The Ainu Language 9784385359762, 4385359768

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ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.2

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Suzuko Tamura

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ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol. 2

The Ainu Language by

Suzuko Tamura

This translation was projected by the Department of Asian and Pacific Linguistics, Institute of Cross-Cultural Studies, Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, the University of Tokyo. Published by Sanseido Co., Ltd., 2-22-14, Misaki-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-8371,Japan. Originally published in Japanese under the title "Ainu-go" (The Ainu Language), in Gengogaku-dai-jiten (The Sanseido Encyclopaedia of Linguistics), Vol.1: Sekai-gengo-hen (Languages of the World), Part 1. Copyright©1988 by Sanseido Co., Ltd. English translation copyright ©2000 by Sanseido Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Japan. ISBN-4-38 5-3 5 97 6-8 First edition, 2000

Contents Preface

vii

List of Abbreviations

ix

1

Introduction 1.1 Dialects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

History of Ainu Studies 7 2.1 Views on Ainu up to the 19th Century . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9 2.2 Linguistic Research of the 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Transcription and Study of Oral Literature 12 2.4 Research on Place Names . . . . . . . . . . 14

3

Phonology 3.1 Phonemes 3.2 Syllable Structure 3.3 Accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Open Syllable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Closed Syllable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Exceptional Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Phonological Alternation and Limits on Phonotactics . . . 3.4.1 Within a Syllable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Between Syllables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17 17 21 21 21 22 22 23 23 24

4

Syntactic 4.1 Word 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3

25

Elements and Syntax Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Sentence Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Postpositions . . .

1 2 4 5

25 25 26

27

ii

CONTENTS 4.1.4 Negatives and Prohibitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.1.5 Word Order in Interrogative Sentences, Imperatives 28 4.1.6 Change in Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.1. 7 Omission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.2 Parts of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4.3 Verbs . . . . . . 36 4.3.1 Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.3.2 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 41 4.3.3 Types of Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Verb Phrases that Function as Single Words 45 4.3.5 Supplementary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person . . . . . . 47 4.4.1 Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.4.2 Personal Affixes, Personal Forms . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.4.3 Nominative-Accusative Personalization of Transitive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 62 4.4.4 Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 Use of the Indefinite Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 76 4.4.6 On the Indefinite Person Affixes 78 4.4.7 Omission of Personal Pronouns . . . . 80 4.5 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.5.1 Common Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Locative Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 91 4.5.3 Dependent Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 Nominalizing Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.6 Adnominals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.6.1 Adnominal Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.6.2 Demonstrative and Referential Adnominals . . . . 93 4. 7 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.7.1 Normal Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 95 4. 7.2 Postpositional Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.9 Interjections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.10 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 121 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.3 Case Particles (Postpositional Particles) . . . . . . 129 4.10.4 Adverbial Particles . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.10.5 Conjunctive Particles and Conjunctions 148 4.10.6 Sentence-Final Particles . . . . . 173 180 4.11 Sentence Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11.1 The Structure of Verb Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . 180

CONTENTS

iii

4.11.2 The Structure of Noun Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . 186 4.11.3 Noun-like Use of Verb Phrases and Completion of Predicate Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 5

Word Formation 193 5.1 Compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.1.1 The Formation of Complete Verbs . . . . . . . . 194 195 5.1.2 The Formation of Compound Intransitive Verbs 5.1.3 The Formation of Compound Transitive Verbs . . 198 5.1.4 The Formation of Compound Nouns . . . . . . . . 199 5.2 Reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 5.2.1 Reduplication of Stems and Roots . . . . . . . . . 200 5.2.2 VC Reduplication of a CVC Root . . . . . . . . . . 203 5.2.3 Reduplication of the Final CV of a CVCV Root or Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 5.3 Derivation of Verbs 203 204 5.3.1 Prefixes .. . 211 5.3.2 Suffixes .. . 5.4 Derivation of Nouns 220 5.4.1 Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.4.2 Suffixes . . . . . . . . . 220 5.4.3 Conversion from Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.5 Derivation of Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.5.1 Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.5.2 Prefix + Noun + Suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 5.5.3 Conversion from Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

6

Methods of Expression 225 6.1 Simple Declarative Sentences . 225 226 6.1.1 Negative Expressions . 6.1.2 Expressive Nominalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 6.2 Expressions for Reporting Information . . . . . . . . . . . 230 6.3 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 6.3.1 Yes or No Questions as Full Sentences . . . . . . . 232 6.3.2 Questions Formed Using He . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 6.3.3 WH Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 6.3.4 Criticism . 6.3.5 Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 6.4 Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 6.4.1 Responses Using Reporting Pattern . . . . . . . . . 238 238 6.4.2 Responses Using Un 6.4.3 Negative Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

iv

CONTENTS 6.4.4 Short Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Imperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Implied Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Prohibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Invitations 6.8 Permission 6.9 Exclamations 6.10 Expressions of Desire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 Greetings . . . . . . . . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11.1 Meetings . . ............... . 6.11.2 Departures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5

239 241 241 242 243 245 246 247 248 248 250 250 250 252

7

Vocabulary 253 7 .1 Tendencies in Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 7.2 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7. 2 .1 On Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.2.2 Counters and Numbers with Units . . . . . . . . 255 7.2.3 Expressing Large Amounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 7.3 Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . 260 7.3.1 Spatial Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 7.3.2 Conceptual Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 7.4 Color Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 7.5 Special Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 7.6 Loan Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

8

Place Names

269

9

Literature

273

10 Anotated Bibliography 277 10.1 Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 10.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.2.1 General Works on the Ainu Language and Ainu Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.2.2 Works on the Genealogy of the Ainu Language . 281 10.2.3 Word Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 10.2.4 Research Books on Place Names . . . . . . . . . . 282 10.2.5 Texts (oral literature that has been written down, poems, and biographies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

CONTENTS 10.2.6 Bibliographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Index

v 284

287

Preface This book is a translation of the full text of the section on the Ainu language, written by Suzuko Tamura that was originally published in Tokyo in 1988 as part of the first volume of The Sanseido Encyclopaedia of Linguistics. The English translation was made under the auspices of the Database of Endangered Languages project of the Department of Asian and Pacific Linguistics, Institute of Cross-Cultural Studies at the Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, The University of Tokyo. Tamura's work for the Encyclopaedia was chosen for translation because it represents the high level of study regarding the Ainu language and it was hoped that by providing an accurate translation this work would benefit the worldwide linguistic community. Tamura is a professor at the Institute of Language Teaching, Waseda University, and having trained many of the younger Ainu language researchers now in their 30's and 40's, is the leading expert in the Ainu language. She organized a symposium on the Ainu language at the 12th World Congress of the International Association of Applied Linguistics held at Waseda University in the summer of 1999. Since the linguistic study of the Ainu language is conducted primarily in Japan and the results of this research have been published primarily in Japanese, internationally, reference to sources developed by Japanese researchers has been extremely rare. The only recent, well-known full-scale research written in English up to this time has been that published by the Danish scholar, Refsing, who studying with Professor Jiroo Ikegami at Hokkaido University conducted studies of the Shizunai Ainu dialect. (Refsing, Kirsten, 1986. The Ainu Language. Aarhus, Denmark.) One of the few English publications that demonstrates the level of Ainu research in Japan is the chapter on the Ainu language in The Languages of Japan by Masayoshi Shibatani (Cambridge Univ. Press. 1990). It should be stressed however that Shibatani's description of the Ainu language relies mostly on the data provided by Suzuko Tamura and other Vll

viii

PREFACE

Ainu language specialists in Japan. With this in mind, it is our gift to the linguistic community worldwide to bring out a detailed syntax of the Ainu language based on primary data obtained through field research and publish it in English, enabling direct reference to Ainu linguistics in Japan. Tamura's Japanese text was originally translated by Blaine Erickson, then a Ph.D. candidate at Hawaii University who was attending The University of Tokyo as a graduate student. Tamura, together with the editor, Nicholas VanderMeulen, a long-time resident of Japan, carried out an exhaustive review and re-write of the English version to resolve problems with the initial translation and to update the original text. In addition, Erickson's translation was reviewed by the Ainu scholar Masami Okuda of Sapporo Gakuin University and was proofread by Sang-Won Peck. Development of the format was carried out, using 'TEX-, by Rei Fukui, a professor at our department. This translation, therefore, is the fruit of hard work and dedication by the author and translators and while it may not fully satisfy all Ainu scholars, we trust that it will be seen as an important contribution. Since very little of the Japanese research of the Ainu language has been translated into English, this work was carried out without even a basic glossary of Ainu grammatical terms in existence. We will be honored if the effort we have put forth is received even as simply a basis for further discussion. This work was made possible through the understanding and cooperation of Professor Eiichi Chino of Wako University who was one of the editors of The Sanseido Encyclopaedia of Linguistics. We would like to extend· our heartfelt thanks to Professor Chino and to the publishers of The Sanseido Encyclopaedia of Linguistics for giving us permission to use the Japanese text for translation into English. March 31, 2000 Tokyo, Japan Kazuto Matusmura Professor Department of Asian and Pacific Linguistics, Institute of Cross-Cultural Studies Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, The University of Tokyo

List of Abbreviations Parts of Speech/Person/Voice/ Aspect

1P/2P/3P first/ second/third person ACC accusative AFF afliliative CAUS causative COP copula FCND future conditional INDEF indefinite INDEFP indefinite person nominative NOM PAST past plural PL REPT repetition SING singular

Particles/ Affixes, · · ·

ADV CMND CON EMPH FIN NEG NMNL POL PROHIB QUES QUOTE RECIPRO SGST TOP

adverbalizing particle command conjunctive particle emphasizing particle sentence final particle negativizing particle nominalizing particle polite /honorific /humble prohibitive question quotation reciprocity suggestion topic

Expressive Nominalizers

Abbrevi- Meaning of Ainu Root Meaning ation Abbreviation Word eEVD evidence, traces ruwe trail, tracks eSAID eFELT

said heard, felt

eSEEN

visible, seen

Confirms or Questions what is known (to speaker) hawe voice, words what has been said humi sounds, feelings what has been heard or felt what can be seen siri ambience

These words are often used in combination with a copula ( ne), or verbs such as an, or un to express the speaker's feelings about the topic or in questions or replies to WH and Yes/No questions. Often the words themselves do not have directly translatable meanings.

lX

X

Hokkaido Sooya

Chapter 1

Introduction Ainu is one of the languages of Japan, but it is a different language than Japanese. Long ago, Ainu was spoken in the northern part of the Tohoku region of Honshu, Hokkaido, the Kurile Islands, and Sakhalin. There are also those who hold that Ainu was spoken on Kamchatka. For all intents and purposes, Ainu ceased to be spoken on Honshu a few hundred years ago, but traces do remain in several place names and in hunters' terminology. In 1963, it was confirmed that Ainu was no longer spoken in the Kurile Islands. After the end of WW II, the speakers of Ainu on Sakhalin were removed to various locations in Hokkaido. As these people and the speakers from Hokkaido began to pass away, the majority of Ainu dialects ceased to be spoken. The Japanese government assumed a policy of assimilation, compelling the exclusive use of Japanese in education and other areas of public life. Additionally, as a result of prejudices based on racial discrimination, bullying in schools, and the like, Ainu gradually ceased to be spoken, and the younger generations grew up speaking only Japanese. Still, in several places in Hokkaido, there are elderly people who remember Ainu, and among them are those who can recite prayers in Ainu, those who remember the narrative poetry of the oral tradition, and those who can fluently tell the tales of old in Ainu. However, in general, the influence of Japanese on syntax and pronunciation has been strong, and the vocabulary has shrunk as well, to the extent that when the today's elders hear the stories told by those who passed away some 20 years ago, there are considerably many words that they do not know. For quite some time, there have been those among the Ainu who mourn and resent the passing of their language and culture, and wish to revive it. However, in actuality, they have been met with strong resistance, and their efforts have not reached the point of revival of the language. At present, Ainu is not used in everyday life. Recently, however, there have been movements among the Ainu to learn and transmit

1

2

Chapter 1. Introduction

the language as a part of their cultural heritage.

1.1 Dialects As early as the Edo Period (1600-1867), it was realized that there were regional differences in Ainu. However, it was not until the 1950s that statistical research comparing the basic vocabulary was quantitatively confirmed. With the passing of the years, however, the number of informants decreased, and it became impossible to find more than one speaker for most regions. The best results from that time are found in "Ainugo Shohoogen no Kiso Goi Tookeigakuteki Kenkyuu" ( "Quantitative Research on the Basic Vocabulary of Ainu Dialects"), by Hattori Shiroo and Chiri Mashiho (in Minzokugaku Kenkyuu ( The Japanese Journal of Ethnology) 24-4), and in Ainugo Hoogen Jiten (Ainu Dialect Dictionary), edited by Hattori Shiroo. Investigations into Ainu dialects continued after that period, and to a certain extent, it is possible to publish descriptions for several areas, such as Hidaka and Tokachi. However, because there are no speakers left for the majority of dialects, existing research cannot be corrected, it is not possible to collect new data, and it is difficult to conduct language geography research. Even under these conditions, outlines of Ainu dialects, though imperfect, can be presented. First, Ainu can be roughly divided into Sakhalin, Kurile, and Hokkaido dialects. There are meaningful differences in basic vocabulary among these three dialect groups. Very few records exist for Kurile Ainu (see Chishima Ainu (Kurile Ainu) by Torii Ryuuzoo; Kita Chishima Ainugo (Northern Kurile Ainu) by Murayama Shichiroo). Additionally, most of the data do not extend beyond vocabulary, but even so, there are significant differences between K urile Ainu on the one hand, and Hokkaido and Sakhalin Ainu on the other. Sakhalin Ainu is more similar to the Hokkaido dialects than the Kurile dialects are. There are differences between west coast and east coast dialects, but even so, these differences are not great. There are similar differences between northern and southern dialects. However, the Taraika dialect, once spoken in the northern part of the east coast, stands out as different from other Sakhalin dialects, and it has been pointed out that there are similarities between it and southern Hokkaido dialects. The non-Taraika Sakhalin dialects have striking phonological peculiarities. Specifically, corresponding to syllable-final -p, -t, -k in Hokkaido and Taraika Ainu, the Sakhalin dialects have -h (see also chapter 3 Phonology). For example,

1.1. Dialects

3

Hokkaido cup 'moon'

Sakhalin cuh 'moon'

Also, corresponding to pitch accent, which is found in various locations in Hokkaido Ainu, Sakhalin Ainu has vowel length distinctions. For example, Hokkaido nisap 'shin' nisap 'sudden'

Sakhalin nisah 'shin' niisah-no 'sudden'

In addition, there are differences in the grammatical forms of affixes and of personal affixes between Hokkaido and the Sakhalin dialects. The differences between the speech of the old and the young in the Sakhalin west coast dialect Raichishka are also said to be distinctive. For Hokkaido, there are some differences in vocabulary, phonology, word formation, and the like between northeastern and southwestern dialects. However, no great differences are seen in syntax. Northeastern dialects go from Sooya in the north, down the west coast to Teshio and Ishikari, and on the east coast, down to Kitami and Nemuro, and include the islands of Kunashiri, Etorofu, and so on. Continuing on to the Pacific Ocean side, Kushiro, Tokachi, Erimo, and the area around Shizunai are also included as northeastern dialects. The remaining area is the southwestern district. The northeastern dialects are further divided into northern (Sooya), central (Teshio, Ishikari), and eastern (Tokachi, Kitami, Kushiro, eastern Hidaka) regions. The southwestern dialects are divided into southern (western Hidaka, eastern Iburi) and western (Shiribeshi) regions. Of these, the Sooya dialect, more so than other Hokkaido dialects, is similar to the Sakhalin dialects. Also, there is an east-west split within Hidaka, and the eastern Hidaka, Obihiro, and Kushiro dialects have many points in common. It appears that Shizunai forms a border region, and there are regional differences within Shizunai. Shizunai speakers of Ainu have the impression that "between Shizunai and Saru (western Hidaka), the iporse (regional word usage) is different". Most Ainu villages followed a river, and boats were the main means of transport. And in the same way, dialects also follow rivers, along a long basin from downstream to upstream, and normally, no great dialectal differences are seen in such regions. When a homogeneous dialect spreads over several river basins, this is seen as evidence for contact between nearby rivers and villages, either by going along the coast, or by crossing mountain passes. When examined in detail, even along the same river, there are dialectal differences between upstream and downstream villages, and when ex-

4

Chapter 1. Introduction

amined even more closely, differences can be seen between almost every village. Comparing recently collected data regarding Ainu place names with these dialectal differences, we can see the relationships. To a certain extent, it is possible to see correlations when comparing these dialectal differences, and after this, perhaps it will be possible to estimate regional differences within Ainu, based on detailed investigations into Ainu place names which remain even after the dialect has become extinct. This can also shed light onto the history of the Ainu people (see chapter 8 Place Names).

1.2 Genealogy Japanese and Ainu have borrowed vocabulary extensively from each other, and many place names in the northern half of Tohoku, Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and the K uriles have their origins in the Ainu language. It has also been noticed that in general vocabulary as well, the Ainu, Korean and Japanese languages have many common words, or words which resemble each other. As one means of measuring the degree of resemblance between languages, a lexicostatistic analysis shows an extremely high numerical value among Ainu, Korean, and Japanese. In means of expression as well, the resemblance among these three languages is also remarkable. Based on a comparison of structural characteristics, one could say that Ainu and Japanese more closely resemble each other than other languages. However, starting with the frequency of initial r, there are also many differences between the two, and the Ainu system of counting (base 20); the extensive use of verbal prefixes; and agreement of the person of subjects and objects are all different from Japanese, Korean, and all Altaic languages. Indeed, morphological structures resemble the Inuit languages, North American Indian languages, and Basque. However, similar vocabulary and expressions do not necessarily mean that two languages have a common ancestor; in fact, the majority of these similarities can be attributed to the influence of contact. Moreover, because both Ainu and Japanese have simple phonological systems and morphological structures, the possibility of chance resemblance is high. Conversely, even when shared basic vocabulary is inherited, two languages may have completely different forms as a result of phonological change, and shared retentions may become incalculable. Further, structural characteristics are not unchanging, and even within areas of similarity, some may have occurred independently in each language, and

1.3. Documentation

5

some may be due to contact. Between languages that have been in contact for long periods, it is normal for each to have extraordinary influence on the other, particularly when bilingualism is great. Regardless, it is thought that there is a long historical relationship between Ainu and Japanese. However, it is difficult to think of this relationship as common origins, as is the case with the Indo-European languages. If one considers the results of anthropological studies, and the composition of the people who crossed over to Japan, whether from the north or south, or from the Chinese mainland or the Korean peninsula, where they then mixed to form the Japanese people and language, then it is perhaps appropriate to consider Ainu as one of the formants of Japanese, or as a substratal language, and in this way, connected to Japanese. We are not yet at a stage where we can debate the possible historical connections between Ainu and the Altaic languages, or Inuit, or the North American Indian languages. There are also theories which link Ainu to Austronesian or Indo-European, but there is no conclusive evidence. In fact, the relationship of Ainu to other languages is still unknown.

1.3 Documentation Ainu has no writing system of its own. Accordingly, various means to transcribe Ainu have been employed, such as the Latin alphabet by Italian and English documenters, the Cyrillic alphabet by Russian documenters, and kana by Japanese documenters. Recently, the use of Latin alphabet has become widespread in Japan, and is used together with various methods devised using the Japanese kana. There are few old documents, but there are records made by Italians and Russians from the 17th century, and in the 18th century, the Japanese compiled thorough dictionaries (see chapter 2 History of Ainu Studies). The Polish researcher Pilsudski was the first to make sound recordings of Ainu, which he did with wax tube records at the beginning of the 20th century. After that, metal tube and conventional disk records were also used. In the second half of the 20th century, with the advent and spread of tape recorders, the quality of sound recordings improved, and many recordings were made in earnest. Along with sound recordings, movie and television footage has also been shot (see chapter 2).

Chapter 2

History of Ainu Studies 2.1 Views on Ainu up to the 19th Century The very first word list was collected by the Italian J eloramo de Angelis (1567-1623), who was sent to Japan as a Jesuit missionary in 1602, and again in 1621. He sent the Second Report on Relations with Ezo (modern Hokkaido) to the pope, with an attached list of 54 words (Relatione del Regno di Iezo, Relatione di alcune case, Milan, 1625). At the end of the 17th century, Russia invaded Kamchatka, and in the beginning of the 18th century, dispatched a group of professors as part of a plan to investigate Siberia. The result was a list of approximately 285 words from the Kuriles and southern Kamchatka (Stepan Petrovich Krasheninnikov, Opisanie Zemli Kamchatki (Description of the Land of Kamchatka), St. Petersburg 1755). (However, Murayama Shichiroo asserted that this list consists solely of Kurile Ainu words. See Kita Chishima Ainugo (Northern Kurile Ainu), 1971.) This list was also used by Peter Simon Pallas ( Linguarum totius orbis vocabularia comparativa, St. Petersburg, 1786-89). As the great powers of Europe explored the Pacific in earnest, the French explorer J. F. de Galaup La Perouse recorded 160 words collected from Sakhalin ( Vocabulaire des habitants de l 'ile Tchoka forme a la baie de Langle: Voyage de La Perouse autour du monde, Paris, 1797). This was translated into several languages, and became known throughout the world. The Englishman William Robert Broughton collected 59 words and 10 numerals from Funka Bay (now known as Uchiura Bay), but many Japanese words were mixed among the terms collected (A voyage discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, London, 1804). In the 19th century, Gavriil Ivanovich Davidov collected approximately 2,000 terms from Sakhalin and Hokkaido, which were published in a collection of word lists from many languages, compiled by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (Worter-sammlungen aus den Sprachen einiger 7

8

Chapter 2.

History of Ainu Studies

Volker des ostlichen Asiens und der Nordwest-Kuste van Amerika, St. Petersburg, 1813). This list was later employed by both Pfizmaier and Dobrotvorskii. Heinrich Julius Klaproth is known for his "Asia Polyglota", but through his work in the compilation of Langsdorf's glossary and the word list appended to San Kokf Tsou Ran To Sets, ou Apen;u general de Trois Royaumes (Paris, 1832), and by devising transliteration techniques, word classification by region, he was able to create an academically advanced glossary. Franz Freiherr von Siebold, as part of his study of Japan, also took part in Ainu studies. A translation of a text taken from M oshihogusa and a word list of approximately 800 Ainu words appear in Nippon (1835), but it is said that there are 11 or 12 volumes of unpublished words as well. August Pfizmaier, the pioneer of grammatical studies, released dictionaries with approximately 3,800 words ( Untersuchungen uber den Bau der Aino-Sprache, Vienna, 1851; Kritische Durchsicht der van Davidov verfassten Wortersammlung aus der Sprache der Ainos, 1851; Vocabularium der Aino-Sprache, 1854). After that, in the second half of the 19th century, small word lists were published one after the other (for example, Vocabulaire Japonais-AinoCoreen by Leon Metchnikoff, Gen£, 1880). One which deserves special mention is Ainsko-Russkii Slovar' (Ainu-Russian Dictionary) by Mikhail Mikhailovich Dobrotvorskii, (Kazan, 1875). Starting with M oshihogusa, which will be discussed later, the number of words in collections which made use of materials published up to that time exceeded 10,000, and both the quantity and quality were great. Also, in the field of northern Kurile Ainu, the Pole Benedykt Dybowski surveyed Shumshu Island and made a small dictionary, and there is also what Ignacy Radlinski published ( "Slownik narzecza Ain6w", in Rozprawy Akademii Umiej@tnosci, Wydzial Filologiczny, Serya II, Tom 1, Cracow, 1892). After the opening of Japan to the West, Christian missionaries to Hokkaido had the opportunity to be in long contact with Ainu. The Anglican missionary Walter Derring obtained the cooperation of the Ainu man named Penriuku, who lived in Biratori in the Hidaka region, and then released a word list ( "A Vocabulary of Ainu Words and Phrases", in Chrysanthemum 1, Yokohama, 1881). Thereafter, a dictionary with an essay describing the grammar of Ainu was written by the person who, even to the modern day, has had the greatest influence on Ainu studies: the Anglican priest John Batchelor. In contrast to the recorded works to that time, in which the recorder used the same method of representation as his native language, Batchelor prepared his work in a format that would allow practical use as a dictionary, such as use of the Latin alphabet, arrangement in alphabetical order, inclusion of usage examples, and an inventory of approximately 20,000 words (actually, because there are

2.2. Linguistic Research of the 20th Century

9

many redundancies, several thousand) (An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary, 1st ed. 1889, 2nd ed. 1905, 3rd ed. 1926, 4th ed. 1938). Also, his An Ainu Grammar, the first grammar of Ainu, was recognized by Basil Hall Chamberlain, who was lecturing in Linguistics at Tokyo Imperial University. Chamberlain, recognizing Batchelor's first Ainu grammar, he used this material in one of his essays ( "The Language, Mythology, and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan Viewed in the Light of Aino Studies", in Tookyoo Teikoku Daigaku Bunka Daigaku Kiyoo ( The Bulletin of the College of Arts and Letters of Tokyo Imperial University) 1, 1887). In turn, since the 8th-century works Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and Nihon Shoki ( Chronicles of Japan), Ainu-like place names and personal names had been recorded on the Japanese side as well. However, there are no records of those words having been intentionally recorded. There is a list of 11 7 words from the middle of the 17th century, collected in Matsumae no Kotoba (The Language of Matsumae) (author unknown, published as part of Ainugo Shiryoo Soosho (Ainu Materials Series)). However, until the end of the 18th century, there is nothing more than some Ainu words included in various writings. There are about 700 words in the 178~ work Ezo Shuui ( Gleanings from Ezo (Hokkaido)) by Satoo Genrokuroo, but the first dictionary, M oshihogusa, did not appear until 1792. It was compiled by Uehara Kumajiroo, who was an Ainu-Japanese interpreter, and Abe Choozaburoo. This work has more than 2,700 words, and includes several Ainu texts. Thereafter, Uehara also prepared the manuscript Ezogoshuu ( Collection of Ezo (Hokkaido) Words), which has 9,380 words in it. (For modern Ainu materials, see "Kinsei no Ainugo Shiryoo ni tsuite - tokuni 'Moshihogusa' o megutte" ( "Concerning Modern Ainu Materials, Particularly about 'Moshihogusa"') by Tanaka Satoko and Sasaki Toshikazu, in Matsumaehan to M atsumae ( The M atsumae Clan and M atsumae) Fe_bruary 1985.)

2.2 Linguistic Research of the 20th Century Research on Ainu to this time, both in Japan and in the West, excluding a number of pioneering works, has been for missionary work, political purposes, or commercial profit. Since entering the 20th century, however, scholarly research has begun in earnest. In 1912, Jean Pierre Rousselot met with the Ainu who attended the World Fair in Paris, and released a phonetic study ("Phonetique d'un group d'Ainos", in Revue de Phonetique XII, Paris, 1912). For a period after that, due

10

Chapter 2. History of Ainu Studies

to the influence of the great wars on the social situation, Ainu studies came to a halt. Especially in the Soviet Union, where there was a tradition of Ainu studies, it appears there were unpublished Ainu materials for the Kuriles, Sakhalin, and Kamchatka, but no scholar to continue the work came forward. As can be surmised by the conditions after the Russo-Japanese War, the Russian Revolution, and WW II, the effect of that halt on research was not insignificant. Recently, the Dane Kirsten Refsing has written a fieldwork-based book on Ainu (An Ainu Language - The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect, Arhus, 1986). In addition, there are authors who have touched on the language in relation to anthropological research, such as James T. Patrie, Fred C. C. Peng, and Donald Phillipi. As for the history of Ainu studies in Europe, there is Geschichtliches zur Erforschung der Ainu-Sprache: Bochumer Jahrbuch zur Ostasienforschung by Hans Adalbert Dettmer (1980). Also, refer to Dettmer's report, from a May 1982 presentation at the Conference on Northern Languages and Cultures ( "Hoppoo Gengo-Bunka Kenkyuukai Seika Hookoku (10)" ("Report on the Results of the Conference on Northern Languages and Cultures"), in Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo Kiyoo (Bulletin of the Waseda University Language Study and Education Research Center) 26, 1983). In Japan as well, with the introduction of linguistic methods of investigation and description in the Meiji period (1868-1912), research advanced rapidly. The first work released was Ainugo Kaiwa Jiten (Ainu Conversational Dictionary) (1900), by Jimbo Kotora and Kanazawa Shoozaburoo. In 1907, Kindaichi Kyoosuke first visited Ochiho on Sakhalin, and started his Ainu studies after that. In 1930, he wrote "Gohoo Tekiyoo" ("Grammar Outline") (in Ainu Jojishi Yuukara no Kenkyuu (Research on Ainu Yukar Epic Poetry), published in 1931); this can be called the first book of grammatical research on Ainu. Chiri Mashiho wrote Ainu Gohoo Gaisetsu (An Outline Grammar of Ainu) (1936, with Kindaichi Kyoosuke), and "Ainu Gohoo Kenkyuu" ( "Research on Ainu Grammar") (in Karafuto-choo Hakubutsukan Hookoku (Reports from the Sakhalin Governmental Natural History Museum) 4, 1942). This studentand-teacher pair established the foundations of the study of the Ainu language. Hattori Shiroo, with a sense of urgency about the current state of the Ainu language, hurriedly set about investigating the basic vocabulary. He mobilized several linguists, and divided the investigation of the basic vocabulary of the dialects among them. The results of that research were published in Ainugo Hoogen Jiten (Ainu Dialect Dictionary) in 1964. With that progress, the differences among Ainu dialects, which

2.2. Linguistic Research of the 20th Century

11

had previously been called vague, was statistically clarified (Hattori Shiroo and Chiri Mashiho, "Ainugo Shohoogen no Kiso Goi Tookeigakuteki Kenkyuu" ( "Quantitative Research on the Basic Vocabulary of Ainu Dialects"), in Minzokugaku K enkyuu ( The Japanese Journal of Ethnology) 24-4, 1960). Hattori Shiroo also wrote about the basic vocabulary and phonology of Sakhalin Ainu (the Raichishka dialect of the west coast), and particularly on historical studies related to accent. One of the coeditors of this work, Tamura Suzuko (also the author of this book), has done research focusing on the Sam dialect of Hokkaido ( "Ainugo no Dooshi no Koozoo" ("The Structure of Ainu Verbs") in Gengo Kenkyu (Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan) 30, 1956). Murasaki Kyooko has written an account of Sakhalin dialects (Karafuto Ainugo (Sakhalin Ainu) 1976). There is also Asai Tooru's research on the Ishikari dialect (Ainugo no Bumpoo (Ainu Syntax) 1969). Recently, younger researchers such as Nakagawa Hiroshi ( "Ainugo no Meishi to Basho Hyoogen" ("Ainu Nouns and Locational Expressions") in Tookyoo Daigaku Gengogaku Ronshuu '84 ( Tokyo University Linguistic Papers '84)) and Kirikae Hideo ( "Ainugo no Meishiku no Koozoo to Goosei Meishi" ("The Structure of Noun Phrases and Compound Nouns in Ainu") in Gengo Kenkyu (Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan) 86, 1984) have appeared, and research in syntax and vocabulary has become quite precise. As for vocabulary compilations, there is Chiri Mashiho's masterpiece Bunrui Ainugo Jiten (Ainu Classificatory Dictionary), which was incomplete at the time of his death. There are also other manuscripts left behind by Chiri Mashiho ( "Fukusoo ni Kansuru Ainugo Choosa Shiryoo" ( "Materials on Ainu Clothing Terms"); "Shokuji ni Kansuru Ainugo Choosa Shiryoo" ( "Materials on Ainu Food Terms"); "Soogi ni Kansuru Ainugo Choosa Shiryoo" ("Materials on Ainu Funeral Terms"); "Yookai ni Kansuru Ainugo Choosa Shiryoo" ( "Materials on Ainu Spirit Terms"); in Yuurashia Bunka K enkyuu ( Eurasian Culture Research) sookangoo (first issue) and Hoppoo Bunka Kenkyuu (Northern Territories Culture Research) 2-4, 1965-70). As a supplement to the, previously-mentioned Ainugo Hoogen Jiten (Ainu Dialect Dictionary), there are works by Murasaki Kyooko "Ainugo Kiso Goi-shuu" ( "A Collection of Ainu Basic Vocabulary") (in Toobetsu Hoogen to Honbetsu Hoogen) (privately published, 1983); Tamura Suzuko Ainugo Kiso Goi (Ainu Basic Vocabulary) (1985, about the Saru dialect); and Yonemura Kioe "Kitami Ainujin" ("The Ainu People of Kitami") (1937, about the Abashiri dialect, in Hoppoo Kyoodo - Minzoku-shi (Northern Homeland-Folk Magazine)). There are many older dictionaries and word collections for which the place where the data were collected is not clearly indicated. At the

12

Chapter 2.

History of Ainu Studies

present, when it is nearly impossible to do fieldwork to confirm these data, the need for research on the literature increases. N arita Shuuichi's Kinsei no Ezo Goi (Modern Era Ezo (Hokkaido) Vocabulary) aims to complete such research on the literature, and is still in press (four volumes published as of 1988; privately published). At this point, the discussion will touch on the genealogy of Ainu. At first, the origins of Ainu were sought from north to south by simple vocabulary comparison (Olof Gjerdman, "Word-parallels between Ainu and other languages", in Le Monde Oriental, vol. XX, Fasc. 13, K. V. Zettersteen, Uppsala 1926; W. Schmidt, Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde Heidelberg 1929). Additionally, the relationship of Ainu and Japanese has regularly been a popular theme up to the present. Moreover, as seen in essays such as one by Pierre Naert (La Situation Linguistique de l'Ainou et lndoeuropeen, Lunds Universites Arsskrift, 1958) there are even those who have proposed that Ainu is related to lndo-European. Even though progress has been made with comparative methods and in research on Ainu, the genealogy remains as difficult to evaluate as ever. Since the work of Ikegami Jiroo (1973), and others, no definitive clarification has come out. However, starting with the work of Alexander Slawik ("Die Probleme um die Entstehungsgeschichte des Japanischen und seine ainuide Komponente", in Japanforschungen 5, 1982, etc.), who continues to conduct research concerning the history of Ainu, the debate on this topic continues on many fronts to the present.

2.3 Transcription and Study of Oral Literature In Moshihogusa, mentioned above, caranke (traditional custom of stylized quarrel or debate) and yukar (oral epic poetry) are collected. Prior to that, the existence of oral epic poetry had been recorded, but it had not gone as far as collecting any of the poetry itself. However, this first recording of epic poetry was written in kana, and there is a limit to the accuracy of the materials. Still, early on Pfizmaier used these materials to do research on Ainu poetry (Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Aino-Poesie, 1850). After that, only a few short texts and translations were released, and in 1912, the Pole, Bronislaw Pilsudski (1866-1918), published Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore (Cracow, 1912). He was on Sakhalin because he had been exiled there, but after that, he also traveled to Hokkaido, where he recorded oral materials on wax tube records, the latest technology at the time. In Materials, there are

2. 3. Transcription and Study of Oral Literature

13

27 compilations of epic literature collected, in Ainu with English translations, with intricate footnotes; in the preface to VI, there is an outline of Ainu literature, an essay on reference materials, as well as an essay on pronunciation and orthography. From 1983 to 1986, Pilsudski's wax tube records were rerecorded at Hokkaido University using the latest technology, and the oral materials that had been recorded on the tubes were, to a certain extent, clarified by the joint research of scholars in every field (Kokuritsu Minzokugaku Hakubutsukan Kenkyuu Hookoku Bessatsu (Special Research Report of the National Folklore Museum) 5, 1987). In 1915, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevskii came to Japan, and under the influence of Yanagita Kunio, conducted research on Ryukyuan and Ainu, and published a text (Ainskii Fol'klor (Ainu Folklore) 1972). Ainu Shin 7yooshuu ( Collection of Ainu Sacred Songs) (1923), written by Chiri Mashiho's older sister, Yukie, based on the storytellers' Ainu original and notes, is a Japanese translation that shines. Batchelor released Ainu Fireside Stories in 1925, and after the third edition of the dictionary, collected 14 volumes of texts in Ainu with English translations. Full-scale research into Ainu oral literature was begun by Kindaichi Kyoosuke, Chiri Mashiho, and Kubodera Itsuhiko. Beginning with the 1912 publication of Kita Ezo Koyoo-ihen (Remnants of Northern Ezo (Hokkaido) Old Chants), a collection of epic poems from Sakhalin, Kindaichi wrote Ainu Seiten (Ainu Sacred Rites) in 1923, and Ainu Jojishi Yuukara no Kenkyuu (Research on Ainu Oral Epic Poetry) in 1930. With Ainu Mintan-shuu ( Collected Ainu Folktales) (1937), Chiri Mashiho introduced the first of 15 texts of Panampe Penampe Uepekere (Tales of Lower River Man and Upper River Man). More than the publication of oral literature that had been handed down, Chiri was interested in historical and ethnological considerations, and he published more in the form of Japanese translations (publications and commentary are left to the references, to come later). Kubodera, at the suggestion of Kindaichi and Chiri, examined the structure of Ainu literature. "Ainu Jojishi Shin'yoo Seiden no Kenkyuu" ( "Research on Sacred Ainu Epic Poetry") (published posthumously in 1977) has 124 texts (transcribed in the Latin alphabet with Japanese translations) with detailed notes, and is the greatest annotated translation of Ainu oral literature in existence. Since the 1950s, the Ainu people themselves have produced records and annotated translations one after another (such as Kannari Matsu, Nabesawa Motozoo, Kuzuno Tatsujiroo, Sunazawa Kura, Kayano Shigeru, and others). Among this work, not just the oral literature, but also the spoken language is recorded, including the writings of a lifetime (see the references). With the improvement and spread of sound recording machinery, nu-

14

Chapter 2. History of Ainu Studies

merous recordings have been made since the end of WW II. In Hokkaido, recordings have been made by cultural preservation organizations and individuals. Not many of these recordings have been released, but in 1965, NHK released Ainu Dentoo Ongaku ( Traditional Ainu Music) with an explanatory text, and it has sound sheets for just the smallest fraction of the songs. There are cassette recordings with the following works: Kayano Shigeru Uepekere Shuutaisei 1 ( Uepekere Collection 1) (1974); Nukishio Kizoo Ainu Jojishi Sakorope (Ainu Epic Poem Sakorope) (1978); Murasaki Kyooko Ainugo Kiso Goi-shuu (A Collection of Ainu Basic Vocabulary) (mentioned in section 2.2); Tamura Suzuko Ainugo Onsei Shiryoo 1-4 (Ainu Acoustic Materials 1-4), Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo (Waseda University Language Education Research Center), 1984-87. Efforts continue in the recording of film materials, not just as folklore records and for the preservation of traditional culture, but also for the purpose of recording the situations and environments in which language is spoken, and for preserving speech conditions and the speakers' expressions and actions.

2.4 Research on Place Names During the national isolation of the Edo period (1603-1867), in order to deal with Russia at the end of the 18th century, expeditions to the northern areas flourished, and in conjunction with the drawing of detailed maps of Ezo ( modern Hokkaido), the recording of Ainu place names increased. One example of this is the series of records kept by Matsuura Takeshiroo ( Takeshiroo Kaiho Nikki ( Takeshiroo Voyage Diary), 1856; Toozai Sansen Torishirabe Chizu (Maps from Investigations of Mountains and Rivers East and West), 1859). The interpretation of place names was first done by interpreters (such as Uehara Kumajiroo Ezo Chimei-koo Narabini Riteiki (Record of Ezo (Hokkaido) Place Na mes and Mileages) 1824), but research began in earnest at the beginning of the Meiji period (1868-1912). Nagata Hoosei's Hokkaidoo Ezogo Chimeikai (Explanation of Hokkaido Place Names from the Ezo Language (Ainu)), (1891) was an epoch-making work. Up to that point, there were many works that examined place names (such as Batchelor's Key to the Study of Ancient Japanese Place Names 1929), but the majority of them did not exceed the level of folk etymology. Kindaichi Kyoosuke, in order to restore the Ainu language that had previously been used on Honshu, did a comparative investigation of Tohoku (Northeastern Japan) and Honshu place names, and demonstrated

2.4. Research on Place Names

15

that the Oou area has many Ainu place names (Hokuoo Chimei-koo ( On Hokuoo Place Names), 1932). After the second world war, when the histories of Hokkaido cities, towns, and villages were actively compiled, the origin of place names was studied by Chiri Mashiho, Sarashina Genzoo, and Satoo N aotaroo. The results of that study for each city, town, and village are collected and reprinted in H okkaidoo Ekimei no Kigen ( Origins of Hokkaido Train Station Names) (Takakura Shin'ichiroo, Chiri Mashiho, Sarashina Genzoo, Koono Hiromichi, 1954). Chiri's works interpret place names based on Ainu grammar, and can be linguistically trusted ( Chimei Ainugo Shoo-Jiten ( Small Dictionary of Ainu Place Names); Ainugo Nyuumon: Tokuni Chimei Kenkyuusha no Tame ni (Introduction to Ainu: Particularly for the Sake of Researchers on Place Names), both 1956). Yamada Hidezoo, with Kindaichi as his teacher and Chiri as his friend, carried out the research on Ainu place names that Chiri, who passed away at an early age due to disease, was not able to complete. He established an effective method of researching place names by means of a detailed preparatory investigation of the old literature and field work ( Toohoku to Hokkaidoo no Ainugo Chimeikoo ( On Ainu Place Names in Tohoku and Hokkaido), 1957; Hokkaidoo no Kawa no Na ( The Names of Rivers in Hokkaido) 1971, and others. Collected works on research into Ainu place names had been complied by the end of 1982 in Ainugo Chimei no Kenkyuu (Research on Ainu Place Names) 1-4, 1982-83).

Chapter 3

Phonology Below, accounts of phonology, grammar, and vocabulary will be presented in romanization with letters close to their phonetic values.

3.1 Phonemes Ainu has five vowels, /a i u e oj. The values for each is similar to that for Japanese. However, /u/ is pronounced further back than /u/ in Japanese, and sometimes sounds like} apanese / 0 /. Ainu has only the following 12 consonants. One of the characteristics of Ainu is that it has few consonants.

Plosives Affricates Fricatives Liquids Nasals Approximants Glottals

p

t

k

C

m w

s r n y h

All twelve of these consonants may occur at the beginning of a syllable, but the consonants that may occur at the end of a syllable are limited for both Hokkaido and Sakhalin Ainu, as shown below. However, the Taraika dialect of Sakhalin has the same distribution as Hokkaido Ainu.

17

18

Chapter 3. Phonology

Hokkaido -p

-t

-m -w

-s -r -n -y

Sakhalin

-k -s -m -w

-n

-y -h

The three plosives /p t k/ form a single series, and there is no voiced/voiceless opposition as Japanese and other languages have, and no aspirated/unaspirated distinction as Korean and other languages have. At the beginning of a word, the plosives are voiceless. Hokkaido Ainu examples: (subsequent examples are also Hokkaido) pa 'year' to 'pond' ku 'bow' (as in 'bow and arrow') Intervocalically, plosives tend towards some voicing, and after nasals, voicing occurs frequently. sanpe

'heart' [sampe] or [sambe]

The/pt k/ that occur syllable-finally in Hokkaido Ainu end with the closure of the articulatory organs, and in many cases are hard to discern until one becomes familiar with the language. kap kut tek

'skin' 'belt' 'hand'

There is only one affricate, /c/, and it is close to the Japanese consonant in (chi). ca cup cip

'brushwood' 'moon' 'boat'

This also tends to be voiced after a nasal. konci

'hood' [kontfi] or [kond3i]

3.1. Phonemes

19

There is only one fricative, /s/. It is close to the consonant in Japanese (shi), but there is individual variation in the degree of palatalization. sa su si

'older sister' [sa] or [Ja] 'pot' [su] or [Ju] 'feces' [Ji]

/s/ is normally voiceless, and does not voice even after a nasal. Syllable-finally, it is normally [I]. 'as kosne pis

'stand' [?aJ] 'light (in weight)' [koJne] 'beach' [piJ]

However, as shown in examples like 'as wa (stand CON) 'standing' [aswa], /s/ is influenced by the following consonant. Like Japanese, Ainu has only one liquid, /r/. Syllable-initially, its value is like the Japanese /r/, a voiced alveolar flap. ran tere konru

'to go down' 'to wait' 'ice'

Like the Japanese /r/, there are many pronunciations of Ainu /r/, depending on the person. There are many people who have a strong plosive r, close to [d], and there are also those who pronounce it as [l]. Syllable-final /r /, which Hokkaido Ainu has, is a flapped sound, and the vowel preceding it is echoed afterwards. kar kor

'to make' [kara] 'to have' [koro]

However, whether or not there is a vowel after /r/ is clearly differentiated phonologically. 'etor retar

'mucus' [?etor(o)] : 'etoro 'to snore' [?etoro] 'white' [retar(a)] : re-tara '3 straw bags' [retara]

Still, in modern Ainu, which has been influenced by Japanese, this distinction has become unclear, and some people always pronounce /r/ with a following vowel. Ainu has two nasals, /m/ and /n/, and are like /m/ and /n/ in Japanese. They may occur syllable-finally. Before /k/, /n/ is [IJ].

Chapter 3. Phonology

20

hanku

'navel' [haJJku]

Before /p/ and /m/, /m/ and /n/ are neutralized, and only [m] occurs.

'an pe 'isam pe

(to-be thing) 'something' [?ampe] (to-be-NEG thing) 'nothing' [?isampe]

Additionally, when following /h/, /n/ can take on the role of a vowel and is transcribed here as n.

hnta

'what'

/w/ and /y/ are like Japanese, except that many people pronounce /w /, along with /u/, further back than it is pronounced in Japanese. Syllable-finally, /w / and /y / are the offglide of a diphthong.

haw tuyma

'voice' 'far'

Ainu /h/ is like Japanese, except that it is frequently weakened intervocalically and undergoes voicing. The syllable-final /h/ of Sakhalin Ainu is not like the strong fricative (ch) [x] of German, but is a soft sound, like breath.

kah

'leather'

/' / is basically a glottal plosive [?], and resembles that sound in German. In other words, sharply and clearly say a vowel.

te 'eta

'old times' [te?eta] (not [teeta])

There is individual variation in strength. It weakens intervocalically in syllables pronounced low, and frequently deletes. That /p t k r/, which can occur syllable-finally in Hokkaido Ainu, may not occur syllable-finally in Sakhalin Ainu (except for the Taraika dialect), and that /h/ may occur instead, is due to changes from the ancestral language, such that syllable-final /p t k/ have changed to /h/ (/s/ after /i/), and /r/ has changed to /h/ or rV in Sakhalin Ainu. The results of this historical phonological change can be shown in the following correspondence chart. Hokkaido Ainu

Sakhalin Ainu

Meaning

kap set yuk 'utar sik

kah seh kuh 'utah, 'utara sis ( sih)

'leather' 'bed' 'deer' 'people' 'eye'

21

3.2. Syllable Structure

3.2 Syllable Structure Ainu, like Japanese, is a language with a simple syllable structure. It has no consonant clusters like str in English strike, nor does it have consonant-glide sequences. Hokkaido Ainu has no sequences of identical vowels (in other words, no distinction between long and short syllables). Sakhalin Ainu has a distinction between short and long syllables, but in such cases, the two vowels must be identical ( kaa, puu, and the like). Unlike Japanese, closed syllables are as common as open syllables. However, as stated earlier, the consonants that may occur syllable-finally are limited. Hokkaido Ainu

Sakhalin Ainu

CV

CV

eve

cvv eve

Since syllables that begin with a vowel are regarded as being preceded by /' /, V and VC syllables are included with CV and CVC, respectively. However, as the symbol /' / is visually troublesome and difficult to see, when not required, it will be left out of the Grammar and Vocabulary sections.

3.3 Accent Accent is distinctive in most dialects of Hokkaido Ainu. Like Japanese, it is pitch accent, but unlike the Tokyo dialect (and others), in which the fall from high to low is distinctive, in Ainu, the rise from low to high is distinctive. The syllables before this rise are all low, and the syllables following it gradually fall with a certain degree of regularity. Dialects differ in their placement of accentual nucleus, but most Hokkaido accents display the following tendencies.

3.3.1 Open Syllable If the first syllable is open, the accentual nucleus is on the second syllable. sapa sapaha kusapaha

'head' 'his/her /its head' (head-AFF) 'my head' (lP-NOM-SING-head-AFF)

In southwestern Hokkaido dialects (around 1955), the accentual nucleus was on the third syllable.

22

Chapter 3. Phonology

sapaha kusapaha

'his/her/its head' (head-AFF) 'my head' (lP-NOM-SING-head-AFF)

3.3.2 Closed Syllable If the first sy Hable is closed, the accentual nucleus is on the first syllable.

'flower' 'shoulder'

n6nno tapsut

3.3.3 Exceptional Cases There are counterexamples to this tendency. 3.3.3.1 Even with an open first syllable, there are words with the accentual nucleus on the first syllable.

nisap

'sudden'

compare with 'shin' 'my shin' (lP-NOM-SING-shin-AFF)

nisap kunisapihi

When Hokkaido Ainu and Sakhalin Ainu are compared, the following correspondences are seen. Hokkaido Ainu

Sakhalin Ainu

Meaning

mina hure

miina huure

'to laugh' 'to be red'

It is thought that only Sakhalin Ainu preserves the distinction of long and short vowels in the ancestral language. For Hokkaido Ainu, in most cases, this has changed to an accent distinction. 3.3.3.2 In southwestern Hokkaido Ainu dialects, personal forms in verbs, nouns, and some adverbs, the first vowel is deleted. As a result, exceptional accentual patterns arise.

• ku '6topihi • ci 'amkir

--+

--+

k6topihi 'my hair'

camkir 'we are familiar (with someone)'

3.4. Phonological Alternation and Limits on Phonotactics

23

3.3.3.3 When personal affixes like eci- (second person plural) and a(indefinite personal nominative) are prefixed, they do not change the accent of the stem to which they attach, and exceptional forms like the following occur.

• 'eci-sapa-ha (2P-PL-NOM-hair-AFF) 'your (plural) hair' 3.3.3.4 For compound nouns and derived words, because the first element's accent takes priority, exceptions may arise.

• rekor 'to have a name' from re 'name'

• ere 'cause to eat' from

e 'eat'

+ -re

+ kor

'to have'

CAUS

In the representation of Ainu words below, in only those cases in which the two tendencies mentioned above do not apply, the accentual nucleus will be represented by the mark '.

3.4 Phonological Alternation and Limits on Phonotactics There are limit on the distribution of phonemes in Ainu, and regular phonological alternation occurs.

3.4.1 Within a Syllable The following combinations do not occur syllable-internally. • ti, wi, uw, iy The following combinations occur only where one morpheme meets another . • wu, yi

In compounds formed from a word with final t and a word with initial 'i, they become ci. • mat 'woman'

+

'ikor 'treasure'

-----+

macikor 'woman's treasure'

Chapter 3. Phonology

24

3.4.2 Between Syllables The following changes occur where two syllables meet. • -r + t- --+ - ttkor tuki have cup

--+

• -r + c- --+ -tckor cise have house

kottuki 'his cup' kotcise 'his house'

--+

• -r + r- --+ -nrkor rusuy have want

--+

konrusuy 'he wants'

• -n + s- --+ -yspon seta be-small dog

--+

poyseta 'puppy'

• -n + y- --+ -yypon yuk be-small deer

--+

poyyuk 'fawn'

Before p and m, of the nasals only [m] occurs. -mp- 'isam pe -np- 'an pe

(to-be-NEG one) 'nothing' [?isampe] (to-be one) 'something' [?ampe]

This [m] is the neutralization of m and n, but in morphological representation, m and n are written.

• kompa 'to bend to an edge PL'; cf. komo id. SING, y'kom • 'anpa 'to hold in the hand PL'; cf. 'ani id. SING, y'' an Cases that cannot be decided between m and n will be written as fi.

koiipu

'kelp'

In part of southern Hokkaido, /w/ after a nasal becomes [m]. -mw- 'isam wa -nw- 'an wa

'to-be-NEG CON' [?isamma] 'exist CON' [?amma]

After consonants, and when there is no accentual nucleus, /h/ and /' / are often dropped.

'an hine 'an 'a

(exist and) [?anine] (exist PAST) [?ana]

Dialectal differences exist in phonological alternation patterns. For example, in part of eastern Hokkaido, /r/ becomes [s] before /s/, and many other consonants assimilate to following consonants. However, recently, this alternation often does not occur.

Chapter 4

Syntactic Elements and Syntax No great dialectal differences exist in syntax, but depending on location, great differences in vocabulary and word forms are found. The dialect of the Saru River in southern Hokkaido and the river basins from western Hidaka to the eastern edge of Iburi (hereafter "Saru dialect") will be the focus of the discussions below. Examples given will also primarily be from the Saru dialect. Citations from other dialects will be so noted.

4.1 Word Order With SOV, modifier-head word order, Ainu has basically the same word order as Japanese. Verbs parts placed at the end of a sentence. Only particles may be placed after verbs.

4.1.1 Basic Sentence Structures Subjects come before verbs; objects and complements before the verb they are linked to. The three constructions in A, B, and C below are the most basic sentence structures. A. Subject-Intransitive Verb

(4.1) ekasi ek grandfather come 'Grandfather came.' B. Subject-Object-Transitive Verb

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

26

(4.2) ekasi

huci nukar grandfather grandmother see

'Grandfather saw grandmother.' C. Subject-Complement-Copula (4.3) taan hekaci ku-poho ne this youth lP-SING-NOM-son-AFF COP

'This youth is my son.'

4.1.2 Modifiers Modifiers are placed before heads. (4.4) a. pirka cise beautiful house

'beautiful house' cf. cise pirka house beautiful

'The house is beautiful.'

b. tunas ek early come '(Someone) came early.' Even if the modifier is a phrase or clause, it comes before the head. (4.5) a. soy ta an menoko taan hekaci kor acapo outside at/in to-be woman this youth have uncle macihi ne wife-AFF COP

'The woman outside is this youth's uncle's wife.' b. arorkisne cis-an kor secretly cry-INDEFP-NOM when/while yan-an return-to-island-INDEFP-NOM 'While secretly crying, I returned to the island.'

4.1. Word Order

27

4.1.3 Postpositions There are no prepositions; postpositions (postpositional adverbs and particles) are used. ( 4.6) a. apa kari ahun doorway from enter

'He entered through the door.' ( kari is a postpositional adverb)

b. tan kotan ta an this village at/in to-be

'It is in this village.' ( ta is a particle) Phrases which have postpositions may take an additional postposition.

(4. 7) tan kotan ta ka an this village at/in even to-be 'It is also in this village.' However, in old-fashioned expressions, concepts of case which correspond to this kind of case marking are expressed with prefixes. (4.8) cise or o-ahun house place into-enter

'He entered into the house.' (ahun 'enter'; o-ahun 'enter into')

cf. cise or ta ahun house place at/in enter 'He entered the house.'

In order to express relative position, such as 'on top of' or 'in front of', in addition to post positional adverbs (e.g., os 'after'), locative nouns (e.g., ka 'above'), discussed later (see section 4.5.2), are used. (4.9) a. yupihi os ek older-brother after come

'He came after his older brother.'

b. cikue ka ta hon an desk on-top-of at/in book to-be 'There is a book on the desk.'

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

28

4.1.4 Negatives and Prohibitives Negatives and prohibitives precede the verb. On this point, Ainu is the opposite of Japanese.

(4.10) a. ku-yupo

somo cep koyki lP-SING-NOM-older-brother NEG fish catch

b. ku-yupo cep somo koyki lP-SING-NOM-older-brother fish NEG catch Both sentences equate to 'My older brother did not catch fish'.

(4.11) iteki

cis PROHIB cry

'Don't cry.' Ainu has several negative verbs, and these have pairs with positive verbs. These verbs are normally not negated with a negative word; instead, the opposite member of the pair is used (see chapter 6 Methods of Expression).

• an 'to be, exist' :: isam 'to not be, not exist' • amkir 'to be familiar with' :: eramiskari 'to be unfamiliar with'

4.1.5 Word Order in Interrogative Sentences, Imperatives Even in interrogatives and imperatives, the word order basically does not change (see chapter 6 Methods of Expression).

4.1.6 Change in Word Order Depending on the situation and context, the topic and focus of attention, or the momentum of the moment, word order changes often. However, inside noun phrases and adverbial phrases, modifiers are not placed after modified words, and particles and postpositional adverbs are not placed before nouns. Change in word order occurs only between verbs and elements related to them, or among the elements themselves, as shown in the following examples.

29

4.1. Word Order

4.1.6.1 The topic often comes at the beginning of the sentence. The circumstances of time, place, and condition often come first.

wano anakne suy ipone hekaci (4.12) a. te from here TOP again to-be-someone's-son youth yayeysoytak hawe tap tapan talk-about-self eSAID EMPH COP-POL 'The youth, who is (someone's) son, will talk about himself from here on.'

b. pira hontom pakno a-ranke kor tus tuy cliff middle extent INDEFP-NOM-lower when rope snap 'When (something) was lowered as far as the middle of the cliff, the rope snapped.' 4.1.6.2 Important matters (especially those which the speaker wants to say) are said first, and other elements are added afterwards. Because of this, other parts may appear before the subject.

(4.13) akusu, then, yama Mt.

nea that ne COP

tane now p, thing,

a-reko hi Mokoto INDEFP-NOM-way-of-calling NMNL Mokoto noyporo op etara that-face arrow stick

'Then, the mountain now called Mt. Mokoto had arrows stuck in its forehead.' This change in word order occurs frequently in Subject-ComplementCopula sentences. (4.14) a. petru along-river ne a COP PAST

otta patek okay pe aynu cise place-at/in only to-be-PL thing Ainu house wa ... CON

'Ainu houses, were only along rivers, and ... '

b. isam kuni p ruyanpe kamuy ne wa ... to-be-NEG should thing storm god COP FIN

'It was thought, it would be good if there were no storms, and ... '

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

4.1.6.3 Place of existence or appearance are placed before the subject.

(4.15) a. oasin a uske poro to oma pull-out PAST place be-big pond be-placed-at 'The place left after it was removed became a pond.'

b. kotan noski ta mosir pak cise an village center at/in island/land extent house to-be 'In the center of the village, there is a house as big as an island.' c. Ayoro nupuri kasi un nea yam Ayoro mountain above towards that chestnut a-carpa INDEFP-NOM-sow

'On Mt. Ayoro those chestnuts were sown.' 4.1.6.4 Old information (understood items) tend to come first, and new information and items in focus appear later directly in front of the verb, even the subject, location or places of appearance.

porono kor wa ek amip ka (4.16) a. icen ka money even much have CON come clothes even eyaykopuntek pe ne kusu kor wa ek have CON come thing COP reason be-happy-with ta pon aka aw hi, to-be-PL NMNL, next-door at/in be-small weysisam nu be-poor-Japanese hear

porono much kor while

'The small, poor ( =not rich) Japanese next door heard that (someone) brought home much money and many clothes and they were happy.'

b. matkaci ikkasisam ekira young-girl thief-Japanese take-escape 'The thief-Japanese took the girl and ran off.' c. a-unuhu sisam mosir ta an wa ... INDEFP-NOM-mother Japanese land at/in to-be FIN

'My mother is in the land of the Japanese ... ' (the word mosir can mean 'land' in the sense of one's 'country' or 'island' as in example 4.15, b. above, since it refers to the island 'countries' of Hokkaido, Sakhalin, etc.)

4.1. Word Order

31

4.1.6.5 Other elements may come after the verb and complement it. They may be subjects, objects, and adverbials that are expected to appear before the verb; alternatively, some of those go unsaid, and the speaker says the verb, and while talking, changes his mind and puts those elements after the verb. First, in Ainu, exceptional sentences that violate word order are almost never heard. Which is to say that when the word order is changed, the transitive verb ki 'to do' is placed afterwards. When this is done, the phrase is restored as a verb phrase, or as a clause or sentence. Then, the next particle or sentence-final particle may be attached, and through a conjunction, the phrase may continue to the next sentence.

(4.17) a. . .. noyporo etara nea op ki his-forehead stick that spear do 'That spear stuck his forehead.' cf. nea op... noyporo etara that spear his-forehead stick 'That spear stuck his forehead.'

( nea op 'that spear' is the subject) b. a-kopasrotatpa, a-uk6kikkikpa INDEFP-NOM-call-names INDEFP-NOM-pummel a-onaha ka a-unuhu ka ki INDEFP-NOM-father even INDEFP-NOM-mother even do 'I cursed at them and beat them, both my father and my mother.' cf. a-onaha ka a-unuhu ka INDEFP-NOM-father even INDEFP-NOM-mother even a-kopasrotatpa a-uk6kikkikpa INDEFP-NOM-call-names INDEFP- NOM-pummel

'I cursed at and beat both my father and my mother.' ( a-onaha ka a-unuhu ka 'both my father and my mother' is the object) c. nea seta , eynonnoitak a eynonnoitak a that dog pray-with-it EMPH-CON pray-with-it EMPH-CON kami-hi ki ayne ... meat-AFF do then '(Someone), using that dog, prayed and prayed, using its meat, then ... '

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

32

cf. nea seta kami-hi eynonnoitak a that dog meat-AFF pray-with-it EMPH-CON

eynonnoitak a ayne ... pray-with-it EMPH-CON then '(Someone) prayed and prayed using that dog meat, then ... '

( kami-hi 'meat-AFF' combines with nea seta 'that dog' to form a noun phrase) d. emo k-e eytasa ki ayne ... potato lP-SING-NOM-eat too-much do then

'I ate potato, too much (that time), then ... ' cf. emo eytasa k-e ayne potato too-many lP-SING-NOM-eat then

'I ate too many potatoes, then ... ' ( eytasa 'too much/many' is a modifier) e. . .. kor wa arki yan arki have CON come-PL CMND-PL/POL come-PL yan sekor kane, hawean CMND-PL/POL QUOTE even, say a-eywanke utar eun ki akusu .. . INDEFP-NOM-being-used people towards do then .. .

' ... bring it, bring it, (someone) said it to the people being employed, then ... ' cf. . .. a-eywanke utar eun ha wean INDEFP-NOM-being-used people towards say

akusu ... then ' ... (someone) said (that) to the people being employed, then ... '

( a-eywanke utar eun 'to the people being employed' is a modifier) When an adverbial particle is placed after a verb, ki comes afterwards to complete the predicate. For affirmative statements, the order is Verb-adverbial-particle-ki, and for negative statements, Verb-adverbialparticle-somo-ki.

33

4.1. Word Order

(4.18) a. iperusuy ka somo ki korka nea be-hungry even NEG do but that hacire yakka karkarse ka somo drop even-so roll-over even NEG

muttaktak rice-bran-riceball

ki do

'(Someone) wasn't even hungry, but he tried (to roll) that ball of rice bran by dropping it, but it didn't roll (away).'

b. m{na-an wa a-nukarepa ka ki laugh CON show even do '(I will) also laugh and show (them).' c. cikap a-koyki yak a-se bird INDEFP-NOM-shoot if INDEFP-NOM-carry-on-back hem ki wa ... also do CON 'I will shoot birds and carry them on my back, and ... '

d. . .. a-wenunuhu INDEFP-NOM-evil-natured-mother a-wenonaha a-kopasrota p6ka ki INDEFP-NOM-evil-natured-father call-names at-least do wa .. . CON .. .

'(I will) even curse my wicked mother and wicked father. .. ' e. aynu a-kar yakka pirka he ki person INDEFP-NOM-make even-so be-good QUES do ya whether 'Is it OK for us to make humans?' (said by gods)

f.

nen-ka sitomapa kira hene kipa yak somehow fear- PL run-away or-something do-PL if okakehe wa, tooka amip ka icen ka amam afterwards from, that clothes also money also grain ka poronno e-kor wa e-soyne also much 2P-SING-NOM-take CON 2P-SING-NOM-go-out tas ki nek EMPH do FIN 'If (I) could scare them and make them run away, then (I) could get all those clothes and money and grain and take them away (out).'

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

34

4.1.6.6 Insertion

As in other languages, there are filler words like easir 'uh; well; let's see' used to make time, and there are other supplements and phrases and explanations inserted into the middle of sentences.

(4.19) a. hotasnu kewtum koohana ne yakka concerned feeling person-like-me COP even-so ku-yaykorpare lP-SING-had

'Even a person such as I had feelings of concern.'

rep ta ohaoka wa ukor eaykap kus, b. aynu human be-same CON marry cannot reason, open-sea at/in arokte kamuy sinna, atuyso ka ta, separately-exist, gods sea above at/in, live kamuy ta arokte kim un iwor gods mountain of depths at/in live sinna, pe ne kusu, repuyso ka ta separately~exist, thing COP reason, open-sea above at/in arokte kamuy oro wa matkor hike maktor ... live gods place from get-wife one-of get-wife 'These (newly created) humans were not allowed to marry (each other), (so) there were gods living beyond the ocean or gods living deep in the mountains, so there were those who got wives from the gods living over the ocean ... ' c. nen ne yakka, easir haru pirkapi uk anyone COP even-if, uhh harvest good-things get/take rusuy kusu tasi, tono mosir ta po, want reason especially, man land at /in more, sisam mosir ta po porono a-et6yta Japanese land at/in more much INDEFP-NOM-sow p usa aepi ne wa an kor ene, thing various food COP CON to-be when/while like-this, wakka mespa asuru, cise ne ciki, tono utar ne water strip-off rumor, house COP if, man people COP ciki, mom hike mom, a-turaynu hike if, flow and flow, INDEFP-NOM-become-lost and a-turaynu a-pa hike INDEFP-NOM-become-lost INDEFP-NOM-find and a-pa kor, nen ne yakka INDEFP-NOM-find when, who COP even-so

4.2. Parts of Speech

35

ehuyne pakno tono ne yakka, everyone-together extent man COP even-so, a-utari ne yakka, cis turano INDEFP-NOM-people-AFF COP even-so, cry with koyaywennukar hawe ne nankor sekor, suffering eSAID COP perhaps QUOTE, yaynu-an kor ... think-INDEFP-NOM when/while 'Anyone, uhh, wants a good harvest, therefore they sow much food in the fields and this is more so in the Japanese lands. Then the waters washed everything away (it is rumored); the Japanese lost their homes and even people were washed away, though some were found. Then, everyone, Japanese and Ainu, suffered I think, ... ' ('tono' above refers to a high-ranking person, usually Japanese.) In this example, in addition to insertions, several paired expressions can be seen. Paired expressions are used frequently in Ainu as beautifying expressions. As can be seen here, there are cases where the same event is expressed with slightly different phrasing, and there are also cases where contrastive events are lined up with parallel expressions. In the example above, the phrase a-et6yta p usa aepi ne (sow thing various food COP) is an example of changed word order, discussed in 4.1.6.2 above.

4.1. 7 Omission In Ainu there is a tendency to leave unsaid that which is understood. For example, when the same subject, object, or modifier is repeated, the second occurrence and thereafter are omitted. Since person is marked on verbs, the person of subjects and objects can be understood from the verb alone. In such cases, without some other reason necessitating them, pronouns are normally omitted (see section 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Persons).

4.2 Parts of Speech Dividing words according to syntactic function as follows yields seven parts of speech.

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

36 1. Verbs 2. Nouns 3. Adnominals 4. Adverbs

5. Conjunctions 6. Particles 7. Interjections

In Ainu, adjectives are not independent parts of speech. What would be expressed with adjectives in other languages is usually expressed in Ainu with intransitive verbs.

poro 'to be big, to become big' pon 'to be small, to become small' onne 'to be old, to age (of living things)' pewre 'to be young'

4.3 Verbs As the predicate of a sentence, the verb is the most important word.

4.3.1 Tense There is no change in word form based on tense. The same form is used regardless of present, past, or future. When the events occurred can be understood by situation and context. Of course, when necessary, time can be also expressed by various other means.

(4.20) a. hempara e-ek? when 2P-SING-NOM-come 'When did you come/When will you come?'

b. numan k-ek yesterday lP-SING-NOM-come 'I came yesterday.' c. nisatta k-ek tomorrow lP-SING-NOM-come

'I will come tomorrow.' d. nisatta ku-hosipi kusu-ne tomorrow lP-SING-NOM-return going-to 'I will return tomorrow.'

4.3. Verbs

37

4.3.2 Number There are a few verbs with the distinction between singular and plural. Among them, there are some high-frequency verbs. Examples of verbs with singular and plural forms are given below. 4.3.2.1 Singular ends with -V; plural ends with -pa.

• maka :: makpa 'to open' • osura :: osurpa 'to throw away' • yasa :: yaspa 'to tear, split' • hopuni :: hopunpa 'to get up; to fly' • hosipi :: hosippa 'to return' • turi :: turpa 'to stretch' • yaku :: yakpa 'to crush' • hetuku :: hetukpa 'to grow, mature' • piru :: pirpa 'to wipe' • teme :: tempa 'to measure length (in armspans)' • okere :: okerpa 'to end, finish' • komo :: kompa 'to bend' • soso :: sospa 'to peel off' • rewe :: rewpa 'to bend' • sinewe :: sinewpa 'to go visit' • kaye :: kaype 'to bend, break' • nuye :: nuype 'to carve; to write' This pattern has many examples. Depending on the dialect, the words used may vary, but there are more than 100 pairs like this. Basically, a eve root has a vowel attached to it to make the transitive singular verb, and the root with -pa makes the plural. By prefixing other elements to transitive verbs created in this way, other verbs can be made. For example, the intransitive verb hopuni :: hopunpa 'to get up; to fly' is comprised of the verb pun-i :: pun-pa 'to lift up, raise' plus ho- 'buttocks', and etymologically has the construction 'to lift up the buttocks' (see chapter 5 Word Formation).

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

4.3.2.2 Singular ends with -n; plural ends with -p.

• ahun : : ahup 'to enter' • asin :: asip 'to come forth' • ran :: rap 'to go out; to come out' • rikin :: rikip 'to go up' • san :: sap 'to go (down) towards the sea' • yan :: yap 'to come ashore; to land' This pattern has only the above six pairs. Of these pairs, the latter four have nominal roots to which -n or -p has been attached, namely ra 'below'; rik 'above'; sa 'direction of the sea; front'; and ya 'land'. The origins of asin :: asip 'to come forth' are not known. Each of these verbs may take the suffix -ke/-te, or -ka (singular) and -te (plural), to make the following transitive verbs.

• ahunke/ahunte :: ahupte 'to let (someone) enter' • asinke :: asipte 'to put out' • ranke :: rapte 'to lower' • rikinka :: rikipte 'to raise' • sanke :: sapte 'to put out' • yanke :: yapte 'to put ashore, to put upon (something)' 4.3.2.3 Irregular Forms

• an :: aka/okay (dialectal variation) 'to exist, to be' • as :: roski 'to stand' • a :: rok 'to sit' • arpa/oman (dialectal variation) :: paye 'to go' • ek :: arki 'to come' The above forms are intransitive verbs.

• anu :: ari/are (dialectal variation) 'to set (down), to place' (the singular is an 'to be' with a transitivizing vowel attached, and the plural is a 'to sit' with the causative suffix -re attached) • rayke :: ronnu 'to kill' • uk :: uyna 'to take'

4.3.

39

Verbs

The above forms are transitive verbs. Various elements may be placed in front of the verb an :: oka/okay 'to exist' to form other verbs. The following Saru dialect forms illustrate this.

• eramuan :: eramuoka vt 'to know, to understand' (literally, 'have mind') • hawean :: haweoka vi 'to say' (literally, 'there is a voice') • omanan :: payoka vi 'to go on a trip, to walk around' (literally, 'go be') 4.3.2.4 Concepts of Singular and Plural The concepts of 'singular' and 'plural' are different from those in English and French and the like. In those languages, number corresponds to number of the subject, but in Ainu, number relates to the action expressed by the verb and the number of events. For example, tuye 'to cut SING' expresses one person cutting one time, while tuypa 'to cut PL' expresses two or more people cutting; one person cutting more than one object; or one person cutting one object more than once. When more than one object is cut, or when one object is cut into several pieces, because the action of cutting occurs more than once, the plural form is used. However, when many objects are cut, or when one object is cut into several pieces, because the action is consecutively repeated, the reduplicated form tuypatuypa is usually used (see chapter 5 Word Formation). For rayke :: ronnu 'to kill', no matter how many people are involved in the killing, since that event occurs only at the moment that the person or animal dies, the singular is used. For example, no matter how many people are involved in the hunt, if one bear is killed, the singular rayke is used, and if two or more bears are killed, the plural form ronnu is employed. Accordingly, for transitive verbs, the number often agrees with the number of the object.

• oputuye 'to push one person

SING'

• oputuypa 'to push two or more people

PL'

However, eramuan expresses 'one person understands amuoka expresses 'two or more people understand PL'.

SING'

and er-

It should be noted that when the number is specified by a numeral, if that number is small, such as two, three, or sometimes four, the singular form of the verb is used. For larger numbers the plural form is used.

40

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

(4.21) a. tu okkaypo ek two youth come-SING 'Two youths came.' (not with arki 'come-PL')

b. re cise as wa an three house stand-SING CON to-be 'Three houses are standing.' (not with roski 'stand-PL')

c. ine nispa ek ruwe ne four respected man come-SING eEVD COP 'Four gentlemen came.' However, when there are more than imagined or expected, the plural form is used.

(4.22) ine nispa ka arki ruwe ne four gentleman even come-PL eEVD COP 'As many as four gentlemen came.' When there are more than four, the plural form is normally used.

(4.23) tupesaniw ka arki ruwe ne eight even come-PL eEVD COP 'Eight people came.' When the number is not specified, such as when using terms like 'many', or 'several', if there are two or more objects, the plural is used.

(4.24) a. inne utar arki many people come-PL 'Many people came.'

b. cise poronno roski wa oka house many stand-PL CON to-be-PL 'There are many houses standing.' The pluralizing suffix -pa, discussed above, may be attached to a plural verb, or to verbs without a singular /plural distinction to express the performance of an action by plural subject or of action performed on a plural object, or both.

4.3. Verbs

41

wa payere (4.25) a. sere-pa carry on one's back-CAUS-PL CON go-PL-CAUS yan CMND-PL/POL

'Make each of them carry (something) on their backs.' b. hosippa-pa wa arki return-PL-PL CON come-PL 'Everybody came back.' (for example, when an unexpected number of people come back)

cf. hosippa wa arki return-PL CON come-PL 'They came back!' (for example, they went a certain distance but turned back) In cases like this, -pa often attaches outside the personal affix (after the personal suffix).

(4.26) a. uwenewsar-as-pa enjoyably-talk-together-lP-PL-NOM-PL 'We chatted enjoyably.' b. uwenewsar-an-pa enjoyably-talk-together-INDEFP-NOM-PL 'You and I both chatted enjoyably together.'

4.3.3 Types of Verbs Four types of verbs can be distinguished by grammatical function.

4.3.3.1 Complete Verbs The subject and predicate are built into the verb itself, and it does not take other subjects or objects or complements.

• mean 'to be cold (weather)' (-Jme 'coldness'; an 'to be') • sirpirka 'the weather is good' ( sir 'conditions'; pirka 'to be good, beautiful') • sirsak 'to become summer' ( sir 'conditions'; sak 'summer') As in the second example, many phrases are constructed of sir 'conditions' + intransitive verb. These can be seen as two words, but because particles and other words cannot come between the elements, they are treated as one word here.

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

4.3.3.2 Intransitive Verbs Intransitive verbs take subjects, but do not take objects or complements.

( 4.27) a. kani ku-mina lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-laugh b. poyson cis child cry

'I laughed.'

'The child cried.'

4.3.3.3 Transitive Verbs Transitive verbs take subjects and objects. Subjects and objects are not always marked; these are understood from context.

(4.28) a. ekasi okkaypo nukar grandfather youth see 'The elderly man saw the youth.' b. okkaypo kamuy rayke youth bear kill 'The youth killed the bear.' Some verbs, ditransitive verbs, take two objects. There is no special form or structure that can be called dative, and direct and indirect objects are not morphologically distinguished.

(4.29) a. caca weysisam icen kore elder be-poor-Japanese money give 'The elderly man gave the poor Japanese .some money.' b. huci sisam-okkaypo aynu-itak epakasnu grandmother Japanese-youth Ainu-word teach 'The elderly woman taught the Japanese youth Ainu words.'

(In the examples above, the words ekasi and huci can mean either one's actual blood relative or someone old enough to be a 'grandfather' or 'grandmother'.) 4.3.3.4 Copulas Copulas take a subject and a complement.

(4.30) toan hekaci ku-poho ne that youth lP-SING-NOM-son-AFF COP 'That youth is my son.' The copula ne may, on occasion, be replaced by other words.

4.3.

43

Verbs

A. In exclamatory sentences, an is used instead of ne after the following words: ruwe eEVD; hawe eSAID; humi eFELT; and siri eSEEN. (4.31) ku-ipe rusuy humi an! lP-SING-NOM-eat want eFELT to-be 'I'm hungry!'

cf. ku-ipe rusuy humi! lP-SING-NOM-eat want eFELT 'I'm hungry!' ( ku-ipe or kuype is a Saru dialect form. Other dialects have ku-ipe.)

B. In questions made with interrogatives, an to-be is normally used instead of ne COP. Not just after ruwe eEVD, hawe eSAID, humi eFELT, and siri eSEEN, but after any regular noun phrase, an is used instead of the third person form of the copula. (4.32) a. hempara ek kusu-ne ruwe an? when come going-to eEVD to-be

'(I wonder) when is he going to come?' kor pirka hawe an? lP-SING-NOM-have when/if be-good eSAID to-be

b. inanpe ku-kor which

'Which one should I take?' c. hunak un e-arpa siri an? where towards 2P-SING-NOM-go eSEEN to-be 'Where are you going?'

d. tapan itak mak a-ye itak an? this word how INDEFP-NOM-say word to-be 'How do you say this word?' e. hunna an? who to-be 'Who is it? /Who are you?' Even for yes-no questions, an may be used without an interrogative.

(4.33) a-ik6re ruwe he an? INDEFP-NOM-receive eEVD QUES to-be 'Did you receive (it)?' (questioning)

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

cf. a-ik6re

ruwe? INDEFP-NOM-receive eEVD

'Did you receive (it)?' (simple)

cf. a-ik6re

ruwe ne ya? INDEFP-NOM-receive eEVD COP whether

'Did you receive (it)?' (wondering or humbly)

C. Before the final particle nek EMPH (most often appearing with the intensifying adverbial particle tas or tos ), an may appear instead of ne. wa tos-to, rapuhu ay (4.34) paskur a-rayke crow INDEFP-NOM-kill CON EMPH, feather arrow a-kar wa... ayrapkina hetuku ruwe INDEFP-NOM-make CON ... fletch-grass sprout eEVD nek! EMPH

ne as/into an

to-be

'A crow was killed there and an arrow was made with its feathers, and that is why fletch-grass sprouted!'

D. In refined, polite conversation, using formal terms, tapan (coP-POL) is used instead of ne COP. It appears often after ruwe eEVD, hawe eSAID, humi eFELT, and siri eSEEN. In announcements and when addressing someone, tapan na (coP-POL SGST) is used. (4.35) a. ku-kor hapo orowa kampi ek ruwe lP-SING-NOM-have mother from-place letter come eEVD tapan COP-POL

'A letter came from my mother.' b. a-en-kore ruwe he tapan? INDEFP-NOM-lP-SING-ACC-give eEVD QUES COP-POL 'Do you give it to me?' c. ku-nu ka eramiskari ruwe tapan lP-SING-NOM-hear even have-never-done eEVD COP-POL na

SGST

'I have never heard that.'

4.3. Verbs

45

4.3.4 Verb Phrases that Function as Single Words There are verb phrases that are made of two words, are usually used together, and express combined meaning like one verb. Most of them are locative nouns (see section 4.5.2 Locative Nouns below) combined with verbs. (4.36) a. tom-o osma 'to crash against' b. san etupsi tomo k-osma 'I bumped into the edge of the shelf.' c. e-tom k-osma 'I bumped into you.'

d. eci-tom6 k-osma 'I bumped into you (PL).' e. en- tom e- osma 'You bumped into me.'

In this way, the word in front changes to the personal accusative, and the word following changes to the personal nominative (for changes in person, see section 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person). The word in front becomes the object of the word following. (Kindaichi and Chiri saw this type as one verb, and treated the nominative affix as an infix.) Frequently-used examples of this type of verb phrase are illustrated below. • aske uk 'to invite' (lit., 'take a hand') • etok( o) oyki 'to prepare' (lit., 'do things before something') • etok( o) tuye 'to obstruct' (lit., 'cut the front') • ka( si) opas 'to run to visit someone in trouble' (lit., 'run to') • kes( e) anpa 'to chase after' (lit., 'hold the end') • par(o) oyki 'to provide for' (lit., 'do for the mouth') • ram(u) ye 'to praise' (lit., 'speak the heart') • ram( u) suye 'to comfort' (lit., 'shake the heart') • tom( o) oytak 'to soothe' (lit., 'speak right to the face')

46

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

The element in parentheses is the locative noun long form affix (see section 4.5.2 Locative Nouns below). Depending on the type of accusative personal affix, or its presence or absence, these forms appear as the long form or not. When the following prefixes are attached - u- RECIPRO 'reciprocally'; yay- 'self'; i- 'unspecified person or thing' - these words each become one word.

(4.37) a. u-tom-osma 'to bump into each other' b. u-tom-osma-re (-re is a causative suffix) 'to cause to bump into each other' c. a-u-t6m-osma-re 'to be caused to bump into each other'

The preceding word may be an adverb.

(4.38) a. use anu 'to remove (clothes)' ( anu 'to place' is transitive) b. m6no a 'to sit ( on the ground/floor)' ( a 'to sit' is intransitive)

4.3.5 Supplementary Verbs Coming directly after and combining with verb + wa CON. Verbs that are used like this are called supplementary verbs. See the following list for examples. The meanings of the words when used alone are also given.

• inkar vi 'to see' -wa inkar 'to try doing (something)' • inu vi 'to hear, to listen' -wa inu 'to try doing' • anu vt 'to place' -wa anu 'to do something in preparation' • kore ditransitive verb 'to give (something to someone)' -wa kore 'to do something for someone' See also section 4.11.1 The Structure of Verb Phrases.

4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

47

4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person Ainu has first, second, and third persons, and also has an indefinite person. Each has both singular and plural. For details, see section 4.4.4 Person. Person is indicated by personal pronouns or by personal affixes.

4.4.1 Personal Pronouns Almost all personal pronouns have an (singular) or aka/okay (plural) as their stem, and some of them take -i as a suffix. Further, there are forms with nominative personal affixes prefixed (see section 4.4.2 below). An (singular) and aka/okay (plural) are intransitive verbs with the meaning 'to be, to exist'. These are thought to have undergone nominalization, and are fixed as a form the personal pronoun. Accordingly, if translated literally, they become 'my being', 'your being', and so on. Depending on the dialect or the person, utar 'people' or sinuma may become the stem of personal pronouns. The etymology of sinuma is unknown, but Kindaichi Kyoosuke explained it as siroma 'live peaceably', 'being'. Personal pronouns are a kind of noun. They may be subjects, objects, or complements, and may be placed in front of the affiliative forms of nouns, locative nouns, and some varieties of postpositional adverbs, and they combine with these structures. However, unlike common nouns, they may not be the core of a noun phrase modified by adjuncts (modifiers). For example, tan hekaci (this youth) 'this youth', poro e-yupo (be-big 2P-SING-NOM-older-brother) 'your large older brother' and the like are possible, but phrases like *this I and *large you are not. In particular, first, second, and indefinite person pronouns may not take modifiers, verbs, and verb phrases, and they also cannot take nominal adjuncts. In other words, for example, common nouns may come after a person's name, e.g., Wakkata acapo 'uncle Wakkata', Sankerek ekasi 'grandfather Sankerek', or wenkur huci 'poor grandmother', but personal pronouns may not. For example, *Suzuko kani (Suzuko (name) lP-SING-PRON), *huci eani (grandmother 2P-SING-PRON), and *wenkur kani (be-poor-person lP-SING-PRON) are all unacceptable. Phrases like 'you, my older sister', 'you with the fast feet', and 'we the elderly' are expressed in the following way.

(4.39) a. ku-saha e-ne wa eani lP-SING-NOM-older-sister 2P-SING-COP CON 2P-SING-PRON ne hike ... COP one

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

'you, my older sister' (lit., 'You are my older sister and you ... ')

pe ne kusu nani b. e-nitan 2P-SING-be-fast thing COP reason soon e-sirepa wa e-ek ruwe un 2P-SING-NOM-arrive CON 2P-SING-NOM-come eEVD FIN 'You're so fast, and that's why you arrived so quickly.' c. tane anak onne p ci-ne wa un-ka now TOP be-old thing lP-PL-NOM-COP CON lP-PL-ACC

eci-6yki 2P-PL-NOM-care for 'Now we are old, and we are dependent upon to you.'

4.4.2 Personal Affixes, Personal Forms Most verbs, some nouns, and some adverbs make personal forms by agreeing with the person of the subject, object, adjunct nouns, and pronouns. Personal forms are made by attaching personal affixes. As seen in Table 4.1, almost all personal affixes are prefixes. However, some persons use suffixes on intransitive verbs. The third person is expressed with zero affixation. The first person plural and indefinite person nominative affixes have more than one form. The difference in usage is as follows. (1) The suffixes -as and -an attach to intransitive verbs. (2) The prefixes ci- and a-/an- attach to all other words (transitive verbs, copulas, nouns, and adverbs).

4.4.2.1 Intransitive verbs and the copula ne agree with the person of the subject (see Tables 4.2-4.4). The following examples are from the Saru dialect. In other dialects, the word forms may differ, but the usage is identical. Because pronouns are easily omitted, they will be enclosed in parentheses as appropriate. • Intransitive Verbs (4.40) a. (kani) tane ku-hosipi kusu-ne (IP-SING-PRON) now lP-SING-NOM-return-home going-to 'Now I'm going home.' b. ( eani) hinak wa e-ek? (2P-SING-PRON) where from 2P-SING-NOM-come 'Where did you come from?'

49

4. 4. Personal Pronouns and Person

Person

Number

Personal Pronoun

N orninative Affix

Accusative Affix

Southern Hokkaido, Saru Dialect 1

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

PL INDEF

SING

PL

kani c6ka eani ecioka sinuma oka asinuma aoka

kuci-, -as eeci-

enuneeci-

(/J

(/J

(/J

(/)

a-, -an a-, -an

'l-

i-

Eastern Hokkaido, Tokachi Dialect 1

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

PL INDEF

kuani ciutari, ciokay eani eciutari, eciokay anihi okay

SING

PL

anokay, anutari

kuci-, -as eeci-

enuneeci-

(/J

(/J

(/J

(/J

a-, (-an) a-, -an

( i-) i-

Central Hokkaido, Ishikari Dialect 1

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

PL INDEF

kuani ciokay eani esokay anihi okay

SING

PL

anokay

kuci-; -as ees-

enunees-

(/J

(/J

(/J

(/J

an-, (-an) an-, -an

( i-) i-

Sakhalin, Raichishka Dialect (frorn Murasaki 1979) 1

SING

PL

kuani anoka, anokayahcin eani ecioka, eciokayahcin

kuan-, -an eeci-

enieeci-

2

SING

3

SING

(/J

(/J

PL

0, (-hci)

0, (-hci)

PL

Table 4.1: Personal Pronouns and Personal Affixes

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

Intransitive Verbs: Nominative Variation Person

1

Number

Verb

Gloss

mina

'to laugh'

PL

ku-mina mina-as( -pa) e-mina eci-mina( -pa) mina mina(-pa) mina-an mina-an(-pa)

'I laugh' 'we laugh' 'you (SING) laugh' 'you (PL) laugh' 'he/she/it laughs' 'they laugh' 'someone laughs' 'some people laugh'

Number

Verb

Gloss

hosipi (SING) hosippa (PL)

'to return' 'to return'

ku-hosipi hosippa-as e-hosipi eci-hosippa hosipi hosippa hosipi-an hosippa-an

'I return' 'we return' 'you (SING) return' 'you (PL) return' 'he returns' 'they return' 'someone returns' 'some people return'

SING

PL

2

SING

3

SING

PL PL INDEF

Person

1

SING

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

PL INDEF

SING

PL

Copula: Nominative Variation Person

1

Number

SING

PL

2

SING

3

SING

INDEF

SING

PL PL PL

Verb

Gloss

ne

'to be'

ku-ne ci-ne(-pa) e-ne eci-ne( -pa) ne ne(-pa) a-ne a-ne(-pa)

'I am' 'we are' 'you (SING) are' 'you (PL) are' 'he is' 'they are' 'someone is' 'some people are'

Table 4.2: Variation in Person on Verbs in Southern Hokkaido Saru Dialect (1)

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4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

Transitive Verbs: Nominative Variation when the object is third person singular Person

1

Number

SING

PL

2

SING

3

SING

INDEF

SING

PL PL PL

1

SING

PL 2

SING

PL 3

SING

PL INDEF

SING

PL

Verb

Gloss

nukar

'to see'

ku-nukar ci-nukar(-pa) e-nukar eci-nukar(-pa) nukar nukar(-pa) a-nukar nukar

'I see him/her/it' 'we see him' 'you (SING) see him' 'you (PL) see him' 'he sees him' 'they see him' 'someone sees him' 'some people see him'

eramuan eramuoka

'to understand (SING)' 'to understand (PL)'

k-eramuan c-eramuoka e-eramuan eci-eramuoka eramuan eramuoka a-eramuan a-eramuoka

'I understand that' 'we understand that' 'you (SING) understand that' 'you (PL) understand that' 'he understands that' 'they understand that' 'someone understands that' 'some people understand that'

Table 4.3: Variation m Person on Verbs in Southern Hokkaido Saru Dialect (2)

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

Transitive Verbs: Accusative Variation when the subject is third person singular Person

1

Number

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

INDEF

SING

PL PL

1

SING

PL

2

SING

PL

3

SING

PL INDEF

SING

PL

Verb

Gloss

nukar

'to see'

en-nukar un-nukar e-nukar eci-nukar nukar nukar i-nukar i-nukar

'he/she/it sees me' 'he sees us' 'he sees you (SING)' 'he sees you (PL)' 'he sees him' 'he sees them' 'he sees someone' 'he sees some people'

oputuye oputuypa

'to push (SING)' 'to push (PL)'

en-oputuye un-oputuypa e-oputuye eci-oputuypa oputuye oputuypa i-oputuye i-oputuypa

'he 'he 'he 'he 'he 'he 'he 'he

pushes pushes pushes pushes pushes pushes pushes pushes

me' us' you (SING)' you (PL)' him' them' someone' some people'

Table 4.4: Variation in Person on Verbs in Southern Hokkaido Saru Dialect (3)

4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

53

c. ( c6ka) Tokapci wa arki-as (IP-PL-PRON) Tokachi from come-PL-IP-PL-NOM

'We come from Tokachi (a region in central Hokkaido).' • Copula ne (4.4I) a. (kani) Iskar un menoko ku-ne (IP-SING-PRON) Ishikari of woman lP-SING-NOM-COP 'I am a woman of Ishikari (a region in central Hokkaido).' b. ( eani) sipase katkemat e-ne (2P-SING-PRON) be-splendid lady 2P-SING-NOM-COP 'You are a splendid lady.' c. ( c6ka) Sar penike omotokor utar (lP-PL-PRON) Sam upper-reaches have-origin-from people

ci-ne-(pa) IP-PL-NOM-COP-(PL)

'We are people of the upper reaches of the Sam River.' As seen from these examples, the personal affixes that attach to ne are all prefixes, just the same as with transitive verbs. The copula ne does not agree with the person of a complement. As shown in the following examples, the subject takes the third person, and kani (IP-SING-PRON) 'I', eani (2P-SING-PRON) 'you (singular)', and c6ka (lP-PL-NOM-PRON) 'we' are complements. (4.42) a. kani

ne

lP-SING-PRON COP

b. eani

ne

2P-SING-PRON COP c.

c6ka

'It is I.' 'It is you.'

ne

lP-PL-PRON COP

'It is us.'

4.4.2.2 Transitive verbs agree with not only the subject but also the object. The affix that indicates the person of the subject is called the nominative affix, and that which indicates the person of the object is called the accusative affix. There is no distinction between accusative and dative in the accusative affix, and the same personal affix is used for both the direct and indirect object.

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

(4.43) a. ( kani) ekasi ku-nukar (IP-SING-PRON) grandfather IP-SING-NOM-see 'I see the elderly man.' (Subject-Object-Transitive Verb)

b. ekasi (kani) en-nukar grandfather (IP-SING-PRON) IP-SING-ACC-see 'The elderly man sees me.' (Subject-Object-Transitive Verb) C.

ekasi ( kani) kampi en-kore grandfather (IP-SING-PRON) letter lP-SING-ACC-give 'The elderly man sent me a letter.' (Ekasi can refer to a person who is specifically someone's grandfather or a man old enough to be someone's grandfather.) (Subject-Indirect Object-Direct Object-Transitive Verb)

As seen in Tables 4.2-4.4, for transitive verbs, forms with a second person subject and a third person object are the same as forms with a third person subject and a second person object. (4.44) a. acapo e-nukar uncle 2P-SING-see 'The (middle aged) man sees you.' (Third person subject, second person object) or 'You see the (middle aged) man.' (Second person subject, third person object) (As with above, acapo can refer to someone's uncle or any man of that age.)

b. hekaci eci-tura youth 2P-'PL-accompany 'The youth accompanies you (PL).' (Third person subject, second person plural object) or 'You (PL) accompany the youth.' (Second person plural subject, third person object) However, in these examples, whether it is he who accompanies you, or you who accompany him, is understood from the context. Accusative marking for transitive verbs, in addition to being the nominative third person (zero affixation), can be used for imperatives (no indication of the person of the subject). (4.45) en-erampokiwen wa en-kore! lP-SING-ACC-pity CON lP-SING-ACC-give 'Pity me!'

55

4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

Saru dialect, southern Hokkaido Person

1 2

3

INDEF

Number

SING PL SING PL SING PL SING PL

Noun

Gloss

sik sikihi

'eye(s)' 'eye(s )-AFF'

ku-sikihi ci-sikihi e-sikihi eci-sik{hi sikihi sikihi a-sik{hi a-sik{hi

'my eye(s)-AFF' 'our eyes-AFF' 'your (SING) eye(s)-AFF' 'your (PL) eyes-AFF' 'his/her /its eye(s )-AFF' 'their eyes-AFF' 'someone's eye(s)-AFF' 'some people's eyes-AFF'

Raichishka dialect, Sakhalin Person

1 2

3

Number

SING PL SING PL SING PL

Noun

Gloss

sis sikihi

'eye(s)' 'eye(s )-AFF'

ku-sikihi an-sikihi e-sikihi eci-sikihi sikihi sikihi

'my eye(s)-AFF' 'our eyes-AFF' 'your (SING) eye(s )-AFF' 'your (PL) eyes-AFF' 'his/her/its eye(s)-AFF' 'their eyes-AFF'

Table 4.5: Personal Forms of Common Nouns

4.4.2.3 There are some nouns that take personal affixes to make personal forms (see section 4.5 Nouns).

A. Personal Forms of Common Nouns In the structure Noun 1 + Noun 2, which shows a possessive relationship, Noun 2 (a common noun) agrees with the person of Noun 1 (a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun), expressing meanings such as 'mine' and 'yours'. To make personal forms of common nouns, the same nominative affix found prefixed to transitive verbs is used (see Table 4.5).

(4.46) a. ku-sikihi arka humi! lP-SING-NOM-eye-AFF hurt eFELT

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

56

Saru dialect, southern Hokkaido Person

1

Number

SING PL

2

SING PL

3

SING PL

INDEF

SING PL

Noun

Gloss

kotca

'in front of'

en-kotca un-kotca e-kotca eci-k6tca kotca kotca i-kotca i-kotca

'in 'in 'in 'in 'in 'in 'in 'in

front front front front front front front front

of me' of us' of you (SING)' of you (PL)' of him' of them' of someone' of some people'

Table 4.6: Personal Forms of Locative Nouns

'My eye hurts!' b. e-sikihi arka hawe? 2P-SING-NOM-eye-AFF hurt eSAID

'Does your eye hurt?'

c. ci-kotanu un utar lP-PL-NOM-village-AFF of/from people 'the people of our village' B. Personal Forms of Locative Nouns To express relative location, the structure Noun 1 + Locative Noun forms a noun phrase. The locative noun agrees with the person of Noun 1, showing meanings such as 'above me', below me', 'in front of me', 'above you', and 'below you' and becomes a personal form. To form the personal form of locative nouns, the same accusative affix found prefixed to transitive verbs is used (see Table 4.6). ta an na (4.4 7) a. en-corpok lP-SING-ACC-below at/in to-be SGST 'It's under me.' b. un-kotca kus wa arpa wa isam lP-PL-ACC-front pass CON go CON to-be-NEG

'(He/It) passed in front of us and went away.'

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4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

4.4.2.4 Some adverbs take personal affixes to make personal forms. Few take nominative personal affixes, but many take accusative personal affixes; these are words that express relative location (see section 4.7.2 Post positional Adverbs).

(4.48) a. ku-renkayne lP-SING-NOM-intention 'up to me' - renkayne 'by (someone's) intention' is thought to be made of renka 'intention' and ne 'as'. (This is why it is thought this takes the per_sonalized form of common nouns.)

b. en-neno an lP-SING-ACC-like to-be '(Someone) looks like me.'

c. en-os ek lP-SING-ACC-behind come '(Someone) came from behind me.' 4.4.2.5 The points above can be summarized as follows.

Items that take nominative affixes: intransitive verbs (some with exceptional personal forms); copulas; transitive verbs; some nouns; a few adverbs Items that take accusative affixes: transitive verbs; locative nouns; some adverbs (postpositional adverbs) 4.4.2.6 In the Saru dialect, when a personal affix attaches to a root, some morphophonemic alternation occurs in conversation.

• ku-

+i

in an open syllable

-+ ku-yruska lP-SING-NOM-be-angry

kuy (closed syllable):

-+

( 4.49) ku-iruska

'I get angry.'

In other dialects, this is ku-iruska.

• ku-

+

a/e/o/u

-+

k-

+ vowel

(the u drops):

(4.50) ku-apkas -+ k-apkas lP-SING-NOM-walk 'I walk.' In other dialects, this is ku-apkas.

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(4.51) ku-omap-----+ k-6map lP-SING-NOM-dote on

'I dote on (for example, a baby)'.

(4.52) ku-eramuan -----+ k-eramuan lP-SING-NOM-understand 'I know/understand.' • e-

+i

in an open syllable

(4.53) e-iruska -----+ e-yruska 2P-NOM-SING-be-angry

-----+

ey (closed syllable):

'You get angry.'

In many other dialects, this is e-iruska. • ci-

+ vowel

-----+

c-

+ vowel

(the i drops):

(4.54) ci-erampewtek-----+ c-erampewtek lP-PL-NOM-not-understand 'We don't understand/know.' (4.55) ci-omap -----+ c-6map lP-PL-NOM-dote-on

'We dote on (someone).'

In other dialects, these are ci-erampewtek and ci-omap. In the exposition to follow, in order to make the forms of word stems easier to see, forms such as kuyruska 'I get mad'; eyruska 'you get mad'; and c6map 'We dote on (someone)' will be written as ku-iruska (lPSING-NOM-be-mad), e-iruska (2P-SING-NOM-be-mad), and c-6map (lPPL-NOM-dote-on).

4.4.3 Nominative-Accusative Personalization of'Iransitive Verbs Transitive verbs change persons to agree with both the person of the subject and of the object. This is called Nominative-Accusative Personal Variation, and the affixes that make the personal forms are called Nominative-Accusative Personal Affixes. The nominative personal variation mentioned above is used when object is in the third person, and accusative personal variation is used when the subject is in the third person, except when the imperative is used. Dialectal variation in nominative-accusative personal affixes is greater than variation in either nominative affixes or accusative affixes. There are both regular forms (nominative and accusative affixes that can be analyzed) and irregular forms. The commonalities in the irregular forms in the Saru dialect of southern Hokkaido and of Sakhalin Ainu are worth noting. The dialects of central Hokkaido, which are physically between Saru and Sakhalin dialects, are comparatively regular (see Table 4. 7). In the Saru dialect, there are two main irregularities.

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4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

Southern Hokkaido, Saru Dialect NOM

ACC

ls

lP

ls lP

2s 2P 3S/P INDEF s/P

enecienenaen-

uneciununaun-

2s

2P

3s/P INDEF s/P

ecieci-

ecieci-

kuci-

eecieae-

eciaeci-

a-

kui- (/kuy /) aiei- (/ey /) eciiiai-

Central Hokkaido, Ishikari Dialect NOM ACC

ls

lP

ls lP

2s 2P 3S/P INDEF

eenesenenen- -an enci-

2s

2P

3s/P INDEF

e- -an e- -as

es- -an es- -as

kuciees-

eses- -an

0-

eunesununeun- -an e- -an unciane-

an-

? ? ? ? iani- -an

Sakhalin, Raichishka Dialect (Based on Murasaki 1976, with modifications) NOM ACC

ls

lP

ls lP

2s 2P 3S 3P

enien- -yan i- -yan eciienien- -hci i- -hci

2s

2P

eciane-

eci- -yan kueci- -yan aneeci-

eecie- -hci eci- -hci

3s

-hci

3P

ku- -hci an- -hci e- -hci eci- -hci -hci -hci

Table 4. 7: Nominative-Accusative Personal Affixes

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4.4.3.1 When the subject is first person and the object is second person, eci- is attached, without regard to singular or plural.

(4.56) a. eci-nukar 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-see 'I see you (singular).' (In eastern and central dialects, e-nukar-an) 'I see you (plural).' ( eci-nukar-an, es-nukar-an) 'We see you (singular).' ( e-nukar-as) 'We see you (plural).' ( eci-nukar-as, es-nukar-as) b. eci-nu-re 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-listen-CAUS 'I made you (singular) listen.' 'I made you (plural) listen.' 'We made you (singular) listen.' 'We made you (plural) listen.' (Used for example 'I sang a song', 'we told a story'.) The forms above may also be nominative second person plural with accusative third person ('you make him listen'), or nominative third person with accusative second person plural ('he makes you listen'). 4.4.3.2 When the subject is second person singular and the object is first person, the second person singular subject is unmarked, and has the same form as when the subject is third person.

(4.57) a. en-nukar lP-SING-ACC-see

'You (singular) see/saw me.'

b. en-kore lP-SING-ACc-give 'You (singular) give/gave (that) to me.' c. un-nukar lP-PL-ACC-see

d. un-kore lP-PL-ACC-give

'You (singular) see/saw us.'

'You (singular) give/gave (that) to us.'

In central and eastern Hokkaido, the dialects have the forms such as een- and eun-, e.g., een-nukar, eun-kore. Example sentences from southern Hokkaido, Saru dialect:

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61

(4.58) a. tan pe en-kore hawe? this thing lP-SING-ACC-give eSAID 'Will you give this to me?' (The subject eani 'you (singular)' and object kani 'me' are omitted.) b. neyta pakno eciun-nunuke any-time extent 2P-PL-NOM-1P-PL-ACC-treat-importantly wa iyayiraykere CON thanks 'Thank you (plural) for always treating us so nicely.' (The subject is ecioka 'you (plural)'; the object, c6ka 'us')

wa eci-nu-re kusu-ne c. ku-ye lP-SING-NOM-say CON 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-hear-CAUS going-to 'I'll tell (it) to you.' (The subject is kani 'I'; the object, eani 'you (singular)') d. kui-nukar rusuy korka ... lP-SING-NOM-INDEFP-PL-ACC-see want but 'I would like to see you, but ... ' (The subject is kani 'I'; the object, aoka indefinite plural, meaning 'you (respectful)' here) Example sentences from central Hokkaido, Ishikari dialect:

(4.59) a. ku-ihoski wa e-kik-an lP-SING-NOM-be-drunk CON 2P-SING-ACC-hit-1P-SING-NOM hi ka ku-erampetek NMNL even lP-SING-NOM-not-know 'I was drunk, and didn't realize that I hit you.' (The subject is kuani 'I'; the object, eani 'you (singular)') b. es-epakasnu-an kusu-ne na 2P-PL-ACC-teach-1P-SING-NOM going-to SGST 'I'll teach you (plural).' c. anokay ihoski-an wa INDEFP-PL-PRON drunk-INDEFP-NOM CON ku-matnepo turn lP-SING-NOM-daughter together

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unci-kik is-ki-a-ne INDEF-NOM-lP-PL-ACC-beat FIN 'You were intoxicated, and hit me and my daughter.'

4.4.4 Person 4.4.4.1 First Person Singular The first person singular is "I", that is, the person who is talking himself or herself.

k-arpa kusu-ne na hani! (4.60) a. kani IP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-go going-to SGST FIN 'I'll go.' b. ku-sikihi arka lP-SING-NOM-eye-AFF hurt 'My eye hurts.' c. iteki en-koyruska! PROHIB 1 P-SING-ACC-be-angry 'Don't get angry at me.'

d. a-en-ipe-re INDEFP-NOM-lP-SING-ACC-eat-CAUS ku-kemnoye noyne lP-SING-NOM-starve-to-death seem

ka soma ki wa even NEG do CON ku-yaynu lP-SING-NOM-think

'(They) won't feed me, and I think I'm going to starve to death.'

e. kuani ku-oman lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-go 'I will go.' (Ishikari dialect) 4.4.4.2 First Person Plural The first person plural is "we", but in Hokkaido Ainu, it indicates "they and I", without including the listener, and is the so-called first person plural exclusive.

anak unu ka ona ka (4.61) a. c6ka lP-PL-PRON TOP mother even father even ci-sak lP-PL-NOM-not-have 'We have neither a mother nor a father.'

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63

b. un-toykokikkik wa kusu cis-as kor lP-PL-ACC-beat-terribly CON reason cry-lP-PL-NOM while arki-as come-PL-lP-PL-NOM '(Someone) beat us terribly and that is why we came crying.' c. utaspa utoykokikkik-as mutually beat-terribly- IP-PL-NOM 'We beat each other up terribly.'

d. a-un-maketa kuni INDEFP-NOM-lP-PL-ACC-defeat should ci-yayniwkeste lP-PL-NOM-try-not-to-happen 'We tried not to be defeated.' e. ciokay ka itura-as a wa we even go-together-lP-PL-NOM PAST FIN 'We also went together.' (Ishikari dialect)

In short, Hokkaido Ainu differentiates the so-called exclusive plural (we, excluding the listener, "they and I") and the inclusive plural (we, including the listener, "you and they and I"). 4.4.4.3 Inclusive First Person Plural-Indefinite Plural To express the inclusive first person plural, the indefinite person is used.

(4.62) a. aoka INDEFP-PL-PRON p somo ne thing NEG COP

anak eun inu-an kuni TOP towards listen-INDEFP-NOM should na SGST

'We shouldn't listen to such a thing.' b. a-inanikehe a-i-k6nrusuy INDEFP-NOM-which INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-want ya a-i-emaka ya whether INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-not-need whether a-erampewtek INDEFP-NOM-not know 'We don't know which of us is wanted.'

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax c. hetak paye-an wa ipe-an ro well go-PL-INDEFP-NOM CON eat-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Well, let's go and eat.'

d. anokay hampe orowa INDEFP-PL-PRON father place-from i-koyki-an kusu INDEFP-ACC-pick-on-INDEFP-NOM reason kira-an ro run-away-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Because we get picked on by father, let's run away.' (Ishikari dialect)

4.4.4.4 Quotational Sentences and Oral Literature In quotational sentences, and also in stories and other tales that are passed down, the indefinite may be used instead of the first person. In folk tales and epic poetry, when main characters recite (or sing) stories of themselves, the main character uses the indefinite person. (4.63) Iskar penikehe ta Ishikari River upper-reaches at/in a-ekasi i-resu hine INDEFP-SING-NOM-grandfather INDEFP-SING-ACC-raise and oka-an live-INDEFP-PL-NOM

'In the upper reaches of the Ishikari River, my grandfather raised me, and we lived together.' However, in sacred epic poems, one person referring to themselves may use the first person plural, and this appears to be the old form of referring to oneself in sacred epic poems. Recently, depending on the region, in sacred epic poems, as in other tales, the indefinite person plural is used; additionally, during the same sacred epic poem, the first person plural and the indefinite forms may both be used. The next four examples (in 4.64 and 4.65) are from sacred epic poems. (4.64) chi-santekehe chi-turpa wa nean ponai IP-PL-hand IP-PL-hold-out CON that small-arrow chi-eshikari IP-PL-take 'I held out my hand and took that small arrow.' (from Horobetsu in southern Hokkaido)

4. 4. Personal Pronouns and Person

65

Reproduced here as it appears in Y. Chiri 1978. However, in order to indicate the personal forms, hyphens have been inserted. Also, chi = ci and shi = si.

hine asip-an (4.65) a. hopunpa-an rise-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM and go-out-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM 'I got up and went out.' (from Ishikari)

b. amam an-e kor okay-an rice INDEFP-PL-NOM-eat while to-be-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM 'I was eating rice.' (from Ishikari) c. anokay anakne yaoskep tonomat INDEFP-PL-PRON TOP spider goddess an-ne ... INDEFP-PL-NOM-COP

'I am a spider goddess.' (from Ishikari) People reciting (singing) tales take the first person singular to refer to themselves. In the following examples, the a- and following material in quotes are indefinite, and the ku-/ k- at the end are first person singular.

(4.66) a. "... a-eyaysukupka oruspe "INDEFP-PL-NOM-think-painful story a-ye hawe tapan na. " sekor INDEFP-PL-NOM-speak eSAID COP-POL SGST." QUOTE sino katkemat hawean ruwe ne. real splendid-lady said eEVD COP. ' ... the splendid lady said, "I told a story I thought painful.'" b. uwokpare p uwepeker, tap, undutiful-to-parents thing old-tale, now, ku-ye wa k-6kere lP-SING-NOM-speak and lP-SING-NOM-finish 'Now, I have finished telling an old tale of children being undutiful to their parents.' In Saru and neighboring dialects in southern Hokkaido, first person forms in quoted speech change to indefinite person, even in daily speech.

(4.67) a. kani k-arpa kusu-ne na hani! lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-go going-to SGST FIN 'I'll go.'

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b. "asinuma arpa-an kusu-ne na INDEFP-SING-PRON go-INDEFP-SING-NOM going-to SGST hani!" sekor ha wean FIN QUOTE be-said 'He said, "I'll go."' 4.4.4.5 Second Person The second person is the one being spoken to, that is, "you", singular or plural.

(4.68) a. eani

hem eci-kore na 2P-SING-PRON also 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-give SGST

'I'll give (something) to you, too.'

b. e-eraman hawe? 2P-SING-NOM-understand eSAID 'You understand?' (rhetorical; also means '(I can see that) you understand.') C.

ecioka ka eci-takpa 2P-PL-PRON even 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-come-to-call 'I came to call you (plural), too.'

d. usa

keraan pe eci-un-ere, various be-delicious thing 2P-PL-NOM-1P-PL-ACC-feed keraan t6noto ka be-delicious liquor even eci-un-kure ... 2P-PL-NOM-1P-PL-ACC-cause-to-drink. ..

'You (plural) fed us many delicious things, and also gave us delicious liquor to drink. .. ' e. eani e-en-kikkik is-ki-a-ne 2P-SING-PRON 2P-SING-NOM-1P-SING-ACC-beat FIN

'You beat me up.' (Ishikari) f.

esokay es-inne wa 2P-PL-PRON 2P-PL-NOM-great-number-do CON es-un-koyki is-ki-a-ne 2P-PL-NOM-1P-PL-ACC-bully FIN 'All of you bullied us.' (Ishikari) (all= several people)

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4.4.4.6 Respectful Second Person

In addition to the second person singular and plural forms, as a polite expression, the indefinite person forms may also be used to indicate the person spoken to. In Saru and other neighboring southern Hokkaido dialects, traditionally, when a woman addresses adult men (other than her sons or younger brothers), the indefinite person (usually plural) is used instead of the second person.

(4.69) a. aoka paye-an wa INDEFP-PL-PRON go-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM CON arki-an kor wen hawe? come-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM when/if be-bad eSAID '(to husband) Can't you go? / Would it be bad for you to go?'

b. ku-yupo, sinenne a-an{ lP-SING-NOM-older-brother alone INDEFP-PL-NOM-carry ruwe he an? eEVD QUES to-be 'Older brother, did you carry (that) by yourself?' However, when speaking to a younger brother, women use the second person.

(4. 70) k-akiki, sinenne e-ani lP-SING-NOM-younger-brother alone 2P-SING-NOM-carry ruwe he an? eEVD QUES to-be 'Younger brother, did you carry (that) by yourself?' When two or more adult men are addressed, either the noun utar 'people' or the form utaroka, which is utar combined with the third person plural pronoun oka, is used instead of the indefinite plural pronoun aoka. Grammatically, these are third person forms.

(4. 71) a. utar anak eaykap pe? people TOP be-unable thing 'Are you unable (to do something)?' b. utaroka opitta tunas arki yan people everyone early come-PL CMND-PL/POL 'Everyone, please come early.'

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In the Tokachi dialect of eastern Hokkaido ( around Obihiro), for polite forms, anokay is used for the first person and anutari is used for the second person. Grammatically, both are plural. In the Ishikari dialect of central Hokkaido, the second person plural is commonly used for the polite form, and for the most polite form, the indefinite person is used. The former is generally used by women addressing men, and the latter is used when a wife addresses her husband. (4. 72) a. esokay es-en-kikkik is-ki-a-ne 2P-PL-PRON 2P-PL-NOM-1P-SING-ACC-beat FIN 'You hit me.' (polite) (Ishikari) b. anokay numan paye-an a INDEFP-PL-PRON yesterday go-PL-INDEFP-PL-NOM PAST ruwe? eEVD 'Did you go yesterday?' (addressing husband) (Ishikari)

4.4.4. 7 Third Person The third person is the definite third person 'he, she, it, they', and all nouns. When using an expression to mean 'people in general', many languages use the third person plural, for example, English 'they say'. In Ainu, the indefinite person is used in such situations.

(4. 73) ipe-an kor pisno a-eywanke eat-INDEFP-NOM when/while that-time INDEFP-NOM-use p, pasuy sekor a-ye p ne wa thing, chopsticks QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say thing COP FIN 'They are the things that people use when they eat; They are things called chopsticks.' The third person pronouns, sinuma (singular, in southern Hokkaido)/ anihi (singular, in most other dialects) and aka/okay (plural), are only used for people. Additionally, their usage is exceedingly rare. In order to express the third person, common nouns, such as the person's name or terms like 'grandfather' or 'my child', are frequently used, rather than third person pronouns. Moreover, when the person referred to is clear from context, it is normal to omit pronouns or common nouns (including names) to indicate the person. On the other hand, when the person is not clear from context, even if forms like sinuma ek (3P-SING-PRON come) 'he came' or sinuma tekehe (3P-SING-PRON handAFF) 'his hand' are used, they do not provide assistance in informing

4.4. Personal Pronouns and Person

69

the listener who 'he' is. Accordingly, there are few occasions where third person pronouns appear when it is grammatically possible to omit them. It is not possible to omit noun phrases before adverbial particles, some postpositional adverbs, and before certain sentence-final particles. In such cases, when the person being talked about is clear from context, third person pronouns are frequently used instead of common nouns. However, even in such cases, common nouns are used more often than pronouns, making for a smoother expression. When a third person pronoun is used, it may be due to hesitation to say the person's name, or to avoid the use of the common nouns for some reason, and accordingly, use of third person pronouns has a special nuance.

(4.74) a. sinuma

anak sinna an hawe? 3P-SING-PRON TOP separately to-be eSAID

'(Do you mean) He lives separately?'

b. "sinuma ka ene hawean hi?" "hi ne, "3P-SING-PRON even that said NMNL?" "NMNL COP, ikasuy wa ene hawean hi un" assist-someone CON that said NMNL FIN" "'Did he, too, say that?" "Yes, he did join others to say it."' c. oka ka ene haweoka hi? 3P-PL-PRON even that said-PL NMNL 'Did they, too, say that?'

ne-pa p anak nispa ne kusu rich-person COP-PL thing COP because ene iyoramsakka hawe aka that make-fun-of-people eSAID to-be-PL 'They say things that are insulting to other people because they're rich.'

d. oka

3P-PL-PRON TOP

* hi here is nominalizer. The complement of the copula ne may be grammatically omitted, but there are many cases where omission results in the meaning getting lost. In the next two examples, the complement of ne is understood as the person who now appeared in the conversation, based on use of the pronoun sinuma.

(4.75) s6nno sinuma truly

ne hawe tas ne nankor nek! 3P-SING-PRON COP eSAID EMPH COP perhaps EMPH

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'It is surely him!' (If sinuma is omitted, this phrase would only mean 'It's true'.) Even when nouns and pronouns that would normally be omitted are included for emphasis, the use of nouns for the third person makes for smoother expression, and use of a pronoun would indicate that use of a noun is being avoided for some reason. (4.76) sinuma suy ek kor an 3P-SING-PRON again come while to-be 'That guy is coming again.' (spoken in a whisper) In the next example, sinuma is used as a common noun. A girl is saying sinuma, sinuma incessantly, and this next sinuma indicates the person whom the girl calls sinuma 'him'. (4.77) e-kor "sinuma" suy ek a? 2P-SING-have "3P-SING-PRON" again come PAST 'Did your "guy" come again?' (boyfriend, etc.) What differentiates the third person pronoun from other pronouns is that it can follow a common noun in order to indicate a person. In such cases, it acts as an emphatic expression, like 'truly, that person'. (4.78) a. k-6sikkote lP-SING-NOM-love wenpurikor ka bad-conduct even 'The one I love: he

anak nep ka kur sinuma person 3P-SING-'-PRON TOP what even ne somo ki p NEG do thing COP has no poor conduct whatsoever.'

b. Taro Acapo ( utar) oka anak paye wa taro uncle (people) 3P-PL-PRON TOP go-PL CON isam to-be-NEG 'Uncle Taroo and the rest are gone.' ('utar' may be present or absent.) c. anihi ka oman a ruwe? 3P-SING-PRON even go PAST eEVD

'Did even he go, too?' (Ishikari)

d. okay paye a ruwe? 3P-PL-PRON go-PL PAST eEVD 'Did they go?' (Ishikari)

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71

e. taan unarpe anihi patek oman a wa that aunt 3P-SING-PRON only go PAST FIN

'Only that (middle aged) woman went.' (Ishikari / 'unarpe' can refer to someone's aunt or to a woman of a similar age) In every dialect, placing third person pronouns after nouns is the basic usage, and it is thought that just the pronoun appears when the noun indicating who is being referred to is clear from context and is therefore omitted.

4.4.5 Use of the Indefinite Person Indefinite person forms, as shown above, can be used instead of other persons in a variety of situations, but here, use of the indefinite itself will be simply discussed. 4.4.5.1 When expressing an action generally performed by anyone, or when the one doing the action is not at issue, and it is just the action itself that is of interest, the subject is not expressed with an indefinite pronoun. This is similar to when, for example, in English, they, you, or we is used, or when a passive sentence is used. In Ainu, the use of the indefinite person for the subject can be understood as the passive voice. (4.79) a. nupuri a-nukar mountain INDEFP-NOM-see

'The mountain is visible.' b. cisetumam anak ki ani a-kar house-walls TOP reed/rushes with INDEFP-NOM-make 'The walls of the house are made of reed.' c. neno e-iki yak a-e-k6yki like 2P-NOM-do FCND INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-scold na SGST

'If you do that, you will be scolded.'

d. a-en-rayke noyne hawas INDEFP-NOM-lP-SING-ACC-kill like be-said 'I hear that it's likely that I will be killed.'

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax e. uousno nep ne yakka an-ye kor continue what COP if INDEFP-NOM-say when/if sinki-an pe ne kusu sini. get-tired-INDEFP-NOM thing COP reason rest. sini-an ranke an-ye kor anakne rest-INDEFP-NOM REPT INDEFP-NOM-say when/if TOP pirka p ne wa be-good thing COP FIN

'If you keep on talking, you'll get tired, so take a break. It will be a good idea for you to take breaks while you talk. (tell a long story) ' (Ishikari) f.

inne utar an-r6nnu many people INDEFP-NOM-kill 'Many people were killed.' (Ishikari)

4.4.5.2 The Starting Point for Acts of Passive Sentences The difference between passives and the situations described in the previous section is not clear. However, in terms of structure, when the subject is in the indefinite person, the actual performer of the action is expressed with a phrase indicating the starting point of the action, namely ... or waj. .. oro wa 'from this place'. Such cases are clearly passive sentences.

(4.80) a. hapo oro wa a-en-koyki mother place from INDEFP-NOM-lP-SING-ACC-scold 'I was scolded by mother.' b. unuhu oro wa an-k6yki (his) mother place from INDEFP-NOM-scold 'He was scolded by his mother.' (Ishikari)

4.4.5.3 First Person Plural Inclusive

In contrast to the first person plural exclusive (the first person plural form), the indefinite person is used to express the first person plural inclusive, that is, the "we" that includes the listener.

(4.81) ( aoka) paye-an (INDEFP-PL-PRON) go-PL-INDEFP-NOM 'We (including the listener) went.' This expression can also be used to mean 'let's go'. This brings to mind the French on y va 'let's go'.

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(4.82) a. ene, oyakoyak un anun itak ka like-this, here-and-there of/from other words even a-kor mosir un itak ka, Karapto INDEFP-NOM-have island of/from words even, Sakhalin un itak ka, opitta, nu rusuy-pa kusu of/from words even, all, listen want-PL reason ene, nispa orke katkemat orke, arki ruwe like-this, man/lord also lady also, come-PL eEVD ne, yakun, aoka anakne, tan, COP, if, INDEFP-PL-PRON TOP, this, a-kor Hitaka, a-kor itak INDEFP-NOM-have Hidaka, INDEFP-NOM-have words a-ye wa, utarihi ekoymokokorpa oasi INDEFP-NOM-say CON, companion bring-souvenirs start ruwe, ne hi ne nankor wa eEVD, COP NMNL COP perhaps FIN

'In this way, because they want to listen to all the various languages of our island and of Sakhalin, men and women have come. And so, we will speak in our language and they will take our words back as souvenirs for their comrades.'

b. hnta poon hemanta, eun ene what small what, towards like-this hetutturi-an wa haweoka-an stick-out-face-INDEFP-NOM CON say-PL-INDEFP-NOM kor ora mak a-hawehe imakake ta when/if and how INDEFP-NOM-voice-AFF after at/in eminapa he, soma he, ki kusu, hear-and-laugh QUES, NEG QUES, do because, a-i-k6uwepekennu humi ene an INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-be-asked-of eFELT like-this to-be hi an? NMNL to-be ' (referring to a microphone) A small, strange thing was held out towards us and we stuck our faces to it and spoke so they could listen and laugh later.'

A-i-k6uwepekennu has the indefinite person subject a- and the indefinite person object i-. Of these, i- is the inclusive first person plural. Ais the indefinite person, and in this case, is used in a passive expression.

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4.4.5.4 Second Person Polite Form In the Saru dialect, when women speak to adult men (depending on the occasion, also between women when expressing the highest level of politeness), they do not use the second person form; instead, they use the indefinite person form (usually the indefinite plural).

(4.83) a. hopunpa-an get-up-INDEFP-NOM b. apkas-an walk-INDEFP-NOM

'You got up. (polite)'

'You walked. (polite)'

The inclusive first person plural and the polite second person are both expressed with the indefinite plural; they have exactly the same form. Therefore, there is no way to tell just by looking if the form apkas-an means 'you walk (polite)' or 'we (inclusive) walk'. However, in real life, words are used in context, and it is possible to understand what the speaker intends to say.

4.4.5.5 First Person Forms in Quotes When other people's words are quoted, words spoken in the first person are changed to the indefinite person in quoted speech. The first person indicates the person who is actually speaking, and the first person is not used in quoting the speech of others. This is because the quoted person is not the one speaking. For example, if Haruko says

(4.84) kani k-arpa kusu-ne lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-go going-to 'I'll go' (in many other dialects, kani k-arpa would be kuani ku-oman).

K ani is Haruko herself. If Akio quotes this and says it to another person, if he says kani, then it becomes Akio himself who will go. Because the person who said they would go is a different person, it is not kani. Here, kani is converted to the indefinite person. (4.85) "asinuma arpa-an kusu-ne" sekor hawean INDEFP-SING-PRON go-INDEFP-NOM going-to QUOTE say '(She) said, "I'll go."' The first person singular is converted to the indefinite person singular, and the first person plural is converted to the indefinite person

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plural. Persons other than the first person are unchanged. Also, the one who spoke can be quoted by using intonation, tone of voice, and the like. This is not a so-called indirect narration. For the example above, arpa kuni ye (go thing say) 'She said she would go' would correspond to indirect narration. (4.86) a. hapo! hapo! toan hekaci en-kikkik! mother mother that child lP-SING-ACC-hit 'Mom! Mom! That kid hit me!' (first person singular) b. "hapo! hapo! toan hekaci i-kikkik!" sekor mother mother that child INDEFP-ACC-hit QUOTE hawean say '(He) said, "Mom! Mom! That kid hit me!" (indefinite person) c. eci-kasuy kusu-ne akusu "pirka wa, 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-assist going-to then "be-good FIN,

yaykata a-kar kusu-ne wa" sekor oneself INDEFP-NOM-make going-to FIN" QUOTE e-hawean a p oraun ... 2P-SING-NOM-say PAST thing FIN 'I tried to help, but you said, that's OK, I'll make it by myself.' (indefinite person) d. "aoka anak soma a-e yakka "INDEFP-PL-PRON TOP NEG INDEFP-NOM-eat if pirka na hokure huci e!" sekor be-good SGST please( offering) older-woman eat!" QUOTE haweoka kor paye say-PL while go-PL 'While saying, "We don't have to eat this, so please, Grandmother, go right ahead", they left.' (indefinite person) e.

"oyapa suy arki-an kusu-ne na!" "next-year again come-PL-INDEFP-NOM going-to SGST!" sekor haweoka kor paye wa orano QUOTE say-PL while go-PL CON CON k-6karamotte-pa lP-SING-NOM-sad (to part with someone)-PL 'They left while saying, "we'll come again next year", and I felt reluctant to part with them.'

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For the use of the indefinite person by the main character when telling tales, see section 4.4.4.4 above.

4.4.6 On the Indefinite Person Affixes When the subject is in the indefinite person, the an that is also used with intransitive verbs is strongly independent. Frequently, it works to indicate intransitivity, rather than as a personal affix. It can be said to occupy a position between an affix and an independent word. (4.87) a. ukoyki-an fight-INDEFP-NOM 'Somebody fought.' b. nupuri tapka ta cipta-an mountain top at/in make-boat-INDEFP-NOM 'Somebody made a boat on the mountain.' c. cis-an a a an cry-INDEFP-NOM PAST INDEFP-NOM PAST 'I cried and cried and cried.' (speaking of oneself in a quote) This is a repetition of the past marker a after the verb, and expresses the meaning 'repeated again and again'. In other persons, it has forms as follows. (4.88) a. ku-cis a ku-cis a lP-SING-NOM-cry PAST lP-SING-NOM-cry PAST 'I cried and cried.'

a b. e-cis e-czs a 2P-SING-NOM-cry PAST 2P-SING-NOM-cry PAST 'You cried and cried.' However, for the indefinite person only, the verb is not repeated, and only an is repeated. In short, an works as a substitute for the whole repeating verb. (4.89) sus-an he ki sinot-an he ki? swim-INDEFP-NOM QUES do play-INDEFP-NOM QUES do 'Do they swim there, or just play?'

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In this case, the personal forms in sus-an 'people swim, play in the water' and sinot-an 'people play' are parallel to the use for other persons. However, note the following:

(4.90) ... a-net6pake INDEFP-NOM-body somo an NEG INDEFP-NOM

tumasnu wa siyeye ka become-healthy CON become-ill even pe ne na thing COP SGST

' ... (anyone's) health will become robust, and (they) won't even get sick.' In a case like this, siyeye 'become ill' and an are separated, and it is as if an were functioning as the intransitive verb 'to be'. This can also be expressed as follows:

(4.91) siyeye-an ka somo ki p ne na become-ill-INDEFP-NOM even NEG do thing COP SGST 'They don't even get sick.' The personal affix can be attached to either the main verb siyeye 'become ill' or to the ki 'to do' that is added after somo NEG, but in the example above, instead of a-ki 'someone does' in siyeye ka somo a-ki, an is used. When the intransitive verb an 'to be, exist' (which has the same form as -an) is negated, it becomes isam 'to not be, exist', and somo is not used. However, as seen above, even for negation, the an that is used instead of a-ki does not become isam, but somo an instead. Actually, the origin of the indefinite person nominative affix -an is, without doubt, the verb an 'to be, exist'. In Sakhalin and most Hokkaido dialects, even when it is prefixed to transitive verbs, it has the form an-, and it is thought that this form is older. Next, we look at the accusative personal affix i-.

wa paye (4.92) a. i-tura INDEFP-ACC-accompany CON go-PL '(They) went with someone.'

b. ku-i-tura rusuy lP-SING-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-accompany want 'I want to go with someone.' Different from other personal forms, the form with the accusative i- is frequently a fixed derivative, and sometimes has a different, set meaning.

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(4.93) i-ku drink-something

'to drink liquor' (cf. ku 'to drink')

Also, see section 5.3 Derivation of Verbs.

4.4. 7 Omission of Personal Pronouns Personal affixes are never omitted. If one is not attached where one should be, the meaning becomes third person. However, personal pronouns are frequently unexpressed. Accordingly, on the surface, the person is often expressed by the agreement of personal affixes. For example, rather than saying (4.94) kani k-arpa kusu-ne wa IP-SING-PRON IP-SING-NOM-go going-to FIN 'I'll go.' the following expression is used more often.

kusu-ne wa ( 4.95) k-arpa IP-SING-NOM-go going-to FIN 'I'll go.' In Ainu, there is a general trend, in Saru and other dialects, not to say what is clear from context. It is normal to omit subjects, objects, and complements when they are not necessary. For the first, second, and indefinite persons, personal affixes indicate the person, so even if there is not personal pronoun, the person is understood. It can be understood that personal pronouns are not very frequently used because they are omitted when the meaning is clear without them. In actuality, personal pronouns normally appear in cases when personal affixes are not used, for example, with complements (e.g., kani ne (IP-SING-PRON COP) 'It is I'), or when postpositional adverbs, which do not take personal affixes, are used (e.g., kani eun (IP-SING-PRON towards) 'towards me'). There are also forms which do not take personal affixes yet cannot combine with personal pronouns. For example, case particles such as ta 'at/in' and wa 'from' do not normally attach to personal pronouns. In cases such as these, they attach only to locative noun phrases (e.g., tan kotan ta (this village at/in) 'at/in this village'; corpokke ta (below-that at/in) 'below that'), and do not attach to noun phrases that indicate people or things. To say 'at my place' requires a positional noun, and can be expressed as (kani) en-or ta ((IP-SING-PRON) IP-SING-Ace-place at/in) 'at my place' ( en-or ta is pronounced as [enotta]). It is the same

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for a common noun that expresses a person or thing, as in unarpe or ta (aunt place at/in) 'at auntie's place' ( or ta is pronounced as [otta]). Before adverbial particles and some sentence-final particles, personal pronouns cannot be omitted (e.g., kani anak (lP-SING-PRON TOP) 'as for me'; kani hem (lP-SING-PRON also) 'me too'; kani un (lP-SINGPRON FIN) 'It's me!'). This is because particles can only be used by attaching them to a previous word.

(4.96) a. aoka anak eun INDEFP-PRON( =inclusive plural) TOP towards inu-an kuni p somo ne na listen-to-INDEFP-NOM should thing NEG COP SGST 'We should not pay attention to such a thing.' b. kani lP-SING-PRON

hem ku-ye also lP-SING-NOM-say

'I also say (it).' C.

eani

he?

kani

un

2P-SING-PRON QUES lP-SING-PRON FIN

"'Is it you?" "It's me"' Even if a personal pronoun can be omitted, it will not be if that person is emphasized. In cases such as, "Not anyone else, but I..." or "I am X, you are Y", personal pronouns appear.

(4.97) a. "hunna sikihi arka hawe an?" "kani "who eye-AFF hurt eSAID to-be?" "lp.:..sING-PRON ku-sikihi un. " "eani lP-SING-NOM-eye-AFF FIN." "2P-SING-PRON e-sikihi he? mak ne hine arka hawe 2P-SING-NOM-eye-AFF QUES? how COP and hurt eSAID an?" to-be?" "'Whose eye hurts?" "My eye." "Your eye? Why does it hurt?"' b. toanike kani ku-kor hapo un that lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-have mother FIN 'That's my mother.' In the following example a word game has been played and the speaker has won.

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(4.98) kani lP-SING-PRON kani lP-SING-PRON eani 2P-S1NG-PRON

kosokoso ku-kor rusuy 'kosokoso' lP-SING-NOM-have want kosonte ku-kor, (kind of garment) lP-SING-NOM-have, nakairi e-kor tattered 2P-S1NG-NOM-have

'(I said) I wanted kosokoso, so I get the beautiful garment and you get tatters.' In this game the listener is challenged to choose one of two nonsense words with repeated sounds. In this case the choice was kosokoso or nakanaka. When the listener responds the speaker reveals what the hidden meanings of the nonsense words are. Here, kosokoso meant kosonte, the name of a beautiful garment and nakanaka meant nakairi which are tattered rags.

(4.99) "asinuma anak soma a-e yakka "INDEFP-SING-PRON TOP NEG INDEFP-NOM-eat if pirka, eani el" sekor hawean kor arpa be-good, 2P-SING-PRON eat!" QUOTE say while go 'Saying "I don't have to eat, but you go ahead", he left.' In short, personal pronouns are not omitted under the following conditions: when omission is structurally not possible; when personal pronouns are necessary to convey the meaning; and when they are used for emphasis. Conversely, personal pronouns are normally omitted under the following conditions: when omission is structurally possible; when personal pronouns are unnecessary for the meaning; and when there is no emphasis on the person.

4.5 Nouns Nouns are subjects, objects, and complements.

(4.100) a. acapo ek uncle come 'Uncle comes/came.' (subject) b. poyson kay child carry-on-back '(Someone) carries/carried a child on their back.' (object)

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4.5. Nouns c. . .. rehe marimo ne its-name 'marimo' COP

'Its name is marimo (a kind of algae that forms into balls native to Lake Akan in Hokkaido).' (complement) Nouns also combine with case particles and postpositional adverbs.

(4.101) a. tan kotan ta an this village at/ in to-be '(It) is in this village.' ( ta is a case particle)

b. pet turasi paye river along-up go-PL '(They) went up along the river.' ( turasi is a postpositional adverb) Most nouns are common nouns or locative nouns. Personal pronouns and proper nouns are special kinds of common nouns. Nouns do not decline for gender, number, or case. Some nouns have different forms depending on the person. In such cases, common nouns take nominative affixes and locative nouns take accusative affixes .

. 4.5.1 Common Nouns The majority of common nouns have two forms, the conceptual form and the affiliative (possessive) form. Most personal forms are made by putting a nominative affix on the affiliative form. Personal forms of common nouns (for more detail, see section 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person).

• sik 'eye(s)' conceptual form • sikihi 'eye(s)-AFF' affilitative form (4.102) a. ku-sikihi lP-SING-NOM-eye-AFF

'my eye(s)'

b. ci-sikihi 1 P-PL- NOM-eye-AFF 'our (not including listener, i.e., exclusive) eyes' c. e-sikihi 2P-SING-NOM-eye-AFF

'your (singular) eye(s)'

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d. eci-sik{hi 2P-PL-NOM-eye-AFF e. sikihi eye-AFF

f.

'your (plural) eyes'

'his/her/its eye(s)', 'their eyes'

a-sikihi INDEFP-NOM-eye-AFF 'someone's eye(s)', 'our (inclusive) eyes', 'your (singular polite) eye(s)'

Some nouns do not have a conceptual form, and only have a affiliative form.

(4.103) a. k-unihi lP-SING-NOM-house-AFF b. e-unihi 2P-SING-NOM-house-AFF c. unihi house-AFF

'my house'

'your (singular) house'

'his/her/its house'

Further, some nouns cannot be made into affiliative forms, but combine with some of the personal affixes to make personal forms.

(4.104) a. kw-mici lP-SING-NOM-father

'my father'

b. ku-sapo lP-SING-NOM-older-sister

'my older sister'

To make affiliative forms other than first person singular, personal affixes are not used. Instead, this is expressed with the verb kor 'to have'.

(4.105) a. kor mici have father

'his/her father'

b. kor sapo have older-sister

'his/her older sister'

In Sakhalin Ainu, the relationship A's B (the B of A) is expressed with the form A-B-affiliative form, regardless of the kind of affiliative relationship.

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(4.106) a. tara hekaci sik-ihi that youth eye-AFF b. tara aynu seta-ha that person dog-AFF

'that youth's eye'

'that person's dog'

In Hokkaido dialects from central Hokkaido and further south, there are two main ways to express the affiliative relationship A's B. One of these uses the affiliative form. (4.107) toan hekaci sik-ihi that youth eye-AFF 'that youth's eye' The other method uses the verb kor 'to have, to possess'.

kor seta (4.108) toan kur that person have dog 'that person's dog' (lit., 'the dog that person has') Using these various constructions, the conceptual form is used to indicate the thing in general, its independent existence, and not a specific thing. The affiliative form is used to express a specific someone, or something closely affiliated with another. For example, (4.109) kamuy rusihi bear pelt-AFF 'the bear's pelt' ( rusihi is the affiliative form of rus 'pelt') indicates a specific bear's pelt, such as that of "the bear we killed yesterday" or "the bear caught in the trap this morning". To indicate no specific bear's pelt, but the thing called "bear pelt", the conceptual form is used.

(4.110) kamuy rus bear pelt 'bear pelt' This is the third way of expressing A 's B. This structure can almost be treated as a compound word (kamuy-rus ). As the affiliative form indicates a specific thing, Kindaichi Kyoosuke called it the specific form. However, specific usage is not always limited to the affiliative form. For example,

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(4.111) tan atop e-otopihi soma ne? this hair 2P-S1NG-N0M-hair-AFF NEG COP 'Isn't this your hair?' In this example, although atop indicates the specific hair held in someone's hand, it is expressed with the conceptual form, because it is seen as an independently occurring thing. The form e-otop-ihi (2P-SINGNOM-hair-AFF) 'your hair' shows that it belongs to the specific person 'you', and is accordingly expressed with the affi.liative form. The person of the affiliative form changes to agree with the person of the noun to which it is affiliated (i.e., the preceding noun). 4.5.1.1 The formation of affiliative forms is as follows.

A. Words that end with vowels have the form root+ h V (Vis the vowel at the end of the word): • kampi 'paper; letter' :: kampi-hi • nupe 'tear(s)' (from the eyes) :: nupe-he • etu 'nose' :: etu-hu • sapa 'head' :: sapa-ha • po 'son' :: p6-ho

B. Words that end with w and y have the form root+ ehe: • haw 'voice' :: haw-ehe • ikkew 'small of the back' :: ikkew-ehe • ay 'arrow' :: ay-ehe • puy 'hole' :: puy-ehe The following kinds of words are also part of this group:

• ku 'arrow-trap' :: kuw-ehe • pu 'storehouse' :: puw-ehe • ci 'penis' :: ciy-ehe • pi 'seed' :: piy-ehe

It is thought that the roots of these words are kuw-, puw-, ciy-, and piy-, but since -uw and -iy are not allowed word- or syllable-finally, the w and y are dropped and the conceptual forms end with -u and -i.

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C. Words that end with other consonants have the form root + VhV (both vowels are identical). To a certain degree, the vowels in the affi.1iative suffix can be predicted by the final vowel in the root of consonantfinal roots. i. Words that take -ihi regardless of the vowel of the root:

• ak 'younger brother' :: ak-ihi • kem 'blood' :: kem-ihi • hon 'belly' :: hon-ihi • hum 'sound' :: hum-ihi • mat 'wife' :: mac-ihi (because of phonological rules, /t/ becomes -----+ /c/ before /i/) ii. Words that have the same vowel in the -VhV suffix as the final vowel of the root:

• kisar 'ear' :: kisar-aha • tek 'hand, arm' :: tek-ehe • cikir 'leg' :: cikir-ihi • osor 'buttocks' :: osor-oho iii. Words that have a as the final vowel of the root

+ -uhu:

• nan 'face' :: nan-uhu • rar 'eyebrow' : : rar-uhu Exceptions:

• par 'mouth' :: par-oho (a-o) • mar 'sideburns' :: mor-uhu (o-u) The forms above are used when the speaker is pronouncing each word carefully. Spoken quickly, the last /hV / is often missing. This results in vowel-final words having the same form in the conceptual and affiliative forms, such as sapa 'head' :: sapa(ha) 'head-AFF'. This phenomenon occurs particularly often in words with many syllables. This is perhaps related to rhythm. It is thought that when there are three or four contiguous accentless syllables, the dropping of /h V / is an attempt to reduce the number of accentless (and accordingly, weak) syllables. For example, the -hi of sikihi 'his/her/its eye(s)' is normally pronounced, but when ku- is prefixed, it often becomes kusiki 'my eye'. Kusikihi is the slow, careful pronunciation.

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4.5.1.2 The affi.liative form is used in the following expressions.

A. Referring to body parts, bodily excretions, and when expressing strength, feelings, etc. (4.112) a. ku-sik-ihi lP-SING-NOM-eye-AFF b. e-nupe-he 2P-SING-NOM-tear-AFF

'my eye' ( sik 'eye')

'your tears' ( nupe 'tear')

c. huci kewtum-uhu grandmother feelings-AFF

'grandmother's feelings'

( kewtum 'feelings') d. noyapi tanne mat (face) profile-AFF long woman

'long-faced woman'

(generally refers to unattractive woman; noyap 'profile')

B. As in the examples A. above, when referring to things that are part of or an essence of a larger whole, or things that are made of some material, the affi.liative form is used. (4.113) a. amip cinki-hi garment hem-AFF 'hem of a garment' ( cinki 'hem/bottom part')

b. op nic-ihi spear handle-AFF

'spear handle' ( nit 'handle')

c. cup nipek-ihi moon light-AFF

'moonlight' ( nipek 'light')

d. kane hum-ihi bell sound-AFF

'the sound of a bell' ( hum 'sound')

e. may-ehe pirka hike hok sound-AFF be-good thing buy

'Buy one with a good sound.' (may 'sound/tone') f.

amam etoyta wa sake-he ka kar grain make-in-field CON liquor-AFF even make 'They grew grain in the fields and even made liquor (from it)' ( sake 'liquor')

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4.5. Nouns g. kane an, op-ihi a-kar metal to-be, spear-AFF INDEFP-NOM-make

'There was some metal and (someone) made a spear (with it).' ( op 'spear') 4.5.1.3 In Sakhalin Ainu, all common nouns have affiliative forms, but in some Hokkaido dialects, the common nouns which have distinct affiliative and conceptual forms are limited. For those things which do not have a close affiliation, the affiliative (possessive) concept is normally not expressed with the affiliative form, but with the verb kor 'to have, to possess'.

(4.114) acapo sake

kor uncle liquor have

'Uncle has liquor.'

The possessive relationship A's B is expressed using kor.

(4.115) a. acapo kor sake uncle have liquor 'Uncle's liquor' (lit., the liquor Uncle has) b. ku-kor tennep lP-SING-NOM-have baby 'my baby' (pronounced [kukottennep]) c. e-kor pan matkaci 2P-S1NG-NOM-have small girl 'your little girl' Words such as tennep 'baby' and matkaci 'girl', and others do not have affiliative forms. Words like sake 'liquor' do not normally take the affiliative form to express meanings such as 'his liquor'. However, for a meaning like 'the liquor made from that substance', the affiliative form is employed. Words like ay 'arrow' and tasiro 'hatchet' normally use kor (ku-kor ay (lP-SING-NOM-have arrow) 'my arrow'; e-kor tasiro (2PSING-NOM-have hatchet) 'your hatchet'), but depending on the situation, forms like k-ay-ehe (lP-SING-NOM-arrow-AFF) 'my arrow' and e-tasiroho (2P-SING-NOM-hatchet-AFF) 'your hatchet' are also used. Some words use the affiliative form, instead of kor, to express affiliation.

• amip 'clothes' from a-mi-p INDEFP-NOM-wear-one

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(4.116) a. mip-ihi clothing-AFF

'his/her /its clothes'

b. ku-mip-ihi lP-SING-NOM-clothing-AFF

'my clothes'

There are several kinship terms which are expressed with the affiliative form.

• yup 'older brother' :: yup-ihi 'his/her older brother' • ak 'younger brother' :: ak-ihi 'his/her younger brother' • hoku 'husband' :: hoku-hu 'his/her husband' • mat 'wife' :: mac-ihi 'his/her wife' • ekas 'grandfather' :: ekas-ihi 'his/her grandfather' • sut 'grandmother' :: suc-ihi 'his/her grandmother' • ona 'father' :: ona-ha 'his/her father' • unu 'mother' :: unu-hu 'his/her mother'

In contrast to this, there are a limited number of kinship terms that do not have a affiliative form and are expressed with kor. • ekasi 'grandfather' :: kor ekasi 'his/her grandfather' • huci 'grandmother' :: kor huci 'his/her grandmother' • mici 'father' :: kor mici 'his/her father' (for some areas in Hokkaido. However, the first person form is ku-mici.) • iyapo 'father' :: kor iyapo 'his/her father' (in part of southern Hokkaido) • hapo 'mother' :: kor hapo 'his/her mother' Both kinds of words exist to express 'father', 'mother', 'grandfather', and 'grandmother'. Words formed with the affiliative are objective, whereas those formed with kor express a feeling of affection.

(4.117) a. ku-kor huci lP-SING-NOM-have grandmother

'my grandma'

b. ku-suc-ihi lP-NOM-SING-grandmother-AFF 'the person who is my grandmother'

4.5. Nouns C.

kor hapo have mother

d. unu-hu mother-AFF

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'his/her mom'

'his/her mother'

4.5.2 Locative Nouns Locative nouns express spatial relations such as left and right, and front and back, as well as temporal relations. Most are placed after the noun phrase, and express the relative positional relationship of that thing or person. Depending on the person of the preceding noun phrase, locative nouns may vary in person by taking accusative personal affixes. (See section 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person.) Locative nouns and variation in person:

• corpok 'a place below (something)' • en-corpok lP-SING-ACC-below 'under me' • un-corpok lP-PL-ACC-below 'under us' • e-corpok 2P-SING-ACC-below 'under you (singular)' • eci-c6rpok 2P-PL-ACC-below 'under you (plural)' • corpok 'under him/her /it' • i-corpok INDEFP-ACC-below 'under someone/something' (4.118) a. ipe oka ta meal the-time-after at

'after a meal'

b. citarpe corpok wa reed-mat the-place-below from

'from under the mat'

c. en-osmake ta a lP-SING-ACc-the-place-behind at sit '(Someone) sat behind me.' Locative nouns have a short form and a long form to which suffixes attach. Simply put, the short form is conceptual, and the long form indicates a concrete location. The short form is used when the preceding noun (the noun whose relative location is indicated) depends upon the locator for a complete concept, and also when accompanied by the nominal prefixes u- 'reciprocally', yay- 'self-', i- 'thing; person', and si- 'self-'. The long form is used when the preceding noun (the noun whose relative

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location is indicated, third person) is omitted - when expressing 'above that', 'above him', and the like. The long form is seen when the preceding noun (the noun whose relative location is indicated) is present, but the relation with it is weak, and where the location is clearly and concretely expressed. For the first and second person, the long form may be used, but the short form is used more often. The long (concrete) form frequently has the suffix -ke attached to it. The suffix -ke expresses the location all the more clearly. Depending on the word, the form with -ke suffixed is the only concrete form. a. ka above (noun)

'a place above (touching)' (conceptual form)

b. kasi above (noun)

'a place above (that) (touching)' (concrete form)

c. kas(i)ke above (noun)

'the place above (something) (touching)'

(4.119) a. san ka un anu shelf above towards put 'Put (something) on the shelf.'

b. un-ka un eyapkir lP-PL-ACC-above towards throw '(Someone) threw (something) on us.' c. u-ka ta u-ka ta ari RECIPRO-above at RECIPRO-above at put ' (Someone) lays one on top of the other.' d. kasi ta r6k-an above at/in sit-INDEFP-NOM kasi un ape the-place-above towards fire

pon small pus jump

huton cushion wa uhuy CON burn

'The fire leapt and scorched the small cushion (I) was sitting on.' e. cukue kasike ta hon an desk place-above-it at/in book to-be

'There is a book on the desk.' Further, there are postpositional adverbs that are used to express relative location in Ainu that are the reverse of the prepositions of IndoEuropean languages (see section 4.7 Adverbs).

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91

(4.120) a. pet tomotuye k-ek lP-SING-NOM-come river cross 'I came crossing the river.' ( tomotuye was originally a transitive verb meaning 'to go across', which has changed to a postpositional adverb.) b. acapo os k-arpa uncle after lP-SING-NOM-go

'I went after uncle.'

4.5.3 Dependent Nouns Personal pronouns (discussed above) and proper nouns normally do not take modification from adnominals. There are, however, a group of words (nouns) the meaning of which is unclear unless they are modified by adnominals. These nouns are similar to particles in their dependence on other words.

• uske( he) 'place' (4.121) numan a-eramasu uske ta yesterday INDEFP-NOM-be-interested place at k-arpa wa k-ek lP-SING-NOM-go CON lP-SING-NOM-come 'Yesterday, I went to an interesting place.' • kur 'person' (4.122) mosir epitta epunkine kur country whole govern person 'king' • pe / p 'thing, occurrence' (p after vowels) (4.123) a-eraman pe INDEFP-NOM-know thing 'the thing we (inclusive) know'

• hike 'one of possibilities' (4.124) pirka hike ku-numke be-good one lP-SING-NOM-choose 'I'll choose the better one.'

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Among these terms, pe and hike and the like do not just come after adnominals and fulfill the noun's role, but also have other functions. Like other various words with weak independence, these other functions will be discussed in the section with particles below (see section 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles).

4.5.4 Nominalizing Words As seen in some of the words above, there are words that, rather than being modified by adnominals, are placed at the end of sentences and have the function of converting the phrase into a noun phrase. These are called nominalizing words. Some nominalizing words are dependent and can be treated as particles, but a few others are strongly independent, and can appear at the beginning of a sentence, regardless of their syntagmatic relationship with the preceding sentence. The following words are such strong words, and are accent units with their own clear meaning. Etymologically, they are from common nouns.

• ruwe literally, 'trail; tracks' (cf. ru conceptual form, ruwehe affiliative form) • hawe literally, 'voice' (cf. haw conceptual form, hawehe affiliative form) • humi literally, 'sound; feeling' (cf. hum conceptual form, humihi affiliative form) • siri literally, 'scene; ambience' (cf. sir conceptual form, sirihi affiliative form) These words are generally used in a similar manner in conjunction with the copula ne, an 'to be', or un FIN, to form phrases with meanings such as "(I know) you did it" or "(As you can see) he is sleeping". These are further discussed in chapter 6 Methods of Expression.

4.6 Adnorninals These are words used exclusively adnominally, and are primarily adnominal numerals and demonstrative adnominals.

4.6.1 Adnominal Numerals • sine 'one ... '

• sine menoko 'one woman'

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(4.125) kotan-kor-kur sine matnepoho village-have-person one daughter 'the village headman's only daughter' See chapter 7 Vocabulary, section 7 .2 Numerals for usage.

4.6.2 Demonstrative and Referential Adnominals • tan 'this ... ' • toan 'that ... ' • ne 'this ... , the one being talked about' • nea 'that ... , the one mentioned previously' See chapter 7 Vocabulary, section 7 .3 Demonstratives for usage.

4.7 Adverbs 4.7.1 Normal Adverbs These modify verb phrases. They may also modify entire sentences. Several examples of frequently-used adverbs follow.

4.7.1.1 Time (4.126) tane ku-ye na now lP-SING-NOM-say SGST 'I'll speak now.'

4.7.1.2 Location; Direction (4.127) a. ekimne paye towards-mountain go-PL 'They went into the mountains.'

b. okimne san from- mountain descend 'He/she/it came down from the mountains.'

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4.7.1.3 Method

(4.128) etarka nep indiscriminately what kor ora when/while then/and

ne yakka COP even-so honihi stomach-AFF

ukoparorarpa stuff-into-mouth ark a hurt

'He stuffed himself with just anything and now his stomach aches.' 4.7.1.4 Degree

(4.129) a. earkinne ku-iruska extremely lP-SING-NOM-be-angry

'I got really mad.' b. wakka akkari usey iyotta keraan water more-than hot-water especially be-delicious 'Hot water really tastes better than cold water. (iyotta is formed from i-or-ta (thing-one of many-at)) 4.7.1.5 Conjecture; Concern

(4.130) a. nenkane apto as possibly rain fall

'It may rain (and that would be bad/disappointing).' (nenkane is from neun-ka-ne (how-QUES-COP)) b. ikiya e-hacir na possibly 2P-SING-NOM-fall-down SGST 'Be careful not to fall down.' ( iki-ya, literally (do-whether)) 4.7.1.6 Negation Placed before a verb phrase, the negative marker soma negates the phrase.

(4.131) a. somo ku-ku kusu-ne NEG lP-SING-NOM-drink going-to

'I won't drink (it).' b. tapan pe seta somo ne this thing dog NEG COP 'This is not a dog.'

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4. 7. Adverbs c. soma neno ku-yaynu

NEG

like

lP-SING-NOM-think

'I don't think so.' With a verb phrase in front of it, soma alone can function as a verb phrase, without repeating the verb phrase after soma (for example, this can be combined with the sentence-final particle wa or the conjunction no).

(4.132) tonpuri a-ari yak pirka p soma wa bath INDEFP-NOM-heat FCND be-good thing NEG FIN 'Even though it'd be a good idea to heat a bath, (he) doesn't.' To negate demands or desires, iteki PROHIB is used, not soma NEG.

(4.133) a. iteki wenno en-ramu wa en-kore PROHIB bad lP-SING-ACC-think CON lP-SING-ACC-give yan CMND-PL/POL 'Please don't think poorly of me.' b. iyaykipteno iteki iki dangerous PROHIB do 'Don't do anything dangerous.'

4. 7 .2 Post positional Adverbs These are placed after noun phrases, and combine with them to form adverbials. Some of them take personal affixes.

4. 7 .2.1 Post positional adverbs that take nominative personal affixes ( of which there are few). • opitta 'everyone' (4.134) a. aynu opitta arki people everyone come-PL 'Everybody came.' b. eci-opitta 2P-PL-everybody eci-oka 2P-PL-NOM-to-be

eci-nepki kor 2P-PL-NOM-work when/while wa ora sinenne CON then one-person-alone

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ku-sini lP-SING-NOM-rest 'All of you are working and I alone am resting.' c. c-6pitta c-eraman rusuy na ... lP-PL-NOM-everybody lP-PL-NOM-learn want SGST 'Because all of us want to learn ... '

Opitta, without a personal affix, may also combine with pronouns ( aoka opitta (INDEFP-PL-PRON) everybody 'all of us (inclusive)'). • renkayne 'in accordance with; with that intention' (renka-ne (intention-COP)) (4.135) a. ciwsinoye katu renkayne water-flow manner accordingly 'along with the flow of the water'

b. kamuy renkayne gods

accordingly

'by the will of the gods' / 'thanks to the gods' c. ku-renkayne k-ek lP-SING-NOM-accordingly lP-SING-NOM-come

'I came because I wanted to.' (at my own intention or convenience) Regardless of whether or not it takes a personal affix, renkayne may combine with yay- 'self' to form yayrenkayne 'as one pleases' (for more on yay-, see chapter 5 Word Formation).

(4.136) yay-renkayne e yan self-accordingly eat CMND-PL/POL 'Eat whatever you like.'

• renkakusu 'as (one) likes' ( renka-kusu (intention-reason)) (4.137) ku-renkakusu ku-iki p ne lP-SING-NOM-as-one-likes lP-SING-NOM-do thing COP kusu ... reason 'Because I did what I wanted to do ... '

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4.7.2.2 Postpositional adverbs that take accusative personal affixes (most of these have changed from verbs).

• neno 'resembling, like, similar to' (4.138) a. toan hekaci mici neno an that youth father like to-be 'That child looks like his/her father.' b. sikpuye e-neno kane an eyes 2P-SING-ACC-like even to-be '(Someone's) eyes resemble yours.' c. kutcama u-neno an v01ce REC IP RO-like to-be

'Their voices sound exactly alike.' (See chapter 5 Word Formation for u- 'reciprocally')

• koraci 'just like' (4.139) kamuy koraci an gods just-like to-be '(He) is just like a god.'

• hekote 'the way, in the direction of' (4.140) un-hekote ka ye ka eyayramkar lP-PL-ACC-direction even say even cannot 'He can't even say that to us.' • ekari 'towards' (4.141) en-ekari arki lP-SING-ACC-towards come-PL 'They came towards me.' • akkari 'pass; more than' (4.142) en-akkari eani lP-SING-ACC-more-than 2P-SING-PRON e-siwente 2P-SING-NOM-slow (walking) 'You're slower than I am.'

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• tura( -no) 'together with' (4.143) hekaci huci turano ek youth grandmother together come 'The youth came with the grandmother.' (huci can refer to any elderly woman of "grandmotherly" age.)

• okari 'around' (4.144) cise okari nonno aka house around flower to-be- PL 'There are flowers around the house.'

• kama 'stepping over' (4.145) en-kama arpa lP~SING-ACC-stepping-over go 'He stepped over me.' • mosma 'other, other than' (4.146) a. en-mosma poronno menoko te ta rewsi lP-SING-ACC-other many woman here at/in stay 'Not just me, but many other women stayed here.'

b. mosma kotan un kur other village of/from person 'a person of a different village' • kokusis(-pa) 'same as' (4.147) en-kokusis e-eramasu a? lP-SING-ACC-same-as 2P-SING-NOM-interesting PAST 'Was it as interesting to you as it was to me?'

• kawarine 'instead of' (4.148) en-kawarine ku-kor hapo arpa lP-SING-ACC-instead-of lP-SING-NOM-have mother go kusu-ne going-to 'My mother will go instead of me.'

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99

(Kawari is a loan from Japanese 'kawari' ('instead of'), and ne is an Ainu copula. Use of okari (noted above) may be a pure Ainu expression, but in actuality, kawarine is used more often.) • onuytasa 'alternately' (4.149) i-onuytasa kani ka INDEFP-ACC-alternately lP-SING-PRON even ku-kikkik lP-SING-NOM-beat 'In retaliation, I beat (him) up.'

• os 'after' (4.150) en-os ek kor an lP-SING-ACC-behind come while to-be ' (Someone) is coming behind me.'

• epeka(-no) 'aiming for', 'in the direction of' (4.151) puyar epeka(-no) arpa window aiming-for go 'Go in the direction of that window.' • eirpak 'simultaneously' (4.152) toan-kur eirpak arpa that-person simultaneously go 'Go with that person.' • turayram 'simultaneously' ( archaic word) (4.153) toanpe turayram arpa that-thing simultaneously go 'Go with that guy.' ( toan-pe 'that thing' can be a derogatory or familiar reference to a known individual.) • pak, pakno 'extent; as far as; until' Indicates maximum extent. Used with space, time, and volume.

(4.154) a. sonko-kor wa i-yor pakno ek ruwe message-have CON INDEFP-ACC-place extent come eEVD ne COP '(Someone) came all the way to where I was with a message.'

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b. numan wano tanto pakno yesterday from today extent 'from yesterday until today' For volume, pakno frequently indicates an approximate amount.

(4.155) wanpe pakno en-kore ten-thing extent lP-SING-ACC-give 'Give me about ten.' Adverbial usage:

(4.156) pakno an yakun pirka extent to-be if be-good 'This much is plenty.' Relative usage:

(4.157) pak inkar-an hi pakno atuy ne ruwe extent see-INDEFP-NOM place extent sea COP eEVD 'It's ocean as far as you can see.' It also attaches to verb phrases.

(4.158) a. hapo ek pakno ponno en-tere mother come extent little lP-SING-ACC-wait yan CMND-PL/POL

'Please wait for me a few moments, until mother comes.' b. sine pa soma ku-hok yakka one year NEG lP-SING-NOM-buy even-so ku-ku pak an lP-SING-NOM-drink extent to-be 'Even if I don't buy any (more), there's enough to drink for a year.' It is also used as an idiom in oral literature.

(4.159) mosir pak cise an island extent house to-be 'There was a house as big as an island.' ( mosir pak is an adnominal that modifies cise)

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101

Because the following postpositional adverbs do not combine with nouns indicating people, there are no examples of them taking personal affixes. However, based on their meaning and constituent structure, these are the same kinds of words as in 4.7.2.2 above.

• okere 'until something ends' Used only in idioms. (4.160) to okere sinot kor an day until-end play while to-be '(Someone) was playing all day.' cf. the transitive verb okere 'to end, finish':

(4.161) tane k-6kere now lP-SING-NOM-end 'I just finished it.'

• ora 'from' (4.162) te here to day

ta e-ek hi ora tane hempak at/in 2P-SING-NOM-come time from now how-many e-an? 2P-SING-NOM-to-be

'How many days has it been since you came here?'

• turasi 'to follow (something) going up' (4.163) nupuri turasi ku-hemesu mountain follow-up lP-SING-NOM-climb

'I climbed up the mountain.' • pes 'to follow (something) going down' (4.164) pet pes ku-san river follow-down lP-SING-NOM-descend 'I came down following along the river.'

• kari 'passing through' (4.165) apa kari arpa door through go (command) 'Go out through that door.' (not through the window)

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• oika 'crossing over' (4.166) nupuri oika k-arpa mountain cross-over lP-SING-NOM-go 'I am going over the mountain.'

• oposo 'penetrating' (4.167) upun-patce oposo apkas-as blizzard through walk-lP-PL-NOM 'We made it through the snow storm.'

• tomotuye 'crossing' (4.168) ru tomotuye k-arpa road cross lP-SING-NOM-go 'I crossed the road.'

• ani 'using, with' (4.169) kanetuci ani kunki a-kikkik hammer with nail INDEFP-NOM-beat '(People) hit nails with a hammer.' 4. 7.2.3 The following are examples of adverbs which do not take personal affixes and where the preceding noun cannot be interpreted as the object.

• eun 'in the direction of ( a person, place, or thing)' (4.170) a. hapo eun ku-ye kusu-ne na! mother towards/to lP-SING-NOM-say going-to SGST 'I'll tell mother!' (Here kusu-ne na (going-to SGST) acts as a sentence final particle expressing emotion.)

b. kani eun ye lP-SING-PRON towards/to say 'Say it to me.' (*en-eun is not said)

• epitta 'all, whole' (4.1 71) a. to epitta t6nonsukus an day whole calm-clear-weather to-be 'The weather was calm and clear all day.'

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103

b. ku-simonarserke epitta rene lP-SING-NOM-right-half-of-body whole be-numb 'The whole right side of my body is numb.' cf. opitta in section 4.7.2.1 above.

• pis(-no) 'each' (4.172) kesto kunneywa pisno every-day morning each 'every morning' Used as an independent adverb: (4.173) askepeci pis pis oma finger each each get-in/ on tekunpe mitten (ancient bag-like hand covering) 'a mitten where each finger can be inserted' (said of a glove)

• nani 'soon after' (4.174) apto tuy hi nani rera yupke rain stop time soon-after wind be-fierce 'Soon after the rain stopped, the wind got fierce.'

• sinne, sirine 'like' ( sinne < sir + ne. Sir and siri mean 'condition', and ne is the copula. Accordingly, etymologically, this is 'with (such) conditions'. It is used in some expressions.) (4.175) seta sinne an hemanta kameasi, cise piski wa dog like to-be awful monster, house count CON oraun, i-ukoykire then, INDEFP-ACC-cause-fight 'That guy is just like a dog. He goes from house to house eating and starting fights.' 4. 7 .2.4 There are also postpositional adverbs that attach to verb phrases and sentences.

• kosirerma 'while, incidentally'

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( 4.176) kesto kunneywa pisno ewonne kosirerma wakka every-day morning each wash-face incidentally-to water omare ranke put-in-CAUS REPT 'When you wash your face each morning, you should replenish the water.' • sekor QUOTE quotation (4.177) a. "sirpirka ruwe!" sekor hawean conditions-be-good eEVD! QUOTE say '(Someone) said, "it's nice weather, isn't it?"' b. ponno p6ka pirka-an kuni sekor yaynu little a-little be-good-INDEFP-NOM like QUOTE think yan CMND-PL/POL 'Try to think about getting (even a little) better' (said to a sick person) c. marimo sekor a-ye p 'marimo' QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say thing

'That which is called marimo (algae formed in ball shapes, found in Lake Akan in Hokkaido).' d. sekor

sekor a-mimaki QUOTE QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-teeth a-ut6mosmare hi, retar seta ukoykire INDEFP-NOM-hit-each-other NMNL, white dog cause-fight sekor kane, iki-an hi a-ye QUOTE even, do-INDEFP-NOM NMNL INDEFP-NOM-say hi ne wa NMNL COP FIN

'(Speaking of a riddle) Banging your teeth together; like this; like this. This is called "making the white dogs fight".' 4. 7. 2. 5 Case particles and locative nouns frequently combine with each other, and they have the same function as a single postpositional adverb. Among these, or and oro 'place' are often used.

• or ta (pronounced as [otta]) (place at/in) 'at'; oro ta (place at/in) '(that) place'

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105

(4.1 78) a. mosma kur or ta, wen pe an wa, oro other person place at, death thing to-be CON, place ta ka ku-yorot at even lP-SING-NOM-stop-by 'There was a death in another person's (family), and I stopped by their place, too.'

b. oro ta kem a-as{ easirki uske place at needle INDEFP-NOM-stand must place 'place where the needle must be stuck' (refers to sewing needle)

• or un (place towards) 'towards a place'; oro un (place towards) 'towards (that) place' (4.179) a. toy or un pe ka, orunpe ka isam field place towards thing even, harvest even to-be-NEG 'There was no harvest, from the fields either.'

b. a-kunnere pintoro ani herikasi cup INDEFP-NOM-be-black-CAUS glass with up-towards sun or un inkar-an place towards see-INDEFP-NOM 'We looked up towards the sun through a piece of blackened glass.' c. akketek yan scallop come-ashore un ... nupuri towards ... mountain

wa

an

hi

kusu,

oro

CON to-be NMNL reason, place

ne

ca ...

COP cut-off

'Scallops were washed ashore, and on the top of the scallop shells, he put pieces of whale meat that he cut, piling them into a mountain.' (a whale had also been washed ashore)

• or peka (place around) 'a place'; oro peka (place around) 'that place' (4.180) a. siwin to or-peka, ne sus an he ki green pond place, any swim to-be QUES do

'Is there something swimming around in the green pond?'

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b.

CZS nupehe, Oro kus uskehe, OTO peka cis nupehe cry tears, there pass place, place around cry tears cirawokuta uskehe ... flow-down place

'The place where the tears flowed; the place where tears fell.' (expressions of the same meaning in different forms are repeated)

• or wa (place from) 'from a place'; oro wa (place from) 'from (that) place' (4.181) a. oya other hawe eSAID

kotan or wa e-ek pe ne village place from 2P-SING-NOM-come thing COP ne COP

'(Someone) said that you came from another village.' (This could also mean "you said ... ") b. ne pira kotor peka aka, ritenni nonno this cliff face here-and-there to-be-PL, azalea flower ka, hure nonno ka, siwnin nonno ka, kar pe even, red flower even, blue flower even, pick thing anak oro wa karkarse TOP place from fall-down 'Those who picked the azaleas, red flowers, and blue flowers, which were blooming all over the cliff face, fell down from there.'

c. a-kor cise oro wa INDEFP-NOM-have house place from ikesuy-an leave-home-INDEFP-NOM

'I left home.' (quote) Or wa and oro wa are also used to show the actor in passive expressions. (4.182) a. hapo oro wa a-en-koyki mother place from INDEFP-NOM-lP-SING-ACC-scold

'I was scolded by mother.'

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b. kamuy or wa a-i-kar gods place from INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-build katu renkayne ... method accordingly 'Depending on how the gods built us (human beings) ... ' However, just because or wa/ oro wa is placed after the actor, it does not necessarily mean that it is a passive construction.

(4.183) kamuy oro wa a-erampokiwen wa un-kore gods place from INDEFP-NOM-pity CON lP-PL-ACC-give yan CMND-PL/POL 'Oh gods. Grant us (your) pity.'

4. 7.2.6 Oro-wa may be used at the end of a sentence to lead into the following sentence, in much the same way as 'and then' is used. It may take a suffix, as oro-wa-no or oro-wa-un, or any of these forms may be contracted, as om, omno, and oraun. These expressions may be placed after a complete sentence; after kor 'when/while'; wa 'then'; hine 'and'; or after other conjunctions or conjunctive particles, and lead into the beginning of the next sentence. However, sometimes, it shows the same function as a conjunctive particle when placed directly after a verb phrase (see section 4.10.5 Conjunctive Afli.xes and Conjunctions). These expressions may have the nuance of "from that time", but are more likely to be used simply as a signal that the speaker will continue or as a device to stall for time.

(4.184) a. "toan-pe toykokisma yan. netopake "that-guy grasp-firmly CMND-PL/POL. body a-nukar kusu-ne na ... " sekor INDEFP-NOM-look going-to SGST ... " QUOTE kotankonnispa hawean ruwe ne. hine orowa nea village-head say eEVD COP. and then that okkaypo a-uk6monkokisma hine orowaun "hemanta youth INDEFP-NOM-catch and then "what e-ekar kusu emus 2P-SING-NOM-do-with reason sword e-seturpeste 2P-SING-NOM-hidden-behind-back

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e-seturpeste" sekor 2P-SING-NOM-hidden-behind-back" QUOTE a-kowepekennu ... INDEFP-NOM-inquire 'The village chief said, "Hold him tight; I'll check his body." And then they all grabbed the youth. "Why are you hiding that sword behind you? Hiding it in your back?" they demanded of him.' (the verb here literally means 'concealing something by putting it in your clothes at your back'.) b. ((ha, opitta e-eraman." ((ora "Ah, everything 2P-SING-NOM-understand" "then kani hem ku-ye" lP-SING-PRON also lP-SING-NOM-say" '"Ah, you all figured them out." "Then I'll tell one too."' (of riddles) c. nea okkaypo ikuso or ta mono that youth feast place at/in on-the-ground/floor a-are wa iku eyorot. orowano INDEFP-NOM-sit-CAUS CON drink-liquor join. then okamir an pe ne kusu nea okkaypo purposely to-be thing COP reason that youth a-tuk{korarpa wa INDEFP-NOM-bring-cup-after-cup-PL CON a-ikure a INDEFP-NOM-cause-to-drink-liquor EMPH-CON a-ikure a INDEFP-NOM-cause-to-drink-liquor EMPH-CON

'That youth was made to join/sit in with the drinking party, then, and it was done with purpose, and ( the others) made him drink cup after cup of liquor.'

hfne orano hetopo d. hunak ta an suy siyoka turn-back again behind where at/in to-be and then un inkar... towards see '(Someone) was somewhere, and then, he looked behind himself again ... ' e. sattek wa okerpa wa oraun nepki kor emaciated CON extremely CON then work when

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Conjunctions

109

ukasuy nepki ... help-each-other work 'They are extremely emaciated and when they work, they help each other.' (said of chopsticks)

4.8 Conjunctions Conjunctions are words that connect sentences. Some of them are strongly independent, frequently standing at the beginning of sentences, and even breaking the syntagmatic relationship with the preceding phrase. The following words are all example of this: • h{ne 'and' • yakun 'if' • yakka 'even so' On the other hand, some conjunctions always come at the end of the sentence after the verb phrase, do not break the syntagmatic relationship with the preceding sentence, and bring two sentences together into one. All of the conjunctions will be taken up in section 4.10.5 Conjunctive Particles and Conjunctions.

4.9 Interjections The following interjections are frequently used in the Saru dialect. • ho 'yes'; used as a response when called • e 'yes, sure,

OK'; assenting answer

• uwa 'dunno'; used when asked something and one does not know • acikarata 'oh!'; the word that comes out, without thinking, when one is extremely surprised • ke 'oh'; used when surprised or when something unexpected happens • yey (often pronounced with a lengthened vowel) 'hey'; used when making fun of someone, or in accompanying singing • hioy-oy 'oh, thanks'; a word used to express thanks with affection, often said by adults to children • iyayiraykere 'thanks much'; a polite word of thanks

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4.10 Particles Words that are not placed at the beginning of sentences, only appear attached to preceding nouns, and are dependent upon other words are called particles. They are all used extraordinarily frequently. Normally, they are uttered after a word or phrase, and the majority form a single accentual phrase with the preceding word. By themselves they do not express any concrete meaning, but attach to other words, and indicate grammatical relations, add some nuance, or express the speaker's feelings or attitudes. Some particles are comparatively independent, and some are comparatively dependent. One of the characteristics of Ainu grammatical structure is that there may be a pause between particles and the preceding phrase. Even in such cases, the syntagmatic relationship between the particle and the preceding phrase is seldom broken. Some other particles, while having similar functions to other particles, may appear at the beginning of an independent sentence with no syntagmatic relationship with the preceding phrase. As it is difficult to separate dependent words (verbs, nouns, adverbs, conjunctions) from relatively independent particles, this distinction is · made only for convenience. Seen from grammatical function, particles can be divided into the following six categories. Some particles extend over two or more groups. 1. Auxiliary Verbs (Aux)

2. Nominalizing Particles (NOM) 3. Case Particles ( CASE) 4. Adverbial Particles (ADV) 5. Conjunctive Particles ( CON) 6. Sentence-Final Particles (FIN) There are various dialectal differences in particles. Below, the examples will primarily be from the southern Hokkaido (Hidaka) Saru dialect.

4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs Placed after verb phrases, they are only used in combination with verbs, and that combined form functions as a verb phrase. The majority form a single accentual phrase with the verb. If there is no interference in meaning, another auxiliary verb can be attached afterwards.

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111

(4.185) e-pituntunke ranke nankor 2P-SING-NOM-snicker REPT perhaps 'You'll snicker again and again.' j

AUX:1

a

PAST

j

This indicates that something has occurred previous to the topic setting (the time of the topic). (4.186) a. ku-mimaki ani kapu ku-kar wa lP-SING-NOM-tooth with skin lP-SING-NOM-peel CON k-e a wa lP-SING-NOM-eat PAST FIN 'I have (already) peeled it with my teeth and eaten it.' (This is a reply when someone brought a knife to peel an apple, and tried to hand it to the speaker. It conveys the feeling that since the speaker had already eaten the apple, the knife was unnecessary.)

a seta ne noyne an b. a-kor INDEFP-NOM-have PAST dog COP seem to-be

'It appears as though this is the dog that we used to have.' • rok

PAST-PL

Used instead of a for the plural. It is said to be more polite. (4.187) a. arki rok ya? (pronounced as [roka]) come-PL PAST whether 'Did they come?' (polite) cf. arki a? come-PL PAST

'Did they come?' (neutral) b. kamuyto ya ta aka rok Lake-Mashuu levee/banks at to-be-PL PAST tumuncikamuy umurek... cis kor ikesuy demon-god husband-and-wife cry while leave 'The demon-god husband and wife left the banks of Lake Mashuu where they had been living, crying.'

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There are the intransitive verbs a (singular) and rok (plural) 'to sit'. When used as a particle, however, a is used without a distinction between singular and plural. Rok remains as an old word, and is accordingly considered more "polite". AUX:2

... a ... a

EMPH-CON

emphatic continuative

An emphatic expression, for an action that continues for a prolonged period, or for continuously repeated action.

miso oruspe patek ye (4.188) a. kesto an kor every-day to-be when/while miso story only say a ye a iramsitnere hawe an! EMPH-CON say EMPH-CON be-annoying eSAID to-be 'It's so annoying that (someone) is only talking about miso day after day!' ( miso is fermented bean paste)

b. poro su or oma sayo oro nea terkeype big pot place insert grain-gruel place that frog oahun hine orano e a e a e in-enter and then eat EMPH-CON eat EMPH-CON eat a kor an kor ... EMPH-CON while to-be when/while 'There was a big pot with gruel (congee) in it and that frog got in and he ate and ate and ate.' For the plural, ... rok ... rok may be used instead of ... a... a. (4.189) ne yuptek sapa anakne nepki a nepki this diligent head TOP work EMPH-CON work a. . .. ki a ki a wa ataye EMPH-CON. . .. do EMPH-CON do EMPH-CON CON price uk kor orano nea toranne sapa ka ipe a receive when then that lazy head even eat EMPH-CON ipe a. tun ne wa ipe rok ipe eat EMPH-CON. two COP CON eat EMPH-CON-PL eat rok EMPH-CON-PL

'(Said of a being with two heads) The diligent head worked and worked and when (the diligent head) received the money /pay, the lazy head also ate and ate. Both heads ate and ate.'

4.10. Particles

I AUX:3

aan

113

determined

j

This indicates that the facts in the previous phrase have been newly understood or discovered.

a p (4.190) a. pukuru ne kunak ku-ramu bag COP QUOTE lP-SING-NOM-think PAST thing tusaha ne aan sleeve COP determined 'I thought it was a bag, but it turned out to be a sleeve.' (The speaker had been watching someone sew, and thought that the sewer was making a bag. As the work progressed, the speaker saw that it was a sleeve that was being sewn.) ta an aan kur ku-hunara b. te here at to-be determined person lP-SING-NOM-search kor k-6manan when/while lP-SING-NOM-walk 'The person I was walking around looking for turned out to be here.' (The speaker had been going around, searching very hard for someone, who, surprisingly, turned out to be 'here'.) For the plural, rok'oka or r6koka is used instead of aan.

ne r6koka (4.191) kamuy unpirma an an siri gods message to-be eSEEN COP determined-PL to-be hi an! NMNL to-be 'It must have been a sign from the gods!' j

AUX:4

rusuy

want

I

This expresses the desire that an action will occur. (4.192) a. k-arpa rusuy kor patek lP-SING-NOM-go want when/while only k-an a p tanepo nisatta lP-SING-NOM-to-be PAST thing finally tomorrow paye-as kusu-ne yak a-ye go-PL-lP-PL-NOM going-to QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say 'I've always wanted to go, and they say we'll finally go tomorrow.'

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b. tane hosipi rusuy nankor now return want perhaps '(Someone) probably wants to go home now.' When the actor and the one who wishes the action will occur are not the same, the form hi ki rusuy (place do want) 'want to occur' is used. The verb ki 'to do' takes the person of the individual doing the wanting.

(4.193) ene aka huci uirwaknep like-this to-be-PL elderly-woman sisters a-koytak a hi sekor an pe, kampi INDEFP-NOM-talk PAST NMNL QUOTE to-be thing, book ka ta ka an hi ku-ki rusuy ... above at/in even to-be NMNL lP-SING-NOM-do want 'I wish that "I had a conversation with these elderly sisters" were in a book.' (said by one of the sisters)

I AUX:5

ranke

REPT

repetition

I

This expresses the repetition of a non-continuous action.

(4.194) a. kesto an kor n6kunneywano hopuni wa every-day to-be when/while before-dawn get-up CON an ranke to-be REPT '(Someone) gets up every day before dawn.'

b. sini ranke kor penkiyo yan hani rest REPT have study CMND-PL/POL FIN 'Take breaks while you are studying.' (penkiyo is from the Japanese 'benkyo' ('to study').)

I AUX:6

nankor

'perhaps'

I

This shows the speaker's supposition. It can be used for the past, present, or future. Unlike aan, it needs to have no assumptive basis. At times, it may be interpreted as 'perhaps', and is just as indefinite as that word in English.

(4.195) a. sino e-sinki nankor really 2P-SING-NOM-be-tired perhaps 'You're probably really tired.'

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115

b. ek nankor kur come perhaps person 'the person who will probably come' The following constructions are used to express uncertain supposition. (1) apto as ka ki nankor

(rain fall even do perhaps)

(2) apto as hene ki nankor (3) apto ka ne nankor

(rain fall or-something do perhaps)

(rain even COP perhaps)

(4) apto hene ne nankor

(rain or-something COP perhaps)

(1) and (2) are 'it might rain', and (3) and (4) are 'maybe it's rain'. (1) and (3), which use ka 'even', are less definite than (2) and (4), which use hene 'or something'. Further, ka 'even' and hene 'or something' are adverbial particles.

I AUX:7

nisa

'just finished'

I

This expresses that an action, which had not occurred until just recently, has now been completed.

( 4.196) a. tap uhunak ku-nuye nisa now recently lP-SING-NOM-write just-finished

'I just finished writing (something).' b. tane now ani with

mimak a-nukar nisa kusu suy INDEFP-NOM-see just-finished reason again tooth tuye cut

'Since it's already been seen, cut (it) again with teeth.' (said to someone who has just been observed cutting a piece of thread with his /her teeth instead of scissors) Next, we will outline the differences among four structures which express the notion of completion.

• wa isam (coN to-be-NEG) This expresses the idea that as the result of some action, something has disappeared; cf. isam vi (to-be-NEG) 'not be; disappear'.

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(4.197) ku-ku wa isam lP-SING-NOM-drink CON to-be-NEG

'I drank it all.' (I drank it all up, so there's no water in the cup.)

• wa okere (CON finish) This expresses that the intended action has been completed; cf. okere vt 'to end, finish'. (4.198) ku-ku ( wa) okere lP-SING-NOM-drink ( CON) finish

'I finished drinking (what I intended to drink).' • nisa 'just finished' (see above)

nisa (4.199) ku-ku lP-SING-NOM-drink just-finished

'I already drank it all.' (It had not been drunk up until just a little bit ago, but I just drank it up.) • a PAST (see AUX:1 above) a (4.200) ku-ku lP-SING-NOM-drink PAST

'I drank it.' (It was drunk before now, when this has become the topic; for example, if someone has drunk something and does not want any more, or if someone took some medicine but it did not work.)

I AUX:8

easirki

must

I

This expresses the necessity for an action to occur. It is a combination of the adverb easir 'first time' and the transitive verb ki 'to do'. (4.201) a. k-arpa easirki lP-SING-NOM-go must

'I must go.' b. kampi ku-nuye easirki letter lP-SING-NOM-write must

'I must write a letter.'

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117

cf. e-arpa yak easir pirka 2P-SING-NOM-go if first-time be-good

'You must go.'

I AUX:9

kaspa

exceed

j

This expresses that the state has gone beyond a normal level, and has become instead, inconvenient. (4.202) a. sirsesek kaspa wa ku-hese ka conditions-be-hot exceed CON lP-SING-NOM-breathe even koyaykus cannot-do 'It's so hot I can't even breathe.'

b. wen kaspa ka soma ki be-bad exceed even NEG do 'It isn't too bad.'

I AUX: 10

kasu

exceed

I

This is not used very much in the Saru dialect. Kasu and kaspa do not have a relationship similar to the two verbs mesu and mespa 'to tear off' which are singular and plural, respectively. Kasu is dependent upon the preceding verb, and often forms nonce compounds. The meaning of kaspa is clearer, and as long as it makes sense, kaspa may be attached to any verb. In short, it is thought that kaspa is more independent than kasu, and kasu is losing its status as an independent word.

kasu (or ponkasu) (4.203) a. pan be-small exceed 'It's too small.'

b. ku-ipekasu lP-SING-NOM-eat-exceed

'I ate too much.' (Ipekasu is a compound word; cf. ipe 'to eat'.) cf. ku-ipe kaspa lP-SING-NOM-eat exceed

'I ate too much.' (to eat beyond the limits; an analytic expression)

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In old Ainu, the transitive verbs kasu (singular) and kaspa (plural) meant 'to surpass'. It survives as an idiom in modern Ainu.

(4. 204) cikap kasu-no para cikap bird surpassing be-big bird 'a bird bigger than a usual bird' The adverb wenkasu (literally wen-kasu (be-bad-exceed)) means 'too much, excessively'.

I AUX: 11

kuni

'expect, is about to'

j

(4.205) en-kupa kuni pekor ku-yaynu lP-SING-ACC-bite be-about-to as-though lP-SING-NOM-think 'I feel like (that dog) is about to bite me.'

Kuni is often used before pe / p 'thing'. It means 'something expected to happen'. (4.206) a. tapan this p thing

hekaci para yakun, isanispa ne an kuni youth be-big if, doctor as/into to-be expect ne COP

'When this child grows up, (s)he should become a doctor.'

b. pisi kuni p nuypa wa ek inquire expect thing write CON come '(Someone) came with what they (he/she) wanted written down.'

Kuni can also be used as a conjunctive particle, meaning 'in order (that)', and when used as a nominalizing particle, means 'something that should be done'. (4.207) a. hnta a-amare kuni ene panka what INDEFP-NOM-put-in should like-this hugely a-auri hi an? INDEFP-NOM-dig NMNL to-be 'What will be put in this hole that it was dug so big/deep?' (lit.: 'to put what in this hole was it dug so big'

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119

b. opitta nisatta hunak un paye kuni ye kor all tomorrow where towards go-PL should say while an to-be '(He) says that everyone is going somewhere tomorrow.' For more about this usage, see section 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles. Next, we will introduce particles which straddle the classes of auxiliary verbs and other particles.

I AUX: 12

tek

'a little'

I

This occupies an intermediate position between auxiliary verbs and adverbial particles. Specifically, the combination of a verb phrase and tek yields a verb phrase (which is characteristic of auxiliary verbs; see the first two example sentences below), but when it combines with an adverbial phrase, it yields an adverbial phrase (which is characteristic of adverbial particles; see the third and fourth example sentences below). It does not combine with noun phrases. This expresses a slight level of an event or condition. When attached to a verb that expresses an action, it frequently indicates a short amount of time.

tek wa (4.208) a. "hokure hokure." "hoski, k-e lP-SING-NOM-eat little CON quickly quickly wait, k-arpa" lP-SING-NOM-go "'Hurry up." "Wait; I'll go after I eat a little."' b. aptokar ayne retar tek rain-striken finally be-white little 'After being rained on for a long time, it got a little whitish.' c. eytasa poronno ne. na ponno tek ka omare too-much much COP. more fewer little even put-in

'That's too much. Put in a little less.'

d. oyapa anak tunasno tek k-ek next-year TOP early little lP-SING-NOM-come 'I'll come a little earlier next year.'

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As can be seen from these examples, tek indicates the speakers feelings, unlike ponno 'little, few' or iruka 'a little while' which merely conveys information. J

AUX: 13

kane

even

J

This is a particle which combines a bit of each of the characteristics of an auxiliary verb, a conjunctive particle, and adverbial particles. That is to say, the combination of a verb phrase and kane may yield a verb phrase (which is characteristic of auxiliary verbs; see the first two example sentences below); or may yield an adverbial phrase (which is characteristic of conjunctive particles; see the third and fourth example sentences below). It may also combine with adverbs, which results in an adverbial phrase (which is characteristic of adverbial particles; see the fifth and sixth example sentences below). It does not combine with noun phrases. This expresses a feeling of something unexpected and unanticipated. On this point, it closely resembles the adverbial particle ka 'even'. Etymologically, the first half of kane is probably this ka.

kane ek ka ne wa iyununep (4.209) a. nen somehow even COP CON mother-bear come even mak ku-iki kusu kor when/if how lP-SING-NOM-do future 'If a mother bear came or something, what ever would I do?'

b. onnayke ame o kane t6penpe inside candy be-inside even confection 'a confection that even has candy inside' c. emus kor kane n{sapno awosma sword have just suddenly rush-in

'(Someone) suddenly rushed in with a sword.' d. saparusihi meske kane an scalp peel-off even to-be 'even the scalp is peeled off'

kane hotke e. kuttokono on-one's-back just lie-down 'lie right down on one's back'

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121

upakno kane aka kampisos be-same just to-be-PL notebook 'notebooks that are just the same size'

In eastern dialects, kane has the meaning 'while', and in Sakhalin Ainu, kanne has the same meaning.

I AUX:14

manu

'called'

I

In Hokkaido Ainu, this word is rarely used. It appears only in predictable places. (4.210) a. porowakka ne manu p flood COP called thing 'what is called a flood'

b. konru nupuru manu cup rure ice have-godlike-power called sun melt 'If ice is so great, why can the sun melt it?' (a traditional word-play song) In Sakhalin Ainu, manu is often used to report hearsay. (4.211) tan nay etokota pirika too an manu this river upper-reaches pretty lake to-be HEARSAY 'They say there's a pretty lake up this river.' (Raichishka dialect, from Murasaki 1976)

4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles Nominalizing particles are placed at the end of verb phrases and nominalize them. That is, among nominalizing words, they are dependent and are seen as particles, but there is no clear boundary between weakly independent nouns and nominalizing particles. Here, they are treated as nominalizing words (see also section 4.5.4 Nominalizing Words, and chapter 4.11 Sentence Structure). 4.10.2.1 The nominalizing words in NOM:1 through NOM:4 below may also stand at the beginning of a sentence, as seen in section 4.5.4 Nominalizing Words above. When placed at the end of a sentence that ends with a verb phrase, they express the following attitudes of the speaker towards the events described, where "I" is the speaker.

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NOM:1

ru, ruwe

NOM:2

haw, hawe

I NOM:3 NOM:4

sir, siri

'(I) know that, (it is) true that' '(I) said that; (I) heard that someone said that'

'(I) see something'

hum, humi

j

'(I) hear that/feel that'

In most cases, the long form is used. Etymologically, they are based on the following nouns (conceptual form on the left; affi.liative form on the right). a'. ru, ruwe( he)

'trail, tracks'

b'. haw, hawe( he) c'. sir, siri( hi)

'voice'

'state ( of the scene)'

d'. hum, humi(hi)

'sound, feelings'

As further detailed in chapter 6, these frequently used words have a wide range of applications and meanings when used in combination with other particles (see chapter 6 Methods of Expression).

4.10.2.2 Items NOM:5 and NOM:6 below may only come after adnominals, and function as nouns (see section 4.5.3 Dependent Nouns).

I NOM:5

uske, uskehe

place; time

I

These words indicate spatial or temporal location. See also hi 'thing' under NOM:8 below. ( 4.212) a. tumunci-kamuy ewak uske

demon-gods

live

place

'the place where the demon-gods live' b. oro there an to-be

k-arpa uskehe ta ohasir un lP-SING-NOM-go place at empty-house towards wa kusu ... CON reason

'I went there but no one was home.'

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kaspa c. sirmeman conditions-be-cool exceed rusuy ku-mi lP-SING-NOM-wear want

uske time uske time

ka even ka even

hanca an, to-be, hanca an to-be

'There are times when it's too cool, and times when I want to wear a hanca.' (a hanca is a kind of short coat worn to ward off cold)

I NOM:6

kur

person; man

I

(4.213) a. sar-un-kur Saru (place name )-of/from-person 'a person of Saru'

b. mosir

epitta epunkine kur land/ country all rule person

'a person who rules the whole country' The word utar means 'more than one person'. Utar may appear at the beginning of sentences, and is a common noun that may form independent noun phrases. (4.214) a. toan kur that person b. tooka utar those people

'that person'

'those people'

To indicate people, pe / p 'thing' (discussed next) may also be used. In contrast to kur, which is a respectful expression, pe / p is a rough expression, as it is also used to indicate inanimate objects. Kur is not normally used for women and children. Instead, pe/p may be used, or common nouns such as menoko 'woman'; katkemat 'lady'; kurmat 'Japanese woman'; and hekattar 'children' may be used. There are various common nouns to indicate men, such as aynu 'human, Ainu, man'; nispa 'lord'; okkayo 'man'; sisam 'Japanese man'; and tono 'man' (refers to a male of high status, usually Japanese). Kur is used in expressions indicating what kind of person, providing further information about the person. When the word aynu, which may be translated 'person' or 'man', is used, it indicates that the person is not a dog nor a horse, and neither is he a god - it indicates that the individual is human.

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(4.215) toan aynu that person ( can be rude, depending on the situation)

The items discussed in NOM:7 and NOM:8 below are dependent and they may be seen as suffixes. There are even cases where they combine with the preceding word to make a special form. In order to contrast them with kur 'person' and the other items above, they will be taken up together here.

I NOM:7

pe

thing

(p after vowels)

i. 'thing'. Used to refer to non-human things or events. When used instead of kur to refer to humans, it indicates women or children, or may be pejorative or insulting. (4.216) a. na imakake ta an pe more place-farther-than-there at to-be thing

'the thing in a place still farther than there'

b. e-ye p pirka wa ... 2P-SING-NOM-say thing be-good CON 'What you said is good, and ... ' c. toan pe, toykokisma yan! that thing, hold-firmly CMND-PL/POL

'Keep firm hold of that guy!' 11.

'although'

(4.217) a. hunakkekusu ek pe ohasir ta because-of-expectation come although empty-house at/in ek come 'Even though (someone) made the effort to come, (the person they wanted to visit) isn't home.' b. an yak e-ye a p isam to-be QUOTE 2P-SING-NOM-say PAST although to-be-NEG

'Even though you said there would be some, there isn't any.' m. Pe ne

+ conjunction:

emphasis of speaker's feelings

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125

(4.218) tane s{sam puri patek an pe ne now Japanese-person customs only to-be thing COP kusu ... reason

'Because there are only Japanese customs now ... ' Generally, pe / p is pronounced as part of the preceding word, but it may be pronounced separately. This occurs frequently when a sentence has been completed with a sentence-final verb phrase, and continues on to another, longer sentence; and when it comes at the beginning of the continuing section. In such cases, even if the preceding word ends in a vowel, it will appear as pe, not p. P is an alternant that appears only when pronounced after vowels.

(4.219) aynu cironnup ne ka kar, pe ne yak human fox as/into even make, thing COP QUOTE a-ye INDEFP-NOM-say 'They say that (someone/something) can even make people into foxes.'

Pe cannot appear after conceptual demonstratives like ne 'this' and nea 'that' (see section 7.3 Demonstratives). Before pe, ne wa an, which has the same meaning as ne or nea, is used. (4.220) h{ne oraun, ne-wa-an-pe ruska kusu ... and then, this-thing be-angry reason ... 'And then, because (someone) got mad about that thing ... ' When pe is used after oka (to-be-PL), it becomes okay pe. In almost all other dialects, okay is used, not oka. In the Saru dialect, although the final y has been dropped elsewhere, it is preserved in okay pe.

(4.221) usa okay pe various to-be-PL thing j

NOM:8

hi

NMNL

'various things'

place, time; thing; one

I

After consonants, the h is frequently dropped. However, it will always be written here. i. At the end of a verb phrase, it acts as a nominalizer.

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(4.222) a. ene oka itak ka oka hi ne nankor that to-be-PL word even to-be-PL NMNL COP perhaps 'There are probably also words like that.' b. ku-kemeyki kor ku-itak hi iyotta lP-SING-NOM-sew while lP-SING-NOM-talk NMNL most pirka be-good 'It's best (for me) to talk while I'm sewing.' 11.

It also can indicate temporal or spatial position: 'time', 'place'.

Uske (mentioned above) usually indicates a location, whereas hi usually indicates a time. They are often attached to locative particles. (4.223) a. tuyma hi wa e-ek wa iyayiraykere be-far place from 2P-SING-NOM-come CON thank-you 'Thank you for coming from so far away.'

b. Kusur un aynu nispa utar ka, Kushiro of/from Ainu man people even, topattumi kusu arki kotan un village towards plunder reason come-PL oka to-be-PL

tapan Sar this Saru hi ka time even

'There were even times when the Ainu men from Kushiro (an area in eastern Hokkaido) came to this Sam village to plunder.' C.

a-tuseranke ne hi ta, s{sam INDEFP-NOM-lower-by-rope time at, Japanese-person COP hawe he tap aynu ne hawe he eSAID QUES this( emphatic) Ainu COP eSAID QUES tap sinen 0 this (emphatic) one-person enter 'When (something) was lowered by rope, a person, maybe Japanese, maybe Ainu got on it (the something).'

Hi ta (time at/in) 'at the time (something occurred)' may be replaced with the conjunction hine 'and', which is also used to express 'when'. iii. It can also act as a conjunctive particle -

'but'.

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127

(4.224) somo-ka-tapne ene an kampi ek kuni hi NEG-even-this-way like-this to-be letter come should place ku-ramu ka somo ki a hi lP-SING-NOM-think even NEG do PAST but k-eramkoesikari lP-SING-NOM-be-surprised 'I never thought that such a letter would come, so I was surprised.'

I NOM:9

hike(he)

one (thing)

I

This is hi (discussed above) with the suffix -ke 'place' attached. It is more independent than hi. i. Used to show the choice of one among two or more items: '(this) one'.

(4.225) a. poro hike en-kore be-big one lP-SING-ACC-give 'Give me the big(ger) one.' b. usa emus usa sintoko pirka various sword various decorative-container be-good hikehe ukokor rusuy kusu ... one-AFF fight-over want reason 'Because they want to scramble to get the valuable swords and decorative containers ... ' 11. . .. hike?

NMNL -

indicates suggestion

Indicates a suggestion. It can be seen as a contraction of ... hike mak 'how about doing ... '.

(4.226) a. nep ka oyra noyne yaykohosipi kusu, what even forget seem return reason, a-tere hike ( mak) ? INDEFP-NOM-wait NMNL (sGST) 'It seems that (someone) forgot something and went back, so how about waiting?' b. nep ka a-emina kunine, what even INDEFP-NOM-laugh-at purpose, a-ewtastasa te wano ki hike ( mak)? INDEFP-NOM-exchange now from do NMNL (NMNL) 'Now, how about a little give and take for us to laugh at?'

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m. . .. hike, ... A signal that the topic is developing. conjunctive particle.

Used as a

(4.227) Pananpe an Penanpe an hine siran hike, down-river-man to-be up-river-man to-be and be and, Pananpe pis ta san akusu ... down-river-man beach at come-out then 'There was the Down River Guy and there was the Up River Guy, and the Down River Guy came down to the shore ... ' (of the ocean) iv .. .. hike-ka Expresses a concession. May also appear at the beginning of a sentence.

a-kor rusuy hike-ka INDEFP-NOM-have want even-though ek ka eramiskari ... come even have-never-seen

(4.228) a. cihoki barter-goods nen ka anyone even

'I want to get some goods, but no one has come.' (Said by a Japanese. Cihoki refers to barter goods made by the Ainu.)

b. i-koiyomare

hike-ka

INDEFP-ACC-pour-liquor-for even-though a-ku ka koyaykus pekor... INDEFP-NOM-drink even cannot as-though 'Even though (someone) poured a drink for me, I pretended as if I couldn't drink.' 4.10.2.3 The particles yak, kuni, and kunak are nominalizers and are used in indirect quotes.

I NOM: 10

yak

QUOTE

j

Attaches to the quoted phrase to make the noun phrase that is the object of the transitive verb ye 'to say'.

(4.229) a. tanto ek kusu-ne yak ye today come going-to QUOTE say 'S /he said that s /he would come today.'

b. arpa ruwe ne yak a-ye go eEVD COP QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say 'They say thats/he went.'

4.10. Particles

I NOM: 11

kuni, kunak

129 thing; QUOTE

I

Kuni may be used as an auxiliary verb (see section 4.10 Particles above), and it may also attach to a verb phrase to make the noun phrase that is the object of transitive verbs like ye 'to say' and ramu 'to think'. (4.230) hekattar utar a-respa kuni child people INDEFP-NOM-raise thing/QUOTE a-ewkoramkor INDEFP-NOM-consult / seek-advice 'Consult (each other) about raising children.'

(4.231) ku-hawean hawe nu kuni lP-SING-NOM-say eSAID hear thing/QUOTE ku-ramu lP-SING-NOM-think

'I think that (he) heard what I said.' Kunak ( < kun(i)-yak) is used exclusively for indirect quotation. (4.232) pukuru ne kunak ku-ramu a p tusaha bag COP QUOTE lP-SING-NOM-think PAST thing sleeve ne aan COP determined 'I thought it was a bag, but it turned out to be a sleeve.'

4.10.3 Case Particles (Postpositional Particles) Most postpositions (placed after noun phrases, indicating the relationship with the following phrase) are treated in section 4. 7. 2 Postpositional Adverbs. However, several of these are dependent and may not appear at the head of a sentence or phrase. None of them may take personal affixes. They should perhaps be called "postpositional particles", but for convenience, will be called "case particles" here. However, these do not indicate case like nominative, accusative, or genitive. 4.10.3.1 The particles covered in CASE:l through CASE:4 below are placed after locative nouns or noun phrases that indicate temporal or spatial position. Expressing the locational relationship with the following events, they can also be called locative case particles. These are usually placed after nouns that indicate location (time or place), they are not placed after nouns that indicate things. For example, where Sapporo represents a place, so Sapporo ta (Sapporo at/in)

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'at/in Sapporo' is possible, cise 'house' represents a thing, so ta does not directly attach to it. In order to place one of these particles after a noun that indicates a thing, the locative noun or 'place' is placed after the noun. Or can be translated as 'place', but it often best left untranslated; for example, cise OT ta (house place at/in) (pronounced cise otta) 'at/in the house'. Even nouns that indicate places may be accompanied by or, so Sapporo or ta 'at/in Sapporo' may also be said. It is not always possible to determine whether an Ainu word indicates a place or a thing from just the direct translation of that one word.

ta (4.233) a. kim hills (place) at/in 'in the hills' (can also be said of mountainous territory) b. pis ta shore at/in

'at the shore'

ta [petotta] c. pet OT river place at/in 'at the river' d. to OT ta [t6otta] pond place at/in 'at the pond'

I CASE:1

ta

at/in

locative

I

Indicates a fixed temporal or spatial location: 'at, in'.

(4.234) a. to, rik ta an na hey, high-place at/in to-be SGST 'Look, it's up there!'

b. tan kotan ta sirp6pke this village at/in conditions-be-warm 'It's warm at this village.'

c. okake ta ye after-that at/in say 'Say it later.' As seen above, ta often forms verb-modifying phrases, but it can also form adnominal phrases.

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(4.235) a. kanto or ta nociw sky place at/in star 'stars in the sky' b. te ta weysisam an aw ta this-place at/in be-poor-Japanese to-be next-to at/in weysisam an be-poor-Japanese to-be 'There lived a poor Japanese here, and there lived a poor Japanese next door.' (one common expression used at the opening of old tales)

I CASE:2

un

towards, in; of/from

I

i. Forms a verb-modifying phrase indicating the place towards which a motion or action goes: 'to, towards'.

( 4.236) a. rosiya mosir un tumi epaye Russia land/country towards war go-to-PL '(Someone) went to war in Russia.'

b. san ka un anu shelf top-of towards place-on 'Put (it) up on the shelf.'

Ta, which indicates a fixed location, may also be used with motions and actions. ( 4.237) a. k-uni ta ek lP-SING-NOM-house at/in come '(Someone) came to my house.' b. k-uni un ek lP-SING-NOM-house towards come '(Someone) came to my house.' Comparing these two sentences, the former, with k-uni ta, indicates that someone has already arrived at my house, and the fact of their being there now is emphasized. In contrast, the second sentence, with k-uni un, emphasizes that someone has moved from another location towards my house. In the next two examples, ta cannot be used.

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(4.238) a. ontaro or un ihuraye barrel place in wash-clothes ' (Someone) washes clothes in the barrel.'

b. nisu or un iyuta kor an mortar place in pound while to-be ' (Someone) is pounding rice in the mortar.'

If one were to say ontaro or ta or nisu or ta, it would indicate the action (washing or pounding) were occurring inside the vessel (the barrel or mortar). In other words, it would mean that the person doing the action (washing or pounding) is also inside the vessel (the barrel or mortar). The actor is outside of the vessel, so to express that the action is occurring oriented towards the inside of the vessel, un is used. ii. Un also forms an adnominal phrase indicating the location of a person or object's existence.

(4.239) a. sinpuy or un nam wakka ta wa ek well place of/from cold water draw CON come 'Come draw some cold, well water.'

b. tan kotan un utar this village of/from people 'the people of this village' c. Nina un kur Nina (place name) of/from person

'a person from Nina' This last phrase indicates someone who currently lives in Nina, or it may refer to someone whose hometown is Nina.

I CASE:3

wa

from

I

Indicates the starting point of an action.

(4.240) a. a-kor mosir wa roszya INDEFP-NOM-have land/country from Russia mosir un tumi epaye land/ country towards war go-to- PL '(Someone) from our land went to war in Russia.'

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133

b. nupuri ka wa hotuypa hills top-of from call-with-loud-voice '(Someone) called, in a loud voice, from the top of the mountain (hill).'

c. hapo harkisama wa rok yan mother left-side-of from sit CMND-PL/POL 'Go sit on mother's left side.' For this last sentence, hapo harkisama ta is also possible. However, after a word indicating a place to sit, wa, not ta, is frequently used. The usage in the above example has the nuance of "Go to your mother's side." Sometimes the adverb-forming suffix -no is attached to wa. When indicating time, the wa-no combination is used. (4.241) sakne wano ramma uneno hotke summer-last-year from always in-the-same-way lie-down wa an CON to-be ' (Someone) has been bedridden since summer last year.'

I CASE:4

peka

'around, through'

I

Indicates the extension of the range of an action. If an action occurs at one point, that location is indicated with ta. To show action that occurs over a wide area, that area is indicated with peka. ( 4.242) a. tan uske peka paye this place through go-PL 'They passed through here.'

b. huttom peka a-kus midway-up-mountain through INDEFP-NOM-pass 'Let's travel through at the mid-mountain point.'

Peka itself has no meaning of motion or going through a place. ( 4.243) toy or peka iranakka mun poronno aka field place around repugnant grass much to-be- PL 'There are a lot of disgusting weeds all over the field.'

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Because the grass is growing over a wide area, peka is used.

(4.244) toska ka peka ru an dike above around path to-be 'There is a path on top of the dike.' In this case, because the path runs all along the top of the dike, peka is used. Almost all examples with peka are spatial, but it may also be used temporally.

(4.245) a. k-arpa hi peka ... lP-SING-NOM-go time around b. t6kap noski peka ... midday middle around

'About the time I went ... '

'Around noon ... '

The suffix -no may also be attached.

(4.246) apa pekano arpa doorway around go 'Go towards the door.' In this way, pekano may be used with the meaning of 'in the direction of'. The transitive verb peka means 'to catch (something moving through the air)'.

4.10.3.2 Unlike the locative particle discussed so far, CASE:5 below is a special case and is not a locative.

I CASE:5

ne

'as/(to turn) into'

I

When the copula ne is used as a particle, it indicates the result of a change. Just as transitive verbs can be used adverbially, this resembles a postpositional adverb.

(4.247) a. ku-poro yakun isa ne lP-SING-NOM-be-big if-so doctor as/into k-an kusu-ne lP-SING-NOM-to-be going-to 'I'm going to become a doctor when I grow up.'

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135

b. ekasi utar, huci utar upaskuma grandfather people, grandmother people old-story ne yukar ne ye p tumi oruspe ne as/into yukar as/into say thing war topic COP 'The stories that the grandfathers and grandmothers recited in the folklore and epic tales were stories of war.'

4.10.4 Adverbial Particles Adverbial particles are placed after verb phrases, noun phrases, and adverbial phrases. When adverbial particles are placed after verb phrases, ki 'to do' comes afterwards to complete the predicate; when placed after noun and adverbial phrases, their function remains as noun or adverbial phrases. 4.10.4.1 Most adverbial particles have functions similar to Japanese particles such as 'wa' TOP and 'mo' ('also, even') which are used to mark the function of the preceding word.

I ADV: 1

anak, anakne

TOP

topic

I

Makes the topic conspicuous. That is, it indicates that the phrase or word preceding is the subject now being spoken about. In normally continuing speech, anak is commonly used. When speaking slowly, thinking about what to say, and particularly when wanting to emphasize, anakne is used.

(4.248) "na e yan." "k-e anak ki rusuy more eat CMND-PL/POL. lP-SING-NOM-eat TOP do want korka ku-kironnu" but lP-SING-NOM-be-full '"Eat more." "I want to eat more, but I'm full."' A more normal way to say the same thing is k-e rusuy korka ... 'I would like to eat more, but ... '.

(4.249) a. cisetumam anak ki ani a-kar house-walls TOP reed/rushes using INDEFP-NOM-make 'The walls of the house are made of reed.'

anak, wakka oterke kor anak earkinne b. mintuci when TOP very water-devil TOP, water step kor tumkor pe ne. ya ta yan be-strong thing COP. land at/in come-ashore when

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136

anak tum

ka sak pe ne strength even not-have thing COP

TOP

'When the river spirits step into the water, they are very strong. When they come ashore, they have no strength at all.' c. toska {ka yak anakne toy bank overflow FCND TOP field a-nuwe wa isam INDEFP-NOM-sweep CON to-be-NEG

opitta all nankor na perhaps SGST

'If the river overflows, the fields will probably all be swept away, indeed.'

I ADV:2

hem

also

I

Indicates that one matter is one among many, and is included with them. (4.250) a. numan yesterday po still-more

upas as hem ki rera ka ruy wa snow fall also do wind even be-strong CON merayke-an be-cold-INDEFP-NOM

'Yesterday, it not only snowed but the wind was also strong, and so we were even colder.' b. tapanpe hem tanike hem this-thing also this-one also k-uk kus ne lP-SING-NOM-take reason COP

toani"ke hem, opitta that-one also, all na SGST

'This and this and that ... I will take them all.'

hem ku-ye c. kani IP-SING-PRON also lP-SING-NOM-say 'I will also say (it).' (attached to a pronoun) d. yorosiku sekor hem a-nuye wa an 'yoroshiku' QUOTE also INDEFP-NOM-write CON to-be

'It (something written) also says yoroshiku (a Japanese phrase, 'regards').'

I ADV:3

hemem

-

duplicated form of hem

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137

This is the duplicated form of hem. It further emphasizes the matter being included, 'certainly included'.

(4.251) k-uni ta hemem ek lP-SING-NOM-house at/in also-EMPH come '(Someone) came to my house too!'

I ADV:4

ka

even

I

Expresses something unexpected and unanticipated. This particle produces a latent accent in the immediately preceding syllable. In other words, accent is likely to appear in the immediately preceding syllable, and when emphasized, this will always appear.

(4.252) a. pase ka somo ki, kosne p ne wa be-heavy even NEG do, be-light thing COP FIN

'It isn't even heavy; it's really light.' (after someone said, that's heavy, let me carry it for you) b. teeta anak cise long-ago TOP house wa sakehe ka CON liquor-AFF even

pisno ponno ponno amam etoyta each little little grain grow kar make

'Long ago, each house grew only a little grain, and they even made liquor (from it).' c. icen ka isam money even to-be-NEG

'(Someone) doesn't even have any money.'

d. Horencimi sekor a-ye uske Horoizumi (place name) QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say place wa ka arki from even come-PL 'They also came from a place called Horoizumi.' e.

"ku-ipe wa ora "lP-SING-NOM-eat CON then na hani." "somo ipe no SGST FIN." "NEG eat ADV

k-ek kusu-ne lP-SING-NOM-come going-to ka ek" even come"

'"I'll come after I eat." "No, come without eating."'

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In affirmative expressions, ka may often be translated as 'also', but in such cases, it is still different from hem 'also'. In contrast to hem, which means that all the things under consideration are similar, ka indicates that there is something additional, beyond all that was mentioned before. Compare the following sentences. (4.253) t6pen emo hem k-e rusuy sweet potato also lP-SING-NOM-eat want 'I also want to eat a sweet potato.' This has the sense that there are many things to eat, and the speaker wants to eat those things, and also wants to eat the sweet potato that is there. (4.254) t6pen-emo ka k-e rusuy sweet-potato even lP-SING-NOM-eat want 'I even want to eat a sweet potato.' This has the sense that the speaker has already eaten enough, but would also like to eat a sweet potato on top of it all. ADV:5

hene

'or something, or, for example'

Presents an item as one example to choose from other possibilities. (4.255) a. arpa hene ki nankor go or do perhaps 'Perhaps (someone) will go.' (or choose not to) b. sini-an rest-INDEFP-NOM sini-an rest-INDEFP-NOM

hene ki ya, somo or do whether, NEG hene ki ya? no a-ki do whether ADV INDEFP-NOM-do or

'Shall we take a break, or shall we keep on working without resting?' c. hekattar hene ikipa ruwe ne kuni children or behave-PL eEVD COP thing ku-ramu lP-SING-NOM-think 'I think the children or something have done something (wrong).'

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4.10. Particles

d. hotnin pakno hene aka nankor twenty (people) extent or to-be-PL perhaps 'There may be as many as 20 people.' Hene 'for example' differs in meaning from ne yakka, which may be translated as 'no matter', as seen in the following examples. (4.256) a. inan{ke ne yakka en-kore which-one COP even-so lP-SING-ACC-give 'No matter what is there, give all of it to me.'

b. inan{ke hene en-kore which-one for-example lP-SING-ACC-give 'Give me any one of them.' c. nep ne yakka ku-kor rusuy what COP even-so lP-SING-NOM-have want 'Everything there is, I want all of it.'

d. nep hene ku-kor rusuy anything for-example lP-SING-NOM-have want 'Whatever it is, I want any one.'

I ADV:6

p6ka

'at least'

I

Indicates the lowest limit (po 'child' is also used as a diminutive; ka 'even').

( 4.257) a. nepki patek eun ku-yaynu p ne work only towards lP-SING-NOM-think thing COP kusu mokor p6ka k-etoranne reason sleep at-least lP-SING-NOM-dislike 'Because I think only of work, I don't even like to sleep.'

b. rur{hi p6ka ni soup at-least drink 'At least have some soup.' c. arsuy p6ka en-okari wa suke once at-least lP-SING-ACC-instead-of CON cook 'Just once, you cook, instead of me.'

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d. sinep p6ka ka isam one-thing at-least even to-be-NEG 'There isn't even one.'

I ADV:7

he

QUES

question

I

Placed directly after a focus of question. (4.258) a. k-e yakka pirka he ki ya? lP-SING-NOM-eat even-if be-good QUES do whether

'Is it really alright for me to eat?' cf. k-e yakka pirka ya? lP-SING-NOM-eat even-if be-good whether

'Is it alright for me to eat?'

b. apto he

humi an kawkaw he humi an? rain QUES sound to-be hail QUES sound to-be

'Is it the sound of rain or is it the sound of hail?' ( 4. 259)

"toanpe ekte." "matci he?" "that-one get." "match QUES" "'Get that (for me)." "The match?" '

Here matci he? can be seen as a contraction of the following sentence. (4.260) matci he e-kor rusuy? match QUES 2P-SING-NOM-have want 'Do you want the match?' (for example, as opposed to the cigarettes) (4.261) tane pakno he ne, na ponno he ne? now extent QUES COP, yet little QUES COP 'Shall we (stop) now, or shall we (keep going) a little (longer)?'

He is also used with the construction ... ta ... a 'yes, truly' (see below), with the meaning, 'I wonder'.

ADV:11

tanike he ta he ne a, (4.262) a. taanpe ta this-thing QUES EMPH COP EMPH, this-one QUES EMPH ne a? COP EMPH 'Is it this one, or this one?'

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141

b. mak he ta ku-ye kusu-ne a ka how QUES EMPH lP-SING-NOM-say going-to EMPH even k-oyra lP-SING-NOM-forget 'I forgot what I was going to say.'

He is also used in ironic or rhetorical expressions. ( 4.263) cikap he ku-ne rera he bird QUES lP-SING-NOM-COP wind QUES ku-ne lP-SING-NOM-COP

'Am I a bird? Am I the wind?' (said rhetorically neither a bird nor the wind." )

I ADV:8

patek

'just, only'

"I am

I

Expresses just the events chosen, including no others. Because patek may be used independently, it is not a particle but an adverb. However, it has in common with adverbial particles the fact that it combines with the words around it.

( 4.264) a. k-aysuye patek ki kor k-an lP-SING-NOM-doze-off only do while lP-SING-NOM-to-be 'I'm always napping.' (said by someone who should be working, but is always dozing off instead) b. ruwe ni patek ta wa arki yan be-thick tree only take CON come-PL CMND-PL/POL 'Go and get just the thick pieces of wood.' c. te ta ek wa patek an here at/in come CON only to-be

'He's always coming here.' (refers to a little boy who, rather than staying at his parent's house, comes to his aunt's house everyday.)

d. k-aysuye kor patek k-an lP-SING-NOM-doze-off while only lP-SING-NOM-to-be 'I'm always dozing off.' (compare with the first example) e. patek ku-kor su only lP-SING-NOM-have pot 'the one and only pot I have'

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I ADV:9

takup, takupi( hi)

Syntactic Elements and Syntax

'just, only'

Expresses that even though something else is being hoped for, nothing else is included. The form with -i( hi) has the same form as the affiliative form of nouns. When takup is combined with a noun that should take the affiliative form, the nouns remain in the conceptual form and takup takes the affiliative form, takup and the noun function as though they were one word. Even after a verb, takup may take the affiliative form. On the one hand, as takup can be used as an independent word, and as it does not combine with adverbs, it is different from adverbial particles. On the other hand, it does resemble other adverbial particles. It can be said to have a status intermediary to nouns, nominalizing particles, adverbial particles, and suffixes. Further, takup and the preceding word often have just one accent. (4.265) a. heru ipe takup ki kor an ruwe un merely eat just do while to-be eEVD FIN 'All (someone) ever does is eat.' (and never works) b. mono e-a kane wa on-the-ground/floor 2P-SING-NOM-sit even CON e-aysuye takupi ne siri 2P-SING-NOM-doze-off just COP eSEEN 'All you ever do is sit and nap.' c. taanpe takup ne yakka eci-kore this-thing just COP even-so 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-give 'Even though it is a very small amount, I'll give it to you.' (though the speaker wants to give more) d. kap skin ka even

takupi a-pic{ci p ne kusu kemnu just INDEFP-NOM-peel thing COP reason bleed somo ki NEG do

'The skin is just scraped so it even doesn't bleed.' (cf. kap 'skin', affiliative form kapu( hu)) Following is an example of self-standing use. (4.266) takupihi a-e-k6re ruwe? just INDEFP-NOM-2P,-SING-ACC-give eEVD 'Is just that all you were given?'

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4.10. Particles

Patek (in ADV:8 above) and takup differ from each other as follows. (4.267) a. kam patek k-e meat only lP-SING-NOM-eat 'I only eat meat.' b. kam takup k-e, meat only lP-SING-NOM-eat, k-eyaysitoma lP-SING-NOM-be-embarrassed 'I'm only eating meat, and am embarrassed (about it).'

In the former example, the speaker likes meat and is always eating it, and has nothing to be ashamed of. In the latter sentence, the speaker has nothing else to eat, and is ashamed because of that. 4.10.4.2 The particles in ADV:10 through ADV:20 below have the function of emphasizing the immediately preceding word, and each also has special combined usage with sentence-final particles. However, these particles are not necessarily used in combination with sentence-final particles.

I ADV: 10

ta

EMPH

indicates emphasis

I

(4.268) a. kani anak k-epakewsawot, lP-SING-PRON TOP lP-SING-NOM-say-totally-false-thing, eani ta an koraci e-ye 2P-S1NG-PRON EMPH to-be as-it-is 2P-S1NG-N0M-say hawe ne wa eSAID COP FIN 'I said something false, and you told it as it was (the truth).'

b. iyaykipte ta iki kor an dangerous EMPH do while to-be '(Someone) is doing something dangerous.'

I ADV:11

... ta ... a

'indeed!'

I

(4.269) a. iyaykipte ta e-iki a dangerous-thing EMPH 2P-S1NG-NOM-do EMPH 'You really did something dangerous.'

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b. iramsitnere ta hawean a unpleasant-thing EMPH say EMPH '(Someone) is saying a really unpleasant thing.'

I ADV:12

... he ta ... a

'I wonder'

I

(See ADV:7 he above.)

(4.270) mak he ta ku-iki kusu-ne a? how QUES EMPH lP-SING-NOM-do going-to EMPH 'I wonder what I was going to do?' ... ta ... (oka)!

ADV:13

'wouldn't it be nice; I'd really like to'

(4.271) a. eeey, a-e ta kif oh, INDEFP-NOM-eat EMPH do 'Boy, I'd really like to eat (that)!'

b. eey, cep rur ta a-e oh, salmon (kind of soup/stew) EMPH INDEFP-NOM-eat oka! EMPH 'Yeah, I'd really like to have some salmon stew!'

I ADV:14

tap

EMPH

indicates emphasis

I

(4.272) a. ku-nu he tap ki a ka lP-SING-NOM-hear QUES EMPH do PAST QUES k-oyra lP-SING-NOM-forget 'I just can't remember whether or not I heard it.' cf. ku-nu he ki a ka lP-SING-NOM-hear QUES do PAST QUES k-oyra oruspe ne lP-SING-NOM-forget topic/thing COP

'I don't remember whether or not I heard that.'

b. oar tap k- erampewtek na utterly EMPH lP-SING-NOM-not-understand SGST 'I really just don't know.'

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4.10. Particles cf. oar k-erampewtek utterly lP-SING-NOM-not-understand 'I don't know.'

I ADV:15

... tap ta

(4.273) a. tan this ne COP 'It is

'absolutely, surely'

I

hekaci tap ta sonno a-mippoho youth EMPH EMPH truly INDEFP-NOM-grandchild na SGST this youth that is truly your grandchild.'

b. sonno tap ta ku-poho ne kus keray truly EMPH EMPH lP-SING-NOM-son COP reason due-to hosipi wa ek kor an return CON come while to-be 'It is because he really is my son that he has come home.'

I ADV:16

tas( i)

EMPH

indicates emphasis

j

Whether or not the final -i is present is a simple matter of tone. (4.274) "e-esouk a p tunas "2P-SING-NOM-borrow PAST thing soon e-kar soma ki kor... " "ene ne wa 2P-SING-NOM-return NEG do when/if ... " "that COP CON tasi k-eramuikurkur kor k-an EMPH lP-SING-NOM-worry while lP-SING-NOM-to-be '"If you don't return what you borrowed soon ... " "That's exactly what I've been worrying about."'

I ADV: 17

tas( i) ... ( nek)

'truly, that is so'

I

(4.275) a. iku ewkotoyse ruwe tas ne nankor nek! drink-liquor gather-for eEVD EMPH COP perhaps EMPH 'Everyone probably gathered to drink!' b. ene e-hawean tasi wa kusu that 2P-SING-NOM-say CON reason EMPH a-e-k6yki hi ne nek! INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-scold NMNL COP EMPH 'It's exactly because you say things like that that you get scolded!'

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146

tas ta ... ( nek )/tos to ... ( nek)

ADV:18

'hey, here' /'hey,there'

Tas ta is used with things nearby, and tos to is used for something further away. (4.276) a. tas ta te ta an wa an pe hey here this-place at/in to-be CON to-be thing e-hunara kor e-an ( nek) 2P-S1NG-N0M-search while 2P-S1NG-N0M-to-be (EMPH) 'Hey, the thing here is what you were searching for.' (usage as an independent adverb)

b. tos to ek kor an nek hey there come while to-be EMPH 'Look! (He/She) is just arriving.' C.

ruhure unzn huku e-mi ruwe tos to light-red like clothes 2P-S1NG-NOM-wear eEVD hey there an nek to-be EMPH 'Light red like the clothes that you're wearing.' (in answer to a question about what the color ruhere unin is)

I ADV: 19

tas tap

EMPH

indicates emphasis

j

(See ADV:14 above for tap.) (4.277) a. ne-wa-an-pe tas tap cis this-thing EMPH EMPH cry a-eykemnu INDEFP-NOM-think-regrettable

turano with ka ki .. . even do .. .

'We think that it is so sad that we cry.'

b. en-tomo e-osma wa tas lP-SING-ACC-bump-against 2P-S1NG-NOM-rush CON EMPH tap ku-kema arka wa ene EMPH lP-SING-NOM-leg hurt CON like-this k-apkas szrz un lP-SING-NOM-walk eSEEN FIN 'It's because you bumped into me so hard and that is why my leg hurts, and I walk like this.'

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4.10. Particles ADV:20

nesiun ... (nek)/nesun ... (nek)

'maybe'

N esun is a contracted form of nesiun, and the only difference between the two is simply one of tone. Whereas tas( i) (discussed above) is used in cases when the speaker is certain, nes( i)un is used to express uncertainty or supposition of fact. suy kuni p nesiun an kina us (4.278) a. oyapa next-year again grass grow expect thing maybe to-be nek! EMPH 'The grass will no doubt grow again next year!' b. nep ka emawri e wa nesun kameasi anything QUES berry eat CON maybe monster/ demon atu kor an vomit while to-be 'Maybe (someone) ate a (bad) berry or something, that guy is vomiting.' 4.10.4.3 The next two items are used infrequently, but have the qualities of adverbial particles. ADV:21

kusu

'for sure, exactly, none other than'

(4.279) a. soma k-e na eani kusu el NEG lP-SING-NOM-eat SGST 2P-SING-PRON for-sure eat

'I won't eat (it), so you eat (it)!' b. prise tono utar high-ranking important-person people i-amkir yak kusu, sinrit INDEFP-ACC-know(someone) FCND for-sure, generations oka ta, ene oka huci uirwakne after at/in, like-this to-be-PL elderly-woman be-sisters p a-koytak a hi sekor an thing INDEFP-NOM-talk-to PAST NMNL QUOTE to-be pe, kampi ka ta ka an hi ka thing, paper above at/in even to-be NMNL even ku-ki rusuy ... lP-SING-NOM-do want

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'It is exactly because these important people got to know us that our wish that our stories will be written in a book for later generations will be granted.' (The speaker literally says 'if these important people get to know us' about an event that has already occurred.) Note: This kusu is a homonym for the conjunctive particle kusu 'reason; intention/future' (see section 4.10.5.2, CON:7).

I ADV:22

kayun, kay'un

'as for (me)'

I

An old expression, not often used. (4.280) kani kayun mak mosma p ku-ye lP-SING-PRON this-side how other thing lP-SING-NOM-say hawe? eSAID 'For me, what else is there to say?' For tek, which has the properties of both an auxiliary verb and an adverbial particle, and for kane, which has the properties of an auxiliary verb, an adverbial particle, and a conjunction, see section 4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs.

4.10.5 Conjunctive Particles and Conjunctions Conjunctive particles and conjunctions are placed after verb phrases and connect phrases or sentences. There are cases in which both sentences are coordinate, and cases where the former element modifies the second sentence or verb phrase. In either case, the conjunctive element is not necessarily spoken connected to the preceding verb phrase, and there may be a pause or breath after the verb phrase. A conjunctive element may come after sentence-final intonation, and it may be said with the following sentence or verb phrase. As there is no clear boundary between independent conjunctions and dependent conjunctive particles, they will all be treated together here. 4.10.5.1 The items in CON:1 through CON:6 below are mainly used in expression that show temporal relationships, both sequential and simultaneous. j

CON:1

wa

CON

'and, then'

I

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Connects and unites events into sequential order. It is the most unmarked conjunctive particle, and is used in various situations. i. Indicates that two events have a successive temporal relationship. In eastern and central Hokkaido dialects, tek is used; in Sakhalin Ainu, teh is used in place of wa.

(4.281) a. otcike huraye wa pirpa tray wash CON wipe 'Wash and wipe the tray(s).' k-ek b. numan wa tanto yesterday lP-SING-NOM-come CON today ukoytak-an hawe speak-with-each-other-INDEFP-NOM eSAID easir, tane anakne ... uh, now TOP ... 'I came yesterday, and today we talk again,

suy again ne, wa COP, CON

and uh, now ... '

In addition to wa, hine 'and' may also be used to indicate successive temporal relationship (see CON:2 below). Unlike hine, wa is often used to show that two events are closely related, and can be taken as one. Most often, the main element is in the latter sentence, and the former sentence explains the latter.

(4.282) tane to ka a-satke wa siyamamtoy now pond even INDEFP-NOM-drained CON paddy ne a-karpa ... as/into INDEFP-NOM-make-PL 'We have drained the pond and made it into a paddy... ' ii. Often indicates a causal relationship.

(4.283) a. k-ukao oyra wa rurikan lP-SING-NOM-put-away forget CON become-damp 'I forgot to put (the laundry) away, and it has become damp.'

wenpe an b. mosma kur or ta wa oro ta other person place at/in death to-be CON place at/in ku-yorot lP-SING-NOM-attend 'There was a death at another person's place, and I attended.'

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The word kusu 'reason; intention/future' ,also expresses causal relationships. This shows that the previous sentence is the cause (motive, reason, purpose) of the second, and expresses the relation more actively than wa. iii. W a is also used for methods of movement.

(4.284) cipo wa paye boat-go-aboard CON go-PL 'They went by boat.' iv. The construction number+ ne + wa, which indicates the number of people, is an adverbial phrase which indicates the number of people conducting the action in the verb phrase.

(4.285) a. sinen ku-ne wa ene an isoytak one-person lP-SING-NOM-COP CON like-this to-be story ku-ye hike-kusu ... lP-SING-NOM-say even-if 'Even if I tell a story like this by myself... '

a-ne wa b. tun two-people INDEFP-NOM-COP CON a-ewkoytak oruspe ... INDEFP- No M-talk-together-about topic/ thing 'What the two of us talked about together ... ' v. When two events have no temporal relationship, or no causal relationship, or no affiliative relationship, and the event expressed first is simply followed by another event and the two are brought together into one sentence, wa is used frequently.

(4.286) upakno oka wa sattek kus oka wa in-same-degree to-be-PL CON be-thin reason to-be-PL CON oraun nepki kor ukasuy nepki, ramma then work when/while help-each-other work, always utura kane wa, upakno kane oka sattek together even CON, in-same-degree even to-be-PL be-thin wa okerpa wa oraun... ukasuy wa, CON end-PL CON then... help-each-other CON, ewetasatasa ka somo ki no, ramma upakno miss-each-other even NEG do EMPH, always in-same-degree

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151

moymoyke wa iki p e-eraman? move CON act thing 2P-SING-NOM-understand 'They are thin, about the same size, and when they work, they help each other, and they are always together, and they are emaciated to about the same degree, and then... they help each other, trying not to work against each other, always moving together - do you understand this?' (said of a pair of chopsticks) In this case, the sequential relationship of two events expressed is not the actual temporal continuative relationship in the outside world, but follows the order in the speaker's head. vi. When wa is located preceding certain verb phrases, a different, new meaning is created. See the following examples. (4.287) a. (verb) wa an CON to-be 'have done (verb)' -

the completed state

b. (verb) wa anu CON place 'do (verb) for future use' c. (verb) wa isam CON to-be-NEG '(finality of) (verb)' - the completed action resulting in the end or loss of something) These add a certain meaning, most often aspect or attitude of the actor, to the preceding verb phrase. However, they are different from auxiliary verbs: the following verb may take personal affixes, and is structurally a true verb. Various verb phrases may be inserted into the preceding position, depending on the actual circumstances, but verbs that may follow are limited to just a few. Verbs put into the following position in this construction are called supplementary verbs (see section 4.3.5 Supplementary Verbs, and section 4.11.1 The Structure of Verb Phrases). j

CON:2

hine

'and'

j

i. Both hine and wa are often used when there is a sequential temporal order to two events, and are also used to show that first one event is expressed in the first sentence, and then another event is expressed in the second, thus functioning to connect the two.

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(4.288) nea kur ek hine rewsi wa an that person come and stay CON to-be 'That person came and is staying the night.'

In contrast to wa, which, as noted above, expresses two events combined into one, hine treats each event separately, and presents each as its own piece of information. (4.289) a. te ta ipe-an wa paye-an ro here at/in eat-INDEFP-NOM CON go-PL-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Let's eat here and go on.'

b. te ta ipe-an hine ataye here at/in eat-INDEFP-NOM and money a-kar easkay kusu he? INDEFP-NOM-pay can supposition QUES 'If we eat here, can we pay for it?' Example from old stories.

(4.290) a. a-saha an hine oka-an INDEFP-NOM-older-sister to-be and to-be-INDEFP-NOM

'I lived with my older sister.' b. . .. uheturaste-an hine oka-an two-live-together-INDEFP-NOM and to-be-INDEFP-NOM 'The two of us lived together.' The examples above do not particularly depend on characteristics of hine; rather, in old stories, hine can be used instead of wa. Hine may come after a completed sentence and stand at the head of the next sentence.

(4.291)

amarimo sekor a-ye p anakne, ne uske "marimo QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say thing TOP, that place ta isam." ahn. " ahine marimo sekor at/in to-be-NEG." "huh." "and marimo QUOTE a-ye p anakne, toop Akan sekor INDEFP-NOM-say thing TOP, far-away Akan QUOTE a-ye uskehe ta, to or ta patek INDEFP-NOM-say place-AFF at/in, lake place at/in only okay pe rehe marimo ne." "ho." ahine to-be-PL thing name-AFF marimo COP." "ah." "and

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153

pekanpe anakne mosma p ne. " water-chestnut TOP separate thing COP." '"There aren't any of the thing called marimo there." "Huh." "Marimo is the name of a thing only found in the far away lake, Akan, and they are called marimo." "Ah." "And water chestnuts are different from them."' With regards to the tone of a sentence, wa may also have a pause immediately before it, but hine is often used when there is no syntagmatic relationship between the two sentences. The next example is the beginning of a conversation. The preceding sentence was part of a conversation that ended more than half an hour previously. Wa never occurs in such a context. (4.292) hine iyonuytasa... suy eci-rekreku na and changing... again 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-riddle SGST 'and, let's switch ... I'll ask you a riddle.' 11.

Hine 'when (something happened)'

Hine can be used in contexts similar to hi ta (see section 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles). (4.293) a. nokan-an hine anakne, ekasi utar grandfather people be-small-INDEFP-NOM when TOP, huci utar upaskuma ne yukar ne ye grandmother people old-story as/into yukar as/into say p tumi oruspe ne thing war topic/thing COP 'When we were little, the stories that the grandfathers and grandmothers recited in the folklore and epic tales were stories of war.' b. aep ka isam hine patek aep ne food even to-be-NEG when just-one food as/into okay pe pekanpe ne to-be-PL thing water-chestnut COP 'When there was no food, the only thing we could eat was water chestnuts.' cf. nep

ka a-e what even INDEFP-NOM-eat ka isam hi ta, even to-be-NEG time at/in,

noyne okay pe seem to-be-PL thing patek aep ne just-one food as/into

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okay pe... pekanpe ne to-be-PL thing ... water-chestnut COP 'When there was nothing that we could eat, the one thing we could eat was water chestnuts.'

I CON:3

ayne

'finally'

I

Something has continued for a long time, and has finally ended or resolved. Etymologically, it is likely to be a-hine (PAST-and).

(4.294) a. ku-sitturaynu ayne neun p6ka lP-SING-NOM-be-lost finally somehow at-least ku-sirepa lP-SING-NOM-arrive

'I was lost and finally somehow arrived.' b. ikesuy hine orano iki ayne hunak get-mad-and-leave and then do finally where arpa ayne ta a-kor sitteksam go finally here INDEFP-NOM-have land's-edge hunak ta an hine .. . where at/in to-be and .. .

un towards ta at/in

'He got mad and left, and going on and on, finally somehow got some place near the edge of our land, and then ... ' To express the prolonged continuation of an event, the structure with the particles ... a ... a is used (see section 4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs). What comes before a (the ... ) is a verb phrase, but what comes before ayne is a sentence. The structure ... a ... a functions as one verb phrase, but ... ayne is an adverbial phrase which modifies the main sentence. Accordingly, ayne does not only indicate that a condition has continued for an unusually or unexpectedly long time, but also expresses that an additional event continues. The expression ... a ... a ayne... is also frequently used.

(4.295) ... sekor hawean kor orano oro ta an wa, cis ... QUOTE be-said while then place at/in to-be CON, cry a cis a ayne oraun, oro wa ikesuy EMPH-CON cry EMPH-CON finally then, place from leave 'So saying, (someone) was there crying and crying and then finally went away.'

4.10. Particles

I CON:4

kor

155

'when/while'

I

Expresses that two events occur simultaneously. In eastern Hokkaido, kane is used; in Sakhalin, kanne.

(4.296) a. kuni ku-ramu kor k-ek thing lP-SING-NOM-think when/while lP-SING-NOM-come 'That is what I was thinking when I came.'

b. ekemtanayne blood-flowing-from-head kor oro wa when/while place from

okemtanayne blood-flowing-from-below oasin ... pulled-out

'While he was bleeding from his head, and from below, he pulled himself out and left.' (said of a mountain that has been stabbed with a spear) The subject of the two predicates need not be the same.

(4.297) a. k-okkewe arka kor ku-sapa lP-SING-NOM-neck hurt when/while lP-SING-NOM-head ka arka even hurt 'My neck hurts and my head hurts.' b. horippa-as kor en-nukar dance-IP-PL when/while lP-SING-ACC-see 'While we were dancing, someone looked at me.' There are also the expressions kor an (singular) and kor aka (plural), meaning 'while'.

(4.298) a. . .. sekor, weyyaysukupka isoytak ne upaskuma ne QUOTE, suffer-terribly story as/into tale as/into ku-ye oasi kor k-an lP-SING-NOM-say start when/while lP-SING-NOM-to-be ruwe tapan na ku-mataki eEVD COP-POL SGST lP-SING-NOM-younger-sister ' ... And now, my Younger Sister, we'll start telling our tale, a story of terrible suffering.'

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b. nen p6ka iruka hene ohonno hene turano 'who at-least short-time even long-time even together an wa, uwenewsar ka ki, ukoysoytak to-be CON, enjoyably-talk-together even do, chat ka ki kor oka yan hani! even do when/while to-be-PL CMND-PL FIN 'Somehow, you should stay and talk with her, chat with her, at least for a short time, or even for a long time!' This construction is not just used when the events are actually progressing, but is also used when events habitually repeat over a long period. In the next example, the reference is to something that has been occurring habitually in recent years.

ne yakka sapaha kunnere kor oka (4.299) nen anyone COP even-so head-AFF dye-black while to-be-PL 'Everyone is dying their hair black.' Here too, the subject of an and oka need not be the same as that in the preceding sentence. When the subject of an is sir (vaguely expressing something belonging to the natural world), it takes the form of the complete verb siran (implied subject; a verb that takes no other subject), and for .. .kor siran, the subject of the preceding sentence is in the indefinite person, and often appears in expressions with the general person and passives.

usa isoytak (4.300) a. ponkatkemat turano young-lady together various story ku-nure ka ki en-nure lP-SING-NOM-hear-cause even do lP-SING-ACC-hear-cause ka ki kor oka-as even do when/while to-be-lP-PL 'Together with the young lady, I told many stories to her, and she told many stories to me.' b. tane amamotuypa-an kuni ne yak now reap-INDEFP-NOM thing COP QUOTE a-ye kor siran INDEFP-NOM-say when/while it-is 'It is said that it's time to reap now.'

I CON:5

akusu, akus

'then, thereafter'

I

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Expresses that as a result of some action occurring, the next thing mentioned occurred. That is to say, first some action is stated, and then the situations subsequent to that action are stated. This is used with events that occurred in the past. Etymologically, it is from a kusu (PAST intention/future).

(4.301) a. numan k-arpa wa ku-inkar yesterday lP-SING-NOM-go CON lP-SING-NOM-check akus okere wa an then finish CON to-be 'Yesterday, I went to check, then (I found) it was done (something that had been ordered).' b. k-oyra wa k-ek wa lP-SING-NOM-forget CON lP-SING-NOM-come CON k-arpa akusu oar isam lP-SING-NOM-go then utterly to-be-NEG 'I forgot it, left it behind, and went back (to get it), but (I found) it was completely gone.' CON:6

awa

'at that point' (something is determined)

Used in Iburi, to the west of Saru, instead of akus( u). It is also used in the Saru dialect in the same contexts as akus( u).

(4.302) k-uk kusu k-arpa awa oar lP-SING-NOM-take intention lP-SING-NOM-go then utterly isam to-be-NEG 'I went to get it, but it was completely gone.' (when I got there)

4.10.5.2 The items in CON:7 through CON:9 are used to express the purpose or cause. CON:7

kusu, kus

reason; intention/future

i. Shows the cause.

(4.303) a. ikasma kusu sinep k-anu be-too-much reason one lP-SING-NOM-set-aside 'There are too many, so I'll leave one.'

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b. sirsesek kaspa kusu hekattar opitta sini conditions-be-hot exceed reason children all rest 'Because it's too hot, all the children are resting.' A construction with the conjunctive particle wa, wa kusu, meaning 'because', is also frequently used. This expression is used when the results are understood, and it focuses attention on what the cause was.

(4.304) a. ene e-hawean wa-kusu like-that 2P-SING-NOM-be-said because a-e-k6yki hi ne INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-scold NMNL COP 'It's because you say things like that that you get scolded.'

b. herasino patek inkar wa-kusu okkewe arka hawe ne down only look because neck hurt eSAID COP 'It's because he's always looking down that his neck hurts.' The construction pe/p ne kusu (thing COP because) is also used often.

(4.305) sunke soma ki p ne lie NEG do thing COP kampinuye-an kor write-INDEFP-NOM when/if

kusu, sunkeno because, lie-ADV uska wa isam erase CON to-be-NEG

'Because he doesn't tell lies, if someone wrote a lie he would erase it.' (a riddle about an eraser) There is also a construction kusu keray(po) (reason indeed/as-expected) 'thanks to, due to'.

(4.306) tunas eskarun wa ye kor kusu an, quickly remember CON say when/while to-be, reason keraypo ku-kor kampisos utar oro ta indeed lP-SING-NOM-have notebook people place at/in poronno ku-nuye easkay much-ADV lP-SING-NOM-write can 'Thanks to (someone) quickly remembering and saying (it), I can write a lot in my notebook.' To express that it was a person responsible, the construction an kusu keraypo (to-be reason indeed) 'thanks to/due to (someone)' is used.

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159

(4.307) e-an kusu keraypo 2P-SING-NOM-to-be reason indeed 'thanks to you'

K usu may also attach to noun phrases. The construction hi kusu, where hi functions as a nominalizer, indicates a reason, like wa kusu, and forms a subordinate phrase. W a kusu attaches to concrete events that actually occurred, but hi kusu may be used with general topics. (4.308) om anpe patek nuye hi kusu a-ye and reality only write NMNL reason INDEFP-NOM-say hi "hon" NMNL "book" 'And then because only the truth ( honto in Japanese) is written, they came to be called "books" ( hon in Japanese).' (This is a pun based on the Japanese word for 'real/reality' and the word for 'book'.) 11.

Used to express the purpose of an action.

( 4.309) a. iramante kusu kuari bear-hunt reason set-trap 'Set a trap to catch a bear.'

b. sinot earpa kusu kane ukaosmare play go-to reason money save 'Save money in order to go to play.' c. k-arpa a korka, kusu k-arpa lP-SING-NOM-go PAST but, reason lP-SING-NOM-go a p oronpe ka isam PAST thing harvest/result even to-be-NEG

'I went, but it was meaningless.' The phrase kusu iki (intention/future do) 'about to do', indicates an action that seems about to occur.

(4.310) a. hempara okere kusu-iki? when finish future-do 'When does it seem like (he) will finish?'

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b. monak pirka p mina rusuy kusu-iki wa just be-beautiful thing smile want future-do CON po hene pirka more even be-beautiful 'She is cute, but when she is breaking into a smile, she is even more beautiful.' n1. The phrase kusu ne (intention/future COP) expresses the future, and functions as if it were a single particle, meaning 'going to', and will be written as a single word here.

(4.311) sino keraan no ku-suke kusu-ne wa very be-delicious ADV lP-SING-NOM-cook going-to CON k-emonasap lP-SING-NOM-take-time 'I'm going to cook something really delicious, so it will take me some time.'

I CON:8

kunine

'so that'

I

Used to express that something is done (latter phrase) in order to achieve something desirable (first phrase). Although kusu expresses that the actions of the second sentence are the direct goal of the first, kunine expresses an indirect desire. For kusu, the subject of the action is often the same for both sentences, but for kunine, the subjects are frequently different people.

(4.312) a. k-eraman kunine a-nuye lP-SING-NOM-understand in-order-to INDEFP-NOM-write wa ku-nukar easkay CON lP-SING-NOM-read can 'It's written so that I can understand it, therefore I can read it.' (in the sense: written clearly so that even I can read it) b. sinrit or un arpa kunine oytakkote ancestors land towards go in-order-to hold-memorial '(Someone) will hold a memorial service so that (the spirit of the individual who has died) can go to (his) ancestors' land.'

I CON:9

na

SGST

suggestion

I

A command, request, suggestion or an expectation of response or action is placed after na, and the reason for it comes before na. The second part (i.e., suggestion or request) is often left unstated and understood.

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161

(4.313) ku-kor pe perke na mosma p lP-SING-NOM-have thing break SGST other thing en-kore lP-SING-ACC-give 'Mine broke, so give me another.'

Na often ends a sentence, without the second sentence appearing in which the suggested action would have been stated. (4.314) ape us na fire extinguish SGST 'The fire went out (so relight it).'

Na is also dealt with in section 4.10.6 Sentence-Final Particles. 4.10.5.3 The items in CON:10 through CON:13 below are used to express conditions. CON:10

kor

conditional: 'when, if, whenever'

Used when one event occurs, and another event is certain to occur. In eastern and western Hokkaido, ko is used, and in Sakhalin Ainu, koh or kohki is used, all with similar usage.

rera ruy kor sirmeman, (4.315) a. sak summer wind be-strong when conditions-be-cool, rera ruy cuk kor mean autumn wind be-strong when it's-cold 'In summer, when the wind is strong it's cool, and in autumn, when the wind is strong it's cold.'

b. mak ku-ye kor pirka ruwe an? how lP-SING-NOM-say if be-good eEVD to-be 'What should I say?' In the Saru dialect, both 'while' and this conditional are expressed with kor, but in the Iburi dialect west of Saru, they are differentiated as kor 'while' and ko 'when'. The next example, from Y. Chiri 1978, uses both forms (Horobetsu dialect; spelling as in the original). enkashike chikush kor shichorpokun (4.316) ainukotan Ainu-village the-place-above lP-PL-pass while below(you) inkarash ko teeta wenkur tane nishpa ne, look when old-times poor-person now rich-person COP,

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162

teeta nishpa tane wenkur ne kotom shiran old-times rich-person now poor-person COP as/like FIN 'While passing over an Ainu village, I looked down, and see/know that those who were poor in the past are now rich, and those who were rich in the past are now poor.' (said by a flying owl god) For this sort of narration of past events, Saru dialect would use akusu (in CON:5 above) instead of kor.

I CON: 11

yakun

'if'

I

Used when describing the conditions where a certain phenomenon occurs/ occurred.

(4.317) a. sirpirka yakun k-arpa conditions-be-good if lP-SING-NOM-go 'If the weather is good, I'll go.' b. nep-ka a-i-k6nu yakun something INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-ask-of if a-ye kuni hi INDEFP-NOM-say going-to NMNL c-ewkoytak ka lP-PL-NOM-talk-together-about even a-ewkoytak ka ki ... INDEFP-NOM-talk-together-about even do ... 'We (exclusive, i.e., not including listener) and we (inclusive) talked about what we would say if (someone) asked us (about it).'

Yakun may also be placed at the head of a sentence. The syntagmatic relationship with the preceding sentence is broken, acknowledges the conditions up to that point as the premise, and leads into the next utterance as 'if so; if that's the case'. In the following examples, A and B are having a conversation, and B acknowledges A's inability to speak due to laughter, and B responds with, 'if that's the case'.

A:

hine ora kani hem ku-ye and then lP-SING-PRON also lP-SING-NOM-say 'Now I will talk.'

4.10. Particles

B:

163

o

please/ offering 'Go ahead.'

A:

hawe ne yakun, too... mak ku-ye? (laughs) eSAID COP if, far-away... how lP-SING-NOM-say? 'In that case, ... what should I say?' (laughs)

B:

yakun suy, hoskino, hoskino ku-ye if again, before, first lP-SING-NOM-say 'If that's the case, I'll talk first again.'

CON: 12

yak, yakne

FCND

future conditional

One event (the first phrase) occurs, and as a result, something desirable (thankful, happy) or undesirable (awful, unpleasant) is likely to occur. It is used with the future.

(4.318) a. na ci yak kera pirka more ripen FCND flavor be-good 'It'll taste better if it ripens more.' b. honihi sanke wa hotke yak hankucinoye belly expose CON lie-down FCND stomach-ache hene ki-kusu ... or-something do-future 'If you sleep with your belly exposed, you'll get a stomach ache, (or something like that) ... ' c. iteki cape haw e-ki soma ki yakne PROHIB cat voice 2P-SING-NOM-do NEG do FCND icen poronno a-e-k6re money much-ADV INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-give kusu-ne na ... going-to SGST ...

'I'll give you lots of money if only you don't meow like a cat.'

d. e-cis yakne okokko-cikap 2P-SING-NOM-cry FCND demon-bird e-tokpatokpa e-risparispa ... 2P-SING-ACC-peck-peck 2P-SING-ACC-pick-pick. .. 'If you cry, the demon-bird will peck-peck you, and pick-pick at you ... ' (from a nursery song)

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The structure yak pirka (na) (FCND be-good (SGST)) is used by superiors to inferiors as an imperative.

(4.319) ((hokure i-sam ta "please( offering) INDEFP-ACC-side at/in hotke-an yak pirka pirka" sekor... lie-down-INDEFP-NOM if be-good be-good" QUOTE ... '(Someone) said, "Come and sleep by my side."' The form yak pirka p (FCND be-good thing), is one expression used to express the speaker's desire. It is used in cases where the desire may possibly come true, and also in cases referring to past events turned out differently than the speaker wishes.

(4.320) atuy ruyanpe isam yak pirka pf sea storm to-be-NEG FCND be-good thing

'I wish the sea weren't stormy!' To express a necessary condition, the structure yak easir 'if... only then' is used.

( 4.321) tane anak a-kor mosir epitta oka aynu now TOP INDEFP-NOM-have land all to-be-PL Ainu hene sisam hene tumi or un or-something Japanese or-something war place towards a-nisuk yak easir mosir kik-kar INDEFP-NOM-employ / enlist FCND start land protect kotan kik-kar a-easkay oasi na sekor village/country protect INDEFP-NOM-can start SGST QUOTE haw as voice make

'(I) hear that only when both Ainu and Japanese are drafted for the war from all over our land will our country be protected, be defended.' Adverbial particles, such as anak TOP and kusu 'for sure, exactly', may follow yak.

i-amkir (4.322) pase-tono-utar high-ranking, important-people INDEFP-ACC-know(someone) yak-kusu, sinrit oka ta ene oka only-when, generations to-be-PL at/in, such to-be-PL

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165

huci uirwakne p a-koytak a grandmother sisters thing INDEFP-NOM-talk-with PAST hi sekor an pe kampi ka ta ka an NMNL QUOTE to-be thing, paper on at/in even to-be hi ka ku-ki rusuy a hi ... NMNL even lP-SING-NOM-do want PAST NMNL 'Especially if(because) the(se) great people knew us, I would like to have the stories that the elderly sisters related put down on paper for later generations.'

Yak is also frequently used after imperatives. (4.323) hoskino mukar ani tuye wa ora noko ani hose, yak first axe with cut CON then saw with pull, FCND horak kusu-ne na fell future SGST 'First, cut it with an axe, then with a saw, then it will fall.' (4.324) toani there yak FCND

wa toytoy kor wa ek. a-o from dirt have CON come. INDEFP-NOM-put-in a-seske ro INDEFP-NOM-fill FIN

'Come bring dirt from there. (Then) put it in (there) to fill it up.'

I CON: 13

ciki

'if'

I

i. Used in imperatives and demands. (4.325) a. e-kor rusuy pe an ciki hok! 2P-SING-NOM-have want thing to-be if buy 'If there's something that you want, buy it.' b ... . kuni e-epakasnu a ciki kari should 2P-S1NG-ACC-tell PAST if pass-through e-arpa nankor na 2P-SING-NOM-go perhaps SGST 'If he told you the way, then go that way.'

ciki pirkano nu yan (4.326) ku-itak lP-SING-NOM-speak if well hear CMND-PL/POL 'I'm telling you something, so listen well.'

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166 11.

Used in interrogatives.

ciki he (4.327) a. a-kotanu a-ye QUES INDEFP-NOM-village-AFF INDEFP-NOM-say if pirka, mak ne ciki pirka? sekor be-good, how COP if be-good? QUOTE yaynu-an ayne .. . think-INDEFP-NOM and .. . 'I was thinking and thinking whether it was okay to say (the name of) my village or what I should do ... ' b. neun p6ka ne ciki soma a-kor mosir how at-least COP if NEG INDEFP-NOM-have land kiki a-kar easkay ya sekor ... danger INDEFP-NOM-protect can whether QUOTE 'Is there no way for our land to be saved?' (said or thought) m. The structure A ne ciki B ne ciki has the meaning, 'both A and B (said something)'. (4.328) a. pu ne ciki umma ne ciki nep ne yakka storehouse COP if horse COP if what COP if/so urenkane get-ready/ arrange-for 'Even storehouses, even horses, whatever: (he) can arrange to get them.'

haru ne ciki b. toy p6ka anakne, apunno, field at-least TOP, without-problem, crops COP if nep ne ciki what COP if a-i-ekosikkasma pekor INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-awarded/delivered just-like siriki ... to-be-in-a-state-of. ..

'It seemed as though the crops and all of the fields were safely defended (came through safely) ... ' (during a war)

In the Iburi dialect, the following usage is found (from Y. Chiri 1978, Horobetsu dialect. Spelling is as in the original).

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167

(4.329) a. shirki chiki shisantekehe chiturpa wa that when self-hand-AFF lP-PL-stretch-out CON nean ponai chieshikari that-said small-arrow lP-PL-grab 'Then I stretched out my hand and grabbed that small arrow.'

b. chinukar chiki wenkur poho ne kotom-no zmz lP-PL-see when poor-person son COP truly-ADV clothes ka wano akoeraman even from INDEF-NOM-know-of(someone) 'Also from seeing his clothes, I know that he is a poor person's son.' (said by a god) In eastern Hokkaido, the degree of use of ciki ( cik in Tokachi) is broader than in Saru, and the following usages appear. First, examples from Tokachi.

cik (or yak) e-eramuan (4.330) a. e-oman 2P-SING-NOM-go if (FCND) 2P-SING-NOM-understand wa FIN 'If you go, you'll understand.' b. sirpirka cik ku-oman conditions-be-good if lP-SING-NOM-go 'I'll go if the weather is good.' Next, similar examples from Bihoro.

ciki e-eramuan (4.331) a. e-oman 2P-SING-NOM-go if 2P-SING-NOM-understand 'If you go, you'll understand.' b. ruanpe isam ciki ku-oman ram to-be-NEG if lP-SING-NOM-go 'If it doesn't rain, I'll go.'

In these cases, yakun (CON: 11 above) would be used m southern Hokkaido dialects.

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4.10.5.4 The items in CON:14 and CON:15 below express contradiction and concession.

I CON:14

korka

'but, however'

I

(4.332) a. ramma k-arpa kusu-ne korka nisatta sine always lP-SING-NOM-go going-to but tomorrow one to ku-sini day lP-SING-NOM-rest 'I always go, but tomorrow, I'm taking the day off.'

korka siknu kor an b. ray noyne iki a die seem do PAST but revive/survive while to-be 'It seemed like (someone) was going to die, but he/she will live.'

I CON: 15

yakka

'even if, if'

(4.333) a. karop carrying-bag yakka soma even-if NEG

I

or a-iy6 kor apto as place INDEFP-NOM-put-in when/if rain fall teyne become-wet

'If you put (it) in a carrying bag, even if it rains, it won't get wet.' b. arpa yakka pirka sekor ku-ye go even-if be-good QUOTE lP-SING-NOM-say 'I said it was OK for him/her to go.' c. upas yupke yakka ek kor an snow severe even-if come while to-be 'Even though the snow was fierce, (someone) was coming.' To express contradiction and concession, the nominalizing particles pe / p 'thing', hike 'one', and such may also be used (see section 4.10. 2 Nominalizing Particles above).

• pe/p (om) 'although' (4.334) pase kamuy eywanke p ne a p ora, high-ranking gods use thing COP PAST thing then, heru toykomunin ka eyaynunuke kusu ... only decay even terrible-shame future/supposition

169

4.10. Particles

'It would be a terrible shame if something used by the exalted gods were· allowed to decay into the soil.' (of a wooden tool said to have been used by the gods when creating the earth)

• hike ka 'in spite of' ( 4.335) .. .sekor yaynu-an kor patek QUOTE think-INDEFP-NOM when/while only oka-an hike ka, a-unuhu to-be-INDEFP-NOM one even, INDEFP-NOM-mother-AFF a-kop{si ka soma ki ... INDEFP-NOM-inquire even NEG do 'Even though I always thought (so), I never asked my mother ( about it).' 4.10.5.5 The following items attach to verb phrases and sentence-final verb phrases, and that create verb modifier phrases. J

CON:16

no

ADV

adverbial

J

i. When attached to verb phrases in affirmative sentences or sentences with affirmative meaning, no forms a verb modifier with the meaning 'conditions or character to do (something)'.

(4.336) a. c-6pitta inne-as no ci-numke lP-PL-NOM-all to-be-many-people ADV lP-PL-NOM-choose a kur ... PAST person 'the person whom the many chose.' (an elected person) b. oro peka rap-an easkay no oka place where descend-INDEFP-NOM can ADV to-be-PL uskehe ... place-AFF 'That is the place where people can descend.' (for example, from a mountain) ii. When attached to verb phrases in negative sentences or sentences with negative meaning, expresses the meaning, 'without (doing)'.

(4.337) a. nep-ka k-us ka soma ki no something lP-SING-NOM-wear-on-feet even NEG do ADV ku-hemesu lP-SING-NOM-climb 'I climbed without wearing anything on my feet.'

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax b . ... sekor an pe iteki QUOTE to-be thing PROHIB kamuy a-nomi gods INDEFP-NOM-worship

oyra no pekanpe forget ADV water-chestnut na SGST

'Without forgetting, we give thanks to the gods of water chestnuts.' c. soma ipe no cikir sak no sapa sak no ... NEG eat ADV foot not-have ADV head not-have ADV 'It doesn't eat, doesn't have legs and it doesn't have a head.' (part of a riddle about an eraser) In these examples, for affirmative sentences or phrases with affirmative meaning, these are places where wa CON may be used. However, no is not always used in negative sentences or phrases with negative meaning. Depending on the meaning, wa is used instead, as seen in the following example.

(4.338) nep-ka a-kar ka eaykap wa, something INDEFP-NOM-do even cannot CON, a-i-ipere ka ekosunke ... INDEFP-NOM-INDEFP-ACC-eat-cause even trick 'There was nothing I could do and I was even tricked about being fed.' The items in CON:17 through CON:22 below are conjunctive particles that form verb-modifying phrases, expressing conjecture and conditions.

I CON: 17

noyne

'seemingly'

I

Expresses a judgment based on conditions.

(4.339) a. ray noyne iki die seemingly do 'Looks like (someone) is going to die.' b. weysanpekor noyne katuhu an evil-hearted seemingly suspicious-appearance-AFF to-be

'(It/ someone) has a suspicious appearance and looks evil-hearted.'

I CON:18

kotom( no)

'truly'

I

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Expresses the judgment that something fits an assumption precisely.

(4.340) a. a-koyki wa cis kor an kotom( no) INDEFP-NOM-scold CON cry while to-be truly ku-yaynu lP-SING-NOM-think

'I'll bet that child is crying because he/she was scolded.'

b. sonno aynu motoho ne kotom an wa kusu true Ainu origin-AFF COP truly to-be CON because etakasure purikasiyupke hike ka oka special strong-spirited thing even to-be-PL 'Because that is really the origin of the Ainu people, that is why there are high-spirited people (among the Ainu).' (refers to myth of the first Ainu people being born of a marriage between humans ·and gods of the mountains) The transitive verb kotom means 'to be appropriate for / to suit (a place or occasion)'.

I CON:19

pekor

'just like'

j

Expresses that, contrary to the truth, something resembles something else so much that it could be mistaken for it.

(4.341) a. "asikne iciriyo en-kore" sekor ne pekor five ryoo lP-SING-ACC-give QUOTE COP just-like ka hawean even say

'It sounds like it's saying, "give me five ryoo" (an old Japanese unit of currency).' (An advertising speaker was saying, goriyoo kudasai - a Japanese phrases meaning 'please patronize'. The speaker knew this, and said that it sounded just like go ryoo kudasai - a Japanese phrase meaning 'please give (me) five ryoo.)

b. e-yaykopispisatte kor 2P-SING-NOM-mumbling-"pish-pish" when/while e-an pekor ku-nu a 2P-SING-NOM-to-be just-like lP-SING-NOM-hear PAST

'It seemed like you were mumbling something.' (said when the speaker asked the listener if he/she had said something, and the listener said no.)

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172

apekor

coN:20

'just like, as if it were the same'

Used in the same way as pekor, but more emphatic, strengthening the contradiction with fact.

(4.342) a. menoko ne apekor oskatu an okkayo woman COP just-like rear-view to-be man 'a man who looks just like a woman from behind' b. eraman yakka somo nu apekor an understand even-if NEG hear just-like to-be 'Even though (someone) is aware ofit, he/she pretends that he/ she didn't hear.' Neither pekor nor apekor can be used to assume events that absolutely cannot be mistaken one for the other. For example, they cannot be used in expressions like, something walks with a light gait just like a bird. This is because if one sees a person walking, there is no way the person could be judged to be a bird. CON:21

rokpekor

'just like', plural form

This appears to be the plural form of apekor, and only appears in certain expressions.

• .. . ne rokpekor (cop just-like-PL) 'seems' (4.343) c6ka ne rokpekor okay pe kayun heru lP-PL-PRON COP just-like-PL to-be-PL thing TOP just inu takup ne hawe an hear only COP eSAID to-be 'People like us just listen.' ( for example: ordinary people like us should not speak out)

I CON:22

anki

'about to'

(4.344) a. en-hacire anki siriki lP-SING-ACC-knock-down/drop about-to appear

'It looks like I'm about to be toppled.' (said of sumo wrestling)

b. ku-rayparaparak anki ku-yaynu lP-SING-NOM-cry-loudly about-to lP-SING-NOM-think 'I think that I'm going to burst out crying.'

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4.10.5.6 Others

I CON:23

kane

'even'

I

Expresses the speaker's feeling of something being unexpected or unusual. It combines the functions of an auxiliary verb, an adverbial particle, and a conjunction. For example sentences, see section 4.10.1 Auxiliary Verbs.

4.10.6 Sentence-Final Particles 4.10.6.1 Items FIN:1 through FIN:9 below are placed after verb phrases and end sentences, and all of them express the speaker's attitude to the listener.

I FIN:1

wa

FIN

I

Softens the tone of the sentence.

In Hokkaido, wa is used in declarative sentences only. On Sakhalin, it is also used in imperatives. The use of wa strongly resembles the wa used by women in the Tokyo dialect of Japanese. It is also thought to even more strongly resemble the wa used in the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese (used by both men and women). Sentences without wa will be understood, and in actuality, wa is often unsaid in fast speech and such, but sentences without wa often give a feeling of bluntness, or of speaking in a stiff manner. When wa is used, the sentence has a gentle feeling. (4.345) a. kani k-arpa wa lP-SING-PRON lP-SING-NOM-go FIN

'I'll go.'

b. "e-tom k-osma wa "2P-SING-NOM-front lP-SING-NOM-bump CON iyaykipte. " "pirka wa" be-dangerous." "be-good FIN" '"I bumped into you, and it was dangerous." "That's OK."'

I FIN:2

so

FIN

I

Used as though seeking approval from oneself for an action one is about to do. Used when speaking to oneself.

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(4.346) a. tane k-arpa so now lP-SING-NOM-go FIN 'I think I'll go now.'

b. ku-kospisi wa ku-inu so lP-SING-NOM-ask CON lP-SING-NOM-try FIN 'I think I'll ask.' j

FIN:3

FIN

ro

exhortation

I

Used to seek approval from another for an action one is thinking of doing. It is often used with the inclusive first person plural (the indefinite person) with the meaning 'let's (do something)', but it can also be used with other persons. ro." "e-arpa yakka (4.34 7) a. "k-arpa "lP-SING-NOM-go FIN." "2P-SING-NOM-go if pirka" be-good" '"Shall I go?" "It's OK if you go."'

b. paye-an ro go-PL-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Let's go.' C.

I FIN:4

cape rekuci raraypa, yak rekuci turiri TO cat throat stroke, then throat stretch FIN 'Pet the cat's throat, then it'll stretch its neck.'

yan

CMND-PL/POL

command

I

Used only as a final particle in imperative sentences. Used in commands to two or more people. For verbs that have singular and plural forms, yan is used with the plural form. Also, when the plural form is used to express respect to even a single person, yan must also be used. Rarely, in expressing a degree of respect towards only one person, yan will appear with the singular form of verbs.

un arki yan (4.348) a. te here towards come-PL CMND-PL/POL 'Please come here.' (to one person, the form te un ek (here towards come-SING) would be used. ek (come-SING) is used for one person; arki (come-PL), for two or more)

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b. ku-suke okere na hokure lP-SING-NOM-prepare(meal) finish SGST please( offering) ipe yan eat CMND-PL/POL 'I finished the preparations for the meal, so please, go ahead and eat.' When yan is preceded by a consonant, the y is normally dropped.

(4.349) soy ta sinot an sinot an outside at/in play CMND-PL/POL play CMND-PL/POL 'Play outside, play outside.' (if said slowly, sinot yan sinot yan) When two or more verb phrases are connected with the conjunctive particle wa CON, yan attaches only to the verb phrase at the end of the sentence.

(4.350) hokure ahup wa sini yan please( offering) enter-house-PL CON rest CMND-PL/POL 'Come on in and make yourself at home.' (phrase used to invite a visitor into the house) In Sakhalin Ainu, to express first person singular and plural nominative and second person plural accusative, and for the opposite relation, there is a verbal suffix -yan. Perhaps there is some etymological relationship with the command yan of Hokkaido Ainu.

I FIN: 5

hani

FIN

I

Used in imperatives and with the final particle na (in FIN:6 below). It is attached to sentences seeking some action from or acceptance by the listener, or it can be a gentle reminder.

(4.351) a. eci-tere wa k-an kusu-ne 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-wait CON lP-SING-NOM-to-be going-to na tunasno arki yan hani SGST quickly/early come-PL CMND-PL/POL FIN 'I am waiting for you (plural), so hurry up and come.'

b. sirwen yakun soma k-arpa kusu-ne conditions-be-bad if NEG lP-SING-NOM-go going-to na hani SGST FIN 'I won't go if the weather is bad.'

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Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax c. e-ye

nankor na hani 2P-SING-NOM-say perhaps SGST FIN

'You say it.' (Use of nankor here makes this an imperative sentence and use of hani softens the above three examples.)

I FIN:6

na

SGST

suggestion

I

Used to call the listener's attention to some matter, and requests or suggests some action from the listener. The sentence with na may be followed by a sentence specifically requesting some action by the listener. When followed by such a sentence, there is often no sentence-final pause after the sentence ending in na, and the two sentences sound like one. In such cases, na functions as a conjunctive particle.

( 4.352) a. ape us na fire extinguish SGST 'The fire went out (so relight it).'

b. cup ri na hopuni sun be-high SGST get-up 'The sun is high (in the sky), so get up.' Whereas wa simply softens a sentence, na can request some action of the listener. Compare the following sentences.

(4.353) a. soma ku-ipe wa NEG lP-SING-NOM-eat FIN 'I won't eat.' b. soma ku-ipe na NEG lP-SING-NOM-eat SGST 'I won't eat.' The first sentence can be a response to a question such as, do you want to eat. For some reason, such as not being hungry, the person asked does not want to eat, and says so. The second sentence, however, might be used when a couple is fighting, and the wife says to the husband, sinenne ipe (one-person eat) 'eat by yourself', and the husband says he will not eat, expressing his feelings. Na is also used with the adverb ikiya 'do not; possibly' in constructions such as those in the following examples. lkiya ... na expresses a concern.

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(4.354) a. ikiya e-hacir na possibly 2P-SING-NOM-fall-down SGST 'Don't fall down.' (lit., you might fall down) b. nep-ne yakka something if e-ukoparorarpa ayne ikiya 2P-SING-NOM-stuff-into-mouth-all-together then possibly e-honi arka na 2P-SING-NOM-stomache hurt SGST 'If you stuff just anything into your mouth, you might get a stomach ache.' (so don't do that)

I FIN:7

ya

FIN

I

Expresses doubt. i. Placed at the end of interrogative sentences or phrases, softening them.

(4.355) a. tane b·arpa yakka pirka ya? now lP-SING-NOM-go if be-good FIN 'May I go now?' (softer/weaker) cf. tane k-arpa

yakka pirka? now lP-SING-NOM-go if be-good

'May I go now?' b. makanak e-ye ya? how-TOP 2P-SING-NOM-say FIN 'What did you say?' Depending on the situation, it can be used in polite questions.

(4.356) ... aynu a-kar yakka pirka he ki ya? people INDEFP-NOM-make if be-good QUES do FIN 'May we create humans?' (gods on earth asking god(s) in heaven) 11.

Used as a conjunctive particle mid-sentence.

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178

(4.357) a. ku-supa p keraan ya e wa lP-SING-NOM-boil thing be-delicious whether eat CON inu try 'Taste it and see if what I'm cooking is good.' b. ku-mokorkasu wa sironuman lP-SING-NOM-sleep-too-much CON become-evening ya ka k-eramiskari whether even lP-SING-NOM-not-know 'I slept so long that I didn't even know it had become evening.' In the last example, the phrase, s{ronuman ya ka, is the object of k-eramiskari.

I FIN:8

nek

FIN

emphasis

I

Used with tas(i), tas ta, tos to, nesiun/nesun (see section 4.10.4 Adverbial Particles). There are also people who like to use it in the same way as wa. (4.358) a. ek tas ki nankor nek! come EMPH do perhaps FIN ' (Someone) will surely come.' b. oyapa suy kina us kuni p nesiun an next-year again grass grow will-be thing surely to-be nek FIN 'The grass will no doubt grow again next year.'

I FIN:9

oka

FIN

emphasis

I

Used with ta (see section 4.10.4 Adverbial Particles). (4.359) nen-ka ta a-kar yak a-rayke oka! somehow EMPH INDEFP-NOM-do if INDEFP-NOM-kill FIN 'I'd really like to kill (him)!'

179

4.10. Particles 4.10.6.2 Others

I FIN:10

un

FIN

emphasis

I

Contrary to most sentence-final particles which follow verbs, un can follow noun phrases (including pronouns) and adverbial phrases.

(4.360) a. "seta he an puta he an?" "seta un" "dog QUES to-be pig QUES to-be?" "dog FIN" '"Is it a dog or a pig?" "It's a dog."' b. "tane e-monasnu?" "na "now 2P-SING-NOM-finish?" "not-yet k-emonasap. eani un?" lP-SING-NOM-finish. 2P-SING-PRON FIN?" '"Are you finished?" "Not yet. Are you?"' c. poronno ku-sanke wa much-ADV lP-SING-NOM-put-out CON k-ere kus ku-ye lP-SING-NOM-eat-cause reason lP-SING-NOM-say hike-ka ponno ka e ka soma ki wa even-thoug little even eat even NEG do CON ku-iruska un lP-SING-NOM-be-angry FIN 'I got mad because I offered so much food and told (someone) to eat, but he/she didn't even eat a little.'

Un may also be placed after interrogative an to-be, with the meaning 'is that so?' or 'I wonder'. (4.361) a. tapanpe hemanta an un? this-one what to-be FIN 'I wonder what this could be?' cf. hemanta an? what to-be

'What is it?'

an un? wakka ota b. poppetasin ruwe he to-perspire eEVD QUES to-be FIN? water throw(liquid) ruwe he an un? eEVD QUES to-be FIN?

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180

'Is that sweat? (lit: did he sweat?) Did he get water thrown on him? (lit: did someone - including himself - throw water on him?)' cf. ruwe he an? eEVD QUES to-be

'Is it (so)?'

4.11 Sentence Structure There are three types of complete sentences, as follows. A. Sentences with verb phrases as predicates.

m{na (4.362) a. ekasi grandfather laugh wa b. acapo ek uncle come FIN

'Grandfather laughed.' 'Uncle came.'

B. Sentences with noun phrases and adverbial phrases with special particles attached. (4.363) a. poro cise un be-big house FIN

b. tan pe he? this thing QUES

'It's a big house.' 'This one?'

C. Single-word sentences made only of nouns (to address someone) or interjections. (4.364) a. hay! b. hapo!

'Ouch!' (used more for extended than sudden pain) 'Mother!'

The following describes the structure of a sentence in which the predicate is a verb phrase and the main structural elements are a verb and a noun phrase.

4.11.1 The Structure of Verb Phrases 4.11.1.1 Intransitive verbs

(4.365) ku-mina lP-SING-NOM-laugh

'I laugh/smile.'

181

4.11. Sentence Structure 4.11.1.2 Noun phrases (object)

+ transitive verb

(4.366) nupuri ku-nukar mountain lP-SING-NOM-see Noun phrase (indirect object) transitive verb

+

'I see the mountain.' noun phrase ( direct object)

+

di-

(4.367) poyson icen kore child money give '(He) gave money to the child.' (may also be present tense) Noun phrase (modifier)

+ copula

(4. 368) wenkur ku-ne poor-person lP-SING-NOM-COP 'I'm poor.' 4.11.1.3 Verb (phrase)

+ auxiliary verb

(4.369) cep ku-hok rusuy fish lP-SING-NOM-buy want 'I want to buy fish.' 4.11.1.4 Verb-modifier (adverbial phrase)

+ verb

(phrase)

(4.370) a. pirkano ku-inkar easkay well lP-SING-NOM-see can 'I can see well (clearly).' b. eytasa e-ipe too-much 2P-SING-NOM-eat 'You ate too much.' In addition to adverbs, the following may also function as verb modifiers.

A. Nouns that express time. (4.371) tanto ek today come

' (Someone) came today.'

182

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

B. Noun (phrase)

+ case particle/postpositional adverb

(4.372) a. tan kotan ta an this village at/in to-be b. pet tomotuye paye river cross go- PL

C. Verb phrase/clause

'(It) is in this village.' '(They) went across the river.'

+ conjunction/conjunctive particle

(4.373) a. somo ku-mokor no ku-kemeyki NEG lP-SING-NOM-sleep CON lP-SING-NOM-needlework

'I didn't sleep, but I sewed.' (here no is a conjunctive particle) b. tampaku ku-hok kusu cigarette lP-SING-NOM-buy intention/future k-arpa lP-SING-NOM-go

'I am going to buy cigarettes.' 4.11.1.5 Verb (phrase)

+ verb

When personal affixes attach to verbs, they attach to only one verb of a verb-verb construction. When personal affixes attach to the second verb, the first verb (phrase) functions as a noun phrase (direct object) (see 4.11.1.2 above). In most cases, personal affixes attach to the first verb. Thus, the verb placed afterwards appears to function as though it were an auxiliary verb.

(4.374) a. ku-suke okere lP-SING-NOM-cook finish 'I finished cooking.' b. e-eraman tunas 2P-SING-NOM-understand be-quick

'You learn quickly.'

Ranke REPT repetition and nankor 'perhaps' are auxiliary verbs.

(4.375) a. ku-suke ranke lP-SING-NOM-cook REPT 'I (always) cook.' b. e-eraman nankor 2P-SING-NOM-understand perhaps 'You probably know (this).'

183

4.11. Sentence Structure

However, words like okere 'to finish' and tunas 'to be quick' are unlike auxiliary verbs that can only be placed after verbs or verb phrases, in that these words are verbs that can also become predicates.

(4.376) a. tane k-6kere now lP-SING-NOM-finish

'I finished now.'

b. e-tunas ruwe! 2P-S1NG-NOM-be-quick eEVD 'You're fast!' This verb (phrase) + verb sentence structure can have particles and other words come between the elements.

(4.377) ku-nukar ka eramiskari lP-SING-NOM-see even have-never-done 'I've never seen (that).' On the other hand, if a particle comes between a verb (phrase) and an auxiliary verb, the verb ki 'to do' must be supplemented to verbalize the particle.

(4.378) ku-nukar ka ki rusuy lP-SING-NOM-see even do want

'I would (also) like to see (that).' Verbs which are frequently placed after verb phrases are listed below. The first two are intransitive, and the others are transitive. The translation appears next to the verb, and its meaning when placed after a verb phrase is shown in parentheses.

• tunas 'to be fast' (quick to do) • moyre 'to be slow' (slow to do, do late) • ki 'to do' (do) • okere 'to finish' (finish doing) • oasi 'to start' (start doing, about to do) • oyra 'to forget' (forget to do) • easkay 'can; do well' (can do, do well) • eaykap 'cannot; do poorly' (cannot do, do poorly) • eraman 'to understand, know' (know how to do) • erampewtek 'to not know, not understand' (not know how to do) • etoranne 'to be bothersome, unpleasant' (to be bothersome or unpleasant to do)

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

184 4.11.1.6 Verb

+ wa + supplementary verb

• -wa kore (CON give) 'to do for someone'; kore 'to give' is ditransitive (4.379) neno iki wa en-kore hani! like do CON lP-SING-ACC-give FIN 'Would you do that for me?' (This rhetorical question is an imperative sentence but the final particle hani, softens the command.)

• -wa anu (coN place/put) (vt) 'to do ahead of time, to prepare' (4.380) ku-ye wa k-anu lP-SING-NOM-say CON lP-SING-NOM-place/put

'I told (him something).' (speaker is giving listener information to be used in the future)

• -wa okere (singular)/-wa okerpa (plural) (coN finish) 'to completely finish' (4.381) sinep patek an na, e wa okere one only to-be SGST, eat CON finish 'There's only one left; finish eating/ eat it up.' When -wa okere is used together with a verb that indicates some condition or state, it is a conversational expression that exaggerates the described condition.

(4.382) poro wa okere be-big CON finish 'It's enormous.' To express a large degree, adverbs and affixes such as sino 'truly' (a refined word) and earkinne 'very, really' (a conversational word) or the affix si can be used.

(4.383) a. sino keraan truly be-delicious

'truly delicious'

b. earkinne keraan really be-delicious c. si-poro real-be-big

'really big'

'really delicious'

4.11. Sentence Structure

185

• -wa isam (coN to-be-NEG) (vi) 'to complete' (to finish where something is used up or an activity results in loss) (4.384) a. nea a kur ka ray wa isam that be-inside person even die CON to-be-NEG 'Even that person on board died.' b. sunke-na kampinuye-an kar uska wa tell-a-lie-ADV write-INDEFP-NOM when/while erase CON isam to-be-NEG 'When someone writes mistakenly, he erases it.'

• -wa inu (coN hear/try (something)) (vi) 'try doing' Along with wa inkar 'try doing' below, this expresses the idea that an action is done in order to see what happens (to test something, to learn something). Matters related to vision or understood by looking at them use inkar, while matters related to hearing, touch, taste, and emotions use inu.

(4.385) a. e wa inu eat CON try 'to taste something' b. kapisi wa inu ask CON try 'to ask and see'

• -wa inkar (CON look/see/try) (vi) 'try doing' (see wa inu above) (4.386) a. ku-pispare wa ku-inkar lP-SING-NOM-investigate CON lP-SING-NOM-see 'I'll look into it.' b. kar wa inkar do CON see 'Give it a try.' • -wa an (singular)/wa aka (plural) (coN to-be) Indicates that an action took place and the result continues. (4.387) a. pan katkemat ek wa an young lady come CON to-be 'The young lady came and is (still) here.'

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186

b. nimarn p6ka anak ta numo wa oka half at-least TOP at/in grain/seed CON to-be-PL

'(Look), at least half of the crop has matured. (said of seeds or grain that will be harvested)'

wa an QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-write CON to-be

c . ... sekor a-nuye

'It (something written) says ... '

• -wa siran (co N it-is) Indicates that an action has occurred and continues to occur. It expresses an unspecified or vaguely defined condition. Siran is a complete verb meaning 'it is; time passes'. (4.388) a. . . . hi, a-eyaykewkor thing, INDEFP-NOM-be-a-hardship uturu ne wa s{ran ruwe space/gap COP CON it-is eEVD

oruspe ka, itak topic/thing even, word un FIN

' ... a thing that came up in the midst of a discussion.'

b. Pananpe an Penanpe an hine siran down-river-man to-be up-river-man to-be and it-is hike .. . and .. . 'There was the down-river man and there was the up-river man, and ... '

Hine is used here instead of wa (see section 4.10.5 CON:2).

4.11.2 The Structure of Noun Phrases 4.11.2.1 Nouns, pronouns (4.389) a. seta b. ekasi

'dog' 'grandfather'

c. eani (2P-SING-PRON)

'you'

4.11.2.2 Noun-modifying word

+ noun

(phrase)

Words that can combine with nouns as modifiers are adnominals, nouns, some adverbs, and verbs.

187

4.11. Sentence Structure

A. Adnominals ( 4.390) a. sine cise one house

'one house'

b. toan huci that grandmother

'that grandmother/ elderly woman'

B. Nouns ( 4.391) a. t6noski aop noon vehicle

( aop: lit., (everyone-get-on-thing))

'noon bus'

b. s{sam uwepeker Japanese old-tale 'an old Japanese. folk story' c. kane cise metal house

'a metal house' (also used to mean 'a splendid house') d. kamuy rus bear fur 'bear skin' e. yuk kam deer meat

'deer meat'

In some cases, these can be considered compound nouns ('bearskin', 'deer-meat'). When the first verb is a proper noun and the second is a common noun, the common noun is the main element of meaning, and the proper noun modifies and defines it.

(4.392) a. Wakkata acapo Wakkata uncle 'Uncle Wakkata' b. Tokiyo kotan Tokyo village

'the town called Tokyo'

The former may be a noun (phrase), and the latter, the affi.liative form of a noun.

(4.393) a. su putaha pot lid-AFF

'pot-lid'

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188

b. cup nipeki moon light-AFF

'moonlight'

c. te un katkemat saha here of/from lady older-sister-AFF

'the older sister of this lady'

C. Adverbs, some postpositional adverbs (4.394) a. teeta huci long-ago elderly-woman 'a grandmother from long ago' (this expression also refers to great-grandmothers and previous generations)

b. en-mosma p lP-SING-ACC-other thing · 'someone other than I' D. Noun phrase

+ case particle

(4.395) Topkaci un utar Tokachi (place name) of/from people 'people of Tokachi'

E. Verb phrase/clause (4.396) a. pirka isoytak be-good tale 'a lovely story' cf. isoytak pirka ( isoytak is the subject) tale be-good 'The story is lovely.' b. a-unuhu ne tonomat INDEFP-NOM-mother-AFF COP lady 'the lady who is my mother' cf. ne tonomat a-unuhu ne this lady INDEFP-NOM-mother-AFF COP

'The lady is my mother.'

4.11. Sentence Structure

189

c. e-se yam 2P-SING-NOM-carry-on-back chestnut

'the chestnuts you carry on your back'

cf. yam e-se (yam is the object) chestnut 2P-SING-NOM-carry-on-back 'You carry chestnuts on your back.' d. cikirihi tanne kikir leg-AFF be-long insect 'an insect with long legs'

cf. kikir cikirihi tanne insect leg-AFF be-long 'The insect's legs are long.' e. ene oka tumunci kamuy oro ta oka that to-be-PL demon god place at/in to-be-PL to pond 'a pond in which that kind of demon-gods are'

cf. ene oka tumunci kamuy to or ta that to-be-PL demon god pond place at/in oka to-be-PL 'That kind of dempn-gods are in that pond.' f.

ani cep a-ma ya using/by fish INDEFP-NOM-grill net 'grill for grilling fish'

cf. ya ani cep a-ma net using/by fish INDEFP-NOM-grill '(Someone) grills fish on a grill.' Personal pronouns cannot be modified by noun modifiers ( see section 4.4 Personal Pronouns and Person). Noun phrases that start with adnominals also are not modified by noun modifiers. On the other hand, there are words that only function as nouns after noun modifiers. The following are examples of such words (for details, see section 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles).

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190

• pe/ p 'thing' • kur 'person' • uske 'place' 4.11.2.3 Noun phrase+ numeral

(4.397) pirka pan cise tup be-good be-small house two-things 'two beautiful, small houses' When there is no noun modifier preceding, the numeral comes before the noun. (4.398) tu cise two house

'two houses' ( tu is the adnominal form)

As noun modifiers increase, the pattern of placing the numeral afterwards is used. When there is about one noun modifier, both patterns occur. (4.399) tu pirka cise / pirka cise tup two be-good house / be-good house two-things 'two beautiful houses' 4.11.2.4 Sentence + nominalizer

(4.400) a. e-sanpe a-uk kusu 2P-SING-NOM-heart INDEFP-NOM-take reason a-e-tura wa INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-accompany CON e-ek hi e-eraman ruwe 2P-SING-NOM-come NMNL 2P-SING-NOM-understand eEVD he an? QUES to-be 'The reason you were brought here is to have your heart taken out; did you know that?' b. kani anak ku-kopan ruwe lP-SING-PRON TOP lP-SING-NOM-be-unacceptable eEVD ka soma ne even NEG COP 'It's not that I am in disagreement/will refuse, but ... '

191

4.11. Sentence Structure 4.11.2.5 Examples with several layers of noun phrases

( 4.401) kar hekaci para hi araun, hetapa aynu masir have youth be-big time since, contrary Ainu island/land un utek wa, yam a saranip towards send CON, chestnut be-inside woven-bag sere wa yan carry-on-back-CADS CON come-ashore (return-to-Hokkaido) aruspe story 'the story about the woman's son, who, when he got big, was sent back to the island of the Ainu carrying a woven bag of chestnuts on his back' This sentence is one noun phrase, and inside of it are several other noun phrases, such as kar hekaci (have youth) 'her son'; kar hekaci para hi (have youth be-big time) 'the time her son got big'; aynu masir (Ainu island) 'island of the Ainu'; and yam a saranip (chestnut be-inside woven-bag) 'a woven bag with chestnuts in it'.

4.11.3 Noun-like Use of Verb Phrases and Completio:q. of Predicate Phrases Verbs without personal affixes may be used as nouns (see section 5.4 Derivation of Nouns). On the other hand, nouns that express actions may form verb phrases by use of the transitive verb ki 'to do', with the noun functioning as the object. (4.402) penkiyo ku-ki rusuy study lP-SING-NOM-do want 'I want to study.' (lit. 'studying is what I want to do') Both of these structures may be combined for the following sentence structure. (noun modifier

+) verb (used nominally) + ki

noun phrase See the following examples. (4.403) a. wentarap he hemanta ku-ki humi ... dream-have QUES what lP-SING-NOM-do eFELT 'I had a dream or something ... ' ( wentarap 'to have a dream')

Chapter 4. Syntactic Elements and Syntax

192 b. ruyka poro bridge be-big iyaykipte be-dangerous

opus ki wa an na to-have-a-hole do CON to-be SGST na, yayitupare no arpa SGST, be-careful ADV go 'There's a big hole in the bridge, so be careful crossing it.' ( opus 'to have a hole in it / a hole opens')

c. pirka usapki e-ki kusu-ne na be-good work 2P-SING-NOM-do intention/future SGST

'You should/will/had better work well.' ( usapki 'to work') When the concept of a person doing something is expressed as an action or occurrence, and that action comes first (without a personal affix), and the concept of person (subject) is added after the concept of action (predicate), the verb ki with the appropriate personal affix is used. In this case, the phrase expressing the action becomes the object of the transitive verb ki 'to do'. (4.404) hnta eyaykosiramsuypa e-ki p an? what think 2P-SING-NOM-do thing to-be 'What are you thinking?' When a verb phrase is followed by an adverbial particle, in order to properly complete the phrase with the verb ki 'to do' is added. (4.405) a. ku-nu ka ki ku-ye ka ki lP-SING-NOM-hear TOP do lP-SING-NOM-say TOP do 'I will listen and I will speak.'

b. k-arpa rusuy anak ki korka ... lP-SING-NOM-go want TOP do however 'I do want to go, but ... ' When the subject, object, or a verb modifier is added after the verb, in order to properly complete the phrase with the verb ki 'to do' is added. (see section 4.1.6 Change in word order). (4.406) imo k-e eytasa ki potato lP-SING-NOM-eat too-much do

'I ate potatoes, too much.' (I did too much potato eating.) cf. imo eytasa k-e potato too-much lP-SING-NOM-eat 'I ate too many potatoes.'

Chapter 5

Word Forination Ainu has many compound words and derived words. This is especially true for verbs, where some words are just the root itself (e.g., kik 'to hit'), the majority are composed of several parts. Ainu word formation can be divided into three types: compounding, reduplication, and derivation. These occur in order or simultaneously, working on roots of one or two syllables, making a longer verb. Additionally, as discussed above, markers to indicate the person of the subject and the object (personal affixes) combine with other words, and can make fairly long words. Often, a single Ainu verb would translate as a long sentenc~ in another language. Ainu is said to be a polysynthetic language.

(5.1) a. k-e-yay-somo-mokor-e 1 P-SING- NOM-with/ about-self-NEG-sleep-cause

'I don't let myself sleep.' (for example, by sewing or other work)

b. c-e-u-ko-ram-kor lP-PL-NOM-with/about-RECIPRO-towards-mind-have 'We'll (exclusive) discuss it.'

5.1 Compounding The majority of Ainu compound words have the same composition as phrases; accordingly, the analysis of compositional elements in compounds follows the same process as the analysis of compositional elements in phrases. Because of this, it can be difficult to judge whether something is a compound word or a phrase.

193

Chapter 5.

194

Word Formation

Compound words are not just those words that have already been made and have set forms; they can also be made on the spur of the moment. The expression of events that can be expressed with a phrase by combining two or more elements into one word occurs relatively freely. However, there are also words that do not separate into components and cannot necessarily be understood directly from the meanings of the parts, and it is doubtful that they can be synchronically analyzed. Also, compositional elements may never be used as independent words, and it is often the case that the grammatical relations of each element in a phrase do not correspond to their functions as words. In general, the mechanical phonological alternations that occur between words occur in compounds· as well. There are other alternations that occur only in set words, and are not general phenomena. In the following example, /m/ and /n/ alternate, but it is a special case, limited to these words.

• mimak 'tooth' • ikuynimak 'molar' Etymologically, nimak is the older form, and in the Saru dialect, /n-/ has assimilated to the following /m/ in the independent word only. Even when the relationship of each element does not adhere to syntactical rules, knowing the function and meaning of each element makes it easy to understand the meaning of most combined words. Each compositional element, whether it is a subject, object, complement, or something that expresses the affiliation of an affiliative noun, determines what kind of compound verb is created. Complete verbs do not take subjects or objects; intransitive verbs take one subject only; and transitive verbs take one subject and one object.

5.1.1 The Formation of Complete Verbs Noun (subject)

+ intransitive verb

(predicate)

The first element is a noun, and the second element is an intransitive verb, and the elements having a subject-predicate relationship .

• mean 'It's cold.' -Jme 'coldness'; an 'to be, exist' • sirpirka 'The weather is good.' sir 'ambiance/conditions'; pirka 'to be good, beautiful' • sirsesek 'It's hot.' sir 'ambiance/conditions'; sesek 'to be hot'

5.1.

195

Compounding

5.1.2 The Formation of Compound Intransitive Verbs 5.1.2.1 Intransitive verb + auxiliary verb

The first element is an intransitive verb, and the second element is not necessarily an auxiliary verb, but the two elements have a relationship like that of a main verb and an auxiliary verb.

• iperusuy 'to be hungry / to want to eat something' ipe 'to eat something'; rusuy 'to want' • iperuy 'to be gluttonous' ipe 'to eat something'; ruy 'to be intense' • mokorkasu 'to oversleep' mokor 'to sleep'; kasu 'to exceed' 5.1.2.2 Modifier + intransitive verb

The first element is not necessarily an adverb, but it modifies the second element. This is a common compound structure.

• asmokor 'to sleep standing up' as 'to stand'; mokor 'to sleep' • hankea 'to urinate' hanke 'to be close'; a 'to sit' • yaykaokuyma 'to wet the bed' yay 'self'; ka 'on'; okuyma 'to urinate' 5.1.2.3 Negative+ intransitive verb (only one example)

• somoytak 'to say nothing' (deaf-mute) soma NEG; itak 'to say something' 5.1.2.4 Affiliative form of a noun (subject)

+ verb (predicate)

If the second element is an intransitive verb, the resultant verb is also intransitive, and if the second element is a transitive verb, the resultant verb is also transitive. In the following examples, the nouns are the affiliative form meaning 'his, her, or its'. • keweri 'to be tall (of people)' kewe '(his) stature'; ri 'to be high' • kewtumupirka 'to be good-natured' kewtumu '(his) character/personality'; pirka 'to be good'

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196

• eus 'to be attached (above)' e- '(his) head'; us 'to be attached at/to the top of' • paroaskay 'to be a good singer' para '(his) mouth'; askay 'to be skillful'

Instead of the affiliative form of a noun, the first element may be e- or o-. As pointed out by Kindaichi and M. Chiri, these mean 'head' and 'tail', respectively, as do he- and ho-, which are discussed later. These appear as the first element of many verbs. They are not used independently, and are quite short, so it is difficult to call them roots. They function as prefixes, but based on both meaning and function, it may be useful to treat them as though they were roots. In the following forms, e- and o- are fulfilling the same role as the affi.liative form of nouns. • ehewke '(upper portion) to be (is) tilted' e- '(its) head'; hewke 'to tilt' • etoyposo '(a sprout) breaks ground' e- '(its) head'; toy 'earth, soil'; poso 'to pierce through' • ohewke '(lower portion) to be (is) tilted' o- '(its) bottom'; hewke 'to tilt' • onisposo '(a meteor or lightning) falls' o- '(its) bottom'; nis 'cloud'; poso 'to pierce through'

5.1.2.5 Noun (object)

+ transitive verb

In addition to common nouns, locative nouns, and prefixes that are nearly roots, like he- and ho-, may be the first element. (For verbs with i- 'thing'; u- 'reciprocally RECIPRo'; and yay- 'self', see section 5.3 Derivation of Verbs below.) • apeari 'to light a fire' ape 'fire'; ari 'to place, to set/put' • wakkata 'to draw water' wakka 'water'; ta 'to go and get' • sinotcaki 'to sing (a song, a melody)' sinotca 'song'; ki 'to do' • sirk{kkik 'to knock' sir 'ambiance/conditions of scene/surroundings'; kikkik 'to beat, hit'

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• k{mokere 'to walk all through the mountains' kim 'mountains'; okere 'to finish, end' • soyokari 'to go back and forth to the bathroom' soy 'outside'; okari 'to go around' • ikarari (a verb referring to a method of embroidery in which a thicker thread is embroidered on to a fabric in a pattern with thin thread) i- 'something'; ka 'on'; rari 'to hold down' • hekiru 'to turn (one's head) around' he- 'head'; kiru 'to turn in the direction of' • hepuni 'to raise (one's) head' he- 'head'; puni 'to lift up' • hopita 'to come untied' ho- 'tail'; pita 'to loosen' • hopuni 'to get up, to fly away' ho- 'bottom'; puni 'to lift up' 5.1.2.6 Noun (complement)

+ ne

COP

• kotne 'to be sunk in / dented' kot 'dent, depression'; ne COP • pene 'to be damp' pe 'liquid'; ne COP • sapane 'to be in charge of others, be the chief or head' sapa 'head'; ne COP 5.1.2. 7 Noun (subject) sitive verb

+ transitive verb combining to create an intran-

• merayke '(someone) is cold, to be cold' ,Jme 'coldness'; rayke 'to kill' • reraparu 'to be blown by the wind' rera 'wind'; paru 'to fan' • kemnoye 'to starve to death' kem 'famine'; noye 'to twist' An analysis of the structure in the examples above would show that for example, the subject, (,Jme) 'coldness' is killing (rayke), and that though an intransitive verb is formed by the compound, the literal 'object' of the elements is 'someone'.

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5.1.3 The Formation of Compound Transitive Verbs There are few compound transitive verbs. 5.1.3.1 Verb-modifier

+ transitive verb

• wenresu 'to take custody of and raise an orphan' wen 'to be bad'; resu 'to raise' Wen 'to be bad' is an intransitive verb and refers to an understood death. (The understanding is that a child has been orphaned by the death of his/her parents.) This meaning of this structure does not conform to syntactical rules. 5.1.3.2 Intransitive verb

+ kar

'to make, to do'

• ahupkar 'to take custody of/ to adopt' from: ahup 'to enter a house (plural)' • hotuyekar 'to call (someone) in a loud voice' vt from: hotuye 'to call out in a loud voice' vi • rarkar 'to dive into and get (something else)' from: rar 'to dive into, to swim under water' 5.1.3.3 Noun (object)

+ di transitive verb

• heusi 'to wear on the head' he- 'head'; usi 'to put (something) on, attach' • hekokari 'to cover head and cheeks with cloth (scarf/towel)' he- 'head'; kokari 'to wrap (something)' 5.1.3.4 The following is the only example of this compound with a transitive verb. The meaning of nonno is unclear, but it is certain that there is some sort of transitive verb element in it.

• nonnoitak 'to pray for, place a curse on' nonno 'to pray for(?), to place a curse on(?)'; itak 'to say something' This form, with i- prefixed, produces inonnoitak 'to pray'. The first part of this word, inonno-, is sometimes compared with the Japanese inori 'prayer'.

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199

5.1.4 The Formation of Compound Nouns Like compound verbs, the elements in compound nouns have systematic or syntactic relationships with each other. 5.1.4.1 Noun+ noun

The first element is a noun which modifies the second noun. There is a large number of these compound nouns just among plant and animal names, and this kind of compound noun can easily be created on the spur of the moment.

• ohawsu 'stockpot' ohaw 'soup/stew'; su 'pot' • kinapoheporap 'swallowtail (a kind of butterfly)' kinapo 'kinambo (a kind of fish)'; heporap 'butterfly' (because this type of butterfly flits around during the season that this fish can be caught) In addition to common nouns, elements such as ho- 'tail' or he- 'head' can also be the first element of compound nouns. The affiliative form of nouns, however, cannot appear here. In addition to common nouns, locative nouns may appear as the second element.

• honuma 'pubic hair' ho- 'tail'; numa 'hair' • sikkes 'outer corner of the eye' sik 'eye'; kes 'edge' 5.1.4.2 Verb + noun

The first element is a verb which modifies the second element, a noun.

• rupnemat 'late middle-aged or elderly woman' rupne 'to be large'; mat 'woman, lady' • iperekut 'esophagus' ipe 'to eat something'; rekut 'throat' • tononmimak 'front tooth' to-non 'milk-suck'; mimak 'tooth'

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5.1.4.3 Adnominals other than nouns and verbs+ nouns

• seyunkikir 'beetle' sey-un 'shell-be attached'; kikir 'insect' • kimunaynu 'mountain man' (an imaginary, demon-like creature) kim-un 'mountain-be-in/exist'; aynu 'person, Ainu' • panikkew 'lower back' pan- 'lower' < pa-un 'lower part-exist in'; ikkew 'small of the back' 5.1.4.4 Compound nouns with verbs as the main (modified) element

Limited to certain fixed words and cannot be newly created in speech. An expression of attribution that has become a thing's name. If it is a syntactic expression, a noun or pe/p is attached, and it becomes a noun phrase.

• etutanne 'mosquito' etu(hu) 'nose(AFF)'; tanne 'to be long' cf. etu(hu) tanne kikir 'long-nosed insect' (nose(AFF) be-long insect) (The affiliative forms of etu are etuhu and etu. The shorter form is generally used in compounds.) • osnitus 'shovel' as 'from behind'; nit 'handle'; us 'to be attached' • nisatsawot 'the morning star, Venus' nisat 'dawn'; sawot 'to avoid / to run away from'

5.2 Reduplication Following is a discussion of verb formation based on the reduplication of entire verb stems, roots, or series of phonemes.

5.2.1 Reduplication of Stems and Roots 5.2.1.1 The reduplication of the same element, without suffixes, as the stem of a verb

Reduplication of the same verb forms can be used to express repetition of action or events and can also indicate degree or intensity when used with verbs expressing condition. Verb that have the singular/plural distinction are often reduplicated with the plural form. It is natural that the plural form is used, because plural verb indicate multiple occurrences

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5.2. Reduplication

of the verb's action or event and singular verbs express actions that occur just once. This kind of reduplication is rather productive, and is freely usable when the same action occurs repeatedly, over and over.

• suyesuye 'to shake and shake' suye 'to shake' • tuypatuypa 'to cut finely' tuypa (plural), tuye (singular) 'to cut' • kikkik 'to strike repeatedly' kik 'to hit (once)' • ukayukay 'to be very wrinkled' ukay 'to be wrinkled' • ponpon 'to be very small' pan 'to be small' There are also certain expressions where the meaning of the elements does not necessarily explain the subsequent meaning of the compound.

• nukannukar ( nukar + nukar, /r / (someone or something)' nukar 'to look (at something)'

+ /n/

-----+

[nn]) 'to take care of

The reduplication of the same element is not limited to verbs; it is also seen in nouns and adverbs. For nouns, reduplication often expresses the existence of a large number of small objects, and for adverbs, it weakens, rather than strengthens, the degree. Syntactically, the repetition of the same word occurs frequently, so for words that do not take personal affixes, it is often impossible to determine whether it is one reduplicated word or two syntactically repeated words. Adverbs will be written as separate words here.

• uypeuype 'tiny bits' uype 'fragment(s)' • toytoy 'earth, soil' toy 'dirt, land, field' • kaykay 'small wave(s)/swell(s)' (out in the ocean as opposed to waves that come in to shore) kay 'to break' (vi) • ponno ponno 'very little' (adv) pan-no (be-small-ADV) 'little, few'

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• wenno wenno 'roughly (not carefully)' wen-no (be-bad-ADV) 'badly' • tane tane 'momentarily' tane 'now' 5.2.1.2 The reduplication of a

eve stem with suffixation as a verb

• sirsiru ( sir-sir-u) 'to scrub' siru 'to rub' • tuytuye (tuy-tuy-e) 'to winnow' tuye 'to cut' • yakyaku (yak-yak-u) 'to pulverize' yaku 'to crush' • ninninu ( nin-nin-u) 'to sew using a running stitch' ninu 'to sew (pulling needle through cloth with each stitch)' There are also those items which have additional affixes. • hepokpoki ( he-pok-pok-i) 'to bow repeatedly' The forms poki and pokpoki are not used as self-standing words. • hepoki 'to bow the head' he- 'head'; pok 'below, under'; -i transitive verb-forming vowel The form hepokipoki 'to bow repeatedly' is also used. 5.2.1.3 Onomatopoeic and mimetic verbs, or -ke suffixed; CVCV with -k suffixed

eve

reduplicated with -se

Repeated sounds or conditions are represented with a repeated sequence of sound elements suffixed with -se or -ke, both meaning 'called'. Forms created this way are verbs. It is thought that the suffix -k is etymologically the same as -ke, with the vowel of -ke dropped after a vowel in the root (see section 5.3.2 Suffixes below). • karkarse ( kar-kar-se) 'to roll over and over' • toktokse ( tok-tok-se) 'to throb and throb' (heart) tokse 'to beat (heart)' • tetterke (ter-ter-ke; /r/ terke 'to jump'

+ /t/-+

[tt]) 'to toodle'

• purpurke (pur-pur-ke) 'to bubble up' (as of a spring) • paraparak (para-para-k) 'to cry and lament loudly'

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203

5.2.2 VC Reduplication of a CVC Root Most onomatopoeic and mimetic words are formed as shown above, with -ke or -se suffixed, but a small number are made with formative vowels. These forms express actions or conditions that repetitively continue little by little, bit by bit.

• cirir ( cir-ir) 'to trickle' cir is a mimetic and onomatopoeic root. • mososo ( mos-os-o) 'to rouse' (e.g. by shaking) mos- 'to wake up' • sumumke ( sum-um-ke) 'to shrivel, wither' sum- 'to wilt, whither' (can also mean 'poor harvest') • tususke ( tus-us-ke) 'to tremble (with fear)' tus- (an onomatopoeia) • rapapse (rap-ap-se) 'to scatter, to fall (as of leaves from trees)' rap- 'to fall/descend-PL'

5.2.3 Reduplication of the Final CV of a CVCV Root or Stem Emphatically expresses that a condition resulting from some action continues.

• tarara ( tara-ra) 'to have hands stuck up high' vt • cintarara ( cin-tara-ra) 'to have legs raised' vi • sikcupupu ( sik-cupu-pu) 'to have eyes narrowed' vi • sikmasasa ( sik-masa-sa) 'to have eyes wide open' vi cf. sikmasmasa 'to blink repeatedly' (see 5.2.1.2 above)

• hepokiki (he-poki-ki) 'to have head bowed' vi cf. hepokipoki / hepokpoki 'to bow the head repeatedly' (see 5.2.1.2 above)

5.3 Derivation of Verbs Just as is the case with compound words, Ainu has an exceedingly large number of derived words.

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There are many affixes which make verbs from roots, or make other verbs from one verb; the most important ones will be presented here. Most derived verbs are either transitive or intransitive verbs (rather than complete verbs or copula).

5.3.1 Prefixes The following two varieties of prefixes attach to verbs, and relate to grammatical function. 5.3.1.1 Nominal Prefixes

There are various usages, but the most common is affixation to a transitive verb, thereby incorporating the object. If a transitive verb is so prefixed, it becomes an intransitive verb. If a ditransitive verb, which takes two objects, is so prefixed, it will then become a transitive verb which takes only one object. The four types of prefixes are u- 'reciprocally RECIPRO'; yay- 'self'; si- 'self'; and i- 'something'. In general, yayis reflexive and usually expresses an intentional action made on oneself, and si- is middle voice, often without intention (see examples of yay and si, p. 215, iii, 5.18). Moreover, si-, unlike i-, yay-, and u-, cannot be freely attached to transitive verbs. Originally, i- is the indefinite person accusative prefix, but transitive verbs with i- prefixed have frequently become fixed intransitive verbs. Sometimes, the meaning of the elements has changed from their self-standing forms. • u-

'each other' expresses reciprocity u-kasuy 'to give and take assistance' kasuy 'to assist' vt u-koyki 'to fight' koyki 'to tease' u-nukar 'to see each other' (can also mean to visit each other) nukar 'to look at' vt

• yay- 'self' (reflexive) yay-kik 'to hit oneself' kik 'to hit' yay-nuyna 'to hide (oneself)' vi nuyna 'to hide' vt yay-usi 'to attach to oneself' vt usi 'to attach' vt (di transitive)

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205

• si- 'self' (middle voice) - si-pusu 'to float up (by itself)' pusu 'to (cause to) float (of submerged objects)/to dig up' si-etaye 'to withdraw' vi etaye 'to pull out' vt • i- '(indefinite) person/thing'

i-ku 'to drink liquor' ku 'to drink' i-nuye 'to sculpt' nuye 'to carve' i-sitayki 'to weave (on a loom)' sitayki 'to strike' Not just transitive verbs, but intransitive verbs and nouns may also take these prefixes. Additionally, there are also examples of verbs with set meanings created by further affixation of ne COP and kor 'have'.

(5.2) a. u-hayta RECIPRO-be-insufficient (vi) 'to be insufficient (of things that should be complete)'

b. u-utari RECIPRO-relative/relation (people) (n.) 'people related to ~ach other' c. u-anun RE CIPRO-stranger/ unrelated person (n.)

'people who are strangers to each other'

d. u-tus-mat RECIPRO-additional-wife (n.) 'women who are the first and second wives (of the same man, at the same time)' e. u-irwak-ne RECIPRO-siblings-COP

'to be siblings' f.

u-po-kor RE CIPRO-son-have 'to be parent and son'

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g. u-unu-kor

RECIPRO-mother-have 'to be mother and child' h. yay-haw-esina self-voice-hide 'to not speak/not make a sound' 1.

si-kopak self-direction 'towards oneself'

j.

si-etok self-front 'in front of oneself'

k. i-matak-ne thing-younger-sister-COP 'to be the younger of sisters'

l. i-po-ne thing-son-co P 'to be the son (of a parent and son)' 5.3.1.2 Prefixes that Express Case Relationships

Shows the relationship with a noun, making the noun the object of the verb. Kindaichi called them "appropriative" and "demonstrative". If one of these affixes is attached to an intransitive verb, it becomes transitive, and if attached to a transitive verb, it becomes ditransitive. The following are three affixes of this type. • e- 'using, concerning/regarding'

• ko- 'against, towards, facing' • o- 'at/towards/from'

E- and ko- occur frequently in conversational language and oral literature, but o- occurs frequently only in oral literature and songs, and appears in just a few common expressions in conversational language (see section 4.1 Word Order).

(5.3) a. e-mina concerning-laugh 'to laugh about (something)'

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207

b. e-toranne concerning-to-be-lazy 'to not want to do (something troublesome)' c. tek-e-kar

hand-using-make 'make (something) by hand' d. ko-itak [koytak] towards-speak 'to talk to (someone)' e. ko-sinewe towards-visit

'to visit (someone)' f. ko-uk towards-take 'to take/steal (someone else's thing)' g. o-ahun into-enter

'to go into (a house)'

h. o-rikin into/ toward-ascend/ climb 'to ascend (to somewhere)' i.

o-arpa-re toward-go-CA us 'to cause (someone) to go (someplace)'

Both e- and ko- may attach to the same verb at once, but the order of the affixes depends on the word.

(5.4) a. e-ko-hepenpenu concerning-to-nod (yes) 'to nod at someone ( about something)' b. e-ko-souk concerning-to-borrow (money) 'to borrow (money) from (someone)'

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c. ko-e-unpipka

to-concerning-doubt (vi) 'to not believe (e.g. what someone says)' Both u- and yay- may attach to ko-; forming the adverbial prefixes uko- 'together with' and yayko- 'by oneself/itself; just a bit' (see the following section).

5.3.1.3 Adverbial Prefixes Adverbial prefixes attach to both intransitive and transitive verbs, adding a stronger or weaker meaning. These prefixes act as adverbs. • ar- 'completely'

Expresses a complete or perfect degree.

(5.5) ar-hure completely-be-red 'deep/pure red' • ru- 'low'

Expresses a low degree.

(5.6) ru-sesek low-be-hot 'to be a little hot' •

s{-

'truly'

Expresses an extremely high degree.

(5. 7) s{-rupne truly-be-large 'to be extremely large'

Si- seems to have been a verbal word with the meaning 'to be true', and it can combine to form other words, such as with the adverbial suffix -no, s{no 'truly'; and with nouns, such as s{-askepet (real/main-finger) 'thumb' and si-so (true-seat/place) 'the seat at the right' (the place of honor). The prefixes discussed below are nouns and verbs with the same form. This could be called compounding rather than derivation. • ray- 'exaggeratedly' Expresses that an action has occurred to an exaggerated degree. As an intransitive verb, ray means 'to die'.

(5.8) ray-hotuypa exaggeratedly-call 'to call out very loudly'

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209

• wen- 'excessively' Expresses an excessive degree. It is not used with a pleasant meaning. As an intransitive verb, wen- means 'to be bad'.

(5.9) wen-ipokas excessively-ugly 'horrendously ugly'

• toy- 'totally' Expresses completion, with a sense of astonishment or appall. As a noun, toy means 'dirt, soil'.

(5.10) a. toy-ekurok totally-be-black 'jet black' b. sir-toy-ar-ekurok conditions-totally-completely-be-black 'utterly pitch dark' The following four prefixes are made from u- 'reciprocally', yay- 'self', sir- 'conditions', and toy- 'totally' combined with ko- 'towards'. Their meanings have changed, and each can be added, as adverbs, to verbs.

• uko- 'together, all (parts) treated as a whole'

(5.11) a. uko-hoppa together-leave-behind 'to leave (the children) behind'

b. uko-respa together-raise- PL 'to raise together' c. uko-tak together-go-call

'to go call everyone to come (as a group)'

• yayko- 'alone; a little'

(5.12) a. yayko-mismu alone-be-lonely 'to be alone and lonely'

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b. yayko-hosipi a little-return 'to go back for a bit' • sirko- 'suddenly, unexpectedly' (5.13) sirko-6tke suddenly-poke/ push 'to suddenly push' vt

• toyko- 'thoroughly' (5.14) toyko-sinki thoroughly-be-tired 'to be exhausted'

5.3.1.4 Special Usage of Personal Prefixes The first person plural nominative personal prefix ci- can sometimes have the meaning that something is done, or has been done. It can be called a passive participle. Also, like si- in 5.3.1.1 above, it can be used to make middle voice expressions (see section 5.3.2.2, iii. below). (5.15) a. cisekitay ci-cari wa an roof lP-PL-NOM-scatter CON to-be 'The roof has been scattered/blown to pieces (by the wind).'

b. ci-perpa

ni lP-PL-NOM-split wood

'split wood' ( e.g. shingles) c. ci-karkar konci lP-PL-NOM-embroider cap

'embroidered cap' These words with ci- attached may not take other personal affixes. They are only used in the third person. Additionally, some nouns have been formed by the affixation of -pe / -p 'thing' and either the indefinite person nominative affix a- or the first person plural nominative personal prefix ci-. (5.16) a. a-e-p INDEFP-NOM-eat-thing 'food'

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211

b. cep ( ci-e-p) lP-PL-NOM-eat-thing 'fish'

5.3.2 Suffixes Various verbs are formed by attaching suffixes to word roots and other word elements.

5.3.2.1 Pairs of Verbs with Shared Roots ( or Bases) There are numerous pairs of intransitive and transitive verbs which share the same root (or reduplicated form, or derived form) and have different suffixes, or are distinguished by the presence or absence of suffixes. These configurations can be divided into the following four types, based on the form of the suffix used. i. Onomatopoeic or mimetic root, with the intransitive formed by suffixation of -ke, the singular transitive formed by suffixation of a single vowel, and the plural transitive formed by suffixation of -pa.

• ,Jkom expresses the condition of being bent kom-ke vi 'to be bend to a fold' kom-o vt 'to bend SING' kom-pa vt 'to bend PL'

• vmak expresses the condition of being open and bright mak-ke vi 'to open' mak-a vt 'to open SING' mak-pa vt 'to open PL' • ,Jrew expresses the condition of being curved like a bow rew-ke vi 'to bend' rew-e vt 'to bend SING' rew-pa vt 'to bend PL'

• vyas expresses the sound of splitting yas-ke vi 'to split' yas-a vt 'to tear /split SING' yas-pa vt 'to split PL'

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ii. Intransitive formed by zero suffixation, the singular transitive formed by suffixation of a single vowel, and the plural transitive formed by suffixation of -pa.

• yak vi 'to collapse' (root) yak-u vt 'to crush SING' yak-pa vt 'to crush PL' • tuy vi 'to break, snap (rope), to part/rip' (root) tuy-e vt 'to cut SING' tuy-pa vt 'to cut PL' • kay vi 'to break (as in bend to breaking), to give way' (root) kay-e vt 'to break SING' kay-pa vt 'to break PL' • mos vi 'to wake up' ( mosos is the reduplicated form) mosos-o vt 'to waken/rouse SING' mosos-pa vt 'to waken/rouse PL' iii. Intransitive formed by zero suffixation, and the transitive formed by suffixation of -ke.

• een vi 'to have a point/sharp edge' (the base is e-en (head-bepointed/sharp)) een-ke vt 'to sharpen' • yar vi 'to be worn out' (root) yar-ke vt 'to wear out' • ray vi 'to die' (root) ray-ke vt 'to kill SING' ( ronnu 'to kill

PL')

• sat vi 'to dry up/to get dry' (root) sat-ke vt 'to dry out' iv. Intransitive formed by zero suffixation, and the transitive formed by suffixation of -ka.

• mom vi 'to flow with' (water/river etc.) mom-ka vt 'to wash away' • uhuy vi 'to burn' uhuy-ka vt 'to burn' • sesek vi 'to be hot' sesek-ka vt 'to heat' • isam vi 'to not exist' isam-ka vt 'to lose'

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v. Pairs of intransitive and transitive verbs derived from locative nouns and expressing direction are as follows. Locative nouns (root), suffixed with -(i)n for the singular and -(i)p for the plural, form intransitive verbs.

• rik 'above, a high place' rik-i-n SING, rik-i-p PL 'to ascend up' • ra 'below, a low place' ra-n SING, ra-p PL 'to descend/fall down' • sa 'front; towards the hearth (of a house)' sa-n SING, sa-p PL 'to go towards the front; to go from the outer corners of a house to the hearth (at the center); to go from the mountains towards the shore; to go downstream' • ya 'shore, land' ya-n SING, ya-p

PL

'to come ashore, land'

• Jaw 'inside a house' (there is no self-standing noun "ahu)" ahu-n SING, ahu-p PL 'to enter' These five sets of intransitive verbs form the transitive by suffixation of -ka or -ke for the singular and -te for the plural.

• rik-i-n-ka

SING,

rik-i-p-te

PL

'to lift'

• ra-n-ke

SING,

ra-p-te

PL

'to lower'

• sa-n-ke

SING,

sa-p-te

PL

'to send out, put forth'

• ya-n-ke

SING,

ya-p-te

PL

'to land a boat (or a fish)'

• ahu-n-ke/ ahu-n-te SING, ahu-p-te guests, said of people)

PL

'to bring into a house' (e.g.

5.3.2.2 Formation of Causative and Indefinite Causatives Causatives and indefinite causatives are made by with the addition of a suffix to an intransitive verb, transitive verb, or copula. This is a productive structure allowing free creation of compounds that can be applied to all verbs, meaning permitting. i. Causatives Causatives are made by suffixing -re to roots that end in vowels or glides; by suffixing -e to roots that end in -r, and by suffixing -te to roots that end in other consonants. Accent does not shift to the suffix.

• e 'to eat' e-re 'to have (someone) eat, feed'

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• iku 'to drink liquor' iku-re 'to make (someone) drink liquor' • kasuy 'to assist' kasuy-re 'to make (someone) assist' • kar 'to make' kar-e 'to have (someone) make' • raworer 'to sink' rnworer-e 'to submerge' vt • cis' 'to cry' cis-te 'to make (someone) cry' • wen 'to be bad' wen-te 'to worsen, cause to go bad' ii. Indefinite causative: to cause something to be done/to have something done. The causative expresses that a specific person is caused to do something, but in contrast to this, the indefinite causative expresses causing an unspecified person to perform an action, or having an action performed by someone unspecified, without doing it oneself. It can also be used instead of the causative to show respect when the person caused is known. The indefinite causative is made by suffixing -yar to stems that end in vowels, and suffixing -ar to stems that end in consonants. • e 'to eat'

e-yar 'to have something eaten' • nu 'to ask' nu-yar 'to have (something) listened to' • kar 'to make' kar-ar 'to cause to be made, to have (something) made' Unlike the causative, when the indefinite causative suffixes attach to intransitive verbs, they remain intransitive.

(5.17) ipe-yar-an rn eat-something-INDEF-CAUS-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Let's have some food eaten.' (This phrase might be used in the presence of a guest when the speaker suggests to the listener that they offer food to the guest. It is polite in that the guest is not directly mentioned.)

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215

cf. a-ipe-,e TO INDEFP-NOM-eat-something-CAUS FIN 'Let's get (someone) to eat food.' m. The prefixes u- 'reciprocally'; yay- 'self' (reflexive); si- 'self' (middle voice); and ci- lP-PL-NOM used as the passive participle, can be used with the causative and indefinite causative as follows. (5.18) a. u-e-re RECIPRO-eat-CAUS

'to eat together' vt

b. u-mina-re RECIPRO-laugh-CAUS c. yay-popke-re self-be-warm-CADS

d. yay-sznz-re self-rest-CADS e. sz-ray-re self-die-CADS

f.

si-kasuy-re self-assist-CA us

'to laugh together' vi

'to warm up' vi

'to take a rest'

'to pretend to be dead'

'to have (someone) help (me)' vt

g. si-eyomne-yar self-become-dismayed/revolted (after an experience)INDEF-CA US 'to have someone become disgusted with (sick of) one (you)'

h. si-eywanke-yar self-use-INDEF-CAUS 'to be used/hired (by someone)' 1.

ci-hetarpa-re lP-PL-NOM-raise-head-PL-CAUS 'to be standing up here and there'

j.

ci-hopuni-re lP-PL-NOM-get-up-CAUS 'outbreak (of war, etc.)'

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5.3.2.3 Suffixation to Onomatopoeic and Mimetic Roots See section 5.1 Compounding, section 5.2 Reduplication, and section 5.3.2.1 above. (5.19) a. e-se (reply of consent )-to-say /to-become 'to consent' b. tak-se lump-to-say /to-become 'a large clump' c. toktok-se ( J tok, onomatopoeia (sound of heart beat), reduplicated)to-say /to-become 'to pound (heart)'

d. top-se ( Jtop, onomatopoeia, sound of spitting)-to-say /to-become 'to spit' e. kap-ke ( Jkap, mimesis, flattened)-to-say /to-become 'to get flattened'

f. put-ke ( Jput, mimesis, swollen)-to-say /to-become 'to be swollen' g. cawaw-ke ( J caw, mimesis, reduplicated)-to-say /to-become

'to split, crack' (e.g. the skin on the hands in winter) 5.3.2.4 Suffixes that Express the Aspect of Actions and Events • -kosanpa 'suddenly, momentarily'

In most dialects, both -kosanu SING and -kosanpa PL are preserved. In some areas in the Saru dialect, only the original plural form remains, and there is no singular-plural distinction. (5.20) a. mak-kosanpa mak-suddenly 'to suddenly become bright' ( J mak, mimesis, 'open and bright')

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217

b. noy-kosanpa nay-suddenly 'to suddenly fall over or collapse' (Jnoy- (root); noy-e 'to twist')

• -natara (attaches to eve roots)' -itara (attaches to others) 'continuation of a condition' (5.21) a. ton-natara ( < tom vi 'to sparkle') shine-continue 'to continue to shine' (continuously rather than repeatedly)

b. ray-natara die-continue 'to be still, silent' c. sasun-itara (onomatopoeia )-continue 'to rustle'

• -tektek 'sudden and momentary action' (verbs with word-final vowels are dropped) (5.22) a. etay-tektek ( etay-e 'to pull SING') pull-suddenly 'to pull sharply/ quickly' b. hopun-tektek (hopun-i 'to get up SING') leap-up-suddenly 'to suddenly fly up' (e.g. a surprised bird)

• -rototke vi, -rototo vt '(sounds or feelings) occur one after another' (5.23) a. sir-ci-pak-rototo conditions- MIDDLE-VOICE-( J pak, onomatopoeia)-repeatedly 'rat-tat-tat (sound of a machine gun)'

b. hay-rototo ouch-repeatedly 'to tickle' c. hay-rototke ouch-repeatedly 'to be ticklish'

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Chapter 5. Word Formation

• -atki 'to continue' (5.24) tusus-atki tremble-continue 'to tremble (severely)' cf. tusus-ke 'to tremble'

• -no 'sufficiently, well' kunne-no 'to be jet black' kunne 'to be black' tusa-no 'to recover completely' tusa vi 'to recover' e-no 'to eat well' e vt 'to eat' As we have seen, aspect can also be expressed with auxiliary verbs and reduplication.

5.3.2.5 Suffixes that Verbalize Nouns

In addition to those items seen above, there are also the following items. • -nu 'to have; to secrete' (5.25) a. run-nu ( < rur 'saltiness; stock') saltiness-have/ secrete 'to be salty'

b. kem-nu blood-have/secrete c. sik-nu eye-have/ secrete

'to bleed'

'to live'

• -o 'to exist (there), to be situated' (5.26) s{k-o eye-enter

'to be born'

• -ot '(secretions) accumulate' (5.27) a. yeot pus-accumulate

'pus accumulates'

5.3. Derivation of Verbs

b. kem-ot blood-accumulate

219

'blood accumulates'

• -asnu 'to have much of something (that is good to have)' (5.28) a. tum-asnu strength-much/good

'to be strong'

b. mon-asnu ( Jmon 'hand') hand-much/good 'to work quickly (efficiently)'

• -asap 'to not have much of something (that is not good or wanted)' (5.29) a. mon-asap hand-lack/bad 'to take time, to work slowly' b. way-asap (unknown )-lack/bad 'to be poor at speaking, to be inarticulate' • ci- -ekatta 'to suddenly go' is used as a circumfix in the third person. (See also p. 210, 5.3.1.4, example 5.15.)

(5.30) a. ci-rik-ekatta suddenly-land-go 'to suddenly (impudently) come up/into (the house)' b. ci-soy-ekatta suddenly-outside-go 'to suddenly run outside' The following are examples of words that have various affixes, compounding, and reduplication, applied in order or simultaneously.

(5.31) a. u-yay-uk-te vi RE CIPRO-self-take (vt )-CAus 'to have a love marriage' b. tapewkocupupu vi ( Jtap-e-u-ko-J cup-up-u) shoulder-with-RECIPRO-towards-( mimesis )-reduplicationverbal-suffix( vt) 'to pull head into/ onto the shoulders, to shrug' c. eyaykewtumositciwre vt ( e-yay-kew-tum-o-sir-ciw-re) concerning-self-body-center-rear-land-stab-CA us 'to decide (on something)' (/r/ + /c/-+ /tc/)

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5.4 Derivation of Nouns 5.4.1 Prefixes The following prefixes all attach to nouns, and add meaning. • ar- 'one side, one of a pair'

(5.32) ar-kewtum (lit.: half-heart) said of the good or bad side of one's character • oar- 'one side, one of a pair'

(5.33) oar-sik half-eye

'one eye'

• uren- 'both'

(5.34) uren-tek both-hand

'both hands'

• si- 'big; (the) real (thing)'

(5.35) si-soya big-bee/wasp

(a kind of wasp with a painful sting)

• harki- 'left'

(5.36) harki-sam left-side 'left side' • simon- 'right' (si- 'real'; Jmon 'hand')

(5.37) simon-tek right-hand

'right hand'

5.4.2 Suffixes There are suffixes that attach to nouns and add meaning, and suffixes that attach to verbs to make nouns.

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221

5.4.2.1 Suffixes that attach to nouns • -utar suffix meaning 'people'

(5.38) ona-utar father-people

'parents'

• -po 'the late' ( attaches to the affiliative forms of nouns that have them)

(5.39) aki-hi-po (his) younger-brother-AFF-late

'his late younger brother'

• -po diminutive Attaches to words referring to small or trifling things, may also add a nuance of affection or familiarity. In addition to nouns, -po also attaches to adverbs, intensifying their meaning ( ,Jpo 'child'; po 'son').

(5.40) a. cep-po fish-small

'small fish'

b. pon-pe-po be-small-thing-small

'a very little bit'

5.4.2.2 Suffixes that attach to verbs and make nouns • -pe / -p 'thing' This element can be attached to all verbs and verb phrases to form a noun phrase, and was treated in section 4.10.2 Nominalizing Particles. There are also many set derived words with -pe /-p attached.

(5.41) a. a-e-p INDEFP-NOM-eat-thing 'food' (literally, things that people eat)

b. yar-pe-oma-p worn-out-thing-be-placed-at-thing 'baby' (lit.: thing placed in worn-out cloth) • -i 'place, time' This is the nominalizing particle hi 'place, time; thing' with the h dropped, and forms nouns when attached to verbs.

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Word Formation

(5.42) apeoy < ape-o-i fire-be-place 'fireplace'

• -usi 'the place/time where/when everyone does something' The suffix -us attaches to verbs, and expresses the meaning 'habitually do(ing) '. This has -i 'place, time' attached. This often appears in place names.

(5.43) a. iku-usi drink-liquor-habit-place b. ihok-usi to-shop-habit-place

'a bar'

'marketplace'

c. mokor-usi sleep-habit-place/time

'the place where everyone sleeps or the time when everyone sleeps'

d. mokorusi pakita ahun kane iki sleep-always-place/time exactly enter even do 'He came (visiting), just when it was our bedtime.'

5.4.3 Conversion from Verbs Occasionally, there are nouns that have been converted from verbs.

• ipe 'to eat (something)' vt; 'a meal' (noun) • sunke 'to tell a lie' vi; 'a lie' (noun)

5.5 Derivation of Adverbs 5.5.1 Suffixes • -no ADV This attaches to verbs to form adverbs. It may also attach to adverbs.

(5.44) a. wen-no be-bad-ADV b. pan-no be-small-ADV

'badly'

'a little' (adv)

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223

c. herikasi( -no) up(-ADV) 'up (at, towards)/ in an upward direction'

These are likely fixed expressions with the conjunctive particle no suffixed.

(5.45) a-eraman

no ye yan INDEFP-NOM-understand ADV say CMND-PL/POL

'Speak understandably.'

• -ko opposite This attaches to verbs and makes an adverb with the opposite meaning. They become emotional, intense expressions.

(5.46) wen-ko be-bad-opposite

'really well, not badly'

Unlike pirka-no (be-good-ADV) 'well, beautifully', wenko does not have the nuance of 'beauiful', but is rather. an affectionate term used to praise.

(5.47) hanke-ko be-close-opposite 'from/ at great distance' (used to express speaker's feelings)

5.5.2 Prefix E-/ o-/ he-/ ho-

+

+a

Noun

+

Suffix

noun that indicates a place

+ suffix.

• e- -ne (head COP)

(5.48) e-kim-ne head-mountain-COP

'towards the mountains'

• o- -ne (rear COP)

(5.49) o-kim-ne rear-mountain-COP

'from the mountains'

• e- -un (head towards)

(5.50) e-koypok-un head-west-towards

'towards the west'

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Word Formation

• o- -un (rear towards)

(5.51) o-koypok-un rear-west-towards

'from the west'

• he- -asi (head stand)

(5.52) a. he-mak-asi head-interior-stand 'towards the back, towards the mountains' b. he-rep-asi towards-ocean-stand 'out onto the ocean' • ho- -asi (rear stand)

(5.53) a. ho-mak-asi rear-interior-stand 'from the back, from the mountains' b. ho-rep-asi from-ocean-stand 'from the open sea' Most adverbs of this type are likely to have been converted from verbs. For instance, the first example, ekimne, is used as an intransitive verb meaning 'to go to the mountains', and it has been converted to adverbial use, meaning 'towards the mountains'.

5.5.3 Conversion from Verbs In addition to those items above, there are many verbs which have been converted to adverbs. • tunas intransitive verb 'to be quick/early'; adverb 'quickly/early' • tomotuye transitive verb 'to cross'; postpositional adverb 'crossing'

Chapter 6

Methods of Expression A few representative expressions used in various situations are presented here. Declarative sentences, question and response formation, methods of expressing requests, demands and finally forms of greeting will be discussed.

6.1 Simple Declarative Sentences This form is used when the speaker is relating events. There is no particular rise or fall at the end of sentences, and intonation depends on word accent.

(6.1) a. numan

huci ek yesterday grandmother come

'Grandmother came yesterday.' (sentence with an intransitive verb)

b. kam k-e rusuy meat lP-SING-NOM-eat want 'I want to eat meat.' (sentence with a transitive verb) C.

h{ne om kani hem ku-ye and next/now lP-SING-PRON also lP-SING-NOM-say 'And now I will also speak.' (sentence with a transitive verb; object omitted)

d. ( kani) wenkur ku-ne (lP-SING-PRON) poor-person lP-SING-NOM-COP 'I'm poor.' (sentence with a copula)

225

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6.1.1 Negative Expressions The negative somo NEG is placed before verb phrases. (6.2) a. nakanaka anak somo ku-kor rusuy 'nakanaka' TOP NEG lP-SING-NOM-have want 'I don't want worn-out clothes' (from a word game in which the word nakairi 'worn-out clothes' has been replaced with "nakanaka". See p. 79, example 4.97 c. for further explanation.)

b. wenpuri a-kor wa ka somo ne evil-inclination INDEFP-NOM-have CON even NEG COP 'It isn't because we have bad characters ... ' 6.1.1.1 Negative Verbs

There are several verbs, called negative verbs, with the concept of negation as part of their meaning. In order to express the same meaning as a negative verb, the structure somo + positive verb may not be used.

(6.3) a. tan kotan ta

an

this village at/in to-be 'It is in this village.' (positive)

b. tan kotan ta isam this village at/in to-be-NEG 'It is not in this village.' (negative) *Somo an is not used to mean 'does not exist/ is not there'. Other examples of negative verbs.

• sak 'to not have' cf. kor 'to have'

• ernmpewtek 'to not understand' cf. ernm( u) an 'to understand'

• ernmiskari 'to be unfamiliar' cf. amkir 'to be familiar'

• eaykap 'to be unable to do/able to do only poorly' cf. easkay 'to be able to do/able to do well'

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227

6.1.2 Expressive Nominalizers The expressive nominalizers ruwe eEVD, hawe eSAID, siri eSEEN, and humi eFELT can be placed after sentences that end with verb phrases, where they nominalize the sentence, and the copula ne is placed afterwards to complete the phrase. (see section 4.5.4 Nominalizing Words).

I ENOM: 1

ruwe ne

eEVD COP

I

This is used when speaking with conviction about one's experiences, things that one has witnessed, and things that one has proof for. Etymologically, ruwe is the affiliative form of ru 'tracks( e.g. footprints), trail', which has the literal meaning of 'evidence, traces, vestiges of'. When telling old tales and traditional stories, ruwe is used frequently. In daily conversation, men use it more than women. (Use of this word makes little difference in the actual meaning of the sentence and often it is used to balance the sound of the sentence or as an expression of the speaker's feelings.)

(6.4) a. numan

huci ek ruwe ne yesterday grandmother come eEVD COP 'Grandmother came yesterday.'

b. kam k-e rusuy ruwe ne meat lP-SING-NOM-eat want eEVD COP 'I want to eat meat.'

a-kor mosir ta karinpanonno INDEFP-NOM-have land/ island at/in cherry-blossom aka ruwe ne to-be-PL eEVD COP

C.

'There are cherry blossoms on our island/in our land/in our country.'

i ENOM:2

hawe ne

eSAID COP

i

Used when making statements based on what has been said. It can be used to introduce what someone else has said, or to further explain what the speaker has said. Etymologically, hawe is the affiliative form of haw 'voice', and has the literal meaning of 'the voice of'. It is often used in conversation.

(6.5) a. numan

huci ek hawe ne yesterday grandmother come eSAID COP

'(I/you/he said that) Grandmother came yesterday.'

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228

b. kam k- e rusuy hawe ne meat lP-SING-NOM-eat want eSAID COP

'(I/you/he said that) I want to eat meat.' (This expression can also mean: 'I(you/he) meant that I(you/he) wanted to eat meant.' 1

ENOM:3

humi ne

eFELT COP

1

Used with matters related to hearing, touch, and feelings. Etymologically, humi is the affiliative form of hum 'sound', and has the literal meaning of 'sound of, feeling of.' Humi is almost never used in a simple declarative sentence, and is seldom used in reporting something, in questions, or on replies. It is frequently used in exclamations ( ... humi!, humi an!). Humi ne often appears as an element of larger sentences. (6.6) eytasa t6pen humi ne pekor ku-yaynu too-much be-sweet eFELT COP in-that-way lP-SING-NOM-think 'I think it's a bit too sweet.' 1

ENOM:4

siri ne

eSEEN COP

1

Used for things that are visible. Etymologically, siri is the affiliative form of sir 'ambience, conditions of a scene', and literally means 'those conditions'. As with a., b., and c. above, the addition of this word does not contribute new information to the sentence and is used both for sound balance and an expression of the speaker's feeling about the topic. (6. 7) a. k-uska siri ne lP-SING-NOM-erase eSEEN COP

'I am putting it out (as in fire, lights) /I am erasing it (as in written words).' b. huci ek kor an siri ne grandmother come while to-be eSEEN COP 'The elderly woman is here (visible) / (I see that) Grandmother is coming.'

Siri is seldom used in simple declarative sentences, and is often used in reporting something, questions, replies, and exclamations.

I ENOM:5

kusu ne

intention/future COP

I

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229

This expresses the future, being a combination of kusu 'intention' and ne COP, meaning 'intend (to do), expect that (something will happen)'.

(6.8) a. oyasim

t6noski aop day-after-tomorrow noon vehicle k-o wa k-ek lP-SING-NOM-enter/board CON lP-SING-NOM-come kusu ne intention COP

'I'll come on the noon bus the day after tomorrow.'

b. sitohu enka ta a-satke yakun pirkano sat heater above at/in INDEFP-NOM-dry if well dry kusu ne supposition COP 'If you dry it above the heater, it will dry nicely.' 6.1.2.1 Hawe eSAID and humi eFELT are often used with the verb as 'to stand/make/do', here meaning '(something) makes a noise'.

• hawe as 'voice is heard, sound is made'

(6.9) a-kotanu

paoyan hine, easir-ka INDEFP-NOM-village-AFF disease-come-ashore and, indeed cise pisno aynu opitta hotke utari cipiratekka wa house each people all in-bed people-AFF spread CON aka sekor hawe as to-be-PL QUOTE eSAID stand

'I heard (a rumor) that an epidemic came to my village and spread so that there are people laid up in every house.'

• humi as 'sound is heard, it seems, it appears (not necessarily referring to sounds)' (6.10) t6hu eyyok kur ek humi as tofu sell person come eFELT stand

'It seems that the person who sells tofu has come.' (The neighborhood tofu sellers would blow a tune as they made their rounds.)

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6.1.2.2 Sir(i) 'conditions (of the scene)' is often used with iki 'to do, act'. In rapid speech, sir iki is often pronounced as one word, and it becomes siriki.

• siriki 'conditions of the scene, seems to be' (6 .11) hemanta nis or wa ran siri ne pekor siriki what sky place from fall eSEEN COP seem conditions

'From the look of it, something has fallen from the sky.' 6.1.2.3 kusu 'intention/future' is also often used with iki 'to do, act'.

• kusu iki 'try to do, seems about to happen' (6.12) mina rusuy kusu iki laugh want future do

'(Someone) seems about to break into laughter.' (lit.: 'Someone seems about to want to break into laughter.') 6.1.2.4 In order to negate ruwe/hawe/humi/siri ne, the negator soma may be placed before ne, or the negative copula isam may be used, with the particle ka 'even' preceding. (6.13) a. i-os ek ruwe ka oar INDEFP-ACC-chase-after(adv) come eEVD even utterly

isam to-be-NEG 'He doesn't come to chase after me at all.'

ro!" sekor hotuyekar yakka hose b. "ipe-an "eat-INDEFP-NOM FIN!" QUOTE call-loudly even-so reply hawe ka isam eSAID even to-be-NEG 'I called loudly "Let's eat", but there was no answer.' c. sirmeman humi ka isam be-cool eFELT even to-be-NEG

'It doesn't feel cool at all.'

6.2 Expressions for Reporting Information These are expressions used to report information when a response of consent or understanding is expected, as opposed to simple declarative

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231

sentences as discussed above. The last syllable of the sentence-final verb phrase is high, with rising intonation at the end, and is slightly lengthened. In actuality, the whole sentence is often pronounced in a high tone. (6.14) a. te ta an ( an is said with a high rising tone) here at/in to-be 'It's here.' (e.g. expecting a nod of recognition)

b. ku-kor pe lP-SING-NOM-have thing ne (pe is said with a high rising tone) COP

'It's mine. (don't you agree?)' Sentences with ruwe ne and hawe ne are the same. (6.15) kam k-e rusuy ruwe meat lP-SING-NOM-eat want eEVD ne ( ne is said with a high rising tone) COP

'I want to eat meat.' Sentence-final particles attach to the end of sentences that end with verb phrases. The sentence-final particle wa has no special nuance, and is used simply to report. The part with wa is pronounced high, with rising tone, and slightly lengthened. As is true for many other words added to ends of sentences, these I particles are used more for sound balance or to express the speaker's feelings than to add meaning.

(6.16) a. te

ta an wa here at/in to-be FIN 'It's here.'

b. ku-kor pe ne wa lP-SING-NOM-have thing COP FIN 'It's mine.' c. kani soma ku-ciste hawe ne IP-SING-PRON NEG lP-SING-NOM-cry-CAUS eSAID COP wa FIN 'I didn't make (someone) cry.'

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6.3 Questions Interrogative sentences generally have the same rising intonation as in section 6.2 above. This intonation seeks a response from the listener. In Ainu, intonation determines not whether a statement is declarative or interrogative, but whether a statement is one-way transmission of information, or is requesting a reaction.

6.3.1 Yes or No Questions as Full Sentences 6.3.1.1 Sentences that end with verb phrases can be used without modification. This construction is used when there is not an expected response leaning strongly toward either yes or no.

(6.17) a. e-mokor rusuy? 2P-SING-NOM-sleep want 'Are you sleepy? / Do you want to sleep?'

b. ( eani) cikap e-nukar? (2P-SING-PRON) bird 2P-SING-NOM-see 'Can/Do you see a/the bird?' This construction is the same as those in section 6.2 Expression for Reporting Information above, without sentence-final particles. In actual use, whether the sentence is declarative or interrogative can be understood from context or circumstances, so there is little confusion over the identical forms. Questions ending in copular phrases are often used in the negative, as in the example below, but are rarely seen in positive interrogative sentences.

(6.18) toan hekaci e-poho soma ne? that youth 2P-SING-NOM-son-AFF NEG COP 'Isn't that youth your son?' 6.3.1.2 Sentences that end with verb phrases and have the particle ya 'whether': This can also be used with sentence with copulas. Ya is not limited to the end of sentences, but can also appear at the end of interrogative phrases within larger sentences.

(6.19) ku-supa p keraan ya e wa lP-SING-NOM-boil thing be-delicious whether eat CON inu hear/try

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Questions

233

'Try what I'm cooking to see if it's good or not.' Interrogative phrases that end with ya can be used as interrogative sentences. As in 6.3.1.1 above, there is no expectation of a specific 'yes' or 'no' answer, and this is a softer, more polite expression. (6.20) a. e-mokor rusuy ya? 2P-SING-NOM-sleep want whether 'Are you sleepy? / Do you want to sleep?'

b. pirka ya? be-good whether cf. pirka? be-good

'Is it OK?'

'OK?'

6.3.1.3 When a phrase has been nominalized with ruwe, hawe, or siri, and normally a copula would follow, the copula may be left out, and the phrase can be used as a question.

(6.21) a. numan huci ek ruwe? yesterday grandmother come eEVD

'Did Grandmother come yesterday?' b. yu ne hawe yayan wakka ne hawe? hot-spring COP eSAID just water COP eSAID ' (discussing a pond) Is it a hot spring or just cold water?'

oasi siri? now 2P-SING-NOM-go start eSEEN

c. tane e-arpa

'Are you going now?' (e.g., observing someone putting on a coat.) 6.3.1.4 For questions to confirm one's supposition, soma ne (ya) 1s placed after ruwe, hawe, or siri.

(6.22) e-sinki ruwe soma ne? 2P'-SING-NOM-be-tired eEVD NEG COP 'You're tired, aren't you?' In similar situations, questions using the following forms are also possible.

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(6.23) a. e-sinki ya? 2P-S1NG-NOM-be-tired whether 'Are you tired?' b. soma e-sinki ya? NEG 2P-SING-NOM-be-tired whether 'Aren't you tired?'

6.3.2 Questions Formed Using He One part of a sentence can be marked with the interrogative particle he as an interrogative anticipating a yes/no response.

(6.24) a. matci he e-kor rusuy tampaku he match QUES 2P-S1NG-NOM-have want cigarette QUES e-kor rusuy? 2P-SING-NOM-have want 'Do you want the matches or the cigarettes?' b. . .. aynu a-kar yakka pirka he ki human INDEFP-NOM-make even-so be-good QUES do ya? whether 'Would it be acceptable to create human beings?' (asked by the gods of the earth to the gods of the heavens) When the sentence consists simply of a noun phrase or adverbial phrase by itself and is a question, the same pattern is used.

(6.25) "toan pe ekte." "tan pe he?" "that thing hand-over." "this thing QUES" '"Give that to me." "This one?"'

6.3.3 WH Questions These are questions made using interrogative words. There is great dialectal variation in interrogative words, but in the Saru dialect, various interrogative phrases can be made with the following interrogative words.

• hunna 'who' • hemanta/hnta 'what'

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235

• hunak/hinak 'where' • inan/inaan/hinaan 'which' • hempak 'how many' • hempara 'when' • makanak/mak 'how / in what way' • hemanta kusu/hnta kusu 'why' • hemanta ne 'for what reason/purpose' • makanak an/mak an 'what kind of' • hunak ta/hinak ta 'where (in/on/at)' • hunak un/hinak un 'to/towards what/where' • hunak wa/hinak wa 'from where' • (h)inan pe/(h)inaan pe 'which one' • (h)inan kur/(h)inaan kur 'which person' • hempak pe 'how many' These interrogative words and phrases may be used alone as questions. In the Saru dialect, separate from the interrogative words above, there are indefinite interrogatives which express indefiniteness or concession, used in expressions such as 'somebody come', 'there is nothing', and 'anything is OK'. These are nen 'who'; nep 'what'; nei 'where, when'; and neun 'how'. Most Hokkaido dialects do not have this distinction, and forms that correspond to the indefinite interrogatives in southern dialects are used in questions in other dialects. 6.3.3.1 In questions that seek information, the simplest forms are sentences that end in verb phrases. An interrogative word is simply inserted in the appropriate place, and there is no movement of the interrogative to the head of the sentence.

(6.26) a. hunna ek? who come 'Who came?'

b. eani hemanta e-e? 2P-SING-PRON what 2P-SING-NOM-eat 'What are you going to eat?'

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c. ekasi hunak ta an? grandfather where at/in to-be

'Where's Grandfather?' d. inan pe e-kor rusuy? which thing 2P-SING-NOM-have want

'Which one do you want?' e. hempak pe e-kor? how-many thing 2P-SING-NOM-have

'How many do you have?' f. hempara e-ek? when 2P-SING-NOM-come

'When did you come?' g. mak e-yaynu? what/how 2P-SING-NOM-think

'What do you think?' The particle ya 'whether' may appear at the end of a sentence, but this is comparatively rare. (6.27) hemanta e-e rusuy ya? what 2P-SING-NOM-eat want whether 'What would you like to eat?' 6.3.3.2 For questions with the copula, ne is often replaced with an.

(6.28) a. toan kur hunna an? that person who to-be 'Who is that person?'

b. tan pe hemanta an? this thing what to-be 'What is this?' c. sintoko sekor a-ye p decorative-container QUOTE INDEFP-NOM-say thing makanak an pe an? how to-be thing to-be

'What is the thing called a sintoko?' (lit.: What kind of thing ... )

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237

Interrogative copular sentences that end with the nominalizers ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi plus a copula, have an instead of ne in questions.

(6.29) a. numan hunna ek ruwe an? yesterday who come eEVD to-be 'Who came yesterday?' b. hnta e-eyayominausi hawe an? what 2P-SING-NOM-laugh-alone eSAID to-be 'What are you laughing about by yourself?' (Questioner has overheard.)

c. hemanta e-kar kor what 2P-SING-NOM-make when/while e-an siri an? 2P-SING-NOM-to-be eSEEN to-be 'What are you making?'

6.3.4 Criticism Interrogative sentences can, on occasion, become expressions of accusation or assessment of blame.

(6.30) a. hnta

ne

e-matapaha

why /what COP 2P-SING-NOM-younger-sister-AFF

e-koyki?! 2P-SING-NOM-tease/bully-CAUS 'Why ever did you tease your little sister?!'

b. mak e-iki siri an?! how 2P-SING-NOM-do eSEEN to-be 'What in the world are you doing?!'

6.3.5 Suggestions • -hike ( mak)? how 'how about' (6.31) ... nep ka

a-emina

kunine ka

what even INDEFP-NOM-laugh-at so

ka,

a-ewtastasa

te

soma kunine

even NEG

so

wano ki hike?

even, INDEFP-NOM-exchange now from do how 'How about exchanging (a story or something) now, something that will make us laugh?'

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6.4 Responses 6.4.1 Responses Using Reporting Pattern The expressions for reporting information in section 6.2 above can be used, without modification, as responses. (6.32) a. "hempara e-ek?" "numan "when 2P-SING-NOM-come?" "yesterday k-ek" lP-SING-NOM-come" '"When did you come?" "I came yesterday."' b. "pirka ya?" "pirka wa" "be-good whether?" "be-good FIN" '"Is it OK?" "It's fine."' c.

"ekasi hemanta a-e rusuy?" "kam "grandfather what INDEFP-NOM-eat want?" "meat k-e rusuy ruwe ne" lP-SING-NOM-eat want eEVD COP" "'Grandfather, what do you want to eat?" "I want to eat meat."'

6.4.2 Responses Using Un When responding with a copular sentence, un is frequently used instead of ne (this un marks a positive response, and can be used in other sentence patterns). Un is pronounced with a rising intonation. (6.33) a. "cise porn ya?" "porn cise "house be-big whether?" "be-big house un" (porn cise ne is also possible) FIN" '"Is the house big?" "It is a big house."' b. hemanta eci-emina hawe an? what 2P-PL-NOM-laugh-at eSAID to-be 'What are you (plural) laughing about?'

c. uwepeker ci-nu wa c-emina hawe old-tale lP-PL-NOM-hear CON lP-PL-NOM-laugh-at eSAID un FIN

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239

'We heard an old story and are laughing at it.'

6.4.3 Negative Responses When answering a question in the negative using a copular sentence, rather than answering somo ne (NEG COP), it is more natural to insert the particle ka, and answer ka somo ne (even NEG COP). Ka is often translated as 'even/ also', but it often also expresses unexpectedness. In the same way, in sentences with transitive and intransitive verbs, when the answer is the opposite of what was expected, ka is often used.

ne ruwe? (6.34) a. toan heakci e-poho this youth 2P-SING-NOM-son-AFF COP eEVD

'Is this youth your son?' ku-poho ka somo ne lP-SING-NOM-son-AFF even NEG COP '(No,) He is not my son.' b. e-iruska ya? 2P-SING-NOM-be-angry whether 'Are you mad?'

ka somo ki wa ku-iruska lP-SING-NOM-be-angry even NEG do FIN '(No,) I'm not mad (or anything).'

6.4.4 Short Answers When responding to a yes or no question, short affirmative or negative answers are also possible. 6.4.4.1 Un placed after ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi.

(6.35) a. numan huci ek ruwe? yesterday grandmother come eEVD 'Did Grandmother come yesterday?'

ruwe un eEVD FIN

'Yes, she did.'

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b. uwepeker eci-nu wa eci-emina old-tale 2P-PL-NOM-hear CON 2P-PL-NOM-laugh-at hawe? eSAID 'Did you laugh when you heard the old story?' hawe un eSAID FIN

'Yes, we did.'

6.4.4.2 When a negative answer uses 'soma', that answer can be shortened to 'soma' alone, using a rising intonation.

(6.36) a. e-sinki ya? 2P-SING-NOM-be-tired whether 'Are you tired?' somo NEG 'No.' (soma ku-sinki wa (NEG lP-SING-NOM-be-tired FIN) is also possible)

b. soma e-sinki ya? NEG 2P-SING-NOM-be-tired whether 'Aren't you tired?' somo NEG 'No.' (soma ku-sinki wa is also possible) However, for verbs that are not negated with soma, but instead have corresponding negative forms, that negative form must be used in short answers.

(6.37) a. e-saha an ruwe? 2P-SING-NOM-older-sister-AFF to-be eEVD 'Do you have an older sister?' isam to-be-NEG

'(No, I) don't.'

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241

b. e-eramuan? 2P-SING-NOM-understand/know 'Do you know that?'

k-erampewtek 1P-SING- No M-not-understand /know

'I don't know.' c. Kusur ta e-arpa Kushiro (place name) at/in 2P-SING-NOM-go

amkir ya? know /have-seen whether 'Have you ever been to Kushiro?'

k-arpa ka eramiskari lP-SING-NOM-go even have-never-done 'I've never been (there).'

6.5 Demands A few representative ways of making requests will be taken up here.

6.5.1 Imperatives 6.5.1.1 Verbs are used without nominative affixes. Accordingly, the imperative form is the same as the third person nominative form.

(6.38) a. nu! hear 'Listen!' (said to one person)

b. nu yan! hear CMND-PL/POL 'Listen!' (said to two or more people, or said to a higher ranked person) c. te un ek! here towards come

'Come here!' (singular)

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242

d. te un arki yan! here towards come-PL CMND-PL/POL

'Come here!' (plural, or said to a higher ranked person) e. te un arki wa m6no-rok yan! here towards come-PL CON sit-down-PL CMND-PL/POL 'Come here and sit down!' (plural) 6.5.1.2 The final particle hani (used in requests) may come at the end of an imperative sentence. It is a gentle reminder, and is often used when speaking to children, those younger than oneself, and to the ill.

(6.39) a. pirkano mokor hani well sleep 'Sleep well.'

FIN

arki hani b. eci-opitta yan 2P-PL-NOM-all come-PL CMND-PL/POL FIN 'Everybody come.'

6.5.2 Requests The ditransitive verb kore 'to give' is used in the form wa kore, and has the meaning of doing something for (the benefit of) someone else.

(6.40) a. puni wa kore lift-up CON give 'Lift (something) up for (someone).'

b. k-arpa wa eci-kore kusu-ne lP-SING-NOM-go CON 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-give going-to 'I'll go for you.' Kore may take the first person accusative affix, making it into a request that something be done for the speaker. (6.41) a. ek wa en-kore come CON lP-SING-ACC-give 'Please come.' (said to one person)

b. arki wa en-kore yan come-PL CON lP-SING-ACC-give CMND-PL/POL 'Please come.' (said to two or more people, or by a woman to a man)

243

6. 5. Demands c. un-tura

wa un-kore lP-PL-ACC-accompany CON lP-PL-ACC-give 'Please take us along.'

There are some request forms that do not use a word corresponding to 'please', but that can be translated as requests. In particular, it is difficult to use kore for words like kure 'cause to drink', erusa 'to lend', and epakasnu 'to inform', where the verb itself has the meaning of give and take.

(6.42) cf. huci itak ekasi itak en-epakasnu grandmother word grandfather word lP-SING-ACC-inform 'Teach me Grandmother's and Grandfather's language.'

6.5.3 Instructions There are expressions used for telling someone what to do without directly using the imperative.

6.5.3.1 One implicitly stated imperative expression is formed by putting the verb into the second person and adding nankor 'perhaps'. (Sometimes the particle na is also added.) Nankor is an auxiliary verb expressing conjecture, and na is used both as a sentence-final particle indicating the implicit request and as a conjunctive particle. When nankor and na are used together, this speculative form is used to urge the listener to carry out the action indicated. This expression is often used to try to get someone else to do what the speaker says.

(6.43) a. pirkano e-uuspare wa e-ye well 2P-SING-NOM-pass-on CON 2P-SING-NOM-say nankor na perhaps SGST 'I trust that you will pass (my) message on properly.' b. e-kor hapo e-nukar nankor 2P-SING-NOM-have mother 2P-SING-NOM-see/visit perhaps na SGST 'I expect that you'll go see your mother.' c. yam o saranip chestnut be-on/in woven-bag kane wa e-yan even CON 2P-SING-NOM-land

e-se 2P-SING-NOM-carry-on-back nankor perhaps

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244

'Maybe you'll return to your homeland carrying a bag of chestnuts on your back.' (here yan refers to the land or island of the Ainu - Hokkaido) 6.5.3.2 A second implicit imperative form is made when the verb takes the second person or the indefinite person, and pe/p ne na (thing COP SGST) or kuni p na (shall thing SGST) is placed after it. This is used by adults speaking to children and by gods speaking to humans, and appears often in oral traditions.

(6.44) a. aynu

hunara e-ki p ne na people search 2P-SING-NOM-do thing COP SGST

'Go search for someone.' (a human as opposed to an animal or plant)

b. a-madhi e-ne kuni p ne INDEFP-NOM-wife-AFF 2P-SING-NOM-COP shall thing COP ruwe ne na eEVD COP SGST

'You will be my wife.' C.

a-e-rura wa INDEFP-NOM-2P-SING-ACC-send-off/accompany CON arpa-an kuni p ne hawe ne na go-INDEFP-NOM shall thing COP eSAID COP SGST

'I will take you.' Further, this same pattern, with the verb in the indefinite person, is used by adults and the elderly to tell children and young people about the ways of the world, and to guide them in traditions; Here the indefinite person is used to mean 'people' in the sense of 'what people are expected to do'.

(6.45) a. taan kina soma a-e p ne this grass NEG INDEFP-NOM-eat thing COP 'This is not a grass to eat.' b. tap neno tap neno kina this like this like grass/herbs a-kar pe INDEFP-NOM-make/harvest thing

ka even ne na COP SGST

'This is how people gather plants for food.'

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245

6.5.3.3 A third implicit imperative is formed when the verb has the second person, and yak pirka ( na) (FCND be-good SGST) is placed after it. It has the literal meaning 'it would be good if'. Although it can be used to recommend a course of action favorable or desirable to the listener, it is also used to express action wanted by the speaker. In either case, it is usually used when the speaker expects compliance. It is used between adults.

ya e-nukar yak pirka (6.46) a. sunke ne lie COP whether 2P-S1NG-NOM-visit/see FCND be-good

'It would be good idea for you to go and see if it's a lie, or not.'

b. ne wa an suwop e-kor wa this CON to-be box 2P-S1NG-NOM-have CON e-soyne yak pirka na 2P-S1NG-N0M-go-out FCND be-good SGST 'You'd better take the box outside.' c. yakun i-koyantone wa then INDEFP-ACC-live-together CON wa i-kore yak pirka, CON INDEFP-ACC-give FCND be-good,

e-suke 2P-S1NG-N0M-cook sino pirka truly be-good

'It would be good, really good, if you were to live with us and did the cooking.' (said by a father with children) 6.5.3.4 Yet another form is made when the verb is in the second person, and kusu ne (na) (intention/future COP (sGsT)) is placed after indicating future action. (6.4 7) a-ye p neno e-iki kusu-ne INDEFP-NOM-say thing like 2P-S1NG-NOM-behave going-to

na SGST 'You're going to do as you are told.'

6.5.4 Implied Demands There are other expressions that do not directly state the demand. Just the information that is the basis for the demand is imparted, and the speaker waits for the listener's reaction. The particle na SGST is used to state the information on which the demand is based.

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Methods of Expression

(6 .48) a. ku-suke okere na! lP-SING-NOM-cook finish SGST

'I finished cooking.' (So, let's eat) cf. ku-suke okere na hokure ipe lP-SING-NOM-cook finish SGST please( offering) eat

yan! CMND-PL/POL 'I finished cooking so please eat.' b. ape isam na fire to-be-NEG SGST 'There's no fire.' (expecting the listener to light one)

Hani, a sentence-final particle used in requests, may be placed after na, adding some gentle emphasis used when speaking for example to children or elderly people. (6.49) suy k-ek kusu-ne na hani! again lP-SING-NOM-come goint-to SGST FIN

'I'm going to be coming again' (Use of na here indicates that the speaker refers to something understood relative to his return.)

6.6 Prohibition For prohibition, iteki is placed before the verb phrase. Somo, used in the negation of declarative sentences, is not used. Iteki may be used with imperatives and instructions.

(6.50) a. iteki

ye! PROHIB say

'Don't speak.' (said to one person) b. iteki ye yan! PROHIB say CMND-PL/POL 'Don't speak' (said to two or more people, or used when addressing superiors) c. iteki oyra yan hani! PROHIB forget CMND-PL/POL FIN

'Don't forget. / You better not forget.' (hani used after na or yan when addressing children, close relatives, ill and elderly people)

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6. 7. Invitations

d. irwak anak iteki utasaroski p ne na siblings TOP PROHIB discord thing COP SGST 'Don't make trouble between yourself and your siblings!'

Penanpe ikoysanpa yak iteki wano an e. te if now from to-be up-river-man PROHIB imitate pirka be-good 'From then (now) on the Up River Man didn't imitate (people).' (used at the end of a folk-tale)

6. 7 Invitations Suggestions such as 'let's do something', in which the subject would be an inclusive first person plural, can be made using the indefinite plural affix on the verb and said with rising intonation. The simplest form has a verb at the end of a sentence, without modification. Words of encouragement, such as heta (hnta) 'well', hetak ( hntak) 'well', hokure 'please (go ahead)', are also frequently used.

(6.51) a. paye-an go-PL-INDEFP-NOM b. ipe-an eat-PL-INDEFP-NOM

'Let's go.'

'Let's eat.'

This form can be used, as it is, as a declaration or suggestion meaning "let's (you and me) do (something)"; with the sentence-final particle ro FIN attached afterwards, it becomes a soft proposal.

(6.52) a. paye-an ro! go-PL-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Let's go.' (Shall we go?)

b. ipe-an TO eat-PL-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Let's eat.' (Would you like to eat?) c. hokure paye-an ro! please( offering) go-PL-INDEFP-NOM FIN

'Let's go. / Let's get going.'

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ro! d. kam a-e meat INDEFP-NOM-eat FIN 'Let's eat meat!' e. urekreku-an ro! riddle-INDEFP-NOM FIN 'Shall we exchange riddles?'

6.8 Permission In order to express approval for some action that another person is hoping for, or is favorable for them, the concessive conjunction yakka 'even if' is used, and a word meaning 'good' is placed after that. (6.53) a. e-ipe yakka pirka 2P-SING-NOM-eat even-if be-good 'You may eat it. / It's OK if you eat it.' b. eci-kasuy yakka pirka wa 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-assist even-if be-good FIN 'It's OK if I help you. / I can help you.' Interrogative sentences which correspond to these statements seek approval and permission for one's hopes. (6.54) eci-hek6te wa 1P-NOM-2P-ACC-to-be-together-with/accompany CON k-arpa yakka pirka? lP-SING-NOM-go even-if be-good 'Is it OK if I go with you?'

6.9 Exclamations In order to express exclamations like, "oh, it's so pretty", sentences that end in verb phrases, followed by nominalizing ruwe, hawe, siri, or humi, and after that, an, are used often. This the same form as the questions in section 6.3.1.3 above, but the intonation is different. For exclamations, the last syllable is pronounced five or six times longer than usual, with rising intonation, and usually a small drop at the very end. Simple noun phrases work the same way. In order to differentiate the intonation of this form from that of imperatives, two exclamation marks will be used with the Ainu examples.

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249

(6.55) a. pirka ruwe!! be-good eEVD 'How lovely!' ruwe!! b. pirkano a-nuye well INDEFP-NOM-carve eEVD '(It's) carved beautifully!' c. soma hetuku ruwe an! I NEG sprout eEVD to-be 'It won't sprout!'

d. ku-hawe wen hawe!! lP-SING-NOM-voice be-bad eSAID 'My voice is rotten!' e. e-easkay siri!! 2P-SING-NOM-can/do eSEEN 'You're really good/skillful!' (said while observing an activity)

f.

eci-ar{kiki siri! I 2P-PL-NOM-work eSEEN 'You're really working hard!' (while observing activity)

g. sfrsesek humi!I be-hot eFELT 'It's so hot!'

h. hay

ku-ikkewe! I ouch lP-SING-NOM-low-back

'Ow, my back!' There is no fixed expression that might compare to the exclamatory phrase: 'How, what a wonderful...', however, the phrase ineap/ineap kusu/ineap kusun ... wa sfriki ya ka a-eramiskari can be used to express admiration. This phrase can be broken down as follows.

(6.56) ine-a-p kusun ( sittukari mountain-in-front-of 'Shizukari' i.

para-to be-broad-lake

j. to-ya lake-shore

'Barato'

'Tooya'

k. sa-oro-pet (in)front-place-river

'Sahoro (River)'

(When inland, the word sa means the plains as seen from the mountains, and when close to the coast, it means the area near the coast.)

1. mak-un-pet behind-of/from-river 'Makubetsu (River)' (Mak 'behind' refers to the mountain side. Note: Ainu directions are usually based on the direction of river flow. 'Sa'

271 indicates the direction down river and 'mak' indicates the direction or region that is relatively up river.) Many place names are related to hunting and gathering. Among plants and animals, those with close connections to daily life are part of place names. There are also place names expressing the coming and going of people.

(8.2) a. mose-us-i nettle-cluster-place

'Moseushi'

b. ranko-us-i Judas-tree-cluster-place c. ciray-pet (kind of) fish-river

'Rankoshi'

'Chiraibetsu'

d. mata-ru-kus-pet winter-path-travel-river

'Matarukushu River'

e. husko-kotan old-village 'Fushiko' Some words take on special meanings when used in place names. An example of this is us, which normally means 'habitually do(ing) '. It frequently appears in place names with the meaning 'cluster, bunch'.

(8.3) a. suma-us-i stone-cluster-place

'Shumaushi'

b. pet-etok-us-pe river-point-bunch-thing

'(Mt.) Petetokushi'

c. turep-ta-us-i (kind of) lily-dig-always-place

'Tureputaushi'

In modern Ainu, it is said that us is the plural form of un 'to be located', but as presumed from place names, this was not originally a difference in number.

(8.4) cep-un-nay fish-located-river

'Chepunnai'

Place names express the traditional world-view of the Ainu people, and show their thoughts about nature.

Chapter 9

Literature The Ainu, who had no writing, transmitted their poetry, literature, traditions, song and folk tales orally. Until recently, the recitation of impromptu lyric poetry flourished. These were poems and songs to greet guests, to express joy at meeting again, to say farewell, to express love, to recall the past, and so forth (yaysama, yaykatekar, and iyohay 'ocis ). Lullabies ( ihunke, iyonnokka, and iyonruyka) were basically impromptu. When an impromptu song was well received, it would be sung by others, and eventually become a folk song. Even in such cases, the singer could add more improvisations to the song. For songs sung by several people as a chorus (both singing in unison and in rounds), in any one region both the words and melody are almost totally fixed, and the songs consist of a few short lines sung over and over. Upopo, songs sung at festivals and songs sung while sitting; and horippa, songs for circle dances, are all of this type. For this type of song, there are sections passed down through the generations which are no longer understood, and the origins of some songs differ depending on the person asked. In Ainu society, the belief that plants, animals, and vessels have spirits is supported, and the shaman holds an important position as the oracle of the gods. Oracular messages, 'tusu-sinotca' do not disappear after being recited just one time, and are transmitted and developed in many forms, and have been called the origins of Ainu literature. This is certainly true of the type of chants that have been called 'sacred epic poetry'. Sacred epic poems are tales of the gods, and are recited as the words of the gods themselves. Gods speak in the first person plural. As will be discussed below, in other genres the main character's lines are related as quotes, but in sacred epic poems, the words of the gods are not quoted, 273

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but are spoken directly. This custom remains because the tales are said to have originated from possession of the teller by the gods themselves. As a rule, a sakehe 'refrain' comes at the end of every line, and from this, those listening can guess what god's story it is. The meaning and origins of most sakehe are unknown, but some of them are the god's voice or mimetic words, such as han kakkok kakko for the cuckoo and ho we we for the bear; others explain particular actions or forms, such as sirokanipe ranran piskan 'silver drops fall and fall around' and ape-meru koyan koyan 'rising and rising with the fire-dust'. Sacred epic poems have different names based on the region. In Kushiro, they are called yukar 'capture of the prey'; in Iburi and Hidaka, kamuy-yukar 'yukar of the gods'; in part of Hidaka, menoko-yukar 'women's yukar'; in northern Hokkaido and Sakhalin, oyna 'possession by the gods'; in Bihoro, sakoraw 'stories with returning points'; and in Teshio, sakorpe 'things with returning points'. In addition to sacred epic poems about nature, there are also epic poems about culture. It is possible to call sacred epic poems about nature kamuy-yukar and epic poems about culture oyna. These latter songs are stories about demigods called oyna kamuy or aeoyna kamuy 'gods who sing oyna'. There are stories explaining the origins of the land and people, as well as songs about small events about main characters and their accomplices. Ever since K. Kindaichi introduced heroic epic poems as "yukar", they have been better known than other genres. Relatively long stories about human heroes have different names and varying names for the main character. In yukar, the hero is poy-Sinutapka-un-kur (besmall-Sinutapka-from-person), commonly called poy-ya-un-pe (be-smallland-from-thing); in the sakorpe of Ishikari, Tokachi, Kushiro, and Kitami, the hero is pon-Otasut-un-kur (be-small-Otasut-from-person) or pon-Otasam-un-kur (be-small-Otasam-from-person); in the haw ('voice' > 'song') of Hidaka and elsewhere, the hero is Otasut-un-kur (Otasutfrom-person) or Otasam-un-kur (Otasam-from-person); and in the hawki ( (voice-do) 'sing a tale') of Sakhalin and elsewhere, the hero is ponOtasut-un-kur (be-small-Otasut-from-person). In contrast to heroic songs, which have male main characters and are normally sung by men, the songs with women as main characters, menoko yukar 'women's yukar' and mat-yukar 'women's yukar' are sung by women. The main character is Sinutapka-un-mat (Sinutapka-fromlady) or Otasam-un-mat (Otasam-from-lady). In contrast to women's yukar, the heroic songs mentioned above are called okkayo yukar 'men's yukar'. In both heroic songs and women's songs, the main character takes the indefinite person ( a-/ -an). This is the form used by the storyteller to indicate quotation of the main character. Normally, sakehe

275

'refrains' are not used. Sacred epic poems, heroic stories, and women's songs may be added onto impromptu by the reciter. The plot is set, as are the most important places in the story, words, and expressions, but the storytellers make up the details as they go along. Accordingly, even if the same person tells the same story twice, there will be differences. This is the same for the prose traditions to be discussed below. Moreover, the melodic theme is passed from person to person for impromptu songs, lullabies, and other songs (such as father to son), and each person puts it into their own melody while transmitting the story. As for the transmission of free spoken prose, there are uwepeker 'folk tales'; the tuytak of southwestern Hokkaido and elsewhere; and the ucaskuma of Sakhalin. The prose of the Saru region in Hidaka will be taken up below. Kamuy uwepeker 'stories of the gods' do not have the sakehe of sacred epic poems, and were probably originally spoken rather than sung. Many tales about humans are about the experiences of chiefs, the wives of chiefs, and other various people; but all kinds of stories are told, such as tales about trade and fighting with Japanese villages; stories about contagious diseases and famine; stories about human relations, helping people, and murder; and other various phenomena. Psychological descriptions of the joy and pain at such times are also a part of the stories. There are also light comedies. The length of these stories depends on the person, but in general, they tend to be anywhere from 20 to 30 minutes long to one or two hours long. All of these stories quote the main character's words. There are also uwepeker told in the third person. The Pananpe Penanpe uwepeker 'Tales of the Down-river Man and the Up-river Man' are this sort of tale, in which one person sees the success of another, tries to imitate it, and ends up failing; these stories are said to retain a bit of the atmosphere of tales of witchcraft or black magic. In the same form, there are also tales of teta weysisam 'our poor (=not rich) Japanese' and awta weysisam 'the poor Japanese next door'. Tales about the Japanese are called sisam uwepekere 'Japanese folk-tales', and are separate from aynu uwepekere 'tales of the Ainu'. There are also upaskuma (called ucaskuma in some regions), which are often called lessons, and most of these stories transmit societal events, but this type of story runs the gamut from myths about the creation of the land to actual stories about flood damage. There are also many tales about origins. The upaskuma include many genres, and in the past, it was through the transmission of prose and poetry that the children of the Ainu learned their people's way of thinking; wisdom and traditions about everyday life; and how to aid others. These oral traditions were also simple pleasures.

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Upon entering the twentieth century, the Ainu themselves, such as Kannari Matsu and Chiri Yukie, have started to record the oral literature, and several collections of Ainu literature have been published by Ainu authors. Additionally, some of these stories have been rewritten for children, and children's literature, children's stories, and picture books based on Ainu tales have also been published. Some modern Ainu people greet each other in traditional verse. Epic poems and chants use so-called 'elegant language', which is somewhat different from the language of daily conversation. There is less of a dialectal difference in elegant language than in colloquial language, and it is thought that elegant language preserves many old word forms and usages. Because of this, speakers of other dialects find songs easier to understand than colloquial language. Elegant language is also found in religious traditions. In addition to those ceremonies mentioned above, men also performed ceremonial greetings called 'uwerankarapitak'; lyric prayers or 'kamuynomi-itak'; blessings called ukewehomsuitak; and stylized quarrel or debate caranke-itak, which also used elegant language, because they were intended for the gods to hear. These practical conventions, an integral part of Ainu daily life, also evolved into works of outstanding literary merit because their purpose was communication with the gods. The key to this refinement is that they have been handed down for generations. They are composed verse, most with unique melodies, and are sung in low, deep, quavering voices. These can also be seen as a kind of sung literature. Other genres are transmitted in colloquial language.

Chapter 10

Anotated Bibliography 10.1 Dictionaries Batchelor, John. 1938. 4th edition, 1981. An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Arranged in alphabetical order, it has several thousand words, over 20,000 main entries, and usage examples for most entries. In addition to the dictionary, it also has an introduction; a grammar; and from the third edition, a section of traditional oral literature in the Latin alphabet with an English translation, as well as an English-Ainu vocabulary collection. Chiri Mashiho. 1956. Chimei Ainugo Shoojiten (Small Dictionary of Ainu Place Names). Sapporo: Nireshoboo; republished 1984, Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa (Hokkaido Publishing Center). Also contained in Chiri M ashiho Chosakushuu 3 ( Collected Works of Chiri Mashiho 3). Approximately 200 words used in Ainu place names arranged in alphabetical order, with meanings and grammatical explanations. Chiri Mashiho. 1975-76. "Bunrui Ainugo Ji ten" ( "Classified Ainu Dictionary"). Published in Chiri Mashiho Chosakushuu 1, 2 ( Collected Works of Chiri Mashiho 1, 2). Tokyo: Heibonsha. Plant volume: 3,900 words; animal volume: 3,600 words; humans volume: 7,500 words. The plant volume was published in 1953 in Nihon Joomin Bunka Kenkyuujo Ihoo Dai 64 ( Japan Popular Culture Research Bulletin Number 64). The first section has plant names; the second section, relationship terms; the third section has Ainu-scientific nameJapanese name indices. The animal section was published in 1962, the 277

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year after Chiri died, in volume 87 of the same Bulletin as a posthumous manuscript. It was compiled from the cards that Chiri left behind (and recompiled for the Collected Works). The humans volume was first published in 1954 as volume 68 of the same Bulletin. The first section has the names of body parts; the second section, kinship and personal descriptive terminology; and the third section is an Ainu and Japanese index. It has examples from most dialects, with special attention to changes in word forms and etymological analysis, and is also an ethnological report. Chiri Takanaka and Yokoyama Takao. 1987. Ainugo Jrasuto Jiten (Illustrated Ainu Dictionary). Tokyo: Kagyuusha. A classified dictionary of 2,500 basic words, chosen from the late Chiri Takanaka's "Ainugo Goi Kiroku" ("Record of Ainu Vocabulary"). It has 700 illustrations and 100 pictures, and is designed for children as well as adults to enjoy. It has "Ainugo Jibiki Ebiki" ("Ainu Dictionary-Picture Dictionary" ) as an index. Hattori Shiroo. 1981. Ainugo Hoogen Jiten (Ainu Dialect Dictionary). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. First edition 1964. Compiled from the results of a survey, started in 1955, of the basic vocabulary of various Ainu dialects. It includes eight dialects from Hokkaido (Yagumo, Horobetsu, Saru, Asahikawa, Obihiro, Bihoro, Nayoro, and Sooya); one dialect from Sakhalin (Raichishka); and records of Kurile Ainu (based on Torii Ryuuzoo's Chishima Ainu (Kurile Ainu)). Classified under more than 2,000 items, each entry has all dialects at a glance. It has indices in Ainu, Japanese, and English. Jimbo Kotora and Kanazawa Shoozaburoo. Republished in 1973. Ainugo Kaiwa Jiten (Ainu Conversational Dictionary). Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa (Hokkaido Publishing Center). 1898 original published by Kinkoodoo. According to the notes, "the appearance of this book is based on Meyer's 'Sprachfiihrer', and it is both a dictionary and a conversational compilation ... ". It is a Japanese-to-Ainu collection of vocabulary and sentences used in everyday conversation, written in Japanese a-i-u-e-o order. It has two authors, but in reality, it was complied by Kanazawa. Tamura Suzuko. 1983. Ainugo Kiso Goi (Basic Ainu Vocabulary). With cassette. Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo (Waseda University Language Education Research Center).

10. 2. References

279

Based on tapes recorded in 1955, it has both Ainu and Japanese indices. Approximately 1,800 Ainu words. Since the original, Japanese version of this book was written in 1988, the bibliography did not include the following dictionaries which we believe are the most up-to-date and reliable ones now available. (ed.) Kayano Shigeru. 1996. Kayano Shigeru no Ainugo Jiten (An Ainu Dictionary by K ayano Shigeru). Tokyo: Sanseidoo. Nakagawa Hiroshi. 1995. Ainugo Chitose Hoogen Jiten ( The AinuJapanese Dictionary: Chitose [Jialect). Tokyo: Soofuukan. Tamura Suzuko. 1996. 2nd edition 1998. Ainugo Saru Hoogen Jiten ( The Ainu-Japanese Dictionary: Saru Dialect). Tokyo: Soofuukan.

10.2 References As a rule, items which are in print and readily obtainable have been selected, but books found in libraries and important classic works have also been included. Only works collected as books are included here. Important papers are covered in the section History of Ainu Studies.

10.2.1 General Works on the Ainu Language and Ainu Literature Chiri Mashiho. 1955. Ainu Bungaku (Ainu Literature). Tokyo: Gengensha. Chiri Mashiho. 1974. Chiri Mashiho Chosakushuu ( Collected Works of Chiri Mashiho ). Tokyo: Heibonsha. Volumes 3 and 4. Haginaka Mie. 1980. Ainu no Bungaku: Yuukara e no Shootai (Ainu Literature: An Invitation to Yukar). Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1931. Ainu Jojishi: Yuukara no Kenkyuu (Ainu Epic Poetry: Research on Yukar). 2 volumes. Tokyo: Tooyoo Bunko. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1944. Ainu Jojishi: Toratakemaru no Kyoku (Ainu Epic Poetry: Songs of Toratakemaru). Tokyo: Seijisha. A selection from volume 2 of Kindaichi 1931.

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Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1960-62. Kindaichi Hakase Kiju Kinen: Kindaichi Kyoosuke Senshuu (In Honor of Dr. Kindaichi 's 17th Birthday: Selected Works of Kindaichi Kyoosuke ). 3 volumes. Tokyo: Sanseidoo. Kubodera Itsuhiko. 1977a. Ainu no Bungaku (Ainu Literature). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Kubodera Itsuhiko. 1977b. Ainu Jojishi: Shin'yoo Seiden no Kenkyuu (Ainu Epic Poetry: Research on Holy Songs and Sacred Traditions). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Murasaki Kyooko. 1979. Karafuto Ainugo: Bumpoo-hen (Sakhalin Ainu: Grammar). Tokyo: Kokusho Kankookai. Murayama Shichiroo. 1971. Kita Chishima Ainugo (Northern Kurile Ainu). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Koobunkan. Ponfuchi. 1976. Ainugo wa Ikiteiru (Ainu is Alive). Tokyo: Shinsensha. Refsing, Kirstein. 1986. The Ainu Language. Arhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. Tamura Suzuko. 1979. Ainugo Nyuumon (Introduction to Ainu). Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo. Textbook. Tamura Suzuko. 1984. Ainugo Nyuumon Kaisetsu (Explanation of Introduction to Ainu). Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo. Textbook. There are simple explanations of Ainu in various series books and encyclopedias. Following is a list of fairly coherent items. Asai Tooru. 1969. "Ainugo no Bumpoo: Ainugo Ishikari Hoogen no Gairyaku" ( "Ainu Grammar: An Outline of the Ishikari Dialect"). In Ainu Minzokushi (Ainu Folk Magazine). Tokyo: Ainu Bunka Rozon Taisaku Kyoogikai-hen, Daiichi Hooki Syuppan. Ikegami Jiroo. 1969. "Ainugo no Rinkaku" ("An Outline of the Ainu Language"). In Ainu Minzokushi (Ainu Folk Magazine). Same as above. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1955. "Ainugo" ("The Ainu Language"). In Sekai Genga Gaisetsu ( Outline of the World's Languages), last volume. Ichikawa Mitsuyoshi and Hattori Shiroo, eds. Tokyo: Kenkyuusha. Tamura Suzuko. 1972. "Ainu (Gengo)" ("Ainu (Language)"). In Buritanika Kokusai Hyakka Jiten 1 (Encyclopaedia Britannica International 1). Tokyo: TBS Buritanika.

10.2. References

281

Tamura Suzuko. 1981. "Ainugo" ("The Ainu Language"). In Kooza Genga 6: Sekai no Genga (Language Course Volume 6: Languages of the World). Kitamura Hajime, ed. Tokyo: Taishuukan Shoten.

10.2.2 Works on the Genealogy of the Ainu Language Chamberlain, Basil Hall. 1887. "The Language, Mythology, and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan Viewed in the Light of Aino Studies". In Tookyoo Teikoku Daigaku Bunka Daigaku Kiyoo 1. Hattori Shiroo. 1959. Nihongo no Keitoo (The genealogy of the Japanese Language). Tokyo: I wanami Shoten. Ikegami Jiroo. 1973. "Ainugo keitooron" ( "Genealogy of the Ainu Language"), (Dai 26kai Nihon Jinruigakkai-Nihon Minzoku Gakkai Rengoo Taikai Happyoo Shooroku (Presentation Extracts from the 26th The Japanese Society of Ethnology Union Convention) in Minzokugaku Kenkyuu ( The Japanese Journal of Ethnology): vol. 38, no. 2. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1960. In Kindaichi Hakase Kiju Kinen: Kindaichi Kyoosuke Senshuu (In Honor of Dr. Kindaichi 's 77th Birthday: Selected Works ofKindaichi Kyoosuke). Volume 1: Ainugo Kenkyuu (Research on Ainu). Tokyo: Sanseidoo. Slawik, Alexander. 1984. Nihon Bunka no Kosoo (Old Strata of Japanese Culture). Translated by Sumiya Kazuhiko and Josef Kreiner. Tokyo: Miraisha. Yasumoto Biten. 1985. Nihongo no Kigen o Saguru (Searching for the Origins of the Japanese Language). Tokyo: PHP.

10.2.3 Word Lists Kayano Shigeru. 1978. Ainu no Mingu (Ainu Folk Tools). Suzusawa Shoten.

Tokyo:

See also the section on dictionaries. One almost never sees word lists and records of old literature from before the twentieth century, but some are republished and others appear in research books. Koono Motomichi. 1981. Ainushi Shiryooshuu ( Collection of Ainu Historical Records). Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa. See especially volumes 4 and 6, and the supplement.

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Murayama Shichiroo. 1971. Kita Chishima Ainugo (Northern Kurile Ainu). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Koobunkan. Narita Shuuichi. 1972. Ainugo Shiryoo Soosho (Ainu Historical Materials Series). Tokyo: Kokusho Kankookai. Commentary by Kindaichi Kyoosuke. Takakura Shin'ichiroo. 1969. Nihon Shomin Seikatsu Shiryoo Shuusei ( Collection of the History of Lifestyles of Peoples in Japan). Volume 4. Tokyo: San'ichi Shoboo. Siebold, Franz Freiherr von. 1979. Nippon (Japan). Volume 6. Tokyo: Yuushoodoo Shoten. Translated by Katoo Kyuuzoo.

10.2.4 Research Books on Place Names Chiri Mashiho. 1974. Chiri Mashiho Chosakushuu ( Collected Works of Chiri Mashiho ). Tokyo: Heibonsha. Volumes 3 and 4. Yamada Hidezoo. 1982-83. Ainugo Chimei no Kenkyuu (Research on Ainu Place Names). 4 volumes. Tokyo: Soofuukan. Yamada Hidezoo. 1984. Hokkaidoo no Chimei (Hokkaido Place Names). Sapporo: Hokkaido Shimbunsha. The following older works have been republished. Matsuura Takeshiroo. 1978. Takeshiroo Kaiho Nikki ( Takeshiroo Voyage Diary). 2 volumes. Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa. Commentary by Takakura Shin'ichiroo. Matsuura Takeshiroo. 1982. Toozai Ezo Yamakawa Chiri Torishirabe Nisshi ( Diary of Geographical Investigations into the Geography of the Mountains and Rivers of Hokkaido). 2 volumes. Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa. Corrections by Takakura Shin'ichiroo; commentary by Akiba Minoru. Nagata Hoosei. Republished 1981. Hokkaidoo Ezogo Chimeikai (Explanation of Ezo (Hokkaido) Language). Tokyo: Soofuukan.

10.2.5 Texts ( oral literature that has been written down, poems, and biographies) Batchelor, John. 1980. Ainu Fireside Stories. Sapporo: Hokkaidoo Shuppan Kikaku Sentaa. Batchelor, Yaeko. 1931. Wakaki Utari ni (For Young Utari). Tokyo: Chikuhakukai.

10.2. References

283

Chiri Mashiho. 1981. Ainu Mintan-shuu ( Collection of Ainu Folk Tales). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Chiri Yukie. 1978. Ainu Shin'yoo-shuu ( Collection of Ainu Holy Songs). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Hokkaidoo Utari Kyookai Sapporo Shibu Ainugo Benkyoo-kai Yaku. 1983-. "Karafuto Ainu no Gengo to Minwa ni tsuite no Kenkyuu Shiryoo" ( "Materials for Research on Sakhalin Ainu Language and Folk Tales"). In Soozoo no Sekai from vol. 46. Tokyo: Shoogakukan. Kannari Matsu. 1959-1966. Ainu Jojishi: Yuukara-shuu (Ainu Epic Poetry: Yukar). 7 volumes. Tokyo: Sanseidoo. Commentary by Kindaichi Kyoosuke. Kayano Shigeru. 1974. Uepekere Shuutaisei ( Collection of Uwepekere). Volume 1. Tokyo: Arudoo. With cassette. Kayano Shigeru. 1984. "Ainu no Nazonazo" ("Ainu Riddles"). In Sekai N azonazo Daijiten ( World Encyclopedia of Riddles). Tokyo: Taishuukan Shoten. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1914. Kita Ezo Koyoo !hen: Shin'in Soosho Daiippen (Remants of Northern Hokkaido Songs of Old: Shin'in Collection, Volume 1). Tokyo: Kyoodo Kenkyuusha. Kindaichi Kyoosuke. 1968-75. Ainu Jojishi: Yuukara-shuu (Ainu Epic Poetry: Yukar). Volumes 8, 9. Tokyo: Sanseidoo. Kuzuno Tatsujiroo. 1978-. Kimusupo. Privately published. Murasaki Kyooko. 1976. Karafuto Ainugo (Sakhalin Ainu). Kokusho Kankookai. With cassette.

Tokyo:

Nabesawa Motozoo. 1965. Ainu Jojishi: Kutune Shirka (Ainu Epic Poetry: K utune Shirka). Mombetsu, Hokkaido: Mombetsuchoo Kyoodoshi Kenkyuukai. Footnotes by Oogiya Masayasu. Nabesawa Motozoo. 1966. Ainu no Inorikotoba (Ainu Prayers). Mombetsu, Hokkaido: Mombetsuchoo Kyoodoshi Kenkyuukai. Nabesawa Motozoo. 1969. Ainu no Jojishi (Ainu Epic Poetry). Mombetsu, Hokkaido: Mombetsuchoo Kyoodoshi Kenkyuukai. Nukishio Yoshizoo. 1978. Ainu Jojishi: Sakorope (Ainu Epic Poetry: Sakorope). Hakutoochoo. With cassette. Ponfuchi. 1978. Yuukara wa Yomigaeru ( Yukar Come Back to Life). Tokyo: Shinsensha.

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Ponfuchi. 1980. Ureshipamoshiri e no Michi ( The Road Towards Ureshipamoshiri). Tokyo: Shinsensha. Sugimura Kinarabukku. 1966. Kinarabukku Yuukara-shuu ( Collection of Kinarabukku 's Yukar). Asahikawa: Asahikawa Soosho Hensan Iinkai-hen. Sunazawa Kura. 1983. Watashi no Ichidai no Omoide: Kusukup Oruspe (Recollections of My Life: Kusukup Oruspe). Hokkaido: Miyama Shoboo. Tamura Suzuko. 1984-. Ainugo Onseishiryoo (Ainu Auditory Records). Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku Gogaku Kyooiku Kenkyuujo. As of 1987, four volumes published. With cassettes. Yamabe Yasunosuke. 1913. Ainu Monogatari: Fu Ainugo Taii oyobi Goi (Ainu Stories, with Ainu Outlines and Vocabulary). Tokyo: Hakubunkan. Compiled by Kindaichi Kyoosuke. There are many other texts besides these. In particular, municipalities, boards of education, museums, and cultural preservation groups throughout Hokkaido publish texts. For example, the Hokkaido Board of Education publishes Ainu Minzoku Bunkazai Yuukara Shiriizu (Ainu Folk Cultural Materials Yukar Series) and Ainu Minzoku Bunkazai Kooshoo Bungei Shiriizu ( Chiri Yukie Nooto) (Ainu Folk Cultural Materials Oral Literature Series: Notes by Chiri Yukie); and the Ainu Living Treasure Oral Tradition Preservation Society publishes Ainu Mukei Minzoku Bunkazai no Kiroku (Records of the Ain-u Living Treasures).

10.2.6 Bibliographies In particular, those items convenient for finding specialized research, papers, and old literature not listed above. Adami, Norbert Richard. 1981. Verzeichnis der europaischsprachigen Literatur uber die Ainu. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz. Matsushita Wataru and Kimi Nobuhiko. 1978. Ainu Bunken Mokuroku: Wabunhen ( Bibliography of Ainu: Japanese Publications). Sapporo: Miyama Shoboo. Nakagawa Hiroshi and Satoo Tomomi. 1985. "Ainugo Bunken Mokuroku" ("Ainu Bibliography"). In Genga Volume 14, Number 2. Tokyo: Taishuukan Shoten. Recently, the following comprehensive works have been published in Europe. (ed.)

10.2. References

Dettmer, Hans Adalbert. 1989-1997. Wiesbaden: 0. Harrassowitz.

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2 volumes.

Refsing, Kirsten (ed.) 1996. The Ainu library: collection 1. Early European writings on the Ainu language. 10 volumes. Richmond: Curzon. Refsing, Kirsten (ed.) 1998. The Ainu library: collection 2. Origins of the Ainu language: the Ainu Inda-European controversy. 5 volumes. Richmond: Curzon, Tokyo: Edition Synapse.

Index Abashiri dialect, 11 accent, 21, 137, 142, 213, 225 accentual nucleus, 21-23 accusative, 53, 77 accusative affix, 53, 56, 57, 81, 97 action, 40, 112, 114 actor, 106, 114, 151 adjective, 36 adnominal, 91, 92, 187, 200 adnominal numeral, 92 adverb, 46, 57, 93, 181, 188, 222, 224 adverbial, 169 adverbial particle, 32, 110, 135, 192 adverbial phrase, 180 adverbial prefix, 208 affiliative form, 81, 82-84, 122, 142, 187, 195, 196 formation of, 84 person of, 84 use of, 86 affiliative suffix, 85 affix, 202, 204 affixation, 204 affricate, 18 Altaic languages, 4, 254 amount, 100 Angelis, J. de, 7 appropriative, 206 Asai Tooru, 11 aspect, 151, 216, 218 attitude, 151 287

Austronesian, 5 auxiliary verb, 110, 129, 181-183, 195,218 baby talk, 265 basic vocabulary, 2, 10 Basque, 4 Batchelor, J., 8, 13, 14, 277 Bihoro dialect, 167 Broughton, W.R., 7 caranke, 12 case, 81 case particle, 81, 104, 110, 129, 182, 188 causal relationship, 149, 150 causative, 213, 215 cause, 157 Chamberlain, B. H., 9 Chiri Mashiho, 2, 10, 11, 13, 15, 45,196,277 Chiri Takanaka, 278 Chiri Yukie, 13, 65, 161, 166, 276 closed syllable, 21 colloquialisms, 266 color words, 264 command, 174 common noun, 47, 81, 187, 196 personal form of, 55 complement, 25, 53, 80 complete verb, 41, 194 compound noun, 187, 199, 200 compound word, 193

INDEX

288

compounding, 193, 219 conceptual demonstratives, 125, 263 conceptual form, 81, 83, 84, 122, 142 concern, 94 concession, 128, 168 concrete, 89 condition, 161, 162 conjecture, 94, 170 conjunction, 107, 109, 148, 182 conjunctive particle, 107, 110, 128, 148, 182 consonant, 17 contradiction, 168, 172 conversion from verb, 222, 224 copula, 42, 50, 53, 181, 197, 227, 263 counter, 255 criticism, 237 dative, 42, 53 Davidov, G. I., 7 demand, 165, 241 implied, 245 demonstrative adnominal, 93 demonstratives, 260 Derring, W., 8 dependent noun, 91 derivation, 193 of adverb, 222 of noun, 220 of verb, 203 derived word, 193 desire, 113, 164, 250 Dettmer, H. A., 10 dialect, 2, 10 dialectal differences, 4 direct object, 53 direction, 93 ditransitive verb, 42, 181, 198, 204 Dobrotvorskii, M. M., 8

documentation, 5 doubt, 177 Dybowski, B., 8 elegant language, 266, 276 emphasis, 143-146, 178, 179 emphatic continuative, 112 exclamation, 248 exclusive (plural), 62, 63 expression, 225 expressive nominalizer, 227 filler, 34 first person, 74 in quotes, 74 first person plural, 62 first person singular, 62 flap, 19 focus, 30, 140 French, 72 fricative, 19 future conditional, 163 gender, 81 genealogy, 4, 281 German, 20 Gjerdman, 0., 12 glottal plosive, 20 greeting, 250 half, 259 Hattori Shiroo, 2, 10, 11, 278 head, 26 hearsay, 121 heroic epic poem, 274 Hokkaido, 1-3 horippa, 273 Horobetsu dialect, 161, 166 Iburi dialect, 161, 166 idiom, 100, 118 Ikegami Jiroo, 12 imperative, 28, 164, 165, 241

INDEX implicit, 243-245 inclusive (plural), 63, 72 indefinite causative, 213-215 indefinite interrogative, 235 indefinite person, 63, 65, 67, 72, 74, 76 in oral literature, 64 use of, 71 indefinite person affix, 76 indirect narration, 75 indirect object, 53 indirect quotation, 128, 129 Indo-European, 5, 12, 90, 254 infix, 45 insertion, 34 instruction, 243 interjection, 109, 180 interrogative, 28 interrogative particle, 234 interrogative phrase, 232 interrogative word, 234 intonation, 75, 225, 231, 232, 238, 240,247,248 intransitive verb, 36, 42, 48, 50, 76, 77,180,194,195,264 intransitivity, 76 Inuit, 4 invitation, 24 7 iporse, 3 Ishikari dialect, 11, 49, 59, 61, 68 Japanese, 1, 4, 18-21, 25; 99, 173, 264, 266-268 Jimbo Kotora, 10, 278 Kamchatka, 1, 7, 10, 269 Kanazawa Shoozaburoo, 10, 278 Kannari Matsu, 13, 276 Kayano Shigeru, 13, 14 Kindaichi Kyoosuke, 10, 13, 14, 45, 47, 83,196,206,254, 268, 274

289 kinship terms, 88 Kirikae Hideo, 11 Klaproth, H. J., 8 Korean, 4, 18 Krasheninnikov, S. P., 7 Kruzenshtern, I. F., 7 Kubodera Itsuhiko, 13 Kurile Ainu, 2, 7, 8, 278 K urile Islands, 1 Kuriles, 10 K uzuno Tatsujiroo, 13 La Perouse, J. F. de G., 7 lexicostatistic analysis, 4 liquid, 19 literature, 273, 279 loan words, 266 location, 93 locative, 126, 129 locative noun, 27, 45, 81, 89, 104, 129, 196, 199, 213 personal form of, 56 long form, 89 Matsuura Takeshiroo, 14 menoko yukar, 274 Metchnikoff, L., 8 method, 94 middle voice, 204, 210, 215 mimetic root, 211, 216 mimetic verb, 202 modifiers, 26 Moshihogusa, 8, 9, 12 Murasaki Kyooko, 11, 14 Murayama Shichiroo, 2, 7 must, 116 N abesawa Motozoo, 13 Naert, P., 12 Nagata Hoosei, 14 Nakagawa Hiroshi, 11 Narita Shuuichi, 12

290 nasal, 19 necessary condition, 164 negation, 77, 94 negative, 28, 240 negative expression, 226 negative form, 240 negative response, 239 negative verb, 28, 226 examples of, 226 neutralization, 24 Nevskii, N. A., 13 new information, 30 NHK, 14 nominal prefix, 204 nominalizer, 125, 128, 190 nominalizing particle, 110, 121, 168, 221 nominalizing word, 92 nominative affix, 53, 55, 57, 81, 95 nominative-accusative personal affix, 58, 59 northeastern dialects, 3 noun, 80,186,187,220 noun phrase, 180, 191 structure of, 186 Nukishio Kizoo, 14 number, 37, 39, 81, 254 number of people, 150 numeral, 39, 190, 254 object, 25, 80, 197 old information, 30 omission, 35 onkami, 251 onomatopoeic root, 211, 216 onomatopoeic verb, 202 open syllable, 21 opposite, 223 oral literature, 12, 13, 206, 282 paired expression, 35 palatalization, 19

INDEX Pallas, P. S., 7 particle, 110 parts of speech, 35 passive, 71-73, 106 passive participle, 210, 215 past, 111 Patrie, J. T., 10 pejorative, 124 Peng, F. C. C., 10 Penriuku, 8 permission, 248 person, 47, 62, 81 personal affix, 23, 47, 48, 49, 53, 57, 78, 95, 182, 193 personal form, 48 personal prefix special use of, 210 personal pronoun, 47, 49, 81, 189 omission of, 78, 80 Pfizmaier, A., 8, 12 Phillipi, D., 10 phonological alternation, 23, 194 phonological change, 20 Pilsudski, B., 5, 12, 13 pitch accent, 3, 21 place, 122, 126 place names, 4, 14, 15, 222, 269, 282 plosive, 18 plural, 37, 39, 40 plural verb, 40 pluralizing suffix, 40 poetry, 12 polite, 44, 67, 68, 111, 112, 233 polysynthetic, 193 possessive, 55, 81 postposition, 27, 129 postpositional adverb, 27, 81, 90, 95,182,188 postpositional particle, 129 predicate, 36, 180 prefix, 48, 196, 204, 220

INDEX

preposition, 90 prohibition, 246 prohibitive, 28 pronoun, 96, 186 proper noun, 81, 187 purpose, 159 question, 140, 232 quotation, 104 quote, 128, 129 Radlinski, I., 8 Raichishka, 3, 278 Raichishka dialect, 11, 49, 55, 59 reciprocity, 204 reduplication, 193, 200, 201-203, 218, 219 referential adnominal, 93 Refsing, K., 10 relative position, 27 repetition, 114 request, 242 response, 238 root, 193,200,253 Rousselot, J. P., 9 ruyruypa, 251 Ryukyuan, 13 sacred epic poem, 64, 273, 275 sakehe, 274 Sakhalin, 1, 2, 7, 10, 12, 269, 275 Sakhalin Ainu, 2, 11, 17, 20-22, 58, 82, 87,, 121,161,175, 265,266,268 Sarashina Genzoo, 15 Saru, 3 Saru dialect, 11, 25, 48, 49, 55-60, 74, 109, 110, 125, 161, 216, 234, 250, 255 Satoo Naotaroo, 15 Schmidt, W., 12 second person, 66

291 polite form of, 74 respectful, 67 sentence structure, 180 sentence-final particle, 110, 143, 113,231,243,247 shared root, 211 Shizunai, 3 short form, 89 Shumshu, 8 Siebold, F. F. von, 8 simple declarative sentence, 225 singular, 37, 39 Slawik, A., 12 song, 273 sound recordings, 5, 13 southwestern dialects, 3 Soviet Union, 10 spatial demonstratives, 261 special terms, 265 specific, 83 specific form, 83 stem, 200 subject, 25, 29, 80 substratal language, 5 suffix, 48,211,218, 220-222 suffixation, 211 suggestion, 127, 160, 176, 237 Sunazawa Kura, 13 supplementary verb, 46, 151, 184 supposition, 114, 115, 233 syllable, 21 syllable structure, 21 taboo, 265 Tamura Suzuko, 11, 14, 278 Taraika dialect, 2, 17, 20 temporal relationship, 148 tense, 36 thing, 124 third person, 58, 68 third person pronoun, 68 time, 36, 122, 126, 181

292

Tokachi dialect, 49, 68, 167 Tokyo dialect, 21 topic, 29, 135 Torii Ryuuzoo, 2, 278 transitive verb, 42, 51-53, 58, 181, 195-197, 204 Uehara Kumajiroo, 9, 14 unit, 257 upaskuma, 275 upopo, 273 uwepeker, 275 verb, 36 types of, 41 verb phrase, 31, 45, 95, 110, 180, 183, 191 structure of, 180 verse, 266 vocabulary, 253 voicing, 18 volume, 100 vowel, 17 vowel length, 3 WH Question, 234 women's yukar, 274 word formation, 193 word order, 25, 28 change of, 28 writing system, 5 Yamada Hidezoo, 15 Yanagita Kunio, 13 yes/no question, 232 Yokoyama Takao, 278 Yonemura Kioe, 11 yukar, 12, 266, 274 zero suffixation, 212

INDEX

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This book is a trfl,nslation of the full text of the section on the Ainu ' la11g;uage~.wrjt~'teL1 by St12tiko Tamutll. 't hat wa..~ o.r·iginallly ,p·u,blished in Tokyo in

1988·as pa·rc ,of .'t l1e fi~st v~l·L1me of Thi:Sar1JeidD Bn.tyrloj>4ecli.a of Lt11:gui1:tics. Tl1e· Eoglisl, t.ransla:cj·o11 was made unde·r ·cl~e al1.spices of ·the Database of 1

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Endangered Languages project of the Department of Asian and Pacific Linguistics, The University of Toky·o.

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Tamura's wotk for the Encyclopaedia was chosen for translation because it represents the l1igh level of study regarding the Ainu language and it was hoped that by providing an accurate translation this work would benefit the worldwide linguistic community. u1mLlta i.s a prafess.or at the Instl-cu'te of Langt~:ge T~,chi.ng, Waseda University, a:nd 11.avi~g rt r,a.ined m·a·ny of the :y0 tin.ge·r Ain~t l~aguage: 'res·earchers now in their 11 .3·.0,s·at1cf .4ois, ls tile leatl.i.:ng exper,t in cl1,e. A.inu lang,tme.g:e. 1

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Smee the linguis·tic S'tudy· of the Ainu langW.Lg,e is. conducted pr.imaril:y in Japan :and rhe ,~esul ts of tl1~s res,ea,r,ch l1_av~ bee.11 publish e·d pr imacily in Japanese, inrte:rna1tio,aa:11y, :re·fereo,ce to S1o·urc,c:!s develo.ped by Japanes,e :1·es:ear·chers .:h:as.b.eeo·extl"emely r:are.. 1

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With this in mind, it is our gift to the linguistic community worldwide to bring out a detailed syntax .o f the Ainu l:a nguage based on primary data :ob.t ained through field research and publish it in English, enabling direct rever.e nce to Ainu linguistics in Japan .

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