” and so on.

The word for “house” is the most idiosyncratic of such nouns. The emphatic is

ܳ

ܶ

/baytā/ ‫ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬. The construct is /bēt/ ‫ܒܝܬ‬. The absolute, however, is /bay/ ‫ ܰܒܝ‬. The

final /t/ was misanalyzed as the feminine marker, and so dropped in the absolute.

ܶ ̈ܳ

The plural is even more irregular: /bāttē/ ‫ܒܬܐ‬.

The particle ‫ ܠܘ‬appears here for the first time. It is also used to negate adjectives.

‫ ܠܘ ܣܓܝܐ‬law saggīʾ is “not much” or “not many.” ‫ ܠܐ‬can have the same function. ܳ ̇ ܳ As was mentioned in Text 4, ‫ ܡܝܘܬܐ‬māyōtā, on the pattern pāʿōl, is “mortal”. ܳ ̇ ܳ ‫ܝܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܠܐ ܡ‬is therefore “immortal.” ܰ ܳ̇ ܰ ܶ The active participle ‫ ܐܡܪ‬occurs here twice. In the case of the verb ‫ܐܡܪ‬, writers in Syriac prefer to use the active participle instead of the perfect. This can lead to a certain amount of ambiguity. Here the first usage is interpreted as an ongoing action (because of

past.

‫) ̄ܗܘܐ‬, but the second usage as a one-time action in the

One of the pleasures of reading Syriac is figuring out the syntax. For example,

the sentence

‫ ܝܘܡܐ ̄ܗ ̣ܘ ܡܪܝܪܐ ܗܢ ܝܘܡܐ‬is only a few words long, and all the

words are simple. It takes some experience to recognize what is the subject and what

̄

is the predicate, and to recognize that ‫ ܗ ̣ܘ‬is an enclitic and not a demonstrative or

a pronoun. Cognates

The verb meaning “to steal” appears in Syriac as

ܰ and in Hebrew as ‫גָּ נַ ב‬ ‫ܓܢܒ‬

gānab. It does not have this meaning in Arabic. “Thief” appears in Hebrew as ‫גַ נָּ ב‬ gannāb, exactly the same pattern used in Syriac for

‫ ܰܓ ܳܢ ܳܒܐ‬.

The English word

“ganef,” meaning “thief” or “scoundrel” comes to us from Yiddish, which ultimately got it from Hebrew.

The root {m-r-r} appears in Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic in the sense of “to be

bitter.” The adjective takes the form

ܳ ܺ ‫ܰܡܪܝܪܐ‬

in Syriac, but most commonly in

42

A READER IN SYRIAC

Hebrew as ‫ ַמר‬, from an original pattern paʿl. Arabic uses

��ِ �َ� marīr on the pattern

faʿīl. Our English word “myrrh” comes from Greek μύρρα, which got it from a Semitic

language. Since myrrh comes from ancient south Arabia, the word may originate in

ܳ

one of the Semitic languages spoken there. It appears in Syriac as ‫ܡܘܪܐ‬ ̣ mūrā.

ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬has as its cognates ‫ יוֹם‬yōm in Hebrew, where the diphthong has collapsed, ‫ܘܡܐ‬

and ‫ يَو ْم‬yawm in Arabic, where it is preserved. Loanwords Syriac

ܳ ‫ܶܟ‬ ‫ܣܦܐ‬

kespā is probably an early loan from Akkadian kaspu, “silver,

money.” This derives from the verb kasāpu “to break off a small part of something.”

It also made its way into Hebrew, as ‫ ֶכּ ֶסף‬kesep “silver, money.” Arabic, however,

uses a completely different word for “silver,”

even more different, ‫ م َال‬māl.

‫ ف َِضّ ة‬fiḍḍa. And “money” in general is

REVIEW LESSON ONE Roots A beginning student in any Semitic language is taught early-on that most nouns

ܳ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܓܢܒ‬gnab “to steal.” A more sophisticated analysis is to say that the noun and the ܳ verb both derive from a verbal root {g-n-b}. But what about a noun such as ‫ܰܝܘܡܐ‬

derive from triradical verbs. Thus it is said that ‫ ܓܢ ܳܒܐ‬gannābā “thief” derives from

yawmā, which occurs in all the Semitic languages? There is no verb associated with

a putative root {y-w-m}. Some scholars would call this a “nominal” root. But does it

have a “root,” really? A different interpretation is to say that such old nouns are “non-derived,” that is, they do not derive from anything at all (as far back as we can

tell). Instead of such nouns having a “root,” they are sometimes said to have a “base,” /yawm/ in this case.

Consider a noun like

ܳ ܰ ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬

gabrā “man.” Is it also non-derived, or does it

ܰ

ܰ gbar exists in the pʿal. ‫ ܓ ܰܒܪ‬gabbar derive from a verbal root {g-b-r}? No verb ‫ܓܒܪ‬ in the paʿʿel, however, means “to strengthen.” In these cases, the verb is formed off

of the noun, not from a verbal root. Such verbs are called “denominative,” meaning

ܶܰ

that they are secondary formations based on a noun. Another example is ‫ ܥܝܢ‬ʿayyēn,

“to eyeball, to scrutinize.” Denominative verbs typically occur in the paʿʿel, but some

ܰ ܶ ܳ but the verb ‫ ܟܠܒ‬kleb is “to be rabid.” From ‫ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬baytā “house” comes ‫ ܳܒܬ‬bāt “to ܳ ‫ ܟ‬kalbā “dog” is pretty clearly non-derived, verbs in the pʿal are denominative. ‫ܠܒܐ‬

spend the night.” Some of these denominative verbs are quite old, and so appear in

several Semitic languages. Others are more recent coinages in one or more of the languages.

Syriac loves to create denominative verbs. From the noun

‫ܦܘ ܳܡܐ‬ ̣

pūmā

“mouth”—a non-derived noun if ever there was one—comes the handsome quad-

ܶ

ܰ

riradical verb ‫ ܦܘܡܡ‬pawmem “to pronounce.”

In some cases, a “root” was extracted from a non-derived noun and used to create

new nouns.

‫ܥܶ ܳܙܐ‬

ʿezzā is “goat,” originally /ʿenzā/. There is no verb /ʿnaz/ or

ܳܰ

/ʿannez/, but the noun ‫ ܥܢ ܳܙܐ‬ʿannāzā, on the pattern paʿʿāl, is a “goatherd.”

In the same way that nouns that derive from verbal roots can receive suffixes

that express all kinds of things, nouns that are non-derived can receive the same suffixes.

ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܘܡ ܳܝܐ‬

yawmāyā is an adjective, “daily.” 43

‫ܦܘ ܳܡ ܳܢ ܺܐܝܬ‬ ̣

pūmānāʾīt is an

44

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܺ ܳ ܰ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܝܟ ܳܢܐ‬

adverb, “by word of mouth.” The same is true of loanwords. ‫ ܰܝܘܢܐܝܬ‬yawnāʾīt is “in

Greek.” Even particles can receive such endings. From

ܳ ܳܰ ܰ Syriac has crafted the noun ‫ܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܐܝܟܢ‬ʾaykannāyūtā “manner.”

ʾaykannā “how,”

States Nouns and adjectives in Syriac are sometimes subsumed in the one category

“substantive,” because morphologically they behave the same. Both occur in one of

three “states”: emphatic (also called “definite”; neither term is particularly apt for

Syriac), absolute, and construct. Nouns are typically cited in the emphatic state

ܳ ܰ ܶ ܳ ܺ ܰ (‫)ܡܠܟ‬. Some scholars cite adjectives in the emphatic state (‫ܫܦܝܪܐ‬ ). Others cite ܺ ܰ ). them in the absolute state (‫ܫܦܝܪ‬ ܳ If we use ‫ ܛ ܳܒܐ‬as a model for both nouns and adjectives (because it has no

(‫)ܡܠܟܐ‬. Payne Smith is an exception; she registers nouns in the absolute state

changeable vowels), the forms in the masculine are:

‫ܳܛ ܳܒܐ‬ ‫ܳܛܒ‬ ‫ܳܛܒ‬

emphatic absolute

construct

/ṭābā/

/ṭāb/ /ṭāb/

‫ܳܛ ܶܒܐ‬ ‫ܳܛ ܺܒܝܢ‬ ‫ܳܛ ܰܒܝ‬

/ṭābē/

/ṭābīn/

/ṭābay/

A system of three states occurs in all varieties of Aramaic. Sometimes the endings

may differ from those in Syriac. If we look at Biblical Aramaic, for example, which is a fully-vocalized form of Imperial Aramaic, we see: definite

‫ָט ָבא‬ ‫ָטב‬ ‫ָטב‬

absolute

construct

/ṭābā/ /ṭāb/ /ṭāb/

‫ָט ַביָּ א‬ ‫ָט ִבין‬ ‫ָט ֵבי‬

/ṭābayyā/ /ṭābīn/

/ṭābēy/

It can be seen that the plural forms of the definite and the construct differ from

those in Syriac. It is hard to say how the realignment of the plural in Syriac came about. Several nouns in Syriac preserve the /ayyā/ ending in the emphatic plural.

All these nouns have some peculiarity or other.

̈ܳ ܰ

ܰ̈ ܺ ‫ܝܕ ܳܝܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬

bnayyā “sons,” and ‫ ܡܝܐ‬mayyā “water” are all frequent.

ʾīdayyā “hands,”

ܰ̈ ‫ܒܢ ܳܝܐ‬

More importantly, the function of the three states differs. In Biblical Aramaic, the

definite state ‫ ָט ָבא‬ṭābā can only mean “the good man”; this is why it is called the

“definite” state. The absolute state ‫ ָטב‬ṭāb can only mean “a good man.” In Syriac,

ܳ

however, the emphatic state ‫ ܛ ܳܒܐ‬ṭābā can mean either “the good man” or “a good

ܳ

man”; the meaning depends on context. The absolute state ‫ ܛܒ‬ṭāb has a restricted

use, as a predicate or as an adverb. The construct state also has a much more limited

use, being largely replaced by ‫ܕ‬. It is this change in the function of the three states that marks Syriac as different from Imperial Aramaic.

REVIEW LESSON ONE

45

The principle feature of nominal morphology of Aramaic that differentiates it

from its ancestors is the definite state ending in /ā/. This is essentially a suffixed definite article. The history behind this /ā/, however, is still unclear; one would think

that it was a demonstrative of some kind. This use of /ā/ does not occur in the other Semitic languages.

Proto-Semitic, the ancestor of the Semitic languages. had no definite article.

Neither did Proto-West Semitic. Aramaic subsequently developed a definite article in a suffixed /ā/. In Syriac this definite article lost its function. In Syriac the definite

state has become the “default” state, while the absolute state and the construct state

have quite restricted functions.

‫ ܘ‬TEXT THE SIXTH ‫ܘ‬ Story 653, another yarn about thieves. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ ܺܕ‬dīnā ‘judgment; justice’. ‫ ܰܕ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬dayyānā ‘judge’ occurred in Text 4. ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܝܘܡ ܺܕ‬ ̇ yōm dīnā ‘Day of Judgment’. It also appears as ‫ܕܕ ܳܝܢܐ‬ ܺ ‫ܘܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬. ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܐܓܪܐ‬ʾaḡrā ‘wages; reward’. The verb is ‫ ܶܐ ܰܓܪ‬ʾeḡar ‘to hire’. ܰ ‫ ܶܢ ܰܣܒ ܁‬nsab nessab ‘to take, receive’, a typical first-nūn verb, with ‫ܢܣܒ‬ imperfect in /a/.

ܶ ‫ܬܚܫܒ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܬܚܫܒ‬

an

ܰ ḥšab ʾetḥšeb netḥšeb ‘to be reckoned, counted’. The pʿal ‫ܚܫܒ‬

‘to count’ occurred in Text 2.

‫ܶܢ ܰܕܥ ܁ ܺܝ ܰܕܥ‬

ʾīdaʿ neddaʿ ‘to know, recognize’, from {y-d-ʿ}. This behaves like a

first-yod verb in the perfect but like a first-nūn verb in the imperfect. The injunction ‘Know thyself’ is

ܳ ‫ ܰܕܥ ܰܢ‬daʿ napšāk. ‫ܦܫܟ‬

In the perfect, the expected /ydaʿ/ has become /ʾīdaʿ/. The same reduction of a

ܶ ܺ

vowelless yod happens with all first-yod roots, for example, ‫ ܝܬܒ‬ʾīteb ‘to sit’. The yod

now essentially marks a glottal stop. Such forms are occasionally written with an

ʾālap in front of the yod: ‫ܐܝܕܥ‬. This can also happen with nouns from such roots.

ܳ

ܰܺ

‘Knowledge’ ʾīdaʿtā is found written both ‫ ܝܕܥܬܐ‬and

ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܫܥܬܐ‬

ܳ ܰ ܺ ‫ܝܕܥܬܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬.

ܳ

ܳ šāʿtā is a non-derived noun that d-šāʿtā ‘right now’, an adverb. ‫ܫܥܬܐ‬

ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܫܥܬܐ‬ is a genitive phrase that literally ܶ ܳ ܰ moment’. In Text 14, ‫ ܒܪ ܫܥܬܗ‬bar šāʿteh has the same meaning.

means ‘moment; hour’.

means ‘of the

̄ ‫ ̣ܐ‬.‫ܓܒܪܐ ̄ܐܢܫ ܟܕ ܐܬܓܢܒ ܠܗ ܟܣܦܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܡܪܘ ܠܗ‬ .‫ܐ ̈ܢܫܝܢ܂ ܠܐ ܬܬܥܝܩ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ ܕܠܐ‬ ̣ .‫ܡܛܠ ܕܒܝܘܡ ܕܝܢܐ ܐܓܪܐ ܕܡܢ ܕܢܣܒܗ ܠܟ ܡܬܚܫܒ‬ ̄ ‫̇ܝܕܥ‬ ̄‫ܐܢܐ܂ ܐܠܐ ܕܫܥܬܐ ̣ܗܘ ̣ܢܣܒ ܟܠܗ ܐܓܪܝ‬

47

48

A READER IN SYRIAC

Analysis 1

On the surface, this story opens somewhat the way that Text 5 does, but the

̄

syntax is different. In Text 5, the initial ‫ ܐܚܪܢܐ‬served as the subject of a following

̄ ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬is in extraposition, picked up by ‫ ;ܠܗ‬the subject of ‫ ܳܐ ܰܡܪ‬. But here ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̈ ̄ ̄ ‫ܐܡܪܘ‬ is ‫ܐܢܫܝܢ‬. ̈ ̄ is pretty vague! The sense is “some random people.” ‫ܐܢܫܝܢ‬ ܶ ܺ ‫ ܠܐ ܬܬܥܝܩ‬is a negative imperative. While Syriac has special forms for the (positive) imperative, the negative imperative is formed by ‫ ܠܐ‬plus the imperfect. ܰ ‫ ܠܐ ܶܬ‬lā tesbar, “Don’t imagine.” It is someAnother example occurs in Text 9: ‫ܣܒܪ‬

what more common for both positive and negative imperatives to be introduced by the marker of direct speech gods. 2

‫ ܕ‬than not, but the choice depends on the whim of the

‫ ܰܡܢ‬used by itself is the interrogative pronoun, “Who?” ‫ ܰܡܢ ܕ‬means “he who,

the one who, whoever.”

3

ܶ ‫ ܰܢ‬nasbeh is a verb in the perfect with an object pronoun. ‫ܣܒܗ‬ ‫ ܠܟ‬is a dative of advantage, “to your benefit.” It goes with ‫ܡܬܚܫܒ‬, not ‫ܢܣܒܗ‬.

The ending of the story is somewhat elliptical, but the sense is “but for now, (I

know) that he...”

The final noun is pronounced /ʾaḡr/. As usual, the first-person suffix is not pro-

nounced. This means that such forms end in a consonantal cluster. Such clusters are otherwise uncommon in Syriac. In earlier Aramaic this would have been pronounced

/ʾaḡrī/.

Language form their imperfects with an ʾālap: “to learn” is ܶ ܺ Most first-yod verbs ܰ in Syriac ܶ ܶ ‫ ܝܠܦ‬in the perfect and ‫ ܢܐܠܦ‬in the imperfect. The two verbs ‫ ܺܝ ܰܕܥ‬and ‫“ ܺܝܬܒ‬to sit” ܰܶ are exceptions. They both form their imperfects like first-nūn verbs: ‫ ܢܕܥ‬neddaʿ and ܶܶ ‫ ܢܬܒ‬netteb. Cognates

ܰܺ

The verb ‫ ܝܕܥ‬has its cognate in Hebrew ‫ יָ ַדע‬yādaʿ. The root is not used in Arabic,

which uses

‫ف‬ َ َ�َ ‫ ع‬ʿarafa instead. ܳ

ܳ is ‫ ָשׁ ָﬠה‬šāʿā. This is not used in the Biblical text, The Hebrew cognate to ‫ܫܥܬܐ‬

but ‫ ָשׁ ָﬠה‬šāʿā is used in modern Hebrew to mean “hour.” The cognate in Arabic is

‫ سَا� َة‬sāʿa, “hour.”

ܳ ‫ܝܘܡ ܺܕ‬ ̇ entered into Arabic as ‫ يوم ا���ن‬yawm al-dīn. ‫ܝܢܐ‬

‫ ܙ‬TEXT THE SEVENTH ‫ܙ‬ Story 266, from another section of the Book, entitled “Useful sayings of teachers and wise men.”

Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬

mallpānā ‘teacher’. The root is {ʾ-l-p}, with a glottal stop as first con-

sonant. This glottal stop tends to drop, particularly when following another consonant. The word for ‘teacher’ was originally /mʾallpānā/ but became /mallpānā/,

ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬. The ʾālap does not show up at all in the writing. ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬is a noun ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ܶ ܰ in /-ān/ formed from the paʿʿel active participle of ‫ ܐܠܦ‬ʾallep ‘to teach’ (Text 14). ܳ ܺ ܰ ܰ ḥawwī nḥawwē ‘to show, reveal’, from {ḥ-w-y}. ‫ܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܢܚ ܶܘܐ ܁ ܰܚ ܺܘܝ‬ ‫ ܬܚܘ‬taḥwītā is written

‘example’. The verb is not used in the pʿal. The root is both middle-weak and lastweak at the same time. In such cases, the

‫ ܘ‬behaves like a strong consonant in both ܳ ܳ the pʿal and paʿʿel. Other examples of such roots include ‫ ܗܘܐ‬hwā ‘to be’ and ‫ܠܘܐ‬

lwā ‘to accompany’.

ܶ ܰ ‫ܶܢܐܠܦ ܁ ܺܝܠܦ‬

ʾīlep nēlap ‘to learn’. {y-l-p} is a secondary root, derived from {ʾ-l-p}.

ܳ ̇

̈

̈

A ‘student’ is ‫ ܳܝܠܘܦܐ‬yālōpā. ‫ ܡܠܦܢܐ ܘܝܠܘܦܐ‬means ‘teachers and students’.

‫ܦܘ ܳܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ punnāyā ‘answer’, a noun on the puʿʿāl pattern. ܳ ܳ ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ‬ ̣ šuʾʾālā ‘question’, also on the puʿʿāl pattern. ܰ ‫ ܠܡ‬lam This particle usually introduces direct speech. It typically occurs in second

position, not first position, in the quoted text. In contradistinction to ‫ܕ‬, it adds an

element of emphasis, and at times can be translated as ‘indeed’. Other times it means

something like ‘as the saying goes’, when quoting a well-known phrase. Another example occurs in Text 15. The etymology of ‫ ܠܡ‬is quite unsure.

‫ܳܛܒ‬

ܳ

ṭāb ‘better’, an adverb. In Text 23, it means ‘very’. ‫ ܛܒ‬is the absolute state of

ܳ ܳ ‫‘ ܳܛ ܳܒܐ‬good’, from the middle-weak root {ṭ-w-b}. The noun ‫ܳܛ ̈ܒܬܐ‬ ܳ ṭābātā means ‘good things’. ‫ܝܒܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭaybūtā ‘goodness’ occurs in Text 27. The ܳ adjective ‫ܛܘ ܳܒܢܐ‬ ̣ ṭūbānā ‘blessed’ occurs in Text 14. the adjective

49

50

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ̇ ‫ܡܦ ܳܣܐ‬

ܺ̇ ܰ

mpāsā ‘knowledgeable, knowing’, a passive participle from ‫ ܐܦܝܤ‬ʾapīs,

a verb in the ʾapʿel from {p-y-s}. The ʾapʿel means ‘to persuade, convince, instruct’.

The word derives from Greek πεῖσαι. This means that it behaves oddly in Syriac: the

‫ ܦ‬is always a stop, never a spirant. This is indicated here by a quššāyā dot above the ‫ܦ‬. The word takes the preposition ‫ܒ‬. ܳ ‫ ܶܐܠܐ‬ʾellā ‘but, rather’, a conjunction.

‫ܶܢܛܥܰܡ ܁ ܛܥܶܡ‬

ṭʿem neṭʿam ‘to taste’, with both literal senses (‘to taste food’) and

metaphorical senses (‘to taste death’). It can also mean ‘to understand’. The adjective

ܳ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭaʿmānā means both ‘tasty’ and ‘wise’. ‫ܡܬܐ‬ ‫ܥܡ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ ܰܡܛܥ‬maṭʿamtā is ‘giraffe’. One wonders why.

ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܐܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܗܢ‬

ܳ

hannīʾūtā ‘pleasure’. The verb is ‫ ܗܢܐ‬hnā ‘to be pleasant’. The root is

{h-n-ʾ}, but as was the case with {s-g-ʾ}, the word-final glottal stop drops in many

ܳ ܺ

ܺ

ܰ

ܰ hannīʾā. The ʾapʿel ‫‘ ܐܗܢܝ‬to benefit’ verbal forms. The adjective ‘pleasant’ is ‫ܗܢܝܐܐ‬ occurs in the next Text.

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܠܦ‬

mallpānūtā ‘teaching, education’.

‫ ܬܘܒ‬means ‘again and again’. The root ܳ ܰ is {t-w-b}. In the pʿal, the verb ‫ ܬܒ‬tāb means ‘to return; to repent’. ‫ ܬ ܳܝ ܳܒܐ‬tayyābā

‫ܬܘܒ‬ ̣

tūb ‘again, also’, an adverb. ‫ܘܬܘܒ‬

is ‘penitent’.

ܺ ‫ܰܝܬܝܪ‬

ܳ ܺ

yattīr ‘more’‫ ܁‬an adverb, from the adjective ‫ ܰܝܬܝܪܐ‬yattīrā ‘abundant, more,

ܰ ܺ

ܰ

greater’. In the pʿal, ‫ ܝܬܪ‬ʾītar is ‘to be left over’. The paʿʿel ‫ ܰܝܬܪ‬yattar is ‘to increase’.

ܰ ‫ܬܚ ܰܦܛ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾetḥappaṭ netḥappaṭ ‫ܬܚ ܰܦܛ‬

‘to get encouraged’. The verb does not

ܶ seem to occur in the pʿal. In the paʿʿel, ‫ ܰܚܦܛ‬ḥappeṭ is ‘to encourage’.

ܳ ‫ܝܘ‬ ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

yulpānā ‘learning, teaching, doctrine’. It is unclear if the ‫ ܦ‬was read as

a stop /p/ or a spirant /p/.

̈ ̇ ‫ܡܠܦܢܐ ܚܘܝ ܢܦܫܗ ܐܝܟ ̇ܗܘ‬ ‫ܕܝܠܦ ܦܘܢܝܐ ܕܫܘܐܠܐ‬ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ .‫ ܘܐܬܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܕܐܟܘܬܟ ܡܢ ܕܗܢܐ ̇ܝܠܦ‬.‫ܡܕܡ ܡܢ ܬܠܡܝܕܗ‬ ̇ ̄ ‫ܡܦܤ‬ ‫ ܐܠܐ ̇ܨܒܐ‬.‫ܐܢܐ ܒܦܘܢܝܐ ܗܢܐ‬ ‫ܦܢܝ ܕܐܢܐ ܠܡ ܛܒ ܡܢܗ‬ ̄ ‫ ܐܝܟܢܐ ܕܬܘܒ ܝܬܝܪ‬.‫ܐܢܐ ܕܢܛܥܡ ܒܗ ܗܢܝܐܘܬܐ ܕܡܢ ܡܠܦܢܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܢܬܚܦܛ ܥܠ ܝܘܠܦܢܐ‬

TEXT THE SEVENTH

51

Analysis

̈ ̄ is the subject of ‫ܚܘܝ‬. Several of the stories begin with the ‫ܡܠܦܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ܶ ̈ ܰ ܰ̈ ̄ ̄ phrase ‫ ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬followed by a noun. Text 13 begins ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ ܒܢܝ ܡܠܟܐ‬, 1

“another prince.”

‫ ܚܘܝ ܢܦܫܗ‬is literally “showed himself” but the sense is “acted, behaved, pretended.” ‫ ܚܘܝ‬has several somewhat idiomatic uses. Story 224 describes a man as ܳ ܺ ܶ ܰ mḥawwē-wā nzīrūtā “professing an ascetic life.” ‫ܝܪܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܚܘܐ ̄ܗ ܳܘܐ ܢܙ‬ ‫ ܐܝܟ ̇ܗܘ ܕ‬is a fixed phrase, meaning “as if.” The phrase shows up again in Text 11. With ‫ܚܘܝ ܢܦܫܗ‬, this produces “acted as if.” ܶ ‫ ܳܝܠܦ‬is the active participle in the pʿal from {y-l-p}. The same form occurs in Text 13.

Both ‫ ܦܘܢܝܐ‬and ‫ ܫܘܐܠܐ‬are of the pattern puʿʿāl, discussed below. English says “answer to a question”; Syriac uses ‫ܕ‬.

‫ ܶܡ ܶܕܡ‬functioned as a noun meaning “something” or “anything.” Here it stands in apposition to the noun ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ‬. This means “some question or other,” 2

In Text 1,

“some random question,” or even simply “a question.”

‫ ܕ‬introduces direct speech, consisting of a question. It was mentioned at Text 4 that the preposition ‫ ܐܝܟ‬does not take pronominal ܳ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܰ suffixes; the form ‫ ܐܟܘܬ‬is used instead. Here, ‫ ܐܟܘܬܟ‬is nominalized, that is,

turned into a noun, meaning “one like you.” This is not uncommon. Payne Smith translates the first-person form

ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̄‫ܟܘܬܝ‬

as “like me, my equal, such as I am.”

ܶ ‫ ܐܟܘܬܟ‬serves as the subject of the following active participle ‫ ܳܝܠܦ‬. ܳ ܳ ‫ ܶܡܢ‬would mean “from this one.” With the addition of ‫ܕ‬, the sense A simple ‫ܗܢܐ‬ of ‫ ܡܢ ܕܗܢܐ‬is more “one who is like this.” ‫ ܕ‬has many usages which are hard to capture in English. ‫ ܡܢ ܕܗܢܐ‬is used with a sarcastic tone: “from one such as this.”

One thinks of Latin iste, which literally means “that (one)”, but often has a pejorative sense.

‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ flips the subject to the teacher, who now speaks for the first time. ̇ ̄ 3 The overall syntax is ‫ܐܢܐ ܡܦܤ ܐܢܐ‬, pronoun—passive participle—enclitic pronoun. This is a little hard to see, because of the ‫ ܠܡ ܛܒ ܡܢܗ‬after the first ̇ then takes its object in ‫ܒ‬. ‫ ܳܗ ܳܢܐ‬, ‫ܐܢܐ‬. ‫ ܛܒ ܡܢܗ‬is “better than he.” ‫ܡܦܤ‬ ܳ , seems unnecessary in English, but is good Syriac. modifying ‫ܦܘܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ After the adversative ‫ ܐܠܐ‬comes an active participle with an enclitic pronoun: ̄ ‫ ̇ ܳܨ ܶܒܐ‬. The prepositional phrase ‫ ܒܗ‬refers back to ‫ܦܘܢܝܐ‬. ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬ 4 ‫ ܗܢܝܐܘܬܐ‬and ‫ ܡܠܦܢܘܬܐ‬are both nouns in /-ūt/.

52

A READER IN SYRIAC As discussed at Text 3, Syriac does not use a prepositional phrase to modify a

noun. English can say “the pleasure from teaching,” but in Syriac this is expressed as “the pleasure which is from teaching,” ‫ܕܡܢ ܡܠܦܢܘܬܐ‬

‫ܗܢܝܐܘܬܐ‬.

‫ ܐܝܟܢܐ‬occurred in Text 1, in the sense “how is it that,” “how come.” ‫ܐܝܟܢܐ‬ ‫ ܕ‬has a causal sense: “so that, in order that.” ‫ ܕ‬is often used to turn ܳ ܰ prepositions into conjunctions. Thus ‫ ܥܕܡܐ‬ʿdammā is the preposition “up to, till” ܳ ܰ (Text 29); ‫ ܥܕܡܐ ܕ‬is the conjunction, “up till” (Text 20). ܺ The two adverbs ‫ܬܘܒ‬ ̣ “again” and ‫“ ܰܝܬܝܪ‬more” are very frequent words. The collocation ‫ ܬܘܒ ܝܬܝܪ‬means “even more.” followed by

The story A nice bit of wisdom in this story, one that all educators know to be true. The language The Syriac writing system has several what might be called “defects.” One is that

it does not mark long consonants. Another is that it does not distinguish between short /u/ and long /ū/. Is a writing such as

‫ ܦܘܢܝܐ‬to be understood as /punāyā/,

/pūnāyā/, /punnāyā/, or /pūnnāyā/? In general, such questions can only be

answered through an examination of comparative Semitic grammar. On that basis,

the middle consonant is regarded here as long, and since long vowels in general are

not permitted in closed syllables, the vowel must be short, /u/. Therefore, the trans-

cription punnāyā is preferred here, and the noun is described as being of the pattern

puʿʿāl.

The pattern puʿʿāl is particularly common for nouns derived from paʿʿel verbs.

‫ ܫܘܐܠܐ‬is another case. The middle root consonant is thus long in both the noun

and the verb: /puʿʿāl/ and /paʿʿel/.

As seen in Text 3, the suffix /-ān/ produces new nouns and adjectives. It is often

used to create nouns and adjectives from paʿʿel and ʾapʿel active participles. ‫ܡܠܦܢܐ‬

mallpānā “teacher” is the parade example. ‫ ܡܪܚܡܢܐ‬mraḥḥmānā is “merciful.” Such

forms are sometimes called “substantivized participles,” a handsome phrase. They

receive their own entries in dictionaries. The masculine forms of such nouns are straight-forward. The feminine forms receive an /ī/ in the singular, which surfaces

as a consonantal /y/ in the plural: emphatic absolute

construct

ܳ ܺ ܳ ܰ ‫ܠܦܢܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܡ‬ ܺ ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܠܦܢܝ‬ ܺ ܳ ܰ ‫ܠܦܢܝܬ‬ ‫ܡ‬

/mallpānītā/

/mallpānī/

/mallpānīt/

TEXT THE SEVENTH

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܠܦ ̈ܢ ܳܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܡ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܦ ̈ܢ ܳܝܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܦ ̈ܢ ܳܝܬ‬

emphatic absolute

construct

53

/mallpānyātā/

/mallpānyān/ /mallpānyāt/

The ending /-ūt/ is usually described as deriving “abstract” nouns from other

ܳ

ܳ ܰ

ܰ

nouns. ‫ ܡܠܟܐ‬malkā is “king”; ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܡ‬malkūtā is “kingdom.” However, over time many of these nouns became rather concrete. Should

‫ܗܢܝܐܘܬܐ‬

“pleasure” be

considered as “abstract” or “concrete?” In Text 19, ‫ ܡܠܟܘܬܐ‬is pretty concrete. The ending /-ūt/ was quite productive in Syriac, and writers could create such nouns at will. The nouns are feminine, with the following paradigm:

ܳ ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܘ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܘܬ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܡ‬

emphatic absolute

construct

/malkūtā/

/malkū/

/malkūt/

The plurals are far less common, and a little tricker:

ܳ ̈ ܰ ‫ܠܟ ܳܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܡ‬ ̈ ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܠܟܘܢ‬ ̈ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟ ܳܘܬ‬

emphatic absolute

construct

/malkwātā/

/malkwān/ /malkwāt/

ܳ

The adjective ‫“ ܛ ܳܒܐ‬good” comes from the root {ṭ-w-b}. But because of phonetic

accidents, and new analogical formations, the roots {ṭ-ʾ-b} and {ṭ-y-b} also occur in

Syriac, making it difficult sometimes to find words in the dictionaries.

ܳ

ܳ

As said above, the adverb ‫ ܛܒ‬derives from the adjective ‫“ ܛ ܳܒܐ‬good,” used in

the absolute

ܺ state. ‫ܰܝܬܝܪ‬

yattīr “more” is another such case. From

ܺ

ܳ ‫ܰܫ ܺܦܝܪܐ‬

šappīrā

ܰ šappīr “well.” This can also be “beautiful, lovely” (Text 14) comes the adverb ‫ܫܦܝܪ‬

used as an interjection, “Well done! Bravo!”.

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬is in origin presumably a noun formed off of ‫ܐܝܟ‬. A ‫ܟܘܬ‬ form such as ‫ ܐܟܘܬܟ‬originally meant “your likeness.” Payne Smith registers ܳ ‫ܬܗܝܢ ܰܐ‬ ܳ ‫“ ܰܐ‬such and such things.” ܶ ‫ܟܘ‬ ܶ ‫ܟܘ‬ ‫ܬܗܝܢ‬ ̄ in ‫ ܡܕܡ‬here follows a noun: ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ ܡܕܡ‬. This is similar to the use of ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬. In general, ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̄ is used with animate nouns, while ‫ ܡܕܡ‬is used with ‫ܐܢܫ‬ The preposition

inanimate nouns. Cognates

The abstract ending /-ūt/ occurs in several Semitic languages. “Kingship” or

“kingdom” is

ܳ ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܡ‬

malakūt in Arabic.

malkūtā in Syriac, ‫ ַמלכוּת‬malkūt in Hebrew, and

ܶ ܰ

‫م َل�َكُوت‬

The root {ʾ-l-p}, seen in ‫“ ܐܠܦ‬to teach” occurs in Biblical Hebrew as ‫ ִא ֵלּף‬ʾillep

“to teach,” but it is uncommon. In Arabic the root means “to compose” something

54

A READER IN SYRIAC

literary.

‫ م ُؤَل ِّف‬muʾallif is “author,” not “teacher.” Several Semitic languages have a

noun meaning “ox” which looks like it comes from the same root: Hebrew ‫ ֶא ֶלף‬ʾelep. This noun does not seem to exist in Syriac. The number for “one thousand” looks similar, in all the Semitic languages: Syriac

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾalpā, Hebrew ‫ ֶא ֶלף‬ʾelep, Arabic ‫ܠܦܐ‬

‫ أ� ل ْف‬ʾalf. What is the relationship of all these words?

ܶ

In Hebrew, as with Syriac ‫ܛܥܡ‬, ‫ ָט ַﬠם‬ṭāʿam is both “to taste” and “to perceive.”

In Arabic, however, َ ‫طعَم‬ َ ṭaʿama only has the meaning “to taste.” ‫ م َ ْطع َم‬maṭʿam means

“restaurant.”

ܳ

The adjective “good,” Syriac ‫ ܛ ܳܒܐ‬appears as ‫ טוֹב‬ṭōb {ṭ-w-b} in Hebrew and as

‫ طَي ِّب‬ṭayyib {ṭ-y-b} in Arabic.

ܳ ‫“ ܬܘܒ‬again” derives from {t-w-b}, seen in ‫“ ܬܒ‬to return.” The Proto-Semitic

root was {t-w-b}, still seen in Arabic

‫ שׁוב‬šūb, “to return.”

َ‫ � َاب‬tāba “to return.” In Hebrew this becomes

Loanwords In Text 4, two loanwords from Greek occurred:

‫ ܢܡܘܣܐ‬and ‫ܣܢܐܓܪܘܬܐ‬.

While it is easy for a Semitic language such as Syriac to borrow nouns, it is less common for such a language to borrow verbs. What does occasionally happen is that

a verbal root is extracted from a noun, and verbal forms then created from this root.

̇ is the paradigmatic example of such a verb. The root {p-y-s} was extracted ‫ܐܦܝܤ‬ ̇ from the Greek noun πεῖσαι, producing the ʾapʿel verb ‫ܐܦܝܤ‬, from which the ܳ ܳ̇ participle ‫ ܡܦܣܐ‬derives. It was mentioned at Text 3 that Syriac created the verb ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetdaywan “to suffer from demoniacal possession” from ‫ܝܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܕ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬, a word ‫ܝܘܢ‬ ultimately deriving from Persian.

‫ ܚ‬TEXT THE EIGHTH ‫ܚ‬ Story 7, from the section concerning philosophers. Here the philosopher is not named.

Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܣܘܥܪ ܳ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

suʿrānā

‘thing, action, deed’. In Story 426, there is a ‘case of theft’,

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܥܪ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ܒܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܣܘ‬ ̣ ‫ܕܓܢ‬ ̣ suʿrānā d-ḡannābūtā. The verb ‫ ܣܥܰܪ‬sʿar ranges from a simple neutral ‘to do’ to ‘to attend to’ to ‘to visit’. In Text 16 it means ‘to do’ or ‘act’.

ܺ ܶ ‫ܰܢ‬ ‫ܗܢܐ ܁ ܰܐܗܢܝ‬ noun

ʾahnī nahnē ‘to benefit’, the ʾapʿel of {h-n-ʾ}, the root seen in the

‫ ܗܢܝܐܘܬܐ‬in Text 7.

‫ܣܘ ܳܓܐܐ‬ ̣

sūḡā ‘most of’, from {s-g-ʾ}. The /ʾ/ of the root drops in pronunciation.

It is often written with only one ʾālap, followed by a genitive in ‫ܕ‬.

ܳ ‫ܰܡܘܬܐ‬

‫ܣܘܓܐ‬. As here in Text 8, it is frequently

mawtā ‘death; pestilence’, from {m-w-t}. The verb appears in the perfect

ܺ as ‫ ܡܝܬ‬mīt ‘to die’, with a long /ī/ written with a yod (Text 13).

ܳ ‫ܶܪ‬ ‫ܝܫܐ‬

rēšā ‘ruler’. This can be a local governor or a person at the very top of the

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬rēšānā ‘noble’ appeared in Text 3. As discussed there, such words appear pile. ‫ܝܫܢܐ‬

with and without a medial yod.

ܳ ‫ܺܒ‬ ‫ܝܫܐ‬

bīšā ‘evil, bad, cruel’. The root is {b-ʾ-š}, but the glottal stop drops in most

forms. ‫ ܒܝܫܐ‬is the antonym of ‫ܛܒܐ‬. At Matthew 5:45, Jesus says that God causes

ܶ ‫ܥܠ ܳܛ ̈ܒܐ ܘܥܠ ܺܒ ̈ܝ ܶܫܐ‬, ‘on the good and the evil’. Used as a noun, ܳ ܺ ܳ ‫ ܺܒ‬the ‘Evil One’ is the Devil. The noun ‫ܝܫܬܐ‬ ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ‫ ܒ‬bīštā spans ‘evil’ to ‘misfortune’. ܳ ܳ̈ ܺ ܰ ̈ ܳ The construct phrase ‫ ܥܒܕܝ ܒܝܫܬܐ‬ʿābday bīšātā means ‘evil doers’. Verbal forms

his sun to shine

from {b-ʾ-š} are uncommon.

̈ ̄ ̄ ‫ܕܒܢܝܢܫܐ ܡܗܢܐ‬ ‫ܫܐܠܘܗܝ ܕܡܢܐ ܣܘܥܪܢܐ ܕܠܣܘܓܐܐ‬ ‫ܠܐܚܪܝܢ‬ ‫ ܕܡܘܬܐ ܕܪܝܫܐ ܒܝܫܐ‬.‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ 55

56

A READER IN SYRIAC

Analysis 1

Both initial words are in red ink. The word for “other” has appeared many times,

̄ . In the absolute, a yod appears: ‫ܐܚܪܝܢ‬ ̄ . ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ ‫ ܠ‬usually introduces a definite noun as direct object. Here it introduces an in̄ definite one, ‫ ܐܚܪܝܢ‬in the absolute state. Presumably this philosopher was in some

sense known, and not just a random unemployed philosopher wandering about in

̄

the market-place looking for work, so ‫ ܐܚܪܝܢ‬receives ‫ܠ‬.

̄ ‫ܫܐܠܘܗܝ‬ is the plural paʿʿel perfect followed by a singular object pronoun, “they ܶ ܰ asked him.” In the singular, “he asked him” is ‫ܫܐܠܗ‬ šaʾʾleh; this occurs in Text 16. At some remote time, the plural form would have been pronounced /šaʾʾalūhu/ or

some such. But by the time that Syriac emerges, this all turns into /šaʾʾlū/. These forms are further discussed below.

̄ ‫ܫܐܠܘܗܝ‬ . The object pronoun refers ̄ back to ‫ܐܚܪܝܢ‬. This is typical Syriac syntax. It would also be possible to simply not ܶ ̄ use the object pronoun, writing ‫ܫܐܠܘ‬. A third possibility is to use ‫ ܠܗ‬instead: ̄ ‫ܫܐܠܘ ܠܗ‬ . All three possibilities are good Syriac; the choice of which construction There is no expressed subject for the verb

to use is more a question of style than of grammar. The three formations could all be translated by an English passive: “some other philosopher was asked.”

‫ܳܡ ܳܢܐ‬

is the interrogative, functioning as subject.

ܳ ‫ܣܘܥܪ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

Followed by the relative ‫ܕ‬, this produces “What is the thing that...”

is the predicate.

ܶ ‫ ܰܡ‬mahnē is an active participle from a last-weak root in the ʾapʿel. In the ‫ܗܢܐ‬

masculine singular these end in /ē/ written with an ʾālap. The participle is used in a timeless sense: “would benefit” in the past, present, or future. The story A universal truth, one often quoted in the age of Trump. The language The masculine singular active participle of last-weak roots in the paʿʿel and in

ܶ

ܰ

ܶ ܰ

ܺ ܰ

the ʾapʿel ends in /ē/. ‫ ܡܗܢܐ‬occurs in this Text, and ‫ ܡܬܢܐ‬mtannē, from ‫ ܬܢܝ‬tannī “to repeat” occurs in the next Text.

As discussed at Text 3, verb forms with attached object pronouns are perhaps the

most difficult feature of Sumerian morphology to master. The presence of the pronouns often entails changes to the vocalic structure of the verb. After-the-fact,

one can usually explain the phonetic changes that happened, but for most people this does not really help in learning the forms.

The third-person singular perfect verb with a singular object pronoun was

studied in Text 3. The plural perfect forms are a little more complicated. “They

TEXT THE EIGHTH

57

ܰ ̄ ‫ܟܬ‬ ‫ܒܘ‬ .

This was orginally pronounced

wrote,” without an object pronoun, is

/katabū/. Because of a shift in the position of the stress, the final /ū/ dropped in pronunciation, producing /ktab/. To indicate that the waw is not pronounced, it is

written with a linea. With an object pronoun, “they wrote it” is

‫ܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܟ‬/katbū/.

The waw is the remainder of the plural verb marker, and the final hē-yod is an old

form of the pronoun. The presence of the object pronoun protected the /ū/ from

dropping. However, in time the pronoun itself totally dropped in pronunciation,

̄

ܰ

which resulted in /katbū/ written ‫ܬܒܘܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܟ‬. The basic forms are: They wrote it They wrote it

They wrote you They wrote you They wrote me

‫ܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬

/katbū/

/katbūh/ /katbūk/

/katbūk/

/katbūn/

It is in the pʿal where most difficulties happen. In the case of the paʿʿel, the long

medial consonant blocks some of these phonetic changes from taking place, and so

they are easier to learn than the forms in the pʿal. The only thing to happen is the reduction of the vowel between the long medial consonant and the third consonant. He dictated He dictated He dictated He dictated He dictated

it it you you me

They dictated They dictated They dictated They dictated They dictated

it it you you me

ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܟ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄‫ܬܒܘܢܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬

/kattbeh/ /kattbāh/ /kattbāk/ /kattbek/ /kattban/ /kattbū/ /kattbūh/ /kattbūk/ /kattbūk/ /kattbūn/

The reading of the third root consonant as a spirant, here /b/ follows Nöldeke. This is what one expect: spirantization of a bgdkpt consonant after a long consonant. Kiraz, however, explicitly registers it as a stop: /kattbeh/. This is a minority reading. The ʾapʿel perfect forms are also straight-forward: He inscribed it He inscribed it He inscribed you

ܶ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܗ‬ ̇‫ܟܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܟ‬

/ʾaktbeh/ /ʾaktbāh/ /ʾaktbāk/

58

A READER IN SYRIAC He inscribed you He inscribed me

ܶ ‫ܳܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬

/ʾaktbek/ /ʾaktban/

They inscribed it They inscribed it They inscribed you They inscribed you They inscribed me

‫ܟܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ̇‫ܟܬܒܘܗ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܟܬܒܘܟ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣

/ʾaktbū/ /ʾaktbūh/ /ʾaktbūk/ /ʾaktbūk/ /ʾaktbūn/

Manuscript variation

‫ ܡ‬is ܿ vocalized with the East Syriac vowel mark that indicates /a/: ‫ ܼܡ‬. This is the expected ܺ ܰ vowel for the ʾapʿel participle from ‫ܐܗܢܝ‬. The LeedsMS, however, has no vowel over the ‫ܡ‬, and instead writes an /a/ vowel over the ‫ܗ‬. This would indicate a paʿʿel ܶ ܰ mhannē. participle, ‫ܡܗܢܐ‬ All three manuscripts write

‫ܡܗܢܐ‬.

In the BLMS and the VatMS, the

Many Syriac verbs exist in both the paʿʿel and the ʾapʿel, with little if any dif-

ference in meaning. But in this case, neither Sokoloff nor Payne Smith register a paʿʿel

for the root {h-n-ʾ}. So did the person who added the vowel marks to the LeedsMS

(this was a later hand than that of the scribe who wrote the consonantal text) just

goof, or did the paʿʿel of this root exist, but by accident did not make it into the dictionaries? Cognates The root for “to die” {m-w-t} occurs in all three languages. “He died” in Syriac

‫ ; ܺܡܝܬ‬in Hebrew it is ‫ ֵמת‬met; in Arabic it is َ‫ م َات‬māta. The noun “death” appears ܳ ܰ as ‫ ܡܘܬܐ‬in Syriac, ‫ مَو ْت‬mawt in Arabic, but as ‫ ָמוֶ ת‬māwet in Hebrew; the waw

is

behaves like a consonant.

Those individuals interested in Semitic—Indo-European connections like to

point to morior “to die” in Latin, solely on the basis of the initial /m/.

‫ ܛ‬TEXT THE NINTH ‫ܛ‬ Story 668, from a section of the Book that narrates curious events. This one mentions in passing the Biblical prophet Isaiah. Vocabulary

ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܫܬܟܚ‬ ‫ܫܬܟܚ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ

ܶ

ʾeštkaḥ neštkaḥ ‘to be found’, an ʾetpʿel from {š-k-ḥ}. The active

is ‫ ܐܫܟܚ‬ʾeškaḥ ‘to find’ (Text 22); this latter is a slightly irregular ʾapʿel.

ܳ ‫ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬

ܶ ̈

ܰ

ktābā ‘writing, book, scripture’. The verb is ‫ ܟܬܒ‬ktab ‘to write, copy’ (Text

ܳ

ܰ ‫ ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬is a book of ‘annals’. 15). ‫ܕܙܒܢܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܥܶܒܪ ܳܝܐ‬ʿebrāyā ‘Hebrew’, both adjective and noun, a borrowing from Hebrew. ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬nsar nessor ‘to saw’. The noun ‫ ܰܡ ܳܣ ܳܪܐ‬massārā is the instrument, a ܰ ‫ܣܘܪ ܁‬ ‫ܢܣܪ‬

‘saw’.

ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܰܫ‬ʾEšaʿyā ‘Isaiah’. The Hebrew name probably means ‘God is salvation’. ‫ܥܝܐ‬ ܺ nbīyā ‘prophet’. The word is used in its Biblical sense; it does not mean a ‫ܢܒ ܳܝܐ‬

tawdry fortune-teller. Presumably it is a borrowing from Hebrew. The original root

ܳ ܺ

{n-b-ʾ} meant ‘to call’. A ‘prophetess’ is ‫ ܢܒܝܬܐ‬nbītā.

ܳ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܪܚܐ‬

ʾārḥā ‘traveler’, from {ʾ-r-ḥ}. No finite verb forms appear to occur in the

ܰ ܳ ‫‘ ̇ ܳܐ‬traveling’ is ‫ ܰܐܪܚ‬ʾarraḥ is ‘to travel’. The active participle ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ܳ ‫‘ ܳܐ‬traveler.’ It can also mean ‘guest’. In frequent. This became a common noun, ‫ܪܚܐ‬

pʿal. The paʿʿel

the case of active participles that have become common nouns, the active participle dot is not used. The noun

‫ܢܒܘܬ ܁ ܳܒܬ‬ ̣

ܳ ‫ܐܘ‬ ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ̣ ʾurḥā is ‘road, way’ (Text 22).

bāt nbūt ‘to take lodging; to spend the night’, a denominative verb in

ܳ

the pʿal from the noun ‫‘ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬house’ (Text 10).

‫ܶܨܝܕ‬

ܶ and ṣēd ‘at, near’, a preposition. It is spelled both ‫ܨܝܕ‬

unsure.

ܺ ܶܰ ‫ܢܫܪܐ ܁ ܰܫܪܝ‬

‫ ܶܨܐܕ‬. The etymology is

šarrī nšarrē ‘to begin’. It can be continued by an active participle, as in

ܳ ‫ܫܘܪ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ šurrāyā is ‘beginning’ (Text ܳ ̇ ܳ šārōyā is ‘laxative’. 29). In the pʿal, ‫ ܫܪܐ‬šrā is ‘to loosen, untie’. ‫ܫܪܘ ܳܝܐ‬

Text 9, or by an infinitive (Text 20). The noun 59

60

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܰ ܺ ܰ ‫ܢܬ ܶܢܐ ܁ ܬܢܝ‬

ܳ

tannī ntannē ‘to report, narrate’. ‫ܬܘܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ tunnāyā is ‘story’, as in the

ܳ

title of Bar ʿEbrāyā’s book. In the pʿal, ‫ ܬܢܐ‬tnā is ‘to repeat, relate’ (Text 23).

ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾašpazkānā ‘innkeeper’, a loanword from Persian. ܳ ‫ܫܦ‬ ‫ܙܟ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܰ ‫ܣܒܪ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬sbar nesbar ‘to suppose, imagine, hope’. ‫ܒܪܐ‬ ‫ܣܒܪ‬ ‫ ܣ‬sabrā is ‘hope’; ‫ܶܣܒܪܐ‬ sebrā is ‘opinion’.

ܳ ‫ܰܐܠ ܳ ܳܗܐ‬

ʾalāhā ‘God’, a non-derived noun of unsure etymology. The adjective ܳ ܳ ܰ ܰ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܐܠܗܝܐ‬ʾalāhāyā is ‘divine’; ‫ܗܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܐܠ‬ʾalāhūtā ܰ ܰ is ‘divinity’. From these words a root {ʾ-l-h} was extracted, and so the paʿʿel verb ‫ ܐܠܗ‬ʾallah is ‘to deify’. ܺ ‫ܗܡܐ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܢ‬ʾahmī nahmē ‘to neglect’, with ‫ ܶܡܢ‬. The root is not used in the ‫ܗܡܝ‬

pʿal.

ܳ ̇ ܳ ‫ܛܘܠܐ‬ ‫ܩ‬

ܰ ܳ ̇ ܳ ܳ ̇ ܳ (Text 16). From ‫ ܩܛܘܠܐ‬comes ‫ܠܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܩܛܘ‬qāṭōlūtā ‘homicide’. ܳ ʿālmā ‘world’. ‫ܝܘ ܳܬܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܥ‬ ܳ ʿālmāyūtā is ‘the vanity of the world’. ‫ܥܠܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܰ ܳ ܶ ܳ ܳ can also mean ‘age’ or ‘eternity’. ‫ ܒܝܬ ܥܠܡܐ‬is a ‘tomb’. In the absolute state, ‫ܠܥܠܡ‬

qāṭōlā ‘killer’, a noun of the pāʿōl pattern. The verb is ‫ ܩܛܠ‬qṭal ‘to kill’

l-ʿālam means ‘forever’.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܦܪܘܥ ܁ ܦܪܥ‬ connotations.

praʿ neproʿ ‘to pay back, reward’, with positive and negative

ܳ ‫ܦܘ‬ ‫ܪܥ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

purʿānūtā is ‘vengeance’.

purʿānā is both ‘reward’ and ‘punishment’.

ܳ ܳ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܦܘܪܥ‬ ̣

̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܐܚܘܕ ܁ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ‬

ʾeḥad nēḥod ‘to take hold of, grasp’, with ‫ܒ‬. In Text 22, it means ‘to ܳ ܶ ̇ ܳ ܰ close’ a door. ‫ ܐ ܰܚܕ ܪܚܡܗ‬ʾeḥad raḥmāh means God ‘shut up her womb’. ‫ܐܘܚܕܬܐ‬ ̣ ʾuḥdtā is a ‘riddle’.

ܳ ‫ܰܡ ܳܣܪܐ‬

below.

massārā ‘saw’, a “noun of instrument.” Such formations are discussed

ܳ ܺ ܰ ‫ܫܥܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܬ‬

tašʿītā ‘conversation’. Often it means ‘story, tale, narration’. This is a

noun in /t-/ from a root {š-ʿ-y}. The yod reappears as a consonant in the plural:

ܳ ̈ܳ ܰ ܰ ܶ ܺ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܫܥܝܬܐ‬ ‫ ܬ‬tašʿyātā. ‘To tell a story’ is in the ʾetpaʿʿal, ‫ܥܝ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾeštaʿʿī.

ܳ ‫ ܫܪ ܳܓܐ‬šrāḡā ‘lamp’, from Persian. ܶ ‫ܦܛܦ ܁ ܰܛ‬ ܶ ‫ܢܛ‬ ܰ ṭapṭep nṭapṭep ‘to flicker’, a quadriradical verb. ‫ܦܛܦ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܡ‬meḥdā ‘right away, straight away’, an adverb. It presumably comes from ‫ܚܕܐ‬ ܳ ḥdā. ‫ ܶܡܢ‬men and ‫ܚܕܐ‬

TEXT THE NINTH

ܶ ‫ܘܒܠ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܢ‬ ‫ܘܒܠ‬

61

ʾawbel nawbel ‘to carry, take, move’, a verb in the ʾapʿel from the

root {y-b-l}. It is not used in the pʿal. As is the case with virtually all first-yod verbs,

the yod appears as a waw in the ʾapʿel.

ܳ ‫ܺܐ‬ ‫ܝܕܐ‬

ʾīdā ‘hand’ (fem). The absolute state is ‫ ܰܝܕ‬yad. The construct state appears

ܺ

both as ‫ ܐܝܕ‬ʾīd and as ‫ ܰܝܕ‬yad. Sokoloff registers the noun under the emphatic ‫ܐܝܕܐ‬,

ܰ̈ ܺ

and Payne Smith under the absolute ‫ܝܕ‬. The most common emphatic plural is ‫ܐܝܕ ܳܝܐ‬

ܶ̈ ܺ

ʾīdayyā, an ancient plural in /-ayyā/. ‫ ܐܝܕܐ‬ʾīdē is rather rare.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܢܬ ܶܩܢ ܁ ܬ ܶܩܢ‬ good order’.

ܳ ‫ܢܘܪܐ‬ ̣

ܶ

taqqen ntaqqen ‘to set in order, repair’. The pʿal ‫ ܬܩܢ‬tqen is ‘to be in

nūrā ‘fire’ (fem). The denominative verb

connection of

‫ ܰܢ ܰܝܪ‬is ‘to illuminate’. What is the

‫ܢܘܪܐ‬ ̣ nūrā ‘fire’ to ‫ܢܘܗܪܐ‬ ̣ nuhrā ‘light’? ܳ ‫ ܶܨ‬ṣebʿā ‘finger; toe’ (fem). It has the plurals ‫ ܶܨ ̈ܒܥܶܐ‬and ‫ܥ ܳܬܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܨ ̈ܒ‬. ‫ܒܥܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܢ‬ ‫ܦܛܐ‬

napṭā ‘naphtha’. The ultimate etymology of the word is unknown. Where

does naphtha first come from? In Modern Literary Syriac it means ‘gasoline’.

ܶ ‫ܘܩܕ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܢ‬ ‫ܘܩܕ‬

ʾawqed nawqed ‘to set something on fire’, a verb in the ʾapʿel from

ܶ ܶܰ ‫ܢܩܪܒ ܁ ܰܩܪܒ‬

qarreb nqarreb ‘to bring near’. The pʿal ‫ ܩܪܒ‬qreb is ‘to approach; be

{y-q-d}. The verb in the pʿal occurs a few line below.

ܶ ܰܰ ܶ near’ (Text 24). The ʾetpaʿʿal ‫ ܐܬܩܪܒ‬is ‘to approach’ (Text 14). The adjective ‘near’ ܳ ‫( ܰܩ ܺܪ‬Text 23). is ‫ܝܒܐ‬

‫ܦܘ ܳܡܐ‬ ̣ pūmā ‘mouth’, a non-derived noun. It also means the ‘edge’ of a sword. ܰ ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬raq nerroq ‘to spit’, a geminate verb, perhaps onomatopoetic. ‫ܪܘܩ ܁ ܪܩ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬daqnā ‘beard’, a non-derived noun. ‫ܩܢ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬daqnānā is ‘bearded’. ‫ܩܢ ܳܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܕ‬ ‫ܩܢܐ‬ daqnānāyā is a ‘comet’.

ܶ ‫ܰܐ ̈ܦܐ‬

ʾappē ‘face’. This always appears in the plural. The form was originally

/ʾanpē/. The nūn has assimilated into the pē. In origin, it is probably a non-derived

ܰ̈ ܰ

dual noun meaning ‘the two nostrils’. ‫ ܠܐܦܝ‬l-appay is ‘towards’.

ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾezal nēzal ‘to go’. It can also mean ‘to die’. ‫ܐܙܠ ܁ ܶܐ ܰܙܠ‬ ܺ ‫ܪܡܐ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܢ‬ʾarmī narmē ‘to throw’. The pʿal ‫ܪܡܐ‬ ܳ rmā is ‘to put’ something ‫ܪܡܝ‬ somewhere (Text 20).

62

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܰܡܩܪܐ‬

maqqrā ‘cistern’, a “noun of place” from {n-q-r}. These formations are

discussed below. The verb

ܰ nqar is ‘to hollow out’. ‫ ܳܢ ܰܩܪ ܺܐ ̈ܝܠ ܳ ܶܢܐ‬nāqar ʾīlānē, a ‫ܢܩܪ‬

construct phrase, is a ‘woodpecker’.

ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾīqed nēqad ‘to catch on fire, burn; to be consumed with love’. ‫ܐܩܕ ܁ ܺܝ ܶܩܕ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܡ ̈ܝܐ‬mayyā ‘water’. This archaic word only occurs in the plural. ‫ ܰܡ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬mayyānā ܳ ܰ

and ‫ ܡ ܳܝܢ ܳܝܐ‬mayyānāyā both mean ‘watery’.

‫ܰܓ ܳܘܐ‬

gawwā ‘stomach, insides’, a non-derived noun. In addition to its use as a

full noun, it commonly follows a preposition, producing what is sometimes called a

ܰ

“compound preposition.” ‫ ܒܓܘ‬b-ḡaw means ‘inside of’.

̈ ‫ܟܬܒܐ ܕܥܒ̈ܪܝܐ ܕܒܙܒܢܐ ̇ܗܘ ܕܒܗ‬ ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ ܕܐܫܬܟܚ ܒܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ܐܬܢܣܪ ܐܫܥܝܐ ܢܒܝܐ܂ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܢܫ ܐܪܚܐ ܒܬ ܨܝܕ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܚܪܢܐ܂‬ ̇ ‫ܘܫܪܝ ܡܬܢܐ ̇ܗܘ ܐܪܚܐ ܠܐܫܦܙܟܢܐ‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ܂ ܕܠܐ ܬܣܒܪ ܕܐܠܗܐ‬ ̈ ̄ ‫ܩܛܘ‬ ‫ܡܗܡܐ ܡܢ‬ ‫ ܐܠܐ ܒܗܢܐ ܥܠܡܐ ̇ܦܪܥ ܠܗܘ ܢ‬.‫ܠܘܗܝ ܕܢܒܝܐ‬ ̇ ̄ ̄ ‫̇ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܐܫܦܙܟܢܐ ܕܐܢܐ ܗܘܝܬ ܚܕ ܡܢ ܕܐܚܝܕܝܢ ܗܘܘ ܒܡܣܪܐ܂‬ ‫ ܡܚܕܐ ܐܘܒܠ ܐܝܕܗ‬.‫ ܫܪܓܐ ܡܛܦܛܦ ̄ܗܘܐ‬.‫ܘܟܕ ̣ܗܢܘܢ ܒܬܫܥܝܬܐ‬ ̈ ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕܢܦܛܐ‬.‫ܒܨܒܥܬܗ‬ ‫ܘܐܚܕܬ ܢܘܪܐ‬ ‫ܐܫܦܙܟܢܐ ܠܡܬܩܢܘܬܗ‬ ̣ ̇ ‫ ܡܚܕܐ ܩܪܒ ܦܘܡܗ ܕܢܪܘܩ ܥܠ‬.‫ܡܘܩܕܝܢ ̄ܗܘܘ ܒܫ̈ܪܓܐ ܒܗܘ ܙܒܢܐ‬ ̈ ̈ ‫ܘܐܙܠ ܐܪܡܝ ܢܦܫܗ‬ ‫ܐܚܕܬ ܢܘܪܐ ܒܕܩܢܗ‬ ‫ ܡܚܕܐ‬.‫ܨܒܥܬܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܘܒܐܦܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ̈ ‫ܕܡܝܐ ܘܝܩܕ ܟܠܗ ܒܓܘ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܝܐ‬ ‫ܒܡܩܪܐ‬ Analysis 1

This story begins the same way that Text 3 did: ‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬followed by a clause

beginning with ‫ܕ‬.

ܰ ‫ܫܬܟܚ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬starts a second clause. It is picked up by the ‫ ܕ‬in front of ‫ܒܙܒܢܐ‬. ܰ ‫ܫܬܟܚ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬is used impersonally: “it has been found...that.” This results in two nested ‫ܕ‬-clauses: one that functions as the logical subject of ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬, and one that ܰ ܶ functions as the logical subject of ‫ܐܫܬܟܚ‬: “It is said that there has been found.” Such nesting of clauses can be very hard on a reader’s brain.

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬is a participle, implying that the story is still being told. ‫ܐܫܬܟܚ‬

is a finite verb in the perfect, implying that someone found once.

2

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬is in the ʾetpʿel. English can’t say simply “sawn,” but needs some kind of ‫ܬܢܣܪ‬

complement. We don’t know what the process of sawing a person entailed at Isaiah’s time, so translations often add “in half” or “in pieces.”

TEXT THE NINTH

63

All of this sets the background of the story: it happened at the time of Isaiah.

̄

Finally comes the real topic of the story, an unnamed ‫ܓܒܪܐ ܐܢܫ‬, who is further

ܳ

ܳ ‫ܐ‬. He is the subject of the main verb ‫ ܳܒܬ‬. qualified by the appositive ‫ܪܚܐ‬

The first player in the drama has now been introduced: a man traveling along,

who needs a place to stay.

̄ has a full sense here, “another man.” This is the second player. In the ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ next line he is called ‫“ ܐܫܦܙܟܢܐ‬innkeeper.” 3

Now the traveler starts to preach to the innkeeper. One wonders what brought

the conversation around to this point.

ܺ ܰ ‫ ܰܫܪܝ‬is followed by the active participle ‫ ܡܬ ܶܢܐ‬mtannē. As discussed at Text 8, ܺ ܰ the active participle of last-weak roots in the paʿʿel and in the ʾapʿel ends in /ē/. ‫ܬܢܝ‬ tannī means “to tell a story,” but that would be a weak translation here; “to lecture to” better conveys the sense.

ܰ ‫ ܠܳܐ ܶܬ‬is a negative imperative, formed by ‫ ܠܐ‬with an imperfect. The same ‫ܣܒܪ‬ ܺ ܶ formation occurred in Text 6: ‫ ܠܐ ܬܬܥܝܩ‬lā tettʿīq “don’t grieve.” ܰ ‫ ܠܐ ܶܬ‬and its plural ‫ ܠܐ ܶܬܣܒܪܘܢ‬are especially The negative imperative ‫ܣܒܪ‬ ̣ common in moralizing contexts. The verb is typically followed by a clause in ‫ܕ‬. One can almost see the traveler pointing his moralizing finger at his innkeeper host.

ܶ ‫ ܰܡ‬mahmē is the ʾapʿel active participle from a last-weak root. It governs ‫ܗܡܐ‬ ܶ the preposition ‫ܡܢ‬. ܶ ܰ In theory, the active participle ‫ܡܗܡܐ‬, and the following active participle ܰ ܳ̇ ‫ܦܪܥ‬, can be understood in a timeless sense: “has not/does not/will not ignore.” But 4

given that the next sentence explicitly says “in this world,” the two participles are to be understood as indicating present time. The pronoun “his” in

̇ ‫ ܳܩ‬qāṭōlaw “his killers” anticipates ‫ܕܢܒܝܐ‬, “those ̄ ܰ ‫ܛܘܠ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬

of the prophet,” with the noun “prophet” in the singular. The sense is “anyone who tries to kill a prophet”; “those who kill a prophet.”

ܳ ܶ

After the phrasal dot comes a clause in ‫ ܐܠܐ‬ʾellā, “but rather.” Placing

‫ ܒܗܢܐ ܥܠܡܐ‬at the beginning of the sentence gives the phrase some

prominence: “in this world, not just the next world!” 5

Then the scene shifts to the innkeeper.

̇ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ ̄ܗ ܶܘܝܬ‬

ʾenā-wēt is “I was.” In

Estrangela texts, the first-person perfect verb is often (not always) marked by a

ܳ

superlinear dot over the ‫ܬ‬. In the case of the verb ‫ܗܘܐ‬, the dot is used both with

̇ ܶ ̇ ܶ ̄ the full form ‫ ܗܘܝܬ‬and with the enclitic form ‫ܗܘܝܬ‬.

One can almost hear the innkeeper shouting this out! Without thinking of any

consequences!

‫ ܰܚܕ ܶܡܢ ܕ‬is “one of those who.”

64

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܰܐ ܺܚܝܕ‬ʾaḥīd, from ‫ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ‬is a passive participle with an active meaning, “holding.”

This derives from the reciprocal sense of being held and so holding. Such participles were discussed at Text 1.

‫ ܰܟܕ‬was used with a verb in the imperfect in Text 1 and with a perfect in Text 5. It can also appear in nominal sentences, such as this one. ‫ ̣ܗܢܘܢ‬is the subject and ‫ ܒܬܫܥܝܬܐ‬is the predicate. In such cases ‫ ܟܕ‬can best be translated as “while.” The situation is anchored in the past, so there is no need to use any form of ‫ܗܘܐ‬. ܶ ‫ܡܛ‬ ܰ mṭapṭep is the active participle of a quadriradical verb. ‫ܦܛܦ‬ ܶ ܳ ܰ ܰ 7 ‫ܢܘܬܗ‬ ̣ ‫ ܠܡܬܩ‬la-mtaqqānūteh is the infinitive complement of ‫ܐܘܒܠ‬, “in order to 6

fix.” The infinitive of a paʿʿel verb in the absolute is of the pattern /mkattābū/. From

ܰ

the root {t-q-n}, the infinitive is ‫ܢܘ‬ ̣ ‫ ܡܬ ܳܩ‬mtaqqānū. The nūn is a root consonant, not

an afformative. In the emphatic and in the construct of infinitives, a /t/ magically

ܰ ‫ܢܘܬ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܬ ܳܩ‬ mtaqqānūt. When pronominal suffixes are added, the same /t/ appears: ‫ܡܬܩܢܘܬܗ‬

appears: the emphatic is

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܬܩ‬

mtaqqānūtā and the construct is

mtaqqānūteh. The pronominal suffix on an infinitive expresses a direct object, producing here “to put it in order, to adjust it.”

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬has an active sense, “grabbed hold of” ‫ܥ ܶܬܗ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܨ ̈ܒ‬ṣebʿāteh “his fingers.” ‫ܚܕ ̣ܬ‬

This is a plural feminine noun with a singular masculine possessive pronoun.

‫ܡܛܠ ܕ‬

is a conjunction, “because.” This introduces a parenthetical remark,

explaining why the flame was so dangerous: they used naphtha, instead of something

such as olive oil, in their lamps. “Naphtha” is used in English and other languages in

rather an imprecise sense, to mean something bitumen-based. This has the character-

istic that it sticks to the skin while burning; it is a prime component of napalm. And water does not put the fire out. 8

‫ ܢܦܛܐ‬is the direct object of the following active participle, but is placed at the

start of the sentence, because it is the topic of interest.

ܺ ‫ ܰܡ‬mawqdīn is ‫ܘܩܕܝܢ‬

the ʾapʿel active participle in the plural, followed by the

enclitic copula. The active participle is used here impersonally: “they used to burn.”

̇ might be translated as “back then.” In the first line of the Text, ‫ܒܗܘ ܙܒܢܐ‬ ‫ ܒܙܒܢܐ ̇ܗܘ‬had a specific sense: “at the time when the Prophet Isaiah was sawn in

half.” Syriac sometimes puts the demonstrative in front of its noun, other times after

its noun, with no obvious difference in meaning. Different manuscripts of one text can show this variation.

After this digression about naphtha, we come back to the main narrative.

ܶ ‫ ܰܩܪܒ‬qarreb is in the paʿʿel. In unvocalized texts, the paʿʿel and the pʿal of strong verbs in the perfect look exactly the same. The clue is the context: ‫ ܦܘܡܗ‬pūmeh is clearly the direct object, even if not marked by ‫ܠ‬. This means that the verb must be transitive, so therefore it must be the paʿʿel. It is also the case that the pʿal in the

TEXT THE NINTH

65

perfect usually has a dot underneath and the paʿʿel doesn’t. But the presence or

absence of this particular dot should never be absolutely trusted. 9

‫ ܕ‬introduces a purpose clause, “so he could spit.” This text enjoys the word ‫ܡܚܕܐ‬, using it several times in quick succession. This

is good Syriac style; it adds a sense of fast pace to the narrative. It is hard to capture this in English, where such repetition of the same word is not considered felicitous.

ܶ ‫ ܰܐ ̈ܦܐ‬ʾappē is an old noun that was originally a dual, but by the time of Syriac ̄ ̈ had become a plural, although with a singular sense: “face.” ‫“ ܐܦܘܗܝ‬his face” is /ʾappaw/. Preceded by the preposition ‫ܒ‬, this becomes /bappaw/. With the conjunction ‫ܘ‬, this turns into /wbappaw/. 10 ‫ ܐܙܠ‬is directly followed by a second verb in the perfect ‫ ܐܪܡܝ‬without any conjunction. This is a common use of ‫ܐܙܠ‬. The verb has a loose sense of intention: “He went in order to throw himself.” Sometimes it is easier to omit ‫ ܐܙܠ‬in translation. Or, ‫ ܐܙܠ ܐܪܡܝ‬might be translated as “He went and threw himself.” The following ‫ ܢܦܫܗ‬expresses the reflexive, “himself.” ̈ ‫ܕܡܝܐ‬ seems superfluous. What else would a cistern be filled with? Beer? ‫ ܝܩܕ‬is intransitive. The subject is ‫ ܟܠܗ‬kulleh, “all of him.” The ending of the story is nicely terse.

The story One wonders where this story comes from. The wording is quite vague: “in some

writing of the Hebrews.” In any case, never boast about torturing a prophet! Bad things can happen, not just in the next world, but in this world! In the Peshiṭta to Romans 11:3, Paul quotes Elijah, saying

̄ ‫ܳܡܪܝ̄ ܠ ܰ ̈ܢ ܺܒ ܰܝܝܟ ܰܩ ܶܛ‬ ‫ܠܘ‬

mār l-anbīyayk qaṭṭel, “My Lord, they have killed your prophets.” The Hebrew Scrip-

tures do not say how Isaiah died. Hebrews 11:37 mentions believers who were

“stoned to death, sawn in half, and died by the blade of the sword.” The Peshiṭta reads:

ܳ ̄ ̄ ܰ ܳ ̄ ̄ ܶ ܳ ̄ ̄ ‫ܝܦܐ ܺܡ‬ ܳ ‫ܕܣ‬ ܰ ‫ܒܦܘ ܳܡܐ‬ ‫ܝܬܘ‬ ‫ܐܚ̈ܪ ܶܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܚ̈ܪ ܶܢܐ ܶܐܬܢܣܪܘ‬ ‫ܐܚ̈ܪ ܶܢܐ ܶܐܬܪܓܡܘ‬ ̣ This may well be an allusion to Isaiah. The early Judeo-Christian text known

today as the Ascension of Isaiah has him sawn asunder under the orders of King Manasseh, in whom a demon was residing. The Talmud also mentions Isaiah’s death by a saw.

“Death by sawing” merits its own entry in Wikipedia, which has several gruesome

illustrations. No matter exactly how it was done, it would have been an extremely painful way to die.

66

A READER IN SYRIAC

The language As discussed in Review Lesson One, ancient nouns such as ‫ܐܝܕܐ‬, ‫ܨܒܥܐ‬, and ̈ ‫ ܐܦܐ‬do not derive from verbal roots. In later phases of several Semitic languages, ܰ ‫ܰܓ‬ new verbs are occasionally produced based on such nouns. The similar cases of ‫ܒܪ‬ ܶܰ gabbar “to strengthen” and ‫ ܥܝܢ‬ʿayyen “to scrutinize” were mentioned earlier. From the Arabic word for “finger,” the verb ‫ﻊ‬ َ ṣabaʿa was generated, meaning “to insert َ َ‫ﺻﺑ‬ one’s finger into a hen to determine if it is going to lay an egg.” ܳ ܰ “to dig.” ‫ ܰܡ ܳܩܪܐ‬maqqārā “cistern” is a noun on the mapʿāl pattern from ‫ܢܩܪ‬ Many nouns of the patterns mapʿal, mapʿāl, mapʿalat and others are used to indicate

ܶ

ܳ

ܰ ܳ ܳ ܰ “tent.” A few indicate the instrument used for an action, such as ‫ ܡܣܪܐ‬massārā ܳ ܺ ܰ “saw.” ‫ ܡܚܙܝܬܐ‬maḥzītā is a “mirror.” The boundary between “noun of place” and ܳ ܰ ܰ ܶ “noun of instrument” is somewhat fluid. From ‫ ܪܟܒ‬rkeb “to ride” comes ‫ܡܪܟܒܬܐ‬ the place where an action occurs. From ‫ ܫܟܢ‬šken “to dwell” comes ‫ ܡܫܟܢܐ‬mašknā

markabtā “chariot.” Is this a place or an instrument?

‫ ܬܫܥܝܬܐ‬is a noun on the tapʿilat pattern, from a last-weak root. Syriac has

several nominal patterns that begin with /t/, but there is no obvious way to catego-

rize them in terms of meaning. Many are associated with verbs in the paʿʿel, but not

ܶ ܳ ‫ܫܒܘܚܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܬ‬tešbuḥtā “praise.”ܳ ܳ ܶ has two plurals: ‫ ܶܨ ̈ܒܥܶܐ‬and ‫ܥܬܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܨ ̈ܒ‬. It is The Syriac word for “finger” ‫ܨܒܥܐ‬ ܶ ̈ ܶ is a plural used for three to ten fingers, while for eleven and above said that ‫ܨܒܥܐ‬ ܳܳ ̈ ܶ ܳ ‫“ ܳܦ‬servant” or “worshiper” ‫ ܨܒܥܬܐ‬is used. A few similar cases are recorded. ‫ܠܚܐ‬ ܶ̈ ܳ ܳ ܳ ̈ܰ ܳ has the plural ‫ ܦܠܚܐ‬for three to ten, and the plural ‫ܚܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܦܠ‬pālaḥwātā for eleven

ܰ ‫“ ܰܫ‬to praise” comes the noun all. From ‫ܒܚ‬

and above. This may be an artificial distinction in Syriac, based on Arabic. In older Arabic “plurals of paucity,” used for three to ten, are not uncommon. No one would use them today.

In the phrase

̇ ‫ ܳܩ‬, the suffixed pronoun on ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̇ ‫ ܳܩ‬is called an ܺ ‫ܘܗܝ ܰܕ‬ ̄ ܰ ‫ܛܘܠ‬ ̄ ܰ ‫ܛܘܠ‬ ‫ܢܒ ܳܝܐ‬

“anticipatory” or “proleptic” pronoun, because it looks down the road to a following noun. Proleptic pronouns are quite common in Syriac. They are often used to add a

certain specificity to nouns. ‫ ܒܝܬܐ ܕܓܒܪܐ‬can mean “a house of the man” or “the

house of the man,” but

‫ ܒܝܬܗ ܕܓܒܪܐ‬can only mean “the house of the man.” In ܰ ̇ ܳ ܰ ܺ ̄ ܳ ‫ܩܛܘܠܘܗܝ ܕܢܒܝܐ‬, there is some focus on “prophet”: We’re not talking about “killers” in general, but specifically those who kill a prophet.

ܶ ‫ ܰܛ‬is a quadriradical verb. There are many of these in Syriac, of several ‫ܦܛܦ‬ different types; they are discussed in more detail in Review Lesson Two. ‫ ܛܦܛܦ‬is one

common type, a reduplicated biradical. Some of these are onomatopoetic, such as

‫ ܥܰܪܥܰܪ‬ʿarʿar “to gargle.” Some weak roots generated new quadriradical forms, which look like reduplicated biradicals on the surface: “to move” is ‫ ܳܙܥ‬, from the middleܰ ‫ ܰܙ‬means the same thing. There are weak root {z-w-ʿ}. The quadriradical verb ‫ܥܙܥ‬

TEXT THE NINTH

67

different ways to analyze these forms, and they can be tricky to find in a dictionary. Sokoloff puts ‫ ܛܦܛܦ‬under ‫ ;ܛܦܛܦ‬Payne Smith puts it under ‫ܛܦ‬.

‫ ܐܚܝܕ‬from ‫ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ‬is a passive participle with an active meaning. It forms part of several fixed expressions. ‫ ܐܚܝܕ ܟܠ‬ʾaḥīd kull, a construct phrase, is used to describe ܳ ܰ ܰ̈ ܰ God as “omnipotent.” The construct phrase ‫ ܐ ܺܚܝܕܝ ܣܝܦܐ‬ʾaḥīday saypā means ܶ “sword-bearers.” The passive participle ‫ ܩܢܐ‬qnē, seen in Text 1, is also not ܳ ‫ ܰܩ‬qanyā occurs in Text 10. uncommon; the feminine, ‫ܢܝܐ‬ ܶ The verb ‫ ܐ ܰܙܠ‬occurs here with somewhat of an empty value, followed directly ܺ ܰ by another verb in the perfect, ‫ܐܪܡܝ‬. This is a frequent usage with verbs of motion. ܳ ܶ ܰ At Matthew 2:23, it is said that Joseph ‫ ܐܬܐ ܥܡܪ‬ʾetā ʿmar “went to live” in Nazareth. At 4:13, Jesus ‫“ ܐܬܐ ܥܡܪ‬went to live” in Capernaum. ܶ In its full use meaning “to go,” ‫ ܐ ܰܙܠ‬is frequently followed by the preposition ‫ܠ‬ ܳ ܳ ܳ ܳ ܶ with a suffix. At Matthew 4:10, Jesus orders Satan: ‫“ ܙܠ ܠܟ ܣܛܢܐ‬Go away, Satan!” This usage is not uncommon with verbs of motion. It is sometimes called the

“pleonastic dative,” because the prepositional phrase does not seem to add anything

to the meaning, and so it is often omitted in translations into English. This is somewhat a different usage than the dative of advantage/disadvantage, discussed at

Text 5. In practice, it can sometimes be difficult to figure out which analysis is best,

and so not all grammars distinguish betweenܳ the two usages. At Judges 16:17, it is

ܰ ܶ ܶ ‫ܦܪܩ ܠܶܗ ܰܚܝܠ ܶܗ‬ praq leh ḥayleh menneh. Is

said that Samson’s strength left him, ‫ܡܢܗ‬

this a dative of disadvantage or a pleonastic dative?

Cognates

“To repeat” is ‫ ܬܢܐ‬tnā in Syriac and ‫ ָשׁנָ ה‬šānā in Hebrew. In Arabic, ‫ �َ� َى‬tanā is

ܳ

“to double.” These all go back to a root {t-n-y}, the same root used for the number “two” in the Semitic languages.

The verb “to take” is the same in the three languages. Syriac has

Hebrew has ‫ ָא ַחז‬ʾāḥaz. Arabic preserves the older form: َ ‫ أ� �َذ‬ʾakada.

‫ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ‬,

and

ܳ ‫ ܫܪ ܳܓܐ‬appears in Qur’anic Arabic as ‫ �ِ� َاج‬sirāj. This may have come into Arabic

directly from Persian, but more likely came to Arabic via Syriac. “Hand” in the emphatic state appears as

ܳ ‫ ܺܐ‬, but as ‫ ܰܝܕ‬in the absolute. The ‫ܝܕܐ‬

more original form was /yad/, still seen in Hebrew ‫ יָ ד‬yād and Arabic �َ � yad. While one would expect the word for “fire,”

ges, it doesn’t. Arabic uses the expected unrelated word, ‫ ֵאשׁ‬ʾeš.

The word for “mouth,”

ܳ ‫ܢܘܪܐ‬ ̣ , to occur in all three langua-

‫ نُور‬nūr, but Hebrew uses a completely

‫ܦܘ ܳܡܐ‬ ̣ pūmā, may go back to a uniconsonantal /p/. It

appears as ‫ ֶפּה‬pe in Hebrew. The /m/ in the Syriac might be the trace of a ProtoSemitic marker of indefiniteness. In the most Classical Arabic it appears as

which only appears in the construct state. There is an alternate form

‫ فو‬fū,

‫ ف َم‬fam, which

68

A READER IN SYRIAC

is the one in use today. In Colloquial Arabic the /m/ becomes long, /famm/. Similarly, the word for “water”

ܳ ‫ ܰܡ ̈ܝܐ‬mayyā may go back to a uniconsonantal /m/.

It is ‫ ַמיִ ם‬mayim in Hebrew and ‫ م َاء‬māʾ in Arabic.

ܶ̈ ܰ

The noun for “face” ‫ ܐܦܐ‬goes back to a base /ʾanp/. In Biblical Aramaic, “his

face” appears as ‫פּוֹהי‬ ִ ְ‫ ַאנ‬ʾanpōhī, with the nūn still present. /ʾanp/ shows up in Hebrew as ‫ ַאף‬ʾap, with assimilation of the nūn, meaning “nose” and not “face.” In Arabic, the

nūn is retained: ‫ أ� ن ْف‬ʾanf, also meaning “nose.”

‫ ܶܐ ܰܙܠ‬is the unmarked verb for “to go.” The verb ‫ ָאזַ ל‬ʾāzal does appear in Biblical

Hebrew, but it is quite rare. The unmarked verb is �‫ ָה ַל‬hālak. The unmarked verb “to

go” in Arabic is a completely different word: go on separate paths.

َ‫ ذ َه َب‬dahaba. Thus, all three languages

‫ ܝ‬TEXT THE TENTH ‫ܝ‬ Story 22, another account quoting an unnamed philosopher. Vocabulary

ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬

mdittā

‘city’, a noun of place from {d-w-n} ‘to render justice’. It

originally meant ‘a place where justice is rendered’. The older form was /mdīntā/. The vowelless nūn has assimilated into the /t/, and the long vowel /ī/ has shortened

into /i/. When the nūn carries a vowel, it does not assimilate, and the vowel /ī/ does

ܰ ܺ ܳܳ ܰ ܰ ܳܳ̈ܺ ܰ ܳܳ is ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬/mdīnātā/. ‫‘ ܡܕܝܢܬ ܐܠܗܐ‬City of God’ is Antioch; ‫‘ ܡܕܝܢܬ ܫܠܡܐ‬City

not reduce. Thus the construct singular is ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬ‬/mdīnat/, and the plural emphatic of Peace’ is Baghdad.

ܳ ‫ܫܘܪܐ‬ ̣

šūrā ‘city wall’. It can mean ‘fortifications’ or ‘defenses’ in general. This is

a very old non-derived noun.

ܳ ‫ܰܚ ܺܣ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

ḥassīnā ‘strong, impenetrable’. The verb is ‫ ܚܣܢ‬ḥsen ‘to be strong’. ‫ܶܚܣܢܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܒܝܬܐ‬

baytā ‘house; family’. The denominative verb

ܶ

ܳ

ḥesnā is ‘fortress, citadel’.

‫ ܳܒܬ‬bāt occurred in Text 9. ܶ ̈ܳ ܳ The plural is quite irregular: ‫ ܒܬܐ‬bāttē. The adjective ‫ ܰܒܝܬ ܳܝܐ‬baytāyā is ‘domestic,

familiar’.

ܳ ‫ܰܡܥܡܪܐ‬

maʿmrā ‘dwelling place’, a noun of place from {ʿ-m-r}. The verb

ʿmar is ‘to dwell, live’.

ܶ ‫ܠܚܡ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܠܚܡ‬

ܰ ‫ܥܡܪ‬

lḥem nelḥam ‘to be fit, suitable’. This is especially common as an

active participle,

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܠ‬lāḥmā ‘fitting’. Because it was no longer felt as an active ‫ܚܡܐ‬

participle, it is usually written without a superlinear dot.

̄ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ܕܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬ ̣ .‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ̣ܚܙܐ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ ܕܫܘܪܐ ܩܢܝܐ ܚܣܝܢܐ‬ ̈ ‫̄ܗܝ ܗܕܐ‬ ‫ܕܢܫܐ ܘܠܐ ܠܚܡܐ ܠܓܒ̈ܪܐ‬ Analysis 1

The morphology in this short Text is straight-forward, but the syntax is a little

challenging. The

̄ ܳ ‫ ܰܩ‬qanyā is the ‫ ܕ‬after ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬introduces a relative clause. ‫ܢܝܐ‬ 69

70

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ qnā in the absolute, meaning “possessing.” The ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ܶ same use occurred in Text 1, in the masculine: ‫ ܩܢܐ‬qnē. ‫ ܫܘܪܐ‬šūrā functions as the direct object of the passive participle. The adjective ‫ ܚܣܝܢܐ‬then follows ‫ܩܢܝܐ‬. This feminine passive participle of

is fine Syriac style. Noun-adjective phrases can be interrupted by all kinds of things. It takes a good Syriacal eye to distinguish the emphatic singular of masculine

nouns and adjectives (both ending in /ā/) from the absolute singular of feminine

̄

nouns and adjectives (both also ending in /ā/). Here, ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬is feminine emphatic (even though the sense is indefinite). ‫ ܫܘܪܐ‬is masculine emphatic. ‫ ܩܢܝܐ‬is feminine

̄

absolute; it is the predicate to ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬. ‫ ܚܣܝܢܐ‬is masculine emphatic; it modifies

‫ܫܘܪܐ‬. Syriac.

Puzzling out such features is one of the pleasures of reading well-crafted

‫ ܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬bēt maʿmrā is a construct phrase. As discussed at Review Lesson ܳ ܶ hard to say why ‫ ܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬is used here and not simply ‫ܡܥܡܪܐ‬. What nuance does ‫ ܒܝܬ‬add? 2 ‫ ܗܕܐ‬is the subject of a nominal sentence; ‫ ܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬is the predicate. ‫ܗܕܐ‬ ̄ ̄ is feminine, because it refers back to ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬. ‫ ܗܝ‬is the enclitic third-person One, “house” is ‫ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬/baytā/ in the emphatic and ‫ ܒܝܬ‬/bēt/ in the construct. It is

feminine pronoun, used as a copula: “This is a dwelling place.” The sequence /bēt maʿmrā (h)ī/ is pronounced /bēt maʿmrāy/. This is then continued by a genitive

̈ ̈ phrase ‫ ܕܢܫܐ‬logically goes with ‫ܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬, but moving it to the end of the ̈ sentence gives the phrase ‫ ܕܢܫܐ‬more prominence. ܳ ܳ ‫ ܠ‬is formally an active participle, but is not usually written with a ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܳܐ‬ʾārḥā “traveler” (Text 9). Here superlinear dot. This is similar to the case of ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܠ‬is in the feminine absolute, not the masculine emphatic; it functions as the ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ̄ predicate. The logical subject is ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬. phrase, ‫“ ܕܢܫܐ‬of women.” Genitive phrases in ‫ ܕ‬can move around. Here the genitive

The story Whereas Text 4 seemed sympathetic to the plight of women, a number of the

Stories are insulting to women. One wonders who the “philosopher” who said this was.

The language The noun-adjective phrase

‫ܫܘܪܐ ܚܣܝܢܐ‬

is here interrupted by

‫ܩܢܝܐ‬.

The

breaking up of noun-adjective phrases happens all the time. It is just as possible for

construct phrases to be broken up.

‫ ܶܒܝܬ‬appears in the formation of many compound nouns. This text has the phrase ‫ܒܝܬ ܡܥܡܪܐ‬, translated by Payne Smith as “habitation, house.” Payne Smith registers over eighty such construct phrases. ‫ ܒܝܬ ܐܣܝ̈ܪܐ‬bēt ʾasīrē “house of

TEXT THE TENTH prisoners” is “prison.”

women’s apartments.”

̈ ‫ܒܝܬ‬ ‫ܢܫܐ‬

71

bēt neššē “house of women” is “the harem, the

The genitive in Syriac can be expressed by a construct phrase, or by a phrase in

‫ܕ‬. The construct is more common with tightly-bound phrases, while clauses in ‫ ܕ‬tend to be used by default. Occasionally a construct phrase and a phrase in ‫ ܕ‬are used in ܶ ܳ ܰ ܰ ̈ the same nominal phrase. In Story 213, it is said that ‫ ܒܢܝ ܰܒܝܬܗ ܕܓܒܪܐ‬bnay bayteh ܶ ̇ ܶ ܶ ܳ ܳ d-ḡabrā “the members of a man’s household” ‫ ܣܣܐ ܐܢܘܢ ܕܟܣܦܗ‬sāsā-ennōn dkespeh “are the moths of his money.” Cognates In this text, the noun

‫ܫܘܪܐ‬

is separated from its adjective

‫ܚܣܝܢܐ‬.

This is

somewhat unusual for a Semitic language. These languages do not usually allow noun-adjective phrases to be broken up in this way. Similarly, in Syriac it is not

uncommon for construct phrases to be broken up, but this is quite rare in the other Semitic languages. The very first time that one learns about the construct state in

Hebrew or Arabic, one is told that nothing can come between the two terms in a construct.

̄ ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬in Syriac and Aramaic in general can mean “province” or “country.”

It appears in Hebrew as ‫ ְמ ִדינָ ה‬mdīnā “province, district,” but only in late books, so it

is clearly a borrowing from some variety of Aramaic. The native Hebrew word for city is completely unrelated, ‫ ִﬠיר‬ʿīr. In Arabic, the word for “city” is

borrowing from Aramaic.

‫ مَدِين َة‬madīna, a

The root {l-ḥ-m} is a curious one. In Hebrew, ‫ ֶל ֶחם‬leḥem means “bread”; in

Arabic,

ܳ ‫ ܠ‬laḥmā spans both “bread” and ‫ �َ� ْم‬laḥm means “meat.” In Syriac, ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ܰ

“food” (Text 22). The original meaning was presumably something like “the solid

food that we regularly eat in our own society.” Both Hebrew and Arabic also use the

root to mean “to fight”; one principle source of conflict was assumedly over food.

Syriac does not use {l-ḥ-m} in the sense of “to fight.” The most common verb for “to

fight” is

ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܟܬܫ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾetkattaš, from {k-t-š} (Text 23). Curiously, the use of {l-ḥ-m} in

Syriac to mean “to be fitting” does not seem to have a parallel in the other Semitic languages.

REVIEW LESSON TWO Conjugations Syriac verbs that are formed from three root consonants can occur in any of six

conjugations: pʿal

basic

ʾetpʿel

passive of the pʿal

ʾapʿel

causative

ʾettapʿal

passive of the ʾapʿel

paʿʿel

intensive

ʾetpaʿʿal

passive of the paʿʿel

Every Semitic language has a system of such conjugations, but the number and

function of the conjugations vary considerably from language to language. Arabic, for example, has ten conjugations, and nine of the ten also have a passive.

The English terms used to label this system vary widely. “Conjugation” is the

most commonly used term for Syriac; that is the term used here. “Form” and “mea-

sure” are also used. Hebrew uses “conjugation,” “stem,” and “binyān” (‫ ִבּנְ יָ ן‬, “building,

construction”). Sometimes binyān is used for Syriac. Arabic uses “conjugation,”

“form,” “stem,” “measure,” and “wazn” (‫ َو ْزن‬, “measure”). Occasionally wazn is used for Syriac.

The individual conjugations in Syriac are referred to by a bewildering variety of

names. In this Reader, the three active stems are called pʿal, paʿʿel, and ʾapʿel.

Sometimes they are labeled by their function: “basic,” “intensive,” and “causative.”

Other times they are labeled by Roman numerals: “I,” “II,” and “III.” Students who

come to Syriac from Hebrew often transfer the Hebrew terms to Syriac. Thus the Syriac pʿal is sometimes called the “qal,” the paʿʿel the “piʿel,” and the ʾapʿel the “hiphʿil.”

The most precise way to refer to each of the six conjugations in Syriac is to use

the exact transcriptions given above. Often, however, the conjugations are cited in a

mishmash of simplified transcriptions. The /ʿ/ is often omitted, or replaced by /e/;

long consonants are reduced. The pʿal, for example, is often called the “peal,” and

the ʾapʿel the “aphel.” This is the type of transcription used by Payne Smith. Such

transcriptions are guaranteed to sow confusion.

The notional categories “basic-intensive-causative” are of course simplistic, in

the sense that it is easy to find paʿʿel verbs that are not intensive and ʾapʿel verbs that 73

74

A READER IN SYRIAC

are not causative. But the terms do carry some truth. It is possible that deep in the depths of Proto-Semitic or its ancestor, “intensity” of meaning was expressed by

reduplication of some kind, ultimately appearing as the lengthened medial root

consonant in the paʿʿel. It is also possible that the /ʾa/ of the ʾapʿel ultimately goes back to an object pronoun: “he made him/it do something.”

The three conjugations with infixed /t/ are usually labeled “passive.” This does

describe many of their uses, but some of them are reflexive or middle, or hard to categorize.

ܰ , for example, is “to hear.” In the ʾetpʿel, ‫ܫܬܡܥ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܡܥ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬means both

“to be heard” and “to be obedient, obey.”

Especially if one has studied Hebrew, it can be difficult to remember the exact

vocalization of the conjugations, particularly the passive forms. One trick is to note

that the last vowel in the passive forms is different from the last vowel in the non-

passive forms: pʿal

ʾetpʿel

ʾapʿel

ʾettapʿal

paʿʿel

ʾetpaʿʿal

Quadriradicals

ܶ

ܰ

The quadriradical verb ‫ ܛܦܛܦ‬occurred in Text 9. Several others will occur in

subsequent Texts. Syriac is famous among Semitists for its wealth of quadriradical verbs. They are of many different types. Some are formations in /š/:

ܺ ܰ “to enslave”; ‫ܫܡܠܝ‬ šamlī “to

ܶ ‫ ܰܫ‬šaʿbed ‫ܥܒܕ‬

complete” (Text 15). In origin, this /š/ was the marker

of the causative conjugation in Akkadian, corresponding to the /ʾ/ of the Syriac ʾapʿel. Some causative verb forms entered Imperial Aramaic, and eventually into

Syriac. A few such causatives may have been coined in Syriac, but it was not a productive formation. Other quadriradicals, including

ܶ ‫ ܰܛ‬, ‫ܦܛܦ‬

are reduplicated bi-

ܶ ܰ‫ ܥ‬ʿabded ‫ܒܕܕ‬ ܶ ܰ . The quadriradical verb ‫ܥܙܥ‬ ܰ ‫( ܰܙ‬ultimately “to enslave,” similar in meaning to ‫ܫܥܒܕ‬ radicals. There are a few cases where the last radical is reduplicated:

from {z-w-ʿ}) was mentioned at Text 9. Others are formed from what were originally

ܶ ‫ ܰܬ‬talmed “to instruct; to ‫ܠܡܕ‬ ܰ ܶ ܰ make a disciple” and from this comes ‫ ܐܬܬܠܡܕ‬ʾettalmad “to become a disciple.” ܳ ܳ ܰ From ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬daywānā, which is ultimately Persian in origin, Syriac produced ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ ܐܬܕܝܘܢ‬ʾetdaywan, “to suffer from demoniacal possession.” Greek word ܳ ̇ ̇ Froṁ the ܶ for “bishop” ἐπισκοπός comes first the noun “bishop” ‫ ܐܦܝܣܩܘܦܐ‬and then the ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ܶ ܰ ܰ ‫ܬܦ‬ verb ‫ ܦܣܩܦ‬pasqep “to make someone a bishop” and then the verb ‫ܣܩܦ‬

loanwords. From the noun

ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫ܰܬ‬ ‫ܝܕܐ‬

ʾetpasqap “to be made a bishop.”

talmīdā comes

ܳ ‫ ܰܚ ܺܣ‬ḥassīnā “strong” occurred in Text 10. The pʿal verb ‫ܚܣܢ‬ ܶ ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܶ ḥsen is “to be strong.” In the paʿʿel, ‫ ܰܚܣܢ‬ḥassen is “to strengthen”. The adjective

REVIEW LESSON TWO

75

ܶ

ܶ

Syriac also has a verb ‫ ܰܚܡܣܢ‬, which Payne Smith says means the same as ‫ܰܚܣܢ‬

but “intensified.” She labels this as a “Pamel” conjugation. However, /m/ does not

occur as a regular means of deriving new verbs in Syriac. Rather, it is probably a

result of dissimilation: /ḥassen/ > /ḥamsen/. Is there really a difference in meaning

ܶ ‫ ? ܰܚ‬There are not many such cases. “To weave, twine” is ‫ ܰܚ ܶܣܢ‬and ‫ܡܣܢ‬ ܶ ܰ‫ ܥ‬is “to weave together, intertwine”; this may be a case of dissimilation in ܰ . ‫ܪܙܠ‬ ‫ܥܙܠ‬

between /r/.

Quadriradical verbs appear in two conjugations. One is the “basic” form, such as

ܶ ‫ ܰܬ‬, mentioned above. These are conjugated like strong triradicals in the paʿʿel. ‫ܠܡܕ‬ ܰ ܰ ܶ The other is a conjugation with infixed /t/, such as ‫ܐܬܬܠܡܕ‬. These are conjugated like strong triradicals in the ʾetpaʿʿal. As is the case with triradical verbs,

ܰ ‫ ܰܫ‬is “to quadriradical verbs with infixed /t/ can be passive, reflexive, or medial. ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ܰ

ܶ

ܰ ‫ ܐܫܬ‬is “to boast” (Text 19). glorify something”; ‫ܒܗܪ‬

There are different ways to analyze these verbal forms, and they can be chal-

lenging to find in a dictionary. One analysis says that since four consonants show on

the surface (at least for strong roots), each form has its own place in the dictionary.

Sokoloff has separate entries for the three roots ‫ܥܒܕ‬, ‫ܥܒܕܕ‬, and ‫ܫܥܒܕ‬. Payne Smith puts all three under the one entry

‫ܥܒܕ‬. She labels ‫ ܥܒܕܕ‬a Palpel and ‫ ܫܥܒܕ‬a Shaphel. Sokoloff puts ‫ ܛܦܛܦ‬under ‫ ;ܛܦܛܦ‬Payne Smith puts it under ‫ܛܦ‬. Under ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ ܰܫ‬a “Quad.” and ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ the root {š-b-h-r}, Sokoloff labels ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ‫ ܐ‬a “QuadRef.”

Payne Smith puts them under {b-h-r}, labelling them a “Shaphel” and a “Eshtaphal.”

ܶ

ܰ

ܰ

ܰ

ܶ

Likewise, Sokoloff calls ‫ ܬܠܡܕ‬a “Quad.” and ‫ ܐܬܬܠܡܕ‬a “QuadRef.” Payne Smith puts

ܶ ‫ܰܬ‬ ‫ܠܡܕ‬

alphabetically, labelling it a “Taphel.” But she also puts it under a

putative root {l-m-d}.

In addition to quadriradicals, Syriac has a number of other formations, some-

ܺ ‫ܬܚܙ‬ ܳ occurred in Text 1. From this comes ‫ܘܙܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ‫ܚܙܐ‬ ܰ boast.” ‫ ܚܠܡ‬is “to dream.” As might be expected,

times called “quinquiradicals.” ʾetḥzawzī, “to show off, to

ܰ ܰ ‫ ܶܐܬܚܠܡܠܡ‬ʾetḥlamlam is “to give forth seed of generation in sleep.”

Who coined these verbs? They are fun. Speakers of Syriac seemed to enjoy

creating such new forms, solely for their expressive value. How does one describe such formations? Where do they go in a dictionary? Sokoloff has an entry

‫“ ܚܠܡ‬to ܰ ܰ ܶ dream” and another entry ‫ ܚܠܡܠܡ‬for ‫ܐܬܚܠܡܠܡ‬, which he labels a “QuinqRef.” ܰ ܰ ܶ Payne Smith puts ‫ ܐܬܚܠܡܠܡ‬under ‫ܚܠܡ‬, calling it a “Ethpalal.” Similarly, Sokoloff ܺ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬a “QuinqRef.” Payne has one entry ‫ ܚܙܝ‬and another entry ‫ ;ܚܙܘܙܝ‬he labels ‫ܬܚܙܘܙܝ‬ ܺ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬under ‫ܚܙܐ‬, calling it a “Ethpeaual.” Smith puts ‫ܬܚܙܘܙܝ‬ Such forms are usually tucked away in one of the last chapters of the standard

teaching grammars of Syriac, labelled “other verbal conjugations” or such like. All the Semitic languages have odd-ball forms such as these, which do not fit neatly into

76

A READER IN SYRIAC

the usual categories and so cause problems for lexicographers. Some are preservations of archaic forms. Others are more recent coinages, used for their expressive value.

‫ ܝܐ‬TEXT THE ELEVENTH ‫ܝܐ‬ Story 397, from a section about dreams and their interpretations. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܶܚ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬

ܰ

ܳ

ܳ ‫ ܶܚ‬ḥelmānāyā is ḥelmā ‘dream’. The verb is ‫ ܚܠܡ‬ḥlam ‘to dream’. ‫ܠܡܢ ܳܝܐ‬

‘dreamlike’.

ܺ ܶ ܰ ‫ܢܩܠܐ ܁ ܰܩܠܝ‬

qallī nqallē ‘to fry, cook (something)’. The pʿal means the same thing,

but the paʿʿel is more common.

ܳ ‫ܒܥܘܪܐ‬ bʿūrā ‘dung’. The plural ‫ ܒܥܘ̈ܪܐ‬means ‘pieces of dung’. ̣ ܶ ܳ ‫ ܶܢܐܬܐ ܁ ܶܐܬܐ‬ʾetā nētē ‘to come, reach, arrive’, with ‫ܠܘܬ‬. This is a double-weak ܶ ܳ ̇ ܺ ‫ ܗܘ ܕܐܬ ܰܐ‬haw d-ātē is ‘the one who is coming’, that is, the Messiah. The ʾapʿel ‫ ܐܝܬܝ‬ʾaytī is ‘to bring’ (Text 22). verb: first-ʾālap and last-yod.

ܳ ‫ܠܘܬ‬

lwāt ‘towards, to; near’, a preposition. The etymology is unclear. As is the

ܶ ܰ

wont of Syriac, from this preposition comes a denominative verb in the ʾapʿel, ‫ܐܠܘܬ‬ ʾalwet, ‘to join together’.

ܰ ܳ ‫ܡܦ‬ ‫ܫܩ ܳܢܐ‬

mpaššqānā ‘(dream) interpreter’. This is another substantivized

participle in /-ān/. It can also mean ‘commentator’ and ‘translator’.

ܰ paššeq npaššeq ‘to interpret’. This is not used in the pʿal. ‫ܢܦ ܶܫܩ ܁ ܰܦ ܶܫܩ‬ ܳܳ ܰ ‫ ܰܦ‬paššar, the paʿʿel of a root ‫ܦܫܪܐ‬ pšārā ‘interpretation (of dreams)’. The verb is ‫ܫܪ‬ ending in /r/.

̄ ‫ܶܢ ܶܬܠ ܁ ܰܝ‬ ‫ܗܒ‬

yab nettel ‘to give’. The perfect comes from the root {y-h-b}, while the

imperfect come from a completely unrelated root {n-t-l}. The imperative, however,

‫ ܰܗܒ‬hab. The verb forms part of many ܰ ̄ ܶ idioms. ‫ ܰܝܗܒ ܢܦܫܗ ܠ‬is ‘to devote oneself to’.

comes from the root used for the perfect:

‫̣ܙܘ ܳܙܐ‬

zūzā ‘zuz (a small coin)’, from Akkadian zūzu. Its name derives from the verb

zâzu ‘to divide’. It is hard to say how much was its value at the time that Bar ʿEbrāyā was writing.

77

78

‫ܶܕܝܢ‬

A READER IN SYRIAC dēn ‘then’. This is Semitic in origin, with the meaning ‘then, therefore’. It often

begins a sentence. But its use was influenced by the Greek particle δέ, so that it can

also mean ‘but, on the other hand’. In this usage, ‫ ܕܝܢ‬does not begin a sentence; most commonly it follows the first word or phrase.

‫ܢܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

ܶ̈

nūnā ‘fish’, an old non-derived noun. ‫ܢܘܢܐ‬ ̣ is the constellation Pisces.

‫ܘܐܬܐ ܠܘܬ‬ ̣ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ̣ܚܙܐ ܒܚܠܡܗ ܐܝܟ ̇ܗܘ ܕܡܩܠܐ ܒܥܘ̈ܪܐ‬ ‫ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܡܦܫܩܢܐ ܕܗܒ ܠܝ ܙܘܙܐ‬.‫ܡܦܫܩܢܐ ܕܢܦܫܩ ܠܗ ܦܫܪܗ‬ ̇ ̈ ‫ܙܒܢܬ‬ .‫ ܕܐܠܘ ܐܝܬ ̄ܗܘܐ ܠܝ ܙܘܙܐ‬.‫ ̣ܗܘ ܕܝܢ ܦܢܝ‬.‫ܕܐܦܫܩ ܠܟ‬ ‫ܢܘܢܐ‬ ̇ ̇ ‫ܘܩܠܝܬ ܘܠܐ ܩܠܝܬ ܒܥܘ̈ܪܐ‬ Analysis 1

̄ is pretty vague! ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

ܳ , can take all kinds of complements. The most Verbs of perception, such as ‫ܚܙܐ‬ ܳ ܳ

common is a simple noun as direct object. ‫“ ܐܬܐ‬sign” occurred as an object in Text 1 and

ܳ ‫ܶܪ‬ ‫ܝܫ ܳܢܐ‬

“noble” in Text 3. It can also be continued by an object clause

̇

introduced by ‫( ܕ‬Text 23). Here it is followed by ‫“ ܐܝܟ ܗܘ ܕ‬as if.” This phrase was

used in Text 7. The sense here is “saw in his dream that he was frying.” Similar uses of ‫ ܐܝܟ‬in dream contexts occur throughout the Stories.

3

ܶ ܰ ‫ܡܩܠܐ‬ mqallē is a paʿʿel active participle from a last-weak root. ‫ ܠܘܬ‬often has the sense “to the place where someone is located.” ܶܰ ܶ The verb form ‫ ܐܦܫܩ‬is first-person imperfect of a paʿʿel verb. It is not read as

/ʾepaššeq/, as might be expected. In the case of first-person imperfect verb forms in the paʿʿel—and only in the specific case of such verb forms—the initial root consonant is pronounced long. If this consonant is a bgdkpt letter, it is pronounced as

a stop. This results in /ʾeppaššeq/. It might seem that the only reason this happens is

to cause grief to students of Syriac. More likely, the long consonant helps keep the /ʾe/ segment from becoming lost.

‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ has occurred several times. Here it changes to ‫ ̣ܗܘ ܕܝܢ ܦܢܝ‬. The use of ‫ ܕܝܢ‬adds an adversative sense: “But he replied,” or “He however replied.” This is a common use of ‫ ܕܝܢ‬in these stories. ‫ ܐܠܘ‬introduces the protasis of a counterfactual conditional sentence. This

particle first appeared in Text 3, in a complicated counterfactual condition set in the

past. Here, however, the sense is present tense: “If I had a zuz.” Such a construction

uses a verb in the perfect in both the protasis and the apodosis. Here the protasis is

̇ܶ ܶ ‫ܐܠܘ ܐܝܬ ̄ܗܘܐ ܠܝ ܙܘܙܐ‬. The apodosis is ‫ܒܢܬ‬ ‫ܙ‬. The phrasal dot helps to separate

the protasis from the apodosis.

TEXT THE ELEVENTH

79

̇ܶ ܶ ‫ܒܢܬ‬ ‫ ܙ‬zebnet is in the perfect, expressing the apodosis. The dot above the taw is

the dot that is used in Estrangela to mark the verb as first-person. As discussed at

Text 9, this particular dot moves around a lot. It is often left out. It hardly seems necessary here; the context is pretty unambiguous. 4

̇ ܺ ‫ܰܩܠܝܬ‬

is the paʿʿel of a first-person last-weak verb. In such forms, the

‫ܬ‬

is a

spirant: /qallīt/. In the second-person, written exactly the same way, the ‫ ܬ‬is a stop: /qallīt/. It is singularly difficult to remember this.

English needs a direct object pronoun after the transitive verb form “I would

fry,” but Syriac doesn’t; the context is clear. Syriac does not usually use a direct object in such predictable cases.

The story An amusing story, although it’s hard to say what the point is. Many of the

Entertaining Stories are just that: humorous yarns. However, we never do learn any

interpretation of the dream. The language

The oddity of an expected first-person paʿʿel imperfect /ʾepaššeq/ appearing as

/ʾeppaššeq/ was discussed above. It takes much practice to recognize such forms.

Even in fully vocalized texts, the problem is only visible when the first root consonant is a bgdkpt letter. In the book of Psalms, “I will sing your name” appears as

ܳ ܰ‫ܠ‬ ‫ܫܡܟ‬

‫ ܶܐ ܰܙ ܰܡܪ‬la-šmāk ʾezzammar. The Syriac writing system never developed a sign to mark ܰ ܶ long consonants. So how does one recognize that ‫ ܐ ܰܙܡܪ‬is /ʾezzammar/ and not /ʾezammar/?

Many tables of the conjugation of Syriac verbs use the root {q-ṭ-l} as the pattern

verb, but then the glitch is not visible. The tables that appear in Kiraz use the root

{k-t-b} as a pattern, and the verb forms are fully vocalized with quššāyā and rukkākā

dots: this is the only way we can ܶ see on the surface the long initial consonant. Kiraz

̇ ܰ̇ ܶ

cites this particular form as ‫ܒ‬ ̣ ‫ܐܟܬ‬, with a quššāyā dot over the kāp. Muraoka does the same, but also cites the form in transcription: ʾekkatteb. An instructive example is at Matthew 11:16, when Jesus says to his followers:

ܳ ܰ ̄ ܶ ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܠܫܪܒܬܐ‬ ‫ܠܡܢ ܶܕܝܢ ܐܕܡܝܗ‬

‫ ܳܗ ܶܕܐ‬l-man dēn ʾeddammēh l-šarbtā hādē, “To whom shall I compare this generation?” ܳ . ‫ ܰܕ ܺܡܝ‬dammī is the paʿʿel of ‫ܕܡܐ‬ ̄ The verb ‫ ܰܝܗܒ‬is a “suppletive” verb, that is, one whose principle parts come

from different roots: the perfect comes from {y-h-b} while the imperfect comes from

{n-t-l}. This is a survival in Syriac of an older Aramaic suppletive verb. In Biblical

Aramaic, for example, the perfect comes from {y-h-b}, while the imperfect comes

from {n-t-n}. This is apparently the only Syriac verb to behave in such a fashion.

80

A READER IN SYRIAC

Suppletive verbs are not uncommon in the languages of the world. One thinks of

English “to be” and “to go,” both of which draw on several originally different verbs. It is possible that {n-t-l} in Syriac is a blend of the root {n-t-n} “to give” and the

preposition /l/ “to,” which frequently follows the verb. When the preposition

̄ ‫ ܰܝ‬is followed by ‫ܗܒ‬

‫ ܠ‬with a suffix pronoun, it is possible toܶ write this as one word. “He ̄ ‫ ܰܝ‬and as ‫ܗܒܠܗ‬ ̄ ܰ ‫ܗܒ‬ ܳ ̄ ܰ ‫ܝ‬. The imperative “give me!” can be written ‫ ܗܒ ܠܝ‬and ‫ܗܒܠܝ‬. Text 27 uses ‫ ܝܗܒܠܟ‬yablāk, “he gave you.” ܺ ܺ This usage then became extended to a few other verbs. ‫ ܫܟܝܚܠܝ‬škīḥlī “there is found

gave to him” can be written both as ‫ܠܗ‬

to me” means “I have.”

̄ ‫ ܰܝ‬has further difficulties. First, its /h/ disappears in certain forms in the per‫ܗܒ‬

fect, namely, when the yod does not have a full vowel: /yhab/ > /yab/. Secondly,

ܰ /hab/, as seen in Text the imperative comes from the perfect, not the imperfect: ‫ܗܒ‬

11. Likewise, the active participle and the passive participle come from the perfect:

‫ ܳܝ ܶܗܒ‬/yāheb/ and ‫ ܺܝ ܺܗܝܒ‬/ʾīhīb/. Cognates

ܰ

ܳ

“To dream” in Syriac is ‫ ;ܚܠܡ‬the noun is ‫ ܶܚܠܡܐ‬. Hebrew has the verb ‫ ָח ַלם‬ḥālam

and the noun ‫ ֲחלוֹם‬ḥalōm. Arabic has َ �َ�َ � ḥalama and �ْ �ُ� ḥulm.

ܳ ‫ܶܐܬܐ‬

is the unmarked verb that means “to come” in Syriac. This occurs in

Biblical Hebrew, but it is rare; Hebrew uses the root ‫{ בּוא‬b-w-ʾ} instead. This root

does not occur in Syriac. Arabic however uses ‫ أ� �َى‬ʾatā. This story uses

ܳܳ ‫ܦܫܪܐ‬

for “interpretation.” In Biblical Hebrew, the noun ‫ֵפּ ֶשׁר‬

pešer “interpretation” occurs exactly once, in Ecclesiastes. It is undoubtedly a loan-

word from Aramaic. It then becomes common in Hebrew. In Daniel, the Biblical

Aramaic passages that talk about Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams use ‫ ִפּ ְשׁ ָרא‬pišrā.

ܶ ܰ

Text 11 uses forms from the root {p-š-q} to mean “to explain.” The verb is ‫ܦܫܩ‬.

This is a metaphorical use; the basic meaning of

‫ ܰܦ ܶܫܩ‬is “to break to pieces.” This

metaphorical use does not occur in Hebrew or Arabic.

Words for “fish” take on several forms in the Semitic languages. Syriac uses

‫ܢܘܢܐ‬. Hebrew uses a totally unrelated word: ‫ ָדּג‬dāḡ. The word ‫ נוּן‬nūn occurs in the

Hebrew Bible, but only as a proper name. In Arabic, the unmarked word for “fish” is

completely unrelated, �َ �َ‫ �َم‬samaka. ‫ نون‬nūn in Arabic means a really big fish. Some think that the Arabic is a borrowing from Aramaic. The prophet Jonah is known in Arabic as ‫ ذو النون‬dhū al-nūn, “He of the big fish.”

‫ ܝܒ‬TEXT THE TWELFTH ‫ܝܒ‬ Story 376, from a section about animals speaking. Vocabulary

‫ܥܶ ܳܙܐ‬

ʿezzā ‘goat’, either male or female. The form was originally /ʿenzā/. The

vowelless nūn has assimilated into the zayn. The nūn is preserved in the construct,

because it is followed by a vowel:

ܳܰ

pattern paʿʿāl, is ‫ ܥܢ ܳܙܐ‬/ʿannāzā/.

ܳ ‫ܶܐ ܳܓܪܐ‬

ܶ ‫ܥܢܙ‬

/ʿnez/. In like fashion, ‘goatherd’, on the

ʾeggārā ‘roof’. It may or may not come from Akkadian igāru, which may

or may not come from Sumerian.

mentioned at Text 26.

ܳ ‫ܰܒܪ ܶܐ ܳܓܪܐ‬

bar ʾeggārā, a type of demon, is

ܳ ܳ ‫ܩܝܡܬܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ̇ yōm qyāmtā is ‘Easter’. ‫ܕܩ ܶܐܡ‬ ܳ ‫ ܟܠ‬kull qyāmtā is ‘resurrection’, and so ‫ܩܝܡܬܐ‬ ‫ܝܘܡ‬

‫ܢܩܘܡ ܁ ܳܩܡ‬ ̣

qām nqūm ‘to stand, stand up’, from {q-w-m}. The noun

d-qāʾem is ‘everything that exists’.

ܰ ‫ܢܨܥܰܪ ܁ ܰܨܥܰܪ‬

ܳ ܰ ṣʿar is ‘to be disgraced’. ‫ܨܥܪܐ‬ ṣaʿrā is ‘abuse; reproach’.

ܳ ‫ܺܕ‬ ‫ܐܒܐ‬

dībā ‘wolf’. The Syriac form was originally /diʾbā/, going back to /diʾbā/.

The ‫ ܐ‬is now a vowel-letter. A ‘she-wolf’ is

ܳ ‫ܟܬܐ‬ ‫ܕܘ‬ ܳ ̣

ܰ

ṣaʿʿar nṣaʿʿar ‘to insult, taunt’, the paʿʿel of a root ending in /r/. ‫ܨܥܪ‬

ܳ ‫ ܺܕܐܒܬܐ‬dībtā.

dukktā ‘place’. The etymology is unsure. The plural is most commonly

‫ܕܘ ̈ܟ ܳܝܬܐ‬ ̣ dukkyātā.

‫ܘܬ ܠܕܐܒܐ܂‬ ̣ ‫ܘܬ ܡܨܥܪܐ ̄ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܥܙܐ ܚܕܐ ܟܕ ܥܠ ܐܓܪܐ ̇ܩܝܡܐ ̄ܗ‬ ̄ ̇ ̇ ‫̣ܐܡܪ‬ ‫ܕܒܗ‬ ‫ܠܗ ܕܐܒܐ܂ ܠܘ ܐܢܬܝ̄ ̇ܗܝ ܕܠܝ ܡܨܥܪܐ܂ ܐܠܐ ܕܘܟܬܐ‬ ̄‫̇ܩܝܡܐ ܐܢ̄ܬܝ‬ Analysis 1

The use of

‫ ܚܕܐ‬instead of ‫ ܚܕ‬shows that ‫ ܥܙܐ‬is a female goat. In the case of

some animals, the feminine is used when the gender doesn’t matter.

81

82

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܟܕ‬introduces a temporal clause. The subject of ‫ ̇ܩܝܡܐ‬is ‫ܥܙܐ‬, the first word in

the story. This results in the subject preceding the temporal clause. This is a common formulation in the Stories; another instance occurs in Text 24.

‫̇ܩܝܡܐ‬

emphatic.

is the feminine absolute of the active participle, not the masculine

The syntax is nice. By putting the prepositional phrase

‫ ܥܠ ܐܓܪܐ‬in front of ̄ ̇ the nominal predicate ‫ܘܬ‬ ̣ ‫ܩܝܡܐ ܗ‬, we are subtly cued to expect that the roof will be a significant player in the story.

ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܨܥܪܐ ̄ܗ ܳܘ ̣ܬ‬ is the main verb. ‫ ܠ‬introduces the direct object, ‫ܕܐܒܐ‬. ‫ ܕܐܒܐ‬has an indefinite sense, “a wolf.” In its next appearance, ‫ ܕܐܒܐ‬has a definite sense. 2

The direct speech of the wolf is not marked.

‫ ܠܘ‬law is the

negative particle seen in Text 5. It is commonly used to negate

nouns and subject pronouns, as here. The sense is: “It’s not you who is the one…” A

clause in ‫ ܠܘ‬is frequently followed by ‫ܐܠܐ‬, which contrasts the thought: “But rather

it is…”

‫̇ܗܝ ܕ‬

hay d- is “the one who,” in the feminine. Syriac frequently uses the

demonstrative pronoun where English would use a simple pronoun.

‫ ܠܝ‬is the direct object of the active participle, preceding it for prominence. Now comes the clause in ‫ܐܠܐ‬.

The story An amusing story. In this section of the book all kinds of critters speak, including

lions, dogs, foxes, owls, beetles, and others. The language

ܶ ܳ ‫ ܶܟ‬/kenšā/; the vowelless nūn is preserved. This is prefor “crowd,” however, is ‫ܢܫܐ‬ sumably because ‫“ ܥܙܐ‬goat” is a non-derived noun. ‫“ ܟܢܫܐ‬crowd” however, The word for “goat” is ‫ ܥ ܳܙܐ‬/ʿezzā/, with total assimilation of the nūn. The word

derives from a verbal root, and in such forms assimilation does not usually occur: the force of the root structure blocks such assimilation.

Syriac has a few common nouns where the assimilation of nūn takes place, but

the nūn is preserved in the writing system, with a linea over it. Three of the more

̄

̄

̄

frequent ones are ‫“ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬woman,” ‫“ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬city,” and ‫“ ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ship.” Manuscript variation The LeedsMS and the VatMS both begin the story with

omits

‫ܥܙܐ ܚܕܐ‬. The BLMS

‫ܚܕܐ‬. As far back as Imperial Aramaic, ‫ ܚܕ‬had started to weaken into an in-

definite article, and so such manuscript variation is not uncommon.

TEXT THE TWELFTH

83

Cognates The word for “goat,” Syriac

‫ܥܶ ܳܙܐ‬, is ‫ ִﬠז‬ʿiz in Hebrew. The nūn has totally dis-

appeared. In the plural, however, its former existence is shown through a long zayn:

‫ ִﬠזִּ ים‬ʿizzīm. Both Syriac and Hebrew typically assimilate a nūn when it is in syllablefinal position in nouns. Other Semitic languages don’t. “Goat” is �ْ �َ� ʿanz in Arabic. {q-w-m} “to stand” appears in all three languages: Syriac

‫ ܳܩܡ‬qām, Hebrew ‫ָקם‬

The original form of the word for “wolf,” Syriac

dībā is preserved in

qām, Arabic َ ‫ قَام‬qāma.

‫ܕܐܒܐ‬

Arabic ‫ ذِئ ْب‬diʾb. In Hebrew, it changes, as expected, to ‫ זְ ֵאב‬zʾeb. Loanwords

Sokoloff considers

ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܳܓܪܐ‬to be a loanword from Akkadian. As was mentioned

at Text 2, some scholars see more Akkadian loanwords in Syriac than do other scholars. Sokoloff is one of these. If one is seriously interested in etymology, one has to go beyond Sokoloff, to more primary sources.

‫ ܝܓ‬TEXT THE THIRTEENTH ‫ܝܓ‬ Story 239, from a section of the Book entitled “Useful sayings of the Muslim kings and their advisers.” Some Muslim kings are mentioned by name, others (including the king in this story) are not identified. Vocabulary

ܳ ܰ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܒܕܐ‬

ܳ

ܰ

ʿabdā ‘slave, servant’. As was the case with ‫ܐܡܬܐ‬, it can be difficult to

translate this word into English, but ‘slave’ fits most contexts best. ‘Slaves, sons of

slaves’

ܰ ‫ܥܰ ̈ܒ ܶܕܐ‬ ‫ܒܢܝ ܥܰ ̈ܒ ܶܕܐ‬

occurred in Text 4.

ܳ ̇ ‫ܙܥܘܪܐ‬

means ‘slaves born into slavery’. The verb

ܰ ‫ܥܒܕ‬

ʿbad

‫ ܙܥܰܪ‬zʿar is ‘to ܳ ܳ ܰ ܰ ̇ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܙܥܘ̈ܪܝ ܗܝܡ‬zʿōray

zʿōrā ‘small, young’, used of size and of age. The verb

become less’. At Matthew 6:30, Jesus rails away at

haymānūtā, ‘ye of little faith’, more literally, ‘little of faith’.

ܳ ̇ ‫ܣܟܘܠܐ‬ ‫ܶܐ‬

ʾeskōlā ‘lecture room, school’, a loanword from Greek σχολή (which is

also the source of English ‘school’). It can be spelled in a variety of ways. This story

̇

writes the plural as ‫ܐܣܟܘܠܘܤ‬.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢܬܟܪܗ ܁ ܶܐܬܟܪܗ‬

ʾetkrah netkrah ‘to fall sick’, from {k-r-h}, one of the few roots

in Syriac with /h/ as a final root-consonant. Finite verbal forms in the pʿal do not

seem to occur, although the adjective

ܺ ܳ ‫ܟܪ‬ ‫ܝܗܐ‬

krīhā ‘sick’ is common.

kurhānā is the most common word for ‘sickness’.

ܺ lowed by ‫ܡܝܬ‬, discussed immediately below.

‫ܢܡܘܬ ܁ ܺܡܝܬ‬ ̣

ܳ ‫ܟܘ‬ ‫ܪܗ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

‫ ܐܬܟܪܗ‬is not infrequently fol-

mīt nmūt ‘to die’, from {m-w-t}. This is a very rare type of middle-

ܳ

ܰ

weak verb: one with /ī/ in the perfect and /ū/ in the imperfect. The noun ‫ܡܘܬܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܺܡܝܬܐ‬mītā ‘dead’ occurs in Text 27. The ܳ ܰ ܶ ܳ ‫ܘܬܐ ̄ܗ ܳܘܐ ܟܘ‬ phrase ‫ܪܗܢܗ‬ ‫ ܕܡ‬d-mawtā-wā ̣

mawtā occurred in Text 8. The adjective

ʾapʿel

‫ܰܐ ܺܡܝܬ‬

ʾamīt is ‘to kill’. The

kurhāneh means ‘his sickness was of death’, that is, ‘his sickness was fatal’.

‫ ܶܐܝܢ‬ʾēn ‘yes; indeed’, an interjection. ܺ ‫ܓܗܐ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܢ‬ʾaḡhī naḡhē ‘to escape’, from {g-h-y}. According to Payne Smith, ‫ܓܗܝ‬

the pʿal

ܳ usually means to escape from some physical trouble, but the ʾapʿel ‫ܓܗܐ‬

ܺ ‫ ܰܐ‬means to escape ‘especially from bodily or mental pains or evils’. ‫ܓܗܝ‬ 85

86

A READER IN SYRIAC

̈ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ̈ ̇ ‫ܡܠܟܐ ܥܒܕܐ ܐܝܬ ̄ܗܘܐ ܠܗ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬ ‫ܕܝܠܦ ̄ܗܘܐ‬ ‫ܒܢܝ‬ ‫ ܘܟܕ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܡܠܟܐ‬.‫ ܡܚܕܐ ܐܬܟܪܗ ܘܡܝܬ‬.‫ܥܡܗ ܒܐܣܟܘܠܘܤ‬. ‫ܗܘ ܕܝܢ ܦܢܝ ܕܐܝܢ ܡܝܬ ܘܐܓܗܝ ܡܢ‬ ̣ ̄‫ܕܡܝܬ ܠܗ ܥܒܕܟ ܒܪܝ‬ ‫ܐܣܟܘܠܘܤ‬ Analysis 1

̄ is used rather mechanically to introduce a number of stories in this ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬

section of the book. The sense is “some prince or other.” The immediately preceding

̈ ܰ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ̄ “some king or other.” This results here in a

Story 238 starts out ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬

case of extraposition: “A prince...he had a young slave.”

‫ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬refers all the way back to ‫ܥܒܕܐ‬. This is typical Syriac syntax: a phrase

is interposed between a noun and its adjective. As the superlinear dot shows,

‫̇ܝܠܦ‬

is the active participle yālep, “studying,

learning.” The same form occurred in Text 7.

̇

2

The plural ‫ ܐܣܟܘܠܘܤ‬originally meant “lecture rooms,” but “school” in English

3

In ‫ܠܗ‬

fits the story.

‫ܡܝܬ‬, ‫ ܠܗ‬is a classic dative of disadvantage, discussed at Text 5. This is the most common way to express “he died.” It is hard to capture the ‫ ܠܗ‬in English. The vocative comes at the end of the phrase; English prefers to put it first.

ܳ

ܶ

“Son” in the emphatic state is ‫ ܒܪܐ‬/brā/. “My son” is ̄‫ ܒܪܝ‬/ber/. Such forms are

difficult to remember; they are discussed below. The interjection

‫ ܐܝܢ‬has many nuances. Here one can picture the young prince

saying “Well, yes, that’s true, but at least…” The

‫ ܘ‬in front of ‫ ܐܓܗܝ‬seems rather bland. English requires a stronger con-

junction.

The story An amusing story, one that all of us could relate to, at one time or another. The language Several of the nouns that describe family relationships in Syriac, including ‫ܒܪܐ‬,

were originally formed from two consonants, not three. When the possessive pronouns are added to these short nouns, problems can occur. In the case of

‫ܒܪܐ‬,

when there is a vowel after the /r/ the /b/ is vowelless. But if there is no vowel after

the /r/ the /b/ carries a neutral vowel /e/:

TEXT THE THIRTEENTH

̄‫ܶܒܪܝ‬

my son

87

/ber/

As always, the first-person possessive pronoun is not pronounced. This

leaves the /r/ without a vowel, so the vowel on the bet is /e/.

ܳ ‫ܒܪܟ‬ ܶ ̄ ‫ܒܪ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܒܪܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܒܪ ̇ܗ‬

your (m) son your (f) son his son

her son

/brāk/

/brek/

/breh/

/brāh/

ܳ

The forms for “daughter” ‫ ܰܒܪܬܐ‬/bartā/ are studied in Text 18.

̄

In ‫ܥܒܕܐ ܐܝܬ ܗܘܐ ܠܗ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬, the adjective comes at the end of the phrase.

This is good Syriac. As seen earlier, it is possible for both noun-adjective phrases and

for construct phrases to be split by words and entire phrases. Placing ‫ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬at the

end of the sentence gives the adjective a little extra prominence. This text uses the dative of disadvantage to good advantage.

Cognates

ܳ ܰ‫ ܥ‬has its cognates in Hebrew ‫ ֶﬠ ֶבד‬ʿebed and Arabic ‫ عَب ْد‬ʿabd. ‫ܒܕܐ‬ The ‫ ܙ‬in ‫ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬is unexpected. The Hebrew cognate is ‫ ָצ ִﬠיר‬ṣāʿīr and the Arabic

cognate is

‫ܨܥܘܪܐ‬

��ِ ‫ صَغ‬ṣāḡīr, both with /ṣ/, so one would expect a Syriac form such as

ṣʿōrā. Presumably the /ṣ/ before the /ʿ/ reduced to a phonetically less

complex consonant /z/.

Loanwords Greek words borrowed into Syriac can be spelled in a variety of ways,

sometimes with the emphatic ending, sometimes without. The word for “lecture hall” in the singular is usually spelled

‫ܐܣܟܘܠܘܤ‬.

‫ܐܣܟܘܠܐ‬,

although the plural is spelled

The word for “snake,” however (often meaning specifically the

ܶ

ܶ

Egyptian viper) always appears as ‫ ܐܣܦܤ‬ʾespes, without the emphatic ending.

‫ ܝܕ‬TEXT THE FOURTEENTH ‫ܝܕ‬ Story 209, from a section entitled “Useful sayings of the Christian ascetics.” This story concerns Saint Ammon, one of the most well-known ascetics in Egypt. He died

perhaps about the year 320. He also appears in Story 203. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܰܩ ܺܕ‬ ‫ܝܫܐ‬

qaddīšā ‘holy, saint’. Many words having to do with ritual purity and such

ܶ ܶ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܢ‬netqaddaš šmāk, ܳ Prayer, it says ‫ܬܩܕܫ ܫܡܟ‬

like come from the root {q-d-š}. The verb is not used in the pʿal, but in the paʿʿel ‫ܰܩܕܫ‬ qaddeš is ‘to sanctify’. In the Lord’s

“May your name be blessed.”

̇ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܡܘܢ‬

ʾAmmōn ‘Ammon’. This name of the Christian saint preserves the name of

the ancient Egyptian god Amon (which may mean ‘The hidden one’). That name

would have been given to him by his pagan parents. Other ascetics bore the same name. Other such pre-Christian names of ascetics include Bes and Apollo.

ܳ ‫ܒܬܘܠܐ‬ ̣

btūlā ‘chaste, celibate, virgin, unmarried’. This does not seem to have a

ܳ

verbal root. The feminine is ‫ܒܬܘܠܬܐ‬ btūltā. ̣

ܺ ܶ ܳ is ‘to force, compel’. ‫ܬܥܨܝ‬ ‫ܬܥܨܐ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾetʿṣī netʿṣē ‘to be forced’. ‫ܥܨܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒܐ‬ʾabā ‘father’, a non-derived noun. It has two plurals. ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒ ̈ܗܐ‬ʾabāhē is used

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒ ̈ܗܬܐ‬ʾabāhātā is used of metaphorical fathers. ܳ ܳ ‫̈ܪܘ ܳܚ ܳܢ ܶܝܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒ ̈ܗܬܐ‬ʾabāhātā rūḥānāyē are ‘spiritual fathers’. ‫ ܐܒܐ‬eventually percoof biological fathers while

lates into English as ‘abbott’. The word for ‘mother’ comes from a completely

ܳ ܶ

different base: ‫ ܐܡܐ‬ʾemmā (Text 26).

ܳ ܶ‫ܠ‬ ‫ܠܝܐ‬

lelyā ‘night’, an ancient noun. It may go back to a reduplicated base /laylay/.

ܶ ̈ܰ

ܳ ܳ ܰ ̈ܰ

It has the two plurals ‫ ܠܝܠܐ‬laylē and ‫ ܠܝܠܘܬܐ‬laylawwātā.

ܳ ‫ܫܬܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܶܡ‬

meštūtā ‘wedding feast, banquet’, a noun of place from {š-t-y} ‘to

drink’. ‫ ܒܝܬ ܡܫܬܘܬܐ‬is a ‘banqueting hall’.

ܳ ‫ܰܟܠܬ ܶܐ‬

kalltā ‘bride’, from {k-l-l}. The verb is not used in the pʿal, but in the paʿʿel

‫ ܰܟܠܠ‬kallel is ‘to complete’ and ‘to crown’.

89

90

A READER IN SYRIAC

̇ ‫ܓܢܘ ܳܢܐ‬

gnōnā ‘bridal chamber’. This may or may not come from Sumerian, via

̇

Akkadian. It has several uses. ‫ܕܓܢܘܢܐ‬

feast’ occurs at Matthew 9:15.

ܶ ‫ܰܒܪ ܳܫܥܬܗ‬

̈ bnaw da-ḡnōnā ‘guests of the wedding‫ܒܢܘ ̄ܗܝ‬

bar šāʿteh ‘immediately’, an adverb. Literally, this is ‘son of its hour’.

ܳ

ܳ

ܳ ‫ܒܪ‬. In Text 6, ‫ܕܫܥܬܐ‬ ܳ appeared. As was mentioned at Text It also appears as ‫ܫܥܬܐ‬ 2, many idiomatic expressions are formed with the construct ‫ܒܪ‬.

‫ܰܢ ܶܦܩ ܁ ܰܐ ܶܦܩ‬

ʾappeq nappeq ‘to take out, remove’, a first-nūn verb in the ʾapʿel. ܶ ‫ ܰܐ ܶܦܩ ̈ܶܫ‬ʾappeq šēdē are both ‘to cast out demons’. ‫ ܰܐ ܶܦܩ ܰܕ ̈ܝ ܶܘܐ‬ʾappeq daywē and ‫ܐܕܐ‬ ܰ In the pʿal, ‫ ܢܦܩ‬npaq is ‘to go out’ (Text 20). ܳ ܺ ‫ ܫܠ‬šlīḥā ‘apostle’, the passive participle from ‫ ܫܠܰܚ‬šlaḥ ‘to send’. ‫ ܫܠܝܚܐ‬also ‫ܝܚܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܫܠ‬šlīḥāyā is ‘apostolic’. means ‘messenger’ and ‘emissary’. ‫ܝܚ ܳܝܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܦܘܠܘܤ‬

Pawlāws ‘Paul’. Syriac gets the name from Greek, but it is of Latin origin,

‘Paulus’ or ‘Paullus’ meaning ‘small’.

‫ܥܘ ܳܒܐ‬ ̣ ʿubbā ܺ ܶ ‫ܰܢܪܬܐ ܁ ܰܐܪܬܝ‬

‘bosom, chest; pocket’, apparently a non-derived noun. ʾartī nartē ‘to admonish, berate’. The verb is apparently not used in

ܶ

ܳ ‫ ܪ‬retyā ‘admonition’ does occur. the pʿal or paʿʿel, although the noun ‫ܬܝܐ‬

ܶ ܶ ‫ܰܢܠܦ ܁ ܰܐܠܦ‬

ʾallep nallep ‘to teach’, a first-ʾālap verb in the paʿʿel from {ʾ-l-p}.

Regularly in the imperfect and active participle paʿʿel of first-ʾālap verbs, the glottal

stop drops in pronunciation, and the /a/ vowel shifts forward: /nʾallep/ > /nallep/.

ܶ ܰ

With this particular root, it is common for the ‫ ܐ‬to be dropped in spelling: ‫ ܢܠܦ‬and

ܶ ܶ ܶ ‫ ܰܡܠܦ‬. Occasionally, however, spellings such as ‫ ܰܢܐܠܦ‬and ‫ ܰܡܐܠܦ‬are encountered. ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬mallpānā ‘teacher’ occurred in Text 7. ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܛܠܝܬܐ‬ṭlītā ‘young girl’. The masculine ‫ ܰܛ ܳܠܝܐ‬ṭalyā ‘young boy’ occurs in Text 21. All such terms are rather imprecise as to age. When in Mark 5:41 Jesus tells a little

̄ ‫ܩܘ‬ girl to rise, he says to her: ταλιθα κουμ. In the Peshiṭta, this appears as ‫ܡܝ‬ ̣ ܰ

ṭlītā qūm. Mark continues with ‫ܘܒܪ ܫܥܬܗ ܳܩܡܬ ܛܠܝܬܐ‬.

ܳ ‫ܶܡܠܬܐ‬

ܳ ܺ ‫ܛܠܝܬܐ‬

melltā ‘word, saying’. It can also mean the faculty of speech. Although

grammatically feminine, it takes its plural in /ē/:

ܶ ܶ ‫ ̈ܡܠܐ‬mellē. On the one hand, it

does not look like a non-derived noun. On the other hand, no verbal forms from a pʿal are attested. The paʿʿel

‫ܛܘ ܳܒ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

commonly,

ṭūbānā

ܶ ‫ ܰܡܠܠ‬mallel ‘to speak’ looks like a denominative.

‘blessed’, an adjective/noun in /-ān/ from {ṭ-w-b}. Most

‫ ܛܘܒܢܐ‬is used as a honorific before the names of important religious

TEXT THE FOURTEENTH figures. The feminine ends in /-ītā/:

ܳ

91

ܳ ܺ ܳ ܺ ܳ ܰ ‫ܝܬܐ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܛܘ ܳܒܢܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܛܘܒܢ‬ ̣ . Mary is called ‫ܪܝܡ‬ ̣ .

The adverb ‫‘ ܛܒ‬better’ occurred in Text 7.

ܳ ‫ܠܘܬܐ‬ btūlūtā ‘chastity, virginity’. ̣ ‫ܒܬܘ‬ ̣ ܳ ‫ ܰܫ ܺܦܝܪܐ‬šappīrā ‘lovely.’ In this Text it is used somewhat metaphorically; in Text

ܳ ܺ ܰ ܳ ܺ ܰ ‫ܘܚܙܐ ܰܐܠ ܳܗܐ‬ ܳ “and God saw that it was is ‘beauty’. In Genesis, it says: ‫ܕܫܦܝܪ‬ ܺ ܰ ܰ beautiful.” In the absolute, ‫ ܫܦܝܪ‬is an adverb, ‘well’. ‫ ܫܦܝܪ ܕܥ‬šappīr daʿ is an

22 it is used of physical beauty. The verb ‫ ܫܦܪ‬špar is ‘to become lovely’. ‫ܝܪܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܫܦ‬

imperative, ‘Know well’.

ܰܰ ܶ ܰܰ ܶ ‫ܬܩܪܒ‬ ‫ܬܩܪܒ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬ ܶ

ʾetqarrab netqarrab ‘to approach’. It can also mean ‘to have

sex’. The paʿʿel ‫‘ ܰܩܪܒ‬to bring near’ occurred in Text 9.

‫ܶܓܝܪ‬

gēr ‘truly, indeed’, a particle. This is thought to have a Semitic pedigree, but

its usage has been influenced by Greek γάρ. It typically occurs in second place in the sentence.

ܳ ܰ ܳ dkā ‘to be clean, pure’. ‫ܟܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܕ‬dakyūtā ‘purity’. The verb is ‫ܕܟܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬rnā nernē ‘to reflect, meditate on’, with ‫ܒ‬. ܳ ‫ܪܢܐ ܁‬ ‫ܪܢܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ ܰܦܓܪܐ‬paḡrā ‘body’, a non-derived noun. ‫ܓܪ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ ܦ‬paḡrānā is the adjective ‘bodily, ܰ ܰ

ܶ

carnal’, and from this comes the quadriradical verb ‫ ܐܬܦܓܪܢ‬ʾetpaḡran ‘to become

incarnate’. At Matthew 6:22, Jesus says “The eye is the lamp of the body,”

ܳ ‫ܫܪ ܳܓܐ‬

ܶ ܺ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܰ‫ܝܗ ܥ‬ ܰ ‫“ ܰܚܕ‬We are one body in ܰ ‫ܚܢܢ‬ ̇ ‫ܝܬ‬ ܺ ‫ܦܓܪ ܰܒ‬ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܦܓܪܐ ܐ‬. Paul says that ‫ܝܚܐ‬ Christ.”

‫ܪܘ ܳܚܐ‬ ̣

rūḥā ‘wind, spirit, soul’ (fem), presumably a non-derived noun. It has two

ܳ ‫̈ܪܘ ܶܚܐ‬ ̣ and ‫̈ܪܘ ܳܚܬܐ‬ ̣ . In the case of the term ‘Holy Spirit’, ‫ ܪܘܚܐ‬is usually ܳ ‫ܪܘ ܳܚܐ ܰܩ ܺܕ‬ treated as grammatically masculine: ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ̣ . ܳ ܺ ܰ ‫ܡܟܝܪܬܐ‬ mkīrtā ‘betrothed woman’. The verb ‫ ܡܟܪ‬mkar is ‘to marry’ (Text 22). ܰ‫ ܡܟܪ‬has many connotations; it can mean ‘to purchase a woman as a wife’. ܳ ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܝܟܠܐ‬ ‫ܗ‬ hayklā ‘palace, temple’, ultimately from Sumerian. Mary is called ‫ܗܝܟܠܗ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܕܐܠ ܳܗܐ‬haykleh d-alāhā.

plurals,

̄ ‫ܐܒܗ‬ ̈ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ ܥܠ ܩܕܝܫܐ ܐܡܘܢ ܒܬܘܠܐ܂ ܕܟܕ ܐܬܥܨܝ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܕܢܣܒ ܐܢܬܬܐ ܒܗ ܒܠܠܝܐ ܕܡܫܬܘܬܐ ܡܚܕܐ ܕܥܠ ܥܡ ܟܠܬܐ‬ ‫ܠܓܢܘܢܐ ܒܪ ܫܥܬܗ ܐܦܩ ܟܬܒܐ ܕܫܠܝܚܐ ܦܘܠܘܤ ܡܢ ܥܘܒܗ‬

92

A READER IN SYRIAC

̈ ‫ܘܡܪܬܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ܘܡܠܦ ܠܛܠܝܬܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܕܟܬܝܒܢ ̄ܗ ̈ܘܝ ܠܛܘܒܢܐ ܥܠ‬ ‫ܒܡܠܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܒܬܘܠܘܬܐ܂ ܟܕ ̇ܐܡܪ ܕܫܦܝܪ ̄ܗܘ ܠܓܒܪܐ ܕܠܐܢܬܬܐ ܠܐ ܢܬܩܪܒ܂‬ ̈ ‫ܐܢܐ ܕܟܠܗܘܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܐ ܓܝܪ ̇ܨܒܐ‬ ‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ ܐܟܘܬܝ̄ ܢܗܘܘܢ ܒܕܟܝܘܬܐ܂‬ ̄ ̇ ‫ܒܡܪܗ‬ ‫ܗܘܬ܂ ܪܢܝܐ‬ ‫ܘܬܘܒ ̣ܐܡܪ ܕܐܢܬܬܐ ܐܝܕܐ ܕܠܓܒܪܐ ܠܐ‬ ̣ ̈ ̇ ̇ ‫ܒܦܓܪܗ‬ ‫ܕܬܗܘܐ ܩܕܝܫܐ‬ ‫ܘܒܡܠܐ ܕܐܝܟ ܗܠܝܢ ܐܪܬܝ‬ ‫ܘܒܪܘܚܗ܂‬ ̈ ‫ܗܝܟܠܐ ܠܪܘܚܐ ܩܕܝܫܐ‬ ‫ܠܡܟܝܪܬܗ܂ ܘܥܒܕ ܦܓ̈ܪܝܗܘܢ‬ Analysis 1

Text 3 and Text 9 also begin with ‫ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬.

‫ ܩܕܝܫܐ‬and ‫ ܫܠܝܚܐ‬typically precede their proper names. Our protagonist is also called ‫ܒܬܘܠܐ‬. In this context, “celibate” might be the most apt translation. ‫ ܶܡܢ‬is ܳ regularly used to express the agent of a verb in the ʾetpʿel. ̄ ‫ ܰܐ ̈ܒ ܰܗ‬ʾabāhaw is “his parents.” Since Syriac lacks a dual, it uses the plural ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ܶ ̈ܳ ܰ ܰ of ‫“ ܐ ܳܒܐ‬father” to express “parents.” ‫ ܐܒܗܐ‬ʾabāhē is the plural that is used of biological fathers.

̄

ܰ means “to marry.” ‫ܢܣܒ‬ ‫ ܶܢ ܰܣܒ‬nessab is the imperfect. A form written ‫ ܢܣܒ‬is ambiguous: it can represent ܰ ܰ ܶ the perfect ‫ ܢܣܒ‬nsab (without a sublinear dot) or the imperfect ‫ ܢܣܒ‬nessab. This 2

ܰ

The verb ‫ ܢܣܒ‬first occurred in Text 6. ‫ܐܢܬܬܐ‬

ambiguity only obtains with verbs that take /a/ as the stem vowel in the imperfect. If the stem vowel is /o/, this is written with waw, and so no problem occurs. “To leave” is ‫ ܢܦܩ‬npaq in the perfect but ‫ ܢܦܘܩ‬neppoq in the imperfect. The clue in this

text is the context: ‫ ܢܣܒ‬is part of a purpose clause introduced by ‫ܕ‬, and so must be an imperfect.

‫ ܒܗ‬anticipates the genitive phrase ‫ܒܠܠܝܐ ܕܡܫܬܘܬܐ‬. ܳ ‫ ܶܡ‬usually functions as an adverb, “immediately, right away,” as in Text 9. ‫ܚܕܐ‬ With the particle ‫ܕ‬, it functions as a conjunction, “as soon as.” 3 After the long temporal clause that started with ‫ܟܕ‬, comes the main verb ‫ܐܦܩ‬ ʾappeq.

‫ܥܘ ܳܒܐ‬ ̣ ʿubbā is “chest, bosom” and “pocket.” Perhaps the good saint had Paul’s

writings in a pouch hung from his neck. Or perhaps there was a pocket on his robe. 4

The main verb

ܶ ‫ ܐܦܩ‬is in the perfect. This is continued by ‫ ܰܡܪܬܐ ̄ܗ ܳܘܐ‬, an

active participle-enclitic copula. This is a common construction in Syriac. The first

verb indicates a one-time action, the second indicates continued action. English

needs an introductory verb before the participle, such as “he began to.” At Matthew

ܶ ܰ ܰ ‫ܘܡܠܦ ̄ܗ ܳܘܐ‬ ‫ܦܘ ܶܡܗ‬ ‫“ ܦܬܚ‬opened his mouth and began ̣ ܶ ܰ to ܶ ܰ ܳ ̄ teach.” In our text, ‫ ܡܪܬܐ ܗܘܐ‬is followed by a second active participle ‫ܡܠܦ‬. ܶ ܰ ܶ ܰ ܳ ̄ Since ‫ ܗܘܐ‬was already used with ‫ܡܪܬܐ‬, there is no need to repeat it after ‫ܡܠܦ‬. 5:2, it says that Jesus

TEXT THE FOURTEENTH Ammon’s wife-to-be is called

12 years old.

93

‫ܛܠܝܬܐ‬, “young girl.” She may have been about

The sentence is replete with prepositions. The ‫ ܠ‬before

‫ ܛܠܝܬܐ‬marks it as the ̈ direct object of the active participle ‫ܡܠܦ‬. The ‫ ܒ‬before ‫ ܡܠܐ‬is used to mark the contents of what is being taught. The ‫ ܠ‬before ‫ ܛܘܒܢܐ‬marks the agent, “written by.” Lastly, the ‫ ܥܠ‬before ‫ ܒܬܘܠܘܬܐ‬marks “concerning.” ܳ ‫ ܶܡܠܬܐ‬melltā is one of several Syriac nouns that are grammatically feminine, but, for no particular reason, in the plural take the ending that is typically associated ܶ ܶ̈ with the masculine: ‫ܡܠܐ‬. Although such plural nouns look masculine, they are still grammatically feminine: the gender of a noun is determined by the singular. Hence, ܰ ܺ ‫ ܟܬ ̈ܝ ܳܒܢ‬is in the feminine plural absolute, and ‫ ̄ܗ ̈ܘܝ‬is theܳ third-person feminine ܳ ̈ ܰ ܶ ܶ̈ plural. Similarly, the “living words” of the Bible are ‫ ܡܠܐ ܚܝܬܐ‬mellē ḥayyātā. ܶ ܶ̈ Labeling a plural such as ‫ ܡܠܐ‬as “masculine” is guaranteed to sow confusion. 5 The phrasal dot after ‫ ܒܬܘܠܘܬܐ‬is helpful, although not necessary. The conjunction ‫ ܟܕ‬here might best be translated as “where” not “when.” ̇ The ‫ ܕ‬after ‫ ܐܡܪ‬introduces a quotation from the Peshiṭta. The pious Ammon rather selectively quotes from three verses of 1 Corinthians 7: 1, 7, and 34.

‫ ܫܦܝܪ‬through ‫ ܠܐ ܢܬܩܪܒ‬quotes the beginning of v. 7:1. These are words to which Paul is replying. ‫ ܫܦܝܪ‬introduces a long impersonal construction: “it is lovely ܺ ܰ is the predicate, and so ‫ ܫܦܝܪ‬is in the absolute state. The subject ̄ that.” ‫ܫܦܝܪ ܗܘ‬ ̄ begins with ‫ܕܠܐܢܬܬܐ‬. Impersonal constructions were first introduced at Text 3. They occur in many varieties. 6

‫ ܐܢܐ‬through ‫ ܒܕܟܝܘܬܐ‬is the beginning of v. 7:7. This is Paul’s reply to what

preceded.

Particles such as ‫ ܓܝܪ‬are famously difficult to translate. ‫ ܓܝܪ‬typically occupies

the second position in a sentence. This results here in

‫ ܓܝܪ‬splitting up the usual ̄ ̇ ‫ ܐܢܐ ܨܒܐ ܐܢܐ‬construction. ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬is “like me.” ‫ܟܘ ܳܬܟ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬occurred in Text 7, meaning “one like you.” ̄‫ܟܘܬܝ‬ 7 ‫ܬܘܒ‬ ̣ first occurred in Text 7. Here it has the sense “also.” It is frequently found ܳ ܰ ܰ ܶ preceding ‫ܐܡܪ‬. This introduces a quote from the middle of v. 7:34, from ‫ ܐܝܕܐ‬to ̄ ‫ܒܪܘ ܳܚ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܘ‬. The initial ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬is not part of the text of the Peshiṭta, but was added,

presumably by Ammon, to make the quote flow more easily.

ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

(masc) and

ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܝܕܐ‬

(fem) usually function as interrogatives. But when

followed by ‫ܕ‬, they mean “he who” and “she who.”

ܳ

ܳ

In ‫ ܠܐ ܗܘ ̣ܬ‬lā hwāt, ‫ ܗܘ ̣ܬ‬is a full verb, not a copula. Does the use of the perfect,

and not the participle, imply “has not been with a man even once”? The following phrasal dot sets off the long subject from its predicate.

94

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܪ ܳܢܝܐ‬

rānyā is the feminine active participle. Both it and

feminine absolute.

‫ܩܕܝܫܐ‬

are in the

‫ ̈ܡܠܐ‬is instrumental: “with words.” English can say “with words such as these.” Syriac says “with words which are such as these,” using ‫ܕ‬. 8 Now the tense switches to a simple perfect, ‫ܐܪܬܝ‬. The ‫ ܒ‬before

The story For the vast majority of Bar ʿEbrāyā’s stories, we cannot determine an original

source. But for a few we can. This Story goes back to a fourth century Christian writer known as “Palladius of Galatia.” About the year 380, Palladius traveled to Egypt,

where he visited the monastic communities. Much later in his life, about 420, he put together his notes on these travels, at the behest of a man named Lausus, who was

an official at the court of the Byzantine ruler Theodosius II. This work is known as

the Lausiac History. This was written in Greek, but in the seventh century it was

translated into Syriac. The textual history of both the Greek text and the Syriac text

is complex, and additions to both were made over time. Bar ʿEbrāyā used the Syriac

text of Palladius for several of the stories about Christian ascetics, including both this story and Text 26 below. Frequently, however, he truncated or otherwise modified

the accounts.

Ammon was born in Egypt, and, as the story goes, his wealthy parents forced

him into marriage. The name of Ammon’s young bride does not seem to be recorded. One might wonder what she thought when Ammon tells her: “No sex for you!” But

the fuller version of the story has her agreeing to his idea... They went on to live as non-man-and-non-wife for some 18 years. Ammon then went about his ascetic

business in the desert, while his wife apparently founded a convent in their home. He was eventually declared a saint in several Christian churches.

Ammon’s native language was Coptic, and one can assume that he had studied

some Greek. Here he quotes from 1 Corinthians 7. Did he berate his bride-to-be in

Paul’s Greek, or in his native Coptic? How much Greek did his bride-to-be understand?

Bar ʿEbrāyā quotes from the Peshiṭta rather precisely, although not quoting any

line in its entirety:

(7:7)

‫ܫܦܝܪ ̄ܗܘ ܠܓܒܪܐ ܕܠܐܢ̄ܬܬܐ ܠܐ ܢܬܩܪܒ‬ ̈ ‫ܐܢܐ ܕܟܠܗܘܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܒܢܝ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܐ ܓܝܪ ܨܒܐ‬ ‫ܐܢܫܐ ܐܟܘܬܝ̄ ܢܗܘܘܢ ܒܕܟܝܘܬܐ‬

(7:34)

̇ ̇ ̇ ‫ܘܒܪܘܚܗ‬ ‫ܒܦܓܪܗ‬ ‫ܒܡܪܗ ܕܬܗܘܐ ܩܕܝܫܐ‬ ‫ܗܘܬ ܪܢܝܐ‬ ‫ܐܝܕܐ ܕܠܓܒܪܐ ܠܐ‬ ̣

(7:1)

TEXT THE FOURTEENTH

95

It is amusing to see what verses of Corinthians Ammon does not cite, including

the end of 7:9: “It is better to marry than to be aflame with passion.” Presumably his young wife was not as versed in the Scriptures as Ammon was. The language There is nothing especial about the language here, except perhaps the rather

long and involved sentences. It takes some practice to break down the clausal structures of such sentences.

‫ ܡܪܬܐ ̄ܗܘܐ‬seems awkward in English, but is fine Syriac. ‫ ܐܦܩ‬a few lines

earlier was a simple perfect, marking a single action in the past and thus anchoring

̄ ‫ ܡܪܬܐ‬marks an on-going process in the past. ‫ ܐܝܕܐ ܕ‬occurs here for the first time. Both it and the masculine ‫ ܐܝܢܐ ܕ‬are

the story in the past. ‫ܗܘܐ‬ common.

This Story uses

‫ ܫܦܝܪ ̄ܗܘ‬as the predicate in an impersonal construction: “It is

beautiful that.” Nominal sentences are found with and without the enclitic copula.

Is there a difference in meaning between ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬

‫ ܚܟܝܡ ̄ܗܘ‬and ‫ ?ܚܟܝܡ ܡܠܟܐ‬It is

sometimes said that the use of the enclitic pronoun adds a certain “emphasis,”

although this is a term that is difficult to define. On the other hand, the copula seems to be present more often than not. Such questions are not easy to study when dealing with a written language, without access to native speakers. Manuscript variation The VatMS has Ammon entering with his bride into the

‫ܓܢܘܢܐ‬.

The BLMS,

however, has him entering with his bride into the ‫ܡܫܬܘܬܐ‬, the same word used

earlier. The story is not contained in the LeedsMS. How does one decide which reading is best? Here word to be

‫ ܓܢܘܢܐ‬has been preferred, because it is not uncommon for a accidentally repeated: ‫ ܡܫܬܘܬܐ‬instead of ‫ܓܢܘܢܐ‬. Moreover, this

gives a nice sequence of “wedding feast” followed by “bridal chamber.”

̈ ‫ܗܝܟܠܐ‬ ‫“ ܥܒܕ ܦܓ̈ܪܝܗܘܢ‬He made their bodies into temples” is the reading of ̄ the VatMS. The BLMS reads ‫ܥܒܕܘ‬, “They made,” presumably Ammon and his bride. Which reading is better? Here the singular ‫ ܥܒܕ‬has been preferred, because Ammon’s bride has no real agency in the story, and the singular fits Ammon’s character. Cognates The root {q-d-š} occurs in all the Semitic languages. The adjective “holy” is

ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܕ‬qaddīšā in Syriac on the pattern paʿʿīl; ‫ ָקדוֹשׁ‬qādōš in Hebrew on the pattern ‫ܝܫܐ‬ pāʿōl; and ‫دوس‬ ّ ُ َ ‫ ق‬qaddūs in Arabic on the pattern faʿʿūl.

96

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ܶ ‫“ ܠ‬night” has cognates in all the Semitic languages. The fact that the first ‫ܠܝܐ‬

consonant is /l/ and the second consonant is /l/ gives one pause; this patterning is

most rare in the Semitic languages. Some think that the word was originally some

ܳ ܺܶ

kind of reduplication, perhaps /lay-lay/. Syriac also has a noun ‫ ܠܠܝܬܐ‬lelītā, a night-

demon in the form of a woman. This ultimately goes back to Sumerian lil2, “air,

wind, ghost.” This passed into Akkadian as lilû and lilītu, meaning a kind of demon.

This then passed into Aramaic. Through a folk-etymology with Hebrew and Aramaic

ܳ ܺܶ

words for “night,” in Jewish magical lore ‫ ܠܠܝܬܐ‬became a rather nasty kind of nightdemon, one who snatches away babies. The word eventually entered English as “lilith,” a female demon.

ܰ ܳ ܺ ‫ܫܠ‬, has its Hebrew cognate in ‫ ָשׁ ַלח‬šālaḥ. It is not ‫“ ܫܠܚ‬to send,” seen in ‫ܝܚܐ‬ used in Arabic. ܶ ܳ ‫ ܶܡܠܬܐ‬is a very common word in Syriac, as is the verb ‫ ܰܡܠܠ‬. Biblical Hebrew

has a few nouns and verbal forms from the root {m-l-l}, but the usual verb for “to

speak” is from a completely different root {d-b-r} in the piʿel, ‫ ִדּ ֶבּר‬dibber. Similarly,

Arabic uses a different root {k-l-m}: َ �ّ �ََ ‫ تَك‬takallama. However, Aramaic mellā “word” was borrowed into Arabic as

�ّ َ�ِ ‫ م‬milla “religious community.” This comes from the

idea of people of one religion speaking the same language. This word then moves into Ottoman Turkish and occasionally into English as “millet,” meaning an administrative unit in the Ottoman Empire.

‫ ܪܘܚܐ‬rūḥā has �‫רוּ‬ ַ rūaḥ as its cognate in Hebrew and ‫ ر ُوح‬rūḥ in Arabic. In all

three languages, the meaning varies from “breath” to “spirit.” Loanwords The word

‫ ܗܝܟܠܐ‬hayklā is Sumerian

in origin: e2 gal means “house-big,” so

“palace” and “temple.” Syriac contains a few words that go back to Sumerian. None

of these came directly into Syriac. They moved from Sumerian into Akkadian and

from there into Imperial Aramaic, and eventually show up in Syriac. Some also moved from Imperial Aramaic into Hebrew and into Arabic. e2 gal appears as ekallu

in Akkadian, ‫יכל‬ ָ ‫ ֵה‬hēkāl in Hebrew, and

�َ ‫ هَيْك‬haykal in Arabic.

‫ ܝܗ‬TEXT THE FIFTEENTH ‫ܝܗ‬ Story 240, from the section of the Book entitled “Useful sayings of the Muslim kings

and their advisers.” Vocabulary

̄ ‫ܪܗ ̇ܘ ܳܡ ܳܝܐ‬

rōmāyā ‘Roman, Latin, Byzantine Greek’, depending on context. In

̄ . The linea marks the ‫ ܗ‬as not ‫ܪܗ‬ pronounced. The linea is often omitted, however. Other times the ‫ ܗ‬is omitted. Thus, ̄ the word for ‘Roman’ can be spelled ‫ܪܗܘܡܝܐ‬, ‫ܪܗܘܡܝܐ‬, and ‫ܪܘܡܝܐ‬. All three words derived from Greek, rhō is usually spelled

spellings represent the same pronunciation: /rōmāyā/.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܟܬܘܒ ܁ ܟܬܒ‬

ktab nektob ‘to write, copy, transcribe’.

̇ ‫ ܳܟ‬kātōbā ‫ܬܘ ܳܒܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡܟܬܒ‬maktbānūtā is ‘census’. occurred in Text 9.

‫ܰܛ ܳܝ ܳܝܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬ktābā ‘writing’

is a ‘scribe’ or a ‘copyist’. At Luke 2:2,

ṭayyāyā ‘Arab’. This originally referred to an Arab of the Ṭayy tribe, but

came to mean any Arab.

ܰ ‫ܢܓ ܶܙܡ ܁ ܰܓ ܶܙܡ‬

ܰ gazzem nḡazzem ‘to threaten’. The verb also occurs in the pʿal ‫ܓܙܡ‬

gzam without any obvious difference in meaning.

ܰ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܡܠܝܐ‬

ܺ

ܰ šamlī ‘to do something mšamlyā ‘complete, definitive’. The verb is ‫ܫܡܠܝ‬

completely’, a quadriradical verb in /š/. Presumably it is a borrowing from Akkadian.

ܳ

The base root is {m-l-y}; ‫ ܡܠܐ‬mlā means ‘to fill’. Payne Smith registers ‫ ܫܡܠܝ‬under

ܰ is a passive participle in the emphatic state. ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܡܠܐ‬, Sokoloff under ‫ܫܡܠܝ‬. ‫ܡܠܝܐ‬ ܰ ܳ ܳ ‫ܚܘܒܐ ܡܫܡܠܝܐ‬ ̣ ḥubbā mšamlyā is ‘perfect love’. ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܳ ‘to see’, first ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬metḥazyānā ‘visible’. This lovely form derives from ‫ܚܙܐ‬ ‫ܙܝ ܳܢܐ‬ seen in Text 1. It is an adjective in /-ān/ formed from the ʾetpʿel participle. In Story 108, Death is said to be ‫‘ ܠܐ ܡܬܚܙܝܢܐ‬invisible’.

ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬ 16).

ܳ

metqaryānā ‘legible’. The base verb is ‫ ܩܪܐ‬qrā ‘to call; to read’ (Text

97

98

‫̄ܗ‬

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄

hānaw ‘that is, i.e.’. The linea over the ‫ ܗ‬marks this as an abbreviation. ‫ ܗ‬is an

‫ ܳܗ ܰܢܘ‬, which is formed from the demonstrative ‫ ܳܗ ܳܢܐ‬hānā ‘this’ and ܰ ܳ. the enclitic copula. It appears in Text 23, written out fully: ‫ܗܢܘ‬ ̇ ܳ ‫ ܰܢ‬. In ‫ܩܢܘ ܳܡܐ‬ qnōmā ‘person, self’. This shares some of the meanings of ‫ܦܫܐ‬

abbreviation of

theological texts, it can mean ‘hypostasis’. The etymology is not clear at all.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܐܪܘܥ ܁ ܶܐܪܥ‬

ʾeraʿ nēroʿ ‘to meet’, from {ʾ-r-ʿ}. This goes back to an older root

ܳ

ܰ

{ʿ-r-ḍ}. It thus has no connection with the word for ‘earth’, ‫ ܐܪܥܐ‬ʾarʿā, which goes back to {ʾ-r-ḍ}.

̈ ̈ ̄ ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܕܛܝܝܐ‬ ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ‫̈ܪܗܘܡܝܐ ̣ܟܬܒ ܠܘܬ ܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̇ ‫ܘܗܘ ̣ܟܬܒ ܠܘܬܗ ܕܦܘܢܝܢ ܠܡ ܡܫܡܠܝܐ‬ ‫ܠܗܘ ܡܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܟܕ ܡܓܙܡ ܠܗ܂‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ܕܟܬܒܬ ܡܬܚܙܝܢܐ܂ ܠܘ ܡܬܩܪܝܢܐ ܗܘ܂ ܗ܂ ܕܩܢܘܡܐܝܬ ܐܬܝܢܢ‬ ‫ܠܡܐܪܥܟ‬ Analysis 1

̄ is, again, pretty vague! Here it just means “another story.” The word is ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

not connected grammatically to what follows.

“Byzantine kings” is usually expressed by a noun-adjective phrase, as here. “Arab

kings” is usually expressed by a genitive phrase in ‫ܕ‬, as here.

2

‫ ܟܕ‬is one of the first particles that one encounters when studying Syriac. It often

introduces circumstantial clauses, and in such cases can usually be translated as “while.” “While using threats” would capture the sense here.

‫ ܠܗ‬marks the direct object of the active participle ‫ܡܓܙܡ‬. ‫ܦܘ ܳܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ punnāyā “answer” occurred in Text 7. ‫ ܦܘܢܝܢ‬is “our answer,” punnāyan.

In fonts where the nūn and the yod are teeny, it can be difficult to make out such

forms on the printed page. “definitive” or “final.”

‫ܦܘܢܝܢ‬

is modified by

‫ܡܫܡܠܝܐ‬,

here meaning

‫ ܠܡ‬is the vocative particle that occurred in Text 7. It typically occurs in second

position. Here it is inbetween a noun and its attributive adjective.

̇ is “to that which.” It would also have been possible to omit ‫ܡܐ‬. ‫ܠܗܘ ܡܐ ܕ‬ ‫ܕܟܬܒܬ‬...‫ ܦܘܢܝܢ‬is the subject of a nominal sentence. The predicate is the ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬, followed down the road by the enclitic copula ‫ ̄ܗܘ‬. adjective ‫ܙܝܢܐ‬ 3 In theory, a verbal form written ‫ ܟܬܒܬ‬can be first-person singular, second-

person masculine singular, or third-person feminine singular. Here the context tells

us that it is second-person,

ܰ ‫ ܟܬܒܬ‬ktabt.

TEXT THE FIFTEENTH

99

ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬is an adjective in /-ān/ formed from a ʾetpʿel participle. As discussed ‫ܙܝ ܳܢܐ‬

at Text 3 and Text 7, /-ān/ can produce both adjectives and nouns.

In general, when adjectives function as predicates, they are in the absolute state.

When nouns function as predicates, they are in the emphatic state. Here, one might

have expected an absolute state, as predicate. But the sense is “something that can be seen,” with nominal force, and so it is in the emphatic. The choice of emphatic

ܶ ܳ ܶ ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫)ܡ‬. can be seen” (‫ܙܝܢܐ‬ The particle ‫ ܠܘ‬occurred in Text 5 and in Text 12. Here it negates the single word ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬. ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬here does not have its lexical meaning of “legible,” but rather means ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ )ܡ‬or “something that here over absolute is a question of style: “can be seen” (‫ܙܝܢ‬

“something that can be read.” This is clever Syriac.

ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬is separated ‫ܙܝ ܳܢܐ‬

from the enclitic copula

ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ܠܘ ܶܡ‬. If ‫ ̄ܗܘ‬by ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬

the

ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬, the final vowel /ā/ of the emphatic ending copula followed directly after ‫ܙܝܢܐ‬

would be reduced to /a/, and it would form a diphthong with the copula: /metḥazyānaw/, vocalized as

ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬. ‫ܙܝ ܰܢܐ ̄ܗܘ‬

Here however the copula follows

ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬. Presumably there was a pause in thought after ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬, and so the ‫ܪܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬was probably kept. long final /ā/ in ‫ܪܝܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܳܗܢܘ‬often serves to expand upon a previous statement, with the meaning “that ̄ is to say,” or “in other words.” Here it is abbreviated by ‫ܗ‬, set off by phrasal dots. ̄ The immediately preceding word is ‫ܗܘ‬, producing a graphically pleasing sequence

of letters.

̇ is an adverb in /-ʾīt/, “in person.” This formation is discussed below. ‫ܩܢܘ ܳܡ ܺܐܝܬ‬ ̇ Here ‫ ܩܢܘܡܐܝܬ‬is the first word in the sentence, giving it some prominence. It takes much practice to figure out such forms as ‫ܐܬܝܢܢ‬. In this position in the sentence, one expects a verbal form of some kind. The initial -‫ ܐܬ‬makes one think of the common verb ‫ܐܬܐ‬, “to come, arrive.” But since there is no personal prefix,

it must be a nominal form, probably a participle. It cannot be a simple plural

ܶ ‫ ܳܐܬܝܢ‬ʾātēn, written with only one nūn. The ‫ ܢܢ‬at the end ܰ ܶ ܳ enclitic first-person plural pronoun: “We are coming,” ‫ܐܬܝܢܢ‬

participle: that would be can only be the ʾātēnan.

The use of the active participle instead of the imperfect adds a certain

immediacy: We are on the way!

ܳ ܶ l-mērʿāk is “to meet you” a pʿal infinitive with a pronominal suffix ‫ܐܪܥܟ‬ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܶ ܳ ܰ ܰ expressing the direct object. ‫ܢܘܬܗ‬ ‫ ܠܡܬܩ‬la-mtaqqānūteh “in order to fix it” occurred ܰ ̣ܶ in Text 9. The verb here is ‫ܐܪܥ‬, a first-ʾālap verb. The infinitive without the suffix 4

is /mēraʿ/. The presence of the suffix causes the /a/ to drop.

100

A READER IN SYRIAC

The story The Ṭayy were a large and important Arab tribe, living throughout Syria, Pales-

tine, and Mesopotamia. They often played a significant role in the history of the

Middle East. Their political alliances shifted back and forth between the Byzantines, the Sassanids, sundry Muslim rulers, and whoever else had power.

As said above, the Ṭayy were so powerful that it was their name that became the

ܳ ܶ ܰ most common term to designate the Arabic language. ‫ ܛ ܳܝ ܳܝܐ‬can sometimes mean ܰ

Syriac word corresponding to our English “Arab.” ‫ ܠ ܳܫܢܐ ܛ ܳܝ ܳܝܐ‬leššānā ṭayyāyā is the “Muslim.” This has a parallel in English: in the late nineteenth century, “Turk” was used to mean “Muslim.”

It is hard to say if the story related by Bar ʿEbrāyā reflects any historical reality.

No Byzantine ruler or Arab ruler is mentioned by name. The trope is a common one. Bar ʿEbrāyā seems to admire the spunk of the Arab ruler. The language

̄

Syriac does not have many abbreviations. The most common is ‫ ܗ‬hānaw ‘that

ܳ ‫ܘܫ‬ ̄ , for ‫ܪܟܐ‬ ܰ wa-šarkā, literally “and the rest,” ‫ܘܫܪ‬ ܶ meaning ‘etc.’; the verb ‫ ܫܪܟ‬šrek is “to be left over.” ̇ marks the first occurrence in this Reader of an adverb in /-ʾīt/. This ‫ܩܢܘ ܳܡ ܺܐܝܬ‬

is, i.e.’. Another common one is

formation is common in all periods of the language. It is used with nouns and, more

ܳ ܺ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܰܫܪܝܪܐ‬šarrīrā; ‫ ܰܫܪܝܪ ܺܐܝܬ‬šarrīrāʾīt is “truly, ܺ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ܰ mšamlyāʾīt means “completely” or indeed.” Formed off of a participle, ‫ܡܠܝܐܝܬ‬ ܺ ܳ ‫ ܣܘ‬suryāʾīt means “entirely.” /-ʾīt/ is also used with the names of languages: ‫ܪܝܐܝܬ‬ ̣ frequently, with adjectives. “True” is

“in Syriac.” /-ʾīt/ is the only productive formation of adverbs in the language. Most

ܳ

ܶ ܶ ‫ ܠܥܠ‬lʿel “upward” (Text 20). The /ī/-vowel can be written over the ʾālap or over the ܺ ܳ ‫ ܣܘ‬and ‫ܐܝܬ‬ ܺ ‫ܪܝ‬ ܳ ‫ܣܘ‬ yod: ‫ܪܝܐܝܬ‬ ̣ ̣ . The first vocalization seems more logical, but both adverbs are prepositional phrases in origin, such as ‫ ܡܚܕܐ‬meḥdā “right away” and

are common.

This short narrative is replete with participles, active and passive, in several dif-

ferent uses. The active participles with enclitic subject pronouns will be discussed in Review Lesson Three. In general, the formations and meanings of the passive participles in the pʿal, paʿʿel, and ʾapʿel conjugations from strong roots are

straightforward. In the absolute, these are: pʿal

paʿʿel ʾapʿel

ܺ ‫ܦܥܝܠ‬ ܰ ‫ܡܦܥܰܠ‬ ‫ܰܡܦܥܰܠ‬

/pʿīl/

/mpaʿʿal/ /mapʿal/

TEXT THE FIFTEENTH Complications occur in such verbs as

101

‫ܫܡܠܝ‬: a /š/-causative from a last-weak

root. This is essentially a quadriradical verb, and as such behaves like a paʿʿel. The passive participle from a paʿʿel verb in the absolute is /mpaʿʿal/. This results in: masc

ܰ ܰ ‫ܡܫܡܠܝ‬ ܰ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܡܠܝܐ‬

absolute

emphatic

fem

ܰ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܡܠܝܐ‬ ܳ ܰ ܰ ‫ܡܫܡܠܝܬܐ‬

/mšamlay/

/mšamlyā/

/mšamlyā/

/mšamlaytā/

Participles most commonly occur as predicates, hence in the absolute state.

When used as attributive adjectives modifying an emphatic noun, they are in the

ܰ here in Text 15. ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ emphatic state, thus ‫ܡܠܝܐ‬

Cognates The verb “to write” appears in Syriac as

Arabic as

ܰ ‫ ܟܬܒ‬ktab, Hebrew as ‫ ָכּ ַתב‬kātab, and

َ‫ كَت َب‬kataba. For “book” or “writing,” however, Hebrew uses an unrelated

word, ‫ ֵס ֶפר‬seper, which may or may not go back to Akkadian. Nouns such as ‫ ְכּ ָתב‬ktāb

do occur, but only in late books, where they are Aramaisms. Arabic uses ‫ � ِ�َاب‬kitāb,

presumably also a loanword from Aramaic.

ܳ

The verb ‫ܡܠܐ‬, seen in ‫ܡܫܡܠܝܐ‬, goes back to a root {m-l-ʾ}, with a glottal stop

as last root consonant. This glottal stop is preserved to varying degrees in the Semitic languages. Hebrew ‫ ָמ ֵלא‬mālē and Arabic

َ �ِ �َ ‫ م‬maliʾa both mean “to be full.” In Arabic,

the glottal stop remains, and so is written. In Hebrew, the glottal stop drops in most

ܳ

forms, but continues to be written. In Syriac an ʾālap appears on the surface: ‫ܡܠܐ‬, but this ʾālap is not the root consonant; it is the usual vowel-letter that marks a final /ā/. A similar case is “to read.” This shows up as

ܳ in Hebrew, and as ‫ ܩܪܐ‬in Syriac.

َ �‫ ق َرأ‬qaraʾa in Arabic and as ‫ ָק ָרא‬qārā

REVIEW LESSON THREE Participles

ܰ ܶ ܳ

The use of an active participle with an enclitic subject pronoun, such as ‫ܐܬܝܢܢ‬

in Text 15, is common in all periods and levels of Syriac for the first-person and the

second-person. The enclitic pronouns are rare with the third-person. It is almost

always possible to write these forms as two words or contracted into one word. In the first-person, to express “I am writing,” we find:

or

(masc)

̄ ‫ܳܟ ܶܬܒ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬

(masc)

ܳ ‫ܳܟ ܶܬ‬ ‫ܒܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ܳܢܐ‬

(fem)

(fem)

/kāteb-nā/

/kātbā-nā/ /kātebnā/

/kātbānā/

In the plural, “we,” these appear as:

or

(masc)

ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ܳܝܢ ̄ܚ ܰܢܢ‬ ̈ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܢ ̄ܚ ܰܢܢ‬

(masc)

ܰ ‫ܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܝܢܢ‬ ܳ ̈ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ܰܢܢ‬

(fem)

(fem)

/kātbīn-nan/

/kātbān-nan/ /kātbīnan/

/kātbānan/

~

~

/kātbinnan/

/kātbannan/

In the most common American Academic Pronunciation of Syriac, the expected

/kātbīn-nan/ in the one-word variety contracts into /kātbīnan/: the long /ī/ is kept,

and the /nn/ is reduced to /n/. In another reading tradition, the long /ī/ is reduced,

and the long /nn/ is kept: /kātbinnan/. It is difficult to say which tradition more closely approximates the pronunciation of Classical Syriac when it was a living spoken language. But since the yod is kept in the writing, the first tradition has been preferred here.

The contracted and the non-contracted forms are equally frequent in texts. The

contracted forms are the most difficult to master. To add to the difficulty, in Text 15

the participle is from a last-weak root, {ʾ-t-y}. In the plural of such last-weak roots,

the forms are:

103

104

A READER IN SYRIAC (masc)

ܶ ‫ܳܐܬ ܳܝܢ ̄ܚ ܰܢܢ‬ ̈ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܬܝܢ ̄ܚ ܰܢܢ‬

/ʾātēn-nan/

(masc)

ܰ ‫ܳܐ ܶܬ‬ ‫ܝܢܢ‬ ̈ ܳ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܬܝ ܰܢܢ‬

/ʾātēnan/

(fem) or

(fem)

/ʾātyān-nan/

/ʾātyānan/

ܰ

ܳ ܶ

The examples here are active participles from verbs in the pʿal: ‫ ܟܬܒ‬and ‫ܐܬܐ‬.

Participles from any of the other conjugations behave exactly the same way. From

ܶ ‫“ ܰܐܟܪܙ‬to preach,” for example, a verb in the ʾapʿel, “I am preaching” can appear as ܶ ܰ ܶ ̄ ‫ܟܪܙ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ ܡ‬or as ‫ ܰܡܟܪ ܳܙܢܐ‬. ܶ ܰ ܳ In Text 15, ‫ ܐܬܝܢܢ‬occurred as the rather terse reply of the Arab king. In general,

in connected Syriac texts, it is a little more usual to use these forms (either un-

contracted or contracted) after a subject pronoun. Thus “I am writing” is more com-

ܳ ̄

ܶ ܳ

ܳ ܶ

monly ‫ ܐܢܐ ܟܬܒ ܐܢܐ‬or

ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܳܢܐ ܳܟ ܶܬ‬than simply ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܳܟ ܶܬ‬. This ̄ ‫ ܳܟ ܶܬܒ‬or ‫ܒܢܐ‬ ‫ܒܢܐ‬

is more a question of individual style than anything else. For the second-person singular, the forms are: (masc) or

(fem)

(masc) (fem)

ܶ ̄ ‫ܳܟܬܒ ܰܐܢܬ‬ ܳ ‫ܳܟ‬ ̄‫ܬܒܐ ܰܐ ̄ܢܬܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܬ‬ ܰ ‫ܳܟ‬ ̄‫ܬܒܬܝ‬

/kāteb-ʾatt/

/kātbā-ʾatt/

/kātbatt/

/kātbatt/

In texts with no vocalization, these contracted forms look exactly like forms of

the perfect.

The plural is a little more complicated. The uncontracted forms are usually

vocalized and read as follows, with a linea over both the ʾālap and the nūn: (masc) (fem)

̇ ‫ܐ ̄ܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܝܢ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܘܢ‬ ܶ ̄ ̄ ̈ܳ ܳ ‫ܟܬܒܢ ܐܢܬܝܢ‬

/kātbīn tōn/

/kātbān tēn/

It is also possible to write a linea over the nūn, but to omit any mark over the

ʾālap. The linea does double-duty for both the nūn and the ʾālap: (masc) (fem)

̄ ̇ ‫ܐܢ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܘܢ‬ ‫ܬܒ ܳܝܢ‬ ܶ̄ ̈ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܢ ܐܢܬܝܢ‬

/kātbīn tōn/

/kātbān tēn/

In spite of this vocalization, in the American Academic Pronunciation of Syriac

the enclitic pronouns are usually read the same way that the independent pronouns are read: with an initial /ʾa/ followed by the long /tt/:

REVIEW LESSON THREE (masc) (fem)

̇ ‫ܐ ̄ܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܝܢ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܘܢ‬ ܶ ̄ ̄ ̈ܳ ܳ ‫ܟܬܒܢ ܐܢܬܝܢ‬

105

/kātbīn ʾattōn/

/kātbān ʾattēn/

In another reading tradition of Syriac, the forms are vocalized the same, but read

in a more contracted manner: (masc) (fem)

̇ ‫ܐ ̄ܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܝܢ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܬܘܢ‬ ܶ ̄ ̄ ̈ܳ ܳ ‫ܟܬܒܢ ܐܢܬܝܢ‬

/kātbittōn/

/kātbattēn/

In the one-word contracted form, these are vocalized and read: (masc) (fem)

̇ ‫ܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܝܬܘܢ‬ ܳ ܶ ̈ ܳ ‫ܬܒܬܝܢ‬ ‫ܟ‬

/kātbītōn/

/kātbātēn/

In another tradition, they are vocalized the same, but read: (masc) (fem)

̇ ‫ܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܳܟ‬ ‫ܝܬܘܢ‬ ܶ ̈ܳ ܳ ‫ܟܬܒܬܝܢ‬

/kātbittōn/

/kātbattēn/

This is a lot of work for a relatively small number of forms. After a few beers,

scholars in Syriac studies have been known to get into fist-fights about which reading

tradition is “best,” pummeling each other over the head with their copies of Kiraz and Nöldeke.

‫ ܝܘ‬TEXT THE SIXTEENTH ‫ܝܘ‬ Story 226, another “useful saying” of the Muslim kings and their advisers. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܰܪ‬ ‫ܘܪܒ ܳܢܐ‬

rawrbānā ‘noble’, an adjective in /-ān/. It rarely occurs in the singular,

but the plural is common. Its formation is discussed below.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢܡܪܕ ܁ ܡܪܕ‬

mrad nemrad ‘to rebel, revolt’, with the preposition ‫‘ ܥܠ‬against’. ܳ ̇ ܳ ̇ ܳ ܳ ‫ܡܪܘܕܐ‬, on the pattern pāʿōl is a ‘rebel’ or ‘deserter’. ‫ܕܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܡܪܘ‬is ‘rebellion’. ܰ ‘to ܰ ‫ܬܚ ܰܫܒ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾetḥaššab netḥaššab ‘to think, plan, plot’. The pʿal ‫ܚܫܒ‬ ‫ܬܚ ܰܫܒ‬ ܶ ܶ count’ occurred in Text 2, and the passive ‫ ܐܬܚܫܒ‬in Text 6. ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬qṭal neqṭol ‘to kill’. The noun ‫ܛܘܠܳܐ‬ ̇ ‫‘ ܳܩ‬killer’ occurred in Text 9. ܰ ‫ܩܛܘܠ ܁‬ ‫ܩܛܠ‬ ܶ The paʿʿel ‫ ܰܩܛܠ‬means ‘to kill a lot of people at one time, to massacre’. ܰ ‫ ܶܒܠܥܰܕ‬belʿad ‘without’, a preposition. ‫ ܶܒܠܥܰܕ ̇ܗܝ ܕ‬is a conjunction, ‘without’, ܰ ܶ followed by an imperfect. ‫ ܒܠܥܕ‬looks like it is built up out of smaller units.

ܰ ܰ ܶ ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܡܠܟ‬ ‫ܬܡܠܟ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬

ʾetmallak netmallak ‘to seek the advice of, consult’, with the

preposition ‫ܒ‬. The root {m-l-k} in Syriac has the two meanings of ‘to advise’ and ‘to

rule’.

̇ ‫ܣܥܘܪ ܁ ܣܥܰܪ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬

occurred in Text 8.

ܶ ܳ ‫ܶܢܩܪܐ ܁ ܩܪܐ‬

sʿar nesʿor

‘to do, perform’.

ܳ ‫ܣܘܥܪ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣

‘thing, matter, affair’

qrā neqrē ‘to call, summon; to read’. The earlier form of the root was

{q-r-ʾ}, but no trace of the consonantal ʾālap survives in Syriac.

ܺ ܺ ‫ܢܪܝܡ ܁ ܰܐܪܝܡ‬

ʾarīm nrīm ‘to lift up, remove’, from {r-w-m} ‘to be high’. Payne

Smith registers a reduplicated verb

ܰ ܰ ܶ amusing passive, ‫ܐܬܪܡܪܡ‬.

ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܪܥܐ‬

ܶ ܰ ‫ܪܡܪܡ‬

‘to lift up, exalt’ and the even more

ʾarʿā ‘earth, ground’ (fem), an ancient non-derived noun. The adjective

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬is ‘terrestrial’, contrasting with ‫ܫܡ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ‘celestial’. ‫ܪܥ ܳܢܐ‬ 107

108

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܶ ‫ܪܓܙ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܪܓܙ‬ ܶ

rḡez nergaz ‘to get angry’. This verb shows up a lot in these stories.

ܰ

ܳ ‫ܪܘ‬ The ʾapʿel ‫ ܐܪܓܙ‬means ‘to make someone angry’. ‫ܓܙܐ‬ ̣ ruḡzā is ‘anger’.

ܳ ‫ ܰܪ‬rawrbāʾīt ‘greatly’, an adverb. ‫ܘܪܒ ܺܐܝܬ‬ ܰ ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬mlak nemlok ‘to advise’. This is the pʿal. ‫ܡܠܘܟ ܁ ܡܠܟ‬ ‫ܝܘ‬ ̣ ‫ܗܘ‬ ̣

hūyū ‘he’, an emphatic form of the third-person independent pronoun ‫ ̣ܗܘ‬.

It either originates from /hū-hū/, a reduplicated form, or from /hū-ū/, with the

enclitic copula. It is often written without the sublinear dots: ‫ܗܘܝܘ‬.

ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܪ‬ ‫ܥܐ‬

drāʿā ‘arm’. Although most parts of the body that come in natural pairs are

feminine, this is masculine.

ܳ ‫ܰܝ ܺܡ‬ ‫ܝܢܐ‬

yammīnā ‘right; right-hand’. This can be used as a noun or adjective. The

ܳ ‫ ܶܣ ܳܡܠܐ‬semmālā ‘left; left-hand’. At Matthew 25:33, it says that the Son ܶ ܺ ܺ of Man will place (‫ܢܩܝܡ‬, in the ʾapʿel) the sheep ‫“ ܡܢ ܰܝܡܝܢܗ‬on his right” but the ܶ ܳ ܶ goats ‫“ ܡܢ ܣܡܠܗ‬on his left.” opposite is

̇ ܰ ‫ܣܡܘܟ ܁‬ ‫ܣܡܟ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬

smak nesmok ‘to lean on’, with ‫ܥܠ‬. It can also be transitive,

ܶ ܰ

‘to support’. The transitive paʿʿel ‫ ܣܡܟ‬occurs in Text 23.

ܰ ܺ ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬ṭrad neṭrod ‘to drive out, expel’. ‫ܛܪܝܕܘ ܳܬܐ‬ ‫ܛܪܘܕ ܁ ܛܪܕ‬ is ‘expulsion’. ̣ ܳ ܺ ܰ is ‘to lessen, reduce’, with both intransitive ‫ܒܨܝܪܐ‬ bṣīrā ‘few, little’. The verb ‫ܒܨܪ‬ ܳ ܶ

and transitive uses. ‫ ܒܨܪܐ‬is a ‘little bit’ of something.

ܰܰ ܶ ܰܰ ܶ ‫ܬܦܪܤ‬ ‫ܬܦܪܤ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬ negative sense.

̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܦܣܘܩ ܁‬ ‫ܦܣܩ‬

ʾetparras netparras

‘to devise, scheme’. This often has a

psaq nepsoq ‘to cut off’. It can also mean ‘to mutilate’ and ‘to

ܶ ܰ

castrate’. Payne Smith points out that in the paʿʿel ‫ ܦܣܩ‬means ‘to cut off the lesser members of the body’.

‫ܢܥܰ ܶܗܕ ܁ ܥܰ ܶܗܕ‬

ʿahhed nʿahhed ‘to remember; to remind’. In the pʿal,

ܳ ‫ܶܢܛܥܶܐ ܁‬ ‫ܛܥܐ‬

ṭʿā neṭʿē ‘to forget’. The basic meaning of the verb is ‘to go astray’.

remember’.

ܰ is ‘to ‫ܥܗܕ‬

̇ ‫ܕܟ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭaʿwānā means a ‘mistake’. ‫ܬܘ ܳܒܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܥܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭaʿwānā d-kātōbā is a ‘scribal ‫ܥܘ ܳܢܐ‬ mistake’.

ܳ ‫ܶܕܚܠܬܐ‬

deḥltā ‘fear’. The verb is

ܰ The paʿʿel ‫ ܕ ܶܚܠ‬is ‘to terrify’.

ܶ ‘to fear’, usually with the preposition ‫ܡܢ‬. ‫ܕܚܠ‬

TEXT THE SIXTEENTH

ܶ ‫ܰܗ‬ ‫ܝܡܢ‬

109

haymen ‘Believe me, trust me’. This is formally an imperative from the

quadriradical verb

ܶ ‫ܰܗ‬ ‫ܝܡܢ‬

‘to believe’, but it is not infrequently used as a quasi-

interjection. The root is {h-y-m-n}. This presumably is a borrowing from Hebrew,

where it is a causative in /h/ from an original root {ʾ-m-n}. Payne Smith discusses

the verb under {ʾ-m-n}, labelling it a paiel formation, but she also mentions it under

{h-y-m-n}. Sokoloff puts it under {h-y-m-n}.

ܳ ‫ ܺܢ‬nīšā ‘purpose, intention’, apparently a non-derived noun. ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܩܢܛ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬qnaṭ neqnaṭ ‘to be afraid, fear’. It is hard to say how it differs in ‫ܩܢܛ‬

meaning from

ܳ ‫ܕܠܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܢ‬is ‘afraid’. ‫ܢܛܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܩ‬qenṭā is ‘fear’ (Text 27). ܶ . ‫ܝܛܐ‬ ‫ܕܚܠ‬

d-lā Most commonly, this functions as a preposition, ‘without’, followed by a

ܳ ‫ ܕܠܐ ܰܐܠܗ‬d-lā ʾalāh is ‘impious’. It can also function as a this Text. ‫ ܕ‬often has the meaning ‘so that’. ‫ ܕܠܐ‬serves as its

noun in the absolute: conjunction, as in

negative: ‘so that not’. It is often translated as ‘lest’, rather an old-fashioned word in

ܳ ܰ

English. It is usually better translated as simple ‘that’. A similar expression is ‫ܕܠܡܐ‬ dalmā, occurring in Text 21.

ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢܫܬܪܪ ܁ ܶܐܫܬܪܪ‬

ʾeštarrar neštarrar ‘to become known’, from {š-r-r}. In the pʿal,

ܳܳ ‫ ܰܫܪ‬šar is ‘to be proven true’. ‫ ܫܪܪܐ‬is ‘truth’ (Text 30).

ܺ ܶ ‫ܶܢܬܓܠܐ ܁ ܶܐܬܓܠܝ‬ appeared in Text 4.

ܳ ̄ ‫ܐܪ ܳܙܐ‬

ܳ

ʾetglī netglē ‘to be revealed’. The active pʿal ‫‘ ܓܠܐ‬to reveal’

ܳ

ܳ

ܳ ‫ܪ‬. The initial rāzā ‘secret’, from Persian rāz. It is also spelled ‫ ܪ ܳܙܐ‬and ‫ܐܙܐ‬

ʾālap may have originally marked a prosthetic vowel. Payne Smith registers the word

ܶܰ

under ʾālap; Sokoloff under rēš. From a secondary root {r-z-z}, ‫ ܪܙܙ‬razzez is ‘to signify mystically’.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢܦܠܛ ܁ ܦܠܛ‬

ܳ ܺ ܰ

plaṭ neplaṭ ‘to escape’. ‫ ܦܠܝܛܐ‬is an ‘escapee’ or ‘fugitive’.

̈ ̄ .‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ̄ ̄ .‫ܥܠܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܪܘ̈ܪܒܢܘܗܝ ܡܫܪܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ܕܢܡܪܕ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܡܢ‬ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ‫ ܠܐ ܨ̣ܒܐ ܕܒܠܥܕ ̇ܗܝ ܕܢܬܡܠܟ ܒܚܕ‬.‫ܕܢܩܛܠܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܘܟܕ ܐܬܚܫܒ ܡܠܟܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܢ‬ ‫ ܕܠܝܬ‬.‫ ܦܢܝ ܠܗ‬.‫ ܘܟܕ ̣ܩܪܐ ܠܚܟܝܡܐ ܘܫܐܠܗ‬.‫ܚܟܝܡܐ ܢܣܥܘܪ ܗܕܐ‬ ̄ .‫ ܠܐ ܬܩܢܐ ܠܟ ܡܠܟܘܬܟ‬.‫ ܘܐܠܐ‬.‫ܕܬܪܝܡܝܘܗܝ ܡܢ ܐܪܥܐ‬ ‫ܠܟ ܐܠܐ‬ ̄ ̇ .‫ܘܐܡܪ ܠܚܟܝܡܐ ̇ܗܘ‬ ‫ܕܡܠܟ ܐܢܬ‬ ̣ ‫ܘܟܕ ̣ܫܡܥ ܡܠܟܐ ̣ܪܓܙ ܪܘܪܒܐܝܬ‬ ̄ ‫ܘܥܠܘܗܝ ܣܡܝܟ‬ ̄ .‫ܐܢܐ‬ .‫ܝܘ ܕܪܥܝ̄ ܕܝܡܝܢܐ‬ ‫ܠܝ ܕܐܩܛܘܠ ܓܒܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܕܗܘ‬ ̣ ̈ ‫ ܘܒܬܪ ܝܘܡܬܐ ܒܨܝ̈ܪܐ ܐܬܦܪܤ ܡܠܟܐ‬.‫ܘܐܦܩܗ ܠܚܟܝܡܐ ܘܛܪܕܗ‬

110

A READER IN SYRIAC

̇ ‫ܘܦܣܩ ܪܫܗ‬ ̇ ‫ܕܗܘ‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ‬ ̣ ‫ܘܩܪܐ ܠܚܟܝܡܐ ̇ܗܘ‬ ̣ .‫ܕܨܒܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ܕܢܡܪܕ‬ ̣ ̇ ̄ ̇ .‫ ܘܚܟܝܡܐ ܦܢܝ‬.‫ ܕܡܥܗܕ ܐܢܬ ܗܘ ܝܘܡܐ ܕܡܬܡܠܟ ܗܘܝܬ ܒܟ‬.‫ܠܗ‬ ̇ ̄ .‫ ܕܒܗ ܛܥܡܬ ܠܡܘܬܐ ܡܢ ܕܚܠܬܐ ܕܡܢܟ‬.‫ܐܛܥܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܕܐܝܟܢܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ̇ ‫ ̣ܗܘ ܐܝܬܘܗܝ ܗܘܐ‬.‫ ܕܗܝܡܢ ܕܗܘ ܡܐ ܕܡܠܟܬ‬.‫ܘܡܠܟܐ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ‬ ̇ ̄ ̄‫ܒܢܝܫܝ‬ ‫ ܢܬܓܠܐ‬.̄‫ ܐܠܐ ܩܢܛܬ ܕܠܐ ܟܕ ܢܫܬܪܪ ܢܝܫܐ ܕܝܠܝ‬.‫ܕܐܣܥܪܝܘܗܝ‬ ̈ ̄ ‫ܐܝܕܝ‬ ‫ ܘܢܦܠܛ ̇ܗܘ ܡܢ‬.‫ܐܪܙܐ‬ Analysis 1

̈ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ̈ ̈ ̄ ; this story begins ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ̄ . ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬ ‫ܒܢܝ‬ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ̄ another case of extraposition, with “king” picked up by ‫ܥܠܘܗܝ‬:

Text 13 began

This produces

“Another king...against him.”

̄ is “one of.” ‫ ܚܕ ܡܢ‬would have worked just as well. ‫ܐܢܫ ܡܢ‬ ܺ ‫“ ܰܫܪܝ‬to begin” occurred in Text 9. Its translation has to be juggled according to ̄ context. The use of the participle ‫ ܡܫܪܐ ܗܘܐ‬lets us imagine the noble as mulling over his insurrection for some time. It is followed by a clause in ‫ܕ‬. 2 ‫ ܟܕ‬means “when,” introducing a temporal clause. The apodosis is ‫ܠܐ ܨ̣ܒܐ‬. The use of the perfect ‫ ܐܬܚܫܒ‬and not a participle gives a picture of the thought popping into the king’s head one random day. The text doesn’t say how the king found out about the planned treachery.

ܶ d-neqṭlīw is “that he kill him,” or “to kill him.” Perfect verbs with ̄ ܺ ‫ܕܢܩܛܠ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬

object suffixes were introduced at Text 3. In this story, imperfect verbs with object

̄

ܺ

ܶ

suffixes now appear. The most common pattern in the pʿal takes the form ‫ܢܟܬܒܝܘܗܝ‬

/nektbīw/, “He will write it.” The object pronoun takes the rather bizarre form /īw/,

̄ . This is exactly the form written here. The ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̄ looks somewhat like ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ̄ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܰܪ‬/rawrbānaw/. However, the possessive pronoun on plural nouns, such as ‫ܘ̈ܪܒܢܘܗܝ‬

written

the object suffix on the verb has an initial yod, which the possessive pronoun on

nouns does not.

‫ܠܐ ܨ̣ܒܐ‬, the apodosis after the temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬, is in the perfect because ‫ ܐܬܚܫܒ‬is in the perfect. The verb ‫ ܨܒܐ‬is typically followed by ‫ ܕ‬introducing an imperfect. Here, ‫ ܕ‬governs ‫ܢܣܥܘܪ‬. But this is interrupted by the clause beginning with ‫ܒܠܥܕ‬. This clause governs its own imperfect in ‫ܕ‬: ‫ܕܢܬܡܠܟ‬. Such a sequence of two (or more) imperfects in ‫ ܕ‬can be hard for a reader to process. ‫ ܶܒܠܥܰܕ‬is common as a preposition meaning “without.” Many prepositions can be ̇ turned into conjunctions by the use of ‫ܕ‬. ‫ܒܠܥܕ‬, however, prefers to use ‫ܗܝ ܕ‬. Finally, after all the intervening words, comes the complement of ‫ܠܐ ܨ̣ܒܐ‬: ‫ܢܣܥܘܪ ܗܕܐ‬. The feminine ‫ ܗܕܐ‬is used with its usual neutral sense. 3 Now comes a second temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬. The apodosis is ‫ܦܢܝ ܠܗ‬.

TEXT THE SIXTEENTH

111

‫ ܫܐܠ‬šaʾʾel is a paʿʿel, and ‫ ܐܦܩ‬ʾappeq (a few lines below) is an ʾapʿel. When

object suffixes are added to such third-person masculine singular perfect forms, the

only change to occur is the loss of the /e/: “He asked him” is /šaʾʾleh/, and “he

expelled him” is /ʾappqeh/. This makes such forms relatively easy to master. The object pronoun refers to the councilor. English needs a noun or a pronoun referring to what he asked: “asked him about this.”

4

‫ ܠܝܬ ܠܟ‬literally means “you do not have.” But instead of its complement being a noun, it is continued by ‫ ܐܠܐ‬and a verb in the imperfect, introduced by ‫ܕ‬. The sense is: “There is nothing for you to do except,” or “the only thing you can do is.”

‫ ܐܠܐ‬first occurred in Text 7. It is used three times here in Text 16, each time with

a slightly different nuance.

ܺ ܰ

ܺ

The ʾapʿel of {r-w-m} is ‫ ܐܪܝܡ‬ʾarīm in the perfect and ‫ ܢܪܝܡ‬nrīm in the imperfect.

ܺ ‫ܬܪܝܡ‬. This is followed by an object pronoun, ܺ ܶ ܺ ̄ ̄ ܺ producing ‫ܬܪܝܡܝܘܗܝ‬. This gives a form with the same ending seen in ‫ ܢܩܛܠܝܘܗܝ‬a

Here the verb is second-person, so few lines above.

Now comes a second use of ‫ܐܠܐ‬, set off between two phrasal dots. Here it means

“if not; if you don’t.” This exactly reflects its etymology: /ʾen lā/. The verb

ܳ ‫ܩܢܐ‬

occurred in Text 1. It has such meanings as “obtain, attain,

possess.” Here the meaning stretches to “your kingdom will not prevail.” English “obtain” also used to have the sense of “prevail.” The same sense of

ܳ occurs ‫ܩܢܐ‬

elsewhere in the Stories. Neither Payne Smith nor Sokoloff register this usage.

5

‫ ܠܟ‬is a dative of advantage. This ends the advice of the councilor. ܶ ̄ ‫ ܳܡܠܟ ܐܢܬ‬is the usual present tense form. Syriac has no way to mark inter-

rogative sentences, but that is the sense here. A translation such as “What! Are you advising me to...” might capture the tenor of the passage.

6

‫ ܕ‬introduces a relative clause, consisting of a nominal sentence. ‫ܝܘ‬ ̣ ‫ܗܘ‬ ̣ has an

emphatic force, which it is difficult to capture in English. The sense is “he being the one who is.” A simple ‫ܕܗܘ‬ ̣ d-hū “he who” would have sufficed.

As first mentioned at Text 3, Syriac cannot use a prepositional phrase as an adjec-

tive to modify a noun. “The man in the house” is expressed as “the man who is in the house,” using ‫ܕ‬. This same construction with

‫ ܕ‬sometimes occurs with simple ‫ܡܠܟܐ ܚܟܝܡܐ‬. But it is also

adjectives. The usual way to say “the wise king” is possible to say

‫ܡܠܟܐ ܕܚܟܝܡܐ‬, “the king who is wise.” This is also the case when the noun has a pronominal suffix. “His wise king” can be expressed as ‫ܡܠܟܗ‬ ‫ ܚܟܝܡܐ‬or as ‫ܡܠܟܗ ܕܚܟܝܡܐ‬. Certain adjectives are more common with ‫ ܕ‬than ̄ without; ‫ ܝܡܝܢܐ‬and ‫ ܣܡܠܐ‬are the two most common. In this story we see ‫ܕܪܥܝ‬ ‫ܕܝܡܝܢܐ‬.

112

A READER IN SYRIAC The passive participle

‫ ܣܡܝܟܐ‬here has an active (but intransitive) sense: “on

whom I rely.” This is a common use of ‫ܣܡܝܟܐ‬. Since it is the predicate, it is in the absolute state.

7

The tirade of the king has come to an end. Now he acts!

Two verb forms in the perfect with object pronouns occur in this sentence. The

ܰ

ܶ

first is an ʾapʿel: ‫ ܐܦܩܗ‬ʾappqeh. The pronoun anticipates the following The second is a pʿal:

ܶ ‫ܰܛ‬ ‫ܪܕܗ‬

‫ܠܚܟܝܡܐ‬.

ṭardeh. As stated earlier, the pʿal forms with object

pronouns are harder to master than the paʿʿel and ʾapʿel forms, because of the

rearrangement of the syllabic structure.

ܰ

ܶ ܰ

Both ‫ ܐܦܩ‬and ‫ ܛܪܕ‬have many uses. Here one can picture the king expelling the

councilor from his immediate presence and from the royal court. Then comes a break in the action. Time passes.

ܰܰ ܶ ‫ܬܦܪܤ‬ ‫ ܐ‬might be translated as “concocted a plan.” The text gives no details.

One can assume that the king himself did not lop off the head of the rebel, but a translation such as “had someone lop off the head of the rebel” is awkward in English. 8

9

̇ ̄ ‫ ܡܥܰ ܶܗ ̇ܕ ܐܢܬ‬mʿahhed ܰ ܰ ܶ ʾatt is a common way of asking “Do you remember?” ܶ ̄ ܳ ‫ ܡܬܡܠܟ ܗܘܝܬ ܒܟ‬metmallak-wēt bāk is “I was asking your advice.” One

̇ ‫ܗܘ‬. The pronoun on ‫ ܪܫܗ‬anticipates ‫ܕܨܒܐ‬

wonders why the author did not use a simple perfect, since this was a one-time action.

̄ ܶ‫ ܶܐܛܥ‬is /ʾeṭʿēw/, the imperfect of a last-weak verb with an object pronoun. ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܶ ܶ ̄ The verb without the pronoun is ‫ ܐܛܥܐ‬/ʾeṭʿē/. The pronoun is written ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬, as it ܺ ܶ ̄ was in ‫ܢܩܛܠܝܘܗܝ‬. But the contraction of this pronoun into the /ē/ of the verb results ̄ ܶ ܶ in /ēw/. In Text 23, “you shall defeat him,” from the root {z-k-y} is written ‫ܬܙܟܝܘܗܝ‬ 10

/tezkēw/.

The ‫ ܕ‬in front of ‫ ܒܗ‬means “for; because.”

ܶ

ܳ

ܺ

In Text 7, ‫“ ܛܥܡ‬to taste” was used with ‫ܝܐܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫“ ܰܗܢ‬pleasure.” Here it is used

ܳ

ܰ

with ‫“ ܡܘܬܐ‬death.”

‫ܡܢ ܕܚܠܬܐ‬

means “out of fear.” Syriac cannot say “out of fear of you,” but

instead says “out of fear which is of you,”

11

‫ܕܡܢܟ‬. ܶ ܰ ‫ܗܝܡܢ‬, functioning as a quasi-interjection, is continued by ‫ܕ‬, which in essence

gives the contents of what is to be “believed.” The same usage occurs in Text 20.

̇

Here ‫ ܗܝܡܢ‬is followed by a nominal sentence. The subject is ‫ܗܘ ܡܐ ܕ‬, “that which

(you advised).” The predicate is

̄ ̄ ‫ܒܢܝܫܝ‬ ‫ܐܝܬܘܗܝ ̄ܗܘܐ‬ .

The

‫̣ܗܘ‬

before

̄ ‫ܐܝܬܘܗܝ‬

resumes the subject, functioning essentially as a copula: “That which you advised— it was…”. ‫ܡܐ ܕ‬

‫ ̇ܗܘ‬is a common expression. It next occurs in Text 22.

TEXT THE SIXTEENTH 12 The

113

̄ seems unnecessary in English. The idea is “was according to ‫ ܒ‬before ‫ܢܝܫܝ‬

my intention.” Such quasi-idiomatic uses of prepositions are almost impossible to

find in Syriac dictionaries.

ܺ ̄ ‫ܣܥܪ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾesʿrīw is another imperfect with an object pronoun. The pronoun, ̇ rather awkwardly, refers to ‫ܗܘ ܡܐ ܕܡܠܟܬ‬, the logical direct object. Since direct objects are not normally resumed by a pronoun, a simple ‫ܣܥܘܪ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬would have ̣ ̄ worked. Both the LeedsMS and the BLMS write ‫ܐܣܥܪܝܘܗܝ‬, but the VatMS writes ‫ܐܣܥܘܪ‬. ‫ܐܠܐ‬ ̇ ܶ ܶ here is approximately “but.” ‫ܢܛܬ‬ ‫ ܩ‬qenṭet is a perfect, ̇ ܶ ܶ not a participle; the sense is “I became afraid” at some particular moment. ‫ ܩܢܛܬ‬is followed by ‫ܕܠܐ‬, which might best be translated as ܶ ܶ “that.” Here it governs ‫ܢܬܓܠܐ‬. One is reminded of the difficulties of learning French verbs for “fear,” with their seemingly otiose use of ne. This is interrupted by

a temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬, with the verb ‫ ܢܫܬܪܪ‬in the imperfect. The same construction was seen in Text 1: ‫ܟܕ ܢܐܒܕ‬, “when it becomes lost.”

̄ the story uses ‫ܕܝܠܝ‬ ̄ ‫ܢܝܫܐ‬. This is the first use of ‫ ܕܝܠ‬in this Reader. Instead of ‫ܢܝܫܝ‬

‫ ܕܝܠ‬puts some focus on the possessor as opposed to the possessed noun. Perhaps here this adds a nuance of “my true intention.” ܰ̈ ܺ 13 ‫ ܡܢ ܐܝܕܝ‬men ʾīday has the connotation of “from my grasp.” The story An edifying story, but one with a lot of gaps in the narrative. How did the king

learn of the treachery of the noble? Why didn’t the king just immediately execute the noble, instead of asking his councilor for advice?

In the future, the councilor will have to do a better job in reading the king’s

mind.

The language Roots meaning “to be great” or “numerous” appear in the various Semitic

languages as {r-b-w}, {r-b-y}, {r-b-b}, and {r-w-r-b}. This makes it difficult to find

such forms in a Syriac dictionary. Sokoloff does not register

‫ ܪܘܪܒܢܐ‬as a separate ܰ ܳ entry; he tucks it away in the entry ‫ ܪܒܐ‬rabbā “great, large.” Payne Smith gives it a separate entry, along with a discussion of the various plurals of the noun.

ܰ

ܳ

ܳ ‫ ܪ‬rawrbānā goes back to /rabrab/, a reduplicated biradical. The The form ‫ܘܪܒܢܐ‬ ܰ

ܳ ‫ܟ‬ first /b/ has dissimilated into /w/. Similarly, “star” or “planet” in Syriac is ‫ܘܟܒܐ‬ kawkbā, going back to /kabkab/.

ܶ

ܰ as a quasi-interjection is not uncommon; it occurs again in Text The use of ‫ܗܝܡܢ‬

20. Oddly, neither Payne Smith nor Sokoloff register this use. When one is a beginning student, it takes some courage to “go beyond” the dictionary.

114

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄ ‫ ܢܝܫܐ‬is a blend of ‫ ܕ‬and ‫ܠ‬. The long vowel /ī/ is a remnant ‫ܕܝܠ‬, seen here in ‫ܕܝܠܝ‬

of an ancient genitive case marker. This is one of the few instances in Syriac where

a case marker has survived; another instance is discussed at Text 21.

ܰܰ

ܶ

The verb ‫ ܐܬܦܪܤ‬occurs here for the first time. Sokoloff registers three different

roots with the consonants {p-r-s}, Payne Smith only two. Two of the three are

Semitic, but the two had different sibilants in Proto-Semitic, possibly {p-r-s} and

{p-r-š}. Sokoloff keeps these two separate. Payne Smith was less interested in such

etymological concerns, so conflates the two into one. The third {p-r-s}, which is the

second {p-r-s} in Payne Smith, ultimately derives from Greek. Greek πόρος entered

ܳ ‫ܦܘ‬ ‫ܪܣܐ‬ ̣ pursā “means, way.” From this noun a triradical root was extracted, appearing in a verbal form as ‫ ܐܬܦܪܤ‬ʾetparras. The verb seems to only

into Syriac as

occur in the ʾetpaʿʿal. As said earlier, Syriac borrowed a host of nouns from Greek;

some appear in the earliest Syriac texts. From these nouns, it was not uncommon for verbal roots to be extracted.

A rich variety of verb forms with object pronouns occurs in this story, some in

the perfect and some in the imperfect. This is the first text in the Reader to sport

object pronouns on verbs in the imperfect. These pronouns often have several variants. The most common forms are:

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܗ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܘܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ܶܢܗ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ܳܢ‬ ‫ܝܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̣

He will write it

They will write it

/nektbeh/

/nektobīw/ /nektbīw/

/nektbūneh/

/nektbūnāy/

“He will write it” appears in three variants. In the first variant

ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬, the ‫ܟܬܒܗ‬

object pronoun appears as /eh/, as it does with verbs in the perfect. The second and third variants, however, end in yod, waw, and then an unpronounced hē-yod. In the American Academic Pronunciation of Syriac, this combination is usually pronounced

/īw/. It is sometimes transcribed as -īu and sometimes as -iu. In the second variant,

̄ ‫ܟܬܘܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ ܶܢ‬. In the third variant, the stem vowel ܶ ̄ ܺ disappears: ‫ܢܟܬܒܝܘܗܝ‬. It is this third variant that is the most common in texts. Thus ܶ ̄ ܺ ̄ ܺ ܶ Text 16 uses ‫ ܢܩܛܠܝܘܗܝ‬and ‫ܐܣܥܪܝܘܗܝ‬.

the stem vowel is retained:

“They will write it” appears in two major variants. The first ends in /eh/. The

̄ ܳ

ܶ

second variant ‫ܟܬܒܘܢܝܗܝ‬ ‫ ܢ‬is particularly hard to remember. ̣ In this Story, there occur:

TEXT THE SIXTEENTH

ܶ ‫ܰܛ‬ ‫ܪܕ ܶܗ‬ ‫ܰܫܐܠܗ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܦܩܗ‬ ̄ ܺ ‫ܶܢܩܛܠ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܺ ̄ ‫ܣܥܪ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܐ‬ ܺ ̄ ‫ܝܡܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܬܪ‬ ̄ ܶ‫ܶܐܛܥ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬

115

/ṭardeh/

/šaʾʾleh/

/ʾappqeh/ /neqṭlīw/ /ʾesʿrīw/

/trīmīw/

/ʾeṭʿēw/

Cognates As stated above, roots beginning with {r-b-} are common in all the Semitic

languages. English “rabbi” derives from Hebrew ‫ ַר ִבּי‬rabbī “my lord.” “Lord” in Arabic is also ‫َب‬ ّ ‫ ر‬rabb.

{m-r-d} “to rebel,” seen in

and َ ‫ � َ�د‬marada.

َ

ܰ ‫ ܡܪܕ‬also occurs in Hebrew and Arabic: ‫ ָמ ַרד‬mārad

The Proto-Semitic word for “earth” was /ʾarḍ/. This is still preserved as Arabic

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬, and in Hebrew ‫ أ� رْض‬ʾarḍ. As expected, in Syriac the /ḍ/ has shifted to /ʿ/: ‫ܪܥܐ‬

it has shifted to /ṣ/: ‫ ֶא ֶרץ‬ʾereṣ. The resemblance of /ʾarḍ/ to such words as “earth” in English and “Erde” in German is amusing.

ܳ ܳ

As would be expected for a word referring to a body part, ‫ ܕܪܥܐ‬has cognates in

Hebrew and Arabic. The original form was /dirāʿ/; this is preserved in Arabic

dirāʿ. In Hebrew, as expected, the original /d/ > /z/: �‫רוֹ‬ ַ ְ‫ ז‬zrōʿa. has

‫ذِر َاع‬

ܰ also has cognates in Hebrew and Arabic. Hebrew has ‫ ָק ַטל‬qāṭal and Arabic ‫ܩܛܠ‬

‫ل‬ َ َ ‫ قَت‬qatala. In Arabic, the emphatic /ṭ/ has become /t/, perhaps due to

dissimilation.

‫ ܝܙ‬TEXT THE SEVENTEENTH ‫ܝܙ‬ Story 630, another story about lunatics. Vocabulary

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܡܢܐ ܁‬ ‫ܡܢܐ‬

ܳܳ

mnā nemnē ‘to count, enumerate’, from {m-n-y}. ‫ ܡܢܬܐ‬mnātā is

‘share, portion’ (Text 27).

‫ܶܚܡܨ‬

Ḥemṣ ‘Emesa’. This is the modern city of Homs in today’s Syria. It is quite

an ancient city, and so the etymology of the name is problematic at best. Exactly how Syriac-speakers would have pronounced the name is also unsure; the pronunciation given here is based on Arabic.

ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܐܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܣܓ‬

saggīʾūtā

‘multitude’. The adjective

ܳ ‫ܰܣ ܺܓ‬ ‫ܝܐܐ‬

saggīʾā ‘many’

ܳ ̣ sūḡā ‘most of’ in Text 8. The construct occurred in Text 2, and the noun ‫ܣܘܓܐ‬ ܶ̈ ܳ ܰ phrase ‫ ܣܓܝܐܘܬ ܐܠܗܐ‬saggīʾūt ʾalāhē is ‘polytheism.’ ܶ ܳ ‘to find’, but ‫ܡܨܐ‬ mṣē ‘able’. In origin, this is the passive participle of ‫ܡܨܐ‬ ܶ usually has the sense of ‘able, can’. ‫ܡܨܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܡܗ‬ ܰ ‫ܘܢܐ‬ ܶ

mhawwnā ‘sane, rational’, a passive participle from a denominative paʿʿel

ܳ

ܰ ‘to endow with reason’, from ‫ ܰܗܘܢܐ‬hawnā ‘mind’. ‫ ܗܘܢܐ‬appears to be a verb ‫ܗܘܢ‬ ܰ

ܶ

non-derived noun. ‫ ܡܢ ܗܘܢܗ ܢܦܩ‬means ‘he has lost his mind’.

̈ ̈ ̄ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ .‫ ܕܡܢܝ ܠܢ ܕܝܘܢܐ ܕܐܝܬ ܒܚܡܨ‬.‫ܐܬܐܡܪ ܠܐܢܫ ܡܢ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬ ̈ ̄ ‫ܕܠܕܝܘܢܐ ܡܛܠ ܣܓܝܐܘܬܗܘܢ ܠܐ ܡܨܐ‬ ‫ ܐܢ‬.‫ܐܢܐ ܕܐܡܢܐ‬ ̄ ̈ ̇ ‫ ܐܡܢܐ ܐܢܘܢ ܡܛܠ ܕܒܨܝܪܝܢ‬.‫ܕܒܗ ̇ܨܒܝܢ ܐܢܬܘܢ‬ ‫ܠܡܗܘܢܐ‬ Analysis 1

ܰ ܳ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ ܶܬ‬is a finite verb in the perfect. The participle ‫ܐܡܪܐ‬ ‫ܐܡܪ‬ ‫ ܶܡܬ‬occurred in

Texts 3, 9, and 14. The participle marks stories that are still being told today, whereas the perfect marks a single occurrence in the past. The passive is used because it is really not important who is speaking to the lunatic.

̄ has the sense of ‫ܚܕ‬, as seen in Text 16. ‫ܐܢܫ‬ 117

118

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܺ ‫ ܡܢܝ‬mnī is the imperative of a last-weak verb in the pʿal. The combination of ‫ܕ‬

for direct speech with the imperative results in the pronunciation /damnī/.

‫ ܐܝܬ‬can be used for all genders and all numbers; here it is used with a plural. ̇ ܰ It would also have been possible to say ‫ܐܝܬܝܗܘܢ‬. ̈ ̈ In ‫ܡܢܝ ܠܢ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, the direct object ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬is used without ‫ܠ‬. In the next occur̈ rence of ‫ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, it is used with ‫ܠ‬. The reason is due to the word-order: in the first ̈ ̈ occurrence, ‫ܡܢܝ ܠܢ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬follows the verb, and is pretty clearly the direct ̈ object, and so does not need to be marked. In the next usage, ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬precedes its ̈ verb, by quite a bit. The ‫ ܠ‬makes it explicit that ‫ ܕܝܘܢܐ‬is the object. Without the ‫ܠ‬, the sentence would be harder to process.

2

‫ ܡܛܠ‬first occurred in Text 4 in the form ‫“ ܡܛܠ ܡܢܐ‬why?” It has occurred several times followed by ‫ ܕ‬to express the conjunction “because.” Here ‫ ܡܛܠ‬is followed by a noun, and so means “because of.”

ܶ is a passive participle of a last-weak verb. Although the basic meaning of ‫ܡܨܐ‬ ܶ has acquired the meaning of “able, can.” Here it is the verb is “to find,” ‫ܡܨܐ‬ ̄ followed by the enclitic pronoun ‫ܐܢܐ‬, and then by a clause in ‫ܕ‬. ̈ Now comes the main verb, ‫ܐܡܢܐ‬. This governs the ‫ ܠܕܝܘܢܐ‬at the beginning of the sentence. 3

‫ ܐܢ‬introduces a rather elliptical if-clause. The sense is clear: “If you want (me ̇ ̄ ܰ ܶ ܳ to count the number of) sane men...” ‫ ̇ܨܒܝܢ ܐܢܬܘܢ‬ṣābēn ʾattōn is the plural active

participle followed by the second-person plural enclitic pronoun: “You want.” These

̈

forms are studied in the following Review Lesson. The preceding ‫ ܡܗܘܢܐ‬mhawwnē

is the direct object of an (understood) “that I count,” ‫ܕܐܡܢܐ‬. Presumably the verb is unexpressed because it is obvious, and also to avoid using the same verb too many times. This does, however, result in rather ungainly Syriac, but it reflects the almost conversational register of the story.

The apodosis of the if-clause is ‫ܐܡܢܐ‬. Here it has a modal nuance “can count.”

This is followed by its object, ‫ܐܢܘܢ‬.

4

In the second line, when counting lunatics the narrator used the wording

‫ܡܛܠ ܣܓܝܐܘܬܗܘܢ‬. But in this line, when counting sane people, he uses the wording ‫ܡܛܠ ܕܒܨܝܪܝܢ‬. It would have been perfectly possible to use a more parallel structure, such as ‫ܡܛܠ ܒܨܝܪܘܬܗܘܢ‬. This is a question of style. Some writers prefer such parallel structures, but by and large most Syriac writers prefer to vary things.

It would have been possible to follow ‫ ܒܨܝܪܝܢ‬with the enclitic copula ‫ܐܢܘܢ‬. But

by not using it, ‫ ܒܨܝܪܝܢ‬receives a little more prominence. The story In this Text

‫ ܡܗܘܢܐ‬contrasts with ‫ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, so “lunatic” is a good translation of

the latter. Perhaps even “fool” would work.

TEXT THE SEVENTEENTH

119

This seems like gratuitous bashing of the city of Emesa. One wonders why. Emesa

does not seem to have had a reputation for containing a large number of lunatics. Bar ʿEbrāyā must have felt the story amusing enough to include it in his book. One wonders if the name of any other city in Syria would have worked just as well.

It is also amusing that a lunatic is being asked to count lunatics. This reminds us

of the self-referentiality of the lunatic in Text 3. But who is speaking to the lunatic

̄

here? The audience addresses him with ‫ܠܢ‬, and he addresses them as ‫ܐܢܬܘܢ‬. This means that there was a plurality of enquirers who were interested in the question. The language

This story begins with a finite verb, instead of the participle, to indicate a single

action in the past. Several stories begin this way. The passive participle

ܶ , from the last-weak verb ‫ܡܨܐ‬ ܳ , has become quite ‫ܡܨܐ‬

adjectival, with the meaning “able.” A few other passive participles from last-weak

ܶ

ܳ “to be thirsty” comes ‫ܨܗܐ‬ verbs have lost any sort of passive meaning. From ‫ܨܗܐ‬ “thirsty.”

Does the somewhat elliptical ending towards the end of the narrative reflect the

conversational register of the story, or does it tell us something about the syntax of lunatics?

Manuscript variation

̄ ‫ ܠܐ ܡܨܐ‬is the reading of the VatMS. Both the LeedsMS and the ‫ܐܢܐ ܕܐܡܢܐ‬ ̇ ̈ ̄ BLMS read ‫ܠܐ ܡܨܐ ܐܢܐ ܕܐܡܢܐ ܐܢܘܢ‬. Since ‫ ܠܕܝܘܢܐ‬before ‫ ܡܛܠ‬is the direct object, the ‫ ܐܢܘܢ‬that follows ‫ ܕܐܡܢܐ‬is unnecessary. A “purist” might complain about it, but similar cases occur elsewhere. The presence of ‫ ܐܢܘܢ‬is due to the almost conversational nature of the text. The sentence started to become long and

complicated, and the syntax switched gears. Such switching of constructions happens all the time in spoken language. The copyist of the VatMS may have been something

of a purist, and so struck out the offending

‫ܐܢܘܢ‬. This scenario is easier to figure

than the copyists of the other two manuscripts adding ‫ܐܢܘܢ‬. The LeedsMS and the VatMS read

̇ ‫ ̇ ܳܨ ܶܒܝܢ ܰܐ ̄ܢ‬. The BLMS reads ‫ܝܬܘܢ‬ ̇ ‫ ̇ ܳܨ ܶܒ‬. The ‫ܬܘܢ‬

latter is a contracted form of the second-person, with the exact same meaning. Such forms are discussed in the following Review Lesson. Manuscripts often differ in their

use of contracted ~ uncontracted forms. Cognates

ܳ “to count” has its exact cognate in Hebrew ‫ ָמנָ ה‬mānā “to count.” In Arabic, ‫ܡܢܐ‬

however, ‫ م َ� َى‬manā is “to tempt, test.” The English word “mina,” a unit of weight and of currency, ultimately goes back to Akkadian manû, from the same root {m-n-y}.

‫ ܝܚ‬TEXT THE EIGHTEENTH ‫ܝܚ‬ Story 506, from the section about actors and comedians. Vocabulary

ܶ ܺ ܶ ܺ ‫ܶܢܬܝܠܕ ܁ ܶܐܬܝܠܕ‬

ʾetīled netīled ‘to be born’, from {y-l-d}. In the pʿal, the initial

vowelless /y/ turns into /ī/. Since a word in Syriac cannot start with a vowel, this

receives a glottal stop: /yled/> /ʾīled/. However, the yod continues to be written:

ܶ ‫ ܺܝܠܕ‬. A similar phonetic change happens in the ʾetpʿel: /ʾetyled/ > /ʾetīled/.

ܳ̄ ‫ܰܫܢ ̄ܬܐ‬

šattā ‘year’. The original base was /šant/. As in the case of such words as

‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬, the vowelless /n/ has totally assimilated into the /t/, but the nūn conܰ̈ ̈ܺ tinues to be written. It reappears in the plural: absolute ‫ ܫܢܝܢ‬šnīn, emphatic ‫ܫܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ̄ ܰ šattānāyā is ‘annual’. ‫ ܰܫܢ̄ ܳܬ ܳܢ ܺܐܝܬ‬šattānāʾīt is the adverb ‘yearly’. šnayyā. ‫ܫܢܬܢ ܳܝܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܠܕܐ‬

yaldā ‘offspring, child’.

̈ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܐܫܬܐܠ܂ ܡܬܝܠܕ ܠܓܒܪܐ ܒܪ ܫܒܥܝܢ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ܂‬ ̣ ‫ܫܢܝܢ ܝܠܕܐ܂‬ ̈ ‫ܕܐܝܢ ܟܕ ܢܗܘܐ ܠܗ ܫܒܒܐ ܒܪ ܬܠܬܝܢ‬ ‫ܫܢܝܢ‬ Analysis 1

The participle ‫ ܡܬܝܠܕ‬has a modal sense, inside of an interrogative: “Is it possible

that...”

‫( ܒܪ‬the ܳ ̈ construct form of ‫ )ܒܪܐ‬followed by a number followed by ‫ܫܢܝܢ‬. The feminine uses ̄ ܳ ‫ ܰܒܪܬܐ‬in the construct. This is written ‫ ܰܒܪܬ‬, pronounced /bat/. ‫ ܝܠܕܐ‬is the subject of the participle. 2 ‫ ܟܕ ܢܗܘܐ ܠܗ‬has a modal sense, “if he should happen to have.” ‫ܒܪ‬

begins an appositive phrase. The usual way to indicate age is

The story A witty remark. The language

ܳ ‫ ܒܪܐ‬with possessive suffixes was studied at Text 13. The ܳ word for “daughter” ‫ ܰܒܪܬܐ‬behaves as follows: The word for “son”

121

122

A READER IN SYRIAC

emphatic

absolute

construct

ܳ ‫ܰܒܪܬܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܰܒܪܬ‬ ̄ ‫ܰܒܪܬ‬

/bartā/ /bat/ /bat/

In both the absolute and the construct, the /r/ is not pronounced, and is written

with a linea over it. my daughter

your (m) daughter your (f) daughter his son

her son

ܰ ̄‫ܒܪܬܝ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܒܪܬܟ‬ ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܒ‬ ܶ ܰ ‫ܒܪܬܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܒܪܬ ̄ܗ‬

/brat/

/bartāk/

/bartek/

/barteh/

/bartāh/

Cognates

ܶ ܺ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬goes back to an ‫ ܶܐܬܝܠܕ‬and the noun ‫ܠܕܐ‬ original {w-l-d}. This is preserved in Arabic َ �َ�َ‫ و‬walada “to give birth.” In both Syriac ܶ ܺ and Hebrew, all initial-waw roots have changed /w/ to /y/. Thus Syriac has ‫ ܝܠܕ‬and The root {y-l-d}, seen in the verb

Hebrew has ‫ יָ ַלד‬yālad.

The word for “year,” Syriac

ܳ̄ ‫ ܰܫܢܬܐ‬, is probably a non-derived biradical noun.

The nūn is preserved in Hebrew ‫ ָשׁנָ ה‬šānā and Arabic ‫ سَن َة‬sana.

‫ ܝܛ‬TEXT THE NINETEENTH ‫ܝܛ‬ Story 642, one more story about lunatics. Vocabulary

ܰ ܶ ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ‫ܒܗܪ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬

ʾeštabhar neštabhar ‘to boast’, a quadriradical verb. The

ܰ ‫ ܰܫ‬is ‘to glorify something’, so ‫ ܐܫܬܒܗܪ‬is ‘to glorify oneself’. Sokoloff active ‫ܒܗܪ‬

registers it under the root {š-b-h-r}; Payne Smith registers it as a shaphel of {b-h-r}.

The root {b-h-r}, however, is only marginally attested in Syriac.

ܶ ‫ܰܗ‬ ‫ܪܩܠ‬

Harqel ‘Hercules’. As usual with foreign names, it is difficult to say exactly

how it was pronounced in Syriac. The vocalization used here follows that of the BLMS.

ܳ ܰ‫ܡܥ‬ ‫ܪܛ ܳܢܐ‬

ܶܰ

mʿarrṭānā ‘farter’, from the verb ‫ ܥܪܛ‬ʿarreṭ ‘to fart’. The root {ʿ-r-ṭ}

does not appear to be used in the pʿal. Is the verb onomotopoetic?

‫ ܳܗ ܰܟ ܳܢܐ‬hākannā ‘thus’, an adverb. The form ‫ ܳܗ ܰܟܢ‬also exists. ܰ ܳ ‫‘ ܰܪ‬noble’ occurred in Text 16. ‫ ܪ ܳܒܐ‬rabbā ‘great, large’, from {r-b-b}. ‫ܘܪܒ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܦ‬patyā ‘wide, extensive’. ‫ܦܬܐ‬ ‫ܬܝܐ‬ is ‘to become large’. ܳ ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ‬malkūtā ‘kingdom’. As is the case with many so-called “abstract” nouns,

‫ܠܟܘܬ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܡ‬ ܳ ܰ and as ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ ܰܕ‬ ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ‬. In the Lord’s Prayer, it says “May your kingdom ܶ ܶ ܳ come,” ‫ܠܟܘܬܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܬܐܬܐ ܰܡ‬. ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yawnāyā ‘Greek’. ‫ܘܢܝܘ ܳܬܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܘܢ ܳܝܐ‬ language and Greek culture ̣ ‫ ܰܝ‬means the Greek ܶ ܰ in general. The quadriradical denominative verb ‫ ܝܘܢܢ‬is ‘to be versed in Greek, to ܺ ܳ write in the Greek manner’. ‫ ܰܝܘܢܐܝܬ‬means ‘in Greek’. the meaning is often quite concrete. ‘Kingdom of Heaven’ is expressed as

‫ ܘܟܕ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ‬.‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܫܬܒܗܪ ̄ܗܘܐ ܕܡܠܟܐ ̄ܗ ̣ܘ ܒܙܒܢܐ ܕܗܪܩܠ‬ ̄ ‫ ܕܐܠܘ‬.‫ ̣ܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬.‫ ܕܐܢܬ ܐܝܬܝܟ ܡܠܟܐ ܕܡܥ̈ܪܛܢܐ‬.‫ܚܕ ܡܢ ܪܘ̈ܪܒܢܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܝܬܝܪ ܪܒܐ ܗܘ ̣ܬ ܘܦܬܝܐ ܡܠܟܘܬܝ̄ ܡܢ‬.‫ܗܟܢܐ ܗܘܝܬ ܐܝܟ ܡܠܬܟ‬ ̈ ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕܡܥ̈ܪܛܢܐ ܛܒ ܣܓܝܐܝܢ ܡܢ‬.‫ܡܠܟܘܬ ܗܪܩܠ‬ ‫ܝܘܢܝܐ‬ 123

124

A READER IN SYRIAC

Analysis

̄ “another lunatic,” so ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ ̄ here means ̈ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ‬ ‫ܕܝܘܢܐ‬ “another lunatic,” functioning as the subject of ‫ܡܫܬܒܗܪ‬. 1

Story 641 begins

As was discussed at Review Lesson Two, quadriradical verbs appear in two con-

jugations: a basic form and one with infixed /t/. The latter is conjugated like an

ʾetpaʿʿal verb. A verb in the ʾetpaʿʿal has only one participle, in /a/: /metpaʿʿal/ (this

ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ‫ ܡ‬/meštabhar/. Verbs with reflexive. ‫ ܡܫܬܒܗܪ‬is “glorifying oneself,” that is,

form is difficult to remember). This results in infixed /t/ can be passive or “boasting.”

‫̄ܗܘܐ‬

boasting.” The

after

‫ ܡܫܬܒܗܪ‬anchors

the narrative in the past, “used to go around

‫ ̄ܗ ̣ܘ‬after ‫ ܡܠܟܐ‬is the particle that can be joined to almost any word in a

sentence. Here it adds some prominence to the noun “king”: “had been king.” In origin, it is a reduction of the pronoun ‫“ ̣ܗܘ‬he.”

‫ ܘܟܕ‬introduces the protasis of a long temporal clause, which includes a section

of direct speech.

2

As will be discussed at Review Lesson Four, Syriac possesses a surprisingly large

number of ways to express a simple nominal sentence, such as “You are the king.”

ܺ

ܰ ܺ

This text uses ‫ܐܝܬ‬, with the second-person pronoun: ‫ ܐܝܬܝܟ‬ʾītayk. This is one of

the least common formulations, and is used here to add a certain emphasis to the sentence. Another example occurs in Text 22.

‫ ̣ܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬begins the apodosis of the temporal clause that started with ‫ܘܟܕ‬. As seen in Text 3 and Text 11, ‫ ܐܠܘ‬introduces a counterfactual statement, using ܶ the perfect in both the protasis and apodosis: “If I were (‫)ܗܘܝܬ‬...then my kingdom ܳ would be (‫)ܗܘܬ‬.” These are the full forms of the verb “to be” not the enclitic copula. 3 ‫ ܐܝܟ ܡܠܬܟ‬ʾak melltāk is literally “according to your word.” ‫ ܗܟܢܐ‬is “thus.” The sentence seems wordy when translated literally into English, but this is good Syriac. It would also have been possible to omit ‫ܗܟܢܐ‬.

ܺ ‫ ܰܝܬܝܪ‬, which ܰ ܳ ‫ ܰܦ‬, forming first occurred in Text 7. Here it modifies the two adjectives ‫ ܪ ܳܒܐ‬and ‫ܬܝܐ‬ a comparative with ‫ܡܢ‬. Both ‫ ܪܒܐ‬and ‫ ܦܬܝܐ‬are in the feminine absolute. They ܳ form the predicate to ‫ܗܘܬ‬, which is feminine because of ̄‫ܡܠܟܘܬܝ‬. Nice Syriac syntax! First comes the predicate adjective ‫ܪܒܐ‬, then ‫ܗܘܬ‬, then a second predicate adjective ‫ܦܬܝܐ‬, then lastly ̄‫ܡܠܟܘܬܝ‬. 4 The adverb ‫ ܛܒ‬appeared in Text 7, in the meaning “better.” Here the sense is The apodosis of the conditional sentence begins with the adverb

“more.”

TEXT THE NINETEENTH

125

The story One wonders how a lunatic encountered a nobleman; one would think that they

moved in different social circles. It is quite possible that the sole reason why Bar ʿEbrāyā included this story in his collection is because it uses the word Which of course is one of the reasons it is included in this Reader.

‫ܡܥܪܛܢܐ‬.

The language The pʿal, paʿʿel, and ʾapʿel conjugations in Syriac each have both an active

participle and a passive partiticple: active pʿal

paʿʿel ʾapʿel

passive

ܶ ‫ܳܟܬܒ‬ ܶ ܰ ‫ܡܟܬܒ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܡܟܬܒ‬

/kāteb/

/mkatteb/ /makteb/

ܺ ‫ܟܬܝܒ‬ ܰ ܰ ‫ܡܟܬܒ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܡܟܬܒ‬

/ktīb/

/mkattab/ /maktab/

However, each of the three conjugations in /t/ has only one participle: ʾetpʿel

ʾetpaʿʿal

ʾettapʿal

ܶ ‫ܶܡܬܟܬܒ‬ ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܡ‬ ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܡܬܬܟܬܒ‬

/metkteb/

Perfect and participle end in /e/

/mettaktab/

Perfect and participle end in /a/

/metkattab/

Perfect and participle end in /a/

These three forms are sometimes called “active” participles. The term “active,”

however, is somewhat misleading. Since the three conjugations are mostly passive

ܶ

ܶ

in meaning, so is the “active” participle passive in meaning: ‫ ܡܬܩܛܠ‬metqṭel means

“getting killed.”

In the case of an ʾetpʿel participle, when any ending is added the word resylla-

bifies, and an /a/ appears in place of the /e/. Thus the feminine singular absolute is

ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬/metkatbā/. ܳ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܐ‬

masculine abs sing

abs plur emp sing

emp plur

ܶ ‫ܶܡܬܟܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܬܟ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܬܒܝܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܐ‬ ܶ̈ ܰ ܶ ‫ܡܬܟܬܒܐ‬

feminine /metkteb/

/metkatbīn/ /metkatbā/ /metkatbē/

ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ̈ ܳ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܢ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܬܟܬܒܬܐ‬ ܳ ̈ܳ ܰ ܶ ‫ܡܬܟܬܒܬܐ‬

/metkatbā/

/metkatbān/ /metkatbtā/

/metkatbātā/

126

A READER IN SYRIAC

Manuscript variation

̄

̄

The BLMS and the VatMS read ‫ ;ܡܠܟܐ ܗܘ‬the LeedsMS reads ‫ܡܠܟܐ ܗܘܐ‬. The

only graphic difference is the presence of a final

‫ܐ‬. The Leeds reading explicitly

marks the verb as plurperfect: “had been king.” Both readings produce good Syriac. The reading

‫ ̄ܗܘ‬is preferred here, because the first ‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬had already grounded the

text in the past.

‫ ܟܟ‬TEXT THE TWENTIETH ‫ܟܟ‬ Story 404, from the section about dreams and prognostications. Vocabulary

ܶ ‫ܬܪܝܢ‬

trēn ‘two’, used with masculine nouns.

ܶ ܰ ‫ ܬܪܬܝܢ‬tartēn is used with feminine

nouns. Both forms can appear with or without syāmē.

ܳ ܰ ‫ܬ ܳܓܪܐ‬

taggārā ‘merchant, businessman’, a loanword from Akkadian. The related

ܰ ܰ

verb is in the ʾetpaʿʿal: ‫ ܐܬܬܓܪ‬ʾettaggar, ‘to conduct business, trade’. As usual, the

ܳ ܳ ܰ

expected /ʾett-/ has become /ʾett-/. The noun ‫ ܬܓܪܐ‬also means the planet Mercury.

ܰ ‫ܢܕ ܰܝܪ ܁ ܰܕ ܰܝܪ‬

dayyar ndayyar ‘to wander about’, from {d-w-r}. The verb does not appear

to be used in the pʿal.

‫ ܰܕ ܰܝܪ‬also means ‘to dwell’. This meaning derives from the idea

of nomadic tribes moving about and occasionally settling down. The verb is probably denominative, from

ܳ ‫ܰܕܘܪܐ‬

dawrā ‘circle’.

ܳ ܰ ‘monastery’. ‫ ܕܝܪ ܳܝܐ‬dayrāyā is a ‘monk’.

ܺ ‫ܬܦ‬ ܶ ‫ܬܦ‬ ܰ ‫ܪܓܐ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܪܓܝ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܕܝܪܐ‬

dayrā ranges from ‘dwelling’ to

ʾetpargī netpargē ‘to amuse oneself’. Sokoloff registers this

as a quadriradical {p-r-g-y}. Payne Smith calls it an “Ethpali” formation from the

root {p-r-g}.

ܳ ‫ ܰܝ ܺܬ‬yattībā ‫ܝܒܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܪܡܐ ܁‬ ‫ܪܡܐ‬

ܶ ܺ

‘sitting, seated’. The verb is ‫ ܝܬܒ‬ʾīteb ‘to sit’ (Text 22). rmā nermē ‘to place, cast, throw’.

ܺ ‫‘ ܰܐ‬to throw’ appeared in ‫ܪܡܝ‬

Text 9. Finite verb forms in the pʿal are rather uncommon, but the participles are

ܰ

ܳ ‫ ܪ‬ramyā has the sense of ‘fallen down’. frequent. The passive participle ‫ܡܝܐ‬

ܶ ‫ܰܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬

saʿrē ‘hair’. This most commonly occurs in the plural. ‫ ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬sʿārē ‘barley’

‫ܥܰ ܳܡܐ‬ ̈

ʿammā ‘people; crowd’, a non-derived noun. The plural is usually written

ܶܳ

occurs in Text 29.

̄ ܰ‫ܥ‬, pronounced /ʿammē/. The spelling presumably reflects an earlier pronunܶ ‫ܡ‬ ‫ܡܐ‬

ciation, perhaps /ʿamᵉmē/.

ܰ ‫ܟܢܘܫ ܁‬ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܟܢܫ‬

knaš neknoš

‘to gather’, both transitive and intransitive. The paʿʿel

‫ ܰܟ ܶܢܫ‬is only transitive. It can sometimes be difficult to decide if a given verbal form ܳ is pʿal or paʿʿel. ‫ ܟܢܘܫܬܐ‬knuštā is ‘assembly’ and ‘synagogue’. 127

128

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܰ ‫ܓܚܟ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܓܚܟ‬

ܳ ‫ܓܘ‬ ‫ܚܟܐ‬ ̣ guḥkā is ‘laughter’ (Text 22). ܳ ܰ ܶ The paʿʿel ‫ ܓܚܟ‬is ‘to mock, ridicule’. The title of Bar ʿEbrāyā’s opus is ‫ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܕܬܘ ̈ܢ ܶܝܐ‬ ‫ܡܓ ̈ܚ ܳܟ ܶܢܐ‬ ̣ . Translations of ‫ ܡܓܚܟܢܐ‬mḡaḥḥkānā include ‘comical, funny, gḥak neḡḥak ‘to laugh’.

ludicrous’.

‫ܰܢ ܶܗܠ ܁ ܰܐ ܶܗܠ‬

ʾahhel nahhel ‘to mock, make fun of’, with

‫ܒ‬. The root is geminate

{h-l-l}, in the ʾapʿel. Geminate verbs are difficult to master; not much morphology

shows on the surface. The root {h-l-l} is not used in the pʿal. Curiously, in the paʿʿel

ܶ ‫ ܰܗܠܠ‬means ‘to praise’.

ܶ ‫ܰܗ‬ ‫ܝܕܝܢ‬

haydēn ‘then’, an adverb. It frequently introduces a change of subject.

Presumably it comes from the feminine demonstrative

‫ ̇ܗܝ‬hay + ‫ ܶܕܝܢ‬dēn ‘then’.

ܶ ܳ ‫ ܶܢܬܠܐ ܁ ܬܠܐ‬tlā netlē ‘to lift up’. It can also mean ‘to hang’ or ‘to crucify’. ‫ ܠܥܶܠ‬lʿel ‘upwards’, an adverb. It is hard to say why it has an /e/-vowel and not an

ܶ ‫ ܠܥܶܠ‬is the preposition, ‘up towards, above’ (Text 23). Payne Smith ܶ ܰ ܳ ܶ cites the nominal expression ‫ ܠ ܳܫܢܐ ܕܠܥܠ‬leššānā da-lʿel, ‘mountain dialect’. ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬npaq neppoq ‘to go out’, intransitive. The transitive ʾapʿel ‫‘ ܰܐ ܶܦܩ‬to ܰ ‫ܦܘܩ ܁‬ ‫ܢܦܩ‬ ܳ ܳ ܶ ܰ take out’ appeared in Text 14. ‫ ܢܦܩ ܡܢ ܥܠܡܐ‬means ‘to die’. ܰ ʿdammā d- ‘up till; before’, a conjunction. The preposition is ‫ܥܕ ܳܡܐ‬ ܰ , ‫ܥܕ ܳܡܐ ܕ‬ /a/-vowel. ‫ܡܢ‬

‘up till’ (Text 29).

ܳ ‫ܰܚܒܪܐ‬

ḥabrā ‘friend, homie’. Is this a non-derived noun, or does it derive from a

ܰ is ‘to befriend’. This thought is ‫ܚܒܪ‬ ܶ ܰ ܰ most commonly expressed by the ʾetpaʿʿal ‫( ܐܬܚܒܪ‬Text 27).

verbal root {ḥ-b-r}? The rare verb in the pʿal

ܶ ‫ܪܚܡ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܪܚܡ‬ ܰ

rḥem nerḥam ‘to love’. This might be a denominative verb in the pʿal

ܶ ‫ ܰ̈ܪ‬is ‘mercy’. Perhaps it originally ܳ ‫ ܪ‬raḥmā ‘womb’. In the plural, ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ܳ ܳ meant ‘acts of mercy’. The nominalized active participle ‫ ܪܚܡܐ‬rāḥmā is ‘a trusted

from

friend’.

̄ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܬܪܝܢ ܡܢ ܬܓ̈ܪܐ ܟܕ ܡܕܝܪܝܢ ̄ܗܘܘ ܒܡܕܝܢܬܐ ܡܕܡ‬ ̄ ‫ܘܡܬܦܪܓܝܢ ܚܙܘ ܐܢ̄ܬܬܐ‬ .‫ܐܢܫ ܕܝܬܝܒܐ ܒܫܘܩܐ ܘܪܡܝܐ ܒܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܘܫܪܝ ܚܕ ܡܢܗܘܢ ܠܡ ܠܡܓܚܟ‬.‫ܥܠܝܗ‬ ‫ܘܥܡܐ ܣܓܝܐܐ ܕܟܢܝܫ‬ ̄ ̇ ̇ ‫ܘܠܡܗܠܘ‬ ‫ ܕܚܙܝ ܐܘ‬.‫ܬܠܬ ܪܫܗ ܠܥܠ ܘܐܡܪ ̣ܬ‬ ‫ ܗܝܕܝܢ ̣ܗܝ‬.‫ܒܗܝ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ̄ ̇ ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬ ‫ ܗܝܡܢ ܕܠܐ ܬܦܘܩ ܡܢ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ ܗܕܐ ܥܕܡܐ‬.‫ܕܓܚܟ ܐܢܬ‬

TEXT THE TWENTIETH

129

̄ ̇ .‫ܕܡܐܬ ܐܢ̄ܬ‬ ̇ ‫ܘܢܣܒ ܗܢܐ ܚܒܪܟ ܕܥܡܟ ܐܡܬܟ ̇ܗܝ ܕܪܚܡ ܐܢܬ‬ ̈ ̇ ‫ ܘ ̣ܢܣܒ ̇ܗܘ‬.‫ܝܘܡܬܐ ܐܬܟܪܗ ̇ܗܘ ܘܡܝܬ‬ ‫ ܘܒܬܪ‬.‫ܠܗ ܐܝܟ ܢܦܫܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܐܡܬܗ‬ Analysis 1

̄ means “another story.” ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ As seen previously, ‫ ܡܢ‬means “belonging to the class of”: “two of the class of

merchants.” This construction puts a little focus on “merchant.” The simpler wording

‫ ܬܪܝܢ ܬܓ̈ܪܝܢ‬would put a little focus on “two.” English would use “two merchants”

in both cases.

‫ ܬܪܝܢ ܡܢ ܬܓ̈ܪܐ‬is the subject of the following ‫ܚܙܘ‬. ܺ ܰ ‫ ܟܕ‬introduces a longish temporal clause, with two participles. The first, ‫ܡܕܝܪܝܢ‬ , ܰ ̄ is followed by ‫ܗܘܘ‬, anchoring the text in the past. This means that the second ܶ ܰ ܶ ̄ participle ‫ܡܬܦܪܓܝܢ‬, does not need ‫ܗܘܘ‬. ܳ ܳ ̄ ‫ ܶܡ ܶܕܡ‬follows the feminine noun ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬. Text 7 used ‫ܫܘܐܠܐ ܶܡ ܶܕܡ‬ , “some

question or other.” 2

ܺ ܰ

ܶ

Whether one analyzes ‫ ܐܬܦܪܓܝ‬as from a quadriradical root {p-r-g-y} or as an

ʾetpaʿlī conjugation from a triradical root {p-r-g}, it behaves as a last-weak verb, and so the plural participle ends in /ēn/, exactly like /metpargēn/.

‫ܳܒ ܶܢܝܢ‬

/bānēn/:

ܶ ‫ܬܦ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܪܓܝܢ‬

̄ ‫ܚܙܘ‬. This takes two objects: ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬and ‫ܥܡܐ‬. ̄ ̄ follows the feminine noun ‫ܐܢܬܬܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܫ‬ . As seen previously, ‫ ܐܢܫ‬follows animate nouns while ‫ ܡܕܡ‬follows inanimate nouns. This woman is first described ܳ ‫ܕܝ ܺܬ‬ ܰ . The adjective ‫ ܝܬܝܒܐ‬is the predicate, by a simple relative clause, ‫ܝܒܐ ܒܫܘܩܐ‬ Now comes the main verb,

and so is in the feminine absolute. Since the story has already been set in the past,

ܳ ̄

there is no need to use ‫ ܗܘܬ‬after

‫ܝܬܝܒܐ‬. This relative clause describes where the

woman was. Now comes a second relative clause, without ‫ܕ‬, describing her physical

ܶ

ܰ

ܰ

ܳ ‫ ܪ‬presumably means that appearance: “and who was wild in her hair.” ‫ܡܝܐ ܒܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬

her hair was not in a neat state, but rather was flying all-around. It would also have

been possible to repeat the relative particle: ‫ܘܕܪܡܝܐ‬.

The phrasal dot after ‫ ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬helps to introduce the second direct object of ‫ܚܙܘ‬,

‫ܥܡܐ‬: “(and they saw) people.” This is somewhat ungainly Syriac; the second object

is so far away from the verb that the sentence becomes difficult to process.

ܺ ‫ ܟܢܝܫ‬is the passive participle of the pʿal. It is the predicate to ‫ܥܡܐ‬, and so in ̇ ܶ the absolute. ‫ ܥܠܝܗ‬has the sense of “around” her. ܺ ‫ ܰܫܪܝ‬is continued by two infinitives in the absolute, each introduced with ‫ܠ‬: ܺ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬meḡḥak in the pʿal and ‫ܠܘ‬ ‫ܓܚܟ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ ܳܗ‬mahhālū in the ʾapʿel. In Text 9, ‫ ܰܫܪܝ‬was 3

continued by an active participle. Both constructions are common.

130

A READER IN SYRIAC In Text 7 and Text 15,

‫ܠܡ‬

was used to mark direct speech. Here it seems to

indicate that the man was not just laughing to himself, but was laughing outloud at

the poor woman. It is difficult for dictionaries to register all the nuances of such particles. 4

‫ ܗܝܕܝܢ‬helps mark a change of subject. Now the woman becomes a participant in

the drama.

The use of the pronoun

‫ ̣ܗܝ‬helps us to focus our attention on the woman. The BLMS reads ‫ ̣ܗܝ ܬܠܬ‬, while the VatMS reads ‫ܬܠܬ ̣ܗܝ‬. The latter reading puts more ܶ focus on the verb than on the pronoun. In either case, the adverb ‫ ܠܥܠ‬makes good sense. Oddly, however, it is missing from the VatMS.

ܺ ܺ is the imperative of a last-weak verb, similar to ‫ܡܢܝ‬ ‫ܚܙܝ‬ “count!” in Text 17. The sense is often more “pay attention” than “look.” ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬is used to try to get someone’s attention. ‫ ܚܙܝ ܓܒܪܐ‬also occurs in Story 317. As was mentioned at Text 3, the vocative ‫ ܐܘ‬often conveys a sense of reproach. “Hey, you” might capture the tone of ‫ܐܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬. 5 ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬is followed by a relative clause which contains an active participle, ܳ̇ ̄ ‫ܕܓ ܶܚܟ ܐܢܬ‬ . Because this clause modifies the noun ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬, it feels to speakers of ̄ English that it should be third-person. Syriac, however, uses ‫ܐܢܬ‬, since this is all direct speech. Syriac can use both first-person and second-person forms inside of a

relative clause. It takes a while to get used to this construction.

‫ ܗܝܡܢ ܕ‬occurred in Text 16. There it was followed by a nominal sentence. Here ̇ it is followed by an imperfect, ‫ ܠܐ ܬܦܘܩ‬lā teppoq “You will not leave.” This is ܳ ܰ picked up by the conjunction ‫ ܥܕܡܐ ܕ‬ʿdammā d. The basic meaning of the prepo-

sition and conjunction is “up to,” but as is the case with all such words, translations

have to fit context. “Before” would convey the sense here. The conjunction is followed by the active participle from

ܳ ‫“ ܺܡܝܬ‬to die,” ‫ ̇ܡ ܶܐܬ‬. It is sometimes easier to

reverse the protasis and apodosis when translating such sentences into English: “You will be dead before...”

6

The active participle

ܳ ‫ ̇ܢ ܶܣܒ‬continues the

apodosis. Its subject is

ܳ ‫ܗܢܐ ܚܒܪܟ‬,

with the demonstrative preceding a noun with a possessive pronoun. The English

equivalent is “this friend of yours.” This is continued by a second relative clause,

‫ܕܥܡܟ‬.

Now comes the object of the participle, ‫ܐܡܬܟ‬. This is the first time that she

is mentioned.

ܳ ‫ ̇ܗܝ ܕ‬is “the one whom,” in the feminine. ‫ ܠ ̇ܗ‬expresses the direct object of the ܳ participle ‫ܪ ܶܚܡ‬, producing “the one whom you love.” 7

As usual, the end of the direct speech is not marked in any way.

TEXT THE TWENTIETH

ܳ ̈ܳ ܰ ‫ܘܡܬܐ‬ ‫ܝ‬

here is “a few days.”

demonstrative is common.

̄ ‫ ̇ܗܘ‬is “that other man.” ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

‫̇ܗܘ‬

131

is “that man.” This nominal use of a

Syriac often uses a demonstrative where English

would use a simple definite article: “the other man.” The story

Don’t make fun of crazy women in the streets! But was the woman simply

prognosticating, or did she bring about the death of the obnoxious man?

Is the fact that the two men were merchants of any special relevance?

The language It is often difficult to understand what nuance a particle such as

ܰ ‫ ܠܡ‬adds to a

text. Here, moreover, it is present in the BLMS but not in the VatMS. The story is not

preserved in the LeedsMS. So which reading is to be preferred? On the general principle that it is more common for something to be dropped than to be added, it is kept here.

Proto-Semitic had a fully-functioning dual in both its verbal and nominal sys-

tems, and to some degree in its pronouns. In Syriac, no traces of the dual in the verb

remain at all. The only traces of the dual are in the numbers for “two”: /trēn/ and /tartēn/, and the word for “two hundred”:

ܶ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܐܬܝܢ‬

/matēn/. (“Two thousand” is

ܺ ܰ expressed by ‫ ܬܪܝܢ ܐܠܦܝܢ‬trēn ʾalpīn). The /ē/ goes back to Proto-Semitic /ay/, the marker of the dual of the oblique case in nouns. Cognates As said above, the dual was alive and well in Proto-Semitic, in pronouns, nouns,

and verbs, both in the perfect and in the imperfect. However, it frequently disappears

from its descendant languages. In Classical Arabic it was still functional, but the

spoken dialects of Arabic today have lost it in the pronoun and the verb; only

occasionally does it survive in nouns. Biblical Hebrew only has remnants in a few nouns, and Modern Hebrew has even fewer. It seems to have disappeared in Aramaic at an early stage. Only a few traces survive in nouns in Biblical Aramaic.

The Proto-Semitic root for “to laugh” was probably {ḍ-ḥ-q}. This sounds

onomatopoetic. As expected, it shows up in Hebrew as ‫ ָצ ַחק‬ṣāḥaq. The Arabic is ‫ك‬ َ ِ � َ�

ܰ {g-ḥḍaḥika, with an unexpected dissimilation of the /q/ to /k/. Syriac uses ‫ܓܚܟ‬

k}. Proto-Semitic {ḍ-ḥ-q} should appear in Syriac as {ʿ-ḥ-q}, but the first root

consonant has changed from /ʿ/ to /g/. Was this dissimilation? And, as in Arabic, the last root consonant has changed from /q/ to /k/. This results in the situation that Syriac {g-ḥ-k} preserves only one consonant intact from Proto-Semitic {ḍ-ḥ-q}.

132

A READER IN SYRIAC Syriac

‫ܥܰ ܳܡܐ‬

Arabic, however,

ʿammā has its exact cognate in Hebrew ‫ ַﬠם‬ʿamm “people.” In

‫م‬ ّ َ ‫ ع‬ʿamm means “uncle.” Anthropologists love to speculate about

what this all means. As with Syriac

ܳ ‫ܬܠܐ‬, Hebrew ‫ ָתּ ָלה‬tālā can mean “to hang someone on a stake.”

The root is not used in Arabic. “Friend” in Syriac is

ܳ ‫ ܰܚܒܪܐ‬.

In Hebrew, this is ‫ ָח ֵבר‬ḥāber. To judge from the

vocalization, this is most likely a loan from Aramaic. Arabic uses a completely

different word for “friend,” ‫صدِيق‬ َ ṣadīq, from the Semitic root for “righteous.”

ܳ

ܳ

The root {r-ḥ-m}, seen here in the active participle ‫ܪܚܡܐ‬, has such meanings

as “mercy” and “love”; the root has attracted much scholarly attention. The verb

forms in the different Semitic languages may all derive from /raḥm/, a non-derived noun that means “womb.” This appears as

Hebrew, and Loanwords

‫ رَحِم‬raḥim in Arabic.

ܳ ‫ ܰܪ‬raḥmā ‫ܚܡܐ‬

in Syriac, ‫ ֶר ֶחם‬reḥem in

‫“ ܬܓܪܐ‬merchant” is a loanword from Akkadian tamkāru, “merchant, trader, lender.” It is sometimes spelled with a non-etymological ʾālap, ‫ܬܐܓܪܐ‬. The

Akkadian noun derives from a verb that means “to do business.” Hebrew did not

borrow tamkāru, but �ِ�‫ � َا‬tājir in Arabic even today means “businessman.” This is also

a loan, presumably from some variety of Aramaic. The Akkadian word was borrowed into Sumerian, appearing as dam-gar3.

REVIEW LESSON FOUR Nominal sentences One of the pleasures that we derive from reading Syriac is its variety of syntax.

Sometimes variation is due to focus within a sentence; other times it can be purely stylistic; sometimes it seems to depend on sun-spot activity or the whim of the gods.

This section will review the basic nominal sentence, with a pronoun as subject and

a noun as predicate, such as “I am the king” and “I am the queen.” In the first person, this can be expressed as: (1)

̄ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ̄ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ ܐܢܐ‬

ʾenā malkā-nā

ʾenā malktā-nā

This is the most common formulation. It can also be expressed as: (2)

̄ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ̄ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ‬ ‫ܐ ܳܢܐ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ‬

ʾenā-nā malkā

ʾenā-nā malktā

This formulation, which is also common, presumably puts some focus on ‫ܐܢܐ‬.

It might be translated as “I am the one who is the king.” While this may have been true in older Syriac, for many writers in classical Syriac it is really only a stylistic variant of (1). (3)

ܳ ‫ܶܐ ܰܢܐ ̄ܗܘ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܶܐ ܳܢܐ ̄ܗܝ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ‬

ʾena-w malkā

ʾenā-y malktā

This uses the third-person enclitic pronoun as copula. One would think that this

ܳ ܰ

originally put some focus on ‫ܡܠܟܐ‬: “I am he, the king,” that is, “The king is what I

am.” This construction is relatively uncommon. As can be seen from the vocalization, an expected /ʾenā u/ > /ʾenaw/ while /ʾenā i/ > /ʾenāy/.

ܺ

It is also possible to use inflected forms of ‫ ܐܝܬ‬ʾīt: (4)

ܰ ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ ܺܐܝܬܝ‬ ܰ ܳ ‫ܰܡܠܟܬܐ ܺܐܝܬܝ‬

malkā ʾītay

malktā ʾītay

This may originally have stressed the present tense: “I am king at this moment,”

but in classical Syriac it is just one more stylistic variant. 133

134

A READER IN SYRIAC The same possibilities exist for the second person, but with some difference in

frequency:

(1a)

̄ ܳ ‫ܰܐ ̄ܢܬ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ ܰܐܢܬ‬ ܳ ܰ ̄ ̄ ܰ ̄‫ܠܟܬܐ ܰܐ ̄ܢܬܝ‬ ‫ܐܢܬܝ ܡ‬

ʾatt malkā ʾatt

ʾatt malktā ʾatt

This is the most common reading of this formulation. It is also read: (1b) (2)

̄ ̄ ܳ ‫ܰܐ ̄ܢܬ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܐܢܬ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ܰ ̄ ̄ ܰ ̄ ‫ܠܟܬܐ‬ ̄‫ܐ ̄ܢܬܝ‬ ‫ܐܢܬܝ ܡ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ ̄ܢܬ ܰܐ ̄ܢܬ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ̄ ̄ ‫ܰܐܢܬܝ̄ ܰܐܢܬܝ̄ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ‬

ʾatt malkā-tt

ʾatt malktā-tt

ʾatt ʾatt malkā

ʾatt ʾatt malktā

Unlike the case with the first-person, (2) is rather uncommon. (3)

ܳ ‫ܰܐ ̄ܢܬ ̄ܗܘ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ̄ ‫ܰܐܢܬܝ̄ ̄ܗܝ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ‬

ʾatt-u malkā

ʾatt-i malktā

This formulation, with the enclitic third-person pronoun, is more frequent than

(2). In the plural, Jesus tells his followers:

̇ ‫ܬܘܢ ܶܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܰܐ ̄ܢ‬ʾattōnܳ ܳ ‫ܢܘܢ ܶܡ‬ ‫ܐܪܥܐ‬ ‫ܠܚ ̇ܗ ܰܕ‬

ʾennōn melḥāh d-arʿā, “You are the salt of the earth” (Matthew 5:13). (4)

ܰ ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ ܺܐܝܬܝܟ‬ ܰ ܺ ܳ ̄ ‫ܝܬ‬ ‫ܝܟܝ‬ ‫ܰܡܠܟܬܐ ܐ‬

malkā ʾītayk

malktā ʾītayk

The third person has fewer choices. “He is the king” and “She is the queen” are: (1) (2)

ܰ ‫ܗܘ ܰܡ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ ̄ܗܘ‬ ̣ ܳ ‫̣ܗܝ ܰܡܠܟܬܐ ̄ܗܝ‬ ܰ ܺ ̄ ‫ܝܬ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܠܟܐ ܐ‬ ܶ ܳ ̇ ‫ܰܡܠܟܬܐ ܺܐܝܬ‬ ‫ܝܗ‬

hū malka-w hī malktā-y

malkā ʾītaw

malktā ʾītēh

Even all the formulations listed here do not exhaust all the possibilities of

crafting simple nominal sentences in Syriac. In the case of sentences which use ‫ܐܝܬ‬,

for example, ‫ ܐܝܬ‬can move around, and combine with other elements. Text 19 says:

̄ ܳ ܰ‫ܐܢܬ ܐܝܬܝܟ ܡܠܟܐ ܰܕܡܥ‬ ‫̈ܪܛ ܶܢܐ‬ , “you are the king of the farters.”

‫ ܟܐ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-FIRST ‫ܟܐ‬ Story 14, another useful story from a Greek philosopher, here Diogenes. Vocabulary

ܳ ܺ ‫ ܛܠܝܬܐ‬occurred in Text 14. The term is ܳ rather vague with respect to age. ‫ܠܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܛ‬is ‘childhood, boyhood’. ܳ ܺ ‫ ܳܙܢܝܬܐ‬zānītā ‘prostitute’. The plural is ‫ ܳܙ ̈ܢ ܳܝ ܳܬܐ‬zānyātā. The verb ‫ ܳܙܢܐ‬znā means

ܳ ‫ܰܛ‬ ‫ܠܝܐ‬

ṭalyā ‘young boy’. The feminine

to have sex outside of marriage. Depending on context, this might mean to have sex

‫ܳܙܢܐ‬ ܺܰ means to commit such an act once, while the paʿʿel ‫ ܙܢܝ‬means to commit such acts ܳ ܳ “habitually.” ‫ܢܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܙ‬zānyūtā ‘fornication’ occurs in Text 26. ܳ ‫ ܶܟ‬kēpā ‘stone’. The ʾālap is a vowel letter. One wonders where the word comes ‫ܐܦܐ‬ ܶ ܳ ‫‘ ܐܝܢܐ‬one who stands on a column’ from. The nominal phrase ‫ܕܩܐܡ ܥܠ ܟܐܦܐ‬ without being married or to commit adultery. Payne Smith says that the pʿal

is a ‘stylite’.

ܳ ‫ܰܕ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬

ܳ

dalmā ‘lest; so that not’. ‫ ܕܠܐ‬occurred in Text 16. Both serve as the negative

of ‫‘ ܕ‬in order to; that’. Payne Smith registers it under ‫ ;ܕܠܡܐ‬Sokoloff under ‫ܠܡܐ‬.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܨܠܘ ܶܦ ܁ ܨܠܦ‬

ṣlap neṣlop ‘to hurt, wound’, transitive. In the paʿʿel, Payne Smith ̄ ܶ ܰ ‘they beat them like dogs’. ܰ ̈ notes ‫ܨܠܦܘ ܐܢܘܢ ܐܝܟ ܟܠܒܐ‬

̈ ‫ܐܢܫ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܕܪܡܐ ܒܫܘܩܐ‬ ̄ ‫ ܚܙܐ ܛܠܝܐ‬.‫ܘܗܘ ܗܢܐ‬ ̇ ‫ܒܢܝ ̈ܙܢܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܒܐ ̈ܢܫܝܢ‬ ̣ ̣ ̄ ̇ ‫ ܘܠܐ ܝܕܥ‬.‫ ܕܠܐ ܬܪܡܐ ܕܠܡܐ ̇ܨܠܦ ܐܢܬ ܐܒܘܟ‬.‫ܘܐܡܪ ܠܗ‬ ̣ .‫̈ܟܐܦܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܬ ܠܗ‬ Analysis 1

‫ܘܗܘ ܗܢܐ‬ ̣ is an idiomatic way to say “the same.” Here it means “the same person

said,” referring to Diogenes, who was the source of Story 13 immediately preceding.

Even though ‫ ̣ܗܘ ܗܢܐ‬is followed by a phrasal dot, it functions as the subject of ‫ ̣ܚܙܐ‬. Diogenes himself witnessed the event.

‫ ܡܢ‬here is another instance of “belonging to the class of.” Both terms of the ܳ ̈ ܰ̈

construct phrase ‫ ܒܢܝ ܳܙܢ ܳܝܬܐ‬are in the plural. 135

136

A READER IN SYRIAC It was mentioned at Text 20 that finite forms from the verb ‫ ܪܡܐ‬are uncommon,

but the participles are frequent. In that Text, the passive participle

ܳ ‫ ܰܪ‬described ‫ܡܝܐ‬

the condition of a woman’s hair. Here the active participle has the sense “to throw.” The object being thrown (here

preposition

‫) ̈ܟܐܦܐ‬

is expressed by a direct object, and the

‫ ܒ‬is used to express the persons being pelted. Since ‫ ̣ܚܙܐ‬anchors the ̇ ‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬.

text in the past, it is not necessary to follow the participle ‫ ܪܡܐ‬with

One has the mental picture of the young miscreant going about the market-place

looking for people to throw rocks at, as we all have done.

ܶ ‫ ܠܐ ܶܬ‬is a negative imperative. English needs an ‫ܪܡܐ‬ ̈ explicit direct object. Syriac doesn’t; ‫ ܟܐܦܐ‬was used just above. ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬is built up of ‫ ܕ‬+‫ ܠ‬+ ‫ܡܐ‬. As was the case with ‫ܕܠܐ‬, the sense is “so ‫ܠܡܐ‬

2

The context shows that

that not,” or, in old-fashioned English, “lest.” It is most commonly followed by an

imperfect, although this story uses an active participle. 3

‫ ܐܒܘܟ‬is “your father,” /ʾabūk/. Both ‫“ ܐܒܐ‬father” and ‫“ ܐܚܐ‬brother” take

special forms when the pronominal suffixes are added. These are discussed below. The last word ‫ ܠܗ‬expresses the direct object.

The story A good piece of folk-wisdom. But why was the boy throwing stones in the first

place? Because this is what boys do? Or was he mad at life because of the profession

of his mother? Did Diogenes have personal knowledge of the boy? Or of the prostitute?

The language

‫ܘܗܘ ܗܢܐ‬ ̣ appears here for the first time. Story 102 begins in a similar way: ܳ ‫ܘܗܘ ܳܗ ܳܢܐ ܰܚ ܺܟ‬ ‫ܝܡܐ‬ ̣ , “The same wise man.” The Stories have several ways to say “He also said.” Story 4 begins ‫ ; ̣ܗܘ ܟܕ ̣ܗܘ‬Story 5 begins ‫ܠܗ ܟܕ ܠܗ‬. Both Story 4 and

Story 5 go back to Socrates, the hero of Story 1. Such formulas are often reductions of longer phrases that we cannot always determine. between two pronouns to mark identity, as in

‫ ܟܕ‬for example can stand ‫ ̣ܗܘ ܟܕ ̣ܗܘ‬, but it is hard to say why.

‫“ ܐܒܐ‬father” and ‫“ ܐܚܐ‬brother” are non-derived nouns, with only two con-

sonants. In all the Semitic languages, such unusual nouns are subject to odd behavior. In Syriac, this shows up when the pronominal suffixes are added: my father

your (m) father your (f) father his father

her father

̄ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܒܝ‬ ‫ܒܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̇‫ܒܘܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬

/ʾāb/

/ʾabūk/

my brother

your (m) brother

/ʾabūk/

your (f) brother

/ʾabūh/

her brother

/ʾabū/

his brother

̄ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܚܝ‬ ‫ܚܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܚܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܚܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̇‫ܚܘܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܐ‬

/ʾāḥ/

/ʾaḥūk/

/ʾaḥūk/

/ʾaḥū/

/ʾaḥūh/

TEXT THE TWENTY-FIRST

137

“My father” was originally /ʾabī/ and “my brother” /ʾaḥī/. But with the loss of

the final /ī/, the /a/ lengthened in compensation. The /ū/ in the other forms is a remnant of the Proto-Semitic nominative case marker. Manuscript variation The reading ‫ ܒܫܘܩܐ‬is that of the VatMS. It is missing from the BLMS. The story

is not preserved in the LeedsMS. It was mentioned at Text 20 that it is more common

for something to be dropped than to be added. Following that principle, kept here.

‫ ܒܫܘܩܐ‬is

Cognates Is the

‫ܳܡܐ‬

in

ܳ ‫ܰܕ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬

a trace of an ancient negative particle /mā/, which is

productive in, for example, Arabic, but not elsewhere attested in Syriac?

ܳ

The Hebrew cognate to the verb ‫ܙܢܐ‬, seen here in the noun

ܳ ܺ ‫ ܳܙܢܝܬܐ‬, is ‫ זָ נָ ה‬zānā.

As in the case of Syriac, it is hard to find one English equivalent; it is usually translated as “to commit fornication.” Metaphorically, it means “to be unfaithful to God.” Arabic uses the same word, ‫ ز َ�َى‬zanā, with the same meanings.

‫ ܟܒ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND ‫ܟܒ‬ Story 677, narrating a curious event. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܣܘ‬ ‫ܣܝܐ‬ ̣

sūsyā ‘horse’, an ancient borrowing from some Indo-European language.

‫ܣܘ ܳܣ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ sūsāyā. Such variation is not uncommon ܰ with foreign ܳ ܰ words. ‫ܣܘܣܝܐ ܕܢܗܪܐ‬, ‘horse of the river’, is a ‘hippopotamus’. ‫ ܣܘܣܝܐ ܪ ܳܒܐ‬is

It is also vocalized

the constellation Pegasus.

ܶ ‫ܘܒܕ ܁ ܰܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܢ‬ ‫ܘܒܕ‬

ʾawbed nawbed ‘to lose’, transitive, from {ʾ-b-d}. The intransitive

‫‘ ܶܐ ܰܒܕ‬to perish’ first appeared in Text 1. In the ʾapʿel of first-ʾālap verbs, the ʾālap ܰ ܶ ܰ ܰ becomes a waw. Thus from {ʾ-g-r} comes ‫‘ ܐܓܪ‬to hire’ and ‫‘ ܐܘܓܪ‬to hire out’. ܳ ܰ ܰ is ‘to break open, shatter’ ‫ܦܩܥܬܐ‬ pqaʿtā ‘plain, open area’. The verb ‫ܦܩܥ‬ (intransitive).

ܰ ‫ܫܟܚ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܫܟܚ‬

ʾeškaḥ neškaḥ ‘to find’. The /e/ in the perfect presumably arose as

a prosthetic vowel before the /š/. However, the verb is usually labeled an “irregular”

ܰ

ܶ

or “anomalous” ʾapʿel. The passive ‫ ܐܫܬܟܚ‬ʾeštkaḥ ‘to be found’ occurred in Text 9.

ܶ ‫ܟܦܢ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܟܦܢ‬ ܳ

ܳ ܰ

kpen nekpan ‘to become hungry’. ‫ ܟܦܢܐ‬kapnā is ‘famine’. The phrase

ܳ ‫ ܰܟ‬is ‘famine and pestilence’. The adjective ‘hungry’ is ‫ܟܦܢ‬ ܶ kpen in the ܰ ‫ܦܢܐ‬ ‫ܘܡܘܬܐ‬ ܳ ܰ absolute and ‫ ܟܦܢܐ‬kapnā in the emphatic. ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬ṣhā neṣhē ‘to become thirsty’, from {ṣ-h-y}. ‘Thirst’ is ‫ܗܘܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܨ‬and ܳ ‫ܨܗܐ ܁‬ ‫ܨܗܐ‬ ܶ ܳ ‫ ܰܨ‬. ‘Thirsty’ is ‫ ܨܗܐ‬ṣhē in the absolute and ‫ܗܝܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܨ‬ṣahyā in the emphatic. ‫ܗܝܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬qrītā ‘village, hamlet’. Its most common plural is, unexpectedly, ‫ܩܘ ܳ̈ܪܝܐ‬ ̣ quryā.

ܳ ‫ ܶܚ‬ḥezwā ‘appearance, shape’. ‫ܚܙܐ‬ ܳ ‘to see’ first appeared in Text 1. ‫ܙܘܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܒܥ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬tbaʿ netbaʿ ‘to ask, desire, beg’. ‫ܬܒܥ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܰܩܠܝܠܐ‬qallīlā ‘small, little’. This can be used as a simple adjective, or, as in this

story, as a noun in construct, ‘a little of’. The same use occurs in Text 29. In the 139

140

A READER IN SYRIAC

absolute, functioning as an adverb, ‫ܩܠܝܠ‬

ܶ

‫ ܩܠܝܠ‬is ‘little by little’. The verb ‫ ܰܩܠ‬is ‘to

ܰ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܐ‬is ‘to be held in low esteem’. lessen’. The handsome verb ‫ܠܩܠ‬

ܳ ܰ ‫ ܠ‬laḥmā ‘bread, food’. ‫ܠܚܡ‬ ܶ ‘to be fit’ appeared in Text 10. ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ܶ ܶ ‫ ܶܢܬܒ ܁ ܺܝܬܒ‬ʾīteb netteb ‘to sit’, from {y-t-b}. In the imperfect it behaves like a firstܺ

ܳ ‫‘ ܰܝܬ‬seated’ occurred in Text 20. nūn verb: /netteb/. ‫ܝܒܐ‬

‫ܳܐܦ‬

ʾāp ‘also, even’, a particle.

(Text 30).

ܳ ‫ܒܘ ܳܫܠܐ‬ ̣

‫ ܳܐ ܶܦܢ‬is ‘even though’ (Text 27). ‫ ܐܦܠܐ‬is ‘nor’

buššālā ‘stew’, a mixture of cooked foods, with some kind of meat thrown

ܰ means ‘to boil food’. As the pattern of the noun indicates, ‫ܒܘܫܠܐ‬ in. The verb ‫ܒܫܠ‬ originally meant ‘the boiling of food’, then it came to mean the food itself.

ܺ ܶ ‫ܰܢܝܬܐ ܁ ܰܐܝܬܝ‬

ʾaytī naytē ‘to bring’, the ʾapʿel of

ܳ ‫‘ ܶܐܬܐ‬to come’ (Text 11). The

initial glottal stop of the root has, unexpectedly, surfaced as a yod.

ܳ ‫ܰܒܥܠܐ‬

ܶ

baʿlā ‘husband’. The rather uncommon verb ‫ ܒܥܠ‬is ‘to marry’. The noun

is probably non-derived, and the verb is denominative.

̇ ܰ ‫ܡܟܘܪ ܁‬ ‫ܡܟܪ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ noun

ܶ

mkar nemkor ‘to marry’. This is far more common than ‫ܒܥܠ‬. The

‫‘ ܡܟܝܪܬܐ‬betrothed’ occurred in Text 14.

ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܘܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܦ‬

pātūrā ‘table’, a loanword from Akkadian paššūru, from Sumerian banšur.

ܳ ‫ܫܘܓܠܐ‬ ̣

šuḡlā ‘business, matter’, a loanword from Arabic.

The ultimate etymology is unknown; the word does not look Sumerian.

ܶ ‫ܒܗܬ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܒܗܬ‬

bhet nebhat ‘to become ashamed’. The ʾapʿel

someone to shame’.

ܰ ‫ܦܓܥ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܦܓܥ‬

pḡaʿ nepgaʿ ‘to meet’, with

chance’ to ‘to meet in battle’.

ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬is ‫ܒܗܬ‬

‘to put

‫ܒ‬. This ranges from ‘to encounter by

ܳ ܰ ‫ܥܠ‬ ‫ܝܡܐ‬

ʿlaymā

ܳ ‫ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬ ̣

qubllā ‘face’, from {q-b-l}. Where does the second /l/ come from? Is it a

‘young man’. This ultimately goes back to {ġ-l-m}. The ‘world;

ܳ ܳ

eternity’ word, ‫ ܥܠܡܐ‬goes back to {ʿ-l-m}.

ܶ

blend with the preposition ‫ ܰܩܒܠ ?ܠ‬qabbel ‘to receive’ occurs in Text 27.

̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܦܩܘܕ ܁‬ ‫ܦܩܕ‬

ܳ ̇ ܳ

pqad nepqod ‘to command, order’. ‫ ܦܩܘܕܐ‬can mean ‘procurator’.

TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND

̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܐܟܘܠ ܁ ܶܐ ܰܟܠ‬

ʾekal nēkol ‘to eat’. Payne Smith’s list of meanings for the nomina-

lized active participle

ܳ ̇

141

ܳ

ܳ ‫ ܳܐܟܠܐ‬includes ‘moth, bookworm, weevil, maggot, cheese-

mite’. ‫ ܐܟܘܠܐ‬is a ‘glutton’.

ܰ ‫ܢܡ ܶܛܐ ܁ ܰܡ ܺܛܝ‬

maṭṭī nmaṭṭē ‘to reach, arrive at’. The paʿʿel is most commonly used

of people. The pʿal

ܳ is most often used of times, seasons, and such like, but ‫ܡܛܐ‬

occasionally for people.

ܳ ‫ܰܬ‬ ‫ܪܥܐ‬

ܰ

tarʿā ‘door, gate’. This is probably a non-derived noun. The verb ‫‘ ܬܪܥ‬to

break through’ is thus a denominative verb in the pʿal.

ܰ ‫ܥܒܪ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܥܒܪ‬ ܳ

ܳ ܳ

ܰ is a euphemism for ʿbar neʿbar ‘to pass by, pass on’. ‫ܥܒܪ ܡܢ ܥܠܡܐ‬ ܰ

‘to die’. ‫ ܡܥܒܪܐ‬is a ‘ford’ across a river.

ܳ ‫ܐܘ‬ ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ̣

ʾurḥā ‘road, way’ (fem), probably a non-derived noun. The verb

ʾarraḥ ‘to depart’ is denominative. ‫ܐܘܪܚܐ‬

ܳܳ ܰ

ܰ ‫ܰܐܪܚ‬

ܳ , a construct phrase, is a ‘wayfarer’ ‫ܥ ܰܒܪ‬

or ‘traveller’. ‫‘ ܐܘܪܚܐ ܕܫܪܪܐ‬the way of truth’ is of course ‘Christianity’.

‫ ܰܢܥܶܠ ܁ ܰܐܥܶܠ‬ʾaʿʿel naʿʿel ‘to bring in’, the ʾapʿel of {ʿ-l-l} ‫‘ ܥܰܠ‬to enter’ (Text 3). ܶ ‫ܫܬܚܩ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾeštḥeq neštḥeq ‘to become annoyed, get angry’, from the root ‫ܫܬܚܩ‬ ܶ

ܰ

ܶ ܰ

ܰ

ܶ

ܶ ‫‘ ܡ‬uneasy in body and soul’. {š-ḥ-q}. Payne Smith registers ‫ܫܬܚܩ ܒܢܦܫܗ ܘܒܦܓܪܗ‬

ܰ ranges from ‘to harass’ to ‘to smash’. At Romans 16:20, it is said that In the pʿal, ‫ܫܚܩ‬

ܳ ܳ ̄ ‫ܫܚܩܝ‬ ܳ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ܺ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫“ ܰܐܠ ܳܗܐ ܰܕܫܠ ܳܡܐ‬the God of peace” ‫ܠܣ ܳܛ ܳܢܐ‬

ܰ ‫ܛܗܪ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܛܗܪ‬ ܳ ‫ ܥܶܠܬܐ‬ʿelltā

“will smash Satan.”

ṭhar neṭhar ‘to wonder at, be astonished at’, with ‫ܒ‬. ‘reason, cause’. Presumably this derives from {ʿ-l-l} ‘to enter’.

ܳ ‫ܓܘ‬ ܰ ‘to laugh’ occurred in Text 20. ‫ܚܟܐ‬ guḥkā ‘laughter’. ‫ܓܚܟ‬ ̣ ܰ ‫ܓܕܫ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬gdaš neḡdaš ‘to happen to’, with a direct object. The verb has a ‫ܓܕܫ‬ ܶ

ܶ

ܳ ‫ ܓ‬is an ‘accident’ and ‫ܕܫܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܒܓ‬is ‘accidentally’. connotation of ‘by chance’. ‫ܕܫܐ‬

ܳ ‫̇ܫ ܶܘܐ‬

šāwē ‘worthy, deserving of’, with ‫ܠ‬. This is an active participle from the root

ܳ

{š-w-y}. The relatively uncommon verb ‫ ܫܘܐ‬is ‘to be worthy of’.

ܳ ‫ܕܘ ܳܡܪܐ‬ ̣

dummārā ‘wonder, amazement’. The root {d-m-r} is not used in the pʿal.

In the paʿʿel, amazed’.

ܳ ‫ܳܚܬܐ‬

‫ܰܕ ܰܡܪ‬

is ‘to do wondrous things’. In the ʾetpaʿʿal,

ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ‫ܬܕ ܰܡܪ‬

is ‘to be

ḥātā ‘sister’. One would expect a form such as /ʾaḥātā/, but the initial

segment /ʾa/ has totally disappeared in the singular. It resurfaces magically in the

ܳ ܳ ܰ

ܰ

plural: ‫ ܐ ̈ܚܘܬܐ‬ʾaḥwātā. ‘Brother’ is ‫ ܐ ܳܚܐ‬ʾaḥā (Text 27).

‫‪142‬‬

‫‪A READER IN SYRIAC‬‬

‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܬܢܝ ܕܒܚܕ ܡܢ ̈‬ ‫ܝܘܡܬܐ ܣܘܣܝܐ ܐܘܒܕܬ‪ .‬ܘܢܦܩܬ ܕܝܢ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̄‬ ‫ܕܐܫܟܚܝܘܗܝ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ ܟܦܢܬ ܘܨܗܝܬ ܥܠܬ ܒܚܕܐ ܡܢ ܩܘ̈ܪܝܐ‪.‬‬ ‫ܒܦܩܥܬܐ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܘܚܙܝܬ ܒܒܝܬܐ ܚܕ ܛܠܝܬܐ ܫܦܝܪܬ ܚܙܘܐ‪ .‬ܘܬܒܥܬ ܡܢܗ ܩܠܝܠ‬ ‫ܐܡܪܬ ܕܬܒ ܐܝܟܢܐ ܕܐܦ ܒܘܫܠܐ ܐܝܬܐ ܠܟ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ‫̣‬ ‫ܠܚܡܐ‪̣ .‬‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܠܗ‪ .‬ܕܡܛܠ ܐ̈ܪܚܐ ܡܟܪܬܟܝ̄ ܕܬܣܝܡܝܢ‬ ‫ܝܬܒܬ ̣ܐܬܐ‬ ‫ܒܥܠܗ ̣‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܩܘܡ ܓܒܪܐ ܙܠ ܒܫܘܓܠܟ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ ܒܗܬܬ‬ ‫ܠܗܘܢ ܦܬܘܪܐ‪̣ .‬‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ܠܝ ̣‬ ‫̄̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̄‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܩܡܬ ܘܐܙܠܬ ܒܩܪܝܬܐ ܐܚܪܬܐ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ ܥܠܬ ܒܗ ܦܓܥܬ ܒܥܠܝܡܐ ܚܕ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‪ .‬ܦܩܘܕ ܢܐܙܠ ܠܒܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܫܦܝܪ ܩܘܒܠܠܐ ܘܬܒܥܬ ܡܢܗ ܠܚܡܐ‪.‬‬ ‫̣‬ ‫̄̇‬ ‫ܐܝܟܢܐ ܕܐܦ ܒܘܫܠܐ ܬܐܟܘܠ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ ܐܙܠܬ ܥܡܗ ܘܡܛܝܢܢ ܠܬܪܥ‬ ‫̄‬ ‫ܠܗ ̇‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ̇‬ ‫ܢܦܩܬ ܐܢܬܬܗ‬ ‫ܒܝܬܗ‬ ‫ܕܥܒܪ‬ ‫ܘܐܡܪܬ‪ .‬ܕܡܢܘ ܗܢܐ ܓܒܪܐ‪̣ .‬‬ ‫̣‬ ‫̣‬ ‫̄‬ ‫ܐܡܪܬ ܕܐܢܐ ܢܣܒܬܟ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ‫̣‬ ‫ܐܘܪܚܐ ܗܘ ܘܐܝܬܝܬܗ ܕܢܐܟܘܠ ܠܚܡܐ‪̣ .‬‬ ‫ܘܐܚܕܬ‬ ‫ܘܐܫܬܚܩܬ‬ ‫ܠܝ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܝܟܢܐ ܕܬܥܠ ܥܠܝ ܠܥܒ̈ܪܝ ܐܘܪܚܐ‪.‬‬ ‫̣‬ ‫̣‬ ‫̇ ̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̈‬ ‫̈‬ ‫ܒܐܦ ̄‬ ‫ܘܗܝ ܐܦ‬ ‫ܬܪܥܐ‬ ‫ܒܐܦܝ‪ .‬ܡܚܕܐ ܓܚܟܬ ܐܢܐ ܘܫܪܝܬ ܬܗܪ‬ ‫̄‬ ‫̄‬ ‫ܒܗܘ ‪.‬ܓܒܪܐ ̇‬ ‫ܐܢܐ ̇‬ ‫ܕܗܝ ܩܪܝܬܐ ܘܒܗܕܐ ܐܢܬܬܐ ܕܗܕܐ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܘܫܐܠܢܝ̄ ̇ܗܘ ܥܠܝܡܐ ܡܛܠ ܥܠܬܐ ܕܓܘܚܟܐ ܕܝܠܝ̄‪ .‬ܘܬܢܝܬ ܠܗ ̇ܗܘ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̈‬ ‫ܐܬܘܬܐ ̇‬ ‫ܡܐ ܕܓܕܫܢܝ̄ ̇‬ ‫ܕܗܘ ܒܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܒܗܝ ܩܪܝܬܐ‪ .‬ܘܟܕ ܝܗܒܬ ܠܗ‬ ‫̄‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܘܒܥܠܗ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܝ ܕܗܢܐ ܝܬܝܪ ̇ܫܘܐ ܠܕܘܡܪܐ‪̇ .‬‬ ‫ܘܕܗܝ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬ ‫ܕܗܝ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܐܝܬܝܗ‪ .‬ܘܗܕܐ ܐܢ̄ܬܬܐ ܕܝܠܝ̄ ܚܬܗ ̇‬ ‫ܐܢ̄ܬܬܐ ܚܬܐ ܕܝܠܝ̄‬ ‫ܕܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܒܥܠܗ ܕܚܬܝ̄‬ ‫ܐܝܬܝܗ‬ ‫‪Analysis‬‬

‫̄‬

‫‪. This verb appeared in Text 9.‬ܬܢܝ ‪ is the subject of‬ܐܚܪܢܐ !‪Another vague start‬‬

‫‪ introduces‬ܕ‬

‫‪1‬‬

‫”‪The meaning is “another random man has told the following story.‬‬

‫‪direct speech, a long first-person narrative that extends all the way to the end of the‬‬ ‫‪story.‬‬

‫ܒܚܕ ‪ means “one day,” not “once upon a time.” Text 24 uses‬ܒܚܕ ܡܢ ̈‬ ‫ܝܘܡܬܐ‬ ‫‪ with the same meaning.‬ܡܢ ̈‬ ‫ܝܘܡܝܢ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫‪. The‬ܬ ‪ ʾawbdet is first-person, marked by the superlinear dot over the‬ܐܘܒܕܬ‬ ‫‪ is un‬ܣܘܣܝܐ ‪word order is object—verb. This puts focus on the horse. Since‬‬‫‪.‬ܠ ‪ambiguously the object, there is no need to mark it with‬‬ ‫ܶ ܶ̇‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܦܩܬ ‪ܶ marks‬ܕܝܢ‬ ‫”‪: “I lost and so I went out.‬ܐܘܒܕܬ ‪ as a result of‬ܢ‬

TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND 2

The use of the preposition

143

‫ ܒ‬with the verb ‫ ܥܰܠ‬occurred in Text 3. The usage of

‫ ܒ‬with verbs of motion occurs several times in this Text. ܳ ܰ ‫ܦܩܥܬܐ‬ here is the open countryside, dotted with villages. ܰ ‫“ ܶܐ‬to find” occurs here for the first ‫ ܕ‬is “in order to.” The anomalous verb ‫ܫܟܚ‬

time. Rather distressingly, the third-person perfect and the first-person imperfect

look exactly the same:

̄

ܶ

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬. Here it is the first-person imperfect with an object ‫ܫܟܚ‬

ܺ ‫ ܐ‬/ʾeškḥīw/. These forms were first discussed at Text 16. “I will pronoun: ‫ܫܟܚܝܘܗܝ‬ write it,” for example, is commonly expressed as

stem-vowel /o/ dropping.

̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ ܶܐ‬/ʾektbīw/, with the ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬

Now comes a short temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬. Syriac often uses such clauses in cases

where English would use a main verb. Here the Syriac says “When I got hungry and thirsty, I entered.” English would more likely say “I got hungry and thirsty, and so I entered.”

Three first-person verbs in the perfect follow. Two are in the ‫ܟܕ‬-clause, and one

̇ܶ ܶ

functions as the apodosis. The verbs are of different root types. ‫“ ܟܦܢܬ‬I got hungry”

̇ ܶ ‫ܨܗܝܬ‬ “I got thirsty” is from a last-weak root. The main verb ̇ܶ ܶ ‫“ ܥܠܬ‬I entered” is from a geminate root. ܰ ܺ ܰ ܳ 3 The sense of ‫ ܛܠܝܬܐ‬is “young woman.” ‫ܫܦܝܪܬ ܶܚܙܘܐ‬ is a construct phrase,

is from a strong root.

consisting of an adjective in construct with a noun. This is similar to formations in

English such as “fair of face.” They are sometimes called “adjectival constructs.” This is a very productive formation in Syriac, and a clever writer can coin new ones at

ܳ

ܰ ܺ

ܰ , however, is not uncommon. The sense is “of pleasing appearance, will. ‫ܫܦܝܪܬ ܶܚܙܘܐ‬ fair to look upon.” The opposite is

that is, “ugly.”

ܶ ܳ ‫ܟܪܐ ܰܩܘܡܬܐ‬

ܶ snē ḥezwā “odious of appearance,” ܳ ‫ܣܢܐ ܶܚ‬ ‫ܙܘܐ‬

krē qawmtā, “short of stature,” occurs in Text 24.

Syntactically, adjectival constructs behave like simple adjectives. Here the phrase

ܰ ܺ ܰ ܳ ‫ܝܪܬ ܶܚ‬ ‫ܙܘܐ‬ ‫ ܫܦ‬directly modifies ‫ܛܠܝܬܐ‬.

Our hero has wandered into some random village, then into some random house,

where he sees an attractive woman.

4

‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̣ marks a change in subject; now the woman speaks to our hero. ‫ܕ‬

introduces

direct speech, here an imperative. As discussed at Text 6, it is somewhat more

common for imperatives to be introduced by ‫ ܕ‬than not.

ܶ ܶ ‫ ܺܝܬܒ‬forms its imperfect like a first-nūn verb: ‫ ܶܢܬܒ‬/netteb/. From this, it forms ܶ the imperative ‫ ܬܒ‬/teb/. ܰ ‫ܐܝܟ ܳܢܐ‬ occurred in Text 1, meaning “how come.” Here, followed by ‫ܕ‬, the sense is “so that, in order that.” A simple ‫ ܕ‬would have worked, but, as usual, Syriac speakers prefer longer forms over shorter forms. ‫ ܐܝܟܢܐ‬occurs several times in this

text, with different nuances.

144

A READER IN SYRIAC The attractive lady first tells him to sit, but then adds that she will “also” (‫)ܐܦ‬

bring food. Particles such as

‫ ܐܦ‬can be translated in many ways. Here the lady is ܶ ܰ not just bringing simple ‫ܠܚܡܐ‬, but rather ‫ܒܘܫܠܐ‬. ‫ ܐܝܬܐ‬ʾaytē is the first-person ܺ ܰ ܶ ܰ ܳ ܶ imperfect of ‫ ܐܝܬܝ‬ʾaytī, the ʾapʿel of ‫ ܐܬܐ‬ʾetā. The third-person is ‫ ܢܝܬܐ‬naytē. It takes much practice to recognize these forms. 5

The husband speaks.

‫ ܡܛܠ‬has rather a sarcastic sense here, emphasized by it ܳ ‫ ܳܐ‬ʾārḥā “traveller” occurred being the first word in the interrogative sentence. ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ܳ ܶ ‫ ܐ‬is somewhat more general, almost meaning “any in Text 9. Here the sense of ‫̈ܪܚܐ‬ random men travelling about.” A translation into idiomatic English would entail much changing of word order.

Up to this point in the Reader, all of the verbs in the perfect with object pronouns

have been in the third-person, and the pronoun itself has almost always been third-

person.

ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ ܡܟ‬mkartek

“I married you” is a first-person perfect with an object

pronoun of the second-person feminine. With a masculine pronoun, the form is

ܶ ܶ ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܟܪܬܟ‬ mkartāk. Without a pronoun, “I married” is ‫ ܡܟܪܬ‬mekret. As said earlier,

the addition of object pronouns to such forms plays havoc with the vocalic structure of the verb. First-person forms with object pronouns are discussed below.

‫ ܕ‬has many uses. Here it combines “in order to” with “with the result that.” ܳ ܳ ‫“ ܳܣܡ‬to place” occurred in Text 4. ‫ܬܘܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܳܣܡ ܦ‬has the same connotations as

English “to set a table,” that is, “to put food on the table.” 6

‫ ܳܩܡ‬occurred in Text 12. ‫ܩܘܡ‬ ̣ qūm is the regular imperative of a middle-weak

verb.

The lack of any vocative particle before ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬is purposefully disrespectful. It

is hard to capture this in English.

ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ ܶܙܠ‬/zel/, with /e/, is the anomalous imperative ofܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܰܙܠ‬, whose imperfect is ‫ܐܙܠ‬ /nēzal/ with /a/ as the theme vowel. Followed by ‫ܒܫܘܓܠܟ‬ ̣ , the sense is “go about your business.”

‫ ̄ ̇ܟܕ‬, as often, veers from “when” to “because.” ܶ ܶ 7 ‫“ ܐܙܠܬ‬I went” is pronounced /ʾezzet/. In all forms of this verb, an expected /zl/ > /zz/: /ʾezlet/ becomes /ʾezzet/. In text editions with full vocalization, this ̇̄ ܶ ܶ assimilation of the /l/ is marked with a linea: ‫ܐܙܠܬ‬. However, this linea is often omitted. This is a common verb, and is fairly easy to recognize in the perfect. The imperfect is a little more tricky. “They go,” for example, is /nēzzūn/, from /nēzlūn/,

written

̄ ‫ ܶܢܐܙܠ ̣ܘܢ‬.

One wonders why our hero became “embarassed.” He was having an innocent

meal with the attractive lady. In any case, he rather meekly does just as he is told. The woman’s husband tells him: ‫ܩܘܡ ܙܠ‬ ̣ , and so he gets up and goes.

ܳܶ ̄ ܳܶ ̄ ‫ܐܚܪܬܐ‬ is the feminine of ‫“ ܐܚܪܢܐ‬other.”

TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND

145

ܳ ‫ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܫܦܝܪ‬is a second adjectival construct with ‫ܫܦܝܪ‬, now describing a man. Our hero must be getting hungry. Now he asks for ‫ܠܚܡܐ‬, not ‫ܩܠܝܠ ܠܚܡܐ‬. The phrasal dot after ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ is useful, because the following direct speech is not introduced by ‫ܕ‬. ̇ ܰ means “to command, order.” The imperative ‫ܦܩܘܕ‬ ‫ܦܩܕ‬ originally meant “give

8

me your command,” that is, “at your orders.” It then weakens into essentially a particle meaning something like “go ahead,” “please.” Sokoloff translates it as

“prithee,” which is no longer used in American English. Followed by an imperfect, the sense is “Come, let’s go.”

‫ ܒܝܬܐ‬is “the house,” but here the sense is “my house; home.” Particularly when

the context is clear, Syriac uses the emphatic state of the noun where English would use a possessive pronoun. 9

ܰ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛ‬maṭṭīnan is the long form of the first-person plural of a last-weak verb in ‫ܝܢܢ‬

the paʿʿel. The first-person plural of verbs in the perfect has two forms, a short form

ܰ

and a long form. In the pʿal of a strong verb, the short form is ‫ ܟܬܒܢ‬/ktabn/ and the

ܰ

ܰ

long form is ‫ ܟܬܒܢܢ‬/ktabnan/. Some writers prefer the longer form, some prefer the shorter form. In the paʿʿel, the two forms are

ܶ ‫ܰܟܬܒܢ‬

/kattebn/ and

ܰ ‫ܰܟ ܶܬ‬ ‫ܒܢܢ‬

/kattebnan/. In the case of a last-weak verb, such as {m-ṭ-y}, the two forms in the pʿal are

ܰ ‫ܡܛܝܢ‬

/mṭayn/ and

ܰ ‫ܡܛ‬ ܰ ‫ܝܢܢ‬

/mṭaynan/. In the paʿʿel, the two forms are

ܰ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛ‬/maṭṭīnan/. ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛܝܢ‬/maṭṭīn/ and ‫ܝܢܢ‬ ܰ ‫ ܬܪܥ ܒܝܬܗ‬is a construct phrase. It

is not always easy to predict what the

construct state of a noun might be. Payne Smith in particular is useful for listing these. In the case of the word for “door,” the emphatic is /tarʿā/ and the construct is

/traʿ/. A construct is used here because “door” and “house” are closely connected.

ܳ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܰܬ‬could conceivably refer to a door that had been ripped off its hinges ‫ܕܒܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܪܥܐ‬

and was lying around. 10

̄ ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬has the sense of “wife,” as it often does. ‫ܢܘ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ‬manū is the interrogative pronoun with the enclitic copula. It is especially

common when followed by a noun, as here: “Who is this man?”

ܺ ̇ ܺ ‫ ܰܐܝܬܝܬ‬ʾaytīt is the first-person perfect of the ʾapʿel verb ܺ ‫ ܰܐܝܬܝ‬ʾaytī. To this is ܶ ܰ suffixed the third-person object pronoun, producing ‫ ܐܝܬܝܬܗ‬ʾaytīteh, “I have

11

brought him.” The long vowel /ī/ blocks any change to the vocalic structure of the verb, so such forms are relatively easy to master.

ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ ܡܟ‬mkartek “I married you” appeared above. Here, “I took you (as husܳ ܰ band)” is ‫ ܢܣܒܬܟ‬nsabtāk. The pronoun ‫ ܐܢܐ‬adds a little emphasis. ܰ ‫ ܐܝܟܢܐ‬has almost a sarcastic nuance here, “so that you can... ” ‫ ܬܥܶܠ‬taʿʿel is 12

the ʾapʿel imperfect of {ʿ-l-l}. It is easily distinguishable on the surface from the pʿal,

̇

ܶ

which is ‫ ܬܥܘܠ‬teʿʿol, with the short /o/ written as a waw.

146

A READER IN SYRIAC The third-person feminine singular of a verb in the ʾetpʿel is ʾetpaʿlat, so from the

ܰ

ܶ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ ܬ‬means “to shut the door.” ‫ ܰܐ ̈ܶܦܐ‬ʾappē “face” occurred in Text 9. ‫ܪܥܐ‬ The use of ‫ ܐܦ‬here is elegant. This lady speaks her mind! She apparently does

ܰ ‫ ܐܫܬ‬ʾeštaḥqat. root {š-ḥ-q} the form is ‫ܚܩܬ‬ 13

not like to see unexpected houseguests. But our poor hero must be pretty hungry and thirsty by now.

After a string of third-person feminine verb forms, the explicit use of ‫ ܐܢܐ‬in its

full form helps the reader to see that might not always be present.

̇ ‫ܓܚܟܬ‬

is first-person. The first-person dot

̄ ܰ ‫ ܰܫܐܠ‬šaʾʾlan is the third-person paʿʿel perfect with a first-person singular object ‫ܢܝ‬ ܶ ܰ pronoun. ‫ܫܐܠܗ‬ šaʾʾleh occurred in Text 16. The first-person object pronoun is 15

always written with an unpronounced yod, which in nicely-vocalized texts bears a linea.

‫ ܡܛܠ‬here is “about.” ̄ with its first-person pronoun is pronounced /dīl/, even though “to me” is ‫ܕܝܠܝ‬ ܳ ‫ܓܘ‬ ̄ ‫ܚܟܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܓܘ‬ /lī/. ‫ܕܝܠܝ‬ ̣ is used instead of simple ‫ܚܟܝ‬ ̣ /guḥk/ because the young man

did not expect our hero to laugh.

‫“ ̇ܗܘ ܡܐ ܕ‬that which” occurred in Text 16. ܰ ܰ ‫ ܰܓ‬gadšan is “happened to me.” ̄ ‫ܕܫ‬ 16 The verb ‫ ܓܕܫ‬takes a direct object, so ‫ܢܝ‬ ̄ The irregular verb ‫ ܰܝܗܒ‬was discussed at Text 11. In the first-person, the /h/ is ܶ ܶ after a full vowel and before a consonant, so it stays: ‫ ܝܗܒܬ‬/yehbet/. ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܐܬܘܬܐ‬ʾātwātā is the plural of ‫“ ܐܬܐ‬sign,” which occurred in Text 1. Here and in Text 27 the plural has the sense of “description.” 17 The adverb

ܺ ‫ܰܝܬܝܪ‬

modifies

ܳ ܳ ܶ ‫ ̇ܫ ܶܘܐ‬. ‫ܠܕܘ ܳܡܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܳܫܘܐ‬

meaning “remarkable” or “wondrous.” 18

is a common expression

̇ ‫ܝܬܝܗ‬ ‫ ܺܐ‬ʾītēh expresses the copula. This use of ‫ ܐܝܬ‬appeared in Text 19. ̄ ̄ ‫ܐܢܬܬܐ‬ ‫ܕܝܠܝ‬ ‫ ܗܕܐ‬is “this wife of mine.”

The story Several stories in the Book relate odd coincidences. This story starts out with a

man losing a horse, but this fact is not important to the plot. What matters are the family relationships that are mentioned at the end of the story. Only by working out

these relationships does the “coincidence” become clear. However, one cannot help but wonder if the man ever did get to eat and drink, and if he ever found his horse. As in many of these stories, there is absolutely no indication of time or place.

The language This story is nice and long, but most of the grammar is straightforward.

TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND

ܰ

147

ܶ

The /e/ in ‫ ܐܫܟܚ‬presumably originated as a “prosthetic” vowel, that is, a type

of helping vowel that sometimes appears before phonetically complex consonants

when they are in contact with other consonants. Such vowels appear in many

languages of the world. One thinks of Spanish escuela “school” from Latin scola. In

Spanish, this is a regular process of derivation from Latin. The cases in the Semitic languages are sporadic. What does the form of Syriac

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬tell us about the pronunciation ‫ܫܟܚ‬

‫ ?ܫ‬Only a few ܺ ܶother such cases occur. “To drink,” from the root {š-t-y}, always appears as ‫ܐܫܬܝ‬. The number for “six” used before masculine nouns ܳ ܳ ܶ ܰ sometimes appears as ‫ܫܬܐ‬, other times as ‫ܐܫܬܐ‬. Yet ‫ ܫܬܠ‬štal “to plant” never appears with a prosthetic vowel. Greek words borrowed into Syriac that begin with

an initial consonantal cluster typically receive a prosthetic vowel. Greek σχολή “lecture hall, school” usually appears in Syriac as ‫ ܐܣܟܘܠܐ‬ʾeskōlā (Text 13). The most common plural of

ܳ ܺ ܳ ‫ܩܘ‬ ‫ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬is ‫̈ܪܝܐ‬ ̣ . This type of plural is called a

“broken” or “internal” plural. Instead of a plural marker being added to the noun— as is the case with most nouns in Syriac—the internal vocalization of the noun

changes. There are only a handful of these in Syriac. They are quite common in Arabic, where they are called “broken plurals.” Why this one appears in Syriac is hard to say.

ܶ ܳ ܰ ܺ ܰ ܳ ‫ܝܪܬ ܶܚ‬ ‫ܙܘܐ‬ ‫ ܫܦ‬and ‫ܟܪܐ ܰܩܘܡܬܐ‬, are ܶ ܰ ܶ ̈ ܺ ܰ ̈ ܺ ܰ ‫ܒ̈ܪܐ‬ common in all periods of Syriac. Payne Smith registers ‫ܫܡܝܢܝ ܟܝܣܐ‬ ‫ܓ‬, gabrē Adjectival construct phrases, such as

šammīnay kīsē, “men with fat purses.”

A goodly number of first-person singular perfects occur, from different types of

verbs. In the pʿal:

̇ܶ ܶ ‫ܦܩ ̇ܬ‬ ‫ܢ‬ ܶ ܶ ‫ܟܦܢ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܝܬ‬ ̇ ܶ ‫ܨܗ‬ ‫ܥܶܠ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܝܬ‬ ̇ ܶ ‫ܶ ܚܙ‬ ‫ܬܒܥ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܝ‬ ‫ܬܒ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܒܗܬ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܳܩ‬ ‫ܡ ̄ ̇ܬ‬ ‫ܶܐ ܶܙܠ ̇ܬ‬ ‫ܶܦܓܥܶ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܓ‬ ‫ܚܟ ̇ܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܝ‬ ‫ܗܒܬ‬

nepqet

I went out

{n-p-q}

ṣhēt

I got thirsty

{ṣ-h-y}

kepnet ʿellet

ḥzēt

tebʿet

yetbet

behtet

I got hungry I entered

I saw

I requested I sat

I got embarassed

qāmet

I got up

peḡʿet

I met

ʾezzet

geḥket

yehbet

{k-p-n} {ʿ-l-l}

{ḥ-z-y} {t-b-ʿ}

{y-t-b}

{b-h-t}

{q-w-m}

I went

{ʾ-z-l}

I laughed

{g-ḥ-k}

I gave

{p-g-ʿ}

{y-h-b}

148

A READER IN SYRIAC In the paʿʿel:

̇ ܺܰ ‫ܝܬ‬ ̇ ‫ܰܫ ܺܪ‬ ‫ܬܢܝܬ‬

šarrīt

I began

{š-r-y}

ʾawbdet

I lost

{ʾ-b-d}

tannīt

I related

{t-n-y}

In the ʾapʿel:

̇ܶ ܰ ‫ܘܒܕܬ‬ ‫ܐ‬

Several verbs with object pronouns occur, including the first-person verb

ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫“ ܡܟ‬I married you.” First-person verb forms with a first-person object pronoun

do not seem to occur; Syriac would use some form of reflexive pronoun instead. The basic forms are:

ܶ ܰ ‫ܟܬܒܬܗ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܟܬܒܬ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܟܬܒܬܟ‬ ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܒܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܟܬ‬

ktabteh

I wrote it

ktabtāk

I wrote you

ktabtāh

ktabtek

I wrote it

I wrote you

In this Text, we see:

ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܡܟ‬ ܶ ܺ ‫ܰܐܝܬܝܬܗ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܣܒܬܟ‬

mkartek ʾaytīteh

nsabtāk

Cognates

ܳ ܺ

“Village” appears in Syriac as ‫ܩܪܝܬܐ‬, in Hebrew as ‫ ִק ְריָ ה‬qiryā, and in Arabic as

‫ ق َر ْيَة‬qarya. It is hard to say if these are the descendants of a non-derived noun or if

they derive from a verbal root that is not used in Syriac or Hebrew. In Arabic, the

root {q-r-y} can mean “to offer hospitality.” Perhaps this is an old usage that became

lost in the other Semitic languages.

ܳ

The word for “house,” Syriac ‫ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬, occurs in all the Semitic languages. Hebrew

has ‫ ַבּיִ ת‬bayit, where the yod is a consonant. This is similar to the word for “death,” Syriac

ܳ ‫ܰܡܘܬܐ‬

mawtā, appearing in Hebrew as ‫ ָמוֶ ת‬māwet. Arabic retains the

diphthong: ‫ بَي ْت‬bayt.

Some scholars derive the word /bayt/ from the root {b-n-y} “to build,” even

though the only thing that the two words have in common is the initial /b/. On the

other hand, /bayt/ is sometimes said to derive from the preposition /b/, although

this preposition does not occur in Akkadian. More likely, the preposition /b/ ultimately derives from /bayt/. A parallel can be made with French chez and Spanish

casa. Such speculation is fun. From this word for “house,” Syriac produces the finite

TEXT THE TWENTY-SECOND

149

verb ‫ ܳܒܬ‬, seen in Text 9. Arabic does the same, generating a verb meaning “to spend

the night.” Such a verb is not attested in Biblical Hebrew. Syriac, however, as is its

ܺ

wont, went even further and generated the quadriradical verb ‫ ܰܒܝܬܝ‬baytī “to admit

ܺ

ܶ

ܰ ‫ ܐ‬ʾetbaytī “to become a friend.” someone into the family,” and its passive ‫ܬܒܝܬܝ‬ In addition to meaning “little,”

‫ ܰܩܠܝܠܐ‬means “fast, rapid”: the lighter you are,

the faster you are. In Biblical Hebrew, ‫ ַקל‬qal only means “swift,” but in Modern Hebrew it usually means “light.” The basic verbal conjugation in Hebrew, corresponding to the Syriac pʿal, is called the ‫ ַקל‬qal. In Arabic, ‫ قَلِيل‬qalīl only means “little,”

never “fast.” The Syriac word ‫ ܰܩܠܝܠܐ‬is on the pattern paʿʿīl; the Hebrew word on the

pattern paʿl, and the Arabic word on the pattern faʿīl.

ܶ ‫ ܺܝܬܒ‬is both “to sit” and “to dwell.” The Proto-Semitic root was {w-t-b}. This

appears in Hebrew as ‫ יָ ַשׁב‬yāšab, which has the same range of meanings. Oddly, Arabic

َ‫ و َث َب‬wataba means “to jump up.” It may originally have meant “to move from

one position to another.”

ܳ ‫ ܰܒܥܠܐ‬often means things like “owner; lord.” Hebrew ‫ ַבּ ַﬠל‬baʿal has the same

senses. In addition, in the Hebrew Scriptures its plural means the sundry non-Israelite

gods, sometimes appearing in English as “the baals.” In the singular, it can refer to

the most important of these gods, English “Baal.” Classical Arabic ‫ بَعْل‬baʿl also means

“lord” or “husband,” but it is hardly used today.

ܰ may originally have meant “to barter.” This is ‫ܡܟܪ‬ the root that appears in Akkadian tamkāru, which was loaned into Syriac as ‫ܬܓܪܐ‬ The root {m-k-r}, seen in

“merchant.” In Hebrew ‫ ָמ ַכר‬mākar means “to sell” or “sell off.” In Arabic, however,

َ �َ �َ ‫ م‬makara means “to cheat” or “dupe.”

While the root for “to be ashamed” appears as

ܶ ‫ܒܗܬ‬

{b-h-t} in Syriac (and

Aramaic in general), it appears as ‫{ בּוּשׁ‬b-w-š} in Hebrew. A similar case is “to run,”

ܶ

Syriac ‫{ ܪܗܛ‬r-h-ṭ} but Hebrew ‫{ רוּץ‬r-w-ṣ}. It is hard to say whether the {h} or the {w} is more original, although {w} is more likely. But what motivated the change to /h/?

The distribution {t} in Syriac

ܶ and {š} in Hebrew ‫ בּוּשׁ‬should reflect a {t} ‫ܒܗܬ‬

in Proto-Semitic and so also a /t/ in Arabic. The closest Arabic cognate, however, is

َ‫ �َ� ِت‬bahita, “to be astonished,” with a /t/ and not a /t/. As to be expected, a verb such as

Hebrew is ‫ ָא ַכל‬ʾākal and the Arabic is The Hebrew cognate to

‫“ ܶܐ ܰܟܠ‬to eat” has many exact cognates. The

� َ َ ‫ أ� ك‬ʾakala.

ܳ ‫“ ܰܬ‬door, gate, entrance” is ‫ ַשׁ ַﬠר‬šaʿar. The Arabic ‫ܪܥܐ‬

word for “door” is completely unrelated,

‫ � َاب‬bāb. However, ‫ ثُغْر‬tuġr is a “port,”

reflecting an original root {t-ġ-r}. The Syriac (and other Aramaic) forms seem to indicate a metathesis in Aramaic: /taʿr/ > /tarʿ/.

ܰ “to cross” has its cognates in Hebrew ‫ ָﬠ ַבר‬ʿābar and Arabic َ �َ�َ � ʿabara. ‫ܥܒܪ‬

150

A READER IN SYRIAC

Loanwords Several loanwords into Syriac appear in this text. The Syriac word for “horse”

‫ܣܘܣܝܐ‬

derives from an Indo-European word that entered into the Semitic lan-

guages as least as early as 2500 BCE. It appears in Hebrew, for example, as ‫ סוּס‬sūs. It is the same word that appears in Latin as equus, Greek as ἵππος, and Sanskrit as

aśva. It takes some training in Indo-European linguistics to see that these words are related! The English word “horse” is of unsure etymology.

As said earlier, many Akkadian words entered into Aramaic at an early date, and

then surface in Syriac. Some of these are native Semitic words, including Others are borrowings into Akkadian from Sumerian, such as

ܳ ܰ ‫ܬܓܪܐ‬. ‫“ ܗܝܟܠܐ‬palace,

temple” (Text 14). This latter has a transparent Sumerian etymology. In the case of other words, however, including

‫ܦܬܘܪܐ‬, we cannot tell if the word is originally

Sumerian, or if the Sumerians borrowed the word from someone else.

‫ ܫܘܓܠܐ‬is one of the few loanwords from Arabic to appear in this Reader. Arabic

words entered into Syriac beginning with the Arab conquests of the Near East, and became especially common during the period of translation from Greek into Arabic during the Abbasid period. These translations were often done through a Syriac intermediary.

‫ ܫܘܓܠܐ‬is rather rare. It is registered in Sokoloff, but not in Payne

Smith, even though it occurs elsewhere in the Stories. The Arabic verb means “to busy oneself” with something.

‫ل‬ َ َ ‫شغ‬ َ šaġala

‫ ܟܓ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-THIRD ‫ܟܓ‬ Story 386, another story about dreams and their interpretations. This involves two kings, a “good” king and a “bad” king. Vocabulary

ܳ ܶ‫ܒܥ‬ ‫ܠܕܒ ܳܒܐ‬

bʿeldbābā ‘enemy,’ a borrowing from Akkadian. bēl dabābi ‘master of

a statement’ means both an adversary in court and an enemy in general. In Syriac,

‫ ܒܥܠܕܒܒܐ‬sometimes means ‘the Devil’. Sokoloff (but not Payne Smith) registers the ܰ ܶ‫ ܶܐܬܒܥ‬ʾetbʿeldbab ‘to behave in a hostile manner’. Nöldeke, who did not verb ‫ܠܕܒܒ‬

seem to enjoy creativity and wordplay in Syriac, calls such forms “affected malformations, which in no way belong to the language.” Harsh!

ܶ ‫ܶܢ ܶ ܰܣܩ ܁ ܣܠܩ‬

ܰ ܶ ‫ ܣܠܩ ܠܫܡܝܐ‬means ‘he ascended into ܶ Heaven’. ‫ ܣܠܩ‬can also be used as a somewhat empty verb, much like ‫ܐ ܰܙܠ‬. In this sleq nessaq ‘to go up; to go’.

sense it is frequently followed by another verb directly, without a conjunction. In the

ܶ ܰ

ʾapʿel, ‫ ܐܣܩ‬ranges from ‘to bring up from the dead’ to ‘to vomit’.

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܢܐ ܁‬ ‫ܬܢܐ‬

tnā netnē ‘to repeat; to tell, relate’. In the pʿal this originally meant

‘to repeat’, but then it took on the sense of ‘to relate, narrate’. It thus overlaps with

ܺ ܰ ܶ ܶ ̄ ܰ‫ ܠܐ ܬܬܢܐ ܥ‬as “Do not bandy words with me.” imperative ‫ܡܝ‬

the meaning of the paʿʿel verb ‫ ܬܢܝ‬seen in Text 9. Payne Smith translates the negative

ܳ ܺ ‫ܡܗܝܪܐ‬

mhīrā ‘clever; skilled’. No verbal forms in the pʿal from {m-h-r} seem to

occur. The paʿʿel ‘intelligence’.

‫ܰܡ ܰܗܪ‬

ܰ ܰ ܶ ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܟܬܫ‬ ‫ܬܟܬܫ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬ ‘to beat’ or ‘strike’.

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܙܟܐ ܁‬ ‫ܙܟܐ‬

is ‘to train’.

ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܪܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܗ‬

includes ‘skill’, ‘aptitude’, and

ܰ

ʾetkattaš netkattaš ‘to fight with’, with ‫ܥܡ‬. The pʿal ‫ ܟܬܫ‬is

ܳ

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‘to be pure, innocent’. Presumably these are related concepts. ‫ܟܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫‘ ܕ‬purity’ from

zkā nezkē ‘to defeat, overcome’. ‫ܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܳܙ‬is ‘victory’. ‫ ܙܟܐ‬also means

{d-k-y} occurred in Text 14. One would think that there is an etymological

connection between the root {z-k-y} and the root {d-k-y}.

ܶ ‫ܡܟ ܁ ܰܣ‬ ܶ ‫ܢܣ‬ ܰ ‫ܡܟ‬ ܳ ܺ

sammek nsammek

‘to support, prop up’. The pʿal passive

participle ‫ ܣܡܝܟܐ‬in the sense of ‘relying upon’ occurred in Text 16. 151

152

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܰܩ ܺܪ‬ ‫ܝܒܐ‬

‘close, near’. As a noun, ‫ ܩܪܝܒܐ‬means ‘neighbor’ and ‘relative’. ܶܰ The paʿʿel verb ‫‘ ܩܪܒ‬to bring near’ occurred in Text 9. ‫ ܠܥܶܠ ܶܡܢ‬l-ʿel men ‘above’, a preposition. The adverb ‫‘ ܠܥܶܠ‬upwards’ occurred in qarrībā

Text 20.

‫ܰܚ ܳܨܐ‬

ḥaṣṣā ‘back; loins’, presumably a non-derived noun. ‫ܚܨܐ‬

̄ is ‘to flee’. ‫ܝܗܒ‬

ܳ ܺ ܺ ‫ ܦܢܝܬܐ‬pnītā ‘region, area’, from {p-n-y}. ‫‘ ܰܦܢܝ‬to reply’ occurred first in Text 1. ‫ ܰܒܦܢܝܬ‬, in the construct, is a rather formal way of saying ‘towards’.

ܰ ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ‬

šmayyā ‘the sky; Heaven’. Although formally a plural, it is often treated as

a singular. It is found both with and without syāmē dots. The adjective ‘celestial’.

ܳ ‫ܰܪ ܺܚ‬ ‫ܝܩܐ‬

ܰ is ‫ܫܡ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬

ܺ ܶ ܰܶ pʿal, but in the paʿʿel ‫ ܪܚܩ‬is ‘to put something far away’, the antonym of ‫ ܰܩܪܒ‬.

ܳ ‫ ܰܩܪ‬. The verb is quite rare in the raḥḥīqā ‘far, distant’, the antonym of ‫ܝܒܐ‬

̈ ̄ ‫ܡܠܟܐ ܚܙܐ ܒܚܠܡܗ ܕܡܠܟܐ‬ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ ܒܥܠܕܒܒܗ ܐܪܡܝܗ‬ ‫ܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̣ ̄ ̇ ̈ ‫ܘܬܢܐ ܠܗܘܢ ܗܘ ܡܐ‬ ̣ .‫ܘܣܠܩ ܟܢܫ ܠܚܟܝܡܘܗܝ‬ ̣ .‫̄ܗܘܐ ܥܠ ܐܪܥܐ‬ ̈ ‫ ܘܚܕ ܡܢ‬.‫ܕܚܙܐ‬ ‫ܚܟܝܡܐ ܕܡܗܝܪܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ܡܢ ܟܠܗܘܢ ̇ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܕܚܠܡܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̇ ̇ ‫ ܒܗܝ ܕܐܢܬ ܥܠ‬.‫ ܕܬܬܟܬܫ ܥܡܗ ܕܗܘ ܘܐܢܬ ܬܙܟܝܘܗܝ‬.‫ܘܦܫܪܗ ܗܢܘ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܠܥܠ ܡܢܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܘܗܝ ܡܣܡܟܐ ̄ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܐܪܥܐ ܗܘܝܬ‬ ̣ .‫ܘܬ ܠܟ ܘܩܪܝܒܐ ܠܟ‬ ̄ ‫̄ܗܘܐ ܘܚܨܗ ܒܦܢܝܬ ܫܡܝܐ ܕܛܒ ܪܚܝܩ ܗܘܐ ܡܢܟ‬ Analysis 1

This is the first story in the section about dreams. It follows right after the

chapter heading. In such cases, no red ink is used over the first words. Verbs of perception, such as

ments. Here

‫ܚܙܐ‬, can take several different types of comple‫ ܚܙܐ‬is followed by an object clause introduced by ‫ܕ‬. This is the most

common type of complement.

̄ has its full sense of “other.” ‫ ܒܥܠܕܒܒܗ‬is an appositive, describing the ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

bad king. To describe someone or something, Syriac can use either apposition or a

relative clause. Relative clauses, however, are the most frequent choice. It would have been a little more common to write here enemy.”

‫ܕܒܥܠܕܒܒܗ ̄ܗܘܐ‬, “who was his

ܺ ‫“ ܰܐ‬to throw,” a last-weak verb in the ʾapʿel, occurred in Text 9. Here it ‫ܪܡܝ‬

takes an object pronoun, “threw him.” “He threw” is /ʾarmī/; the root-consonant

TEXT THE TWENTY-THIRD

153

/y/ has merged with the preceding vowel into /ī/. “He threw him,” however, is

ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬/ʾarmyeh/. Because the /y/ is followed by a vowel, it appears as a full ‫ܪܡܝܗ‬ consonant. This means that it behaves exactly like a strong verb in the ʾapʿel with

an object pronoun: /ʾaktbeh/, for example. It takes some practice when reading unvocalized Syriac to recognize the

‫ܝ‬

as a consonant and not as a vowel letter.

Similarly, in Genesis it says that Potiphar’s wife

ܳ ܰ‫ܪܡܝܬ ܥ‬ ܶ ‫ܝܢ ̇ܗ ܥܰܠ ܰܝ‬ ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬, “cast ‫ܘܣܦ‬

her eye upon Joseph,” /ʾarmyat/ with a consonantal yod.

2

ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬is followed by ‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬to express a pluperfect: “had thrown him.” ‫ܪܡܝܗ‬

This certainly sounds like an ominous dream! The only marker of the end of the

dream is the phrasal dot after

‫ܐܪܥܐ‬. It

is the context that tells us that

outside of the dream, with a change of subject to the good king.

ܶ ‫ ܣܠܩ‬is

ܶ ‫ ܣܠܩ‬is used in its somewhat empty function, followed directly by the main verb

‫ ܰܟ ܶܢܫ‬without a conjunction. It was mentioned at Text 20 that it can sometimes be difficult to determine if ‫ ܟܢܫ‬is pʿal or paʿʿel, since both are used transitively. In the

sense of summoning a group of people together, however, it is more likely a paʿʿel.

Both preserved manuscripts vocalize the first syllable as /a/.

ܳ

ܳ

ܺ ܰ

Perhaps ‫ ܬܢܐ‬is used here in the pʿal (‫ )ܬܢܐ‬and not the paʿʿel (‫ )ܬܢܝ‬because the

king is literally “repeating” what was in his dream.

‫ ̇ܗܘ ܳܡܐ ܕ‬occurred in Text 16 and in Text 22. 3 ‫ ܡܗܝܪܐ‬is in the emphatic state, not the absolute state, to express the predicate ̄ ̄ of ‫ܗܘܐ‬. In general, if the subject is inanimate, a predicate adjective after ‫ ܗܘܐ‬is

in the absolute state. If the subject is animate, both the absolute state and the emphatic state are possible. This usage presumably arose from the adjective being

understood as a noun, “a clever one” in this particular case. As seen earlier, some

adjectives have essentially become nouns: ‫ ܒܝܫܐ‬is “an evil person” and “the Devil.”

‫ ܶܡܢ‬is used for the comparative, “cleverer.” ܶܳ ‫ ܕ‬introduces the direct speech of the councilor. ‫ܦܫܪܗ‬

“its interpretation” oc-

curred in Text 11. There is really no need for the councilor to say “This is the dream

and its interpretation,” since the king had just “repeated” the dream. A simple “This

is the interpretation of the dream” would have sufficed.

‫ ܳܗ ܰܢܘ‬, a contraction of ‫“ ܳܗ ܳܢܐ‬this” and the enclitic copula, appeared in Text 15, ̄ written as an abbreviation, ‫ܗ‬. In that Text, the sense was “that is.” Here it forms the

4

predicate of the sentence, coming at the end: “The dream and its interpretation are

this,” that is, “are as follows.” Easier English is to flip the subject and predicate around: “This is...”

‫ ܕ‬introduces the contents of the dream. This is hard to capture in English. “That

is to say, namely,” might come close.

154

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܰ ܰ

ܶ

The verb ‫ ܐܬܟܬܫ‬typically takes the preposition ‫ܥܡ‬, as here. ‫ ܥܡܗ‬is not very

̇ , “that is to say, that (other king).” This is not ‫ܕܗܘ‬ ̇ very elegant Syriac. The councilor could have said simply ‫ܥܡ ܗܘ ܡܠܟܐ‬, perhaps specific, so the councilor adds

throwing in some kind of insult about the bad king’s mother.

̄ ‫ ܐܢܬ‬adds some emphasis: “You shall defeat ܶ ̄ ܶ him!” ‫ ܬܙܟܝܘܗܝ‬tezkēw is the imperfect of a last-weak verb with an object pronoun, ̄ ܶ ܶ written in its usual Baroque fashion. ‫ ܐܛܥܝܘܗܝ‬ʾeṭʿēw “I forget it” occurred in Text The explicit use of the pronoun

16.

5

The clever councilor was able to put a positive spin on the dream. Now he tells

̇

us how he arrived at this interpretation. ‫ ܒܗܝ ܕ‬in the sense of “because” occurred in

Text 1. The councilor is, as usual, somewhat elliptical, but the sense is “(I deduce this) from the fact that...” The fact that the good king got thrown “to the ground”

(‫ܐܪܥܐ‬

‫ )ܥܠ‬gets interpreted as the king standing “on the ground” (‫!)ܥܠ ܐܪܥܐ‬

Pretty quick thinking on the part of the councilor!

ܳ ‫ܡܣ‬ ܰ ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܪ‬are feminine ‫ܡܟܐ‬ and ‫ܝܒܐ‬ absolutes, functioning as predicates. The first ‫ ܠܟ‬expresses the direct object of ܳ ‫ܡܣ‬ ܰ . The second ‫ ܠܟ‬expresses the prepositional complement of ‫ܝܒܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܪ‬. It ‫ܡܟܐ‬ ܺ ܳ ̄ ܳ ‫ ܰܩܪ‬, to keep the parallelism. would have been nice to put another ‫ ܗܘ ̣ܬ‬after ‫ܝܒܐ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ‬ ̣

6

shifts the subject to

‫ܐܪܥܐ‬.

Both

Now we turn to the bad king. The councilor says that the bad king was above

ܶ (‫ )ܠܥܠ‬the

good king, with his backside towards the heavens. The

relative clause that modifies ‫ܫܡܝܐ‬, which is treated as a singular.

‫ ܕ‬introduces

a

The point, however, is somewhat opaque. If the bad king is far away from the

good king, how do they fight?

ܳ

In Text 7, ‫ ܛܒ‬had the meaning “better.” Here the sense is “very.”

ܺ ܰ ‫ ܪ ܺܚܝܩ‬nicely balances off ‫ ܰܩܪܝܒ‬. The story

The councilor’s job was a tough one: keep bad news away from the king! One

never knows what can happen if the king is not in a happy state-of-mind. Several of

the stories have this theme. The councilor in this story has the ability to think quickly on his feet, reaching for a positive interpretation of the dream. The language

The councilor’s interpretation of the dream is not worded in a very elegant

manner, perhaps because he was thinking so quickly. But this is one of the values of

reading the Stories: they sometimes show an almost conversational register of Syriac, a register different from that seen, for example, in Bar ʿEbrāyā’s historical writings.

ܶ

The verbs ‫ ܐ ܰܙܠ‬and

ܶ ‫ ܣܠܩ‬behave somewhat the same. In terms of content, they

can be used as essentially empty verbs, much like English “He went and...” And in

TEXT THE TWENTY-THIRD

155

terms of form, they both exhibit an unusual type of consonantal assimilation. In the case of

‫ ܶܐ ܰܙܠ‬,

an expected /zl/ becomes /zz/, that is, the /l/ assimilates into the

vowelless /z/. This is most obvious in the perfect and in the active participle. As seen in Text 22, “I went” is /ʾezzet/, and not /ʾezlet/. The /l/ continues to be written, but

̄ ‫ ܶܐ ܶܙܠܬ‬. Since this assimilation is ܶ omitted. In the case of ‫ܣܠܩ‬, an

in fully-vocalized texts it is provided with a linea: totally predictable, however, the linea is often

expected /sl/ becomes /ss/, that is, the /l/ assimilates into the vowelless /s/. This is most obvious in the imperfect. “I will ascend” is /ʾessaq/

‫ ܶܐ ܰܣܩ‬, and not /ʾeslaq/.

The /l/, however, is never written. The verb has become a first-nūn verb. The same

ܶ ܰ

assimilation happens in the ʾapʿel: ‫ ܐܣܩ‬in the perfect and

‫ ܰܢ ܶܣܩ‬in the imperfect.

‫ ܕ‬is used to introduce the contents of a dream. This is somewhat similar to the use of ‫ ܕ‬to introduce direct speech. Text 9 began its narrative with “̈It was found in some writing of the Hebrews that,” using ‫ ܕ‬to introduce what was found.

Manuscript variation

̄ ̈ ‫ܡܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܠܚܟܝ‬ ‫ ܟܢܫ‬is the reading of the BLMS. The VatMS, however, reads instead ̄‫ܡܫ ̈ܡ ܳܫܢܘܗܝ‬ ܰ ܰ ‫ܟܢܫ ܠ‬. ‫ܡܫ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ܰ mšammšānā is a substantivized paʿʿel active participle ܶ ̣ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ܰ ). Alas, the LeedsMS is that means “servant” (Joshua is called ‫ܕܡܘܫܐ‬ ‫ܡܫ ܶܢܗ‬ missing this story. So which reading is better? Since the VatMS is followed by

̄ ̈ a few lines later, and since many stories in the Book talk about a king’s ‫ܡܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܚܟܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܚܟܝ‬ ̈ but hardly any talk about his ‫ܡܫ ̈ܡ ܳܫ ܶܢܐ‬ ܰ , I have preferred that reading here. ‫ܡܐ‬

So where did the reading in the VatMS originate?

A number of roots in Syriac can be used in two (or even three) conjugations,

ܰ

with no obvious difference in meaning. Thus {s-m-k} can be used in the pʿal ‫ܣܡܟ‬,

ܶ ‫ ܰܣ‬, and the ʾapʿel ‫ܣܡܟ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬to mean “to support.” In this story, the ‫ܡܟ‬ ܳ ܰ BLMS vocalizes ‫ ܡܣܡܟܐ‬as a paʿʿel ‫ ܡܣܡܟܐ‬msammkā. The VatMS reads a pʿal ܳ ‫ ܳܣ‬. Both give the same sense. ‫ܡܟܐ‬ the paʿʿel

Cognates Syriac and Hebrew use the root {q-r-b} for “to be near” and the root {r-ḥ-q} for

“to be far.” The adjectives in Syriac are

ܳ ‫ܰܩ ܺܪ‬ ‫ܝܒܐ‬

“near” and

ܳ ‫ܰܪ ܺܚ‬ ‫ܝܩܐ‬

“distant.” In

Hebrew they are ‫ ָקרוֹב‬qārōb and ‫ ָרחוֹק‬rāḥōq, both originally of the paʿāl formation.

For “near,” Arabic uses root, {b-ʿ-d}: ‫ بَع ِيد‬baʿīd.

‫ قَرِيب‬qarīb, but for “distant” it uses a completely different

ܰ appears in Hebrew as ‫ ָשׁ ַמיִ ם‬šāmayim, looking oddly like a dual, and in ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ‬ ̈ ̈ Arabic as ‫ �َمَاء‬samāʾ. Is there an etymological connection between ‫ ܡܝܐ‬and ‫?ܫܡܝܐ‬

156

A READER IN SYRIAC

Loanwords Several loanwords from Akkadian into Syriac have already appeared in these

stories. ‫ ܒܥܠܕܒܒܐ‬represents an Akkadian construct phrase. Presumably Syriac in-

herited this from some earlier stage of Aramaic, where the construct phrase had been

recast into a single noun. Then, like other Syriac nouns, ‫ ܒܥܠܕܒܒܐ‬could accept the abstract ending /-ūt/ and the adverbial ending /-ʾīt/.

ܺ

ܶ

ܳ ‫ ܒܥ‬is “in a hostile manner.” and ‫ܠܕܒ ܳܒܐܝܬ‬

ܳ ܳ ܶ‫ ܒܥ‬is “hostility” ‫ܒܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܠܕܒ‬

‫ ܟܕ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-FOURTH ‫ܟܕ‬ Story 107, another story about Khusraw, the protagonist of Text 2. Vocabulary

ܶ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܩܪܘܒ ܁ ܩܪܒ‬

qreb neqrob ‘to approach, draw near’. This is one of the few verbs

ܶ

that have /e/ in the perfect but /o/ in the imperfect. The paʿʿel ‫‘ ܰܩܪܒ‬to bring near’

occurred in Text 9; the ʾetpaʿʿal

ܳ ‫‘ ܰܩ ܺܪ‬close’ in Text 23. ‫ܝܒܐ‬

ܰܰ ܶ ‫ܬܩܪܒ‬ ‫ܐ‬

‘to approach’ in Text 14; the adjective

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܟ‬karyā ‘short’. The verb is ‫ܟܪܐ‬ ‫ܪܝܐ‬ ‘to be short’. ܳ ‫ ܰܩܘܡܬܐ‬qawmtā ‘size, stature’, from {q-w-m}. ‫‘ ܳܩܡ‬to stand’ occurred in Text 12. ܶ ‫ ܶܢ‬bkā nebkē ‘to cry, weep’. Paul tells us ‫ܕܒ ܶܟܝܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܒܟܐ ܁‬ ܰ bkaw ʿam dܳ ‫ܒܟܘ ܥܰܡ‬ ‫ܒܟܐ‬ bākēn “Weep with those who weep.” In the paʿʿel, bakkāyātā are ‘women hired to make lamentation’.

ܶ ܶ ‫ܰܢܝܠܠ ܁ ܰܐܝܠܠ‬

ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܒ ܺܟܝ‬is ‘to wail, moan’. ‫ܰܒ ̈ܟ ܳܝܬܐ‬

ʾaylel naylel ‘to wail’. The root is {y-l-l}, presumably onomatopoetic

in origin. It is first-yod and geminate at the same time. It does not appear to be used

in the pʿal. In the ʾapʿel, instead of having the characteristics of either a first-yod verb or a geminate verb, it has been recast as a strong verb.

ܳ ‫ ܳܩܠܐ‬qālā ‘voice, sound’. This is probably a non-derived noun. ܶ ܶ ܰ ‫ ܶܢܬܛܠܡ ܁ ܶܐܬܛܠܡ‬ʾeṭṭlem neṭṭlem ‘to be wronged’. The active ‫ ܛܠܡ‬occurred in

Text 4. In most reading traditions of Syriac, the sequence /tṭ/ assimilates into /ṭṭ/ in

ܶ

ܰ all verbal and nominal forms. ‫ܬܛܒܥ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾeṭṭbaʿ ‘to sink’ occurs in Text 28.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܶܢܣܬ ܰܟܠ ܁ ܶܐܣܬ ܰܟܠ‬

ʾestakkal nestakkal ‘to understand’. The root {s-k-l} is not

used in the pʿal, but in the paʿʿel

‫ܰܣ ܶܟܠ‬

sakkel means ‘to teach’. The adjective

ܳ ‫ܟܘܠܬ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܣ‬sakkūltānā is ‘intelligent, prudent’.

ܶ ܶ ܳ ‫ܓܥܐ‬ ‫ܢܓܥܐ ܁‬

gʿā neḡʿē ‘to bellow, cry out’. This is probably onomatopoetic.

ܶܳ ܰ

ܳ

ܳ ̄

ܰ

When Jonah’s ship begins to founder, the sailors ‫“ ܓܥܘ ܐܢܫ ܠܘܬ ܐܠܗܗ‬cried out,

each man to his own god.”

157

158

A READER IN SYRIAC

̈ ‫ܟܘܣܪܘ ܟܕ ܝܬܝܒ ̄ܗܘܐ ܒܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܝܘܡܝܢ ܩܪܒ ܠܗ ܓܒܪܐ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܟܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ .̄‫ ܘܫܪܝ ̇ܒܟܐ ܘܡܝܠܠ ܕܥܒܕ ܠܝ ܕܝܢܐ ܡܢ ܡܢ ܕܛܠܡܢܝ‬.‫ܩܘܡܬܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫̈ܪܘܪܒܢܘܗܝ ܕܠܡܘܢ ܠܐ ̇ܫܡܥ ܐܢܬ‬ ‫ ܘܟܕ ܫܐܠܗ ܚܕ ܡܢ‬.‫ܐܗܡܝ ܡܢܗ‬ ̇ ‫ܘܓܥܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܗܝܕܝܢ ܐܣܬܟܠ ܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬.‫ ̣ܐܡܪ ܕܟܪܝܐ ܠܐ ܡܬܛܠܡ‬.‫ܒܩܠܗ‬ ‫ܘܥܒܕ‬ ̣ ‫ ܘܟܕ ̣ܫܡܥ ܡܠܟܐ‬.̄‫ܕܡܪܝ̄ ܡܠܟܐ ̇ܗܘ ܕܛܠܡܢܝ̄ ܟܪܐ ܡܢܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܓܚܟ‬ ‫ܠܗ ܕܝܢܐ‬ Analysis 1

The extrapositioned ‫ ܟܘܣܪܘ‬is picked up by ‫ܠܗ‬.

‫ ܝܬܝܒ‬implies “sitting on his throne.” ̈ ̈ This text writes ‫ ;ܒܚܕ ܡܢ ܝܘܡܝܢ‬Text 22 used ‫ܒܚܕ ܡܢ ܝܘܡܬܐ‬. ܶ ܶ ܳ ܰ ܳ ‫ܟ‬. ‫ ܟܪܐ ܰܩܘܡܬܐ‬is an adjectival construct, ‫ ܟܪܐ‬is the construct state of ‫ܪܝܐ‬

“short of stature.” The first adjectival construct to occur in this Reader was in Text

ܳ

ܰ ܺ

ܰ . 22: ‫ܫܦܝܪܬ ܶܚܙܘܐ‬

ܶ ‫( ܶܢ‬Text 4). This produces the ܰ forms its imperfect in /e/: ‫ܥܒܕ‬ ‫ܥܒܕ‬ ܳ ‫ ܺܕ‬, the sense is “to render justice.” The ܶ ܰ is used with ‫ܝܢܐ‬ imperative ‫ܥܒܕ‬. When ‫ܥܒܕ‬ ܶ ܰ preposition ‫ ܡܢ‬means “from.” ‫ ܡܢ ܕ‬is “he who, the one who”; this first occurred in 2

The verb

Text 6. It is hard to capture all this in English, where “justice” is not arbitrarily rendered by a king. “I beseech you to do me justice, in the case of someone who did me wrong” is quite verbose. In any case, this produces the satisfying graphic

sequence

‫ܡܢ ܡܢ‬. To clear up possible misunderstanding, it would have been ̇ ܰ The verb ‫ ܛܠܡ‬occurred in Text 4. Here it has the object pronoun for the firstܰ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭalman. ̄ ‫ܠܡ‬ person, producing ‫ܢܝ‬ ܺ ‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ switches the subject back to Khusraw. The verb ‫“ ܰܐܗܡܝ‬to ignore” ܶ ܰ occurred in Text 9, as an active participle: ‫ܡܗܡܐ‬. ܶ ܰ 3 The object pronoun on ‫ ܫܐܠܗ‬šaʾʾleh refers to the unresponsive king. ̇ is a variant of the interrogative ‫ ܳܡܢ‬, though somewhat less common. ‫ܡܘܢ‬ ̇ ‫ܠܡܘܢ‬ ܶ isܳ “why?” ܰ has the connotation of “listen to his complaint.” ‫ܒܩܠܗ‬ ‫ܫܡܥ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܟ‬in the emphatic state with an indefinite sense, “someone 4 Now the king uses ‫ܪܝܐ‬ who is short.” ܶ ܶ ܰ ‫ ܰܛ‬. As said ̄ ‫ܠܡ‬ {ṭ-l-m} appears in the ʾetpʿel, ‫ܐܬܛܠܡ‬, playing off the earlier pʿal ‫ܢܝ‬ possible to provide each of these two with a disambiguation dot: ‫ܡܢ ܡܢ‬ ̣ .

above, the sequence /tṭ/ assimilates into /ṭṭ/, producing /meṭṭlem/. The participle

‫ ܡܬܛܠܡ‬has a modal sense here, “cannot be wronged.”

This seems like a totally gratuitous remark of the king to his nobleman,

completely ignoring the presence of the complainant.

TEXT THE TWENTY-FOURTH

159

ܶ ‫ ܰܗ‬occurred in Text 20. Here the sense is “at that moment” the poor man ‫ܝܕܝܢ‬

finally started to understand why his case had been ignored.

5

ܶ

ܳ

̄ ‫ ܡ‬/menn/. “My Lord” is ̄‫ ܡܪܝ‬/mār/. “Than me” is ‫ܢܝ‬ ܰ “to laugh” occurred in Text 20. ‫ܓܚܟ‬

The story We are never told how the poor man was done wrong. He seems rather

preemptory when he first addresses the king; there are no opening greetings or

salutations. It seems that the only reason he finally got justice was because he made a witty remark to the king. The language Syriac (and the Semitic languages in general) are often described as, fortunately,

having very few irregular verbs. They do, however, unfortunately, have a lot of

categories of verbs: all the conjugations and all the classes of weak verbs. Syriac does have a fair number of verbs that are best described as “irregular” to various degrees.

ܶ ̄ ‫ ܶܢ ܶܬܠ ~ ܰܝ‬has suppletive forms. ‫ ܣܠܩ‬have unusual assimilations. ‫ܗܒ‬ ܶ ܳ ܶ ‫ ܺܝ ܰܕܥ‬and ‫ ܺܝܬܒ‬form their imperfects ܶ ܰ like first-nūn verbs. ‫ ܐܬܐ‬has a number of oddities. In this text the verb ‫ ܐܝܠܠ‬occurs, from {y-l-l}. This is both first-yod and ܰܺ geminate. In the ʾapʿel, initial-yod verbs turn into initial-waw verbs. ‫ ܝܕܥ‬/ʾīdaʿ/ for ܰ example becomes /nawdaʿ/. Geminate verbs behave like first-nūn verbs: ‫ ܥܠ‬/ʿal/ ܶ

Both ‫ ܐ ܰܙܠ‬and

becomes/naʿʿel/. If we tried to combine these two categories for the root {y-l-l},

what would we expect? Hard to say! So the language has regularized it into a strong verb.

This story uses the adjectival construct ‫ܟܪܐ ܩܘܡܬܐ‬. In Text 22, two adjectival

constructs using

‫ܫܦܝܪ‬

occurred:

ܰ ܺ ܰ ܳ ‫ܝܪܬ ܶܚ‬ ‫ܙܘܐ‬ ‫ܫܦ‬

and

ܳ ܺ ‫ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܫܦܝܪ‬.

Adjectival

constructs are especially common with physical descriptions. As said earlier, writers

in Syriac could be creative with such constructions. This means that adjectival constructs may or may not be entered in a dictionary, particularly if their meaning

is transparent. ‫ ܟܪܐ ܩܘܡܬܐ‬is common enough that it is registered in Payne Smith,

translated as “short.”

Manuscript variation

̄ ‫ ;ܓܒܪܐ‬the VatMS simply ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬. As discussed earlier, ̄ this is one way to see that this use of ‫ ܐܢܫ‬is completely optional. The BLMS writes ‫ܐܢܫ‬

Cognates

Syriac ‫ ܒܟܐ‬has exact cognates in Hebrew ‫ ָבּ ָכה‬bākā and Arabic �َ �َ‫ ب‬bakā “to cry.”

ܳ

160

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܳܩܠܐ‬

is probably a non-derived noun. Its Hebrew cognate is ‫ קוֹל‬qōl “voice.”

Neither language has verbal roots from {q-w-l}. In Arabic, however, the noun

qawl means “utterance” and the verb

secondary formations.

‫قَوْل‬

‫ل‬ َ ‫ قَا‬qāla means “to speak.” These may be

ܳ

The Hebrew cognate to ‫ ܓܥܐ‬is ‫ גָּ ָﬠה‬gāʿā, which is rather rare. There is no exact

cognate in Arabic, but Arabic does have a quadriradical verb

shout.” Is this related?

‫ج َع‬ َ ْ ‫جع‬ َ jaʿjaʿa “to roar,

‫ ܟܗ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-FIFTH ‫ܟܗ‬ ܳ ܺ

Story 475, from a section about “contemptible” (‫ )ܫܝܛܐ‬professions, weavers being

one of them. The story abounds in biblical allusions. Vocabulary

‫ܳܚ ܳܘ ܳܟܐ‬

ḥāwākā ‘weaver’. Syriac does not appear to have a root {ḥ-w-k}, so this

may be a borrowing from Arabic. This is also seen by the unusual pattern of the

word, pāʿāl, and especially by the ‫ ܟ‬appearing as a stop between two long vowels. The word is also found vocalized pattern that is more Syriacal.

‫ܳܟ ܳܣܐ‬

‫ ܰܚ ܳܘ ܳܟܐ‬ḥawwākā. This is a reformulation into a

kāsā ‘goblet, cup’. This might be a non-derived noun, or it might be a

loanword from Akkadian kāsu ‘goblet, cup’.

ܶ ‫ ܰܝ‬Yawsep ‘Joseph’. The name is Hebrew, ‫יוֹסף‬ ‫ܘܣܦ‬ ֵ Yōsep ‘(God) will increase’. ܳ ‫ܚܘܛܪܐ‬ ̣ ḥuṭrā ‘rod, staff’. The ultimate etymology is unsure; it does not look like

a derived noun. The verb nominative pʿal.

‫ܡܘ ܶܫܐ‬ ̣

ܰ ‫ܚܛܪ‬

ḥṭar ‘to beat with a staff’ is undoubtedly a de-

Mūšē ‘Moses’. The Hebrew is ‫ מ ֶֹשׁה‬Mōšē, presumably an Egyptian name

‘(Some god or other) has begotten (him)’.

ܳ ‫ ܶܓܙܬܐ‬gezztā ‘fleece’, from {g-z-z}. The verb is ‫ ܰܓܙ‬gaz ‘to shear’. ̇ ‫ ܶܓ‬Gedʿōn ‘Gideon’. The name is Hebrew, ‫ גִּ ְדעוֹן‬Gidʿōn, perhaps meaning ‫ܕܥܘܢ‬ ‘young man’.

ܳ ‫ܶܩ‬ ‫ܠܥܐ‬

ܰ

qelʿā ‘sling’, apparently a non-derived noun. The paʿʿel verb ‫ ܰܩܠܥ‬qallaʿ ‘to

sling’ is denominative.

‫ܰܕ ܺܘܝܕ‬

Dawīd ‘David’. The name comes from Hebrew, ‫ ָדּוִ יד‬Dāwīd. In spite of many

attempts, no one has come up with a satisfactory etymology.

ܳ ܰ ‫ܥܪܩܬܐ‬

ʿraqtā ‘strap, belt’. This may come from a root {ʿ-r-q} ‘to twist’ that is

not used in verbal forms in Syriac.

161

162

A READER IN SYRIAC

̇ Yōḥannān ‫ܝܘ ܰܚ ܳܢܢ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܣܢܕܠܐ‬sandlā

‘John’. The name is Hebrew, ‫הוֹחנָ ן‬ ָ ְ‫ י‬Yhōḥānān, ‘God is gracious’. ‘sandal’. Syriac gets this word from Greek σάνδαλον, but the

ܳ

ܰ

ultimate origin is unknown. It is also found in a contracted form ‫ ܣܕܠܐ‬saddlā, and with various vocalizations.

ܰ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܪܝܡ‬

Maryam ‘Mary’. The name comes from Hebrew ‫ ִמ ְריָ ם‬Miryām. This may well

ܳ ‫ܰܩܒܪܐ‬

ܰ ‫ܠܝܘܬܐ ܥܕܡܐ‬ qabrā ‘grave, tomb, sepulcher’. ‫ܠܩܒܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܡܢ ܛ‬means ‘from

be an Egyptian name, from a verb mry meaning ‘to love’.

ܳ

ܳ

ܰ

ܰ qbar ‘to bury’. childhood to the grave’. The verb is ‫ܩܒܪ‬

ܰ ‫ܢܫ ܰܕܪ ܁ ܰܫ ܰܕܪ‬

šaddar nšaddar ‘to send’. The root {š-d-r} does not seem to occur in the

ܺ ܶ ܰ ‫ܢܨܠܐ ܁ ܰܨܠܝ‬

ṣallī nṣallē ‘to pray’. In the pʿal, ‫ ܨܠܐ‬ṣlā is ‘to lean to’. ‫ ܨܠܘܬܐ‬ṣlōtā is

pʿal.

ܳ

ܳ ̈ܳ ܰ

ܳ ̇

‘prayer’. Its plural is ‫ ܨܠܘܬܐ‬ṣlawwātā.

ܳ ‫ ܶܢܒܥܶܐ ܁‬bʿā nebʿē ‘to request, ask’. ‫ܥ ܳܝܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܒ‬baʿʿāyā is a ‘supplicant’. ‫ܒܥܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܽܟ‬kullmā d ‘whenever, whatever, wherever’, a relative adverb. ‫ܠܡܐ ܕ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܢ ܶܚܐ ܁‬ḥyā neḥḥē ‘to live’, from {ḥ-y-y}. In the perfect, the yod is consonantal. ‫ܚܝܐ‬ In the imperfect, the verb most commonly behaves like a first-nūn verb, as do all geminate verbs. The adjective ‘alive’ is

ܶ ‫ ܰܚ ܳܝܐ‬ḥayyā. ‘Life’ and so ‘salvation’ is ‫ܰܚ ̈ܝܐ‬

ḥayyē, always in the plural. In the ʾapʿel, meaning ‘to bring to life’, both the perfect

ܰ

ܰ

ܶ ‫ ܢ‬naḥḥē. and the imperfect behave like first-nūn verbs: ‫ ܐ ܺܚܝ‬ʾaḥḥī, ‫ܚܐ‬

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܦܠܘܚ ܁ ܦܠܚ‬

plaḥ neploḥ ‘to labor, work’. The original meaning seems to have

been ‘to cultivate’, but the meaning expanded. It can also mean ‘to serve God, worship’. The substantivized active participle soldier, worshiper’.

ܳ ܶ ‫ܪܓܠܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܳܦ‬pālḥā spans ‘servant, worker, ‫ܠܚܐ‬

reḡlā ‘foot’ (fem). This is a non-derived noun, but Syriac has produced all

ܳ ܳ ܰ

kinds of nouns and denominative verbs from {r-g-l}. ‫ ܪܓܠܐ‬raggālā is a ‘foot-soldier’.

ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܪܓܠ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾeštargal is ‘to lose one’s footing’ or ‘to get ensnared’. ܳ ܶ ‫ܒܘܪܟܬܐ‬ ̣ ܶ burktā ‘blessing’, from {b-r-k}. In the pʿal, ‫ ܒܪܟ‬is ‘to kneel’. In the ܳ ̣ burkā ‘knee’. paʿʿel, ‫ ܰܒܪܟ‬is ‘to bless’. Presumably these all go back to ‫ܒܘܪܟܐ‬

̄ ̈ ‫ ܘܚܘܛܪܗ‬.‫ܕܓܢܒܘ ܟܣܗ ܕܝܘܣܦ‬ ‫ܕܚܘܟܐ ܐܢܘܢ‬ ‫̣ܐܡܪ‬ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ .‫ ܘܥܪܩܬܗ ܕܝܘܚܢܢ‬.‫ ܘܩܠܥܗ ܕܕܘܝܕ‬.‫ ܘܓܙܬܗ ܕܓܕܥܘܢ‬.‫ܕܡܘܫܐ‬

TEXT THE TWENTY-FIFTH

163

̈ ̇ ‫ܫܐܠܬ ܡܢܗܘܢ ܡܪܝܡ ܕܢܚܘܘܢ‬ ̈ ‫ܠܗ‬ ‫ ܘܟܕ‬.‫ܕܫܠܝܚܐ‬ ‫ܘܣܢܕܠܝܗܘܢ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܐܘܪܚܗ ܕܩܒܪܐ ܗܢܘܢ ܒܐܘܪܚܐ‬ ̇ ‫ܨܠܝܬ‬ ‫ ܘܡܛܠ ܗܕܐ‬.‫ܫܕܪܘܗ‬ ‫ܐܚܪܬܐ‬ ̣ ̣ ̈ ̄ ̇ ̈ ‫ܡܪܗ ܕܟܠܡܐ ܕܢܚܘܢ ܚܘܟܐ ܠܐܚ̈ܪܢܐ ܢܦܠܚܘܢ ܒܐܝܕܝܗܘܢ‬ ‫ܘܒܥܬ ܡܢ‬ ̣ ‫ ܘܒܘܪܟܬܐ ܠܐ ܬܗܘܐ ܠܗܘܢ‬.‫ܘܒ̈ܪܓܠܝܗܘܢ‬ Analysis 1

̄ ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

serves as the subject of

‫ ̣ܐܡܪ‬.

Both this story and the immediately

preceding Story 474 begin exactly the same, quite vaguely, with no hint about who

̄ refers to. ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬

The syntax of the opening of the story is a little different from that of the pre-

ܶ ̈ܳ

ceding Texts. ‫ ܳܚܘܟܐ‬is the predicate, as shown by the enclitic pronoun

̇ ‫ ܶܐ‬. The ‫ܢܘܢ‬

subject is the relative clause in ‫ܕ‬, “the ones who.” The reason for this unusual syntax

is to put the weavers at the front of the story, since they are the “heroes” of the story.

This might be translated as “It is weavers who...”

The short genitive phrases are rigidly parallel, consisting of a noun with an

anticipatory pronoun followed by ‫ܕ‬. As discussed at Text 9, such pronouns add a

sense of definiteness to the noun: “a specific cup,” for instance, not “any old cup

belonging to Joseph.” The phrases are conveniently set off from each other by phrasal dots. 3

After the long list of purloined objects, ‫ ܘܟܕ‬introduces a new thought. The paʿʿel verb

‫“ ܰܚ ܺܘܝ‬to show” from {ḥ-w-y} first showed up in Text 7. Here the

sense is more “to point out.” As said there, the waw of the root behaves like a strong

̇

ܰ /nḥawwōn/. consonant, here producing ‫ܢܚܘܘܢ‬ 4

The pronoun on

‫ܐܘܪܚܗ‬

is anticipatory, looking towards

‫ܩܒܪܐ‬.

Here the

meaning is “the road to The Grave,” not just some random road leading to some random grave. English says “road to the Grave,” Syriac as usual uses ‫ܕ‬.

‫ ̣ܗܢܘܢ‬introduces the apodosis. ܳܶ ̄ ܳܶ ̄ ̄ ܳ ‫ܐܘ‬ the noun ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ̣ is grammatically feminine. ‫ ܒܐܘܪܚܐ ܐܚܪܬܐ‬precedes the verb ̇‫ܕܪܘܗ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܫ‬, to lend focus to the prepositional phrase. ‫ܕܪܘ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܫ‬šaddrūh is a plural paʿʿel perfect verb with a feminine object pronoun. ̄ ܰ ܰ /šaddar/. The presence of the pronoun Without the pronoun, “they sent” is ‫ܫܕܪܘ‬ ̄ ̣ ‫ܰܫ‬ preserves the long vowel /ū/. “They sent him,” with a masculine pronoun, is ‫ܕܪܘܗܝ‬ As seen in Text 22, ‫ ܐܚܪܬܐ‬is the feminine of ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬. It is used here because

/šaddrū/. The pronoun totally contracts into the vowel of the perfect. But it still

̄

shows up in the writing system, as ‫ܗܝ‬.

These weavers seem rather mean spirited! The preposition

several times, as has the conjunction ‫ܕ‬

‫ ܡܛܠ‬has occurred

‫ܡܛܠ‬. ‫ ܡܛܠ ܗܕܐ‬is a common expression,

164

A READER IN SYRIAC

meaning “therefore; and so.” The feminine ‫ ܗܕܐ‬is used in its neutral sense. It is also

found with the masculine, ‫ܗܢܐ‬ and ‫ܡܛܠܗܢܐ‬. 5

‫ܡܛܠ‬. Both can be written as one word: ‫ܡܛܠܗܕܐ‬

Next come two third-person feminine singular verbs from last-weak roots, one

ܳ /bʿāt/. In the ‫ܒܥܬ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܨ‬ paʿʿel, the third root consonant magically reappears, and the vowel /a/ is short: ‫ܠܝܬ‬ ܰ ܶ /ṣallyat/. As with the case of such forms as ‫ ܐܪܡܝܗ‬/ʾarmyeh/ “he threw him” in

in the paʿʿel and one in the pʿal. In the pʿal, these ends in /āt/:

Text 23, it takes some care when reading unvocalized Syriac to not read the yod as a vowel letter.

Now comes a prayer spoken by Mary, introduced by ‫ܕ‬, the usual direct-speech

marker.

It is amusing to find the two verbal forms ‫ ܢܚܘܘܢ‬from {ḥ-w-y} and ‫ ܢܚܘܢ‬from

{ḥ-y-y} so close to each other in the text. 6

̄ la-ḥrēnē is the object of ‫ ܶܢܦܠܚܘܢ‬neplḥūn. ‫ܠܐܚ̈ܪܢܐ‬ ̣ ܶ ܶ ‫ ܠܐ ܬܗܘܐ‬has a modal sense, “may there not be.”

The story In the section of the book about contemptible professions, most of the stories

involve weavers. Why were weavers treated this way? Was this felt as “women’s work”? But the first story in this section is about a barber, and other stories involve

dentists and blacksmiths, all typically “men’s work.” One wonders how the “author”

of this unattributed story knew that it was weavers who were guilty of all these thefts. Their acts of thievery span all the way from the time of Joseph to the time of

John the Baptist.

“Joseph’s goblet” ‫ ܟܣܐ‬presumably refers to the goblet of silver that Joseph had

hidden in the baggage-train of his brothers. The Hebrew of Genesis 44 uses the word

�‫ גָּ ִב ַי‬gābīaʿ, which may be a loanword from Egyptian. The Peshiṭta translates it by ܳ ‫ܣܩܦܐ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾesqpā, a loanword from Greek σκύφος. In the story involving Pharaoh’s cup-bearer, the word for “cup” in the Peshiṭta is equivalent of ‫ כּוֹס‬kōs in the Hebrew.

‫ܟܣܐ‬, which is the etymological ܳ

The Peshiṭta to Exodus 7 describes Moses’ staff as ‫ܚܘܛܪܟ‬ ̣ ḥuṭrāk, the same word

used here. The Hebrew uses a completely unrelated word ‫ ָמ ֶטּה‬maṭṭē, which may or

may not come from Egyptian.

ܳ ‫ ܶܓܙܬܐ‬gezztā for Gideon’s fleece. This is the exact equivalent ܳ ܶ of the Hebrew word, ‫ גִּ זָּ ה‬gizzā. Similarly, for David’s sling it uses ‫ܩܠܥܐ‬, the same The Peshiṭta uses

word used in Hebrew, ‫ ֶק ַלע‬qelaʿ.

ܳ ܰ ‫ ܥܪܩܬܐ‬ʿraqtā for John’s belt is used to translate the Greek ζώνη.

One wonders how many apostles had their sandals stolen. It must have taken

rather a large bag to hold them all.

TEXT THE TWENTY-FIFTH

165

Our story displays The Blessed Virgin Mary in somewhat a nasty mood. The language The most interesting feature in this story is the syntax of the beginning, where

the predicate is put first. This nicely gives emphasis to the role of the weavers in the story. A few other of the Stories start in similar ways.

ܳ ܰ

The word for “belt” is vocalized here as ‫ܥܪܩܬܐ‬. This is the word used at Mark

1:6, describing John’s apparel. In the Western vocalization of Syriac, it is vocalized

ܳ ܰܶ

as ‫ ܥܪܩܬܐ‬ʿeraqtā. There are a few other nouns where the Western tradition inserts

an /e/ after a vowelless ʿayn.

As might be expected in the case of a weak root such as {ḥ-y-y}, it can sometimes

ܶ ܶ ܶ ‫ܢ‬, with a non-etymological ʾālap. In this Text, the BLMS can also appear written ‫ܐܚܐ‬ writes ‫ ;ܢܚܘܢ‬the VatMS writes ‫ܢܐܚܘܢ‬. Similarly, in the ʾapʿel the imperfect appears ܶ ‫ ܰܢ‬and as ‫ܐܚܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ; ܰܢ‬both spellings represent /naḥḥē/. as ‫ܚܐ‬

ܶ ‫ ܢ‬neḥḥē, it appear with strange forms. While the most common pʿal imperfect is ‫ܚܐ‬

Manuscript variation

‫ܐܘܪܚܗ ܕܩܒܪܐ‬, with an anticipatory pronoun, is the reading of the BLMS. The VatMS is happy with ‫ܐܘܪܚܐ ܕܩܒܪܐ‬. While this is good Syriac, it is not as elegant

as the British Library reading, and breaks the parallelism with the preceding noun phrases.

The BLMS says that Mary

̇ ‫ܡܪܗ‬ ‫ܘܒܥܬ ܡܢ‬ ‫ܨܠܝܬ‬ ̣ ̣ . The VatMS, however, omits

̇ ‫ܡܪܗ‬ ‫ܡܢ‬. Is this a deliberate attempt to “soften” in some way Mary’s prayer? Cognates

ܳ ܳ

The word for “goblet” or “cup” appears in Syriac as ‫ ܟܣܐ‬kāsā, in Hebrew as ‫כּוֹס‬

kōs, and in Arabic with a glottal stop, ‫ ك َ�� س‬kaʾs. It is hard to say if these are cognate

words or all derive ultimately from Akkadian.

ܳ

The root {q-b-r} “to bury,” seen here in ‫“ ܰܩܒܪܐ‬grave” occurs in Syriac, Hebrew,

ܰ , ‫ ָק ַבר‬qābar and َ �َ�َ‫ ق‬qabara. The English word “macabre” is sometimes and Arabic: ‫ܩܒܪ‬ said to come from the Arabic �ِ �‫ مَق َا‬maqābir, the plural of ‫ مَقْ�َ� َة‬maqbara “cemetery.” Syriac uses

ܺ ‫ܰܨܠܝ‬

for “to pray.” Hebrew uses an entirely different root {p-l-l}:

‫ ִה ְת ַפּ ֵלּל‬hitpallel. In Arabic, the word for “ritual prayer” is ṣalāh, in Quranic Arabic written with a wāw: ‫صَ��ة‬. This may well be a borrowing from Syriac ‫ܨܠܘܬܐ‬. From

this noun, Arabic created the denominative verb �ّ �ََ ‫ ص‬ṣallā “to pray.”

ܳ ̇

ܳ , Hebrew ‫ ָחיָ ה‬ḥāyā, and “To live” also occurs in all three languages: Syriac ‫ܚܝܐ‬

Arabic ّ‫ �َ َي‬ḥayya. It is sometimes thought that the Latin greeting “ave” comes from the Punic cognate to this word, so means “live!”

166

A READER IN SYRIAC The word for “foot” is

ܳ ܶ ‫ ܪܓܠܐ‬in

Syriac, ‫ ֶרגֶ ל‬reḡel in Hebrew, and

‫ رِ�ْل‬rijl in

Arabic. In all three languages, it can also mean the bottom part of the leg.

The noun for “blessing” comes from the root {b-r-k} in all three languages:

‫ܒܘܪܟܬܐ‬, ‫ ְבּ ָר ָכה‬brākā, and �َ �َ�َ� baraka. The verb “to bless” typically occurs in the intensive stem, showing that it is a denominative from the noun.

REVIEW LESSON FIVE Verbs with object pronouns As has been noted throughout this Reader, verbal forms with object pronouns are

perhaps the trickiest piece of Syriac morphology to master. Moreover, unlike syntax,

these forms are not especially interesting. They can occur on any verb form: all the active conjugations (even occasionally on the “passive” conjugations in /t/); strong

and weak roots of every variety; perfect, imperfect, and imperative; any person,

number, and gender. Some forms have two or three variants. Some are relatively common in texts, others much less so. The best listing of these forms is in Kiraz, but even there not all the possible forms are cited.

The problem is that the addition of the object pronouns brings about a shuffling

ܰ

ܶ

ܰ

of the vowels. Thus “he wrote” is ‫ ܟܬܒ‬/ktab/, but “he wrote it” is ‫ ܟܬܒܗ‬/katbeh/.

These forms are mostly explainable if one has a knowledge of comparative Semitic

grammar. Thus “he wrote” goes back to /kataba/, with a stress on the first syllable.

The stress shifted to the second syllable, the first /a/ got reduced, and the final /a/ dropped, resulting in /ktab/ in Syriac. “He wrote it” goes back to /katabahu/. The

stress shifted to the third syllable, and several concomitant changes happened,

resulting in /katbeh/. While this is all nice to know in theory, in practice there are

just a lot of forms to memorize.

Most texts that a beginning student will encounter are set in the past, and most

involve largely men, so it helps to start with those forms. The model used here is

ܰ ‫ܟܬܒ‬, with three bgdkpt letters as root consonants. The pʿal perfect forms are:

He wrote it

He wrote it

He wrote you

He wrote you He wrote me

They wrote it They wrote it

They wrote you

ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܟ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ 167

/katbeh/

/katbāh/

/katbāk / /katbek/

/katban / /katbū/

/katbūh / /katbūk/

168

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬

They wrote you They wrote me

/katbūk/

/katbūn/

The paʿʿel perfect forms are:

ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܟ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘ ̇ܗ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܘܟ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ̣ ‫ܰܟ‬

He dictated it

He dictated it

He dictated you He dictated you He dictated me

They dictated it They dictated it

They dictated you They dictated you They dictated me

/kattbeh/

/kattbāh/

/kattbāk/ /kattbek/

/kattban/

/kattbū/

/kattbūh/

/kattbūk/

/kattbūk/

/kattbūn/

The ʾapʿel perfect forms are:

ܶ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒ ̇ܗ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܟ‬ ܶ ̄ ‫ܰܐܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ̇ܗ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܟܬܒܘܟ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ‫ܰܐ‬ ̣

He inscribed it He inscribed it

He inscribed you He inscribed you He inscribed me

They inscribed it They inscribed it

They inscribed you They inscribed you They inscribed me

/ʾaktbeh/

/ʾaktbāh/ /ʾaktbāk/ /ʾaktbek/

/ʾaktban/

/ʾaktbū/

/ʾaktbūh/

/ʾaktbūk/

/ʾaktbūk/

/ʾaktbūn/

The following lists in sequential order all the perfect forms with object suffixes

that occur in this Reader: Text 3 Text 6

Text 8

Text 16

Text 16 Text 16

Text 22 Text 22

ܳ ‫ܰܫ‬ ‫ܒܩܟ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܢܣܒܗ‬ ̄ ‫ܫܐܠܘܗܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܫܐܠܗ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܦܩܗ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܛܪܕܗ‬ ܶ ܰ ̄ ‫ܪܬ‬ ‫ܟܝ‬ ‫ܡܟ‬ ܶ ܺ ܰ ‫ܐܝܬܝܬܗ‬

/šabqāk/

/nasbeh/ /šaʾʾlū/

/šaʾʾleh/

/ʾappqeh/ /ṭardeh/

/mkartek/ /ʾaytīteh/

REVIEW LESSON FIVE Text 22 Text 22 Text 22 Text 23 Text 26

Text 27

Text 29

ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܣܒܬ ܰܟ‬ ̄ ‫ܰܫܐܠ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ܰ ‫ܰܓ‬ ̄ ‫ܕܫ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܰܐ‬ ‫ܪܡܝܗ‬ ܶ ܳ ‫ܙܟܬܗ‬ ܰ ܰ ̄ ‫ܠܡ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܛ‬ ‫ܰܫܐܠܗ‬

169

/nsabtāk/ /šaʾʾlan/

/gadšan/

/ʾarmyeh/

/zkāteh/

/ṭalman/

/šaʾʾleh/

Imperfect verbs with object pronouns are far less common in the Reader. Most

are third-person masculine imperfects, and all are third-person masculine singular

object pronouns. Imperfect forms typically exist with several variants. The basic forms are:

He will write it

They will write it

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܗ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܘܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒ‬ ܺ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ܶܢܗ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̣ ̄ ‫ܟܬܒܘ ܳܢ‬ ‫ܝܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬ ̣

/nektbeh/

/nektobīw/ /nektbīw/

/nektbūneh/

/nektbūnāy/

The imperfect forms in this Reader are: Text 16

Text 16

Text 16

Text 16

Text 22

Text 23 Text 26

̄ ܺ ‫ܶܢܩܛܠ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܺ ̄ ‫ܝܡܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܬܪ‬ ̄ ܶ‫ܶܐܛܥ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܺ ̄ ‫ܣܥܪ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܶܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܫܟܚ‬ ܺ ‫ܶܐ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܬ‬ ̄ ‫ܙܟ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ̇ ‫ܣܩ‬ ܺ ‫ܶܐ‬ ‫ܝܗ‬

/neqṭlīw/

/trīmīw/ /ʾeṭʿēw/

/ʾesʿrīw/

/ʾeškḥīw/

/tezkēw/ /ʾessqīh/

‫ ܟܘ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-SIXTH ‫ܟܘ‬ Story 195, from the section about ascetics. The heroine is one Saint Sarah of Sketis,

in Libya. She is said to have died in the year 370 AD, aged 80 years. She is also the heroine of Story 196. Vocabulary

‫ܶܐ ܳܡܐ‬

ʾemmā ‘mother’, an ancient non-derived noun. It also comes to mean

ܳ ‫ܶܐ ̈ܡ ܳܗܬܐ‬

‘abbess’. The most common plural is

occurred in Text 14.

ʾemmhātā.

‫ܳܐ ܳܒܐ‬

ʾābā ‘father’

ܳ ‫ ܳܣܪܐ‬Sārā ‘Sarah’. The name is Hebrew, ‫ ָשׂ ָרה‬Śārā, meaning ‘princess’. ܳ ܳ ܳ ܺ ‫ܢܝܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܙ‬zānyūtā ‘fornication’. ‫ ܳܙܢܝܬܐ‬zānītā ‘prostitute’ occurred in Text 21. ‫ ܳܡܐ ܕ‬mā d ‘when, whenever’, a conjunction. ܳ ‫ ܶܣ ܶܒܠܬܐ‬sebbeltā ‘ladder, staircase’. The etymology is unsure. It does not look like a Syriac nominal pattern.

ܳ ‫ܩܕܡ‬

qdām ‘before, in front of’, a preposition. This is the construct state of a noun

ܳ qdāmā meaning ‘front’. The root {q-d-m} has to do with ‘being in front’. The ‫ܩܕ ܳܡܐ‬ ܰ ܳ verb ‫ ܩܕܡ‬is ‘to precede’. The adjective ‫ ܰܩܕܡ ܳܝܐ‬is ‘first’.

ܳ ‫ܩܕܡ ܕ‬

qdām d ‘before’, a conjunction.

̈ ‫ܐܬܟܬܫܬ ܥܡ ܫܐܕܐ ܕܙܢܝܘܬܐ ܥܠ‬ ‫ܫܢܝܢ‬ ‫ܐܡܐ ܠܡ ܣܪܐ ܫܒܥ‬ ̣ ‫ܐܓܪܐ ܥܕܡܐ ܕܙܟܬܗ܂ ̣ܗܝ ܓܝܪ ܗܕܐ ܐܡܪܐ ̄ܗܘܬ ܕܡܐ ܠܡ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܢܐ ̈ܪܓܠܝ ܥܠ ܣܒܠܬܐ ܕܐܣܩ ܣܝܡܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܕܣܝܡܐ‬ ‫ܐܢܐ ܡܘܬܝ̄ ܩܕܡ‬ ̈ ̇ ‫ܕܐܣܩܝܗ‬ ‫ܥܝܢܝ ܩܕܡ‬ Analysis 1

Rather awkwardly, the text inserts ‫ ܠܡ‬between the title ‫ ܐܡܐ‬and the personal

name ‫ܣܪܐ‬. This happens occasionally in other stories concerning ascetics. Story 189 begins ‫ܩܝܪܢܘܢ‬

‫‘ ܐܒܐ ܠܡ‬Father Qernon’. It is hard to say what the function of ‫ܠܡ‬

is in these contexts.

171

172

A READER IN SYRIAC

̈ ‫ܫܒܥ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܢܝܢ‬

means “for seven years.” When expressions of time are used to

ܳ̄

ܰ “year” occurred in Text 18. express duration, no preposition is necessary. ‫ܫܢܬܐ‬

ܰ ‫ܬܟܬܫ ̣ܬ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetkattšat is in the perfect because the action is viewed as completed. ܳ ̄ ܳ ‫ܬܟ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬would have emphasized the on-goingness A construction such as ‫ܬܫܐ ܗܘܬ‬

of the struggle in the past.

ܳ ‫“ ܶܫ‬demon” occurred in Text 2, where it was used in a vague sort of way. ‫ܐܕܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ܶ 2 ‫“ ܐܓܪܐ‬roof” occurred in Text 12. It would have been more elegant to put ‫ܥܠ‬ ‫ ܐܓܪܐ‬immediately after ‫ܐܬܟܬܫܬ‬, instead of having it dangle at the end of the sentence.

ܰ appeared in Text 20. Here it might be translated as ‫ܥܕ ܳܡܐ ܕ‬ ܳ “until; when finally; before.” ‫ ܙܟܐ‬occurred in Text 23. Here it is provided with an ܶ ܳ object pronoun, ‫ ܙܟܬܗ‬zkāteh. Text 21 began ‫ܘܗܘ ܗܢܐ‬ ̣ , “The same person said.” Here we are talking about a lady, so it is the feminine ‫ ̣ܗܝ ܗܕܐ‬that is used. In typical Syriac fashion, this twoword phrase is broken up by ‫ܓܝܪ‬, which tends to occur in the second place in the The conjunction

sentence. All together, this produces “She also used to say.”

‫ ܡܐ ܕ‬is a conjunction. It sometimes means “when,” referring to an action that

happened once, but it is more commonly used with actions that occur more than once. “Whenever” captures this sense. But since the word “whenever” is starting to

disappear from American English, the translation “when” will also work. Here ‫ܡܐ‬

ܳ ‫ ܳܣ‬. But it is interrupted by ‫ܠܡ‬, with its ‫ ܕ‬is followed by the active participle ‫ܝܡܐ‬ usual use of marking direct speech. 3

Conditional sentences, including those that use

variety of types. Here

‫ܡܐ ܕ‬, come in a bewildering

‫ ܡܐ ܕ‬introduces a protasis that uses an active participle ‫ܣܝܡܐ‬. The apodosis also uses an active participle ‫ܣܝܡܐ‬. Because participles are timeless, this is the most common way that ‫ ܡܐ ܕ‬is used. The use of the exact same active participle ‫ ܣܝܡܐ‬in both the protasis and the apodosis is unusual. ܶ d-essaq is “in order to go up.” ‫ܕܐ ܰܣܩ‬ ‫ ܣܝܡܐ‬is the apodosis. ܶ 4 Now the verb ‫ ܣܠܩ‬is provided with a direct object, expressed by a pronoun. The sense is “before I climb up it.” Surprisingly, neither Payne Smith nor Sokoloff give ܶ examples of the verb ‫ ܣܠܩ‬with a direct object. The pronoun is feminine, referring ܳ ܶ ܶ ̇ ܺ ܶ to ‫ܣܒܠܬܐ‬. This produces ‫ ܐܣܩܝܗ‬ʾessqīh. The story This story goes back to Palladius of Galatia, the same source that Bar ʿEbrāyā

used for Text 14.

Was this a purely metaphorical battle between the good Mother and the demon

of fornication, or did she actually “see” him? If so, one wonders what form the demon

TEXT THE TWENTY-SIXTH took on. Perhaps he was

him?

173

‫ܫܦܝܪ ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬. And how did the good Mother fight with

Under the entry

‫ܕܝܘܢܐ‬, Payne Smith mentions “a custom of worshipping these ܳ ܳ ܶ demons on the flat roofs of houses.” ‫ ܰܒܪ ܐܓܪܐ‬in fact is another vague term for ܳ ܳ ܶ ܰ “demon.” Someone who is possessed by such a demon is said to be ‫ܕܒܪ ܐܓܪܐ‬ , often translated “lunatic.” In the Peshiṭta to Matthew 4:24, the Greek term

σεληνιαζομένους, “moon struck,” usually understood today as “epileptic,” is

ܶ ܳ ܶ ܰ ‫ܕܒܪ‬.

translated as ‫ܐܓ̈ܪܐ‬

The language The story is not terribly well crafted. This is because Bar ʿEbrāyā took two small

narratives about Mother Sarah from Palladius and joined them together, without

providing any transition. The first narrative described her fight with the demon; the second described her ladder-climbing strategy. The active participle

‫ ܣܝܡܐ‬is used twice, once in the protasis and once in the

apodosis of a conditional sentence. The first occurrence is rather concrete, the second

is more metaphorical. Whether this is felicitous or boring depends on taste. However, the use of

ܳ the preposition and ‫ܩܕܡ ܕ‬ ܳ the conjunction in the same sentence is ‫ܩܕܡ‬

rather pleasing.

The new feature of the grammar is a rather odd use of ‫ ܠܡ‬inbetween a title and

a personal name. This usage does not appear in Payne Smith or in Sokoloff. Cognates Syriac

‫ ܶܐ ܳܡܐ‬has its cognates in Hebrew ‫ ֵאם‬ʾem and Arabic ّ‫ ُأم‬ʾumm. These are

all instantiations of a classic “nursery word.” These are words spoken to and by very young children. They are formed of consonants which are phonetically simple,

including /m/ and /t/. Words meaning “mother,” for example, contain an /m/ in many languages of the world. The etymology of

ܳ ‫ ܶܣ ܶܒܠܬܐ‬is unclear. In Genesis 28:12, Jacob sees a “ladder,”

with angels going up and down on it. The Hebrew word is ‫ ֻס ָלּם‬sullām. Is this the same word? Arabic has �ّ �َ ‫س‬ ُ sullam.

The root {q-d-m} “to be first,” seen here in

ܳ occurs in all the Semitic lan‫ܩܕܡ‬

guages, where it takes on a range of meanings. Hebrew ‫ ֶק ֶדם‬qedem means “east” and “primeval time.” ��ِ‫ قَد‬qadīm in Arabic means “old.”

‫ ܟܝ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ‫ܟܝ‬ Story 670, from the section about curious events and coincidences. This one involves a Frankish Merchant, an Old Man, and a Trader-in-Lead.

Vocabulary

ܰ ܳ ‫ܦܪ‬ ‫ܢܓ ܳܝܐ‬

frangāyā ‘Frank, Roman’. This is often used in a vague sense; in our story

it means some random European merchant. The initial

nounced as a spirant.

‫ ܰܝ ܳܡܐ‬yammā ܳ ‫ ܰܐܬܪܐ‬ʾatrā ܳ

ܰ

‫ܦ‬

was presumably pro-

ܳ

‘sea’, a non-derived noun. ‫ ܰܝܡܐ ܪ ܳܒܐ‬is the Mediterranean.

‘place, land, country’. This is apparently a non-derived noun. The ܳ ܰ ܳ ܶ ܰ ܳ adjective ‫ ܐܬܪܝܐ‬is ‘local’. ‫ ܠ ܳܫܢܐ ܐܬܪ ܳܝܐ‬means ‘dialect’.

‫ ܺܨܝܢ‬Ṣīn ‘China’. ‫ ܳܣ ܳܒܐ‬sābā ‘old; old man.’ The root in Syriac is {s-ʾ-b}, but the glottal stop is lost ܶ

in many forms. The verb meaning ‘to grow old’ is ‫ ܣܐܒ‬seb.

ܰ ‫ܬܟ ܰܫܦ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܬܟ ܰܫܦ‬

ʾetkaššap netkaššap ‘to entreat, ask firmly of’, with ‫ܠ‬. The verb

is only attested in the ʾetpaʿʿal.

ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬

spittā ‘ship’. This derives from /sapīntā/. As in the case of

ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬ ,

the vowelless nūn has assimilated into the /t/, and the long vowel /ī/ has shortened

into /i/. The root is {s-p-n} ‘to cover’, although this root did not survive into Syriac.

̄

ܳܳ ܰ ܳܳ ܰ ܳ ܶ sappānā is a ‘sailor’, and ‫ ܣܦܢ ܳܝܐ‬sappānāyā is ‘nautical’. A smaller ‘boat’ was ‫ܐܠܦܐ‬

A ‫ ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬was a decked or roofed vessel of some size, not a simple dinghy. ‫ܣܦܢܐ‬ ʾelpā, from Akkadian, although the ultimate etymology is unsure.

ܳ ‫ܶܩ‬ ‫ܛܥܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܰܐ ܳܒܪܐ‬

ܰ

qeṭʿā ‘piece, part’. The verb ‫ ܩܛܥ‬is ‘to cut, cut off something’. ʾabārā ‘lead’, a loanword from Akkadian abāru. The ultimate etymology is

unknown.

ܳ ܺ ‫ ܠܝܛܪܐ‬līṭrā ‘pound’, a loanword from Greek λίτρα. ܰ zabben nzabben ‘to sell’. The pʿal ‫ܙܒܢ‬ ܰ ‘to buy’ occurred in Text 4. ‫ܢܙ ܶܒܢ ܁ ܰܙ ܶܒܢ‬ 175

176

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܺܛ‬ ‫ܝܡܐ‬

ṭīmā ‘value, price’, most often used in the plural. This is a loanword from

Greek τιμή.

ܰ ‫ܬܛ ܰܝܒ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܬܛ ܰܝܒ‬

ʾeṭṭayyab neṭṭayyab ‘to be present, at hand’. As was seen in

Text 24, the sequence /tṭ/ is pronounced /ṭṭ/. The participle is thus

ܶ ܰ meṭṭayyab. In the paʿʿel, ‫ ܛܝܒ‬is ‘to prepare, get ready’.

ܰ ‫ܢܩܳ ܶܒܠ ܁ ܰܩ ܶܒܠ‬

ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܬܛ ܰܝܒ‬

ܰ is ‘to complain, qabbel nqabbel ‘to accept, receive’. In the pʿal, ‫ܩܒܠ‬

petition’. ‫ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬ ̣ qubllā ‘face’ occurred in Text 22.

ܳܳ ܺ ‫ܝܢܪܐ‬ ‫ܕ‬

dīnārā ‘dinar’, a gold coin, a loanword from Latin denarius via Greek. As

usual, it is impossible to state how much it was worth at the time of our story, but it was certainly a chunk of change.

ܳ ‫ܝܛ‬ ܰ ‫ ܺܡ‬mīṭaksā ‘silk’, a loanword from Greek μέταξα. ‫ܟܣܐ‬ ܳ ܰ ܰ ‫ܬܚ ܰܒܪ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʾetḥabbar netḥabbar ‘to befriend, hang out with’. ‫ܒܪܐ‬ ‫ܬܚ ܰܒܪ‬ ‫‘ ܚ‬friend’ occurred in Text 20.

‫ܳܕ ܳܕܐ‬ ‫ܳܗܐ‬

dādā ‘uncle’, presumably a nursery word. hā ‘now’, an adverb/interjection. It frequently follows

contexts it can mean ‘lo, behold’.

̇ ‫ ܰܒ‬. ‫ܕܓܘܢ‬

In other

ܳ ‫ ܰܫ‬šarbā ‘story, matter’. The etymology is unsure. ‫ܪܒܐ‬ ‫ܢܦܘܫ ܁ ܳܦܫ‬ pāš npūš ‘to remain, stay’, from {p-w-š}. ̣ ܰ ‘to be afraid’ occurred in Text 16. ܳ ‫ ܶܩ‬qenṭā ‘fear, dread’. ‫ܩܢܛ‬ ‫ܢܛܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ ܺܩܝܪܐ‬yaqqīrā ‘valuable’. ‫ ܺܝ ܰܩܪ‬ʾīqar is ‘to be heavy’, in both a literal and a metaphorical sense.

̇ ‫ ܳܙ‬zābōnā ‘purchaser’, a noun on the pāʿōl pattern. ‫ܒܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܒܪ ܁‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܢ‬tbar netbar ‘to break’. The paʿʿel ‫ ܰܬ ܰܒܪ‬means ‘to smash into pieces’. ‫ܬܒܪ‬ ܶ

ܰ The passive ‫ܬܬܒܪ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾettbar ‘to get broken’ occurs in Text 28.

ܳܳ ܳ ‫ܡܢܬܐ‬ mnātā ‘share, portion’, from {m-n-y}. ‫‘ ܡܢܐ‬to count’ occurred in Text 17. ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܨܥܬܐ‬ mṣaʿtā ‘middle’. This almost always occurs either in the construct,

‫ ܶܡܨܥܰܬ‬meṣʿat, or with a possessive pronoun. The (rather ܰ mṣaʿ is ‘to reach the middle’. Assuming that this is a deuncommon) verb ‫ܡܨܥ‬ where it takes the form

nominative verb, the noun must be non-derived.

TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܬܩܠܐ‬ ‫ܡ‬

177

ܰ is ‘to weigh out something’. matqālā ‘sheqel’. The verb ‫ܬܩܠ‬

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܬܩܠܐ‬ ‫ ܡ‬is

a noun of instrument, meaning ‘balance, scales’. It then gets the meaning of a

‘weight’. It is often used to mean ‘a sheqel’s weight’, and then just ‘sheqel’. As usual, its value varied from time to time and place to place.

ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬dahbā ‘gold’, a non-derived noun. ‫ܗܒ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬dahbānā is the adjective ‘golden’. ‫ܗܒܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܝܒܘܬܐ‬ divine grace’. In the book of Romans, Paul ̣ ‫ ܳ ܰܛ‬ṭaybūtā ‘goodness, favor, ܳ ܰ ܳ ܶ ̈ ܰ

contrasts ‫ܝܒܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫‘ ܛ‬grace’ with ‫‘ ܥ ܳܒܕܐ‬works’.

‫ܝܒܘܬܐ ܕܐܠ ܳܗܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܩ ܶܒܠ ܰܛ‬means ‘to

thank God’. This derives from the idea of having received God’s blessing, one should

ܳ

be thankful to him. ‫ܛܘ ܳܒܢܐ‬ ̣ ṭūbānā ‘blessed’ occurred in Text 14.

ܰ ̇ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܓܠܘܙ ܁ ܓܠܙ‬

̇ ܳ

glaz neḡloz ‘to deprive, disinherit’. ‫ ܓܠܘ ܳܙܐ‬gālōzā is an ‘unjust person’

or even ‘bandit’.

‫ܳܐ ܶܦܢ‬

‫‘ ܳܐܦ‬also, even’ (Text ܶ ܳ ܶ ܶ ܳ 22) and ‫‘ ܐܢ‬if’ (Text 2). It can be written as one word ‫ ܐܦܢ‬or two ‫ܐܦ ܐܢ‬. ’āpen ‘even though’, a conjunction. This comes from

ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ܳ ‫ܣܢܐ ܁‬ ‫ܣܢܐ‬

snā nesnē ‘to hate’. The root was originally {s-n-ʾ}. The ʾālap of the

root surfaces in some forms: ‘hatred’ is usually spelled Paul says that we should be

ܳ ‫ ܶܣ ܶܢܐܬܐ‬. At Romans 11:9,

ܳ ܺ ‫ܠܒ ̈ܝ ܳܫܬܐ‬ ‫“ ܳܣ ܶܢܝܢ‬haters of evil things.” The antonym to

ܳ is ‫ܪܚܡ‬ ܶ ‘to love’ (Text 20). ‫ܣܢܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܶܨ‬ ‫ܒܝ ܳܢܐ‬

ܳ (Text 4). In the Lord’s Prayer, it says ṣebyānā ‘will, volition’, from ‫ܨܒܐ‬ ܶ ܳ ܶ ܳ ܳ ‫ܒܨ‬ ܶ is ‘of his own accord, ‫“ ܢܗܘܐ ܶܨܒܝܢܟ‬May your will be accomplished.” ‫ܒܝ ܶܢܗ‬ willingly’.

ܳ ‫ܺܡܝܬܐ‬

mītā ‘dead’, from {m-w-t}. ‫‘ ܡܝܬ‬to die’ occurred in Text 13. The verb in

ܳ ̇ ܳ ‫ܪܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܝ‬

yārōtā ‘heir’, a noun on the pāʿōl pattern from {y-r-t}.

ܺ

the perfect and the adjective in the absolute state are spelled exactly the same. inherit’.

‫ܰܐ ܳܚܐ‬

ܶ ‫ܺܝܪܬ‬

ʾīret is ‘to

ʾaḥā ‘brother’, a biradical noun. It can mean a biological brother or a

ܶ ܰ ܳ ̄ ḥyānā is a ‘kinsman’ or ‘relative’. ܳ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܚܐ‬bar ʾaḥā is ‘nephew’. ‫ܚܝ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ shows the same loss of /ʾa/ seen in ‫ ܳܚܬܐ‬, but the ʾālap is still written.

spiritual brother. The plural is ‫ ܐ ̈ܚܐ‬ʾaḥē. ‫ ܳܚܬܐ‬ḥātā ‘sister’ occurred in Text 22. ‫ܰܒܪ‬

This latter

‫ ܟܕ ̇ܨܒܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ܕܢܐܙܠ ܒܝܡܐ ܠܐܬܪܐ‬.‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܡܢ ܬܓ̈ܪܐ ܦ̈ܪܢܓܝܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ ̣ܐܬܐ ܠܘܬܗ‬.‫ܕܨܝܢ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܣܒܐ ܘܐܬܟܫܦ ܠܗ ܕܢܣܒ ܠܗ ܒܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ ̄ ̇ ‫ܒܗܘ ܐܬܪܐ‬ ‫ܘܢܙܒܢܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܩܛܥܐ ܕܐܒܪܐ ܐܝܟ ܥܣܪܐ ܠܝܛ̈ܪܐ‬

178

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄ ̈ ‫ ܘܟܕ‬.‫ ܘܩܒܠ ̇ܗܘ ܬܓܪܐ‬.‫ܡܘܗܝ ܢܙܒܢ ̇ܗܘ ܡܐ ܕܡܬܛܝܒ ܘܢܝܬܐ‬ ‫ܘܒܛܝ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ ܕܩܠܝܠ‬ ̣ .‫̣ܐܙܠ ܠܨܝܢ ̣ܐܬܐ ܚܕ ܘܫܐܠܗ ܕܠܝܬ ܥܡܟ ܐܒܪܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ̇ ‫ ܘܙܒܢܗ‬.‫ܐܝܬܘܗܝ ܠܝ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܒܛܝ‬ ‫ ܘܙܒܢ‬.‫ܠܗܘ ܒܡܐܐ ܘܬܠܬܝܢ ܕܝܢ̈ܪܐ‬ ̄ ‫ܘܐܬܐ ܘܐܬܚܒܪ ܥܡܗ ܒܣܦܝܢܬܐ ̇ܗܘ ܕܙܒܢ‬ ̣ .‫ܘܐܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܡܝܛܟܣܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ̇ ‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ .‫ ܘܫܪܝ ܡܫܐܠ ܠܗ ܕܡܢ ܝܗܒܠܟ ܐܒܪܐ ܗܘ‬.‫ܗܘܐ ܡܢܗ ܠܐܒܪܐ‬ ̈ ̄ ̇ ‫ܘܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ ̣ܐܡܪ‬ ̇ .‫ܐܬܘܬܐ ܕܣܒܐ ̇ܗܘ‬ ̄‫ܕܗܘ ܕܕܐ ܕܝܠܝ‬ ‫ܝܗܒܠܗ‬ ̇ ̄ ̄ ‫ ܒܕܓܘܢ ܗܐ‬.‫ܥܠܘܗܝ ܐܫܬܚܩܬ ܘܐܬܝܬ ܒܗܢܐ ܐܬܪܐ‬ ‫ܐܝܬܘܗܝ ܘ‬ ̇ ̄ ‫̇ܓܠܐ‬ ‫ ܟܕ ܙܒܢܬ‬.‫ܐܢܐ ܠܟ ܫܪܒܗ ܕܐܒܪܐ ܡܛܠ ܕܠܐ ܦܫ ܥܠܝ ܩܢܛܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ܒܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬ ̇ ‫ܐܚܪܬܐ ܕܣܓܝ ܝܩܝܪ ̄ܗܘܐ‬ ‫ܒܗ‬ ‫ܡܢܟ ܠܐܒܪܐ ܐܘܒܠܬܗ‬ ̄ ̈ ̄ ̈ ‫ܐܢܫܝܢ ܙܒܘܢܐ ܘܐܬܟܫܦܘ ܠܝ ܕܐܬܒܪܝܘܗܝ ܘܠܟܠ‬ ‫ܘܐܬܘ‬ .‫ܐܒܪܐ‬ ̣ ̇ ̄ ‫ ܘܟܕ ܬܒܪܬܗ ܒܒܝܬܝ ܐܫܟܚܬ ܒܡܨܥܬܗ‬.‫ܚܕ ܡܢܗܘܢ ܡܢܬܐ ܐܬܠ‬ ̇ ̈ ‫ ܘܡܩܒܠ‬.̄‫ ܘܗܐ ܙܒܢܬ ܒܗܘܢ ܗܠܝܢ ܕܥܡܝ‬.‫ܡܬܩܠܐ ܕܕܗܒܐ‬ ‫ܐܠܦܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ̄ ‫ܐܢܐ ܛܝܒܘܬܗ ܕܐܠܗܐ ܕܠܐ ܓܠܙܢܝ ܡܢ ܡܕܡ ܕܕܕܐ ܕܝܠܝ ܘܐܦܢ ̣ܗܘ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ܡܛܝܘ ܠܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬ ‫ ܘܟܕ‬.‫ܣܢܢܝ̄ ܘܠܐ ܨ̣ܒܐ ܕܢܬܠ ܠܝ ܡܕܡ ܒܨܒܝܢܗ‬ ̄ ‫ܐܫܟܚܘܗܝ ܠܣܒܐ ܕܡܝܬ ܘܠܝܬ ܠܗ ܝܪܘܬܐ ܐܠܐ ܗܢ ܒܪ‬ ‫ܕܝܠܗܘܢ‬ ̇ ‫ ܘ ̣ܢܣܒ ܠܡܝܛܟܣܐ ܕܥܡ ܗܘ ܬܓܪܐ ܘܠܟܠܡܐ ܕܐܫܟܚ‬.‫ܐܚܐ‬ ‫ܒܒܝܬܐ ܕܕܕܗ‬ Analysis 1

The beginning of the story introduces the first character in the drama, the

Frankish Merchant. The syntax is typical Syriac. “Some other Frankish merchant”

ܶ ܳ

ܳ

stands in extraposition, set off by a phrasal dot. It is resumed by ‫ܐܬܐ ܠܘܬܗ‬ ̣ : “there came to him.” This is interrupted by a long temporal clause in ‫ܟܕ‬.

‫ ̇ ܳܨ ܶܒܐ ̄ܗ ܳܘܐ‬implies that the Frankish Merchant had been thinking about this idea for a while. The perfect ‫ ܨ ̣ ܳܒܐ‬would have implied The use of the active participle

“one fine day he was seized with the desire.”

ܳ ‫ ܰܐܬܪܐ‬followed by ‫ ܕ‬and then a country name is a common way to say “the

land of.” Our Story does not say where the ship set off from. 2

ܳ

The phrasal dot after ‫“ ܨܝܢ‬China” lets us catch our breath. With the verb ‫ܐܬܐ‬ ̣ ,

ܳ

ܳ ̄

the subject switches to ‫ܐܢܫ ܣ ܳܒܐ‬, introducing the second character in the story, the

Old Man. By using the word order

̄ and not ‫ܐ ܳܢܫ‬ ̄ ‫ ܳܣ ܳܒܐ‬, a certain pro‫ܐ ܳܢܫ ܳܣ ܳܒܐ‬

minence is placed on the word “old.”

TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH

179

The ‫ ܠܗ‬after ‫ ܐܬܟܫܦ‬expresses its complement, “beseeched him.” The request

ܶ d-nessab. This same form ‫ܕܢ ܰܣܒ‬ ܶ ܰ occurred in Text 14. The ‫ ܠܗ‬after ‫ ܕܢܣܒ‬is the benefactive: “for the use of the Old

comes in three parts. The first part begins with Man.” 3

The weight of the lead comes next. In such contexts,

‫ ܐܝܟ‬means “about, ap-

proximately.” In the best Syriac, “about ten pounds” should be expressed with the

ܺ ܺ ܳ ‫ܐܝܟ ܥܶܣܪܐ ܠܝܛ̈ܪܝܢ‬. Text 26, for example, ̈ used ‫ܫܒܥ ܫܢܝܢ‬. In the emphatic state, ‫ ܥܣܪܐ ܠܝܛ̈ܪܐ‬means “the ten pounds.” The absolute plural of the counted noun,

usage here is probably due to the influence of spoken Arabic. This is a not uncommon gaffe in post-classical Syriac. Another case occurs a few lines below. Now comes the second part of the Old Man’s request.

ܺ ܰ ܰ ̄ ‫ܒܢ‬ ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ‫ ܘܢܙ‬wa-nzabbnīw

“and sell it” is a paʿʿel third-person imperfect with an object pronoun. Such forms

̇

were discussed at Text 16. ‫ ܒܗܘ ܐܬܪܐ‬means “in China.”

̄ ̈ ‫ܡܘܗܝ‬ ‫ܒܛܝ‬ is “with the money that he ܶ ܶ gets for the lead.” ‫ ܢܙܒܢ‬is the pʿal, “and purchase.” It takes a close Syriacal eye to ̇ differentiate between the pʿal and the paʿʿel of {z-b-n}. ‫ ܗܘ ܡܐ ܕ‬is “whatever.” ‫ ܡܬܛܝܒ‬has a loose sense of “is found, is present.” The Old Man seems to have no 4

Now comes the last part of the request.

specific goods in mind.

The somewhat anomalous verb

ܶ ܶ

ܺ ܶ ‫“ ܰܐܝܬܝ‬to bring” occurred in Text 22. ‫ ܰܢܝܬܐ‬is

parallel to ‫ܢܙܒܢ‬. The object is unexpressed, since it is clear from the context. This is

a typical Syriac practice. Now comes a useful phrasal dot, marking the end of the rather complex request of the Old Man. Lead must have had some value! So the Old Man wants the Frankish Merchant to take a chunk of lead, sell it in China, buy some goods in return, and then bring them back to wherever the story started, where, one

assumes, the Old Man will sell them at a profit. The Old Man will stay behind. Maybe

his knees will no longer let him travel by ship all the way to China and back, or

maybe he has other concerns at home to deal with. Presumably the Frankish

ܳ

ܶ

Merchant will get a piece (‫ )ܩܛܥܐ‬of the action.

ܶ

The paʿʿel verb ‫ ܰܩܒܠ‬without an expressed object means “accepted the proposal.”

‫ ̇ܗܘ ܬܓܪܐ‬is “the merchant.” Syriac not uncommonly uses the demonstrative ‫̇ܗܘ‬ where in English we would use the definite article.

5

There is no description of the voyage by sea. ‫ܐܙܠ‬ ̣ has the sense “to reach.”

‫ ܚܕ‬rather vaguely introduces the third player: a man looking to buy lead. Here

he will be called the “Trader-in-Lead.”

‫ ܕ‬introduces an interrogative: “Don’t you have.” English would word this in the positive: “Do you have.” The question uses the preposition ‫ܥܡ‬, which has a sense of “with you at this moment.” The answer uses ‫ܠ‬, which is vague: maybe with me,

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A READER IN SYRIAC

maybe somewhere else.

construct: ‫ܠܚܡܐ‬ 6

ܳ ܺ ‫ܰܩܠܝܠܐ‬

first appeared in Text 22, as the first term of a

‫“ ܩܠܝܠ‬a little bread.” Here it is used nominally, “a little.”

So the Frankish Merchant sells the Old Man’s lead to the Trader-in-Lead. ‫ ܒ‬can

be used to express the price of something. As above,

expected. 7

‫ܕܝܢ̈ܪܝܢ‬

would have been

The Frankish Merchant then proceeds to buy silk: always a good thing to

purchase in China.

ܳ ‫ ̣ܶܐܬܐ‬is used rather confusingly in this Text. Here it means that the Frankish ܳ ܶ Merchant “got back” to the ship. After the phrasal dot, the second ‫ܐܬܐ‬ ̣ means that

the Trader-in-Lead also gets into the ship. The Trader-in-Lead is described by a rela-

tive clause using a pluperfect verb in

‫ ̄ܗܘܐ‬, “the man who had purchased the lead

from him.” Oddly, the text does not say why the Trader-in-Lead gets on board. In any

case, the two men are in the ship: the Frankish Merchant and the Trader-in-Lead.

The two men become buddies. The Trader-in-Lead is curious about the source of the

ܺ ‫ ܰܫܪܝ‬is continued by an active participle. ܳ ̄ 8 Who “gave you” is written as one word: ‫ ܰܝܗܒܠܟ‬yablāk. This is a common ܳ ̄ writing with this verb. The spelling ‫ ܰܝܗܒ ܠܟ‬is just as common. ܳ ܳ ̈ ܳ ̄ The verb ‫ ܰܝܗܒ‬used with ‫ ܐܬܘܬܐ‬in the sense of “description” occurred in Text

lead. As in Text 9,

22.

9

‫̇ܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬

refers to the Trader-in-Lead. This text nicely illustrates how the

position of the demonstrative can move around. Here

̇ followed by ‫ܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬.

‫ܣܒܐ ̇ܗܘ‬

is immediately

̇ ܺ ̄ ‫ ܕ‬emphasizes “my own uncle.” So the Old Man turns out to be man.” The use of ‫ܝܠܝ‬ ̄ the uncle of the Trader-in-Lead! Nicely expressed by the copula ‫ܐܝܬܘܗܝ‬. One does By now we’ve forgotten about the Old Man. ‫ ܗܘ‬is now used as a pronoun, “that

wish that Syriac had exclamation points; one can feel the Trader-in-Lead yelling this

out.

‫ ܶܐܫܬ ܶܚܩ‬occurred in Text 22, in the sense of “get annoyed.” Here the meaning ܶ ܰ ܶ is more “to suffer.” The first-person is ‫ ܐܫܬܚܩܬ‬ʾeštaḥqet. It is difficult to remember ̄ such forms. ‫ ܘܥܠܘܗܝ‬is “and because of him.” ‫ ܗܢܐ ܐܬܪܐ‬must mean “China,” where they are sailing away from. 10

Now the Trader-in-Lead starts to relate his past to the Frankish Merchant.

̇ ‫ ܰܒ‬occurred in Text 4. It is not uncommonly followed by ‫ܗܐ‬. The sense is “and ‫ܕܓܘܢ‬ ܳ ܶ ܰ so, now.” ‫ ܓܠܐ‬here has the meaning “to reveal, explain.” The pronoun in ‫ܫܪܒܗ‬ ܳ ܳ ܰ anticipates ‫ܐܒܪܐ‬. The following ‫“ ܡܛܠ ܕ‬because of the fact that” explains why

he can now talk. 11

‫ ܠܐ ܦܫ ܥܠܝ ܩܢܛܐ‬has the sense “fear did not remain over me” and this state

continues into the present: “fear no longer remains over me,” that is, “I am no longer

TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH

181

afraid.” We don’t yet know why or why not he should be afraid. But we can feel the

Trader-in-Lead taking a deep breath as he launches into a description of what

happened. This starts with a temporal clause in ‫ ܟܕ‬that hearkens back to his purchase of the lead in China.

ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬occurred in Text 9. “I brought” is ‫ ܰܐܘܒܠܶܬ‬ʾawblet. “I brought ‫ܘܒܠ‬ ܶ ܶ ܰ it,” with an object pronoun, is ‫ ܐܘܒܠܬܗ‬ʾawbelteh. ܳܶ ̄ ܳܶ ̄ ‫ܐܚܪܬܐ‬ ḥrētā is the feminine of ‫ ܐܚܪܢܐ‬ḥrēnā “other.” ܳ ‫ ܰܣ ܺܓ‬. It frequently ‫ܣܓܝ‬, written without an ʾālap, is the absolute state of ‫ܝܐܐ‬ ̇ functions as an adverb. Here it modifies ‫ܝܩܝܪ‬. ‫ܒܗ‬...‫ ܕ‬is literally “in which,” but 12 The verb

“where” fits the English style here. One wonders why lead was so valuable in this

particular city. In any case, this text shows us how to be a successful

̄

̄

‫ܬܓܪܐ‬: buy

low in one ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬and sell high in another ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬. We are not told the names

of the cities.

13 Now some new players appear. Apparently none of them can afford individually to purchase all of the lead, so they want to get in on the action together.

ܺ ̄ ‫ܐ ܳܢ ̈ܫܝܢ‬ is often used somewhat redundantly; it would have been perfectly fine to

omit it. Because it is almost always used in the absolute, its use here produces the

̈ܺ ܳ ̄

̈ ܺ ̄ ‫ ܶܐܬܒܪ‬ʾetbrīw is a first-person imperfect with an object pronoun. ‫ܝܘܗܝ‬ ܶ ̄ . ‫ ܶܐܬܠ‬ʾettel is the suppletive imperfect of ‫ܝܗܒ‬

oddity of a noun in /-īn/ (‫ )ܐܢܫܝܢ‬followed by a noun in /-ē/ (‫)ܙܒܘܢܐ‬. 14

The Trader-in-Lead thinks that this is a good idea. But being a cautious sort, he

ܰ b-bayt. wants to break up the lead in the privacy of his own home, ̄‫ܒܒܝܬܝ‬

ܶ ܰ ‫ܬܒܪܬܗ‬ tbarteh is a first-person perfect with an object pronoun. ܰ ܶ The somewhat anomalous ʾapʿel verb ‫ ܐܫܟܚ‬occurred in Text 22; the passive ܰ ܶ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeškḥet. ‫ܫܬܟܚ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬in Text 9. In the first-person perfect ʾapʿel it appears as ‫ܫܟܚܬ‬ ܶ ܰ Except for the initial vowel, it thus behaves like a regular ʾapʿel, such as ‫ܐܫܠܡܬ‬ ܶ ܰ ʾašlmet or ‫ ܐܘܒܠܬ‬ʾawblet. ܶ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܒܡܨܥܬܗ‬ba-mṣaʿteh is “inside of it.” ‫ ܕ‬is often used to indicate the material something is made of.

15 Pretty nice luck! It’s a good thing that he broke the lead apart while in his own

home! He uses the gold to buy things, but he doesn’t tell us what they are. ‫ ܗܐ‬here

has the sense “and so.” As usual, Syriac cannot say “the goods with me,” but rather

̄ “the goods that are with me,” ‫ܕܥܡܝ‬ . The random men who wanted to buy individual chunks of the lead are shit-out-of-luck. If they had bought it all when they had the

opportunity...

That ends the story told by the Trader-in-Lead. He now gives thanks. The use of

the active participle when he found the

ܰ tells us that he didn’t just thank God at the moment ‫ܡܩ ܶܒܠ‬ ܰ ‫ ܰܓ‬is ̄ ‫ܠܙ‬ gold, but he continues to thank him. The ‫ ܕ‬before ‫ܢܝ‬

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A READER IN SYRIAC

somewhat ambiguous; it could mean either “who did not deprive me” or “because he did not deprive me.”

person object pronoun.

ܰ ‫ ܰܓ‬galzan is a third-person singular perfect with a first̄ ‫ܠܙ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬

16 The sequence ‫ ܕܕܕܐ‬sports three ‫ ܕ‬in a row, a first for this Reader.

A lot seems to be left unsaid. Why did the Trader-in-Lead think that he was

entitled to all of his uncle’s stuff? He ends up as rich as his uncle. As is the case with most particles,

‫ܳܐ ܶܦܢ‬

can be difficult to translate; “even

though” works most of the time. Here the sentence beginning with

ܶ ܳ

‫ ܳܐ ܶܦܢ‬is tied to

the preceding sentence. Other times ‫ ܐܦܢ‬can start a new thought. In either case, the

initial waw here seems unnecessary in English, but ‫ ܘܐܦܢ‬is frequent in Syriac. The

following ‫ܗܘ‬ ̣ also seems unnecessary, but it puts a little more focus on “he.” 17

ܳ snān is a third-person perfect from the last-weak verb ‫ܣܢܐ‬ ܳ with a first̄ ‫ܣܢ‬ ‫ܢܝ‬

person object pronoun.

ܳ

One wonders why ‫ ܣܢܐ‬and

ܳ are in the perfect, and not active participles ‫ܨܒܐ‬

with an enclitic copula. Did something happen at one particular time to engender the bad feelings?

ܳ

ܳ and the noun ‫ܒܝܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܨ‬come from the same root. The verb ‫ܨܒܐ‬

Rather ungainly, the tale told by the Trader-in-Lead comes to a close. The Story

goes back to the third-person.

̄ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛܝ‬occurred in Text 22. ‫ܡܛܝܘ‬ is the third-person plural in the perfect. The pʿal of strong verbs in the perfect plural ends in ‫ ܘ‬which is ̄ ܰ not pronounced, and so can appear with a linea: “they wrote” is ‫ܟܬܒܘ‬, pronounced The paʿʿel last-weak verb

/ktab/. Last-weak plural verbs in the pʿal end in the diphthong /aw/, and since the /w/ is pronounced, it does not receive a linea: “they built” is

ܰ /bnaw/. In the ‫ܒܢܘ‬

case of last-weak verbs in all the other conjugations, in the most common reading

tradition the final ‫ ܘ‬is not pronounced, and so it receives a linea. Here, for example, the most common reading is /maṭṭī/, written tradition is to read the

‫ ܰܡ ܺܛܝܘ‬.

The use of ‫ܕܝܠܗܘܢ‬

‫ܘ‬

̄ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛ‬. ‫ܝܘ‬

A less common reading

as consonantal, here /maṭṭīw/, hence without a linea:

̄ ̄ ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬, and not a simple ‫ ܡܕܝܢܬܗܘܢ‬gives the connota-

tion of “their home city.” Presumably the ship has returned to its home port, where the Frankish Merchant first boarded. Both he and the Trader-in-Lead disembark.

‫ܫܟܚܘ ̄ܗܝ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬is the third-person plural with an object pronoun, /ʾeškḥū/. The ̣ pronoun looks to ‫ܠܣܒܐ‬, the direct object. This is followed by the second compleܺ ment to the verb, ‫ ܕ‬and the adjective ‫ ܡܝܬ‬in the absolute. English might say “found

18

that the Old Man was dead.” Syriac words it “found the Old Man that he was dead.”

TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH The conjunction

183

‫ ܐܠܐ‬occurred in Text 7. Here ‫ ܐܠܐ‬is used as a preposition,

ܳ occurred in Text 5. “except for.” This is not uncommon in post-Classical Syriac. ‫ܗܢ‬ ‫ ܰܒܪ ܰܐ ܳܚܐ‬is “nephew.” ܰ 19 ‫ ܢܣܒ‬here, rather unfelicitously, seems to mean both “to purchase” silk and “to

take” whatever he found in his uncle’s house. The story

The story opens with “another Frankish merchant.” This is rather an odd

opening, since there are no other Frankish merchants in the entire book. Story 669, the immediately preceding story, is about a nobleman,

ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬. One has the feeling ‫ܝܫ ܳܢܐ‬

that Bar ʿEbrāyā never put the finishing editorial touches on this work. Maybe the

(always unspecified) source that Bar ʿEbrāyā used had many stories about Frankish merchants.

It is fair to say that the story is poorly crafted. A lot of unanswered questions

come up. Did the Frankish Merchant have goods of his own to sell in China, not just

the Old Man’s lead? Why was there gold in the lead? Who put it there? What’s the untold story about the uncle? The language In a long narrative such as this one, it can be difficult to plot the action and the

characters. Syriac prose style often uses pronouns where English prose would flesh out the action with full nouns. In this particular story, there are also a lot of gaps in

the action, but this is not a function of Syriac style. Rather, the “author” did not do such a great job of giving us the details.

At this point in the Reader, not much new grammar shows up. The trickiest piece

ܶ

ܰ

ܶ

of morphology is the first-person perfect ʾetpʿel ‫ ܐܫܬܚܩܬ‬ʾeštaḥqet. The basic forms

are:

ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܬ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܐܬܟܬܒܬ‬ ܶ ̄‫ܬܟܬܒܬܝ‬ ‫ܶܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܐܬܟܬܒ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܟ‬ ‫ܬܒܬ‬

first-person

second-person masculine second-person feminine third-person masculine third-person feminine

/ʾetkatbet/ /ʾetktebt/

/ʾetktebt/

/ʾetkteb/

/ʾetkatbat/

Cognates

‫ ܰܝ ܳܡܐ‬yammā is an ancient word. It appears in Hebrew as ‫ יָ ם‬yām, with the plural

‫ יַ ִמּים‬yammīm. The Arabic is ّ �َ � yamm, although this is not very common; the word for “open sea” is more commonly

‫�� ْر‬ َ baḥr. In both Syriac and Hebrew, the Dead Sea is

expressed as “Sea of Salt”: Syriac has

ܶ ‫ ܝܡܐ‬and Hebrew has ‫ יָ ם ַה ֶמּ ַלח‬yām ܳ ‫ܕܡ‬ ‫ܠܚܐ‬

ham-melaḥ. Arabic usually says ‫�� ْر لُوط‬ َ baḥr Lūṭ, “The Sea of Lot.”

184

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ ܰܐܬܪܐ‬ʾatrā is a very common word in Syriac for “place.” In Arabic, �َ � �‫ أ‬ʾatar is

the “trace” or “mark” of something. In Hebrew, however, ‫ ֲא ֶשׁר‬ʾašer no longer has

the meaning of a noun, but has become a relative marker, with much the same uses as

‫ ܕ‬in Syriac. The change may have been along the lines “the place” turning into

“the place where” turning into the relative adverb “where” and then becoming a general marker of a relative.

ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ is Hebrew ‫ ְס ִפינָ ה‬spīnā. It occurs in Biblical Hebrew exactly once, at

Jonah 1:5. It may mean more specifically the “cargo hold” of a ship. The usual word

for “ship” in Biblical Hebrew is ‫ ֳאנִ יָּ ה‬ʾoniyyā. Arabic also has ‫سف ِين َة‬ َ safīna; this may be a loan from Aramaic. The more common word is ‫ � َ�كَب‬markab.

ْ

ܳ

The Proto-Semitic root for “to grow old,” seen here in ‫ ܣ ܳܒܐ‬was {ś-y-b}. Hebrew

‫ ָשׂב‬śāb and Arabic َ‫ شَاب‬šāba both mean “to grow grey-haired, old.” ܰ has its exact cognate in Hebrew ‫ ָשׁ ַבר‬šābar “to shatter, smash, The verb ‫ܬܒܪ‬ break.” The Proto-Semitic root was {t-b-r}, preserved in Arabic َ �َ�َ‫ ث‬tabara “to destroy, ruin.”

ܳ

ܰ

ܳ ‫ܡ‬, ‫ܬܩܠ‬ ܰ “to weigh” has its equivalent in Hebrew The verb associated with ‫ܬܩܠܐ‬

َ ُ ‫ ثَق‬taqula is “to ‫ ָשׁ ַקל‬šāqal. Both come from the Proto-Semitic root {t-q-l}. In Arabic, ‫ل‬

be heavy.” All three languages use the root to produce nouns for weight, weights, and coins.

ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬dahbā, is pretty clearly a non-derived noun. ‫ܗܒܐ‬ The Proto-Semitic form was /dahab/. The ‫ ܒ‬in Syriac is a spirant, even though it The word for “gold,” Syriac

follows a closed syllable, because of the original /a/ after the /h/. The word is exactly preserved in Arabic:

‫ ذ َه َب‬dahab. The Hebrew is ‫ זָ ָהב‬zāhāb. All three languages

ܶ ܰ

produce denominative verbs. Acccording to Payne Smith, in the paʿʿel ‫ ܕܗܒ‬dahheb

ܶ ܰ

is “to interleave with gold.” In the ʾapʿel ‫ ܐܕܗܒ‬ʾadheb is “to overlay with gold.” All three languages have special words for different qualities of gold.

ܳ

The root “to hate,” originally {ś-n-ʾ}, appears in all three languages: Syriac ‫ܣܢܐ‬,

Hebrew ‫ ָשׂנֵ א‬śānē, and Arabic

�‫ شَن َأ‬šanaʾa.

ܳ ̇

The root meaning “to inherit, take possession of,” appearing here in ‫ ܳܝܪܘܬܐ‬goes

back to {w-r-t}, but because of the usual sound changes, it is hard to recognize. The

ܶܺ

Syriac verb is ‫ܝܪܬ‬, the Hebrew is ‫ יָ ַרשׁ‬yāraš, and the Arabic preserves the root intact:

َ‫ وَرِث‬warita.

Loanwords

Several new loanwords appear in this narrative, including four that Syriac gets

from Greek:

ܳ ܺ ܳ ‫( ܺܕ‬ultimately from Latin), and ‫ܟܣܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܝܛ‬ ܳ ‫ ܺܛ‬, ‫ܝܢ ܳܪܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܺܡ‬. These ‫ܠܝܛܪܐ‬, ‫ܝܡܐ‬

are all words having to do with trade and commerce. Denarius also makes its way into Arabic, as

East.

‫ دِينَار‬dīnār, still the unit of currency in many countries in the Middle

TEXT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH

185

ܳ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒܪܐ‬ʾabārā is presumably the same word as Hebrew ‫עוֹפ ֶרת‬ ֶ ʿōperet. This is an

example of a “Kulturwort” or “Wanderwort.” These are words that appear in several

related and unrelated languages, in several places of the world, and are so ancient

that their origins cannot be determined. The parade example of a Kulturwort is the word for “bull.” This appears in Greek as ταῦρος, in Syriac as

ܳ ܰ ‫ܬܘܪܐ‬

tawrā, and

Arabic as ‫ ﺛ َ ْور‬tawr. Another example is the word for “wine.” In Hebrew it is ‫ יַ יִ ן‬yayin;

in Greek it is οῖνος. It does not seem to appear in Syriac, however.

‫ ܟܚ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-EIGHTH ‫ܟܚ‬ Story 674, relating another curious event. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܰܣ‬ ‫ܡܝܐ‬

samyā ‘blind, blind man’ from {s-m-y}. The verb

ܺ

ܰ

ܳ means ‘to go ‫ܣܡܐ‬

blind’. Payne Smith says that the ʾapʿel ‫ ܐܣܡܝ‬ʾasmī means ‘to deprive of one eye’.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܬܬܒܪ‬ ‫ܬܬܒܪ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬

ܰ ‘to break’ ʾettbar nettbar ‘to get broken’. The transitive pʿal ‫ܬܒܪ‬

occurred in Text 27. As usual, the expected /ʾett/ is read as /ʾett/.

ܰ ܰ ‫ܬܛܒܥ‬ ‫ܬܛܒܥ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ‫ܶܢ‬

ܰ has the same ʾeṭṭbaʿ neṭṭbaʿ ‘to sink, drown’. The pʿal ‫ܛܒܥ‬

meaning, but the ʾetpʿel is more common. In Exodus, it says that Pharaoh’s army

‫“ ܐܬܛܒܥ ܒܝܡܐ‬drowned in the sea.”

ܰ ܶ ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܘܙܒ‬ ‫ܘܙܒ ܁ ܐ‬ ‫ܢ‬

ʾeštawzab neštawzab ‘to be saved, escape’. The /š/ is a good

ܶ ܰ ܰ ‫“ ܶܐܫܬ‬escaped from the sea.” save’. In Acts, it is said that Paul ‫ܘܙܒ ܡܢ ܝܡܐ‬

ܰ šawzeb is ‘to clue that this word ultimately derives from Akkadian. The active ‫ܫܘܙܒ‬

ܳ ‫ ܶܐܠܐ ܶܐܢ‬ʾellā ʾen ‘except for’, a preposition. ‫ ܰܕ ܳܦܐ‬dappā ‘board, plank’. The etymology is unsure. ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܒܫܐ‬

ܶ ܺ

yabšā ‘dry land, earth’, the opposite of ‫‘ ܝܡܐ‬the sea’. The verb is ‫ ܝܒܫ‬ʾībeš

‘to dry up’.

̄ ̄ ‫ܙܒܢܐ ܣܡܝܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܬܘܒ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ ܕܒܚܕ ܡܢ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܐܬܛܝܒ ܒܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ ̄ ̈ ‫ܒܗ ܫܒܥܝܢ‬ ̄ ̇ ‫ܘܐܬܛܒܥܘ‬ ‫ܘܐܬܬܒܪܬ ̇ܗܝ ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ .‫ܢܦܫܢ‬ ‫ܕܐܝܬ‬ ̣ ̇ ̇ ̇ ‫ ܘܠܐ ܐܫܬܘܙܒ ܐܠܐ ܐܢ ܗܘ ܣܡܝܐ ܕܥܠ ܕܦܐ‬.‫ܟܠܗܘܢ ܗܢܘܢ ܕܒܗ‬ ‫ ܘܟܕ ̣ܢܦܩ ܠܝܒܫܐ ܐܬܟܪܗ ܘܡܝܬ‬.‫ܚܕ‬ Analysis 1

‫ ܬܘܒ‬occurred in Text 7, in the phrase ‫“ ܬܘܒ ܝܬܝܪ‬even more.” It is often used

to begin a new thought or section of text, but why bother here? Perhaps at this point

̄

Bar ʿEbrāyā was tired of ‫ܐܚܪܢܐ‬.

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬first appeared in Text 3.

187

188

A READER IN SYRIAC

̈ ‫ ܒܚܕ ܡܢ‬means “once upon a time,” as vague as one can get. As in English, ‫ܙܒܢܐ‬

this temporal clause starts the narrative.

“to be present” occurred in Text 27. Here the perfect means “got

‫ܐܬܛܝܒ‬

himself on board.” 2

As usual, ‫ ܐܝܬ‬without a suffix pronoun means “there is/are.” Here its subject ̈ ܰ ܺ ܰ . It would have been possible to say ‫ܐܝܬ ̄ܗ ̈ܰܘܝ‬, using the enclitic ܳ is ‫ܫܒܥܝܢ ܢܦܫܢ‬

copula in the feminine plural, but since the context is anchored in the past, it is more

common to omit the copula.

ܰ

ܰ

ܳ ‫ ܢ‬is used. ‫ܦܫܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܢ‬is grammatically feminine. When counting people, the noun ‫ܦܫܐ‬

‫ ܰܢ ̈ܦ ܳܫܢ‬is the feminine absolute, used, as expected, after the number “seventy.”

Since we have no idea how big the ship was, it’s hard to say if seventy is a lot of

people or not, although it seems like a goodly amount. Is this the number of

passengers, or does it also include the crew? Does the number “seventy” have some mystical or magical significance? The blind man raises the number to seventy-one, a

prime number. Was it his extra weight that caused the ship to sink?

ܶ

ܰ In the ʾetpʿel, the third-person masculine singular is ‫ܬܬܒܪ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾettbar; the feminine ܰ

ܰ

ܶ

is ‫ ܐܬܬܒܪܬ‬ʾettabrat.

There is no description of how the ship foundered.

̇ ‫ ̇ܗ‬, which stands in ‫ ܟܠܗܘܢ‬begins the subject. The pronoun looks towards ‫ܢܘܢ‬ ̇ apposition. ‫ ܕܒܗ‬is a tiny relative clause. This is a little awkward in English, but is 3

perfectly good Syriac: “all those who were in it.” This could have been expressed in

ܰ

simpler Syriac, ‫ ܟܠ ܡܢ ܕ‬for example.

‫ ܐܠܐ ܐܢ‬most commonly functions as a conjunction, but has turned into a pre-

position. This usage presumably originated from deletion of a verb: “no one survived, except that a blind man survived” becomes “except a blind man.” With deletion of

ܰ

ܶ

ܰ ‫ܐܫܬ‬, the conjunction ‫ ܐܠܐ ܐܢ‬is now a preposition. the verb ‫ܘܙܒ‬

English needs a verb here, “grabbed hold of,” “was holding onto,” “was floating

on,” or something similar. ‫ ܕܦܐ ܚܕ‬means “some random wooden piece of the ship.” 4

ܰ occurred in Text 20, with its usual sense “to go out.” With ‫ܠ‬, the sense is ‫ܢܦܩ‬

“to reach.”

As in Text 13, ‫ ܐܬܟܪܗ‬is immediately followed by ‫ܡܝܬ‬.

The story The classic “Appointment in Samarra” motif. When your number is up, your

number is up.

The language The only new features here are the use of ‫ ܬܘܒ‬to begin a narrative and the use

of ‫ ܐܠܐ ܐܢ‬as a preposition.

TEXT THE TWENTY-EIGHTH

189

As is the case with many Syriac texts, it is hard to understand why an indefinite

noun is sometimes followed by ‫ ܚܕ‬and other times not. Here, for example, the noun

̄ ‫ ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬is pretty clearly

indefinite, and does not use

‫ܚܕܐ‬. But ‫ ܕܦܐ‬does.

The

problem is that our English categories “definite” and “indefinite” do not adequately characterize the use and non-use of

study.

‫ ܚܕ‬in Syriac. This is a topic that needs further

Cognates

ܶ ܺ ܳ ‫ܰܝ‬ ‫ܒܫܐ‬

The verb “to become dry” is ‫ ܝܒܫ‬ʾībeš in Syriac, ‫ יָ ֵבשׁ‬yābeš in Hebrew, and

yabisa in Arabic. “Dry land,”

is ‫ יַ ָבּ ָשׁה‬yabbāšā and

almost always with the definite article.

‫يَب َِس‬

‫ اليَب ْس‬al-yabs, the latter

Loanwords

ܰ ܶ ܶ ‫ ܰܫ‬/ ‫ܘܙܒ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܘܙܒ‬ ‫“ ܐ‬to save/be saved” is one of many “roots” in /š/ that were

borrowed from Akkadian into Imperial Aramaic, and then percolated into Syriac.

ܶ ‫ ܰܫ‬occurs several times in the Aramaic parts of Daniel. ‫ܘܙܒ‬

‫ ܟܛ‬TEXT THE TWENTY-NINTH ‫ܟܛ‬ Story 353, from the section of the book dealing with doctors. Vocabulary

ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܥܣܐ‬

something going’. Payne Smith notes that distraught by a devil’.

ܳ ‫ܳܐ‬ ‫ܣܝܐ‬

ܰ ܺ ܳ ‫ܡܥ‬ ‫ܝܣܐ‬

maʿsā ‘stomach cramp’. The verb ‫ ܡܥܤ‬mʿas often has the sense ‘to set mʿīsā can mean ‘convulsed,

ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܳ

ܳ

ܳ ‫ܐ‬ ʾāsyā ‘doctor’. The plural is most commonly ‫ ܐܣܘܬܐ‬ʾāsāwātā. ‫ܣܝܐ‬

is a borrowing from Akkadian asû, which may or may not come from Sumerian. The

ܺ ܰ ܰ ܳ ‫ܣܝܐ ܰܐ ܳܣܐ ܢ‬ ܳ ‫“ ܳܐ‬Doctor, heal yourself” (‫ ܰܐ ܳܣܐ‬ʾassā is the imperative says ‫ܦܫܟ‬ ̈ ̈ paʿʿel of a last-weak verb). In Story 309, an unnamed ascetic says ‫ܡܠܦܢܐ ܐܣܘܬܐ‬ ‫“ ܐܢܘܢ ܕܥܡܐ‬Teachers are the doctors of the people.” denominative verb ‫ ܐܣܝ‬ʾassī is ‘to cure’. At Luke 4:23, Jesus quotes the maxim that

‫ܶܢܠܥܰܤ ܁ ܠܥܰܤ‬

lʿas nelʿas ‘to chew’. It frequently means ‘to eat’. At Matthew 9:11,

Jesus’ disciples are asked “Why does your master eat

ܶ ܰ

sinners.” The paʿʿel ‫ ܠܥܤ‬is ‘to devour’.

ܳ ‫ ܠܥܶܤ‬with tax-collectors and

ܳ ‫ ܳܨܬܪܐ‬ṣātrā ‘wild thyme’. The plural means ‘bunches of wild thyme’. ܳ ‫ܕܝܘܬܐ‬ dyūtā ‘ink’. Sokoloff says specifically ‘black ink’. Where does the word ̣ ܶ

come from? ‫ ܒܝܬ ܕܝܘܬܐ‬is an ‘ink-pot’.

ܳ ܰ ‫ܰܘܪܩܬܐ‬

waraqtā ‘piece of paper’. Very few words in Syriac that begin in initial ‫ܘ‬

are native Syriac. This is a loanword from Arabic, which created it from words for ‘leaf’.

ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܪܙܒ ܳܢܐ‬

marzbānā ‘bushel-load’, a loanword from Persian. This is rather a rare

usage, and so the exact meaning is unclear. Sokoloff prefers ‘peck’. Here the sense is ‘a large amount of’, contrasting with

ܳ ‫ܰܡ‬ ‫ܩܠܝܠ‬. The most common meaning of ‫ܪܙܒ ܳܢܐ‬

is ‘margrave’, that is, a kind of military governor. The meaning as ‘bushel-load’ must be a metaphorical development within Syriac.

ܶܳ ‫ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬

ܶ

ܰ

sʿārē ‘barley’. This is most commonly used in the plural. ‫ ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬saʿrē ‘hair’

occurred in Text 20.

191

192

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܫܘܪ ܳܝܐ‬ ̣ ܳ ܳ ‫ܚܡܪܐ‬

ܺ

ܰ ‘to begin’ first occurred in Text 9. šurrāyā ‘beginning’. ‫ܫܪܝ‬ ܳ

ḥmārā ‘donkey’. This is not to be confused with ‫ ܰܚܡܪܐ‬ḥamrā ‘wine’. The

donkey-word goes back to a Proto-Semitic /ḥ/; the wine-word goes back to a Proto-

Semitic /ḫ/.

ܰ ‫ܥܕ ܳܡܐ‬

ʿdammā ‘up till’, a preposition. The conjunction ‫ ܥܕܡܐ ܕ‬occurred in Text ܰ 20. ‫ ܥܕ‬also occurs. But why say ‫ ܥܕ‬when you can say ‫?ܥܕܡܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ ܳܗ ܳܫܐ‬hāšā ‘now’, an adverb. This derives from ‫‘ ܳܗ ܳܢܐ‬this’ and ‫ܥܬܐ‬ ‫‘ ܫ‬moment’, ܳ ‫ܠܗ‬ ܳ ‫‘ ܥܕܡܐ‬up till now’ although all that shows of the noun is ‫ܫ‬. The expression ‫ܫܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܡܢ ܳܗ‬means ‘from this time forward’. is common. ‫ܫܐ‬

̈ ̄ ‫̄ܐܚܪܢܐ ܟܕ ܩܪܒ ܠܗ‬ ‫ܡܥܣܐ ܕܩܢܐ ̄ܗܘܐ ̣ܐܡܪ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ ܘܫܐܠܗ ܡܛܠ‬ ‫ܘܗܘ ܐܦܩ ܕܝܘܬܐ ܘܘܪܩܬܐ‬ ̣ .‫ ܕܠܥܤ ܩܠܝܠ ܨܬ̈ܪܐ‬.‫ܠܗ ܐܣܝܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܕܐܟܘܠ‬.‫ ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܐܣܝܐ‬.‫ܘܐܡܪ ܠܐܣܝܐ ܡܢܐ ܦܩܕܬ‬ ̣ .‫ܕܢܟܬܘܒ‬ ̇ ‫ ܕܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬.‫ ̣ܐܡܪ ܠܗ ܗܘ ܓܒܪܐ‬.‫ܩܠܝܠ ܨܬ̈ܪܐ ܥܡ ܡܪܙܒܢܐ ܕܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕܠܐ ̇ܝܕܥ ܗܘܝܬ ܕܚܡܪܐ‬.‫ ̣ܗܘ ܕܝܢ ܦܢܝ ܠܗ‬.‫ܠܐ ܐܡܪܬ ܒܫܘܪܝܐ‬ ‫ܐܝܬܝܟ ܥܕܡܐ ܠܗܫܐ‬ Analysis 1

The story, like many others, opens elliptically, but the sense is “another story

about doctors.” The ‫ ܠܗ‬means “to a doctor.” The passive participle

ܶ ‫ܩܢܐ‬

from

ܳ ‫ܩܢܐ‬

“to acquire” occurred in Text 1. The

meaning here is “which he had acquired,” but this is awkward English. English might

flip the order around, “concerning cramps that had hit him.”

‫ ܕ‬introduces an imperative, ‫ܠܥܰܤ‬. As usual, it can be difficult to recognize an imperative. The clue is always the context. As in Text 22, ‫ ܩܠܝܠ‬is in construct with a

2

noun.

‫ܘܗܘ‬ ̣ flips the subject to the patient. 3 ‫ ܡܢܐ‬is the interrogative. Since it often begins direct speech, it does not need ܰ “to command” appeared in the direct speech marker ‫ܕ‬. ‫ ܦܩܕܬ‬is second-person. ‫ܦܩܕ‬ Text 22. Here the sense is “order up, prescribe.”

‫ ܰܐܟܘܠ‬/ʾakol/ is the imperative of a first-ʾālap verb that forms its imperfect in

/o/. First-ʾālap verbs that form their imperfect in /a/ use /e/ as the first vowel in the

ܰ ܶ

imperative. The imperative “say” is ‫ ܐܡܪ‬/ʾemar/, for example.

ܰ

ܰ ܶ

Why the good doctor decided to switch from the verb ‫ ܠܥܤ‬to the verb ‫ ܐܟܠ‬is

hard to say.

TEXT THE TWENTY-NINTH 4

193

Beginning the sentence with ‫ ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬is a nice rhetorical touch on the part of the

patient. 5

‫ ܒܫܘܪܝܐ‬has the sense of “at first.” ‫ ܕܝܢ‬here adds a sense of “and so,” introducing the punch-line of the joke. But ‫ܘܗܘ ܦܢܝ‬ ̣ would have worked just as well. The use of ‫ ܡܛܠ ܕ‬to begin a sentence, meaning “It’s because,” occurred in Text 4. 6

‫ ܐܝܬܝܟ‬ʾītayk expresses the copula, “you are.”

The story The doctor must have been having a bad day! A doctor without patience soon

has no patients. Several of the stories in this section of the book present doctors in

rather a bad light.

̈ ‫ܡܥܣܐ‬ is mostly used of stomach cramps. Such cramps can have any number ܳ of causes, so it is hard to say if ‫ ܳܨܬܪܐ‬would have been useful or not, with or without ܶܳ ‫ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬. Cognates Syriac

ܳ ܳ ‫ܚܡܪܐ‬

has its cognates in Hebrew ‫ ֲחמוֹר‬ḥamōr and Arabic

‫ �ِ�َار‬ḥimār.

Some scholars derive these words from an ancient root {ḥ-m-r} “to be red,” which

did not survive into Syriac. More likely they are non-derived, as is the case with most

words for animals. Loanwords

ܳ ܰ ‫ ܰܘܪܩܬܐ‬is a loanword from Arabic. Since it was the Arabs who brought paper

into Europe, it makes sense that the Arabic word for “paper” entered Syriac. The Arabic word for “piece of paper” is ‫ وَر َق َة‬waraqa, still used today. The Syriac cognate to {w-r-q} is {y-r-q}. In the ʾapʿel, the verb

ܶ

ܶ ‫ ܰܐܘܪܩ‬ʾawreq is “to become green; put

forth leaves.” ‫ ܰܝ̈ܪܩܐ‬yarqē are “herbs” and “vegetables.”

Syriac borrowed many words from Persian that have to do with civil administra-

ܳ

ܰ

ܳ ‫“ ܡ‬margrave” was a military governor of some tion and with military affairs. ‫ܪܙܒܢܐ‬

kind. It was also loaned into Arabic, appearing as ‫ � َ�ز ُ� َان‬marzubān, usually translated as “provincial governor.”

‫ ܠ‬TEXT THE THIRTIETH ‫ܠ‬ Lastly, Story 391, narrating a curious event, one with demons and a camel. Vocabulary

ܺ ‫ܬܚܙܐ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܶ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܬܚܙܝ‬ Text 1, and

ܳ ‘to see’ occurred in ʾetḥzī netḥzē ‘to be seen, to be visible’. ‫ܚܙܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܡ‬ ‫ܙܝ ܳܢܐ‬

‘invisible God’.

ܳ ‫ܰܓܡܠܐ‬

metḥazyānā ‘visible’ in Text 15.

ܶ ‫ܰܐܠ ܳ ܳܗܐ ܕܠܳܐ ܶܡ‬ ‫ܬܚܙܐ‬

is

gamlā ‘camel’, a non-derived noun. It makes its way from some Semitic

language into Greek and Latin and then into English. As is its wont, Syriac extracted

a root {g-m-l}, creating the noun of profession

ܳ ܳ ܰ profession itself ‫ܠܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ܓ ܡ‬.

ܳ ‫ܥܰ ܺܪ‬ ‫ܝܩܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܰܓ ܳܡܠܐ‬

‘camel-driver’ and the

ܰ

ʿarrīqā ‘fleeing, lost’. As a noun, it means ‘fugitive’. The verb ‫‘ ܥܪܩ‬to flee’

occurs a few lines below.

‫ܢܥܰ ܶܩܒ ܁ ܥܰ ܶܩܒ‬

ʿaqqeb nʿaqqeb ‘to search for, track down’, with

ܶ

ܳ ‫ ܥ‬ʿeqbā the ‘heel’ of a foot. denominative, from ‫ܩܒܐ‬

ܳ ‫ܥܘ‬ ‫ܪܒܐ‬ ̣

‫ܥܠ‬. The verb is

ʿurbā ‘raven’. Similar-sounding words occur in many languages, including

English ‘raven’. These are all probably onomatopoetic in origin.

ܰ ܰ ܳ ܰܳ ‫ ܶܢܦܪܚ ܁ ܦܪܚ‬praḥ nepraḥ ‘to fly’. ‫ܚܬܐ‬ ‫ ܦܪ‬pāraḥtā is a ‘bird’ or ‘flying insect’. ܰ ̇ ‫ ܶܢ‬ʿraq neʿroq ‘to flee’. ‫ܥܪܘܩ ܁ ܥܪܩ‬ ܳܳ ̄ ‫ܠܕܒ ܰܒ‬ ܳ ܶ‫ ܒܥ‬are ‘enemies of the truth’. ‫ ܫܪܪܐ‬šrārā ‘truth’, from {š-r-r}.ܰ ‫ܫܪܪܐ‬ ‫ܘܗܝ ܰܕ‬ ܰ

‫ ܰܒܫܪܪܐ‬is ‘truly, in fact, indeed’. ‫ ܶܐܫܬܪܪ‬ʾeštarrar ‘to be aware of’ occurred in Text

16.

ܳ ‫ܳܐܦܠܐ‬

ʾāplā ‘nor’. This can be written as one word ‫ ܐܦܠܐ‬or as two ‫ܐܦ ܠܐ‬. ‫ܐܦ‬

‘also’ occurred in Text 22.

ܰ ‫ܬܚ ܶܦܐ ܁ ܶܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܶܢ‬ ‫ܬܚ ܺܦܝ‬

ʾetḥappī netḥappē ‘to disappear’. The pʿal

‫ ܰܚ ܺܦܝ‬are both transitive, meaning ‘to conceal’. 195

ܳ and the paʿʿel ‫ܚܦܐ‬

196

A READER IN SYRIAC

̄ ̈ ̈ .‫ܕܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬ ‫ܕܝܘܐ ܒܕܡܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܐܬܚܙܝܘ‬ ‫ܐܡܪܝܢ ܕܒܚܕܐ ܡܢ ܩܘ̈ܪܝܐ‬ ̈ ‫ܡܪܘ‬ ̄ ‫ܘܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ ܗܒܘ ܠܢ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܢܫ‬.‫ܠܒܢܝ ܩܪܝܬܐ ̇ܗܝ ܕܓܡܠܐ ܥܪܝܩ ܡܢܢ‬ ̣ ̇ ̄ ̄ ̄ ‫ ܘܟܕ ܐܦܩܘ ܠܗܘܢ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܢܫ ܕܢܥܩܒ ̣ܚܙܐ‬.‫ܕܢܦܩ ܘܡܥܩܒ ܥܠܘܗܝ‬ ̈ ‫ܘܐܡܪ ܕܗܠܝܢ‬ ‫ܕܝܘܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܘ ̣ܥܪܩ ܘܥܠ ܠܩܪܝܬܐ‬.‫ܓܒܪܐ ̇ܗܘ ܥܘ̈ܪܒܐ ܕܦ̈ܪܚܝܢ‬ ̄ ̇ ̈ ‫ܐܢܘܢ ܒܫܪܪܐ ܘܠܐ‬ ‫ܥܡܗ ܕܝܢ‬ .‫ܐܘܒܕܘ‬ ‫ ܐܦܠܐ ܓܡܠܐ‬.‫ܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬ ̄ ̄ ‫ܐܬܚܙܝܘ ܓܒ̈ܪܐ ܗܠܝܢ‬ ‫ ܘܬܘܒ ܠܐ‬.‫ܐܬܚܦܝܘ‬ ‫ܕܡܠܬܗ‬ Analysis 1

ܳ

This is the first story to open with ‫ܐܡ̈ܪܝܢ‬, although it appeared as a manuscript

variant to

‫ ܡܬܐܡܪܐ‬in Story 3. ܳ ܺ ‫“ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬village” first appeared in Text 22. As stated there, its most common ܳ ܳ ܶ ܳ ‫ܩܘ‬ plural is ‫̈ܪܝܐ‬ ‫ ܩ‬qeryātā is less frequent. ̣ quryā; ‫̈ܪܝܬܐ‬

As discussed at Text 27, the most common reading tradition of plural last-weak

̄

̄ ܺ ܶ In Text 3, ‫ ܕܡܘܬܐ‬used a construct phrase: ‫ܒܕܡܘܬ ܚܙܝܪܐ‬. Here it is followed by a phrase in ‫ܕ‬. The demons look like men! ̄ ̈ The phrasal dot after ‫ ܕܒܢܝܢܫܐ‬is unnecessary, since the following ‫ ܐܡܪܘ‬is ̄ parallel to ‫ܐܬܚܙܝܘ‬, but the dot lets us catch our breath. ̈ 2 ‫ ܒܢܝ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬are “villagers.” ̄ ‫ ܰܝ‬, occurred in Text ܰ , from the somewhat anomalous verb ‫ܗܒ‬ The imperative ‫ܗܒ‬ ̄ 11. ‫ ܗܒܘ‬seems rather imperious. Apparently demons don’t know how to say

verbs in the perfect is in /ī/ written ‫ܝܘ‬, producing here ‫ ܐܬܚܙܝܘ‬/ʾetḥzī/.

“please.”

̄ ‫ ܓܒܪܐ‬is followed ‫ܐܢܫ‬ ̇ participles, ‫ ܢܦܩ‬and ‫ܡܥܩܒ‬. 3 4

by a relative clause in ‫ܕ‬, consisting of two active

The villagers are quite accommodating.

̄

Now ‫ ܓܒܪܐ ܐܢܫ‬is followed by a relative clause using an imperfect, ‫ܢܥܩܒ‬. Ravens are never a good omen...

ܰ ܶ

The verb ‫ ܐܡܪ‬is singularly weak here; one would expect a verb for “shouting,”

with many exclamation marks. The use of the direct speech marker

‫ܕ‬

seems

unnecessary in this context, and it weakens the immediacy of the man’s remarks. 5

̇ ܶ ̈ ܶ ܰ In Text 22, the verb ‫ ܐܘܒܕ‬was used of losing a horse; here it is used of losing a

The enclitic copula ‫ ܐܢܘܢ‬adds some focus to the predicate ‫ܕܝܘܐ‬.

camel.

The man’s shouted remarks come to an end. Payne Smith registers several

‫ܥܰܡ‬. ‫ ܥܡܗ ܕ‬means “at the time of.” ̇ Here ‫ ܥܡܗ‬is used, and not ‫ܥܡܗ‬, because ‫ ܡܠܬܐ‬is feminine: “at the time of his idiomatic expressions using the preposition

TEXT THE THIRTIETH

197

word.” This means “at the moment when he said this.” The phrase is nicely interrupted by 6

‫ܕܝܢ‬.

‫ ܬܘܒ ܠܐ‬has the sense of “never again.”

The story One wonders what the demons would have done to this man, if he hadn’t had

the presence of mind to notice the ravens. The language

The story is not too elegant. The repetition of

infelicitous.

Manuscript variation

̄ ‫ܓܒܪܐ‬ ‫ܐܢܫ‬

in particular is

̇

In the VatMS, the demons-as-men ask for a villager ‫“ ܕܢܦܩ ܘܡܥܩܒ‬who will go

out and look for” the camel, using two active participles. The use of the participles

stresses the immediacy of the action. In the BLMS, this has been simplified to ‫ܕܢܥܩܒ‬, which has more of a future sense. This reduction has probably arisen through

contamination with the following ‫ܕܢܥܩܒ‬. As noted earlier, in the most general terms it is easier for a text to accidentally get reduced in size than get increased in size.

Unfortunately, the LeedsMS lacks this story.

TRANSLATIONS Text 1 A story about Socrates: One of his followers said to him, “How come I never see in you any sign of distress?” Socrates replied, “Because I don’t possess anything that I would grieve over if it got lost!” Text 2 Khusraw asked one of his councilors, “Are humans more numerous, or devils?” He replied, “If you consider the Kurds and the market riffraff to be ‘humans’, then humans are the most numerous.” Text 3 It is said that a lunatic saw a fat nobleman, and said to him, “Oh you who are as fat as a pig, if the demon that is in me had lived at the time of the Messiah, he would not have left you and entered me!” Text 4 Another comedian has related the following story: A woman asked her neighbor, “Why is it that it is permissible for a man to buy a handmaiden for himself, and to sleep with her, and do whatever he wants, while it is not permitted for a woman to do any of these things, at least in public?” The neighbor said to her, “It is because kings, judges, and law-makers have all been men, and so have been able to justify their actions and oppress women.” Text 5 Another story concerning a man who got robbed: When some money got stolen from him, he went around saying: “This day is a bitter day!” The thief said to him, “Not for everybody!” Text 6 When another man had his money stolen from him, people said to him: “Don’t be sad, because on the Day of Judgment, the wages of the man who took it will be counted to your benefit.” He replied, “I don’t know about that, but I do know that as of now he has taken all my wages.” Text 7 Another teacher pretended that he was learning from his student the answer to a question. So someone said to him, “Does a person like you learn from a person such as this?” He replied, “Of course I know the answer better than he does, but I want him to taste the pleasure which comes from teaching so that he will be encouraged to learn even more.” Text 8 They asked another philosopher, “What event would benefit most of the people?” He replied, “The death of an evil ruler.” 199

200

A READER IN SYRIAC

Text 9 People say that it has been found in some writing of the Hebrews that at the time when the prophet Isaiah got sawn in half, a man who was traveling spent the night at the house of another man. The traveler began to lecture to the innkeeper, and said: “Do not imagine that God ignores those who kill a prophet! Rather, he will pay them back in this world!” The innkeeper said, “I was one of those who were holding the saw!” While they were in conversation, the lamp began to flicker. Right away the innkeeper moved his hand, to fix it. Then the fire got hold of his fingers, because back then they used to burn naphtha in their lamps. He immediately brought his mouth closer, so that he could spit on his fingers. Straight-away the fire caught hold of his beard and his face. So he went and threw himself into a cistern filled with water. But while he was in the water, his entire body burst into flames! Text 10 Another philosopher saw a city that had a strong city-wall, so he said: “This is a dwelling place of women; it is not fitting for men.” Text 11 Another man saw in a dream that he was frying pieces of dung. So he went to a dream-interpreter, so that the dream-interpreter could explain to him its interpretation. The dream-interpreter said to him, “Give me a zuz, so that I can interpret it for you.” He however replied, “If I had a zuz, I would buy fish with it and fry them, and not fry dung!” Text 12 A goat was standing on a roof, taunting a wolf. The wolf said to him, “It is not you who is taunting me, but rather the place where you are standing!” Text 13 Another prince had a young slave, who used to study with him in school. All of a sudden, the slave got sick and died. When the king told the prince, “My son, your slave has died,” he replied, “Yes, it’s true that he died, but he has escaped from school.” Text 14 It is said concerning Saint Ammon the Celibate that when he was forced by his parents to take a wife, on the night of the wedding-feast, as soon as he went into the bridal chamber with his wife, that very moment he pulled out the Book of the Apostle Paul from his chest and began to admonish the young woman and to teach her the words written in it by the blessed Paul concerning virginity, where he says: “It is pleasing for a man to not approach a woman. I want that all people be like me, in purity.” He also says that a woman “she who has not been with a man reflects upon her Lord, so that she can be holy in her body and in her soul.” With words such as these he admonished his bride-to-be. So he made their bodies into temples for the Holy Spirit. Text 15 Another story. One of the Byzantine kings wrote to one of the kings of the Arabs, threatening him. The Arab king wrote back to him, “Our final answer to what you have written will be seen, not read.” That is, “We are coming in person to meet you.”

TRANSLATIONS

201

Text 16 A story involving another king: One of his officials was making plans to revolt against him. The king got the good idea of killing him, but he didn’t want to do this without seeking the advice of one of his councilors. When he summoned his councilor and asked him about this, the councilor replied, “The only thing you can do is to cast him off the surface of the earth! If you don’t, you will not keep your kingdom!” When the king heard this, he got really angry, and said to that councilor, “Do you advise me to kill the man who is my right arm, and upon whom I rely?” So he kicked out the councilor and expelled him from his court. After a few days, the king concocted a plan, and cut off the head of the person who wanted to revolt. He then summoned his councilor, and said to him, “Do you remember the day that I sought your advice?” The councilor replied, “How could I forget it! On that day I tasted death out of fear of you.” The king said to him, “Believe you me, what you advised me was my intention, which I was planning to do. But I was afraid that, when you became aware of my intention, the secret would get revealed, and that man would flee from my grasp.” Text 17 Someone asked a lunatic, “Count for us the number of lunatics who are in Emesa!” He replied, “I cannot count the number of lunatics, because of their multitude. If you want me to count the number of sane people who are there, I can count them, because they are so few.” Text 18 Another joker was asked, “Can a child be born to a 70-year-old man?” He replied, “Yes, if he has a neighbor who is 30 years old.” Text 19 Another lunatic used to boast that he had been a king at the time of Hercules. When one of the nobles said to him, “You are the king of farters!”, he replied, “If I fitted your description, then my kingdom would be much greater and extensive than the kingdom of Hercules, because farters are more numerous than Greeks!” Text 20 Another story. Two merchants, while they were walking around in some city or other trying to amuse themselves, saw a woman sitting in the market, with her hair flying about, and they saw a lot of people gathered around her. One of those merchants then began to laugh and to make fun of that woman. Then she raised up her head and said, “Pay attention, you who are laughing at me! Believe you me, you will be dead before you leave this city, and this buddy of yours who is with you will walk off with your hand-maiden, whom you love like your own soul.” After a few days, that man became sick and died, and the other man went off with his handmaiden. Text 21 Diogenes also related: He saw a young boy, the son of a prostitute, who was throwing stones at people in the market. He said to him, “Don’t throw those stones, or you might injure your own father, without you recognizing him!”

202

A READER IN SYRIAC

Text 22 Another man related: One day, I lost my horse. So I went into the open plain to find it. When I got hungry and thirsty, I entered into a village. I saw in some house a young girl, beautiful in appearance. I asked her for a little food. She said, “Sit, so I can bring you some cooked food.” When I had sat down, her husband came in, and said to her, “Did I marry you for the sake of travelers, so that you can set up a table of food for them?” And he said to me, “Get up, man, and go about your business.” Because I felt ashamed, I got up and went to another village. When I entered it, I ran across a young man, with a handsome face, and I asked him for some food. He replied, “Come on, let’s go to my house, so you can have some cooked food.” After I left with him, and we came to the door of his house, his wife came out, and said, “Who is this man?” So he said to her, “He is a wayfarer, and I brought him in, so that he could eat some food.” She said, “I took you as a husband, so that you could bring wayfarers into my house?!” She got annoyed, and shut the door in both his face and mine. Straightaway, I burst into laughter. I began to wonder about that man in that village, and about this woman in this village. The young man asked me about the reason for my laughter, and so I told him what had happened to me in the first village. When I gave him a description of that house and that woman and her husband, he said to me, “This is even more worthy of wonder! Because that woman is my sister, and this wife of mine is the sister of the man who is the husband of my sister!” Text 23 A king saw in a dream that another king—his enemy—had thrown him upon the ground. So the king went and gathered his councilors, and related to them what he had seen. Then one of his councilors—who was cleverer than all of them— said to him, “This is the dream and its interpretation: You shall fight with him, that is, that king, and you shall defeat him! We know this, because you were on the ground, and it was supporting you and was close to you. The fact that he was above you, with his back in the direction of the sky, shows that he was quite far away from you.” Text 24 One day, when Khusraw was seated on his throne, a short man approached him and began to cry and wail, “Give me justice in the case of the man who has wronged me!” But the king ignored him. When one of his officials asked him “Why aren’t you listening to what he says,” he said, “It’s not possible for a short person to be wronged!” Then the man understood and yelled out, “My Lord the King, the one who wronged me is shorter than I am!” When the king heard this, he laughed, and did justice to the man. Text 25 Another man said, “Weavers were the ones who stole the cup of Joseph, the staff of Moses, the fleece of Gideon, the sling of David, the belt of John, and the sandals of the prophets! And when Mary asked them to show her the road to the Grave, they sent her off on another road! Because of this, she prayed and entreated

TRANSLATIONS

203

her Lord, saying: ‘Wherever weavers live, may they serve others with their hands and feet! And may they never have any blessing!’” Text 26 For seven years, the Abbess Sarah fought the demon of fornication on her roof, until she defeated him. This lady used to also say, “Whenever I place my feet on the ladder to go up, I place my death in front of my eyes before I climb up it.” Text 27 A story involving another Frankish merchant. When he had the desire to travel by sea to the land of China, there came up to him an old man, who entreated from him that he take on board the ship for him a piece of lead, weighing about ten pounds, and sell it in China and with the proceeds buy whatever was found there and bring it back. The merchant accepted the proposal. When he reached China, a man came up to him, and asked him, “Do you have any lead with you?” He answered, “I have a little.” So the merchant sold it to that man, for 130 dinars, and with the proceeds he purchased some raw silk and set sail to home. The man who had purchased the lead also set sail to home, and befriended himself in the ship with the merchant. The purchaser began to ask the merchant, “Who gave you that lead?” So he gave him a description of the old man. The man then said, “He is my own uncle! I suffered on account of him, and so came to this foreign country. Now I am going to tell you the story of the lead, because I no longer have any fear. When I bought the lead from you, I brought it to another city, where lead was very valuable. Then some men came up to me, potential buyers, and asked me to break up the lead and to give a piece to each of them. But when I broke it up at home, I found inside of it a thousand sheqels of gold! And then I purchased with them the things that are with me. So I thank God, who did not deprive me of anything that belonged to my uncle, even though he hated me and did not want to willingly give me anything.” When they reached their city, they found the old man dead, and he had no heir except for this son of his brother. So the man took some of the silk that the merchant had, along with everything that he found in his uncle’s house. Text 28 Another story. It is said that once upon a time a blind man boarded a ship in which were seventy people. The ship foundered, and all of the people who were in it drowned. Only that blind man survived, who had grabbed onto a piece of wood. But when he came to dry land, he got sick and died. Text 29 A man approached another doctor, and asked him about stomach cramps that were bothering him. The doctor told him, “Chew a little wild thyme.” The man then pulled out some ink and paper to write on, and said to the doctor, “What did you prescribe?” The doctor told him, “Eat a little wild thyme, along with a bushelload of barley.” That man said to him, “You didn’t mention the barley before.” The doctor then replied to him, “That was because I didn’t realize that you were a donkey until now!”

204

A READER IN SYRIAC

Text 30 People say that demons appeared in some village, looking like men. The demons said to the inhabitants of that village, “One of our camels has gotten lost. Give us a man who can go out and look for it.” When the villagers brought out for the demons a man to go look for it, that man saw ravens who were flying by. He fled, and went back into the village, and said, “These are, in fact, demons, and not men! And they didn’t lose a camel!” As soon as he said this, they disappeared, and those men were never seen again.

VOCABULARY This includes all the words that occur in the stories. References are to page. The

principle discussion is cited in bold. The order is strictly alphabetical, following the Syriac alphabet. Verbs are registered in the third masculine singular perfect of the conjugation in which they occur.

‫ܐ‬

‫ ܰܐ ܳܒܐ‬ʾabā father 89, 92, 136, 171 ‫ ܶܐ ܰܒܕ‬ʾebad to perish 8, 16, 139 ܳ ‫ ܰܐ ܳܒܪܐ‬ʾabārā lead 175, 185 ܺ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaḡhī to escape 85 ‫ܓܗܝ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܐܓܪܐ‬ʾaḡrā wages 47 ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܳܓܪܐ‬ʾeggārā roof 81, 83, 172, 173 ‫ ܰܐ ܶܗܠ‬ʾahhel to mock 128 ܺ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾahmī to neglect 60 ‫ܗܡܝ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܐܗܢܝ‬ʾahnī to benefit 50, 55, 58 ‫ ܰܐܘ‬ʾaw or 18, 20 ̇ ‫ܐܘ‬ ʾō (particle) 24, 25, 130 ܶ ܰ ‫ ܐܘܒܕ‬ʾawbed to lose 8, 9, 139, 196 ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾawbel to carry 61 ‫ܘܒܠ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾawqed to set on fire 61 ‫ܘܩܕ‬ ܳ ‫ܐܘ‬ ‫ܪܚܐ‬ ʾurḥā road 59, 141 ̣ ܰ‫ ܶܐܙܠ‬ʾezal to go 61, 65, 67, 68, 144, 151, 154, 159, 179 ‫ ܰܐ ܳܚܐ‬ʾaḥā brother 136, 141, 177 ‫ ܶܐ ܰܚܕ‬ʾeḥad to take 60, 64, 67 ܶ ̄ ‫ܐܚܪ ܳܢܐ‬ ḥrēnā other 31, 33, 144, 152, 163, 181 ܳ ܺ ‫ ܐܝܕܐ‬ʾīdā hand 61, 66, 67 ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaykannā how 7, 52, 143, 145 ‫ܝܟ ܳܢ ܶܐ‬ ‫ ܰܐܝܠܠ‬ʾaylel to wail 157, 159 ‫ ܶܐܝܢ‬ʾēn yes 85, 86 ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾaynā which? 8, 12 ‫ܝܢ ܺܐ‬ ‫ ܰܐܝܬܝ‬ʾaytī to bring 77, 140, 179 ‫ ܶܐ ܰܟܠ‬ʾekal to eat 141, 149 205

206

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ ܳ ܶܐܠܐ‬ʾellā but 50, 82, 111, 113, 183 ‫ ܶܐܠܐ ܳ ܶܐܢ‬ʾellā ʾen except for 187, 188 ‫ ܰܐܠ ܳܗܐ‬ʾalāhā God 60 ‫ܠܘ‬ ̣ ܶ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾellū if 20, 24, 26, 28, 78, 124 ‫ ܰܐܠܦ‬ʾallep to teach 49, 53, 90 ‫ ܶܐ ܳܡܐ‬ʾemmā mother 89, 171, 173 ̇ ‫ܐܡܘܢ‬ ʾAmmōn Ammon 89 ܶ ܰ ‫ ܐܡܪ‬ʾemar to say 7, 16, 23, 41, 93 ܳ ‫ ܰܐܡܬܐ‬ʾamtā handmaiden 32, 37, 85 ‫ ܶܐܢ‬ʾen if 18, 20, 24, 118, 177 ̄ nāšā human being 7, 9, 25, 53, 129 ‫ܐ ܳܢ ܳܫܐ‬ ܳ ̄ ܰ ‫ ܐܢܬܬܐ‬ʾatttā woman 31, 32, 37, 82, 145 ܳ ‫ ܳܐ‬ʾāsyā doctor 191 ‫ܣܝ ܳܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeskōlā school 85, 86, 87, 147 ‫ܣܟܘܠܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܐܣܬ ܰܟܠ‬ʾestakkal to understand 157 ‫ ܰܐܥܶܠ‬ʾaʿʿel to bring in 24, 141 ܳ ‫ܐܦ‬ ܶ̈ ܰ ʾāp also 140, 144, 177, 195 ‫ ܐܦ ܳܐ‬ʾappē face 61, 65, 66, 68 ‫ ܳܐܦܠܐ‬ʾāplā nor 140, 195 ‫ ܳܐ ܶܦܢ‬ʾāpen even though 140, 177, 182 ‫ ܰܐ ܶܦܩ‬ʾappeq to take out 90, 112, 128 ܳ ̄ ‫ܐܪ ܳܙܐ‬ rāzā secret 109 ܳ ܳ ‫ ܐܪܚܐ‬ʾārḥā traveller 59, 144 ܺ ‫ ܰܐܪܝܡ‬ʾarīm to lift up 107 ܺ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾarmī to throw 61, 127 ‫ܪܡܝ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܐܪܥ‬ʾeraʿ to meet 98 ܳ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾarʿā earth 98, 107, 115 ‫ܪܥ ܺܐ‬ ‫ ܰܐܪܬܝ‬ʾartī to admonish 90 ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeškaḥ to find 59, 139, 147, 181 ‫ܫܟܚ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܐ ܰܫ‬ʾEšaʿyā Isaiah 59 ‫ܥܝܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܰܐ‬ʾašpazkānā innkeeper 60 ܳ ‫ܫܦ‬ ‫ܙܟ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ܰ ‫ ܶܐܫܬ‬ʾeštabhar to boast 123 ‫ܒܗܪ‬ ܰ ܶ ܰ ‫ܫܬ‬ ‫ܘܙܒ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾeštawzab to be saved 187, 189 ܶ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeštḥeq to become annoyed 141, 180 ‫ܫܬܚܩ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܬܟܚ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeštkaḥ to be found 59, 62, 139 ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ ܐܫܬܪܪ‬ʾeštarrar to become known 109, 195 ܳ ‫ ܶܐܬܐ‬ʾetā to come 10, 13, 77, 80, 140, 159, 180 ܳ ‫ ܳܐܬܐ‬ʾātā sign 8, 10, 13, 16, 146, 180

VOCABULARY

ܰ ‫ ܶܐ ܶܬ‬ʾetemar to be said 7, 23 ‫ܐܡ ܺܪ‬ ‫ ܶܐܬܓܠܝ‬ʾetglī to be revealed 32, 109 ܶ ‫ܬܓܢܒ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetgneb to be stolen 39 ܶ ܰ ‫ ܐ‬ʾetḥabbar to befriend 128, 176 ‫ܬܚ ܰܒܪ‬ ܺ‫ ܶܐܬܚܙܝ‬ʾetḥzī to be seen 8, 195 ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥappaṭ to get encouraged 50 ‫ܬܚ ܰܦܛ‬ ܺ‫ܬܚܦܝ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥappī to disappear 195 ܶ ‫ ܶܐܬܚܫܒ‬ʾetḥšeb to be reckoned 18, 47, 107 ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetḥaššab to think 18, 107 ‫ܬܚ ܰܫܒ‬ ܰ ‫ܬܛܒܥ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeṭṭbaʿ to sink 157, 187 ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾeṭṭayyab to be present 176, 179 ‫ܬܛ ܰܝ ܶܒ‬ ܶ ‫ܬܛܠ ܶܡ‬ ܺ ܶ ‫ ܐ‬ʾeṭṭlem to be wronged 33, 157 ‫ ܐܬܝܠܕ‬ʾetīled to be born 121, 122 ܰ ‫ ܶܐܬܟܪܗ‬ʾetkrah to fall sick 85, 188 ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetkaššap to entreat 175 ‫ܬܟ ܰܫܦ‬ ܰ ܰ ܶ ‫ܬܫ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾetkattaš to fight with 71, 151 ܰ ‫ܬܟ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetmallak to seek advice 32, 107 ‫ܬܡܠܟ‬ ܺ ‫ܬܥܨܝ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetʿṣī to be forced 89 ܺ ܰ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾetpargī to amuse oneself 127, 129 ‫ܬܦܪܓܝ‬ ܰܰ ܶ ‫ ܐܬܦܪܤ‬ʾetparras to devise 108, 112, 114 ܰܰ ܶ ‫ܬܩܪܒ‬ ‫ ܐ‬ʾetqarrab to approach 61, 91, 157 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܐܬܪܐ‬ʾatrā place 175, 178, 184 ܰ ‫ܬܬܒܪ‬ ‫ ܶܐ‬ʾettbar to get broken 176, 187 ܺ ‫ ܶܐܬܬܥܝܩ‬ʾettʿīq to be grieved 8

‫ܒ‬

̇ ‫ ܰܒ‬badgōn therefore 33, 176, 180 ‫ܕܓܘܢ‬ ̇ ‫ܒܗܝ ܕ‬ b-hay d because 8, 11 ܶ ‫ܒܗܬ‬ bhet to become ashamed 140, 149 ܳ ‫ܒܘܪܟܬ ܳܐ‬ ̣ burktā blessing 162, 166 ܳ ‫ܒܘܫܠܐ‬ ̣ buššālā stew 140 ܺ ܳ ‫ ܒܝܫܐ‬bīšā evil 55 ܳ ‫ ܰܒܝܬܐ‬baytā house 41, 43, 59, 69, 70, 148 ܳ ‫ܒܟܐ‬ bkā to cry 157, 159 ܰ‫ ܶܒܠܥܕ‬belʿad without 107, 110 ̈ ܳ ܰ‫ܒܢ‬ ‫ܝܢ ܳܫܐ‬ bnaynāšā people 17, 20

207

208

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܳ ‫ܒܥܐ‬ bʿā to request 162 ܳ ‫ܒܥܘܪ ܳܐ‬ bʿūrā dung 77 ̣ ܰ ‫ ܒܥܠܐ‬baʿlā husband 140, 149 ܳ ܶ‫ ܒܥ‬bʿeldbābā enemy 151, 156 ‫ܠܕܒ ܳܒܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ܒܨܝܪܐ‬ bṣīrā few 108 ܶ ‫ ܰܒܪ ܳܫܥܬܗ‬bar šāʿteh immediately 20, 47, 90 ܳ ‫ ܒܪܐ‬brā son 17, 20, 21, 86, 121, 177 ܳ ‫ ܰܒܪܬܐ‬bartā daughter 17, 87, 121 ‫ ܳܒ ܳܬ‬bāt to take lodging 43, 59, 69, 149 ‫ܒܬܘܠܐ‬ btūlā chaste 89, 92 ̣ܳ ‫ܠܘܬܐ‬ btūlūtā chastity 91 ̣ ‫ܒܬܘ‬ ̣

‫ܓ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܓܒܪܐ‬gabrā man 31, 37, 43, 130 ̇ ‫ ܶܓ‬Gedʿōn Gideon 161 ‫ܕܥܘܢ‬ ܰ ‫ܓܕܫ‬ gdaš to happen to 141 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܓܘܐ‬gawwā stomach 62 ܳ ‫ܓܘ‬ ‫ܚܟܐ‬ guḥkā laughter 128, 141 ̣ ܶ ܰ ‫ ܓܙܡ‬gazzem to threaten 97 ܳ ‫ ܶܓܙܬܐ‬gezztā fleece 161, 164 ܰ ‫ܓܚܟ‬ gḥak to laugh 128, 131, 141 ܶ ‫ ܓ ܳܝܪ‬gēr truly 91, 93, 172 ‫ܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܓܠ‬glā to reveal 32, 34, 109, 180 ‫ܓܠܙ‬ glaz to deprive 177 ܳ ‫ ܰܓܡܠܐ‬gamlā camel 195 ‫ ܰܓ ܳܢ ܳܒܐ‬gannābā thief 36, 39, 41, 43 ̇ ‫ܓܢܘ ܳܢܐ‬ gnōnā bridal chamber 90, 95 ܳ ‫ ܓܥܐ‬gʿā to bellow 157, 160

‫ܕ‬

ܳ ‫ ܺܕ‬dībā wolf 81, 83 ‫ܐܒܐ‬ ‫ ܳܕ ܳܕܐ‬dādā uncle 176 ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬dahbā gold 177, 184 ‫ܗܒܐ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܕܘܝܕ‬Dawīd David 161 ܳ ‫ܕܘܟܬܐ‬ dukktā place 81 ܳ ܳ ̣ ‫ܕܘܡܪܐ‬ dummārā wonder 141 ܳ ̣ܶ ‫ ܕܚܠܬܐ‬deḥltā fear 108 ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬daywā demon 23, 27, 30 ‫ܝܘܐ‬

VOCABULARY

ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬daywānā lunatic 23, 27, 30, 54, 118, 173 ‫ܝܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܕܝܘܬܐ‬ dyūtā ink 191 ̣ ܶ ‫ ܕܝܢ‬dēn then 78, 128, 193 ܳ ‫ ܺܕ‬dīnā judgment 33, 36, 47, 158 ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ‫ ܰܕ ܳܝ ܳܢܐ‬dayyānā judge 33, 36, 38, 47 ܳܳ ܺ ‫ܝܢܪܐ‬ ‫ ܕ‬dīnārā dinar 176, 184 ܰ‫ ܰܕܝܪ‬dayyar to wander 127 ܳ ܰ ‫ܟܝܘܬ ܳܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܕ‬dakyūtā purity 91, 151 ‫ ܕܠܐ‬d-lā without 109, 135, 136 ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬dalmā lest 109, 135, 136, 137 ‫ܠܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܕܡܘܬܐ‬ dmūtā image 24, 26, 196 ̣ ܶ ‫ ܕܡܟ‬dmek to sleep 32 ‫ ܰܕ ܳܦܐ‬dappā board 187 ܳ ‫ ܰܕ‬daqnā beard 61 ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܪ‬ ‫ܥܐ‬ drāʿā arm 108, 115

‫ܗ‬

‫ ̄ܗ‬hānaw that is 98, 99, 100, 153 ‫ ܳܗܐ‬hā now 176, 180, 181 ‫ܝܘ‬ hūyū he 108, 111 ̣ ‫ܗܘ‬ ̣ ܶ ܰ ‫ ܗܝܕ ܳܝܢ‬haydēn then 128, 130, 159 ‫ ܰܗܝܟܠܐ‬hayklā palace 91, 96, 150 ܶ ‫ ܰܗ‬haymen Believe me 109, 112, 113, 130 ‫ܝܡܢ‬ ‫ ܳܗ ܰܟ ܳܢܐ‬hākannā thus 123, 124 ‫ ܳܗܢ‬hān this 39 ‫ ܳܗ ܰܢܘ‬hānaw that is 98, 99, 100, 153 ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܐܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܗܢ‬hannīʾūtā pleasure 50, 53, 55 ܶ ‫ ܰܗ‬Harqel Hercules 123 ‫ܪܩܠ‬ ‫ ܳܗ ܳܫܐ‬hāšā now 192

‫ܘ‬

ܳ ܰ ‫ܰܘܪܩܬܐ‬

waraqtā paper 191, 193

‫ܙ‬

̇ ‫ ܳܙ‬zābōnā purchaser ‫ܒܘ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ zban to buy 32, 175 ‫ܙܒܢ‬

176

209

210

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ ܰܙ ܶܒܢ‬zabben to sell 32, 175 ܳ ‫ ܰܙ‬zabnā time 24, 29, 32 ‫ܒܢܐ‬ ‫ ̣ܙܘ ܳܙܐ‬zūzā zuz 77 ܳ zkā to defeat 151 ‫ܙܟܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ܢܝܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܙ‬zānyūtā fornication 135, 171 ܳ ̣ܺ ‫ ܳܙܢܝܬܐ‬zānītā prostitute 135, 137, 171 ܳ ̇ ‫ܙܥܘܪܐ‬ zʿōrā small 85, 87

‫ܚ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܚܒܪܐ‬ḥabrā friend 128, 132, 176 ܳ ‫ܚܘܛܪܐ‬ ̣ ḥuṭrā rod 161, 164 ‫ ܰܚ ܺܘܝ‬ḥawwī to show 49, 51, 163 ‫ ܳܚ ܳܘ ܳܟܐ‬ḥāwākā weaver 161 ܳ ḥzā to see 8, 16, 78, 97, 130, 139, 152, 195 ‫ܚܙܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܚ‬ḥezwā appearance 8, 139 ‫ܙܘܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ܚܙܝܪܐ‬ ḥzīrā pig 24, 29 ܳ ‫ ܚܝܐ‬ḥyā to live 162, 165 ܳ ‫ ܰܚ ܺܟ‬ḥakkīmā wise 17, 20 ‫ܝܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܚ‬ḥelmā dream 77, 80 ‫ܠܡܐ‬ ‫ ܶܚܡܨ‬Ḥemṣ Emesa 117 ܳ ܳ ‫ܚܡܪܐ‬ ḥmārā donkey 192, 193 ܳ ܺ ܰ ‫ ܚܣܝܢܐ‬ḥassīnā strong 69 ‫ ܰܚ ܳܨܐ‬ḥaṣṣā back 152 ܰ ‫ܚܫܒ‬ ḥšab to count 18, 47, 107 ܳ ܳ ‫ ܚܬܐ‬ḥātā sister 141, 177

‫ܛ‬

‫ ܳܛܒ‬ṭāb better 49, 53, 91, 124, 154 ܰ ‫ܛܗܪ‬ ṭhar to wonder at 141 ܳ ܳ ‫ܛܘܒܢܐ‬ ṭūbānā blessed 49, 90, 177 ܳ ̣ ܰ ‫ܝܒܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܛ‬ṭaybūtā goodness 49, 177 ‫ ܰܛ ܳܝ ܳܝܐ‬Ṭayyāyā Arab 97, 100 ܳ ‫ ܺܛ‬ṭīmā value 176, 184 ‫ܝܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܛ‬ṭalyā young boy 90, 135 ‫ܠܝܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܛܠܝܬ ܰܐ‬ṭlītā young girl 90, 93, 135, 143 ‫ ܛܠܡ‬ṭlam to oppress 33, 157 ܳ ‫ܛܥܐ‬ ṭʿā to forget 108 ܶ ‫ ܛܥܡ‬ṭʿem to taste 50, 54, 112

VOCABULARY

ܶ ‫ܰܛ‬ ‫ܦܛܦ‬ ܰ ‫ ܛܪܕ‬ṭrad

211

ṭapṭep to flicker 60, 66 to drive out 108, 112

‫ܝ‬

ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yabšā dry land 187, 189 ‫ܒܫܐ‬ ‫ ܺܝ ܰܕܥ‬ʾīdaʿ to know 47, 48, 159 ̄ ‫ ܰܝ‬yab to give 77, 79, 80, 146, 159, 180 ‫ܗܒ‬ ̇ Yōḥannān John 162 ‫ܝܘ ܰܚ ܳܢܢ‬ ܳ ‫ ܝܘ‬yulpānā learning 50 ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ̣ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yawmā day 39, 41, 42, 43 ‫ܘܡܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܝܘܡ ܺܕ‬ ̇ yōm dīnā Day of Judgment ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yawnāyā Greek 123 ‫ܘܢ ܳܝܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܝ‬Yawsep Joseph 161 ‫ܘܣܦ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܝ‬yaldā offspring 121, 122 ‫ܠܕ ܶܐ‬ ‫ ܺܝܠܦ‬ʾīlep to learn 7, 48, 49 ‫ ܰܝ ܳܡܐ‬yammā sea 175, 183, 187 ܳ ‫ ܰܝ ܺܡ‬yammīnā right 108, 111 ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ‫ ܺܝ ܶܩܕ‬ʾīqed to catch fire 62 ܳ ‫ ܰܝ ܺܩܝܪܐ‬yaqqīrā valuable 176 ܳ ̇ ܳ ‫ܪܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܝ‬yārōtā heir 177, 184 ܶ ܺ ‫ ܺ ܝܬܒ‬ʾīteb to sit 47, 48, 127, 140, 149, 159 ܳ ‫ ܰܝܬ‬yattībā sitting 127, 140, 158 ‫ܝܒܐ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܝܬܝܪ‬yattīr more 50, 52, 53, 124

‫ܟܟ‬

47, 48

ܳ ‫ ܶܟ‬kēpā stone 135 ‫ܐܦܐ‬ ‫ ܰܟܕ‬kad when, while 8, 13, 20, 40, 64, 93, 98, 143, 144 ܳ ‫ܟܘܣܪܘ‬ ̣ Kusrāw Khusraw 17 ܳ ܳ ‫ܟܘܪܕܝܐ‬ ̣ Kurdāyā Kurd 18 ܽ ܳ ‫ ܟܠܡܐ‬kullmā everything 32 ܳ ‫ ܽܟ‬kullmā d whenever 162 ‫ܠܡܐ ܕ‬ ܳ ‫ ܽܟ‬kullnāš everyone 39 ‫ܠܢܫ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܟܠܬܐ‬kalltā bride 89 ܰ knaš to gather 127, 153 ‫ܟܢܫ‬ ‫ ܳܟ ܳܣܐ‬kāsā goblet 161, 164, 165 ܳ ‫ ܶܟ‬kespā silver 39, 41 ‫ܣܦܐ‬

212

A READER IN SYRIAC

ܶ ‫ܟܦܢ‬ kpen to become hungry 139 ܳ ‫ ܰܟ‬karyā short 143, 157, 158, 159 ‫ܪܝܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܟܬܒ‬ktab to write 59, 97, 101 ܳ ‫ ܟܬ ܳܒܐ‬ktābā writing 59, 97

‫ܠ‬

ܰ ‫ ܠܘ‬law is not 39, 40, 41, 82, 99 ܳ lwāt towards 77, 78 ‫ܠܘܬ‬ ܶ lḥem to be fit 69, 71, 140 ‫ܠܚܡ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ ܠ‬laḥmā bread 71, 140 ‫ܚܡܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܛܪܐ‬ ‫ ܠ‬līṭrā pound 175, 184 ܳ ܶ ‫ ܠ‬lelyā night 39, 89, 96 ‫ܠܝ ܰܐ‬ ‫ ܠܡ‬lam (particle) 49, 98, 130, 131, 171, 172, 173 ‫ ܠܥܶܠ‬lʿel upwards 100, 128, 152 ‫ ܠܥܶܠ ܶܡܢ‬l-ʿel men above 128, 152 ‫ ܠܥܰܤ‬lʿas to chew 191

‫ܡ‬

‫ ܳܡܐ ܕ‬mā d when 171, 172 ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܡܕܝܢܬܐ‬ mdittā city 33, 69, 71, 82, 121 ܶ ܶ ‫ ܡܕܡ‬meddem something 8, 11, 25, 31, 51, 53, 129 ܳ ‫ܡܗ‬ ܰ ‫ܘܢܐ‬ mhawwnā sane 117, 118 ܳ ܺ ‫ ܡܗܝܪܐ‬mhīrā clever 151 ‫ܡܘ ܶܫܐ‬ Mūšē Moses 161 ̣ܳ ܰ ‫ ܡܘܬܐ‬mawtā death 55, 58, 85, 139, 148 ܳ ‫ ܶܡ‬meḥdā right away 60, 65, 92, 100 ‫ܚܕܐ‬ ‫ ܰܡ ܺܛܝ‬maṭṭī to reach 141 ‫ ܶܡ ܽ ܳܛܠ‬meṭṭūl concerning 31, 35, 36, 64, 118, 144, 163, 193 ̈ ‫ܡܝܐ‬ mayyā water 62, 68, 155 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܺܡܝܛܟܣܐ‬mīṭaksā silk 176, 184 ‫ ܺܡܝܬ‬mīt to die 55, 58, 85, 86, 177 ܳ ‫ ܺܡܝܬܐ‬mītā dead 85, 177 ܳ ܺ ‫ܡܟܝܪܬܐ‬ mkīrtā betrothed 91, 140 ܰ‫ ܡܟܪ‬mkar to marry 91, 140, 149 ܰ ‫ ܡܠܟ‬mlak to advise 32, 108 ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬malkā king 32, 38, 53 ‫ܠܟܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܠܟܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܡ‬malkūtā kingdom 32, 53, 123 ܳ ܳ ‫ ܰܡܠܦܢܐ‬mallpānā teacher 49, 90

VOCABULARY

ܳ ܳ ܰ ‫ܢܘܬܐ‬ ‫ ܡܠܦ‬mallpānūtā teaching 50 ܳ ̣ ‫ ܶܡܠܬܐ‬melltā word 90, 93, 96, 196 ܳ ‫ܡܢܐ‬ mnā to count 117, 119, 176 ܳܳ ‫ ܡܢܬܐ‬mnātā share 117, 176 ܳ ‫ ܰܡ ܳܣܪܐ‬massārā saw 59, 60, 66 ܳ ‫ ܰܡܥܡܪܐ‬maʿmrā dwelling place 69 ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬maʿsā stomach cramp 191, 193 ‫ܥܣܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ܰ‫ ܡܥ‬mʿarrṭānā farter 123 ‫ܪܛܢܐ‬ ܳ̇ ‫ܡܦ ܳܣܐ‬ mpāsā knowledgeable 50, 54 ܰ ܳ ‫ܡܦ‬ ‫ܫܩ ܳܢܐ‬ mpaššqānā (dream) interpreter 77 ܶ ‫ ܡܨܐ‬mṣē able 117, 118, 119 ܳ ܰ ‫ܡܨܥܬܐ‬ mṣaʿtā middle 176 ܳ ‫ ܰܡܩܪܐ‬maqqrā cistern 62, 66 ܰ ‫ ܡܪܕ‬mrad to rebel 107, 115 ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬marzbānā bushel-load 191, 193 ‫ܪܙܒ ܳܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܰܡ‬Maryam Mary 162 ‫ܪܝܡ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܰܡܪܝܪܐ‬marrīrā bitter 39, 41 ܺ ܳ ‫ܡܫ‬ ‫ܝܚܐ‬ mšīḥā Messiah 24, 30 ܰ ܳ ‫ ܡܫܡܠܝܐ‬mšamlyā complete 97, 101 ܳ ‫ܫܬܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܶܡ‬meštūtā wedding feast 89, 95 ܳ ‫ܬܚ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬metḥazyānā visible 8, 97, 99, 195 ‫ܙܝ ܳܢ ܳܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܡ‬matqālā sheqel 177, 184 ‫ܬܩܠܐ‬ ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܩ‬ ܰ ‫ ܶܡ‬metqaryānā legible 97, 99 ‫ܪܝܢܐ‬

‫ܢܢ‬

ܺ nbīyā prophet 59 ‫ܢܒ ܳܝܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܢܘܢܐ‬ nūnā fish 78, 80 ̣ܳ ‫ܢܘܪܐ‬ ̣ nūrā fire 61, 67 ܳ ‫ ܺܢ‬nīšā purpose 109 ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ̇ ‫ ܳܢ‬nāmōsā law 33, 38, 54 ‫ܡܘ ܳܣܐ‬ ܰ nsab to take 47 ‫ܢܣܒ‬ ܰ nsar to saw 59 ‫ܢܣܪ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܢ‬napṭā naphtha 61 ‫ܦܛܐ‬ ܰ npaq to go out 90, 128, 188 ‫ܢܦܩ‬ ܳ ܰ ‫ܦܫܐ‬ ܶ̈ ܶ ‫ ܢ‬napšā soul; self 33, 35, 38, 98, 188 ‫ ܢܫܐ‬neššē women 31, 37

213

214

A READER IN SYRIAC

‫ܤ‬

‫ ܳܣ ܳܒܐ‬sābā old 175, 184 ܳ ‫ ܶܣ ܶܒܠܬܐ‬sebbeltā ladder 171, 173 ܰ ‫ܣܒܪ‬ sbar to suppose 60, 63 ܺ ܳ ‫ ܰܣܓܝܐܐ‬saggīʾā many 17, 21, 117, 181 ܳ ܺ ‫ܝܐܘܬܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܰܣܓ‬saggīʾūtā multitude 18, 117 ‫ܣܘ ܳܓܐܐ‬ sūḡā most of 55, 117 ܳ ̣ ‫ܣܘܩܪ ܺܛܝܤ‬ Sūqrāṭīs Socrates 7 ̣ ܳ ‫ܣܘܣܝܐ‬ sūsyā horse 139, 150 ܳ ̣ ܳ ‫ܣܘܥܪܢܐ‬ suʿrānā thing 55, 107 ̣ ‫ ܳܣ ܶܟ‬sāk at all 24, 30 ‫ ܣܠܩ‬sleq to go up 151, 153, 154, 159, 172 ‫ ܳܣܡ‬sām to place 33, 144 ܳ ‫ ܰܣ‬samyā blind 187 ‫ܡܝܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܣܡܟ‬ smak to lean on 108, 153 ܶ ܰ ‫ ܣܡܟ‬sammek to support 108, 151 ܳ ‫ܣܢܐ‬ snā to hate 177, 184 ܳ ܶ ‫ܐܓܪܘܬ ܳܐ‬ ‫ܣܢ‬ snēgrūtā advocacy 33, 38, 54 ̣ ‫ ܰܣܢܕܠܐ‬sandlā sandal 162 ܰ ‫ܣܥܪ‬ sʿar to do 55, 107 ܶܳ ‫ ܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬sʿārē barley 127, 191 ܶ ‫ ܰܣܥ̈ܪܐ‬saʿrē hair 127, 191 ܳ̄ ܺ ‫ܣܦܝܢܬܐ‬ spittā ship 82, 175, 184 ܳ ܳ ‫ ܣܪܐ‬Sārā Sarah 171

‫ܥ‬

ܰ ‫ܥܒܕ‬ ʿbad to do 32, 37, 85, 158 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܥܒܕܐ‬ʿabdā slave 32, 85, 87 ܰ ‫ܥܒܪ‬ ʿbar to pass by 141, 149 ܳ ܶ ܳ ‫ ܥܒܪܝܐ‬ʿebrāyā Hebrew 59 ܰ ‫ܥܕ ܳܡܐ‬ ʿdammā up till 52, 128, 192 ܰ ܳ ‫ ܥܕܡܐ ܕ‬ʿdammā d up till 52, 128, 130, 172, 192 ‫ܥܘ ܳܒܐ‬ ʿubbā bosom 90, 92 ̣ ܳ ‫ܥܘܪܒܐ‬ ʿurbā raven 195 ̣ ‫ ܥܰ ܶܗܕ‬ʿahhed to remember 108, 112 ‫ ܥܶ ܳܙܐ‬ʿezzā goat 43, 81, 82, 83 ܳ ܰ‫ ܥ‬ʿaynā eye 32, 34, 37, 41 ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ‫ ܥܰܠ‬ʿal to enter 24, 141

VOCABULARY

ܳ ܰ ‫ ܥܠ‬ʿlaymā young man 140 ‫ܝܡܐ‬ ܳ ʿālmā world 60, 140 ܳ ‫ܥ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬ ܳ ܶ ‫ ܥܠܬܐ‬ʿelltā reason 141 ‫ ܥܰ ܳܡܐ‬ʿammā people 127, 132 ‫ ܥܰ ܶܩܒ‬ʿaqqeb to search for 195 ܳ ܳ ‫ܥܩܬܐ‬ ʿāqtā sadness 8 ܺܰ ܳ ‫ ܥܪܝܩܐ‬ʿarrīqā fleeing 195 ܰ ‫ ܥܪܩ‬ʿraq to flee 195 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܥܪܩܬܐ‬ʿraqtā strap 161, 164, 165

‫ܦ‬

ܰ ‫ܦܓܥ‬ pḡaʿ to meet 140 ܳ ܰ ‫ܓܪܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܦ‬paḡrā body 91 ‫ ܦܘܠܘܤ‬Pawlāws Paul 90 ‫ܦܘ ܳܡܐ‬ ̣ pūmā mouth 43, 61, 67 ‫ܦܘ ܳܢ ܳܝ ܰܐ‬ ̣ punnāyā answer 8, 49 ‫ܦܠܚ‬ ܰ plaḥ to labor 162 ‫ ܦܠܛ‬plaṭ to escape 109 ܺ ‫ ܰܦܢܝ‬pannī to reply 8, 16, 152 ܳ ܺ ‫ ܦܢܝܬܐ‬pnītā region 152 ܰ ‫ܦܣܩ‬ psaq to cut off 108 ܰ‫ ܦܩܕ‬pqad to command 140, 144, 192 ܳ ܰ ‫ܦܩܥܬܐ‬ pqaʿtā plain 139, 143 ܰ ‫ ܦܪܚ‬praḥ to fly 195 ܰ ܳ ‫ܦܪ‬ ‫ܢܓ ܳܝܐ‬ frangāyā Frank 175 ܰ ‫ ܦܪܥ‬praʿ to pay back 60 ‫ ܳܦܫ‬pāš to remain 176 ‫ ܰܦ ܶܫܩ‬paššeq to interpret 77, 80 ܳܳ ‫ܦܫܪܐ‬ pšārā interpretation 77, 80 ܳ ܳ ‫ܬܘܪܐ‬ ̣ ‫ ܦ‬pātūrā table 140, 144, 150 ܳ ‫ ܰܦܬܝܐ‬patyā wide 123

‫ܨ‬

ܳ ‫ܨܒܐ‬ ṣbā to like 32, 177 ܳ ܳ ܶ ‫ ܨܒܝܢܐ‬ṣebyānā will 32, 177 ܳ ‫ ܶܨ‬ṣebʿā finger 61, 66 ‫ܒܥܐ‬

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ܳ ‫ܨܗܐ‬ ṣhā to become thirsty ‫ ܶܨܝܕ‬ṣēd at 59 ܺ ‫ܝܢ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܨ‬Ṣīn China 175 ‫ ܨ ܰܠܝ‬ṣallī to pray 162, 165 ‫ ܨܠܦ‬ṣlap to hurt 135 ‫ ܰܨܥܰܪ‬ṣaʿʿar to insult 81 ܳ ‫ ܳܨܬܪܐ‬ṣātrā thyme 191

139

‫ܩ‬

‫ ܰܩ ܶܒܠ‬qabbel to accept 140, 176, 179 ܳ ‫ ܰܩܒܪܐ‬qabrā grave 162, 165 ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܕ‬qaddīšā holy 89, 92, 95 ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ܳ qdām before 171, 173 ‫ܩܕܡ‬ ‫ ܩܕܡ ܳ ܕ‬qdām d before 171 ‫ܩܘܒܠܠܐ‬ qubllā face 140, 176 ܳ ̣ ‫ ܰܩܘܡܬ ܳܐ‬qawmtā size 157 ̇ ‫ ܳܩ‬qāṭōlā killer 60, 107 ‫ܛܘܠܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܩܛܠ‬ qṭal to kill 60, 107, 115 ܳ ܶ ‫ ܩܛܥ ܳܐ‬qeṭʿā piece 175 ܳ ‫ܐ‬ ܺ ܰ‫ ܩܠ‬qālā voice 157, 160 ‫ ܺ ܩ ܳܠܝ‬qallī to fry 77 ‫ ܰܩܠܝܠܐ‬qallīlā small 139, 149, 180, 191 ܳ ‫ ܶܩ‬qelʿā sling 161, 164 ‫ܠܥܐ‬ ‫ ܳܩܡ‬qām to stand 81, 83, 157 ܳ qnā to acquire 8, 11, 14, 16, 67, 70, 111, 192 ‫ܩܢܐ‬ ̇ ‫ܩܢܘ ܳܡܐ‬ qnōmā person 98 ܰ ‫ ܩܢܛ‬qnaṭ to be afraid 109, 176 ܳ ‫ ܶܩ‬qenṭā fear 109, 176 ‫ܢܛܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܩܪܐ‬qrā to call 97, 101, 107 ܶ ‫ ܩܪܒ‬qreb to approach 61, 157 ܶ ‫ ܰܩܪܒ‬qarreb to bring near 61, 91, 152, 157 ܳ ‫ ܰܩ ܺܪ‬qarrībā close 61, 152, 155, 157 ‫ܝܒܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ‫ ܩܪܝܬܐ‬qrītā village 139, 147, 148, 196

‫ܪ‬

ܰ ‫ ܪ ܳܒܐ‬rabbā great 113, 123 ܶ ‫ܪܓܙ‬ ܳ ܶ rḡez to get angry 108 ‫ ܪܓܠܐ‬reḡlā foot 162, 166

VOCABULARY

̄ Rōmāyā Roman 97 ‫ܪܗ ̇ܘ ܳܡ ܳܝܐ‬ ‫ܪܘ ܳܚܐ‬ wind 91, 96 ̣ rūḥā ܰ ܺ ܳ ‫ ܪܘܪܒܐܝܬ‬rawrbāʾīt greatly 108 ܳ ‫ ܰܪ‬rawrbānā noble 107, 113, 123 ‫ܘܪܒ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܰܪ ܺܚ‬raḥḥīqā far 152, 155 ‫ܝܩܐ‬ ܶ rḥem to love 128, 132, 177 ‫ܪܚܡ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬rēšā ruler 55 ‫ܝܫܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܶܪ‬rēšānā noble 23, 27, 55 ‫ܝܫ ܳܢܐ‬ ܳ rmā to place 61, 127, 136 ‫ܪܡܐ‬ ܳ rnā to reflect 91 ‫ܪܢܐ‬ ܰ ‫ ܪܩ‬raq to spit 61

‫ܫ‬

ܳ ‫ ܶܫ‬šēdā demon 18, 21, 172 ‫ܐܕܐ‬ ܶ ‫ ܰܫܐܠ‬šaʾʾel to ask questions 17, 20 ܳ ‫ܫܒ ܳܒܐ‬ šbābā neighbor 31 ܰ ‫ ܫܒܩ‬šbaq to leave 24, 30 ‫ ܰܫ ܰܕܪ‬šaddar to send 162 ‫ ܳܫ ܶܘ ܳܐ‬šāwē worthy 141, 146 ‫ܫܘ ܳܐܠ ܳܐ‬ ̣ šuʾʾalā question 17, 49 ‫ܫܘܓܠܐ‬ ̣ šuḡlā business 140, 150 ܳ ‫ܫܘܩܐ‬ ̣ šūqā market place 18, 21 ܳ ܳ ‫ܫܘܩܝܐ‬ šūqāyā riffraff 18, 19 ܳ ̣ ‫ܫܘܪܐ‬ šūrā city wall 69 ̣ܳ ܳ ‫ܫܘܪܝܐ‬ ܺ ̣ šurrāyā beginning 59, 192 ܳ ‫ ܫܠ ܺܝܚܐ‬šlīḥā apostle 90, 92, 96 ܳ ‫ ܰܫܠ‬šallīṭā permitted 31, 34, 35, 36, 37 ‫ܝܛܐ‬ ܰ ‫ܫܡ ܳܝܐ‬ šmayyā the sky 152, 155 ܳ ‫ ܰܫ ܺܡ‬šammīnā fat 23, 29 ‫ܝܢܐ‬ ܳ̄ ‫ ܰܫܢܬܐ‬šattā year 121, 122, 172 ܳ ‫ ܳܫܥܬܐ‬šāʿtā moment 20, 47, 48, 90, 192 ܳ ܳ ‫ܕܫܥܬܐ‬ d-šāʿtā right now 47, 90 ܶ ܳ ܰ ‫ ܒܪ ܫܥܬܗ‬bar šāʿteh right now 20, 47, 90 ܳ ‫ ܰܫ ܺܦܝܪܐ‬šappīrā lovely 53, 91, 95, 143, 159 ܳ ‫ ܰܫ‬šarbā story 176 ‫ܪܒܐ‬ ܳ ‫ ܫܪ ܳܓܐ‬šrāḡā lamp 60, 67

217

218

ܺ ‫ ܰܫܪܝ‬šarrī to begin ܳܳ ‫ ܫܪܪܐ‬šrārā truth

‫ܬ‬

A READER IN SYRIAC 59, 110, 192

109, 195

ܰ ‫ܬܒܥ‬ tbaʿ to ask 139 ܰ ‫ ܬܒܪ‬tbar to break 176, 184, 187 ܳ ܰ ‫ ܬ ܳܓܪܐ‬taggārā merchant 127, 132, 149, 150 ‫ܬܘ ܳܒ‬ tūb again 50, 52, 54, 93, 187, 188, 197 ̣ ‫ ܬܠܐ‬tlā to lift up 128, 132 ܳ ‫ܠܡ‬ ܺ ‫ ܰܬ‬talmīdā follower 7, 16, 21 ‫ܝܕܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܬܢܐ‬ tnā to repeat 60, 67, 151, 153 ܺ ܰ ‫ ܬܢܝ‬tannī to report 60, 151, 153 ܰ ‫ ܬ ܶܩܢ‬taqqen to set in order 61 ܶ ‫ ܬܪܝܢ‬trēn two 21, 127, 131 ܳ ‫ ܰܬ‬tarʿā door 141, 149 ‫ܪܥܐ‬ ܳ ܺ ܰ ‫ܫܥܝܬܐ‬ ‫ ܬ‬tašʿītā conversation 60, 66

CONCORDANCE Reader 1 2 3 4 5

Budge 1 95 621 515 661

Budge 1 7 14 22 95

Reader 1 8 21 10 2

6 7 8 9 10

653 266 7 668 22

107 195 209 226 239

24 26 14 16 13

11 12 13 14 15

397 376 239 209 240

240 266 353 376 386

15 7 29 12 23

16 17 18 19 20

226 630 506 642 404

391 397 404 475 506

30 11 20 25 18

21 22 23 24 25

14 677 386 107 475

515 621 630 642 653

4 3 19 19 6

26 27 28 29 30

195 670 674 353 391

661 668 670 674 677

5 9 27 28 22

219